Everand Logo

Welcome to Everand!

  • Discover millions of ebooks, audiobooks, and so much more with a free trial

    Only $11.99/month after trial. Cancel anytime.

    Cloud Dynamics
    Cloud Dynamics
    Cloud Dynamics
    Ebook1,462 pages32 hours

    Cloud Dynamics

    By Robert A. Houze, Jr.

    4/5

    ()

    Read preview

    About this ebook

    As models of the Earth/atmosphere system and observations become ever more sophisticated, and concerns about climate change and societal impacts of extreme weather and its forecasting grow, understanding the role of clouds in the atmosphere is increasingly vital. Cloud Dynamics, Second Edition provides the essential information needed to understand how clouds affect climate and weather.

    This comprehensive book examines the underlying physics and dynamics of every specific type of cloud that occurs in the Earth's atmosphere, showing how clouds differ dynamically depending on whether they occur over oceans or mountains, or as parts of atmospheric storms, such as thunderstorms, tropical cyclones, or warm and cold fronts. Covering both the microphysical and macrophysical aspects of clouds, the book treats all of the physical scales involved in cloud processes, from the microscale of the individual drops and ice particles up to scales of storms in which the clouds occur.

    As observational technology advances with increasingly sophisticated remote sensing capabilities, detailed understanding of how the dynamics and physics of clouds affect the quantities being measured is of paramount importance. This book underpins the work necessary for proper interpretation of these observations, now and in the future.

    • Provides the holistic understanding of clouds needed to pursue research on topics vital to life on Earth
    • Provides in-depth understanding of all types of clouds over all regions of Earth, from the poles to the equator
    • Includes detailed physical and dynamical insight into the entire spectrum of clouds populating Earth's atmosphere
    LanguageEnglish
    PublisherAcademic Press
    Release dateJul 8, 2014
    ISBN9780080921464
    Cloud Dynamics
    Author

    Robert A. Houze, Jr.

    Professor Houze received his B.S. in Meteorology from Texas A&M University in 1967. He received his Master's and Ph.D. degrees from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He joined the faculty of the Department of Atmospheric Sciences at the University of Washington in 1972. In 1988-89 he was Guest Professor in the Laboratory of Atmospheric Physics at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zürich. In 1996 he was Houghton Lecturer at the Center for Meteorology and Physical Oceanography at Massachusetts Institute of Technology. In 2006 he was Thompson Lecturer at the National Center for Atmospheric Research. He has published about 200 research articles and has written a graduate textbook entitled Cloud Dynamics. In 1982, Professor Houze was awarded both the American Meteorological Society's Clarence Leroy Meisinger Award for his research and the Society's Editor's award for his reviews of papers for the Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences. In 1984, he was elected a Fellow of the American Meteorological Society. In 1989 he won the NOAA Environmental Research Laboratories' Distinguished Author's Award. In 2002, he was designated as a “Highly Cited Researcher” by the Institute of Scientific Information (h-index 56). In 2006, Professor Houze received the American Meteorological Society's Carl-Gustaf Rossby Research Medal, which is the highest honor that the Society can bestow on an atmospheric scientist. In 2012 he was elected a Fellow of the American Geophysical Union and he delivered the Bjerknes Memorial Lecture at the American Geophysical Union's 2012 annual meeting. In 2013 he will be inducted as a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science for his fundamental research on cloud dynamics.

    Related to Cloud Dynamics

    Titles in the series (52)

    View More
    View More

    Related ebooks

    Earth Sciences For You

    View More
    View More

    Related podcast episodes

    Related articles

    • Article

      The Hidden Importance of Clouds: A climate scientist asks whether nature can save us from ourselves.

      Jun 18, 2015

      John Muir was an idiot. “Climb the mountains and get their good tidings,” he wrote in his 1901 book Our National Parks. “Nature’s peace will flow into you as sunshine flows into trees.” Muir is my hero, his eloquent defense of the natural world an in

      6 min read

    • Article

      Weather, Or Not?

      Dec 17, 2021

      Weather, Or Not?
      5 min read

    • Article

      Flipping Poles Let In The Sun

      Dec 15, 2022

      Flipping Poles Let In The Sun
      2 min read

    • Article

      Ask Space

      Sep 9, 2021

      Ask Space
      5 min read

    • Article

      Learning Curve

      Dec 1, 2022

      Learning Curve
      6 min read

    • Article

      Earth’s Electric Heartbeat

      Aug 18, 2021

      Earth’s Electric Heartbeat
      5 min read

    • Article

      Propagation

      Nov 1, 2019

      Propagation
      15 min read

    • Article

      Planet Profile Earth

      May 20, 2021

      Planet Profile Earth
      6 min read

    • Article

      Propagation

      Oct 1, 2019

      Propagation
      11 min read

    • Article

      Here Comes The Sun

      Aug 16, 2022

      Here Comes The Sun
      4 min read

    • Article

      ASK Space

      Dec 2, 2021

      ASK Space
      5 min read

    • Article

      Propagation

      Jun 1, 2023

      Propagation
      9 min read

    • Article

      Harvey, Florence, And The Climate Change Connection

      Sep 27, 2018

      When it comes to teasing out climate change's role in extreme weather, hurricanes are the most controversial topic. An emerging field of science is starting to connect those dots more directly than ever before.

      4 min read

    • Article

      Propagation

      Dec 1, 2019

      Your columnist often is asked, “Why is space weather important?” The short answer is that it must be important because so many governments and private businesses are spending vast sums of money and energy researching it. In addition, space weather is

      14 min read

    • Article

      Tiny Living rainmakers

      Jan 18, 2024

      Tiny Living rainmakers
      4 min read

    Related categories

    Reviews for Cloud Dynamics

    4/5

    1 rating0 reviews

    What did you think?

    Tap to rate

    Review must be at least 10 words

      Book preview

      Cloud Dynamics - Robert A. Houze, Jr.

      Cloud Dynamics

      Second Edition

      Robert A. Houze, Jr.

