: . .., 11.10.

2006

1 49

: ...........................1
.....................................................................................2
..............................................................................................................................4
.............................................................................11
Gaussian Minimal Shift Keying ............................................................................................12
OFDM....................................................................................................................................18
Spread Spectrum....................................................................................................................20
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum ........................................................................................21
Code Division Multiplexing ..................................................................................................21
CDMA ..........................................................................................................22
................26
........................................................................................................29
............................................................................................................29
...................................................................................................................30
Resource sharing ...................................................................................................................33
............................................................................................................33
..........................................................................................................................33
............................................................................................................34
.......................................................................................................34
..............................................................35
.................................................................................................................................36
..........................................................................................................37
: ARQ- .........................................................................39
(acknowledgements) .............................................................40
(Sliding Window)....................................................................................41
Medium Access Control Protocols ........................................................................................41
...............................................................................41
Ethernet..................................................................................................................................42
Ad Hoc Wireless Networks ...................................................................................................43
802.11: Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (MACA 1990) .....................................43
THE PROTOCOL .................................................................................................................44
TCP.................................................48

:

( /)
.
, .., ,
(Hassibi, 2004).
.
.
, .
,

(, , ).
( , ).
,
RS-232, IEEE-488, GPIB.

.

: . .., 11.10.2006

2 49

,
() , , .

.

,

, .
link.
, .
, ,
, (00.2)
(3.55).
, ,
0.2 3.5 0 5. ,
,
0.2 , . , ,
. ,
, , . ,
,
.
.
,
- (, ADC);
(, DAC).

, , ,
. , , :
,
, ,
, . , ,
, ( )
( ).

: ( )
,
. ,

: . .., 11.10.2006

3 49

, .
, ,
(integrate and dump).
,
.

: , ,
- ,
, .
, , .

,
.
.
.
, UWB,
,
. UWB
.

, , ..
. :
, , /
.

(Claude Shannon, 1949).
(ccfit.nsu.ru/~tregub/PracticalFourier.pdf).
,
.
,
:
1. /
,
.
.
S+N
2. C = B log 2 (
).
N

.

: . .., 11.10.2006

4 49

.
,
, ,
, .
(overhead)
. ,
,
.
,
.
.
,
,
. (baseband signal)
, , DC ( )
,
. ( )
,
. , , ,
UWB transmission ( ). UWB ,
() ,
.

, , , .
,
,
. (. ),
( , QAM) Wi-Fi
.
:
( )
, .
,
.

: . .., 11.10.2006

5 49

cos(c t ) ( )
sin(mt ) ( ).
sin(mt ) cos(c t ) , ,
,
( ). ,
,

. , .
,
90 +90
. , ,
90 270.
- (
) .

R
Sreceived
C

Sdetected

Sreceived= sin(mt ) cos(c t ) , Sdetected=abs( sin( m t ) ).

( R),
abs( sin(mt ) cos(c t ) ), :

: . .., 11.10.2006

6 49

( )
sin( m t ) abs( sin( m t ) ).
, -
(.
). ,
.
,
, ,
. ,
Vconst + V (t ) , Vconst > max(V (t )) .
sin( m t ) , ,
,
Vconst (1 + k sin( m t )) . k ,
,
.
( sin(mt ) cos(c t ) ),
. Vconst
, Vconst k .

:
sin( m t ) cos(c t ) = 1 2 (sin(( m + c )t ) + sin(( m c )t ) ) .
, , c + m c m .
:
(1 + k sin( m t )) cos( c t ) = cos( c t ) + 1 2 k (sin(( m + c )t ) + sin(( m c )t ) ) .
c c m .
c
c m k/2.
k2/4.
.
1
k2 /4+ k2 /4
=
.
2
2
1+ k / 4 + k / 4 1+ 2 / k 2
, ,
1/3.
,
. ,

: . .., 11.10.2006

7 49

,
. ,
,
(. ). -
Single Side Band modulation (SSB modulation).
,
, .

