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Textile-led Design for the Active Ageing Population
Автор: Elsevier Science
Активность, связанная с книгой
Начать чтениеДлина: 1,191 стр.11 ч
- Издатель:
- Elsevier Science
- Издано:
- Aug 19, 2014
- ISBN:
- 9780857098788
- Формат:
- Книге
Описание
Despite the world’s aging population, suitable clothing for the older community is a largely neglected area. This book considers the needs of the growing number of active older people and investigates how recent developments in textiles, fibres, finishes, design and integrated technology can be deployed to serve this group and improve quality of life.
Part I provides an understanding of the active aging population by considering the group’s experiences of and attitudes towards clothing and reviewing the barriers to their adoption of new wearable technologies. Part II focuses on the needs of the older population, including effective communication with designers and the age-related anatomical and physiological changes that designs should consider. Part III reviews design requirements and processes, and finally Part IV reviews the manufacture of suitable apparel, with chapters on suitable textile fibres, balancing technology and aesthetics and wearable electronics.
Summarises the wealth of recent research on attitudes to clothing amongst the active ageing population Looks into how their aspirations can be investigated and appropriate apparel designed to meet their needs Examines design and manufacturing issues, including ways of accommodating physiological changes with age and the use of wearable electronicsАктивность, связанная с книгой
Начать чтениеСведения о книге
Textile-led Design for the Active Ageing Population
Автор: Elsevier Science
Длина: 1,191 стр.11 ч
Описание
Despite the world’s aging population, suitable clothing for the older community is a largely neglected area. This book considers the needs of the growing number of active older people and investigates how recent developments in textiles, fibres, finishes, design and integrated technology can be deployed to serve this group and improve quality of life.
Part I provides an understanding of the active aging population by considering the group’s experiences of and attitudes towards clothing and reviewing the barriers to their adoption of new wearable technologies. Part II focuses on the needs of the older population, including effective communication with designers and the age-related anatomical and physiological changes that designs should consider. Part III reviews design requirements and processes, and finally Part IV reviews the manufacture of suitable apparel, with chapters on suitable textile fibres, balancing technology and aesthetics and wearable electronics.
Summarises the wealth of recent research on attitudes to clothing amongst the active ageing population Looks into how their aspirations can be investigated and appropriate apparel designed to meet their needs Examines design and manufacturing issues, including ways of accommodating physiological changes with age and the use of wearable electronics- Издатель:
- Elsevier Science
- Издано:
- Aug 19, 2014
- ISBN:
- 9780857098788
- Формат:
- Книге
Связано с Textile-led Design for the Active Ageing Population
Отрывок книги
Textile-led Design for the Active Ageing Population
Textile-led Design for the Active Ageing Population
Editors
Jane McCann
David Bryson
Table of Contents
Cover image
Title page
The Textile Institute and Woodhead Publishing
Copyright
List of contributors
Woodhead Publishing Series in Textiles
Part One. Understanding the active ageing population
1. Technological culture and the active ageing: a lifetime of technological advances
1.1. Introduction
1.2. Learning and teaching
1.3. Photography, audiovisual technologies, and e-learning
1.4. Implications for the active ageing
1.5. Conclusions
1.6. Sources of further information and advice
2. Clothing, identity, embodiment and age
2.1. Introduction: clothing, social identity and age
2.2. Age ordering
2.3. Age-related clothing
2.4. The changing cultural location of older people
2.5. Baby boomers
2.6. Casual dress
2.7. Adjusting the cut
2.8. Conclusion
3. Attitudes to apparel amongst the baby boomer generation
3.1. Introduction
3.2. The baby boomers and the growth of marketing
3.3. Baby boomers and their interaction with apparel and textiles
3.4. Market implications
3.5. Current lifestyle trends for the baby boomers and product needs for the future
3.6. Conclusion
4. The importance of colour in textiles and clothing for an ageing population
4.1. Introduction
4.2. Attitudes towards colour amongst the active ageing
4.3. The colour selection process for clothing
4.4. Colour forecasting
4.5. Classic and changing colours
4.6. How the colour selection process starts: designers and inspiration
4.7. Sharing information: the case of the British Textile Colour Group
4.8. How colour palettes are used
4.9. From colour palette to product
4.10. Conclusion
5. The adoption and nonadoption of new technologies by the active ageing
5.1. Introduction
5.2. Technological use by the active ageing
5.3. Internet access in care and nursing homes
5.4. Internet access, leisure activities, and the active ageing
5.5. How do the active ageing adopt new technologies?
5.6. Wearable technology and the active ageing
5.7. Tablet technologies and the active ageing
5.8. Social media, communities, and the active ageing
5.9. Conclusions
5.10. Sources of further information and advice
Part Two. Understanding and researching apparel needs amongst the active ageing population