      Department of Atmospheric Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington

      Table of Contents

      Cover image

      Title page

      Copyright

      Dedication

      Preface

      List of Symbols

      Part I: Fundamentals

      Chapter 1: Types of Clouds in Earth's Atmosphere

      Abstract

      1.1 Atmospheric Structure and Scales

      1.2 Cloud Types Identified Visually

      1.3 Precipitating Cloud Systems

      1.4 Satellite Cloud Climatology

      Chapter 2: Atmospheric Dynamics

      Abstract

      2.1 The Basic Equations2

      2.2 Balanced Flow

      2.3 Anelastic and Boussinesq Approximations

      2.4 Vorticity

      2.5 Potential Vorticity

      2.6 Perturbation Forms of the Equations

      2.7 Oscillations and Waves

      2.8 Adjustment to Geostrophic and Gradient Balance

      2.9 Instabilities

      2.10 Representation of Eddy Fluxes

      2.11 The Planetary Boundary Layer

      Chapter 3: Cloud Microphysics

      Abstract

      3.1 Microphysics of Warm Clouds

      3.2 Microphysics of Cold Clouds

      3.3 Types of Microphysical Processes and Categories of Water Substance in Clouds

      3.4 Water-Continuity Equations

      3.5 Bin Water-Continuity Models

      3.6 Bulk Water-Continuity Models

      3.7 Water-Continuity Modeling of Cold Clouds Using Generalized Mass-Size and Area-Size Relations65

      Chapter 4: Remote Sensing of Clouds and Precipitation

      Abstract

      4.1 Absorption, Scattering, and the Microwave Domain

      4.2 Passive Microwave Sensing of Precipitation

      4.3 Radar Sensing of Clouds and Precipitation

      4.4 Radar Reflectivity from Returned Power

      4.5 Radar Polarimetry

      4.6 Relating Radar Measurements to Hydrometeor Concentration, Precipitation, Fall Velocity, and Cloud-System Structure

      4.7 Estimating Areal Precipitation from Radar Data

      4.8 Determining Cloud Morphology from Radar Data

      4.9 Doppler Radar

      Part II: Phenomena

      Chapter 5: Clouds in Shallow Layers at Low, Middle, and High Levels

      Abstract

      5.1 Fog and Stratus Occurring in a Boundary Layer Cooled from Below

      5.2 Stratocumulus Forming in Boundary Layers Heated from Below

      5.3 Altostratus and Altocumulus

      5.4 Cirriform Clouds

      Chapter 6: Nimbostratus and the Separation of Convective and Stratiform Precipitation

      Abstract

      6.1 Definition of Stratiform Precipitation and How It Differs from Convective Precipitation

      6.2 The Contrasting Radar-Echo Structures of Stratiform and Convective Precipitation

      6.3 Microphysical Observations in Nimbostratus and Implied Vertical Air Motions

      6.4 Role of Convection in Regions of Stratiform Precipitation

      6.5 Stratiform Precipitation with Shallow Overturning Convective Cells Aloft

      6.6 Stratiform Precipitation Produced by Deep Convection

      6.7 Radiative Effects on Nimbostratus

      6.8 Separation of Convective and Stratiform Precipitation

      Chapter 7: Basic Cumulus Dynamics

      Abstract

      7.1 Buoyancy

      7.2 The Pressure-Perturbation Field Associated with Buoyancy

      7.3 Entrainment and Detrainment

      7.4 Vorticity and Dynamic Pressure Perturbation Forces

      Chapter 8: Cumulonimbus and Severe Storms

      Abstract

      8.1 The Basic Cumulonimbus Cloud

      8.2 Multicell Storms

      8.3 Supercell Storms

      8.4 Environmental Conditions Favoring Different Types of Deep Convective Storms16

      8.5 Supercell Dynamics21

      8.6 Tornadogenesis in Supercell Storms

      8.7 Ground Tracks of Supercell Tornadoes

      8.8 Non-Supercell Tornadoes and Waterspouts

      8.9 The Tornado

      8.10 Downbursts and Microbursts

      8.11 Gust Fronts, Derechos, and Arcus Clouds

      8.12 Lines of Convective Storms

      Chapter 9: Mesoscale Convective Systems

      Abstract

      9.1 General Characteristics

      9.2 Leading-Line/Trailing-Stratiform Structure

      9.3 Bulk Dynamical View

      9.4 Details of the Convective Region

      9.5 Details of the Stratiform Region

      9.6 Divergence, Diabatic Processes, and Vorticity

      Chapter 10: Clouds and Precipitation in Tropical Cyclones

      Abstract

      10.1 Definitions, Climatology, and the Synoptic-Scale Contexts of Tropical Cyclones

      10.2 Clouds Involved in Tropical Cyclogenesis

      10.3 Overview of the Mature Tropical Cyclone

      10.4 The Eye

      10.5 Dynamics of the Mean Eyewall Cloud

      10.6 Substructure and Asymmetry of the Eyewall Cloud

      10.7 The Region Beyond the Eyewall: Rainbands and Eyewall Replacement

      Chapter 11: Clouds and Precipitation in Extratropical Cyclones

      Abstract

      11.1 Structure and Dynamics of a Baroclinic Wave

      11.2 Circulation at a Front

      11.3 Horizontal Patterns of Frontal Zones in Developing Cyclones

      11.4 Clouds and Precipitation in a Frontal Cyclone

      11.5 Clouds in Polar Lows

      Chapter 12: Clouds and Precipitation Associated with Hills and Mountains

      Abstract

      12.1 Shallow Clouds in Stable Upslope Flow

      12.2 Wave Clouds Produced by Long Ridges1

      12.3 Clouds Associated with Flow over Isolated Peaks

      12.4 Effects of Mountains and Hills on Precipitation Mechanisms

      12.5 Basic Scenarios by Which Hills and Mountains Affect Precipitating Clouds

      12.6 How Major Precipitating Cloud Systems Are Affected by Mountains

      References

      Index

      Copyright

      Dedication

      To Yolanda Rebecca and Deborah Gabriel, Margaret, Lucian, Alice, and Elizabeth

      Preface

      Robert A. Houze, Jr., Seattle

      Clouds are a part of everyday life. They can be dramatic and inspirational, fun to look at, or ominous and frightening. For centuries, clouds have inspired prose, poetry, painting, and music. As objects of science they form a vital link in the global climate and water cycle, and storm clouds are an integral part of weather forecasting and analysis. One of the most fascinating things about clouds is that they are not all the same. A wide variety of physics and dynamics control their occurrence, characteristics, and behavior. This book aims to help researchers and students understand the processes determining all the types of clouds in the atmosphere. The success of atmospheric models used in predicting weather, assessing the world’s climate, and affecting the global water cycle all depend on understanding the fluid mechanics and thermodynamics of air motions, microphysical aspects of water drops and ice crystals, and the role of Earth’s underlying topography. Cloud processes occur on a wide range of spatial scales, from microns to thousands of kilometers, and they are difficult to observe. Principles of radiation must be used not only to understand the clouds themselves but also to realize how remote sensing of clouds by instruments on Earth, on aircraft, and in space detects cloud characteristics since these measurements are the primary mode of verifying models whose results depend on accurate representation of clouds.