,
, :
S (t ) = A(t ) exp(i (t ))
A(t) (t) .

. A(t)
, (t) , ,
. , (t)
, ,
. , ,
: (t) = '(t). sm(t)
S(t) , ,
,
: '(t) = sm(t), :
t

S (t ) = A exp(i (t )) = A exp(c t + s m ( )d )
A (
), ,

, c.
, ,
mcsin(mt):
t

S (t ) = A exp( c t + m sin( m )d ) = A exp( c t + m(1 cos( m ))

m .
16:
Vm (t ) = sin( m t ); m = c / 4;
Vsin = cos( c t + 16 c (1 cos( m t )) )

, ,
( ).

: . .., 11.10.2006

8 49

:
Excel MathCad .
.

Vex = cos((1 + sin( m t )) c t ) (

).
, ,
?
(

)?
-
(VCO, voltage controlled oscillator). ,
, .
, ,
, Voltage
Controlled Oscillator.
- ,
, , :

LPF , .
, ,
, . v1

: . .., 11.10.2006

9 49

, , ,
.
, Cs Cp Rp L.

n :

2Q
n
i0 ~
2
1 + (2Q
)

Q . 2Q << n ,
, .., .
, n c. ,

. ,
.
SHIFT KEYING
,
.

SHIFT KEYING . KEY
, , (
,
), SHIFT. ,
, .

: . .., 11.10.2006

10 49

, :
(carrier) sin(t);
00110100010;
(a) (Amplitude Shift Keying) :
, ,
OOK (On-Off Keying);
(b) (Frequency Shift Keying) :
/2, ;
(c) (Phase Shift Keying) :
(180 ), 0;

(
) .
,
(
), 180.
, , ,
B (Binary): BFSK
() , BPSK () .
: ,
, ,
, , . ,
, 00, 01, 10,
11. Quaternary Frequency Shift Keying

: . .., 11.10.2006

11 49

( ), M-ary FSK, M=2L, L

, . , , ..
, , .

, .
, :
fc3fd, 00;
fcfd, 01;
fc+fd, 10;
fc+3fd, 11;
fc , fd , 8fd << fc.
PSK ,
180, .., ,
.
Quaternary Phase Shift Keying
4 : 45, 135, 225 315.
( ). :

(cos(2f c t ) sin (2f c t ))

A cos 2f c t + 4 11
2

A cos 2f t + 3 01 A ( cos(2f t ) sin (2f t ))

c
c
c

4
2

S (t ) =
A cos 2f c t 3 00 A ( cos(2f c t ) + sin (2f c t ))
4

(cos(2f c t ) + sin (2f c t ))

A cos 2f c t 10
4
2

,
,
. , QPSK
(4-QAM).

(Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation, QAM): s(t ) = d1 (t ) cos 2f ct + d 2 (t ) sin 2f ct .
d1,d2 {-1,+1}, 4-QAM,
( ,
, ).
4-QAM QPSK (
).
4-QAM, :
s(t ) = d (t )exp(i 2f c t )
d (t ) = p + qi
p, q = 1 ; d(t)
.
QAM ,

I ( In-Phase, ),
Q ( Quadrature,

: . .., 11.10.2006

12 49

). ,
, /2.
10
00
Quadrature

-1,i

1,i

In-Phase

-1,-i

1,-i
11

01

(constellation) .
4-QAM.
-3, -1, 1, 3,
4*4=16 .
,
(
),
. QAM 4-
-
16-QAM. 16-QAM , :
d = 1 3i s(t ) = cos 2f c t + 3 sin 2f c t . .
16-QAM:
Q
0000

0100

1100

1000

0001

0101

1101

1001
I

0011

0111

1111

1011

0010

0110

1110

1010

16-QAM. 64-QAM 256-QAM.

64-QAM .

Gaussian Minimal Shift Keying

, Q-PSK,
1800. 00 11 10 01.
() ,
.
11000111:

: . .., 11.10.2006

13 49

. (.
), , 00 11
Q-PSK .

