3

HPEHCAOBHE

Haueprarentnax reomerpnx nxonr n uncno ncnnnnnn, cocrannxmmnx ocnony
nnxenepnoro opasonannx. Merot naueprarentno reomerpnn naxoxr mnpoxoe
npnmenenne n nayxe n rexnnxe. Hsyuenne anno ncnnnnnnt cnococrnyer pas-
nnrnm npocrpancrnennoro noopaxennx n nantxon nornuecxoro mtmnennx, neo-
xonmtx nnxenepy nmo cnennantnocrn.
Haueprarentnax reomerpnx +ro pasen reomerpnn, n xoropom npocrpancr-
nennte ]nrypt nsyuamrcx c nomomtm nx nsopaxenn na nnocxocrn (ueprexe).
Paspaorxa meroon nocrpoennx n urennx ueprexe, pemennx reomerpnuecxnx n
rexnnuecxnx saau xnnxercx npemerom nsyuennx naueprarentno reomerpnn. B
naueprarentno reomerpnn ncnontsymrcx rpa]nuecxne merot pemennx saau, no-
+romy x ueprexam npexnnxmrcx ocote rpeonannx oparnmocrt, rounocrt,
narnxnocrt n pyrne.
Hpannna nocrpoennx nsopaxenn ]nryp ocnonano na meroe npoennponannx.
Hanonee pacnpocrpanenntmn n naueprarentno reomerpnn xnnxmrcx ueprexn,
nonyuennte npn npoennponannn ]nryp na ne nnocxocrn xomnnexcnte ueprexn
n cncreme nyx nnocxocre npoexnn. Ho ]nrypo yem nonnmart nmoe mno-
xecrno rouex. Hsopaxennem rouxn, xoropax xnnxercx +nemenrom ]nrypt, xnnxer-
cx napa rouex ne cnxsannte mexy coo npoexnnn rouxn. Kaxo rouxe npo-
crpancrna coornercrnyer enncrnennax napa rouex nnocxocrn ueprexa n xaxo
nape rouex nnocxocrn ueprexa coornercrnyer enncrnennax rouxa npocrpancrna.
Hapa rouex nnocxocrn ueprexa xnnxercx reomerpnuecxo moentm rouxn npo-
crpancrna. Hsopaxennx ]nryp npocrpancrna, nonyuaemte meroamn naueprarent-
no reomerpnn, xnnxmrcx reomerpnuecxnmn moenxmn +rnx ]nryp na nnocxocrn.
Mexy ]nrypo n ee nsopaxennem ycranannnnaercx crporax reomerpnuecxax
cnxst, uro nosnonxer cynrt o ]opme n pasmepax ]nrypt no ee nsopaxennm.
3aaun n naueprarentno reomerpnn otuno enxrcx na nosnnnonnte (saaun
na onpeenenne omnx +nemenron saanntx ]nryp), merpnuecxne (saaun na onpe-
enenne snauenn reomerpnuecxnx nennunn nnn orpesxon, pasmepon yrnon n
r..) n xoncrpyxrnnnte (saaun na nocrpoenne ]nryp, yonnernopxmmnx saanntm
ycnonnxm). 3nanne +nemenrapno reomerpnn, meroon pemennx nosnnnonntx n
merpnuecxnx saau aer nosmoxnocrt pemart n xoncrpyxrnnnte saaun.
B annom yuenom noconn paccmorpent ocnonnte remt yuenoro xypca na-
ueprarentno reomerpnn: xomnnexcnte ueprexn ]nryp; npeopasonannx xom-
nnexcnoro ueprexa; nosnnnonnte n merpnuecxne saaun; pasneprxn nonepxnocre;
axconomerpnuecxne npoexnnn.
Hpn nororonxe yuenoro noconx anropt pacnpeennnn mexy coo paory
cneymmnm opasom: A.A. Hxmxontm nanncant naparpa]t 5, 10, 11, 12; H.K. Ky-
nnxontm npencnonne n naparpa]t 1, 2, 3, 4, 14, 15; K.H. Hanuyxom naparpa]t
6, 7, 8, 9, 13.




4
OBO3HAHEHHR H CHMBOAHKA

A, B, C, D, E nnn 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 rouxn n npocrpancrne;
a, b, c, d, e, npxmte n xpnnte nnnnn n npocrpancrne;
A, u, I, P, E nnocxocrn n nonepxnocrn n npocrpancrne;
Oxyz cncrema xoopnnar n npocrpancrne;
Ox, Oy, Oz ocn xoopnnar;
= panencrno, connaenne;
nepeceuenne (b E = A npxmax b nepecexaer nnocxocrt E n rouxe A,
ananornunax sannct yer nx xpnno n nonepxnocrn, onaxo no rexcry nonxrno, o
xaxnx ]nrypax ner peut);
// napannentnocrt (b // d npxmax b napannentna npxmo d);
/ cxpemnnaemocrt (m / n npxmte m n n cxpemnnamrcx);
nepnennxynxpnocrt (e E npxmax e nepnennxynxpna nnocxocrn E);
e npnnanexnocrt +nemenra mnoxecrna annomy mnoxecrny (A e b rou-
xa A npnnanexnr nnnnn b);
c npnnanexnocrt nomnoxecrna mnoxecrny (n c E nnnnx npnnane-
xnr nonepxnocrn);
=, e, ., snaxn, oosnauammne orpnnanne yxasanntx ntme ornomenn;
oropaxenne ( A A
1
rouxa A oropaxaercx n rouxy A
1
);
snax nornuecxoro cnecrnnx;
H
1
ropnsonrantnax nnocxocrt npoexnn (Oxy);
H
2
]ponrantnax nnocxocrt npoexnn (Oxz);
H
3
npo]nntnax nnocxocrt npoexnn (Oyz);
h ropnsonrant (npxmax, napannentnax nnocxocrn H
1
)
f ]ponrant (npxmax, napannentnax nnocxocrn H
2
);
p npo]nntnax npxmax (npxmax, napannentnax npo]nntno nnocxocrn H
3
);
A
1
, B
1
, C
1
, D
1
, E
1
nnn 1
1
, 2
1
, 3
1
, 4
1
, 5
1
npoexnnn rouex na H
1
;
A
2
, B
2
, C
2
, D
2
, E
2
nnn 1
2
, 2
2
, 3
2
, 4
2
, 5
2
npoexnnn rouex na H
2
;
A
3
, B
3
, C
3
, D
3
, E
3
nnn 1
3
, 2
3
, 3
3
, 4
3
, 5
3
npoexnnn rouex na H
3
;
a
1
, b
1
, c
1
, d
1
, e
1
, npoexnnn npxmtx nnn xpnntx nnnn na H
1
;
a
2
, b
2
, c
2
, d
2
, e
2
, npoexnnn npxmtx nnn xpnntx nnnn na H
2
;
a
3
, b
3
, c
3
, d
3
, e
3
, npoexnnn npxmtx nnn xpnntx nnnn na H
3
;
A
1
, u
1
, I
1
, P
1
, E
1
npoexnnn nnocxocre n nonepxnocre na H
1
;
A
2
, u
2
, I
2
, P
2
, E
2
npoexnnn nnocxocre n nonepxnocre na H
2
;
A
3
, u
3
, I
3
, P
3
, E
3
npoexnnn nnocxocre n nonepxnocre na H
3
;
H
4
, H
5
, H
6
, nonte (ononnnrentnte) nnocxocrn npoexnn;
x
14
, x
25
, nonte ocn (x
14
= H
1
H
4
, x
25
= H
2
H
5
) nnn x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, , ecnn
npnnanexnocrt oce nnocxocrxm npoexnn ne ntstnaer comnenn;
nosmoxnte napnanrt rpa]nuecxoro oosnauennx npxmoro
yrna na ueprexe.



n n n
5
1. OPTOIOHAALHOE (HPRMOYIOALHOE) HPOEHHPOBAHHE H
EIO CBOHCTBA

nx oosnauennx rouex yem ncnontsonart nponncnte yxnt narnncxoro
an]annra nnn apacxne nn]pt, nx oosnauennx nnnn crpounte yxnt narnn-
cxoro an]annra, nx oosnauennx nonepxnocre (nnocxocre) nponncnte yxnt
rpeuecxoro an]annra. Bosmoxnt n pyrne oosnauennx, xoropte yyr nneent n
antnemem.
Bostmem n npocrpancrne nponsnontnym nnocxocrt H
1
(nnocxocrt npoexnn).
Hycrt rouxa A pacnonoxena nne +ro nnocxocrn (pnc. 1.1). uepes rouxy A npone-
em npxmym s, nepnennxynxpno nnocxocrn npoexnn H
1
(s H
1
). Hpxmax s nast-
naercx npoennpymme npxmo. Haem rouxy A
1
nepeceuennx npxmo s c nnocxo-
crtm H
1
. Touxa A
1
nastnaercx oproronantno nnn npxmoyrontno npoexnne rou-
xn A na nnocxocrt H
1
. Hponecc nonyuennx rouxn A
1
nastnaercx oproronantntm
nnn npxmoyrontntm npoennponannem rouxn A na nnocxocrt H
1
.
Ecnn rouxn pacnonoxent na ono npoennpymme npxmo, ro oproronantnte
npoexnnn +rnx rouex connaamr (C
1
D
1
na pnc. 1.1). Taxne rouxn nastnamrcx
xonxypnpymmnmn.
Oproronantno npoexnne ]nrypt nastnaercx mnoxecrno oproronantntx
npoexnn ncex rouex +ro ]nrypt. Ha pnc. 1.1 oproronantno npoexnne xpnno
m xnnxercx xpnnax m
1
. nx nonyuennx m
1
neoxonmo nocrponrt npoexnnm xax-
o rouxn nnnnn m. Hpxmte, npoennpymmne rouxn xpnno na nnocxocrt, opa-
symr npoennpymmym nonepxnocrt . Ha pnc. 1.1 noxasano rontxo necxontxo raxnx
npoennpymmnx npxmtx, npnnanexamnx nonepxnocrn .
Paccmorpnm ocnonnte cnocrna oproronantnoro npoennponannx.
1. Touxa npoennpyercx n rouxy (npoexnne rouxn xnnxercx rouxa). Ecnn rouxa
npnnanexnr nnocxocrn npoexnn, ro
rouxa n ee npoexnnx connaamr (rouxa
npoennpyercx cama n cex). 3ro cneyer
ns onpeenennx npoennponannx.
2. Hpxmax, n omem cnyuae, npo-
ennpyercx n npxmym. Hpxmax, nepnen-
nxynxpnax nnocxocrn npoexnn, npo-
ennpyercx n rouxy.
Hnnnx m
1
(pnc. 1.1) ecrt nnnnx ne-
peceuennx npoennpymme nonepxnocrn
n nnocxocrn npoexnn H
1
. Ecnn nme-
cro xpnno m nsxrt npxmym, ro nonepxnocrt yer nnocxocrtm, a nnnnx m
1
, xax
nnnnx nepeceuennx nyx nnocxocre, yer npxmo nnnne.
Taxnm opasom, npxmax nnnnx, ne nepnennxynxpnax nnocxocrn npoexnn,
npoennpyercx n npxmym nnnnm.
nx nmo rouxn npxmo, nepnennxynxpno nnocxocrn npoexnn, cama +ra
npxmax n xnnxercx npoennpymme npxmo, no+romy npoexnnn ncex rouex conna-
yr, r.e. npxmax n +rom cnyuae npoennpyercx n rouxy.
A
s
H
1
A
1
C
D
C
1
= D
1
m

P n c . 1 . 1
m
1
6
3. Ecnn rouxa npnnanexnr npxmo, ro ee npoexnnx npnnanexnr npoexnnn
npxmo.
Hpoexnne npxmo xnnxercx mnoxecrno npoexnn ncex ee rouex, n rom uncne
n ynomxnyro n +rom cnocrne rouxn.
4. Hepecexammnecx npxmte n omem cnyuae npoennpymrcx n nepecexam-
mnecx npxmte.
3ro nerxo oxasart, ecnn nx rouxn nepeceuennx npxmtx npnmennrt cnocr-
no 3. B uacrnom cnyuae npoexnnn nepecexammnxcx npxmtx moryr connaart nnn
ona ns npxmtx moxer npoennponartcx n rouxy, npnnanexamym npoexnnn py-
ro npxmo.
5. Hapannentnte npxmte n omem cnyuae npoennpymrcx n napannentnte
npxmte.
Hpoennpymmax nonepxnocrt (pnc.1.1) nx npxmo yer nnocxocrtm n na-
stnaercx npoennpymme nnocxocrtm. Hpoennpymmne nnocxocrn y napannentntx
npxmtx napannentnt n nepecexamrcx nnocxocrtm npoexnn no napannentntm
npxmtm (npoexnnxm). B uacrnom cnyuae npoexnne napannentntx npxmtx moryr
trt ne rouxn nnn connanmne npxmte.
6. Orpesox npoennpyercx n orpesox. Orpesox, nepnennxynxpnt nnocxocrn
npoexnn, npoennpyercx n rouxy. nnna npoexnnn orpesxa panna nnne orpesxa,
ymnoxenno na xocnnyc yrna naxnona orpesxa x nnocxocrn npoexnn (npn npoenn-
ponannn na H
1
: A
1
B
1
= ABcos ).
Hocxontxy npxmax npoennpyercx n
npxmym, ro n uacrt npxmo (orpesox) npo-
ennpyercx n uacrt npxmo (orpesox). Ha
pnc.1.2 orpesox AB npoennpyercx n orpe-
sox A
1
B
1
. Orpesox AB'

nponeen napan-
nentno orpesxy A
1
B
1
(AB' // A
1
B
1
). Hs npx-
moyrontnnxa A
1
AB'B
1
n npxmoyrontnoro
rpeyrontnnxa ABB'

nmeem A
1
B
1
= AB'
= A Bcos . nnna npoexnnn orpesxa
mentme nnnt orpesxa ( 0) nnn panna
nnne orpesxa ( = 0). Hs +roro cnocrna
cneyer cneymmee cnocrno oproronantnoro npoennponannx.
7. Orpesox, napannentnt nnocxocrn npoexnn, npoennpyercx na nee n napan-
nentnt n pannt cee orpesox.
8. Ornomenne nnn orpesxon AB n CD, nexamnx na napannentntx npxmtx
nnn na ono npxmo, npn npoennponannn ne menxercx.
Vron naxnona orpesxon, ynomxnyrtx n +rom cnocrne, x nnocxocrn npoexnn
onnaxon, no+romy A
1
B
1
: C
1
D
1
= AB cos : CD cos = AB : CD.
9. unrypa, npnnanexamax nnocxocrn, napannentno nnocxocrn npoexnn,
npoennpyercx na nnocxocrt npoexnn n pannym e ]nrypy (n narypantnym nenn-
unny).
Hmo orpesox npoennpyemo ]nrypt napannenen nnocxocrn npoexnn
( = 0) n npoennpyercx n pannt emy orpesox (nnna npoexnnn orpesxa panna nn-
A
A
1
B
B '
B
1
H
1

