American Association for Public Opinion Research

Art as National Propaganda in the French Revolution Author(s): David L. Dowd Reviewed work(s): Source: The Public Opinion Quarterly, Vol. 15, No. 3 (Autumn, 1951), pp. 532-546 Published by: Oxford University Press on behalf of the American Association for Public Opinion Research Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2746076 . Accessed: 04/04/2012 14:11
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Art

as

National

Propaganda

in

the

French

Revolution
and sculpture were extensively used, but the greatest contribution of the revolutionaryleaders to the art of propagandalay in their development of the pageant or festival. Modern propagandists can still learn from them. The author is Assistant Professor of History at the University of Florida.

BY DAVID L. DOWD
The leaders of the French Revolution consciously employed all forms of art to mobilize public sentiment in favor of the new France and French nationalism.In the absenceof mass media, artists were able to reach and influence a large number of the population who were not otherwise accessible to propaganda. Painting

IT is now generally recognized that official propaganda on a mass scale had its inception during the French Revolution.l In that era, for the first time, the general public was systematically and uninterruptedly bombardedby a modern press,and numerous organized pressuregroups were formed to attain specific ends through the manipulation of public opinion. During this dynamic period various propaganda techniques in use today were developed, and in some cases perfected to a degree not generally recognized. Successive revolutionary governments tried consciously and continuously,with all the means at their disposal, to mould public opinion and to direct it into channels favorable to their policies and interests. Nevertheless, no systematic discussion of the various aspects of revolutionary propaganda during the Revolution has yet appeared.2 During the last few years, however, the publication of historical monographs and articleson variousspecial aspectssuch as revolutionarysongs, festivals, and the theater, may represent a trend.3 Certainly the session
'This article is a revision of a paper read at the annual meeting of the American Historical Association at Chicago on December 29, 1950. Much of the researchupon which it is based was made possible by a grant from the American PhilosophicalSociety. 2 Dowd, David L., Pageant-Master of the Republic: Jacques-LouisDavid and the French Revolution (Lincoln, Nebraska, 1948), deals with the propagandaactivities of the leading artist of the period but there is no volume comparableto Robert B. Holtman, Napoleonic Propaganda (Baton Rouge, 1950) which covers all facets of the subject for the succeeding period. Rogers, Cornwell B., The Spirit of Revolution in 1789: A study of public opinion as revealed in political songs and other popular literatureat the beginning of the French Revolution (Princeton, 1949); Dowd, op. cit.; BeatriceF. Hyslop, "The Theater during a Crisis:The ParisianTheater during the Reign of Terror,"Journalof Modern History, XVII (December, I945), 332-44.

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devotedto "NationalPropaganda the French Revolution" the in by AmericanHistoricalAssociationat its annual meeting in December 1950 indicatesa growing interestin this importantsubject,at least studieshave When a sufficient numberof specialized amonghistorians. form it will in and beencompleted the resultsmadeavailable published accountof FrenchRevobe possibleto write a complete,well-rounded Such a work would illuminatethe origin of lutionarypropaganda. activities. aspectsof presentday politicalpropaganda many significant of One of the mostpregnantaspects this significant problemis the of role of artistsand artisticmedia in the propaganda the Revolution. until now, this topic shouldproveto be a rewardVirtuallyuntouched and art politicalscientists, historians ing one for historians, sociologists, An accountof the activitiesof the most impublicopinionspecialists. but decadehas been published, an portantartistof the Revolutionary of duroverallsurveyof the othersignificant aspects art as propaganda must still be made.It is the purposeof this ing the FrenchRevolution of to articleto contribute the inauguration such a synthesisby calling of to attention some of the moreimportant aspects the problemon the basisof historical research. herewill be limited to painting,enThe artisticmediaconsidered and the fetes nationales-those vast, spectacular graving, sculpture, in demonstrations which the artsnamed,plus architecture, music,pocomwere all effectively the dance,oratoryand fireworks etry,drama, coverthe whole decadeof the Revobined.Ratherthan attempting to the lution, attentionwill be confinedto the early years,particularly of betweenthe outbreak war and the fall of Robespierre. the By period is term "national propaganda" meantthose organizedand consciously which aimed at promotingthe officialcult of la movements contrived the period selected.The meaning of that much-abused patrieduring has word "nationalism" been amplifiedand clarifiedby numerousexcellentstudieswhich have appeared It duringthe last few decades.4 is clearthat nationalsentimentassumedvariantforms duringthe Revolution and that "nationalism," as that other chameleon-like term just in has "liberalism," changedmanyof its aspects the one hundredsixtyfor odd yearssincethe Revolution. of Nevertheless, purposes definition
'E.g.: C. J. H. Hayes, Essays on Nationalism (New York, 1926), The Historical Evolution of Modern Nationalism (New York, I931); Hans Kohn, The Idea of Nationalism: A study of its origins and background (New York, 1945).