, Offset Q-PSK. :

: . .., 11.10.2006

14 49

Q-PSK :

, 900.
. , (bit error rates)
Q-PSK OQ-PSK .
Q-PSK
,
. Minimum Shift Keying (MSK) OQPSK,

. MSK:
s(t ) = d I (t )cos 2f c t + d Q (t )sin 2f c t
d I (t ) d Q (t ) .

(a,b,c,d), (e) :

: . .., 11.10.2006

15 49

, ( ).
Gaussian MSK

: . .., 11.10.2006
: Q(t ) =

1
2

16 49

e x / 2 dx . GMSK :

1
t T / 2
t +T / 2
[Q(2Bb
) Q(2Bb
)]
2T
ln 2
ln 2
(.
).
g(t) . (truncated)
:
g (t ) =

,
0.0005.
GMSK :

.
1,1,0,1,1,0,0,1,0,1,0,0, 1,1,0,1,1,0,0,1,0,1,0,0, .
baseband- 1,
0:
{1,1,-1,1,1,-1,-1,1,-1,1,-1,-1, 1,1,-1,1,1,-1,-1,1,-1,1,-1,-1,............}.

: . .., 11.10.2006

17 49

= 1/2000,
1000 .
, .
BN=BbT =0.5.
baseband-:

(,
, Gaussian LPF):

,
. , ,
baseband-.
( ).
Gaussian LPF b(t):

b(t) t .
, , (truncate)
(. ). c(t):

, ,
:

: . .., 11.10.2006

18 49

I/Q-,
sin(2fc t)I(t) + cos(2fct)Q(t),
GMSK- :

GMSK- ,
m=0.5
, , , ,
m<1.

OFDM
PSK, QAM .
.
:
, , ,
(multipath), .

, ,
.
24 / 16-QAM
= 1/24106 42 .
, .. .
, ,
.
10 . 3 ,
9 , .

: . .., 11.10.2006

19 49

, ,
,
.
4 800 .
800 240
multipath .
250 / BPSK.
64-QAM 2 /,
54 /?
(FDM).
250 / 500 , ISM,
, 83,5 . ,
, ,
multipath .
.
,
160 , .., 320 /.
108 /.
,

.

t +Tsymbol

exp(2f subcarrier _ 1 t ) exp(2f subcarrier _ 2 t )dt = 0

Tsymbol ; fsubcarrier-1, fsubcarrier-2 .

,
.
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing.
OFDM :
S (t ) =

N 1

( X

n = k = 0

n,k

g k (t nTOS ))

f k = k / Tsymbol
exp(i 2f k t ) t [0, Tsymbol ]
g k (t ) =
t [0, Tsymbol ]
0
k = 0,...N 1

(sampling) , N ,
OFDM- (1/TOFDM-Symbol), n- (frame) OFDM:
N 1
m
(
)
Fn m = X n ,k g k (t nTOS ) t = (n + )TOS ;
N
k =0
Fn (m ) = N IDTF{ X n ,k }

IDTF = Inverse Discrete Fourier Transform, .

,
.
OFDM.
(ISI, intersymbol interference),
(guard interval).

: . .., 11.10.2006

20 49

. OFDM. ,
,
. , ,
,
. (cyclic
prefix).
,
. .
,
. QAM 4-
, , .
OFDM , BPSK
QAM. , .
.
OFDM ,
.
OFDM .
OFDM.

OFDM ,
windowing. OFDM ,
, .

Spread Spectrum
,
(spread spectrum), ..
, , , ,
(baseband) . :
1.
2. (eavesdropping) (spoofing)
3. (multiple access).

(Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum, FHSS).

, ,
, . US 2,292,387 Secret Communications
System 1943 Hedy Lamarr (Hedy Keisler Markey)
George Antheil. ,
88 . jamming-
.