P n c . 1 . 2
7
ne orpesxa). 3ro snaunr, uro n ncx ]nrypa npoennpyercx n pannym e ]nrypy nnn
narypantnym nennunny.
10. Ecnn ne nnocxocrn npoexnn napannentnt, ro npoexnnn nmo ]nrypt
na +rn nnocxocrn pannt.
Vron naxnona nmoro orpesxa ]nrypt x +rnm nnocxocrxm npoexnn onnaxon
ncnecrnne nx napannentnocrn. Ho+romy orpesox, coennxmmn ne nmte rouxn
]nrypt, yer npoennponartcx na +rn nnocxocrn n pannte orpesxn. 3ro snaunr,
uro nmax ]nrypa yer npoennponartcx na napannentnte nnocxocrn n pannte
]nrypt.
11. Bennunna npoexnnn yrna onpeenxercx no ]opmyne

1
cos =


cos cos
in s sin cos
(1.1)
Vron BAC npoennpyercx n yron B
1
A
1
C
1
(pnc. 1.3). Touxn B n C +ro rouxn
nepeceuennx cropon yrna c nnocxocrtm npoexnn, no+romy onn npoennpymrcx ca-
mn n cex. Btno ]opmynt ocnonan na ncnontsonannn reopemt xocnnycon nx
cropont BC n rpeyrontnnxax ABC n
A
1
B
1
C
1
.
Hpn nsyuennn cnocrn oproronant-
noro npoennponannx pexomenyercx nt-
nonnxrt pncynxn rnna pnc.1.1 nx xaxo-
ro cnocrna n ntrartcx npecrannrt cee
]nrypt n npocrpancrne. nx nonnmannx
ncex nonpocon naueprarentno reomer-
pnn neoxonmo mtcnenno npecrannxrt
]nrypt n nnocxocrn npoexnn n npo-
crpancrne.
Kpome oproronantnoro npoennponannx cymecrnymr nenrpantnoe, xocoyront-
noe n pyrne nnt npoennponannx. B annom noconn ncnontsyercx rontxo opro-
ronantnoe npoennponanne, no+romy n antnemem nn npoennponannx yxastnart-
cx ne yer.


2. KOMHAEKCHLH HEPTE

Hsopaxenne ]nrypt, nonyuennoe npn npoennponannn ]nrypt na nnocxocrt,
aer nn]opmannm o ]nrype. Onaxo +ra nn]opmannx xnnxercx nenonno. Ho nso-
paxennm na nnocxocrn nentsx noccranonnrt ]nrypy n ee nonoxenne n npocrpan-
crne, r.e. ueprex, coepxamn ony npoexnnm ]nrypt, neoparnm. ecrnnrent-
no, no npoexnnn A
1
(pnc. 1.1) narn rouxy A n npocrpancrne nenosmoxno, rax xax
no npoexnnn nentsx narn paccroxnne rouxn A o nnocxocrn H
1
. Ho npoexnnn or-
pesxa CD (rouxa C
1
= D
1
) narn nnny +roro orpesxa nenosmoxno. Onnm ns mero-
on, nosnonxmmnx onrtcx oparnmocrn ueprexa, xnnxercx ynennuenne uncna
nnocxocre npoexnn.

A
1
A
B =
C =

1
B
1
C
1
H
1
P n c . 1 . 3
8
2.1. Kounnexcnmn uep1ea 1ouxn

Paccmorpnm npoennponanne rouxn na rpn n ne nnocxocrn npoexnn. B npo-
crpancrne saanm npxmoyrontnt napannenennne AA
2
A
z
A
3
A
1
A
x
OA
y
(pnc. 2.1).
Cnocrna +ro ]nrypt nsnecrnt ns xypca reomerpnn cpene mxont: pepa, ntxo-
xmne ns ono nepmnnt, nepnennxynxpnt pyr pyry; xaxax rpant npxmo-
yrontnnx; nmoe pepo napannentno rpem pepam n nepnennxynxpno noctmn pe-
pam; napannentnte pepa nmemr onnaxonym nnny.
uepes pepa, ntxoxmne ns nepmnnt O, nponeem ocn x, y, z (pnc. 2.2). Cnc-
rema Oxyz xnnxercx exaprono cncremo xoopnnar (ocn nepnennxynxpnt, en-
nnna nsmepennx onnaxona no ncem ocxm, rouxa O nauano xoopnnar).
uepes rpann, npoxoxmne uepes rouxy O, nponeem nnocxocrn H
1
, H
2
, H
3
(pnc.
2.3). Tora ocn x n y npnnanexar nnocxocrn H
1
(ropnsonrantnax nnocxocrt npo-
exnn), ocn x n z npnnanexar H
2
(]ponrantnax nnocxocrt npoexnn), ocn y n z
npnnanexar H
3
(npo]nntnax nnocxocrt npoexnn). Hpocrpancrno ennrcx nnoc-
xocrxmn npoexnn H
1
, H
2
n H
3
na nocemt uacre oxranron. Homepa nx noxasant
na pnc. 2.3.
Hycrt rouxa A xnnxercx rouxo npocrpancrna, nx xoropo mt xornm nocrpo-
nrt xomnnexcnt ueprex. Tora, oproronantno npoennpyx rouxy A na H
1
, nonyunm
rouxy A
1
. ecrnnrentno, rouxa A
1
npnnanexnr H
1
, pepo AA
1
nepnennxynxpno
nnocxocrn H
1
, r. e. A
1
oproronantnax npoexnnx rouxn A na nnocxocrt H
1
. Touxa
A
1
ropnsonrantnax npoexnnx rouxn A. Oproronantno npoennpyx rouxy A na H
2
,
nonyunm A
2
(]ponrantnax npoexnnx rouxn A), oproronantno npoennpyx rouxy A
na H
3
, nonyunm A
3
(npo]nntnax npoexnnx rouxn A). oxasarentcrno raxoe xe, xax
n nx npoexnnn A
1
. Oparnm nnnmanne na ro, uro npn npoennponannn rouxn na ne
nnocxocrn npoexnn ]nrypa AA
1
A
x
A
2
npxmoyrontnnx, nnocxocrt xoroporo nep-
nennxynxpna ocn Ox.
Fespasmepnoe uncno, no aconmrno nennunne pannoe paccroxnnm or rouxn A
o nnocxocrn npoexnn n nsxroe co snaxom, nastnaercx xoopnnaro rouxn. Tax,
x
z
y
x
z
y
O
O
O
A
z
A
3
A
y
A
1
A
x
A
2
A
1
A
1
H
3
H
2
H
1
A
A
A
A
2
A
2
A
z
A
z
A
x
A
x
A
y
A
y
A
3 A
3
1
2
3
4
5
6
8
P n c . 2 . 1 P n c . 2 . 2 P n c . 2 . 3
9
nanpnmep, xoopnnara x
A
(nsmepxercx nont ocn x) no aconmrno nennunne panna
nnne orpesxa A
3
A n nonoxnrentna, ecnn rouxa A naxonrcx n rom xe nonynpo-
crpancrne ornocnrentno nnocxocrn H
3
, uro n nonoxnrentnax nonyoct ocn x. B npo-
rnnnom cnyuae xoopnnara orpnnarentna. Bce pepa napannenennnea, napannent-
nte n pannte A
3
A yem nastnart xoopnnarntmn orpesxamn x
A
. 3ro orpesxn
A
3
A, A
y
A
1
, OA
x
, A
z
A
2
. nnnt +rnx orpesxon, nsxrte co snaxom, xnnxmrcx xoopn-
naro x
A
rouxn A. Ananornuno nnoxrcx n xoopnnarnte orpesxn y
A
n z
A
. Koopn-
narnte orpesxn y
A
: A
2
A; A
x
A
1
; OA
y
; A
z
A
3
. Koopnnarnte orpesxn z
A
: A
1
A; A
y
A
3
;
OA
z
; A
x
A
2
. Hanomnnm, uro nomanax OA
x
A
1
A nastnaercx xoopnnarno nomano.
Ee snentx xoopnnarnte orpesxn x
A
, y
A
, z
A
. 3annct B(3; 2; 5) osnauaer, uro xo-
opnnara x
B
= 3, xoopnnara y
B
= 2, xoopnnara z
B
= 5.
Fyem paccmarpnnart rontxo re rouxn n nnnnn, xoropte pacnonoxent n
nnocxocrxx npoexnn n ntnonnnm nonoport nnocxocre H
1
n H
3
noxpyr oce x n y
coornercrnenno o conmemennx c nnocxocrtm H
2
. Hanpannennx nonoporon na pnc.
2.3 noxasant mrpnxontmn nnnnxmn. Hnocxocrt H
2
xnnxercx nnocxocrtm ueprexa.
Hocne nonopora ocn xoopnnar samyr nonoxenne, noxasannoe na pnc. 2.4.


Oct y, nnraxct c nnocxocrtm H
1
nonaaer na oct z, a nnraxct c nnocxocrtm
H
3
, nonaaer na oct x. 3ro nropoe nonoxenne ocn y oosnaunm y'. ocrpannax pe-
pa napannenennnea, pacnonoxennte n nnocxocrxx npoexnn, nonyunm pnc. 2.5.
Hocxontxy pepa napannenennnea, npoxoxmne uepes nepmnny A
x
, nsanmno nep-
nennxynxpnt, ro nonyunm, uro A
2
A
x
n A
x
A
1
pacnonoxent na ono npxmo, nep-
nennxynxpno ocn x. Ananornuno orpesxn A
2
A
z
n A
z
A
3
pacnonoxent na ono
npxmo, nepnennxynxpno ocn z. Hpxmte (A
1
A
2
) n (A
2
A
3
) nastnamrcx nnnnxmn
npoexnnonno cnxsn (nnora no nnnnxmn npoexnnonno cnxsn nonnmamr coor-
nercrnymmne orpesxn +rnx npxmtx).
4