      This second edition of Cloud Dynamics follows the structure of the first edition by addressing Earth’s clouds holistically. Part I reviews basic principles of nomenclature, dynamics and thermodynamics of air motions, the microphysical processes of water drops and ice particles, and the physics of remote sensing of clouds and precipitation. Part II examines in depth the dynamics of each of the major types of clouds in the atmosphere. This two-part structure and the individual chapter topics within each part are the same as in the first edition of the book (although the chapter titles have been slightly altered to modernize them). The material of the first edition of this book is largely unchanged. However, the study of clouds is a vigorous research area. New satellites, more advanced models, and numerous field studies have advanced knowledge of all types of clouds, and I have integrated these new insights into the second edition.

      The author gratefully acknowledges the generous help of numerous colleagues and technical experts. The first edition of the book benefitted most substantially from the expertise of my colleagues at the University of Washington: Marcia Baker, Chris Bretherton, Dale Durran, Clifford Mass, and especially the late Peter Hobbs, James Holton, and Richard Reed. The preface to the first edition lists numerous other contributors. The second edition of the book benefits from the input of Hannah Barnes, Casey Burleyson, Megan Chaplin, Jennifer DeHart, Anthony Didlake, Deanna Hence, Yolanda Houze, Scott Powell, Jay Mace, Lynn McMurdie, Hugh Morrison, Kristen Rasmussen, Angela Rowe, David Schultz, Katrina Virts, Roger Wakimoto, Robert Wood, Sandra Yuter, and Manuel Zuluaga. Beth Tully supervised the illustration graphics and copy editing.

      The author’s research contributes much of the new material included in this revision. The U.S. National Science Foundation, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Department of Energy, and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration have generously sponsored this research.

      June 2014

      List of Symbols

      Robert A. Houze, Jr.

        an area

        an arbitrary variable

        in microphysics, autoconversion of cloud water to rain; in convective clouds, the amount of condensate deposited in the portion of anvil cloud attached to the convective region of a mesoscale convective system

        amount of condensate deposited in the portion of anvil cloud attached to the stratiform region of a mesoscale convective system

      in a cloud

      in the environment of a cloud

        total area covered by rain in a given region

        x-gradient of nondimensional pressure perturbation

        contribution to z-gradient of nondimensional pressure perturbation by advection and turbulence

      in a well mixed boundary layer

      at the sea surface.

        positive constants in the expression for the radiative flux divergence in an ice-cloud outflow from cumulonimbus

        constants

        area covered by echoes within an annular range ring centered at range r

      that would occur if a parcel were not exchanging mass with the environment

        expansion coefficient

        a positive constant

        proportionality constant relating tangential velocity to radius in the inner region of a Rankine vortex

        half-width of a mountain ridge

        coefficients in the Fourier decomposition of the mean radar radial velocity

        autoconversion threshold

        positive constants in empirical formulas relating radar reflectivity to rainfall rate, rainwater mixing ratio, and precipitation particle fall speed

        azimuth angle (measured clockwise from the north) toward which radar beam is pointing

        elevation angle of radar beam

        proportionality factor relating the volume of a polyhedron to that of an inscribed sphere

        adjustable parameter relating sensible heat fluxes at cloud base to those at cloud top

        an empirical constant determined in laboratory experiments on turbulent elements

        proportionality constant in formula for autoconversion

        constants

        creation (destruction) of eddy kinetic energy by thermally direct (indirect) flow perturbations

        buoyancy

        x-gradient of apparent potential temperature perturbation

        blackbody monochromatic irradiance.

        buoyancy pressure gradient acceleration

        proportionality constant relating tangential velocity to inverse radius in the outer region of a Rankine vortex

        In Chapter 7, b ; in other contexts it is simply a positive constant

        proportionality factor relating the surface area of a polyhedron to that of an inscribed sphere

        proportionality factor in the expression for the eddy flux of cloud virtual potential temperature

      is created by conversion from mean-flow kinetic energy, when down gradient eddy-flux momentum fluxes occur

        rate of condensation of vapor

        condensation of cloud water

        drag coefficient

        deposition rate

        condensation in convective updrafts

        condensation in stratiform updraft of a mesoscale convective system

        transport of condensate from convective to stratiform region in a mesoscale convective system

        group velocity in the radial direction

        group velocity in the azimuthal direction

        a constant depending on the characteristics of a particular set of radar equipment

        convective available potential energy

        convective inhibition

        shape factor analogous to electrical capacitance

        one-half the horizontal convergence in a one or two cell vortex

        phase speed in discussing waves; in other contexts it is simply a positive constant

        speed of light

        specific heat of dry air at constant pressure

        specific heat at constant pressure of soil

        specific heat of dry air at constant volume

        specific heat of water

        specific heat of a homogeneous fluid

        particle diameter

        domain of radar observations

      by eddies or molecular friction

        parameterization of the vertical pressure gradient acceleration of a rising bubble (drag)

        diameter of a hailstone

        diffusion coefficient for water vapor in air

        depth of a layer of the atmosphere containing raindrops

      , a measure of turbulent dissipation of the mean flow

        viscosity

        a positive constant

        constant proportionality factor relating the tangential velocity to the inverse of the radius of a one cell vortex

        a finite increment

        electric field vector

        evaporation of cloud water

        evaporation of rainwater

        upward component of the electric field vector

        evaporation in convective downdrafts

        evaporation in the downdraft of the stratiform region of a mesoscale convective system

        vapor pressure

        saturation vapor pressure over a plane surface of water

        saturation vapor pressure with respect to a plane surface of ice

        saturation vapor pressure over a plane surface of ice

        net energy (Gibbs free energy) required to accomplish nucleation of a particle of water or ice bubble

        collection efficiency

        collection efficiency of raindrops collecting cloud drops

        a small depth

        small positive fraction parameterizing the near adjustment of frontal clouds to moist symmetric neutrality

        molecular friction force

        net convergence of the vertical flux of liquid water relative to the air (sedimentation of liquid water)

        buoyancy source for unaveraged pressure perturbation

      (Chapter 3); dynamic source in diagnostic equation for unaveraged pressure perturbation (Chapters 7–9)

        sedimentation of graupel

        drag force on a falling particle

        sedimentation of rainwater

        sedimentation of snow

        vertical flux of vorticity

        turbulence term in equation for the total water mixing ratio

        turbulence term in the x-component of the equation of motion

        vertical flux of water vapor

        turbulence term in the vertical component of the equation of motion

        three-dimensional convergence of the eddy flux of momentum

      )

        buoyancy source for averaged pressure perturbation

        dynamic source for averaged pressure perturbation

        turbulence source for averaged pressure perturbation

        Froude number

        Coriolis parameter

        antenna gain

        generation of eddy kinetic energy

        magnitude of gravitational acceleration

        particle mass distribution function

        circulation

        circulation of a vortex

      , basic state lapse rate

        a vertical distance; in Chapter 5, H represents the half-depth of an ice-cloud outflow from cumulonimbus; in Chapter 12, it represents the vertical thickness of a layer of homogeneous fluid

