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Environmental Aspects of Textile Dyeing
Автор: R M Christie
Активность, связанная с книгой
Начать чтениеДлина: 468 стр.4 ч
- Издатель:
- Elsevier Science
- Издано:
- May 11, 2007
- ISBN:
- 9781845693091
- Формат:
- Книге
Описание
Textile dyes enhance our environment, bringing colour into our lives. The current range of dyes have been developed to withstand environmental effects, such as degradation by exposure to light and water. However, the industry involved with the application of dyes to textiles has a responsibility to ensure that potential for harm to the environment, for example through residues in waste-streams, and to the consumer is minimised. Written by an international team of contributors, this collection reviews current legislation and key technologies which make textile dyeing more efficient and environmentally friendly.
The book begins by detailing European and US legislation relating to textile dyeing. Further chapters cover toxicology, environmentally responsible application of dyes and supercritical fluid textile dyeing. The book concludes with chapters on the reduction of pollution and minimisation of waste, the re-use of spent dyebath, chemical treatment of dye effluent and biotechnological treatment of dye effluent.
Environmental aspects of textile dyeing is a standard reference source for manufacturers concerned with developing a sustainable industry. Crucial guide to minimising harmful effects on environment and the consumer Reviews current technologies and European and US legislation Essential for all textile manufacturers
The book begins by detailing European and US legislation relating to textile dyeing. Further chapters cover toxicology, environmentally responsible application of dyes and supercritical fluid textile dyeing. The book concludes with chapters on the reduction of pollution and minimisation of waste, the re-use of spent dyebath, chemical treatment of dye effluent and biotechnological treatment of dye effluent.
Environmental aspects of textile dyeing is a standard reference source for manufacturers concerned with developing a sustainable industry. Crucial guide to minimising harmful effects on environment and the consumer Reviews current technologies and European and US legislation Essential for all textile manufacturers
Активность, связанная с книгой
Начать чтениеСведения о книге
Environmental Aspects of Textile Dyeing
Автор: R M Christie
Длина: 468 стр.4 ч
Описание
Textile dyes enhance our environment, bringing colour into our lives. The current range of dyes have been developed to withstand environmental effects, such as degradation by exposure to light and water. However, the industry involved with the application of dyes to textiles has a responsibility to ensure that potential for harm to the environment, for example through residues in waste-streams, and to the consumer is minimised. Written by an international team of contributors, this collection reviews current legislation and key technologies which make textile dyeing more efficient and environmentally friendly.
The book begins by detailing European and US legislation relating to textile dyeing. Further chapters cover toxicology, environmentally responsible application of dyes and supercritical fluid textile dyeing. The book concludes with chapters on the reduction of pollution and minimisation of waste, the re-use of spent dyebath, chemical treatment of dye effluent and biotechnological treatment of dye effluent.
Environmental aspects of textile dyeing is a standard reference source for manufacturers concerned with developing a sustainable industry. Crucial guide to minimising harmful effects on environment and the consumer Reviews current technologies and European and US legislation Essential for all textile manufacturers
The book begins by detailing European and US legislation relating to textile dyeing. Further chapters cover toxicology, environmentally responsible application of dyes and supercritical fluid textile dyeing. The book concludes with chapters on the reduction of pollution and minimisation of waste, the re-use of spent dyebath, chemical treatment of dye effluent and biotechnological treatment of dye effluent.
Environmental aspects of textile dyeing is a standard reference source for manufacturers concerned with developing a sustainable industry. Crucial guide to minimising harmful effects on environment and the consumer Reviews current technologies and European and US legislation Essential for all textile manufacturers
- Издатель:
- Elsevier Science
- Издано:
- May 11, 2007
- ISBN:
- 9781845693091
- Формат:
- Книге
Об авторе
Dr R. M. Christie is Reader in Colour Chemistry in the School of Textiles & Design at Heriot-Watt University, UK. Dr Christie is internationally known for his work on colour chemistry, and organic pigments in particular.
