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High-Performance Apparel: Materials, Development, and Applications
Автор: Elsevier Science
Активность, связанная с книгой
Начать чтениеДлина: 990 стр.
- Издатель:
- Elsevier Science
- Издано:
- Sep 18, 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780081009345
- Формат:
- Книге
Описание
High-Performance Apparel: Materials, Development, and Applications covers the materials and techniques used in creating high-performance apparel, the technical aspects of developing high-performance garments, and an array of applications for high-performance clothing and wearable technology.
Part One covers fabric construction for high-performance garments, from fiber types and spinning methods, to weaving, knitting, finishing, and joining techniques. Development of high-performance apparel is covered in Part Two, with particular emphasis on design and product development for function and wearer comfort. Part Three covers a range of applications and wearable technology that make use of high-performance apparel, including chapters on sportswear, protective clothing, and medical, military, and intelligent textiles.
The book provides an excellent resource for all those engaged in garment development and production, and for academics engaged in research into apparel technology and textile science.
Offers a range of perspectives on high-performance apparel from an international team of authors with diverse expertise Provides systematic and comprehensive coverage of the topic from fabric construction, through apparel design and development, to the range of current and potential applications Presents an excellent resource for all those engaged in garment development and production, and for academics engaged in researchАктивность, связанная с книгой
Начать чтениеСведения о книге
High-Performance Apparel: Materials, Development, and Applications
Автор: Elsevier Science
Длина: 990 стр.
Описание
High-Performance Apparel: Materials, Development, and Applications covers the materials and techniques used in creating high-performance apparel, the technical aspects of developing high-performance garments, and an array of applications for high-performance clothing and wearable technology.
Part One covers fabric construction for high-performance garments, from fiber types and spinning methods, to weaving, knitting, finishing, and joining techniques. Development of high-performance apparel is covered in Part Two, with particular emphasis on design and product development for function and wearer comfort. Part Three covers a range of applications and wearable technology that make use of high-performance apparel, including chapters on sportswear, protective clothing, and medical, military, and intelligent textiles.
The book provides an excellent resource for all those engaged in garment development and production, and for academics engaged in research into apparel technology and textile science.
Offers a range of perspectives on high-performance apparel from an international team of authors with diverse expertise Provides systematic and comprehensive coverage of the topic from fabric construction, through apparel design and development, to the range of current and potential applications Presents an excellent resource for all those engaged in garment development and production, and for academics engaged in research- Издатель:
- Elsevier Science
- Издано:
- Sep 18, 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780081009345
- Формат:
- Книге
Связано с High-Performance Apparel
Отрывок книги
High-Performance Apparel
High-Performance Apparel
Materials, Development, and Applications
First Edition
John McLoughlin
Manchester Metropolitan University
Tasneem Sabir
Manchester Metropolitan University
Table of Contents
Cover image
Title page
Copyright
List of contributors
Foreword
Preface
1: Introduction
Abstract
Part One: High-Performance Fabric, Materials, and Manufacture
2: Fibers used for high-performance apparel
Abstract
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Consideration of high-performance apparel
2.3 Fiber: complex structure
2.4 Characteristics of textile fibers
2.5 Key properties of textile fibers
2.6 Cellulose fibers
2.7 Protein fibers
2.8 Synthetic fibers
2.9 High-performance fibers
2.10 Future trends
3: Yarn and thread manufacturing methods for high-performance apparel
Abstract
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Staple yarns
3.3 Filament yarns
3.4 Composite yarns
3.5 Key yarn properties
3.6 Sewing threads
4: Advanced weaving technologies for high-performance fabrics
Abstract
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Fibers used for weaving high-performance fabrics
4.3 Advances in weaving technologies
4.4 Fabric geometry and apparel performance
4.5 Future trends
5: Advanced knitting technologies for high-performance apparel
Abstract
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Challenges in advanced knitting technology
5.3 Trends and innovation in knitwear
5.4 High tech fibers for knitting
5.5 Advances in knitting technology
5.6 Future trends and novel applications
5.7 Conclusion
5.8 Sources for further information
6: Functional finishes for high-performance apparel
Abstract
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Functional properties
6.3 Yarn processing and finishing techniques
6.4 Fabric processing and finishing techniques
6.5 Future trends
7: Joining techniques for high-performance apparel
Abstract
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Combining
7.3 Connecting
7.4 Compound
7.5 Future trends
Part Two: Blueprint for High-Performance Apparel
8: Design and product development in high-performance apparel
Abstract
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Design and new product development
8.3 Design process
8.4 User-centered design
8.5 Co-creation
8.6 Consumers as co-creators
8.7 Advances in high-performance apparel for product development
8.8 Trends in performance apparel
8.9 Summary
9: Human measurement and product development for high-performance apparel
Abstract
9.1 Product development for high-performance clothing
9.2 Human measurement for product development
9.3 Anthropometric and ergonomic considerations for performance garments
9.4 Future directions
9.5 Sources of further information and advice
10: Comfort and durability in high-performance clothing
Abstract
10.1 Introduction
10.2 High performance in clothing
10.3 Apparel comfort
10.4 Key properties in high performance
10.5 Future trends
10.6 Summary
Part Three: Applications of High-Performance Apparel and Wearable Technology
11: Future textiles for high-performance apparels
Abstract
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Evolutionary pathway of textiles
11.3 Smart and intelligent fiber structures
11.4 Future textiles by functional finishing
11.5 Research into textiles for high-performance apparels
11.6 Future textiles for space age materials
11.7 Thermophysiological comfort of future textiles
11.8 Conclusion
12a: Electronics used in high-performance apparel—Part 1/2
Abstract
12a.1 Electronics used in high-performance apparel
12a.2 Electronics incorporated into textiles
12a.3 Future trends
12a.4 Sources of further information and advice
12b: Electronics used in high-performance apparel—Part 2/2
Abstract
12b.1 The value chain and players
12b.2 Applications
12b.3 Future trends
12b.4 Sources of further information and advice
13: Fabric handle as a concept for high-performance apparel
