Everand Logo

Welcome to Everand!

  • Discover millions of ebooks, audiobooks, and so much more with a free trial

    Only $11.99/month after trial. Cancel anytime.

    Arithmetic Refresher
    Arithmetic Refresher
    Arithmetic Refresher
    Ebook1,235 pages7 hours

    Arithmetic Refresher

    By A. A. Klaf

    3/5

    ()

    Read preview

    About this ebook

    The farther we get from our grade school days, the easier it is to forget those operations and nuances of arithmetical computation that keep recurring in our daily lives: interest and discount problems, time-payment calculations, tax problems, and so on.
    This handy book is designed to streamline your methods and resharpen your calculation skills for a variety of situations. Starting with the most elementary operations, the book goes on to cover all basic topics and processes of arithmetic: addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, fractions, percentage, interest, ratio and proportion, denominate numbers, averages, etc. The text continues into other useful matters, such as powers and roots, logarithms, positive and negative numbers, harmonic progression, and introductory concepts of algebra.
    Entirely practical in approach and using an easy-to-follow question and answer style, this book covers a wide range of common knotty areas: filling and emptying receptacles, scales for models and maps, business and financial calculations (partial payment problems, compound interest, bank and sales discount, profit and loss problems, etc.), angle measurement, mixtures and solutions, graph and chart problems, and the like.
    The discussion contains numerous alternate and short-cut methods, such as quick ways to figure compound interest; to square a number from 1 to 100; to divide by 5, 25, 125, 99, etc.; to multiply two 2-digit numbers having the same figure in the tens place; and many more. These valuable tips, together with the huge fund of exercise problems (a total of 809, half of them answered in an appendix), help you to increase your computational proficiency and speed, and make this an extremely useful volume to have on your shelf at home or at work. Anyone who has to do any figuring at all — housewife, merchant, student — will profit from this refresher. Parents will find it an excellent source of material for helping children in school work.

    LanguageEnglish
    PublisherDover Publications
    Release dateJun 8, 2012
    ISBN9780486141930
    Arithmetic Refresher

    Related to Arithmetic Refresher

    Titles in the series (100)

    View More
    View More

    Related ebooks

    Mathematics For You

    View More
    View More

    Related podcast episodes

    Related articles

    • Article

      Make Your FUTURE COUNT...

      Dec 28, 2023

      The number symbols we use every day came from Arabia and are called Arabic numerals. A different system was used in ancient Rome, namely symbols known as Roman numerals. The Roman numeral system uses six basic symbols: I (one), V (five), X (ten), L (

      4 min read

    • Article

      Infinity Comes In Several Versions

      Nov 17, 2021

      In everyday life, the saying about the whole being more than the sum of its parts often applies, but in maths, it is different. A paradox becomes clear when you look at numbers. Numbers that can represent a distance along a line are known as real num

      1 min read

    • Article

      What’s So Great About 8128?

      Sep 1, 2020

      What’s So Great About 8128?
      2 min read

    • Article

      Make your FUTURE COUNT...

      May 4, 2023

      Imagine a world without being able to calculate how many minutes are left before school ends, a world without numbers, a world without buying and selling. It would be chaos. That’s because math is all around us and forms a part of our everyday life,

      2 min read

    • Article

      The Explainer

      Jan 4, 2022

      The Explainer
      3 min read

    • Article

      Fill-a-pix

      Mar 12, 2020

      BY CONCEPTIS LTD. www.conceptispuzzles.com Fill-a-Pix puzzles consist of a grid with numerical clues scattered in various places. To solve them, you must use the numbered squares to determine how many adjacent squares should be filled. Each number sh

      1 min read

    • Article

      Brainteasers

      Feb 14, 2023

      Easy Shade in groups of cells in the grid to reveal a picture. The numbers to the left of each row and at the top of each column tell you how many cells in that row or column to shade in, and multiple numbers indicate multiple sets (for example, “3”

