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    The Science of Controller Synthesis
    The Science of Controller Synthesis
    The Science of Controller Synthesis
    Ebook225 pages1 hour

    The Science of Controller Synthesis

    By Martin Braae

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    About this ebook

    Control systems can be designed or synthesized for industrial applications based on appropriate mathematical models that adequately approximate their dynamics. In essence design is a guided trial-and-error strategy that encourages exploration of the problem whilst synthesis relies on a mathematical formulation that produces a one-shot solution. By applying both techniques to the same problem and comparing the resulting controllers directly, the strengths and weaknesses of synthesis emerge. The application of two well-known synthesis methods to altitude control of a simulated helicopter is discussed, and the unique features of both synthesis and design become starkly evident. (The designs are outlined as they were detailed in the prequel to this book.) Experience with producing an autopilot for helicopter altitude control reveals that a design approach that utilizes the strengths of synthesis is able to mitigate some of its blatant weaknesses. This was particularly relevant for those synthesis solutions with exceptionally poor practical characteristics that were encountered during the project.

    LanguageEnglish
    PublisherMartin Braae
    Release dateMar 26, 2018
    ISBN9781370917686
    The Science of Controller Synthesis

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      Book preview

      The Science of Controller Synthesis - Martin Braae

      The MBuct Series in

      Applied Control Engineering

      - 3 -

      The Science of Controller Synthesis

      Martin Braae

      Smashwords Edition

      Copyright 2018 Martin Braae

      First published: 2018

      Solely for use in education

      License Notes

      This ebook is licensed for your personal enjoyment only. This ebook may not be re-sold or given away to other people. If you would like to share this book with another person, please purchase an additional copy for each recipient. If you’re reading this book and did not purchase it, or it was not purchased for your enjoyment only, then please return to Smashwords.com or your favorite retailer and purchase your own copy. Thank you for respecting the hard work of this author.

      MBuct(c)2018. All rights reserved.