Abstract
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Approaches of fabric handle assessment
13.3 The science of fabric handle
13.4 Fabric properties and handle of high-performance apparel
13.5 Conclusions and future trends
14: Revolutions in wearable technology for apparel
Abstract
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Wearable innovations for apparel
14.3 Textile based sensing devices used in apparel
14.4 Developments in power sources
14.5 Smart textile applications in health and sportswear
14.6 Future trends
14.7 Sources of further information and advice
15: High-performance sportswear
Abstract
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Smart technologies for thermal management
15.3 Compression sportswear
15.4 Wearables in sportswear
15.5 Future trends
15.6 Conclusions/outlook
16: High-performance apparel for protection
Abstract
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Impact-resistant materials
16.3 Comparisons between materials
16.4 R&D initiatives for enhanced protection
16.5 Design issues for protective apparel (refer to Chapter 9)
16.6 Future trends
16.7 Sources of further information and advice
17: Composite textiles in high-performance apparel
Abstract
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Composite materials
17.3 Structure of composites
17.4 Classification of composite materials
17.5 Advantages and properties of composite materials
17.6 Fabrication of composites
17.7 Composite textiles and apparel
17.8 Future trends
17.9 Conclusion
18: High-performance apparel for outdoor pursuits
Abstract
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Performance characteristics of apparel for outdoor pursuits
18.3 Base layers
18.4 Mid-layer insulation
18.5 Outer-shell layer
18.6 Innovation and future trends in apparel for outdoor pursuits
18.7 Sources of further information and advice
19: Microchip technology used in textile materials
Abstract
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Knowledge base on electronic textiles
19.3 Fully integrated electronics within the core of yarns—The next generation of electronic textiles
19.4 Development of electronic temperature sensor (ETS) yarns
19.5 Development of a prototype temperature sensor sock
19.6 Potential applications of electronically functional yarns
19.7 The future
19.8 Conclusions
Index
Copyright
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Notices
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List of contributors
R.R. Bonaldi Rhodia Solvay Group, São Paulo, Brazil
I. Butcher Coats Group plc, Uxbridge, United Kingdom
T. Cassidy University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
X. Chen University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
C.R. Cork Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, United Kingdom
T. Dias Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, United Kingdom
S. Gill University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
X. Gong Wuhan Textile University, Wuhan, China
S.G. Hayes University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
Özlenen Erdem İşmal Dokuz Eylül University, İzmir, Turkey
E. Jenkins Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, United Kingdom
J. Ledbury Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, United Kingdom
P. Lugoda Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, United Kingdom
J. McLoughlin Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, United Kingdom
S. Motlogelwa Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, United Kingdom
Roshan Paul University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
E.J. Power University of Huddersfield, Huddersfield, United Kingdom
R.M. Rossi Empa Laboratory for Biomimetic Membranes and Textiles, St. Gallen, Switzerland
Tasneem Sabir Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, United Kingdom
Danmei Sun Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh United Kingdom
M. Tausif University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
D.J. Tyler Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, United Kingdom
J. Wood Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, United Kingdom
Y. Zhou Wuhan Textile University, Wuhan, China
Foreword
Once, humans protected themselves by wrapping animal hides around the body to keep warm. The first dyed fibers date back some 36,000 years and woven fabrics from which textile garments were fashioned are thought to have been around for ~27,000 years.
We've come such a long way since then.
High-performance materials, like most constructed items, depend on their individual components to determine the characteristics of the final product. Synthetic fibers have barely been around for a century, but at that time, they have been developed and modified to such an extent that their properties can far surpass those of the natural materials they were once designed to emulate. By altering the chemical composition of the spinning dope and engineering the fineness and cross-sectional shape of the emergent filaments, synthetics are now more efficient at removing perspiration from the body than cotton and can protect the torso from fire much more effectively than wool, for all its inherent flame retardant nature.
But adapting fiber composition and structure alone is futile unless subsequent processing develops at a similar pace. Appropriate yarn assemblies need to be spun, and innovative fabric structures need to be woven and knitted. A fabric for high-performance apparel is rarely fit for purpose unless finished in an appropriate manner.
High-performance apparel is necessary for a multitude of situations; they are not just for the elite athlete or the firefighter going about their daily duty. However, even in these two examples, there are subdivisions of circumstances requiring very different styles of apparel with very different functions. Consider the marathon runner, perhaps, compared with the slalom skier. Their needs are poles apart although, in an apparel sense, they both dress in sportswear. There are occasions where clothing needs to protect the wearer from extreme heat, extreme cold, deadly viruses, radioactive material, molten metal splashes, flames, shrapnel and bullets, knife attack, etc. The list is endless, and scientists and technologists work tirelessly to design and develop new materials to enable the wearer to perform their public duty safely or to help push the body to perform feats of high endurance.
Although being fit for purpose is key to the success of high-performance apparel, clothing also needs to be comfortable, particularly in a physiological sense. Appropriate 3D design, (e.g., to allow appropriate airflow through the garment) and mathematically correct size charts are crucial for the comfort and well-being of the wearer. The laboratory technician's protective suit should be designed with the same consideration of comfort and practicality as the soldier's combat uniform. Producing a fabric with the necessary characteristics and properties is all well and good, but unless the garment constructed from it is thoughtfully engineered and the subsequent manufacturing processes fully considered, those highly technical textile materials will not perform to the best of their ability. Garment design and manufacture form the crucial interface between textile material and wearer. Their importance in the development of high-performance apparel should never be underestimated.
