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Textiles for Cold Weather Apparel
Автор: Elsevier Science
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Cold weather can be a potential hazard to human health, adversely affecting physiological functions, work performance and wellbeing. Designing suitable apparel for cold environments is therefore a complex task. Textiles for cold weather apparel reviews the principles, materials and requirements of cold weather apparel and will stimulate ideas for future innovation and improved end performance.
The first part of the book covers the fundamental scientific issues and types of materials suitable for cold weather clothing. Topics include how to achieve comfort and thermoregulation in cold weather clothing as well as the use of coated and laminated fabrics. It also discusses design and ergonomic aspects such as designing for ventilation. Part two discusses ways of evaluating cold weather clothing, including standards and legislation governing cold weather clothing and laboratory assessments. Part three concludes with applications including cold weather apparel for the military and footwear for cold weather conditions.
With an array of international contributors, this book is a valuable reference for producers, manufacturers, retailers and all those wishing to improve and understand developments in cold weather apparel. Reviews the principles, materials and requirements of cold weather apparel Discusses design and ergonomic aspects including ventilation and insulation Examines methods used to evaluate cold weather clothing as well as standards and legislation in practice
The first part of the book covers the fundamental scientific issues and types of materials suitable for cold weather clothing. Topics include how to achieve comfort and thermoregulation in cold weather clothing as well as the use of coated and laminated fabrics. It also discusses design and ergonomic aspects such as designing for ventilation. Part two discusses ways of evaluating cold weather clothing, including standards and legislation governing cold weather clothing and laboratory assessments. Part three concludes with applications including cold weather apparel for the military and footwear for cold weather conditions.
With an array of international contributors, this book is a valuable reference for producers, manufacturers, retailers and all those wishing to improve and understand developments in cold weather apparel. Reviews the principles, materials and requirements of cold weather apparel Discusses design and ergonomic aspects including ventilation and insulation Examines methods used to evaluate cold weather clothing as well as standards and legislation in practice
Активность, связанная с книгой
Начать чтениеСведения о книге
Textiles for Cold Weather Apparel
Автор: Elsevier Science
Описание
Cold weather can be a potential hazard to human health, adversely affecting physiological functions, work performance and wellbeing. Designing suitable apparel for cold environments is therefore a complex task. Textiles for cold weather apparel reviews the principles, materials and requirements of cold weather apparel and will stimulate ideas for future innovation and improved end performance.
The first part of the book covers the fundamental scientific issues and types of materials suitable for cold weather clothing. Topics include how to achieve comfort and thermoregulation in cold weather clothing as well as the use of coated and laminated fabrics. It also discusses design and ergonomic aspects such as designing for ventilation. Part two discusses ways of evaluating cold weather clothing, including standards and legislation governing cold weather clothing and laboratory assessments. Part three concludes with applications including cold weather apparel for the military and footwear for cold weather conditions.
With an array of international contributors, this book is a valuable reference for producers, manufacturers, retailers and all those wishing to improve and understand developments in cold weather apparel. Reviews the principles, materials and requirements of cold weather apparel Discusses design and ergonomic aspects including ventilation and insulation Examines methods used to evaluate cold weather clothing as well as standards and legislation in practice
The first part of the book covers the fundamental scientific issues and types of materials suitable for cold weather clothing. Topics include how to achieve comfort and thermoregulation in cold weather clothing as well as the use of coated and laminated fabrics. It also discusses design and ergonomic aspects such as designing for ventilation. Part two discusses ways of evaluating cold weather clothing, including standards and legislation governing cold weather clothing and laboratory assessments. Part three concludes with applications including cold weather apparel for the military and footwear for cold weather conditions.
With an array of international contributors, this book is a valuable reference for producers, manufacturers, retailers and all those wishing to improve and understand developments in cold weather apparel. Reviews the principles, materials and requirements of cold weather apparel Discusses design and ergonomic aspects including ventilation and insulation Examines methods used to evaluate cold weather clothing as well as standards and legislation in practice
Отрывок книги
Textiles for Cold Weather Apparel
Textiles for cold weather apparel
First Edition
J.T. Williams
The Textile Institute
CRC Press
Boca Raton Boston New York Washington,DC
Woodhead Publishing Limited
Oxford Cambridge New Delhi
Table of Contents
Cover image
Title page
Copyright page
Contributor contact details
Woodhead Publishing in Textiles
Introduction
Comfort
Heat balance
The use of clothing
The cold environment
Clothing for the cold environment
Textile properties
Book contents
Part I: Material and design issues in cold weather clothing
1: Comfort and thermoregulatory requirements in cold weather clothing
Abstract
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Human thermoregulation in the cold
1.3 Clothing and comfort
1.4 Thermal and tactile comfort in the cold
1.5 New trends in thermoregulatory textiles for cold protection
2: Thermal insulation properties of textiles and clothing
Abstract
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Thermal comfort
2.3 Heat transfer in fabrics
2.4 Moisture transport in fabrics
2.5 Fibre properties and thermal insulation
2.6 Yarn/fabric structure and thermal insulation
2.7 Predicting heat and moisture transfer in fabrics
2.8 Conclusions
3: Assessing fabrics for cold weather apparel: the case of wool
Abstract
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Developments and demonstration of efficacy of wool apparel