      2 min read

    • Article

      Blossom Theory

      Dec 2, 2020

      Blossom Theory
      6 min read

    • Article

      From Ink To Inca

      Jan 1, 2023

      IN THE TIME OF THE INCA EMPIRE, SPECIAL SCRIBES CALLED KHIPUKAMAYUQ WERE TRAINED TO WRITE AND READ THE KHIPUS. Here’s your chance to become a khipukamayuq, too! It’s easy to code and decode khipu numbers. The Inca used a base-ten number system, just

      1 min read

    • Article

      Test Yourself

      Nov 17, 2021

      Test Yourself
      1 min read

    • Article

      Make your FUTURE COUNT…

      Aug 3, 2023

      Gami’s back with more exciting news from the ancient world of the Greeks. Not only did he uncover more of the history of geometry, but he also got to meet one of the greatest mathematicians of all time: Pythagoras! How lucky can one ape be? I am a sp

      3 min read

    • Article

      The 2020 Challenge

      Jul 9, 2020

      The 2020 Challenge
      2 min read

    • Article

      Paint By Numbers

      Mar 11, 2021

      www.conceptispuzzles.com These eight puzzles feature a unique blend of logic and art. The numbers are all you need to determine which squares should be filled in to form a picture. Here’s how it’s done: The numbers outside each row and column tell yo

      1 min read

    • Article

      Make your FUTURE COUNT

      Nov 2, 2023

      Gami has some pencils and jars. If he puts 4 pencils into each jar he will have one jar left over. If he puts 3 pencils into each jar he will have one pencil left over. How many pencils and how many jars does he have? Turn to page 37 for solution! Ar

      3 min read

    • Article

      Fractions

      May 26, 2023

      Fractions
      3 min read

    • Article

      Complex Numbers

      Jun 4, 2019

      In elementary maths, we’re taught that squaring either a positive or a negative number gives a positive result, so there is no such thing as the square root of a negative number. However, this is an oversimplification. The more accurately stated fact

      1 min read

    • Article

      Babbage And Running His Many Engines

      Nov 16, 2021

      Mike Bedford Like most of us, Mike tended to think of the likes of Alan Turing and John von Neumann as the pioneers of computing, so delving further into Charles Babbage’s creations was truly inspiring. Discussion about the first ever computer often

      11 min read

    • Article

      Paint By Numbers

      Mar 14, 2019

      For more Paint by Numbers Search Conceptis on AppStore These eight puzzles feature a unique blend of logic and art. The numbers are all you need to determine which squares should be filled in to form a picture. Here’s how it’s done: The numbers outsi

      1 min read

    • Article

      Marvelous Mathematics

      Jun 30, 2022

      The legend goes that this riddle was first used by the inventor of the chessboard in India. He asked the ruler of the country for a grain of rice, doubled on every square in exchange for his game. The ruler laughed at the idea of such a simple reward

      3 min read

    • Article

      Paint By Numbers

      Dec 9, 2021

      www.conceptispuzzles.com These eight puzzles feature a unique blend of logic and art. The numbers are all you need to determine which squares should be filled in to form a picture. Here’s how it’s done: The numbers outside each row and column tell yo

      1 min read

    • Article

      The Royal Family Tree

      Apr 20, 2021

      Whether you’re one of those pioneering longhaulers or a beginner genealogist wanting to use an existing system, let’s take a deep dive into the world of genealogical numbering systems. They can be divided into three types: ancestral, descendant, and

      8 min read

    Related categories

    Reviews for Arithmetic Refresher

    3/5

    1 rating0 reviews

    What did you think?

    Tap to rate

    Review must be at least 10 words

      Book preview

      Arithmetic Refresher - A. A. Klaf

      10,562,942?

      CHAPTER I

      ADDITION

      34. Why is addition merely a short way of counting?

      If we have four apples in one group and five in another, we may count from the first object in one group to the last object in the other and obtain the result, nine. But seeing that 4 + 5 = 9 under all conditions, we make use of this fact without stopping to count each time we meet this problem.

      The addition of two numbers is thus seen to be a process of regrouping. We do not increase anything, we merely regroup the numbers.

      35. What is our standard group or bundle?

      Our number system is based on groups or bundles of ten.

      EXAMPLE: 9 + 8 = 17. Two groups of 9 and 8 are regrouped into our standard arrangement of 17, or one bundle of 10 and 7 units. While we say seventeen we must think ten and seven or 1 ten and 7 units.

