BÀI GIẢNG VẬT LÝ ĐẠI CƯƠNG A1 (Dùng cho sinh viên hệ đào tạo đại học từ xa) - HỌC VIỆN CÔNG NGHỆ BƯU CHÍNH VIỄN THÔNG

HC VIN CNG NGH BU CHNH VIN THNG
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BI GING
VT L I CNG (A1)
(Dng cho sinh vin h o to i hc t xa)
Lu hnh ni b
H NI - 2005
Chng I: ng hc cht im
CHNG I: NG HC CHT IM
ng hc nghin cu cc c trng ca chuyn ng c hc (phng trnh chuyn ng, phng trnh qu o, qung ng dch chuyn, vn tc, gia tc) nhng khng xt n nguyn nhn gy ra s thay i trng thi chuyn ng.
1. S CHUYN NG CA MT VT
Trong thc t ta thng ni my bay bay trn tri, t chy trn ngTrong vt l, ngi ta gi chung cc hin tng l chuyn ng. 1. Chuyn ng. Theo nh ngha, chuyn ng ca mt vt l s chuyn di v tr ca vt i vi cc vt khc trong khng gian v thi gian. xc nh v tr ca mt vt chuyn ng, ta phi xc nh khong cch t vt n mt vt (hoc mt h vt) khc c qui c l ng yn. Nh vy, v tr ca mt vt chuyn ng l v tr tng i ca vt so vi mt vt hoc mt h vt c qui c l ng yn. T ngi ta a ra nh ngha v h qui chiu. Vt c qui c l ng yn dng lm mc xc nh v tr ca cc vt trong khng gian c gi l h qui chiu. xc nh thi gian chuyn ng ca mt vt, ngi ta gn h qui chiu vi mt ng h. Khi mt vt chuyn ng th v tr ca n so vi h qui chiu thay i theo thi gian. Vy chuyn ng ca mt vt ch c tnh cht tng i ty theo h qui chiu c chn, i vi h qui chiu ny n l chuyn ng, nhng i vi h qui chiu khc n c th l ng yn. 2. Cht im, h cht im, vt rn. Bt k vt no trong t nhin cng c kch thc xc nh. Tuy nhin, trong nhiu bi ton c th b qua kch thc ca vt c kho st. Khi ta c khi nim v cht im: Cht im l mt vt m kch thc ca n c th b qua trong bi ton c xt. Kch thc ca mt vt c th b qua c khi kch thc rt nh so vi kch thc ca cc vt khc hay rt nh so vi khong cch t n ti cc vt khc. Vy, cng c th nh ngha: Mt vt c kch thc nh khng ng k so vi nhng khong cch, nhng kch thc m ta ang kho st c gi l cht im. Nh vy, ty thuc vo iu kin bi ton ta nghin cu m c th xem mt vt l cht im hay khng. V d khi xt chuyn ng ca vin n trong khng kh, chuyn ng ca qu t chung quanh mt tri, ta c th coi vin n, qu t l cht im nu b qua chuyn ng quay ca chng. Nhiu khi ngi ta cn gi cht im l ht hay vt.
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Tp hp cc cht im c gi l h cht im. Nu khong cch tng i gia cc cht im ca h khng thay i, th h cht im c gi l vt rn. 3. Phng trnh chuyn ng ca cht im xc nh chuyn ng ca mt cht im, ngi ta thng gn vo h qui chiu mt h ta , chng hn h ta Descartes c ba trc ox, oy, oz vung gc tng i mt hp thnh tam din thun Oxyz c gc ta ti O. H qui chiu c gn vi gc O. Nh vy vic xt cht im chuyn ng trong khng gian s c xc nh bng vic xt chuyn ng ca cht im trong h ta chn. V tr M ca cht im s c xc nh bi cc ta ca n. Vi h r ta Descartes Oxyz, cc ta ny l x,y,z. Bn knh vect OM = r cng c cc ta x,y,z trn ba trc ox, oy, oz ( hnh 1-1), v c mi lin h: r = x( t )i + y( t ) j + z( t )k . Khi cht im chuyn ng, v tr M thay i theo thi gian, cc ta x, y, z ca M l nhng hm ca thi gian t: x = x(t) y = y(t) z = z(t)
r Do bn knh vect r ca cht im chuyn ng cng l mt hm ca thi gian t:
(1-1)
z
+
r r r = r (t )
(1-2)
Cc phng trnh (1-1) hay (1-2) xc nh v tr ca cht im ti thi im t v c gi l phng trnh chuyn ng ca cht im. V mi thi im t, cht im c mt v tr xc nh, v khi thi gian t thay i, v tr M ca cht im thay i lin tc nn cc hm x(t), y(t), z(t) hay r (t) l nhng hm xc nh, n tr v lin tc ca thi gian t. 4. Qy o
A.
O
r r
(c)
y y
x x
Hnh (1-1) V tr ca cht im chuyn ng
Qu o ca cht im chuyn ng l ng cong to bi tp hp tt c cc v tr ca cht im trong khng gian trong sut qu trnh chuyn ng. Tm phng trnh Qu o cng c ngha l tm mi lin h gia cc ta x,y,z ca cht im M trn qu o ca n. Mun vy ta c th kh thi gian t trong cc phng trnh tham s (1-1) v (1-2). V d. Mt cht im c nm t mt ci thp theo phng ngang trong mt phng xoy s c phng trnh chuyn ng: x = v0t,
O x
1 y = gt 2 , z = 0 . 2
y Hnh 1-1 Qu o ca cht im
y v0 = const l vn tc ban u ca cht im, g = const l gia tc trng trng. Gc to gn vi im xut pht ca cht im. Kh t trong cc phng trnh trn, ta tm c phng trnh qu o ca cht im: y =
1 2 2 gx 2v 0
Phng trnh ny m t qu o l mt ng parabol nm trong mt phng Oxy. V t > 0 nn qu o thc ca cht im ch l na ng parabol ng vi cc gi tr x>0 (Hnh 1-1). 5. Honh cong Gi s k hiu qu o ca cht im l (C) (Hnh 1-1). Trn ng cong (C) ta chn im A no lm gc (A ng yn so vi O) v chn mt chiu dng hng theo chiu chuyn ng ca cht im (theo mi tn c du cng). Khi ti mi thi im t v tr M ca cht im trn ng cong (C) c xc nh bi tr i s ca cung AM, k hiu l: AM = s Ngi ta gi s l honh cong ca cht im chuyn ng. Khi cht im chuyn ng, s l hm ca thi gian t, tc l: s = s(t) (1-3)
r
Nh vy c th xc nh v tr M ca cht im bng bn knh vect r , hoc bng cc ta x,y,z ca M, hoc bng honh cong s ca n. Cc i lng ny c mi lin h cht ch vi nhau. Khi dng honh cong, th qung ng cht im i c trong khong thi gian t=t-to l s=s-s0, trong s0 l khong cch t cht im n gc A ti thi im ban u (to = 0), s l khong cch t cht im n gc A ti thi im t. Nu ti thi im ban u cht im ngay ti gc A th s0 = 0 v s = s, ng bng qung ng m cht im i c trong khong thi gian chuyn ng t.
2. VN TC
c trng cho chuyn ng v phng, chiu v nhanh chm, ngi ta a ra i lng gi l vn tc. Ni cch khc: vn tc l mt i lng c trng cho trng thi chuyn ng ca cht im. 1. Khi nim v vn tc chuyn ng Gi s ta xt chuyn ng ca cht im trn ng cong (C) (hnh 1-2). Ti thi im t, cht im v tr M, c honh cong: s=AM Do chuyn ng, ti thi im sau t=t+t cht im i c mt qung ng s v v tr M xc nh bi: s = AM = s + s. Qung ng i c ca cht im trong khong thi gian t = tt l:
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Hnh 1-2 thnh lp cng thc vn tc
MM = s s = s T s s/t biu th qung ng trung bnh m cht im i c trong mt n v thi gian t M n M, v c gi l vn tc trung bnh ca cht im trong khong thi gian t (hoc trn qung ng t M n M) k hiu l v , tc l:
v=
s t
(1-4)
Vn tc trung bnh ch c trng cho nhanh chm trung bnh ca chuyn ng trn qung ng MM. Trn qung ng ny, ni chung nhanh chm ca cht im thay i t im ny n im khc, v khng bng v . V th c trng cho nhanhA chm ca chuyn ng ti tng thi im, ta phi tnh t s s/t trong nhng khong thi gian t v cng nh, tc l cho t 0. Theo nh ngha, khi t 0, MM, t s s/t s tin dn ti mt gii hn gi l vn tc tc thi (gi tt l vn tc) ca cht im ti thi im t v k hiu l v :
v = lim
t 0
s t
hay theo nh ngha ca o hm, ta c th vit:
v=
ds dt
(1-5)
Vy: Vn tc ca cht im chuyn ng bng o hm honh cong ca cht im theo thi gian. S gia s cng chnh l qung ng m cht im i c trong khong thi gian t = t-to. Do ni chung c th pht biu (1-5) nh sau: Vn tc ca cht im chuyn ng bng o hm qung ng i c ca cht im theo thi gian. Biu thc (1-5) biu din vn tc l mt lng i s. Du ca v xc nh chiu cu chuyn ng: Nu v>0, cht im chuyn ng theo chiu dng ca Qu o, nu v<0, cht im chuyn ng theo chiu ngc li. Tr tuyt i ca v c trng cho nhanh chm ca chuyn ng ti tng thi im. Tm li vn tc xc nh mc nhanh chm v chiu ca chuyn ng. Cng c th ni vn tc xc nh trng thi ca cht im. n v o ca vn tc trong h n v SI l: 2. Vect vn tc c trng y c v phng chiu v nhanh chm ca chuyn ng ngi ta a ra mt vect gi l vect vn tc.
mt (m/s). giy
M
r ds
r v
Hnh.1-3 nh ngha vect vn tc 5
r nh ngha:Vect vn tc v ti v tr M l vect c phng v chiu trng vi phng chiu ca chuyn ng, c ln c xc nh bi cng thc (1-5). c th vit c biu r thc ca vect vn tc, ngi ta nh ngha vect vi phn cung ds l vect nm trn tip tuyn vi qu o ti M, hng theo chiu chuyn ng v c ln bng tr s tuyt i ca vi phn honh cong ds . Do ta c th vit li (1-5) nh sau: r r ds v= (1-6) z dt
v tr s ca n l v =
ds nh c (1-5). dt
r r
3.Vect vn tc trong h to Descartes Gi s ti thi im t, v tr ca cht im chuyn ng c xc nh bi bn knh vect r OM = r (hnh1-4). thi im sau t=t+t, v tr ca n c xc nh bi bn knh vect: r r OM' = r + r v vect MM' c xc nh bi:
r r
r r'
O x
Hnh 1-4. Xc nh vect vn tc trong h to Descartes
r MM' = OM' OM = r
r r r r Khi t 0 , M' M , r dr , do MM MM ' , dr = ds . r r Hai vect dr , ds bng nhau, do ta c th vit li biu thc (1-6) ca vn tc nh sau: r r dr v= (1-7) dt
Tc l: Vect vn tc bng o hm bn knh vect v tr chuyn ng ca cht im theo thi gian. r r r r r r r V trong h to d Descartes r = xi + yj + zk , (trong i , j, k l cc vect n v trn cc trc ta ox,oy,oz ) cho nn theo (1-7), ta c th vit: r r r r r dr d dx r dy r dz r v= ( xi + yj + zk ) = k. i + = j+ dt dt dt dt dt r r r r hay l: v = v x i + vy j + vz k r trong v x , v y , v z l ln ca cc thnh phn ca vect v trn ba trc ta ox, oy, oz v bng:
vx = dx dy dz , vy = , vz = dt dt dt
(1-8)
v v ln ca v l:
v =
V d
v +v +v
2 x 2 y
2 z
dx dy dz + + dt dt dt
(1-9)
V tr ca cht im chuyn ng trong mt phng Oxy c cc phng trnh nh sau: x=5t, y=7t-4t2. Xc nh qu o ca cht im, vect vn tc ca cht im ti thi im t=1s. Coi thi im ban u t0= 0. n v ca x, v y l mt (m). Li gii Chn h to nh hnh 1-5. H quy chiu gn vi gc to O. Kh thi gian t trong cc phng trnh chuyn ng, ta c phng trnh qu o ca cht im:
4 7 y = x - x 2, 5 25
l mt parapol c b lm hng xung. Ti thi im t=1s cao cc i c cc to : x=5m, y= 3m. ymax = 3,06m; xm = 4,375m. vx= 5m/s, vy = (7-8t) m/s =-1m/s, r r r r r 2 2 v = v x i + v y j = 5i - j , v = v x + v y = 25 + 1 5,09m/s.
r Vect v hp vi phng ca trc Ox mt gc xc nh bi: vy = -1/5,09 = -0.196. Suy ra -11,120 ( xem hnh 1-5). tg = vx
y
ymax =3,06m
v
r v
Hnh 1-5
xm
x=5,09m
3. GIA TC
c trng cho s bin thin ca vect vn tc, ngi ta a ra mt i lng gi l vect gia tc. Ni cch khc, gia tc l i lng c trng cho s bin i trng thi chuyn ng ca cht im. 1. nh ngha v biu thc vect gia tc Khi cht im chuyn ng, vect vn tc ca n thay i c v phng chiu v ln. Gi s ti thi v im t cht im im M, c vn tc l v , ti thi im sau t = t+t cht im v tr M c vn tc
r v
M
r v'
M 7
Hnh 1-6 Vn tc ti nhng im khc nhau
r r r v' = v + v (Hnh 1-6). Trong khong thi gian t=t- t, vect vn tc ca cht im bin thin mt lng: r r r v = v' v . r v xc nh bin thin trung bnh ca vect vn tc trong mt n v thi gian T s t v c gi l vect gia tc trung bnh ca cht im chuyn ng trong khong thi gian t v r k hiu l a tb : r r v a tb = (1-10) t
Nhng ni chung ti nhng thi im khc nhau trong khong thi gian t xt, bin r thin vect vn tc v trong mt n v thi gian c khc nhau. Do , c trng cho bin thin ca vect vn tc ti tng thi im, ta phi xc nh t s cng nh, ngha l cho t 0, khi t s
r v s tin dn ti gii hn gi l vect gia tc tc t
r v trong khong thi gian v t
thi (gi tt l gia tc) ca cht im ti thi im t v c k hiu l a . Nh vy,
r v a = lim t 0 t
(1-11)
Theo nh ngha o hm vect, gii hn ny chnh l o hm vect vn tc theo thi gian: r r dv a= (1-12) dt Vy: Vect gia tc ca cht im chuyn ng bng o hm vect vn tc theo thi gian. Nu phn tch chuyn ng ca cht im thnh ba thnh phn chuyn ng theo ba trc ox, oy, oz ca h ta Descartes, ta c: r r r r r r r d a= ( v x i + vy j + vz k ) = a x i + a y j + a z k dt trong :
dv x d 2 x = dt dt 2 dv y d 2y = 2 ay = dt dt ax = dv z d 2 z = 2 dt dt r v ln ca vect a s c tnh nh sau: az =
r 2 2 2 a = a x + ay + az
(1.13)
Trong , cc thnh phn ax, ay, az c xc nh theo (1-13).

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2. Gia tc tip tuyn v gia tc php tuyn Trng hp tng qut, khi cht im chuyn ng trn qu o cong, vect vn tc thay i c v phng chiu v ln. c trng ring cho s bin i v ln phng v r r chiu ca vect vn tc v ngi ta phn tch a thnh hai thnh phn: gia tc tip tuyn v gia tc php tuyn. Xt chuyn ng ca cht im trn qu o cong (hnh 1-7). Ti thi im t, cht im r r ti v tr M c vn tc v ; Ti thi im t cht im v tr M, c vn tc v' . Ta v vect
MB = M ' A' =
r v' c gc ti M.
r Ta t trn phng MA mt on MC sao cho MC = v' . Khi , nh trn hnh v (1-7),
bin thin vect vn tc trong khong thi gian t l: r r r v = v' - v = AB = AC + CB Theo nh ngha (1-11) v gia tc, ta c:
r v A
C M'
r Theo (1-14), vect gia tc a gm hai thnh phn. Sau y ta s ln lt xt cc thnh phn ny. a. Gia tc tip tuyn. Ta k hiu thnh phn th nht ca (1-14) l:
r v AC CB r a = lim = lim + lim t 0 t t 0 t t 0 t
(1-14)
R O
B
r v'
A'
r AC a t = lim t 0 t
Thnh phn ny lun cng phng vi tip tuyn ca qu r o ti thi im t, v vy a t c gi l gia tc tip tuyn. th a t ngc chiu vi v .
Hnh(1-7). Vn tc ca cht im ti cc thi im t v t'
r r r Chiu ca a t trng chiu vi AC . V vy khi v' > v th a t cng chiu vi v , khi v' < v ,
ln c tnh nh sau:
at = lim
AC t
t 0
= lim
t 0
v AC v' -v MC - MA = lim = lim = lim t 0 t t 0 t t t 0 t
y ch v l bin thin ln ca vect vn tc. Theo nh ngha o hm, ta c th vit: dv (1-15) at = dt Vy: Vect gia tc tip tuyn c trng cho s bin i ln ca vect vn tc, c: Phng trng vi tip tuyn ca qy o, Chiu trng vi chiu chuyn ng khi v tng v ngc chiu chuyn ng khi v gim. ln bng o hm tr s vn tc theo thi gian. b. Gia tc php tuyn
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r Thnh phn th hai ca gia tc, c k hiu l a n v theo (1-14), ta c:
r CB a n = lim t 0 t
Khi t 0, v' v , CB dn ti vung gc vi AC , tc vung gc vi tip tuyn ca qu r o ti M. V vy a n c gi l gia tc php tuyn. Ta lm r iu ny nh sau. Ta t MOM= CMB = . Trong tam gic cn MCB c: MCB =
CMB = 2 2 2
. Vy n gii hn, CB AC do phng ca 2 r a n AC , tc l vung gc vi tip tuyn ca Qu o ti M. r r Chiu ca a n lun hng v tm ca qu o, do a n cng c gi l gia tc hng tm.
Khi t 0, M M, 0, MCB
r CB ln ca a n cho bi: a n = lim t 0 t
r r Ch rng cc gc: BMC = MOM= . Khi t 0, M M, v' v , gc rt nh, c th coi gn ng:

s =MMR, trong R =OM l bn knh cong ca ng trn mt tip ca qu o ti im M. Ta suy ra:
CB = v'. = v'.
s R
r Vy ta c th tm ln ca a n nh sau:
a n = lim
CB 1 v' s 1 s = lim = lim v' . lim t 0 t t 0 t R t 0 t R t 0

t 0
(1-16)
lim v' = v
t 0
lim
s
t
ds =v dt
Thay cc kt qa va tnh c vo (1-16), cui cng ta s c:
v2 R
(1-17)
Cng thc (1-17) chng t an cng ln nu cht im chuyn ng cng nhanh (v cng ln) r v qu o cng cong (R cng nh). Vi cc iu kin ny, phng ca vect vn tc v thay i cng nhiu. V th, gia tc php tuyn c trng cho s thay i phng ca vect vn tc.
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r Tht vy, trong chuyn ng thng, R = , an = 0, vect vn tc v c phng khng i.
Trong chuyn ng trn u, vect vn tc c ln khng i (R = const, v = const) cho r v2 nn at = 0, nhng an = = const, vect v c phng thay i u. R Tm li vect gia tc php tuyn c trng cho s thay i phng ca vect vn tc, n c: Phng: trng vi phng php tuyn ca qu o ti M; Chiu: lun hng v pha lm ca qu o; v2 C ln bng: an = R c. Kt lun
r Trong chuyn ng cong ni chung vect gia tc a gm hai thnh phn: gia tc tip tuyn r r a t v gia tc php tuyn a n , tc l: r r r a = at + an (1-18) r Gia tc tip tuyn a t c trng cho s bin i v ln ca vect vn tc. r Gia tc php tuyn a n c trng cho s bin i v phng ca vect vn tc.
Ta cng c th phn tch vect gia tc theo cc thnh phn trn cc trc to ox, oy, oz, do kt hp vi (1-18) ta c: r r r r r r a = a x i + ay j + a zk = an + at (1-19) r M a V tr s:
2 2 2 2 a = a x + a y + a z = a t2 + a n
2 2 2 2
a =
d x + d y + d z = dv + v dt 2 R dt 2 dt 2 dt
r an
r a
R
Hnh 1-8 Gia tc tip tuyn v chuyn ng thng ( qu o chuyn ng l ng thng ). gia tc php tuyn r - Khi at = 0, vect vn tc v khng i v tr s v chiu, n chuyn ng cong u. r - Khi a = 0 vect vn tc v =const, cht im chuyn ng thng u.
r - Khi an = 0, vect vn tc v khng thay i phng, cht im
4. MT S DNG CHUYN NG C HC THNG GP

Trong mc ny ta s p dng cc kt qa thu c cc mc trn kho st mt s dng chuyn ng c hc c th thng gp. 1. Chuyn ng thng
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Chuyn ng thng l dng chuyn ng c gia tc hng tm bng khng: an= 0. Khi , qu o ca chuyn ng l thng, gia tc ton phn bng gia tc tip tuyn, c phng trng vi phng ca qu o, c chiu trng vi chiu bin i ca vect vn tc, c tr s bng:
a = at =
dv dt
Nu a = const th vn tc chuyn ng bin i u, do gi l chuyn ng thng bin i u. Sau nhng khong thi gian bng nhau vn tc ca chuyn ng thay i nhng lng bng nhau. Nu cht im chuyn ng t thi im u to= 0 n thi im t, vn tc bin thin t vo n v th:
a=
T suy ra:
dv v v vo v vo = = = dt t t to t
(1-20)
v = v o + at
v v
(1-21)
v=
ds = v o + at dt
(1-22)
cho nn c th vit:
ds = (v o + at ) dt
Gi s ti thi im ban u t0=0, cht im ti gc to s0 = 0, ti thi im t cht im v tr s. Tch phn hai v ca (1-22):
ds = ( v
0
+ at )dt
ta c:
at 2 s = vot + 2
(1-23)
T (1-21) v (1-23), kh thng s t ta s c

2 2 as = v 2 v 0
(1-24)
Trong chuyn ng thng, nu a=0, vn tc chuyn ng khng thay i, do chuyn ng ny c gi l chuyn ng thng u. Trong chuyn ng thng u: v = const, 2. Chuyn ng trn Trong chuyn ng, nu bn knh cong ca qu o khng thay i (R = const), chuyn ng s c gi l chuyn ng trn. Trong chuyn ng trn, do c s thay i gc quay ca bn knh vect OM , ngoi cc i lng v, a, at, an, ngi ta cn a ra cc i lng vn tc gc v gia tc gc. a.Vn tc gc
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s = vt
Gi s cht im M chuyn ng trn qu o trn tm O, bn knh R. Trong khong thi gian t = t t cht im i c qung ng s bng cung MM ng vi gc quay = MOM ca bn knh R = MO (Hnh 1-9). i lng /t biu th gc quay trung bnh trong mt n v thi gian, k hiu l v c gi l vn tc gc trung bnh trong khong thi gian t:
(1-25)
khng c trung cho nhanh chm ca chuyn ng ca bn knh R = OM ti mi

thi im. Nu cho t 0, t s cht im ti thi im t:
s tin ti gii hn, k hiu l , biu th vn tc gc ca t

(1-26)
= lim
t 0
d = t dt
Vy: Vn tc gc bng o hm gc quay theo thi gian Vn tc gc c n v l radian trn giy (rad/s). Vi chuyn ng trn u (R= const, = const, v = const) ngi ta cn a ra nh ngha chu k v tn s. Chu k l thi gian cn thit cht im i c mt vng trn. Do chuyn ng trn u, gc quay trong khong thi gian t l:
M R O
= .t.
Trong mt chu k t =T, =2. V ta suy ra: Vy:
s M'
T =
2 = .
2 T =
Hnh 1-9 Lp cng thc vn tc gc
Tn s (k hiu l f) l s vng (s chu k) quay c ca cht im trong mt n v thi gian. Trong khong thi gian mt giy cht im i c cung trn , mi vng trn c di 2, do theo nh ngha tn s, ta c:
f =
1 = 2 T
n v ca chu k l giy (s), ca tn s l 1/s hoc cn gi l Hertz (Hz). b. Gia tc gc Gi s trong khong thi gian t = t t, vn tc gc ca cht im chuyn ng trn bin thin mt lng = - . Theo nh ngha, lng /t gi l gia tc gc trung bnh trong khong thi gian t, n biu th bin thin trung bnh ca vn tc gc trong mt n v thi gian, k hiu :
13
=
Nu cho t 0, hiu l . Do :
tin ti gii hn gi l gia tc gc ca cht im ti thi im t, k
= lim
t 0
Theo nh ngha v o hm v theo (1-26), ta c:
d d 2 = dt dt 2
(1-27)
Vy: Gia tc gc bng o hm vn tc gc theo thi gian v bng o hm bc hai ca gc quay theo thi gian. Gia tc gc c n v bng Radian trn giy bnh phng (rad/s2). Khi > 0, tng, chuyn ng trn nhanh dn, Khi < 0, gim, chuyn ng trn chm dn. Khi = 0, khng i, chuyn ng trn u. Khi = const, chuyn ng trn bin i u (nhanh dn u hoc chm dn u). Tng t nh chng minh cho trng hp chuyn ng thng bin i u, ta cng c th chng minh c:
= 0 + t
= 1 2 t + 0 t 2
(1-28) (1-29) (1-30)
2 2 0 = 2
Vi ch l: ti thi im ban u to = 0, o = 0, vn tc gc c gi tr o. c. Vect vn tc gc v vect gia tc gc Trong nhiu bi ton, ta cn biu din v l i lng vect. Ngi ta nh ngha vect r vn tc gc l vect c ln bng nh ngha (1-26), nm trn trc ca qu o trn, c chiu tun theo qui tc vn nt chai: Nu quay ci vn nt chai theo chiu chuyn ng ca cht im th chiu tin r ca ci vn nt chai ch chiu ca vect (Xem hnh 110). r Vect gia tc l mt vect c tr s xc nh theo r (1-27), nm trn trc ca qu o trn, cng chiu vi nu r r r r tng v ngc chiu vi nu gim (xem hnh 1-11). Theo nh ngha ta c th vit:
14 M Hnh 1-10. Minh ho qui tc vn nt chai.
r v
r r d = dt
d. Cc h qu
(1-31)
r r * Lin h gia cc vect v v . Gia bn kn R, cung MM v gc c mi lin h (xem hnh 1-9): MM = s = R , do :

s = R. t t
Khi t 0, theo (1-5) v (1-26) ta c:
v = R
(1-32)
r Nu t OM = R (hnh 1-10) ta thy r r r ba vect , R, v theo th t to thnh mt tam din thun ba mt vung. Ngoi ra theo cng thc (1-32) ta c th vit: r r r v =R (1-33)
* Lin h gia an v Theo (1-17) v (1-32) v= R, ta suy ra: a n = an =
v2 , R
r 2 r 1 r
r
r v
r 1 r 2
r
r v
r R
r R
(a)
Hnh.1-11
(b)
(R )2 = 2 R R
r r r r Lin h gia cc vect R , v , , a-quay nhanh dn, b-quay chm dn
an = 2 R
* Lin h gia at v Thay v=.R vo a t =
(1-34)
dv ta c: dt
d R = .R (1-35) dt r r r r r r Theo nh ngha ca cc vect , R, a t , ta thy ba vect , R, a t theo th t lun to thnh tam din thun ba mt vung; Kt hp vi (1-35) ta c th vit: r r r at = R (1-36) at =
3. Chuyn ng trong trng lc
15
Nhiu khi ta phi xt chuyn ng ca mt vt trong trng lc. Chng hn mt electron bay vo in trng E (hoc t trng B ) vi vn tc ban u vo. Sau y ta xt chuyn ng ca mt vt trong trng trng. Mt vin n c bn ln t mt t vi vn tc ban u vo theo phng hp vi mt phng nm ngang mt gc . 1. Vit phng trnh chuyn ng ca vin n. 2. Tm dng qu o ca vin n. 3. Tnh thi gian k t lc bn n lc vin n chm t. 4. Xc nh tm bay xa ca vin n. 5. Tnh cao ln nht m vin n t c. 6. Xc nh bn knh cong ca vin n ti im cao nht. Bi gii Khi vin n bay ra khi nng sng n tip tc chuyn ng theo qun tnh, mt khc n chu sc ht ca trng trng gy cho n gia tc khng i g = 9,81m/s2 theo voy phng thng ng hng xung di t. Do vt s chuyn ng theo qu o cong nm trong mt mt phng. kho st chuyn ng ca vin n, ta gn im xut pht ca vin n vi gc O ca h ta ox, oy; trc ox theo phng ngang, trc oy theo phng thng ng (hnh 1-12). Qu o ca vin n s nm trong mt phng Oxy.
y y p
r v0
v0x
xm
xr
Hnh 1-12. Qu o ca vin n
a. Phng trnh chuyn ng r Ta phn tch vect vn tc v 0 thnh 2 thnh phn theo 2 trc ox, oy: vox = vocos, voy = vosin
Coi chuyn ng gm hai thnh phn: thnh phn theo phng ox, c vn tc ban u vox,c gia tc bng khng ax= 0; thnh phn oy c vn tc ban u voy, gia tc bng ay=g, gia tc ny ngc chiu vi trc oy. Vy phng trnh chuyn ng ca vin n l: x = (vocos)t (1)
y = (v o sin )t
b. Phng trnh qu o
gt 2 2
(2)
Kh t t hai phng trnh (1) v (2) ta c:

16
y=
gx 2 + tg.x 2v 0 cos 2
(3)
Vy qu o ca vin n l mt parabol, b lm hng xung di (Hnh 1-12). c. Thi gian ri Khi vin n ri chm t, y = 0, t (2) ta c:
gt v o sin t = 0 2
Phng trnh ny c 2 nghim: Nghim t1=0 ng vi thi im xut pht, t2 ng vi lc chm t. Vy thi gian cn thit vin n bay trong khng kh l t =t2t1=t2.
t 2 = t =
d. cao cc i
2v o sin g
(4)
Khi t n im cao nht p, vn tc ca vin n theo phng oy bng khng:
v y = v 0 y gt p = v 0 sin gt p = 0 tp = y max v o sin 1 = t2 . g 2 v sin g v o sin = (v o sin )t p g = v o sin o 2 g 2 g

2 v o sin 2 2g 2 tp 2
y max =
(5)
e. Bn knh cong ca qu o ti im cao nht im cao nht, a = a n = g , v y = 0 , v = v x .
v2 an = g = x R
T suy ra:
R=
2 v2 (v cos ) = v o cos2 x = o g g g 2
(6)
f. Tm bay xa ca vin n Khi vin n chm t, n cch gc O mt khong OR = xr. Khi y=0. T (3) ta c:
2 2 2v 0 cos . sin v 0 sin 2 xr = = g g
(7)
17
Vi gi tr xc nh ca vn tc vo, xr ln nht khi sin2 =1, tc khi
= 45o.
18
Chng II: ng lc hc cht im
CHNG II NG LC HC CHT IM
ng lc hc nghin cu mi quan h gia s bin i trng thi chuyn ng ca cc vt vi tng tc gia cc vt .C s ca ng lc hc gm ba nh lut Newton v nguyn l tng i Galilo.
1. CC NH LUT NEWTON
Cc nh lut Newton nu ln mi quan h gia chuyn ng ca mt vt vi tc dng t bn ngoi v quan h gia cc tc dng ln nhau gia cc vt. 1. nh lut Newton th nht Cht im c lp: L cht im khng tc dng ln cht im khc v cng khng chu tc dng no t cht im khc. nh lut Newton th nht pht biu nh sau: Mt cht im c lp nu ang ng yn, s tip tc ng yn, nu ang chuyn ng, chuyn ng ca n l thng v u. r Trong c hai trng hp, cht im ng yn ( v = 0 ) v chuyn ng thng u r ( v = const ) u c vn tc khng i. Khi vn tc ca cht im khng i, ta ni trng thi chuyn ng ca n c bo ton. Nh vy theo nh lut Newton I: Mt cht im c lp lun bo ton trng thi chuyn ng ca n. Tnh cht bo ton trng thi chuyn ng c gi l qun tnh. V vy nh lut th nht ca Newton cn c gi l nh lut qun tnh. C th vn dng nh lut qun tnh gii thch nhiu hin tng thc t. V d, on tu ang ng yn bng chuyn ng t ngt. Khi , hnh khch ang ng yn hoc ngi trn tu s b ng ngi v pha sau do qun tnh. Tng t, khi on tu ang chuyn ng thng u b dng t ngt, hnh khch s b chi ngi v pha trc. 2. nh lut Newton th hai nh lut th hai ca Newton xt cht im trng thi khng c lp, ngha l chu tc dng ca nhng vt khc. Tc dng t vt ny ln vt khc c c trng bi mt i lng l lc, thng k hiu bng vect F .
r r r Khi mt vt chu tc dng ng thi ca nhiu lc F1 , F2 ,..., Fn th ta c th thay tt c
cc lc bng mt lc tng hp: F = F 1 + F 2 + ... + F n .
19
Do khi ni n lc tc dng ln mt vt, ta hiu trong trng hp tng qut, l lc tng hp ca cc lc. Trng hp ring, ch c mt lc. Lc tc dng ln mt vt lm thay i trng thi chuyn ng ca vt. V trng thi ca mt vt c xc nh bi vn tc v v tr ca n, do khi chu tc dng ca mt lc, vn tc ca vt b bin i, tc l vt thu c gia tc. Lc tc dng cng ln, gia tc m vt thu c s cng ln. Th nghim chng t rng gia tc ca mt vt cn ph thuc vo qun tnh ca vt. Qun tnh ca mt vt c c trng bi khi lng ca vt, k hiu l m. Ba i lng l lc, khi lng v gia tc lin h vi nhau theo mt nh lut thc nghim do Newton nu ra, gi l nh lut Newton th II v c pht biu nh sau: r r Chuyn ng ca mt cht im chu tc dng ca lc F l mt chuyn ng c gia tc a , r Gia tc chuyn ng ca mt cht im t l thun vi lc tc dng F v t l nghch vi khi lng m ca cht im y, t c th vit: r r F a=k (2-1) m Trong , k l mt h s t l ph thuc vo cch chn n v cc i lng trong cng thc (2-1). Trong h n v quc t SI, ngi ta chn k = 1, do : r r F a= m Hoc c th vit:
r r F = ma
(2-2)
R rng cng mt lc tc dng ln vt nu khi lng m ca vt cng ln th gia tc ca vt cng nh, ngha l trng thi chuyn ng ca vt cng t thay i. Nh vy khi lng m ca vt c trng cho qun tnh ca vt. Thc nghim chng t nh lut Newton 2 ch nghim ng i vi h qui chiu qun tinh (s c nu r di y). Biu thc (2-2) bao gm c nh lut Newton I v II, c gi l phng trnh c bn ca ng lc hc cht im. r Trong trng hp tng qut, cht im c th ng thi chu tc dng ca nhiu lc, khi F l tng hp ca nhiu lc tc dng ln cht im:
n r r r r r F = F1 + F2 + ... + Fn = Fi i =1
r r Ghi ch: Gia tc a v lc F
c th phn tch thnh cc thnh phn theo cc trc ox, oy, oz:
r r r r F = F x i + Fy j + F z k . dv y dt
r lc F
c cc thnh phn:
Fx = m
20
dv x = ma x , dt
Fy = m
= ma y ,
Fz = m
dv z = ma z . dt
r Nu lc F = 0, th th nht.
r r a = 0, do v = const, iu ny ph hp vi nh lut Newton
Nu vt chu nhiu tc dng nhng lc tng hp bng khng khng c lp s ng yn hoc chuyn ng thng u. Nu F 0 nhng hnh chiu Fx = 0 hoc ca vt theo phng x cng l thng u.
F
i =1
r = 0, th a = 0, vt
F
i =1
=0 th ax= 0. Trng hp ny chuyn ng
Mt cht im khi lng m gn mt qu t s chu tc dng ca sc ht ca qu t. r Lc ny c gi l trng lc (s ni r hn trong phn nh lut hp dn), k hiu l P , gy cho r r r vt gia tc ri t do g . Theo nh lut Newton II: P = mg . Khi vn tc chuyn ng ca vt rt nh so vi vn tc ca nh sng trong chn khng, c th coi khi lng ca n khng i. 3. H qui chiu qun tnh nh ngha: H qui chiu trong mt vt c lp nu ang ng yn s ng yn mi mi cn nu ang chuyn ng s chuyn ng thng u c gi l h qui chiu qun tnh. Ni cch khc, h qui chiu trong nh lut qun tnh c nghim ng l h qui chiu qun tnh. Thc nghim cng chng t nh lut Newton II ch nghim ng i vi h qui chiu qun tnh. 4. nh lut Newton th ba Trong t nhin khng bao gi c tc ng mt pha. Newton chng minh rng khi cht im A tc dng ln cht im B th ngc li cht im B cng tc dng ln cht im A. Newton a ra nh lut Newton III pht biu nh sau: r Khi cht im A tc dng ln cht im B mt lc F th ng thi cht im B cng tc r r r dng ln cht im A mt lc F' ' . Hai lc F v F' ' ng thi tn ti, cng phng, ngc chiu, cng cng v t ln hai cht im A v B khc nhau (hnh 2-1): r r F =- F ' r r r r r F F Ngi ta gi F ' l lc phn tc dng, thng gi tt r r A B l phn lc. Hai vect lc F v F ' c im t khc nhau nn chng kng phi l lc trc i, tc khng trit tiu Hnh 2-1 nhau. Hai vt A v B tc dng ln nhau nh vy c gi l Lc hp dn gia hai vt tng tc vi nhau.
r r ( F v F ' ) khi c gi l ni lc tng tc trong h, tng hp hai vect ni lc ny ca h

bng khng:
Nu mt h gm hai cht im A v B tng tc nhau th cc lc tng tc gia A v B
r r F + F' = 0 .
21
Trng hp tng qut, nu h c n cht im, trong h ch c cc ni lc tng tc gia cc cht im ca h (khng tng tc vi cc cht im khc ngoi h) th h c gi l h c lp (hay cn gi l h kn). Khi nu xt tng i cht im ca h th tng hai lc tng tc gia chng bng khng. Do nu xt c h th: Tng hp cc ni lc ca mt h c lp lun bng khng.
2. CC LC LIN KT
T nh lut Newton th 3 ta suy ra rng: tng tc l hin tng ph bin ca t nhin. Do gia vt chuyn ng v vt lin kt vi n lun c cc lc tng tc gi l cc lc lin kt. Di y ta s xt mt s loi lc lin kt thng gp. 1. Lc ma st a. Ma st trt Thc nghim chng t khi mt vt rn m trt trn gi S, n tc dng mt lc nn ln r mt gi S. Theo nh lut Newton III, mt ny li tc dng ln vt m mt phn lc R gm r r hai thnh phn f ms v N (hnh 2-2) sao cho: r r r R = N + f ms r r - Thnh phn N gi l phn lc php tuyn, n r R N hng vung gc vi gi S ti im tip xc v lun r trc i vi p lc N ' (lc nn vung gc vi mt tip r r v f ms xc) ca vt m tc dng ln mt gi S sao cho iu kin sau y c tho mn: r r r N ' =- N . N' r - Thnh phn f ms gi l lc ma st trt, n c Hnh 2-2 phng trng vi tip tuyn vi mt gi S ti im xc nh lc ma st trt r tip xc, ngc chiu vn tc v v cn tr chuyn ng ca vt. Nu vn tc ca vt khng qu ln th lc ma st trt c ln t l vi phn lc php tuyn: fms = kN Trong , k l h s t l, gi l h s ma st trt, lun c gi tr nh hn n v ( k<1), n ph thuc vo bn cht v tnh cht ca cc mt tip xc gia cc vt lin kt. Bng sau y cho v d v h s ma st ca mt s mt tip xc: Tn vt liu G rn trn g rn Lp cao su trn t cng
22
k 0,25 0,40,6
Tn vt liu Thp trn thp Thp trn t cng
k 0,17 0,20,4
b. Ma st ln l lc ma st xut hin mt tip xc gia mt vt ln trn mt ca mt vt khc. ln r ca lc ma st ln cng t l vi ln ca phn lc php tuyn N v c tnh theo cng thc: fms =
N r
trong r l bn knh ca vt ln, l h s ma st ln. Thc nghim chng t lc ma st ln nh hn lc ma st trt. V vy trong k thut, ngi ta thng s dng cc bi chuyn ma st trt thnh ma st ln ca cc vin bi hay thanh tr trong cc bi. c. Ma st nht l lc ma st xut hin mt hai lp cht lu (cht lng hay cht kh) chuyn ng i vi nhau. Nu mt vt chuyn ng trong cht lu vi vn tc khng ln lm, th lc ma st nht (gia lp cht lu bm dnh vo mt ngoi ca vt vi lp cht lu nm st n) t l v ngc chiu vi vn tc: r r f ms = rv y r l h s ma st nht ca cht lu. Tr s ca r ph thuc vo bn cht v nhit ca cht lu, n nh hn nhiu so vi h s ma st trt v ma st ln. V vy ngi ta thng dng du nht bi trn mt tip xc gia cc vt chuyn ng gim lc ma st. Nu vt c dng hnh cu ng knh d th lc ma st nht tnh theo cng thc Stokes: fms= 3dV trong , c gi l h s nht ca cht lu. 2. Lc cng Gi s c mt vt no b buc vo mt si dy khng dn, di tc dng ca mt ngoi
r r nh). Si dy s b ko cng. Ti mi im ca dy s xut hin nhng lc T v phn lc T ' . Cc lc ny l cc lc tng tc gia hai nhnh hai pha ca si dy v c gi l lc cng ca si dy. Theo nh lut Newton III ta c: r r T = - T'
ln ca cc lc cng ph thuc vo trng thi ng lc hc ca si dy. Mun tnh lc cng cu si dy, ta tng tng ct si dy ti mt im M bt k thnh hai r r phn. t vo mi u (b ct) ca si dy cc lc cng T v T ' sao cho trng thi ng lc hc ca mi nhnh dy (v ca c h) vn gi nguyn nh khng ct dy. Sau p dng phng trnh c bn ca ng lc hc cho mi phn ca h vt chuyn ng (mi phn gn vi mt bn dy). 3. Lc tc dng trong chuyn ng cong Trong chuyn ng cong, gia tc ca cht im gm hai thnh phn gia tc tip tuyn at r r v gia tc php tuyn a n . Gia tc tng hp ca cht im l a (xem 1-18): r r r a = at + an
23
r lc F vt c mt trng thi ng lc hc no (ng yn hay chuyn ng vi gia tc xc
Nhn 2 v ca phng trnh ny vi khi lng ca cht im, ta c: r r r ma = ma t + ma n Theo nh lut Newton II: r r r r r r F = ma , Ft = ma t , Fn = ma n ta c:
r at
r Ft
r an
r Fn
r a
r F
r r r F = F t + Fn (2-3) Hnh 2-3 r Lc hng tm v lc ly tm r Thnh phn Ft = ma t c gi l lc tip tuyn, lc tip tuyn gy ra gia tc tip tuyn, tc lm thay i r r ln v chiu ca vn tc; cn thnh phn F = ma n c gi l lc php tuyn hay l lc hng tm, lc hng tm gy ra gia tc hng tm, lm thay i phng ca vect vn tc. Nh vy iu kin cn thit cho cht im chuyn ng cong l phi tc dng ln n mt lc hng tm, c ln:
F n = ma n = m v2 R
(2-4)
Bt k vt no chuyn ng cong cng lun chu tc dng ca lc hng tm v c lin kt vi cc vt khc, do theo nh lut Newton III, vt chuyn ng cong s tc dng mt phn lc ln vt lin kt vi n. Phn lc ny c gi l lc ly tm, cng phng ngc chiu v cng cng vi lc hng tm: r r Flt = Fht 4.V d a. Kho st chuyn ng v lc lin kt
r r Phng trnh c bn ca ng lc hc F = ma p dng i vi cht im cng p dng cho cc vt rn chuyn ng tnh tin (nh s chng minh trong chng sau).
Ta hy xc nh gia tc chuyn ng ca h hai vt A v B v sc cng ca si dy ko hai vt (hnh 2-4). Hai vt ln lt c khi lng mA v mB. Vt A trt khng ma st trn mt phng nghing mt gc so vi phng nm ngang. B qua khi lng ca rng rc v ca si dy. Tc dng ln vt A c: r r r * Sc cng T , N T' r r * Trng lc P , T r * Phn lc php tuyn N ca mt phng nghing. r r r P1 Trng lc P tc dng ln vt A c phn tch T1 thnh hai thnh phn: r B r r r P2 P = P1 + P2 r r r Trong P2 vung gc vi mt phng nghing P PB r Hnh 2-4 v trit tiu vi N : r r Chuyn ng ca h vt trn P2 + N = 0 mt phng nghing
24
r P2=Pcos =mAgcos , cn P1 (P1=mAgsin ) song song vi mt phng nghing. r r Vy cc ngoi lc tc dng ln A cn li l: P1 , T . Hai lc ny cng phng nhng ngc chiu nhau.
Gi s P1>T, vt A b ko xung dc, vt B b ko ln. Chn chiu chuyn ng l chiu dng, phng trnh chuyn ng ca A l: P1-T =mAgsin - T= mAa (*) r r Tc dng ln vt B c trng lng ca vt B ( PB ), sc cng ca si dy ( T1 ), T1 = T =T. Ly chiu chuyn ng ca h lm chun, ta c phng trnh chuyn ng ca B l: T-PB = mBa T phng trnh ny ta c: T = mBa+mBg =mB(a+g). Thay T t phng trnh ny vo (*) ta c: a=
r
(**)
(mA sin mB ) g. mA + mB
gia tc a hng theo P1 , sc cng ca si dy l: T = mB (a+g) =mB( Rt gn kt qu trn, ta c: T= Nu P1< T th V sc cng T: a= T=
mA sin mB g+g) mA + mB
m Am B (1 + sin ) g mA + mB
( m B m A sin ) g mA + mB
hng theo P B
m Am B (1 + sin ) g mA + mB
r N r N
r Fht r Fht
b. Lc trong chuyn ng cong Mt t chuyn ng trn mt mt chic cu cong bn knh R. Ti nh cu n c vn tc v. Xc nh p lc ca t ln mt cu, b qua mast. Ti nh cu, t chu tc dng ca lc hng r tm bng tng hp trng lc p v phn lc php r tuyn N ca mt cu tc dng ln t: r r r Fht = P + N (b1)
r p
(a)
r p
(b) Hnh 2-5 p lc ca t chuyn ng trn cu cong 25
r Gi N ' l p lc ca t tc dng ln mt cu. Theo nh lut Newton th ba: r r N ' =- N
Chiu biu thc (b1) ln phng php tuyn v ly chiu hng vo tm cong ca mt chic cu lm chiu dng, ta s tm c p lc N. C hai trng hp khc nhau. * Mt cu cong ln (hnh 2-5a): Fht=P-N, suy ra N= N = P-Fht= P* Mt cu lm xung (hnh 2-5b): Fht=P+N, suy ra N= N = P+Fht= P+
mv 2 > P. R mv 2 <P R
3. CC NH L V NG LNG
T nh lut Newton II ta c th suy ra mt s pht biu khc, l cc nh l v ng lng. 1. nh l 1
r Gi s cht im c khi lng m chu tc dng ca lc F , theo nh lut r im s chuyn ng vi gia tc a sao cho: r r ma = F r dv r Hay m =F dt
Newton II, cht
Gi thit khi lng m khng i, ta c th vit: r d (mv ) r =F (2-5) dt r r r Ta t: K = mv , v gi K l vect ng lng ca cht im, do c th vit li (2-5) nh sau: r r dK =F (2-6) dt Ngi ta pht biu (2-6) thnh nh l 1 nh sau: o hm ng lng ca mt cht im theo thi gian bng tng hp cc ngoi lc tc dng ln cht im . 2. nh l 2 T (2-6) ta suy ra:
r r dK = F .dt
26
(2-7)
r r r bin thin ca vect K t thi im t1 c K 1 n thi im t2 c vect ng lng K 2 c th tnh c nh sau:

r r r K = K 2 K 1 =
t2
r K2 r K1
r t2 r dK = F .dt
t1
(2-8)
Ngi ta gi
t1
F .dt
r l xung lng ca lc F trong khong thi gian t t1 n t2. Biu
thc (2-8) c pht biu thnh nh l 2 nh sau: bin thin ng lng ca mt cht im trong mt khong thi gian no bng xung lng ca lc tc dng ln cht im trong khong thi gian . r Trng hp ring khi F khng i theo thi gian, (2-8) tr thnh:
r r K = Ft
(2-9)
hay:
r r K =F t
(2-10)
Tc l: bin thin ng lng ca cht im trong mt n v thi gian bng lc tc dng ln cht im : Ch : Cc nh l 1 v 2 v ng lng l nhng pht biu tng ng ca nh lut Newtn II. Tuy nhin khi ra khi phm vi ca c hc Newton, cc cng thc (2-6) v (2-8) vn ng. V vy c th ni rng v mt mt no , cc nh l v ng lng tng qut hn nh lut Newton II. 3. ngha ca ng lng v xung lng a. ngha ca ng lng n y ta c hai i lng c trng cho trng thi chuyn ng l vn tc v ng lng. Vn tc c trng cho chuyn ng v mt ng hc. Cn ng lng c trng cho chuyn ng v mt ng lc hc, v ng lng khng ch lin quan n vn tc m cn lin quan n khi lng ca cht im. Hn na ng lng cn c trng cho kh nng truyn chuyn ng ca cht im.
r minh ho, ta ly v d sau. Mt qu cu khi lng m1 chuyn ng vi vn tc v1 n p thng vo mt qu cu khi lng m2 ang ng yn. Sau va chm, qu cu m2 s chuyn r r r ng vi vn tc v 2 . Thc nghim chng t v 2 khng nhng ph thuc vo v1 m cn ph r r r thuc vo m1, ngha l ph thuc vo K 1 = mv1 (ng lng ca qa cu th nht). Vn tc v 2 r r cng ln nu mv1 cng ln, ch khng phi ch ring do v1 ln.
Vy kh nng truyn chuyn ng ph thuc vo ng lng ca vt

27
b. ngha ca xung lng Xung lng ca mt lc tc dng trong khong thi gian t c trng cho tc dng ca lc trong khong thi gian . Thc vy, cc cng thc (2-8) v (2-9) chng t tc dng ca lc khng nhng ph thuc vo cng ca lc m cn ph thuc vo khong thi gian tc dng. Cng mt lc tc dng, bin thin ng lng t l thun vi khong thi gian tc dng.
4. NH LUT BO TON NG LNG

1. nh lut bo ton ng lng i vi mt h cht im chuyn ng, p dng nh lut Newton II cho cc cht im, ta r r r r r r c: m1 a1 = F1 , m2 a 2 = F2 ,, mn a n = Fn . T cc phng trnh , ta suy ra phng trnh ca c h:
m a
i =1 i
F
i =1
r =F
T (2-5) i vi cht im th i ta c th vit: ta c:

r r r r d ( m 1v1 + m 2 v 2 + ... + m n v n ) = F dt
r r d( m i v i ) = Fi v vi c h dt
r Trong F l tng hp cc ngoi lc tc dng ln h (tng hp cc ni lc tng tc gia r cc cht im ca h bng khng). Nu h l c lp, F = 0, th: r r r d ( m1v1 + m 2 v 2 + ... + m n v n ) = 0 dt
T ta suy ra:
r r r m 1v1 + m 2 v 2 + ... + m n v n = const
(2-11)
Biu thc (2-11) c pht biu thnh nh lut bo ton ng lng: ng lng tng hp ca mt h c lp lun lun c bo ton. 2. Bo ton ng lng theo mt phng
r Trong trng hp mt h cht im khng c lp nhng hnh chiu ca F ln mt phng x no lun lun bng khng th nu chiu phng trnh vect:
r r r r d ( m 1v1 + m 2 v 2 + ... + m n v n ) = F dt
ln phng x, ta c: m1v1x+ m2v2x +... + mnvnx = const

28
Khi hnh chiu ca vect ng lng tng hp ca h ln phng Ox lun lun c bo ton. Nu tng hp cc ngoi lc tc dng ln h cht im trit tiu th vect ng lng tng hp ca h cng c bo ton. 3.ng dng nh lut bo ton ng lng a.Gii thch hin tng sng git li khi bn Gi s c mt khu sng khi lng M t trn gi nm ngang. Trong nng c mt vin n khi lng m. Nu b qua lc ma st th tng hp cc ngoi lc tc dng ln h (gm sng v n) theo phng ngang bng khng. Do tng ng lng ca h theo phng ngang c bo ton. Trc khi bn, ng lng ca h bng khng. Khi bn, n bay v pha trc vi vn tc r r v , sng git li v pha sau vi vn tc V . V ng lng bo ton nn ng lng ca h sau khi bn s l s l:
r r mv + MV = 0 r r mv Do V = , M r r du tr chng t V ngc chiu vi v . Nu khi lng M ca sng cng ln th vn tc git li ca n cng nh.
Hnh.2-6 Sng git li khi bn
b. Chuyn ng phn lc Ta c th vn dng nh lut Newton III v nh lut bo ton ng lng gii thch chuyn ng phn lc ca tn la. Gi s c mt vt cha mt hn hp kh nng, ban u ng yn. Nu hn hp kh pht ra pha sau th theo nh lut bo ton ng lng, vt s tin v pha trc. l nguyn tc chuyn ng ca tn la. Ta gi khi lng tng cng ban u ca h tn la l Mo, ng yn i vi h qui chiu chn. Trong qu trnh chuyn ng, tn la lun pht kh nng ra pha sau, do khi lng ca n gim dn, vn tc tng dn. Ta gi khi lng ca tn la ti thi im t l M, vn tc ca n r r r l v . ng lng ca tn la lc l k1 = Mv . Qua mt khong thi gian dt, tn la pht ra sau mt khi lng kh l dM1. r Nu vn tc pht kh i vi tn la lun lun khng i v bng u th vn tc pht kh r r i vi h qui chiu ang quan st bng ( u + v ) v ng lng ca khi kh pht ra l dM1 r r ( u + v ). Sau khi pht kh mt lng dM1, khi lng ca h tn la cn bng M-dM1, vn tc r r ca n tng ln thnh v +d v . t dM1 =-dM l gim khi lng h tn la. Vy ng lng r r ca tn la sau khi pht kh l (M+dM)( v +d v ). ng lng ca h sau khi pht kh ( thi im t=t+dt ) l: r r r r r K 2 = dM ( u + v ) + ( M + dM )( v + dv ) , (vi dM1=-dM)
29
B qua lc cn tc dng ln phng chuyn ng ca tn la, theo nh lut bo ton ng lng: r r K1 = K 2 , r r r r r dM ( u + v ) + ( M + dM )( v + dv ) = Mv ta suy ra: r Khai trin cc php tnh, b qua s hng v cng nh bc hai dM.d v , ta c: r r Md v = -dM u . Chn chiu chuyn ng lm chiu dng, chiu cc vect ln phng chuyn ng, ta c: r r Mdv = -udM (d v v u ngc chiu nhau) Ta suy ra:
dv = u
dM M
Tch phn hai v ca phng trnh trn t lc u c vn tc bng khng, khi lng Mo n lc c vn tc v, khi lng M, ta c:
v = u ln
MO M
(2-12)
Cng thc (2-12) c gi l cng thc Xincpxki. Theo cng thc ny, mun cho vn tc ca tn la ln th vn tc pht khi u phi ln v t s Mo/M cng phi ln.
5. NH LUT NEWTON V LC HP DN V TR
Nhiu hin tng trong t nhin chng t rng cc vt c khi lng lun lun tc dng ln nhau nhng lc ht. V d: qu t quay xung quanh mt tri l do lc ht ca mt tri, mt trng quay xung quanh qu t l do sc ht ca qu t Cc lc ht gi l lc hp dn v tr. Gia cc vt xung quanh ta cng c lc hp dn v tr nhng qu nh, ta khng pht hin c bng cch quan st trc quan thng thng. Newton l ngi u tin nu ln nh lut c bn v lc hp dn v tr. 1. nh lut hp dn v tr nh lut ny c pht biu nh sau: Hai cht im m v m t cch nhau mt khong r s ht nhau bng nhng lc c phng trng vi ng thng ni hai cht im , c cng t l thun vi hai khi lng ca chng v t l nghch vi bnh phng khong cch r gia chng. Pht biu c biu din bng cng thc: mm' (2-13) F = F' = G 2 . r Trong G l mt h s t l, ph thuc vo cch chn n v ca cc i lng trong cng thc (2-13), c gi l hng s hp dn v tr.
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Trong h SI, thc nghim cho gi tr ca G l:
G = 6,67.10
11
m2 kg 2
1 .10 9 Nm 2 / kg 2 15
V d: Cho m = m = 1kg, r = 0,1 m, F = F =6,67.10-9N. Lc ny qu nh, khng th pht hin c bng cch quan st bnh thng. Ghi ch: a. Cng thc (2-13) ch p dng cho cc cht im. Mun tnh lc hp dn gia cc vt c kch thc ln ta phi dng phng php tch phn. b. C th chng minh rng do tnh i xng cu, cng thc (2-13) cng th th p dng cho trng hp 2 qu cu ng cht, khi r l khong cch gia hai tm ca 2 qu cu . c. Cc khi lng m v m trong nh lut (2-13) cn gi l khi lng hp dn phn bit vi khi lng qun tnh nu trong mc 1 ca chng ny. Thc nghim chng t khi lng hp dn v khi lng qun tnh ca cng mt vt l nh nhau v c gi chung l khi lng, k hiu l m. 2. S thay i ca gia tc trng trng theo cao. Do c lc hp dn, bt k vt no gn qu t cng chu tc dng ca lc ht ln n, do khi lng ca qu t rt ln (6.1024kg) so vi cc vt , nn cc vt b ht v pha qu t. Cc lc ht chnh l lc hp dn v tr, ta thng gi l trng lc P , trng lc gy ra gia tc r trng trng g cho vt. Nu cht im ngay trn mt t, p dng nh lut hp dn (2-13) ta c:
Po = G
mM R2
(2-14)
Trong M l khi lng qu t, m l khi lng ca cht im, R l bn knh ca qu t. r Trng lc P0 gy ra gia tc go cho cht im m trn mt t. Theo nh lut Newton II, ta c: Po = mgo So snh hai biu thc (2-14) v (2-15) ta c:
go = G M R2
(2-15)
(2-16)
Nu cht im cao h so vi mt t, trng lc tc dng ln cht im khi lng m c tnh theo (2-13) l:
P =G
(R + h )2
P=mg
Mm
(2.17)
Mt khc, theo nh lut Newton II, ta c:
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T ta suy ra gi tr ca gia tc trng trng cao h l:

g =G
(R + h )2
2
m h
r P
T (2-16) v (2-17) ta suy ra c:

h = g o 1 + g = go 2 R h 1 + R 1
(2-18)
R O
h <<1 R
Hnh 2-7 S ph thuc ca gia tc trng trng vo cao h
Cc vt gn mt t c cao h << R, do v c th tnh gn ng:

h 1 + R
2
h 1 2 . R
Do ta tm c gia tc trng trng cao h:

h g = g o 1 2 R
(2-19)
Cc cng thc (2-18) v (2-19) cho thy cng ln cao gia tc trng trng ca cht im m cng gim. 3. Tnh khi lng ca cc thin th a. Khi lng ca qu t T (2-16) ta tnh c khi lng M ca qu t:
M =
go R 2 G
Bit bn knh R ca qu t c gi tr trung bnh l 6378Km= 6,378.106m, gia tc trng trng go c gi tr trung bnh l 9,8m/s2. Vy:
9,8. 6,37.10 6 M= 6,67.10 11

b. Khi lng ca mt tri
6.10 24 Kg.
Qu t quay xung quanh mt tri l do lc hp dn ca mt tri i vi qu t. Lc ny bng:

F =G MM ' R' 2
(2-20)
trong : M l khi lng ca mt tri, M l khi lng ca qu t, R l khong cch trung bnh t tm qu t n tm mt tri. Lc ny lm cho qu t quay xung quanh mt tri nn n ng vai tr ca lc hng tm. Nu coi qu o chuyn ng ca qu t quay xung quanh mt tri l trn vi bn knh R, vn tc chuyn ng l v th lc hng tm Fn cho bi cng thc:
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Fn = M .
v2 R'
(2-21)
Vn tc v ca qu t lin h vi vn tc gc theo cng thc:

v = R' = R' 2 T
(2-22)
Trong T l chu k quay qu t xung quanh mt tri . Thay gi tr ca v (2-22) vo (2-21) ta c:

Fn = M 2 4 2 MR' ( R' ) 2 = R' T T2
(2-23)
So snh (2-23) vi (2-20), F=Fn, ta c:

4 2 MR' T
2
=G
MM ' R' 2
T suy ra khi lng ca mt tri:
M' =
4 2 R' 3 . . T2 G
Khong cch trung bnh t tm qu t n tm mt tri l R= 149.106km, thi gian qu t quay mt vng xung quanh mt ti l 365 ngy, thay vo cng thc va tm c, ta tnh c: M 2.1030 kg. gii thch lc hp dn, ngi ta cho rng: chung quanh mt vt c khi lng lun tn ti mt dng vt cht c bit gi l trng hp dn. Biu hin ca trng hp dn l: bt k vt no c khi lng t trong trng ny u chu tc dng ca lc hp dn. Trong chng sau ta s xt k hn tnh cht ca trng hp dn.
6. CHUYN NG TNG I V NGUYN L TNG I

Ta bit rng chuyn ng c tnh cht tng i, vy tnh cht tng i nh hng nh th no n cc nh lut vt l xt trong cc h qui chiu khc nhau. Mc ny s xt vn . 1. Khng gian v thi gian theo c hc c in. Ta xt hai h qui chiu O v O gn vi 2 h trc ta Oxyz v Oxyz. H O ng yn, h O trt dc trc Ox i vi O sao cho OxOx, OyOy, OzOz (hnh 2-7). Ta gn vo mi h ta mt ng h ch thi gian. Ta xt mt cht im chuyn ng trong h O. Ti thi im t n c cc ta x,y,z. Cc ta khng gian v thi gian tng ng ca cht im trong h O l x,y,z', t. C hc c in c xy dng trn c s nhng quan im ca c hc Newton v khng gian, thi gian v chuyn ng. Cc quan im ca Newton nh sau:
33
a. Thi gian ch bi cc ng h trong hai h O v O l nh nhau: t=t (2-24) Ni cch khc, thi gian c tnh tuyt i, khng ph thuc h qui chiu. b. V tr M ca cht im trong khng gian uc xc nh ty theo h qui chiu, tc l ta khng gian ca n ph thuc h qui chiu. Trong trng hp c th hnh 2-7, ta c: x = x+ OO' , y =y, z = z. (2-25)
.M
O x O A B x
z
Hnh 2-7
Vy: v tr ca khng gian c tnh cht tng i, ph thuc h qui chiu. Do : chuyn ng c tnh cht tng i, ph thuc h qui chiu. c. Khong cch gia 2 im ca khng gian c tnh cht tuyt i, khng ph thuc h qui chiu. Tht vy, gi s c mt ci thc AB t dc theo trc Ox gn vi h O. Chiu di ca thc o trong h O l: l0 = xB-xA Chiu di ca thc trong h O l: l = xB-xA. Theo (2-25) ta c: xA = xA+ OO' , Do : tc l: d. Php bin i Galio Ta xt cht im chuyn ng trong h O. Coi rng ti thi im u t0=0 gc O v O trng nhau, O chuyn ng thng u dc theo trc Ox vi vn tc V. Khi : xB-xA= xB-xA l = l0, xB = xB+ OO' ,
chiu di ca thc bng nhau trong hai h qui chiu (khng ph thuc h qui chiu).
OO' = Vt,
Theo (2-24) v (2-25) x = x+ Vt, y =y, z = z, t = t v ngc li: x= x - Vt, y= y, z= z, t= t Cc cng thc (2-26) v (2-27) c gi l php bin i Galilo. 2. Tng hp vn tc v gia tc Ta hy tm mi lin h gia vn tc v gia tc ca cng mt cht im i vi hai h qui chiu O v O khc nhau.
34
(2-26) (2-27)
Gi s Oxyz chuyn ng i vi Oxyz sao cho lun lun c: Ox Ox, OyOy, OzOz (hnh 2-8) r r t OM = r , O' M = r ' theo hnh (2-8) ta
y M r r x x
OM = OO' + O' M r r hay r = OO' + r '

c:
(2-28)
o hm hai v ca (2-28) theo thi gian ta c: z z r r Hnh 2-8 dr dr ' d( OO' ) tng hp vn tc v gia tc = + (2-29) dt dt dt r r r dr ' r dr = v l vn tc ca cht im i vi h O, = v' l vn tc ca cht Ch rng: dt dt im i vi h O,
r d( OO' ) = V l vn tc chuyn ng ca O i vi O. Nh vy: dt
r r r v = v' +V
c gia tc, ta ly o hm hai v ca (2-30) theo thi gian: r r r dv dv' dV = + dt dt dt r r r Ta c: a = a' + A r Trong , a l gia tc ca cht im i vi h O r a' l gia tc ca cht im i vi h O r A l gia tc chuyn ng ca h O i vi h O. Hai cng thc (2-30) v (2-31) l cc cng thc tng hp vn tc v gia tc. 3. Nguyn l tng i Galilo
(2-30)
(2-31)
Ta hy xt chuyn ng ca cht im trong hai h qui chiu khc nhau O v O nh nu trn. Ta gi s O l h qun tnh, cc nh lut Newton c tha mn. Nh vy phng trnh c bn ca ng lc hc ca cht im s l: r r (2-32) ma = F r a l gia tc ca cht im i vi h O r F l tng hp cc lc tc dng ln cht im xt trong h O. r r Gi a' l gia tc ca cht im i vi h O, A l gia tc chuyn ng ca h O i vi h O, theo (2-31), ta c: r r r a = a' + A
35
r Nu h O chuyn ng thng u i vi h O th A = 0 do r r a = a' r r r Vy m a' = m a = F r r m a' = F
(2-33)
C th suy ra kt qu ny nh php bin i Galil (2-26) v (2-27). Nh vy nh lut Newton cng c tha mn trong h O, vy h O cng l h qui chiu qun tnh v ta c th pht biu nh sau: Mi h qui chiu chuyn ng thng u i vi h qui chiu qun tnh cng l h qui chiu qun tnh. V cc nh lut Newton c nghim ng trong cc h qui chiu qun tnh cho nn cng c th pht biu: Cc phng trnh ng lc hc c dng nh nhau trong cc h qui chiu qun tnh khc nhau. l nguyn l tng i Galilo. V cc phng trnh ng lc hc l c s m t v kho st cc hin tng c hc cho nn ta c th pht biu: Cc hin tng (cc nh lut ) c hc xy ra ging nhau trong cc h qui chiu qun tnh khc nhau. V c th suy t php bin i Galilo ra (2-33) cho nn cng c th pht biu nguyn l ny nh sau: Cc phung trnh c hc bt bin qua php bi i Galilo. c mt h qui chiu qun tnh, ta phi chn mt h qui chiu sao cho khng gian trong n ng nht v ng hng, cn thi gian trong n l ng nht. iu ny bo m cho nh lut I ca Newton c nghim ng ti bt k thi im no v ti bt k v tr no trong h qui chiu . Trong thc t khng th c mt vt c lp tuyt i v mt khng gian tha mn iu kin trn. Do ch c th chn mt h qui chiu qun tnh mt cch gn ng bng cch gn khi tm ca thi dng h vi gc ca mt h trc ta , cc trc hng n cc v sao ng yn i vi khi tm. V khi lng ca mt tri rt ln nn c th coi khi tm ca thi dng h trng vi tm ca mt tri. H qui chiu qun tnh ny c tn l h Nht tm. Trong mt s trng hp ngi ta gn gc ca h trc ta vi tm ca qu t nhng b qua chuyn ng quay quanh mt tri va s quay quanh trc ring ca n. H ny c gi l h a tm. Tuy chnh xc ca n khng cao nh h Nht tm nhng cng c th coi n l h qui chiu qun tnh trong nhiu bi ton thc t. 4. Lc qun tnh
r By gi ta gi s h qui chiu O chuyn ng c gia tc A i i vi h O. Khi nu cht im chuyn ng trong h O th theo (2-31): r r r a = a' + A
nhn hai v vi m ta c:
r r r ma = ma' +mA ;
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V O l h qui chiu qun tnh nn trong h ny nh lut Newton c nghim ng cho nn: r r F = ma r r r r Thay a (2-31) ta c: ma = ma' +mA r r r ma' = F +(- mA ) (2-34) hay Nh vy trong h O chuyn ng c gia tc i vi h O, cc nh lut chuyn ng ca cht im c dng khng ging nh trong h O. Trong h O, ngai cc lc tc dng ln cht r r r r im cn phi k thm lc F qt = (- mA ). Lc F qt = (- mA ) c gi l lc qun tnh, n lun r cng phng ngc chiu vi gia tc A ca chuyn ng ca h O i vi h O. H qui chiu O nh vy c gi l h qui chiu khng qun tnh. Phng trnh ng lc hc ca cht im trong h O l: r r r ma' = F + F qt (2-35) Nh khi nim lc Qun tnh ta c th gii thch s tng gim trng lng v khng trng lng trong con tu v tr v nhiu hin tng khc xy ra trong thc t, nh cc hin tng do chuyn ng quay ca qu t xung quanh trc ca n gy ra (s gim dn ca gia tc trng trng v pha xch o, s l dn ca mt bn b ca cc con sng chy theo hng bc nam).
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Chng III: Cng v nng lng
CHNG III: CNG V NNG LNG

1. CNG V CNG SUT
1. Cng Trong vt l, khi mt lc tc dng ln mt vt (hoc mt h vt), lm cho vt di chuyn (im t lc di chuyn), ngi ta ni rng lc thc hin mt cng. Cng lc theo phng dch chuyn cng ln, qung ng di chuyn cng di th cng cng ln. T ngi ta a ra nh ngha cng nh sau. a. Trng hp lc khng i. Gi s vt chu tc dng ca lc khng i F = const v r im t lc di chuyn theo mt on thng MM ' = s (hnh 3-1). Theo nh ngha, cng A do lc F thc hin trn on chuyn di MM ' l mt i lng c xc nh bi tch sau y: A = F.s.cos (3-1) Trong l gc to bi F v s . V F.cos = Fs l hnh chiu ca vect F ln phng A = Fs . s (3-2)
r ca s nn c th vit:
Hay c th vit li thnh tch v hng nh sau: r r A = F .s (3-3) Nhn xt: Cng A l i lng v hng, c th c gi tr dng hoc m. *A > 0 khi < cng pht ng. *A < 0 khi >
r F
M Fs M
, khi ta ni F l lc pht ng, v A l 2
Hnh 3-1 Minh ho tnh cng ca lc
, khi ta ni F l lc cn, v A l cng cn. 2 r *A = 0 khi = , lc F vung gc vi phng dch chuyn, thc hin cng bng khng. 2
b. Trng hp tng qut
r Lc lm cho vt chuyn di trn ng cong AB v trong qu trnh lc F thay i c v phng, chiu v ln, do p dng nh ngha (3-2) v (3-3), ta chia ng cong AB thnh nhng on chuyn di vi phn ds MM ' sao cho mi on ny c th coi nh thng
38
r r r v c th vit ds = MM ' , trn lc F khng i. Cng ca lc F thc hin c trn on r chuyn di v cng nh ds c gi l cng nguyn t dA. Theo theo nh ngha (3-3), dA cng ny bng: r r M M dA = F .ds (3-4) r ds r Ton b cng ca lc F thc hin trn qung ng AB r r bng tng tt c cc cng nguyn t thc hin bi lc F trn tt F B c cc qung ng nguyn t ds chia uc t ng cong AB. A Cng ny bng tch phn dA ly t A n B: r r Hnh 3-2 A = dA = F .ds (3-5) Minh ho tnh cng ca r ( AB ) ( AB ) lc F thay i 2. Cng sut ca lc r r Trong thc t, lc F c to ra bi mt my no . Nu lc F thc hin c cng A trong khong thi gian cng ngn th my cng mnh. Do , c trng cho sc mnh ca my, ngi ta a ra khi nim cng sut. r A Gi s trong khong thi gian t, mt lc F no thc hin cng A, t s Ptb = t xc nh cng trung bnh ca lc thc hin trong mt n v thi gian v c gi l cng sut trung bnh ca lc thc hin trong khong thi gian t.
tnh cng sut ti tng thi im, ta ly t rt nh, tc l cho t 0. Gii hn ca khi t 0 c gi l cng sut tc thi (gi tt l cng sut) ca lc, k hiu l P v bng:
A t
P = lim
t 0
A dA = t dt
(3-6)
Vy: cng sut (ca my to ra lc) l mt i lng bng o hm ca cng theo thi gian. r r ds dA =F Gia cng sut, lc, v vn tc c mi lin h sau: P = dt dt Tc l
p = F .v
(3-7)
Cng thc (3-7) cho thy nu gc gia F v v l < pht ng, ngc li nu >
, th p > 0, p l cng sut ca lc
, th p < 0, khi p l cng sut ca lc cn.
3. n v ca cng v cng sut Trong h n v SI, n v ca cng l Jun vit tt l J: 1J = 1N.1m Ngoi ra, ngi ta cn dng cc n v l bi ca Jun: 1Kil Jun = 103Jun (1KJ = 103J)
39
Cng sut c n v l Watt (W):

1W = 1J 1s
(3-8) (1kW= 103 W).
n v ln hn thng l Kil watt
Mga watt (1MW = 106 W). Trong thc t ngi ta cn dng n v cng sut l m lc (sc nga), 1m lc 746W (3-9)
2. NNG LNG
1. Nng lng v cng Nng lng l mt i lng c trng cho mc vn ng ca vt cht. Trong t nhin c nhiu dng vn ng vt cht khc nhau. Mi dng vn ng vt cht c th c mt dng nng lng c th. Vn ng c hc (chuyn ng c hc) l s thay i v tr trong khng gian, c dng nng lng gi l c nng. Vn ng nhit l s chuyn ng hn lon ca cc phn t cu to nn mt vt, c dng nng lng tng ng l ni nng, vn ng in t c dng nng lng tng ng l nng lng in t Vt l hc khng nh rng mt vt trng thi xc nh th c mt nng lng xc nh. Ta suy ra, khi trng thi ca vt thay i th nng lng ca n thay i. Do c th ni nng lng l hm ca trng thi. Khi xt n cc qu trnh vn ng c hc, ta thy s thay i trng thi chuyn ng c ngha l vt chuyn ng c gia tc, iu ny lin quan n lc tng tc gia vt vi cc vt khc. Lc tng tc ln vt lm cho vt di chuyn, tc l lc tng tc thc hin mt cng ln vt. Nh vy s thay i nng lng ca mt vt l kt qu ca vic trao i cng gia vt vi bn ngoi. Nu xt cc dng vn ng khc ta cng c kt lun nh vy. Ngi ta cng chng minh c rng khi vt (hoc h vt) thc s nhn cng (A > 0) th nng lng ca vt tng, cn khi vt thc s truyn cng ln ngoi vt (A < 0) th nng lng ca h gim. Thc nghim chng t rng: bin thin nng lng ca h W = W2 - W1 bng cng A m h nhn c, tc l: A = W2 - W1 Biu thc (3-10) c pht biu nh sau: bin thin nng lng ca mt h trong qu trnh no bng cng m h nhn c t bn ngoi trong qu trnh . T (3-10) ta suy ra n v ca nng lng ging n v ca cng. Ngoi ra, trong thc t ngi ta thng hay dng n v nng lng l kil-Woat-gi (kWh): 1kWh =103Wh = 3,6.106J.
40
(3-10)
2. nh lut bo ton v chuyn ha nng lng. trn ta bit, khi h tng tc vi bn ngoi th nng lng ca h thay i; trng hp ring, khi h khng tng tc vi bn ngoi (h c lp) th A = 0. Khi (3-10) cho ta: W2 = W1 = const Tc l: Nng lng ca mt h c lp lun c bo ton. T (3-10) v (3-11) nu xt cc qu trnh c th c A > 0, A < 0, v A = 0 ta c th pht biu nh sau: Nng lng khng t nhin sinh ra m cng khng t nhin mt i, n ch chuyn t h ny sang h khc. Pht biu chnh l nh lut bo ton v chuyn ha nng lng. V nng lng c trng cho mc vn ng ca vt cht, cho nn nh lut bo ton v chuyn ha nng lng l s phn nh v mt khoa hc t nhin tnh khng th tiu dit c s vn ng ca vt cht. T nh lut ny, ta suy ra rng khi h thc s thc hin cng ln vt khc (tc l h nhn cng m, A < 0) th nng lng ca h gim. V nng lng ca h c hn nn bn thn h khng th thc hin cng mi c. Mun tip tc thc hin cng, h phi nhn nng lng t mt ngun khc b vo phn nng lng b gim trong qu trnh lm vic. Tm li, theo nh lut bo ton v chuyn ho nng lng: khng th c mt h thc hin cng mi mi m khng nhn thm nng lng t mt ngun bn ngoi. Mt h sinh cng mi mi m khng nhn nng lng t mt ngun bn ngoi c gi l mt ng c vnh cu. nh lut bo ton v chuyn ha nng lng khng nh s khng tn ti ca ng c vnh cu. (3-11)
3. NG NNG
Trong mc ny ta xt mt dng nng lng c th, l ng nng. ng nng l mt phn ca c nng. 1. nh ngha: ng nng l phn c nng ng vi s chuyn di v tr ca cc vt. 2. Biu thc ca ng nng, nh l v ng nng Gi s xt cht im khi lng m chu tc dng ca mt lc F lm cho n di chuyn t v tr (1) n v tr (2) trn ng cong (c) (hnh 3-3). Cng ca lc F thc hin trong qu trnh ny l:
( 2 )
r ds
r v r F
(1)
(2)
A =
(1)
r F .d s
Hnh 3-3 nh ngha ng nng 41
Theo nh lut Newton II:
F = ma = m
Ta cng bit
dv dt
v=
ds dt
( 2) ( 1) ( 2) ( 1) ( 2) ( 1)
T , thay vo biu thc tnh cng A, ta c:
A=
F .d s =
m a .d s =
m.
dv .d s = dt
( 2) ( 1)
m v .dv
Nu m khng i, ta c th vit:
r v2 A = md 2 ( 1)
( 2)
( 2 ) mv 2 = d ( 1) 2
Ti cc v tr (1) v (2) cht im c vn tc tng ng l v1, v2. Thc hin php tch phn, ta c: A=
2 2 mv 2 mv1 2 2
(3-12)
Theo (3-10), cng ny bng bin thin ng nng ca cht im khi chuyn t trng thi c v1 sang trng thi c v2 cho nn ta suy ra:
2 2 mv 2 mv1 A=W2 - W1 = 2 2
(3-13)
2 mv1 W1 = 2 2 mv 2 W2 = 2
ng nng ca cht im ti v tr 1: ng nng ca cht im ti v tr 2:
Tng qut: ng nng ca cht im khi lng m c vn tc v l: W =
mv 2 2
(3-14)
T (3-12) - (3-14) ta pht biu nh l v ng nng nh sau: bin thin ng nng ca mt cht im trong mt qung ng no bng cng ca ngoi lc tc dng ln cht im trn qung ng .
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4. TRNG LC TH
1. nh ngha Nu mt cht im chuyn ng trong mt khng gian no lun lun chu tc dng ca mt lc, th khong khng gian c gi l trng lc. Trng hp tng qut lc F tc dng ln cht im ph thuc vo v tr ca cht im trong trng lc. Do , lc F l mt hm ca cc ta v cng c th l hm ca thi gian. Trong phm vi chng trnh ny, ta ch xt trng hp F l mt hm ca cc ta khng gian, tc l:
F = F ( r ) = F ( x , y , z ) (3-15)
Nu lc F ca trng lc tc dng ln cht im di chuyn t im (1) n im (2) trong trng lc th cng ca lc F trong qu trnh bng:
( 2)
r ds
m (1)
r F
r v
(2)
A12 =
(1)
F .d s
Hnh 3-4. Minh ho xc nh cng ca trng lc th
Nu cng A12 ca lc F khng ph thuc vo dng ca qung ng dch chuyn m ch ph thuc vo v tr ca im u v im cui ca qung ng th ngi ta ni F ( r ) l mt lc th, trng lc F ( r ) l mt trng lc th. V d: trng hp dn, trng tnh in l nhng trng lc th. 2. Th nng Gi s mt cht im di chuyn t im (1) sang im (2) trong trng lc th. Khi , lc F thc hin mt cng A12. v tr (1) n c nng lng Wt1, v tr (2) n c nng lng Wt2. Dng nng lng ny ch ph thuc vo v tr ca cht im trong trng th v c gi l th nng. Ngi ta chng minh rng cng A12 lin h vi th nng Wt1, Wt2 theo h thc: A12 = Wt1 - Wt2 = - Wt T c nh ngha th nng: Th nng Wt ca mt cht im trong trng lc th l mt hm ca v tr ca cht im sao cho: A12 = Wt1 - Wt2 (3-16) T (3-16), ta thy rng nu ng thi cng Wt1 v Wt2 cng vi mt hng s C th h thc (3-16) vn ng. Ni cch khc, th nng ca cht im ti mt v tr ca trng lc th c xc nh sai khc mt hng s cng tu thuc gc th nng c chn. 3. Tnh cht ca trng lc th Sau y ta tm tt mt s tnh cht ca trng lc th. a. T (3-16), mc d th nng ti mt v tr c xc nh sai khc mt hng s cng nhng hiu th nng gia hai im xc nh th hon ton xc nh.
43
r b. Gia trng lc th F v th nng c h thc sau:

( 2)
A12 =
( 1)
F .d s = W
r r
t1
Wt 2
(3-17)
Ta suy ra th nng ca mt vt ti mt v tr M no trong trng th:

(G )
WM=
(M )
F .ds ,
(3-17b)
trong "G" l im gc, ni chn th nng bng khng. Nu cht im dch chuyn theo ng cong kn th A = 0. T , ta suy ra: r r Fds = 0 .
(C)
c. Nu xt chuyn di vi phn ds, t (3-16) ta c th vit:

dW t = dA = F .ds. cos
hay
- dWt = Fs.ds
(vi Fs = F.cos l hnh chiu ca F ln phng dch chuyn d s ). T ta c:

Fs = dW t ds
(3-18)
Nh vy, hnh chiu ca F ln mt phng no bng gim th nng trn mt n v di dc theo phng . Nu xt trong h ta Descartes Oxyz, ta c th phn tch lc F thnh ba thnh phn: r r r (3-19) F = F x i + Fy j + F z k r r r Trong i , j, k l 3 vect n v trn 3 trc Ox, Oy, Oz. p dng (3-18) cho tng thnh phn Fx, Fy, Fz, ta c:
Fx = Wt Wt Wt , Fy = , Fz = . x y z
T ta c th vit li (3-19) nh sau:
Wt r Wt r Wt r F = x i + y j + z k = grad( Wt )
F = grad( Wt )
(3-20)
Trong , theo gii tch vect, vect gradient ca th nng Wt c xc nh bi:
grad( Wt ) =
44
Wt r Wt r Wt r i + j+ k x y z
Theo (3-20) v theo gii tch vect, th nng gim nhanh nht theo hng ca lc F . Th nng l dng nng lng c trng cho tng tc. V d, th nng ca cht im c khi lng m l nng lng c trng cho tng tc gia qu t v cht im. 4. nh lut bo ton c nng trong trng lc th Ta gi c nng ca cht im l dng nng lng ca cht im chuyn ng c hc. Trong trng lc th, nng lng ny gm ng nng v th nng. Khi cht im khi lng m chuyn ng t v tr (1) sang v tr (2) trong mt trng lc th th cng ca lc th c xc nh bi: A12 = Wt1 - Wt2 Theo nh l v ng nng th nu cht im ch chu tc dng ca lc th, ta c: A12 = W2 W1 T hai biu thc ny ta suy ra: Wt1 - Wt2 = W2 W1 Chuyn cc s hng c cng ch s sang cng mt v, ta s c: Wt1 + W1 = W2 + Wt2 = const (3-21) Tng ng nng v th nng ca cht im cng mt v tr c gi l c nng. T (3-21) ta suy ra: c nng ca cht im khng i, khng ph thuc vo v tr ca cht im, tc l c nng ca cht im c bo ton. T , ta c th pht biu thnh nh lut bo ton c nng trong trng lc th nh sau: Khi cht im chuyn ng trong mt trng lc th th c nng ca n c bo ton. Ch : nh lut bo ton c nng ch p dng i vi cht im chuyn ng trong trng lc th v ch chu tc dng ca lc th, ngoi ra khng c lc no khc tc dng ln n. Nu ngoi lc th, cht im cn chu tc dng ca cc lc khc (lc ma st chng hn) th c nng ca cht im khng bo ton, bin thin c nng ca cht im s bng cng ca lc .
5. TH D V TRNG LC TH
1. Trng tnh in Gi s xt chuyn ng ca in tch im q t im (1) n im (2) trong trng lc F ca in tch im q ng yn (hnh 3-5). Trng lc
F do q tc dng ln q c gi l trng tnh in.
(1) P M
r F
r1
O
r q
M Q
r+d
Theo nh ngha, cng nguyn t do lc tnh in F thc hin trn qung ng ds l: r r dA = Fds = Fds. cos
r2
Hnh 3-5 Minh ho cch tnh cng ca lc th
(2)
45
T hnh (3-5) ta thy:

r = OM, r r ' = OQ + QM ' r + dr , ds = MM' ds. cos MP r ' r ( dr + r ) r = dr
Do cng do lc F thc hin c trn c qung ng t (1) n (2) l:
A12
r r = Fds =
(1)
(2 )
(r2 ) (r1 )
F .dr
Lc Coulomb do q tc dng ln q ti im cch n mt khong r c tr s:

F = 1 qq' 4 0 r 2
Thay cng thc ca lc vo biu thc tnh A12, ta tnh c:

A12 =
( r2 ) ( r1 )
qq'
0
dr =
1 qq' 1 qq' 4 0 r1 4 0 r2
Kt qu cho thy, cng ny khng ph thuc vo dng qung ng di chuyn m ch ph thuc vo v tr ca im u v im cui ca qung ng di chuyn. Vy: trng tnh in l trng th. T kt qu tm c v theo biu thc (3-20), ta c th vit:
Wt 1 Wt 2 =
1 qq' 1 qq' 4 0 r1 4 0 r2
1 qq' + C 4 0 r
Ta suy ra th nng ca q ti im cch q mt khong r l:
Wt =
Hng s C ph thuc vo vic chn v tr c th nng bng khng. Nu coi v cc (r = ), th nng ca q bng khng (Wt( )=0), th C = 0. Do th nng ca q ti im cch q mt khong r bng:
Wt =
2. Trng hp dn
1 qq' 4 0 r
gii thch lc hp dn gia cc vt, ngi ta cho rng xung quanh mt vt c khi lng tn ti mt trng lc gi l trng hp dn. Biu hin c th ca trng hp dn l n tc dng ln bt k vt no c khi lng t trong n. Ta gi s xt cht im c khi lng m chuyn ng t im (1) sang im (2) trong trng hp dn ca cht im c khi lng m theo ng cong (C) (Hnh 3-6).
46
r Cng nguyn t ca lc F do m tc dng ln m trong chuyn di vi phn ds PQ l: r dA = Fd s = F .ds. cos r H ds.cos = PH , PH l hnh chiu ca ds r P m ln phng ca lc F . Vi lc hp dn F hng (1) Q M t m' n m, th l gc t, do r r r F N ds.cos < 0, nn: F .ds = F .PH
Do NQ PH MQ MN (dr + r) r= dr Mt khc lc hp dn c cng :
M
r1
(2)
r+dr
r2 m
Hnh 3-6 Minh ho tnh cng ca lc hp dn
F =G
m .m' , r2
vi G l hng s hp dn. Cng A12 do lc hp dn thc hin c trn c qung ng t im (1) n im (2) l:
( 2) ( 1) ( r2 ) ( r1 ) ( r2 ) r r Fds = F .dr ( r1 )
A12 = A12 =
mm' mm' mm' G dr = G 2 r1 r2 r
(3-22)
Cng ny khng ph thuc vo hnh dng ca qung ng di chuyn ca cht im m, ch ph thuc vo v tr ca im u (r1) v im cui (r2) ca qung ng dch chuyn. Vy, trng hp dn ca cht in c khi lng m l mt trng lc th. Tng qut: Trng hp dn Newton l mt trng th. H qu a. Theo (3-16) v (3-22) th nng ca cht im m trong trng ca cht im m ti v tr (1):
Wt1 = G
ti v tr (2):
mm' +C r1 mm' +C r2
Wt 2 = G
Tng qut, th nng ca m ti v tr cch m mt khong r l:
Wt = G
mm' +C r
(3-23)
Vi C l mt hng s ty , ph thuc vo cch chn gc th nng.

