Corrosion Control for Offshore Structures: Cathodic Protection and High-Efficiency Coating

+1-832-724-5473).

Preface

Materials on this subject can be found in various international specification and project files stored in the archives of engineering companies, and I can confidently say that NACE International (www.nace.org) has greatly advanced the subject over the years.

Other bodies that that have played prominent roles in developing and promoting the technology are Det Norske Veritas (DNV) (www.dnv.com) and the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) (www.iso.org), and many publications address corrosion, coating, and cathodic protection.

In this book, I intend to introduce to the concept of cathodic protection. With the foundation of knowledge provided by the book, the practitioner can explore and reference the industry data and specifications and then learn the subject by practicing it. This book can also be used as guide for cross-referencing and validating a practitioner’s current understanding of corrosion prevention.

For readers trying to steer through the subject, this book provides useful guide for balancing the theory and practice of cathodic prevention. My objective is to keep budding engineers moored in the theory of offshore structure corrosion control, as well as its applications. The book can also serve as a reference for engineers, nonengineers, managers, and inspectors.

For readers seeking more detailed studies on any specific topic covered in this book, specialized associations and institutions can offer further guidance, and there are several published works available from these bodies that can support the reader in developing an in-depth understanding of specific subjects related to corrosion control.

Section 1

Basics Concept of Corrosion

Chapter One

Need for the Study of Corrosion

Abstract

For many developed nations, corrosion can cause structural damages with costs approaching 3.5 to 4.5% of the gross national product. This financial burden represents the quantifiable losses associated with corrosion, but losses that are not quantifiable are also part of the cost to industry and society. The study of corrosion can help industry recognize and prevent such losses. This chapter explains the basic need for the study of corrosion, before introducing the subject of corrosion prevention. Cathodic protection and the application of coatings are two methods of corrosion prevention to be discussed.

Keywords

Corrosion

Environmental damages

Loss of production

Economics and cost of corrosion

Product contamination

Capital cost

Introduction

From the perspective of environment, the corrosion activity is a natural phenomenon that is necessary for sustaining the natural balance. Corrosion is a great leveler of engineering materials in that it tries to revert the metal back to its most stable form. However, from an engineer’s perspective, corrosion could be seen as a destructive attack of nature on metal. This destruction of metal is, however, brought about by nature’s chemical or electrochemical reaction. It causes significant loss of material which leads to losses in terms of productivity and cost of maintenance, repair and replacements, and restoration. This does not included damage to property and the occasional loss of lives and injuries associated with failures resulting from corrosion.

Corrosion occurs in every aspect of modern life; every life is affected, though not everyone is aware of the corrosion happening around them. It is an all pervasive and 24/7 activity.

The impact of corrosion is three directional, the three aspects being economic, safety, and environment. The impact of corrosion, and the prevention thereof, is felt economically, and affects the safety and environmental conservation of resources. In the succeeding discussions we will see how these three aspects manifest themselves.

• Economically, it implies the loss of infrastructure by way of loss of materials used in tanks, process equipment, pipelines, platforms, bridges, and many other important structures. The economic losses could be direct or indirect. The direct losses would include, for example, the cost of replacing the corroded structures, equipment, and the cost of painting, upkeep, and monitoring of cathodic protection as well as the associated labor cost. Another cost would be the use of expensive corrosion resistance materials.

• The indirect cost of corrosion is difficult to assess accurately as more complex aspects come into play. However, activities that can be counted as contributing to the indirect cost of corrosion might include the closing of plants and facilities for repair and maintenance needed because of corrosion damages and failures. These costs add up because shut down involves reduction in production, loss of product, costs for cleaning and repair of environmental damages, and wages paid for the duration of the nonproductive time. In a nutshell, it can be said that indirect losses are a chain of activities that will take place and have to be paid for even when production is not there to support those costs.

• The loss of structure materials to corrosion is not only an economic loss but it makes the structures weak and degrades their designed capabilities and reduces the structure’s designed purpose. On the extreme end of this deterioration, such structures can become a safety hazard and the loss may lead to structure failures, some of which could even be catastrophic, leading to property damage and loss of lives.

• The metal resources are primarily extracted from naturally occurring oxides of metal called ore, and if corrosion is allowed to degrade the metals, more and more resources will be required, leading to more environmental damage.

• Materials, especially metals, are required to sustain the infrastructures for the development of civilization; however, care must be taken to reduce the impact of the growing demands of civilization on the environment. This should be one of the primary responsibilities of engineering. The balancing of nature and development is handled by responsible engineering and the process is a vicious cycle because the damage to the environment may itself threaten the very civilization for which the extractions are made. The human civilization has reached such a stage that, while corrosion itself is a natural recycling process, the prevention of corrosion leads to the reduction of damage to the environment.