3.3 Summary and future trends
3.4 Sources of further information and advice
4: Coating and laminating fabrics for cold weather apparel
Abstract
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Historical aspects and evolution of the modern industry
4.3 Breathable membranes
4.4 Manufacture and properties of coated and laminated fabrics
4.5 Testing of coated and laminated fabrics
4.6 Environmental issues
4.7 Current applications
4.8 Future trends
4.9 Sources of further information and advice
5: The use of smart materials in cold weather apparel
Abstract
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Design requirements for cold weather clothing
5.3 Types of smart fibres and fabrics
5.4 The use of shape-memory materials
5.3 The use of phase-change materials
5.6 Future trends
6: Biomimetics and the design of outdoor clothing
Abstract
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Inspiration from nature
6.3 Biological paradigms for outdoor clothing
6.4 Future trends
6.5 Sources of further information and advice
7: Designing for ventilation in cold weather apparel
Abstract
7.1 Introduction: importance and function of ventilation in cold weather apparel
7.2 Water vapour transport through cold weather textiles at low temperatures
7.3 Layering cold weather clothing
7.4 Mechanism of ventilation in cold weather
7.5 Factors affecting ventilation
7.6 Recommendations and advice on clothing design for ventilation
7.7 Future trends
7.9 Nomenclature
8: Factors affecting the design of cold weather performance clothing
Abstract
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Traditional design development process
8.3 Stages in the process
8.4 Case studies: motorcycling and climbing
8.5 Future trends
8.6 Acknowledgements
8.7 Sources of further information and advice
Part II: Evaluation and care of cold weather clothing
9: Standards and legislation governing cold weather clothing
Abstract
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Development of legislation and standards
9.3 Directives on personal protective equipment
9.4 European standards for cold protective clothing
9.5 Cold protective clothing standards outside Europe
9.6 Future trends
9.7 Sources of further information and advice
10: Laboratory assessment of cold weather clothing
Abstract
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Clothing properties relevant in cold
10.3 Material/fabric testing
10.4 Garment and ensemble testing: physical apparatus
10.5 Garment and ensemble testing: human subjects
10.6 Special applications
10.7 Future trends
11: Evaluation of cold weather clothing using manikins
Abstract
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Manikin tests vs. fabric tests
11.3 Thermal manikins
11.4 Measuring the thermal resistance of cold weather clothing systems
11.5 Measuring the evaporative resistance of cold weather clothing systems
11.6 Moving manikins
11.7 Using manikins under transient conditions
11.8 Temperature ratings
11.9 Conclusions
12: Human wear trials for cold weather protective clothing systems
Abstract
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Types of human wear trials
12.3 Discussion
13: Care and maintenance of cold weather protective clothing
Abstract
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Home (domestic) laundering procedures
13.3 Professional textile care
13.4 Problem areas for maintenance of cold weather clothing
13.5 Care of cold weather clothing – case studies
13.6 New developments
13.7 Sources of further information and advice
Appendix: Examplesa of home laundry detergents tailored for special purposes
Part III: Cold weather clothing applications
14: Cold weather clothing for military applications
Abstract
14.1 Introduction
14.2 History of military cold weather operations
14.3 General military clothing requirements
14.4 Incompatibilities in combat clothing systems
14.5 Biomedical aspects of protective combat clothing
14.6 Underwear materials
14.7 Thermal insulation materials
14.8 Waterproof/water vapour permeable materials
14.9 Materials for current UK combat clothing systems
14.10 Military hand- and footwear for cold climates
14.11 Research and development of future materials
15: Protective clothing for cold workplace environments
Abstract
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Directives and standards
15.3 Protection requirements
15.4 Clothing for cold protection
15.5 Sources of further information and advice
16: Footwear for cold weather conditions
Abstract
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Criteria for cold protective footwear
16.3 Feet in cold
16.4 Foot and footwear related injuries in cold
16.5 Footwear insulation
16.6 The effect of moisture in the footwear
16.7 Design of cold protective footwear
16.8 Socks
17: Gloves for protection from cold weather
Abstract
17.1 Introduction: key issues of gloves in cold environments
17.2 Design, structure and materials used for hand protection in cold environments
17.3 Effect of cold temperatures on physical and mechanical properties of materials
17.4 Protection properties
17.5 Functionality and comfort
17.6 Applications/examples
17.7 Future trends
17.8 Sources of further information and advice
17.9 Acknowledgments
Index
Copyright
Published by Woodhead Publishing Limited in association with The Textile Institute
Woodhead Publishing Limited, Abington Hall, Granta Park, Geat Abington
Cambridge CB21 6AH, UK
www.woodheadpublishing.com
Woodhead Publishing India Private Limited, G-2, Vardaan House, 7/28 Ansari Road,
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www.woodheadpublishingindia.com
Published in North America by CRC Press LLC, 6000 Broken Sound Parkway, NW,
Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487, USA
First published 2009, Woodhead Publishing Limited and CRC Press LLC
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2009
The authors have asserted their moral rights.
This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the authors and the publishers cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials. Neither the authors nor the publishers, nor anyone else associated with this publication, shall be liable for any loss, damage or liability directly or indirectly caused or alleged to be caused by this book.
Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming and recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from Woodhead Publishing Limited.
The consent of Woodhead Publishing Limited does not extend to copying for general distribution, for promotion, for creating new works, or for resale. Specific permission must be obtained in writing from Woodhead Publishing Limited for such copying.
Trademark notice: product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation, without intent to infringe.