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it may be said that "nationalism" here used in the senseof a mental is conditionprevalent a groupof peoplewho believein theircomamong mon interests characteristics, awardsupreme or who loyaltyto a nationstate and who regardtheir own nationalityas superiorand endowed with a specialmission.Needlessto say, the fine arts of the period in and questionhad otherfunctionsbesidepropaganda the revolutionary in had otheraspects additionto nationalism. spirit
THE FINE ARTS AS A MEDIUM FOR REACHING THE MASSES

When the destruction the ancienregimedissolvedmany of the of of bondsunitingking and subjects, revolutionaries I789 the traditional of re-establishing the were facedwith the immenselydifficult problem on unity of France,presumably some new basis. The psychological of nationalpatriotism, then in a relativelyearlystage growingfeeling seemedto offera meansof consolidating new colleca of development, tive loyalty.In orderto inculcatenationalism, with otheraspects along of the revolutionary spirit, of course,variouspropaganda techniques wereperfected effectively and broadsides, Clubs,newspapers, employed. interior dances, festivals, costume, decoration, speeches, plays,pamphlets, monumentsand so forth were all used for songs,pictures,sculptures, this purpose. As we might expect, however, auditoryand visual propaganda in were found to be particularly successful appealingeffectechniques to the masses. The Frenchman the streetas compared in with the tively educated or aristocrat likelyto be receptive illiterate; but was bourgeois generallyhe was too poor to affordthe relatively expensiveclub memthe booksandbrochures, the theaterand conand berships, newspapers, cert tickets.As in Paristodayart exhibitions, publicmonuments, posters, prints exposedfor sale, and of coursepublic concertsand street for singersexerteda magicalattraction large numbersof Frenchmen. Thus the politicalleaders formsof propaganda which were emphasized likely to appealto and be effectivewith the masses.Almost inevitably, art therefore, and musicbecameparticularly significantand important propaganda techniquesduring the Revolution. The employmentof the fine arts for the purposeof influencing did publicopinionin favorof the nationalgovernment not begin with the Revolution 1789.Sinceat leastthe reign of LouisXIV, the Bourof

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bon monarchy had consciously used them as a meansof arousingfeelfavorable the regime.By the end of the eighteenthcenturythe to ings as of was regarded "anemanation the paintingof history,for example, In throne."5 I776,fat old Count Angiviller,who servedas a kind of of should Minister Fine Arts to LouisXVI, wrotethat the government art in order"to revivethe virtuesand patrioticsentiments."6 encourage The philosophes such as Montesquieu, Voltaire,Diderotand Rousseau alsoemphasized theirwritingsthe politicaland socialsignificance in of the artsfor the stateas well as for the individual. the beginningof At the Revolution, the therefore, idea that artcouldand shouldbe used to mould and influence publicopinionwas alreadywidely accepted.7 the From the practical point of view it was probably leadersof the Revolution who did moreto promotethe artsas a meansof stimulating nationalsentiment than any othersinglepoliticalgroupuntil the twentiethcentury. of and Consciously, on a largescale,the deputies the Revomade the use of art which appealedto the masses assemblies lutionary of the population important an Danfeatureof theirpolicy.Mirabeau, and scoresof lesserfiguresadvocated artisticprojects ton, Robespierre, from time to time in order (as Danton put it) "to inspirethe love of Illustrative libertyand of the fatherland."8 examplesand telling quotationscouldbe multiplied: pointis simplythat groupsof all political the Girondins Montagnards, and Danhues-monarchistsand republicans, tonistsand Robespierreists-saw of clearlythe desirability employing artistsas nationalpropagandists.
THE ARTISTS AS REVOLUTIONISTS

Suchbeingthe case,justhow was the official policyreceived the by camefrom the artartists?As a matterof fact the initiativefrequently and there is no evidencethat they thought they were ists themselves In theirtalentsby usingthem for politicalpropaganda. the prostituting first place,the virtualdisappearance their usual marketcreatedan of to understandable desirefor publiccommissions takeup the slack.Then, in the eighteenthcenturyit was taken for grantedthat the state too, shouldbe a patronof the arts on the same munificentscale as it had
6Journal de Paris, No. 89 (March 30, 1777), p. 2.

