Forensic Textile Science

Australia

Part One

Introduction to Textiles and Their Role in Forensics

Chapter One

Fibres, Yarns and Fabrics

D.J. Carr    Cranfield University, Shrivenham, United Kingdom

Abstract

Forensic textile science is a relatively young discipline; fibre identification is the most established component of this discipline. Textile products of interest to the forensic scientist include individual fibres, yarns, fabrics, apparel household textiles and furnishings and are hierarchical structures; fibres are used to manufacture yarns which are used to manufacture fabrics which are in turn used to manufacture products such as apparel, curtains, sheets, etc. Such products are often potential evidence in criminal investigations; typically supporting in nature. Of particular interest is damage caused to apparel during an alleged incident, fibre identification with respect to trace evidence and how blood interacts with fabrics. The correct and full description of a textile product using the appropriate discipline's terminology is critical and therefore this Chapter provides a brief introduction to textile science terminology.

Keywords

Natural; Man-made; Woven; Knitted; Nonwoven

1.1 Introduction

Forensic textile science is a relatively young discipline; fibre identification is the most established component of this discipline. Within the European Union a textile product is defined as … any raw, semiworked, worked, semimanufactured, manufactured, semimade-up or made-up product which is exclusively composed of textile fibres, regardless of the mixing or assembly process employed. and

• "Products containing at least 80% by weight of textile fibres.

• Furniture, umbrella, and sunshade coverings containing at least 80% by weight of textile fibres;

• The textile components (provided such textile components constitute at least 80% by weight of such upper layers or coverings) of:

(a) the upper layer of multilayer floor coverings;

(b) Mattress coverings;

(c) Coverings of camping goods

• Products incorporating textile components and which form an integral part of the product, where the compositions should be specified" (The European Parliament and the Council of the European Union, 2011).

Textile products of interest to forensic scientists include individual fibres, yarns, fabrics, apparel, household textiles and furnishings. These products are hierarchical structures—fibres are used to manufacture yarns, which are used to construct fabrics, which are in turn used to manufacture products such as apparel, curtains, sheets, etc. (Fig. 1.1). These products are often potential evidence in criminal investigations; albeit typically supporting in nature. Of particular interest is damage caused to apparel during an alleged incident, fibre identification with respect to trace evidence and blood staining and/or patterns on fabrics. The physical and mechanical properties of fabrics can affect such sources of evidence. Therefore potential evidence in textile products can be affected by poor handling and storage (further information on handling and storage is provided in Chapter 3) (e.g. Adolf and Hearle, 1998; Taupin et al., 1999; Taupin and Cwiklik, 2010). Textile products should be examined from the macro-level through to the micro-level (e.g. Pelton and Ukpabi, 1995; Taupin et al., 1999; Boland et al., 2006; Taupin and Cwiklik, 2010).

Fig. 1.1 Hierarchical structure of textile products. (Copyright: CDS Learning Services, Cranfield University 2015).

Of key importance is the correct and full description of a textile product using the appropriate discipline's terminology. Therefore, this Chapter provides a brief introduction to textile science and terminology. The reader is directed to publications by The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and Textile Terms and Definitions (Denton and Daniels, 2002) for textile terminology, to standard textile science textbooks (e.g. Taylor, 1990; Tortora and Collier, 2000) for further information and to other text books written for forensic scientists (e.g. Robertson and Grieve, 1999).

1.2 Fibres

A fibre is defined as Textile raw material, generally characterised by flexibility, fineness and high ratio of length to thickness. (Denton and Daniels, 2002). In textile science, fibres are classified as being natural or man-made. Natural fibres are further subdivided into animal (referred to as protein fibres in older text books, e.g. wool, silk), vegetable (referred to as cellulose fibres in older text books, e.g. cotton, flax) and mineral (e.g. asbestos) (British Standards Institution, 2014). Man-made fibres are subdivided into synthetic-polymer (e.g. polyester, nylon, polypropylene), natural-polymer (e.g. viscose, acetate) and other (e.g. carbon, glass) (British Standards Institution, 2013). Generic names for fibres are provided in two ISO publications (British Standards Institution, 2013, 2014).