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Woodhead Publishing Limited ISBN 978-1-84569-411-1 (book)
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CRC Press ISBN 978-1-4398-0123-9
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Contributor contact details
(* = main contact)
Editor
Dr John Williams, jtw@dmu.ac.uk Textile Engineering and Materials Research Group, De Montfort University, The Gateway, Leicester LE1 9BH, UK
Chapter 1
Dr René Rossi, rene.rossi@empa.ch Empa Materials Science and Technology, Lerchenfeldstrasse 5, CH-9014 St. Gallen, Switzerland
Chapter 2
Dr Guowen Song, Guowen.Song@afhe.ualberta.ca University of Alberta, Department of Human Ecology, 302 Human Ecology Building, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6G 2N1
Chapter 3
Professor Raechel Laing, r.laing@otago.ac.nz Clothing and Textile Sciences, University of Otago, P O Box 56, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand
Chapter 4
Dr Robert Lomax, robert.lomax@chemtura.com Baxenden, a Chemtura Company, Union Lane, Droitwich WR9 9BB, UK
Chapter 5
Professor Jinlian Hu*, tchujl@inet.polyu.edu.hk; Babu K. Murugesh Institute of Textiles and Clothing, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong
Chapter 6
Veronika Kapsali, v.kapsali@fashion.arts.ac.uk 20 John Princes Street, London College of Fashion, University of Arts, London W1G 0BJ, UK
Chapter 7
Professor N. Ghaddar*, farah@aub.edu.lb Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, American University of Beirut, P.O. Box 11-236 – Riad El Solh, Beirut 1107 2020, Lebanon
Associate Professor K. Ghali, ka04@aub.edu.lb Department of Mechanical Engineering, American University of Beirut, PO Box 11-236 Raid Elsolh, Beirut 11072020, Lebanon
Chapter 8
J. Bougourd*, jenibougourd@blueyonder.co.uk Senior Research Fellow, London College of Fashion, University of the Arts London, 20 John Princes Street, London W1M 0BJ, UK
J. McCann Director of Smart Clothes and Wearable Technology, Newport School of Art, Media and Design, University of Wales, Newport, Caerleon Campus, P O Box 179, Newport NP18 3YG, UK
Chapter 9
Dr Helena Maäkinen, Helena.Makinen@ttl.fi Finnish Institute of Occupational Health (FIOH), Work Environment Development, Protection and Product Safety, Topeliuksenkatu 41 aA, FI-00250 Helsinki, Finland
Chapter 10
Professor George Havenith, G.Havenith@lboro.ac.uk Department of Human Sciences, Loughborough University, Ashby Road, Loughborough LE11 3TU, UK
Chapter 11
Professor Elizabeth A. McCullough, lizm@ksu.edu Institute for Environmental Research, Kansas State University, 64 Seaton Hall, Manhattan, Kansas 66506, USA
Chapters 12 and 15
Professor Ingvar Holmér, ingvar.holmer@design.lth.se Thermal Environment Laboratory, Department of Design Sciences, Faculty of Engineering, Lund University, SE-221 00 Lund, Sweden
Chapter 13
Dr Nancy Kerr; Dr Jane Batcheller; Dr Elizabeth M. Crown*, betty.crown@ualberta.ca Department of Human Ecology, 302 Human Ecology Building, The University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada T6G 2N1
Chapter 14
Dr Richard A. Scott, dlo_rascott@hotmail.com ‘Mirabeau’, 102 Abbots Road, Colchester CO2 8BG, UK
Chapter 16
Associate Professor Kalev Kuklane, Kalev.Kuklane@design.lth.se Thermal Environment Laboratory, Department of Design Sciences, Faculty of Engineering, Lund University, Box 118, SE-221 00 Lund, Sweden
Chapter 17
Dr P.I. Dolez; Professor T. Vu Khanh*, toan.vu-khanh@etsmtl.ca Department of Mechanical Engineering, École de technologie supérieure, 1100 rue Notre-Dame Ouest, Montréal, Québec, Canada H3C 1K3
Woodhead Publishing in Textiles
1 Watson’s textile design and colour Seventh edition
Edited by Z. Grosicki
2 Watson’s advanced textile design
Edited by Z. Grosicki
3 Weaving Second edition
P. R. Lord and M. H. Mohamed
4 Handbook of textile fibres Vol 1: Natural fibres
J. Gordon Cook
5 Handbook of textile fibres Vol 2: Man-made fibres
J. Gordon Cook
6 Recycling textile and plastic waste
Edited by A. R. Horrocks
7 New fibers Second edition
T. Hongu and G. O. Phillips
8 Atlas of fibre fracture and damage to textiles Second edition
J. W. S. Hearle, B. Lomas and W. D. Cooke
9 Ecotextile ‘98
Edited by A. R. Horrocks
10 Physical testing of textiles
B. P. Saville
11 Geometric symmetry in patterns and tilings
C. E. Horne
12 Handbook of technical textiles
Edited by A. R. Horrocks and S. C. Anand
13 Textiles in automotive engineering
W. Fung and J. M. Hardcastle
14 Handbook of textile design
J. Wilson
15 High-performance fibres
Edited by J. W. S. Hearle
16 Knitting technology Third edition
D. J. Spencer
17 Medical textiles
Edited by S. C. Anand
18 Regenerated cellulose fibres
Edited by C. Woodings
19 Silk, mohair, cashmere and other luxury fibres
Edited by R. R. Franck
20 Smart fibres, fabrics and clothing
Edited by X. M. Tao
21 Yarn texturing technology
J. W. S. Hearle, L. Hollick and D. K. Wilson
22 Encyclopedia of textile finishing
H-K. Rouette
23 Coated and laminated textiles
W. Fung
24 Fancy yarns
R. H. Gong and R. M. Wright
25 Wool: Science and technology
Edited by W. S. Simpson and G. Crawshaw
26 Dictionary of textile finishing
H-K. Rouette
27 Environmental impact of textiles
K. Slater
28 Handbook of yarn production
P. R. Lord
29 Textile processing with enzymes
Edited by A. Cavaco-Paulo and G. Guübitz