      36. What is thus meant by addition?

      It is the process of finding the number that is equal to two or more numbers grouped together.

      37. What is meant by sum?

      It is the result obtained by adding numbers.

      38. Of the total number of 45 additions of two digits at a time for all the nine digits, which give single numbers as a sum and which give double numbers?

      (a) The following 20 pairs result in one-number sums:

      (b) The following 25 pairs give double numbers:

      39. What is the rule for addition?

      Write the numbers so that units stand under units, tens under tens, hundreds under hundreds, etc. Begin at the right and add the units column. Put down the units digit of the sum and carry the tens bundles to the next column representing the tens bundles. Do the same with this column. Put down the digit representing the number of tens and carry any hundreds bundles to the hundreds column. Continue in the same manner with other columns.

      40. What is the proper way of adding?

      Add without naming numbers, merely sums.

      EXAMPLE:

      41. What is the simplest but slowest way of adding?

      Column by column and one digit at a time. Add from the top down or from the bottom up; each way is a check on the other.

      EXAMPLE:

      42. What is a variation of the above?

      Add each column separately. Write one sum under the other, but set each successive sum one space to the left. A subsequent addition gives the total or sum.

      EXAMPLE: (as above)

      43. How can grouping of numbers help you in addition?

      Add two or more numbers at a time to two or more others in the columns.

      EXAMPLE:

      44. How is addition accomplished by multiplication of the average of a group?

      When you have a group of numbers whose middle figure is the average of the group, then:

      sum = average number times number of figures in the group

      EXAMPLES:

      (a) Of 4, 5, and 6 number 5 = average of the three

      ∴ Sum = 5 × 3 = 15 = (4 + 5 + 6)

      (b) Of 8, 9, and 10 9 = average

      ∴ Sum = × 3 = 27 = (8 + 9 + 10)

      (c) Of 12, 13, and 14 13 = average

      ∴ Sum = 13 × 3 = 39 = (12 + 13 + 14)

      (d) Of 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10 8 = average

      ∴ Sum = 8 × 5 = 40 = (6 + 7 + 8 + 9 + 10)

      (e) Of 11, 12, 13, 14, and 15 13 = average

      ∴ Sum = 13 × 5 = 65

      Note that whenever an odd number of equally spaced figures appears, you can immediately spot the center one or average and promptly get the sum of all by multiplying the average by the number of figures in the group.

      45. What is the procedure for adding two columns at a time?

      A variation would be to add the units of the line above it first and then the tens, as

      46. How are three columns added at one time?

      Start at bottom. Add hundreds, then tens, then units as you continue up.

      EXAMPLES:

      (a)

      (b)

      47. What is a convenient way of adding two small quantities by making a decimal of one of them?

      Make a decimal of one by adding or subtracting and reverse the treatment for the other.

      EXAMPLE: 96 + 78.

      Add 4 to 96 getting 100 = decimal number. Subtract 4 from 78 getting 74.

      ∴ Sum = 174 at once.

      48. How may decimalized addition be carried out to a fuller development?

      Reduce each number to a decimal. Add the decimals. Add or subtract the increments.

      EXAMPLE:

      49. How may sight reading be used in addition?

      By use of instinct you get an immediate result.

      EXAMPLES:

      (a

      (b

      Fix eyes between the two columns where the dots are and at once see a 7 and a 9 or a 13 and a 14 to make 153. Actually 70 is added to 9 and 140 to 13 but each is done instinctively.

      50. What simple method is used to check the correctness of addition of a column of numbers?

      First begin at the bottom and add up. Then begin at the top and add down. When the columns are long it is often better to write down the sums rather than to carry the bundles from column to column. Place sums in proper columns.

      EXAMPLE:

      51. What is meant by a check figure in addition?

      One which, when eliminated from each number to be added and from the sum, will give a key number that may indicate the correctness of the addition. The check numbers 9 and 11 are generally used.

      52. What are the interesting facts on the use of the check number 9?

      (1) The fact that the remainder left after dividing any number by 9 is the same as the remainder of the sum of the digits of that number divided by 9.

