Microgrid: Advanced Control Methods and Renewable Energy System Integration

151004.

Chapter 1

Microgrid Control Problems and Related Issues

M.S. Mahmoud    King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM), Dhahran, Saudi Arabia

Abstract

A microgrid comprises distributed generation, energy storage, loads, and a control system that is capable of operating in grid-connected mode and/or islanded mode. As operation modes are shifted, the microgrid should successfully manage the voltage and frequency adjustment so as to protect the grid and any loads connected to the system. This chapter presents an overall description and a comprehensive study of energy storage devices, microgrid loads, distributed energy resources, and power electronic interface modules in microgrids. It is emphasized that the coordinated control of distributed energy resources can be achieved by various techniques, ranging from a basically centralized control approach to a fully decentralized approach, depending on the share of responsibilities assumed by a central controller and the local controllers of the distributed generation units and flexible loads.

Keywords

Microgrid components; Microgrid operation; Microgrid control; Distributed generation

Acknowledgments

This work is supported by the Deanship of Scientific Research (DSR) at King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM) through book writing research project no. BW 151004.

1 Introduction

Economic challenges, technological advancements, and environmental impacts are now demanding distributed generation in place of conventional centralized generation [1]. Power supply companies are now confronted with unprecedented difficulties in terms of meeting the load requirements, consumer satisfaction, and environmental considerations. Thus distributed generation has received much attention because of its potential to alleviate pressure from the main transmission system by supplying a few local loads [2]. The waste heat generated from the fuel-to-electricity conversion is used by the distributed generation system with the help of microturbines, reciprocating engines, and fuel cells to provide heat and power to customers. Adding to the system distributed energy sources such as photovoltaic panels, wind turbines, energy storage devices such as batteries and capacitors, generators extracting energy from other renewables, and controllable loads can provide momentous contributions to future energy generation and distribution. Another noteworthy feature is that the carbon dioxide emission is reduced to a large extent, satisfying the commitment of many nations concerning a decrease of carbon footprints [3]. However, distributed generation faces technical issues regarding its connection to intermittent renewable generation and feeble areas of the distribution network. Further, owing to the distinct behavior of distributed generation unlike the conventional load, alteration in power flow results in problems. To counter the irregular behavior and increasing penetration of distributed generation, the microgrid was introduced.

The microgrid has entered into distributed generation and looks promising for future aspects. It has the ability to respond to changes in the load, while decreasing feeder losses and improving local reliability. Basically designed to cater for the heat and power requirements of local customers, it can serve as an in-interruptible power supply for critical loads.

The concept of a microgrid has received considerable attention owing to its potential to serve as an alternative power source, utilizing unconventional sources and supplying the most critical loads of the main grid in the case of a network failure. Microgrids are low-voltage networks or distributed energy systems that provide heat and power to a particular area by employing generators and loads. They have the ability to operate independently and isolate themselves from the main grid in the case of a fault [4–16].

If proper control techniques are implemented, they may improve the reliability of electrical energy supply. A microgrid can have microturbines, wind turbines, fuel cells, photovoltaic cells, etc., as sources of energy that are interfaced with the help of power electronic converters. All these units are connected to the main grid through a point of common coupling and look like a solitary unit to the distribution network. No additional inertia is added to the system from the distributed generation units. However, because of this, the power balance among generation and load and the network frequency becomes complicated to maintain, especially when the microgrid is in islanded mode [17]. The microgrid operates in two modes: namely, grid-connected mode and islanded mode.

A comparison between a conventional power grid and a microgrid is presented in Table 1.1 to appreciate the role of renewable energy resources.

Table 1.1

Comparison between the conventional grid and a microgrid [18]

2 Microgrid Review

Following the standards of the Consortium for Electric Reliability Technology Solutions (CERTS) architecture [19, 20], a basic microgrid architecture is shown in Fig. 1.1.

Fig. 1.1 Wide-sense microgrid architecture.

A microgrid is an interconnection of [3]:

• Distributed energy sources, such as microturbines, wind turbines, fuel cells, and photovoltaics.

• Storage devices for energy integration, such as batteries, flywheels, and power capacitors on low-voltage distribution systems.

• A group of radial feeders, which could be part of a distribution system. There are three sensitive-load feeders (feeders A–C) and one nonsensitive-load feeder (feeder D):

1. The sensitive-load feeders contain sensitive loads that must always be supplied; thus each feeder must have at least a microsource rated to satisfy the load at that feeder.

2. The nonsensitive-load feeder is the feeder that may be shut down if there is a disturbance or there are power quality problems on the utility; the nonsensitive-load feeder will be left to ride through the disturbance or power quality problems.

3. When there is a problem with the utility supply, feeders A–C can be islanded from the grid with use of the static switch that can separate them in less than a cycle to isolate the sensitive loads from the power grid to minimize disturbance to the sensitive loads.

• The energy manager, which is responsible for managing system operation through power dispatching and voltage setting to each microsource controller. Some possible criteria for the microgrid to fulfill this responsibility are as follows [19]:

1. ensure that the necessary electrical loads and heat are fulfilled by the microsources;

2. ensure that the microgrid satisfies operational contracts with the utility;

3. minimize emissions and/or system losses; and

4. maximize the operational efficiency of the microsources.

Remark 1.1

In islanded operation, a microgrid will work autonomously; therefore, it must have enough local generation to meet the demands of the sensitive loads [5, 19]. Furthermore, a disturbance requiring a feeder to operate individually may also occur. Each sensitive-load feeder in the microgrid design must have enough local generation to supply its own loads, while the nonsensitive-load feeder will rely on the utility supply.