6. Qualitative and quantitative methods applied in active ageing
6.1. Introduction
6.2. Meaning and interpretation
6.3. Knowledge acquisition
6.4. Qualitative research methodologies
6.5. Survey techniques
6.6. Direct contact information-gathering techniques
6.7. Qualitative analysis techniques
6.8. Quantitative survey development
6.9. Research ethics
6.10. Qualitative research aspects of co-design
6.11. Future trends
7. Effective communication in product development of smart wearable clothing for the active ageing population
7.1. Introduction
7.2. Communication complexities in product design
7.3. Understanding the terminology of different disciplines in product design
7.4. Terms with different meanings between specialisms
7.5. Visual approaches to developing a common understanding
7.6. Bringing different disciplines together in co-design
7.7. Using visual communication to help develop a common language in the Design for Ageing Well (DfAW) project
7.8. Case study: communication between disciplines
7.9. Case study: communication with textile industry designers and manufacturers
7.10. Case study: communication with retail
7.11. Case study: communication with wearers
7.12. Conclusion
8. Anatomical and physiological changes with age: implications for apparel design
8.1. Introduction
8.2. Anatomical and morphological changes
8.3. Physiological changes
8.4. Factors affecting wearability and unwearability
8.5. Conclusions
9. Thermoregulation and clothing comfort
9.1. Introduction: what is clothing comfort?
9.2. Homeostasis and thermoregulation: maintaining a constant body temperature
9.3. Human thermoregulatory system
9.4. Thermoregulatory responses
9.5. Factors affecting thermoregulation
9.6. Clothing and thermoregulation: clothing as a barrier between the body and the environment
9.7. Moisture management
9.8. Thermoregulation and the traditional outdoor layering system: discussion
10. Ageing populations: 3D scanning for apparel size and shape
10.1. Introduction
10.2. Population
10.3. Active ageing
10.4. Design for all ages
10.5. Anthropometrics
10.6. Case studies drawing on the sizeUK national sizing survey
10.7. Future trends
Part Three. Apparel design requirements for the active ageing population
11. The role of wearable electronics in meeting the needs of the active ageing population
11.1. Introduction
11.2. Current applications and end-users
11.3. Communication and entertainment
11.4. Comfort and safety in the outdoors
11.5. Fitness monitoring, sports performance and health care
11.6. Apparel heating systems
11.7. Commercial challenges of wearable electronics for active ageing
11.8. Implementation considerations
11.9. Conclusion
12. Overview of the design requirements of the active ageing
12.1. Introduction
12.2. Defining smart clothes and wearable technology
12.3. An introduction to the clothing layering system
12.4. The identification of user needs: design fit for purpose
12.5. Co-design approach to smart clothing development
12.6. The way forward
13. Co-design principles and practice: working with the active ageing
13.1. Introduction
13.2. Capturing user experiences: clothing and technology
13.3. Explaining the attributes of the ‘layering system’ to older users
13.4. Segmenting types of walking
13.5. Creating personas to guide the design process
13.6. Creating a range plan to cater for different walking requirements
13.7. Future trends
13.8. Conclusion
14. Public involvement in garment design research
14.1. Introduction
14.2. Background to public involvement in design research
14.3. Planning for public involvement
14.4. Designing research studies
14.5. Conducting the research
14.6. Beyond the study
14.7. Additional processes
14.8. Conclusion
15. The co-design process for apparel for the active ageing population: the participant experience
15.1. Introduction
15.2. The New Dynamics of Ageing (NDA) programme and the Older People’s Reference Group (OPRG)
15.3. Engaging in the Design for Ageing Well project
15.4. Training of volunteers in user engagement
15.5. Getting to know terminology in the clothing for active ageing sector
15.6. Getting to know the textile industry: the International Sporting Goods Trade Fair 2010 (ISPO 2010)
15.7. Getting to know the textile retail sector
15.8. Getting volunteer participants
15.9. The co-design process and outcomes
15.10. Conclusions
16. Key choices in developing sustainable apparel for the active ageing population
16.1. Introduction
16.2. Ageing market
16.3. Understanding of sustainability
16.4. Achieving sustainability through considered design
16.5. Conclusion
17. Issues and techniques in the inclusive design of apparel for the active ageing population
17.1. Background
17.2. Mechanisms of engagement
17.3. Inclusive design: origins, definitions, and the limits of terminology
17.4. Immersive workshops
17.5. User forums and interviews
17.6. Making the case for inclusive design
17.7. Conclusion
Part Four. From design to apparel for the active ageing population
18. From co-design to design specifications and manufacture of apparel for the active ageing population
18.1. Introduction
18.2. Design brief to point of sale (POS), the current process
18.3. Growing awareness of the ageing market
18.4. Co-design – listen, learn, develop, repeat, refine and repeat
18.5. Co-design – industry involvement
18.6. Getting to store
18.7. Conclusion
19. What textile fibres are applicable for the layering system for the active ageing?
19.1. Introduction
19.2. Natural fibres
19.3. Synthetic fibres
19.4. Synthetic cellulosics
19.5. Biofibres
19.6. Textiles and fibres for health and well-being
19.7. Smart, sensory and adaptive materials
19.8. Interactive technologies
19.9. Environmental and sustainability concerns
19.10. Conclusion
19.11. Future trends
20. Designing base layers for apparel for the active ageing population: balancing technology and aesthetics
20.1. Introduction
20.2. Defining technologies
20.3. The roles of body and base layers in a clothing system
20.4. Designing for the older body shape
20.5. Technical and aesthetic design considerations and processes
20.6. Manufacturing considerations: materials, methods and costs
20.7. Conclusion
20.8. Future trends
21. Co-design development: design direction for the clothing layering system as a wearable technology platform
21.1. Introduction
21.2. Creating a hierarchy of emerging key design requirements
21.3. Sorting and elaborating the design requirements: form
21.4. Co-design prototype design development process
21.5. Technical 3D development
21.6. Final prototype development
21.7. The way forward: design direction to help bring product to market
22. Developing a strategy for the effective specification of functional clothing with integrated wearable technology
22.1. Introduction
22.2. Co-design team
22.3. Co-design development process: liaison with end-users
22.4. Liaison with technology developers
22.5. Liaison with garment developers
22.6. Design communication
22.7. Example: hybrid design specification
22.8. Challenges in the global clothing supply chain
22.9. Conclusion: more sustainable garment development
22.10. Future trends
23. Developing footwear for the active ageing population
23.1. Introduction
23.2. Footwear requirements for older people
23.3. Meeting individual footwear requirements
23.4. Researching walking footwear for older people
23.5. Discussion: key requirements for walking shoes for older people
23.6. Conclusion
24. Design for ageing: a focus on China
24.1. Introduction
24.2. Background to clothing design in China
24.3. Introducing Design for Ageing Well in China
24.4. Case study: student project
24.5. Design direction: merging key findings
24.6. Way forward
25. Experiences in the design, iterative development and evaluation of a technology-enabled garment for active ageing walkers
25.1. Introduction
25.2. Background
25.3. Examples of research projects in health care monitoring
25.4. Research methodology
25.5. Prototype iterative developments and evaluations
25.6. Discussion
25.7. Conclusions
Index
The Textile Institute and Woodhead Publishing
The Textile Institute is a unique organisation in textiles, clothing and footwear. Incorporated in England by a Royal Charter granted in 1925, the Institute has individual and corporate members in over 90 countries. The aim of the Institute is to facilitate learning, recognise achievement, reward excellence and disseminate information within the global textiles, clothing and footwear industries.
Historically, The Textile Institute has published books of interest to its members and the textile industry. To maintain this policy, the Institute has entered into partnership with Woodhead Publishing Limited to ensure that Institute members and the textile industry continue to have access to high calibre titles on textile science and technology.
Most Woodhead titles on textiles are now published in collaboration with The Textile Institute. Through this arrangement, the Institute provides an Editorial Board which advises Woodhead on appropriate titles for future publication and suggests possible editors and authors for these books. Each book published under this arrangement carries the Institute’s logo.
Woodhead books published in collaboration with The Textile Institute are offered to Textile Institute members at a substantial discount. These books, together with those published by The Textile Institute that are still in print, are offered on the Elsevier website at: http://store.elsevier.com/. Textile Institute books still in print are also available directly from the Institute’s website at: www.textileinstitutebooks.com.
A list of Woodhead books on textile science and technology, most of which have been published in collaboration with The Textile Institute, can be found towards the end of the contents pages.