      Ex. (a

      Ex. (b

      (2) Also note that the sum of the digits alone will give the same number as a remainder as the division of the number by 9. Thus in (a) 6 + 5 + 4 = 15 and 1 + 5 = ⑥. In (b) 2 + 6 + 7 + 7 = 22 and 2 + 2 = ④.

      (3) Also the fact that 9’s can be discarded when adding the digits. Thus in (a) 6 + 5 + 4, discard 4 + 5 right away and the remainder is again ⑥. In (b) 2 + 6 + 7 + 7, discard 2 + 7 but add 6 + 7 = 13 and 1 + 3 = ④.

      53. What is the procedure in checking addition by the use of the check figure 9, often called casting out nines?

      (a) Add the digits in each number horizontally and get each remainder.

      (b) Add the digits of these remainders and get the key figure.

      (c) Add the digits horizontally of the answer and get the same key figure if the answer is correct.

      EXAMPLE:

      In practice it is sufficient to add the numbers mentally to get the remainders.

      Note that all 9’s and digits that add up to 9 are discarded right away. Each digit so discarded is shown with a dot at the upper right corner.

      54. Why is casting out nines not a perfect test of accuracy in addition?

      It is possible to omit or add nines or zeros without detection. Also figures may be transposed; 27 is quite different in value from 72 although the sum of the digits is the same.

      This method is not generally recommended as a practical test in addition work but has its greatest value in multiplication and division work. However, it is sometimes useful as a quick check of addition.

      55. What are the interesting facts on the use of the check number 11?

      (1) The remainder left after dividing any number by 11 is the same as the remainder left after subtracting the sum of the digits in the even places from the sum of the digits in the odd places. If the subtraction cannot be made add 11 or a multiple of it to the odd-places sum.

      EXAMPLES:

      (a

      (b

      (2) The same remainder is also obtained by starting with the extreme left digit in the number and subtracting it from the digit to its right. When necessary add 11 to make the subtraction possible. Subtract the remainder from the next digit. Again add 11 if necessary. Repeat the process of subtraction until all the digits of the number have been used.

      56. Why is the checking of addition work by the use of the check figure 11 (often called casting out elevens) superior to that of casting out nines?

      Casting out elevens can indicate an error due to transposition of digits which is not possible with the nines method.

      EXAMPLE: Suppose our number is 8,706

      8 from (11 + 7) = 10 10 from (11 + 0) = 1

      I from 6 = ⑤ = Remainder = Check number

      Now suppose the transposed number is 8,076

      8 from (11 + 0) = 3   3 from 7 = 4

      4 from 6 = ② = Remainder = Check number

      The check numbers are seen to be different and we have uncovered a transposition of digits.

      57. What is the procedure in checking addition by the use of the check figure 11?

      (a) Cast out elevens from each row and get each remainder.

      (b) Add the remainders and cast out elevens from this sum, getting the key figure.

      (c) Cast out elevens from the answer and get key figure. Compare.

      EXAMPLE:

      PROBLEMS

      1. Count from 3 to 99 by 3’s.

      2. Count from 4 to 100 by 4’s.

      3. Count from 6 to 96 by 6’s.

      4. Count from 9 to 99 by 9’s.

      5. Start with 3 and count by 2’s, 4’s, 6’s, 8’s to just below 100.

      6. Start with 2 and count by 3’s, 5’s, 7’s, 9’s to just below 100.

      7. Start with 9 and count by 4’s, 7’s, 9’s, 2’s to just below 100.

      8. Start with 14 and count by 6’s, 2’s, 4’s, 8’s to just below 100.

      9. Add 269, 745, and 983.

      10. Add, using carry overs.

      11. Add $5.25, $17.60, $0.85, $175, $4.565.

      12. Find the sum of:

      13. What is the sum of 10, 20, 30 by the average method?

      14. What is the sum of 14, 15, 16 by the average method?

      15. What is the sum of 17, 18, 19, 20, 21 by the average method?

      16. What is the sum of 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 by the average method?

      17. What is the sum of 5, 7, 9 by the average method?

      18. What is the sum of 13, 15, 17 by the average method?

      19. What is the sum of 14, 16, 18, 20, 22 by the average method?

      20. What is the sum of 9, 12, 15 by the average method?

      21. Add two columns at a time.

      22. Add three columns at a time.

      23. Add the following by the decimalizing method:

      (a) 94 + 75

      (b) 86 + 69

      (c) 92 + 48

      (d) 89 + 52

      (e) 468 + 982 + 429

      (f) 346 + 899 + 212

      (g) 589 + 913 + 165

      (h) 862 + 791 + 386

      24. Add by sight reading:

      (a) 27 + 56

      (b) 21 + 43

      (c) 32 + 65

      (d) 49 + 57

      (e) 68 + 87

      (f) 76 + 82

      25. A gasoline station owner had 275 gallons left after selling 632 gallons. How many gallons did he have originally?

      26. One pipe from a tank discharges 76 gallons per second while another pipe from the same tank discharges 16 gallons per minute more than the first. How many gallons will both pipes discharge in a minute?

      27. An automobile travels 386 miles on the first day and 416 miles the second day, at which time it is 237 miles from its point of destination. What is the distance from its starting point to its destination?

      28. A suburban house was built with the following expenses: masonry, $3,565; lumber, $4,850; millwork, $1,485; carpentry, $3,800; plumbing, $2,758; painting, $679; hardware, $1,508; heating, $1,250; and electricity, $687. What did the house cost when completed?

      29. If a family of two persons spends $135 for rent, $205 for food, $85 for clothing, $35 for fuel, $7 for light, $22 for insurance, $6 for carfare, $12 for charity, and saves $18, what is the income after taxes and other payroll deductions?

      30. The twenty-second of February is how many days after New Year’s? How many days from New Year’s to the fourth of July?

      31. Check the following by first adding up and then by adding down. Place check marks as proof.

      32. Prove the following by use of the check figure 9.

      33. Prove the following by use of the check figure 11.

      34. Add horizontally and vertically.

      (a

      (b

      CHAPTER II

      SUBTRACTION

      58. What is subtraction?

      It is the reverse of addition. Since we know that five apples + three apples = eight apples, it follows reversely that taking five apples away from eight apples leaves three apples.

      Or taking three apples away from eight apples leaves five apples.

      8 − 5 = 3    8 − 3 = 5

      As with addition, subtraction is thus seen to be merely a regrouping:

      group (a) + group (b) = group (c) = 8.

      group (c) – group (a) = 3.    group (c) – group (b) = 5.

      59. Why may subtraction be said to be a form of addition?

      Ex. (a) 9 – 4 = 5.

      May be thought of as 4 and what make 9? 4 and 5 make 9.

      Ex. (b) 16 − 9 = 7.

      9 and what make 16? 9 and 7 make 16.

      60. What three questions will lead to the process of subtraction?

      (a) How much remains?

      (b) How much more is required?

      (c) By how much do they differ?

      In (a) if Bert has $10 and pays out $6, how many dollars remain? Here the $6 was originally a part of the $10.

      In (b) Bert has $65 and would like to buy a 35-mm. camera that costs $89. How much more does he require?

      In (c) if Bert has $10 and Charles has $6, by how much do they differ? Here the $10 and the $6 are distinct numbers.

      61. What are the terms of a subtraction?

      If the subtrahend was originally a part of the minuend then the answer is called the remainder. If the minuend and subtrahend are distinct numbers the answer is called the difference.

      62. Why is it said that we can always add but we cannot always subtract?

      Subtraction is not always possible. It is not, when the number of things which we wish to subtract is greater than the number of things we have.

      Ex. (a)

      Addition: 5 apples + 3 apples = 8 apples

      Subtraction: 8 apples − 3 apples = 5 apples

      Addition: 5 apples + 7 apples = 12 apples

      Subtraction: 5 apples − 7 apples = impossible.

      There exist no negative apples. At best we can only express the relation as 2 apples missing.

      Ex. (b)

      7 foot-candles of illumination − 5 foot-candles = 2 foot-candles.

      7 foot-candles − 9 foot-candles is impossible because there cannot be a negative illumination of 2 foot-candles. The limit is zero illumination, or darkness.