: . .., 11.10.2006

21 49

FHSS Bluetooth.
625 (1600 ).
Bluetooth . ,
, 625 (
) Inquire (page Inquire ID)
hop- Inquiry. , ,
, , ,
625 ,
Inquire. Bluetooth. ,
, 625 , / (
, , 3
5 ), 625
.
/ :
FHSS. Adaptive Frequency-hopping spread spectrum (AFH)
, .

FHSS Bluetooth 79 2402-2481 .

1/1600 . 1.

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum

, ,
.
. ,
(Pseudo Random code, PR),
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum,
.
, -, ,
, .

Code Division Multiplexing

,
- (chip code).
-, ,
-, . , : (1,-1,-1,-1,1,1,-1,1) (8 ), :
[0;1;1;1;0;0;1;1;1;1;0;0;1;0;1;0] (16 ). :

: . .., 11.10.2006

22 49

{1,-1,-1,-1,1,1,-1,1; -1,1,1,1,-1,-1,1,-1; -1,1,1,1,-1,-1,1,-1; -1,1,1,1,-1,-1,1,-1; 1,-1,-1,-1,1,1,-1,1;

1,-1,-1,-1,1,1,-1,1; -1,1,1,1,-1,-1,1,-1; -1,1,1,1,-1,-1,1,-1; -1,1,1,1,-1,-1,1,-1; -1,1,1,1,-1,-1,1,-1;
1,-1,-1,-1,1,1,-1,1; 1,-1,-1,-1,1,1,-1,1; -1,1,1,1,-1,-1,1,-1; 1,-1,-1,-1,1,1,-1,1; -1,1,1,1,-1,-1,1,-1;
1,-1,-1,-1,1,1,-1,1} (128 ).
-,
, .
,
.
,
. , ,
- , (
- 4 ),
, .
, ,
,
.

CDMA
,
- .
,
,

. ,
(Gold codes).
.
. 10- ,
Coarse Acquisition GPS:

: . .., 11.10.2006

23 49

1+X3+X10

10

10

1+X2+X3+X6+X8+X9+X10

, , ,
.
. ,
. :
1.
, 10-
2101=1023.
2.
.
1,
2- 6-
. 2 3 7 ,
3 4 8 , .. 31
3 8 . .

:

,
.

: . .., 11.10.2006

24 49

.
,
,
. :

, , ,
:

,
, ,
(

):

,
. , C/A GPS, 1023
. ,
, :

: . .., 11.10.2006

25 49

525 (
) .
DSSS
/ .
,
Signal-to-Interference-Noise-Ratio, SINR.
, .
/ process gain (
). DSSS , process gain,
DSSS- ( ) baseband-
( ). ,

.
(Additive White Gaussian Noise),
SNR, ( ), process gain
. SNR
DSSS.

DSSS.
(Code Division Multiple Access, CDMA)
.
GPS, DSSS Wi-Fi, IEEE802.11b.
, CDMA, ,
. GSM
, TDMA. CDMA TDMA
, TDMA ,
.
. - , CDMA,
, , TDMA.
, ,
,
. ,
(soft handoff).
, CDMA
(WSN).

: . .., 11.10.2006

26 49

() OFDM
. baseband signal ( ),
60 . ,
, ISM-,
Wi-Fi . ISM- (2 4002 483 ),
baseband- ISM.
.
BPSK QAM LAN (Wi-Fi,
802.11a 802.11g). : 802.11g
2 400 2 483 , 802.11a
4 920 5 805 . ,

, .
,
,
802.11a/b/g (transceiver = transmitter+receiver, )
RF Micro Devices ( -).
: RFIN (Radio Frequency IN), RFOUT
(Radio Frequency OUT), RXOUT
(baseband) , TXIN

(baseband) , I Q RXOUT TXIN InPhase Quadrature (baseband) . LPF
.

,
, In-Phase Quadrature ,
, 00/900
.
,
, Digitally controlled Gain
Amplifier (DGA). ,
/, balance mixer. ,
, ,
In-Phase Quadrature. Frequency Synthesizer
, (5.2 ).
27- ,
38.2
12- .