30 The China and Hong Kong denim industry
Y. Li, L. Yao and K. W. Yeung
31 The World Trade Organization and international denim trading
Y. Li, Y. Shen, L. Yao and E. Newton
32 Chemical finishing of textiles
W. D. Schindler and P. J. Hauser
33 Clothing appearance and fit
J. Fan, W. Yu and L. Hunter
34 Handbook of fibre rope technology
H. A. McKenna, J. W. S. Hearle and N. O’Hear
35 Structure and mechanics of woven fabrics
J. Hu
36 Synthetic fibres: nylon, polyester, acrylic, polyolefin
Edited by J. E. McIntyre
37 Woollen and worsted woven fabric design
E. G. Gilligan
38 Analytical electrochemistry in textiles
P. Westbroek, G. Priniotakis and P. Kiekens
39 Bast and other plant fibres
R. R. Franck
40 Chemical testing of textiles
Edited by Q. Fan
41 Design and manufacture of textile composites
Edited by A. C. Long
42 Effect of mechanical and physical properties on fabric hand
Edited by Hassan M. Behery
43 New millennium fibers
T. Hongu, M. Takigami and G. O. Phillips
44 Textiles for protection
Edited by R. A. Scott
45 Textiles in sport
Edited by R. Shishoo
46 Wearable electronics and photonics
Edited by X. M. Tao
47 Biodegradable and sustainable fibres
Edited by R. S. Blackburn
48 Medical textiles and biomaterials for healthcare
Edited by S. C. Anand, M. Miraftab, S. Rajendran and J. F. Kennedy
49 Total colour management in textiles
Edited by J. Xin
50 Recycling in textiles
Edited by Y. Wang
51 Clothing biosensory engineering
Y. Li and A. S. W. Wong
52 Biomechanical engineering of textiles and clothing
Edited by Y. Li and D. X-Q. Dai
53 Digital printing of textiles
Edited by H. Ujiie
54 Intelligent textiles and clothing
Edited by H. Mattila
55 Innovation and technology of women’s intimate apparel
W. Yu, J. Fan, S. C. Harlock and S. P. Ng
56 Thermal and moisture transport in fibrous materials
Edited by N. Pan and P. Gibson
57 Geosynthetics in civil engineering
Edited by R. W. Sarsby
58 Handbook of nonwovens
Edited by S. Russell
59 Cotton: Science and technology
Edited by S. Gordon and Y-L. Hsieh
60 Ecotextiles
Edited by M. Miraftab and A. Horrocks
61 Composite forming technologies
Edited by A. C. Long
62 Plasma technology for textiles
Edited by R. Shishoo
63 Smart textiles for medicine and healthcare
Edited by L. Van Langenhove
64 Sizing in clothing
Edited by S. Ashdown
65 Shape memory polymers and textiles
J. Hu
66 Environmental aspects of textile dyeing
Edited by R. Christie
67 Nanofibers and nanotechnology in textiles
Edited by P. Brown and K. Stevens
68 Physical properties of textile fibres Fourth edition
W. E. Morton and J. W. S. Hearle
69 Advances in apparel production
Edited by C. Fairhurst
70 Advances in fire retardant materials
Edited by A. R. Horrocks and D. Price
71 Polyesters and polyamides
Edited by B. L. Deopora, R. Alagirusamy, M. Joshi and B. S. Gupta
72 Advances in wool technology
Edited by N. A. G. Johnson and I. Russell
73 Military textiles
Edited by E. Wilusz
74 3D fibrous assemblies: Properties, applications and modelling of three-dimensional textile structures
J. Hu
75 Medical textiles 2007
Edited by J. Kennedy, A. Anand, M. Miraftab and S. Rajendran
76 Fabric testing
Edited by J. Hu
77 Biologically inspired textiles
Edited by A. Abbott and M. Ellison
78 Friction in textiles
Edited by B. S. Gupta
79 Textile advances in the automotive industry
Edited by R. Shishoo
80 Structure and mechanics of textile fibre assemblies
Edited by P. Schwartz
81 Engineering textiles: Integrating the design and manufacture of textile products
Edited by Y. E. El-Mogahzy
82 Polyolefin fibres: Industrial and medical applications
Edited by S. C. O. Ugbolue
83 Smart clothes and wearable technology
Edited by J. McCann and D. Bryson
84 Identification of textile fibres
Edited by M. Houck
85 Advanced textiles for wound care
Edited by S. Rajendran
86 Fatigue failure of textile fibres
Edited by M. Miraftab
87 Advances in carpet manufacture
Edited by K. K. Goswami
88 Handbook of textile fibre structure
Edited by S. Eichhorn, J. W. S Hearle, M. Jaffe and T. Kikutani
89 Advances in knitting technology
Edited by T. Dias
90 Smart textile coatings and laminates
Edited by W. C. Smith
91 Handbook of tensile properties of textile fibres
Edited by A. Bunsell
92 Interior textiles: Design and developments
Edited by T. Rowe
93 Textiles for cold weather apparel
Edited by J. Williams
94 Modelling and predicting textile behaviour
Edited by X. Chen
95 Textiles for construction
Edited by G. Pohl
96 Engineering apparel fabrics and garments
J. Fan and L. Hunter
97 Surface modification of textiles
Edited by Q. Wei
98 Sustainable textiles
Edited by R. S. Blackburn
Introduction
Man has come a long way in the last 5000 years, from the concept of wearing leaves and animal skin clothing to creating fibres from oil. New discoveries, inventions and innovations have seen him explore the deepest seas, climb the highest mountains and reach out in to space. Protection from the elements is a key feature of clothing for comfort and survival and has been enhanced by a century of new materials, finishes and production methods. Clothing differs in requirement depending on application whether it be for fashion or performance. This book brings together an array of knowledge and experience to understand the principles behind cold weather protective clothing.