6Letter to M. Pierre, March 14, I776: F. Engerand, ed., Inventaire des tableaux commandes et achetes par la Direction des Bdtiments du Roi (Paris, I9OI), p. xxix. Dowd, op. cit., pp. 8I-83. 8National Convention, November 26, 1793: Moniteur, no. 68 (8 Frimaire, an II), p. 276.

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been underthe monarchy. Moreover-and this seemsto have been of the highestsignificance-themajority the artists of weremanifestly sincere in their warm loyaltyto the nation and in their evidentdesireto for With the excepreasons. engagein patriotic propaganda ideological tion of a few of the more aristocratic of brethren the RoyalAcademy of Paintingand Sculpture to have been genuine and enthey appear of thusiastic supporters the new regime. True, a few artistsdid emigrateto foreign parts-Marie Antoinette'sfriendand portrayer, MadameVigee-Lebrun, instance.9 for Several otherswere arrested suspects:HubertRobert,the well-known as painterof romanticruins,was kept in protective custodyfor a time.10 all who were actuallytriedby the RevoluNevertheless, the real artists wereacquitted givenlight sentences."1 course or Of Tribunal the tionary is term "artist" here used in the senseof a professional of practitioner the fine arts as contrasted with an "artisan" craftsman. or The single occasionon which artistswere sent to the guillotineoccurred when a dozen of them were outlaweden masseas Robespierreists hurried and to the scaffold withouttrialafterthe Ninth of Thermidor.12 a group As then they were apparently as in regarded ratheradvanced theirrevoluviewsand,it mightbe added,as moreintensethanmostin their tionary fervor. patriotic This commonimpression seemedto be confirmed the fact that by so manyof the youngerartists volunteered militaryserviceandwere for electedor appointed variousimportant to and legislative administrative For positionsduringthe Revolution. example,no less than four artists sat on the benchesof the NationalConvention,13 duringthe Reign and
'Marie-Anne Elisabeth Vigee Lebrun (1755-1842) later claimed that she had not really emigrated but had merely been traveling for professional reasons. On the strength of a petition and she was allowed signed by her fellow artists her name was removed from the list of e'migre's to return to France unpunished. Bibliotheque de l'Institut d'art et d'archeologie de l'Universite de Paris, MSS Doucet, Carton 52, dossier I. 10Hubert Robert (1733-I808), known as "Robertdes Ruines," was incarceratedin the Prison of Saint Pelagie. From contemporarydescriptionswe learn that he was comfortably lodged and was able to run a flourishing and lucrative china painting business on the side! See C. Gabillot, Hubert Robert et son temps (Paris, 1898), pp. 182-99; Edmond Pilon, "Hubert Robert sous la Terreur," in his Dansons la Carmagnole (3rd ed., Paris, 1939), pp. 152-60. ' Archives Nationales (Paris) [hereaftercited A.N.] Inventairedu Serie W (Papiers du Tribunal Revolutionnaire). 'A.N., W 434, dossier 975, piece 9; dossier 976, piece 2; dossier 977, piece 5; dossier 978, pi&ce5. Gabriel Bouquier (1739-1810), Denis-Guillaume Bourgin '8Jacques-LouisDavid (1748-1825), (175I-I8Io) and Antoine-FrancoisSergent-Marceau(1851-1847).

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of Terror the Mayor of Paris was a sculptor.l4 The personnel of the Paris Commune, of the surveillance committees, of the Revolutionary Tribunal and especially of the various political police agencies included painters, engravers, and sculptors. As is well known the painter Louis David was a member of the Comite de surete generale. He even served for a time as president15 this security police body which can be comof pared in certain respectsto the Cheka of the Russian Revolution. While more than one set of conclusions probably could be drawn from these facts, it is fairly evident that most artists were happy to place their talents at the disposal of the fatherland. Their spokesman, Louis David, expressedit this way: Each of us is accountable to the fatherland [la patrie] for the talents which he has received from nature .... The true patriot ought to seize avidly upon every means of enlightening his fellow citizens and of constantly presenting to their eyes the sublime traits of heroism and of virtue.16 The artist [he said on another occasion] ought to contribute powerfully to public instruction ... by penetrating the soul... by making a profound impression on the mind.... Thus... the traits of heroism and civic virtue presented to the regard of the people will electrify its soul and will cause to germinate in it all the passions of glory and devotion to the welfare of the fatherland [la patrie].
THE OATH OF THE TENNIS COURT