        vertical c fluid at upstream and downstream locations, respectively

        heating rate

        integrated helicity

      by infrared radiation

      by latent heating

      by solar radiation

      by turbulent mixing

        a vertical distance; in Chapters 2–11, it always represents a vertical depth of a layer of fluid; in some discussions it is specifically the height of the top of the planetary boundary layer; in some discussions it is the depth of a gravity current cold pool; in Chapter 12 it is used to represent the height of topography

        moist static energy

        moist static energy in cloud

        moist static energy in the environment

        amplitude of two-dimensional topography

        depth of the Ekman layer

        amplitude of Fourier component of function describing terrain height

        ≡ cvT + pα + Lqvs

        height of terrain

        a positive number dependent on Froude number and fluid thickness that must exceed the terrain height if a two-dimensional flow is not to be blocked

        maximum height of a mountain

        x-component of vorticity; ratio of the standard deviation to the mean of the particle radius

        radar reflectivity

      as a result of their coalescence with drops of all other sizes

      by coalescence of smaller drops

        integral minimized to obtain the potential temperature field by variational analysis of Doppler radar data

        integral minimized to obtain the pressure field by variational analysis of Doppler radar data

        van't Hoff factor

        unit vectors in the x, y, and z directions

        vertical flux of water vapor in soil

        vertical flux of liquid water in soil

        constant turbulent exchange coefficient

        specific differential propagation phase

        collection kernel

        eddy kinetic energy

        collection of cloud water

        turbulent exchange coefficient for qH

        turbulent exchange coefficient for water category i

        turbulent exchange coefficient for liquid water

        turbulent exchange coefficient for horizontal momentum

        turbulent exchange coefficient for water vapor

        turbulent exchange coefficient for θ

        turbulent exchange coefficient for vorticity

      ((Chapter 3)

        a function of the complex index of refraction

        wave number in x-direction

        a constant relating to cloud droplets in the collection kernel

        depending on the context: a constant relating to raindrops in the collection kernel; radial wave number

        initial radial wave number

        Boltzmann’s constant

        horizontal wave number in the x-direction of a Fourier component (denoted by s) of function describing terrain height

        Rd/cp

        thermal conductivity of air

        thermal conductivity of soil

        thermal conductivity

        latent heat of vaporization

        latent heat of fusion

        latent heat of sublimation

        along front length scale

        cross front length scale

        monochromatic irradiance

        boundary between dry and cloudy frontogenesis zones

        lifting condensation level

        large eddy simulation

        linear depolarization ratio

        level of zero buoyancy

        level of free convection

        wind scale height

        wave number in y-direction

      stands for liter; when used as a mathematical symbol, it is the square root of the Scorer parameter

        Scorer parameter

      ,   Scorer parameters for lower and upper layers, respectively

        entrainment rate (per unit height)

        used to represent wavelength in discussions of dynamics, radiation, and remote sensing; used to represent the coefficient of particle size in the argument of the exponential function in Marshall-Palmer or Gamma distributions representing cloud or precipitation particle spectra

        Rossby radius of deformation

      , absolute momentum

        geostrophic absolute momentum

        molecular weight of dissolved salt

        molecular weight of water

        efficiency factor for evaporation

        k-th moment of a particle size distribution

        moist absolutely unstable layer

        mass of a cloud or precipitation particle

        mean mass of cloud droplets

        value of drop mass separating cloud and precipitation portions of the drop size distribution

        mass of a rising cloud element

        in some discussions, m represents a wave number in the z-direction; in other discussions it is the angular momentum about the axis of a cylindrical coordinate system

        mass of dissolved salt (Chapter 3); vertical wave number of a Fourier mode (denoted by s) of the function describing the vertical velocity of the air flowing over two-dimensional topography (Chapter 12)

        angular momentum at the sea surface in a tropical cyclone

        time rate of change of m

        time rate of change of m as a result of collection

        time rate of change of m as a result of vapor diffusion

        time rate of change of mass of an ice particle as a result of melting

        mass of air detrained to the environment

        mass of air entrained from environment

      in the Gamma particle-size distribution

        Gibbs free energy of a liquid molecule

        Gibbs free energy of a vapor molecule

        a positive number determining the exponential decay of gravity waves in the vertical

      is the particle size distribution function (number density) with units of number per unit volume of air per unit size interval

        consumption of eddy kinetic energy

        number of cloud droplets per unit volume of air

        number of raindrops per unit volume of air

        number of ice nuclei per liter of air

        size distribution function for crystals of type k

        buoyancy frequency of reference state, except in Chapter 3, where No represents the intercept parameter of Marshall–Palmer particle size distribution

        number concentration per standard cubic meter of aerosol particles with diameters larger than 0.5 μm

        number density of ice nuclei suspended in liquid water at a given temperature

        buoyancy frequency in pseudoheight coordinate system

        coordinate normal to a streamline; azimuthal wave number

        the set of natural numbers, 1, 2, …

        number of molecules per unit volume of ice

        number of water molecules per unit volume of liquid

        frequency; viscosity of air

        angular speed of the earth’s rotation

        vorticity

        ≡ ηi + ξj + (ζ + f)k, absolute vorticity

        geostrophic absolute vorticity

        Ertel’s potential vorticity, except in represents a probability density function

        equivalent potential vorticity

        geostrophic potential vorticity in physical space

        geostrophic equivalent potential vorticity

        geostrophic potential vorticity in geostrophic space

        geostrophic equivalent potential vorticity in geostrophic space

      if unsaturated

      breaks up per unit time

      will collect a drop of mass m′

        transmitted power

        average returned power

        pulse-repetition frequency

        pressure of air

        pressure at the outer boundary of a tropical cyclone

        pressure at the center of a tropical cyclone

        in some discussions, this symbol represents a reference pressure, usually representative of conditions near the earth’s surface, often taken to be 1000 mb; in

        pressure perturbation associated with buoyancy field

        pressure perturbation associated with wind field

        probability that a drop of mass m will collect a drop of mass m′ in time interval Δt

        planetary boundary layer

        geopotential

        latitude

        velocity potential for perturbation flow

        phase of reflected radar waves

        propagation phase shift of the horizontally transmitted and horizontally received energy of a radar signal

        propagation phase shift of the vertically transmitted and vertically received energy of a radar signal