47
b. Nu coi th nng v cc bng khng, ta suy ra: Wt() = 0 = 0 + C nn C = 0 Do :
Wt = G
mm' r
(3-24)
c. Ta xt c th th nng ca mt vt trong trng trng ca qu t Gi M l khi lng ca qu t, m l khi lng ca vt c xt. Khi th nng ca vt c m im cch tm qu t mt khong r theo (3-23) l:
Wt = G
Mm +C r Mm +C, R
Trong thc t, ta thng ly th nng mt t bng khng. Khi :
Wt ( R ) = 0 = G
t rt ra C = G
Mm , R l bn knh ca qu t. R Do , th nng im cch mt t mt khong h l: Wt = G
Mm Mm Mm( r R ) +G =G R r rR V r = h + R, nn r R = h. Do :
Wt = GMm
h . ( R + h )R
g= GM . (h + R)2
ch l gia tc trng trng ca vt cao h bng: Ta suy ra Wt = mgh
h+R R
Thng thng, cc vt gn mt t. Trong phm vi nh gn mt t, c th coi trng h+R trng l u, h << R, 1 , do th nng ca n bng: R Wt = mgh Nu cht im chuyn ng trong trng trng u khng chu tc dng ca lc no khc trng lc, th theo nh lut bo ton c nng, c nng ca n c bo ton, khi :
mv 2 + mgh = const 2
Nh vy khi ng nng ca vt tng th th nng ca n gim v ngc li. V d Mt vt nh khi lng m ri t cao h so vi mt t, vi vn tc ban u v1, xuyn su vo t mt on s (hnh 3-7). Tnh vn tc ca vt khi chm t v lc cn trung bnh ca t tc dng ln vt. B qua lc cn ca khng kh.
48
Li gii Xt h gm vt v qu t. Trong qu trnh vt ri t v tr 1 c vn tc v1 n v tr 2 c vn tc v2 trong trng trng, nu b qua lc cn ca khng kh, th ngoi lc tc dng ln h vt bng khng. V vy c th p dng nh lut bo ton c nng cho h ny:
2 2 mv 2 mv1 = + mgh 2 2
r v1
h
T suy ra vn tc ca vt khi chm t bng:

2 v 2 = v1 + 2 gh
2
s
3
Hnh 3-7
Trong qu trnh vt xuyn su vo t t v tr 2 n v tr 3 (c v3 =0) n chu tc dng lc cn Fc ca t. Lc ny ngc chiu chuyn ng ca vt v thc hin cng cn: Ac= -Fc.s. p dng nh l ng nng i vi vt m ta c:
2 2 mv 3 mv 2 = A c = Fc .s 2 2
V v3 =0, nn lc cn ca t tc dng ln vt bng:

2 2 mv 2 m v1 Fc = = ( + gh ) 2s s 2
Ch : Nu khng phi tnh v2, ta c th tnh Fc da trn lp lun sau y: gim c nng ca h t v tr 1 n v tr 2 bng cng m h thc hin thng cng cn ca t t v tr 2 n v tr 3:
2 mv1 + mgh = FC .s 2
Suy ra
2 m v1 Fc = ( + gh ) s 2
6. VA CHM GIA CC VT
Thc nghim chng t khi va chm vi nhau, cc vt rn s bin dng. Nu bin dng ca cc vt t hi phc sau khi va chm th va chm c gi l va chm n hi. Trong qu trnh ny, tng ng nng ca h khng thay i v c nng ca h khng chuyn thnh cc dng nng lng khc. Nu bin dng ca cc vt khng t hi phc th va chm c gi l va chm khng n hi hay va chm mm. Trong qu trnh ny, tng ng nng ca h vt sau va chm b gim do mt phn nng lng ca h bin thnh cng lm bin dng cc vt v mt phn bin thnh nhit lm nng cc vt.
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c th, ta xt mt h vt c lp gm hai qu cu khi lng m1, m2 chuyn ng vi vn r r tc v1 v v 2 dc theo ng thng ni tm ca chng n va chm xuyn tm vi nhau. Gi s sau va chm hai qu cu vn gi nguyn phng chuyn ng nh ban u. Ta s xc nh vn tc ca hai qu cu sau va chm. a. Va chm n hi
' ' Trong va chm n hi, sau va chm, hai qu cu chuyn ng vi vn tc v1 v v 2 khc nhau. Khi , tng ng lng ca h theo phng chuyn ng c bo ton: ' ' m 1v1 + m 2 v 2 = m 1v1 + m 2 v 2
v ng nng ca h cng c bo ton:

' ' 2 2 m 1v12 m 2 v 22 m 1v1 m 2 v 2 + = + 2 2 2 2
T hai phng trnh trn ta rt ra h phng trnh sau y:

' ' m 1 ( v1 v1 ) = m 2 ( v 2 v 2 ) 2 ' ' 2 m 1( v1 v12 ) = m 2 ( v 22 v 2 ) ' ' Chia hai phng trnh ny cho nhau vi gi thit v1 v1 0 v v 2 v 2 0, cui cng ta c: ' v1 =
( m 1 m 2 )v1 + 2m 2 v 2 m1 + m 2 ( m 2 m 1 )v 2 + 2m 1v1 m1 + m 2
r v1
r v2
' v2 =
m1
r' v1
m2
' v2
Ta suy ra cc trng hp ring:
Hnh 3-8 ' ' * Nu m1= m2 th v1 = v 2 v v 2 = v1 tc l hai qu Va chm n hi gia hai vt cu va chm trao i vn tc cho nhau. r ' *Nu m1<< m2 v v 2 = 0 th v1 = v1 tc l sau va chm, qu cu m1 i chiu chuyn ng, quay ngc tr li v c vn tc gi nguyn ln ban u.
b.Va chm mm Sau va chm, hai qu cu dnh vo nhau v chuyn ng vi cng vn tc v. Khi , tng ng lng ca h theo phng va chm vn bo ton:
(m 1 + m 2 )v' = m 1v1 + m 2 v 2
v ng nng ca h cng c bo ton. Ta suy ra
r v1
r v2
v' =
m 1v1 + m 2 v 2 m1 + m 2
m1
r v'
m2
Nhng tng ng nng ca h sau va chm gim mt lng:

50
Hnh 3-9 Va chm mm gia hai vt
m v2 m v2 Wd = 1 1 + 2 2 2 2
Hay
( m 1 + m 2 )v ' 2 2
Wd =
m 1m 2 ( v1 v 2 ) 2 2( m 1 + m 2 )
gim ng nng ny mt phn bng cng lm bin dng 2 qu cu v mt phn bin thnh nhit lm nng hai qu cu va chm.
7. CHUYN NG TRONG TRNG HP DN CA QU T

Nu t mt im A no trong trng hp dn ca qu t ta bn mt vin n khi lng m vi vn tc ban u vo th l thuyt v thc nghim chng t rng ty theo tr s ca vo, c th xy ra mt trong ba trng hp sau (hnh 3-10): * Vin n ri tr v qu t. * Vin n bay vng quanh qu t theo mt qu o kn (trn hoc elip). * Vin n bay ngy cng xa qu t. a.Vn tc v tr cp 1 Tr s vn tc ban u v0 cn thit vin n c bn ln bay vng quanh qu t theo qu o trn gi l vn tc v tr cp 1. Ta hy tnh gi tr . Gi s vin n bay xung quanh qu t, cch mt t khng xa lm. Khi , bn knh qu o ca n gn bng bn knh qu t. Gia tc hng tm ca vin n y bng gia tc trng trng:
a n = g0 =
T suy ra:
v1 = Rg 0 =
v0 2 R
6370000.9,8 = 7901m / s = 7,9km / s
Nh vy, nu vin n bn ln c v0 < 7,9 Km/s th n s b ht tr v mt t, nu vin n bn ln c v0 >7,9 Km/s (nhng nh hn v2) th n s chuyn ng vi qu o lip xung quanh qu t. Nu v0=v1, vin n chuyn ng xung quanh qu t vi qu o trn. b. Vn tc v tr cp 2
Hnh 3-10. Chuyn ng trong trng hp dn ca qu t
Gi s vin n xut pht t A cch tm qu t mt khong bng bn knh R ca qu t, vn tc ban u v0 v bay ngy cng xa qu t. p dng nh lut bo ton c nng i vi vin n ta c:
51
mv 0 2 Mm mv 2 Mm + G + G = 2 R 2
V
mv 0 2 mv 2 Mm Mm 0 v G G = 0 nn 2 R 2 v0 2GM R GM . Do : R2
Ta suy ra:
Ti mt t, gia tc trng trng g 0 =
GM v 0 2 2 R = 2 g 0 R R
Gi tr ti thiu ca v0 chnh l vn tc v tr cp 2.
v2 =
2g0 R = 2.9,8.6370000 = 11173,7m / s 11,2km / s .
8. GII HN CHUYN NG TRONG TRNG LC TH

Th nng ca cht im trong trng lc th l mt hm ca ta x, y, z ca cht im Wt = Wt (x,y,z) Trng hp th nng ch ph thuc vo mt ta (x chng hn), Wt l hm ca mt to x: Wt = Wt (x) th ca hm Wt theo x go l s th nng. Kho st s th nng ca cht im trong trng lc th, ta c th suy ra mt s kt lun nh tnh v chuyn ng ca cht im trong trng lc th. Ta hy xt vn gii hn ca chuyn ng. Gi s c nng ca cht im trong trng lc th c mt ga tr xc nh bng W. Ngha l tng ng nng v th nng ca cht im lun c gi tr bng W v c bo ton:
mv 2 + W t (x ) = W = const 2
V
(3-25)
mv 2 0 nn ta suy ra iu kin: 2
Wt (x) W (3-26)
Bt ng thc (3-26) c ngha l, cht im ch c th chuyn ng trong phm vi sao cho n c th nng khng vt qu c nng ca n. Ni cch khc ta x ca cht im ch bin thin trong mt phm vi no . Ta ni (3-26) xc nh gii hn chuyn ng ca cht im.
52
Xt trng hp ng cong th Wt = Wt(x) c dng nh hnh (3-11). Trn hnh ta thy th nng c mt cc i v mt cc tiu. Gi thit c nng ton phn ca cht im c tr s W, ng thng W=const ct ng cong th nng ti ba im A, B, C. Wt(x) Theo , tha mn iu kin (3-26), ta x ca cht im phi nm trong phm vi sau: xA x xB v x xC (3-27)
W A
D
Cc iu kin (3-27) xc nh gii hn chuyn ng ca cht im. Khi xA x xB: cht im chuyn ng trong phm vi t xA n xB v i qua xD. Ti xD n c th nng cc tiu. Khi x xC, cht im chuyn ng ra v cc.
O
xA xD xB x
xC
Ti cc im xA, xB, xC cht im c th nng cc i v bng c nng ton phn W ca cht im. cc im , ng nng ca cht im bng khng, vn tc bng khng v i chiu. Ta gii thch iu ny nh sau.
r dWt Khi cht im chuyn ng trong khong D n A, = F < 0 , F > 0, tc l F dx r hng v chiu dng ca trc Ox. Lc F ko cht im theo chiu t A n D. Trong khong r dWt D n B, = F > 0 , F< 0, lc F hng ngc chiu trc x, n ko cht im theo chiu dx r B n D. Kt qu l lc F lm cho cht im chuyn ng qua li trong khong t xA n xB i qua D, khi n A v B vn tc ca n i chiu. r dWt = F < 0 , F > 0, lc F hng v chiu dng ca trc Ox ko cht dx im chuyn ng ra xa v cng.
Khi x > xC, Ti im xD th nng ca cht im cc tiu, ng nng cc i. Nu khng c hao tn nng lung, cht im s chuyn ng khng ngng trong phm vi t xA n xB. Nu b hao tn nng lng (do sc cn chng hn), c nng ca cht im gim dn, sau mt thi gian no , cht im s c c nng bng th nng cc tiu ca cht im ti xD, ti n c ng nng bng khng v vn tc bng khng. im xD l im cn bng bn ca cht im.
53
Chng IV: Chuyn ng ca h cht im v vt rn
CHNG IV. CHUYN NG CA H CHT IM V VT RN

Trong chng ny ta s xt chuyn ng ca h cc cht im vt rn. Trc ht ta xt chuyn ng ca h cht im ni chung.
1. CHUYN NG CA H CHT IM
1. Khi tm ca h cht im Gi s c h gm 2 cht im c khi lng m1, m2 t ti cc im tng ng M1, M2 trong trng trng. Trng lc r tc dng ln cc cht im m1 v m2 l 2 vct: m 1 g v r m 2 g song song cng chiu vi nhau. Tng hp 2 lc ny c im t ti G nm trn phng M1M2 tho mn iu kin:
m g m = 2 = 2 m1g m1 M 2G M 1G
M1
r m 1g
M2
r m2g
r (m 1 + m 2 )g
T ta suy ra:
m 1 M 1G + m 2 M 2 G = 0
Hnh 4-1. Khi tm ca h hai cht im
Ta a ra cc vect ni t cc cht im M1, M2 n im G: M 1G, M 2 G . Khi c th vit li ng thc trn di dng sau:
m 1 M 1G + m 2 M 2 G = 0
(4-1)
im G tho mn (4-1) c gi l khi tm ca h 2 cht im c khi lng m1, m2. Trng hp tng qut, ngi ta nh ngha khi tm ca mt h n cht im nh sau: Khi tm ca mt h n cht im c khi lng m1, m2 mn l mt im G c xc nh bi ng thc vect:
m 1 M 1G + m 2 M 2 G + ..... + m n M n G = 0
Hay c th vit:
m
i =1
M iG = 0
(4-2)
Ta c th xc nh to ca khi tm G i vi mt gc to O no . To ny c th xc nh theo cch sau y i vi cht im th i (hnh 4-2):

OG = OM i + M i G
(4-3)
54
Nhn 2 v ca (4-3) vi mi ri cng cc phng trnh nhn c theo v vi v t 1 n n, ta c:

(
i =1
m i )OG =
i =1
m i OM i +
m
i =1
M iG
Ch n (4-2), ng thc ny tr thnh:

(
M1
(4-4)
M2
M3
m
i =1
)OG =
m OM
i =1 i
T , ta suy ra:
OG =
m .OM
i =1 i
Hnh 4-2 xc nh khi tm ca h cht im

i
m
i =1
(4.5)
r r t OG = R c 3 to X,Y,Z; OM i = ri c 3 to xi, yi, zi, ng thc (4-5) tr thnh:
R=
m .r
i =1 n i
m
i =1
(4-6)
r Chiu R ln 3 trc to , s c:
X =
i =1 n
m i .x i
m
i =1
,
i
Y =
i =1 n
m i .y i
m
i =1
,
i
Z =
m .z
i =1 n i
m
i =1
(4-7)
Cc ng thc (4-6), (4-7) cho php xc nh c ta khi tm ca mt h cht im. Nh ta c th kho st cc tnh cht ca khi tm v mt ng hc v ng lc hc. Trong cc cng thc trn, 2. Vn tc ca khi tm
r r dR Khi h cht im chuyn ng, khi tm c vn tc: V = v theo (4-6) vn tc ny c dt biu thc: r n dri r m r dR i =1 i dt V = = n dt mi
m
i =1
= m l tng khi lng ca h.
i =1
55
r r dri Trong = vi l vect vn tc ca cht im th i. Do vn tc ca khi tm ca h dt cht im c biu thc: n r mv r i =1 i i (4-8) V = n mi
i =1
Trong (4-8),
i =1
r m i vi =
i =1
r r pi = P
l ng lng tng hp ca h. Do theo (4-8) vn
tc ca khi tm c biu thc: r r P V = m r r hay P = mV
(4-9) (4-10)
Vy: ng lng tng hp ca mt h cht im bng ng lng ca mt cht im t ti khi tm ca h c khi lng bng khi lng ca c h, c vn tc bng vn tc khi tm ca h. 3. Phng trnh chuyn ng ca khi tm
r r r Gi s h c n cht im, cc cht im ln lt chu tc dng ca nhng lc: F1 , F2 ...Fn r r r r r r r r r v chuyn ng vi gia tc tng ng: a1, a 2 ...a n sao cho m1 a1 = F1 , m2 a 2 = F2 ,,mn a n = Fn . T (4-8) ta tm c gia tc ca khi tm: r n dv i r mi dt r dV i =1 = n (4-11) a = dt mi
i =1
r dv i r Ch l a i = l gia tc ca cht im th i tun dt r r mi a i = Fi . T (4-11) ta c: r a = i =1 n
theo nh lut Newton II:
r miai
m
i =1
=
i
i =1 n i =1
r Fi
i
Ta c
F
i =1
r =F
l tng hp cc ngoi lc tc dng ln tt c cc cht im ca h,
m
i =1
= m l tng khi lng ca c h, cn tng hp cc ni lc tng tc gia cc cht im
ca h bng khng. Do c th vit li biu thc trn nh sau:

56
hay
r r F a= m r r F = ma
(4-12) (4-13)
Phng trnh (4-13) ging nh phng trnh chuyn ng ca mt cht im. T ta kt lun: Chuyn ng ca khi tm ca mt h cht im ging nh chuyn ng ca mt cht im mang khi lng bng tng khi lng ca c h v chu tc dng ca mt lc bng tng hp cc ngoi lc tc dng ln h. Chuyn ng khi tm ca mt h c gi l chuyn ng ton th ca h. V d nm mt ci thc ln cao, khi tm ca n s chuyn ng nh mt cht im c khi lng bng khi lng ca thc chu tc dng ca lc bng tng hp cc ngoi lc tc dng ln thc ( y l trng lc). chnh l chuyn ng ca cht im trong trng trng u. Qu o l mt parabol (xem hnh 4-3).
Hnh 4-3 Chuyn ng ton th ca cy thc trong trng trng
2. CHUYN NG TNH TIN CA VT RN

Nh nh ngha, vt rn l mt h cht im m trong khong cch gia cc cht im lun lun khng i. Chuyn ng ca vt rn ni chung phc tp, nhng ngi ta chng minh c rng mi chuyn ng ca vt rn bao gi cng c th qui v tng hp ca hai dng chuyn ng c bn: chuyn ng tnh tin v chuyn ng quay. Sau y ta s xt ring cc dng chuyn ng . Trc ht ta xt chuyn ng tnh tin. 1. nh ngha Chuyn ng tnh tin ca vt rn l chuyn ng sao cho bt k on thng no v trong vt rn cng lun lun song song vi chnh n. V d: Chuyn ng ca ngn ko ca bn giy, chuyn ng ca bn p xe p. 2. Tnh cht Khi vt rn chuyn ng tnh tin, mi cht im ca n c qu o ging nhau. Do , r r chng c cng qung ng di chuyn s, cng vn tc v v cng gia tc a . 3. Phng trnh ng lc hc ca vt rn tnh tin Gi s cc cht im c khi lng m1, m2, ..., mn chu tc dng bi cc ngoi lc r r r r r r F1 , F 2 , ..., Fn , v cc ni lc F1' , F2' , ..., F3' . Khi cc cht im ca vt rn s c gia tc r r r a1, a 2 ,..., a n tun theo nh lut Newton II: r r r m 1a 1 = F1 + F1' ,
57
r r' r m 2 a 2 = F2 + F2
r r' r m n a n = Fn + Fn Trong chuyn ng tnh tin, mi cht im c cng gia tc: r r r r a1 = a 2 = .... = a n = a . Cng v vi v cc phng trnh trn ta c:
n r ( m i )a = i =1 n
A B
A B
Hnh 4-4 Chuyn ng tnh tin ca vt rn
F
i =1
r r ma = F
(4-14)
Trong ,
r r Fi = F l tng hp tt c cc ngoi lc tc dng ln vt rn.Tng hp tt c

n i =1
n r cc ni lc trit tiu nhau: Fi ' = 0 ; m= i =1
m
i =1
l khi lng ca c vt rn.
Phng trnh (4-14) l phng trnh ng lc hc ca vt rn chuyn ng tnh tin; n ging nh phng trnh chuyn ng ca mt cht im c khi lng m bng khi lng ca c vt rn v chu tc dng mt lc bng tng hp cc ngoi lc tc dng ln vt rn. Nh vy, cc kt qu nghin cu chuyn ng ca cht im c th p dng cho vt rn chuyn ng tnh tin.
3. CHUYN NG QUAY CA VT RN QUANH MT TRC C NH

Khi mt vt rn chuyn ng quay xung quanh mt trc th: Mi im ca vt rn s c qu o trn, cc ng trn qu o ca chng c cng trc, trc ny trng vi trc quay v c tm nm trn trc quay , c bn knh r khc nhau Trong cng mt khong thi gian t, bn knh ca mi im ca vt rn u quay c mt gc nh nhau. r r r d r d ) v gia tc gc ( = ). Mi im ca vt rn c cng vn tc gc ( = dt dt Ti mi thi im, vect vn tc di v gia tc tip tuyn ca mt cht im bt k ca vt rn cch trc quay mt on r lin h vi vn tc gc v gia tc gc bi cc h thc nh xt trong mc 4 ca chng I: r r r v = r r r r at = r
58
T c th suy ra cc phng trnh ng hc:
= o + t
1 2 t 2 Cc phng trnh ny cho php suy ra c:
= ot +
2 2 0 = 2
Trn y l cc tnh cht ng hc ca vt rn quay quanh mt trc c nh. Sau y ta s xt chuyn ng quay ca vt rn v mt ng lc hc v thit lp phng trnh ng lc hc c bn ca vt rn quay quanh mt trc c nh. Cc i lng c trng cho chuyn ng quay ca vt rn v mt ng lc hc l: mmen lc, mmen ng lng v mmen qun tnh. 1. Mmen lc tc dng ln vt rn quay Gi s c mt vt rn quay xung quanh r mt trc c nh di tc dng ca lc F . r Khi im t M ca lc F vch mt qu o trn bn knh r nm trong mt phng vung gc vi trc , c tm nm trn trc ny, v c r th phn tch lc F thnh 3 thnh phn (hnh r r r 4-5) Ft , Fn , F sao cho: r r r r F = Ft + Fn + F
r M r
r F
r F
r r
r Ft
r Fn
Hnh 4-5 trong : r r Phn tch lc F thnh 3 thnh phn Ft : thnh phn tip tuyn vung gc vi r r bn knh r tc l cng phng vi tip tuyn ca qu o, v cng phng vi vect vn tc v ti im , nm trong mt phng qu o vung gc vi trc quay . Lc ny c tc dng lm cho vt quay quanh trc quay . r r Fn : thnh phn xuyn trc cng phng vi bn knh r ti im t lc, nm trong mt phng qu o. Thnh phn ny ch c tc dng ko vt rn di khi trc . r F : Thnh phn song song vi trc quay khng gy ra chuyn ng quay, ch lm cho vt trt dc theo trc quay. r Nh vy: Tc dng ca lc F lm cho vt rn quay quanh trc c nh ch tng ng r vi tc dng ca thnh phn tip tuyn Ft ca lc ny. r Mt khc, thc nghim chng t rng tc dng ca lc F lm vt rn quay quanh trc cn ph thuc vo khong cch r = OM t im t M ca lc n trc . Do , c trung cho r tc dng ca lc F , trong chuyn ng quay ca vt rn quanh trc , ngi ta a ra i lng r r vt l gi l mmen lc M i vi trc quay . Vect mmen lc M c nh ngha: r r r M = r Ft (4-15) 59
r Mmen lc M c: r r r tr s: M = r .Ft . sin(F , r ) = r .Ft
(4-16)
r r (Hai vect r , Ft vung gc nhau). r r phng vung gc vi mt phng cha r , Ft , r r r chiu sao cho ba vect r , Ft , M theo th t hp thnh tam din thun. r r r r Ch : M = 0 khi F =0 hoc khi F ng phng vi trc quay , ngha l khi F r r r ( Ft =0), hoc F ct trc (r=0). iu ny ph hp vi kt qu phn tch tc dng ca lc F nu trn.
n v o ca mmen lc l Newton.met (N.m). 2. Phng trnh c bn ca ng lc hc vt rn quay quanh mt trc c nh Ta xt mt vt rn chu tc dng ca r mmen lc M , quay quanh trc c nh vi r gia tc gc (Hnh 4-6). Ta tm mi lin h r r gia v M . Ta tng tng chia vt rn thnh nhiu phn t, mi phn t c khi lng mi, cch trc quay mt khong ri, chu tc dng ca ngoi r r' lc tip tuyn Ft i v ni lc tip tuyn Ft i . Khi c th coi mi phn t l mt cht im, khong cch gia cc cht im lun lun khng i. Mi cht im s vch nn mt qu o trn bn knh ri nm trong mt phng vung gc vi r trc quay , c gia tc tip tuyn a ti . Theo nh lut Newton II, ta vit c: r r r m i .a ti = Fi + Fti'
r M r
r F i
r Fi
r a ti
r ri
r Fti r Fni
Hnh 4-6 Minh ho vic lp phng trnh c bn ca chuyn ng quay ca vt rn
(4-17)
r r r r Nhn hu hng bn tri ca (4-17) vi ri v thay a ti = ri , ta c:
mi .ri ( ri ) = ri ( Fti + Fti' )
(4-18)
r r r r Vi ch l tch v hng ri . = 0 v ri v vung gc nhau, v tri ca (4-18) s bng: r r r r r r r r r r mi .ri ( ri ) = mi ( ri .r ) - ri ( ri . ) = m i ri2 .
V phi ca (4-18) s bng:
r r r r ri Fti + ri F' ti =
60
r r M i + M i'
r r trong , M i + M i' tng hp cc mmen ngoi lc v mmen ni lc tc dng ln phn t

th i. Nh vy, (4-18) tr thnh:
m i ri2 . = M i + M i'
ni lc trit tiu nhau,
(4-19)
Tng hp cc vect ny cho tt c cc phn t ca vt rn, v ch l tng hp cc mmen
r M i' = 0 ta s c:
i
r r ( mi ri2 ) = M
hay: Trong ,
r I = M
(4-20)
Mi = M
i
l mmen tng hp cc ngoi lc tc dng ln vt rn. V i lng I = mi ri

2
(4-21)
l tng mmen qun tnh ca mi phn t mi i vi trc quay v c gi l mmen qun tnh ca vt rn i vi trc quay . Trong h SI, n v o mmen qun tnh I l kg.m2. . Phng trnh (4-20) c gi l phng trnh c bn ca ng lc hc vt rn quay quanh mt trc c nh. T (4-20) ta suy ra: r r M = (4-22) I Phng trnh (4-20) c dng tng t phng trnh c bn ca ng lc hc vt rn chuyn r r ng tnh tin m a = F , trong : r Mmen lc M , c trng cho tc dng ca ngoi lc ln vt rn chuyn ng quay, c r vai tr ging nh lc F , r Gia tc gc c trng cho bin thin trng thi ca vt rn chuyn ng quay, c vai r tr ging nh gia tc a , Mmen qun tnh I c trng cho qun tnh ca vt rn chuyn ng quay, ng vai tr r nh khi lng m. Tht vy, cng mmen lc M tc dng, nu mmen qun tnh I r r cng ln th gia tc gc cng nh, vn tc gc cng t bin i, ngha l trng thi chuyn ng quay ca vt rn cng t thay i. 3. Tnh mmen qun tnh ca vt rn quay a.Trng hp chung Mmen qun tnh I ca vt rn quay quanh trc c nh c tnh theo cng thc (4-21): I = m i ri2 .
i
61
Trong mi ri2 l mmen qun tnh ca cht im th i i vi trc , php cng ly cho cc cht im ca vt rn. Theo (4-21), mmen qun tnh ca vt rn quay khng nhng ph thuc vo khi lng ca vt rn m cn ph thuc vo khong cch t cc cht im ca n n trc quay. Hai vt cng khi lng nhng khi lng ca vt no phn b cng xa trc quay th mmen qun tnh ca vt cng ln, do qun tnh ca n cng ln. iu ny c thc nghim xc nhn. Nu khi lng ca vt phn b lin tc trong ton th tch ca n, ta chia vt thnh nhng phn t c khi lng v cng nh dm, khi php cng trong tng (4-21) tr thnh php ly tch phn cho ton vt rn: I= r dm
c vt
(4-23)
b. Mmen qun tnh ca vt rn i vi trc i xng Trng hp vt rn quay quanh trc i xng, ta c th tnh mmen qun tnh ca n mt cch thun li. V d 1. Vt rn gm ba cht im cng khi lng m, nm ba nh ca tam gic u cnh a quay xung quanh trc i xng ca tam gic. Tnh mmen qun tnh ca vt . p dng cng thc (4-21) ta c:
I =
m r
i
2 i i
o
l
G
r1 = r2 = r3 =
Ta c:
2
a 3
dx
a2 I = 3mr = 3m = ma 2 2 ( 3)
x dx
Hnh 4-7. Minh ho vic tnh mmen qun tnh ca thanh thng
V d 2. Mt thanh ng cht di l, khi lng m, quay quanh trc o qua trung im G ca thanh v vung gc vi n (Hnh 4-7).
Ta xt mt phn t ca thanh khi lng dm, di dx, cch G mt on x. Khi mmen qun tnh ca dm i vi trc o l dI = x2.dm V thanh ng cht nn khi lng ca mt n v di l
m . Khi lng ca dm l: l
dm =
m dx . l
Do
dI =
m 2 x dx l
c Io ca c thanh, ta ly tch phn:
I 0 = dI =
c vt
m 2 x dx l c vt
62
I0 =
ml 2 12
(4-24)
V d 3. Tnh mmen qun tnh ca khi tr c ng cht khi lng m, bn knh R, quay quanh trc i xng o ca khi tr . Ta chia khi tr c thnh nhiu phn t c y dS l hnh vnh khn bn knh x rng dx, cao h. Mi phn t c th tch dV v c khi lng dm (hnh 4-8): dm = dV = h2xdx. Thay kt qu ny vo (4-23) v thc hin tch phn, ta c:
o x
dx
R 4 I 0 = h 2 x dx = h 2 0
3
R h
I0 =
mR 2 , 2
(4-25)
Trong , m = V = hR2 l khi lng ca hnh tr c. Kt qu cho thy mmen qun tnh ca hnh tr c khng ph thuc vo chiu cao h ca khi tr. Do , cng thc (4-25) cng p dng c cho a trn mng ng cht c khi lng m, bn knh R. Bng cch tng t, ta tnh c Io cho cc trng hp khc.C th l: - Vnh trn rng, tr rng - Khi cu - Tm phng ch nht, 0 R a) vnh trn rng 3. nh l Steiner-Huyghens Nhiu trng hp ta phi tm mmen qun tnh I i vi mt trc quay bt k, khng trng vi trc i xng. Trong trng hp trc quay song song vi trc i xng ta c th p dng nh l Steiner- Huyghens nh sau: Mmen qun tnh I ca vt rn i vi mt trc song song vi trc i xng o bng mmen qun tnh ca vt i vi trc i xng o cng vi tch khi lng m ca vt vi bnh phng khong cch d gia hai trc : I = Io + md2 (4-26)
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Hnh 4-8 tnh mmen qun tnh ca khi tr c
Io = mR2 2 I o = mR 2 5 1 m. a 2 + b 2 Io = 12
(hnh 4-9a) (hnh 4-9b)
(hnh 4-9c). 0
b) khi cu Hnh 4-9
c) mt ch nht
Th d. Mmen qun tnh ca mt a trn i vi trc i qua mp a v song song vi trc i xng o i qua khi tm l:
mR 2 + mR2 I= 2
nh l trn c th chng minh c, nhng ta ch cng nhn m khng chng minh.
4. CC NH L V MMEN NG LNG NH LUT BO TON MMEN NG LNG

1.Cc nh l v mmen ng lng r r d Nu ta thay = vo phng trnh c bn ca ng lc hc vt rn quay quanh mt dt r r trc c nh I = M v nu I = const th ta s thu c: r r r r Id d (I ) dL = = =M dt dt dt r r dL tc l =M (4-27) dt r r r Trong L = I c gi l mmen ng lng ca vt rn i vi trc quay .Vect L cng r phng chiu vi vect vn tc gc v nm trn cng trc quay Cng thc (4-27) l nh l th nht v mmen ng lng: o hm theo thi gian vect mmen ng lng ca vt rn quay quanh mt trc c nh bng mmen tng hp ca cc ngoi lc tc dng ln vt rn . r r (4-28) T (4-27) ta suy ra: d L = Mdt r Trong d L l bin thin mmen ng lng ca vt rn trong khong thi gian dt, r cn i lng Mdt c gi l xung lng ca mmen tng hp ca cc ngoi lc tc dng ln vt rn trong khong thi gian dt. tm bin thin mmen ng lng L = L - L trong khong thi gian t t1 n t2 ta thc hin php tch phn i vi (4-28), v c:
r L =
r L2 r L1
r r
r dL =
t2
t1
r Mdt
(4-29)
Biu thc (4-29) c gi l nh l th hai v mmen ng lng: bin thin mmen ng lng ca vt rn quay quanh mt trc c nh trong khong thi gian t=t2-t1 bng xung lng ca vect mmen ng lng tng hp ca cc ngoi lc tc dng ln vt rn trong cng khong thi gian .
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r Nu M = const th t (4-27) v (4-29) ta c: r r r r L = M v L = M t t

2. nh lut bo ton mmen ng lng
(4-30)
r Gi s c vt rn c lp (khng chu tc dng ca ngoi lc) M =0, khi theo nh l v r dL = 0 , ta suy ra: mmen ng lng (4-27), dt r L = const (4-31)
Biu thc (4-31) l nh lut bo ton mmen ng lng: Mmen ng lng ca vt rn c lp c bo ton Trong thc t, vt rn lun chu tc dng ca cc ngoi lc nhng nu mmen lc i vi trc r r r r quay bng khng M = 0 do F = 0 hoc do F ng phng vi trc quay , ngha l khi F r r r ( Ft =0), hoc F ct trc ( r =0), th khi mmen ng lng ca vt rn cng c bo ton. r Trng hp M 0 nhng hnh chiu ca n ln phng no bng khng, th mmen ng lng ca vt rn c bo ton (theo mt phng). nh lut ny cng c nghim ng i vi vt rn khng tuyt i hoc h vt rn gm nhiu phn quay quanh cng mt trc c nh. 3. Th d v bo ton mmen ng lng a. Vt rn quay xung quanh mt trc c mmen I thay i Trong mt s trng hp, mt s phn ca vt rn dch chuyn i vi nhau nn mmen qun tnh ca vt thay i, nhng nu mmen ngoi lc tc dng ln vt rn quay quanh mt trc r bng khng ( M = 0 ) th d I thay i, vect mmen ng lng ca vt rn cng c bo ton: r r L = I . = const. T nu I tng th
gim v ngc li nu I gim th
tng.
V d 1. Khi din vin ma bal quay ngi trn u mi giy, nu b qua ma st th trng lc v phn lc ca sn din tc dng ln ngi u c phng hoc ct hoc trng vi trc quay i qua khi tm ca ngi nn mmen tng hp ca chng i vi trc quay bng khng do mmen ng lng ca ngi c bo ton. V th khi din vin h tay xung th I gim nn vn tc quay tng (din vin quay nhanh), nu giang tay ra th I tng nn vn tc quay gim (din vin quay chm li)... Tng t nh vy din vin xic nho ln ngi trn khng, vn ng vin nhy cu bi mun quay nhanh hn th phi cun ngi li, cn nu mun quay chm li th phi dui thng ngi. V d 2. Mt ngi cm mi tay mt qu t ng trn gh Giucxki ang quay (Hnh 4-10a). Nu ngi h tay xung (I gim), gh quay nhanh ln ( tng); nu ngi giang ngang tay ra (I tng), gh s quay chm li ( gim).
65
b. H gm nhiu phn quay Xt h gm hai vt quay c momen qun tnh r r I1, I 2 v vn tc gc 1 , 2 . Nu mmen ngoi lc tc dng ln h bng khng, th mmen ng lng ca h c bo ton: r r r L = I 11 + I 2 2 = const . r Nu lc u h ng yn, L 0 = 0 , th mmen ng lng ca h s bng khng ti thi im t bt k sau . r r r r L = L o = I 11 + I 2 2 = 0 r r hay I 1 1 = I 2 2 Ta suy ra 2 =
(a) Hnh 4-10
(b)
(a) Hnh v d 2, (b) H gm nhiu phn quay
I1 r , tc l hai phn ca h s quay ngc chiu nhau. I2 1
C th quan st hin tng ny nh th nghim trn gh Giucpxki hnh (4-10b). Mt ngi ng trn gh Giucpxki, mt tay gi trc thng ng ca mt bnh xe. Lc u, h (gm ngi, bnh xe, gh) ng yn, nn mmen ng lng ca h bng khng. Sau , ngi ny r r r cho bnh xe quay vi vn tc gc 1 th gh s quay vi vn tc gc 2 ngc chiu 1 . 4. Chuyn ng ca con quay Con quay l mt vt rn c hnh dng i xng trn xoay v c th quay quanh trc i xng ca n. Thng thng, con quay c dng mt a trn c (gi l vlng). Ty theo mc ch, ngi ta s dng con quay c trc quay t do hoc trc quay c mt im ta c nh. Chuyn ng ca con quay da trn c s ng dng cc nh l v mmen ng lng v nh lut bo ton mmen ng lng. a. Con quay c trc quay t do Trong trng hp con quay c trc han ton t do ( hnh 4-11), trc con quay c treo trong mt ci khung c bit gm nhiu vnh lng vo nhau. Trc AA ca n gn vo vnh 1, vnh 1 c th quay xung quanh trc BB vung gc vi trc AA, trc BB gn lin vi vnh 2, vnh 2 c th quay xung quanh trc CC vung gc vi trc BB, trc CC gn lin vi vnh 3 c nh. Cch treo ny gi l cch treo ccng.
Vnh 1
Ngi ta ch to con quay v cc vnh treo sao cho khi tm ca c h trng vi tm ca con quay. Do , Hnh 4-11 trc ca con quay c th nm theo mi phng. Trong iu Con quay c trc quay t do kin , trng lc tc dng ln h v phn lc ca gi trit tiu nhau, nn tng hp cc ngoi lc tc dng ln con quay bng khng. Do , mmen ng lng ca con quay c bo ton r r L = I . = const.
66
i vi con quay, mmen qun tnh
I = const, nn vect vn tc gc = const v trc quay CC cha vect s c phng khng i. Nh vy, trc t do ca con quay s gi nguyn phng ca n trong khng gian chng no cha c ngoi lc tc dng lm thay i phng ca trc . Tnh cht ny ca con quay c trc t do c ng dng lm la bn xc nh phng hng chuyn ng trong cc tu bin, cc con tu v tr Nu lc u cho con quay quay nhanh v t trc ca n theo hng bc-nam chng hn th trc ca con quay s gi nguyn hng ny trong sut qu trnh con tu chuyn ng. b. Con quay c trc ta trn mt im c nh Con quay Q c trc ta trn mt im c nh c lc t trn hnh (4-12). Con quay c r th quay nhanh vi vn tc gc kh ln quanh trc CC ca n v c mmen qun tnh kh ln. Trc CC ta trn vnh trn V gn vi mt thanh cng AA cng phng vi trc CC (hnh 4-12). im c nh O ca thanh AA c treo vo gi ti im O. Lc u ngi ta iu chnh i trng P sao cho trc CC nm ngang. V I v ca con r r quay kh ln nn mmen ng lng L = I . ca con quay rt ln v hng dc trc CC theo r phng ngang. Sau , tc dng vo dim A ca thanh cng AA mt lc F vung gc vi trc r CC v hng thng ng xung di. Vi nhng iu kin , mmen ca lc F i vi im r r r r r r O l vect M = r F . Vect M vung gc vi mt phng thng ng cha F v r = OM , tc l M vung gc vi trc CC, nm trong mt phng ngang, cha trc CC v vect M . Di r tc dng ca mmen lc M , theo (4-28), vect mmen ng lng bin thin mt lng r r r r r r r r d L = Mdt v tr thnh vect L ' = L + d L . V vect d L cng phng vi vect M nn d L cng nm trong cng mt phng ngang v vung gc vi trc CC. Nh vy, lc u trc CC nm theo phng r ca L , nhng sau khong thi gian dt u C ca n dch chuyn trong mt phng ngang song song r r vi vect d L trc CC ti trng vi vect L '. Kt qu l, khi con quay ang quay nhanh th trc quay ca n khng dch chuyn theo phng tc r dng ca lc F m dch chuyn trong mt phng r vung gc vi lc F . Tnh cht ny gi l hiu ng hi chuyn (hay hiu ng con quay). Chuyn ng ca trc con quay trong mt phng vung gc vi r phng tc dng ca lc F c gi l chuyn ng tu sai.
Hnh 4-12 Con quay c trc ta trn im c nh
Nu lc u trc quay CC ca con quay nghing mt gc so vi phng ngang, th chuyn ng tu sai ca trc CC s vch ra mt mt nn c nh O, trc OO. Con quay v hiu ng hi chuyn c ng dng trn cc tu bin bin chuyn ng lc ngang ca thn tu (khi b sng v gi va p mnh vo sn tu) thnh chuyn ng dp dnh dc theo thn tu, gi cho thn tu khng b lt nghing. Vn dng hiu ng con quay v chuyn
67
ng tu sai, ngi ta to ra trong nng sng trng cc rnh xon (khng tuyn) to ra chuyn ng quay quanh trc ca vin n. V th, khi c gi cn, do hiu ng hi chuyn, u n khng b ht ngc ln m vn bay ti trng ch. Ngi ta cn ng dng con quay v hiu ng con quay vo vic nh hng mn, thu li..v gii thch cc hin tng thc t khc (nh gii thch chuyn ng ca con c...).
5. CNG CA LC V NG NNG CA VT RN QUAY