Comfort
Man’s thermoregulatory system is adapted to tropical climatic conditions where the usual air temperatures associated with thermal comfort fall in the range 15 to 28 °C (Goldman, 1988). However, the range for physiological comfort is much narrower, i.e., the comfort range being where temperature regulation can be achieved without shivering or sweating, to the point where skin wetness exceeds 20% to obtain the evaporative cooling required. He further suggested that the human comfort zone for physiological regulation of the body, wearing shirt and trousers, is between 22.2 and 25.5 °C. For a nude man at 20 °C the heat loss from the skin is effected primarily by a dry heat flux caused by conduction, convection and radiation and is dependent on the difference between the skin and the ambient temperatures, although in normal circumstances heat loss by conduction is minimal. Some 10% of the heat produced by the body is lost by respiration and 90% lost from the skin.
Thermal comfort outside Goldman’s zone of physiological regulation is provided by behavioural temperature regulation, by adding or removing clothing. White and Ronk (1984) reported that simply donning a shirt and trousers leads to a 40% reduction in heat loss due to insulation. Above this temperature range less heat is removed from the body than is produced and the excess heat is stored within the body. To maintain equilibrium, man’s thermo-regulation causes secretion of sweat and removes excess heat from the body by the evaporation of liquid sweat from the skin, i.e., an evaporative heat flux which depends on the humidity of the ambient air. It follows that any layer of clothing imparts a resistance to the migration of this water vapour away from the body and therefore impedes cooling.
Greenwood et al. (1970) described comfort as being determined by skin temperature and relative humidity (RH) prevailing close to the skin. Both these quantities tend to increase with increasing ambient air temperature and RH in the surrounding air and with increasing level of activity. The average male will be comfortable when the skin temperature is between 33 and 35 °C and they also suggested that there is little variation in subjective comfort when there is no deposition of liquid sweat on the skin, that is, the RH near the skin is below 100%. Umbach and Mecheels (1977) also used a measure of skin wetness as a discomfort factor to describe a subjective feeling of comfort. From simple subjective measurements they assessed that the average sweat wetted area of skin should be less than 30% for an average male to remain comfortable.
Heat balance
The human body is an energy generator continually producing metabolic heat and moisture at varying rates by digestion of food and by muscle activity. The heat produced by this activity will vary with the level of exercise.
In thermal equilibrium, man as a warm-blooded animal strives to keep his body core temperature constant at 37 °C. The heat flow to the environment must therefore be continually altered to balance with that produced, so as to maintain this equilibrium and thus thermo-physiological comfort (Spencer-Smith, 1976). Thermal energy can be lost to the environment by conduction, convection, radiation or evaporative cooling, as shown in a heat balance equation (White and Ronk, 1984).
This balance is achieved by means of the body’s own temperature-regulating system where blood flow to the skin is increased and the temperature of the extremities raised and finally evaporative cooling begins. The evaporation of one litre of sweat from the skin in one hour causes a heat loss of approximately 670 Watts. Many workers have studied the effects of blood flow on human temperature regulation and have described mathematical models to determine head, limb and whole body temperature changes. Such physiological models are constantly being refined and will be discussed later.
It has been assumed that if a man is comfortable about a quarter of the heat produced in his body will be lost by evaporation and, to remain in heat balance, the remainder must be lost as sensible heat from the skin. If, for any reason, the heat loss exceeds the heat produced then the heat content of the body will decrease. Such a condition can be maintained only for certain tolerance periods before a dangerous state of hypothermia is reached. The converse condition of increased heat content of the body will lead to a state of hyperthermia. In addition to producing heat, the body is constantly producing perspiration which evaporates from the skin, known as insensible perspiration. In contrast, the liquid sweat that appears on the skin when the ambient temperature is high or when doing hard physical work is known as sensible perspiration.
The use of clothing
Wear comfort has been described by Mecheels (1977) as a measure of how well clothing assists the functioning of the body, or at least impairs it to a minimum. To be physiologically comfortable and maintain the state of comfort, clothing must be designed to allow the body’s heat balance to be maintained under a wide range of environmental conditions and body activity. The important climatic considerations for comfort are temperature, humidity and air movement for both indoor and outdoor environments and additionally solar load and precipitation outdoors.
Clothing for hot/wet climates is normally loose fitting and may well be as little as modesty allows to promote free evaporation of sweat and gain full advantage of any convective cooling from the skin. A hot/dry climate, such as in a desert, with clear skies and intense direct and reflected solar radiation, low humidity, possible wind storms and a wide diurnal temperature variation would dictate that clothing should be loose fitting. This will allow evaporative sweat loss by day and retain body warmth at night. The solar load would also require that the skin should be covered and the clothes be light coloured to increase reflectance.
The cold environment
Man, by nature, strives to push the boundaries of his normal habitation by travel and exploration to the furthest parts of the globe where he may encounter harsh climatic conditions, ranging from mountain peaks to deserts. He may live in regions where average air temperatures remain below zero for several months of the year or work in artificial sub-zero conditions, for example, food storage facilities.
The body has its own inbuilt mechanism to reduce heat loss; blood flow to the skin and hence heat loss to the skin surface are reduced by vasoconstriction, equivalent in effect to putting on an extra clothing layer. As the body temperature falls there is a decrease in the temperature of the extremities which reduces the heat loss from those parts. The onset of shivering as involuntary muscle activity can produce compensatory energy production of up to 450 W m−2 (Goldman, 1988).
Clothing for the cold environment
Clothing for cold climates should slow down the rate at which man loses heat to his environment to a level which can be balanced by that generated by metabolic processes. It should provide protection from wind penetration and afford thermal insulation without hindering agility due to bulk and also prevent any bellows action from removing warm air trapped within the clothing layers. The air layers between the fabrics should be narrow to further impair air movement. The clothing layers should be kept dry as the presence of water will lower the thermal insulation and a waterproof outer layer may also be necessary. The layers should allow water vapour migration from the body to the environment and ideally prevent condensation of sweat within the clothing which would again reduce its insulation.