5

x
z
y
y '
O
x
z
y '
y
O
z
A
y
A
x
A
y
A
z
A
k
A
x
A
z
A
1
A
2
A
3
A
k
A
y '
A
y
P n c . 2 . 4 P n c . 2 . 5
10
Ha pnc. 2.5 oosnauent xoopnnarnte orpesxn x
A
, y
A
, z
A
. nx roro urot
oecneunrt nnnenym cnxst mexy A
1
n A
3
, nneem npxmym k (nocroxnnax npxmax
ueprexa). Homanym A
1
A
k
A
3
(nnn ne nepecexammnecx npxmte A
1
A
k
n A
k
A
3
) yem
cunrart nnnne npoexnnonno cnxsn nx A
1
n A
3
.
Taxnm opasom, rouxe A npocrpancrna coornercrnyer nsopaxenne na nnocxo-
crn, cocroxmee ns rpex npoexnn A
1
, A
2
, A
3
, cnxsanntx mexy coo nnnnxmn
npoexnnonno cnxsn, xoropoe nastnaercx xomnnexcntm ueprexom rouxn A n cnc-
reme (H
1
H
2
H
3
). 3ror ueprex oparnm, rax xax na nem npncyrcrnymr nce rpn xoop-
nnarntx orpesxa, uro ycranannnnaer nsanmno onosnaunoe coornercrnne mexy
rouxamn npocrpancrna n nx nsopaxennxmn na nnocxocrn.
B xypce uepuennx, npn nsopaxennn npemeron na ueprexe, ropnsonrantnax
npoexnnx nastnaercx nnom cnepxy, ]ponrantnax nnom cnepen, npo]nntnax
nnom cnena.
Ecnn nsnecrnt A
1
n A
2
, ro A
3
moxno nocrponrt. ocrarouno nponecrn uepes
A
2
nnnnm npoexnnonno cnxsn nepnennxynxpno ocn z n uepes A
1
nomanym nn-
nnm npoexnnonno cnxsn. Hepeceuenne +rnx nnnn n yer rouxo A
3
. Kpome ro-
ro, na ueprexe, coepxamem rontxo A
1
n A
2
, npncyrcrnymr nce xoopnnarnte or-
pesxn, r. e. raxo ueprex roxe oparnm. Hsopaxenne rouxn A, cocroxmee ns npo-
exnn A
1
n A
2
, cnxsanntx mexy coo nnnne npoexnnonno cnxsn, nastnaercx
xomnnexcntm ueprexom rouxn A n cncreme (H
1
H
2
) nnn xomnnexcntm ueprexom.
Hpn nonyuennn raxoro ueprexa nnocxocrt H
3
ne nnonrcx. Hpocrpancrno nymx
nnocxocrxmn H
1
n H
2
ennrcx na uertpe uacrn uerneprn. Homepa uernepre con-
naamr c nomepamn nepntx uertpex oxranron.
nx nocrpoennx xomnnexcnoro ueprexa rouxn A(x
A
, y
A
, z
A
) neoxonmo no-
crponrt no xoopnnaram A
1
(x
A
, y
A
) n A
2
(x
A
, z
A
). Ecnn paccmarpnnaercx xomnnexc-
nt ueprex n cncreme (H
1
H
2
H
3
), ro moxno no xoopnnaram nocrponrt A
3
(y
A
, z
A
),
npn +rom ncnontsyercx oct y'. Moxno A
3
nocrponrt n no nnnnxm npoexnnonno
cnxsn. Hpn orxnatnannn xoopnnarntx orpesxon na orpnnarentntx nonyocxx ne-
oxonmo oparnrt nnnmanne na ro, uro orpnnarentnte nonyocn onnx oce con-
naamr c nonoxnrentntmn nonyocxmn pyrnx oce.
Ha pnc. 2.6 npnneent xomnnexcnte ueprexn n cncreme (H
1
H
2
H
3
) rouex
A(3; 4; 2) n B(2; 3; 2), C(1; 0; 3). Ennnna nsmepennx nomeuena mrpnxamn na xo-
opnnarntx orpesxax. Touxa A naxonrcx n nepnom oxranre, rouxa B n uerneprom
oxranre, rouxa C npnnanexnr nnocxocrn H
2
. O rouxe C moxno cxasart, uro ona
npnnanexnr nxromy n mecromy oxranram ononpemenno. Ha pnc. 2.7 npnneent
xomnnexcnte ueprexn n cncreme (H
1
H
2
) rouex K(4; 2; 2) n L(5; 3; 4), M(6; 2; 3),
N(1; 3; 5), F(2; 3; 4). Touxn K n F naxoxrcx n nepno uerneprn, rouxa L no nro-
po, rouxa M n rperte, rouxa N n uernepro uerneprn.
Hpnnanexnocrt rouxn onpeenenno uerneprn nnn oxranry moxno ntxnnrt
no snaxam xoopnnar x, y, z +ro rouxn. nx rouex xaxo uerneprn nnn oxranra
xapaxrepnt onpeenennte snaxn xoopnnar. Moxno npecrannrt xoopnnarnte
nnocxocrn, ocn xoopnnar (pnc. 2.3) n mtcnenno nocrponrt xoopnnarnym noma-
nym rouxn (OA
x
A
1
A na pnc. 2.3) n ynnert n xaxo uerneprn nnn oxranre naxo-
nrcx rouxa.
11
3naxn xoopnnar x, y, z n oxranrax: 1(+; +; +); 2(+; ; +); 3(+; ; ); 4(+; +; );
5(; +; +); 6(; ; +); 7(; ; ); 8(; +; ).
3naxn xoopnnar n uerneprxx: 1(; +; +); 2(; ; +); 3(; ; ); 4(; +; ).
B antnemem paccmarpnnamrcx xomnnexcnte ueprexn ]nryp n cncreme
(H
1
H
2
). Ennnna nsmepennx no ncem ocxm onnaxona onn mnnnnmerp n cnenn-
antno nomeuartcx mrpnxamn ne yer.


2.2. Kounnexcnmn uep1ea npnuon

Hpxmax, ne napannentnax nn ono ns nnocxocre npoexnn, nastnaercx npx-
mo omero nonoxennx. Hpxmax, napannentnax xorx t ono ns nnocxocre npo-
exnn, nastnaercx npxmo uacrnoro nonoxennx.
Hponecrn npxmym na ueprexe nenosmoxno, rax xax ona neorpannuenna n ne
nmeer onpeenenno nnnt. Otuno npxmax saaercx na ueprexe orpesxom n
npenonaraercx, uro orpesox npn neoxonmocrn moxno npoonxnrt.
Hpn npoennponannn npxmo e na ropn-
sonrantnym nnocxocrt npoexnn H
1
nony-
unm npxmym e
1
, npn npoennponannn npxmo
e na ]ponrantnym nnocxocrt npoexnn H
2

nonyunm npxmym e
2
. Hpxmax e
1
+ro ropn-
sonrantnax npoexnnx npxmo e, npxmax e
2

]ponrantnax npoexnnx npxmo e (pnc. 2.8).
Vcnonnmcx, na xomnnexcnom ueprexe n cnc-
reme (H
1
H
2
), ocn y n z ne noxastnart. 3a-
nnct e(e
1
, e
2
) osnauaer, uro npxmax e na uep-
rexe saana npoexnnxmn e
1
n e
2
. Taxax sa-
nnct ncnontsyercx ne rontxo nx npxmo,
x
z
y '
y
k
x
O
O = C
k
A
2
C
3
C
2
A
3
A
k
B
k
B
3
C
x
C
1
A
1
B
1
B
2
B
x
A
x
M
1
L
2
K
2
M
2
K
1
N
1
N
2
F
2
F
1
L
1
=
z
y
P n c . 2 . 6
P n c . 2 . 7
x
e
2
e
1
O
P n c . 2 . 8
12
no n nx nmo ]nrypt. Hpxmax e xnnxercx npxmo omero nonoxennx. Venmcx
n +rom, paccmorpen xomnnexcnte ueprexn npxmtx uacrnoro nonoxennx (pnc. 2.9).
Hpxmax h, napannentnax ropnsonrantno nnocxocrn npoexnn H
1
, nastnaercx
ropnsonrantm. Paccroxnne or xaxo rouxn ropnsonrann h o H
1
onnaxont, rax
xax h // H
1
. 3rn paccroxnnx npncyrcrnymr na ]ponrantno nnocxocrn npoexnn
(xoopnnarnte orpesxn z nx xaxo rouxn npxmo). Ho+romy ]ponrantnax npo-
exnnx ropnsonrann napannentna ocn x, ro ecrt h
2
// x .


Hpxmax f, napannentnax ]ponrantno nnocxocrn npoexnn H
2
, nastnaercx
]ponrantm. Paccroxnnx or xaxom rouxn f o H
2
onnaxont. 3rn paccroxnnx npn-
cyrcrnymr na ropnsonrantno nnocxocrn npoexnn (xoopnnarnte orpesxn y nx
xaxo rouxn npxmo). Ho+romy f
1
// x .
Hpxmax a, nepnennxynxpnax ropnsonrantno nnocxocrn npoexnn H
1
, nast-
naercx ropnsonrantno npoennpymme npxmo. Ha H
1
ona npoennpyercx n rouxy.
Tax xax npxmax a napannentna ocn z , ro a
2
napannentna ocn z na H
2
. Hpxmax a ne
rontxo ropnsonrantno npoennpymmax npxmax, no raxxe xnnxercx ]ponrantm, rax
xax a // H
2
.
Hpxmax b, nepnennxynxpnax ]ponrantno nnocxocrn npoexnn H
2
, nastna-
ercx ]ponrantno npoennpymme npxmo. Ha H
2
ona npoennpyercx n rouxy. Hpxmax
b raxxe xnnxercx ropnsonrantm.
Hpxmte, napannentnte nnocxocrxm npoexnn, nastnamrcx npxmtmn yponnx,
nnn nnnnxmn yponnx. Hpxmax n, napannentnax H
1
n H
2
,

moxer trt nasnana npxmo
nonoro yponnx (n
1
// x, n
2
// x), xpome roro n napannentna ocn x.
Ha xomnnexcnom ueprexe n cncreme (H
1
H
2
H
3
) npxmtmn uacrnoro nonoxennx,
xpome paccmorpenntx ntme npxmtx, yyr npxmte napannentnte nnocxocrn H
3

npo]nntnte npxmte. Ha pnc. 2.9 noxasant npoexnnn p
1
n p
2
npo]nntno npxmo,
y rouex +ro npxmo onnaxont xoopnnarnte orpesxn x. Hpn nocrpoennn na xom-
nnexcnom ueprexe npo]nntno npxmo neoxonmo saanart npo]nntnym npoex-
x
h
2
f
2
a
2
b
2
n
2
p
2
p
1
n
1
b
1
a
1
f
1
h
1
O
x
z
y
y
z
P n c . 2 . 9
13
nnm +ro npxmo. 3amernm, uro npxmax n na xomnnexcnom ueprexe n cncreme
(H
1
H
2
H
3
) nastnaercx npo]nntno npoennpymme npxmo, ee npoexnne na H
3
yer
rouxa.
Komnnexcnte ueprexn npxmtx uacrnoro nonoxennx onaamr xpxo ntpa-
xenntmn ocoennocrxmn y npxmtx yponnx ecrt npoexnnx, napannentnax ocn xo-
opnnar, y npoennpymmnx npxmtx ona npoexnnx rouxa. Hpxmax e (pnc. 2.8) ne
onaaer +rnmn ocoennocrxmn, no+romy xnnxercx npxmo omero nonoxennx.
Hocxontxy uepes ne rouxn npoxonr enncrnennax npxmax, ro npxmym mox-
no saart nymx rouxamn. Or raxoro saannx npxmo nerxo nepern x saannm
npxmo orpesxom. ecrnnrentno, coennnn no nnnexe ropnsonrantnte npoexnnn
rouex, nonyunm ropnsonrantnym npoexnnm orpesxa, coennnn ]ponrantnte npo-
exnnn rouex, nonyunm ]ponrantnym npoexnnm orpesxa. Ecnn ant ropnsonrant-
nax n ]ponrantnax npoexnnn npxmo, ro nx roro, urot nocrponrt npo]nntnym
npoexnnm npxmo, neoxonmo nocrponrt npo]nntnte npoexnnn nyx nmtx ro-
uex +ro npxmo n nponecrn uepes nnx npo]nntnym npoexnnm npxmo (rounee,
npo]nntnym npoexnnm orpesxa, saammero npxmym).
Oparnm nnnmanne na ono cnocrno nnnn yponnx. Orpesox, pacnonoxennt
na nnnnn yponnx, npoennpyercx n pannt emy orpesox na ry nnocxocrt npoexnn,
xoropo napannentna nnnnx yponnx. Hanpnmep, orpesox na ropnsonrann npoennpy-
ercx na ropnsonrantnym nnocxocrt npoexnn n pannt emy orpesox, r.e. n nary-
pantnym nennunny (pnc. 1.2, = 0).


2.3. Kounnexcnmn uep1ea nnocxoc1n

Hnocxocrt, ne nepnennxynxpnax nn ono ns nnocxocre npoexnn, nastna-
ercx nnocxocrtm omero nonoxennx. Hnocxocrt, nepnennxynxpnax xorx t o-
no ns nnocxocre npoexnn, nastnaercx nnocxocrtm uacrnoro nonoxennx.
Hocrponrt xomnnexcnt ueprex ncex rouex nnocxocrn nenosmoxno, r.x. mno-
xecrno rouex nnocxocrn ecxoneuno n neorpannuenno (paccroxnne mexy nymx
rouxamn nnocxocrn moxer npnnnmart xaxne yrono
ontmne snauennx). nx roro urot nocrponrt xom-
nnexcnt ueprex nnocxocrn, nocrynnm rax xe, xax
nocrynnnn npn nocrpoennn xomnnexcnoro ueprexa
npxmo. Fyem crponrt xomnnexcnt ueprex uacrn
nnocxocrn. Koneuno, nmax uacrt (xycox) nnocxocrn
saacr nnocxocrt na ueprexe, no nanonee npocro n
yono uacrtm nnocxocrn nx +ro nenn xnnxercx
rpeyrontnnx.
Hycrt n nnocxocrn nsxr rpeyrontnnx ABC.
Hpn npoennponannn ABC na H
1
nonyunm A
1
B
1
C
1
,
npn npoennponannn na H
2
A
2
B
2
C
2
(pnc. 2.10).
Moxno cxasart, uro cnauana nocrponnn xomnnexcnte
ueprexn nepmnn rpeyrontnnxa, a sarem ononmennte
npoexnnn nepmnn coennnnn orpesxamn, xoropte xn-
x
A
2
B
2
C
2
C
1
B
1
A
1
P n c . 2 . 1 0
14
nxmrcx npoexnnxmn cropon rpeyrontnnxa. Hpn +rom nnnnn npoexnnonno cnxsn
(A
1
A
2
), (B
1
B
2
), (C
1
C
2
) nepnennxynxpnt ocn x. Taxnm opasom, na pnc. 2.10 npnne-
en xomnnexcnt ueprex nnocxocrn , saanno rpeyrontnnxom ABC. nx nnoc-
xocrn , saanno rpeyrontnnxom ABC, yem ncnontsonart oosnauennx: ;
(ABC); (ABC).
Hnocxocrt (pnc. 2.10) xnnxercx nnocxocrtm omero nonoxennx. Venmcx
n +rom, paccmorpen xomnnexcnte ueprexn nnocxocre uacrnoro nonoxennx (pnc.
2.11).

