Running head: WITMERS CONTRIBUTION TO SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY

Lightner Witmers Contribution to the Development of School Psychology John Laing University of Calgary Dr. Mueller APSY 635

Lightner Witmers Contribution to the Development of School Psychology

Running head: WITMERS CONTRIBUTION TO SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY

Lightner Witmers contribution to the field of psychology can be seen as one of the most important historical developments in modern school psychology and has arguably had the greatest impact on the development of school psychology. Although school psychology looks much different today, Witmer set the stage for the progression of school psychology as a profession and as an area of psychological research. The goal of this paper is to outline the influence of Witmer on the development of school psychology. Specifically, this paper will explore Witmers influence on the development of clinical methods for assessing and treating school children, as well as the connection between clinical psychology and school psychology. Witmers contribution to the development of the clinical method, the treatment team and collaboration, diagnostic teaching, and field experience will also be discussed as they are still relevant concepts in modern school psychology. Connection between Psychology and Education Perhaps one of the most significant contributions of Witmer to the development of school psychology was his creation in 1896 of the first psychological clinic in the United States of America (Benjamin & Baker, 2004; Fagan & Wise, 2007). French (1984) argued that school psychology began when Witmer opened his clinic at the University of Pennsylvania. According to French, the clinic was first developed to assess and treat children who displayed moral or mental retardation and children who were developmentally delayed due to physical impairment; however, it later progressed to study normal children, gifted children, and college students. Witmer used his clinic

Running head: WITMERS CONTRIBUTION TO SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY

to assess and treat children referred to him by the school system providing an important link between psychology and education (Benjamin & Baker, 2004; Fagan & Wise, 2007; French, 1984). Witmer (1909) stated, these investigations are demonstrating to educators the necessity of calling upon the psychological expert to assist in solving their peculiar problems (p.126). Education underwent a transformation during Witmers time because of the increased number of students enrolled in schools. According to Braden, DiMarino-Linnen, and Good (2001) the increased number of students, as a result of compulsory schooling legislation, led to vast variation between students in relation to their development and educational needs. Likely in response to the individual variation between students, Witmer espoused the need for special classes for children who did not respond positively to regular education techniques. Witmer stated in 1909, It is my opinion that we need special classes in all our schools (p. 151). By 1910 special education classes were realized in many schools in the United States (Braden et al., 2001). Although inclusion is becoming more prominent in modern school systems, special education classes have provided a means to teach students who, for whatever reason, require supportive educational services that have not been provided in regular education classrooms. Witmers call for special education classes to meet the needs of students who significantly varied in their educational needs was progressive for his time and is still realized today. Although today many educational boards are moving toward inclusive

Running head: WITMERS CONTRIBUTION TO SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY practice, Witmer would have likely supported such a move because he seemed in favor of differential teaching based on the individual needs of

students. Even though Witmer advocated for special education classrooms, it is more likely he was calling for specialized teaching to meet the individual needs of diverse learners. Today this is realized in both inclusive classrooms and special education classes. According to Braden et al. (2001) the majority of modern school psychologists work is with students who do not benefit from regular education classes and require additional supports in order to be successful. Braden and colleagues argue that school psychologists today spend most of their time doing assessments and spend half as much time on the intervention process. Witmer was a proponent of good assessment; however, his work seemed to always include intervention as well. In many cases modern school psychology focuses specifically on assessment and is not always extensively involved in the intervention process. Witmer would have argued the need to have modern school psychologists involved in both equally. As a knowledgeable psychologist Witmer understood that school performance problems were not always related to such things as medical ailments but rather due to cognitive and behavioral problems as well (Benjamin & Baker, 2004). Witmer recognized that psychological principals could be useful in identifying and treating problems of school performance. One of the most notable cases in the development of clinical psychology and its relevance to school psychology was a teenage boy brought to the newly