We have come a long way in the last 40,000 years and witnessed the continual progression of textiles and clothing from those first, basic needs. Although fashion has been important for many centuries, it is in the last 100 years that we have seen the greatest explosion in the creation of materials and manufacturing techniques. At times, product developers push new materials onto the marketplace; at other times, developments arise because of consumer pull. Whichever comes first, it is clear that textile and apparel developments have enabled individuals to reach increasingly higher goals of human performance; prevented injury where once a soul would have undoubtedly perished; helped with surveillance, communication, and navigation techniques; kept us physically safe; and ensured our well-being.
The collection of chapters in this book has been long awaited. Much has been written on high-performance textile materials themselves, but rarely do we see texts that give equal billing to materials, apparel, and their production alike. It cannot hope to cover every application in existence, and the requirements of tomorrow's materials can only be guessed at, but already designers, scientists, manufacturers, and businessmen are speculating on those requirements and are already working on the high-performance apparel of the future. A second edition must surely follow.
It has been both a privilege and a pleasure to have worked alongside many of the contributors to this text over the past 20–30 years. They are all experts in their own field, and I know that the reader's knowledge and understanding of high-performance apparel will be enhanced and extended as they move through the chapters that follow.
H.D. Rowe, Vice President, The Textile Institute
Preface
This is a book on the manufacture of high-performance apparel, from fibers, yarns, and fabrics to the finished product that is purchased by the consumer.
It describes an evolutionary pathway of how textiles have advanced into a hybrid, technological, and diverse variety of garments, designed to be reactive to the world in which we live.
From concept to publication, this book took 2 years to complete, it would not have been possible without the contributions of all the authors involved and we extend our heartfelt thanks for their donations to this project. We thank the publishers, Woodhead/Elsevier, in particular the publishing editor Ms. Charlotte Kent for her help, guidance, and support. Finally, we thank our families for their patience as putting together a project like this takes a considerable amount of time and dedication.
We sincerely hope that people who read this work will find it useful to enhance their knowledge of textiles and enable students to augment their learning in the vast and exciting world of textile manufacturing.
J. McLoughlin; T. Sabir
1
Introduction
J. McLoughlin; Tasneem Sabir Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, United Kingdom
Abstract
In one reference, this book provides a comprehensive view on high-performance apparel and its performance and applications. Despite the fact that there have been major advances over the last 70 years with the development of synthetic fibers, high-performance apparel is not a new concept. Advancement in fiber science, spinning, weaving, and knitting technologies and engineering has shaped the way garments are now being produced and worn by individuals.
Keywords
High-performance; Synthetic fibers; Apparel; Knitting technologies; Ventile fabrics; Manufacture
In one reference, this book provides a comprehensive view on high-performance apparel and its performance and applications. Despite the fact that there have been major advances over the last 70 years with the development of synthetic fibers, high-performance apparel is not a new concept. Advancement in fiber science, spinning, weaving, and knitting technologies and engineering has shaped the way garments are now being produced and worn by individuals.
High-performance apparel has been developed and manufactured going back for thousands of years. The clothing of medieval warriors such as knights consisted of knights' underclothes. A linen undershirt, for example, and linen underpants were important as they prevented the armor chafing against a knight's skin when in battle. Woolen stockings were used to cover the legs, and a padded garment known by various names such as aketon,
arming coat,
doublet,
gambeson,
and Hackerton
consisted of a quilted coat that was either stitched or even stuffed with grass. This served as padding for additional armor when worn over the top. The knights also wore chain mail and a suit of armor as the ultimate protection against arrows and being struck by a sword.
If you go back another couple of thousand years, apparel used for the Roman empire for military clothing were extensively used for the Roman legion descriptions along with some of the Latin terms and phrases, which are given below:
The loin cloth—The loin cloth was a basic term of clothing describing a one-piece mail garment made of wool or linen.
Socks—Socks (udones) were quite common apparel comfortable for marching, which made sense when soldiers were marching long distances.
Leg wrappings or wrappings (puttees)—Leg wrappings or leg bindings were strips of material wrapped from the ankle up to the calf of the leg.
Trousers (Braccae)—Braccae is the Latin term for trousers, a style of pants made from wool, cotton, or linen, which became popular with soldiers in colder climates of the empire. Braccae was fastened by a draw string and was of varying lengths from just above the knee or to the ankle.
Leather lappets—A leather lappet is an apron or skirt that hung below the waist and from the shoulders of Roman legionnaires.
Military sandals/boots—These were strong with the addition of iron hobnails designed to withstand miles of marching.
Similar to the Roman Empire, in ancient Greece, the Spartans (a warrior race) used similar garments to cloth their military.
If we forward from our ancient past to today's military advancements, we now have protective vests for the police and the military. Army helmets and vests are mostly made from Kevlar, a derivate of polyamide (nylon), with strength-to-weight ratio stronger than that of steel. The advantage of this fiber is its lightweight properties with its high strength combined to produce a garment that can stop a bullet from certain ranges while also being light enough for the military to wear. Specially engineered garments have been designed, which are claimed to be stab proof, giving a higher degree of protection to the wearer. Fabrics such as Nomex are extensively used for pilots in military aircraft, firefighters, and formula one racing. Garments for racing were once made from 100% wool, and this material was used because one of wool's unique properties is that it does not catch fire but chars giving some protection to the driver, if a fire occurs in the driver's cockpit. Similarly, it also offers protection to the pilots in case of being shot down, reducing the risk of injury in a fire or even death. These fibers are known as para-aramids and aramids respectfully.