Copyright
Published by Woodhead Publishing Limited in association with The Textile Institute
Woodhead Publishing is an imprint of Elsevier
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British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Control Number: 2014940723
ISBN 978-0-85709-538-1 (print)
ISBN 978-0-85709-878-8 (online)
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List of contributors
S. Benton, University of Westminster, London, UK
P. Borcherding, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, USA
J. Bougourd, University of Wales, Newport, UK
D. Bryson, University of Derby, Derby, UK
J. Bubonia, Texas Christian University, Fort Worth, TX, USA
W. Burns, University of Ulster, Londonderry, UK
J. Cassim, Royal College of Art, London, UK
M. Fuller, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
J. Greengrass, Greengrass Design Studio Ltd, Glossop, UK
V. Haffenden, University of Brighton, Brighton, UK
M.J. Head, Inov-8 Ltd, Staveley, UK
R. Hibbert, Line Consultants, London, UK
S. Hinder, RaFT Research, Clitheroe, UK
C.J. Hussey, Consultant, UK
C. Johnston, Royal College of Art, London, UK
D.C. Jones, Fibretronic Limited, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China
V.L. Knowles, Pebble International, Manchester, UK
C.M. Lewis, University of South Wales, Newport, UK
W. Lu, China Women’s University, Beijing, China
B.R.M. Manning, University of Westminster, London, UK
J. McCann, University of South Wales, Newport, UK
C.S. Porter, Loughborough University, Loughborough, UK
M.C. Price, Wearable Futures Design Group, Bristol, UK
M. Sinfield, Older People’s Reference Group (OPRG), Sheffield, UK
J. Smith, University of Brighton, Brighton, UK
K. Stevens, University of Innsbruck, Dornbirn, Austria
D. Taylor, University of South Wales, Newport, UK
M.W. Timmins, Consultant, UK
J. Twigg, University of Kent, Canterbury, UK
T. Williamson, University of Salford, Salford, UK
Woodhead Publishing Series in Textiles
1 Watson’s textile design and colour Seventh edition
Edited by Z. Grosicki
2 Watson’s advanced textile design
Edited by Z. Grosicki
3 Weaving Second edition
P. R. Lord and M. H. Mohamed
4 Handbook of textile fibres Volume 1: Natural fibres
J. Gordon Cook
5 Handbook of textile fibres Volume 2: Man-made fibres
J. Gordon Cook
6 Recycling textile and plastic waste
Edited by A. R. Horrocks
7 New fibers Second edition
T. Hongu and G. O. Phillips
8 Atlas of fibre fracture and damage to textiles Second edition
J. W. S. Hearle, B. Lomas and W. D. Cooke
9 Ecotextile ’98
Edited by A. R. Horrocks
10 Physical testing of textiles
B. P. Saville
11 Geometric symmetry in patterns and tilings
C. E. Horne
12 Handbook of technical textiles
Edited by A. R. Horrocks and S. C. Anand
13 Textiles in automotive engineering
W. Fung and J. M. Hardcastle
14 Handbook of textile design
J. Wilson
15 High-performance fibres
Edited by J. W. S. Hearle
16 Knitting technology Third edition
D. J. Spencer
17 Medical textiles
Edited by S. C. Anand
18 Regenerated cellulose fibres
Edited by C. Woodings
19 Silk, mohair, cashmere and other luxury fibres
Edited by R. R. Franck
20 Smart fibres, fabrics and clothing
Edited by X. M. Tao
21 Yarn texturing technology
J. W. S. Hearle, L. Hollick and D. K. Wilson
22 Encyclopedia of textile finishing
H-K. Rouette
23 Coated and laminated textiles
W. Fung
24 Fancy yarns
R. H. Gong and R. M. Wright
25 Wool: Science and technology
Edited by W. S. Simpson and G. Crawshaw
26 Dictionary of textile finishing
H-K. Rouette
27 Environmental impact of textiles
K. Slater
28 Handbook of yarn production
P. R. Lord
29 Textile processing with enzymes
Edited by A. Cavaco-Paulo and G. Gübitz
30 The China and Hong Kong denim industry
Y. Li, L. Yao and K. W. Yeung
31 The World Trade Organization and international denim trading
Y. Li, Y. Shen, L. Yao and E. Newton
32 Chemical finishing of textiles
W. D. Schindler and P. J. Hauser
33 Clothing appearance and fit
J. Fan, W. Yu and L. Hunter
34 Handbook of fibre rope technology
H. A. McKenna, J. W. S. Hearle and N. O’Hear
35 Structure and mechanics of woven fabrics
J. Hu
36 Synthetic fibres: Nylon, polyester, acrylic, polyolefin
Edited by J. E. McIntyre
37 Woollen and worsted woven fabric design
E. G. Gilligan
38 Analytical electrochemistry in textiles
P. Westbroek, G. Priniotakis and P. Kiekens
39 Bast and other plant fibres
R. R. Franck
40 Chemical testing of textiles
Edited by Q. Fan
41 Design and manufacture of textile composites
Edited by A. C. Long
42 Effect of mechanical and physical properties on fabric hand
Edited by H. M. Behery
43 New millennium fibers
T. Hongu, M. Takigami and G. O. Phillips
44 Textiles for protection
Edited by R. A. Scott
45 Textiles in sport
Edited by R. Shishoo
46 Wearable electronics and photonics
Edited by X. M. Tao
47 Biodegradable and sustainable fibres
Edited by R. S. Blackburn
48 Medical textiles and biomaterials for healthcare
Edited by S. C. Anand, M. Miraftab, S. Rajendran and J. F. Kennedy
49 Total colour management in textiles
Edited by J. Xin
50 Recycling in textiles
Edited by Y. Wang
51 Clothing biosensory engineering
Y. Li and A. S. W. Wong
52 Biomechanical engineering of textiles and clothing
Edited by Y. Li and D. X-Q. Dai
53 Digital printing of textiles
Edited by H. Ujiie
54 Intelligent textiles and clothing
Edited by H. R. Mattila
55 Innovation and technology of women’s intimate apparel
W. Yu, J. Fan, S. C. Harlock and S. P. Ng
56 Thermal and moisture transport in fibrous materials
Edited by N. Pan and P. Gibson
57 Geosynthetics in civil engineering
Edited by R. W. Sarsby
58 Handbook of nonwovens
Edited by S. Russell
59 Cotton: Science and technology
Edited by S. Gordon and Y-L. Hsieh
60 Ecotextiles
Edited by M. Miraftab and A. R. Horrocks
61 Composite forming technologies
Edited by A. C. Long
62 Plasma technology for textiles
Edited by R. Shishoo
63 Smart textiles for medicine and healthcare
Edited by L. Van Langenhove
64 Sizing in clothing
Edited by S. Ashdown
65 Shape memory polymers and textiles
J. Hu
66 Environmental aspects of textile dyeing
Edited by R. Christie
67 Nanofibers and nanotechnology in textiles
Edited by P. Brown and K. Stevens
68 Physical properties of textile fibres Fourth edition
W. E. Morton and J. W. S. Hearle
69 Advances in apparel production
Edited by C. Fairhurst
70 Advances in fire retardant materials
Edited by A. R. Horrocks and D. Price
71 Polyesters and polyamides
Edited by B. L. Deopura, R. Alagirusamy, M. Joshi and B. S. Gupta
72 Advances in wool technology
Edited by N. A. G. Johnson and I. Russell
73 Military textiles
Edited by E. Wilusz
74 3D fibrous assemblies: Properties, applications and modelling of three-dimensional textile structures
J. Hu
75 Medical and healthcare textiles
Edited by S. C. Anand, J. F. Kennedy, M. Miraftab and S. Rajendran
76 Fabric testing
Edited by J. Hu
77 Biologically inspired textiles
Edited by A. Abbott and M. Ellison
78 Friction in textile materials
Edited by B. S. Gupta
79 Textile advances in the automotive industry
Edited by R. Shishoo
80 Structure and mechanics of textile fibre assemblies
Edited by P. Schwartz
81 Engineering textiles: Integrating the design and manufacture of textile products
Edited by Y. E. El-Mogahzy
82 Polyolefin fibres: Industrial and medical applications
Edited by S. C. O. Ugbolue
83 Smart clothes and wearable technology