(, 2 ).

: . .., 11.10.2006

27 49

.
, LNALow Noise Amplifier .

.
, -70 dBm
/ 6.5 dB ( -
!). V/I
, A1 A2 . (Mixer),
A1,
F1, ,
baseband-
. DCOC direct current offset compensation
.
, (
). OFDM,
802.11a/g, ,
,

OFDM ( LUT Look-up Table).

: . .., 11.10.2006

28 49

, . DSC,
differential single-ended conversion,
PAD power amplifier driver
, -5 dBm 50- .

,
, , ..,
, .
Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, GMSK.
Bluetooth
( Direct-Conversion Bluetooth Receivers by Mark Lane, July 2005,
www.rfdesign.com). Wi-Fi, , I Q,
, :

LNA , I/Q Direct Down Converter , ,

, Wi-Fi, Amp , Base Band
Anti-aliasing Filters ,
, AGC
. Wi-Fi,
, baseband:

: . .., 11.10.2006

29 49

- ADC
DSP (digital signal processor).
Bluetooth Wi-Fi, ..
, Wi-Fi,
.
GMSK 0.5;
,
,
. , GMSK
, OFDM, Wi-Fi,
.
GMSK Global Speciale Mobile
Digital European Cordless Telephone.

. :
, - .

( , , ,
).
, ,
.
,
- , .
, ,
.
( ) ,
. , -

;
( ,
).

,
.
: (),
(
), (, , ).
:
, ,
(resource sharing) ,
, ,
, ,

: . .., 11.10.2006

30 49

.
: (, ), hosts &
switches
(Links): , , . : point-to-point
multiple access (,
, )
: :

,
( )

(circuit switching): .

.
.
.

().
.

.
.
.
Space-Time Modems,

( ).

: . .., 11.10.2006

31 49

4
FDM

TDM

(Frequency Division Multiplexing),

, .
- .
(Time Division Multiplexing),
(time slot), .
, ,
: 0 00 00,0 0 00 00,001
, 0 00 00,001 0 00 00,002 , 0
00 00,002 0 00 00,003 , 0 00
00,003 0 00 00,004 , 0 00 00,004 0
00 00,005 , .. GSM.

.
,
( ) .
(packet switching) Len Kleinrock 1960-
UCLA.
, :
(/), ,
/ ( Forward Error Correction, FEC,
). store-and-forward
messages, .
, , -
, ,
. ,
. ,
-,

: . .., 11.10.2006

32 49

, .
.
, store-and-forward messages, :

.
, ,
.
, , , ,
.

(Virtual Circuit-). Virtual Circuit Networks
.
: ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode), X.25.
, (forward)
.
. Datagram = connectionless packet. ATM
(connection setup; contracts
). IP , Datagram Packet
. IP- = header + data + trailer.
, , :
,
circuit switching.
(, , )
, , . :
1) 1 000 000 1 2 ,
1 536 / (T1),
24 ,
500 . 3 .
.
2) 1524 ( 1 524 000 ) 1
2 , ,
10 /, idle ,
. 300 .
.
:
Circuit switched
TDM
FDM
Packet switched
Virtual Circuit Networks
Datagram Networks (internetworking)
connection (TCP UDP . )

: . .., 11.10.2006

33 49

(, ,
).
. :
.
: unicast ;
broadcast ;
multicast .

Resource sharing
.
.
,
. , ,
.
, network congestion.
,
.

(email, )
application layer . (channel)
(pipe), .
, , :

: , ,
.
: , ,
: , ,
--: , ,
: / , ,

:
Request/Reply: ,
,
.
Message Stream: / , ,
, ,
, -- .

,
, ( )

.
110-7, 110-12. ( ).

: . .., 11.10.2006

34 49

( congestion):
, , .
,
.