Running head: WITMERS CONTRIBUTION TO SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY founded clinic by his teacher (Benjamin & Baker, 2004; Fagan & Wise, 2007;

French, 1984; Witmer, 1907). The 14 year old boy was brought to the clinic by his teacher because no other obvious reason could account for the boys chronic poor spelling. According to McReynolds (1987), Witmer discovered that the boy was unable to remember the form of words, which Witmer called visual verbal amnesia. Since the boy had never been able to recognize words, Witmer diagnosed the boy as suffering from visual aphasia as a result of deficits in his sensory visual process. After being assessed and treated at the clinic the boys spelling and reading improved. Witmer developed a comprehensive treatment plan that required daily remedial work conducted at the clinic and in the classroom. The remedial work was to teach the boy words through consistent practice of word recognition. Witmers early clinical description of the assessment and treatment process lead to further study and would now be identified as dyslexia (McReynolds, 1987). The Development of the Clinical Method Witmer used what he called the clinical method for assessing and treating such clients (Witmer, 1907). The clinical method was an individualized assessment approach that incorporated medical testing, optometric testing, psychometric testing, and included physical measurements of the body and head (Benjamin & Baker, 2004). In developing the clinic approach Witmer utilized instruments, previously used for psychological research, as assessment tools and developed comprehensive treatment plans

Running head: WITMERS CONTRIBUTION TO SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY based on the assessment and input from other professionals (Benjamin & Baker, 2004). According to Witmer (1907/1909), this method was effective in treating and eliminating many problems with school performance for children including, the case of the 14 year old boy who was brought to the clinic because of chronic bad spelling. Assessment

Witmer acknowledged the need for an individualized and comprehensive assessment. Witmers focus on the understanding of individual differences between students and the use of mental testing to help assess a child is known as idiographic focus (Braden, et al., 2001; French, 1994). Idiographic focus sees individuals as having their own unique characteristics that make them different from others (French, 1994). Using this approach Witmer focused on individual traits that were unique to the child and studied the whole child. Focusing on the uniqueness of the child Witmer was able to provide individualized assessment and intervention for students that highlighted their specific strengths and challenges. This approach has lead to research and exploration of problems in the field of psychology that are more individualized and qualitative in nature. Using such an approach Witmer was able to uncover a plethora of information about a clients thoughts, emotions and behaviors. Witmers uses of teacher observations during assessment, as well as his use of case studies to present relevant information regarding the client, are two techniques of the idiographic approach. According to Fagan (1996),

Running head: WITMERS CONTRIBUTION TO SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY Witmer placed more emphasis on observational data that provided a unique picture of the childs functioning than he did on normative psychological test scores. Fagan argued that Witmer believed the qualitative information that could be gathered by observations during normative testing provided a more accurate and comprehensive picture of the childs deficits and that normative test taking was most useful in that it provided a standard setting for the child to be observed. Known as orthogeney, Witmer also focused on normative and deviant

child development (Braden et al., 2004). The field of orthogenics was created by Witmer and was used to describe the study and treatment of disturbed children (Fagan & Wise, 2007; French 1984). Witmers idiographic focus and orthogenic approach are still relevant concepts in modern school psychology. Both approaches provided a framework to study problems related to difficulties with school achievement. Although the field has expanded today, the idiographic and orthogenic approaches have created a framework for school psychology to advance its knowledge of childhood learning, behavior, and emotional problems (Benjamin & Baker, 2004; Fagan, 1992). The Treatment Team The clinical method also incorporated professionals from other disciplines to aid in the assessment process and the planning of appropriate intervention (Benjamin & Baker, 2004). Professionals from other fields would add their specific expertise to the case formulation to ensure the assessment was holistic. Witmer understood the value of collaboration in treating children

Running head: WITMERS CONTRIBUTION TO SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY and proved that collaborative practices are essential to accurate case formulation.