As the range of fabric types and demands from the seams and textile properties have evolved, the range of methods for making innovative fabrics and joining of the seams has also increased. The evolution of electronics has revolutionized the textile industry. Weaving and knitting technologies have progressed including stainless steel filaments, which can be either woven or knitted into the fabric, hence making them conductive giving a relatively new name of smart textiles.
Smart technologies have exploded within the last ten years incorporating virtually all areas of apparel manufacture. Advances in wearable technology clothing combine textile materials, light-emitting diodes that light up your jacket, and clothing that is breathable while at the same time being waterproof, keeping you cool while also keeping you warm. Synthetic fibers have been around since 1948 with the development of nylon, but it is also important to remember that natural fibers still play an important role in high-performance apparel.
The creation of Ventile fabrics, for example, invented in the 1930s at the Shirley Institute in Manchester is one such material. This fabric was eventually used for pilots in the Royal Air Force (RAF). With war looming, the British government thought that there would be a shortage of flax (also known as linen), which was used to make fire hoses and water buckets. An alternative was required, and research commenced on the use of cottons woven in such a way as to keep water in, and it worked.
The requirements for research though changed during World War II, Britain depended upon convoys carrying vital supplies, but our Russian convoys across the Arctic Ocean were particularly susceptible to attack from submarines and long-range bombers. Home-based RAF fighter escort cover was impossible because of distance. So Winston Churchill promoted the prospect of catapulting expendable aircraft from the decks of merchant ships to provide local cover. There was no means of landing back on the deck of the ship. The pilot had the choice of ditching the aircraft or bailing out into the sea. There was no problem in spotting who had signals and lights, but the water was so cold that life expectancy was only a few minutes. Therefore, most died of exposure.
There was an urgent need for a new protective clothing fabric that would be comfortable in the cockpit under combat conditions and that would also keep the pilot warm and dry in the sea. This fabric extended the life expectancy of the pilot from a few minutes to over twenty minutes, and rescue was now a real possibility. Eighty percent of pilots who ditched in the sea now survived. It is very important to point out that this material is still extensively used by the military to this day particularly the RAF on aircraft carriers and other military shipping such as frigates and destroyers. There is an obvious reason for this with cotton being superior to synthetics in this case, and that is, if you caught fire, the synthetic fiber would melt against the skin causing intense pain, whereas the cotton material would burn but could be ripped off easily. Ventile fabrics are still extensively used in many areas of life including outdoor pursuits and the medical profession.
The structure of this book has been split into three parts. Part one deals the specifics of high-performance apparel and the materials and manufacture.
Part two deals with the design including anthropometrics and product development, and part three describes the applications of high-performance apparel in aiming to predict the future for the development of this exciting area of product manufacture.
Part three contains advances and futuristic descriptions for the future of high-performance apparel.
This book is intended to be a valuable reference for manufacturing and production engineers, designers, product developers, and researchers working with products that have to perform under extreme and challenging conditions. Scientific and practical insight is provided on the challenges faced through research and the practicalities of product development.
It would have been impossible to complete this unique and detailed view of high-performance apparel without the insight from all the collaborating authors. This book would not have been possible without their expertise as eminent leaders in their field. We are also very grateful to the staff of Elsevier Publishing Ltd. for their coordination of this project and to Manchester Metropolitan University for their support and help. We hope that the people who read this work find it a useful and interesting insight into the manufacture of high-performance apparel.
Part One
High-Performance Fabric, Materials, and Manufacture
2
Fibers used for high-performance apparel
Tasneem Sabir Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, United Kingdom
Abstract
High-performance fibers are developed with unique properties to protect the body. Protection and survival in hostile environment can be linked to highly innovative and smart textiles. Creating such fabrics requires the knowledge and appreciation of high-performance fibers. This chapter explains the structure, properties, and applications of natural and manufactured fibers within areas of high-performance apparel. The first part of this chapter describes the conventional fibers used in production of traditional fabrics and how they have evolved into sophisticated smart materials. The second part describes high-performance fibers and their applications and how they have become an integral part of the manufacture of intelligent textiles.
Keywords
Textiles; Natural fibers; Synthetic fibers; High-performance fibers and fiber properties
2.1 Introduction
Textiles touch our daily lives, from casualwear to household textiles to more technically advanced materials used in medical applications to industrial products. Textiles are engineered to fulfill a purpose; the next generation of high-performance fibers will provide complex functionalities for technical applications. Textiles have been synonymous with human activity for thousands of years and as the years have progressed, the usage has become wider and more varied (Mcloughlin and Hayes, cited in Jones & Stylios, 2013). Fibers have reshaped the way humans interact with the world around them. Humans have used fabrics in almost the same way to provide basic warmth and esthetics (Chandler, 2016). Many people's perception of textiles is on traditional materials such as apparel, home furnishings, curtains, and bedding. However, textiles have diversified and advanced into areas that affect our lives daily from automotive textiles to even more high-tech end uses such as smart materials that are able to react to the environment. High-performance products for outdoor pursuits such as camping, walking, and hiking are particularly big areas of the textile market. Textiles have been developing from the 1930s and are capable of producing high water repellence, while at the same time, being breathable and comfortable against the skin. Garments have been designed with fabric properties that are able to save or prolong life in dangerous situations. All of these high-performance textiles, whether it is clothing or textiles used in a polar expedition, come from one important element of: fiber. The textile industry has invested significantly in research and development of fibers. Innovations in antimicrobial and waterproof fibers to medical applications have provided a greater level of protection and properties, which has revolutionized today's textiles.