Hnocxocrt (DFE), nepnennxynxpnax ropnsonrantno nnocxocrn npoexnn
H
1
, nastnaercx ropnsonrantno npoennpymme nnocxocrtm. Ha H
1
nnocxocrt
npoennpyercx n npxmym nnnnm, xoropax xnnxercx nnnne nepeceuennx n H
1
. nx
nmo rouxn nnocxocrn npxmax, npoennpymmax +ry rouxy na H
1
, naxonrcx n
nnocxocrn . Bce rouxn nnocxocrn npoennpymrcx na nnnnm nepeceuennx n H
1
.
Tpeyrontnnx DFE na H
1
npoennpyercx n orpesox, a na H
2
n rpeyrontnnx. Orpesox
na H
1
saaer npxmym, n xoropym npoennpyercx nnocxocrt .
Hnocxocrt (TNM) roxe ropnsonrantno npoennpymmax, rax xax ee ropnson-
rantnax npoexnnx npxmax, saannax orpesxom T
1
M
1
. Orpesox T
1
M
1
napannenen
ocn x. 3ro snaunr, uro y ncex rouex nnocxocrn (TNM) xoopnnara y onnaxona,
r.e. nnocxocrt napannentna ]ponrantno nnocxocrn npoexnn H
1
. Taxax nnocxocrt
nastnaercx ]ponrantno nnocxocrtm yponnx, nnn ]ponrantno nnocxocrtm.
Hnocxocrt (AKF) nepnennxynxpna H
2
n nastnaercx ]ponrantno npoenn-
pymme nnocxocrtm. Ha ]ponrantnym nnocxocrt npoexnn +ra nnocxocrt npo-
ennpyercx n npxmym, saannym orpesxom A
2
P
2
.
uponrantno npoennpymmax nnocxocrt (CHL) napannentna ropnsonrantno
nnocxocrn npoexnn, rax xax xoopnnara z y ncex rouex +ro nnocxocrn onnaxona
(C
2
L
2
// x). Taxax nnocxocrt nastnaercx ropnsonrantno nnocxocrtm yponnx, nnn
ropnsonrantno nnocxocrtm.
x
D
2
F
2
E
2
T
2
N
2
M
2
A
2
K
2
P
2
C
2
H
2
L
2
B
2
R
2
S
2
S
1
B
1
R
1
L
1
H
1
C
1
P
1
K
1
A
1
N
1
M
1
T
1
E
1
F
1
D
1
y
z
P n c . 2 . 1 1
15
Hnocxocrt (BRC) nepnennxynxpna H
1
n H
2
, +ra nnocxocrt nepnennxynxpna
ocn x. B cncreme (H
1
H
2
H
3
) ona nastnaercx npo]nntno nnocxocrtm yponnx, nnn
npo]nntno nnocxocrtm, rax xax (BRC) // H
3
(xoopnnara x ncex rouex nnocxocrn
onnaxona).
B cncreme (H
1
H
2
H
3
), nnocxocrt, nepnennxynxpnax npo]nntno nnocxocrn
npoexnn H
3
, nastnaercx npo]nntno npoennpymme nnocxocrtm. Hpo]nntnax
npoexnnx raxo nnocxocrn npxmax.
V nnocxocre uacrnoro nonoxennx xorx t ona npoexnnx npxmax nnnnx.
Hnocxocrt (pnc. 2.10) ne onaaer +ro ocoennocrtm, no+romy xnnxercx nnoc-
xocrtm omero nonoxennx.
Hnocxocrt moxer trt saana ne rontxo rpeyrontnnxom. nx saannx nnocxo-
crn moxno ncnontsonart rpn rouxn, ne napannentnte npxmte, ne nepecexam-
mnecx npxmte, rouxy n npxmym, rax xax uepes nmym ns +rnx ]nryp npoxonr
enncrnennax nnocxocrt. Koneuno, paccmarpnnart raxym ]nrypy xax uacrt nnoc-
xocrn yxe nentsx. Or onoro cnocoa saannx nnocxocrn moxno nepern x nmomy
pyromy. Hanpnmep, ecnn nnocxocrt saana napannentntmn npxmtmn, ro, nsxn na
ono npxmo ne rouxn, a na pyro npxmo ony rouxy n coennnn +rn rouxn
orpesxamn, nepeem x saannm nnocxocrn rpeyrontnnxom.
nx roro urot or xomnnexcnoro ueprexa nnocxocrn n cncreme (H
1
H
2
) nepe-
rn x xomnnexcnomy ueprexy nnocxocrn n cncreme (H
1
H
2
H
3
), neoxonmo nocrponrt
npo]nntnym npoexnnm ]nrypt, saamme nnocxocrt.


3. B3AHMHOE HOAOEHHE TOHEK H HPRMLX,
HX HPHHAAEHOCTL HAOCKOCTH

3.1. Bsanunoe nonoaenne 1ouxn n npnuon. enenne o1pesxa npnuon n
annou o1nomennn

Touxa moxer npnnanexart npxmo n moxer ne npnnanexart npxmo. Hycrt
rouxa A npnnanexnr npxmo e (A e). Hpn
npoennponannn npxmo n rouxn na nnocxocrt H
1

nonyunm, uro ropnsonrantnax npoexnnx rouxn
npnnanexnr ropnsonrantno npoexnnn npxmo
A
1
e
1
. Ananornuno n npn npoennponannn na
H
2
A
2
e
2
. Taxnm opasom, ecnn rouxa npn-
nanexnr npxmo, ro ee npoexnnn npnnanexar
ononmenntm npoexnnxm npxmo. Cnpanennno
n oparnoe yrnepxenne: ecnn npoexnnn rouxn
npnnanexar ononmenntm npoexnnxm npxmo,
ro rouxa npnnanexnr npxmo. Ha pnc. 3.1 rouxa
A npnnanexnr npxmo e, a ocrantnte rouxn ne
npnnanexar npxmo e.
nx onpeenennx npnnanexnocrn rouxn npo]nntno npxmo, neoxonmt
npo]nntnte npoexnnn rouxn n npxmo.
x
A
2
e
2
B
2
D
1
C
2
A
1
e
1
B
1
C
1
D
2
P n c . 3 . 1
E
2
E
1
16
Hpn npoennponannn orpesxa AB na H
1
nonyunm orpesox A
1
B
1
, npn npoennpo-
nannn na H
2
A
2
B
2
. Ha pnc. 3.2 noxasan xomnnexcnt ueprex orpesxa AB.
Hocxontxy ornomenne nnn orpesxon, nexamnx na ono npxmo, npn npo-
ennponannn ne menxercx, ro nx enennx
orpesxa n annom ornomennn ocrarouno
pasennrt n +rom ornomennn ony npoex-
nnm orpesxa, n +ro nonnocrtm onpeennr
rouxy enennx. Ha pnc. 3.2 noxasano no-
crpoenne rouxn C, enxme orpesox AB n
ornomennn AC : CB = 3 : 2. Ha ocnone
reopemt uaneca n ornomennn 3 : 2 ennm
ropnsonrantnym npoexnnm orpesxa, r.e.
A
1
C
1
: C
1
B
1
= 3 : 2. Tax naxonm rou-
xy C
1
. 3arem no nnnnn npoexnnonno cnx-
sn naxonm C
2
. Touxa C
2
ennr ]ponrant-
nym npoexnnm orpesxa n rom xe ornome-
nnn A
2
C
2
: C
2
B
2
= 3 : 2 (no reopeme uaneca, rax xax nnnnn npoexnnonno cnx-
sn ncex rouex napannentnt). Ha pnc. 3.2 nocneonarentnocrt nocrpoenn noxasana
crpenxo na nnnnn npoexnnonno cnxsn cnauana crponrcx C
1
, a sarem C
2
.

3.2. Bsanunoe nonoaenne npnumx

B npocrpancrne ne npxmte moryr connaart, nepecexartcx, trt napannent-
ntmn, cxpemnnartcx.
V connanmnx npxmtx nce rouxn connaamr, no+romy +rn npxmte yyr nmert
connanmne ononmennte npoexnnn. Ho cyrn, +ro ona npxmax, oosnauennax no-
pasnomy.

x
1
2
3
4
5
A
2
C
2
B
2
B
1
C
1 A
1
( 3 C
1
) / / ( 5 B
1
)
P n c . 3 . 2
x x x
a
2
K
2
b
2
b
1
a
1
K
1
e
2
m
2
m
1
e
1
n
2
b
2
1
2
2
2
1
1
= 2
1
b
1
n
1
3
1
4
1
3
2
4
2
=
P n c . 3 . 3 P n c . 3 . 4 P n c . 3 . 5
a b = K e / / m n / b
17
Hepecexammnecx npxmte nmemr ony omym rouxy. Hycrt npxmte omero
nonoxennx a n b nepecexamrcx n rouxe K (a b = K). Hepecexammnecx npxmte n
omem cnyuae npoennpymrcx n nepecexammnecx npxmte. Touxa K peantno cyme-
crnymmax rouxa, n ee npoexnnn naxoxrcx na nnnnn npoexnnonno cnxsn (K
1
K
2
),
nepnennxynxpno ocn x (pnc. 3.3).
Hapannentnte npxmte pacnonoxent n ono nnocxocrn n ne nmemr omnx
rouex. Hapannentnte npxmte n omem cnyuae npoennpymrcx n napannentnte npx-
mte (nxroe cnocrno oproronantnoro npoennponannx). Ha pnc. 3.4 noxasan xom-
nnexcnt ueprex napannentntx npxmtx e n m. Hpn npoennponannn +rnx npxmtx
na H
1
nonyunm e
1
// m
1
, npn npoennponannn na H
2
e
2
// m
2
.
Hpxmte, ne nexamne n ono nnocxocrn, nastnamrcx cxpemnnammnmncx.
3rn npxmte ne napannentnt n ne nepecexamrcx. Hpnmep xomnnexcnoro ueprexa
cxpemnnammnxcx npxmtx n n b noxasan na pnc. 3.5 (n / b). Iopnsonrantnte n
]ponrantnte npoexnnn +rnx npxmtx nepecexamrcx. Ho rouxn nx nepeceuennx ne
nexar na ono nnnnn npoexnnonno cnxsn. B rouxe nepeceuennx ropnsonrantntx
npoexnn connann npoexnnn nyx rouex 1 n n 2 b. 3ro ropnsonrantno xonxy-
pnpymmne rouxn. Koopnnart x n y +rnx rouex pannt, a xoopnnara z rouxn 1
ontme, uem z rouxn 2. B rouxe nepeceuennx ]ponrantntx npoexnn +rnx npxmtx
connann npoexnnn nyx rouex 3 n n 4 b. 3ro ]ponrantno xonxypnpymmne rou-
xn. Koopnnart x n z +rnx rouex pannt, a xoopnnara y rouxn 4 ontme, uem y
rouxn 3. Cxpemnnammnecx npxmte moryr npoennponartcx na ony nnocxocrt npo-
exnn n napannentnte npxmte, a na pyrym nnocxocrt npoexnn nepecexammne-
cx npxmte.
Ecnn xorx t ona ns npxmtx xnnxercx npo]nntno npxmo, ro nx onpee-
nennx nsanmnoro nonoxennx npxmtx nyxno nocrponrt npo]nntnte npoexnnn
+rnx npxmtx.
Hpn paccmorpennn xomnnexcntx ueprexe nmtx ]nryp neoxonmo mtc-
nenno npecrannxrt +rn ]nrypt n npocrpancrne n nx nonoxenne ornocnrentno
nnocxocre npoexnn.


3.3. Hpnnaneanoc1t 1ouxn n npnuon nnocxoc1n

Touxa npnnanexnr nnocxocrn, ecnn ona npnnanexnr xaxo-nno npxmo
+ro nnocxocrn.
Hpxmax npnnanexnr nnocxocrn, ecnn ne ee rouxn npnnanexar nnocxocrn.
3rn na nnonne ouennntx npenoxennx uacro nastnamr ycnonnxmn npnna-
nexnocrn rouxn n npxmo nnocxocrn.
Ha pnc. 3.6 nnocxocrt omero nonoxennx saana rpeyrontnnxom ABC. Touxn
A, B, C npnnanexar +ro nnocxocrn, rax xax xnnxmrcx nepmnnamn rpeyrontnnxa
ns +ro nnocxocrn. Hpxmte (AB), (BC), (AC) npnnanexar nnocxocrn, rax xax no
ne nx rouxn npnnanexar nnocxocrn. Touxa N npnnanexnr (AC), D npnnane-
xnr (AB), E npnnanexnr (CD) n, snaunr, rouxn N n E npnnanexar nnocxocrn
(ABC), rora npxmax (NE) npnnanexnr nnocxocrn (ABC).
18
Ecnn saana ona npoexnnx rouxn L, nanpnmep L
2
, n nsnecrno, uro rouxa L
npnnanexnr nnocxocrn (ABC), ro nx naxoxennx nropo npoexnnn L
1
nocneo-
narentno naxonm (A
2
L
2
), K
2
, (A
1
K
1
), L
1
.
Ecnn ycnonne npnnanexnocrn rouxn nnocxocrn napymeno, ro rouxa ne npn-
nanexnr nnocxocrn. Ha pnc. 3.6 rouxa R ne npnnanexnr nnocxocrn (ABC), rax
xax R
2
npnnanexnr (F
2
K
2
), a R
1
ne npnnanexnr (A
1
K
1
).
Ha pnc. 3.7 npnneen xomnnexcnt ueprex ropnsonrantno npoennpymme
nnocxocrn (CDE). Touxn K n P npnnanexar +ro nnocxocrn, rax xax P
1
n K
1
npn-
nanexar npxmo (D
1
C
1
), xnnxmmecx ropnsonrantno npoexnne nnocxocrn
(CDE). Touxa N ne npnnanexnr nnocxocrn, rax xax N
1
ne npnnanexnr (D
1
C
1
).
Bce rouxn nnocxocrn (CDE) npoennpymrcx na H
1
n npxmym (D
1
C
1
). 3ro cne-
yer ns roro, uro nnocxocrt (CDE) H
1
. B +rom xe moxno yenrtcx, ecnn npo-
enart nx rouxn P (nnn nmo pyro rouxn) nocrpoennx, xoropte tnn cenant
nx rouxn L (pnc. 3.6). Touxa P
1
nonaer na npxmym (D
1
C
1
). Taxnm opasom, nx
roro, urot onpeennrt npnnanexnocrt rouxn ropnsonrantno npoennpymme
nnocxocrn, ]ponrantnax npoexnnx (C
2
D
2
E
2
) ne nyxna. Ho+romy n antnemem
npoennpymmne nnocxocrn yyr saanartcx rontxo ono npoexnne (npxmo nn-
nne). Ha pnc. 3.7 noxasana ]ponrantno npoennpymmax nnocxocrt , saannax
]ponrantno npoexnne
2
, a raxxe rouxn A n B .
Bsanmnoe nonoxenne rouxn n nnocxocrn cnonrcx x npnnanexnocrn nnn ne
npnnanexnocrn rouxn nnocxocrn.
Hpn pemennn mnornx saau npnxonrcx crponrt nnnnn yponnx, npnnanexa-
mne nnocxocrxm omero n uacrnoro nonoxennx. Ha pnc. 3.8 noxasant ropnsonrant
h n ]ponrant f, npnnanexamne nnocxocrn omero nonoxennx (ABC). uponrant-
nax npoexnnx h
2
napannentna ocn x, no+romy npxmax h ropnsonrant. Touxn 1 n 2
npxmo h npnnanexar nnocxocrn, no+romy npxmax h npnnanexnr nnocxocrn. Ta-
xnm opasom, npxmax h +ro ropnsonrant nnocxocrn (ABC). Otuno nopxox no-
x x
N
2
E
2
B
2
D
2
K
2
L
2
R
2
C
2
R
1
C
1
L
1
K
1
B
1
E
1
N
1
A
2
A
1
D
1
D
2
N
2
E
2
K
2
P
2
P
1
C
1
C
2
K
1
E
1
N
1
A
2