1. Cng v cng sut ca lc trong chuyn ng quay ca vt rn Nu vt rn quay xung quanh trc c nh , lc tip tuyn Ft nm trong mt phng qu o lm cho vt rn quay (xem hnh 4-13) th khi , cng vi phn ca lc tip tuyn Ft l: dA = Ft.ds. Mt khc ds = r.d, vi d l gc quay ng vi chuyn di ds. Vy dA = r.Ft.d. Vi ch M = r.Ft l mmen ca lc Ft i vi trc quay (hai vect r , Ft vung gc nhau) ta c th vit:
2
dA=M.d
(4-32)
Ta suy ra cng ca mmen lc thc hin c khi lm cho vt quay t gc 1 n 2 l:
Md
Cng sut ca mmen lc l:
P=
dA d =M = M dt dt
ds
d R
r Ft
r r V hai vect M v cng chiu nn c th vit: r r p = M . (4-33)

Cng thc (4-33) c dng tng t nh cng thc (3-7) i vi chuyn ng ca cht im. 2. ng nng ca vt rn quay
Hnh 4-13. Minh ho tnh cng ca mmen lc
Gi s di tc dng ca lc tip tuyn Ft im t lc ln vt rn quay c mt cung ds. Theo (4-32), cng nguyn t trn ds l: dA=M.d. Ta c phng trnh ng lc hc ca vt rn quay v nh ngha vn tc gc v gia tc d d gc: M = I , = , = ; dt dt
68
do ta c th vit li (4-32) nh sau:
dA = I.d = I .
Khi I = const, ta c th vit li: dA= d (
d d d = Id. = Id dt dt
I2 ). 2
1 n lc c vn tc gc 2 bng:
A
Cng ton phn ca mmen ngoi lc tc dng lm cho vt rn quay t lc c vn tc gc
A = dA =
0
d(
I 2 I 2 I 2 )= 2 1 2 2 2
(4-34)
T suy ra biu thc ng nng ca vt rn quay thi im c vn tc gc l: I 2 (4-35) Wq = 2 Nu vt rn va quay va tnh tin, ng nng ton phn ca vt rn bng tng ng nng quay v ng nng tnh tin:
W =
1 1 mv 2 + I 2 2 2
(4-36)
c bit nu vt rn trn xoay ln khng trt trn mt phng th vn tc tnh tin v v vn tc gc quay lin h vi nhau theo cng thc: v = R, trong R l bn knh tit din ca vt rn.
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Chng V: Cc nh lut thc nghim v cht kh
CHNG V: CC NH LUT THC NGHIM V CHT KH
BI M U
Nhit hc nghin cu cc hin tng lin quan n nhng qu trnh xy ra bn trong vt nh vt nng chy, vt bay hi,vt nng ln khi ma st nhng hin tng ny lin quan n mt dng chuyn ng khc ca vt cht l chuyn ng nhit. Chuyn ng nhit l i tng nghin cu ca nhit hc. nghin cu chuyn ng nhit ngi ta dng hai phng php: 1. Phng php thng k (ng dng trong vt l phn t) Da vo cu to phn t ca cc cht v s chuyn ng hn lon ca chng; Ngi ta s dng cc quy lut ca xc sut thng k tnh gi tr trung bnh ca cc i lng trn c s nghin cu cc qu trnh xy ra cho tng phn t. Phng php ny cho ta bit mt cch su sc bn cht ca hin tng . Tuy nhin trong mt s trng hp vic ng dng phng php ny tng i phc tp. 2. Phng php nhit ng (ng dng trong phn nhit ng lc hc) Nghin cu qu trnh trao i v bin ho nng lng da trn hai nguyn l c bn c rt ra t thc nghim gi l nguyn l th nht v nguyn l th hai nhit ng hc. Phng php nhit ng hc khng gii thch c su sc bn cht ca hin tng nhng n li c phm vi ng dng su rng hn v n gin hn phng php thng k .
1. CC KHI NIM C BN
1. p sut p sut l mt i lng vt l c gi tr bng lc nn vung gc ln mt n v din tch. Gi F l lc nn ln din tch S th p sut l: P=
F S
Trong h SI n v p sut l N/m2 hay pascal (Pa). Ngi ta cn dng cc n v: Atmophe k thut, Milimet thu ngn (cn gi l tor) 1 at = 736 milimet thu ngn = 9,81 . 104 N/m2= 736Pa
70
2. Nhit Nhit l i lng vt l c trng cho mc chuyn ng hn lon phn t ca cc vt. Nhit lin quan n nng lng chuyn ng nhit ca cc phn t. Tuy nhin khng th dng nng lng o nhit v khng th o trc tip nng lng chuyn ng nhit, hn na nng lng ny li rt nh. Do d ngi ta o nhit bng n v l . 3. Nhit giai Tu theo cch chia ngi ta s dng cc nhit giai khc nhau. a. Nhit giai Celsius (nhit giai bch phn) K hiu: OC. Ngi ta chn im tan ca nc v im si ca nc tinh khit 1at l 0 0 C v 100 OC ri chia 100 phn bng nhau, mi phn l 1OC. b. Nhit giai Fahrenheit K hiu: OF. Ngi ta chn im tan ca nc v im si ca nc tinh khit 1 at l 32oF v 212 O F ri chia 180 phn bng nhau, mi phn l 1 OF. H thc lin h gia nhit giai Celsius v nhit giai Fahrenheit
t O C t O F 32 5 = t O C = (t O F 32) 100 180 9

c. Nhit giai Kelvin (nhit giai tuyt i), k hiu l K Gi T l nhit tuyt i, th n lin h vi bch phn t: T = tOC+273,15 Khi khng cn chnh xc cao v tnh ton n gin ta ly: T= tOC+273.
2. CC NH LUT THC NGHIM KH L TNG

1. Kh l tng Kh l tng l cht kh c c im sau: Khi kh gm v s cc phn t kh. Cc phn t c kch thc rt nh so vi khong cch gia chng . Cc phn t kh chuyn ng hn lon khng ngng, chng tng tc vi nhau v va chm vo thnh bnh. S tng tc hay va chm cu chng l hon ton n hi. 2. Phng trnh trng thi kh l tng Trng thi ca mt khi kh l tng c m t bi cc thng s: nhit T, p sut P v th tch V.
71
Merdeleev-Clapeyron tm ra phng trnh PV=RT P,V,T l p sut, th tch v nhit ca 1 Kilomol kh mt trng thi bt k. R l hng s, go l hng s kh l tng R= 8,31( i vi khi kh c khi lng m, th tch v th V= Suy ra
J ) mol .K
( l khi lng phn t)
Pv=
RT
i vi khi kh xc nh (m= const) th:
PV PV PV = const hay 1 1 = 2 2 T1 T2 T
3. nh lut Boyle-Mariotte nhit nht nh, p sut v th tch mt khi kh xc nh t l nghch vi nhau. Tht vy, khi T= const PV = const hay P1V1=P2V2 ng biu din p sut bin thin theo th tch V khi nhit khng i gi l ng ng nhit, l ng Hyperbol. 4. nh lut Gay-Lussac p sut nht nh, th tch ca mt khi kh xc nh t l vi nhit tuyt i ca n. Tht vy, khi P= const
P
(T2>T1) T2 T1
V
O
V
Hnh 5-1. ng ang nhiet Hnh 5-1. ng ng nhit
P1
(P1<P2) P2 T
V V V = const hay 1 = 2 T T1 T2
ng biu din th tch V bin thin theo nhit T khi p sut khng i gi l ng ng p, l ng thng. 5. nh lut Charles th tch nht nh, p sut ca mt khi kh xc nh t l thun vi nhit tuyt i ca n. Tht vy, khi V= const
O
P
Hnh 5-2. ng ng a Hnh 5-2. ng angpp
( 1< 2) V V2 T
P = const hay V
72
P1 P2 = T1 T2
O
H nh 5-3.
ng biu din p sut P l ng bin thin theo nhit T khi th tch khng i gi l ng ng tch, l ng thng. Cc phng trnh trn c th vit:
P P0 = T T0
V V0 = T T0
Trong T0 l nhit xc nh, P0,V0 l p sut v th tch ca khi kh nhit T0. Thng thung ta chn T0 = 273K = Khi ta c P=P0 aT V=V0aT a:gi l h s dn n nhit ca cht kh.
1 a
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Chng VI: Cc nguyn l ca nhit ng lc hc
CHNG VI: CC NGUYN L CA NHIT NG LC HC

Nhit ng lc hc nghin cu cc iu kin v quan h bin i nh lng ca nng lng t dng ny sang dng khc.
1. CC KHI NIM C BN
1. Nng lng ca chuyn ng nhit: l nng lng do chuyn ng hn lon ca cc phn t to nn v chnh l ng nng ca cc phn t. Nng lng ny ph thuc vo nhit ca cc phn t vt cht v c gi l nhit nng. i vi cc phn t cht kh c mt nguyn t, ng nng trung bnh ca chng l:
Wd =
vi K=
3 KT 2
R = 1,38.10-23 J/K NA
Ngi ta chng minh rng biu thc ng nng trung bnh ca phn t trong trng hp tng qut c dng:
Wd =
i KT 2
trong , i c gi l s bc t do ca phn t, l i lng c lin quan n cu to phn t, vi phn t mt nguyn t: i=3, vi phn t hai nguyn t: i=5, phn t c ba nguyn t tr ln: i=6. Nng lng chuyn ng ca mt mol kh
W = N A .Wd =
i i N A KT = RT 2 2
Nng lng chuyn ng ca mt mol kh c khi lng m
W=
2. Ni nng
i m RT 2
Nng lng ca h gm ng nng ng vi chuyn ng c hng ca c h, th nng ca c h v phn nng lng ng vi chuyn ng bn trong ca h tc l ni nng ca h: W=W +Wt+U
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Chng VII: Trng tnh in
i vi khi kh l tng ni nng l tng nng lng chuyn ng nhit ca cc phn t cu to nn h. Trong nhit ng hc ta gi thit rng chuyn ng c hng ca h khng ng k v h khng t trong mt trng lc no, do nng lng ca h ng bng ni nng ca h. 3. Cng v nhit Khi cc h khc nhau tng tc vi nhau th chng trao i vi nhau mt nng lng no , phn nng lng trao i c th hin di hai dng: cng v nhit. Th d: kh dn n trong xylanh lm pittng chuyn ng. Nh vy kh truyn nng lng cho pittng di dng cng. Nhng ng thi n cng lm nng pittng, phn nng lng truyn cho pittng lm pittng nng ln c gi l nhit. Quy c du ca cng (A )v nhit (Q ) A>0 ; Q>0: khi h nhn chng t bn ngoi. A<0; Q<0: khi h cung cp chng ra ngoi. Xt mt khi kh trong xylanh. Khi p sut kh y pit-tng chuyn ng mt on dx th khi kh sinh mt cng dA= Fdx=PSdx=PdV vi dV l bin thin th tch ca kh. Khi khi dn n dV>0, theo quy c du: khi sinh cng A<0, nn dA=-PdV. Trng hp kh b nn dV<0, khi kh nhn cng, A>0, nn dA= -PdV. Vy cng ca kh trong ton b qu trnh bin i t trng thi (1) n trng thi (2) l:
( 2)
A=
(1)
pdV
( 2)
P (1) A (2) V
Nu qu trnh l ng p, ta c A= -P
(1)
dV = P(V
V2 )
V1
V1,V2 l th tch kh trng thi u v cui.
V2 Hnh 6-1
Trn th, ta thy ln ca cng ny bng tr s din tch hnh phng gii hn bi ng ng nhit v trc honh ng vi qu trnh bin i t trng thi (1) n trng thi (2).
2. NGUYN L TH NHT CA NHIT NG HC

1. Ni dung bin thin ni nng ca h trong mt qu trnh bin i bt k lun lun bng tng cng v nhit m h trao i vi bn ngoi trong qu trnh U= A+Q
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Cc i lng U,A,Q c th dng hay m. Nu A>0, Q>0 th U>0 ngha l h thc s nhn cng v nhit t bn ngoi th ni nng ca h tng Nu A<0, Q<0 th U<0 ngha l h thc s sinh cng v to nhit ra bn ngoi th ni nng ca h gim. 2. H qu a. i vi h c lp, tc l khng trao i cng v nhit vi bn ngoi: A=0; Q=0, khi U=0 hay U= const. Vy ni nng ca h c lp c bo ton. Nu h c lp gm hai vt ch trao i nhit vi nhau v gi s Q1,Q2 l nhit lng m chng nhn c th: Q = Q1+Q2= 0
Q1 = -Q2
Vy trong h c lp gm hai vt ch trao i nhit th nhit lng do vt ny to ra bng nhit lng do vt kia thu vo. b. Trng hp h l mt my lm vic tun hon, ngha l n bin i theo mt qu trnh kn hay chu trnh. Sau mt dy cc bin i h tr v trng thi ban u. Nh vy sau mt chu trnh: U=0. T U= A+Q A=- Q nu A>0 th Q<0 v ngc li A<0 th Q>0 v gi tr A = Q . Vy trong mt chu trnh, cng m h nhn c c gi tr bng nhit do h to ra bn ngoi hay cng do h sinh ra c gi tr bng nhit m h nhn vo t bn ngoi. c. ngha T h qu th hai ca nguyn l ta thy khng th c mt my no lm vic tun hon sinh cng m li khng nhn thm nng lng t bn ngoi hoc sinh cng ln hn nng lng truyn cho n. Nhng my ny gi l ng c vnh cu loi mt. Vy khng th no ch to c ng c vnh cu loi mt.
3. NGUYN L TH HAI CA NHIT NG HC

1. Nhng hn ch ca nguyn l th nht Cc hin tng xy ra trong t nhin u tun theo nguyn l th nht. Tuy nhin c mt s hin tng v mt l thuyt c v tho mn nguyn l mt nhng li khng xy ra trong thc t. V d 1. Trong mt h, xy ra qu trnh truyn nhit t vt nng sang vt lnh hoc t vt lnh sang vt nng; Nguyn l th nht khng b vi phm nhng thc t qu trnh truyn nhit t vt lnh sang vt nng khng th t ng xy ra.
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V d 2. Mt hn khi lng m c nng ln cao h th th nng l mgh, th nng ny gim dn khi ri xung, cn ng nng th tng dn. Khi hn chm t, ng nng ca n c gi tr mgh. Sau va chm ng nng ny bin i nhng lm t nng ln. Hin tng xy ra ng theo nguyn l mt . Nu ta hnh dung ngc li: hn ang nm yn trn mt t, t thu ly mt nhit lng ng bng nhit lng ni trn a n ln cao h. Trong qu trnh ny nguyn l mt khng b vi phm. Tuy nhin trong thc t khng xy ra. Nh vy nguyn l mt khng cho ta bit chiu din bin ca mt qu trnh thc t xy ra. Nguyn l mt nu ln s khc nhau trong qu trnh chuyn ho gia cng v nhit. Theo nguyn l mt cng v nhit tng ng nhau v c th chuyn ho ln nhau nhng thc t cng c th bin hon ton thnh nhit nhng ngc li nhit ch c th bin mt phn thnh cng. Nguyn l mt cng khng cp n vn hiu sut truyn nhit. Trong thc t qu trnh truyn nhit t mi trng c nhit cao sang mi trng c nhit thp c hiu sut cao hn hiu sut ca qu trnh ngc li. Nguyn l hai s b sung v khc phc nhng hn ch trn. 2. Ni dung nguyn l hai Pht biu ca Clausius: Nhit khng th t ng truyn t vt lnh sang vt nng hn. Pht biu ca Thomson v Carnot: khng th ch to c ng c nhit hot ng tun hon, lin tc bin nhit thnh cng m mi trng xung quanh khng chu s bin i no. 3. Qu trnh thun nghch v qu trnh bt thun nghch Mt qu trnh bin i ca h nhit ng t trng thi (1) sang trng thi (2) c gi l thun nghch nu n c th tin hnh theo chiu ngc li v lt v h i qua mi trng thi trung gian nh lt i. Qu trnh ngc li l qu trnh bt thun nghch. i vi qu trnh thun nghch, nu lt i h nhn cng A th lt v h tr ng cng A cho mi trng. Nh vy A=0, U=0,Q=0. Vy: i vi qu trnh thun nghch, sau khi thc hin qu trnh thun v qu trnh nghch mi trng khng b thay i. Qu trnh thun nghch l qu trnh l tng (thc t khng xy ra). 4. Hiu sut cu ng c nhit. nh l Carnot ng c nhit l my bin nhit thnh cng, gm hai ngun nhit (ngun nng T1 v ngun lnh T2<T1) v mt mi trng nhit ng lm nhim v bin nhit thnh cng gi l tc nhn (cht mi). Khi ng c hot ng, ngun nng T1 truyn cho cht mi nhit lng Q1. Cht mi s gin n v sinh cng A ri tr cho ngun lnh nhit lng Q2. Hiu sut ca ng c nhit l:
A Q1 Q2 = Q Q1
hay = 1
Q2 Q1
= 1+
Q2 Q1
ng c nhit hot ng tun hon theo cc chu trnh. Chu trnh thun nghch c li nht l chu trnh Carnot gm hai qu trnh ng nhit v qu trnh on nhit: 1. Qu trnh bin i ng nhit: h nhn nhit Q1 ca ngun nng T1 gin kh t trng thi (1) n trng thi (2) ng thi cung cp cng A1 cho mi trng.
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2. Qu trnh gin kh on nhit: H tip tc bin i on nhit t trng thi c nhit T1 sang T2 v cung cp cng A2 cho mi trng ngoi. 3. Qu trnh nn kh ng nhit: H nhn cng A3 nn kh t trng thi (3) v trng thi (4) v tr nhit Q2 cho ngun lnh T2. 4. Qu trnh nn kh on nhit: h tip tc nhn cng A4 nn kh t trng thi (4) v (1). Vi chu trnh Carnot ngi ta chng minh c: V2 V3 = V1 V4 nh l Carnot Hiu sut ca cc ng c nhit chy theo chu trnh khng thun nghch th lun lun nh hn hiu sut ca ng c nhit chy theo chu trnh thun nghch. Hiu sut ng c nhit khng ph thuc vo tc nhn, ch ph thuc vo nhit ca cc ngun nhit theo biu thc: 5. Hiu sut my lm lnh My lm lnh l my bin cng thnh nhit. u tin tc nhn nhn mt cng A ca mi trng ngoi ly i mt lng nhit Q2 t ngun lnh, sau to lng nhit Q1 cho ngun nng. Hiu sut lm lnh:
P (1 )
Ngun nng T1 Q1 Tc nhn Q2 Cng A Ngun lnh T2 Hnh 6-2
O
(4 ) V1 V4
(2 ) (3 ) V
H n h 6 -3
V2 V3
Ngun nng T1 Q1 Tc nhn Q2 Cng A Ngun lnh T2 Hnh 6-4
Q2 Q1 A Q1 = = 1 A A A
ng c nhit tun theo chu trnh carnot thun, th my lnh cng tun theo chu trnh y. Chu trnh Carnot thun nghch cng gm 4 giai on: 1. H nhn cng A 1 nn kh on nhit t trng thi (1) sang (2)
2. H tip tc nhn cng A 2 nn kh ng nhit t trng thi (2) sang trng thi (3) ng thi tr nhit Q 1 cho ngun nng 3. Gin kh on nhit t trng thi (3) sang trng thi (4). 4. Gin kh ng nhit t trng thi (4) sang trng thi (1) i vi my lnh chy theo chu trnh Carnot hiu sut ca my lnh khng ph thuc vo tc nhn m ch ph thuc vo nhit ngun nng T1 v ngun lnh T2.
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6. Biu thc nh lng ca nguyn l hai Hiu sut ca ng c nhit
P (1) (2) (4) (3) V Hnh 6-5
Q T = 1+ 2 = 1 2 Q1 T1
hay
Q2 T = 2 Q1 T1
Q1 Q2 + =0 T1 T2
O
Qi
i
Gi
Q l nhit lng rt gn, ta c: T
=0
i vi ng c bt thun nghch th hiu sut lun nh hn ng c thun nghch, tc l:
1+
Q2 T2 < 1Q1 T1
hay
Q2 T < 2 Q1 T1
Q1 Q2 + <0 T1 T2
hay
Qi
i
< 0.
i vi mt chu trnh bt k ta c th coi h tip xc vi v s ngun nhit c nhit T bin thin lin tc. Mi qu trnh tip xc vi mt ngun nhit l mt qu trnh vi phn, h nhn nhit Q ta c:
Q
T
y l bt ng thc Clausius l biu thc nh lng ca nguyn l hai, trong du = ng vi chu trnh thun nghch.
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CHNG VII: TRNG TNH IN

cc chng trc ta kho st hai dng vn ng ca vt cht l vn ng c hc v vn ng nhit. Trong chng ny v cc chng tip theo ta s nghin cu mt dng vn ng khc ca vt cht: vn ng in t. Cc in tch ng yn to ra xung quanh chng mt mi trng vt cht c bit, c gi l trng tnh in. Mc ch ca chng ta l kho st tng tc tnh in gia cc in tch; Xy dng cc khi nim c bn ca trng tnh in nh in trng, in th, hiu in th; Chng minh trng tnh in l trng lc th. Yu cu i vi ngi hc l phi nm vng nh ngha v hiu c ngha vt l cng n v o ca cc i lng: vct cng in trng, in th, hiu in th, in thng; hiu v vn dng c nh lut Coulomb, nh l xtrgratxki Gauss, nguyn l chng cht in trng gii cc bi ton tnh in; hiu nh ngha v tnh cht ca lng cc in; nh v vn dng c biu thc m t mi quan h gia vct cng in trng v in th.
1. TNG TC IN - NH LUT COULOMB

1. Tng tc in Trong qu trnh hnh thnh, tn ti v pht trin con ngi tm hiu t nhin, chinh phc v ci to n. Cc hin tng t nhin nh s nhim in do ma st ca mt s vt c con ngi pht hin t xa xa v quan tm nghin cu chng. Khi cc vt nhim in th chng mang in dng hoc m v ta bo rng chng cha cc in tch. Thc nghim xc nhn rng gia cc in tch c tn ti tng tc, c gi l tng tc in. 2. Thuyt in t - nh lut bo ton in tch in tch l mt thuc tnh ca vt cht. in tch trn mt vt bt k c cu to gin on, ln ca n lun bng mt s nguyn ln in tch nguyn t. in tch nguyn t l in tch nh nht trong t nhin. in tch nguyn t m l in tch ca electron (in t) c gi tr bng e = -1,6.10-19C, khi lng ca electron bng me= 9,1.10 31 kg. Bnh thng nguyn t l trung ho v in v in tch dng ca ht nhn v in tch m ca cc electron lun cn bng nhau v ln. Khi nguyn t mt i mt hoc nhiu electron th n tr thnh ion mang in dng (gi ngn gn l ion dng), cn khi nguyn t nhn thm mt hay nhiu electron th s bin thnh ion m. Thuyt da vo s chuyn di ca electron gii thch cc hin tng in c gi l thuyt in t. Theo thuyt ny, qu trnh nhim in ca thanh thy tinh khi xt vo la chnh l qu trnh electron chuyn di t thy tinh sang la: thy tinh mt electron, do mang in dng; ngc li la nhn thm electron t thy tinh chuyn sang nn la mang in m, ln ca in tch trn hai vt lun bng nhau nu trc c hai vt u cha mang in. n v o in tch l Coulomb, k hiu l C. Tr tuyt i ca in tch c gi l in lng.
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T nhn xt trn y v cc s kin thc nghim khc, nh lut bo ton in tch c pht hin v c pht biu nh sau: Cc in tch khng t sinh ra m cng khng t mt i, chng ch c th truyn t vt ny sang vt khc hoc dch chuyn bn trong mt vt m thi. Ni mt cch khc: Tng i s cc in tch trong mt h c lp l khng i. 3. nh lut Coulomb Khi kho st tng tc gia cc in tch c kch thc nh khng ng k so vi khong cch gia chng (c gi l cc in tch im), bng thc nghim nh vt l Coulomb thit lp nn nh lut mang tn ng vo nm 1785. nh lut c pht biu nh sau: Lc tng tc gia hai in tch im ng yn trong chn khng c phng nm trn ng thng ni hai in tch, c chiu y nhau nu hai in tch cng du v ht nhau nu hai in tch tri du, c ln t l thun vi tch ln ca hai in tch v t l nghch vi bnh phng khong cch gia chng. F0 =
q1 . q 2 4 0 r 2
=k
q1 . q 2 r2
(7-1)
r F10
r r21 r r12
r F20
Trong : hng s in 0 = 8,86.10-12C2/Nm2 (hay F/m). h s t l k = 1 9.109 Nm2/C2. 40 biu din nh lut ny di dng vct, ta qui c gi vct khong cch gia hai in
r q F10 1
q2 q2
r F20
q1
r F10 r r
r F20
Hnh 7-1. Lc tng tc gia tch l r c phng nm trn ng thng ni hai cc in tch im in tch , c chiu hng v in tch m ta mun xc nh lc tc dng ln in tch y v c ln bng khong cch gia hai in tch im. Khi lc tng tc gia hai in tch q1, q2 c biu din trn hnh 7.1 v cng thc vct sau y: r q1 q 2 r q1 q 2 F0 = k 2 =k 3 r (7-2) r r r
Nu hai in tch im q1, q2 c t trong mt mi trng bt k th lc tng tc gia chng gim i ln so vi lc tng tc gia chng trong chn khng:
F =
40r
1 q1q2 r = k q1q2 r 3 3
r
(7-3)
trong l mt i lng khng th nguyn c trong cho tnh cht in ca mi trng v c gi l thm in mi t i (hay hng s in mi) ca mi trng. Tr s ca cc mi trng c cho trong cc s tra cu v in (i vi chn khng = 1, cn i vi khng kh 1). 4. Nguyn l chng cht cc lc in
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Xt mt h in tch im q1, q2, .... qn c phn b ri rc trong khng gian v mt in tch im q0 t trong khng gian . Gi F1 , F2 , ..., Fn ln lt l cc lc tc dng ca q1, q2,.... qn ln in tch q0 th tng hp cc lc tc dng ln q0 l:
F = F1 + F2 + .... + Fn =
F
i =i
(7-4)
trong , cc lc Fi c xc nh theo (7-3). p dng nguyn l trn ta c th xc nh lc tng tc tnh in gia hai vt mang in bt k bng cch xem mi vt mang in nh mt h v s cc in tch im c phn b ri rc. Nu in tch c phn b lin tc trong vt th vic ly tng trong (7-4) c thay bng php tch phn theo ton b vt. Vi hai qu cu mang in u hoc hai mt cu tch in u, sau khi p dng nguyn l trn, ta thy rng lc tng tc gia chng cng c xc nh bi nh lut Coulomb (7-3), song phi coi in tch trn mi khi (mt) cu nh mt in tch im tp trung tm ca n. Bi ton 1: Hai in tch im dng c in lng q2 = 9q1 t c nh cch nhau mt khong a trong mi trng bt k. Hi phi t mt in tch im Q u, c du v ln nh th no Q trng thi cn bng? Q phi mang du g trng thi cn bng l bn? Gii: Lc do q1 tc dng ln Q l: Lc do q2 tc dng ln Q l: Hp lc tc dng ln Q l:
F1 = kq1Q r1 3
r1
F2 = kq2Q r2 3
r2
F = F1 + F2 = kq1Q r1 + kq2Q r2 r13 r23
iu kin Q ng yn (cn bng) l F = 0 hay F1 + F2 = 0, tc l
F1 = - F2 hay
kq1Q r1 = -kq2Q r2 r13 r23
Ta thy v q1 v q2 cng du nn r1 v r2 phi ngc chiu nhau (vi mi Q), ngha l in tch im Q phi t ti im M nm trn on thng ni q1 v q2 v nm gia hai in tch y. - Nu Q > 0: n cng b q1, q2 y. - Nu Q < 0: n cng b q1, q2 ht. T iu kin cn bng ta c: kq1Q = kq2Q r12 r22 Suy ra: r2 2 = q2 r 2 = r12 q1 r1 q2 q1 = 9 = 3
q1
r r1
a/4
r r2
3a/4
q2
Hnh 7-1. Hnh bi ton 1
T r1 + r2 = a v
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r2 = 3 d dng tm c r = a v r = 3a 1 2 4 4 r1
Kt lun: in tch Q c th dng, m v c ln ty - Nu Q < 0: Khi lch khi M, hp lc ko n tr li (trng thi cn bng bn). - Nu Q > 0: Khi lch khi M, hp lc y n i tip (trng thi cn bng khng bn). Nhn xt: + Nu q1 < 0, q2 < 0 mun c trng thi cn bng bn th Q phi l in tch dng. + Nu q1 = q2 th r1 = r2.
2. IN TRNG
1. Khi nim in trng S d cc in tch tuy cch xa nhau, khng tip xc vi nhau nhng vn tng tc c vi nhau l v khng gian xung quanh mi in tch tn ti mt mi trng vt cht c bit gi l in trng. Th hin s tn ti ca in trng l ch khi t bt k mt in tch no vo in trng th in tch u b tc dng ca mt lc in. in trng l mi trng truyn tng tc in t in tch ny sang in tch khc. 2. Vct cng in trng a. nh ngha Ti mt im M no trong in trng ta ln lt t cc in tch q1, q2... qn c gi tr nh ( khng lm bin i ng k in trng ) ri o cc lc F1 , F2 , ..., Fn do in trng tc dng ln lt ln chng. Thc nghim cho thy t s gia lc tc dng ln mi in tch v tr i s ca in tch l mt hng s:
Fn F1 F2 = = ............. = = const qn q1 q 2
Vct hng s ny c trng cho in trng ti im M c v ln, phng v chiu; n c gi l vct cng in trng ti im M, k hiu l E :
E =
F q
(7-5)
T biu thc (7-5) ta thy nu chn q = + 1 th E = F . Vy: Vct cng in trng E ti mt im l i lng c trng cho in trng ti im v phng din tc dng lc, c tr vct bng lc tc dng ca in trng ln mt n v in tch dng t ti im . Trong h n v SI, cng in trng c n v o l Vn/mt: V/m. b. Lc in trng tc dng ln in tch im
q> 0
r E
r F
r E
q<0
r F
(a)
(b)
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Hnh 7-2 Lc in trng tc dng ln in tch q
Nu bit cng in trng E ti mt im M trong in trng th khi t mt in tch q vo im , n b in trng tc dng mt lc
F =q E .
(7-5a)
Nu q > 0 th F cng chiu vi E ( hnh 7-2a); Nu q < 0 th F ngc chiu vi E ( hnh 7-2b). 3. Vct cng in trng gy ra bi mt in tch im Xt mt in tch im c tr i s Q. Trong khng gian bao quanh n s xut hin in trng. Ta hy xc nh vct cng in trng E ti mt im M cch in tch Q mt khong r. Mun vy ti im M ta t mt in tch im q c tr s nh. Khi theo nh lut Coulomb, lc tc dng ca in tch Q ln in tch q bng:
Q
r r
r E
r E
F = k Qq r 3
r So snh vi biu thc nh ngha (7-5), ta thy vct cng in trng do in tch im Q gy ra ti im M l:
Hnh 7-3. Cng in trng gy bi mt in tch im
E = k Q3 r
r
(7-6)
trong bn knh vct r hng t in tch Q n im M. Nhn xt: - Nu Q > 0 th E r : E hng ra xa khi in tch Q. - Nu Q < 0 th E r : E hng vo in tch Q. - V ln E = k
r 2
: Cng in trng ti im M t l thun vi ln ca in tch
Q v t l nghch vi bnh phng khong cch t im ang xt n in tch Q. 4. Vct cng in trng gy ra bi mt h vt mang in - Nguyn l chng cht in trng a. Cng in trng gy ra bi h in tch im phn b ri rc Xt h in tch im Q1, Q2, ..., Qn c phn b ri rc trong khng gian. xc nh vct cng in trng tng hp E ti mt im M no ca khng gian, ta t ti M mt in tch q. Khi theo (7-4) lc tng hp tc dng ln in tch q bng:
F = F1 + F2 + .... + Fn = Fi
i =1
Trong Fi l lc tc dng ca in tch Qi ln in tch q. p dng biu thc nh ngha (7-5), vct cng in trng tng hp ti M bng:
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E =
F 1 = q q
Fi =
i =1
q
i =1
Fi
Cng theo (7-5) th mi s hng Qi gy ra ti M nn:
Fi = E i chnh l vct cng in trng do in tch q
E=
E
i =1
(7-7)
Biu thc (7-7) l biu thc ton hc ca nguyn l chng cht in trng c pht biu nh sau: Vct cng in trng gy ra bi mt h in tch im bng tng cc vct cng in trng gy ra bi tng in tch im ca h. b. Cng in trng gy bi h in tch im phn b lin tc Xt mt vt mang in c kch thc bt k v in tch phn b lin tc trn vt ny. R rng ta c th xem vt nh mt h in tch im c phn b lin tc trong khng gian. Do tnh cng in trng gy bi vt ny ta tng tng chia vt thnh nhiu phn nh sao cho in tch dQ trn mi phn c th xem l in tch im. Nu gi d E l vct cng in trng gy ra bi in tch dQ ti im M cch dQ mt khong r th vct cng in trng do vt mang in gy ra ti im M c xc nh tng t theo cng thc (7-7).
r E = dE =
ca vat
r r k 3 dQ ca vat r
(7-8)
dE
Ta xt mt s trng hp c th sau y: + Nu vt l si dy (L) vi mt in tch di (C/m) th in tch trn mt vi phn di dl l dQ = dl. Khi
dE n
E = dE = k
L L
dl r r r 3
(7-9)
M h
dEt
+ Nu vt mang in l mt mt S vi mt in tch mt (C/m2) th in tch trn mt vi phn din tch dS l dQ = dS. Khi :
E = dE = k
S
S
.dS r r r 3
(7-10)
+ Nu vt mang in l mt khi c th tch V vi mt in tch khi (C/m3) th in tch trong mt th tch vi phn dV l dQ = dV. Khi :
dQ
Hnh 7-4 in trng gy bi vng dy trn tch in u
E = dE = k
V
V
dV r r r 3
(7-11)
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Bi ton 2: Mt vng trn lm bng mt dy dn mnh bn knh R mang in tch dng Q phn b u trn dy. Hy xc nh cng in trng ti im M nm trn trc ca vng dy, cch tm mt on h. Gii: Cng in trng do vng dy gy ra ti mt im no bng tng cc cng in trng dE do cc phn t in tch dQ nm trn vng dy gy ra. Ti im M cng in trng do phn t in tch dQ gy ra l:
dE = k dQ r 3
vi ln dE = k dQ , phng v chiu nh hnh v 7-4. r2 Theo nguyn l chng cht, cng in trng ti M bng:
EM =
vong
dE =
( vong )
dQ r r r 3
Trc tin ta phn tch vct dE
thnh hai thnh phn dE t v dE n . V cc in tch dQ
phn b i xng qua im O nn tng cc thnh phn d E t bng khng. Cn li
EM =
vong
r dE n
V cc vct dE n cng phng, chiu nn E M c im t ti M, c phng ca trc vng dy v chiu hng ra xa vng dy. V ln th E M =
vong
dEn .
Theo hnh 7-4 ta c dEn = dEcos ( l gc gia dE v OM ). in trng gy bi dQ ti M bng: dE = kdQ r2 V cos = h v r2 = R2 + h2 nn dEn = khdQ r r3 dEn = k hdQ (R2 + h2)-3/2 Vy: hay: EM=
vong
dEn = k hQ (R
+h2)-3/2
vong
dQ
EM = k hQ (R2 + h2) 3/2
Nhn xt:
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Ti tm vng dy: h = 0, do E0 = 0 ni kh xa vng dy: h >> R: r h, EM = kQ h2 Nu vng dy tch in m (Q < 0) th E M c chiu hng vo tm O ca vng dy v c ln. EM = k hQ (R2 + h2) 3/2
3. LNG CC IN
1. nh ngha Lng cc in l mt h hai in tch im c ln bng nhau nhng tri du +q v q, cch nhau mt on l rt nh so vi khong cch t lng cc in ti nhng im ang xt ca trng. 2. Mmen lng cc in Vct mmen lng cc in c nh ngha l: r p e = ql (7-12)
trong l l vct khong cch gia hai in tch , hng t in tch (-q) n (+q). ng thng ni hai in tch gi l trc ca lng cc in. 3. in trng gy ra bi lng cc in a. Cng in trng ti im M nm trn mt phng trung trc ca lng cc Theo nguyn l chng cht in trng th cng in trng ti M l:
r E (+)
EM
= E (+ ) + E ( )
Theo (7-6) E ( ) v E (+ ) c hng nh hnh 7-5 v c ln bng nhau (v r- = r+) hnh (7-5a). Theo nh ngha lng cc in, v l << r nn c th r- = r+ r, do
r E
r E (-)
M r r+
E M = k(+q) r+ + k(-q) r = kq r3+ r3r3

(r+-r) = k Hay
r-
r pe EM = -k 3 r
r q 3 (- l ) r
(7-13)
-q
r O pe
+q
b. Cng in trng ti mt im trn trc ca lng cc
Hnh 7-5. Cng in trng c m t bi (7-13) 87
Xt im N nm trn trc lng cc. in tch (-q) gy ra E ( ) l c ln: E(-) = kq (r + l/2)2
-q
r
+q
r r E( ) N E N
r E( + )
in tch (+q) gy ra E (+ ) l v c ln E(+) = kq > E(-). (r - l/2)2
Hnh 7-5a: Cng in trng ti mt im N trn trc ca lng cc
Vy in trng tng hp ti N l E N l v c ln bng EN = E(+) E(-) = kq ( 2 1 - 2 1 ) = kq ( 1 - 1 ) r2 1 - l/r 1 + l/r r - rl r + rl v l << r nn l <<1, do EN kq (1+l - 1+l ) r r r r2 Hay EN =
2kql .r 3
Cui cng ta c: E N = E (+ ) + E ( ) =
2k pe r 3
(7-14)
r F( + )
4. Lng cc in t trong in trng Gi s lng cc in p e c t trong in trng u E 0 v nghing vi E 0 mt gc (hnh 7-6). Khi in trng E 0 tc dng ln in tch r +q mt lc l F( + ) = +q E 0 v ln in tch (-q) mt r lc l F( - ) = -q E 0 . Hai lc ny cng phng, ngc chiu nhau v c cng ln. Chng to thnh mt ngu lc lm quay lng cc in xung quanh mt trc i qua khi tm G ca h hai in tch +q v q (khi tm ny nm trn trc ca lng cc) ng thi vung gc vi mt phng cha p e v E 0 .
G
+q
r pe
lsin
r Eo
r F( - )
-q
Hnh 7-6. Lng cc in trong in trng u
Mmen ca ngu lc ny bng = l F(+ ) = l q E 0 = q l EO , r = pe E 0 (17-5) Vect c ln =qE0lsin= p e E0sin, theo th t p e , E 0 v to thnh mt tam din thun.
88
Mmen c tc dng lm quay lng cc in theo chiu (trong hnh 7-6 l theo chiu kim ng h) sao cho p e trng vi hng ca in trng E 0 . n v tr m p e E 0 th cc lc F(+ ) v F( ) trc i nhau. Nu lng cc in l cng (l khng i) n s nm cn bng. Nu lng cc l n hi, n s b bin dng. Khi quay lng cc in t v tr ng vi 0 v v tr = 0 in trng E 0 sinh cng. ln ca cng ny ng bng gim th nng U ca lng cc in ng vi hai v tr ny trong in trng E 0 . D dng tm c cng thc tnh th nng ca lng cc in trong in trng E 0 nh sau: U = - pe . E0 . (7-16)
4. IN THNG
1. ng sc in trng m t dng hnh hc ca in trng ngi ta dng ng sc in trng. Theo nh ngha, ng sc in trng l mt ng cong m tip tuyn ti mi im ca n trng vi phng ca vct cng in trng
E
E'
E ti im , cn chiu ca n l chiu ca vct cng

in trng (xem hnh 7-7).
Hnh 7-7. ng sc ien trng
Ngi ta qui c v s ng sc in trng qua mt n v din tch t vung gc vi ng sc t l vi ln ca cng in trng ti im ang xt. Tp hp cc ng sc in trng c gi l ph ng sc in trng hay in ph.
T qui c trn, qua in ph nu ch no mt ng sc ln (dy) th ni in trng mnh, cn ni no mt ng sc nh (tha) th ni y in trng yu. Vi in trng u ( E = const ) in ph l nhng ng thng song song cch u nhau. Trn hnh 7-8 biu din in ph ca mt in tch im dng (hnh a), in ph ca mt in tch im m (hnh b), in ph ca mt
89 Hnh 7-8. in ph
h hai in tch im dng bng nhau (hnh c) v in ph ca mt h hai in tch im bng nhau nhng tri du (hnh d). Nhn xt ng sc in trng xut pht t in tnh dng, tn cng trn in tch m. ng sc ca in trng tnh l nhng ng cong h. Cc ng sc in trng khng ct nhau v ti mi im trong in trng vct
E ch c mt hng xc nh.
2. Vct cm ng in a. S gin on ca ng sc in trng Khi ta biu din in trng bng in ph qua cc mi =2 trng khc nhau th gp phi kh khn v cng in =1 trng E ph thuc vo mi trng (t l nghch vi hng s S in mi ). Khi i qua mt phn cch ca hai mi trng, hng s in mi v do , cng in trng E bin thin t ngt. V vy in ph b gin on b mt phn cch hai mi trng. Trn hnh (7-9) l in ph ca mt in tch im +q t tm mt mt cu S, bn trong S l chn Hnh 7-9. S gian oan cua ien pho khng ( = 1), cn bn ngoi S l mi trng c hng s in mi = 2. Ta nhn thy rng, qua mt phn cch S, s ng sc gim i 2 ln, tc l in ph b gin on trn mt S. S gin on ny khng thun li cho cc php tnh v in trng. khc phc, ngi ta kh s gin on bng cch a vo mt i lng vt l khc khng ph thuc vo tnh cht ca mi trng c gi l vct cm ng in D (cn gi l vct in cm). Trong trng hp mi trng l ng nht, ngi ta nh ngha:
D = 0 E
(7-17)
V d: vct in cm D do in tch im q gy ra ti mt im cch q mt khong r c xc nh bi:
=2 =1 S
q D= r 4r 3
. Nh vy ti mi im trong 4r 2 in trng D ch ph thuc vo q, tc l ngun sinh ra in trng m khng ph thuc vo tnh cht ca mi trng. Trong h SI, cm ng in c n v o l C/m2. c ln D =
Hnh 7-10. S lien tuc cua pho ng cam ng ien
Tng t nh ng sc in trng, ngi ta nh ngha v m t in trng bng ng cm ng in. Khi , ph cc ng cm ng in l lin tc trn mt phn cch gia cc mi trng (hnh 7-10). 3. in thng a. nh ngha
90 Sn S
Dn
r D
r D
rr n n
r S
Hnh 7-11. in thng ca in trng u
in thng qua mt in tch S t trong in trng chnh l thng lng ca vct cm ng in gi qua din tch S . b. Biu thc tnh in thng Xt din tch phng S t trong in trng u c cc ng cm ng in thng song song cch u nhau (hnh 7-11). Gi n l vct php tuyn ca mt S, n hp vi vct cm ng in mt gc . Theo nh ngha, in thng e gi qua mt S l i lng c tr s bng s ng cm ng in gi qua mt S . Gi Sn l hnh chiu ca S ln phng vung gc vi cc ng cm ng in. T hnh 7-11 ta nhn thy s ng cm ng in gi qua hai mt S v Sn l nh nhau, nn in thng gi qua S cng chnh l in thng gi qua Sn. Vy nn e = r dS DSn. Gi hnh chiu ca D ln phng n l Dn, cn Sn = r r n Scos nn: D e = SDcos = DnS = D S (7-18)
dS
trong S l vct din tch hng theo php tuyn
n ca S v c ln bng chnh din tch S .