One of the earliestand certainly one of the best known applications of this philosophy was the same painter'scelebratedOath of the Tennis Court. At one time or another everyone has seen reproductions of this commemorative picture. This work had its inception on the first anniversaryof that historic event when, at a mass meeting, David offered to paint the patriotic scene in the Jeu de Paume. Shortly thereafter, the Jacobin Club decided to sponsor the project. When completed, the
"Jean-Baptiste Edmond Lescot-Fleuriot. (1751-1794). I'Decree of Committee of General Security of i8 Nivose, Year II [January 7, 1794]: A.N., AF II* 294, folio 31. 16Discoursprononce a la Convention nationale, le 29 mars 1793 . . . en offrant un tableau de sa composition representantMichel Lepelletier au lit de mort [Paris, 1793], p. 2. 17National Convention, November 15, 1793: Journal de l'instruction publique, IV, no. 21 [n.d.], pp. 232-37.

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of paintingwas to be engravedand reproductions it were to be widely The originalwasto be presented to for distributed propaganda purposes. of and the NationalAssemblyfor the inspiration edification the legisa of sanctioned public lators. at The Assembly, the suggestion Mirabeau, to cover the costs of production. Although the artistexsubscription canvas(it pendeda greatamountof time and energyon his enormous Nevermeasured feet high by 35 feet long) it was nevercompleted.l8 26 themenot only gave its authora brevet theless,this painting's patriotic for de civisme,but it helpedto makeit possible Davidto obtaingovernMoreimfreedomfor his fellow craftsmen. and ment subsidies artistic of view, it left an indelibleimprint point portantfrom the propaganda upon publicopinion. The Salonof I79I, at which the preliminary designfor the Oathof the Tennis Courtwas shown, includednumerousother paintingsof and patrioticscenes which exerted a powerful impact revolutionary Salonsof I793 and the the nationalspirit.Similarly, subsequent upon but freedfrom control lateryears,still undergovernmental sponsorship the Academy,exhibitedan even greaternumberof propaganda picby were launchedfrom time to tures.l9Moreover,special competitions for time by the statefor the purposeof awardingcommissions topical to be usedin the campaignto mobilizepublicopinionin bepaintings vied with neo-classic Scenesof the Revolution half of the new regime.20 and to as allegories, representational symbolicartformsalikeattempted The accentwas not only and to inculcate "patriotic" the embody spirit. devotionto upon the civic virtuesbut above all upon single-minded la patrie.
SUBJECTS FOR THE PAINTER

As the Revolution this advanced, devotionwas moreand morefrewith the idea of death.Not only must the enemiesof quentlycoupled the fatherland liquidated, good patriotsmust be readyif necesbe but to die in the defenseof the Republic. This preoccupation with viosary
19 Collection des livrets des anciennes expositions depuis 1673 jusqu'en I800, ed. Jules M. J. Guiffrey, 42 vols. (Paris, I869-72), vols. 36-39, passim. 0 E.g.: A.N., AF II 66, plaq. 489, piece 0o; Proces-verbalde la Convention Nationale imprime par son ordre, 72 vols. (Paris, I792-95), L, 18I-83 [hereafter cited P.V. Conv.]; Recueil des actes du Comite de salut public, ed. F. A. Aulard, 27 vols. (Paris, I889-I933), XIII, 25; Abbe Henri Gregoire, Rapport sur les encouragements. . . seance du I7 vendemiaire l'an III [Paris,

'8Dowd, op. cit., pp. 36-41.

I794], P. I9.