      Ex. (c) From an electric cord of 8 feet we can cut off 3 feet leaving 5 feet, but we cannot cut off 10 feet leaving − 2 feet of cord.

      63. When is it possible to subtract with the number expressing the subtrahend greater than the number expressing the minuend?

      By introduction of the concept of direction to the quantities expressed by the numbers and calling all numbers in one direction positive numbers and numbers in the reverse direction (from the starting point zero) negative numbers.

      Ex. (a)

      Now, if we step off 5 steps to the right and then step off 7 to the left we land at −2

      ∴ 5 − 7 = −2

      Ex. (b) If we let zero = freezing temperature, then +5° is 5 degrees above freezing and if it falls 3 degrees it will be 2 degrees above freezing. If it falls 7 degrees it will be 2 degrees below freezing, or

      Ex. (c) If zero is latitude, then +5° lat. − 7° lat. = − 2° lat. This would be in the Southern Hemisphere.

      If we have $5 in the bank and if we have credit, we may be able to draw out $7 in which case $5 − $7 = − $2 overdraft. Again, if we have $10 in our pocket and buy something that costs $25 we are in debt for $15: $10 − $25 = − $15 debt.

      The negative number is not a physical but a mathematical conception which may or may not have a physical representation depending on how it is applied.

      64. What is the subtraction table that should be studied until the answers can be given quickly and correctly?

      Subtraction Table

      65. What is the rule for subtraction?

      (a) Write the subtrahend under the minuend, units under units, tens under tens, etc.

      (b) Begin at the right and subtract each figure of subtrahend from the corresponding figure of the minuend, and write the remainder underneath.

      (c) If any figure of the subtrahend is greater than the minuend, increase the minuend by 10 (which uses 1 unit of the next higher order) and subtract. Now reduce the minuend of the next higher order by 1 and continue to subtract until all the digits have been taken care of.

      Note that you do not actually add or take away anything from the number. You merely regroup a bundle by unscrambling it and. placing it with the lower order to make the subtraction possible. In Ex. (c) above, we can see that we will need one thousands bundle to unscramble to 10 hundreds, one hundreds bundle to become 10 tens, and one tens bundle to become 10 units. The numbers then become

      66. What is known as the method of equal additions in subtraction?

      The method is based on the fact that the same number may be added to both minuend and subtrahend without changing the value of the difference.

      Ex. (a)

      Ex. (b)

      This method is quick and simple. All you need to remember is to add 1 to the next column in the subtrahend every time you add 10 to the minuend to make subtraction possible.

      Ex. (c)

      67. What is the mode of thinking of subtraction that is called the Austrian method, or the method of making change?

      A good deal of subtraction in the business world is concerned with making change. It consists in building to the subtrahend until the minuend is reached.

      Ex. (a)

      When subtraction is to be made possible in any column it becomes a modification of the above equal addition method.

      Ex. (b)

      68. How may subtraction be simplified?

      Add or subtract a quantity to get a multiple of 10. It is easier to subtract a multiple of 10 from another quantity than to subtract any other double digit number.

      EXAMPLE:

      Note that the answer is the same when you add or subtract the same number from both the minuend and subtrahend and that it is easier to subtract when the subtrahend is made a multiple of 10.

      69. How may the above be extended?

      Divide the numbers into couples and make each couple a multiple of 10 (which is known as a decimal number).

      Ex. (a)

      If the subtrahend in one couple is larger than the minuend, there will be 1 to carry, which is subtracted from the differences of the couple next on the left.

      Ex. (b

      In subtracting 70 from 52 borrow one (hundred), then subtract 1 from the difference of (99 – 40).

      Ex. (c)

      70. How can the subtraction of two-figure numbers be done by simple inspection using decimalization?

      Ex. (a)

      Ex. (b)

      89 − 47 = 40 + 9 − 7 = 42

      98 − 36 = 60 + 8 − 6 = 62

      95 − 22 = 70 + 5 − 2 = 73

      71. How can inverted or left-hand subtraction be done?

      Start from the left and subtract, noting whether there is one to carry from the column at the right.