In terms of the clothing worn it is therefore the two parameters of thermal insulation and water vapour resistance that are considered to be the major factors in controlling the body/environment interaction. These thermo-physiological aspects of clothing must be considered in respect of a particular wear situation to give a microclimate within the clothing which is comfortable. The four major environmental parameters affecting thermo-physiological comfort in the cold are air temperature, relative humidity, wind and radiant temperature since they directly affect heat transfer away from the body (Rees, 1971). Because these environmental conditions and work rates change, the clothing system must then be able to control the microclimate over a range of conditions.
Textile properties
The ability to alter the layers in a clothing system in a changing climate or as a result of a change in the level of work is therefore important. Textile materials are the basic building blocks with which protective clothing systems are built. Textile fibres can be either natural, for example, wool and cotton, or man made, for example, nylon and polyester. These fibres can be in short staple or long filament form, which are then spun into yarns and then woven or knitted together. Loose fibres can also be made into a non-woven matrix. Finishing processes, including coating and laminating, can be used to improve properties such as waterproofness, repellency, rot resistance, flame retardancy, etc. New technologies incorporating smart materials, microencapsulation and electronics are beginning to find application in cold weather clothing.
An understanding of the primary functions of clothing and the properties of the most suitable clothing for a specific application requires a detailed knowledge of the interactions of the body, clothing and the environment. In order that the textile and clothing industry can manufacture and supply materials to meet the requirements of comfort and protection for a given set of conditions, it is desirable to be able to compare actual wear characteristics with a set of laboratory measurements that can be used in the clothing development.
Book contents
This book is divided into three parts; Part I: Materials and design issues in cold weather clothing; Part II: Evaluation and care of cold weather clothing; Part III: Cold weather clothing applications. All contributing authors are experts in their particular fields, many from academia with industrial expertise.
Part I: Materials and design issues in cold weather clothing
The book opens by introducing the comfort and the thermoregulatory requirements of cold weather clothing. The concept of fabric layering, insulation and barrier properties then considers different fabric and fibre types to enhance warmth including the use of smart materials. This is followed by discussion of design principles to enhance protection from the cold environment and also the benefits of ventilation.
Part II: Evaluation and care of cold weather clothing
The current standards and legislation governing cold weather clothing introduces this section. The evaluation of individual textiles and garments as well as whole garment assemblies is discussed in detail ranging from the laboratory assessment of fabrics and the use of manikins to actual human wear trials. Consideration is also given to service life in terms of care and maintenance of clothing.
Part III: Cold weather clothing applications
Clothing in its broadest sense is discussed ranging from specialist items like gloves and footwear to whole body protection. Two specific examples of the latter are given, one for outdoor wearers beyond leisure use and secondly for cold workplace environments.
References
Goldman RF. Biomedical Effects of Clothing on Thermal Control and Strain’. Chapter 2 Handbook on Clothing. NATO Research Study Group 7 on Biomedical Research Aspects of Military Protective Clothing; 1988.
Greenwood K, Rees WH, Lord J. Problems of Protection and Comfort in Modern Apparel Fabrics’. In: Studies in Modern Fabrics: Papers of the Diamond Jubilee Conference of the Textile Institute. 1970:197–218.
Mecheels J. Korper-Klima-Kleidung-Textil’. Melliand Textilberichte. 1977;58:773–776 857–886, 942–946.
Rees WH. Physical Factors Determining the Comfort Performance of Textiles’. In: 3rd Shirley International Seminar, Manchester, 15–17 June; 1971.
Spencer-Smith JL. The Physical Basis of Clothing Comfort, Part 1: General Review’. Clothing Research Journal. 1976;4:126–138.
Umbach KH, Mecheels J. Thermophysiological Properties of Clothing Systems’. Melliand Textilberichte. 1977;57:1029–1032 1976 and 58, 73–81.
White MK, Ronk R. Chemical Protective Clothing and Heat Stress. In: Professional Safety. 1984:34–38 December.
Part I
Material and design issues in cold weather clothing
1
Comfort and thermoregulatory requirements in cold weather clothing
R. Rossi Empa Materials Science and Technology, Switzerland
Abstract
The human body has different thermoregulatory mechanisms to fight the cold, like the constriction of blood vessels or shivering. Wearing clothing is a behavioural means to prevent excessive heat loss from the body. In the cold, the function of the clothing is to reduce the heat transfer to the environment, especially by limiting the convective heat loss by air movements and the radiant heat loss. The body constantly releases humidity, either as insensible perspiration or sweat loss. At low temperature, this humidity may condense within the textile layers and negatively affect their thermal insulation and, as a consequence, the thermal and the tactile comfort of the wearer.
Key words
human thermoregulation
clothing comfort
thermal physiology
cold protection
1.1 Introduction
Ideally, the heat production of the human body and heat dissipation to the environment should be balanced. By wearing clothing, humans can reduce the heat exchange between the body and the environment and can thus withstand extreme weather conditions. When metabolic heat production greatly varies (during alternating activities), heat dissipation also has to change in order to avoid excessive heat storage or a heat deficiency in the body. For this purpose, the human body has different thermoregulatory mechanisms. The function of clothing is to support this body thermoregulation as much as possible. In the cold, clothing should be designed to prevent either the whole body or local areas from being exposed to potentially harmful climatic conditions.
This chapter deals with human thermoregulation in the cold (Section 1.2) and shows the importance of clothing in maintaining the body core temperature. The interactions between the body and the clothing will be discussed (Section 1.3) with a special emphasis on the influence of body moisture production on the insulation properties of the garment. When the heat and especially the moisture transfer are reduced, thermal comfort will logically be affected, but other comfort types, such as the tactile may be altered as well (Section 1.4). In the last section (Section 1.5), possible solutions for optimal thermoregulatory textiles for cold protection are given.