Edited by J. McCann and D. Bryson
84 Identification of textile fibres
Edited by M. Houck
85 Advanced textiles for wound care
Edited by S. Rajendran
86 Fatigue failure of textile fibres
Edited by M. Miraftab
87 Advances in carpet technology
Edited by K. Goswami
88 Handbook of textile fibre structure Volume 1 and Volume 2
Edited by S. J. Eichhorn, J. W. S. Hearle, M. Jaffe and T. Kikutani
89 Advances in knitting technology
Edited by K-F. Au
90 Smart textile coatings and laminates
Edited by W. C. Smith
91 Handbook of tensile properties of textile and technical fibres
Edited by A. R. Bunsell
92 Interior textiles: Design and developments
Edited by T. Rowe
93 Textiles for cold weather apparel
Edited by J. T. Williams
94 Modelling and predicting textile behaviour
Edited by X. Chen
95 Textiles, polymers and composites for buildings
Edited by G. Pohl
96 Engineering apparel fabrics and garments
J. Fan and L. Hunter
97 Surface modification of textiles
Edited by Q. Wei
98 Sustainable textiles
Edited by R. S. Blackburn
99 Advances in yarn spinning technology
Edited by C. A. Lawrence
100 Handbook of medical textiles
Edited by V. T. Bartels
101 Technical textile yarns
Edited by R. Alagirusamy and A. Das
102 Applications of nonwovens in technical textiles
Edited by R. A. Chapman
103 Colour measurement: Principles, advances and industrial applications
Edited by M. L. Gulrajani
104 Fibrous and composite materials for civil engineering applications
Edited by R. Fangueiro
105 New product development in textiles: Innovation and production
Edited by L.Horne
106 Improving comfort in clothing
Edited by G. Song
107 Advances in textile biotechnology
Edited by V. A. Nierstrasz and A. Cavaco-Paulo
108 Textiles for hygiene and infection control
Edited by B. McCarthy
109 Nanofunctional textiles
Edited by Y. Li
110 Joining textiles: Principles and applications
Edited by I. Jones and G. Stylios
111 Soft computing in textile engineering
Edited by A. Majumdar
112 Textile design
Edited by A. Briggs-Goode and K. Townsend
113 Biotextiles as medical implants
Edited by M. W. King, B. S. Gupta and R. Guidoin
114 Textile thermal bioengineering
Edited by Y. Li
115 Woven textile structure
B. K. Behera and P. K. Hari
116 Handbook of textile and industrial dyeing. Volume 1: Principles, processes and types of dyes
Edited by M. Clark
117 Handbook of textile and industrial dyeing. Volume 2: Applications of dyes
Edited by M. Clark
118 Handbook of natural fibres. Volume 1: Types, properties and factors affecting breeding and cultivation
Edited by R. Kozłowski
119 Handbook of natural fibres. Volume 2: Processing and applications
Edited by R. Kozłowski
120 Functional textiles for improved performance, protection and health
Edited by N. Pan and G. Sun
121 Computer technology for textiles and apparel
Edited by J. Hu
122 Advances in military textiles and personal equipment
Edited by E. Sparks
123 Specialist yarn and fabric structures
Edited by R. H. Gong
124 Handbook of sustainable textile production
M. I. Tobler-Rohr
125 Woven textiles: Principles, developments and applications
Edited by K. Gandhi
126 Textiles and fashion: Materials design and technology
Edited by R. Sinclair
127 Industrial cutting of textile materials
I. Viļumsone-Nemes
128 Colour design: Theories and applications
Edited by J. Best
129 False twist textured yarns
C. Atkinson
130 Modelling, simulation and control of the dyeing process
R. Shamey and X. Zhao
131 Process control in textile manufacturing
Edited by A. Majumdar, A. Das, R. Alagirusamy and V. K. Kothari
132 Understanding and improving the durability of textiles
Edited by P. A. Annis
133 Smart textiles for protection
Edited by R. A. Chapman
134 Functional nanofibers and applications
Edited by Q. Wei
135 The global textile and clothing industry: Technological advances and future challenges
Edited by R. Shishoo
136 Simulation in textile technology: Theory and applications
Edited by D. Veit
137 Pattern cutting for clothing using CAD: How to use Lectra Modaris pattern cutting software
M. Stott
138 Advances in the dyeing and finishing of technical textiles
M. L. Gulrajani
139 Multidisciplinary know-how for smart textiles developers
Edited by T. Kirstein
140 Handbook of fire resistant textiles
Edited by F. Selcen Kilinc
141 Handbook of footwear design and manufacture
Edited by A. Luximon
142 Textile-led design for the active ageing population
Edited by J. McCann and D. Bryson
143 Optimizing decision making in the apparel supply chain using artificial intelligence (AI): From production to retail
Edited by W. K. Wong, Z. X. Guo and S. Y. S. Leung
144 Mechanisms of flat weaving technology
V. V. Choogin, P. Bandara and E. V. Chepelyuk
145 Innovative jacquard textile design using digital technologies
F. Ng and J. Zhou
146 Advances in shape memory polymers
J. Hu
147 Design of clothing manufacturing processes: A systematic approach to planning, scheduling and control
J. Gersak
148 Anthropometry, apparel sizing and design
D. Gupta and N. Zakaria
149 Silk: Processing, properties and applications
Edited by K. Murugesh Babu
150 Advances in filament yarn spinning of textiles and polymers
Edited by D. Zhang
151 Designing apparel for consumers: The impact of body shape and size
Edited by M.-E. Faust and S. Carrier
152 Fashion supply chain management using radio frequency identification (RFID) technologies
Edited by W. K. Wong and Z. X. Guo
153 High performance textiles and their applications
Edited by C. A. Lawrence
154 Protective clothing: Managing thermal stress
Edited by F. Wang and C. Gao
155 Composite nonwoven materials
Edited by D. Das and B. Pourdeyhimi
156 Functional finishes for textiles: Improving comfort, performance and protection
Edited by R. Paul
157 Assessing the environmental impact of textiles and the clothing supply chain
S. S. Muthu
158 Braiding technology for textiles
Y. Kyosev
159 Principles of colour appearance and measurement
A. K. R. Choudhury
Part One
Understanding the active ageing population
Outline
1. Technological culture and the active ageing: a lifetime of technological advances
2. Clothing, identity, embodiment and age
3. Attitudes to apparel amongst the baby boomer generation
4. The importance of colour in textiles and clothing for an ageing population
5. The adoption and nonadoption of new technologies by the active ageing
1
Technological culture and the active ageing
A lifetime of technological advances
D. Bryson University of Derby, Derby, UK
Abstract
This chapter looks at the changes in technological culture through reflection on the author's personal journey and experience of technology from early manual methods through to increasing use of computers for photography, teaching, and learning. The implications of the multiplicity of changes and their impact on the active ageing are discussed along with the different types of reactions to changing technology. The chapter is very much designed to help new designers, as digital natives, realize the changes that the active ageing have lived through and how this needs to be taken into account with any textile-led designs for the active ageing. However, I also hope others, as either long-term active agers or like myself recently joining the active agers, can see how their journey mirrors or has had similar transitions, if in different workplaces or subject domains, to mine.