Nu in trng l bt k v mt S c hnh dng ty (hnh 7-12). Khi ta chia din tch S thnh nhng din tch v cng nh dS sao cho vct cm ng in D ti mi im trn din tch dS c th xem l bng nhau (u). Khi in thng vi phn gi qua dS c tnh theo (7-18) l: de = D dS v in thng gi qua ton mt S s l: e =
(S)
Hnh 7-12. in thng qua din tch dS
de = D dS
S
S
(17-9)
Ch : in thng l mt i lng i s, du ca n ph thuc vo tr s ca gc (nhn hay t).
5. NH L XTRGRATXKI - GAUSS (O - G)
Mc ch ca tit ny l thit lp mi quan h gia vct cm ng in D v in tch gy ra n. chnh l ni dung ca nh l O G. 1. Thit lp nh l
91
Xt mt in tch im dng q t c nh ti im O. in tch q to ra mt trng tnh in xung quanh n. Tng tng mt mt cu S (tm O, bao quanh q) c bn knh r. Qui c chiu dng ca php tuyn n trn mt cu hng ra ngoi. V l do i xng nn: Vct D c ln nh nhau ti mi im trn mt cu S. D n , cho nn Dn = D (in trng c tnh i xng cu). Ta d dng tnh c in thng qua mt cu S, c th l: e =
(S )
DdS
2
(S )
Dn.dS = D dS = D.S.
(S )
r dS
r n r D
trong : S = 4r ; Do e =
D=
4r 2
Hnh 7-13 in thng qua mt kn S. nh l O-G
4r 2
. 4r2 = q > 0
(in thng dng v i ra khi mt kn S). Khi q<0 th D dS nn e = - D.S = -
4r 2
4r2 = - q = q < 0
(in thng m v ng sc i vo mt kn S). Nhn xt: e khng ph thuc vo r, ngha l e l nh nhau i vi cc mt cu c bn knh khc nhau. Nu S l mt kn bt k (vn bao quanh in tch q) th kt qu thu c cng nh vy v ph cc ng cm ng in l lin tc. Nu S khng bao quanh q th c bao nhiu ng cm ng in i vo S cng c by nhiu ng cm ng in i ra khi S, nn ta c e = e(vo) + e(ra) = 0. Nu bn trong mt kn S c nhiu in tch th t nguyn l chng cht in trng suy ra: in thng qua S bng tng i s cc in thng thnh phn, tc l:
(S )
DdS = q
i
2. Pht biu nh l in thng qua mt mt kn bng tng i s cc in tch nm trong mt kn : e =
(S )
DdS = q
i
(7-20)
3. Phng php s dng nh l O - G

92
Khi in trng c tnh cht i xng (i xng cu, i xng tr, i xng phng), xc nh vct E hay vct D ca in trng th p dng nh l O-G l phng php n gin, ngn gn hn phng php tnh theo nguyn l chng cht in trng. Ta thc hin tun t cc bc sau y: Bc 1: Nhn xt v s i xng trong s phn b ca h in tch. Bc 2: Xc nh dng i xng ca h ng sc v xc nh qu tch nhng im m cc vct D (hoc vct E ) c cng ln v bng vi D hoc E ti im ta cn kho st. Bc 3: Xy dng mt kn S (gi l mt Gauss) l qu tch ni trn. Nu qu tch cha to thnh mt kn th ta lm kn li bng cc mt khc ty sao cho vic tnh ton l n gin nht. Bc 4: Tnh tng v ca biu thc (7-20) rt ra i lng cn xc nh. Bi ton 3: Xc nh cng in trng E gy bi mt khi cu tm O, bn knh R, tch in u vi mt in khi > 0 ti mt im bn ngoi v ti mt im bn trong lng khi cu . Gii: i vi im M ngoi khi cu, cch tm O mt khong r > R. + Bc 1: V khi cu tch in u nn h ng sc c tnh cht i xng cu. + Bc 2: H ng sc trng vi cc bn knh, hng ra ngoi. Do qu tch ca nhng im c ln
o
S
Dn
S
M
dS D
D bng nhau v bng DM
l mt cu S tm O, bn knh
Hnh 7-14 (bi ton 3)
r i qua im M. Trn mt cu S ta c D = DM = const. + Bc 3: Mt kn S chnh l mt cu S. + Bc 4: p dng nh l O G.
(S )
DdS =
q
i =1
Trin khai v tri: Ti mi im trn mt S ta c D dS v D = Dn = const, nn: r r 2 D.dS = D.dS = D dS = D.4r

(S ) (S ) (S)
Trin khai v phi:
q
i i i
l tng in tch ca khi cu (bn knh R) nm trong S v bng
= Q = 4 R3. 3
E E(R)
93
-R O +R Hnh 7-15.

4 R 3 3
Ghp hai v li ta c: D. 4r2 = Rt ra: v dng vect D = R2 , 3r

3
r > R,
D = R3 r 3r r D = Q2 , 4r r
r>R (7-21)
hay
kQ r . Kt qu ny ging vi biu thc tnh cng in trng ca 0 r 2 r mt in tch im Q t ti O.

Do E =
By gi ta li tnh i vi im N nm trong lng khi cu (r < R). V mt cu S tm O, i qua im N. Lp li cc l lun nh trn ta thu c kt qu sau:
D = 1 r = Q 3 r ; r < R 3 4R
Do vy
(7-22)
M
n
D D S
E = 1 r = kQ r 30 R3
n
Nhn xt: Ta thy cng in trng trong lng v ngoi qu cu bin thin theo hai quy lut. trong (r<R): in trng tng theo r vi quy lut tuyn tnh. ngoi (r>R): in trng gim theo r vi quy lut t l nghch vi r2. Ti b mt khi cu: E(R) = R = kQ 30 R2
n
D Hnh 7-16.
M rng: Nu khi cu tch in m ( < 0) th cc kt qu thu c vn ging nh (7-21) v (7-22), ch c khc l E N , E M v h ng sc in cm ngc chiu vi vct bn knh r , tc l chng hng vo tm O. Nu y l mt mt cu (rng) tch in u th: ngoi (r>R) kt qu (7-21) vn ng v trong (r<R): v
q
i
=Q
q
i
= 0 nn E trong = 0.
94
Bi ton 4: Xc nh in trng ca mt mt phng v hn tch in u vi mt in mt >0. Gii: V in tch phn b i xng phng nn vct cm ng in D ti mt im bt k trong in trng s c phng vung gc vi mt phng mang in, hng ra xa khi mt phng v ln ca D ch c th ph thuc vo khong cch t im ang xt ti mt phng. D dng nhn thy qu tch nhng im c cng ln ca cng in trng l hai mt phng cng song song v cch u mt phng tch in. Do , xc nh vct cm ng in D ti mt im M, ta v mt kn S (mt Gauss) nh sau: V qua M mt mt tr kn m im M thuc vo mt trong hai mt y c din tch l S, c hai mt y cng song song v cch u mt phng tch in, cn cc ng sinh th vung gc vi mt phng (Hnh 7-16). Ch l ti mi im trn hai mt y ta thy D n , cn nhng im trn mt bn th D n . Khi v tri ca (7-20) c trin khai thnh:
(s)
DdS
mat ben
D dS
n
hai ay
D dS
n
Mi im trn hai trn hai y Dn = D = const, ta thy D n , cn mi im trn mt bn th D n , Dn = 0, do :

(S )
DdS q
i i
hai ay
D dS
n
= D.2S.
v phi ca (7-20),
l tng in tch c trong mt tr kn ny; chnh l in tch
ca phn mt phng c ct bi mt trn ca hnh tr (l phn din tch b gch trong hnh (7-16) cho nn y
q
i
= . S. D= 2 (7-23) (7-24)
Ghp hai v li, ta c: D.2S = .S, rt ra Hay V
D= n 2 E= n 20
trong n l vct php tuyn n v ca mt phng tch in ang kho st. Nhn xt: Cc vct D (v E ) khng ph thuc vo khong cch t im M n mt phng nn in trng y l in trng u: E = const
95
in trng do mt phng hu hn tch in u to ra nhng v tr rt gn mt cng c xem nh l u. Nu mt phng tch in m th kt qu thu c cng nh vy song cc vct D , E li hng vo mt phng tch in. 4. Dng vi phn ca nh l O G nh l O-G c biu din theo cng thc (7-20) nu ln mi quan h gia cm ng in
D ti nhng im trn mt kn S vi cc in tch qi phn b ri rc trong th tch V gii hn bi mt kn S .

Nu in tch trong th tch V c phn b lin tc vi mt in tch khi (x,y,z) th mi lin h gia vct D ti mt im bt k (x,y,z) trong in trng vi mt in tch khi cng ti im c m t bng nh l O G dng vi phn nh sau: div D = (trong h to cc ta c: div D = (7-25)
D x D y DZ ). + + x y z
6. CNG CA LC TNH IN - IN TH
1. Cng ca lc tnh in Xt in tch im +q t trong in trng tnh gy bi in tch im +Q ng yn. Di tc dng ca lc tnh in (lc Coulomb) in tch +q di chuyn theo mt ng cong MN (hnh 7-17). Ta hy tnh cng ca lc tnh in sinh ra trong qu trnh dch chuyn ny. Gi s thi im t in tch +q c v tr l im A trn qu o MN. Ti vct cng in trng ca trng tnh in (do in tch + Q to ra) xc nh bi E = kQ r , cn lc tnh in tc dng ln in tch r3 +q s l
M A A +q
r F r E
B B
r r
r r r + dr
rM
Q
rN
kqQ F = +q E = r .r 3
Hnh 7-17
Sau thi gian dt, in tch q thc hin chuyn di v cng nh ti im B trn qu o. Vct dch chuyn ds AB . Trn chuyn di v cng nh ny c th xem nh E = const , do cng nguyn t ca lc tnh in F trong chuyn di vi phn ny c tnh l: dA = F . ds =q E ds
96
= qEds.cos = kQq ds.cos; r2 trong = ( r , ds ). Theo hnh v 7-17, c th xem BB = dr AA = ds.cos; nn dA = kqQ dr. Vy cng ca lc tnh in trong s dch r2 chuyn ca in tch q t M n N s bng: AMN = dA = kQq M AMN = k Qq - k Qq rM rN
N
rM
rN
dr r2
(7-26)
Thay v in tch Q, by gi to ra trng tnh in l mt h in tch im ng yn Q1, Q2,...., Qn. Bng cch p dng nguyn l chng cht in trng v cch tnh tng t nh trn, ta s thu c kt qu: AMN =
i =1
k qQi riM
i =1
k qQi riN
(7-27)
trong riM v riN ln lt l khong cch t in tch Qi n cc im M v N. Ta thy cng ca lc tnh in trong qu trnh dch chuyn in tch q trong in trng c hai c im l: Khng ph thuc vo dng ng cong dch chuyn m ch ph thuc vo v tr im u v im cui ca dch chuyn. Nu q dch chuyn theo mt ng cong kn (rM = rN) th cng ca lc tnh in A = q E ds = 0 hay Vy: + Trng tnh in l trng th lc tnh in l lc th. + Lu s ca vct cng in trng (tnh) dc theo mt ng cong kn bng khng. 2. Th nng ca in tch trong in trng Trong c hc ta bit khi di chuyn mt cht im gia hai v tr trong trng th, cng ca lc th c ln bng hiu th nng ca cht im ti hai v tr trong trng th. i chiu vi trng tnh in, ta suy ra th nng ca in tch q ti mt im trong in trng c tnh theo cc biu thc sau: W = kqQ r Hoc W= (7-28)
E ds = 0.
k
i
qQi .ri
(7-29)
97
Cng thc (7-28) dng cho in trng do mt in tch im Q to ra, cn (7-29) dng cho in trng do h in tch im Q1, Q2,...., Qn to ra vi quy c chn th nng v cng l bng khng (W = 0). 3. in th - Hiu in th a. in th T biu thc (7-28) v (7-29) ta suy ra rng t s W/q khng ph thuc vo ln ca in tch q m ch ph thuc vo cc in tch gy ra in trng v vo v tr ca im ang xt trong in trng. T ta nh ngha: V=W q gi l in th ca in trng ti im ang xt. T nh ngha trn, ta suy ra biu thc tnh in th ca in trng cho mt s trng hp: in trng do mt in tch im Q to ra: V=kQ r in trng do mt h in tch im to ra: V= (7-31) (7-30)
V
i
k r
i
Qi
i
(7-32)
(g)
in trng bt k: VM =
(M )
E .ds ,
r r
(7-33)
trong g l im gc, chn th nng bng khng. Ch : in th l i lng i s, v hng. b. Hiu in th Thay cc biu thc (7-28) v (7-30) vo (7-26), ta c: AMN = WM WN = q (VM - VN) (7-34) Vy: Cng ca lc tnh in trong s dch chuyn in tch im q t im M ti im N trong in trng bng tch s ca in tch q vi hiu in th gia hai im M v N . T biu thc (7-34) suy ra VM - VN = AMN . Nu ly q = +1 n v in tch th VM - VN = AMN. C q ngha l hiu in th gia hai im M v N trong in trng l mt i lng bng cng ca lc tnh in trong s dch chuyn mt n v in tch dng t im M n im N. Mt khc, nu ly q = +1 n v in tch v chn im N xa v cng th VM - V = AM, m ta qui c W = 0 V = 0 nn VM = AM, tc l in th ti mt im trong in trng l mt i lng v tr s bng cng ca lc tnh in trong s dch chuyn mt n v in tch dng t im ra xa v cng.
98
Ch : n v o in th v hiu in th trong h SI l Vn, k hiu l V. Trong k thut, i lng hiu in th c s dng nhiu hn i lng in th. V gi tr ca hiu in th khng ph thuc vo cch chn gc tnh in th (hoc th nng). Do vy ngi ta thng chn in th ca t hoc ca nhng vt ni t bng khng. Khi ni in th ca mt im no chnh l ni v hiu in th gia im vi t. Mt vt tch in Q c phn b lin tc, khi mun tnh in th ti mt im no trong in trng do Q to ra th thay cho cng thc (7-32) ta s dng cng thc sau y: V=k
toan bo vat
dQ r
(7-35)
Mt dng khc ca cng thc (7-34) l:

N
VM - V N =
E ds
(7-36)
7. LIN H GIA VCT CNG IN TRNG V IN TH

1. Mt ng th a. nh ngha Mt ng th l qu tch ca nhng im c cng in th trong in trng (V = const). b. Tnh cht ca mt ng th . Cng ca lc tnh in trong s dch chuyn mt in tch bt k trn mt mt ng th bng khng. Thc vy, vi hai im M v N bt k trn mt ng th (VM = VN) th cng ca lc tnh in khi dch chuyn in tch q gia hai im ny tnh theo biu thc (7-34) s bng: AMN = q (VM VN) = 0 . Ti mi im trn mt ng th, vct cng in trng c phng vung gc vi mt ng th. Gi s di tc dng ca lc tnh in, in tch q trn mt ng th dch chuyn t im M n mt im N rt gn , tc l vct dch chuyn ds MN . Khi theo tnh cht , cng ca lc tnh in bng dA = F . ds = q E ds = 0.
r E
E N q M ds
Hnh 7-15. Minh hoa tnh chat Hnh 7-18. Minh ho tnh cht
V+dV
ds
dn
N P 99
Hnh 7-19. r Lin h gia E v V
Ta suy ra F ds . V ds l vt t bt k trn mt ng th nn vct cng in trng
E vung gc vi mt ng th ti mi im ca mt .
Ch : Theo tnh cht ta cng suy ra cc ng sc n trng lun vung gc vi cc mt ng th. 2. Mi lin h gia E v V Vct cng in trng E v in th V ti mt im no l hai i lng c trng cho in trng v hai phng din khc nhau: vct E c trng v phng din tc dng lc ( F = q E ), cn in th V c trng v phng din cng nng lng (VM = AM = q E ds ). Do
M
gia hai i lng ny, phi c mi lin h vi nhau. Ta s thit lp mi quan h . Xt hai im M v N rt gn nhau trong in trng: im M thuc mt ng th c in th V, cn im N thuc mt ng th c in th V + dV (vi dV > 0). Gi s di tc dng ca lc tnh in, mt in tch q < 0 dch chuyn t im M n im N ni trn. Khi cng ca lc tnh in trong dch chuyn ny bng: dA = q E ds Mt khc, theo (7-34) th: dA = q(VM VN) = q [V(V +dV)] = -qdV Do ta c: vi
ds = MN
E ds = - dV
(7-37)
Gi = ( E , ds ) khi E ds = Edscos = Esds = -dV < 0, tc l cos < 0. \ Ta suy ra cc kt lun sau: a. Vct cng in trng E lun lun hng theo chiu gim ca in th (gc t).
B A A B A B C
b. Hnh chiu ca E ln mt phng no v tr s bng VA>VB VA<VB VA=VC>VB gim in th trn mt n v Hnh 7-17. Mo ta ien trngg banng ng sc(net lien) trn bng g sc (lin nt) v Hnh 7-20.M t in di ca phng : va ng ng the (net t) ng a ng th (nt t). Es = -dV (7-38) ds Trong h ta Descartes, biu thc (7-38) c tng qut ho nh sau: r V r V V E = - gradV = - ( i + j + k )
(7-39)
c. Ln cn mt im trong in trng, in th bin thin nhiu (nhanh) nht theo phng php tuyn vi mt ng th (hay theo phng ca ng sc in trng v qua im ).
100
dV dV dn ds
Hnh 7-20 l mt th d minh ho mi quan h gia E v V trong mt vi trng hp n gin. Bi ton 4: Mt khi cu tm O bn knh R tch in dng vi in tch Q c phn b u theo th tch. Chn gc tnh in th v cc, hy xc nh: a. in th ti im A trn mt cu. b. in th ti tm O . c. in th ti im T trong khi cu. d. in th ti im N ngoi khi cu. Gii: Trong bi ton 3, dng nh l O - G ta xc nh c in trng trong lng v bn ngoi khi cu vi kt qu nh sau:
Hnh 7-21. Bi ton T
O
R
E tr (trong) =
r, 30 r
r< R,
= 3Q 3 4R r>R
E ng (ngoi) = k Q3 r ,
a. Tnh VA:
+ Xt dc theo mt phng bn knh, p dng biu thc (7-38) cho A l mt im trn mt khi cu, ta c: - dV = Erdr = Etrdr = r dr 30 T Suy ra V
dV = 30 0
rdr
0
2 hay V0 VA = R 60
2 VA = V0 - R 60
(7-40)
Q = 4 R3, nn R2 = 3Q v ta s c: 3 4R VA= V0 - 1 Q = V0 - kQ 40 2R 2R (7-41)
+ Nu xem A l thuc ngoi khi cu th tng t cch tnh trn, ta c:
VA - V =
kQ E ng dr = A
r
R
dr
2
= kQ R
V v cng V = 0 nn suy ra
101
VA = kQ R
(7-42)
Vy khi cu tch in u vi in tch tng cng Q gy ra in th ti b mt c gi tr nh in th gy bi mt in tch im Q t ti tm O. b. Tnh V0: T (7-41) v (7-42) rt ra: V0 = 3kQ 2R c. Tnh VT: Tng t nh trn, ta c:
(7-43)
V0 V T = T VT = V0 -
Etr dr =
A
30
rT
rdr =
.rT2 6 0
.rT2 3kQ .rT2 = 6 0 2R 6 0
(7-44)
Vy khi i t tm O ra n b mt ca khi cu tch in u, in th gim dn theo hm m. d. Tnh VN: Ta c VN - V = E ng dr = kQ rN Do : Vn = kQ rN

rN
dr
2
= kQ rN (7-45)
Nhn xt: Trong trng hp in tch Q>0, in th V0 ti tm O l cc i ri gim dn theo hm m ra n b mt. in th b mt l mt hng s; ra ngoi khi cu in th gim theo quy lut t l nghch vi khong cch. v cc V = 0 ( V cc tiu). Trong trng hp in tch khi cu Q < 0 th V0 cc tiu, cn V cc i.
102
Chng VIII: Vt dn
CHNG VIII: VT DN
Trong t nhin vt cht chia lm ba loi: Vt dn, in mi v bn dn. Vt dn l vt c cha cc ht mang in t do, c th chuyn ng trong ton b vt. Khi nim vt dn bao gm nhiu cht nh kim loi, dung dch in phn, cht kh ion ho. y ta ch nghin cu kim loi, c cc in tch t do l cc electron t do chuyn ng trong ton mng tinh th ca n. Do khi ni v vt dn, ta hiu theo ngha hp l vt dn kim loi m thi.
1. VT DN CN BNG TNH IN
1. nh ngha Mt vt dn c tch in m cc ht mang in ca n trng thi ng yn, c gi l vt dn cn bng tnh in. Trong k thut, vt dn cn bng tnh in l vt dn c np in tch (tha hoc thiu electron) hoc vt dn c t trong in trng khi tt c in tch trong n ng yn. 2. Tnh cht ca vt dn cn bng tnh in a) Vct cng in trng E ti mi im trong vt dn cn bng tnh in bng khng. Tht vy, xt mt in tch q bt k trong vt dn cn bng tnh in, v n nm yn nn lc tc dng ln n F = q E = 0. Suy ra E = 0. b) Ti mi im trn b mt ca vt dn cn bng tnh in, vct E (do c ng sc in trng na) phi vung gc vi b mt vt dn. Tht vy, nu ti mt im no trn b mt vt dn cn bng tnh in c vct E khng vung gc vi b mt, khi ta phn tch E = E n + E t v chc chn thnh phn tip tuyn vi b mt E t 0. Do vy mt in tch bt k nm s chu tc dng ca lc tip tuyn vi b mt F t = q E t 0 khin q b dch chuyn v nh vy vt dn khng cn trng thi cn bng tnh in na. c) Vt dn cn bng tnh in l mt khi ng th, b mt vt dn l mt mt ng th. Tht vy, vi hai im M, N bt k trong lng vt dn v L l ng cong bt k ni hai im , p dng cng thc (7-37) ta c: VM VN =
MN
E ds
Theo tnh cht a) v E = 0 nn VM =
VN, tc l V = const bn trong lng vt dn. Ngoi ra v trn b mt vt dn E t = 0 nn in th
103
Chng VIII: Vt dn
ti mi im trn b mt vt dn cng bng nhau (nn mt vt dn l mt mt ng th). Cui cng v in th l hm lin tc ca khong cch nn ton b vt l mt khi ng th. d) in tch ch phn b trn b mt ca vt dn cn bng tnh in. Tht vy, nu chn S l mt mt kn nm trn trong lng vt dn v rt st vi b mt vt dn, khi p dng nh l O-G cho mt kn S ny ta c
q = D.dS = 0 v trong lng vt dn

i i
r r
D = 0 E = 0. Do trong lng mt kn S ny khng c in tch no c v in tch ca vt dn cn bng tnh in ch c phn b trong mt lp rt mng trn b mt vt dn.
3. Mt s hin tng vt dn cn bng tnh in a) Hin tng in mi nhn T thc nghim ngi ta thy rng in tch phn b khng u trn mt vt dn cn bng tnh in. C th, in tch tp trung dy c ti nhng ch li ra v tha tht nhng ch phng hoc lm vo b mt. Do nhng ch li ra, nht l mi nhn, in trng rt mnh; cn nhng ch lm vo in trng rt yu. i vi cc vt dn cn bng tnh in c b mt i xng (mt cu, mt tr, mt phng rng v hn) th in tch phn b u trn b mt ca chng. b) Hin tng ni t Khi vt A nhim in c ni vi vt B cha nhim in th in tch c truyn t A sang B v phn b li trn c hai vt. Khi mt in tch trung bnh trn mi vt s nh hn trn vt A lc ban u. Qu t c xem l mt vt dn cc k ln. V vy khi vt nhim in c ni t th in tch coi nh c truyn ht xung v qu t. Trong k thut, v cc c my in, xe bn ch xng, ct thu li u c ni t m bo an ton v khng gy nguy him. c) Hin tng in hng (cn gi l hng ng tnh in) L hin tng xut hin cc in tch cm ng trn b mt vt dn (lc u trng thi trung ho v in) khi c t trong in trng. Khi ta t mt khi kim loi vo in trng E 0 th tt c cc electron t do trong n b in trng tc dng lc F = e E 0 khin chng chuyn ng ngc chiu E 0 . Kt qu l b mt, ni ng sc in trng i vo, xut hin lp in tch m; cn mt i din (ni ng sc i ra) xut hin lp in tch dng (Hnh 8-1). Chng c gi l cc in tch hng ng, c ln bng nhau.
E'
Eo Hnh 8-1. Hien tng ien hng
Trong lng khi kim loi s xut hin in trng ph E ' ngc chiu vi in trng E 0 . in trng E ' s tc dng ln cc electron lc F ' = -e E ' ngc chiu vi lc F0 , tc l lc
F ' cn tr vic to thnh cc in tch hng ng. Trng thi cn bng c thit lp khi F ' = - F0 ,
tc l E ' = - E 0 . Khi vt trng thi cn bng tnh in (cc electron t do khng di chuyn na) th trong lng n c: E = E 0 + E 1 = 0, V = const, = 0. Hin tng ny cng xy ra i vi khi kim loi rng hoc mt v hp kim loi hnh dng bt k c t trong in trng.
104
Chng VIII: Vt dn
Ngi ta phn bit hai loi hin tng in hng: in hng ton phn v in hng mt phn. in hng ton phn: trng hp mi ng sc in trng c xut pht v kt thc trong cc vt tch in ca h kn; khng c ng sc ra khi h hoc t ngoi i vo h. V d: Hin tng in hng gia hai bn ca mt t in. in hng mt phn: trng hp h h, c ng sc i ra khi h hoc t bn ngoi i vo h. d) Mn chn tnh in Da vo hin tng in hng, ngi ta dng mn chn tnh in (l hp hoc li kim loi) bo v thit b in (c bit l thit b v tuyn) khi tc ng ca in trng bn ngoi, nu khng dng s b nhiu rt mnh. Trng hp in trng ngoi khng qu mnh, mn chn ch cn c dng li (v d lp li kim loi v cp in) cng lm trit tiu nh hng ca in trng gy nhiu. Ch rng mn chn tnh in ch ngn cn khng cho in trng t bn ngoi xm nhp vo trong. Nu t in tch Q bn trong mn chn th do hin tng in hng, mt trong ca mn chn s tch in tri du vi Q, cn mt ngoi s tch in cng du vi Q. Khi pha ngoi mn chn vn c in trng (tc l mn mt tc dng chn).
2. IN DUNG - T IN - NNG LNG IN TRNG

1. in dung ca vt dn c lp Mt vt dn c gi l c lp v in (hay vt dn c lp) nu gn n khng c mt vt no khc c th gy nh hng n s phn b in tch trn vt dn ang xt. Khi ta truyn cho vt dn A mt in tch Q no . Theo tnh cht ca vt dn mang in ( trng thi cn bng tnh in), in tch Q c phn b trn b mt vt dn sao cho in trng trong lng vt dn bng khng. Thc nghim cho thy: nu ta thay i gi tr in tch Q ca vt dn c lp v o in th V ca n th t s gia Q v V lun lun khng thay i (Q = const). Ngha l V ln in tch Q ca vt tng hay gim bao nhiu ln th in th V ca n cng tng hay gim by nhiu ln. Hng s ny c trng cho kh nng tch in ca vt in th V nht nh no , c gi l in dung C ca vt: C=Q V (8-1)
Vy: in dung ca vt dn c lp l i lng c tr s bng in tch cn truyn cho vt dn in th ca n tng ln mt vn. Trong h n v SI, in dung c o bng fara (k hiu: F) 1 fara = 1 culng/1vn
105
Chng VIII: Vt dn
Bi ton 1: Tnh in dung ca mt khi cu kim loi bn knh R t trong mi trng ng nht c hng s in mi 0. Gii: Gi s ta tch in cho qu cu vi in tch Q. Khi vt dn trng thi cn bng tnh in, in tch Q c phn b u trn mt khi cu. Khi in th V ca (b mt) qu cu c xc nh theo cng thc (7-42): V = k Q . R Suy ra in dung ca qu cu kim loi bng: C = Q = R = 40R V k (8-2)
T cng thc (8-2) ta thy fara l n v in dung rt ln (v l in dung ca mt qu cu kim loi c bn knh R 9.109m ! ). V vy trong k thut ngi ta thng dng cc n v c ca fara, l F, nF v pF vi quan h nh sau: 1F = 106F = 109nF = 1012pF. 2. T in a. nh ngha T in l h hai vt dn to thnh mt h kn sao cho chng trng thi in hng ton phn. Khi tch in cho t in th cc ng sc in trng ch tn ti trong lng t in (trong khong khng gian gia hai bn cc ca t in). b. T in phng L h hai mt phng kim loi c cng din tch S t song song cch nhau mt khong d (hnh 8-2) rt nh so vi kch thc mi bn. Khi hai bn c tch in +Q v Q v trng thi cn bng tnh in, chng l cc mt ng th.
S +
S -
V1 o d
V2 n
Hnh 8-2. T in phng
Bn dng c in th V1, mt in mt + = + Q gy ra in trng u c cng S : E1 =
2 0
hng ra xa n.
Bn m c in th V2, mt in mt - = - Q gy ra in trng u S u c cng : E2 =
2 0
hng vo gn n.
V hai bn rt gn nhau nn ngoi t in, in trng b trit tiu, cn trong lng t in th in trng l u, hng t bn dng sang bn m, c ln E = E1 + E2 =
106
. 0
Chng VIII: Vt dn
Xt trn phng ca ng sc in trng (phng n), t biu thc (7-38) ta suy ra: -dV = Edn. Ly tch phn hai v biu thc ny theo lch in th ng vi khong cch hai bn t, ta c:
V2 V1
( dV ) = Edn ,
0
hay V1 - V2 = E dn = Ed
0
Tc l
U = V1 - V2 = Ed
(8-3)
Do in dung ca t in phng bng:
S C=Q= = 0 S U d / 0 d
3. Ghp t in a) Ghp song song
(8-4)
Gi s c hai t in vi cc n dung ln lt l C1, C2 c ghp song song vi nhau (hnh 8-3). Trong trng hp ny v U1 = U2 = U nn suy ra: Q1 = Q2 hay C1 = Q1 ngha l t no c in dung ln hn th C1 C2 C2 Q2 tch in c nhiu hn v ngc li. Nu thay h hai t ny bng mt t in duy nht vi in dung Ctd c vai tr tng ng, khi in tch trn mi bn ca t tng ng s l Qtd = Q1 + Q2. Suy ra: Do : Ctd . U = C1U + C2U = (C1 + C2) U Ctd = C1 + C2
n
C2
+Q1 -Q1
U
+Q2 -Q2
Tng qut, nu c n t in ghp song song vi nhau th: Ctd = C1 + C2 + .... + Cn = b. Ghp ni tip Xt hai t in ghp ni tip vi nhau (hnh 8-4). Ta thy cc bn cc ca hai t khi c ni vi ngun in s c tch in theo hin tng in hng (ton phn). Do ln in tch trn cc bn u bng nhau. Q1 = Q2 = Q hay C1U1 = C2U2 Hay C1 = U 2 C2 U1
C
i =1
(8-5)
C1 Hnh 8-3. Hai t in ghp song song
U1
U2
+Q1 -Q1
+Q 2
-Q2
Hnh 8-4. Hai t in ghp ni tip
ngha l t in no c in dung ln hn th hiu in th ri vo trn n s nh hn v ngc li. Nu thay hai t in ny bng mt t tng ng c in dung Ctd th in dung Ctd c xc nh nh sau: hiu in th gia hai bn ca t tng ng l
107
Chng VIII: Vt dn
Utd = U1 + U2 hay Q = Q + Q = Q( 1 + 1 ) Ctd C1 C2 C1 C2 Do 1 = 1 + 1 Ctd C1 C2

n
Tng qut, nu c n t in ghp ni tip vi nhau th: Ctd = C1 + C2 + ...... +Cn =
C
i =1
1
1
(8-6)
4. Nng lng in trng a. Nng lng ca mt t in tch in Gi s ta dng ngun in mt chiu np in tch vo hai bn ca t in c in dung C. Ngun in sinh cng a in tch n hai bn v cng chuyn thnh nng lng ca in trng tn ti gia 2 bn ca t in. Ti thi im t, hiu in th gia hai bn l u, in tch mi bn l q. Sau thi gian dt ngun a thm lng in tch dq n cho mi bn. V dq rt nh nn hiu in th u coi nh khng i, do cng vi phn ca ngun l: dA = (u+du)dq Cudu Cng ton phn np in cho ti khi hiu in th gia hai bn bng U l:
U
A=
dA = C udu = 2 CU .
2
0 0
Cng A ny chuyn ho thnh nng lng W ca mt t in c tch in. Vy nng lng ca mt t in l:

2 W = 1 CU2 = 1 Q = 1 QU 2 C 2 2
(8-7)
b. Nng lng in trng + in trng u: in trng ch tn ti trong khong khng gian gia hai bn cc ca t in. Nng lng ca t in cng chnh l nng lng ca in trng tn ti trong t in. t in phng, in trng gia hai bn cc l u, c ln E = U/d v th tch khng gian trong tn ti in trng bng = S.d. Khi nng lng ca t in l:
2 We = A = 1 CU2 = 1 0S U2 = 1 0 (U )Sd = 1 0E2. (8-8) 2 2 d 2 2 d
T ta tnh c mt nng lng ca in trng u bng:
e =
2 We 1 = 0E2 = 1 D = 1 ED = 1 E D 2 0 2 2 2
(8-9)
Ngi ta chng minh c cng thc (8-9) cng ng cho in trng u bt k.

108
Chng VIII: Vt dn
+ in trng bt k: p dng phng php vi tch phn d dng tnh c nng lng in trng bt k trong mt th tch no theo cng thc sau: We = e d =
1 rr ED.d 2
(8-10)
Bi ton 2: chnh gia hai bn ca mt t in phng c in dung C = 1,78.10-11F, din tch mi bn cc l S = 100cm2, nhng trong cht lng in mi = 2, ngi ta t mt in tch q = + 4,5x10-9C th thy q chu mt lc F = 9,81.10-5N. Tnh: a) Hiu in th U gia hai bn t in. b) Mt nng lng in trng. c) Lc tng tc gia hai bn cc ca t in. Gii: a) T in phng nn U = Ed d = U/E. Mt khc F = qE E = F/q d = qU/F C C = 0S/d d = 0S/C Kt hp (1) v (2) rt ra: U = 0SF 217V. qC b) Mt nng lng in trng: (1) (2)
e = 1 0E2 = 1 0 (E ) = 42,03.10-4 J/m3

2 2 q c) Hai bn cc ht nhau vi lc f. Nng lng in trng ca t in s bin thnh cng cn khng cho hai bn cc tin ti gn nhau. T : fd = Sd f = S = 42,03.10-6N.
109
Chng IX: in mi
CHNG IX: IN MI
Bnh thng in mi l nhng cht khng dn in. Chng c ng dng quan trng v rng ri trong k thut v i sng. Bn th tng tng cc dy cp dn in m khng c v cch in th nguy him bit chng no. Hu ht cc hp cht oxyt u l in mi v c s dng ph bin trong k thut in - in t. Cc t in u phi dng cht in mi ghp vo gia hai bn cc. Cc linh kin in t nh transistor trng (FET), vi mch CMOS.v.v... trong cu to u phi s dng n in mi ixyt silic (SiO2), nguyn l hot ng ca chng l da trn hin tng phn cc in mi ca lp SiO2 trong in trng phn cc bn ngoi. Do kho st v in mi l ni dung ca chng IX ny. Mc ch: Kho st hin tng phn cc in mi, tnh ton in trng trong cht in mi v tm hiu tnh cht ca mt s cht c bit (cc hiu ng p in thun, ngc trong in mi scnht). Yu cu: Gii thch c hin tng phn cc in mi, hiu khi nim vct phn cc in mi v phng php tnh in trng trong cht in mi. Bit cc tnh cht ca in mi scnht v phn bit c s khc nhau gia hiu ng p in thun vi hiu ng p in nghch.
1. HIN TNG PHN CC IN MI

1. Hin tng phn cc in mi in mi l nhng cht khng c cc in tch t do nn iu kin bnh thng khng th dn in c.Tuy nhin khi t n vo in trng mnh th hai mt gii hn (i din vi phng vect cng in trng) cng xut hin cc in tch tri du. Hin tng ny gi l hin tng phn cc in mi. V hnh thc, hin tng phn cc in mi c v ging hin tng hng ng tnh in kim loi, nhng hon ton khc v bn cht.Cc in tch xut hin trong hin tng phn cc in mi khng t do dch chuyn c m nh x c nh trong lng cht in mi. Chng c gi l cc in tch lin kt. i lng c trng cho cht in mi l hng s in mi . Cht c hng s in mi cng ln th hin tng phn cc cng mnh. 2. Phn loi in mi Mi phn t ca cht in mi gm hai phn: ht nhn mang in dng v cc electron mang in m. Bnh thng cc phn t trung ho v in. Cn c vo s phn b ca cc electron quanh ht nhn, ngi ta phn in mi lm hai loi: Loi th nht: l cht in mi c phn t t phn cc. Trong loi ny, cc phn t c phn b electron khng i xng quanh ht nhn nn tm in tch m cch tm
110
Chng IX: in mi
in tch dng mt khong l. Mi phn t t hnh thnh mt lng cc in c m r r men lng cc phn t p e = q l . Bnh thng m men lng cc ca cc phn t sp xp hn lon i vi nhau. l cc cht nh H2O, HCl, NH3, CH3Cl.v.v... Loi th hai: l cht in mi c phn t khng phn cc. Trong phn t, cc electron c phn b i xng quanh ht nhn khin tm in tch m trng vi tm in tch dng. Phn t ca in mi loi ny khng phi l lng cc in. l cc cht nh H2, N2, Cl2, kh him,.v.v...
Ring cc cht in mi tinh th (rn) c cc ion dng sp xp mt cch trt t v lin kt cht ch vi nhau. Ta c th xem ton b tinh th in mi rn nh mt phn t khng l m mng ion dng v mng ion m lng vo nhau. l cc hp cht nh NaCl, CsCl.v.v... 3. Qu trnh phn cc in mi a. in mi c phn t t phn cc Bnh thng, cc phn t sp xp hn lon, do chuyn ng nhit. Trong mt th tch bt k, tng mmen lng cc ca cc phn t bng khng. Ton b khi in mi cha tch in (hnh 9-1a). Khi t cht in mi vo in trng ngoi th cc mmen lng cc phn t s quay theo chiu in trng, hng ti v tr cn r bng ( p e E 0 ). in trng E 0 cng mnh v + -
+
+ +
xem nh nm song song nhau theo phng E 0 . Khi trong lng cht in mi, cc tm in tch dng v m ca cc phn t trung ho nhau nn khng xut hin in tch. Cn trn cc mt gii hn c th xut hin cc in tch tri du (hnh 9-1b): mt gii hn m cc ng sc in trng i vo xut hin in tch m, mt m cc ng sc in trng i ra xut hin in tch dng . y l cc in tch lin kt, chng khng t do dch chuyn c. Ta ni rng cht in mi b phn cc. b. in mi c phn t khng phn cc
+ +
+
Eo Hnh 9-1. in n moi phan t phan cc Hnh 9-1. ie mi phn t t phn cc a) Khi cha t trong ie trng ngoi. a) Khi cha at trongin n trng ngoai b) Khi t trong in trng ngoa b) Khi at trong ientrng ngoi. i Eo
Bnh thng cc tm in tch dng v m ca phn t trng nhau. Trong cht in mi khng c cc lng cc phn t, do trong ton khi in mi cng khng c in tch no c. Khi t cht in mi vo in trng ngoi E 0 , in trng s tc dng ln cc tm in tch ca mi phn t: tm in tch m b y ngc chiu vi E 0 , cn tm in tch dng b r ko cng chiu vi E 0 . Kt qu l phn t tr thnh lng cc in c mmen lng cc p e cng hng vi E 0 . Qu trnh xy ra ging vi trng hp trn: cht in mi b phn cc.
111
chuyn ng nhit ca cc phn t cng yu (nhit cht in mi cng thp) th s nh hng ca cc mmen lng cc cng mnh m. Nu in trng ngoi ln, cc lng cc phn t c th
a)
b)
Chng IX: in mi
c. in mi tinh th rn Di tc dng ca in trng ngoi, cc mng ion dng b x dch theo chiu in trng, cn cc mng ion m b x dch ngc chiu in trng, gy ra hin tng phn cc in mi. Dng phn cc ny gi l phn cc ion. Tm li, d l in mi loi no, khi c t trong in trng ngoi th ti hai mt gii hn i din ca n u xut hin hai lp in tch tri du, gi l cc in tch phn cc hay in tch lin kt. Mt in tch phn cc ln hay b (cht in mi b phn cc mnh hay yu) ph thuc vo bn cht ca cht in mi v vo cng in trng ngoi. 4. Vct phn cc in mi c trng cho mc phn cc cht in mi, ngi ta nh ngha khi nim vct phn r r cc in mi nh sau: Vct phn cc in mi Pe l tng vct mmen lng cc in p e ca cc phn t c trong mt n v th tch ca cht in mi. Biu thc: Xt mt th tch V ca cht in mi b phn cc (bi trng ngoi), th tch ny ln cha mt s ln n cc phn t. Khi theo nh ngha trn th:
Pe = 1 V
p
i =1
ei
(9-1)
Vct Pe hng dc theo chiu ca vct cng in trng E 0 . 5. Lin h gia vct phn cc in mi vi mt in tch phn cc Trong khi in mi ng nht ta tng tng tch ra mt khi tr xin c ng sinh song song vi vct cng in trng tng hp E trong in mi (tc l song song vi Pe ) c hai y song song vi nhau v c din tch l S, ng sinh c chiu di L (hnh 9-2). Gi n l php tuyn ngoi ca y mang in tch dng v l gc gia n v E , - v + l mt in tch trn hai y. in tch tng cng xut hin hai y l +(S) v -(S). Ta xem ton b khi tr nh mt lng cc in khng l m ln mmen in ca n bng S.L. Theo nh ngha ca vct phn cc in mi, ta c: Pe = Pe = 1 V
n
p
i =1 ei
ei
Trong
p
i =1
'
+'
= S.L, cn th tch
E0 Pen
Pe n
ca khi tr xin V = S.L.cos. Do : Suy ra: Pe = '.S.L = ' S. Lcos cos = Pecos = Pen (9-2)
L Hnh 9-2. e thiet lap quan he gia Pe va
112
Chng IX: in mi
Vy: Mt ca cc in tch phn cc xut hin trn mt gii hn ca khi in mi c gi tr bng hnh chiu ca vct phn cc in mi trn php tuyn ca mt gii hn .
2. IN TRNG TRONG CHT IN MI

1. Vct cng in trng E trong cht in mi Xt mt t in phng, mt in tch trn hai bn cc l + v - gy ra in trng u
E 0 trong lng t in. t mt khi in mi ng cht, ng hng vo gia hai bn cc ca t in (hnh 9-3). Khi in mi b phn cc: xut hin hai lp in tch phn cc c mt l +
v -. Cc in tch phn cc ny sinh ra in trng ph E ngc chiu vi in trng E 0 . V vy in trng tng hp trong lng cht in mi s l:
E = E 0 + E'
Chiu biu thc trn ln phng ca E 0 ta c: E = E0 - E V hai lp in tch phn cc li c th xem nh hai bn cc ca mt t in phng mi m ln ca cung in trng do n sinh ra l E = ' . Do vy 0 E = E0 - ' hay 0 E = E0 - Pen 0 (9-3)
+ + + + + +
+ + + + +
Hnh 9-3 ien trng trong in ien Hnh 9-3. chat trng moi
trong cht in mi
E' E Eo
Thc nghim xc nhn: khi in trng E 0 khng ln lm 0 E vi l mt h s khng th nguyn.
th vct phn cc in mi Pe t l vi vct cng in trng E . Do ta vit c Pe = Tip theo, Pen = 0En v v php tuyn ca mt gii hn trng vi phng ca in trng E nn En = E. Vy E = E0 - 0E = E0 - E, hay (1 + ) E = E0. 0 Cui cng ta c E = E0 1+ (9-4)
Nu ton b h trn (gm t in phng v cht in mi) c t trong chn khng th E0 l ln cng in trng trong chn khng, cn E l ln ca cng in trng trong lng cht in mi. T suy ra 1 + = l hng s in mi ca mi trng. Tc l ta c: E = E0 v 1+= (9-5) (9-6)
113
Chng IX: in mi
Ta cng d dng tm c mi lin h gia vct in cm D v vct phn cc in mi
Pe . Mun vy, theo nh ngha ta c D = 0 E , vi = 1 +.