2.2 Consideration of high-performance apparel
Performance apparel can be described as garments that perform or function for some purpose (Watkins & Dunne, 2015). Garments manufactured under the label of high-performance apparel need to ensure that they keep the individual cool, comfortable, and dry. Designing garments for high-performance activities requires an awareness of the needs of the wearer and fabric properties. Therefore, when designing garments, one must ensure that the environment, the user, and the garment requirements are considered. Participation in sports has risen since the Olympics in 2012. Individuals are now seeking new recreational activities to keep fit. The growth of performance apparel has seen an increase with people desiring garments that will allow them to perform at their optimum level. Functionality, fashion, and style are key contributors in performance apparel (Watkins & Dunne, 2015). Individuals not only want to perform well but also look good.
Dedhia (2015) lists two dimensions to apparel quality, physical and performance. Both are equally important in high-performance apparel. Physical, as Dedhia (2015) explains, is the garment's attributes: design, material, construction, and finishes. Performance, on the other hand, refers to the garment's functional purposes. When designing high-performance apparel, the starting point of all textiles is the fiber. Bourbigot and Flambard (2002) identified that demands for high-performance fibers are for faster, stronger, lighter, safer
textiles. Fortunately, for the industry, development of such fibers have allowed highly engineered garments to be manufactured. Furthermore, Bourbigot and Flambard point out that the drive for high-performance fibers are for special technical functions that require specific physical properties. They go on to explain that technical fibers will have high levels of at least one of the following properties:
1. Tensile strength
2. Operating temperature
3. Heat resistance
4. Flame retardant
5. Chemical resistance
By combining, one or two of these properties serve the purpose of high-performance garments for new and emerging applications. Application of high-performance fibers includes: aerospace, biomedical, civil engineering, construction protective, wearable, and sports apparel. High-performance apparel primarily uses technical materials and performance properties rather than concentrating merely on esthetic or decoration (Nelson Raj & Yamunadevi, 2016). The opportunity to manufacture specific fibers with desirable properties allow for highly technical fiber production. According to North (2011) enhancement of fiber properties can be to the:
1. Fiber count
2. Length
3. Strength
4. Color
5. Cross-section
Modifying the properties opens many more possibilities to create highly engineered garments.
2.3 Fiber: complex structure
Kornreich (1966) defines textile fiber as a unit of matter characterized by flexibility, fineness, and high ratio of length to thickness. History has defined how and why textiles exist and, at the forefront of all innovations, has been the use of science and technology to create products fit for purpose. Textile fibers are the building blocks used to make a myriad of textile materials.
Textile fibers are commonly categorized into two groups: natural and manufactured, as seen in Fig. 2.1. The origins of these fibers differ from the environment in which they are grown to the chemicals used. Many different definitions of textile fibers exist; Murthy (2016) explains that fibers are those that can be spun into a yarn and constructed into a fabric by interloping or interlacing using a range of machines. This process is lengthy and requires a highly developed form of technology. The advancement of science has enabled new and innovative fibers to be developed from which many new, lightweight, and very strong fabrics have been created.
Fig. 2.1 Key fiber types. From Sinclair, R. (2015). Textiles and fashion: Materials design and technology. Cambridge: Woodhead Publishing.
Material selection is imperative to the function, performance, and quality of finished products (Bubonia, 2014). Therefore, the selection of the fibers is fundamentally the most important decision when manufacturing high-performance apparel. Of the many diverse fibers used in textiles, only the most commonly used and high-performance fibers and fabrics for apparel and outerwear products are considered in this chapter.
2.3.1 Natural fibers
Natural fibers are classed as vegetable fibers (Collier, Bide, & Tortora, 2009) and their extraction determines which category they fall into. Natural fibers derive from cell walls of seeds, leaves, stem, or bast. Humans have used them extensively for centuries (Sinclair, 2015). The following are examples of three classifications of vegetable fibers:
(a) Fruit fibers: these are extracted from the fruits of the plant, which are hairy and light
(b) Bast fibers: these are grown in the stem of the plant and are extremely long
(c) Leaf fibers: extracted from the leaf
The basic material of plant fibers is cellulose. Cellulose is made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (Murthy, 2016 and Miraftab cited in Horrocks & Anand, 2004). Plant fibers’ common properties include high strength, high density, good conductor of heat, very absorbent, and high temperature resistant (Pickering, Efendy, & Le, 2016). When analyzing the properties of natural fibers, it is important to remember that one is dealing with naturally grown products whose properties are determined by the environment, temperature, humidity, composition of soil, and harvesting time, which effect the length, strength, and density of the fiber (Pickering et al., 2016).
2.3.2 Animal fibers
Protein fibers’ sources can be obtained from animal hair, feathers and down, and silk (Sinclair, 2015). Protein fibers are divided into two distinct groups:
1. Animal hair fibers: obtained from sheep, alpaca, camel, cashmere goat, Ilama, and Angora goat
2. Fibers formed from extruded filaments: silkworm caterpillar and spider silk
Animal fibers are made from protein. The protein of wool is keratin, whereas of silk is fibroin (Miraftab, cited in Horrocks & Anand, 2004). Basic elements in protein molecule is carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen (Kadolph, 2014). Protein fibers, as Kadolph (2014) and Collier et al. (2009) explain, have common properties due to similar chemical composition. Properties of animal fibers are high resiliency, hygroscopic, flame resistance, weak when wet, and not great at conducting heat.