Keywords
Active ageing; Aliens; Cultural; Digital; Immigrant; Integrators; Native; Technology; Transitions
1.1. Introduction
In an age of rapid textile and technological innovation, we are now at a point when electronics are becoming embedded into textiles and garments, not just as novelties but tried and tested and ready for mass production. It is important, therefore, for designers to understand the challenges and limitations, in terms of the usability of the technology, from the perspective of the rapidly growing ageing community (50+).
This chapter aims to provide an overview of the technological changes that have taken place during the lifetime of the active ageing from the perspective of a personal journey highlighting the changes that have taken place but also looking at the effect of these changes on working practices and living patterns at the time, now and in the future. My experiences, in the workplace and in education, have led me to contribute to cross-disciplinary research and education through enhancing design students’ understanding of human anatomy and physiology, technology, the development of interactive learning materials, program development, and the co-editor’s earlier book Smart Clothing and Wearable Technology.
There have been many authors who have looked at the changes and identified the types of people inhabiting this new world as (1) digital natives, those who have grown up only knowing this new digital world of the past 20 years; and (2) digital immigrants (Prensky, 2001), those who have lived through the changes of the past 50 or so years of rapid change. These changes are not just about availability of technological devices but how working practices have changed and the impact of these on how we go about our daily lives.
As a personal journey, the transitions I have gone through in my career will be different from others growing up at the same time. Hopefully the reflection and thinking about the impact of the changes will be similar to others even if readers who are digital natives find many of the ways we used to work incomprehensible or, as students have expressed it to me, Just plain weird.
1.2. Learning and teaching
What we experience in school, college, university, and after in work greatly influences personal directions for both good and ill. The transition for me came full circle as I moved from work as a medical photographer back into education, so learning and teaching and what has occurred in terms of changes is equally part of my working life as well as my formative years.
1.2.1. Transitions in technologies
The transition in technologies is most noticeable in retrospect from using logarithm tables and a slide rule at school for any calculations. We only got to use a manual calculating machine for one day, so the main choice was to use the slide rule (Slipstick, Figure 1.1). King’s School Worcester did build an extension onto the gymnasium to house a computer donated by Metal Box Co. Ltd while I was doing my A
Levels, with the whole of the computer needing a massive air-conditioned space.
At university, one student had a new calculator in the first year, 1973. In 1976 for an anthropometry project, measuring the head shapes and stature of medical students, the initial calculations were done using Fortran. This calculating machine had a limit on the number of steps, and first you had to load all the steps and then the data you wanted to analyze for regression and correlation. Similarly, the first programmable calculator I bought in 1979 (Figure 1.1) to make calculations easier still required programing before inputting data (Toth, 2012).
A requirement for university was definitely a good set of colored crayons, alongside pens and pencils, whether initially for the geological diagrams and then for embryology, with stages in growth and development illustrated by Professor David Sinclair once I had changed to anatomy. I copied from blackboard or greenboard to paper, and often rewrote so I could read what I had written.
Figure 1.1 Top at angle, Thornton Slide Ruler. Bottom, Casio Programing Calculator FX-501P. Photographer: David Bryson.
There were a range of audiovisual technologies, even if they had been around for a long time: the overhead projector, epidiascope projecting diagrams and radiographs from anatomical texts onto the screen in the anatomy dissection lecture theater with its steeply raked seats at Marischal College, and sets of stereo photographs of dissections that could be viewed with a 3D Stereo Viewmaster (Whiting, 2009). For teaching practice, it was more using the overhead projector and acetates. For creating handouts, it was a Banda machine rather than a photocopier, with the smell of alcohol coming off the sheets from either handwritten or occasionally typed originals for learning activities and handouts.
Training as a clinical photographer at the University Hospital of Wales, Cardiff it was very much conventional technologies for the student trainees with the PET computer and other devices restricted to the Head of Department, Professor Ralph Marshall. Indeed while working as a medical and medicolegal photographer, a computer was very far from a necessity, as manual equipment still worked and was more affordable than computers (see Section 1.3 for changes in Photographic practice).
Before desktop computers, there was a distinct development in typewriters, as technology moved from manual to electric, with work for copying in photography being typed with an IBM golf-ball typewriter with Baryta paper and Helvetica font, and then moving on to electronic computers, or really just an electric computer with a small amount of memory and a one line digital display. There was then a transition to typewriters as word processors before computers with printers attached took over.
1.2.2. The impact of inclusive design and technology on learning and teaching
Scientists have discovered that digital natives’ lifelong exposure to technology means that their brains are developing differently. Educators are beginning to understand that reaching them requires a new style of education that accommodates the ways in which these students learn. Blended and hybrid learning programs offer powerful benefits in reaching and challenging digital natives
(Rudi, 2011).
Initially back to teaching, first the part-time HNC in Medical and Scientific Photography at Berkshire College of Art & Design and then the BSc(Hons) Biological Imaging at the University of Derby, traditional technologies were used, with an overhead projector with acetates. A computer soon became a key tool to support communication as well as a tool for developing learning materials that with time could overcome one of the barriers to learning—that of needing to have the lecturer in the classroom to be able to listen to and view what was to be learnt.
The aim of inclusive design for learning has become more feasible with technology allowing multiple ways to access the same information. For example, PowerPoint slides as a ppt file or slides saved as a pdf for viewing before, during, or after a lecture or session; videos of lectures as screencasts that can also be listened to as podcasts; handouts as notes, and a series of lecture notes specific to modules brought together into a pdf file or even a course book or booklet.
The difficulty is that all of these are possible, but it is unlikely given time constraints that every possible alternative would be available, so a subset of these is more likely, e.g., screencasts, slide handouts, and links to further resources including quizzes and learning tools or interactive presentations, screencasts, and collated lecture notes. The flexibility of being able to make different materials can leave the lecturer unsure which is the best combination, and many developments can only take place over time as materials are built on and developed further year after year.
The onus on digital immigrants to cope with the requirements of digital natives is for many a step too far and for others a challenge to use the new technology to enhance learning.
Developing active learning materials requires lecturers to use models for learning that are more intensive and absorbing for the student. This was always the best way to learn, but the accessibility to information to back-up and support this style of learning was not as accessible as it is now. Flipping classes where lectures and materials are online and classes are either for practical learning, debates, cases, problem-based learning, or discussions, is going back to experiential learning, and any questions can be asked of the lecturer supervising or looked up online while working in the class.
The move from walking the shelves, to hardwired, to mobile shows the change in accessibility of research material and resources that has reinvigorated experiential learning. Table 1.1 shows the changes in finding a reference to support learning before and after the Internet and e-journals.
The change from one per desk to one or two per pocket or bag, depending on the size of laptop, mobile, or tablet, has freed the Internet from the length of a cable to anywhere with a WiFi, 3G, or 4G signal.