      Table of Contents

      Preface

      1. Introduction --- The Helicopter Project

      1.1. The Project Status

      1.2. Nominal Transfer Function Model

      1.3. The Prototype Designs

      1.3.1. Tracking Constant Setpoints

      1.3.2. Tracking an Offset Sinusoidal Setpoint

      1.4. Comment

      2. Fundamental State Space Control of the Helicopter

      2.1. Two State Space Models for the Helicopter Dynamics

      2.2. State Feedback Control

      2.3. Pole Placement Control

      2.3.1. Controller Gain Computation for Model ssm#1

      2.3.2. Controller Performance

      2.3.3. Controller Gain Calculation for the Alternative Model ssm#2

      2.3.4. Engineering Comment

      2.4. State Observers

      2.4.1. Synthesis of Observer Gains

      2.4.2. Performance of Observer-based State-feedback Control Systems

      2.4.3. The Effect of Disturbances and Sensor Noise

      2.4.4. Faster Observer Dynamics

      2.5. A Design Method Based on State Feedback Control Synthesis

      2.5.1. Performance During Cargo Handling

      2.5.2. Limits to the Speed of Observer Dynamics

      2.6. Choice of State Space Model

      2.7. Comment

      3. Implementation of the Autopilot

      3.1. The Control System as Equivalent Transfer Functions

      3.1.1. Controller Invariance to the Choice of State Space Model

      3.2. Direct Comparison of the Designed and Synthesized Control Systems

      3.2.1. Increase in Loop Gains

      3.3. Tweaking Parameters of the Synthesized and the Designed Control Systems

      3.4. Controller Robustness

      3.5. Field Trials of the Synthesized Controller

      3.5.1. A Significant Practical Observation

      3.5.2. In Search of Insight

      4. Setpoint Tracking for State Feedback Controllers

      4.1. The Augmented System

      4.2. Controller Synthesis

      4.3. Observer Synthesis

      4.4. Performance Evaluation

      4.4.1. Improvement Sought by a Superimposed Design Approach

      4.5. Implementation as Autopilot Code

      4.6. Comparison of a Synthesized and a Designed Autopilot

      4.7. An Inconvenient Truth

      4.7.1. Simplification of the Synthesized Autopilot

      4.7.2. Robustness

      4.8. Tracking An Offset Sinusoidal Setpoint

      4.9. Engineering Comment

      4.10. Field Trials

      5. Optimal Control

      5.1. The Cost Function for Optimal Control

      5.2. Gain Computation

      5.2.1. Alternative Optimization Weights

      5.3. A Type I Optimal Controller

      5.3.1. A More Realistic Proposal

      5.3.2. Improving Cargo Handling Transients

      5.3.3. Conditional Stability

      5.4. Using Optimal Control to Achieve Specific Dynamics

      5.4.1. Direct Specification of the Dynamics

      5.4.2. Dynamics of the Optimal Control Autopilot

      5.5. A Design Approach Based on Optimal Control

      5.5.1. The Effect of Weights on Dynamics

      5.5.2. The Effect of Weights on Magnitude (Cargo Handling)

      5.5.3. A Reduced Search Space

      5.6. Observers for Optimal Control Systems

      5.6.1. The Pole Placement Approach

      5.6.2. The Optimal Control Approach

      5.6.3. An Observer Example

      6. Visualization, Searches and Conclusion

      6.1. A Search Method for Pole Placement

      6.2. A Search Method for Optimal Control

      6.3. The Fissure Lurking Between Theory and Application

      6.4. The Sinusoid Phenomenon

      Appendix A. Dynamic Models

      A.1.Transfer Function or Input-Output Dynamic Models

      A.2. State Space Dynamic Models

      A.3. Converting Transfer Functions to State Space Models

      A.3.1. Direct Programming Method

      A.3.2. Cascade Programming Method

      A.3.3. Parallel Programming Method

      A.4. Canonical Forms

      A.4.1. The Diagonal Canonical State Space Model

      A.4.2. A Critical Engineering Modification

      A.5. Converting a State Space Model to a Transfer Function

      A.6. Properties of State Space Models

      A.6.1. Final Value Theory

      A.6.2. Initial Value Theory

      A.6.3. Poles

      A.6.4. Zeros

      B. State Feedback Control Theory

      B.1. The Basic Theory of State Feedback Control

      B.2. Its Steady State Behaviour

      C. State Observers

      C.1. The Full State Observer

      C.2. The Separation Theorem

      C.3. Computation of the Observer Gains

      C.4. The Reduced Order State Observer

      D. Practical Formulation of State Estimators

      D.1. The Effect of Disturbances and Noise on the Estimated States

      D.2. Realistic Reduced Order Estimator

      E. Asymptotic Tracking of Setpoints

      E.1. State Feedback Control for Setpoint Tracking

      E.2. A Type Number Block and an Observer

      F Computation of Gains for Pole Assignment

      F.1. Loop Analysis Based on the Open Loop System

      F.2. Loop Analysis Based on the Controlled System

      F.3. The Souriau-Faddeev-Faddeev Algorithm

      F.4. Application to Pole Placement (a.k.a. Pole Assignment)

      F.5. Reference

      G. Controllers Produced by Input-Output Design Methods

      G.1. A Nominal Dynamic Model

      G.2. Type 0 Control Law

      G.3. Initial Type I Prototype

      G.4. Improved Type I Prototype Controller

      G.5. Sine Wave Tracking Controller

      About the Author

      The MBuct Series in Applied Control Engineering

      Support Software

      Preface

      Engineering design and mathematical synthesis represent two distinctly different strategies for producing hardware that can control a given process automatically. Each has merits and quirks (or more broadly speaking, technical characteristics) that appeal to its adherents and frustrate its detractors. This third book in the MBuct Series on Applied Control Engineering takes an in-depth look at the use of two well-known synthesis methods based on state space models. It also compares synthesized controllers to those previously designed using transfer function models, as described in the second book. For consistency, altitude control of a simulated helicopter remains the tangible control problem on which the synthesis methods are exercised so that they can be fully understood in juxtaposition to the ones produced by design techniques. This comparison will clearly illustrate the differences between "pure" and "applied" control engineering.

      Formulating process dynamics as state space models opens the way to the popular and powerful control engineering system known as state feedback control. In some applications (notably control of the angular position of a servomotor shaft) it is indisputable that a state feedback configuration yields the best performance (through a structure known as minor loop control in which measurements of both speed and position are fed back to set the input thereby ensuring exceptionally good control of position). Unfortunately this praise does not extend to all applications of state feedback control, especially those in which an observer is required to estimate process states that cannot be measured by physical sensors.

      In such instances mathematically perfect solutions may lead to poor engineering products that begin to reveal more starkly the differences between control engineering theory and control engineering applications. In effect the gentle mists of mathematical formulations thicken into a veritable fog of solutions, some wrapped in an aura of erudite complexity. Impressive as such solutions may be to the inexperienced, it is possible that simpler equivalents, leading to much better engineering hardware, may have become obscured along the way. That said, it should be noted that some excellent engineering products might only be revealed through complexity that becomes an essential but intermediary stage in finding viable control systems for industrial applications.

      It should also be noted that the mathematical techniques in state feedback control theory provide unparalleled insight into the internal structure of dynamics systems, including their control problems. This can contribute significantly to the quality of the final control system that emerges, provided that engineering oversight and wisdom are allowed to prevail. Two unfortunate phenomena lurk in the standard state space theory propounded in many textbooks: Firstly the vital feedback principle is not encapsulated in its basic formulation of problems and so it is absent from the standard solutions. Secondly state observers can lead to poor engineering in practical applications if relatively complex mathematical solutions are not analysed further to ensure that the eventual hardware becomes a professionally engineered product. A more subtle practical issue relates to the best choice of state space model for a given process --- A topic that is rarely discussed in standard texts even though the choice affects controller performance as will be demonstrated in the helicopter project.

      This book considers the problem of synthesizing control systems for a simulated helicopter that allows readers to gain first-hand experience of producing sound state feedback control systems by a judicious combination of synthesis and design. The common synthesis methods of pole placement and of optimal control are considered here; the design methods were covered in Book_2: The Art of Controller Design.

      As before, regular textbook theory is briefly summarized in appendices so that the main text can focus on the project in hand, namely the synthesis of suitable autopilots for altitude control of the simulated helicopter. This book aims to explore not only what these synthesis methods can deliver but also how they can be combined with design approaches to deal more effectively with practical engineering applications.

      Martin Braae

      Oakridge, March 2018

      Chapter 1 Introduction --- The Helicopter Project

      The helicopter simulator that is used to illustrate the use of control engineering theory on a practical problem is described. The solutions that were designed previously are briefly summarized, as is a revised project brief that evolved during the design project [Book_2].

      Adhering to the pertinent advice of Kung Fu Tze (551-479BC) that echoes down to us through the millennia:

      the helicopter project continues to be the focus of our story on engineering practical control systems. It requires that an autopilot be produced to hold a simulated helicopter at a set height above the deck of a ship:

      Figure 1.1 User Interface to the Helicopter

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