The economic impact is possibly the prime motivator for the study of corrosion and the development of preventive measures by the industry. The other two aspects discussed above are, to a great extent, taken care of in the process. The reality of the situation is that a compromise between the development costs and the environmental impact should be sought. Whether it is adequate or not is, and will always be, a point of contention between environmentalists and development planners. The engineers can provide the best possible middle ground by studying corrosion and suggesting preventive steps. Thus, engineers have a great responsibility to balance the needs of the developing society and sustaining the environment.

The cost of corrosion in the United States is estimated to be about 4.3% of gross national product according to one study done in 1978. It is estimated that about one-third of that cost can be saved by the application of corrosion control measures. As per a current estimate, in the developed countries the cost of corrosion is estimated to be between 3.5% and 4.5% of the GNP. There are various ways that engineers can design the process and equipment with an aim to reducing this cost.

A brief look at some of the losses that are directly related to failures from corrosion would justify the need for a better understanding of corrosion.

Cost of Corrosion

We have highlighted the cost of corrosion in terms of GDP; we now expand this in more realistic terms as we start with the impact of corrosion on environment.

• Cost of environmental damages

No economic value can justify the actual loss to the environment caused by the failure of a structure. This is not including the cost of cleaning and the regulatory fines and actions that would directly affect the finances of a company.

• Production loss and down time due to corrosion damage

This requires that the process of corrosion is stopped and repairs are carried out. This leads to reduction in production output and reduced revenues, which, when added to the cost of standby labor and fuel losses, becomes a major cost. This, however, does not include the loss of market and public image.

• Accidents

Corrosion failures are, by themselves, accidents. However, what is meant by the term accident here is the loss of lives and injuries caused by failures. Corrosion damages can cause severe accidents resulting in injuries and loss of lives. It adds to the economic loss, too. It also projects adverse public image and loss of market share.

• Product contaminations

For many industries, the contamination of product with corrosion can lead to severe quality issues and loss of business reputation, and sometimes may even result in serious implications to people’s lives and health.

• Loss of efficiency; over designing leads to excessive cost of energy

In some cases, corrosion is anticipated and portions of a system are designed to address the expected corrosion. However, lack of a full understanding of the corrosion and its impact can lead to over designing of the equipment and system which often leads to an inefficient system, which, in turn, uses excessive energy to operate and maintain the plant, adding this cost to the final product.

• Increased capital cost

Over designing also increases the capital cost of the project; this may include a poorly designed corrosion monitoring and mitigation system.

If all these are not convincing reasons to acquire proper knowledge of corrosion then what else could justify the importance of its study?

The study of corrosion involves nearly all engineering faculties, including metallurgical, mechanical, aeronautical, chemical, electrical, and civil to name just few, and the application of some pure sciences such as physics, chemistry, biology, and, of course, mathematics and statistics. So, although this study often appears to incline to metallurgical engineering, where it ultimately rests, it is equally encompassing of all other disciplines of study. This implies that all engineering faculties should have a good program to educate on the primary understanding of the essentials of corrosion.

We have very briefly discussed the impact of corrosion and the need for the study of corrosion but, up to this point, we have not defined the term. We need to know what corrosion is, and what conditions are necessary for corrosion to occur. For that we need to find a definition for corrosion. We also need to know how to understand various types of corrosion and how they can be identified, measured, and mitigated.

A keen reader might have noted that we have not associated the word eliminate with corrosion because that is simply impractical if not impossible. This is because, as we said in the beginning, corrosion is a natural phenomenon, it cannot be eliminated. Recognizing the fact that corrosion is a natural phenomenon, we have used words like control and mitigate in speaking of the impact of corrosion. The effect of corrosion and the damages caused by corrosion in a given environment can only be contained, it cannot be eliminated.

In subsequent chapters, various methods of corrosion control, monitoring, and mitigation practices will be discussed, with emphasis on corrosion control and mitigation of offshore structures and pipelines of various descriptions.

Chapter Two

Corrosion Principles and Types of Corrosion

Abstract

Corrosion is defined as the deterioration of a substance or its properties due to interactions between the substance and its environment. Given that the environment plays an important part in corrosion, corrosion mechanisms can be as varied as the environments to which a substance is exposed. This chapter discusses various forms of corrosion, explaining how different corrosion mechanisms damage the material and equipment in industrial structures. The electrochemical aspect of corrosion is described through figures and tables. The chapter also introduces NACE International, and it considers the relationship between corrosion activity and various types of cells, including salt concentration, differential aeration, differential temperature, and dissimilar electrode