Witmer paved the way for collaborative practice. According to Benjamin and Baker (2004), Witmer assembled assessment and treatment teams that included social workers, teachers, doctors and psychologists. Witmer believed teachers were of particular importance in the assessment and treatment process because they could provide useful observational data and insight into teaching practices (Fagan & Wise, 2007). Diagnostic teaching. Another important concept to the clinical method and treatment team developed by Witmer was the practice of diagnostic teaching (Benjamin & Baker, 2004; Fagan, 1996; Fagan & Wise, 2007; French, 1984;). Witmers concept called for the continual assessment of students needs; the development of useful teaching techniques based on the success of previous achievement on tasks and assessments to provide meaningful instruction; and direct instruction to the child to help them develop personal strategies to overcome their struggles (Sandoval, 1993). Today, diagnostic teaching remains an important part of the assessment and intervention process. Diagnostic teaching is also closely linked to what is known as differential instruction in todays classroom. Differential instruction is based on the idea that not all students benefit from the same instructional techniques. Material is presented to diverse learners in a way that is conducive to their learning style (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2007). Differential instruction is very similar to Witmers concept of diagnostic teaching and is

Running head: WITMERS CONTRIBUTION TO SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY also situated in basic psychological principles of learning and memory. Environmental influence. Much like the understanding of modern school psychologists, Witmer understood the need for a comprehensive assessment that considered as much of the childs personal attributes as possible and the influence of the childs environment. Witmers clinical method assessed each child as an individual and also took into account their unique environment. Although it is commonly understood in modern psychology, Witmer seemed precocious regarding his understanding of the influence of the childs environment in the onset and treatment of school performance problems. According to Benjamin and Baker (2004), Witmer believed that environmental factors played an important role in the development or delay of traits including intelligence and behavior. To aide in assessment and intervention outside of the clinic Witmer would enlist the help of social workers. Social workers could enter the home to provided observational data for the assessment process and support the family with the intervention if necessary (Benjamin & Baker, 2004). Today

many schools incorporate such an idea by utilizing in-home support workers or social workers to help provide support to families who need it. Today school psychologists, social workers, community agencies and mental health professionals often work in collaboration to ensure assessments are comprehensive and interventions are congruent across all settings including the home and school environments.

Running head: WITMERS CONTRIBUTION TO SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY

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Contributions that Shaped the Profession of School Psychology Witmer was a strong advocate and model for both the fields of psychology and school psychology. Founded in 1892, Witmer was a charter member of the American Psychological Association (APA) (Benjamin & Baker, 2004; Fagan, 1996; Fagan & Wise, 2007; McReynolds, 1987). In 1896 Witmer presented his views of psychology to the APA and advocated for the need to have psychologists apply their knowledge of psychological principals to both medicine and education (Benjamin & Baker, 2004; Fagan & Wise, 2007). During his lecture to the APA Witmer outlined several areas in which psychology could be applied including: research of disturbed children using statistical and clinical methods; the development of psychological clinics and hospital schools for children who were mental retarded or had physical abnormalities that impeded their academic achievement; teaching opportunities for those in other fields such as social workers and teachers to observe clinical work with both typical and atypical developed children; and to train psychological experts to work with disturbed children in the school system (Benjamin & Baker, 2004). According to French (1984), Witmer also played a large role in the development of the Pennsylvania Association of Clinical Psychologists in 1933 which he was president of in 1934 and 1935; he also used this platform to further advocate the need for psychology to be part of the school system. Disseminating Research and Clinical Findings Witmer further propelled the field of school psychology both in terms of

Running head: WITMERS CONTRIBUTION TO SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY professional practice and as a research discipline by establishing a journal