2
B
2
B
1
A
1
D
1
P n c . 3 . 6 P n c . 3 . 7
19
crpoennx raxo: h
2
; 1
2
, 2
2
; 1
1
, 2
1
; (1
1
2
1
) = h
1
. uponrant f nponeena uepes rouxy A.
Hopxox nocrpoennx: f
1
// x, A
1
f
1
; 3
1
, 3
2
; (A
2
3
2
) = f
2
.
Ha pnc. 3.9 noxasant npoexnnn ropnsonrann n ]ponrann nx ]ponrantno npo-
ennpymme nnocxocrn n ropnsonrantno npoennpymme nnocxocrn I. B nnocxo-
crn ropnsonrant xnnxercx ]ponrantno npoennpymme npxmo n npoxonr uepes
rouxy A (nontrarect npecrannrt ropnsonrant xax nnnnm nepeceuennx n nnoc-
xocrn, npoxoxme uepes rouxy A napannentno H
1
). uponrant npoxonr uepes rou-
xy C. B nnocxocrn I ropnsonrant n ]ponrant nponeent uepes ony rouxy D.
uponrant xnnxercx ropnsonrantno npoennpymme npxmo.
Hs paccmorpenntx ntme nocrpoenn
cneyer, uro nnnnm yponnx n nnocxocrn mox-
no nponecrn uepes nmym rouxy +ro nnocxo-
crn.
Connaenne nnocxocre moxno rpaxro-
nart xax npnnanexnocrt ono nnocxocrn
pyro. Ecnn rpn rouxn ono nnocxocrn
npnnanexar pyro nnocxocrn, ro +rn nnoc-
xocrn connaamr. Vnomxnyrte rpn rouxn ne
onxnt nexart na ono npxmo. Ha pnc.
3.10 nnocxocrt (DNE) connaaer c nnocxo-
crtm (ABC), rax xax rouxn D, N, E npn-
nanexar nnocxocrn (ABC).
Oparnm nnnmanne na ro, uro nnocxocrt
, saannax ABC, renept moxer trt saana
DNE. Hmax nnocxocrt moxer trt saana
nnnnxmn yponnx. nx +roro neoxonmo uepes rouxy nnocxocrn (ABC) (nanpn-
mep, uepes rouxy A) nponecrn n nnocxocrn ropnsonrant n ]ponrant, xoropte n y-
yr saanart nnocxocrt (na pnc. 3.10 nocrpoennx ne noxasant). Hocneonarent-
B
2
A
2
f
2
1
2
2
2
h
2
A
2
C
2
h
2
D
2
f
2
D
1
f
1
f
1
C
1
h
1
A
1

1
h
1

2
f
2
f
1
3
1
1
1
2
1
C
1
3
2
C
2
A
1
B
1
x
x
h
2
h
1
=
=
=
=
P n c . 3 . 8 P n c . 3 . 9
x
A
2
B
2
1
2
D
2
N
2
E
2
2
2
3
2
C
2
A
1
B
1
1
1
2
1
3
1
C
1
E
1
N
1
D
1
P n c . 3 . 1 0
20
nocrt nocrpoennx ropnsonrann: h
2
// x (A
2
h
2
); K
2
= h
2
B
2
C
2
; K
1
B
1
C
1
(K
2
K
1

x); A
1
K
1
= h
1
. Hocneonarentnocrt nocrpoennx ]ponrann: f
1
// x (A
1
f
1
); L
1
= f
1

B
1
C
1
; L
2
B
2
C
2
(L
1
L
2
x); A
2
L
2
= f
2
. Moxno sanncart (ABC) = (h, f).

4. HPEOBPA3OBAHHE KOMHAEKCHOIO HEPTEA

B xypce naueprarentno reomerpnn no npeopasonannem xomnnexcnoro uep-
rexa ]nrypt otuno nonnmaercx ero nsmenenne, ntsnannoe nepememennem ]nry-
pt n npocrpancrne, nnn nneennem nontx nnocxocre npoexnn, nnn ncnontsona-
nnem pyrnx nnon npoennponannx. Hpnmenenne pasnnuntx meroon (cnocoon)
npeopasonannx xomnnexcnoro ueprexa ynpomaer pemenne mnornx saau.

4.1. Me1o sauenm nnocxoc1en npoexnnn

Mero sament nnocxocre npo-
exnn cocronr n rom, uro nmecro o-
no ns nnocxocre npoexnn nnonr-
cx nonax nnocxocrt, nepnennxynxp-
nax x pyro nnocxocrn npoexnn. Ha
pnc. 4.1 noxasana npocrpancrnennax
cxema nonyuennx xomnnexcnoro uep-
rexa rouxn A n cncreme (H
1
H
2
). Tou-
xn A
1
n A
2
ropnsonrantnax n ]pon-
rantnax npoexnnn rouxn A, AA
1
A
x
A
2

npxmoyrontnnx, nnocxocrt xoropo-
ro nepnennxynxpna ocn x (pnc. 2.3).
Honax nnocxocrt H
4
nepnenn-
xynxpna H
1
. Hpn npoennponannn rou-
xn A na H
4
nonyunm nonym npoexnnm
A
4
, ]nrypa AA
1
A
14
A
4
npxmoyront-
nnx, nnocxocrt xoroporo nepnennxynxpna no-
no ocn x
14
= H
4
H
1
. nx nonyuennx xom-
nnexcnoro ueprexa yem paccmarpnnart ]nry-
pt, pacnonoxennte n nnocxocrxx npoexnn. Ho-
noporom noxpyr ocn x
14
conmecrnm H
4
c H
1
, sarem
nonoporom noxpyr ocn x conmecrnm H
1
(n H
4
) c
H
2
(na pnc. 4.1 nanpannennx nnxennx nnocxo-
cre H
4
n H
1
noxasant mrpnxontmn nnnnxmn co
crpenxamn). Honyuennt ueprex npnneen na
pnc. 4.2. Hpxmte yrnt na pnc. 4.1, 4.2 nomeuent
yro c rouxo, pannte orpesxn nomeuent ny-
mx mrpnxamn (npornnononoxnte cropont npx-
moyrontnnxon na pnc. 4.1). Or xomnnexcnoro
ueprexa rouxn A n cncreme (H
1
H
2
) nepemnn x
xomnnexcnomy ueprexy rouxn A n cncreme
x
A
A
2
A
4
A
1 4
A
1
A
x
x
1 4
H
1
H
2
H
4
A
2
A
x
A A
1
A
4
A
1 4
= =
P n c . 4 . 1
x
A
2
A
1
A
1 4
A
4
x
1 4
( A
1
A
4
) x
1 4
A
1 4
A
4
A
x
A
2
A
x

=
P n c . 4 . 2
21
(H
1
H
4
), samennnn nnocxocrt H
2
na nnocxocrt
H
4
, samennnn A
2
na A
4
.
Ha ocnone +rnx nocrpoenn c]opmynnpy-
em npannno sament nnocxocre npoexnn
(npannno nonyuennx nono npoexnnn). uepes
nesamenxemym npoexnnm npononm nonym
nnnnm npoexnnonno cnxsn nepnennxynxpno
nono ocn, sarem or nono ocn no nnnnn npo-
exnnonno cnxsn orxnatnaem orpesox, nnna
xoroporo panna paccroxnnm or samenxemo
npoexnnn o crapo ocn, nonyuennax npn +rom
rouxa n ecrt nonax npoexnnx. Hanpannenne
nono ocn yem part nponsnontno. Honoe
nauano xoopnnar yxastnart ne yem.
Ha pnc. 4.3 noxasan nepexo or xom-
nnexcnoro ueprexa n cncreme (H
1
H
2
) x xom-
nnexcnomy ueprexy n cncreme (H
2
H
4
), a sarem
eme onn nepexo x xomnnexcnomy ueprexy n cncreme (H
4
H
5
). Bmecro nnocxocrn
H
1
nneena nnocxocrt H
4
, nepnennxynxpnax H
2
, sarem nmecro H
2
nneena nnoc-
xocrt H
5
, nepnennxynxpnax H
4
. Hcnontsyx npannno sament nnocxocre npoexnn,
moxno ntnonnnrt nmoe xonnuecrno samen nnocxocre npoexnn.


4.2. Onpeenenne pacc1onnnn ueay nyun 1ouxaun

Paccroxnnem mexy nymx rouxamn nastnaercx nnna orpesxa, coennxmmero
+rn rouxn. nx onpeenennx paccroxnnx mexy nymx rouxamn A n B neoxonmo
coennnrt nx orpesxom AB (pnc. 4.4), sarem ysnart
nnny +roro orpesxa. Orpesox omero nonoxennx
ne napannenen nn ono ns nnocxocre npoexnn.
nnnt npoexnn A
1
B
1
n A
2
B
2
mentme nnnt or-
pesxa AB. nx roro urot ysnart nnny orpesxa
AB, neoxonmo cnpoennponart ero n narypantnym
nennunny n nsmepnrt +ry npoexnnm, rax xax ona
panna orpesxy AB.
Bneem nonym nnocxocrt npoexnn H
4
napan-
nentno orpesxy AB n nepnennxynxpno H
1
. Hpn
+rom nonax oct x
14
yer napannentna A
1
B
1
(n npo-
rnnnom cnyuae npxmax AB n nnocxocrt H
4
nepece-
xyrcx). Vron naxnona orpesxa AB x nnocxocrn H
4

panen nynm, n AB na H
4
npoennpyercx n narypant-
nym nennunny, r.e. A
4
B
4
= AB. Hsmepnn orpesox
A
4
B
4
, nonyunm nnny orpesxa AB.
Kaxax ns rouex A
4
n B
4
crponnact c ncnont-
sonannem npannna sament nnocxocre npoexnn.
x
A
2
A
1
A
4
x
2 4
x
4 5
A
5
P n c . 4 . 3
=
=




s




s




x
B
2
A
1
B
1
B
4
A
4
A
4
B
4
A B
A
2

=
P n c . 4 . 4
x
1 4
22
Paccroxnne mexy A
1
B
1
n x
14
ne nnnxer na nennunny A
4
B
4
, n no+romy moxer trt
nsxro nponsnontno. B pesyntrare nneennx H
4
ntnonnen nepexo or cncremt
(H
1
H
2
) x cncreme (H
1
H
4
), n xoropo npxmax AB, npoxoxmax uepes orpesox AB, xn-
nxercx nnnne yponnx.
Ha nnocxocrn H
4
(pnc. 4.4) xpome A
4
B
4
= AB nonyunnn yron , xoropt panen
yrny mexy AB n nnocxocrtm H
1
, rax xax nnocxocrt +roro yrna napannentna nnoc-
xocrn H
4
. Ecnn nnecrn nonym nnocxocrt H
5
napannentno AB n nepnennxynxpno
H
2
, ro nonax oct x
25
yer napannentna A
2
B
2
. Honyunm A
5
B
5
= AB n yron , xoro-
pt panen yrny mexy AB n nnocxocrtm H
2
, rax xax nnocxocrt +roro yrna napan-
nentna nnocxocrn H
5
.