1.2.3. Social networks and communication modalities
The rise of social media from early explorations like Computer Mediated Communications in Higher Education (Steeples, Unsworth, Bryson, et al., 1996) to the massive growth in modern social networks has changed the way we communicate with people in the same organization and other organizations. The change has been from letters, derogatively termed snail mail, to e-mail, to Skype and video built into mobile phones, to business-orientated social media like LinkedIn, to researchers having their own social networks (e.g., academia.edu and ResearchGate) allowing for easy access to papers and Q&A from those who have written papers or are engaged in research.
Table 1.1
Changes in finding references and other resources
This has allowed for better subject networks, which is especially useful for smaller disciplines and specializations where there are insufficient numbers to allow collaboration at a local level. The possibility of sending out a request and getting support from anywhere in the world has become a regular occurrence rather than a long-term goal.
This development—from hard-wired and slow to WiFi and fast broadband access—has freed students and lecturers alike. Comments like these from Steeple’s 1996 paper about Computer Mediated Communication (CMC)—Disciplined patterns of networked activity need to be encouraged, particularly to counterbalance the periods of the day when use of the Internet is busy. Queuing to gain access to PCs can be demotivating too
—are no longer seen in the UK.
The development of virtual learning environments (VLEs) followed by social media tools has led to a split in how these tools are seen with a structured environment of BlackBoard or Moodle for storing and accessing learning materials but social networks like Facebook for peer discussions.
The separate uses of the two types of tools is seen in the paper by Deng (Deng & Tavares, 2013): The students’ perceived benefits of Facebook over Moodle can be understood by the immediacy of the responses they got since ‘everyone is there’ and so ‘you ask a question, then you get a response quickly.’ This gave the students a strong sense of community within the group, and acted as an impetus for them to visit the Facebook Group, post and exchange more comments. As one student exclaimed, ‘I know there are some listeners, they really enjoy my sharing. I find it very satisfying, then I will keep doing it.’
1.3. Photography, audiovisual technologies, and e-learning
The relationship between change and technology in retrospect appears in many instances to have been a smooth transition, for example the selling of music from long-playing record to tape cassette to CD to online downloads/cloud storage. However, many technologies have not had a clear path, as the final use of a new technology is often reliant on not one but several innovations and the wide availability of these to a mass market.
The current use of computers in teaching combines many means of access: the lecturer either loads a presentation onto a fixed computer via a flash drive or plugs in a laptop and the presentation can be viewed on screen; students can access the Internet and download a version of the lecture notes, or link to supporting resources. Multiple technological changes have been needed to get to this position.
For most of the twentieth century the mainstay of teaching was the epidiascope, overhead projector, or slide projector. The production of lecture slides was a labour-intensive process that required lecturers to submit work usually two to three weeks in advance of the slides being required for a lecture (Table 1.2).
The key technological changes include the transition from electric to electronic typewriters to computers and computer monitors, the move from silver photographic technology to digital, and the development of data projectors that can be used in the classroom (Hackbarth, 1996). This is indicative of the multiple changes that have taken place that together affect how we now work, teach, and enjoy our leisure time.
These transitions have meant a big change in how presentations are developed; from having a high level of technical support not just for production but also design of presentations, to a situation now where everyone is expected to be able to create their own presentations. Whether or not they are actually taught how to present or how to create a presentation for a lecture or talk is a separate debate.
There is certainly no one who would like to go back to the long, laborious process of slide creation; however, ardent photographers are for retaining black-and-white processing and printing. The difficulty of this transition is an assumption that everyone will know how to structure and design a presentation (Johns, 1995; Simmonds, 1993), and that the time that would have been taken to develop and process the slides is now used to support the development of the lecture. Unfortunately, this is not the case, as many lectures are poorly designed and structured with little consideration for the viewer or the appropriateness of the final projection for clearly viewing the material. This was often the case when slides were created for presenters (Essex-Lopresti, 1998), and the situation has become worse, rather than better, with time.
Standards for audiovisual projection laid down over many years by Kodak are now ignored as data projectors are installed. The commonest fault is the size of screen being too small for the size of the room, so that the text is too small to read unless the problem of small screen size is taken into account by the creator of the presentation, i.e., the lecturer or teacher. The other issue has been the increase in ambient light, as blackout blinds have given way to blinds that let too much light into a room, so the room is suitable for text slides but not for video or photographs.
Table 1.2
Changes in lecture production processes
1.4. Implications for the active ageing
The examples above in my personal experience are not the only transitions that have taken place, but they give an idea of the changes. We also need to look more closely at their effects.
1.4.1. Successive changes
The change in technology has been cumulative, as each successive change has added onto previous changes, and alongside these have been trends in technological improvement, e.g., from cathode ray tube (CRT) televisions to liquid crystal displays (LCD) to the latest versions where televisions have become less and less bulky and cheaper to have larger and larger screens. Designers used to have to assume that a web page would be viewed on a monitor that could view 640 × 480 pixels.
At the same time as screens have been developed to be lighter and larger so they have also been designed to be smaller and lighter such that we have tablets with greater power than computers we used to have on our desktop. Portable computing is a reality, from mobile phones to tablets, and how we use them and support everyone to use and access their capabilities is key to preventing the continuing development of a digital divide in the older age group.
Successive developments in data storage now mean that data storage is very cheap compared to even just 10 years ago. In 1997, I had to buy an extra hard drive; then, a large 6 Gb drive costed £699; now I can buy 1 Tb for about £50. The need for more and more storage has increased, but the cost has rapidly decreased and is continuing to decrease.
1.4.2. Digital technology and the active ageing
The concepts around whether there is or is not a digital divide
have further developed the nuances surrounding the concepts of digital native and digital immigrant, as in Kaufman’s (2011) separation into digital natives, immigrants, aliens, and integrators:
Digital Natives are called by many names – Millennials and Gen Y. They are approximately ages 10–29 years and born into the digital age. The internet is their default and comfort level in terms of playing games, doing homework, searching for events/information/products, and sending messages.
Digital Immigrants are approximately ages 30–60 years and are the early and late adopters of the Web 2.0 technologies. Most immigrants were born before the existence of digital technology and adopted it to some extent later in their life.
They were brought up with a variety of computer technologies, used them in different contexts and have varied levels of experience with social media.
Digital Aliens think strategic, need to experience digital value. They are approximately ages 45–70 years and are the late adopters and laggards of the Web 2.0 technologies.
Digital Integrators live digital, innovate strategic, need to integrate. They are approximately ages 25–60 years and are the innovators and early adopters of the Web 2.0 technologies. Some were Digital Natives,
while others were Digital Immigrants.
They live the Digital World—experimenting, testing, sharing and implementing new social technologies and evolving their digital knowledge and presence.
These are very much in the way that Kaufman describes them orientated toward marketing, but equally the adoption or non-adoption of smart technologies is influenced by how technology is perceived.
Research papers have reported that although the use of computers and the Internet among older adults is increasing there is still an age-based digital divide…in 2002 about 34% of people age 65 + accessed the Internet compared to nearly 100% of 16–18 year olds
(Czaja & Lee, 2007; UCLA Center for Communication Policy, 2003).