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entitled The Psychological Clinic in 1907 (Witmer, 1907). Witmer established the journal to provide information to other professionals in the field of psychology regarding the students he assessed and treated in his clinic (Benjamin & Baker, 2004). Witmer used the journal to espouse new and effective assessment techniques and to correlate case histories to establish generalizations of normative assessment tools (Witmer, 1907). Witmer also used the journal to disseminate information collected from his research of mentally and morally retarded children (Benjamin & Baker, 2004). According to Benjamin and Baker, Witmer conducted most of his research of mental and moral retardation using individual assessment tools. Many assessment tools were utilized in his research; however, form boards, the Binet-Simon, writing and arithmetic tests, copying using a pencil, color naming, and observation were among the most utilized, according to Benjamin and Baker. Collaborative Practice and Professional Ethics Witmer modeled collaborative practice that incorporated other specialists and parents as part of the clinic method for assessing and treating students (Fagan 1996). Collaborative practices have been widely studied since Witmers time and research has provided many effective strategies to ensure effective collaboration between school psychologists, teachers, and others involved in a clients life. Best practices today outline many effective collaborative strategies including: the steps involved in effective interpersonal communication; the general education referral process including timelines,

Running head: WITMERS CONTRIBUTION TO SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY

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intervention techniques, and consultation; identify elements important to case conferences, IEPs, educational evaluation and assessment procedures; highlight the importance of establishing professional relationships between general educators, special educators, and other stakeholders in the students life; and outline effective strategies for successful communication with parents and families (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2007). Witmer collaborated with other professionals because it was good practice the proved effective in treating clients referred to his clinic by schools. Witmers good practice likely spurred the plethora of research available today about the effectiveness of collaboration, as well as the establishment of collaborative best practices. Although there is an abundance of literature pertaining to collaboration, often times there are gaps in services because of the involvement of large systems that do not always communicate with one another. For example, childrens services, mental health providers, and school psychologists often work independently from one another much of the time. Witmer would likely support the idea of schools being the hub for all services as schools provide universal access to children including those at-risk of falling behind academically, emotionally, or socially. Fagan (1996) also argued that Witmers recognition of his own limitations and the limits of psychological practice, demonstrated by seeking consultation with professionals from other disciplines, created the beginning of ethics in psychology during a time when there was no such code of ethics in the practice.

Running head: WITMERS CONTRIBUTION TO SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY Professional Training in School Psychology According to Fagan (1996), Witmers clinic was also a setting to train psychologists in the assessment and treatment of disturbed children so they

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could provide psychological expertise to the school system. Some of Witmers early training practices are still relevant in modern school psychology including training courses such as: child psychology, which he encouraged to be studied first; abnormal psychology; exceptional child psychology; academic and behavioral interventions; cognitive, behavioral and academic assessment; and diagnostic teaching (Fagan, 1996). Witmer was also a proponent of field experience for the training of school psychologists and teachers (Benjamin & Baker, 2004; Fagan, 1996; Fagan & Wise, 2007; French, 1984). Likely one of the most contemporary ideas of his time, Witmer created a training environment that incorporated supervised practice that resembled a practicum. According to Fagan (1996), Witmer conducted training sessions that taught students the principles of diagnostic teaching, assessment techniques, as well as practical interventions. Fagan also said that Witmers clinic aimed to teach the application of psychological principles to students of psychology, professionals from social services and personnel from teaching departments. According to Benjamin and Baker, Witmers clinic was influential in the development of several other clinics also housed at the University of Pennsylvania. Many of Witmers students went on to develop clinics focusing on specific aspects of psychology and assessment including: a vocational guidance clinic, a speech clinic and

Running head: WITMERS CONTRIBUTION TO SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY personnel clinic (Benjamin & Baker, 2007; Braden et al., 2004; Sandoval, 1993).