4.3. Hpoennponanne npnuon omero nonoaennn n 1ouxy na nonym
nnocxoc1t npoexnnn

Hpnanne ]nrypam uacrnoro nonoxennx ornocnrentno nnocxocre npoexnn
snaunrentno oneruaer pemenne mnornx saau. nx roro urot npxmax omero no-
noxennx n nono cncreme nnocxocre npoexnn crana npoennpymme npxmo, ne-
oxonmo, urot nonax nnocxocrt npoexnn tna nepnennxynxpna npxmo. Hpx-
max na +ry nnocxocrt cnpoennpyercx n rouxy. Hnocxocrt, nepnennxynxpnax npx-
mo omero nonoxennx, xnnxercx nnocxocrtm omero nonoxennx. Bneenne raxo
nnocxocrn n xauecrne nono nnocxocrn npoexnn nenosmoxno, rax xax nonax nnoc-
xocrt npoexnn onxna trt nepnennxynxpna ono ns craptx nnocxocre npo-
exnn. Taxnm opasom, pemnrt saauy npoennponannx npxmo omero nonoxennx
n rouxy ono sameno nnocxocrn npoexnn nentsx. Ho+romy nontraemcx pemnrt
saauy cnauana nx npxmo uacrnoro nonoxennx, a nmenno nx npxmo yponnx.

Hycrt h(h
1
, h
2
) ropnsonrant (pnc. 4.5). Bneem nonym nnocxocrt npoexnn
H
4
nepnennxynxpno h. Hocxontxy h napannentna H
1
, ro H
4
yer nepnennxynxp-
na H
1
. Hnocxocrt H
4
moxer trt nsxra n xauecrne nono nnocxocrn npoexnn n na
x
1
2
2
2
h
2
1
1
2
1
1
4
2
4
h
4
1
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
m
4
1
4
2
4
1
5
2
5
m
5
x
4 5
x
1 4
x
1 4
x
m
2
m
1
h
1
= =
= =
P n c . 4 . 5 P n c . 4 . 6
23
nee h cnpoennpyercx n rouxy. Honax oct x
14
nepnennxynxpna npoexnnn h
1
, rax xax
h
1
napannentna h n, snaunr, nepnennxynxpna H
4
n x
14
. nx nocrpoennx nono npo-
exnnn ropnsonrann nocrponm nonte npoexnnn nyx ee rouex 1 n 2. Honte npoex-
nnn +rnx rouex, nocrpoennte no npannny sament nnocxocre npoexnn, connaa-
mr. Tax xax rouxn 1 n 2 nsxrt nponsnontno, ro npoexnnn ocrantntx rouex ropn-
sonrann roxe connayr, r.e. ropnsonrant npoennpyercx na H
4
n rouxy.
Hcnontsyx pemenne saaun npoennponannx nnnnn yponnx n rouxy, moxno nt-
nonnnrt npoennponanne npxmo omero nonoxennx m n rouxy (pnc. 4.6). Bneem
nonym nnocxocrt npoexnn H
4
napannentno npxmo m n nepnennxynxpno H
1
. Ho-
nax oct x
14
napannentna ropnsonrantno npoexnnn m
1
. Ho nontm npoexnnxm nyx
nponsnontntx rouex 1 n 2 npxmo m naxonm m
4
. B nono cncreme nnocxocre
(H
1
H
4
) npxmax m xnnxercx nnnne yponnx, ona napannentna H
4
(npn +rom m
1
na-
pannentna x
14
). Tenept, ncnontsyx pemenne npetyme saaun (pnc. 4.5), npoenn-
pyem npxmym m n rouxy. nx +roro nnonm nonym nnocxocrt npoexnn H
5
nepnen-
nxynxpno npxmo m n nepnennxynxpno H
4
. Hpxmax m na H
5
npoennpyercx n rou-
xy. B nono cncreme nnocxocre npoexnn (H
4
H
5
) npxmax m xnnxercx npoennpym-
me npxmo.

4.4. Hpoennponanne nnocxoc1n omero nonoaennn n npnuym na nonym
nnocxoc1t npoexnnn. Haxoaenne na1ypantnon nennunnm nnocxon
qnrypm

Ecnn cnpoennponart xaxym - nno npxmym m, npnnanexamym nnocxocrn
omero nonoxennx , n rouxy, ro nnocxocrt cnpoennpyercx na +ry xe nnocxocrt
npoexnn n npxmym nnnnm. ecrnnrentno, npxmax m nepnennxynxpna nnocxo-
crn npoexnn n, snaunr, nnocxocrt npoxonr uepes nepnennxynxp x nnocxocrn
npoexnn n roxe e nepnennxynxpna. Hnocxocrt xnnxercx npoennpymme
nnocxocrtm n na nnocxocrt npoex-
nn npoennpyercx n npxmym. Ecnn
m npxmax omero nonoxennx, ro
nx npoennponannx ee n rouxy no-
rpeymrcx ne sament nnocxocre
npoexnn (pnc. 4.6). Ecnn m npx-
max yponnx, ro nx ee npoennpona-
nnx n rouxy norpeyercx ona same-
na nnocxocre npoexnn (pnc. 4.5).
Hycrt nnocxocrt omero
nonoxennx, saannax rpeyrontnn-
xom ABC (pnc. 4.7). B nnocxocrn
nponeem ropnsonrant h, cnpoenn-
pyem ropnsonrant h n rouxy h
4
na
nnocxocrt H
4
(x
14
h
1
, H
4
h), no-
crponm nonte npoexnnn rouex A
4
,
B
4
, C
4
. Hnocxocrt npoennpyercx n
x
B
2
h
2
D
2
D
1
A
1 C
1
B
1
B
4
B
5
A
5
C
5
D
5
D
4
C
4
A
4
A
2
C
2
h
1
h
4
=
x
1 4
h
1
x
4 5
( B
4
C
4
)

/ /
x
1 4
x
4 5
P n c . 4 . 7
24
npxmym, npoxoxmym uepes rouxn A
4
, B
4
, C
4
. Hnocxocrt n cncreme (H
1
H
4
) xnnx-
ercx npoennpymme nnocxocrtm, ona nepnennxynxpna H
4
. Tpeyrontnnx ABC
npoennpyercx na H
4
n orpesox B
4
C
4
.
nx naxoxennx narypantno nennunnt rpeyrontnnxa ABC nneem nnocxocrt
npoexnn H
5
napannentno nnocxocrn rpeyrontnnxa n nepnennxynxpno H
4
. Honax
oct x
45
napannentna orpesxy D
4
C
4
(n npornnnom cnyuae n H
5
nepecexyrcx). Tpe-
yrontnnx ABC npoennpyercx na nnocxocrt H
5
n narypantnym nennunny A
5
B
5
C
5
=
ABC. Ananornuno naxonrcx narypantnax nennunna nmo nnocxo ]nrypt.
Hnocxocrt n cncreme (H
4
H
5
) xnnxercx nnocxocrtm yponnx.
Ecnn neoxonmo nocrponrt n nnocxocrn xaxym-nno ]nrypy, ro ntnon-
nnrt +ro nocrpoenne n nnocxocrn omero nonoxennx rpyno. B +rom cnyuae npo-
noxrcx nocrpoennx, noxasannte na pnc. 4.7. Ha H
5
crponrcx narypantnax nennun-
na ]nrypt. 3arem naxoxrcx ocrantnte npoexnnn +ro ]nrypt. Ha pnc. 4.7 no
npoexnnn D
5
(ona rouxa narypantno nennunnt ]nrypt) naent ocrantnte
npoexnnn +ro rouxn. Hpoexnnx D
4
npnnanexnr npxmo, n xoropym npoennpyercx
nnocxocrt . Hocneonarentnocrt nocrpoenn noxasana crpenxamn. Hpannno same-
nt nnocxocre npoexnn cnpanennno n n +rom cnyuae. Pannte orpesxn nomeuent
onnaxono. Taxnm cnocoom moxno nocrponrt, nanpnmep, oxpyxnocrt, nnncannym
n rpeyrontnnx ABC. Ha nnocxocrn H
5
crponrcx oxpyxnocrt, nnncannax n rpe-
yrontnnx A
5
B
5
C
5
, a sarem naxoxrcx ocrantnte npoexnnn pxa rouex oxpyxnocrn
rax xe, xax nx rouxn D
5
. Iopnsonrantnax n ]ponrantnax npoexnnn +ro oxpyxno-
crn +nnnnct.
B cnyuae, xora ana npoennpymmax nnoc-
xocrt, nocrpoenn, cnxsanntx c narypantno ne-
nnunno ]nrypt, xoneuno, mentme, rax xax nnoc-
xocrt yxe npoennpyercx n npxmym nnnnm. Ha pnc.
4.8 noxasano nocrpoenne xnapara, npnnanexa-
mero ropnsonrantno npoennpymme nnocxocrn.
Hycrt ana ropnsonrantno npoennpymmax nnoc-
xocrt (
1
) n ne rouxn +ro nnocxocrn A(A
1
, A
2
)
n B(B
1
, B
2
). Heoxonmo nocrponrt xnapar
ABCD n nnocxocrn . Coennxem orpesxamn npo-
exnnn A
2
,B
2
n A
1
,B
1
. Honyunnn npoexnnn cropont
xnapara. Bnonm nnocxocrt H
4
//
1
(x
14
//
1
).
Crponm nonym npoexnnm A
4
B
4
. ocrpannaem x or-
pesxy A
4
B
4
xnapar A
4
B
4
C
4
D
4
. Hpoexnnn C
1
n D
1

npnnanexar
1
. Hpoexnnn C
2
n D
2
crpoxrcx no
npannnam sament nnocxocre npoexnn. V +ro
saaun ecrt nropoe pemenne xnapar, cnmmer-
pnunt nocrpoennomy ornocnrentno npxmo
(AB). 3ro nropoe pemenne moxno nocrponrt, ne
nontsyxct npoexnne na nnocxocrt H
4
cpasy na
nnocxocrxx H
2
n H
1
.
x
B
2
D
2
D
1
A
1
C
1
B
1
B
4
D
4
C
4
A
4
A
2
C
2
x
1 4
P n c . 4 . 8

1
25
5. HEPBAR H BTOPAR HO3HHHOHHLE 3AAHH

Hosnnnonnte saaun +ro saaun, n xoroptx rpeyercx onpeennrt nonoxe-
nne ]nrypt ornocnrentno nnocxocre npoexnn nnn nsanmnoe nonoxenne ]nryp
nx npnnanexnocrt, napannentnocrt n nepeceuenne.

5.1. Bsanunoe nonoaenne npnuon n nnocxoc1n

Bsanmnoe nonoxenne npxmo n nnocxocrn onpeenxercx xonnuecrnom omnx
rouex: a) ecnn npxmax nmeer ne omne rouxn c nnocxocrtm, ro ona npnnanexnr
+ro nnocxocrn; ) ecnn npxmax nmeer ony omym rouxy c nnocxocrtm, ro npxmax
nepecexaer nnocxocrt; n) ecnn rouxa nepeceuennx npxmo c nnocxocrtm yanena n
ecxoneunocrt (necocrnennax), ro npxmax n nnocxocrt napannentnt.
Hpxmax napannentna nnocxocrn, ecnn ona napannentna xaxo-nnyt npx-
mo, nexame n +ro nnocxocrn. urot nocrponrt raxym npxmym, nao n nnocxo-
crn saart npxmym n napannentno e
nponecrn nyxnym npxmym.
Hycrt nnocxocrt saana rpey-
rontnnxom L(AABC). uepes rouxy E
(pnc. 5.1) neoxonmo nponecrn npxmym
EF, napannentnym nnocxocrn L. nx
+roro uepes ropnsonrantnym npoexnnm
rouxn E(E
1
) nponeem ropnsonrantnym
npoexnnm E
1
F
1
ncxomo npxmo na-
pannentno ropnsonrantno npoexnnn
nmo npxmo, nexame n nnocxocrn L,
nanpnmep, npxmo AB (E
1
F
1
// A
1
B
1
).
uepes ]ponrantnym npoexnnm E
2
rouxn E napannentno AB npononm ]ponrant-
nym npoexnnm E
2
F
2
ncxomo npxmo EF (E
2
F
2
// A
2
B
2
). Hpxmax EF napannentna
nnocxocrn L, saanno rpeyrontnnxom ABC.
Hpxmax yer raxxe napannentna nnocxocrn, ecnn ona nexnr n nnocxocrn,
napannentno anno.

5.2. Hoc1poenne 1ouxn nepeceuennn npnuon c nnocxoc1tm

3aaua na nocrpoenne rouxn nepeceuennx npxmo c nnocxocrtm, nastnaemax
nepno nosnnnonno saaue, mnpoxo npnmenxercx n naueprarentno reomerpnn.
Ona nexnr n ocnone pemennx cneymmnx saau:
na nepeceuenne nyx nnocxocre;
nepeceuenne nonepxnocrn c nnocxocrtm;
nepeceuenne npxmo c nonepxnocrtm;
nsanmnoe nepeceuenne nonepxnocre.
Hocrponrt rouxy nepeceuennx npxmo c nnocxocrtm snaunr narn rouxy,
npnnanexamym ononpemenno saanno npxmo n nnocxocrn..