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lent death was shown in the countlessgraphicrepresentations the of crueland untimelyends of Le Peletierde Saint-Fargeau, Marat,Pierre heroesof the Baille,JosephBarra,Viala, Chalier,and other martyred Revolution.Usually these victimswere depictedeither in sanguinary and realistic fashion.The greator poses,or else in idealistic symbolistic of and estpainters the periodsuchas Prud'hon Davidwere ableto combine realismand idealismin an artisticsynthesisof immensepower. David'sAssassination Onlythe bestknownexamplewill be mentioned: This of Marat.21 pictureshowsa sceneof violentdeathin a bathtub-a gapingwound, a blood stainedknife, and the ghastlypallorof naked mutilatedflesh. But the macabretableauis transformed the techby In nicalcanonsof classicartinto an immortalmasterpiece. the handsof sucha master, brutalrealismof subject matterwas transmuted the into of calmrepose idealizedbeautyby meansof the skillfulmanipulation of form.At the sametime theseiconsof the new faith delivereda plastic clear messageof terrificemotionalpower: "fight or die, kill or be killed!"The membersof the Government were probably entirely not of immunefrom the influence theirown propaganda. With the Assassinationof Maratand its companion piece the Death of Le Peletierde at themfrom the walls of theirmeeting literally Saint-Fargeau22 staring desk) it place (thesepaintingswere hung on eachside of the speaker's of is not too difficult understand moodof thosemembers the Conto the ventionwho dealtso ruthlessly with theirenemies.Eachcouldvisualize himselfdyingunderthe assassin's knife-or the guillotine-if the cause with which he had affiliated himselfshouldfalteror fail in the revolufor survival. tionarystruggle It is perhaps to significant notethatbattlesceneswere not nearlyso commonduringthisperiodas theywereto becomeunderthe Directory, the the Consulate, the Empire.Beforethe adventof Bonaparte civic and to havebeen more important than the militaryin the elementappears canthat cult of la patrie.It is alsoratherinteresting manypropaganda
3 The original is in the Musee royal des Beaux Arts, Brussels, Belgium. 2 After the Restorationthe original by David was hidden by Le Peletier's daughter somewhere in the Chateau of Saint Fargeau (Yonne) and repeated searches have failed to recover it. However, it can be judged from the drawing reproducedin Dowd, op. cit., plate XIII, p. 102 and the descriptions by E. J. Delecluze, Journal .. . 1824-1828, ed. R. Baschet (Paris, I948), p. 326; Dey, "Histoire de Saint Fargeau," Bulletin de la Socilte de l'Yonne, XII (1858), 600; P. A. Coupin, "Notice necrologique sur Jacques-Louis David" in Revue Encyclopedique, XXXIV (April, 1827), 46; A. Lenoir, "David: Souvenirs historiques"in Journal de l'Institut Historique, III (August, 1835), 6.

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vasesdid not depictcontemporary at subjects all but ratherrepresented dramaticincidentsfrom ancient history or allegoriesfrom classical mythology.In any case the purposeof the picturewas usually clear enough: namely,the inculcationof loyalty to the Nation and to the principles upon which it was established. Now it was all verywell to financeart exhibitions to commisand sion paintingsfor publicbuildings,but how was the populace who did not frequentthe Louvreand the Tuileriesto be reached?Moreover, wasthereno way in whichthe mosteffective canvases could propaganda be reproduced a massscaleand widely distributed maximuminon for fluence?In the eighteenthcenturythe obviousanswerto this question was to use the relatively As popularmediumof engraving. a matterof fact almostall the important of the day were repropaganda paintings fromengraved to produced platesandmadeavailable the publicin large numbers copies.23 of While privateenterprise filled the portfolios the of sellerswith patrioticengravingsthe governmentalso subsidized print of similarreproductions worksof art for the avowedpurposeof influencing public opinion.These popularprints were offeredfor sale in greatprofusionin the print shopsof Parisand open air standsalong the Seine.They becamethe typicaldecorative motif of the publicoffices and committee the restaurants cafes,the clubroomsand and chambers, socialhalls and the parlorsof privatehomes.Thus they did their daily bit to reinforcenationalidealsand emotions. In similarfashion,these popularengravings were employedto diThe rectvitriolic blastsof ridiculeagainstthe enemiesof the fatherland. which and leaders turnedto the useof cartoons caricatures revolutionary For playedsuchan interesting partin politicselsewhere. instanceEnglish productions this genre by JamesGillray,ThomasRowlandson, in of and othersarefamiliar.Southof the Channelthe Committee Public in of Safetyorderedthousands similarcaricatures black and white as These well as in colorsfrom the pencilsand burinsof Frenchartists.24 have to be seen to be appreciated-Latinhumor is on the productions Paris as in GeorgianLondon earthyside. However,in revolutionary and told their story cleverlyand effectivelywith forthrightness they
2E.g.: P. V. Conv., VIII, 346; XXV, 221-22; XXVIII, I48; Proces-verbauxde la Commission temporairedes arts, ed. L. Tuetey, 2 vols. (Paris, 1912-18), II, II3. 4 A.N., AF II 66, plaquette 489, for example, contains a whole series of official documents and caricaturesconcerned, to the number of 66 pieces.