Связано с Environmental Aspects of Textile Dyeing
Отрывок книги
Environmental Aspects of Textile Dyeing - R M Christie
Environmental aspects of textile dyeing
First Edition
R.M. Christie
The Textitle Institute
CRC Press
Boca Raton Boston New York Washington, DC
Woodhead Publishing Limited
Cambridge, England
Table of Contents
Cover image
Title page
Copyright page
Contributor contact details
Introduction
1: European legislation relating to textile dyeing
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Legislation relating to textile dyeing in Europe
1.3 Integrated pollution prevention and control (IPPC)
1.4 EU legislation on chemical substances
1.5 EU legislation on water quality
1.6 EU legislation on air pollution
1.7 Future trends
1.8 Sources of further information and advice
2: Environmental legislation USA
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Current regulations
2.3 Toxic Release Inventory and Right-To-Know
2.4 Waste
2.5 Wastewater and water
2.6 Air
2.7 The Toxic Substances Control Act
2.8 California
2.9 Future trends
3: Toxicology of textile dyes
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Historical aspects
3.3 Acute toxicity of textile dyes
3.4 Chronic toxicity of textile dyes
3.5 Future trends
3.6 Sources of further information and advice
4: Environmentally responsible dye application
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Background and scope
4.3 The influence of environment on the dyer’s task
4.4 General comments
4.5 Preparation
4.6 Dyeing, fibre by fibre
4.7 Textile printing
4.8 Conclusions
5: Supercritical fluid textile dyeing technology
5.1 Introduction
5.2 History of supercritical fluid dyeing
5.3 Current supercritical fluid dyeing technologies
5.4 Future trends in supercritical fluid dyeing technologies
5.5 Sources of further information and advice
5.6 Acknowledgements
6: Pollution abatement and waste minimisation in textile dyeing
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Reducing pollution in textile dyeing
6.3 Waste minimisation in textile dyeing
6.4 Future trends
6.5 Sources of further information and advice
7: Decolorisation of effluent with ozone and re-use of spent dyebath
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Decolorisation mechanisms with ozone and ozone-based AOPs
7.3 Decolorisation by ozonation
7.4 Reuse of spent dyebath
7.5 Future trends
8: Chemical treatment of textile dye effluent
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Colour
8.3 Dyes
8.4 Classes of dye
8.5 Measurement of colour removal
8.6 Other measures of dye molecule fate
8.7 Chemical methods for colour removal
8.8 Conclusions
9: Biotechnological treatment of textile dye effluent
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Biotechnology and dye effluent treatment
9.3 Future trends
Index
Copyright
Published by Woodhead Publishing Limited in association with The Textile Institute
Woodhead Publishing Limited, Abington Hall, Abington
Cambridge CB21 6AH, England
www.woodheadpublishing.com
Published in North America by CRC Press LLC, 6000 Broken Sound Parkway, NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton FL 33487, USA
First published 2007, Woodhead Publishing Limited and CRC Press LLC
© 2007, Woodhead Publishing Limited
The authors have asserted their moral rights.
This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the authors and the publishers cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials. Neither the authors nor the publishers, nor anyone else associated with this publication, shall be liable for any loss, damage or liability directly or indirectly caused or alleged to be caused by this book.
Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming and recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from Woodhead Publishing Limited.
The consent of Woodhead Publishing Limited does not extend to copying for general distribution, for promotion, for creating new works, or for resale. Specific permission must be obtained in writing from Woodhead Publishing Limited for such copying.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation, without intent to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.
Woodhead Publishing ISBN-13: 978-1-84569-115-8 (book)
Woodhead Publishing ISBN-13: 978-1-84569-309-1 (e-book)
CRC Press ISBN-13: 978-1-4200-4445-4
CRC Press order number: WP4445
The publishers’ policy is to use permanent paper from mills that operate a sustainable forestry policy, and which has been manufactured from pulp which is processed using acid-free and elementary chlorine-free practices. Furthermore, the publishers ensure that the text paper and cover board used have met acceptable environmental accreditation standards.