Do hay
D = 0 (1 +) E
r r D = 0 E + o E = 0 E + Pe
(9-7)
3. IN TRNG TI MT PHN CCH GIA HAI MI TRNG

Trong cc cht in mi khng ng cht, tnh cht ca mi trng thay i t im ny sang im khc, do cc vct E v D cng c th thay i trong cc phn khc nhau ca mi trng. Xt hai lp in mi ng cht c mt song song, tip xc nhau, hng s in mi ln lut l 1, 2 t trong in trng u E 0 (hnh 9-4). Nhng in tch lin kt trn b mt cc in mi gy ra trong mi lp in mi mt in trng ph E vung gc vi mt phn cch. in trng tng hp trong tng lp in mi ln lt bng:
E E0 E1n
E1t E1 E' E2t E2
1 2
E'1
E2n
E'2
E 1 = E 0 + E '1 E 2 = E 0 + E '2
Hnh 9-4. S khong lien tuc cua ng sc ien trng
Chiu hai ng thc vct trn ln lt ln cc phng php tuyn v tip tuyn vi mt phn cch, ta c: E1n = E0n - E1n E2n = E0n - E2n E1t = E0t - E1t E2t = E0t - E2t V E1t = E2t = 0 E1t = E2t nn t (c) v (d) suy ra: (9-8) (a) (b) (c) (d)
Vy: Thnh phn tip tuyn ca vct cng in trng tng hp bin thin lin tc khi i qua mt phn cch ca hai lp in mi. Mt khc, v E = /0 = E nn E1n = E1n. Thay biu thc ny vo (a) v ch rng 1 + = 1, ta rt ra: E1n = E0n / 1. Tng t, ta cng c:
114
(e) (f)
E2n = E0n / 2.
Chng IX: in mi
T (e) v (f) ta suy ra: E1n = 2 E2n 1 (9-9)
Vy: Thnh phn php tuyn ca vct cng in trng tng hp bin thin khng lin tc (trng hp tng qut 2 1) khi i qua mt phn cch ca hai lp in mi. 1 Kt lun: ng sc in trng l khng lin tc khi i qua mt phn cch gia hai lp in mi. i vi vct in cm trong hai lp in mi trn, ta c:
1 2
D'1 D1n D'2
D1t D1 D2n D2t D2
D 1 = 01 E 1 , D 2 = 02 E 2
Cng lm php chiu nh trn, ta c: D1t = 01E1t D2t = 02E2t V E1t = E2t nn: D1t = 1 D2t 2 (9-9)
Hnh 9-5. S lien tuc cua ng cam ng ien
Vy: Thnh phn tip tuyn ca vct cm ng in bin thin khng lin tc khi i qua mt phn cch ca hai lp in mi. Tng t, s c D1n = 01E1n v D2n = 02E2n V c E1n = 2 nn D1n = 1 . E1n = 1 . 2 = 1 (9-10) E2n 1 D2n 2 E2n 2 1 Tc l D1n = D2n. (9-11) Vy: Thnh phn php tuyn ca vct cm ng in bin thin lin tc khi i qua mt phn cch ca hai lp in mi. Ch : T cc kt qu trn ta thy rng khi i qua mt phn cch ca hai lp in mi, khng nhng ch vct E m c vct D cng thay i. Tuy nhin in thng (do s ng cm ng in), theo nh ngha bng e =
D dS
n S
th vn khng i khi i qua mt phn cch (v D1n = D2n).
4. IN MI C BIT
1. in mi Scnht Khong nhng nm 1930 - 1934 hai nh Vt l Nga l Cucsatp v Cbic tm thy mt hp cht tinh th c cng thc NaK(C2H2O2).4H2O (bitctrat natri Kali ngm nc), gi tt l
115
Chng IX: in mi
mui Scnht, c nhiu tnh cht c bit. Sau ngi ta tm thy mt nhm nhng in mi tinh th khc cng c cc tnh cht tng t v gi tn chung cho chng l in mi Scnht. Sau y l nhng tnh cht c bit ca in mi Scnht: Trong mt khong nhit no , hng s in mi ca in mi Scnht rt ln, c th t ti 104. Hng s in mi (v do h s ) ca n ph thuc vo cng in trng trong in mi. Sau khi tt in trng ngoi E 0 , tinh th Scnht vn cn b phn cc. y l hin tng in tr trong Scnht. Khi tng nhit ln qu mt nhit Tc no , cc tnh cht trn ca Scnht bin mt v n tr thnh cht in mi bnh thng. Tc c gi l nhit Curi. in mi Scnht c rt nhiu ng dng trong k thut. V c hng s in mi rt ln nn n c dng ch to cc t in c kch thc nh nhng in dung rt ln. 2. Hiu ng p in a. Hiu ng p in thun Nm 1880 hai nh Vt l Php l Pie Curie v Gic Curie tm thy mt hin tng mi: khi nn hoc ko dn mt s tinh th in mi theo nhng phng c bit trong tinh th th trn cc mt gii hn ca tinh th xut hin nhng in tch tri du, tng t nh nhng in tch xut hin trong hin tng phn cc in mi. Hin tng ny gi l hiu ng p in thun, xy ra vi cc tinh th thch anh, tuamalin, mui scnht, ng, titanat bari,.v.v... Nu i du ca bin dng (t nn sang dn hoc ngc li) th in tch xut hin trn hai mt gii hn cng i du (hnh 9-6). Do c in tch tri du xut hin nn gia hai mt gii hn ny c mt hiu in th.
Hnh 9-6. Hieu ng ap ien
Hiu ng p in thun c p dng trong k thut bin i nhng dao ng c (m) thnh nhng dao ng in. b. Hiu ng p in nghch Trong cc tinh th nu trn, ngi ta cn quan st thy hin tng p in nghch: Nu ta t ln hai mt i din ca mt tinh th mt hiu in th th n s b dn ra hoc b nn li. Nu y l mt hiu in th xoay chiu th tinh th s b dn, nn lin tip v s dao ng theo tn s ca hiu in th xoay chiu. Tnh cht ny c ng dng ch to cc ngun pht siu m. Bi ton: Mt t in phng c cc bn cc vi din tch S = 115cm2 v cch nhau mt khong d = 1,24cm. Mt hiu in th U = 85,5V c t vo gia hai bn t in. Sau ngt n ra khi hiu in th trn v mt tm in mi dy b = 0,78cm v c hng s in mi = 2,61 c a vo gia cc bn cc ca t in (xem hnh bn). Tnh: a) in dung C0 ca t trc khi tm in mi c a vo. b) in tch t do xut hin trn cc bn cc.
116
Chng IX: in mi
c) in trng E0 trong khe gia cc bn t v tm in mi. d) in trng E trong tm in mi. e) Hiu in th gia cc bn t sau khi a tm in mi vo. f) in dung khi c tm in mi Gii: a) Tnh C0: Trc khi a tm in mi vo, y l t in khng kh
-12 -4 C0 = 0S = 8,85 x 10 x 115 x 10 F -2 1,24 x 10 d
( 1) nn:
= 8,21 x 10-12F = 8,21pF. b) Tnh q = C0U = 8,21 x 11-12 x 85,5C = 7,02 x 10-10C in tch t do ny khng i khi a tm in mi vo t in. c) Tnh E0 theo cng thc E0 = = q 0 0S E0 = 7,02 x 10-10 V/m = 6.900 V/m = 6,9kV/m. 8,85 x 10-12 x 115 x 10-4
d) Tnh E theo cng thc (9-5) E = E0 = 6,9 kV/m = 2,64kV/m. 2,61 e) Tnh U = U1 + U2, trong U1 l hiu in th trn khe gia cc bn t v tm in mi; Cn U2 l hiu in th gia hai mt gii hn ca tm in mi. Ta c U1 = E0 (d b), U2 = Eb nn: U = E0 (d b) + Eb = E0d (E0 E)b = 6.900 x 1,24 x 10-2 (6900 2640) x 0,78 x 10-2 = 52,3V. f) Tnh C theo cng thc
-10 C = q = 7,02 x 10 F = 1,34 x 10-11F = 13,4pF. U' 52,3
117
Chng X: Dng in khng i
CHNG X: DNG IN KHNG I

Th tng tng cuc sng ca chng ta s ra sao nu khng s dng n in nng. Lc y s chng c truyn thanh, truyn hnh, in tn, in thoi cng khng t, my bay, tu ho in.v.v... khng th hot ng c; My tnh in t tr thnh v dng; mn m en kt khi m v .v.v... Hu nh tt c cc my mc, phng tin, dng c trong k thut v i sng u phi s dng n in nng. Dng in truyn in nng t ni ny n ni khc, lm cho cuc sng tn ti v pht trin. Mc ch ca chng ny l nghin cu v dng in khng i: xem xt bn cht ca dng in, trnh by cc i lng c trng ca dng in, kho st nh lut Ohm, nh lut Kirchhoff v gii thiu khi nim sut in ng ca ngun in. Hc xong chng ny, yu cu i vi ngi hc l nm vng cc nh ngha v cng dng in, vct mt dng in; hiu v vn dng tt cc cng thc ca nh lut Ohm, nh lut Kirchhoff gii cc bi ton v mch in mt chiu.
1. BN CHT CA DNG IN
chng VIII ta bit l trong mi trng dn in, cc in tch t do lun lun chuyn ng nhit hn lon. Di tc dng ca in trng ngoi, chng s chuyn ng c hng xc nh: cc ht in dng chuyn ng theo chiu ca vct cng in trng E , cn cc ht in m chuyn ng theo chiu ngc li. Dng cc ht E E E in chuyn ng c hng I I nh vy gi l dng in, cn I cc ht in c gi chung l a) b) c) ht ti in. Bn cht ca dng in phan(b)va trong chat kh(c) trong cc mi trng khc nhau cng khc nhau (xem hnh 10-1).
Hnh 10-1. Ban chat dong ien trong kim loai(a),trong chat ien
Trong kim loi: v ch c electron ho tr l t do nn di tc dng ca in trng ngoi chng s chuyn ng c hng to thnh dng in (hnh 10-1a). Trong cht in phn: do cc qu trnh tng tc, cc phn t t phn ly thnh cc ion dng v cc ion m. Di tc dng ca in trng ngoi cc ion ny chuyn ng c hng to thnh dng in (hnh 10-1b). Trong cht kh: khi c kch thch ca bn ngoi (chiu bc x nng lng cao, phng in.v.v...) cc phn t kh c th gii phng electron. Cc electron ny c th kt hp vi cc phn t trung ho to thnh cc ion m. Nh vy trong kh b kch thch c th tn
118
ti cc ht tch in l ion m, ion dng v electron. Di tc dng ca in trng ngoi, cc ht tch in ny s chuyn ng c hng to thnh dng in (hnh 10-1c). Quy c v chiu ca dng in: l chiu chuyn ng ca cc ht in dng di tc dng ca in trng, hay ngc chiu vi chiu chuyn ng ca cc ht in m. Ch : Di tc dng ca in trng ngoi, cc ht in t do s chuyn ng c hng. Qu o ca ht in trong mi trng dn c gi l ng dng. Tp hp cc ng dng ta trn mt ng cong kn to thnh mt ng dng (xem hnh 10-2). y l hai khi nim cn thit xy dng hai i lng c trng ca dng in l cng dng in v vct mt dng in.
2. NHNG I LNG C TRNG CA DNG IN

1. Cng dng in Trong mi trng c dng in chy qua, xt mt din tch bt k thuc mt ng dng no (hnh 10-2). nh ngha: Cng dng in qua in tch S l mt i lng c tr s bng in lng chuyn qua din tch y trong mt n v thi gian. Biu thc: i = dq dt (10 - 1)
S I
Hnh 10-2. Ong don g
trong dq l in lng chuyn qua din tch S trong thi gian dt. n v: Trong h SI, n v o cng dng in l ampe, k hiu A v 1A = 1C/1s = 1C/s. T biu thc (10-1) ta suy ra in lng q chuyn qua din tch S trong khong thi gian t c tnh theo cng thc sau: q=
dq = i dt
0 0
(10 2)
Nu phng, chiu v cng ca dng in khng thay i theo thi gian th dng in c gi l dng in khng i. i vi dng in ny, ta c i = I = const v do q = I dt = It
0
(10 3)
Nu dng in trong vt dn do hai loi in tch tri du to nn (in tch dng chuyn ng theo chiu in trng, cn in tch m th ngc li) th cng dng in qua din tch S s bng: i = dq1/dt + dq2/dt, tc l bng tng s hc cng dng in do mi loi in tch to nn. T cng thc (103) ta c nh ngha ca Coulomb nh sau:
119
Coulomb l in lng ti qua tit din mt vt dn trong thi gian 1 giy bi mt dng in khng i theo thi gian c cng 1 ampe. 2. Vct mt dng in Cng dng in l mt i lng v hng, c trng cho mnh ca dng in qua mt din tch cho trc. c trng cho phng, chiu v mnh ca dng in ti tng im ca mi trng c dng in chy qua ngi ta a ra dSn mt i lng khc l vct mt dng in. Xt din tch nh dSn t ti im M v vung gc vi phng chuyn ng ca dng cc ht in qua din tch y. nh ngha: Vct mt dng in j ti mt im M l mt vct c: im t ti im M. Hng (phng, chiu) l hng chuyn ng ca cc ht in tch dng i qua tit din dSn, cha im M. ln bng cng dng in qua mt n v din tch t vung gc vi hng y, tc l: j = dI/dSn (10 4) n v: Trong h SI, n v o ca mt dng in l ampe/mt vung, k hiu A/m2. tnh cng dng in qua mt din tch bt k ca mi trng, ta lm nh sau: Chia din tch S bt k thnh nhng phn t din tch v cng nh dS (hnh 10-4), khi c th xem vct mt dng in trn din tch dS l khng i ( j = const ). Nu gi dSn l hnh chiu ca
S

M
Hnh 10-3 Vect mt dng
dSn
dS
r Jn
r J
dS
Hnh 10-4 Dng in qua dS
din tch dS trn mt phng vung gc vi ng dng (tc l vung gc vi j ) th ta nhn thy rng cng dng in qua dS cng bng cng dng in qua dSn v bng dI = jdSn. Gi l gc gia vct php tuyn n ca din tch dS vi vct mt dng j , khi dSn = dS.cos, cho nn: dI = jdScos = jndS, vi jn = jcos l hnh chiu ca vct j trn phng ca vct php tuyn n . Nu gi dS l vct c cng hng vi n v c tr s bng din tch dS ( dS gi l vct din tch) th ta vit c dI = j dS . Nh vy cng dng in I qua din tch S bt k c tnh theo cng thc I=
dI = j dS
s s
(10 - 5)
120
Mi lin h gia vct mt dng in j vi mt ht ti in n0, in tch ca ht ti in q v vn tc trung bnh c hng ca ht ti in v . Gi s trong vt dn ch c mt loi ht ti in. Khi , trong mt n v thi gian, s ht ti in dn i qua din tch dSn ni trn l s ht nm trong mt on ng dng c y l dSn v c chiu di dl = v (hnh 105). y ta phi ly tr trung bnh ca ln vn tc ca cc ht ti in v cc ht c th c vn tc vi ln khc nhau. Ngha l ta c: dn= n0 ( v dSn). Gi dI l cng dng in qua din tch dSn, ta c: dI = q dn = n0 q v dSn. T ta suy ra biu thc ca mt dng in j = Di dng vct biu thc trn c dng: r j = n0 q v dSn
Hnh 10-5. tnh mt dng in
dI = n0 q v (10.6) dt
(10-7)
Biu thc (10-7) ph hp vi nh ngha v vct mt dng in: vi ht ti in dng r r (q > 0) j v , cn i vi ht ti in m (q < 0) th j v . Nu trong vt dn c c hai loi ht ti in q1 > 0 v q2 < 0 th biu thc mt dng s l: r r r j = n01q1 v1 + n02q2 v 2 (10-8) v vit cho ln j = n01 q 1 v 1 + n o q 2 v 2
3. NH LUT OHM VI ON MCH THUN TR

1. nh lut Ohm Xt mt on dy dn kim loi ng cht AB c in tr l R v c dng in chy qua n vi cng l I. Gi V1 v V2 ln lt l in th hai u A v B. Nu dng in i t A sang B (tt nhin l cng chiu in trng) th theo 7, chng VII, ta s thy V1>V2. Bng thc nghim, nh vt l ngi c G.Ohm pht minh ra nh lut lin h gia ba i lng I, R v U = V1 V2 nh sau: I = V1 - V2 = U R R (10-9) A B
I
V1
r E
V2
Hnh 10-6 on mch c dng in -nh lut Ohm 121
2. in tr v in tr sut Thc nghim chng t: in tr R ca mt on dy dn ng tnh tit din u t l thun vi chiu di l v t l nghch vi din tch tit din vung gc Sn ca on dy . R = l/Sn (10-10) Trong h s gi l in tr sut, ph thuc vo bn cht v trng thi ca dy dn. Trong h n v SI, n v o ca R l m (k hiu ), n v o ca l m.mt (k hiu m). Ch : Thng thng khi nhit tng th dao ng nhit ca mng tinh th trong kim loi cng mnh ln nn in tr ca kim loi (v vt dn ni chung) tng theo nhit . 3. Dng vi phn ca nh lut Ohm nh lut Ohm dng (10-9) ch p dng c vi mt on dy dn c dng in chy qua. By gi ta hy tm mt cng thc khc biu din nh lut nhng p dng c vi mi im ca dy dn. Mun vy, ta xt hai din tch nh dSn nm vung gc vi cc ng dng v cch nhau mt khong nh dl (hnh 10-7). Gi V v V + dV l in th ti hai din tch y (dV < 0), dI l cng dng in chy qua chng. Theo nh lut Ohm (10-9) ta c: dI = 1 [V (V + dV)] = - dV R R trong dV l gim in th khi ta i t din tch A sang din tch B theo chiu dng in, R l in tr on mch AB. V R = dl/dSn nn ta c: dI = - dV = (1) (-dV )dSn. dl R
dl
dSn A
r E
- dV Hay j = dI = (1) ( ) dSn dl

Theo cng thc (7-38) th -
B B
r J
dV = E, t 1 = dl
V+dV
Hnh 10-7. thit lp dng vi phn ca nh lut Ohm.
v gi n l in dn sut ca mi trng. Khi ta c: j = E.
trong 2 ta bit rng hai vct j v E l cng hng, cn = c biu thc vct sau y:
lun lun dng nn ta
j = E
(10-11)
y l cng thc ta cn tm v nh lut c m t bng cng thc ny gi l nh lut Ohm dng vi phn c pht biu nh sau: Ti mt im bt k trong mi trng c dng in chy qua, vct mt dng in t l thun vi vct cng in trng ti im .
4. SUT IN NG
122
1. Ngun in Xt hai vt dn A v B mang in tri du: A mang in dng, B mang in m (hnh 10-8). Nh vy in th A cao hn in th B, gia A v B xut hin in trng tnh hng theo chiu in th gim. Nu ni A vi B bng vt dn M th cc ht ti in dng s chuyn ng theo chiu in trng t A v B, cn cc ht ti in m th ngc li. Kt qu l trong vt dn M xut hin dng in theo chiu t A sang B, in th ca A gim xung, in th ca B tng ln. Cui cng, khi in th ca A v B bng nhau th dng in s ngng li. Mun duy tr dng in trong vt dn M ta phi a cc ht ti in dng t B tr v li A (v cc ht ti in m t A tr v li B) lm cho VA > VB. in trng tnh E khng lm c vic ny, tri li cn ngn cn qu trnh (v ta bit l cc in tch dng s chuyn ng cng chiu vi chiu in trng tnh E , cn ht ti in m th ngc li). V vy phi tc dng ln ht ti in dng mt lc lm cho n chy ngc chiu in trng tnh, tc l t ni c in th thp n ni c in th cao (lp lun tng t i vi ht ti in m). R rng lc ny khng th l lc tnh in m l lc phi tnh in, hay lc l. r Trng lc gy ra lc l y gi l trng l E *. Ngun to ra trng l y gi l ngun in.
M
r E
r E
r E*
Ngun in Hnh 10-8. tin ti khi nim ngun in
Trong ngun in tn ti c trng l E * v trng tnh E song chng ngc chiu nhau, v cng th E* > E th mi a c cc ht ti in dng t cc (-) v li cc (+) v cc ht ti in m t cc (+) v li cc (-). Trong thc t, ngun in c th l pin, cqui, my pht in.v.v... Bn cht lc l trong cc ngun in khc nhau l khc nhau (trong pin v cqui lc l l lc tng tc phn t, trong my pht in dng hin tng cm ng in t l lc in t). Mun to thnh dng in, ngun in v dy dn M phi to thnh mt mch kn. 2. Sut in ng ca ngun in c trng cho kh nng sinh cng ca ngun in, ngi ta a ra khi nim sut in ng c nh ngha nh sau: Sut in ng ca ngun in l mt i lng c gi tr bng cng ca lc in trng do ngun to ra lm dch chuyn mt n v in tch dng mt vng quanh mch kn ca ngun . =A q (10-12)
Xt mch kn C c cha ngun in v mch ngoi (dy dn M chng hn). Cng ca lc in trng (do ngun in to ra) lm dch chuyn in tch q mt vng quanh mch C bng:
123
A=
(C )
q( E + E *) ds ( E + E *) ds = E ds
(C ) (C )
Suy ra sut in ng ca ngun l: =A= q +

(C ) (C )
E * ds
V E l trng tnh in nn =
E ds = 0. Do vy:
(10-13)
(c)
E * ds
Ngha l: Sut in ng ca ngun in c gi tr bng cng ca lc l trong s dch chuyn mt n v in tch dng mt vng quanh mch kn ca ngun . Nhn xt: V trng l E * ch tn ti trn mt on L gia hai cc ca ngun in nn =
E * ds
L
(10-14)
n v: Trong h SI, sut in ng c o bng vn (V). 3. Sut phn in Trng hp ngun in c mc vo mch in sao cho dng in i vo cc dng v i ra t cc m ngun th lc ny ngun in khng pht ra in nng, tri li n thc hin qu trnh thu nng lng. Khi n c gi l ngun thu in v gi tr ca n c gi l sut phn in. Nng lng in trng c ngun thu chuyn ho thnh nng lng ca trng lc l d tr trong ngun. Trong qu trnh np in, acquy l mt ngun thu in. 4. Pin anien lm v d v mt ngun in n gin, ta xt cu to v qu trnh to nng lng trong pin anien. Pin anien gm mt in cc bng km (Zn) nhng trong dung dch km sunft (ZnSO4) v mt in cc bng ng (Cu) nhng trong dung dch ng sunft (CuSO4). Gia hai dung dch c vch xp ngn khng cho chng trn ln vo nhau nhng vn cho cc electron v ion chuyn ng qua li d dng (hnh 10-9). Tng tc phn t gia dung dch v cc in cc xy ra nh sau: Cc phn t nc (mi phn t l mt lng cc in gm mt ion m O2- v hai ion dng H+) trong dung dch CuSO4 li ko cc electron t do ca cc ng chy vo dung dch, khin cho cc ng mt electron v tr thnh cc mang in dng. V vy, i t cc ng (in th VA) vo dung dch CuSO4 (in th VA) in th gim mt lng: A = VA - VA = +0,61V
124
A CuSO4 V VA V'A a) B ZnSO4 Cu Zn
A
b) V'B VB x VA
Hnh 10-9. a) Cau tao pin amien b) S o phan bo ien the trong pin
Tng t, cc phn t nc trong dung dch ZnSO4 ko cc ion Zn2+ ca cc km vo dung dch nn cc km mang in m. Do khi i t dung dch ZnSO4 (c in th VB) vo cc km (c in th VB) in th gim mt lng: B = VB VB = +0,50V. in th ca hai dung dch bng nhau v khng i. Nu ni hai cc bng mt si dy dn th c dng in chy theo dy dn t cc ng sang cc km, cn trong dung dch th dng in li chy t cc km sang cc ng. Lc l tn ti trong pin chnh l lc tng tc phn t. Cng ca lc l trong s chuyn dch mt n v in tch dng qua cc hiu in th nhy vt A v B (tc l i t cc km v cc ng trong dung dch) v tr s bng nhng ngc du vi cng cn ca in trng tnh, tc l: A (lc l) = - A(lc tnh in) = -[(+1) (VB VB) + (+1) (VA VA)] = (VB VB) + (VA VA) = B + A y chnh l sut in ng ca pin anien = A + B = 1,10V. Vy: Sut in ng ca pin ho in (bin ho nng thnh in nng) bng tng cc in th nhy vt trong pin (cng chnh bng cng ca lc l khi dch chuyn mt n v in tch dng t cc m vo dung dch v sau t dung dch vo cc dng ca pin ho in). V pin anien c sut in ng thp li dng nc nn rt bt tin. Ngy nay trong k thut v i sng ta ch yu dng pin kh L Clngs c sut in ng 1,50V. 5. nh lut Ohm i vi mt on mch c ngun Xt mt on mch AB trong c mt ngun in vi sut in ng , in tr trong r mc ni tip vi mt in tr R (hnh 10-10).
A R I + B
(10-15)
,r
H n h 1 0 -1 0
Gi s dng in chy theo chiu t A n B, cng I. Cng sut in tiu th trong on mch AB c o bng: P = UABI. Trong on mch ny ta thy cng sut in tiu th trong in tr R v in tr r di dng to nhit, nhng ng thi ngun in li sn sinh ra cng sut Pngun = I. Vy theo nh lut bo ton nng lng ta c: P = I2(R + r) Pngun = I2(R + r) - I hay Do : UABI = I2 (R +r) - I.
U=I(R+r)-
(10.16)
125
Cng thc (10-16) biu th nh lut Ohm i vi mt on mch c ngun. Trong trng hp tng qut cng thc (10-16) c dng nh sau: UAB = I(R +r) (10-17) Trong : I ly du" +" khi dng in c chiu t A n B v ly du "" trong trng hp ngc li. Nu chn chiu thun qua mch t u A n u B th ly du" +" khi chiu thun i vo cc dng ca ngun v ly du " " khi chiu thun t cc dng i ra.
5. NH LUT KIRCHHOFF (KIC - HP)

1. Cc khi nim c bn v mch in a. Mch phn nhnh L mch in phc tp, gm nhiu nhnh. Mi nhnh c mt hay nhiu phn t (ngun, in tr, t in, my thu.v.v...) mc ni tip. Trong mi nhnh, dng in chy theo mt chiu vi cng xc nh. Ni chung, dng in trong cc nhnh khc nhau c cng khc nhau. b. Nt L ch ni cc u nhnh (giao im ca ba nhnh tr ln). c. Vng kn L tp hp cc nhnh ni lin nhau to thnh mt vng kn (n lin) trong mch in. 2. nh lut Kirchhoff a. nh lut 1 (v nt) Ti mi nt ca mch in, tng cng cc dng in i vo nt bng tng cng cc dng in t nt i ra: (10-18) Ii = I j
i j
nh lut ny chnh l h qu ca nh lut bo ton in tch ti mi nt. b. nh lut 2 (v vng kn) Trong mt vng kn, tng i s cc gim th trn cc phn t bng tng i s cc sut in ng trong vng.
I i Ri
i
j
j
(10-19)
nh lut ny l h qu ca nh lut bo ton nng lng trong mi vng mch kn. K hiu Ri trong (10-19) c hiu l in tr ca mi phn t ca vng kn (k c in tr trong ca ngun in). Mun vit phng trnh cho mt vng kn c th, ta phi chn cho vng kn mt chiu thun (cng chiu kim ng h hoc ngc chiu kim ng h). Dng in Ii s mang du (+) nu n cng chiu vi chiu thun v mang du (-) trong trng hp ngc li. Sut in ng j
126
mang du (+) nu chiu thun i vo cc m, i ra t cc dng ca ngun v mang du (-) trong trng hp ngc li. 3. Cc bc gii mch in theo nh lut Kirchhoff Bc 1: Gi nh chiu cho cc dng in v cch mc cho cc ngun cha bit, chn chiu thun cho mi vng mch kn. Bc 2: Nu bi ton c n n cn tm ca Ii v j th phi lp n phng trnh c lp, trong : Nu mch c m nt th vit (m-1) phng trnh dng (10-18) Vit n - (m-1) phng trnh dng (10-19) Bc 3: Gii h n phng trnh. Nu kt qu cho nghim Ii > 0 th chiu gi nh l ng vi thc t, nu Ii < 0 th chiu thc t ca dng in Ii l ngc li vi chiu gi nh ban u (tc l phi cha li chiu v du ca dng in Ii cho ph hp vi thc t). Tng t i vi ngun j. Bc 4: V s p s, ghi r tr s v chiu (hoc du) ca cc i lng. Bi ton: Cho mch in nh hnh v 10-11 vi 1 = 8V, 3 = 5V, R1 = 2, R2 = 4, R3 = 3. in tr trong cc ngun v dy ni khng ng k. Phi mc ngun c sut in ng 2 bng bao nhiu v u 1 R1 cc th no to ra dng I2 = 1A chy t M n N? Khi I1 v I3 bng + bao nhiu? I1 R2 3 Gii: Gi s chiu cc dng A M N in I1, I3 v gi nh cch mc cc I2 (+) (-) ca ngun nh hnh v. Bi ton c I3 ba nghim cn tm l I1, I3 v 3 do + ta phi lp ba phng trnh c lp. R3 2 bit chiu v ln ca I2 Hnh 10-11 nh hnh v. Mch c hai nt M v N cng ba vng kn. Ta lp ba phng trnh nh sau: Phng trnh cho nt M: I1 + I2 = I3 I1R1 I2R2 = -E1 + E2 (a) (b) Phng trnh cho vng kn MR1NR2M vi chiu thun c chn l chiu kim ng h: Phng trnh do vng kn MR2NR3M vi chiu thun c chn l ngc chiu kim ng h: -I2R2 I3R3 = +E2 E3 (c) Gii h (a), (b), (c) ta c 2 = +1,6V; I1 = -1,2A v I3 = -0,2A. Tr li: Cn phi mc ngun in vi 2 = 1,6V theo nh gi nh: a(+), b(-), cn cc dng I1 = 1,2A; I3 = 0,2A c chiu thc t l ngc vi chiu gi s trn (ngi hc t v li mch in trn vi chiu ngc li ca I1 v I3).
127
Chng XI: T trng ca dng in khng i
CHNG XI : T TRNG CA DNG IN KHNG I

Chng ny nghin cu t trng do dng in khng i gy ra, tc dng gia cc dng in, v tc dng ca t trng ln dng in. Nh , chng ta ta s hiu c nguyn tc hot ng ca cc dng c v thit b in da trn tnh cht t ca dng in.
1. TNG TC T CA DNG IN NH LUT AMPRE

1. Th nghim v tng tc t a. Tng tc t gia cc nam chm Th nghim chng t hai thanh nam chm c th ht nhau nu hai cc khc tn t gn nhau, hoc y nhau nu cc cc ca chng cng tn. Cc thanh nam chm li c th ht c cc vn st. Cc tnh cht ca nam chm c gi l t tnh. Tng tc gia cc nam chm c gi l tng tc t. b. Tng tc gia dng in vi nam chm
I S N S N S
I N
(a)
(b) Hnh 11-1.Tc dng ca dng in ln kim nam chm
(c)
Th nghim chng t dng in cng c t tnh nh nam chm, ngha l dng in c th ht hoc y nam chm v ngc li nam chm cng c th ht hoc y dng in. Tht vy, ta t mt kim nam chm gn mt dy dn, song song vi dy dn cha c dng in (Hnh 11-1a). Khi cho dng in chy qua, kim nam chm quay lch i so vi phng ban u (Hnh11-1b). Nu i chiu dng in, kim nam chm cng lch nhng theo chiu ngc li (Hnh 11-1c). Sau , ta t mt nam chm gn mt dy dn. Khi cho dng in chy qua dn, nam chm s ht hoc y dy dn tu theo chiu ca dng in. Thay dy dn bng mt cun dy dn c dng in chy qua, ta cng thu c kt qu tng t (Hnh 11-2).
128
Khi ch c cc dng in vi nhau, chng cng tng tc vi nhau. Tht vy, th nghim chng t: hai dy dn thng song song nhau, gn nhau, khi trong chng c dng in cng chiu chy qua th chng ht nhau, khi trong chng c dng in chy ngc chiu nhau th chng y nhau (Hnh 11-3). Hai ng dy in cng ht nhau hoc y nhau tu theo dng in hai u ca chng cng chiu hay ngc chiu nhau. Mi cun dy nh vy tng ng vi mt nam chm: u cun dy no m khi nhn vo, ta thy c dng in chy ngc chiu quay ca kim ng h th l cc bc (N) ca nam chm, cn ngc li th l cc nam S (Hnh 11-4). V th ngi ta gi ng dy c dng in l nam chm in.
N
N S Hnh11-3 Tc dng gia hai dng in
Hnh 11-2 Nam chm tc dng ln dng in
Hnh 11-4 Cc bc (N), cc nam (S) ca nam chm in
Kt lun Qua cc th nghim trn, ngi ta kt lun: tng tc gia cc dng in cng l tng tc t. 2. nh lut Ampe (Ampre) thun li cho vic xc nh lc t, Ampre a ra khi nim phn t dng in, gi tt l phn t dng. Phn t dng in l mt on rt ngn ca dng in. V mt ton hc, ngi ta r biu din n bng mt vect I dl nm ngay trn phn t dy dn, c phng chiu l phng chiu ca dng in, v c ln Idl (hnh 11-5a). Ta gi s xt hai dng in hnh dng bt k, c cng ln lt l I, v I0. Trn hai dng r r in , ta ly hai phn t dng bt k I. dl v I 0dl0 (hnh 4-5b) c v tr tng ng l O v M. r r r r r t r = OM v gi l gc gia phn t I. dl v vect r . V mt phng P cha I. dl v im M. V php tuyn n i vi mt phng P ti M ( n phi c chiu sao cho ba vect I. dl , r v n r r theo th t hp thnh mt tam din thun). Gi 0 l gc gia phn t dng I 0dl0 v n . T khi nim phn t dng, v vi cch b tr nh trn, nh lut thc nghim ca Ampre pht biu nh sau: r r r T lc do phn t dng in I. dl tc dng ln phn t dng I 0dl0 l mt vect dF r r C phng vung gc vi mt phng cha phn t dng I 0dl0 v php tuyn n , r r r C chiu sao cho ba vect I 0dl0 , n , v dF theo th t hp thnh mt tam din thun,
129
r r
C ln bng dF = Vi: 0 l mt hng s gi l hng s t, trong h n v SI n c gi tr bng: Henry 0 = 4.10-7 H/m ( met ) (11-2) l mt s khng th nguyn, ph thuc vo tnh cht ca mi trng bao quanh cc phn t dng, c gi l t thm ca mi trng hay l t thm t i ca mi trng so vi chn khng; n gin, ta gi l t thm ca mi trng. Vi chn khng =1, vi khng kh = 1+0,03.10-6, vi nc: = 1- 0,72.10-6 V ca khng kh gn bng 1 nn trong nhng trng hp khng yu cu chnh xc cao, c th coi khng kh c = 1, tc l c th coi cc th nghim v tng tc t tin hnh trong khng kh nh l c thc hin trong chn khng. Pht biu nh lut Ampre trn y cng c th biu din bng biu thc sau:
0 I .dl . sin .I 0 .dl0 . sin 0 4 r2
(11-1)
r I dl ( Idl r ) dF = 0 . 0 0 , 3
(11-3)
r Tng tc gia phn t dng I. dl v r phn t dng I 0 dl0

v c ln:
Hnh 11-5
r r I 0dl0 tc dng ln phn t dng I. dl : r r r r 0 Idl ( I 0 dl0 r ' ) dF ' = . 4 r3
r Mt cch tng t, lc dF' do phn t dng
(11-4)
dF' =
' 0 I 0 .dl0 . sin 0 .I .dl . sin ' 4 r2
(11-5)
Trong cng thc ny: r r r Vect r ' = r , cng ln nhng ngc chiu vi r , r = r. r r ' I 0dl0 vi r ' , Gc 0 l gc gia r r r Cn gc ' l gc gia vect I. dl vi vect tch I 0 dl0 r ' . Ch : Trong nh lut Ampre, phn t dng ng vai tr tng t nh in tch im trong nh lut Coulomb.
130
nh lut Ampre l nh lut c bn ca tng tc t, cng nh nh lut Coulomb l nh lut c bn ca tng tc tnh in. r r Ta thy hai lc dF v dF' khng tun theo nh lut Newton III. nh lut Ampre pht biu i vi phn t dng in. Trong thc t, ta ch c cc dng in hu hn tng tc vi nhau. xc nh lc tc dng ca mt dng in ln mt dng in khc, ta tng hp cc lc do tt c r cc phn t ca dng in ny tc dng ln tt c cc phn t ca dng in kia, ta s c F' =r F , tc l i vi tng tc gia hai dng in hu hn, nh lut Newon III vn nghim ng. Tht vy, cc tnh ton da vo nh lut Ampre i vi tng tc gia cc dng in hu hn u cho kt qu ph hp vi thc nghim v tho mn nh lut Newton th III.
2. VECT CM NG T, VECT CNG T TRNG