Remark 1.2

After a disturbance the microgrid will reconnect to the utility and work normally as a grid-connected system. In this grid-connected system, excess local power generation, if any, will supply the nonsensitive loads or charge the energy storage devices for later use. The excess power generated by the microgrid may also be sold to the utility; in this case, the microgrid will participate in the market operation or provide ancillary services.

Remark 1.3

The disconnection or reconnection processes must be specified by the point of common coupling, a single point of connection to the utility located on the primary side of the transformer. At this point the microgrid must meet the established interface requirements, such as defined in the IEEE Standard 1547 series. Furthermore, the successful disconnection or reconnection processes depend on microgrid controls. The controllers must ensure that the processes occur seamlessly and the operating points after the processes are satisfied.

Remark 1.4

In grid-connected mode, the microgrid is supposed to follow the rules of the distribution network without being involved in the operation of the main power system. The microgrid operation based on this approach is significant for the stable operation of the power system. In this mode the microgrid can draw power from the main grid or can supply its power to the main grid, thus functioning similarly to a controllable load or source. By supplying or drawing power, the microgrid should be able to control the active and reactive power flows and keep an eye on the energy storage [21, 22]. However, in this mode, owing to the small size of the distribution units, the system dynamics have to be fixed to a wide extent. Another issue is the slow response of the control signals whenever there is a change in output power. Furthermore, because of the lack of synchronous machines connected to the low-power grid, virtual inertia has to be incorporated in the control loops of the power electronic interfaces [23].

Remark 1.5

The islanded mode is an operating condition in which the microgrid isolates itself from the main grid in the case of a fault. However, the transition from the grid-connected mode to the islanded mode must be stable [24]. If the microgrid is consuming or supplying power to the main grid before disconnection, a power imbalance occurs. This is compensated by the energy storage units because the microsources have low inertia and slow dynamic response [25–27]. Further research can be found in [18, 28–38].

3 Microgrid Components

In a basic microgrid architecture (see Fig. 1.2), the electrical system is assumed to be radial with several feeders and a collection of loads. The radial system is connected to the distribution system through a separation device, usually a static switch, called point of common coupling. Each feeder has a circuit breaker and a power flow controller. Developed within the EU R&D microgrid project, The Consortium for Electric Reliability Technology Solutions (CERTS), the microgrid concept adopted in this research involves an operational architecture (see Fig. 1.3). It comprises a low-voltage network, loads (some of them interruptible), both controllable and noncontrollable microsources, storage devices, and a hierarchical-type management and control scheme supported by a communication infrastructure used to monitor and control microsources and loads.

Fig. 1.2 Basic microgrid architecture.

Fig. 1.3 Microgrid architecture with a central controller.

The head of the multilevel control system is the microgrid central controller (MGCC). At a second control level, load controllers and microsource controllers exchange information with the MGCC, which manages microgrid operation by providing set points to both load controllers and microsource controllers.

The amount of data to be exchanged between network controllers is small, since it includes mainly messages containing set points to load controllers and microsource controllers, information requests sent by the MGCC to load controllers and microsource controllers about active and reactive powers, and voltage levels and messages to control microgrid switches.

3.1 Microsources

The microsources of special interest for microgrids are small (around 100-kW) units with power electronic interfaces [39–45]. These sources, including microturbines, wind generators, photovoltaic arrays, photovoltaic panels, and fuel cells, are placed at customer sites. They are low cost, have low voltage, and are highly reliable, with little emission.

Despite this impressive list of benefits, it has been pointed out [1] that distributed energy resource (DER) penetration has not met expectations. Major drawbacks to increased DER utilization are high cost, the need for custom engineering, lack of plug-and-play integration methods, and few successful business models. Many private and public organizations are aggressively addressing these drawbacks, including the Department of Energy (DoE) and other state organizations in US.

Some emerging generation technologies are introduced in detail in [33]. Several microsource models, able to describe their dynamic behavior, have been developed [10]. A simple combination control method for different kinds of DERs to compensate load demand fluctuation in a microgrid is proposed in [11, 12].

The primary functions of the microsource controller are regulation of power flow on a feeder where the operating points of the loads are varying, regulation of voltage at each microsource to accommodate the changing loads on the system, and most importantly to see that every microsource takes its load during islanded operation [19].

3.2 Microturbines

Microturbines are single-shaft, simple mechanical devices consisting of a generator which is a permanent magnet machine functioning at variable speed typically in the range of 50,000–100,000 rpm. The variable-speed generation system is interfaced with the electrical system through power electronics. The microturbines are flexible to operate on different fuels such as natural gas and gasoline. Possessed with good reliability, they are also commercially affordable at economic costs [34].

3.3 Fuel Cells

The microsources include renewable sources of energy such solar, wind, and hydro power. Mini hydro generators, wind turbines, and photovoltaic panels are located geographically in a microgrid. The energy from these renewable sources is harnessed and converted to electricity. The only shortcoming of these sources is their intermittent nature.

Fuel cells are unconventional and produce electricity from hydrogen and oxygen. They release water vapor and have low harmful emissions. Also, they offer higher efficiencies when compared with the microturbines just discussed. However, fuel cells are currently uneconomical and quite expensive relative to other renewable energy sources. From the environmental perspective, renewable sources and fuel cells are well suited for distributed generation in place of their conventional counterparts, including combustion engines (see Fig. 1.2).

3.4 Storage Devices

Energy storage is a vital factor to legitimize renewable energy resources as a reliable contributor to the main sources of energy and to provide successful operation of a microgrid. The energy storage process plays an important role in the balance between the generation of power and the energy demanded [20]. Lasseter [34, 35] points out that a system with clusters of microgrids designed to operate in an islanded mode must provide some form of storage to ensure there is an initial energy balance. Because of the large time constants (from 10 to 200 s) of the responses of some microsources, such as fuel cells and microturbines, storage devices must be able to provide the amount of power required to balance the system following disturbances and/or significant load