2.3.3 Manufactured fibers
As the name suggests, these fibers are not grown naturally, rather they are artificially made. Manufactured fibers are made by processing natural or synthetic polymers into a fiber forming substance (Sinclair, 2015; Houck, 2010). These fibers differ to natural fibers because of the chemistry of the polymer (Kadolph, 2014). There are two distinct groups:
1. Regenerated
2. Synthetic
Regenerated and synthetic fibers are collectively known as man-made fibers and for ease will be referred to as manufactured fibers throughout the chapter. Regenerated fibers use cellulose polymer (which cannot be used in its original form); examples include rayon and acetate where synthetic fibers are formed through substance that at no point, through the manufacturing process is a fiber; examples include polyester and nylon (Houck, 2010). Manufactured fibers possess unique properties with the ability to be engineered into specific end uses. Properties of manufactured fibers include high strength, low moisture absorption, good to excellent resiliency, fair to excellent abrasion, and poor (noncellulosic) to excellent (cellulosic) comfort. Further explanation of manufactured fibers are discussed later in this chapter.
2.4 Characteristics of textile fibers
Each fiber has unique characteristics, suitable to be manufactured into technical garments. Houck (2010) explains that fibers differ in their chemical structure, cross-sectional shapes, surface contour, color, length, and width. The characteristics of fibers are determined by its:
Understanding the key fiber genetic composition allows the industry to appreciate the characteristics of all textile fibers.
2.4.1 Gross morphology
Gross morphology is the study of fibers in its longitudinal and cross-sectional form. Optical and electron microscopes study the length, fineness, and shape of natural and manufactured fibers. Natural fiber structures are determine by their origin (growth and maturity); therefore, most fibers will have identifiable characteristics under the microscope. Manufactured fibers, which through technology, have resembling characteristics to each other making them difficult to identify in their longitudinal form. Thus, additional methods (spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and solubility) are used to support the identification of these fibers. Cross-sections of manufactured fibers differ as the spinneret determines the design and formation of the fibers. Cross-sectional shapes create fibers with certain properties in mind (see Fig. 2.2). For examples, round shapes will give a lustrous appearance, whereas serrated shapes will make fibers/fabrics appear dull (Cohen & Johnson, 2010).
Fig. 2.2 Cross-sectional shapes. From Cohen, A.C., & Johnson, I. (2010). Fabric science (9th ed.). New York: Fairchild Books, an imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing.
Cross-sectional shapes can include round, trilobal, serrated, and hollow, each of these giving fiber its unique characteristic. Fiber cross-section also plays a pivotal role in liquid transportation. Tetrachannel and hexachannel offer better liquid transportation. Polyester, well-known synthetic fiber for sportswear, uses trilobal and triangular cross-section to improve moisture transmission (Manshahia & Das, 2014). Synthetics fibers are modified (textured) that alter their surface and other properties. The reason for this is to increase bulkiness and comfort in yarns and fabrics. The longitudinal characteristics of natural fibers are visible under the microscope, for example, cotton appears twisted and wool has scales (further longitudinal and cross-sectional shapes of fibers are discussed in this chapter). These surface characteristics are important and effect cohesion, wetting and wicking, soiling, luster, and cover (Sinclair, 2015) as seen in Fig. 2.3. Longitudinal and cross-sectional shapes are further discussed in this chapter.
Fig. 2.3 Light reflection on cross-sections. From Cohen, A.C., & Johnson, I. (2010). Fabric science (9th ed.). New York: Fairchild Books, an imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing.
2.4.2 Chemical structure of fibers
Chemical and orientation of fibers is examined through its molecular or fine structure. Molecular chains have different configurations within fibers. Crystalline indicates that the polymer chains are parallel and closely packed, whereas amorphous implies that the polymer chains are disordered (Kadolph, 2014 and Demirel, Yaraș, & Elçiçek, 2011). Analyzing the molecular chains within the fibers can illustrate the strength, flexibility, and extensibility of a fiber. Fibers differ in their arrangement of crystalline and amorphous regions, and the amount will ultimately determine properties of fibers. In natural fibers, the combination is inherently present through nature. As Cook (2001) explains that the amount of crystalline and amorphous cellulose imparts important properties, such as water can easily penetrate through the fibers, and dyes are attracted to amorphous regions and can easily be elongated. With manufactured fibers, the ratio will largely depend on processes and end use. Fibers with high degree of crystalline areas are considered strong and rigid, as they do not stretch easily and also recover from stretch quickly (Kadolph, 2014). Those with high level of amorphous regions will tend to be flexible, absorbent, and less durable and can easily be dyed.
2.5 Key properties of textile fibers
As Kadolph (2007) explains, characteristics of fibers are important in numerous applications, which need to be determined for production into yarns and fabrics and/or other fabrications. This is to minimize variation amongst generic fiber types. The array of fibers within the textile industry is endless; therefore, the choice depends on the final product. As fibers make up the smallest component of a textile and are considered the most important, understanding the key performance of a fiber is crucial. According to Bubonia (2014), key aspects of fiber performance include esthetics, comfort, durability, and serviceability, all of which contribute to high-performance apparel. Howes and Laughlin (2012, cited in Sinclair, 2015) explain that textile fibers have an array of physical, mechanical, and chemical properties. The physical and mechanical properties are illustrated in Fig. 2.4.
Fig. 2.4 Key fiber properties. From El Mogahzy, cited in Sinclair, R. (2015). Textiles and fashion: Materials design and technology. Cambridge: Woodhead Publishing.