        Exner function

        soil moisture potential

        stream functions

        Q-vector

        rate of change of mean potential temperature

        components of Q-vector

        Q-vector component in geostrophic (X) space

        integrated effect of turbulence in a volume containing a hydraulic jump

        rate at which hailstone loses heat to air by conduction

        rate at which heat is gained as a result of the riming of a hailstone

        rate at which a hailstone gains heat by deposition

      in a homogeneous fluid

        mass of cloud liquid water per unit mass of air

        mass of drizzle per unit mass of air

        mass of graupel per unit mass of air

        total mass of liquid water and/or ice per unit mass of air (hydrometeor mixing ratio)

        mass of hail per unit mass of air

        mass of cloud ice per unit mass of air

      per unit mass of air (mixing ratio of a given type of water substance)

        mass of liquid water per unit mass of air

      per unit mass of air

        mass of rainwater per unit mass of air

        mass of snow per unit mass of air

        vapor mixing ratio of soil

        mass of total water substance per unit mass of air

        mass of water vapor per unit mass of air (mixing ratio of water vapor in air)

        saturation mixing ratio

        mass of vapor grown ice per mass of air

        mass of rime ice per mass of air

        radius of an entity (spherical particle, cloud, downdraft, bubble, etc.)

        radiative heat flux in the vertical (positive upward)

        rainfall rate

        critical radius of a drop in microphysics; convective rain amount in a mesoscale convective system

        gas constant for dry air

        radius of curvature of a streamline in a vortex; stratiform rain amount in a mesoscale convective system

        gas constant for a unit mass of water vapor

        area integrated rain rate

        critical radius of an inscribed sphere used to express the volume of an ice particle

        threshold rain rate

        Rayleigh number

        Reynolds number

        Richardson number

        relative humidity

        a constant representing the e-folding radius of a turbulent jet

        average rain rate in some region

      is exceeded

        radial coordinate (called range in the context of radar meteorology)

        radius of the outer boundary of a tropical cyclone

        radius of a circle described by the intersection of the cone with a level surface at a fixed altitude above a radar

        radius of a jump in fluid depth at the initial time (Chapter 2); radius of the inner region of a vortex (Chapter 8)

        maximum range at which a target can be detected by a radar

        density of air

        density of the air, including gaseous components only

        co-polar correlation coefficient

        density of liquid water

        density of soil

        vapor density (mass of water vapor per unit volume of air)

        saturation vapor density over a plane surface of water

        vapor density at surface of a particle

        densities of two homogeneous fluid layers

        density of a constant reference state representative of conditions near the earth’s surface

      , vertical shear of the mean horizontal wind

        sources plus sinks of cloud water associated with ice-phase microphysical processes

        sources plus sinks of graupel associated with ice-phase microphysical processes

        sources plus sinks of cloud ice associated with ice-phase microphysical processes

        sources plus sinks of a particular category of water

        sources plus sinks of rainwater associated with ice-phase microphysical processes

        sources plus sinks of snow associated with ice-phase microphysical processes

        sources plus sinks of water vapor associated with ice-phase microphysical processes

        scattering amplitude of radar signal obtained by transmitting and receiving in horizontal polarization

        scattering amplitude of radar signal obtained by transmitting and receiving in vertical polarization

        sea-surface temperature

        Doppler velocity spectrum

      , ambient supersaturation with respect to a plane surface of liquid water

      , ambient supersaturation with respect to a plane surface of ice

        saturated moist entropy

        distance along a beam of radiation

        effective radar backscatter cross section of one particle

        free energy of an ice–liquid interface

        surface energy (surface tension) of a liquid–vapor interface

        temperature

        temperature of a layer of the atmosphere containing raindrops

        temperature at the top of the boundary layer

        blackbody temperature

        microwave brightness temperature

        upwelling irradiance at the Earth's surface expressed as a brightness temperature

        brightness temperatures expressing the downwelling irradiance at the Earth's surface

        brightness temperatures expressing the upwelling irradiance at the top of a layer of the atmosphere containing raindrops

        temperature at which a particular crystal habit grows

        temperature of the air in the environment

        temperature on a surface of constant angular momentum

        temperature of outflow from the eyewall of a tropical cyclone

        mean temperature of outflow from the eyewall of a tropical cyclone

        temperature of the Earth's surface

        temperature of the soil

      would become saturated by lowering its pressure dry adiabatically

        virtual temperature

        temperature of a drop of water

        time

      , a factor expressing the absorption of radiation by a layer of the atmosphere containing raindrops

        time scale of evaporation in a convective cloud

        time scale of mixing in a convective cloud; vertical flux of momentum at the sea surface in a tropical cyclone

        duration of an emitted radar pulse

        vertical flux of sensible heat at the ocean surface in a tropical cyclone

        vertical flux of momentum in x-direction

        vertical flux of momentum in y-direction

        azimuth angle of a cylindrical coordinate system

        potential temperature

        Fourier transform of the potential temperature

        potential temperature of the reference state (basic state) of a system

        apparent potential temperature perturbation

        equivalent potential temperature

        equivalent potential temperature at the outer boundary of a tropical cyclone

        horizontal beamwidth angle

        virtual potential temperature

        equivalent potential temperature at the center of a tropical cyclone

        saturation equivalent potential temperature

        cloud virtual potential temperature

        potential temperature of a constant reference state representative of conditions near the earth’s surface

        vertical beamwidth angle

        user chosen weighting function that assures homogeneity of the dimensions in the integral computed in the retrieval of thermal properties of the air from Doppler radar observations and decides the relative weight to be ascribed to vertical and horizontal gradients in the integral

        speed of movement of the leading edge of a gravity current

        mean wind at the ground

        along front velocity scale

        cross front velocity scale

        radial velocity component

        geostrophic wind components

        ageostrophic wind components

        individual wind component in x-direction

        wind speed in the layer above a lower tropospheric layer in which wind speed increases with height

        terminal fall speed (> 0)

      (> 0)

      (> 0)

        volume

        magnitude of the horizontal wind velocity component in the azimuthal direction from a radar

        ventilation factor

        fall speed of crystal of type k (> 0)

        radar radial velocity (component of velocity of target along the beam of a radar); special case of v

      from the center of a vortex

        fall speed of targets affecting radial velocity detected by Doppler radar (> 0)

        ventilation factor for conduction

        ventilation factor for sublimation

        fall speed scale of ice crystals and snow (> 0)

        typical terminal fall velocity of ice crystals and snow (> 0)

        magnitude of the maximum unambiguous Doppler radar radial velocity

        radar resolution volume

        cloud or cell motion relative to the ground

        storm propagation velocity component resulting from new cell development

        velocity of a multicell thunderstorm

        mass weighted fall speed of drops (> 0)

        number weighted fall speed (> 0)

        mass weighted ice particle fall speed (> 0)

        mass weighted mean-particle fall speed for ice-particle hydrometeors (> 0)

        three-dimensional velocity of a parcel of air

        Fourier transform of the wind velocity

        wind component in y-direction

        wind component along a streamline

        component of the wind shear in the direction normal to a streamline

        tangential velocity component

        tangential velocity component of the base state of a vortex

      , ageostrophic wind

      , geostrophic wind

        horizontal wind vector

        wind component normal to a boundary

        wind component tangent to a boundary

        maximum mean tangential velocity in a vortex

      by pressure–velocity correlation

        wind component in z-direction

        background vertical velocity

        entrainment velocity

        entrainment velocity at cloud base

        entrainment velocity at cloud top

        vertical velocities in lower and upper layers, respectively

        deviation from background vertical velocity wB (Chapter 5); amplitude of sinusoidally varying vertical velocity (Chapter 12)