Fibre production figures are published each year in Textile Outlook International (https://www.textilesintelligence.com/tistoi/); these are useful as they provide information regarding the most commonly available fibres (e.g. polyester, cotton; Table 1.1). Textile Outlook International also provides international information on textile products.

Table 1.1

Fibre Production Data (Simpson, 2015)

Fibres can be described by their length (i) staple (short and of distinct length, e.g. cotton, wool) or (ii) filament (sometime referred to as continuous fibres, e.g. silk, polyester, acrylic, nylon). Fibre length can assist with fibre identification; however it is important to remember that filament fibres can be cut in to staple lengths, e.g. acrylic filament fibre might be cut to staple length to be used in knitting yarn. Fibre trade-names, rather than generic names, are often referred to, e.g. Spandex or LYCRA® instead of elastane, CORDURA® instead of nylon 6,6 and Kevlar® instead of para-aramid. EU approved fibre names are included in the appropriate EU Regulation and ISO publications (The European Parliament and the Council of the European Union, 2011; British Standards Institution, 2013, 2014). In the United Kingdom the fibre content of textile products is usually provided on the care label in accordance with the Guidance on the Textile Products (Labelling and Fibre Composition) Regulations (2012) (Department for Business Innovation and Skills, 2012). If a product is identified on a care label as containing a fibre by its trade-name, then clearly that trade-name should be used in any report, otherwise the generic name should be used (British Standards Institution, 2013, 2014). Note even if a product is labelled as containing only one fibre type (e.g. 100% cotton), it might contain up to 2% other fibres (due to impurities) or if the fibres have been carded before spinning up to 5% (by mass) of the final product (Department for Business Innovation and Skills, 2012).

Fibre identification is the subject of many standard textbooks and articles published within textile science, forensic science and other disciplines such as conservation science (e.g. Luniak, 1953; The Textile Institute, 1975; Hearle et al., 1998; Robertson and Grieve, 1999; Carr et al., 2008, 2009; Houck, 2009). Whilst most forensic scientists would use an optical microscope to assist with fibre identification, low-magnification scanning electron microscopy (≤200×) is also useful as it provides improved depth of field (e.g. Fig. 1.2). Fibre identification should always start at the macro-level by considering the length, crimp (waviness), colour, thickness and consistency of a group of fibres. If variation is visible then it is likely that the fibres are natural in origin; identification of the most common fibre types (cotton, wool) is then relatively easily achieved using an optical microscope. In longitudinal view, cotton appears as a flat twisted ribbon and the scales on wool are usually clearly visible (e.g. Fig. 1.2). Identification of rarer, speciality or luxury fibres is more difficult. If a group of fibres appear consistent then they are likely to be man-made. Although many texts suggest visible features (under magnification) can assist in identifying man-made fibres, it is important to remember that they can be made to any form and thus other identification methods are required such as the use of chemical analytical equipment, or a combination of flammability and chemical solubility tests (e.g. Luniak, 1953; Taylor, 1990; Robertson and Grieve, 1999).

Fig. 1.2 Typical low-magnification SEM images of (A) cotton and (B) wool. (A) Twisted ribbon appearance of cotton fibre. (B) Scale appearance of wool fibre. (Images: Ms E. Girvan, University of Otago).

The chemical and molecular structures of fibres affect their physical and mechanical properties, including their interaction with liquids and this can be important, for example when considering the appearance of bloodstains on textile products. More crystalline fibres such as flax are less absorbent than fibres such as cotton (Carr et al., 2008).

1.3 Yarns

Fibres are usually converted into yarns before they are used in textile products. In some older texts, yarns are referred to as threads. A yarn is defined as A product of substantial length and relatively small cross section consisting of fibres and/or filaments with or without twist. (Denton and Daniels, 2002). In textile science, yarns are classified as being simple, composite (blend), or complex (fancy). Simple yarns contain one fibre type (e.g. 100% cotton), composite yarns contain two or more fibre types (e.g. 65% polyester/35% cotton) and complex yarns are often decorative in nature with irregular structures found at regular intervals along the yarn (e.g. slub, spiral, chenille and loop (bouclé)). A spun yarn is produced by twisting staple fibres together and is hairy in appearance. Spun yarns are manufactured from natural staple fibres, or from filaments (natural or man-made) that have been cut to form shorter fibres; thus if examining a hairy yarn it is immediately possible to state it contains staple fibres; depending on the age of the yarn it might be possible at that stage to exclude a man-made fibre content. Continuous filament yarns may be monofilament or multifilament and are smooth in appearance, but can be textured to induce a waviness or crimp.