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morethan a touchof crudeobscenity. These caricatures appearto have been among the most popularand successful, althoughnot necessarily The the most tastefuland artistic,examplesof nationalpropaganda. des of collections the Departement Estampes the Bibliotheque of various at Nationale,the Louvre,and the MuseeCarnavalet Parisand the British Museum,to mention only a few repositories, togetherwith the and the Committeeof of the Committeeof Public Instruction papers Public Safetyin the ArchivesNationalesoffer a wealth of illustrative materialon the popularprintsof the Revolutionand the propaganda usesmade of them. The evidenceclearlyshows that the revolutionists to variedtheirpropaganda techniques suit the tastesof the varioussomedia to appealto different cial classesand that they used appropriate groups.
THEMES FOR THE SCULPTOR

The skill of the sculptorwas also enrolledin the nationalpropabusts Monuments commemorating militaryvictories, gandacampaign. and statuesof nationalheroes,symbolicfiguresrepresenting patriotic virtues,permanentreplicasof varioustemporarystatueswhich had adornedthe nationalfestivals-all these were includedin the various A government. consciousefprojectsof the revolutionary propaganda fort was made to replacethe statuesof former kings of Francewith more suitablesymbolswhich would still stimulatepatrioticemotions. A marblestatueof the revolutionary martyrLe Peletierde Saint-Farwas plannedfor the site of the greatbronzeeffigyof geau,for example, LouisXIV in the PlaceVendome(wheretodaythe figureof Napoleon itselfagainstthe sky in a Romantoga atopa pastiche Trajan's flaunts of the famousequestrian monumentto Henry IV, Similarly, column).25 on demolished the mob on August ioth, was to be replaced the Pont by statuesymbolizing FrenchPeople.The latterwas the Neuf by a colossal to havebeena fifty-footbronzeversionof the FarneseHerculesleaning on a massivecluband balancing figuresof Libertyand Equalityin one
hand.26

it Paradoxically was preciselythese vast projectsof massivestone bronzewhich werefromthe physical andeternal pointof view the most
2 Decree of the National Convention, January 25, I793: P. V. Cony., V, 403; Bulletin des Amis de la Verite, no. 27 (January 26), p. I. 6 Decree of the National Convention, I7 Brumaire,Year II [November 7, I793]: Journal des debats et des decrets, no. 415 [n.d.], p. 243.

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of Art for ephemeral all the typesof artisticpropaganda. competitions the best designsfor these variousproposals were held and often the awards wereactually madeto successful artists. therewere, Nevertheless, in additionto the enormousfinancialcost, insurmountable war-time shortagesof transportand of that criticalwar material,bronze. Althat"victory furnish Hercules will thoughDavidhadsaidof hispopular the bronze,"27 cannonhad to be turnedagainstthe enemyincaptured steadof being recastas monumentspersonifying patrie. la As in the caseof paintingthe subject matterof revolutionary sculpture was generallynot battle scenes or successfulgenerals,unless of coursethe latter(as in the caseof Dampierre)were alreadydead.The revolutionists of evidentlyacted on the theorythat glorification a deceasedhero could help in strengthening regime,while honorsrenthe deredto a living man couldbe a gravethreatto the security the state. of The fear of a dictatorflittedlike a wraith throughthe scenesof the Revolution. While unsuccessful werequicklysentto the guillogenerals tine anyonesuspected dictatorial of with even designswas decapitated one reasonfor the easewith which Robespierre greater alacrity. Perhaps was liquidatedby his opponentswas the suspicionthat he aspiredto one man rule.
ALL IN ONE-THE FESTIVAL