      , vertical velocity in pseudoheight coordinate system

        difference in the vertical velocities of two parcels of fluid separated by a horizontal radial distance

      , geostrophic coordinate

        horizontal coordinate

        y-component of vorticity

        horizontal coordinate

      (see below)

        equivalent radar reflectivity factor

        differential reflectivity

        radar reflectivity factor that is horizontally transmitted and horizontally received

        radar reflectivity factor that is horizontally transmitted and vertically received

        radar reflectivity factor that is vertically transmitted and vertically received

        height

        pseudoheight

        height of the base of an ice-cloud outflow from cumulonimbus

        height of top of vortex funnel

        height where inflow occurs in a mesoscale convective system

        height of the middle of an ice-cloud outflow from cumulonimbus

        height of lower tip of vortex funnel

        height of the top of a lower tropospheric layer in which wind speed increases with height

        height of the top of an ice-cloud outflow from cumulonimbus

        z-component of vorticity

        z-component of absolute vorticity

        vertical component of geostrophic vorticity

        vertical component of geostrophic absolute vorticity

        vertical vorticity of the basic state of a vortex

        derivative operator for a variable that is a function of time only

      total derivative

        source term in a Lagrangian cloud parcel model

        Lagrangian derivative following a parcel in height

        partial derivative with respect to height in geostrophic coordinate system

        partial derivative with respect to time in a geostrophic coordinate system

        rate of change due to particle breakup

        rate of change of particles due to collection

        rate of change due to condensation or evaporation

        rate of change due to deposition or sublimation

        rate of change due to particles falling into or out of a volume of air

        rate of change due to particle nucleation

        rate of change due to autoconversion

        rate of change due to rain accreting cloud

        rate of change due to self collection

        rate of change due to sublimation

        rate of change due to freezing

        rate of change due to ice enhancement

        rate of change due to aggregation of ice particles

        rate of change due to melting of ice in ice-rain collisions in the above freezing conditions

        rate of change due to accretion of cloud droplets

        rate of change due to accretion of raindrops

        an average; in discussions of atmospheric air motions, the average is usually taken over a spatial volume or area; in discussions of radar measurements (Chapter 4), the overbar is used to indicate other types of averages (over time, over a power spectrum); in discussions of laboratory experiments (Chapter 7), it is used to indicate a time average

        average around the circumference of a cylinder

        property in a cloud

        property in rain

        throughout the book, the subscript o indicates a property of a hydrostatically balanced reference state; it is also used in discussions of adjustment to geostrophic and gradient wind balance to indicate the half-amplitude of an initial discontinuity in fluid depth (Chapter 2); in discussions of Doppler radar (Chapter 4) to indicate the center of a circle centered on the radar; in discussions of the cloud topped boundary layer (Chapter 5) and flow over topography (Chapter 12) to indicate conditions at the surface of the earth; in describing a tornado vortex (Chapter 8) to indicate the height of the lower tip of the funnel cloud; and in discussing tropical cyclones (Chapter 10) to indicate the temperature of the outflow from the eyewall

        these subscripts may denote partial derivatives

        property of entrained air

        property of detrained air

        geostrophic value of a variable

        conditions at cloud base

        conditions at cloud top; in some contexts, the subscript denotes a derivative with respect to time

        conditions at the top of the boundary layer

      ; when used with drop mass or radius indicates a drop of a different size

        deviation from a hydrostatically balanced reference state

        in discussions of shallow layer clouds, these brackets indicate integration with respect to height over the depth of a mixed layer (Chapter 5); in discussions of cloud modeling (Chapter 7), they indicate a horizontal average at a given height over a circular region centered on the central vertical axis of the cloud

        three-dimensional gradient operator

        horizontal gradient operator

      Part I

      Fundamentals

      Chapter 1

      Types of Clouds in Earth's Atmosphere

      Robert A. Houze, Jr.

      Abstract

      This chapter identifies and describes the different types of clouds that occur in Earth’s atmosphere. Traditional observation of clouds by a ground observer includes clouds known by the nomenclature: cumulus, cumulonimbus, fog, stratus, stratocumulus, altostratus, altocumulus, cirrus, cirrostratus, cirrocumulus, noctilucent, orographic, lenticular, wave clouds, rotor clouds, and banner clouds. Cloud types observed from space include the clouds of mesoscale convective systems, fronts, and tropical cyclones. Observations from space provide global climatologies of the basic cloud types.

      Keywords

      Cumulus

      Cumulonimbus

      Fog

      Stratus

      Stratocumulus

      Altostratus

      Altocumulus

      Cirrus

      Cirrostratus

      Cirrocumulus

      Noctilucent

      Orographic

      Lenticular

      Wave

      Rotor

      Banner clouds

      Mesoscale convective systems

      Fronts

      Tropical cyclones

      Here lions threat, there elephants will range,

      And camel-necks to vapoury dragons change…

      Goethe, In Honour of Howard¹

      ¹ Goethe’s In Honour of Howard is a poem about clouds dedicated to his admiration of Luke Howard, the early nineteenth-century British pharmacist and meteorologist, who devised the naming system of clouds in use today. Goethe was enthusiastically interested in clouds and corresponded with Howard. A few other lines from Goethe’s poem appear later in this book. For more on Howard and his relationship to Goethe, see Scott (1976).

      Clouds are those everchanging occupants of the everyday sky that led Goethe to imagine lions, elephants, and camels turning into dragons. Although clouds are made up of numerous microscopic droplets of water and ice particles, the objects that we see in the sky are the broad reflections produced when these tiny particles reflect light showing that they are contained in volumes of air taking the shapes of bubbling white towers, streaks of thin cloud against a blue sky, and numerous other forms that have given rise to such poetic imagery as mackerel sky, mares’ tails, thunderheads, funnels, banners, and many others. From a scientific standpoint, these diverse shapes are important to recognize and identify because they are manifestations of the fluid motions of the atmosphere that produce the clouds. We refer to these fluid motions of the air as cloud dynamics. As air rises, water condenses to form small water drops or ice particles, whose individual formation and growth processes are called cloud microphysics. In Chapters 2 and 3, we will review the basic dynamical and microphysical relations governing cloud formation. Because clouds are difficult to observe directly, cloud study requires methods of sensing them remotely, and such techniques are reviewed in Chapter 4. Part II of this book delves into how dynamics combine with microphysics to produce the different types of clouds that occur in the atmosphere.