1.2 Human thermoregulation in the cold
The human body is homeothermic and therefore has to maintain its core temperature within narrow limits around 37 °C. The body cells, especially in the organs and the muscles, produce heat that is partly released to the environment. This metabolic heat production can largely vary depending on the activity, from about 80 W at rest to over 1000 W during most strenuous efforts.
Heat transfer from the body to the environment occurs in several ways:
• dry heat transfer, either by conduction (heat transfer between two surfaces in contact with each other), convection (heat exchange between a surface and a surrounding fluid, e.g. air or water) and radiation (emission or absorption of electromagnetic waves)
• evaporation of sweat
• heat transfer by respiration.
In normal climatic conditions (about 20 °C and 50% relative humidity), radiant heat transfer is dominant (about 45%). Heat loss through respiration accounts for only about 10% of the total heat loss, but at low outside temperatures, it may increase to over 30% (Aschoff, Guünther et al., 1971).
As the body has to maintain a constant temperature, heat generation and heat loss should ideally be equal. This principle can be expressed in a heat balance equation (in W or W/m²) for the human body:
1:1
where M is metabolic rate of the body, W is mechanical work, E is heat transfer by evaporation, R is heat transfer by radiation, C is heat transfer by convection, K is heat transfer by conduction, and S is heat storage.
When the body is in a thermally neutral state, S is equal to 0, but if the heat production is higher than the heat loss, S will be positive. On the other hand, if the heat loss is higher than heat production, S will be negative. The heat production term M – W is obviously always positive, but R, C and K can be either positive if the body releases heat to the environment or negative if heat is gained from the environment. In principle, E could also be negative if there is a high relative humidity in the environment and water vapour condenses on the skin or in the textile layers near the skin, but this is rarely the case and therefore, E is usually positive.
1.2.1 Thermoregulatory functions of the body
In the cold, humans can consciously behave to avoid excessive heat loss and related cold stress problems and high discomfort. Adding clothing or increasing activity are two possible methods among others (like finding a shelter, exposure to sunlight, etc.). Apart from this behavioural thermoregulation, the human body has different autonomic thermoregulatory mechanisms to react to a cold environment. A thorough review of the human physiological responses to cold exposure can be found in Stocks, Taylor et al. (2004). In order to prevent an excessive heat loss, the body shell is capable of adapting its insulation to maintain the body core temperature constant without changing its heat production. The blood vessels constrict (vasoconstriction) and thus reduce the blood flow to the skin. The skin temperature will hence decrease and lead to a reduced heat transfer to the environment due to the smaller temperature gradient between body and environment. The insulation of the skin, especially the dermis, also reduces by a factor of three to four between vasodilated (thermal conductivity of about 0.9 W/mK in the dermis) and vasoconstricted state (about 0.25 W/mK) (Dittmar, Delhomme et al., 1999). In the limbs, superficial veins constrict in the cold and the cool blood returns along the veins close to the artery, leading to a heat exchange between veins and artery which will further reduce heat loss. Another autonomic means of the body to react against excessive heat loss is shivering, which is described as an asynchronous contraction of the muscles. The onset of shivering is dependent on both the skin and the core temperatures of the body.
Another vital thermoregulatory mechanism is the ability of the body to produce moisture that may evaporate and thus cool the body. In the heat, this mechanism is very often the dominant factor of heat loss. However, in the cold, the production of moisture may be counterproductive, as the presence of moisture in the clothing will affect its thermal insulation. There are two mechanisms of moisture release of the human skin: the insensible perspiration and the production of liquid sweat by the sweat glands. Insensible perspiration is defined as a diffusion of moisture through the skin and is dependent on the partial water vapour pressure gradient between the skin and the environment. Kerslake (1972) gave an empirical formula to calculate the moisture rate produced by insensible perspiration (in g/m² h):
1:2
where pH is partial water vapour pressure near the skin (kPa), and pa is partial water vapour pressure in the environment surrounding the body (kPa). For an average human, this will represent a moisture release of about 15 to 25 g/h in most conditions.
Sweating, like other thermoregulatory mechanisms as vasoconstriction or shivering, is much more affected by the core temperature than by the skin temperature (Wyss, Brengelmann et al., 1974; Bulcao, Frank et al., 2000). As the core temperature may rise during an activity in the cold, the human body will produce sweat, which may accumulate in the clothing layers. The sweating process is not simultaneous to the activity which means that the onset of sweating may be delayed from the beginning of the activity. Similarly, the production of sweat may continue for a while after the activity has stopped.
Insensible perspiration as well as this shift in sweat production represent a challenge for the clothing in the cold as the insulation of the textile layers should be as high as possible during a resting phase and therefore, thermal conductivity should be affected as little as possible by the presence of moisture.
1.2.2 Cold stress
People can experience different types of cold stress like exposure to cold air, immersion in water or through contact with cold surfaces. Prolonged exposure to cold, associated with insufficient physical activity or clothing insulation will result in a decrease in core temperature (hypothermia). However, this cooling might also be restricted to the extremities (head, hands and feet). Skin cooling can result from peripheral pain to freezing cold injuries. The degree of cold stress is dependent on several factors such as gender, age, health status or morphology. The adaptation to cold by repeated cold exposures can reduce cold stress responses (Rintamaüki, 2001). The main cold adaptation responses are either the possibility for the body to drop the core temperature before heat production mechanisms are initiated (thermoregulatory response to hypothermia), the increase of body insulation (increase in subcutaneous fat or improved vasoconstriction) or the increase of heat production by shivering or non-shivering thermogenesis (Bittel, 1992). Nowadays, however, the most substantial part of cold adaptation is probably due to an increase in the thermal insulation of clothing or behavioural changes such as seeking a shelter.