The mostimportant effective all the artistic and of mediaemployed for revolutionary was propaganda the festivalor pageant.During the Revolution technique this reached highestdevelopment a method the as of socialcontrolthat it was to attainuntil our own time. The best artists of the period,includingDavid,were employedto combinepainting and sculpture with the emotionalappealof colorfulpageantry cereand and music, slogansand symbols,poetryand oratory, monial,parades theatrical togetherwith officialprocessions, programsand pyrotechnic displays.These artistscomposedimmenseliving frescoesof the Revolutionwhich depictedthe contemporary the ideologyand popularized essential aimsof the new regime.For the illiterate massesof Francethe vivid symbolism the processions of providedmagnificentillustrations of the principles the Revolution.The most originalfeatureof the of festivalswas the massparticipation: peoplethemselves the were active
rRapport fait a la Convention nationale ..
1793], p. 8.
27

brumaire,an 1 ('7 Novembre 1793) [Paris,

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participantsas well as interested spectators.Flattered by the feeling of importance thus engendered, the masses tended to identify their interests with those of the new national state. Among the new collective attitudes created and the potential loyalties expressed and reinforced through mass participationin the festivals were those we now include in the term "nationalism." The festivals themselves can be divided into three groups: funeral fetes of Jacobin heroes, religious fetes such as the Fete of the Supreme Being, and national fetes in celebrationof republican victories. Typical of this last type of demonstrationwas the victory festival of December 30, I793. The occasion for the latter was the recaptureof Toulon from the royalist rebels and their English allies. When the news of this military success reached Paris the Convention decreed that a celebrationin honor of the victory at Toulon should be celebratedin all partsof France Next day, December 25, David, as a "triumphof the Mountain Party."28 who was by now functioning regularly as Pageant-Masterof the Republic, presented a plan for a national festival in honor of all the sucThis is a significessesof the Republic and of all the fourteen armies.29 cant point. It was at Toulon that Bonapartefirst distinguished himself. Yet the place of honor in the celebrationwas given not to the victorious generals, but to the wounded veterans and the ashes of those killed in action, to the civilian officials,and to the workers. The Parisian celebration took place on December 30.30 At seven o'clock that morning the clear cold air was shatteredby a salvo of artillery and the program commenced. First came the armed delegates of the forty-eight sections of Paris and of the fourteen armies of the Republic. Then the triumphal cars full of wounded rolled by, festooned with capturedbattle flags and escorted by young girls dressed in white. After these followed the deputations of the popular societies with their parti-colored banners, the members of the National Convention in a body, and various other civil officials.A military escort brought up the rear. Statuesof Liberty, bonnets rouges, the national fasces, tricolor banners, a ship representing the Navy, and other symbols figured promi84 Nivose, an II [December 24, 1793]: P. V. Conv., XXVIII, 84-85; Collection generale des decrets rendus . . . [mai I789-nivose an VIII], ed. F. J. Baudouin, 79 vols. (Paris, I789-99), XXXVIII, 36. P9. V. Conv., XXVIII, ioo-oi; David, Rapport fait .. . en memoire des victoires des armees franfaises et notamment 2 l'occasion de la prise de Toulon [Paris, I7931. 8 Sources for descriptionsof the fete are listed in Dowd, op. cit., p. II7n.

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nently in the procession. The streets of Paris along the line of march reverberatedto the rolling thunder of massed drums and the blare of brassbands, but the sonorousstrainsof triumphal hymns dominated the ceremonies. Leaving the Tuileries Gardens the cortege made its way along the quays, crossed the Seine, marched to the Hotel des Invalides, and then proceeded to the Champ de Mars where a banquet was given for the wounded veterans. In the comments of the press attention was called to the marked contrast to the triumphal processionsof the old order.31Civilians were given equal prominence with the military in this republican victory ceremony. Honor was paid not to distinguished officers such as Bonaparte, but to the common soldiers and to the humble sans culottes. The newspapersof the day agreed with the Journal de Perlet and the Revolutions de Paris which claimed that the demonstration was "a really According to magnificent spectacle"and "created a great sensation."32 witnesses the enormous crowds which attended the affair were in high spirits and wildly demonstratedtheir gratitude to the Convention, their enthusiasmfor the soldiersand their hatred of the enemy. These ecstatic press accounts are corroboratedby the reportsof the secret agents of the Ministry of the Interior. According to journalists and police observers alike "patriotic enthusiasm was the order of the day" and the masses were profoundly moved by the sight of the wounded veterans.33 Thus the glorification of armed might for its own sake was as noticeably lacking at this victory celebration as it was absent from other types of revolutionary art. Military leaders who failed to win battles were sometimes executed, but even the most successful ones received no Roman triumphs nor artistic deification. A military dictator did not succeed in taking over control of France until the end of the revolutionarydecade-and then only after seven years of uninterrupted foreign war. Another obvious feature of this and other festivals of the time was its purely secular character.Under the old regime similar celebrations had not only featured officersover enlisted men and the military over the civilians, but even as late as July 14, I79o, had been accompaniedby
"E.g.: Mercure universel, XXXV, no. I025 (December 31, I793), p. I65 and Feuille villageoise, IV, pt. 7, no. 15 (January 9, I794), p. 356. de J82ournal Perlet, no. 465 (December 31, 1793), p. 246; Revolutions de Paris, no. 220 (I4 Nivose), p. 377. 88Pierre Caron, ed., Paris pendant la Terreur (Paris, I910), I, 79-94, passim.