      Before embarking on these chapters, we first review the nomenclature used to describe the basic categories of clouds, as they are observed visually and by satellite, without trying to explain them physically or dynamically. A purely descriptive approach to cloud identification is both traditional and practical. Descriptive nomenclature is implemented consistently around the world to provide weather observers at all locations with a simple and direct way to report clouds without having to make a physical interpretation of what they see. For our purposes, it allows us to identify the major categories of clouds that we must explain and interpret in later chapters. In Section 1.1, we will briefly review the nomenclature used to describe the vertical and horizontal dimensions of atmospheric phenomena. In Section 1.2, we examine the internationally recognized cloud-identification scheme, which is based solely on what clouds look like to a person observing them visually from a location on Earth or by an observer in an aircraft.

      Observations by an earthbound or aircraft bound observer miss some of the important morphology of clouds. Since the 1960s, meteorological satellites have observed clouds from space and revealed that clouds have structures too large to be appreciated by a lone human visual observer. These larger cloud structures are associated with larger scale wind and pressure patterns, including those of organized storm systems such as fronts and tropical cyclones. Section 1.3 describes the signature cloud patterns of major atmospheric storm types. Finally, satellite remote sensing has allowed determination of the global climatology of the basic cloud types, and Section 1.4 presents this view of clouds over Earth as detected by specialized satellites.

      1.1 Atmospheric Structure and Scales

      The atmosphere is usually divided into several layers, based on the mean vertical profile of temperature (Figure 1.1). Most, but not all, clouds occur in the lowest layer, called the troposphere, which contains nearly all of the water in the atmosphere. The mean temperature decreases with height in the troposphere. At its top is the tropopause, which occurs at about the 12-km level but is lower over the poles and higher in equatorial regions. Above the tropopause, the mean temperature profile is first isothermal and then increases with height in the stratosphere. Above the stratosphere is the mesosphere, which is another layer in which clouds occur, though in very small amounts (see Section 1.2.6).

      Figure 1.1 Vertical temperature profile for the U.S. Standard Atmosphere. From Wallace and Hobbs (1977). Copyright Elsevier.

      At the bottom of the troposphere, the atmosphere is affected by the presence of Earth's surface, through the transfers of heat and momentum. The layer in which this influence is felt is called the planetary boundary layer (Figure 1.2). As will be discussed in Section 2.11.2, the depth of the planetary boundary layer is highly variable, ranging from ~ 10 m to 2–3 km. The lowest 10% of the planetary boundary layer is referred to as the surface layer. The region lying above the boundary layer is referred to as the free atmosphere.

      Figure 1.2 Division of the atmosphere into two layers: a boundary layer near the surface and the free atmosphere above. The top of the boundary layer is often ~ 1 km but may be much less, e.g., ~ 100 m, depending on wind and thermodynamic properties of the air near the surface. The tropopause height is ~ 10–12 km at high altitudes and ~ 14–18 km in the tropics. From Stull (1988). Copyright Elsevier. Republished with permission of Springer Science + Business Media B.V.

      The scales of air motion encountered in cloud dynamics can be divided roughly into three ranges. The synoptic scale encompasses phenomena exceeding about 2000 km in horizontal scale; the mesoscale covers phenomena between about 20 and 2000 km in scale; and the convective scale covers phenomena between 0.2 and 20 km.² These definitions are loose and somewhat overlapping, and a universally accepted physical (as opposed to phenomenological) distinction of these scales has not been achieved.³ The discussions and interpretations in this book are not strongly dependent on the distinctions among these three scales; however, the above ranges are useful to keep in mind as a guide.

      1.2 Cloud Types Identified Visually

      1.2.1 Genera, Species, and Étages

      Visual observation of clouds shows that they take on several distinctive forms. These forms have internationally agreed upon names that allow official weather observers to record and report the local state of the sky in a way that is readily understandable without the aid of pictures. Once every 6 h, observers at weather stations around the world identify the amount and types of clouds present, and this information is transmitted for immediate use, as well as archived for climatological purposes. Many stations make a more limited evaluation of the state of the sky every hour.

      The internationally agreed method of naming clouds serves as a convenient way to begin to organize our discussion of cloud dynamics. The categories of clouds reported by observers are identified purely on the basis of their visual appearance. Thus, the observer is not required to make a physical interpretation. Our task as scientists is to provide a dynamical explanation for each type of cloud, and that is the focus of this book. Chapters 5–8 and 12 will be devoted to the dynamics of those clouds that can be identified visually by a ground observer. Chapters 9–11 will be concerned with the dynamics of larger conglomerates of clouds, which are too spatially extensive to be identified by a ground observer and must be identified from a satellite perspective.

      The method of visual identification and classification of clouds that we follow in this book is basically that of the World Meteorological Organization’s International Cloud Atlas,⁴ which is the guidebook for official weather observers around the world.⁵ According to this scheme, cloud types are given descriptive names based on Latin root words.⁶ Cumulus means heap or pile. Stratus is the past participle of the verb meaning to flatten out or cover with a layer. Cirrus means a lock of hair or a tuft of horsehair. Nimbus refers to a precipitating cloud, and altum is the word for height. These 5 Latin roots are used either separately or in combination to define 10 mutually exclusive cloud genera, which are organized into 3 groups, or étages, corresponding to the typical height of the base of the cloud above the local height of Earth's surface, as indicated in Table 1.1.⁷ The étages overlap and their limits vary with altitude. Each genus may take on several different forms, which are designated as species. Species are further subdivided into varieties. In this book, we will refer to only a few species and varieties; however, we will consider all of the 10 genera.

      Table 1.1

      Genera and Étages of Clouds Identified Visually

      In addition to the genera in Table 1.1, we will consider fog as an 11th cloud type. Fog is generally any cloud whose base touches the ground. It does not appear as a cloud genus in Table 1.1 because, according to the internationally specified procedures for reporting and archiving meteorological data, fog is coded by weather observers not as a cloud but rather as a restriction to visibility. In this book, we depart from this convention and consider fog to be a type of cloud. It is grouped with clouds of the lowest étage, since the cloud base is at the ground.