(bandwidth) .
. -

, . : bps
, Mbps.
(delay, latency) . ,
-: Round Trip Time (RTT).
Latency = Propagation + Transmit + Queue
Propagation = Distance / c
Transmit = Size / Bandwidth
,
( , ), ,
.
, ,
-
. , ,
0,2 ( 36 . ,
300 . /).
Bandwidth / Latency
:
, 1 1 / 100 100 /.
25, 100 100 / 1 1 /.
RTT .
= / ;
= RTT + / .
, 1- 1/ 1 -
1/ .
* ,
.
* - , .
, 100 45 / (T3)
(transient state) 560 .

: . .., 11.10.2006

35 49

:
Cat 5 twisted pair, 10-100Mbps, 100m
coax, 10-100Mbps, 200m
, 10-100Mbps, 500m
, 100Mbps-2.4Gbps, 2-40km
(Leased Lines): : DS1 (1.544Mbps), T3 (44.736Mbps)
: STS-1 (51.84Mbps), STS-N (N*51.84Mbps)
:
POTS (56Kbps), ISDN (2*64Kbps)
xDSL: ADSL (16-640Kbps, 1.554-8.448Mbps), VDSL (12.96Mbps-55.2Mbps)
: 40Mbps downstream, 20Mbps upstream
: Cellular, Satellite, Wireless Local Loop
, :
(UWB) ,
( ).

. ,
.
Non-Return to Zero: ,
, , 0,
, , +5. :
, , .

( , ).
(clock-),
.

0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0

NRZ
Clock
Manchester
NRZI
Non-Return to Zero Inverse: ( )
, .
.
NRZI .

: . .., 11.10.2006

36 49

: (XOR) NRZ
(clock-). 50-%
.
4B/5B: (),
NRZI. ,
80% .
4b data
0000
0001
0010
0011
0100
0101
0110
0111

5b code
11110
01001
10100
01010
01011
01110
10010
10011

4b data
1000
1001
1010
1011
1100
1101
1110
1111

5b code
10010
10011
10110
10111
11010
11011
11100
11101

frames. /
?

BISYNC: BInary SYNchronous Communication
SYN
SYN
SOH
Header
STX
Body

ETX

CRC

SYN

, Data
Link Escape (DLE).

8
16

Beginning
sequence

16

Header

Body

CRC

8
Ending
sequence

, , 01111110.
,
,
. ,
, . 20%
( ).

14

42

SYN

SYN

Class

Count

Header

16
Body

CRC

Count CRC.

SONET , 125 , 810
STS-1.

: . .., 11.10.2006

37 49

STS-n (STS-1 = 51.84 Mbps)

Payload

Overhead

9 rows

90 columns

:

(XOR ) .
(Hamming code)
,
( ) . ,
.

1
2
3

, 4-
:
0000, 0011, 1001, 1100, 1010, 0101, 0110, and 1111
8 , 3
4- (23 = 8). , 000 => 0000, 001 => 0011, 010 =>
1001, ..
2,
,
.
3- 3:
000 111
21 = 2,
3- . , 0 => 000 1=>111.
1
, , .
: 010110 000 111 000 111 111 000
( ,
):
001 101 000 110 111 010

: . .., 11.10.2006

38 49

,
. 001
000, 101 111, ..
Checksum
16- ,
( 16 ),
.
Cyclic Redundancy Check
n- k (k<<n).
n- = n-1 , .,
=10011010; M(x) = x7 + x4 + x3 + x1
k ,
, ., C(x) = x3 + x2 + 1
P(x), C(x) .
P(x) . :
M(x) k , .., M(x)xk
M(x)xk / C(x) M(x)xk
,
P(x) + E(x)
E(x) = 0, . ?
P(x) + E(x) C(x). :
E(x) = 0 ( )
E(x) C(x) ().
C(x)
, xk x0
.
- , C(x)
(x + 1)
(burst) (..,
),
k
(burst) k

x12 + x11 + x3 + x2 + x + 1
CRC12:
CRC16:
x16 + x15 + x2 + 1
CRCCCITT: x16 + x12 + x5 + 1
CRC32:
x32 + x26 + x23 + x22 + x16 + x12 + x11 + x10 + x8 + x7 + x5 + x4 + x2 + x + 1

: . .., 11.10.2006

39 49

NASA CCSDS
-. CRC
1/32000, Reed-Solomon 1/40000. Reed-Solomon
(CD),
burst ().