1.3 Clothing and comfort
Comfort is a complex state of mind that depends on many physical, physiological and psychological factors. Four different types of comfort may be defined: thermal or thermophysiological comfort, sensorial comfort, garment fit and psychological comfort (aesthetics). Thermal comfort was defined as ‘the condition of mind which expressed satisfaction with the thermal environment’ (ISO 7730, 1984), which is the case when we are feeling neither too cold nor too warm, and when the humidity (sweat) produced by the body can be evacuated to the environment. The sensations of heat or cold, as well as that of skin wetness, determine thermal comfort. Human skin contains heat and cold receptors, as well as mechanical, tactile sensors. Humidity, however, cannot be directly detected by the skin. This sensation is determined as a mix of temperature perception (for instance, cooling through evaporation) and tactile sensors that perceive liquid sweat on the skin or altered touch properties of the wet textiles near to the skin. The factors affecting thermal comfort are the loss (or gain) of heat by radiation, conduction and convection, loss of heat by evaporation of sweat, the physical work being done by the person, and the environment (ambient temperature, air humidity and air movement). Fanger (1970) defined several conditions for a person to be in thermal comfort. In the cold, the most important factors are:
• the body must be in heat balance
• the mean skin temperature must be within comfort limits
• there should be no local thermal discomfort.
Sensorial comfort is the sensation of how the fabric feels when it is worn near to the skin. This feeling addresses properties of the fabric like prickling, itching, stiffness or smoothness. It can also be related to thermal comfort, as a fabric wetted through with sweat will change its properties and may, for instance, cling to the skin. Sensorial comfort is very difficult to predict as it involves a large number of different factors. Different studies have been performed mostly with human subjects (Garnsworthy, Gully et al., 1968, 1988; LaMotte, 1977; Demartino, Yoon et al., 1984; Elder, Fisher et al., 1984; Li, Keighley et al., 1988, 1991; Behmann, 1990; Matsudaira, Watt et al., 1990a,b; Sweeney and Branson, 1990a,b; Ajayi, 1992; Schneider, Holcombe et al., 1996; Naylor and Phillips, 1997; Wang, Zhang et al., 2003) to try to understand the relationship between fabric properties (protruding fibres, fibre and yarn diameters, fabric thickness, stiffness, etc.) and sensorial feelings on the skin. There are few objective methods to assess the sensorial properties of a textile. The most widely recognized and used around the world is probably the KES-F system developed by Kawabata and his co-workers to measure the fabric hand. The system consists of four different apparatuses (tensile and shear, bending, compression and surface friction/roughness) (Kawabata, 1980). An interesting new method has been used by the group of Bueno (Breugnot, Bueno et al., 2006; Praene, Breugnot et al., 2007): they placed microelectrodes percutaneously to record the activity of the nerve when stimulating the skin by putting it into contact with different fabrics with a defined pressure and movement. This method allowed them to determine parameters for the discrimination of the hairiness of fabrics. These parameters were used for the optimization of their ‘vibrating thin plate tribometer’, an apparatus used for the characterization of the surface topography of fabrics.
The garment fit considers not only the tightness of the garment, but also its weight and the overall freedom of movement of the wearer. The fourth type of comfort is psychological comfort, dealing with aesthetics (colour, garment construction, fashion, etc.) and the suitability of the clothing for the occasion. These four types of comfort are not independent of each other. The overall comfort of a person is the integration of all physical and physiological factors and their subjective perception by the wearer.
1.4 Thermal and tactile comfort in the cold
As explained before, thermal comfort is very dependent on heat and moisture transfer from the body through the clothing to the environment, as well as the heat and moisture buffering effect of the clothing. In the cold, one of the most important properties of clothing to maintain the thermal comfort of the body is to avoid condensation of insensible perspiration near the body, as skin wettedness is a good predictor of thermal discomfort, and to keep the thermal insulation as constant as possible, even when wet.
1.4.1 Environmental parameters
Heat and moisture transfer between the body and the environment depend on different external parameters:
Air temperature
As the convective heat transfer is dependent on the temperature gradient between skin and air, an elevation of air temperature leads to a reduced heat transfer. If the air temperature is higher than the skin temperature, the heat transfer will actually be reversed and the body will gain heat from the environment.
Radiant temperature
The mean surface temperature of all the objects surrounding the body determines the radiant heat exchange. In the cold, an exposure to sunlight is beneficial to decrease the radiant heat loss of the body.
Surface temperature
The temperature of surfaces in contact with the skin determines the conductive heat transfer. Different properties of the material in contact also influence the heat exchange and the temperature felt by the sensors in the skin. The most important property is the thermal inertia of the material I (J/(m² K s¹/²)), which is defined as the square root of the product of the material’s bulk thermal conductivity k (W/mK), the density ρ (kg/m³) and the specific heat capacity c (J/(kgK)):
1.3
Thermal inertia is especially important for the first contact of the skin with an object but for longer contacts thermal conductivity becomes more and more important (Dittmar, Delhomme et al., 1996). A good overview of temperature limit values for touching cold surfaces with the fingertip is given by Geng, Holmeér et al. (2006), showing that skin temperature decreases faster when touching aluminium or steel than when touching wood or nylon.
Relative humidity in the air
The amount of moisture in the air defines the water vapour partial pressure in the environment. The pressure difference (or the moisture concentration difference) between the skin and the environment determines the water vapour flow and the evaporative heat loss from the skin. The moisture content in the air is dependent on its temperature. The colder the air, the less moisture can be stored until saturation
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