1. Khi nim t trng Ta bit rng, hai dng in cch nhau mt khong no trong chn khng vn ht nhau hoc y nhau vi mt t lc no . Vy c cn mt mi trng no ng vai tr truyn lc tng tc t dng in ny ln dng in kia hay khng? Ngi ta lp lun tng t nh vi in trng v tha nhn rng: dng in to ra trong khng gian bao quanh n mt dng vt cht c bit, gi l t trng. Chnh thng qua t tng m t lc c truyn t dng in ny ti dng in khc. Tnh cht c bn ca t trng l n tc dng ln bt k dng in no t trong n. Nh , ta c th gii thch c s tng tc gia cc dng in nh sau: Khi c mt dng in I1, n to ra xung quanh n mt t trng. Nu t mt dng in I2 khc vo t trng ca I1, t trng ca I1 s tc dng ln dng in I2 mt lc, ngc li I2 cng to ra xung quanh n mt t trng, t trng ny cng tc dng ln I1 mt t lc. Kt qu l hai dng in ny tng tc nhau thng qua t trng ca chng. 2. Cc i lng c trng cho t trng a. Vect cm ng t Gi s ta xt t trng do phn t dng I. dl gy ra ti mt im M cch n mt on r (hnh 11-6). T biu thc nh lut Ampre v tng tc gia hai phn t dng in, ta c nhn xt: vect r r r 0 Idl r dB = (11-6) . 4 r3
Hnh 11-6 Cm ng t gy bi phn t dng
ch ph thuc vo: r - Phn t dng in I. dl , l phn t gy ra t trng, r r - Bn knh vect r v , tc l vo v tr ca im M trong t trng ca I. dl , ti r r ta t phn t dng in I 0dl0 , m khng ph thuc vo phn t dng in I 0dl0 .
131
r Vy vect dB c xc nh theo (11-6), l vect c trng v mt tc dng lc cho t r trng ti im M gy bi phn t dng I. dl , v c gi l vect cm ng t do phn t dng r I. dl gy ra ti M.
Biu thc (11-6) c gi l nh lut Biot-Xavart-Laplace, c th pht biu nh sau: r r "Vect cm ng t dB do phn t dng I. dl gy ra ti im M, cch n mt khong r l mt vect c: - ln dB =
r r ( l gc gia vect I. dl v vect r )
0 Idl sin . 4 r2
(11-7)
- phng vung gc vi mt phng cha phn t dng in I. dl v im M; r r r - chiu sao cho ba vect I. dl , r v dB theo th t hp thnh tam din thun ; - gc ti im M.
r Ngi ta cng c th xc nh chiu ca vect dB bng qui tc vn nt chai nh sau:

t ci vn nt chai theo phng ca dng in, nu quay ci vn nt chai sao cho n tin theo chiu ca dng in th chiu quay ca n s ch chiu ca vect cm ng t ti im (hnh 11-7). Trong h n v SI, cm ng t c tnh bng n v Tesla ( k hiu l T), s c nh ngha sau ny, t cng thc (11-26) mc 3.
I dl
Hnh 11-7 r Xc nh vect dB theo qui tc vn nt chai
T nh lut Ampre (11-3) v nh lut Biot-Savart-Laplace (11-6) ta suy ra lc do phn t r r dng I. dl tc dng ln phn t dng I 0dl0 c xc nh bng cng thc: r r r dF = I 0dl0 dB (11-8) b. Nguyn l chng cht t trng Ging nh in trng, t trng cng tun theo nguyn l chng cht: Vect cm ng t r B do mt dng in chy trong mt dy dn di hu hn gy ra ti mt im M bng tnghp
132
r cc vect cm ng t dB do tt c cc phn t dng ca dng in gy ra ti im c xt. Tc l: r r B = dB (Tch phn ly theo c dng in) (11-9)
( Ca dong )
Nu t trng do nhiu dng in gy ra th theo nguyn l chng cht t trng: Vect cm ng t ti mt im M trong t trng do nhiu dng in gy ra bng tng hp cc vct cm ng t do tt c cc dng in gy ra ti im .
r r r r B = B1 + B2 +...... + Bn =
Bi
i =1
(11-10)
c. Vect cng t trng r r Ngoi vect cm ng t B ngi ta cn a ra vect cng t trng H , c nh ngha bi biu thc sau: r r B H = (11-11)
nh ngha ny ch ng i vi mi trng ng nht v ng hng. Theo (11-6), vect r r B ph thuc bc nht vo do theo (11-11), H khng ph thuc vo . iu c ngha r l vect H c trng cho t trng do ring dng in gy ra v khng ph thuc vo tnh cht ca mi trng cha dng in. Do cng t trng khng bin i t ngt khi chuyn t r mi trng ny sang mi trng khc (c khc nhau). V l , cc ng sc ca vect H i lin tc t mi trng ny sang mi trng khc c t thm khc nhau. Trong h n v SI, n v cng t trng l
Ampe (k hiu l A/m). n v ny s met
c nh ngha mc di y (11-15). r r 3. Xc nh vect cm ng t B v cng t trng H r r Sau y ta s xt mt vi v d tnh cm ng t B v vct H . a. T trng ca dng in thng Xt mt on dy dn thng AB, c dng in I chy qua (Hnh 11-8). Hy xc nh vct r r cm ng t B v vct H do dng in gy ra ti mt im M nm cch dng in mt khong a. Ta tng tng chia AB thnh nhng phn t nh, c chiu di dl. r r Theo nh lut Biot-Savart-Laplace, vect cm ng t dB do phn t dng I. dl gy ra ti r im M c phng vung gc vi mt phng cha M v I. dl ( mt phng hnh v) v c ln: dB =
0 Idl sin . 4 r2
133
B I
r Theo nguyn l chng cht t trng, vect B do dng in trong on mch AB gy ra ti M bng tng hp r cc vect dB do tt c cc phn t dng ca on AB gy ra: r r (11-12) B = dB
M r d
AB
r B
dl
1
A
Hnh 11.8 xc nh vect cm ng t ca dng in thng
r V trong trng hp ny, tt c cc vect dB c cng phng chiu (vung gc vi mt phng hnh v v hng r r vo), nn B cng c phng chiu nh dB v c ln:
B=
O Idl . sin r2 AB 4
Thay sin .dl rd v r = B=
a sin
2
vo biu thc di du tch phn trn y, ta c:
0 I 4 a
sin d
Sau khi thc hin tch phn, ta c: B=
0 I(cos 1 -cos 2 ) 4 a
(11-13)
Nu dng in thng di v hn, ta c: 1 = 0, 2 = , v t (11-13) ta tnh c: B= v suy ra: H=
0 I 2 a
(11-14)
I 2a
(11-15)
Trong h n v SI, ngi ta da vo cng thc (11-15) nh ngha n v ca cng t trng l A/m. Trong cng thc (11.15), nu cho I = 1A, chu vi ng trn bn knh a bng 2 a =1mt th: H=
1 Ampe A =1 1met m
Vy ta c nh ngha nh sau: Ampe trn mt l cng t trng sinh ra trong chn khng bi mt dng in c cng 1 ampe, chy qua mt dy dn thng di v hn, tit din trn, ti cc im ca mt ng trn ng trc vi dy v c chu vi bng 1 mt.
134
b. Dng in trn
r r Ta hy xc nh vct B v H do dng in cng I chy trong dy dn hnh trn bn knh R gy ra ti im M nm trn trc ca dng in, cch tm O ca dng in mt khong h (Hnh 11-9).
Ta c nhn xt, do tnh i xng ca dng in trn, bao g cng c th chn c nhng cp phn t dl1 v dl2 c chiu di bng nhau v nm i xng vi nhau qua tm O ca vng r r r r trn. Do cc vect cm ng t dB1 v dB2 do hai phn t dng I . dl1 v I . dl2 gy ra ti M s r i xng vi nhau qua trc ca dng in. Do tng hp hai vect ny ta c 1 vect dB12 : r r r dB12 = dB1 + dB2 r nm trn trc ca dng in, do vect B do c dng in gy ra ti M cng nm trn trc y. Ta suy ra: cm ng t tng hp do c dng in trn gy ra ti M:
r dB12
B =
r dB1
r dB2
M r r S
ca dong dien
dB
trong dBn =
0 Idl sin . cos 4 r2
r pm
r I . dl1
R
r dBn l hnh chiu ca dB ln trc ca dng in do mt r phn t dng I.dl gy ra ti M, l gc gia dB vi trc ca R dng in. Trong , = , sin =1, cos = . Do : r 2 2
r I . dl2
B= =
. 0 I . dl o RI .R 3 = 4 r 3 r ca dong dien 4
ca dong dien
dl
Hnh 11-9 xc nh cm ng t gy bi dng in trn
. 0 . R . I . 0 I 2 R= ( R 2 ) 3 3 4 r 2 r . 0 I . S B= 2 ( R 2 + h 2 ) 3/ 2
Trong S = .R2 l din tch bao bi dng in trn; r = ( R2 + h2 )1/2. r Gi vect S l vect nm trn trc ca dng in, c cng bng S, c chiu l chiu tin ca ci vn nt chai khi ta quay cn ca n theo chiu ca dng in. r r r Nh vy vect B v S cng chiu nhau. Khi c th biu din vect B nh sau: r r . 0 I . S B = . 2 ( R 2 + h 2 ) 3/ 2 Ti tm ca dng in, h = 0 do :
r r . 0 I . S B = . 2 R 3
135
c tng cho tnh cht t ca dng in trn, ngi ta a ra vect mmen t ca dng r in trn pm , c xc nh bi biu thc: r r pm = I. S , (11- 16) r r trong S l vec t din tch ca dng in c xc nh nh trn. Theo , pm cng r r hng vi B . Khi , vect B c xc nh bi:
r B =
. 0 r . pm 2 2 3/ 2 2 (R + h )
(11-17)
V th vect pm c trng cho tnh cht t ca dng in trn. c. T trng gy bi ht in tch chuyn ng r r Trong mc 2.2 ta bit phn t dng I dl gy ra t trng c vect cm ng t dB r r r 0 Idl r . . c xc nh bi nh lut Biot-Savart-Laplace: dB = 4 r3 Gi dS l din tch y ca phn t dng di dl, th tch ca phn t dng l dV=dS.dl, no l mt ht in trong phn t dng, s ht trong c phn t dng l n=nodV. Ch cc mi lin h bit t chng X: I=jdSn, v j= noqv, ta c th vit:
r r r Idl =jdSn. dl =noqvdSn. dl
V vn tc chuyn ng c hng ca ht in dng v cng chiu vi dl nn ta c th hon v v vi dl v c th vit:
r r r r Idl = no.qdSn.dl v = no.q.dV. v = n.q v ,

trong dV=dS.dl l th tch ca phn t dng, n=nodV l s ht in trong th tch dV ca phn t dng. r r (11-18) Tm li, ta thu c: Idl = n.q v . T , ta tm c vect cm ng t gy bi mt ht in chuyn ng vi vn tc: r r r r r r dB 1 0 Idl r 1 0 n.q.v r . Bq = = = . n n 4 n 4 r3 r3 r r r q.v r Bq = 0 . (11-19) 4 r3 r r r r Nu q> 0, vect Bq c chiu sao cho 3 vect v ,r , Bq theo th t hp thnh tam din thun.
r r Nu q<o th vect Bq c chiu ngc vi Bq do in tch dng gy ra (Hnh 11-10b). r iu ny tng ng vi vic quay ci vn nt chai n tin theo chiu ngc vi vn tc v , r chiu quay ca cn ci vn nt chai s ch chiu ca Bq .
136
r Bq
r Bq
r v
q (a)
r r
r r r q v
Vect cm ng t Bq do in tch q chuyn ng gy ra: a) q>0,
Hnh 11-10
(b)
b) q<0
3. T THNG - NH L XTRGRATSKI-GAUSS I VI T TRNG

1 ng cm ng t. Ni chung, trong t trng, vect cm ng t thay i theo v tr, c mt hnh nh khi qut nhng c th v t trng, ngi ta a ra khi nim v ng cm ng t. nh ngha ng cm ng t l ng cong vch ra trong t trng sao cho tip tuyn ti mi im ca n trng vi phng ca vect cm ng t ti nhng im y, chiu ca ng cm ng t l chiu ca vect cm ng t . Cc ng cm ng t khng ct nhau. Khc vi ng sc in, cc ng cm ng t l nhng ng cong kn.
a)
b) c) Hnh 11-11. T ph: a) ca dng in thng, b) ca dng in trn c) ca ng dy in
Ngi ta qui c v s ng cm ng t qua mt n v din tch vung gc vi phng r ca vect cm ng t c tr s t l vi ln B ca vect B . Nu gi d l s ng cm ng r qua din tch dSn vung gc vi vect cm ng t B th theo qui c trn ta vit c: d =BdSn (11-20)
137
Tp hp cc ng cm ng t ca mt t trng c gi l t ph. c t ph ca mt dng in thng, ta rc vn st nh ln trn mt tm ba cng c dng in xuyn qua vung gc vi ba. Di tc dng ca t trng do dng in gy ra, cc vn st s tr thnh nhng thanh nam chm nh. G nh vo tm ba, cc nam chm nh s sp xp li theo phng ca vect cm ng t v cho ta hnh nh ca t ph. T ph cho ta bit mt cch khi qut nhng cng tng i y s bin i ca t trng t im ny qua im khc. Hnh (11-11) cho ta t ph ca mt s dng in: thng, trn, ng dy in. r T trng u l t trng trong vect B c phng chiu v ln nh nhau ti mi im trong t trng. Nh vy, theo qui c v cach v ng cm ng t, t trng u c cc ng cm ng t song song v cch u nhau. 2. T thng
r Ta gi s xt mt din tch rt nh dS sao cho c th coi vect cm ng t B ti mi im ca din tch y l khng i (t trng u).
Theo nh ngha: T thng gi qua din tch dS l i lng c tr s t l vi s ng cm ng t gi qua din tch y. Theo qui c (11-20) v theo nh ngha ca t thng, ta c th vit biu thc t thng gi qua din tch dS: d m =BdSn (11-21) r n T hnh v (11-12) ta thy dSn cng chnh l hnh chiu ca r din tch dS ln phng vung gc vi vect B , do :
r B
dSn dS
Hnh 11-12 nh ngha t thng qua din tch dS
(11-22) dSn=dS.cos r Gi n l vect php tuyn n v ca din tich dS, gc hp r r bi hai vect B v n cng bng gc gia din tch dS v hnh chiu r dSn ca n ln phng vung gc vi cc ng cm t B . Kt hp (11-21) vi (11-22) v t cc nhn xt trn, ta c th vit biu thc t thng qua din tch dS nh sau: r r d m = B.dS cos = B. dS (11-23)
Nh vy, t thng c th dng v cng c th m hoc bng khng tu theo gc gia r r B v dS l gc nhn hay gc t: d m > 0 nu < 900, d m < 0 nu >900, d m =0 nu =900. Mt khc, Bn= B.cos l hnh chiu ca vect B ln phng ca php tuyn n , do cng c th vit li (11-23) nh sau: r r (11-24) d m = B.dS cos = Bn.dS = B. dS tnh t thng qua din tch S hu hn, ta chia din tch thnh nhng phn t v cng r nh dS sao cho c th coi mi phn t l phng v trn , vect B khng i, khi t thng r r qua dS l d m = B. dS , v t thng gi qua ton b din tch S s c tnh bng tng ca cc t thng gi qua tt c cc phn t din tch c chia t din tch S y: r r m = B.dS (11-25)
(S)
138
Nu S l mt mt phng vung gc vi cc ng cm ng t ( = 0) v t trng l u r ( B = const ) th ta c:
m =
( s)
B.dS
=B
(S)
dS = B.S
(11-26)
Trong h n v SI, n v ca t thng l Vbe, k hiu l Wb. n v Vbe s c nh ngha chng cm ng in t (chng12). T n v Vbe, ngi ta nh ngha n v cm ng t Tesla nh sau. Trong cng thc (11-26), nu m =1Wb, S = 1m2, = 0 th: Bn =
m 1Wb Wb = = 1 2 = 1Tesla (T) 2 S 1m m
(11-26b)
Vy: Tesla (T) l cm ng t ca mt t trng u gi qua mi mt vung din tch phng vung gc vi cc ng sc ca n mt t thng u 1Wb. 3. Tinh cht xoy ca t trng Nghin cu t ph ca t trng cc dng in, ta thy cc ng cm ng t l cc ng cong kn. Theo nh ngha tng qut, mt trng c cc ng sc khp kn c gi l mt trng xoy. Vy t trng l mt trng xoy, hay nh ngi ta thng ni, t trng c tnh cht xoy. 4. nh l Oxtrogratxki - Gauss i vi t trng Ta hy tnh t thng qua mt mt kn S bt k t trong t trng (hnh 11-13). Theo qui c, i vi mt kn, ngi ta chn chiu dng ca php tuyn l chiu hng ra ngoi mt . V vy, t thng ng vi ng cm ng t i vo mt kn l m ( >900, do cos <0 v t thng m); t thng ng vi ng cm ng i ra khi mt kn l dng ( <900, do cos>0 v t thng dng). Do cc ng cm ng khp kn nn s ng i vo mt kn S bng s ng ra khi mt kn . Nh vy t thng i vo S c tr s bng t thng ra khi mt S nhng ngc du nhau, do : T thng ton phn gi qua mt kn bt k lun lun bng khng. l ni dung ca nh l strgratski-Gaux. Cng thc biu din nh l O-G nh sau: r r (11-27) B.dS =0
(S)
nh l O-G ni ln tnh cht xoy ca t trng, cc ng cm ng t l nhng ng cong kn. Nh vy trong thin nhin khng tn ti cc ht "t tch", Cng thc (11-27) l mt trong nhng cng thc c bn ca in t hc. Trong gii tch ton, ngi ta chng minh c rng:
(S)
r r B .dS =
(V )
divB.dV
(11-27)
Hnh 11-13: suy ra nh l O-G i vi t trng 139
trong V l th tch gii hn bi mt kn S. T (11-27) v (11-27) ta suy ra:

(V )
divB.dV = 0
(11-28)
V th tch V c chn bt k nn: r div B =0
l dng vi phn ca nh l O-G i vi t trng.
4. NH L AMPRE V DNG IN TON PHN

1. Lu s ca vect cng t trng Ta tng tng mt ng cong (C) nm trong mt t trng bt k. Ly trn ng cong r mt on v cng nh dl, lp mt vct dl c di bng dl c phng trng vi phng ca on r dl, c chiu trng vi chiu dch chuyn trn ng cong (C). Ngi ta gi dl l vect dch chuyn. r r r r r Gi s cng t trng trn dl l H (hnh11-14). H H
dl
Ngi ta nh ngha: Lu s ca vect cng t trng dc theo mt ng cong kn (C) l i lng bng r tch phn vect H dc theo ton b ng cong kn : r r H .dl
(C)
r dl
(C) (a) (b) (C)
r r Tch H . dl l mt tch v hng, v th ta c th vit li biu thc ca lu s nh sau:

(C )
Hnh 11-14 a) Lu s c gi tr dng b) Lu s c gi tr m

l
r r H .dl =
(C )
H .dl cos =
(C )
r r H .dl =
(C )
H .dl cos = H
(C )
.dl
r r r r trong l gc hp bi hai vect H v dl , Hl l hnh chiu ca vect H ln vect dl .

Nh vy nu l gc nhn, tc l nu chiu dch chuyn trn ng cong (C) thun vi chiu ca cc ng sc th lu s c gi tr dng, ngc li nu l gc t tc l chiu dch chuyn trn ng cong (C) ngc chiu vi cc ng sc t th lu s c gi tr m. 2. nh l Ampre v dng in ton phn Gi s ta xt t trng gy bi mt dng in thng di v hn c cng I. Ta ly mt ng sc nm trong mt phng P vung gc vi dng in v mt ng cong (C)
140 Hnh 11-15: chng minh nh l v dng in ton phn
(ng lin nt) c dng bt k cng nm trong mt phng P (hnh 11-15). Ti im M bt k trn ng cong (C), cch dng in mt khong r, vct cng t trng ti M c tr s: H=
I 2r r r H . dl = I
Lu s ca vct cng t trng dc theo (C) l:
(C)
(C )
H .dl .cos = 2
dl .cos r (C )
Nhng dlcos r d , thay vo biu thc , ta c:
r r I H . dl = 2 (C)
(C)
(11-29)
Nu (C) l ng cong bao quanh dng in, theo biu thc (11-29) ta c:
r r I H .dl = 2 (C)
(c)
d =I
(11-30)
Hnh 11-16. ng cong kn khng bao quanh dng in
Nu chiu ly tch phn trn ng cong (C) cng chiu ng sc t, th kt qu s l +I. Nu chiu ly tch phn trn ng cong (C) ngc chiu ng sc t, th kt qu s l -I. Nu ng cong (C) khng bao quanh dng in (hnh 11-16), ta chia ng cong thnh hai phn 1a2 v on 2b1 bng hai tip tuyn O1 v O2 vch t dng in n ng cong. r r Gc gia O1 v O2 l . Trn on 1a2, gc gia H v dl l gc nhn, ta c:
(1a 2 )
d =
0 0
d =
r r Cn trn on 2b1 gc gia H v dl l gc l gc t, ta c:
( 2 b1)
d =
d = -
Kt qu:
r r I H . dl = ( d + 2 (12 ) a (C)
Cui cng ta c:
(C)
( 2 b1)
d )=
I ( -) = 0 2
r r H . dl =0
(11-31)
C th chng minh c rng: trong trng hp t trng gy bi mt dng in c hnh dng bt k v dng cong kn (C) c hnh dng tu , cc cng thc (11-30) v (11-31) vn ng.
141
Trng hp t trng gy bi nhiu dng in, c cng ln lt l I1, I2, I3,....In th theo nguyn l chng cht t trng, ta c th vit: r r r H = H1 + H2 +........+ Hn Thay tng ny vo biu thc tch phn (11-30), ta c:
I1 I2 I3 I4
(C )
r r r r r r H .dl = ( H 1 + H 2 + ... + H n )dl =

(C )
I
k =1
(C)
Biu thc ny l nh l v dng in ton phn (nh l Ampre) pht biu nh sau: Lu s ca vect cng t trng dc theo mt vng ca ng cong kn (C) bt k bng tng i s cng ca cc dng in xuyn qua din tch gii hn bi ng cong :
Hnh 11-17 Th d tnh lu s ca vect cng t trng
(C)
r r H .dl =
I
k =1
(11-32)
Trong Ik s c du dng nu n c chiu sao cho ng sc t trng do n gy ra cng chiu vi chiu dch chuyn ca dng cong (C), nu ngc li th Ik s c du m. ngha ca nh l Trong in trng tnh,
(C )
r r E .dl = 0 , cc ng sc in trng l nhng ng cong

n r r H . dl = I k ni chung l i =1
khng kn, in trng l trng th. Trong t trng tch phn

I I
(C)
khc khng. iu ny c ngha l t trng khng phi l trng th, m l mt trng xoy. Ch : + Trong tng cc dng in, khng cn ch n nhng dng in khng xuyn qua din tch gii hn bi ng cong kn. + Nu ng cong kn bao quanh dng in nhiu ln th phi ch n du ca cng dng in i vi mi vng dch chuyn trn ng cong .
(C)
(a)
(b)
Hnh 11-18. ng cong bao quanh dng in nhiu ln
Th d (Hnh 11-17) xuyn qua ng cong (C) c cc dng in: I1 = 4A, I2 = 2A, I3 = 3A, I4 =5A. p dng nh l Ampre ta tnh c: r r H .dl = 4 + 2 -3 = 3A.
(C)
142
Trng hp hnh (11-18a), ta c: r r H . dl =2I

(C)
Trng hp hnh (11-18b), ta c: r r H .dl = 0

(C)
3. ng dng nh l Ampre nh l v dng in ton phn cho php ta tnh c mt cch nhanh chng cng trng H v cm ng t B ca mt s dng in. a. Cun dy hnh xuyn
Hnh 11-19 Cun dy in hnh xuyn
p dng nh l v dng in ton phn ta tnh c cng t trng ti mt im trn ng trn tm O bn knh R (R1<R< R2) ca cun dy hnh xuyn c n vng (hnh 11-19) qun st nhau, dng in c cng I, s bng: nI H= (11-33) 2R v cm ng t B: B = 0
nI 2R
(11-34)
b. ng dy thng di v hn T biu thc (11-33) v (11-34) c th suy ra cng t trng ti mi im bn trong ng dy thng di v hn (hnh 11-20) u bng nhau v bng: H = n0I v cm ng t B= 0 n0I (11-36)
Hnh 11-20 ng dy in thng di v hn
(11-35)
trong n0 l s vng dy trn mt n v di ca ng dy. Trong thc t, nhng ng dy c chiu di ln hn mi ln ng knh ca n u c th coi gn ng l ng dy di v hn, v c th coi t trng trong n l u.
5. TC DNG CA T TRNG LN DNG IN

1. Lc Ampre Theo nh lut Ampre, mt phn t dng in im M trong t trng c cm ng t r dB s chu tc dng mt lc (biu thc 11-8): r r r dF = I 0 . dl0 dB .
143
r T ta suy ra rng, nu ta t mt phn t dng in I . dl ti im M c vect cm ng r r t B th phn t I . dl s chu tc dng mt t lc: r r r dF = I . dl B (11-37)
Lc ny c gi l lc Ampre, c: ln: dF = I. dl.B.sin (11-38)
r r ( l gc hp bi cc vect I . dl v B ), r r phng: vung gc vi cc vect I . dl v B , r r r chiu: tun theo qui tc nhn c hng hai vect I . dl v B : Vect dF c chiu sao r r r cho 3 vect I . dl , B , dF theo th t hp thnh tam din thun.
xc nh chiu ca lc Ampre ngi ta cn dng qui tc bn tay tri nh sau: t bn tay tri sao cho cc ng sc t xuyn vo lng bn tay, dng in i t c tay n u cc ngn tay, th chiu ca ngn tay ci choi ra ch chiu ca t lc. 2. Tng tc gia hai dng in thng song song di v hn Cho hai dng in thng song song di v hn nm cch nhau mt khong d, c cng ln lt l I1, I2. Dng in I1 gy ra mt t trng. Theo cng thc (11-14), ti v tr t dng I2 vect cm ng t do I1 gy ra c ln bng: B1 =
I1
r F2
I2
M
0 I1 , 2d
r B1
c phng vung gc vi mt phng cha hai dy dn, c chiu tun theo qui tc vn nt chai (trong trng hp hnh v 11r 21, i vo pha trong). T trng B1 tc dng ln mt on dy c Hnh 11-21 chiu di l ca dng in I2 mt lc: Tng tc gia r r r hai dng in song song F2 = I2 l B1 r s lc F2 c phng vung gc vi dng I2 v vi vect B1 , c chiu hng v I1 v c tr s:
F2 =
o I1 I 2l 2d
(11-39)
Nh vy dng I1 ht dng I2. Bng l lun tng t ta s thy dng I2 ht dng I1 mt lc r cng phng ngc chiu vi F2 v c tr s F1=F2; V nu hai dng ngc chiu th y nhau. Nh vy, nh lut Newtn II c nghim ng vi cc tng tc t gia cc dng in hu hn. Trong h n v SI, ngi ta dng cng thc (11-39) nh ngha n v Ampre. Trong (11-39) nu: I1=I2 = I, l=1mt, =1, F12 =F21= 2.10-7N, d= 1mt th theo (11-39) I=1A.
144
T c nh ngha: Ampre l cng ca mt dng in khng i theo thi gian, khi chy qua hai dy dn thng song song, di v hn, c tit din nh khng ng k, t trong chn khng cch nhau 1mt, th gy trn mi mt di ca mi dy dn mt lc bng 2.10-7 Newton. 3. Tc dng ca t trng u ln mch in kn Xt mt khung dy dn kn hnh ch nht ABCD c cc cnh l a v b. Dng in chy r trong khung c cng I. Khung c t trong t trng u B c phng vung gc vi cc cnh AB,CD. Gi s khung rt cng v ch c th quay xung quanh trc i xng ca n. r Ban u, mt khung khng vung gc vi t trng, vect mmen t ca n hp vi vect B mt gc . Nh qui tc bn tay tri ta xc nh c: Cc t lc tc dng ln hai cnh AD v BC trit tiu nhau. r r T lc F tc dng ln cnh thng ng AB hng v pha trc, cn lc F' tc dng ln cnh thng ng CD hng ra pha sau. Hai lc ny lun vung gc vi cc cnh r AB, CD v vi vect B , hp vi cc cnh AD, BC mt gc , c ln: F=F=IaB. r Cc lc ny to thnh mt ngu lc c mmen M , c tc dng lm khung quay xung quanh trc cho n khi = 0, lc r r mt khung vung gc vi B , vect mmen t Pm ca dng r in cng phng chiu vi vect B . xt tc dng ca cc lc ny, trn hnh (11-22b) ta ghp u A ca cnh AD vi u B ca cnh BC, u C ca cnh BC vi u D ca cnh AD. R rng l d = b.sin, l khong cch gia hai lc. Mmen ngu lc i vi trc quay c ln bng: M= F.d . Nh vy, M=F.b.sin=I.a.B.b.sin=I.S.B.sin =pm.B.sin. trong , pm=I.S l ln ca vect mmen t ca khung r dy. Vect mmen ngu lc M c phng vung gc vi hai r r vect B , p m , c chiu hng ln trn. Do , ta c th vit: r r r M = pm B (11-40) Khi khung quay mt gc d, mmen ngu lc thc hin mt cng: dA=-Md=-pmB.sind (11-41) C du tr - trong (11-41) v khi ngu lc thc hin cng dng (dA > 0) th gc gim (d < 0) cn khi ngu lc
145
(a)
(b)
Hnh 11-22 T trng tc dng ln khung dy in kn
lm cho gc tng (d>0) th ngu lc t sinh cng cn (dA< 0). Nh vy, cng ca mmen ngu lc thc hin khi lm cho khung trng thi ng vi gc lch v v tr cn bng (=0) l: A=- p m B. sin .d = p m B. cos
= pmB(1-cos)
(11-42)
Theo nh lut bo ton v chuyn ho nng lng, cng ny bng gim nng lng (th nng) ca khung dy in trong t trng: Wm - Wmo=-(pmB.cos) (- pmB.cos0). Ta suy ra nng lng ca khung dy in ng vi gc l: r r Wm = -pm.B.cos =- p m .B
(11-43)
Ngi ta chng minh c rng cc kt qu thu c trn ng i vi mt mch in kn c hnh dng bt k. 4. Cng ca t lc Khi dng in chuyn ng trong t trng, t lc tc dng ln dng in s thc hin cng. tnh cng ny, ta xt mt thanh kim loi AB, di l c th trt trn hai dy kim loi song song ca mt mch in. Gi s mch in ny nm trong mt t trng u v vung gc r vi vct cm ng t B ca t trng (hnh 11-23). Lc Ampre tc dng ln thanh ny c ln bng: F = I.l.B . Khi thanh l dch chuyn mt on nh ds = AA' , B 1 B 2 cng ca lc Ampre l: dA = F.ds = I.l.B.ds = I.B.dS = I. d m , I I I trong dS = l.ds l din tch qut bi on dng in AB khi dch chuyn, d m = B.dS l t thng gi qua r din tch b qut dS. V vy, ta c: F dA= I.d m . Nu thanh AB dch chuyn mt on hu hn, t v A ds A tr (1) ng vi t thng m1 n v tr (2) c m2 v trong Hnh 11.23 qu trnh , cng dng in qua thanh AB c th coi Tnh cng ca t lc nh khng i, th cng ca lc Ampre trong qu trnh ny l: A= Id m = I
(1) (2)
m2 m1
d m = I ( m2 - m1 )
Trong , m1 v m2 l t thng gi qua din tch lc u v lc cui ca on dch chuyn. m = ( m2 - m1 ). Tm li, ta c: A = I ( m2 - m1 ). Ngi ta chng minh c rng cc cng thc trn cng ng cho mch in bt k dch chuyn trong mt t trng bt k. Vy:
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Cng ca t lc trong s dch chuyn mt mch in bt k trong t trng bng tch gia cng dng in trong mch v bin thin ca t thng qua din tch ca mch in .
6 TC DNG CA T TRNG LN HT IN CHUYN NG

1. Lc Lorentz
Nh ta bit, phn t dng in Idl nm trong t trng s chu tc dng ca mt lc trong phn t dng in Idl , v l vn tc chuyn ng c hng ca ht in, q l in tch ca ng vi vn tc
r r r r mi ht in. Thay th Idl bng nq v ta s c lc Ampre tc dng ln n ht in chuyn
Ampre: dF = Idl B . T (11-18 ) ta cng bit Idl = n.q v , trong n l s ht in c
r v trong t trng bng:

r r dF = nqv B ,
r FL
q+ r B
v lc Ampre tc dng ln mt ht in: r r dF FL = . n Ta c:
qr FL
r v
(b)
r B
r r r FL = q v B
r v
(11-45)
r Lc FL tc dng ln mi ht in chuyn ng trong

t trng c gi l lc Lorentz.
(a)
Hnh 11-24. Lc Lorentz
r r r ln, phng, chiu ca lc FL c xc nh theo tch c hng ca hai vect v v B r nu q> 0. Nu ht in mang in m (q< 0) th chiu ca FL ly ngcli vi trng hp q>0
(xem hnh 11-24). Theo (11-45) lc Lorentz vung gc vi vn tc chuyn ng ca ht nn cng thc hin bi lc ny lun bng khng. 2. Chuyn ng ca ht in trong t trng u Ta xt chuyn ng ca ht chuyn ng vi vn tc v c khi lng m, in tch q (q> 0), trong t trng u, khng i theo thi gian, c cm ng t B . V lc Lorentz lun vung gc r vi vect vn tc v v khng thc hin cng nn ng nng ca ht khng bin i, ln ca vn tc cng khng i, lc Lorentz ch lm cho phng ca vect vn tc thay i. Nh vy, lc Lorentz ng vai tr ca lc hng tm, ngha l: FL =qvB.sin = Ta xt hai trng hp sau y.
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mv 2 R
(11-46)
r r r r V vn tc v ca ht vung gc vi cm ng t B nn lc Lorentz lm cho ht chuyn r ng trong mt phng vung gc vi vect cm ng t B , c qu o trn (hnh 11-25) bn knh
a. Vn tc v ca ht vung gc vi cm ng t B R. T (11-46) ta suy ra:
mv 2 FL = qvB= , R mv R= qB
Chu k quay ca ht: 2R 2m = T= v qB V tn s quay: 2 qB = = T m
(11-47)
r v
r B
r v
r B
Hnh 11.25
(11-48)
(a)
(b)
Chuyn ng ca ht in trong t trng, v B a. trng hp q> 0. b. trng hp q< 0
(11-49)
Cc biu thc (11-48), (11-49) chng t chu k v tn s quay (T, ) khng ph thuc vo bn knh R v vn tc v ca ht. b. Trng hp vect v hp vi vect B mt gc .
r r r r gc vi B v thnh phn v // song song vi vect B : r r r v = v + v // (11-50)

R= mv qB
(11-51)
Trong trng hp ny, c th phn tch vect v thnh hai thnh phn: thnh phn v vung
Thnh phn vung gc buc ht in chuyn ng theo qu o trn vi bn knh:
Cn thnh phn song song v// c tc dng lm cho ht chuyn ng theo phng ca cm r ng t B vi vn tc v//. Vy ht tham gia ng thi hai chuyn ng, kt qu l qu o ca ht l ng xon c, c bn knh nh (11-51), bc ca qu o xon c bng: h = v//T (11-52)
Hnh 11-26 Chuyn ng ca ht in trong t trng, trng hp
r r v hp vi B mt gc
Chuyn ng ca ht in trong t trng c nhiu ng dng: to ra vn tc rt ln ca ht in trong cc my gia tc ht (cyclotron) trong vic nghin cu ht nhn nguyn t v cc ht c bn v cc ng dng khc; My chn vn tc o t s e/m ca electron m Joseph Jonh Thomson to ra nm 1897 da trn s chuyn ng trong t trng ca cc ht in c vn tc khc nhau; Da trn hin tng chuyn ng ca ht in trong t trng, nm 1879, Edwin H.Hall ln u tin dng du ca hiu in th Hall xc nh du ca ht in chuyn ng to nn dng in v ng chng t rng cc ht in chuyn ng to nn dng in trong kim loi l cc ht mang in m. v.v...
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Chng XII: Hin tng cm ng in t
CHNG XII: HIN TNG CM NG IN T

Trong chng trc ta bit rng dng in to ra xung quanh n mt t trng. Vy ngc li, t trng c to ra dng in khng? Nm 1831, nh vt l hc Faraday chng t, bn thn t trng khng to ra dng in nhng s bin i ca t trng (tng qut hn: l bin i ca t thng) th c th to ra mt dng in. Dng in c gi l dng in cm ng v hin tng c gi l hin tng cm ng in t. Chng ny s xt chi tit hin tng cm ng in t v cc trng hp ring ca hin tng ny.
1. CC NH LUT V HIN TNG CM NG IN T

1. Hin tng cm ng in t a. Cc th nghim Th nghim gm mt ng dy ni tip vi mt in k thnh mt mch kn (Hnh 5-1). Pha trn ng dy ta t mt thanh nam chm NS. Th nghim chng t: S S - Khi a cc N (cc bc) ca thanh nam chm li gn ng dy th kim in k b lch, chng t trong mch d xut hin mt dng in (hnh 5-1a). Dng in ny c gi l dng in cm ng Ic. - Sau ta a thanh nam chm ra xa ng dy, dng in cm ng c chiu ngc li (hnh 12-1b). - Di chuyn thanh nam chm cng nhanh, cng Ic ca dng in cm ng cng ln. - Cho thanh nam chm dng li. Dng in cm ng bin mt. - Nu thay nam chm bng mt ng dy in, hoc gi thanh nam chm ng yn, cho ng dy dch chuyn so vi thanh nam chm, ta cng thu c nhng kt qu tng t nh trn. b. Kt lun Qua nhng th nghim , Faraday rt ra kt lun tng qut sau y: a. S bin i ca t thng qua mch kn l
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r v
r v
r B'
r B' r B r B'
a)
r B
b)
r B
Hnh 12-1 Th nghim Faraday v cm ng in t
nguyn nhn sinh ra dng in cm ng trong mch . b. Dng in cm ng ch tn ti trong thi gian t thng gi qua mch thay i. c. Cng dng in cm ng t l thun vi tc bin i ca t thng. d. Chiu ca dng in cm ng ph thuc vo t thng gi qua mch tng hay gim. 2. nh lut Lentz Lenx (Lentz) tm ra nh lut tng qut v chiu ca dng in cm ng, gi l nh lut Lenx, pht biu nh sau: Dng in cm ng c chiu sao cho t trng do n gy ra c tc dng chng li nguyn nhn gy ra n. Vn dng nh lut ny, v qui tc vn nt chai, ta c th tm chiu ca dng in cm ng trong cc trng hp hnh 12-1a, v 12-1b. Trong hnh (12-1a), do t thng qua vng dy tng, dng cm ng Ic gy ra t trng B ' ngc r chiu vi B chng li s tng t thng qua vng dy. r r Trong hnh (12-1b), dng cm ng Ic gy ra B ' cng chiu vi B chng li s gim ca t thng qua vng dy. 3. nh lut c bn ca hin tng cm ng in t a. Sut in ng cm ng S xut hin ca dng in cm ng chng t trong mch tn ti mt sut in ng. Sut in ng gy ra dng in cm ng c gi l sut in ng cm ng. b. nh lut c bn ca hin tng cm ng in t Ta gi s dch chuyn mt vng dy dn kn (C) trong t trng. Khi t thng qua vng dy thay i. Gi s trong thi gian dt t thng qua vng dy thay i mt lng d m v trong vng dy xut hin dng in cm ng cng Ic. Cng ca t lc tc dng ln dng in cm ng trong qu trnh l: dA = Ic. d m y s dch chuyn ca vng dy l nguyn nhn gy ra dng cm ng, do cng ca t lc tc dng ln dng cm ng l cng cn. V vy, dch chuyn vng dy, cn phi c ngoi lc thc hin mt cng dA c tr s bng nhng ngc du vi cng cn : dA = - dA = - Ic. d m Theo nh lut bo ton nng lng, cng dA c chuyn thnh nng lng ca dng in cm ng c .Ic.dt, trong c l sut in ng cm ng, nn ta c:
Hnh 12-2 Vng dy dn dch chuyn trong t trng
c .Ic.dt = - Ic. d m
149
T ta suy ra biu thc ca sut in ng cm ng:
c = -
d m dt
(12-1)
l nh lut c bn ca hin tng cm ng in t, pht biu nh sau: Sut in ng cm ng lun lun bng v tr s nhng ngc du vi tc bin thin ca t thng gi qua din tch ca mch in. Du tr trong cng thc (12-1) th hin nh lut Lentz. c. nh ngha n v t thng V-be Trong h n v SI n v ca c cng l vn (V). Cn n v ca t thng l vbe (Wb). Gi s trong thi gian t, t thng gi qua din tch ca mch in gim u t tr s m v 0, theo (12-1) ta c 0 d m c = == m dt t t Khi , ta suy ra:
m = c . t
Nu t = 1giy, c = 1vn, th m = 1vn. 1giy =1vbe (Wb). T ta c nh ngha vbe nh sau: Vbe l t thng gy ra trn 1 vng dy dn bao quanh n mt sut in ng cm ng 1 vn khi t thng gim u xung khng trong thi gian 1 giy. Trong thc t, hin tng cm ng in t c ng dng to ra dng in, c nh hng rt quan trng trong i sng v khoa hc k thut. d. Dng in Fu-c (Foucault) Khi ta t mt vt dn c kch thc ln vo trong mt t trng bin i theo thi gian, trong th tch ca vt dn cng xut hin dng in cm ng khp kn, gi l dng in xoy hay dng in Foucault. V vt dn c kch thc ln nn in tr ca n nh, do cng ca cc dng in Foucault thng kh ln. T trng bin i cng nhanh, dng in ny cng ln. V vy, dng in Foucault c vai tr quan trng trong k thut. Trong cc my bin th v ng c in..., li st ca chng thng chu tc dng ca t trng bin i, lm xut hin trong chng cc dng in Foucault. Cc dng in ny lm cho my mau b nng ln, mt phn nng lng b hao ph v ch, hiu sut ca my b gim, tui th ca my gim nhanh. gim tc hi ny, ngi ta khng dng c khi st ln m dng nhiu l st mng sn cch in ghp li vi nhau sao cho cc l st ct song song vi cc ng sc t, tc l vung gc vi cc dng in xoy. Nh vy, dng in xoy ch chy c trong tng l st mng, cng dng in xoy gim nhiu so vi dng in xoy trong khi st ln. Nh gim ng k nng lng hao ph v ch, tng hiu sut v tui th ca my. Dng in xoy cng c nhng ng dng c ch nh dng trong l in cm ng nu chy kim loi, dng rt ngn thi gian dao ng ca kim trong cc my o v.v...
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2. HIN TNG T CM
1. Hin tng t cm Xt mt mch in nh hnh v (12-3), gm mt ng dy c li st v mt in k mc song song vi n, c hai li mc ni tip vi mt ngun in mt chiu v mt ngt in k . Gi s ban u mch in ng kn, kim ca in k nm mt v tr "a" no . Nu ngt mch in, ta thy kim in k lch v qu s khng ri mi quay tr li s khng (h.12-3b). Nu ng mch in, ta thy kim in k vt ln qu v tr a lc ny, ri mi quay tr li v tr a (Hnh 12-3c).
Hnh 12-3 Khi ngt mch, ngun in ngng cung cp nng lng Th nghim v cho mch. V vy, dng in do ngun cung cp gim ngay v hin tng t cm khng. Nhng s gim ny li gy ra s gim t thng qua cun dy. Kt qu l trong cun dy xut hin mt dng in cm ng cng chiu vi dng in ban u chng li s gim ca dng in ny. V kho k ngt, dng in cm ng khng th i qua k, n chy qua in k theo chiu t B sang A (ngc chiu vi dng in lc u). Do kim in k quay ngc pha lc u, sau khi dng cm ng tt, kim in k mi v s khng.
Hin tng c gii thch nh sau:
Cn khi k ng mch, dng in qua in k v cun dy u tng ln t gi tr khng, lm cho t thng qua ng dy tng v do lm gy ra trong ng dy mt dng in cm ng ngc chiu vi n. Mt phn ca dng in cm ng ny r qua in k theo chiu t A sang B, cng thm vi dng in do ngun gy ra, do lm cho kim in k vt qu v tr a. Sau , khi dng cm ng tt, dng qua in k bng dng do ngun cp, nn kim in k tr v v tr a. Th nghim ny chng t: Nu cng dng in trong mch thay i, th trong mch cng xut hin mt dng in cm ng. V dng in ny do s cm ng ca chnh dng in trong mch gy ra nn n c gi l dng in t cm, cn hin tng c gi l hin tng t cm. Ni chung, khi dng in trong mch thay i th trong mch xut hin dng in t cm (tc l hin tng t cm). Hin tng t cm l mt trng hp ring ca hin tng cm ng in t. 2. Sut in ng t cm. H s t cm a. nh ngha Sut in ng gy ra dng in t cm c gi l sut in ngt cm. V hin tng t cm l trng hp ring ca hin tng cm ng in t, nn n cng c d biu thc dng (12-1): c = - m dt
151
b. Biu thc sut in ng t cm V cm ng t B gy ra bi dng in chy trong mch in t l vi cng ca dng in, cn t thng gi qua mch in kn th t l vi cm ng t, do t thng m qua mch kn t l thun vi cng dng in I v c th vit:
m = L.I
(12-2)
trong L l mt h s t l ph thuc hnh dng, kch thc ca mch in v vo tnh cht ca mi trng bao quanh mch in. L c gi l h s t cm ca mch in. Thay m (12-2) vo biu thc ca S cm ng ni chung ta c biu thc ca sut in ng t cm:
tc = -
d ( L. I ) dt
(12-3)
Bnh thng, mch in ng yn, khng thay i dng v t thm ca mi trng khng ph thuc vo dng in, nn L= const, v do :
tc = - L
dI dt
(12-4)
Cng nh S cm ng ni chung, du tr sut in ng t cm th hin nh lut Lentz. c. H s t cm T cng thc (12-2) ta suy cng thc nh ngha ca h s t cm: L =
m
I
(12-5)
Nu cho I = 1A, th L = m . T ta c nh ngha: H s t ca mt mch in l i lng vt l v tr s bng t thng do chnh dng in trong mch gi qua din tch ca mch khi dng in trong mch c cng bng mt n v. T (12-4), nu L cng ln, tc s cng mnh, mch in c tc dng chng li s bin i ca dng in trong mch cng nhiu, ni cch khc, "qun tnh" ca mch in cng ln. Vy, h s t cm ca mt mch in l s o mc qun tnh ca mch i vi s bin i ca dng in chy trong mch . Trong h n v SI, n v ca h s t cm l Henry, k hiu l H. Theo (12-2), ta c: L = do ta c 1H=
m
I
1.Wb Wb =1 . A 1A
T ta c nh ngha: Henry l h s t cm ca mt mch kn khi dng in 1 ampe chy qua th sinh ra trong chn khng t thng 1Wb qua mch . Trong k thut, ngi ta cn dng cc n v nh hn Henry l mili Henry (mH) v micr Henry ( H): 1mH = 10-3 H, v 1H = 10-6H
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d. H s t cm ca ng dy in thng di v hn Khi c dng in cng I chy trong cc vng dy dn, mi im bn trong ng dy c vc t cm ng t bng nhau v bng: B = 0 n0 I = 0
n I, l
trong no = n/l l s vng dy cha trn mt n v di ca ng dy. Gi S l din tch ca ca mt vng dy. T thng gi qua ng dy l:
m = nBS = 0
n2 S I l
Vy h s t cm ca ng dy l:
n2 S = 0 L= I l
(12-6)
Hin tng t cm thng xut hin khi ngt cc cng tc in, c bit l khi ngt cc cu dao in. Khi ta thy c tia la in xut hin cc cu dao in. l do khi ngt mch in, dng in gim t ngt v gi tr khng, do trong cc cun dy ca my in xut hin dng in t cm kh ln. Dng in ny phng qua lp khng kh gia hai cc ca cu dao in gy nn tia la in. Hin tng ny lm hng cu dao v c th gy nguy him cho h thng in, do ngi ta t cu dao trong du hoc dng kh pht mnh... dp tt cc tia ny. 3. Hiu ng b mt (skin-effect) Hin tng t cm cng xy ra ngay trong lng mt dy dn c dng in bin i theo thi gian. Sau y ta xt hin tng ny. Gi s dng in i t di ln v ang tng (hnh 12-4), n gy ra trong lng dy dn mt t trng c ng cm ng t nh hnh v 12-4a (ng c phn t nt). T trng ny gi qua cc tit din cha trc i xng ca dy (hnh ch nht gch cho) mt t thng ang tng. V vy trong cc tit din xut hin dng in t cm khp kn c chiu tun theo nh lut Lentz (ng lin nt c mi tn). Ta nhn thy, gn trc dy dn, dng in t cm ngc chiu vi dng in bin thin; cn gn b mt dy dn, dng t cm cng chiu vi dng in bin thin trong dy dn. Nh vy, khi dng in trong dy dn tng, dng t cm gp phn lm cho dng in gn trc dy dn tng chm li nhng lm cho dng in gn b mt dy dn tng nhanh hn. Ni cch khc, khi dng t cm chng li s tng ca dng in gn trc dy dn v tng cng s tng ca dng in b mt dy dn. Khi dng in trong dy dn gim, dng t cm c chiu ngc li (hnh 12-4b). N ngc vi chiu dng in bin thin gn b mt dy dn, do lm cho phn dng in ny gim nhanh hn;
Hnh 12-4: Hiu ng b mt a) Khi dng in I tng b) Khi dng in I gim 153
tri li, n cng chiu vi phn dng in bin thin gn trc ca dy dn, do lm cho phn dng in ny gim t hn. Tm li, khi tng cng nh khi gim, dng in bin thin trong dy dn gy ra dng t cm c tc dng chng li s bin thin ca phn dng in gn trc ca dy dn, nhng tng cng phn dng in gn b mt ca dy dn. Tn s dng in cng cao (dng in bin i cng nhanh), tc dng ca dng t cm trong dy cng mnh, phn dng in chy trong rut ca dy dn cng gim. Khi tn s ca dng in kh cao, phn dng in chy trong rut ca dy dn hu nh b trit tiu, dng in cao tn ch chy b mt rt mng ca dy dn. Hin tng ny c gi l hiu ng b mt (skin-effect). L thuyt v thc nghim chng t: vi dng in c tn s f= 1000Hz, dng in ch chy lp b mt dy 2mm, cn khi f= 100.000Hz, dng in ch chy lp b mt 0,2mm. V l do , khi dng dng in cao tn, ngi ta lm cc dy dn rng tit kim kim loi. tng dn in ca b mt, ngi ta m mt lp kim loi dn in tt nh bc, vng tu theo mc ch s dng. Trong c kh, ngi ta ng dng hiu ng b mt ti cng b mt kim loi cc chi tit my (nh: trc bnh xe, bnh rng khav.v..) nhng vn gi do cn thit bn trong.
3. HIN TNG H CM
1. Hin tng Gi s c hai mch in kn (C1 ) v (C2 ) t cnh nhau, trong c cc dng in I1, I2 hnh (12-5). Nu dng in I1 chy trong mch C1 thay i th t thng do dng in ny gi qua mch C2 s bin i, gy ra trong C2 mt S cm ng. Dng cm ng ny lm cho dng in trong C2 bin i, v t thng do n gi qua C1 s bin i, lm xut hin S cm ng trong C1. Kt qu l, trong c hai mch s xut hin dng in cm ng. Ngi ta gi hin tng ny l hin tng h cm, v cc dng in cm ng c gi l dng in h cm. 2. Sut in ng h cm, h s h cm a. nh ngha
Hnh 12-5 Hin tng h cm gia hai mch in
Sut in ng gy ra dng in h cm c gi l sut in ng h cm.
Gi m12 l t thng do dng in I1 gy ra v gi qua din tch ca mch (C2), m21 l t thng do dng in I2 sinh ra v gi qua din tch ca mch (C1). D dng nhn thy rng t thng qua mch (C1) t l vi I2 v t thng qua mch (C2) t l vi mch dng I1:
m12 = M12.I1
154
(12-7)
m21 = M21.I2
(12-8)
vi M12 v M21 l cc h s t l. M12 gi l h s h cm ca hai mch (C1) v (C2), cn M21 l h s h cm ca (C2) v (C1 ). Hai h s h cm M12 v M21 u ph thuc hnh dng, kch thc, v tr tng i ca hai mch, v ph thuc vo tnh cht ca mi trng cha hai mch. Ngi ta chng minh c rng: M12 = M21 = M Do , sut in ng xut hin trong mch (C2) l: (12-9)
hc2 = v trong (C1 ) l:
d m12 dI =-M 1 dt dt dI d m 21 =-M 2 dt dt
(12-10)
hc1 = -
(12-11)
So snh (12-10) v (12-11) vi (12-4) ta thy h s h cm cng c cng n v vi h s t cm L v do cng c tnh bng n v Henry (H). Hin tng h cm l trng hp ring ca hin tng cm ng in t, n c ng dng ch to my bin th, mt dng c rt quan trng k thut v i sng.
4. NNG LNG T TRNG