The issue highlighted above is that there are not two groups of people defined as users and non-users (Gardner, Netherland, & Kamber, 2012) but a large number of variants. This is seen in the breadth of ages that the terms elderly,
older age group,
or active ageing
encompass. We should not clump the active ageing into one group from the ages of 50–100, when we talk about teenagers or twenty-somethings covering only 7 years and 9 years, respectively.
1.5. Conclusions
As we move forward and use more technologies, it is important to learn from the past. It is important to understand that it is not one technology but multiple technological changes that have an impact, and that these changes are not sequential but more often occur at the same time.
The age of one computer per desktop, that at one time was seen as fanciful, is now one per lap or almost one per pocket as another technology, Wi-Fi, frees us from a single desk with an Ethernet cable. This freedom depends not just on Wi-Fi but miniaturization of components from hard drives to screens, such that the power of a full computer is accessible in a mobile phone or a tablet like the iPad.
It is this multiplicity of changes that are a challenge as they have come and continue to come in successive waves, even if many like stereo television rely on earlier technologies. What was the realm of the expert becomes available to everyone not visiting a village hall or lecture theater to see amazing stereo photographs from a slide projector.
Designers of the future need to be aware of the impact of technology on society as a whole and individuals. Innovations and new ways of doing things have a positive impact, but developments need to be for the good of all, such that the active ageing are included in the future of textile and technology-led innovations and are not left behind.
1.6. Sources of further information and advice
For the active ageing I thoroughly recommend a number of books that remind us of how technology was developing before the baby boom. One example is A computer called Leo, about an early Computer used by Lyon’s Coffee shops, by Georgina Ferry (2003). Looking at much older changes, The Book Nobody Read, by Owen Gingerich (2004) , considers how many actually read Copernicus’s work including making annotations in its margins; and Leonardo, by Michael White (2000), looks at what Leonardo Da Vinci was actually doing as a scientist.
Books examining the impact, opportunities, and challenges of digital technologies on the active ageing, the world, and how we engage communities in these changes include Digital Habitats: Stewarding Technology for Communities, by Etienne Wenger et al. (Wenger, White, & Smith, 2009); and Information and Communication Technologies for Active Ageing: Opportunities and Challenges for the European Union, by Cabrera and Malanowski (2009).
References
Cabrera M, Malanowski N. Information and communication technologies for active ageing. Amsterdam, Netherlands: IOS Press; 2009.
Czaja S.J, Lee C.C. The impact of aging on access to technology. Universal Access in the Information Society. 2007;5(4):341–349.
Deng L, Tavares N.J. From Moodle to Facebook: Exploring students’ motivation and experiences in online communities. Computers & Education. 2013;68:167–176. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2013.04.028 Accessed 31.07.13.
Essex-Lopresti M. Slide presentations. Journal of Audiovisual Media in Medicine. 1998;21(3):104–105. http://informahealthcare.com/doi/pdf/10.3109/17453059809065495 Accessed 06.08.13.
Ferry G. A computer called LEO. London: Fourth Estate; 2003.
Gardner P, Netherland J, Kamber T. Getting turned on: Using ICT training to promote active ageing in New York City. The Journal of Community Informatics. 2012;8(1):1–16. http://www.ci-journal.net/index.php/ciej/article/view/809/930 Accessed 06.08.13.
Gingerich O. The book nobody read. New York: Walker & Company; 2004.
Hackbarth S. The educational technology handbook. Englewood Cliffs, N.J: Educational Technology; 1996.
Johns M. Design for slides. Journal of Audiovisual Media in Medicine. 1995;18(3):121–128. http://informahealthcare.com/doi/pdf/10.3109/17453059509021636 Accessed 06.08.13.
Kaufman I. Are you a digital alien, digital immigrant or digital native? … Marketing to the Digital WHO … SocialMediaToday. October 24, 2011. http://socialmediatoday.com/irakaufman/381667/marketing-digital-who-native-immigrant-alien Accessed 31.07.13.
Prensky M. Digital natives, digital immigrants Part 1. On the Horizon. 2001;9(5):1–6. http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.derby.ac.uk/10.1108/10748120110424816 Accessed 31.07.13.
Rudi A. Hybrid learning: How to reach digital natives. Learning Solutions Magazine. 2011. http://www.learningsolutionsmag.com/articles/765/ Accessed 31.07.13.
Simmonds D. Standards for medical graphics. Journal of Audiovisual Media in Medicine. 1993;16:56–61. http://informahealthcare.com/doi/pdf/10.3109/17453059309064823 Accessed 06.08.13.
Steeples C, Unsworth C, Bryson M, Goodyear P, Riding P, Fowell S. Technological support for teaching and learning: Computer-mediated communications in higher education (CMC in HE). Computers & Education. 1996;26(1–3):71–80. doi: 10.1016/0360-1315(95)00082-8 Accessed 31.07.13.
Toth V.T. Programmable calculators Casio FX-501P. 2012. http://www.rskey.org/CMS/index.php/exhibit-hall/7?manufacturer=Casio&model=FX-501P Accessed November 30.
UCLA Center for Communication Policy. Surveying the digital future. 2003. http://images.forbes.com/fdc/mediaresourcecenter/UCLA03.pdf Accessed 06.08.13.
Wenger E, White N, Smith J. Digital habitats. Portland, OR: CPsquare; 2009.
White M. Leonardo. London: Little, Brown; 2000.
Whiting S. Paul Brown’s eHuman.com anatomy slides Wednesday 31st July. SFGate; 2009. http://www.sfgate.com/bayarea/article/Paul-Brown-s-eHuman-com-anatomy-slides-3250669.php Accessed 31.07.13.
2
Clothing, identity, embodiment and age
J. Twigg University of Kent, Canterbury, UK
Abstract
Design for the older market needs to be set in the context of the broader meanings of dress in relation to age within the wider clothing code. In this chapter, I will explore the links between clothing and the social expression of age, looking in particular at the tradition of age ordering in dress. There is evidence that this ordering has begun to erode, or has at least taken on different form in recent years. The movement to more casual dress that includes walking and exercise clothes is part of this. The chapter reviews arguments for this erosion, drawing on an empirical study of clothing and dress for older women. The chapter explores the significance of the baby boomer cohort and their adoption of casual dress.
Keywords
Age ordering; Baby boomer; Casual dress; Dress; Identity
2.1. Introduction: clothing, social identity and age
Design needs to be set in the context of the wider debates around the role of dress in the constitution of social identities. Much of the sociological literature on fashion and dress has indeed been concerned with questions of identity, exploring the ways in which clothing and dress express larger social structures such as class and gender. Since the time of Veblen (1899) and Simmel (1904), sociologists have analysed fashion in terms of systematic entrenched change, in which competitive emulation and striving between different social classes acts as the driving force of fashion, and in which styles diffuse down the social hierarchy from social elites (Bourdieu, 1984). Though this account has been modified since the 1990s by the recognition of the significance of other sources of fashion, for example, bottom-up influences like street styles (Entwistle, 2000; Evans, 1997; Polhemus, 1994), and by the recognition that the modern fashion system is more fragmented and plural than this suggests, the sense that social class is a significant determinant of dress remains strong. The links between gender identity and dress have similarly been widely theorised within sociological work. Many writers indeed regard gender as the central preoccupation of fashion (Davis, 1992; Entwistle, 2000; Kidwell & Steele, 1989; Tseëlon, 1995), and it is certainly the case that gender is one of the most marked features of dress codes across cultures. Clothing interacts with the body in ways that both obscure and point up sexual difference, thus acting to deliver gender as self-evident or natural, when it is in reality a cultural construct (Butler, 1990, 1993). Dress thus helps to reproduce gender as a form of body style, reinforcing the complex interplay between sexed bodies and gendered identities, and playing a critical part in the way in which femininities in particular are rendered, played out, resisted and understood (Holland, 2004). Similar, though less extensive, analysis has been applied to the links between dress and other ‘master identities’ such as race, ethnicity and sexuality (Holliday, 2001; Khan, 1993; Rolley, 1993).