Yarns can be described as: single, ply (sometimes referred to as folded yarns), or cabled (sometimes referred to as cord yarns). Two or more single yarns twisted together form a plied yarn, if three single yarns are combined, then the yarn is a three-ply yarn (Fig. 1.3). The combination of two or more ply yarns forms a cabled yarn, cables are combined to form ropes and ropes are combined to form hawsers.

Fig. 1.3 Yarn structure (single, ply, cabled). (Copyright: CDS Learning Services, Cranfield University 2015).

Yarns can be twisted in two directions during the manufacturing process; these directions are known as ‘S’ and ‘Z’ twist (Fig. 1.4). The direction of twist for a ply yarn is different compared to a single yarn to ensure that the yarn is balanced, that is, it is unlikely to snarl or untwist. The level of twist (number of twists per unit length) affects the properties of the yarn. A more loosely twisted yarn will have fibres less tightly bound than a tightly twisted yarn. The fibres can slip out of the loosely bound structure. A more tightly twisted yarn will usually be stronger, more compact, less absorbent and less compliant.

Fig. 1.4 ‘S’ and ‘Z’ direction yarn twist. (Copyright: CDS Learning Services, Cranfield University 2015).

Yarns are often described by their linear density …mass per unit length of linear textile material. (Denton and Daniels, 2002). The S.I. units of linear density are tex (g per 1000 m). The production of a two-ply yarn or greater produces a resultant yarn that is thicker than might be first assumed due to a reduction in length caused by the twisting process. The two-ply yarn might be described as R36 tex/2, ‘R’ indicates a resultant linear density and ‘/2’ that two single yarns were combined to form a two-ply yarn with a resultant linear density of 36 tex.

Further information on yarns and ropes can be found in Chapter 2 and in standard texts (e.g. Lord, 2003; British Standards Institution, 2004; McKenna et al., 2004).

1.4 Fabrics

Yarns are used to manufacture fabrics; A manufactured assembly of fibres and/or yarns that has substantial surface area in relation to its thickness and sufficient inherent cohesion to give the assembly mechanical strength. Note: fabrics are most commonly woven or knitted, but the term includes assemblies produced by braiding, felting, lace making, net-making, nonwoven processes and tufting. (Denton and Daniels, 2002). From a forensic perspective, fabrics of interest include woven fabrics such as apparel (e.g. shirts/blouses, suits, trousers/jeans) and home furnishings (e.g. curtains, carpets, bedding) as well as knitted fabrics (e.g. underwear, jumpers, T-shirts). Fabrics are usually classified as woven (interlaced yarns), knitted (interlocking loops; stitches), or nonwoven (British Standards Institution, 1977, 2011). Fabrics have a technical face and technical rear; the face has an improved appearance and is generally the outer surface of the product. Mass per unit area (g/m²) and thickness of fabrics (mm) can be important tools in matching fabrics (International Organization for Standardization, 1977, 1996).

1.4.1 Woven Fabrics

The warp direction runs along the length of a woven fabric and the weft direction runs across the fabric (British Standards Institution, 1977). The sett of a woven fabric describes the number of yarns per 10 mm, e.g. 48×60 yarns/10 mm (International Organization for Standardization, 1984). Increasing the number of yarns per 10 mm increases the strength in that direction, mass, abrasion resistance, stability and cost of a fabric. The edge of the fabric that runs parallel to the warp direction yarns is the selvedge, it is generally 2.5–5 mm in width, but can be up to 20 mm.

A plain-woven fabric is the simplest weave that can be produced; yarns are interlaced over and under each other at right angles (Fig. 1.5). Plain-woven fabrics are reversible (unless a pattern is printed on one side). Examples of plain-woven fabrics include chiffon, gingham, chambray, cheesecloth, muslin, flannel, canvas, tartan and tweed (British Standards Institution, 1977). Basket weaves are formed by interlacing groups of yarns, the most common is the 2×2 basket weave (i.e. two warp yarns interlace two weft yarns on a repeating pattern).