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Contribution of women to the field of school psychology. Another key component of Witmers influence and its relation to the practice of modern school psychology was the training of women in his clinic. Witmer paved the way for women to join the field of psychology and school psychology by welcoming them to his clinic in professional roles, typically as teachers and later, as students of psychology (Fagan 1996). Since the opening of his clinic there has been an abundance of women in the field of psychology, education and school psychology. For example, French (1984) stated, Women have played a very important role in school psychology. Among APA's largest eight divisions, the Division of School Psychology enrolls a greater percentage of women (42%) than any of the others. Clinical, the largest division, and Counseling, seventh in size, enroll only 21% women. Of the psychologists with ABPP diplomas in school psychology, 30% are women. The Division of School Psychology's first president was Harry J. Baker, but the next four were Margaret E. Hall, Ethel Cornell,Bertha Luckey, and Wilda M. Rosebrook, and half of the first 36 presidents of the division were women. (p. 186) It is likely that these numbers have continued to increase. For example, Braden and colleagues (2004) estimated that 70% of school psychology professionals are women. Conclusion

Running head: WITMERS CONTRIBUTION TO SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY Witmer had a profound influence on the development of school psychology. The founding of the first psychological clinic by Witmer in 1896 can be seen as one of the most important historical developments in school psychology. The creation of the clinic provided an important link between clinical psychology and school psychology thus establishing Witmer as the father of school psychology (Faga & Wise, 2007; French, 1984; McReynolds, 1987; Sandoval, 1993). Witmer developed the clinical method for assessing and treating children displaying problems with academic achievement. Many of the

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concepts and practices incorporated in the clinical method are still relevant in modern school psychology including diagnostic teaching, the assessment team, and field experience. Today much more is known about social, emotional, and academic problems; however, much of Witmers early work was instrumental in setting the stages for future research in these areas including normal and abnormal child development. Witmer also acknowledged the role psychology could play in schools and advocated for the training of school psychologists. Through intensive assessment, Witmer demonstrated that psychology could be useful in providing individualized treatment that was effective in distinguishing many of the problems some students experienced with academic achievement. The importance of Witmers contribution to the development of school psychology is perhaps best summarized by the annual award given each year by Division 16 of the APA, in Witmers name, to acknowledge exceptional

Running head: WITMERS CONTRIBUTION TO SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY scholarly work exhibited by a school psychologist (Benjamin & Baker, 2004).

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References Benjamin, L. Jr. (1996). Introduction: Lightner Witmers legacy to American psychology. American Psychologist, 51(3), 235-236. Benjamin, L. Jr. & Baker, D. (2004). From sance to science: A history of the profession of psychology in America. Toronto: Wadsworth. Braden, J., DiMarino-Linnen, E., & Good, T. (2001). Schools, society, and school psychologists: History and future directions. Journal of School

Running head: WITMERS CONTRIBUTION TO SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY Psychology, 39(2), 203-219. doi: 10.1016/50022-4405(01)0056-5

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Fagan, T. (1992). Compulsory schooling, child study, clinical psychology and special education: Origins of school psychology. American Psychologist, 47(2), 236-243. Fagan, T. (1996). Witmers contributions to school psychological services. American Psychologist, 51, 241-243. Fagan, T., & Wise, P. (2007). School psychology: Past, present, and future (3rd ed.). Bethesda, MB: United States of America: NASP Publications. French, J. (1984). On the conception, birth, and early development of school psychology: With special reference to Pennsylvania. American Psychologist, 39(9), 976-987. doi: 10.1037/0003-066x.39.9.976 Mastropieri, M., & Scruggs, T. (2007). The inclusive classroom: Strategies for effective instruction (3rd ed.). New Jersey: Pearson. McReynolds, P. (1987). Lightner Witmer: Little-known founder of clinical psychology. American Psychologist, 42(9), 849-858. Sandoval, J. (1993). The history of interventions in school psychology. Journal of School Psychology, 31(1), 195-217. doi: 10.1016/00224405(93)90028-H Witmer, L. (1907). Clinical psychology. Reprinted in American Psychologist, 51(3), 248-251. Witmer, L. (1909). The study and treatment of retardation: A field of applied psychology. Reprinted in American Psychologist, 11(4), 121-126.

Running head: WITMERS CONTRIBUTION TO SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY

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