1. Nng lng t trng ca ng dy in a. Nng lng t trng Cho mt mch in nh hnh 12-6, gm n , ng dy c h s t cm L v bin tr R mc vo ngun in E. Gi s lc u mch c ng kn, iu chnh R n sng bnh thng. Cun dy c in tr nh nn IL>I. Th nghim cho thy nu ta ngt k, n khng tt ngay m bng sng ln ri t t tt. Hin tng ny c gii thch nh sau. Khi cn ng k, n sng nh nh nng lng ca ngun cung cung cp. Khi ngt kho k, n cn sng thm mt lc nh dng t cm t cun dy phng xung. Lc ny sut in ng t cm cung cp nng lng cho n. ng thi lc t trng trong cun dy L gim. Vy c th ni nng lng lu gi trong t trng ca cun dy trc khi ngt k bin thnh in nng qua n sau khi ngt k. Ni cch khc, t trng trong cun dy c mt nng lng. Ta gi l nng lng ca t trng. Sau y ta tnh nng lng . Gi s trc khi ng kho k, dng qua cun dy L l I, khi ngt k, dng qua L gim. Ti dI thi im t S t cm l Etc=-L . Nng lng do S t cm cung cp cho n trong thi dt gian dt l: dW= EtcI.dt=-L.I.dI
155
Nng lng do S t cm cung cp cho n t lc ngt k (c tr s l I ) n lc I=0 l: L R I k + E Hnh 12-6 S xut hin nng lng t trng trong cun dy
0
Wm = I
L.I.dI =
1 2 LI 2
(12-12)
Nh vy khi ng mch, dng in trong cun dy tng ng thi t trng trong n cng tng, cho n khi cng dng in bng I th t trng trong cun dy c nng lng 1 bng Wm= LI2. Khi ngt k, nng lng ny bin thnh in 2 nng ca dng t cm i qua n. Ngi ta chng minh rng, biu thc (12-12) ng cho cun dy bt k. b. Mt nng lng t trng L thuyt v thc nghim chng t rng: nng lng t trng c phn b trong khong khng gian ca t trng .
Nh ta ni trn, t trng trong ng dy thng v di l t trng u v c th coi l ch tn ti bn trong th tch ca ng dy. Nh vy, nu ng dy di l, tit din S, c th tch V = l.S, th nng lng t trng trong mt n v th tch, tc l mt nng lng t trng bn trong ng dy l: 1 n2 S 2 1 2 ( 0 . )I LI W 1 n2 l m = m = 2 = 2 = . 0 . 2 I 2 V lS 2 V l
n Ta bit cm ng t B trong ng dy l: B = 0 . I . Nh vy, mt nng lng t l 2 1 B trng bng: m = . (12-13) 2 0

Ngi ta chng minh c rng cng thc (12-13) ng i vi t trng bt k. V vy, tnh nng lng ca mt t trng bt k, ta chia khng gian ca t trng rthnh nhng phn th tch v cng nh dV, sao cho trong th tch y ta c th coi cm ng t B khng i. Nh vy, nng lng t trng trong th tch dV l: 1 B2 dWm = m dV = . dV. 2 0 Do nnglng ca mt t trng bt k chim th tch V, bng: Wm =
( V)
dWm
1 = 2
B2 dV ( V ) 0
(12-14)
trong tch phn c thc hn cho ton b khng gian trong th tch V ca t trng. r r rr r rr r B V H = , BB = B 2 = B2, HH = H 2 =H2 nn c th vit (12-14) di dng: 0
1 Wm= 2
156
r r 1 B dV = .H 2 ( V)
r B2 1 dV = 2 (V) 0
r H 2 dV 0
(V)
(12-15)
Chng XIII: Trng in t
CHNG XIII. TRNG IN T

Trong cc chng trc ta bit, in tch ng yn gy ra in trng tnh v dng in khng i gy ra t trng khng i. Hai loi trng ny tch bit nhau. Maxwell nghin cu mi lin h gia hai loi trng ny v pht hin ra rng, in trng v t trng bin i theo thi gian c mi lin h khng kht, c th chuyn ho ln nhau. Tip tc i su nghin cu cc hin tng in t, Maxwell khi qut thnh hai lun im v xy dng nn l thuyt v trng in t. L thuyt ny gp phn c lc cho vic pht trin ngnh in t v vin thng ni ring v nhn thc v th gii t nhin ni chung.
1. LUN IM TH NHT CA MAXWELL

1. Pht biu lun im Nh ta bit, trong th nghim ca Faraday v hin tng cm ng din t, ngi ta t mt vng dy dn kn khng bin dng ti mt v tr c nh trong mt t trng bin i theo thi gian. Trong vng dy s xut hin mt sut in ng cm ng, v do c dng in cm ng c chiu tun theo nh lut Lentz. S xut hin ca dng in cm ng chng t trong vng dy xut hin mt in trng, vect cng in trng cng chiu vi dng in cm ng. r r Lm th nghim vi nhiu vng dy dn khc nhau, c B B cht khc nhau, nhit khc nhau, Maxwell nhn thy rng: sut in ng cm ng xut hin trong vng dy dn khng ph thuc vo bn cht ca dy dn, v cng khng r r ph thuc vo trng thi ca dy dn. iu c ngha l, E Ic E Ic vng dy dn khng phi l nguyn nhn gy ra in trng, (a) (b) m ch l phng tin gip ta pht hin ra s c mt ca in trng . Hnh 13-1 S xut hin ca in trng r Trong hin tng cm ng in t, s bin i ca t a) B ang tng thng qua mch in l nguyn nhn nhn gy ra sut in r b) B ang gim ng cm ng, tc l gy ra mt in trng. V mch in ng yn, khng bin dng v ch c t trng bin i theo thi gian, nn t trng bin i theo thi gian gy ra s bin i t thng, vy ta c th kt lun rng: t trng bin i theo thi gian gy ra mt in trng. Nu ng sc ca in trng ny cng h nh ng sc ca in trng tnh th cng ca lc in trng ny dc theo mt ng cong kn s bng khng (xem chng III) v nh vy n khng th lm cho cc in tch chuyn ng theo ng cong kn to nn dng in cm ng trong mch kn. Mun lm cho cc ht in chuyn ng theo ng cong kn to thnh dng in th ng sc ca in trng ny phi l nhng ng cong kn, v cng ca lc in trng ny dc theo ng cong kn phi khc khng:
157
(C)
qE .dl
r r
(13-1)
Thc nghim xc nhn rng in trng gy nn sut in ng cm ng c nhng ng sc khp kn. V vy, ngi ta gi in trng ny l in trng xoy. Trn c s nhng phn tch trn, Maxwell pht biu mt lun im tng qut, gi l lun im th nht ca Maxwell: Bt k mt t trng no bin i theo thi gian cng sinh ra mt in trng xoy. 2. Phng trnh Maxwell - Faraday
r Gi s ta xt mt vng dy kn (C) nm trong t trng B ang bin i theo thi gian (hnh13-2). r Theo nh lut c bn ca hin tng cm ng in t, sut dS r r in ng cm ng xut hin trong vng dy l: B n
=-
r r m = - ( B S ) , .d t t( S )
(S )
(13-2)
dl
r E
trong m =
B.dS
r r
l t thng gi qua din tch S gii
(C) Hnh 13-2 thit lp phng trnh Maxwell-Faraday
hn bi vng dy dn kn (C). Ni chung, t trng c th bin i theo thi gian v theo r r khng gian, tc l B = B (x,y,z,t).
Nhng ch khi t trng bin i theo thi gian, th mi gy ra in trng xoy, nn biu thc (13-2) v cc biu thc sau ny ta s phi thay du o hm r r B dB bng o hm ring theo thi gian . t dt Theo nh ngha v sut in ng, ta c: r r c = E . dl
(C)
(13-3)
r r trong E l vect cng in trng xoy trn on dch chuyn dl . So snh (13-2) vi (13-3) ta c: r r E . dl =
(C)
r r ( B .dS ) t( S )
(13-4)
l phng trnh Maxwell-Faraday di dng tch phn. Trong gii tch vect, ngi ta chng minh c: r r r r E . dl = rotE.dS
(C)
( S)
(13-5)
158
Mt khc, ta c th vit:
r B r r r ( B .dS ) = ( ).dS t( S ) t (s)

r B rotE = -
(13-6)
Nh vy t (13-4), (13-5), (13-6) ta suy ra:
(13-7)
l phng trnh Maxwell-Faraday di dng vi phn, c th p dng i vi im bt k trong t trng. Cc phng trnh (13-6), (13-7) chng t: t trng bin i theo thi gian gy ra in trng xoy. Ni cch khc, cc phng trnh ny l dng pht biu nh lng ca lun im Maxwell th nht.
2. LUN IM TH HAI CA MAXWELL

Trong chng XI ta bit dng in dn (dng cc in tch chuyn di c hng) gy ra t trng. Di y ta s thy t trng cn c ngun gc khc. 1. Khi nim v dng in dch-Lun im th hai ca Maxwell Xt mch in nh hnh 13-3. Trn , l mt ngun in xoay chiu, C l mt t in, A l mt ampe k xoay chiu. Ampe k A cho thy c dng in trong mch. Nh mt dng c o t trng, ngi ta thy khng ch xung quanh dy dn c t trng m ti cc im bn trong t in cng c t trng. Cn nh rng trong t l cht cch in nn khng th c dng in dn. Vy t trng bn trong t phi c ngun gc khc.
V in tch trn hai bn ca t in bin thin nn bn trong t c in trng bin thin. Maxwell a ra gi thuyt l chnh in trng bin thin trong lng t in sinh ra t trng. d quan nim, ng cho rng trong t in tn ti mt dng in khc. ng gi n l dng in dch ( phn bit vi dng in dn l dng chuyn di c hng ca cc in tch t do); Chnh dng in dch ni tip dng dn trong phn khng gian dng dn khng qua c (trong lng t in), nh dng in khp kn trong ton mch. Theo Maxwell, c tnh duy nht ca dng in dch l to ra t trng nh dng in dn. T , Maxwell pht biu thnh lun im: Bt k mt in trng no bin i theo thi gian cng gy ra mt t trng. Pht biu ny c gi l lun im th hai ca Maxwell. Lun im ny c thc nghim hon ton xc nhn.
159
Hnh 13.3 Dng in xoay chiu trong mch kn
2. Mt dng in dch V bn cht, dng in dch khng phi l dng chuyn di c hng ca cc in tch, n c gi l dng in ch v n tng ng vi dng in dn v mt gy ra t trng. V vy n phi c phng chiu v ln hp l. I + I gii quyt vn ny, ta xt mt mch in gm mt t in c in dung C, v mt cun dy in c h s t cm L mc ni tip vi nhau (hnh 13-4). L
Gi s lc u t in phng in. in tch r trn hai bn ca t gim, trong t in vct D r r J d , D hng t bn dng sang bn m v ang gim, r r vct D ngc chiu vi vct D , nhng cng r chiu vi dng phng in, tc cng chiu vi D S dng in dn qua cun cm L. Cn khi in tch trn t tng (hnh 13-5), in tch trn hai bn ca I r t tng, vct D trong t tng, dng in dn Hnh 13-4: Dng dch ni tip dng in dn r chy qua t v D trong t cng chiu vi nhau trong mch kn khi t phng in r v cng chiu vi D . r Trong c hai trng hp, ta u thy vct D v dng in dn trn dy dn cng chiu vi nhau. S r H Ta cng bit rng trong mch in ni tip, cng dng in qua mi tit din ca dy phi bng nhau. Do Maxwell cho rng: dng in dch chy qua ton b khng gian gia hai bn ca t in cng chiu vi dng in dn trong mch, v c cng bng cng ca dng in dn trong mch . +
r H
r H
S
T ta suy ra rng cng dng in dn I trn thnh t C phi bng cng dng dch Id trong lng t C. Tc l: I=
r H
r r J d , D r D
dq = Id dt
Hnh 13-5 Dng dch ni tip dng in dn trong mch kn khi t np in T , ta c:

160
Gi S l din tch ca bn t in, l mt in tch mt trn bn t, in tch trn bn t l q=.S. r Gi D l vect in cm trong lng t in, theo ( 7r 23) chng VII, th D= . Ni chung, v D l hm r r ca khng gian v thi gian, ngha l D = D (x,y,z,t), =(x,y,z,t). nhn mnh rng ch c khi bin i theo thi gian th in trng mi sinh ra t trng, ta phi dng du o hm ring theo thi gian thay cho o hm thng. Id= S
D =S . t t
Vy, ta c:
Id= S
D . t
Gi Jd l mt dng in dch, v in trng trong lng t in l u nn:
Jd =
Id D = t S
(13-8)
T lp lun trn, v dng in dn trong mch v dng in dch trong t cng chiu, nn r vct mt dng in dch J d bng: r r D Jd = (13-9) t Vy: Vct mt dng in dch bng tc bin thin theo thi gian ca vct cm ng in. M rng cho trng hp mt in trng bt k bin i theo thi gian, Maxwell i ti gi thuyt tng qut sau y: Xt v phng din sinh ra t trng, th bt k in trng no bin i theo thi gian cng ging nh mt dng in, gi l dng in dch, c vct mt dng bng: r r r D Jd = , trong D l vct cm ng in ti im c xt. t Phng chiu ca t trng do dng in dch gy ra cng c xc nh theo qui tc vn nt chai nh t trng ca dng in dn, v cng dng in dch qua din tch S bt k: Id=
( S)
r r J d dS
tch phn c tnh trn ton b din tch S.
Trong chng in mi ta bit vect in cm D lin h vi vect cng in r r trng E v vect phn cc in mi Pe theo biu thc:
Thay D cng thc ny vo (13-9), ta c: r r r E Pe J d = o + t t
r r r D = o E + Pe
(13-10)
t iu ny c ngha l dng in dch tn ti ngay c trong chn khng, khng c bt k s dch chuyn no ca in tch. V bn cht, n ch l in trng bin thin theo thi gian.
Trong cht in mi, mt dng in dch gm hai thnh phn: r r E l dng in dch trong chn khng, khng lin quan n bt k s dch J d = o t chuyn no ca ht in.
161
r r E Trong chn khng, Pe = 0 , do mt dng in dch trong chn khng l: J d = o .
r Pe l mt dng in phn cc, lin quan n s quay ca cc lng cc phn t t hoc s dch chuyn ca cc trng tm cc in tch dng v trng tm ca cc in tch m trong cc phn t khng phn cc ca cht in mi di tc dng ca in trng ngoi bin thin. Do c s dch chuyn ny, Maxwell gi chung (13-10) l mt dng in dch. Tuy nhin cn ch rng khc vi s dch chuyn ca cc in tch t do to nn dng in dn, dng in phn cc ch l s quay hng hoc s dch chyn ti ch ca cc in tch lin kt khi c in trng ngoi bin thin, ch khng c s dch chuyn t do ca cc phn t in mi.
3. Phng trnh Maxwell-Ampre Vi gi thuyt ca Maxwell, ti mt v tr no ca mi trng, nu ng thi c dng in dn v dng in dch, th t trng do c dng in dn v dng in dch gy ra, do Maxwell a ra khi nim dng in ton phn l tng ca dng in dn v dng in dch. r Gi J l vct mt dng in dn, vct mt dng in ton phn l: r r r D (13-11) J tp = J + t Cng dng in ton phn qua mt din tch S gii hn bi ng cong kn (C) no r r r r D r J ).dS (13-12) s bng: Itp = J tp . dS = ( +
(S )
(S )
Theo nh l v dng in ton phn (nh l Ampre), trong mi trng nh vy ta c r r r r D r biu thc: J (13-13) H .dl = Itp = ( + ).dS
(C)
(S )
Phng trnh (13-13) c gi l phng trnh Maxwell-Ampre dng tch phn. T (13-13), ta d dng suy ra:
r r rotH = J +
r D . t
(13-14)
l phng trnh Maxwell-Ampre dng vi phn, p dng c vi tng im ca khng gian. Cc phng trnh (13-13), (13-14) nu ln mi lin h nh lng gia cng t trng H vi cc dng in dn v dng in dch. N cng cho thy dng in dn v dng in dch u gy ra t trng.
3. TRNG IN T V H CC PHNG TRNH MAXWELL

1. Trng in t Theo hai lun im ca Maxwell, t trng bin i theo thi gian gy ra in trng, v ngc li in trng bin i theo thi gian th gy ra t trng. Nh vy, trong khng gian,
162
in trng v t trng c th ng thi tn ti, duy tr ln nhau v lin h cht ch vi nhau, to nn mt trng thng nht. T ta c nh ngha: in trng v t trng ng thi tn ti trong khng gian to thnh mt trng thng nht gi l trng in t. Trng in t l mt dng c bit ca vt cht. Ngi ta chng minh rng n c nng lng, khi lng v ng lng. Nng lng nh x trong khong khng gian c trng in t. Mt nng lng ca trng in t bng tng mt nng lng in trng v mt nng lng t trng:
= e +m =
1 1 r r r r ( 0 . . E 2 + 0 . . H 2 ) = ( E . D + B. H ) 2 2 1 2 1 2
r r r r ( E . D + B. H ). dV
(13-15)
v do nng lng ca trng in t l: W=
( V)
= .dV
(V )
( 0E 2 + 0H 2 ) dV =
(V )
(13-16)
Tch phn phi thc hin i vi ton b th tch V ca khong khng gian c trng in t. 2. H cc phng trnh Maxwell m t trng in t, Maxwell nu ra h cc phng trnh c bn sau y, gi l h cc phng trnh Maxwell v trng in t. H gm cc phng trnh c thnh lp trong cc phn trc y v phn trc ca chng ny. a. Phng trnh Maxwell -Faraday L cc phng trnh din t nh lng lun im th nht ca Maxwell: Mi bin i ca t trng theo thi gian u lm xut hin mt in trng xoy. Dng tch phn
(C)
r r E .dl = -
r B r .d S t
(13-17)
Dng vi phn
r r B rotE = t
b. Phng trnh Maxwell- Ampre
(13-18)
L cc phng trnh biu din nh lng lun im th hai ca Maxwell v nh l Ampre v dng in ton phn: Dng in dn v in trng bin thin theo thi gian u gy ra t trng. r r r r D r J (13-19) H .dl = ( + ).dS
(C)
(S )
r r r D rotH = J + t
(13-20)
163
c. nh l xtrgrtxki-Gauss i vi in trng nh l ny din t tnh cht khng khp kn ca cc ng sc in trng tnh. Cc ng sc in trng tnh l nhng ng cong khng kn, lun xut pht t cc in tch dng v tn cng trn cc in tch m; N chng t rng in trng tnh l trng c ngun. r r Dng tch phn (13-21) D. dS = q
S
Dng vi phn
r div D =
(13-22)
d. nh l Oxtrogratxki-Gauss i vi t trng nh l ny din t tnh khp kn ca cc ng sc t, cc ng sc t khng c im xut pht v khng c im tn cng, chng t trong thin nhin khng tn ti nhng t tch hay: t trng khng c im ngun. r r B. dS = 0 (13-23) Dng tch phn
S
Dng vi phn
r div B = 0
(13-24)
e. Cc phng trnh lin h cc i lng c trng cho trng vi tnh cht ca mi trng Trong mi trng ng cht v ng hng, c cc mi lin h sau: r r Mi trng in mi D = 0E r r Mi trng dn in J = E r r B = 0H Mi trng t mi Trong cc phng trnh trn, cc i lng c trng cho trng u c xc nh ti tng im trong khng gian v ni chung u bin i theo thi gian, ni cch khc chng u l cc hm ca x, y, z, t. Cc phng trnh Maxwell bao hm tt c cc hin tng c bn v in v t. in trng tnh, t trng khng i theo ti gian (t trng dng), sng in t ...l nhng trng hp ring ca trng in t. 3. ngha ca h cc phng trnh Maxwell Cc phng trnh Maxwell l cc phng trnh bao hm tt c cc nh lut c bn v in v t. Cc phng trnh din t cc hin tng thuc v trng tnh in v t trng ca dng khng i u l nhng trng hp ring ca h cc phng trnh Maxwell. T cc phng trnh ny, v t gi thuyt v dng in dch, Maxwell on nhn trc c nhng hin tng hon ton mi rt quan trng, c th l: Maxwell on nhn trc s tn ti ca sng in t, tc l s lan truyn trong khng gian ca mt trng in t bin i theo thi gian. Maxwell xy dng nn thuyt in t v nh ng. Theo thuyt ny nh sng thy c l nhng sng in t c bc sng t 0,40m n 0,75m.
164
Khong 20 nm sau khi l thuyt ca Maxwell ra i, th nghim ca Hertz v nhng pht minh ca Ppp v vic pht v thu sng in t xc nhn s tn ti ca loi sng ny. Nhng th nghim v quang hc ca Young, Fresnel, ca Arag v.v...v nhng ng dng thc t hin nay xc nhn s ng n ca s tn ti sng in t v thuyt in t nh sng.Tm li, ton b l thuyt ca Maxwell v trng in t thnh cng rc r.
4. SNG IN T
Trong mc ny ta s p dng cc lun im Maxwell v h cc phng trnh Maxwell tm hiu s b mt hin tng quan trng: sng in t. 1. S to thnh sng in t Vo nhng nm 1887-1889, Hertz kim tra v xc nhn bng thc nghim l thuyt in t ca Maxwell. Hertz dng mt ngun in xoay chiu cao tn ni qua hai ng dy t cm n hai thanh kim loi hai u c gn hai qu cu kim loi A v B (hnh 13-6). iu chnh khong cch AB c hin tng phng in qua AB. Nh vy gia A v B xut hin mt in trng bin thin theo thi gian. Dng cc thit b o in trng v t trng, Hertz xc nhn rng mi im xung quanh A v B c c in trng v t trng bin thin theo thi gian, lan truyn trong khng gian. Vy th nghim Hertz chng t in t trng bin thin theo thi gian c truyn i trong khng gian. Qu trnh ny c gii thch da vo hai lun im ca Maxwell.
~
Hnh 13-6 M hnh th nghim ca Hertz
Gi s ti mt im no ta to ra mt in trng bin thin theo thi gian t. Theo lun im th hai ca Maxwell, in trng ny s lm xut hin t trng bin thin theo thi gian ti cc im ln cn xung quanh AB. Theo lun im th nht, t trng ny n lt mnh li to ra mt in trng bin thin theo thi gian. C nh th, in trng v t trng bin thin theo thi gian chuyn ho ln nhau, duy tr ln nhau v lan truyn trong khng gian, qu trnh truyn to thnh sng in t. 2. Phng trnh sng in t Ta xt mi trng truyn sng in t l in mi hoc chn khng. Trong mi trng nh vy s khng c in tch t dov khng c dng in ( = 0, J= 0). H cc phng trnh Maxwell cho mi trng ny tr thnh:
r r B rotE =t
(13-25)
165
r divB = 0 r r D rotH = t r divD = 0 r r D = o E ,
(13-26) (13-27) (13-28) (13-29)
r r r r tm phng trnh sng in t, trc ht ta ch l cc vect E , D , B , H bin thin thi

gian, do o hm cc vect ny theo thi gian phi khc khng. Ly rot hai v ca (13-25) ta c:
r r B = o H
r r B r ) = - ( rotB ) rot( rotE ) = - rot( t t r r r 2 Theo gii tch vect, ta c: rot( rotE ) = (div E )- E r divE = 0 nn (13-31) tr thnh: Nhng theo (13-28) th r r rot( rotE ) = - 2 E
Kt hp (13-30) v (13-32) ta c:
(13-30) (13-31)
(13-32)
r ( rotB ) = t
T (13-27) v (13-29) ta c:
r E
(13-33)
r r 2 2 r r r D E ( rotB ) = ( 0 rotH ) = 0 ( rotH ) = 0 2 = oo 2 t t t t t r 2 r E E - oo 2 = 0. t
Thay kt qu ny vo (13-33) ta c:
2
(13-34) (13-35)
v 2=
1 0 0
2
Thay gi tr ny vo (13-34) ta c:
r 1 2 E - 2 v
r E 2 = 0. t
(13-36)
l phng trnh truyn sng ca in trng vi vn tc v xc nh bi (13-35). Thc hin cc php bin i tng t ta cng thu c phng trnh tng t i vi t trng:
166
r 1 B - 2 v
c
r B 2 = 0. t
(13-36)
Thay cc gi tr ca cc hng s o= 4.10-7H/m, o= 8,86.10-12F/m vo (13-35) ta c: v= (13-37)
trong , c =1/oo 3.108 m/s l vn tc ca nh sng trong chn khng. Trong chn khng, = 1, =1, v=c. Vy trong chn khng, sng in t truyn vi vn tc bng vn tc ca nh sng trong chn khng. Maxwell nghin cu mi lin h gia sng in t v nh sng, ng cho rng nh sng l mt loi sng in t v xy dng nn thuyt in t nh sng. t
= n , gi l chit sut tuyt i ca mi trng, theo (13-37) ta c:

v=
c n
(13-38)
Thng thng 1, 1 nn theo (13-38) v c. Ngha l sng in t c th truyn trong mi trng v trong chn khng, vn tc ca sng in t trong chn khng l ln nht. L thuyt v thc nghim chng t sng in t l sng ngang, ti mi im trong mi trng c sng in t, phng ca cc vect E , H (tc l phng dao ng) vung gc vi nhau v vi phng truyn sng. Ni cch khc E
r r
r
r r r r r , E v, H v . H
Nu ngun sng bin thin iu ho vi tn s gc th sng in t (cc vect E , H ) truyn trong mi trng cng bin thin iu ho vi tn s . l sng in t n sc c chu k bng T = 2/ v c bc sng xc nh bi: =vT Thay v=
r r
c ta c: n
cT o = n n
trong o = cT l bc sng ca sng in t trong chn khng. Ngi ta phn loi sng in t theo tn s hoc theo bc sng , tnh ra m. nh sng thy c c bc sng nm trong khong t 0,44m (nh sng tm) n 0,78m (nh sng ). Cc bc sng ln hn 0,78m nm trong vng hng ngoi v sng radio, cn cc sng c bc sng nh hn 0,44m nm trong vng t ngoi, tia rnghen v tia gamma. Di y l bng thang sng in t. Sng Tia gama Tia rnghen Bc sng (m) 10-12 10-10 10-10 10-8 Sng nh sng nhn thy Tia hng ngoi Bc sng (m) 4,4.10-7 7,810-7 7,8.10-7 10 -3
167
Tia t ngoi
10-9
10-7
Sng radio
10-3 tr ln
168
Phn ph lc - Cc k hiu thng dng
PH LC
CC K HIU THNG DNG
Th t Tn i lng p sut Cm ng in Cm ng t Cng ca lc, ca mmen lc Cng sut Cng in trng Cng t trng Cng in trng l Cng in trng xoy Cng dng in Chu k quay Din tch in dung in th in tch, in lng in thng in tr ng lng ng nng Gia tc Gia tc gc H s h cm H s t cm Hiu sut K hiu p
r D, D
Chng 5, 6 7 11, 12, 13 3, 4, 6, 7, 10, 11, 12 3, 4 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13 11, 12, 13 10 12, 13 10, 11 1 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 8 7 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 7 10 2 3, 11 1, 2, 3, 4 1, 4 12 12 6
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
168
r B, B
A P E, H, E*, E*,
r E r H r E* r E*
I, i T
r S, S
C V, Q, q e R, r
r K, K
W A M L
Phn ph lc - Cc k hiu thng dng
Th t
Tn i lng Hiu in th Khi lng Lc Mt in tch di Mt in tch mt Mt in tch khi Mt dng n Mt nng lng in trng Mt nng lng t trng Mmen lc Mmen qun tnh Mmen t Mmen ngu lc Mmen ng lng Mmen lng cc in Nng lng t trng Nng lng in trng Nng lng Nhit lng Nhit tuyt i Ni nng Qung ng dch chuyn Sut in ng Sut in ng cm ng Sut in ng h cm S bc t do Tn s Th nng Th tch
K hiu U M, m r F, F
r J, J
Chng 7 2, 3, 4 2, 3, 4, 7, 10, 11 7 7 7 10 8 12 4, 11 4 11 7, 11 4 7, 9, 11 11, 12, 13 8, 12, 13 3, 8, 11, 13 6 5, 6 5, 6 1, 3, 4, 11 10 12 12 5, 6 1 3 5, 6, 7, 10, 12

169
25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53
r M, M
I
r pm, p m
r L, L r r p e , Pe
Wm We W Q T U s, l c hc I F Wt V
r M
Phn ph lc - Mt s hng s vt l thng dung
Th t
Tn i lng Thi gian T thng Vn tc gc
K hiu T m
Chng 1, 2, 3, 4 11, 12, 13 1, 4
54 55 56
MT S HNG S VT L THNG DNG

Th t 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Tn hng s Gia tc ri t do Hng s hp dn S Avgadr (s phn t trong 1 kilmol) Th tch ca mt kilmol iu kin tiu chun Hng s cc kh Hng s Bolzman in tch electron Khi lng ngh ca electron Hng s in mi Hng s t Vn tc nh sng trong chn khng Khi lng ngh ca proton K hiu g G No VO R k e me o o c mp Tr s 9,8m/s2 6,67.10 -11Nm2 /kg2 6,025.1026kmol 22,4m3/kmol 8,31.103J/kmol.K 1,38.10 -23J/K 1,602.10 -19C 9,11.10-31kg 8,86.10-12F/m 1,257.10-6H/m =4.10-7H/m 3.108m/s 1,67.10-27kg
170
Ti liu tham kho
TI LIU THAM KHO

1. Vt l i cng. Tp I, II - Lng Duyn Bnh, D Tr Cng, Bi Ngc H. Nh xut bn Gio Dc - 2003. 2. C s Vt l. Tp I, II, III, IV, V - Hallidy, Resnick, Walker. Nh xut bn Gio Dc - 1998. 3. Vt l i cng. Tp II - Nguyn Hu Th. Nh xut bn Tr - 2004. 4. Tuyn tp cc bi tp vt l i cng - L.G Guriep, X.E Mincova (bn ting Nga). Matxcva - 1998. 5. Bi tp Vt l i cng tp I, II - Lng Duyn Bnh. Nh xut bn Gio Dc - 1999.
171
Mc lc
MC LC
Th t 1 1. S chuyn ng ca mt vt 2. Vn tc 3. Gia tc 4. Mt s dng chuyn ng 2 Chng II. ng lc hc cht im 1. Cc nh lut Newton 2. Cc lc lin kt 3. Cc nh l v ng lng 4. nh lut bo ton ng lng 5. nh lut hp dn v tr 6. Chuyn ng tng i v Nguyn l tng i 3 Chng III. Cng v nng lng 1. Cng v cng sut 2. Nng lng 3. ng nng 4. Trng lc th 5. Th d v trng lc th 6. Va chm gia cc vt 7. Chuyn ng trong trng hp dn ca qu t 8. Gii hn chuyn ng trong trng lc th 4 Chng IV. Chuyn ng ca h cht im v vt rn 1. Chuyn ng ca h cht im 2. Chuyn ng tnh tin ca vt rn
172
Ni dung Chng I. ng hc cht im
Trang 3 3 5 8 12 19 19 22 26 28 30 33 38 38 40 41 43 45 49 51 52 54 54 57
Mc lc
Th t
Ni dung 3. Chuyn ng quay ca vt rn quanh mt trc c nh 4. Cc nh l v mmen ng lng - nh lut bo ton mmen ng lng 5. Cng ca lc v ng nng ca vt rn quay
Trang 58 64 68 70 70 71 74 74 75 76 80 80 83 86 88 91 95 98 102 102 104 109 109 112 113 114 117 117 118
173
Chng V. Cc nh lut thc nghim v cht kh 1. Cc khi nim c bn 2. Cc nh lut thc nghim kh l tng
Chng VI. Cc nguyn l ca nhit ng lc hc 1. Cc khi nim c bn 2. Nguyn l th nht ca nhit ng hc 3. Nguyn l th hai ca nhit ng hc
Chng VII. Trng tnh in 1. Tng tc in - nh lut Coulomb 2. in trng 3. Lng cc in 4. in thng 5. nh l O-G 6. Cng ca lc tnh in - in th 7. Lin h gia vect cng in trng v in th
Chng VIII. Vt dn 1. Vt dn cn bng tnh in 2. in dung - T in - Nng lng in trng
Chng IX. in mi 1. Hin tng phn cc in mi 2. in trng trong in mi 3. in trng ti mt phn cch gia hai mi trng 4. in mi c bit
10
Chng X. Dng in khng i 1. Bn cht ca dng in 2. Nhng i lng c trng ca dng in
Mc lc
Th t 4. Sut in ng 5. nh lut Kirchhoff 11
Ni dung 3. nh lut Ohm vi on mch thun tr
Trang 120 121 125 127 127 130 136 139 142 146 148 148 151 154 155 157 157 159 162 165 168 170 171
Chng XI. T trng ca dng in khng i 1. Tng tc t ca dng in-nh lut Ampre 2. Vect cm ng t, vect cng t trng 3. T thng-nh l O-G 4. nh lut Ampre v dng in ton phn 5. Tc dng ca t trng ln dng in 6. Tc dng ca t trng ln ht in chuyn ng
12
Chng XII. Hin tng cm ng in t 1. Cc nh lut v hin tng cm ng in t 2. Hin tng t cm 3. Hin tng h cm 4. Nng lng t trng
13
Chng XIII. Trng in t 1. Lun im th nht ca Maxwell 2. Lun im th hai ca Maxwell 3. Trng in t v h cc phng trnh Maxwell 4. Sng in t
14
Ph lc: - Cc k hiu thng dng - Mt s hng s vt l thng dng
15
Ti liu tham kho
174

BÀI GIẢNG VẬT LÝ ĐẠI CƯƠNG A1 (Dùng cho sinh viên hệ đào tạo đại học từ xa) - HỌC VIỆN CÔNG NGHỆ BƯU CHÍNH VIỄN THÔNG

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BÀI GIẢNG VẬT LÝ ĐẠI CƯƠNG A1 (Dùng cho sinh viên hệ đào tạo đại học từ xa) - HỌC VIỆN CÔNG NGHỆ BƯU CHÍNH VIỄN THÔNG

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HC VIN CNG NGH BU CHNH VIN THNG

y Hnh 1-1 Qu o ca cht im

Hnh 1-2 thnh lp cng thc vn tc

hay theo nh ngha ca o hm, ta c th vit:

Hnh.1-3 nh ngha vect vn tc 5

Hnh 1-6 Vn tc ti nhng im khc nhau

r v trong khong thi gian v t

thi (gi tt l gia tc) ca cht im ti thi im t v c k hiu l a . Nh vy,

Trong , cc thnh phn ax, ay, az c xc nh theo (1-13).

r Ta t trn phng MA mt on MC sao cho MC = v' . Khi , nh trn hnh v (1-7),

r v AC CB r a = lim = lim + lim t 0 t t 0 t t 0 t

Hnh(1-7). Vn tc ca cht im ti cc thi im t v t'

v AC v' -v MC - MA = lim = lim = lim t 0 t t 0 t t t 0 t

r Thnh phn th hai ca gia tc, c k hiu l a n v theo (1-14), ta c:

r CB ln ca a n cho bi: a n = lim t 0 t

r r Ch rng cc gc: BMC = MOM= . Khi t 0, M M, v' v , gc rt nh, c th coi gn ng:

CB 1 v' s 1 s = lim = lim v' . lim t 0 t t 0 t R t 0 t R t 0

Thay cc kt qa va tnh c vo (1-16), cui cng ta s c:

r Tht vy, trong chuyn ng thng, R = , an = 0, vect vn tc v c phng khng i.

r - Khi an = 0, vect vn tc v khng thay i phng, cht im

4. MT S DNG CHUYN NG C HC THNG GP

T (1-21) v (1-23), kh thng s t ta s c

khng c trung cho nhanh chm ca chuyn ng ca bn knh R = OM ti mi

s tin ti gii hn, k hiu l , biu th vn tc gc ca t

Hnh 1-9 Lp cng thc vn tc gc

tin ti gii hn gi l gia tc gc ca cht im ti thi im t, k

Theo nh ngha v o hm v theo (1-26), ta c:

(1-28) (1-29) (1-30)

r r * Lin h gia cc vect v v . Gia bn kn R, cung MM v gc c mi lin h (xem hnh 1-9): MM = s = R , do :

r r r r Lin h gia cc vect R , v , , a-quay nhanh dn, b-quay chm dn

Hnh 1-12. Qu o ca vin n

Kh t t hai phng trnh (1) v (2) ta c:

Khi t n im cao nht p, vn tc ca vin n theo phng oy bng khng:

v y = v 0 y gt p = v 0 sin gt p = 0 tp = y max v o sin 1 = t2 . g 2 v sin g v o sin = (v o sin )t p g = v o sin o 2 g 2 g

e. Bn knh cong ca qu o ti im cao nht im cao nht, a = a n = g , v y = 0 , v = v x .

Vi gi tr xc nh ca vn tc vo, xr ln nht khi sin2 =1, tc khi

Chng II: ng lc hc cht im

cc lc bng mt lc tng hp: F = F 1 + F 2 + ... + F n .

Chng II: ng lc hc cht im

r r Ghi ch: Gia tc a v lc F

Chng II: ng lc hc cht im

r r a = 0, do v = const, iu ny ph hp vi nh lut Newton

=0 th ax= 0. Trng hp ny chuyn ng

r r ( F v F ' ) khi c gi l ni lc tng tc trong h, tng hp hai vect ni lc ny ca h

Nu mt h gm hai cht im A v B tng tc nhau th cc lc tng tc gia A v B

Chng II: ng lc hc cht im

Tn vt liu Thp trn thp Thp trn t cng

Chng II: ng lc hc cht im

r lc F vt c mt trng thi ng lc hc no (ng yn hay chuyn ng vi gia tc xc

Chng II: ng lc hc cht im

Chng II: ng lc hc cht im

gia tc a hng theo P1 , sc cng ca si dy l: T = mB (a+g) =mB( Rt gn kt qu trn, ta c: T= Nu P1< T th V sc cng T: a= T=

(b) Hnh 2-5 p lc ca t chuyn ng trn cu cong 25

Chng II: ng lc hc cht im

r Gi N ' l p lc ca t tc dng ln mt cu. Theo nh lut Newton th ba: r r N ' =- N

Newton II, cht

Chng II: ng lc hc cht im

r r r bin thin ca vect K t thi im t1 c K 1 n thi im t2 c vect ng lng K 2 c th tnh c nh sau:

r l xung lng ca lc F trong khong thi gian t t1 n t2. Biu

Vy kh nng truyn chuyn ng ph thuc vo ng lng ca vt

Chng II: ng lc hc cht im

4. NH LUT BO TON NG LNG

T (2-5) i vi cht im th i ta c th vit: ta c:

ln phng x, ta c: m1v1x+ m2v2x +... + mnvnx = const