      Ex. (a)

      Ex. (b)

      72. What is meant by the arithmetical complement of a number?

      Abbreviated a.c., arithmetical complement is the remainder found by subtracting the number from the next highest multiple of 10.

      EXAMPLE:

      a.c. of 2 is 10 − 2 = 8

      a.c. of 57 is 100 − 57 = 43

      a.c. of 358 is 1,000 − 358 = 642

      a.c. of 0.358 is 1.000 − 0.358 = 0.642

      73. What is the simplest way of calculating the a.c. of a number?

      Subtract its right-hand digit from 10 and each of the others from 9. This does away with carrying of 1’s.

      EXAMPLE: a.c. of 68,753 = 31,247

      Start at left:

      6 from 9 = 3 8 from 9 = 1

      7 from 9 = 2

      5 from 9 = 4

      3 from 10 = 7

      74. When and how is the a.c. used in subtraction?

      When a quantity is to be subtracted from the sum of several others. To subtract by means of the a.c., add the a.c. of the subtrahend and subtract the multiple of 10 used in getting the a.c.

      Ex. (a) Subtract 9,431 from 9,805 by a.c.

      Nothing is gained by use of a.c. in so simple a case.

      Ex. (b) Subtract 1,284 from the sum of 9,747, 1,283, and 1,292.

      Ex. (c) From bank deposits of $226.80, $342.61, and $187.34 deduct a withdrawal of $560.79 to get the net increase.

      75. How do we proceed to give change to a customer by the use of the so-called Austrian method of subtraction?

      Add from the amount of the purchase up to the next higher money unit, then to the next, and so on until you reach the amount of the bill tendered in payment.

      EXAMPLE: If the bill given in payment is $5 and the purchase is $2.38, give customer the following as change: 2 cents to make $2.40, 10 cents to make $2.50, 50 cents to make $3.00, $2 to make $5.

      Total change adds up to $2.62.

      76. What is the best check in subtraction?

      The sum of remainder and subtrahend must equal the minuend. This means: we have taken away a certain number; we now put it back and return to the original number. This check should always be made. It is done mentally.

      EXAMPLES:

      77. Is casting out nines a practical check in subtraction?

      It is not, and too much time must not be spent on this method.

      Ex. (a)

      It is seen that the difference between the remainders of the minuend and subtrahend = remainder of answer.

      Ex. (b)

      78. May casting out of elevens be used as a check?

      Yes, but here also too much time should not be devoted to this method.

      Ex. (a)

      Take the minuend. Start at left.

      Take the subtrahend. Start at left.

      Ex. (b)

      PROBLEMS

      Perform the following subtractions:

      1.

      2.

      3.

      4.

      5.

      6.

      7. If we say a certain tree is in zero position and we take 8 steps to the right of the tree which we call the positive direction and then we step off 12 steps to the left, where will we land?

      8. If zero is freezing temperature, what does +7 deg. mean? What does − 8 deg. mean?

      9. If your latitude is zero and you travel north to + 11° lat. and then southward for 15°, what would be your last position?

      10. If you had $85 in the bank and you issued a check for $97, what would be your overdraft?

      11. If you had only $63 and you wanted to buy a 35-mm. camera that cost $87, how much would you be in debt?

      12. Subtract:

      13. Check the answers to problem 12 by addition. Check the answers by casting out nines. Check the answers by casting out elevens.

      14. What is the subtrahend for each of the following sets of values?

      15. Check the answers to problem 14 by addition and by casting out nines.

      16. Use the simplified method of subtraction by making the subtrahend a multiple of ten.

      17. Extend the simplified method of subtraction to two couples making each a multiple of ten or a decimal number.

      18. Do the following subtractions of two-figure numbers by simple inspection, using decimalization:

      19. Do the following by inverted, or left-hand, subtraction.

      20. What is the arithmetical complement of:

      (a) 7?

      (b) 69?

      (c) 472?

      (d) 1,282?

      (e) 0.472?

      (f) 79,864?

      (g) 864,348?

      21.

      (a) Subtract 8,562 from 9,983 by a.c. method.

      (b) Subtract 46,827 from 87,962 by a.c. method.