: ARQ-
Automatic Repeat reQuest.
ARQ
. ARQ-
( CRC).
Flow Control: .
flow control , Protocol Data Units
. PDUs .
Sliding-window flow control ( ):
() SeqNum,
() SeqNum,
, :
,
,

,
, ,
( ,
direct links)
ARQ-:
, .

: . .., 11.10.2006

40 49

(acknowledgements)
Sender

Receiver

Sender

Timeout

Fram
e

AC K

Timeout

Timeout

Time

Fram
e

(a)

Timeout
Timeout

Fram
e

ACK

Receiver
Fram
e
ACK

Fram
e
ACK

AC K

(b)

Fram
e

Sender

Timeout

Receiver
Fram
e

ACK

(c)

Timeout

Sender

Receiver

(d)

(a): , ACK timeout-.

(b): , , ACK
timeout-.
(c): ACK () ,
ACK ()
timeout-.
(d): ACK
timeout- , ACK
() timeout- . ACK
, ACK
.

, Stop-and-Wait:
, .
Sequence Number
, ACK-. SeqNum (..,
ARQ0, ARQ1).

, ACK . : Go-back-N ARQ.

: . .., 11.10.2006

41 49

(Sliding Window)
, .. ,
ACK.
window. : send window
size (SWS), last acknowledgment received (LAR), last frame sent (LFS);
LFS - LAR <= SWS; LAR ACK .
: receive window size (RWS), largest
frame acceptable (LFA), last frame received in order (LFR); LFA LFR <= RWS; SeqNum:
LFR < SeqNum < = LFA, ; LFR
SeqNum < = LFR SeqNum > LFA, SeqNum.
ACKs.
SWS
. RWS : 1 ( ,
SeqNum) SWS. RWS > SWS.

Medium Access Control Protocols

Multiple Access Protocols

Contention

Dynamic
Resolution

Time of
arrival

Probabilistic

Conflict-free

Static
Resolution

Probabilistic

Dynamic
Allocation

ID

Reservation

Static
Allocation

Token
Passing

, .

ALOHA
, .
1-persistent CSMA
:
, ,
,

non-persistent CSMA
:

: . .., 11.10.2006

42 49

, , ALOHA
p-persistent protocol
, , :
p,
1-p,
, ,
CSMA with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD)
,
, , Ethernet, IEEE802.3

Ethernet
: Aloha, CSMA, CSMA/CD ( Xerox PARC) => Ethernet, => IEEE802.3 (Digital,
Intel, Xerox)
Ethernet IEEE802.3 .
Physical layer (10Mbps Ethernet):
Manchester encoding (bit synchronous, no-dc component)
: 500 , 4- (
2500 )
10Base5 Thick coax 500 m 100 nodes
10Base2

Thin coax

200 m

10Base-T Twisted pair 100 m

10Base-F Fiber optics

30

1024

2000 m 1024

IEEE802.3

Preamble : 7x10101010 ( )
SF: 10101011
10Mbps 6- :
Unicast: ( )
Broadcast: FF:FF:FF:FF:FF:FF
Multicast: = 1
Internet Multicast: 01:00:5e:00:00:00 -to- 01:00:5e:7f:ff:ff
Pad: , , (64 )
Ethernet

: . .., 11.10.2006

43 49

Ad Hoc Wireless Networks

: (spread-spectrum
radio)
: collision avoidance, Ethernet
, Ethernet, ..
Multi-hop network
:
Hidden terminal problem
Exposed terminal problem

802.11: Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (MACA 1990)

S1 S2
S1 . ,

, S1 S2 ,
Request-To-Send (RTS)
( RTS S2), S2 Clear-To-Send (CTS), CTS

( CTS S1), S1
, :
RTS: CTS
CTS:

: . .., 11.10.2006

44 49

CTS RTS, ().