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orthodox religious services.According to the nineteenth century French historian, Alphonse Aulard, the first lay patriotic festival (in the sense that it was unaccompanied by either mass or Te Deum) was that of Today a simple examination of the contemporarydeAugust IO,I793.34 scriptions of the fetes in honor of Voltaire (July ii, i791), of the Chateauvieux Regiment (April 15, I792), and of Simonneau (June 3, 1792), to say nothing of the apotheosesof the Jacobinmartyrs Le Peletier, Lazowski and Maratearly in I793, proves beyond a doubt that Aulard, distinguished scholar though he was in his day, was mistaken. Without exception, not a single one of the festivals named was in any way associated with a mass or a Te Deum.35The pantheonization of Voltaire in April, I791, was probably the first but the victory celebration of December, I793, was certainly not the last of the patriotic civic festivals. Like the others it played an important role in popularizing the cult of la patrie.
PROPAGANDA FOR A NEW NATION

Revolutionarynationalism, then, assumed many of the aspects of a new religion including ceremonials, symbols, sacred texts, saints and martyrs.True, it was a secular religion which deified the people, their elected representativesand above all the nation. According to the new dispensationthe Republic had no place for ambitious militarists,wouldbe dictators or politically minded churchmen. Nevertheless, art, traditionally a powerful tool in the hands of orthodox religious leaders, was included among the more important media for the propagation of the new cult. Besides mobilizing all national resourcesfor the purpose of beating off the attacks of their enemies, the revolutionists had to restore the psychological unity of France if the achievements of the Revolution were to be preserved. The institution of the Monarchy and its twin pillars, the old royal army and the Roman Catholic Church, had collapsed under the impact of the events of the revolutionary crisis. Their shattered fragments, still aligned with the reactionary forces which strove to destroy the infant Republic, had to be neutralized by propaganda as well as combated by force. A national government controlled by civilians, a new revolutionaryarmy strictly subordinatedto that gov8Le Christianismeet la revolution francaise (Paris, 1925), pp. I02-03. 5 See Dowd, op. cit., pp. 48-54, 59-66, 69-74, 99-100oo, 103-04, 105-o06, 115.

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ernment,and a new secularcult of patriotismand civic virtue were established. aim of the revolutionists to createa new nation,a The was civil and secularRepublicof Virtue characterized liberty,equality, by and fraternity, free of militaryand clericaldomination, and basedon the risingspiritof nationalism. is this objective, It which explains then, the lackof militarism the secularism anti-clericalism and or which were such markedfeaturesof the artisticpropaganda the period. of Eventhis briefexamination the paintings, of engravings, sculpture, and festivalsof the revolutionary togetherwith the relevantdocuera mentsseemsconclusive enough:The artformsnamedwere consciously and successfully usedby the variousgovernments the Revolution of for the avowed purposeof stimulatingthe nascentspirit of nationalism. The numerous and as speeches decrees well as the relatively largesums of moneyused to subsidizeartisticpropaganda indicatedthe high deattributed suchprojects the politicalleaders to of greeof importance by the period.A more comprehensive exhaustive and examination the of evidencemay be necessary a finaljudgmentof the relativeeffectivefor ness of the variousartisticmediaas mouldersof public opinion.From the generalcircumstances from the representative and examplesand sources studiedhere,however,it is evidentthat all the fine arts,particularly the nationalfestivals,were of very definitevalue in encouraging devotionto the new nationalstate createdby the French Revolution.