Biological Foundations: Heredity, Prenatal Development, & Birth

Ch. 2

Mechanisms of Heredity
Chromosomes
Thread like structures in the nucleus that contain genetic material

23 pairs of chromosomes
22 pairs of autosomes Sex chromosomes XY = Boy XX = Girl Contain around 30,000 genes

Mechanisms of Heredity contd

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
Composed of 4 nucleotide bases that are the biochemical basis of heredity Nucleotide bases
Adenine Thymine Guanine Cytosine

Mechanisms of Heredity contd

Genes Genotype Phenotype

Alleles
Characteristics determined by interaction of genes Each chromosome of pair contains one parents contribution

Alleles contd
Homozygous Alleles
Alleles are the same Biochemical instructions on the allele are followed

Alleles contd
Heterozygous Alleles
The parents have contributed different versions of the trait Instructions of the dominant allele are followed The recessive allele are ignored

Genetic Disorders
Can Result from inheriting harmful genes Genes usually carried by recessive alleles Examples:
Sickle cell disease Phenylketonuria (PKU)

Huntingtons disease (exception: caused by dominant allele on chromosome 4)

Genetic Disorders contd

Can be the result of extra, missing, or damaged chromosomes Example: Downs Syndrome
Extra 21st chromosome

Genetic Disorders contd

Abnormal sex chromosomes Common disorders
1. 2. 3. 4. Klinefelters syndrome XXY XYY complement XYY Turners syndrome X XXX syndrome XXX

No disorders consisting of just Y chromosome

Klinefelters Syndrome
11

Turner Syndrome
12

Heredity, Environment, & Development

Behavioral genetics
Focuses on the inheritance of behavioral & psychological traits Complex not either-or but a range

Polygenic Inheritance
When many genes affect the phenotype of a trait Many psychological and behavioral characteristics impossible to trace to a single gene Example : Extrovert/Introvert

Twins
Dizygotic (fraternal) twins
two different eggs fertilized by two different sperm

Monozygotic (identical) twins

the union of one egg and one sperm that splits in two soon after conception

What Twin Studies Can Teach Us

Fraternal twins
no more genetic similarity than other siblings

Identical twins
genetically identical

Paths From Genes to Behavior

Genes impact on behavior depend on the environment
Reaction range

Heredity and environment interact Genes can influence the kind of environment to which a person is exposed Environmental influences typically make children within a family different

From Conception to Birth

Prenatal Development
Average of 38 weeks Begins when sperm fertilizes egg Encompasses the changes that turn fertilized egg into a newborn human

Period of the Zygote

Weeks 1-2 Fertilization begins this period Period ends when zygote is implanted in the wall of the uterus

Period of the Embryo

Weeks 3-8 Body structures & internal organs develop 3 layers begin to form:
1. Ectoderm outer layer 2. Mesoderm middle layer 3. Endoderm inner layer

Period of the Embryo

contd Amniotic sac fills with fluid Umbilical cord connects embryo to placenta Principles of growth:
1. Cephalocaudal Principle 2. Proximodistal Principle

Period of the Fetus

Weeks 9-38
Week 9- Differentiation of the ovaries and testes Week 12- Circulatory system begins to function Week 16- Movement felt by mother Week 32- Age of viability

Fetus begins to behave Senses work

Conception in the 21 Century

st

In vitro fertilization Inserting sperm directly into the Fallopian tubes Injecting sperm directly into the egg

General Risk Factors

Nutrition
Inadequate maternal nutrition may result in premature birth and low birth weight Lack of folic acid may increase risk of spina bifida

Stress
Studies show extreme maternal stress is associated with low birth weight and premature births

General Risk Factors

(Cont)

Mothers Age
Older mothers are more likely to have difficulty getting pregnant, miscarriages, and stillbirths Nearly 50% of pregnancies among women in their 40s and 50s result in miscarriage

Teratogens: Drugs
Known harmful agents include:
Alcohol, aspirin, caffeine, nicotine

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome

Results from overuse of alcohol during pregnancy Children with FAS may have mental retardation, facial deformities, and heart defects

Teratogens: Diseases
AIDS, Cytomegalovirus, Genital Herpes, Rubella (German Measles), Syphilis Effects include:
neurological disorders deafness blindness mental disability damage to bones, eyes, ears, or heart

Teratogens: Environmental Hazards

Lead, Mercury, PCBs, X-Rays Effects may include:
mental disability retarded growth cerebral palsy impaired memory and verbal skill retarded growth leukemia

How Teratogens Influence Prenatal Development

The effect
depends upon the genotype of the organism

The impact
changes over the course of prenatal development depends on the dosage

How Teratogens Influence Prenatal Development

Each teratogen affects a specific aspect of prenatal development Damage from teratogens is not always evident at birth

Prenatal Diagnosis and Treatment

Genetic Counseling

Helps to assess the chances of inherited

disorders

Prenatal Diagnosis

Ultrasound Amniocentesis Chorionic Villus Sampling

Prenatal Diagnosis and Treatment

(Cont)

Fetal Medicine
Administering medicine to the fetus Fetal surgery to correct spina bifida and circulatory problems Genetic engineering involves replacing defective genes with synthetic normal genes

Stages of Labor
Stage 1
lasts 12-24 hours (first birth) includes contractions enlargement of the cervix to approximately 10 centimeters

Stage 2
actual birth of the baby lasts about an hour

Stages of Labor
Stage 3
lasts a few minutes expelling of the placenta

Approaches to Childbirth
Childbirth Classes teach
What to expect (pregnancy/delivery) techniques to manage the pain of childbirth Studies show that mothers who attend childbirth classes typically use less medication

Birthing Alternatives
Home Births
Less Expensive Parents have more control over the conditions Birth problems are no more common at home than at the hospital when pregnancy has been problem-free

Birthing Centers
More home-like than hospitals, but in a clinic setting independent of hospitals

Labor and Delivery: Birth Complications

Hypoxia, or inadequate blood and oxygen to baby Complications may result in cesarean section (C-section) Births before the 36th week are called premature or preterm

Labor and Delivery: Birth Complications

< 5.5 pounds = low birth weight < 3.3 pounds = very low birth weight < 2.2 pounds = extremely low birth weight

Infant Mortality
Infant Mortality is the number of infants out of 1,000 births that die before the age of 1 year U.S. mortality rate is just under 1%, or 7 of 1000

Infant Mortality
15 industrialized nations have lower infant mortality than U.S Possible factors include
low birth weight resulting from a lack of free or inexpensive prenatal care fewer paid leave of absences for pregnant women

Maternal Depression
Baby blues
initial excitement turns to irritation, resentment, & crying

10-20% of mothers experience post partum depression Can have negative effects on mother child interactions

Maternal Depression
Infants & children of depressed mothers show cognitive & perceptual deficits Mothers who may be experiencing depression need to seek assistance