      In Sections 1.2.2–1.2.4, we will define, describe briefly, and show examples of each of the cloud types corresponding to the 10 genera listed in Table 1.1 plus fog. We will examine these 11 cloud types in groups, according to étage, considering first the low clouds, then middle clouds, and finally high clouds. This order of discussion follows roughly the way in which a trained weather observer normally proceeds, as the observer’s job is to describe the entire state of the sky, in terms of all of the clouds present. First, the low clouds are identified. Then, to the extent that low clouds do not obscure them, the middle cloud types and amounts are determined. Finally, the high clouds are evaluated, to the extent that they are not obscured by low and middle clouds.

      After discussing the 11 basic cloud types and their grouping according to the three étages in Sections 1.2.2–1.2.4, we will discuss the particular form taken by certain orographically induced clouds in Section 1.2.5. Many of these orographic clouds are designated as lenticularis,⁸ which is a species of stratocumulus, altocumulus, or cirrocumulus. Lenticularis, however, is such a unique cloud form that it could be considered a genus unto itself, and we will treat it separately in this text. Chapters 5–9 are concerned with the dynamics of clouds of the 11 basic cloud types, except for the lenticularis species, which is covered in Chapter 12 as part of the separate treatment of the dynamics of orographic clouds.

      1.2.2 Low Clouds

      Clouds of the lowest étage include six types: the five low-cloud genera listed in Table 1.1 plus fog. These six types may be divided into two subgroups: cumuliform clouds (cumulus and cumulonimbus), which are composed of rapidly rising air currents that give the clouds a bubbling and towering aspect, and stratiform clouds (fog, stratus, stratocumulus, and nimbostratus), which are broad sheets of quiescent clouds characterized by little or no vertical movement of air.

      The cumuliform clouds are of two genera, depending on whether or not they are precipitating. The nonprecipitating ones are called cumulus clouds and are described as detached clouds, generally dense and with sharp outlines, developing vertically in the form of rising mounds, domes or towers, of which the bulging upper part often resembles a cauliflower. The sunlit parts of these clouds are mostly brilliant white; their base is relatively dark and nearly horizontal. Sometimes cumulus is ragged.⁹ Cumulus clouds occur in a wide range of sizes. They are less than a kilometer in horizontal and vertical extent in their early stages of development, and often never become any larger (Figure 1.3a), particularly when the individual clouds are isolated. However, when there is a tendency for the clouds to cluster, cumulus may grow to larger size (Figure 1.3b). These large cumulus (species congestus) consist of a heap of rapidly fluctuating bulbous towers, which give it its cauliflower appearance. It may have tops extending into the second étage. However, it is always considered to be a low cloud because its base is usually in the lowest layer.

      Figure 1.3 (a) Cumulus humilis. (b) Cumulus congestus over Puget Sound near Anacortes, Washington. (a) Photo by Ronald L. Holle. (b) Photo by Steven Businger.

      Precipitating cumuliform clouds are called cumulonimbus and are described as "heavy and dense cloud, with a considerable vertical extent, in the form of a mountain or huge towers. At least part of its upper portion is usually smooth, or fibrous or striated, and nearly always flattened; this part often spreads out in the shape of an anvil or vast plume. Under the base of this cloud, which is often very dark, there are frequently low ragged clouds either merged with it or not, and precipitation sometimes in the form of virga [precipitation not reaching the ground]." The cumulonimbus is an advanced stage of cumulus development. As cumulus congestus continue to grow, they develop precipitation (hence the nimbus designation), and the top usually turns to ice. The precipitation falling from a dynamically active cumulonimbus is often called convective precipitation. An example of cumulus congestus growing to the cumulonimbus stage is shown in Figure 1.4a–d. In its later stages, the icy structure at the top has a fibrous appearance, and high winds aloft can blow the top downwind, thus producing the anvil structure (Figure 1.4c and d). The top of the anvil in the tallest clouds is usually very near the tropopause level; it is flattened because the rising air in the cloud cannot significantly penetrate the very stable stratosphere. As the glaciated anvil ages, large quantities of icy cloud material are injected into the upper troposphere (Figure 1.5). From a satellite perspective, the anvil spreading downwind is the primary feature identifying a cumulonimbus (Figure 1.6). Like cumulus congestus, the cumulonimbus is classified as a low cloud by earthbound observers because its base is within the lowest étage. It often extends through all three layers, with its anvil occurring in the highest étage. Users of satellite data often refer to the cumulonimbus as a high cloud owing to the altitude of its top.

      Figure 1.4 Time sequence showing cumulus congestus developing into cumulonimbus south of Key Biscayne, Florida. Photos by Howard B. Bluestein.

      Figure 1.5 Anvil of a cumulonimbus, as seen from Cimarron, Colorado. The anvil is classified as cirrus spissatus cumulonimbogenitus. If the anvil were more widespread, as from a line or group of cumulonimbus clouds, it would be classified as cirrostratus cumulonimbogenitus. Photo by Ronald L. Holle.

      Figure 1.6 Visible wavelength satellite photograph of cumulonimbus anvils of supercell thunderstorms over Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas. (Bar ~ 100 km.)

      The ice-cloud anvil is not an essential feature of cumulonimbus. In the tropics, a towering cumulus whose top is well below the 0 °C level and therefore lacks an anvil often produces a heavy shower of rain. Since it rains, the towering cumulus designation changes to cumulonimbus. At higher latitudes, an anvil shape may not be seen at the upper levels of a precipitating cumuliform cloud if the wind shear in the environment of the cloud is weak, even if the upper portion of the cloud is composed of ice particles.

      Low stratiform clouds contrast sharply with the cumuliform clouds. Their internal air motions do not achieve nearly the vigor of the up- and downdrafts found in the cumuliform clouds. Technically, fog is any cloud whose base touches the ground. Thus, a cloud intersecting a hill or mountain would be reported as fog by an observer on the portion of the hill enshrouded by cloud, while an observer located below the base of the cloud would identify the cloud by 1 of the 10 genera listed in Table 1.1. What we will consider to be a true fog occurs as a result of the air being in contact with the ground and as such is not described in terms of 1 of the 10 genera. Steam fog forms when cold air is over warm water, and a turbulent steam rises from the water surface (Figure 1.7a). The most common and widespread types of fog occur when a layer of air is in contact with a cold surface. Radiation fog forms when the underlying surface was cooled by infrared radiation. For radiation fog to form, the air must be very calm, as the turbulence associated with any wind would destroy the fog. An example of radiation fog is shown in Figure 1.7b. Radiation fog may be quite widespread, covering mesoscale or synoptic-scale regions of Earth (e.g., fog is seen covering the entire Central Valley of California in Figure 1.7c). Advection fog forms when warm air moves over a pre-existing cold surface. Advection fog often forms over the cool water

      Enjoying the preview?
      Page 1 of 1