      22. Subtract 4,976 from the sum of 8,432, 1,343, and 1,565 by a.c. method.

      23. From bank deposits of $342.76, $562.59, and $134.59 deduct a withdrawal of $632.48 by a.c. method.

      24. If a $20 bill is given in payment and the purchase is $12.89, what change will the customer get, using the so-called Austrian method of subtraction?

      25. If a railroad carries 2,325,879 passengers one year and 3,874,455 passengers the following year, what is the increase?

      26. If the Federal income tax collected one year is $67,892,762,945 and $71,432,652,982 the following year, what is the increase?

      27.

      (a) Begin with 53 and subtract by 2’s, 4’s, 6’s, 8’s.

      (b) Begin with 89 and subtract by 3’s, 5’s, 7’s, 9’s.

      (c) Begin with 74 and subtract by 5’s, 7’s, 3’s, 9’s.

      28. A man bought a farm for $17,500. He kept it two months, during which time he paid $439.50 in taxes and $782.75 for repair of fences. He then sold it for $21,500. What was his profit?

      CHAPTER III

      MULTIPLICATION

      79. What is multiplication?

      It is merely a simplified form of addition. Suppose we have eight apples in a row and there are four rows. We can add them as 8 + 8 + 8 + 8 = 32 or we can say simply 4 × 8 = 32. Also if we have four apples in a row and there are eight rows, then

      4 + 4 + 4 + 4 + 4 + 4 + 4 + 4 = 32 or 8 × 4 = 32.

      You see that 4 × 8 = 8 × 4 = 32. In each case the sum is 32. When several equal numbers are to be added, it is much shorter to obtain the result by multiplication.

      80. What are the terms of a multiplication?

      (a) The number to be repeated is called the multiplicand.

      (b) The number of times the multiplicand is to be repeated is called the multiplier.

      (c) The result of the multiplication is called the product.

      (d) The multiplicand and the multiplier are also known as the factors of the product.

      EXAMPLE:

      81. What is (a) a concrete number, (b) an abstract number, (c) the type of number of the multiplier in multiplication?

      (a) A number that is applied to any particular object is called a concrete number. Examples: an apple, an auto, 2 hours, etc.

      (b) A number that is not applied to a particular object is an abstract number. Examples: 1, 5, 62.

      (c) In multiplication the multiplier is always an abstract number.

      82. What are the most useful products that should be committed to memory?

      Multiplication Table

      83. When several numbers are multiplied does it matter in what order the multiplication is performed?

      The order of multiplication does not matter.

      EXAMPLE: 2 × 6 × 4 = 2 × (6 × 4) = (2 × 4) × 6 = 48

      The 2 may be multiplied by 6 and this result (= 12) may then be multiplied by 4 to get 48, or the 6 and 4 may first be multiplied and then the 2 used, etc.

      84. What is the rule in multiplication when (a) the two signs of the numbers are both plus [+]; (b) both signs are minus [ – ]; (c) the two signs are unlike?

      (a) Two pluses produce a plus product.

      (b) Two minuses produce a plus product.

      (c) Two unlike signs produce a minus product.

      (+4) × (+6) = +24

      (+4) × (−6) = − 24

      ( – 4) × (−6) = +24

      ( – 4) × (+6) = −24

      Note: It is not necessary to write the plus in front of the product.

      85. What is the effect upon a number when you move it one, two, three places to the left in the period?

      Moving a figure one place to the left has the same effect as multiplying it by 10. Example: 76 × 10 = 760. So, to multiply by 10, place a zero at the right of the multiplicand; thus moving each digit one place to the left and increasing its value 10 times.

      To multiply by 100, place two zeros at the right of the multiplicand. Example: 76 × 100 = 7,600.

      To multiply by 1,000 place three zeros at the right of the multiplicand, etc. Example: 76 × 1,000 = 76,000.

      86. What is the rule for multiplying when either multiplier or multiplicand ends in zeros?

      Multiply the multiplicand by the multiplier without regard to the zeros and annex as many zeros at the right of the product as are found at the right of the multiplier and multiplicand.

      EXAMPLE:

      Enjoying the preview?
      Page 1 of 1