Age, however, has not received the same level of attention. Sociology and cultural studies, reflecting the wider ageism of the culture, have tended to ignore age, sidelining its significance and treating it as something more relevant to the fields of medicine or social welfare. And yet age is indeed one of the ‘master identities’; how we are perceived, who we socialise with, how we are judged and ordered socially, what deserts are deemed appropriate for us – are all crucially determined by our age or our location in an age categorisation. We should not be surprised, therefore, to find age reflected in norms around dress (Twigg, 2006).
2.2. Age ordering
One way we can understand these norms is in terms of the long-established phenomenon of ‘age ordering’. By this I mean the systematic patterning of cultural expression according to an ordered and hierarchically arranged concept of age. It can clearly be seen in relation to children, where at least since the late eighteenth century, and often before, children have worn distinctive age-related forms of dress. The degree to which childhood is marked out in this way has varied historically (Marshall, 2008; Paoletti, 2012; Paoletti & Kregloh, 1989). Such practices are associated in particular with the Romantic Movement and the new cult of childhood that emerged in the nineteenth century with its emphasis on children as social beings in their own right, expressed through distinctive dress. Cook (2004) traces this development through the early twentieth century with the emergence of retailing, particularly based in department stores, specifically aimed at children. More recently, the trend has been for children’s clothes to be less, rather than more, distinctive, with the spread to young girls in particular of adult female styles, as part of a more general extension of consumption culture to this group.
In relation to old age, there has been a similar pattern of structured expectations, expressing norms about what is appropriate – or more significantly in this context, inappropriate – for people as they age. Though always subject to historical specificity, certain features have recurred in relation to dress and age: more covered-up styles, higher necklines, tighter-drawn linen, longer skirts. Colours tend to be darker or more sombre, with many older women in the past moving permanently into a version of mourning. For men a similar pattern of ‘longer means older’ (Lurie, 1992) has been obtained historically, with older men adopting the long robe in contrast to the short hose of the young. Colours tend to be darker and more sober; styles less showy. Such strictures focus in particular on sexuality. Old women wearing ultra-fashionable or sexually explicit dress have long been the mainstay of misogynistic imagery that draws on the Vanitas tradition (Tseëlon, 1995). In a more muted form it is found in the cultural trope of Mutton Dressed as Lamb (Fairhurst, 1998). The pressure to tone down, to retreat from being visible, was reported even in Holland’s (2004) more recent study of women who had adopted radical, transgressive styles of dress.
One of the ways in which we can understand such patterning is through a recognition of clothes as ideological (Barnard, 1996), one of the ways whereby social groups establish, sustain and reproduce positions of power, relations of domination and subordination. Such cultural processes enable relations of inequity to appear natural, proper and legitimate. This perception has largely been developed in relation to class and gender, but it applies also to age, for there are aspects of the dress of older people that can be said to be ideologically formed, suggesting subordination and social exclusion. I am thinking here of the grey, drab, self-effacing, ‘do not look at me’ dress often associated with age. This reflects the wider ideology of ageism, with its devaluation of the old and its construction of them as a version of the Other (Bytheway, 1995; Gullette, 1997; Laws, 1995; Laz, 1998, 2003; Woodward, 1991). It acts to naturalise and obscure what are essentially social and political processes, underwriting at a visible bodily level of dress, the structural exclusion and poverty experienced by many older people.
2.3. Age-related clothing
There is thus clear historical evidence of the existence of age ordering but does this still apply? There is certainly a widespread cultural assumption today that such ordering has gone, or is at least in sharp decline. It is often asserted that older people no longer expect to dress in distinctly old ways, and that they are free to adopt mainstream styles like everyone else. Evidence from a study I undertook on clothing and age suggests that the situation is more complex, with evidence of both continuity and change with regard to age-related clothing norms. The study was funded by ESRC and based on interviews with women over 55, fashion editors and design directors of branded retail-clothing companies (Twigg, 2013a).
It was clear from comments of the older women themselves that they were fully aware of traditional norms in relation to dress and age, and that these reflected the established structures of meaning referred to above. Respondents, for example, acknowledged, and to a large degree accepted, the pressure to ‘tone down’ with age. Their comments were often marked by a sense of caution. One respondent, in her 70s, who had always been interested in fashion, explained how as an older women she now had to be ‘careful’:
You have to be careful when you get to my age. I always have to have something with long sleeves. I think one or two of the things are perhaps a bit too young for me. I always wear very long skirts. I don’t like showing my legs.
Many of the comments were shaped by a concern to avoid styles that exposed the ageing body to view. Another respondent explained:
I wouldn’t show my knees, because you don’t show your knees after you’re 50. Some people do and they look awful.
The need to adopt covered-up styles, with sleeves in dresses and longer skirts, was endorsed by most respondents. There was also a widespread consensus that very ‘girly’ styles were best avoided. One respondent explained:
I wouldn’t wear a frilly dress … It would make me look silly. I’m too old. I would look really silly.
There was thus clear continuity in their comments with the cultural values that had shaped earlier forms of age ordering, in particular the adoption of quieter, more covered-up styles and the retreat from showy, ultra fashionable dress that exposed the body to view and made claims to sexual attention.
At the same time, however, it was clear that respondents felt that the situation of older people with regard to dress had indeed changed. A number remarked on the difference in their attitude from that of previous generations, contrasting their experiences with those of their mothers and grandmothers.
When my grandmother was older, she wore a pinny and her hair up in braids. And she was the same age as me! I’m 62. And when she was 62, she was walking round in this paisley pinny and her hair up!
She was determined that she was not going to give up more youthful styles or adopt age-coded dress:
I say, ‘What day do I wake up and I really just want a Crimplene skirt?’ ‘What day do I wake up and do that?’ I don’t think I’m ever gonna wake up and do that … I don’t think our generation ever is. I think that generation’s gone… We won’t change a lot. We’ll still be in our jeans, and we’ll still be in our tops.
The sense that this was a generation who would never give up wearing jeans was widely shared, and was reflected in the views of fashion editors who endorsed the view that the current generation was ‘different’, and that magazines and designers needed to recognise this. The fashion editor of Women & Home, a magazine aimed predominantly at middle-class women in their 50s and 60s, explained:
We’ve actually changed the magazine quite radically to move with the times, because women of 55 are not the same as women of 55 a few years ago. And obviously everybody knows this, and we’ve taken this onboard.
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