Ocean Wave Energy Conversion

OCEAN WAVE

ENERGY CONVERSION

Michael E. McCormick

Corbin A. McNeill Professor of Naval Engineering U.S. Naval Academy Annapolis, Maryland

DOVER PUBLICATIONS, INC.

Mineola, New York

Copyright

Copyright © 1981, 2007 by Michael E. McCormick

All rights reserved.

Bibliographical Note

This Dover edition, first published in 2007, is an unabridged slightly corrected republication of the work originally published in 1981 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York. The author has provided a new Preface to the Dover Edition.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

McCormick, Michael E., 1936–

Ocean wave energy conversion / Michael E. McCormick. — Dover ed.

p. cm.

Originally published: New York : Wiley, c1981.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN-13: 978-0-486-46245-5

ISBN-10: 0-486-46245-5

1.Ocean wave power. 2. Ocean energy resources. I. Title.

TK1081.M39 2007

621.31’2134—dc22

2007012798

Manufactured in the United States by Courier Corporation

46245503

www.doverpublications.com

To my parents for their love and guidance during my formative years and to Dr. Robert Cohen for giving me the opportunity to pursue my interests in ocean energy conversion.

Foreword

The topic of wave energy conversion came to public attention in a paper by Steven Salter published in Nature in 1974. At about the same time Sir Christopher Cockerell’s experiments on a wave contouring raft were reported in a paper in New Scientist. That this renaissance of interest in wave energy should take place in the United Kingdom is particularly appropriate because these islands are bordered on their western coasts by some of the world’s roughest seas. For the same reason, in 1975 the United Kingdom’s Department of Energy started an extensive program of research into various methods of extracting energy from sea waves. This program is still continuing, and a total of some 15 million pounds sterling (30 million U.S. dollars) has already been committed to the work.

As the development of ocean wave energy has continued, other countries have started their own programs. In Japan, also an island surrounded by rough seas, there has long been interest in the topic. As long ago as the 1940s, Commander Masuda invented and built a wave powered air turbine that actually generated a small amount of electricity from the waves in the Sea of Japan. The Norwegians Budal and Falnes also developed a wave energy conversion buoy and expect to have a prototype in operation by 1982/1983. Work on a number of different systems has also been done in Sweden, France, and the United States.

The first result of all this work was an indication that wave-generated electricity is likely to be expensive. The UK program faced a real crisis of confidence in 1978 when the first reference designs of the four original systems indicated power costs of 20-50 p/kWh (40-100 cents/kWh). It has been the experience of most researchers in the field that their first designs give power costs in this same range.

The wave energy community does not give up easily, however. Within a year costs were down to range 5-15 p/kWh (10-30 cents/kWh), and a wide variety of different solutions had produced this encouraging result. Recent work is showing that there is now a real possibility that, with engineering well within the scope of present-day technology, costs will even get close to the low end of this range.

I personally believe that the cost of electricity from ocean waves will approach the cost of fossil fuel energy. This will be achieved, I think, largely as a result of the creative and dedicated work of the closely integrated group of people who form the world’s wave energy community.

The prize will not be easily won, however. The enormous power of the sea as it is seen in a storm must not cause us to forget that as an energy source it is really very diffuse. To capture such diffuse energy from such a hostile environment demands the highest level of design thinking and a full understanding of the hydrodynamic and engineering problems.

The contribution that Professor McCormick has made during the past few years to our understanding of these topics has indeed been enormous. It is, therefore, with the greatest pleasure that I commend to those who seek to understand this fascinating subject, this compilation of all the wisdom Mike has made available to us over the years.

CLIVE O. J. GROVE-PALMER

Program Manager

UK Wave Energy Technology Support Unit

Preface to the Dover Edition

Since the publication of the first edition of this book, published by Wiley-Interscience, in 1981, there have been many advances in the area of ocean wave energy conversion. Many of these have been the result of the European Union’s sponsorship of research, development and demonstration projects in the member countries. The reader can learn of the European Union sponsored efforts, along with those in Japan, India and other countries by simply typing in ocean wave energy conversion in one of the search engines on the WEB.