Typeset by Replika Press Pvt Ltd, India
Printed by T J International Limited, Padstow, Cornwall, England
Contributor contact details
(* = corresponding author)
Editor
R.M. Christie, r.m.christie@hw.ac.uk Heriot-Watt University, School of Textiles, Galashiels, TD1 3HF, Scotland
Chapter 1
Tine Cattoor, tine.cattoor@centexbel.be Centexbel, Technologiepark 7, BE-9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium
Chapter 2
Henry A. Boyter, henryb@itt.edu Director of Research, Institute of Textile Technology, NCSU College of Textiles, Box 8301, 2401 Research Drive, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA
Chapter 3
Peter Gregory, mick-greg@tiscali.co.uk 129 Armadale Road, Ladybridge, Bolton, BL3 4UN, UK
Chapter 4
Martin Bide, mbide@uri.edu University of Rhode Island, Quinn Hall, 55 Lower College Road, Kingston, RI 02881, USA
Chapter 5
Elke Bach, bach@dtnw.de Deutsches Textilforschungszentrum, Nord-West e.V., Adlerstraße 1, 47798 Krefeld, Germany
Chapter 6
S.R. Shukla, srshukla@udct.org Department of Fibres and Textile, Processing Technology, UMICT, University of Mumbai, Matunga, Mumbai – 400 019, India
Chapter 7
Christopher J. Hawkyard, chris.hawkyard@ntlworld.com 14 Hazel Drive, Poynton, Cheshire, SK12 1PX, UK
Mohammad Mahbubul Hassan, * mahbubul.hassan@agresearch.co.nz Research Scientist, Textile Science & Technology, AgResearch Ltd, Private Bag 4749, Christchurch 8140, New Zealand
Chapter 8
Ian R. Hardin, ihardin@fcs.uga.edu Faculty – Textiles, Merchandising, and Interiors, 368 Dawson Hall, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602-3622, USA
Chapter 9
Andreas Kandelbauer, * andreas.kandelbauer@funder.at Institute for Wood Science and Technology – W3C (Wood Carinthian Competence Centre), Department of Materials Science and Process Engineering, University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences Klagenfurterstrasse 87–89, A-9300 St. Veitander Glan, Austria
Artur Cavaco-Paulo, artur@det.uminho.pt University of Minho, Portugal
George M. Gübitz, guebitz@tugraz.at Graz University of Technology, Austria
Introduction
In recent decades, society has become increasingly concerned with protection of the environment. Major issues which are under constant debate include the destruction of rainforests, global warming and the depletion of the ozone layer. The textile dyeing industry faces the need to address its responsibility towards a wide range of health, safety and environmental issues, some of which are generic to the industry and some specific to the processes operating in particular cases. Indeed, these issues increasingly present the industry with some of its most significant challenges. This book is therefore timely in that it presents a review of the most important environmental issues currently facing the textile dyeing industry, and of the ways in which these issues may be addressed. For this purpose, an impressive range of authors has been assembled who are from prestigious organisations throughout Europe, USA, Australasia and Asia and are acknowledged as international experts in their field. They have contributed the chapters which bring together the variety of topics addressed in the book, selected to give as broad coverage of the issues as possible. Nevertheless, the text cannot claim to be completely comprehensive because the range of individual issues is immense, for example due to the diversity of chemical types of dyes and auxiliary chemicals used and of the application processes, and to the complexities of the relevant legislation throughout the world.
The industry is challenged by the requirement to satisfy the demands of increasingly stringent legislation and controls introduced by governments and regulatory agencies to ensure compliance with environmental issues. A significant source of complexity is the fact that the requirements vary substantially, in detail and in severity, around the world. The first chapter of this book (Cattoor) deals with European Union legislation and policy in general, and in relation specifically to environmental aspects of textile processing, with particular regard to emissions to water and air. A further complexity when dealing with legislation is its constant evolution, so that it is inevitable that some information presented will eventually become out of date. At the time of publication, the European Union is about to implement the REACH proposal as outlined in Chapter 1. The introduction of REACH, which places greater responsibility on the industry chain to manage the risk from chemicals and to provide safety information, is likely to have a significant impact on the textile industry. Chapter 2 (Boyter) reviews the comparable relevant Federal and state legislative situation in the USA and also speculates on future trends, including the impact of the imminent changes in Europe.
The importance of being aware of the potential adverse effects of exposure to chemicals on our health is self-evident. The textile dyeing industry has a clear duty to address risks arising from the materials it uses and produces, in relation to its workforce, the general public and the broader effect on the environment. The level of risk from exposure to potentially dangerous chemicals is clearly of prime concern for those handling materials in large quantities in the workplace. Modern work practices have been adopted to minimise such exposure. The approach towards addressing exposure to chemicals, which has been adopted in most countries, involves a risk evaluation, involving assessment of the toxicological hazards and exposure levels, and from this the development of risk management strategies. Chapter 3 (Gregory) deals with the toxicology of textile dyes. The chapter provides an introduction to the historical development of our knowledge of toxicological issues associated with the dyes, their intermediates and metabolites, and leads into a review of current understanding of the relationships between dye structures and their toxicology, with reference to the appropriate chemical and biochemical mechanisms.