X
E
2
F
2
A
2
B
2
C
2
F
1
E
1
A
1
B
1
C
1
P n c . 5 . 1
26
5.2.1. Hnocxocrt sannmaer npoennpymmee nonoxenne

Ecnn nnocxocrt sannmaer npoennpymmee nonoxenne (nanpnmep, ona nep-
nennxynxpna ]ponrantno nnocxocrn npoexnn, pnc. 5.2), ro ]ponrantnax npoex-
nnx rouxn nepeceuennx onxna ononpemenno npnnanexart ]ponrantnomy cney
nnocxocrn n ]ponrantno npoexnnn npxmo, ro ecrt trt n rouxe nx nepeceuennx.
Ho+romy cnauana onpeenxercx ]ponrantnax npoexnnx M
2
rouxn M (rouxa nepece-
uennx npxmo EF c ]ponrantno-npoennpymme nnocxocrtm (ABC)), a sarem ee
ropnsonrantnax npoexnnx. Touxa M
1
onpeenena ns ycnonnx npnnanexnocrn rou-
xn M npxmo EF.
Honarax, uro nnocxocrt npecrannxer coo nenpospaunt rpeyrontnnx,
ycranonnm nnnmocrt npoexnn npxmo EF. Ha H
2
ncx npoexnnx npxmo EF nnn-
ma, rax xax ona ne saxptnaercx rpeyrontnnxom. Ha H
1
yuacrox npxmo npanee M
2

nennnm, rax xax on naxonrcx nnxe nnocxocrn npn nsrnxe na H
1
.
X
A
2
B
2
C
2
A
1
B
1
C
1
P n c . 5 . 2
X
A
2
B
2
C
2
A
1
B
1
C
1
M
1
M
2
E
2
E
1
F
1
F
2
E
1
F
1
K
1
L
1
L
2
K
2
1
1
= 2
1
M
1
1
2
E
2
= F
2
= M
2
= 2
2
P n c . 5 . 3


5.2.2. Hpxmax sannmaer npoennpymmee nonoxenne

Ha pnc. 5.3 nsopaxena nnocxocrt omero nonoxennx P (ABC) n ropnson-
rantno-npoennpymmax npxmax EF, nepecexammax nnocxocrt n rouxe M. upon-
rantnax npoexnnx rouxn rouxa M
2
connaaer c rouxamn E
2
n F
2
, rax xax M npn-
nanexnr npxmo. nx nocrpoennx ropnsonrantno npoexnnn ncxomo rouxn ne-
peceuennx nponeem uepes rouxy M n nnocxocrn P npxmym (nanpnmep, KL). Cnaua-
na nocrponm ee ]ponrantnym npoexnnm, a sarem ropnsonrantnym. Touxa M xn-
nxercx rouxo nepeceuennx npxmtx EF n KL.Tax xax rouxa M ononpemenno ne-
xnr na npxmo EF n n nnocxocrn P (KLP), ro ona xnnxercx rouxo nx nepeceue-
nnx.
27
nx ycranonnennx nnnmocrn npoexnnn npxmo na H
1
nnonm xonxypnpym-
mne rouxn 1 n 2. Tax xax rouxa 2 antme yanena or nnocxocrn H
1
, ro ornocnrent-
no H
1
ona yer nnnmo, a nennnmo yer rouxa 1. 3amernm, uro rouxa 2 npn-
nanexnr npxmo EF. Cneonarentno, n oxpecrnocrn rouex 1
1
=2
1
o M
1
npoexnnx
npxmo yer nnnmo. Btme M
1
npoexnnx npxmo yer nennnmo. Hennnmt
yuacrox npoexnnn npxmo noxasan mrpnxono nnnne.

5.3. Hpnuan n nnocxoc1t sannuam1 omee nonoaenne

Hycrt ant nnocxocrt n npxmax AB (pnc. 5.4, a). B omem cnyuae onn nme-
mr ony omym rouxy. 3ra rouxa, npnnanexamax npxmo n nnocxocrn, yer
npnnanexart n nexoropo npxmo n +ro nnocxocrn. 3amernm, uro n nnocxocrn
uepes rouxy moxno nponecrn ononapamerpnuecxoe mnoxecrno npxmtx
1
. Bt-
ennn xorx t ony ns nnx, nerxo onpeennm ncxomym rouxy. Cneonarentno, no-
crannennax saaua cnonrcx x ortcxannm nexoropo npxmo n, npnnanexame
saanno nnocxocrn n nepecexamme ncxonym npxmym AB.
A
2
B
2
C
2
D
2
E
2
D
1
E
1
C
1
A
1
B
1
M
2
M
1
K
1
L
1
K
2
1
2
2
2
P n c . 5 . 4
1
1
= 2
1
a )
)
K
L
M
B
A

L
2
= 3
2
3
1
X
Hpxmym n moxno paccmarpnnart xax npoexnnm npxmo AB na saannym nnoc-
xocrt (n onee mnpoxom cmtcne npxmax n ecrt oropaxenne npxmo AB na
nnocxocrt ). nx cnyuax nnnenoro npoennponannx npxmte n n AB npnnanexar
ono nnocxocrn n xnnxmrcx xonxypnpymmnmn ornocnrentno nnocxocrn . Ho-
cnenee ncnontsyem nx onpeenennx rouxn nepeceuennx npxmo n nnocxocrn. To-
ra anropnrm pemennx nocrannenno saaun yer cneymmnm:
1) na saanno nnocxocrn (CDE) nponeem npoexnnn npxmo KL (pnc. 5.4,
), xonxypnpymme c saanno npxmo AB ornocnrentno nnocxocre n H
2
; cna-
28
uana naxonm K
2
L
2
, a sarem K
1
L
1
; npxmte KL n AB pacnonoxent no ]ponrantno-
npoennpymme nnocxocrn;
2) naxonm rouxn M
1
=K
1
L
1
A
1
B
1
n M
2
A
2
B
2
nepeceuennx npoexnn npxmtx
AB n KL; rouxa M(M
1
,M
2
) ncxomax;
3) onpeenxem nnnmocrt npxmo n nnocxocrn ornocnrentno nnocxocre npo-
exnn.
A
2
B
2
C
2
D
2
E
2
D
1
E
1
C
1
A
1
B
1
M
2
P n c . 5 . 5
M
1
X
X
1
h
2
h
1
B
4
D
4
E
4
C
4
A
4
M
4
1
2
2
2
3
2
= 4
2
1
1
= 2
1
3
1
4
1

nx onpeenennx nnnmtx yuacrxon npxmo AB anannsnpyem nonoxenne
xonxypnpymmnx rouex cxpemnnammnxcx npxmtx. Tax, rouxn 1 n 2 naxoxrcx na
cxpemnnammnxcx npxmtx AB n DE: 1DE
,
2AB. Hx ropnsonrantnte npoexnnn
1
1
n 2
1
connaamr. Ho ]ponrantntm npoexnnxm rouex 1 n 2 npn nsrnxe na nnoc-
xocrt H
1
nnno, uro rouxa 1 (rouxa nnocxocrn) naxonrcx na rouxo 2 (rouxa
npxmo), ro ecrt ona saxptnaer rouxy 2 npn npoennponannn na ropnsonrantnym
nnocxocrt npoexnn. Cneonarentno, npxmax AB na yuacrxe M-2 pacnonoxena no
rpeyrontnnxom CDE. Tora ropnsonrantnax npoexnnx orpesxa M2 M
1
2
1
yer
nennnmo. Ona noxasana mrpnxono nnnne.
Hennnmt yuacrox na ]ponrantno npoexnnn npxmo AB ycranonnen ana-
nnsom nonoxennx rouex 4 n 3 (4CE, 3AB), npnnanexamnx cxpemnnammnmcx
npxmtm AB n CE. Ho ropnsonrantno npoexnnn nnno, uro ecnn cmorpert na
nnocxocrt H
2
, ro nennnmo yer rouxa 3, npnnanexamax, npxmo. Ona nnxe
29
pacnonoxena x nnocxocrn npoexnn H
2
. Ha ]ponrantno nnocxocrn npoexnn
rouxa 4 saxptnaer rouxy 3. B +rom mecre npxmax AB saxptra rpeyrontnnxom CDE.
Ha H
2
nennnmt yuacrox M
2
3
2
noxasan mrpnxono nnnne.
3aaua na nepeceuenne npxmo n nnocxocrn omero nonoxennx moxer trt
cneena x onomy ns uacrntx cnyuaen, paccmorpenntx ntme. nx +roro npxmym
nnn nnocxocrt nyxno nepenecrn n npoennpymmee nonoxenne. Hnxe npnneeno
pemenne (pnc. 5.5), n xoropom meroom sament nnocxocre npoexnn n npoenn-
pymmee nonoxenne nepeneena nnocxocrt. Ha H
4
onpeenena npoexnnx M
4
ncxo-
mo rouxn, a sarem no nnnnxm cnxsn ycranonnent npoexnnn rouxn n na ncxontx
nnocxocrxx npoexnn. Hcxonte annte nsxrt raxnmn xe, uro n n npetyme
saaue. Ho+romy ycranonnenne nnnmocrn npoexnn npxmo ne paccmarpnnaercx.

5.4. Bsanunoe nonoaenne nnocxoc1en

Omnm cnyuaem nsanmnoro nonoxennx nyx nnocxocre xnnxercx nx nepece-
uenne. B uacrnom cnyuae, xora nnnnx nepeceuennx yanena n ecxoneunocrt,
nnocxocrn cranonxrcx napannentntmn. Hapannentnte nnocxocrn connaamr npn
coxpamennn paccroxnnx mexy nnmn o nynx.

5.4.1. Hapannentnte nnocxocrn

Hnocxocrn yyr napannentntmn, ecnn ne nepecexammnecx npxmte ono
nnocxocrn coornercrnenno napannentnt nym nepecexammnmcx npxmtm pyro
nnocxocrn. Ha pnc. 5.6, a nnocxocrn n
/
napannentnt, rax xax m // m
/
n n // n
/
.
Hpnmep pemennx saaun na xomnnexcnom ueprexe npecrannen na pnc. 5.6, .
. uepes rouxy A (pnc. 5.6, ) rpeyercx nponecrn nnocxocrt
/
, napan-
nentnym saanno nnocxocrn ( KLM). . Hpononm uepes rouxy A ne
npxmte m n n, napannentnte nym nmtm npxmtm, naxoxmnmcx n saanno
nnocxocrn, nanpnmep croponam rpeyrontnnxa KM n KL, coornercrnenno. Hepece-
xammnecx npxmte m n n saamr ncxomym nnocxocrt
/
(mn).

5.4.2. Hepecexammnecx nnocxocrn

Hnnnx nepeceuennx nyx nnocxocre onpeenxercx
nymx rouxamn, xaxax ns xoroptx npnnanexnr oenm nnocxocrxm;
ono rouxo, npnnanexame nym nnocxocrxm, n nsnecrntm nanpanne-
nnem nnnnn.
B oonx cnyuaxx saaua saxnmuaercx n naxoxennn rouex, omnx nx nyx
nnocxocre. 3aaua na nepeceuenne nyx nnocxocre nastnaercx nropo nosnnn-
onno saaue. Ona moxer trt cneena x pemennm nepno nosnnnonno saaun,
paccmorpenno panee, no onomy ns cneymmnx napnanron.
Bapnanr 1. 1) B ono ns nnocxocre, nanpnmep (pnc. 5.7), ntnpamr ne
nponsnontnte npxmte 12 n 34; 2) onpeenxmr rouxn M n K nepeceuennx +rnx npx-
mtx c pyro nnocxocrtm ; rouxn M n K saamr ncxomym npxmym.

30

A
2
m
2
n
2
K
2
L
2
K
1
L
1
A
1
m
1
n
1
m
/
n
/
m
n

/
A
/
A
X
M
1
M
2
P n c . 5 . 6
a ) )




Bapnanr 2. 1) Btnpamr no ono npxmo n xaxo ns saanntx nnocxocre,
nanpnmep12, a 34 (pnc. 5.8); 2) onpeenxmr rouxn M n K nepeceuennx +rnx
npxmtx c coornercrnymmnmn nnocxocrxmn M=12, K=34; rouxn M n K on-
peenxmr ncxomym npxmym.
Paccmorpnm pemenne nocrannenno saaun na xomnnexcnom ueprexe nx
nnocxocre omero nonoxennx.
Hycrt ant nnocxocrn (mn) n (a // b) nonoxennx (pnc. 5.9). Hponeem n
nnocxocrn npxmym 12 n nocrponm rouxy nepeceuennx ee c nnocxocrtm . nx
P n c . 5 . 7
M

K
1
2
3
4

P n c . 5 . 8
M
K
1
2
3
4

31
a
2
b
2
a
1
b
1
m
2
m
1
n
2
n
1
1
2
1
1
2
1
2
2
3
1
3
2
M
1
K
1
K
2
M
2
4
1
4
2
5
2
5
1
6
1
6
2
t
2
c
1
t
1
c
2
X
P n c . 5 . 9
+roro n nnocxocrn nocrponm npxmym 45, xonxypnpymmym c 12 ornocnrentno H
1
.
Hpxmte 12 n 45 saamr ropnsonrantno npoennpymmym nnocxocrt. B nepeceuennn
npxmtx 12 n 45 nonyuaem rouxy K ncxomo nnnnn nepeceuennx. nx nocrpoennx
rouxn M nnnnn nepeceuennx nnonm n nnocxocrn npxmym c, napannentnym 12 n
npoxoxmym uepes rouxy 3. Konxypnpymme c ne n npnnanexame nnocxocrn
xnnxercx npxmax t. B nepeceuennn npxmtx t n d naxonm rouxy M. Touxn K n M
onpeenxmr ncxomym npxmym.



