The basics of ocean wave energy conversion do not change. This book is designed to present those basics. The discussions are presented in six chapters and four appendices. The discussions range from the basics of wave mechanics to the possible environmental consequences of wave energy conversion. The appendices include examples of wave-energy conversion patents. Throughout the book, the mathematical level is such that a reader with a good comprehension of high school mathematics and physics can easily understand the material.

The author wishes to express his appreciation to Professor Rameswar Bhattacharyya and to the late Professor Patricio A. A. Laura for recommending Dover Publications, and to Mr. John Grafton of Dover for his help and advice on this project.

The author also wishes to thank Professor Mark Harper for providing an opportunity to, again, teach the subject at the U. S. Naval Academy. Finally, a special thanks to Mr. Robert C. Murtha and Dr. Brian T. Cunningham of Ocean Energy Systems for their support of the author’s research and development efforts in wave energy conversion.

Michael E. McCormick

Annapolis, Maryland

March, 2007

Preface

The purpose of this book is to present the basic concepts of ocean wave energy conversion and supporting materials in a way that can be useful to scientists, engineers, and inventors. Although new patents are granted each month on wave energy conversion ideas throughout the world, there are only nine or so basic wave energy conversion techniques. These techniques are fully described, and their uses and performances are illustrated. For those inventors with only a modicum of education in mathematics, the worked examples (with few exceptions) are presented in a manner requiring only a knowledge of algebra. For the scientist and engineer, more detailed discussions leading to the examples are presented. A categorized bibliography is presented for those interested in performing background research.

The book evolved from my various research, program management, and teaching experiences. My early research in wave energy conversion, supported by the U.S. Coast Guard, was in the area of wave-powered navigation aids. At the Energy Research and Development Administration (now the U.S. Department of Energy) Dr. Robert Cohen gave me the opportunity to formulate and direct the programs in the energy conversion of waves, currents, and salinity gradients. The information gained in these experiences was then used in the design of a senior-level course at the U.S. Naval Academy called Ocean Energy Conversion.

I wish to express my sincere appreciation to Ms. Sharon Vaughn for her help in the preparation of the manuscript and to Mr. Eric Midboe of Gibbs and Cox, Inc. for his constructive criticism.

MICHAEL E. MCCORMICK

Annapolis, Maryland

January 1981

Contents

NOTATION

1 INTRODUCTION

2 WAVE PROPERTIES

2.1 The Linear Wave

2.2 The Nonlinear Wave

A Stokes’ Wave

B The Solitary Wave

2.3 Random Seas

2.4 Summary

3 WAVE MODIFICATION

3.1 Refraction

3.2 Reflection

3.3 Diffraction

4 WAVE ENERGY CONVERSION

4.1 Basic Wave Energy Conversion Techniques

A Heaving and Pitching Bodies

B Cavity Resonators

C Pressure Devices

D Surging-Wave Energy Convertors

E Particle Motion Converters

4.2 Advanced Techniques

A Salter’s Nodding Duck

B Cockerell’s Rafts

C Russell’s Rectifier

D Wave Focusing Techniques

4.3 Summary

5 ENERGY CONVERSION, TRANSMISSION, AND STORAGE

5.1 Basic Electromechanical Energy Conversion Techniques

A Mechanically Excited Generators

B Pneumatically and Hydraulically Excited Generators

5.2 Advanced Electromechanical Energy Conversion Techniques

A Linear Inductance

B Piezoelectricity

C Protonic Conduction

5.3 Power Scaling

5.4 Energy Transmission and Storage

A Electrical Cables

B Energy-Intensive Products

5.5 Summary

6 ENVIRONMENTAL AND MOORING CONSIDERATIONS

6.1 Environmental Considerations

A Open Ocean Operation

B Coastal Zone Operation

6.2 Mooring and Anchoring

A Deep Ocean Operation

B Coastal Zone Operation

APPENDIXES

A Bibliography

B Some Wave Energy Conversion Patents

C Glossary

D Conversion Factors

INDEX

Notation

Common to All Chapters

Subscripts

Superscripts

Chapter 2 Notation

Chapter 3 Notation

Chapter 4 Notation

Section 4.1, A

Subscripts

Sections 4.1, B and 4.1, C

Sections 4.1, D and 4.1, E

Section 4.2, A

Section 4.2, B

Subscripts

Section 4.2, C

Section 4.2, D

Chapter 5 Notation

Section 5.1, A