Concern about the potential adverse effects of industry on the environment is global, although it is an escapable fact that the response in some parts of the world has been much faster and more intense than in others. Chapters 4–6 cover a series of issues of importance to the textile dyeing industry with regard to its responsibility towards the environment. Chapter 4 (Bide) is of central importance to this book in that it deals, in general terms, with the principles of the ways in which the application of dyes to textiles can be carried out with due regard to environmental responsibility. Chapter 5 (Bach and Schollmeyer) is of special current interest in that it reviews the state of the art on the development of textile dyeing processes using supercritical fluids, notably carbon dioxide. Although not as yet exploited on an industrial scale, this technology offers significant potential environmental advantages over traditional dyeing methods, as discussed in detail in the chapter. Textile dyes are, by definition, highly visible materials. Even minor releases of colour into the environment, for example into open waters, understandably attracts the critical attention of the public and local authorities. There is thus a requirement on industry to minimise environmental release of colour, even in cases where a small but visible release might be considered as rather innocuous. The most likely source of colour release results from incomplete dyebath exhaustion, and the need to reduce the amount of residual dye in effluent has become a major concern. While this applies in principle to all application classes of dyes, the particular case of reactive dyes is of special importance because of the problem of accompanying dye hydrolysis, the hydrolysed dye inevitably appearing in the effluent. Chapter 6 (Shukla) focuses on the sources of pollution from textile dyeing processes, not only from the dyes themselves but also from the wide range of auxiliary chemicals used. The principles of the methods used to minimise pollution and waste in dyeing are also discussed.
An alternative approach to addressing the problem of colour in textile dyeing effluent has involved the development of effluent treatment methods to remove colour and these are discussed in Chapters 7–9. These methods can be effective but inevitably add to the cost of the overall process. Chapter 7 (Hassan and Hawkyard) provides an overview of the range of methods for dye effluent decolorisation, categorised as either physical, chemical or biological, with special emphasis on the use of ozone which is emerging as one of the most effective chemical treatments. The chapter also deals with recycling issues in terms of the re-use of spent dyebath. Chapter 8 (Hardin) is complementary to the previous chapter in providing a broader overview of the range of chemical treatment methods for colour removal, including coagulation methods, electrochemical methods and oxidative degradation. Biotechnological approaches to effluent treatment make use of the ability of living organisms to bind or degrade colour and these are dealt with in Chapter 9 (Kandelbauer, Cavaco-Paulo and Gübitz). Biodegradation processes offer the particular attraction of the potential for the decoloration of effluent with complete mineralisation of the organic materials present to relatively innocuous materials – carbon dioxide, water and inorganic ions such as nitrate, sulphate and chloride.
Environmental arguments are highly emotive. There are many reasons why the public has become sensitive to environmental issues and, to an extent, suspicious of industry attitudes. However, the point of view is often expressed that the pendulum may have swung to the opposite extreme, and that arguments based on perception are over-emphasised in comparison with those based on real scientific evidence. We should not lose sight of the fact that the principal reason for the existence of the coloration industry is that it positively enhances our environment, by bringing attractive colours into our lives. Equally, it is vital that the industry sector involved in the application of dyes should continue to be sensitive to potential adverse effects on the environment in its widest sense, and respond accordingly.
1
European legislation relating to textile dyeing
T. Cattoor Centexbel, Belgium
1.1 Introduction
European Union (EU) environmental legislation has developed over the last 30 years and comprises today some 300 legal acts and a large number of other policy documents of relevance for EU environmental policy. Section 1.2.1 of this chapter gives a general introduction to the EU forms of legislation and the principles of the EU environmental policy. The legislation related to the environmental aspects of textile processes in general, primarily the emissions to water and air, is discussed in sections 1.2 to 1.6.