2.5.1 Physical properties
2.5.1.1 Length and fineness
When developing specific to high-performance apparels, the choice of fibers is carefully considered based on suitability, performance, and attributes. The length of fibers differs, where natural fiber lengths range from 3/8 in to 19.5 in, with the exception of silk. Manufactured fibers can range from 1- to 8-in long (Murthy, 2016; Eberle, 2014). Fiber length affects the overall properties of yarns. Staple yarns (generally constructed using natural fibers) need to include some degree of twist to bind the fibers together. The resultant staple yarn can appear dull, uneven, hairy, and can be strong (depending on the amount of twist). Filament yarns are different in that they are long and continuous with little or no twist producing filament yarns that are smooth and lustrous in appearances. Fiber fineness is a fundamental property when manufacturing high-performance clothing. Fibers that are below 5 decitex (Taylor, 1997) are used for apparel. Fineness affects handle, smoothness, and luster but can be problematic in the areas of abrasion and pilling.
2.5.1.2 Moisture absorption
Moisture absorption can affect the physical and mechanical properties of fibers, as it can influence the comfort of the wearer, shrinkage, speed of drying, and static charge (Taylor, 1997). Most textile fibers will absorb moisture under normal use. Therefore, when manufacturing high-performance apparel, it is important to determine the degree to which a textile fiber will be affected. For example, wool will have a high percentage moisture regain than polyester.
2.5.1.3 Texture
Depending on the material and end use, the texture and feel of natural and manufactured fibers differ. The tactile sensations of fabrics using natural fibers are generally soft with less luster; this is due to the use of short-staple fibers. Manufactured fibers are smoother and more lustrous due to the long continuous yarns in the fabric (Elsasser, 2010)
2.5.1.4 Static electricity
Static electricity occurs from fabrics rubbed against each other (friction) resulting in a shock. When positively and negatively charged surface materials are brought together, static electricity occurs. Certain fibers are famous for this, namely, polyester, polyamide, and acrylics. Fibers such as cotton and viscose, if dried out, can build up static charges (Taylor, 1997).
2.5.1.5 Crimp
Crimp can occur naturally in fibers (for example, wool is inherent); however, in manufactured fibers they are artificially inserted. Crimp gives fibers elasticity (Taylor, 1997). Furthermore, crimp increases cohesiveness, resiliency, resistance to abrasion, stretch, bulk, and warmth (Kadolph, 2014).
2.5.2 Mechanical properties
2.5.2.1 Abrasion
Abrasion resistance refers to the ability of a textile fiber to withstand prolong rubbing action without deteriorating (Kadolph, 2007). Other factors will affect the abrasion properties, for example, the structure of the yarn, the weave or knit structure, and finishes (Elsasser, 2010). Nylon and aramid fibers will have excellent abrasion properties, whereas acetate will display signs of low abrasion.
2.5.2.2 Dimensional stability
It is the measure of the extension or shrinkage of textile fibers (Kadolph, 2007). Certain fibers will remain unchanged, while other fibers will change their stability due to water (Elsasser, 2010).
2.5.2.3 Elastic recovery
This is the ability of a textile fiber to revert to its original length after stretching. Elastane fibers will recover 100% after being stretched (Elsasser, 2010). Fibers with poor elastic recovery, such as cotton and rayon, produce fabrics that stretch out of shape. Polyester and nylon are fibers with good elasticity and will maintain their original shape (Kadolph, 2014).
2.5.2.4 Resiliency
It refers to the ability of a fiber to return to its original shape after being bent or folded. Good resilient fibers such as polyester are used because it retains its appearance better than natural fibers (Elsasser, 2010).
2.5.2.5 Tenacity
This refers to the strength of textile fibers and overall life span of a garment. In general, manufactured fibers such as nylon and polyester are known to be strong due to the orientation after being stretched and drawn through the spinneret. Acetate and acrylic fibers have low strength (Elsasser, 2010).
2.5.3 Chemical properties
2.5.3.1 Absorbency and wicking
Absorbency or moisture regain is the ability of a textile to take in moisture (Elsasser, 2010). This is relative to the comfort of textiles next to the skin. Hydrophilic fibers readily absorb moisture without making the wearer feel uncomfortable, whereas hydrophobic is when fibers do not absorb moisture. Natural fibers such as cotton and wool are hydrophilic, whereas polyester and nylon are hydrophobic. Fibers, which are good at absorbing moisture, accept dyes and finishes better than those that are hydrophobic. Wicking is the ability of a textile fiber to carry moisture along the surface. Synthetic fibers are known to have excellent wicking properties and are generally used more for high-performance apparel applications (Elsasser, 2010).
2.6 Cellulose fibers
Cellulose fibers are those that are produced naturally from plants. The most important of these fibers is cotton, and it is the most widely used fiber in the world and accounts for over 50% of the world's production. It is used extensively in apparel, homeware, and outerwear and is recognized for its comfort, breathability, and ability to absorb moisture thus making it comfortable against the skin. It is blended extensively with polyester and with other synthetic fibers, particularly spandex, and is used in many applications, especially in the manufacture of shirting. The crease resistance properties of polyester combined with the comfort and moisture regain of cotton produce the label on the shirt of easy care,
the most common blend ratio being 65% polyester and 35% cotton. This makes ironing of this type of garment much easier. It has also been developed into high-performance products such as ventile fabrics, which will be discussed later in this chapter. Proban and Pyrovatex are just two examples of chemical treatments applied to cotton to make it fire retardant (Miraftab, cited in Horrocks & Anand, 2004). Under a microscope, the cotton fiber appears as a very fine, regular fiber often described as having a flattened, ribbon-like appearance. In the cross-sectional direction, cotton looks like a collapsed tube (Taylor, 1997) as seen in Figs. 2.5 and 2.6. Cotton length range from 10 mm to 65 mm depending upon the quality of the fiber. The longer the fiber, the better the quality yarn is spun, resulting in a more comfortable and better quality product.