THE PROTOCOL
, ,
TCP/IP. IP
, IPv4 IPv6.
.
.
70- , .
, (Forward Error Control) .
, ,
, . ,

.
,
.
TCP
.
Transmission Control Protocol
(). Automatic Repeat reQuest, ,
(ACKnowledgements). Sequence Numbers.
Sliding Windows.
,
. , (DNS) User
Datagram Protocol, .
DNS , .
. ,
,

.
TCP .

TCP. ,
- , network congestion. ,
,
. - (congestion)
, .
( ),
( ,
) , .. ,
, - ,
, ( ).
.
end-to-end semantic. ,
, .

: . .., 11.10.2006

45 49

. , -
ACKs , .. ACK.
, ,
,
SeqNums. ACK , ,
: ACK-,
. ACK , ,
(cumulative ACK). ACK
dupack (duplicate acknowledgement). ,
, SeqNum .
, ,
, RTO (retransmission
timeout), ACK .
, ACK .
,
TCP
, . = *
. = RTT + 4
. TCP (congestion window, ssthresh
) :

Congestion window ()

25

cwnd = 20

20
15
10
ssthresh = 10
ssthresh = 8

27

25

23

21

20

18

14

12

10

(round trips)
cwin .
(slow start), . ,
( ), .. ,
cwin .
,
, ssthresh. ssthresh
, ( )

: . .., 11.10.2006

46 49

network congestion. cwin

, ,
. cwin , ssthresh
, .
, ,
( ).
/ RTT / RTT:

Congestion window ()

25
max cwnd = 20

20

15

10
ssthresh = 10

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22

(round trips)
0,5WMSS/RTT WMSS/RTT; :
0,75WMSS/RTT. Maximum Segment Size ,
.
MSS TCP/IP 536 1460 . ,
MSS .
TCP Tahoe. Tahoe
, ( ,
) ,
. ,
(fast retransmit): dupack-,
, . ,
, .
fast recovery: slow start.
TCP Reno.
, New Reno, fast recovery ,
. 1 RTT
.
, Selective Acknowledgements (SACK),
TCP ,

: . .., 11.10.2006

47 49

. ,
RTT.
TCP Reno. Tahoe, Reno
,
. , Vegas,
network congestion .
RTT .
network congestion, TCP :
fairness. TCP-,
R.

R /

MSS RTT ,
, .
,
:

N+1
6
N

4
2

3
1

1.
,
. 2 ( ),
, 2 3

: . .., 11.10.2006

48 49

( )
.
R .

TCP

? ,

( ARQ), ,
. ( )
,
, .
,
TCP, .. Forward Error
Correction ( ). , FEC
, TCP , ..
. , ,
, -
.
;
fast retransmit. Fast retransmit
congestion window. ,
, congestion window
, .
, .

, -
,
, .

, TCP-
.

BER bit error rate. 2 /
[Vaidya 1999].
-
(, ).
1600000
1200000
800000

bits/sec

400000
0
16384 32768 65536 1E+05
1/error rate

(in bytes)

BER (.., BER == 2-14, 2-15, 2-16, 2-17).

TCP-,

: . .., 11.10.2006

49 49

/. TCP, 2 /
. , , 2-18 (410-6),
, 10-5
. ,
20 ( , ), TCP
( )!
TCP
. : .
,
.
. :
1) TCP

2) TCP
, .
TCP , , ..
end-to-send semantics.
TCP :
Split connection approach:

FixedHostMobileHost =
FixedHostBaseStation+BaseStationMobileHost
Selective Repeat Protocol UDP, ..
Selective Repeat Protocol, ,
,
.
TCP- link layer: Snoop protocol (
): dupacks .
TCP TCP- link layer (
end-to-end semantics): dupacks .
Explicit notification ( )
.
Receiver-based discrimination.
Sender-based discrimination.