The EU introduced in 1996 an integrated approach on the environmental performance of (large) textile facilities with wet processes, and industrial processes in general. The ‘Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control’, or so-called IPPC Directive is in essence about minimising pollution from various industrial point sources throughout the European Union by means of environmental permits (see section 1.3). These permits are based on the principle of using Best Available Techniques (BAT) and the BAT Reference documents (BREF) for the Textiles Industry.
A number of chemicals that may be used in textile processes are worth mentioning for their potential negative effects on the environment and human health and are therefore regulated (see section 1.4). To identify textiles meeting these requirements more easily, ecolabels are developed. Since the textile industry uses water as the principal medium for removing impurities, applying dyes and finishing agents, the main concern is therefore about the water discharged and the chemical load it carries. EU legislation regarding (waste) water is set out in section 1.5.
Improving air pollution is a world priority. To achieve a significant reduction in air pollution, national and international measures must be combined to reduce emissions of the gases responsible (see section 1.6). Future trends worth mentioning are the integrated product policy (IPP) and the new chemicals policy, REACH and GHS (see section 1.7). IPP aims to develop a more ecological product market by making products more environmentally sustainable throughout their life cycle. REACH is a single integrated system for the registration, evaluation and authorisation of chemicals.
1.2 Legislation relating to textile dyeing in Europe
1.2.1 Principles of EU environmental policy
Environmental policy is one of the greatest social challenges facing the public authorities and all sectors of the economy today. It is also a subject of which the public is acutely aware, since it directly affects its welfare and health. From the 1970s on, the concern to conserve the environment started to give birth to a series of Community initiatives. The Treaty on European Union upgraded the environment to a Community policy and no longer simply an action by the Community.
Community policy on the environment is set out in Article 174 of the Treaty establishing the European Community:
Community policy on the environment shall contribute to pursuit of the following objectives:
• preserving, protecting and improving the quality of the environment,
• protecting human health,
• prudent and rational utilisation of natural resources,
• promoting measures at international level to deal with regional or worldwide environmental problems.
Community policy on the environment shall aim at a high level of protection taking into account the diversity of situations in the various regions of the Community. It shall be based on the precautionary principle and on the principles that preventive action should be taken, that environmental damage should as a priority be rectified at source and that the polluter should pay.
The broad objectives of EU environmental policy as set out in Articles 174–176 provide the Community with legal competence to act in all areas of environmental policy. However, it is clear from the Treaty that this competence is not exclusive and that it is shared with the Member States.
The European Communities’ core objective of achieving European unification is based exclusively on the rule of law. Community law is an independent legal system which takes precedence over national legal provisions. A number of key players (Commission, Council and Parliament) are involved in the process of implementing, monitoring and further developing this legal system for which a variety of procedures apply.
1.2.2 Forms of EU environmental legislation
European Union environmental legislation includes mainly directives, regulations and decisions.
Most EU environmental laws are directives. This is a form of law peculiar to the European Union. They are designed to impose obligations on Member States and to be sufficiently flexible to take into account differing legal and administrative traditions. The choice and method of aligning the national legal and administrative system is left to the discretion of the Member State. Directives are binding on all Member States but may contain differing requirements which take into account the different environmental and economic conditions in each Member State.
Framework directives set out general principles, procedures and requirements for legislation in different sectors. So far they have been adopted for the air, water and waste sectors. Other ‘daughter’ directives in each sector must conform to the general requirements of the framework directive.
About 10% of EU environmental laws take the form of regulations. Regulations are directly binding in Member States and supersede any conflicting national laws. Member states may not transpose the provisions of regulations into national law, even if the national law is identical to the regulation. Nevertheless, environmental regulations require further national measures for implementation.
Regulations usually have a precise purpose and are used where it is important that, in the Member States, precisely the same requirements are applied. In some sectors such as waste and chemicals, EU law is a mixture of regulations and directives.
Decisions are individual legislative acts which are binding in their entirety upon the parties to whom they are addressed. They differ from regulations or directives in that they are usually very specific in nature. They are less common in the environmental field. Environmental regulations or directives often give the Commission the power to take decisions to implement them. Table 1.1 summarises these three major forms of binding EU legislation.