Fig. 2.5 Longitudinal view of cotton fiber. From The Textile Institute.
Fig. 2.6 Cross-section of cotton fiber. From The Textile Institute.
Other properties of cotton are:
• It is the only fiber that gets stronger when it is wet, enabling a smoother manufacturing process when weaving into fabric due to the ability to withstand the rigors of the weaving process
• It is a relatively strong fiber due to its polymer structure and its crystalline nature
• It is relatively inelastic due to its crystalline nature
• It is a hydrophilic fiber due to its amorphous regions making it able to absorb up to 50% moisture when wet
• Has the ability to conduct heat energy minimizing any destructive heat accumulation thus withstanding very hot ironing temperatures
• These fibers are weakened and destroyed by acids
The dyestuffs used to dye cotton vary in their application and quality, generally the cheapest of these being direct dyes. These dyes have only moderate light fastness and some also have moderate to poor wash fastness, so care must be taken to avoid washing bright colors with white materials. The next dye used extensively and are of better quality are reactive dyes. These have better quality because of their higher light fastness and wash fastness and are very resistant to the degrading effects of ultraviolet light, radiation of sunlight, and air pollutants. The next, sulfur dyes have good wash fastness properties but only a fair light fastness. This is attributed to the lack of resistance by the sulfur dye molecules to the photochemical effects of the sunlight's ultraviolet radiation. Vat dyes are the highest quality of all the dyes for dyeing cotton. They have excellent light fastness and wash fastness and have excellent resistance against the effects of ultraviolet degradation of sunlight and air pollutants.
2.6.1 Applications of cotton for high-performance apparel: ventile fabrics
The pedigree of this fabric goes back as far as the late 1930s when war was threatening Europe. The British Government were worried that there would be a shortage of flax, which was principally used to make fire, buckets, and hoses. It was decided by the government that an alternative material was required; therefore, research was commissioned into the use of cottons woven in such a way as to keep water in. A fabric was developed. Research continued and intensified during World War II, as there was an urgent need to develop garments for pilots flying fighter escort missions over the sea. The fabric needed to be comfortable when worn in the cockpit, while being able to provide protection should the pilot fall in the sea. This objective was achieved by ventile fabrics that were developed by the Shirley Institute in Manchester, UK. These garments could extend the life expectancy of a pilot from 2 to 20 min, enabling a realistic chance of rescue.
Ventile fabrics for the Royal Air Force (RAF) clothing went into production in 1943. Garment designs have changed throughout the years but the material is still widely used by the RAF, and in garments used for many outdoor activities. These fabrics are extremely durable and offer many years of protection and comfort. A major advantage of these garments as opposed to synthetic is that if they catch fire, they can be torn from the skin, whereas synthetic fibers melt causing intense pain. The different grades of ventile fabrics are given in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1
Fabric specifications for ventile fabrics
Other end uses for ventile are:
• Garments for hunting, fishing, climbing, hiking, and skiing
• Rainwear
• Hats
• Horse riding
• General garments for walking
• Surgical gowns
2.6.2 Moleskin fabrics: manufacture and properties
Moleskin is a heavy cotton fabric, which is woven and sheared to create a soft shear pile on one side. The fabric is also manufactured into suede materials. There are many types of garments made from this fabric; these include trousers, jackets, and uniforms. Most suede materials are made into apparels. Garments made from this fabric are noted for their softness and durability and some fabrics are so densely woven as to be wind proof with a good resistance to water penetration. The name moleskin belongs to a group of fabrics known as fustians, being a description of a hardwearing fabric. Most of the production of these materials was in the East Lancashire and West Yorkshire districts of England. Some moleskin fabrics are made from extremely strong warp yarns with a higher weft density (over 400 picks per 2.5 cm). One thing common with all moleskin fabrics is that they do use high-quality cotton yarns, and this is reflected in the quality and price of the fabric.
2.6.3 Flax
Another fiber commonly used in the production of apparels is flax, commonly known as linen. The word flax derives from the old English fleax.
Linen is the term applied to yarn spun from the flax fibers. It is heavier than cotton, and it is for this reason that most linen materials are of light construction. Heavier linen materials would be uncomfortably heavy to wear. The use of this fiber goes back to Egyptian history and extensively for the Egyptian military. The fiber morphology of linen is that of a much thicker fiber than cotton. Longitudinal characteristics resemble bamboo with nodes along the surface, whereas the cross-section shows angular and grouped together (Taylor, 1997) as seen in Figs. 2.7 and 2.8. Length of flax range from 10 to 100 cm. The color of flax varies from light blonde to grey blonde and the differences in shade result from the agricultural and climatic conditions from which it was grown.
Fig. 2.7 Longitudinal view of flax fiber. From The Textile Institute.
Fig. 2.8 Cross-section of flax fiber. From The Textile Institute.
Other properties of flax are:
• It is a very strong fiber due to its high crystalline nature
• Highly inelastic again due to its polymer structure and crystalline nature
• The reasons given above for water absorbency apply for flax as for cotton
• The explanations of acids for cotton also apply to flax
• The same dyestuffs used in the dyeing of cotton are also used for dyeing flax
2.7 Protein fibers
Protein fibers are the resultant product from an animal and
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