Table 1.1
Three forms of binding EU legislation
1.3 Integrated pollution prevention and control (IPPC)
The European Union defines obligations with which highly polluting industrial and agricultural activities must comply. It establishes a procedure for authorising these activities and sets minimum requirements to be included in all permits, particularly in terms of pollutants released. The aim is to prevent or reduce pollution of the atmosphere, water and soil, as well as the quantities of waste arising from industrial and agricultural installations to ensure a high level of environmental protection. These rules are set out in the so-called IPPC Directive 96/61/EC of 24 September 1996. IPPC stands for Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control. The IPPC Directive is based on several principles, namely (1) an integrated approach, (2) best available techniques (BAT), (3) flexibility and (4) public participation.
1.3.1 Implementation of the IPPC Directive
All installations covered by Annex I of the Directive are required to obtain an authorisation (permit) from the authorities in the EU member states. Unless they have a permit, they are not allowed to operate. This Annex I section 6.2 includes ‘Plants for the pre-treatment (operations such as washing, bleaching, mercerisation) or dyeing of fibres or textiles where the treatment capacity exceeds 10 tonnes per day’. In 2001, 130 textile facilities exceding 10 tonnes treatment capacity were reported, emitting some 24 different pollutants above the EPER thresholds (see Table 1.2).
Table 1.2
Number of reported textile IPPC facilities and pollutants by country in 2001
Since 30 October 1999 for the EU-15, and 1 May 2004 for the ten new Member States, the IPPC Directive has applied to new installations as well as to those ‘existing’ installations (i.e. those built before 2000) where the operators intend to carry out changes that may have significant negative effects on human health and the environment. Member States have been given an eight-year transitional period until October 2007 to ensure that all other existing installations fully comply with the Directive. Four new Member States – Latvia, Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia – were granted transitional periods for certain installations until the end of 2010.
The Commission has recently launched a review process of the IPPC Directive and related legislation on industrial emissions. While not altering its main underlying principles and level of ambition, the review will evaluate the scope to improve the functioning of the Directive, its coherence and complementarity with other industrial emissions-related legislation and the effectiveness of market-based-instruments in this context. The deadline of 30 October 2007 for the full implementation of the Directive remains valid.
1.3.2 Permits based on best available techniques (BAT)
‘Integrated’ means that the permits must take into account the whole environmental performance of the plant, including emissions to air, water and land, generation of waste, use of raw materials, energy efficiency, noise, prevention of accidents, risk management. The Member States have chosen various approaches to implement the IPPC Directive, such as case-by-case permitting or use of General Binding Rules for industry sectors.
Competent authorities responsible for issuing permits are required to take account of the general principles set out in article 3 when determining the conditions of the permit. These conditions must include emission limit values, supplemented or replaced where appropriate by equivalent parameters or technical measures. According to article 9(4) of the Directive, these emission limit values, equivalent parameters and technical measures must, without prejudice to compliance with environmental quality standards, be based on the best available techniques, without prescribing the use of any technique or specific technology, but taking into account (1) the technical characteristics of the installation concerned, (2) its geographical location and (3) the local environmental conditions. In all circumstances, the conditions of the permit must include provisions on the minimisation of long-distance or transboundary pollution and must ensure a high level of protection for the environment as a whole.
The permits must be based on the concept of ‘best available techniques’ (or BAT), which is defined in article 2(11) of the Directive:
‘best available techniques’ shall mean the most effective and advanced stage in the development of activities and their methods of operation which indicate the practical suitability of particular techniques for providing in principle the basis for emission limit values designed to prevent and, where that is not practicable, generally to reduce emissions and the impact on the environment as a whole:
• ‘techniques’ shall include both the technology used and the way in which the installation is designed, built, maintained, operated and decommissioned,
• ‘available’ techniques shall mean those developed on a scale which allows implementation in the relevant industrial sector, under economically and technically viable conditions, taking into consideration the costs and advantages, whether or not the techniques are used or produced inside the Member State in question, as long as they are reasonably accessible to the operator,
• ‘best’ shall mean most effective in achieving a high general level of protection of the environment as a whole.
Annex IV lists the considerations to be taken into account when determining best available techniques, bearing in mind the likely costs and benefits of a measure and the principles of precaution and prevention: the use of low-waste technology, the use of less hazardous substances, the nature, effects and volume of the emissions concerned, the consumption and nature of raw materials (including water) used in the process and their energy efficiency, and the need
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