3aaua cymecrnenno ynpomaercx, ecnn ona ns
nnocxocre sannmaer npoennpymmee nonoxenne.
Ha pnc. 5.10 nnocxocrt (ABC) sannmaer omee
nonoxenne, a nnocxocrt (EFG) ropnsonrantno
npoennpymmee. Tax xax ncxomax npxmax
npnnanexnr oenm nnocxocrxm, ro na H
1
ee
npoexnnx yer connaart c ropnsonrantntm
cneom nnocxocrn . uponrantnax npoexnnx nc-
xomo nnnnn onpeenena ns ycnonnx
npnnanexnocrn ee nnocxocrn .
Hpn nsrnxe na nnocxocrt H
2
no
ropnsonrantno npoexnnn nnno, uro uacrt
rpeyrontnnxa ABC naxonrcx nepe nnocxocrtm . Cneonarentno, na H
2
rpe-
yrontnnx K
2
C
2
M
2
xnnxercx nnnmtm. On ntenen mrpnxonxo. Bnnmtmn na
H
2
a, coornercrnenno ntenent mrpnxonxo, n rpeyrontnnxn nnocxocrn n oxpe-
crnocrxx rouex A
2
n B
2
. 3ro cnxsano c rem, uro onn naxoxrcx nne rpeyrontnnxa
EFG n nm ne nepexptnamrcx npn nsrnxe na H
2
.

X
A
2
B
2
C
2
A
1
B
1
C
1
P n c . 5 . 1 0
E
2
E
1
G
2
G
1
F
1
K
1
M
1
M
2
K
2 F
2
32
6. METPHHECKHE 3AAHH. OPTOIOHAALHAR HPOEKHHR
HPRMOIO YIAA

K merpnuecxnm saauam, nsyuaemtm n yuenom xypce naueprarentno
reomerpnn, ornocxrcx saaun, n xoroptx rpeyercx onpeennrt merpnuecxne xa-
paxrepncrnxn saanno ]nrypt nnny, yron, nnomat n pyrne, a raxxe merpn-
uecxne cnocrna n xapaxrepncrnxn, oycnonnennte pacnonoxennem ]nrypt orno-
cnrentno nnocxocre npoexnn nnn ornocnrentno pyro (pyrnx) ]nryp nep-
nennxynxpnocrt, paccroxnne n yron. Hpoexnnonnoe pemenne raxnx saau ocno-
ntnaercx na merpnuecxnx cnocrnax oproronantnoro npoennponannx na nnocxocrt
n oparnmocrn ueprexa Monxa. Merpnuecxnmn cnocrnamn oproronantnoro npo-
ennponannx xnnxmrcx cymecrnymmne sanncnmocrn mexy nnnamn orpesxa npx-
mo nnnnn n ero npoexnnn, a raxxe mexy nennunnamn yrna n ero npoexnnn
(cm. n. 1). Hs +rnx sanncnmocre ntrexaer reopema o npoennponannn npxmoro yrna:
nx roro urot npxmo yron npoennponancx n npxmo yron, neoxonmo n ocra-
rouno, urot ona ero cropona tna napannentna nnocxocrn npoexnn, a pyrax
nenepnennxynxpna +ro nnocxocrn. Paccmorpnm reomerpnuecxoe oxasarentcrno.
Ono nosnonxer onee narnxno ynn-
ert uncnonym n npoexnnonnym
nsanmocnxst nyx reomerpnuecxnx
]nryp npxmoro yrna n ero npoex-
nnn.
Heoxonuoc1t. Hycrt BAC =
= B
1
A
1
C
1
= 90 (pnc. 6.1). oxa-
xem, uro AC // H
1
. Hpenonoxnm,
uro AB ne napannentna H
1
(ecnn AB
// H
1
,

ro nnocxocrt yrna BAC napan-
nentna H
1
n no cnocrny 9 oproro-
nantnoro npoennponannx nmeem:
BAC =B
1
A
1
C
1
= 90). Hocxontxy
B
1
A
1
C
1
H
1
, B
1
A
1
C
1
= 90 n
AA
1
H
1
, xax npoennpymmax nn-
nnx, ro nnocxocrn (A
1
B
1
,AA
1
) n
(A
1
C
1
, AA
1
) nsanmno nepnennxy-
nxpnt. B +rom cnyuae AB n AA
1

cyrt naxnonnax n ee oproronantnax npoexnnx na nnocxocrn . Tax xax AC n AC
AB, ro no reopeme o rpex nepnennxynxpax nmeem AC AA
1
, r.e. AC // H
1.

oc1a1ounoc1t. Hycrt BAC = 90, AC // H
1
. oxaxem, uro B
1
A
1
C
1
= 90.
Hpn anntx ycnonnxx nmeem: AB naxnonnax, A
1
B
1
ee npoexnnx na H
1
. Ho reo-
peme o rpex

nepnennxynxpax nmeem: (AC AB, AC // H
1
) AC A
1
B
1
. Hs
AC // H
1
cneyer AC // A
1
C
1
. Cneonarentno, A
1
C
1
A
1
B
1
n B
1
A
1
C
1
= 90.
Hs oparnmocrn xomnnexcnoro ueprexa (Ku) cneyer, uro ecnn A
2
B
2
, A
1
B
1
n
C
2
B
2
, C
1
B
1
npoexnnn nepecexammnxcx npxmtx AB n CB, ro npn ntnonnennn o-
noro ns nyx cneymmnx npoexnnonntx ycnonn:
x
z
y
H
2
H
1
B
C
B
2
B
1
A
2
A
1
C
1
C
2
A
P n c . 6 . 1
33
1) A
1
B
1
C
1
B
1
n A
2
B
2
// x nno C
2
B
2
// x;
2) A
2
B
2
C
2
B
2
n A
1
B
1
// x nno C
1
B
1
// x
n npocrpancrne nmeer mecro nepnennxynxpnocrt AB CB (pnc. 6.2).
Merpnuecxne saaun xypca naueprarentno reomer-
pnn moxno ycnonno pasennrt na cneymmne rpynnt:
1) nocrpoenne nsanmno nepnennxynxpntx ]nryp:
npxmtx, nnocxocre, npxmtx n nnocxocre;
2) onpeenenne nnn orpesxon (paccroxnn) n
narypantno nennunnt (HB) nnocxo ]nrypt;
3) onpeenenne yrnon mexy ]nrypamn.
Paccmorpnm npnmept pemenn na Ku merpnuecxnx
saau n xaxo rpynne.


7. HOCTPOEHHE B3AHMHO HEPHEHHKYARPHLX mHIYP

B xauecrne nsanmno nepnennxynxpntx yem paccmarpnnart napt ]nryp: ne
npxmte, npxmax n nnocxocrt, ne nnocxocrn, npxmax n nonepxnocrt.

7.1. Hepnennxynnpnoc1t nyx npnumx

Onpeenenne. ne npxmte n npocrpancrne nastnamrcx nepnennxynxpntmn,
ecnn yron mexy nnmn panen 90. Hepnennxynxpnte npxmte moryr trt nepece-
xammnmncx n cxpemnnammnmncx.
3aaua. ant npxmax AB n rouxa C. Hocrponrt npxmym, npoxoxmym uepes
rouxy C n nepecexammym AB no npxmtm yrnom (pnc. 7.1).
Pemenne saaun ocnontnaercx na nocrpoennxx, npnnoxmnx x npoexnnonnomy
nsopaxennm ycnonn reopemt o npoexnnn npxmoro
yrna (cm. pnc. 6.2).
Anropnrm pemennx n cnmnonnuecxo sanncn y-
er cneymmnm:
1) x
1
// A
1
B
1
;
2) (A
2
B
2
, A
1
B
1
) A
4
B
4
; (C
2
, C
1
) C
4
;
3) C
4
D
4
A
4
B
4
;
4) D
4
D
1
A
1
B
1
; D
1
D
2
A
2
B
2.
C
1
D
1
, C
2
D
2
pemenne saaun.
3aaua. ant npxmax AB n rouxa D (pnc. 7.2).
Hocrponrt npxmym, npoxoxmym uepes rouxy
D, nepnennxynxpnym npxmo AB n opasymmym
c ne xparuamee paccroxnne R, re R < (D, AB);
paccroxnne mexy ]nrypamn, yxasanntmn n
cxoxax.


B
2
A
2
C
2
A
1
B
1
C
1
x
P n c . 6 . 2
x
x
1
A
2
B
2
C
2
D
2
A
1
A
4
D
1
D
4
C
1
C
4
B
1
B
4
P n c . 7 . 1
34

Hs ycnonnx saaun cneyer, uro saannax n nc-
xomax npxmax cxpemnnammnecx. Konnt orpesxa
xparuamero paccroxnnx R opasymr na mnoxe-
crna rouex: npxmym AB n nnnnnpnuecxym no-
nepxnocrt npamennx c octm AB. Hs rouxn D
moxno nponecrn nnmt ne npxmte, xacarentnte x
nnnnnpnuecxo nonepxnocrn n opasymmne
yron 90 c npxmo AB. Anropnrm pemennx an-
no saaun n cnmnonnuecxo sanncn nmeer nn:
1) x
1
// A
1
B
1
;
2) (A
2
B
2
, A
1
B
1
) A
4
B
4
; (D
1
, D
2
) D
4
;
3) x
2
A
4
B
4
;
4) (A
1
B
1
, A
4
B
4
) A
5
= B
5
; (D
1
, D
4
) D
5
;
5) D
5
C
5
xacarentnax x oxpyxnocrn panyca
R; D
4
C
4
A
4
B
4
;
6) (C
5
, C
4
) C
1
; (C
4
, C
1
) C
2
.
C
2
D
2
, C
1
D
1
ono ns nyx pemenn saaun.




7.2. Hepnennxynnpnoc1t npnuon n nnocxoc1n

Onpeenenne. Hpxmax nastnaercx nepnennxynxpno nnocxocrn, ecnn ona nep-
nennxynxpna nmo npxmo n +ro nnocxocrn.
Hpnneem es oxasarentcrna nsnecrnte n mxontnom xypce crepeomerpnn reope-
mt, neoxonmte nx pemennx nocneymmnx merpnuecxnx saau.
1. Hpnsnax nepnennxynxpnocrn npxmo n nnocxocrn: ecnn npxmax nepnennxy-
nxpna nym nepecexammnmcx npxmtm, nexamnm n nnocxocrn, ro ona nepnennxy-
nxpna +ro nnocxocrn.
2. uepes nmym rouxy npocrpancrna npoxonr enncrnennax npxmax, nepnenn-
xynxpnax anno nnocxocrn.
3. uepes nmym rouxy npocrpancrna npoxonr enncrnennax nnocxocrt, nepnen-
nxynxpnax anno npxmo.
nx nocrpoennx npxmo t E, nepnennxynxpno nnocxo-
crn L, neoxonmo, na ocnonannn npnsnaxa nepnennxy-
nxpnocrn, nponecrn n nnocxocrn ne nepecexammnecx
npxmte h n f, a sarem nocrponrt npxmym t no ycnonnxm:
t h, t f (pnc. 7.3). B omem cnyuae npxmte t n h, t n f
napt cxpemnnammnxcx npxmtx.



x
x
1
x
2
R




A
2
B
2
C
2
D
2
A
1
A
4
A
5
B
1
B
4
B
5
C
1
C
4
C
5
D
1
D
4
D
5
=
P n c . 7 . 2
E

h
f
t
P n c . 7 . 3
35
x
A
2
B
2
C
2
E
2
E
1
B
1
A
1
C
1
h
2
f
1
h
1
f
2
t
2
t
1
P n c . 7 . 4
x
E
2
E
1
h
2
h
1
f
1
f
2
t
2
t
1
P n c . 7 . 5
A
2
B
2
C
2
h
2
f
2
m
2
n
2
B
1
A
1
C
1
n
1
m
1
f
1
h
1
x
P n c . 7 . 6
3aaua. ant nnocxocrt L(AABC) n rouxa E.
Hocrponrt npxmym t no ycnonnxm: t E, t L
(pnc. 7.4).
Pemenne saaun moxer trt cneymmnm:
1) crpoxrcx nnnnn yponnx h n f n nnocxocrn L,
re h
2
// x, f
1
// x;
2) crpoxrcx npoexnnn t
1
n t
2
ncxomo npxmo t,
re t
2
E
2
, t
2
f
2
; t
1
E
1
, t
1
h
1
. B nrore t
1
, t
2
pemenne saaun. Hpxmax t

cxpemnnaercx c f

n h.
Btop nnnn yponnx h

n f

n xauecrne
nepecexammnxcx npxmtx n nnocxocrn L
nponxronan npnneenntmn ntme ycnonnxmn
reopemt o npoennponannn npxmoro yrna n
npocroro nocrpoenn na Ku. Ecnn rouxa E
naxonrcx n nnocxocrn L, ro nocneonarentnocrt
nocrpoenn ocraercx npexne.
3aaua. ant npxmax t

n rouxa E. Hocrponrt nnocxocrt,
npoxoxmym uepes rouxy E n nepnennxynxpnym npxmo t

(pnc. 7.5).
Pemenne saaun ocnontnaercx na nocrpoennn nyx nnnn
yponnx h(h
1
,h
2
)

n f(f
1
,f
2
),

npoxoxmnx uepes rouxy E: h
2
E
2
,
h
2
// x, h
1
E
1
, h
1
t
1
; f
1
E
1
, f
1
// x, f
2
E
2
, f
2
t
2
. Hnocxocrt
(h

, f

) pemenne saaun.


7.3. Annnn nanontmero naxnona

Hpnneem nsnecrnym n naueprarentno reomerpnn reopemy: npxmte n nnocxocrn,
nepnennxynxpnte ee nnnnxm yponnx, xnnxmrcx nnnnxmn nanontmero naxnona
+ro nnocxocrn x nnocxocrxm npoexnn. 3ra reopema nosnonxer ntnonnxrt no-
crpoennx nnnn nanontmero naxnona na Ku.
3aaua. ana nnocxocrt L(AABC). Hocrponrt ee
nnnnn nanontmero naxnona ornocnrentno nnocxocre
npoexnn H
1
n H
2
(pnc. 7.6), npoxoxmne uepes nepmn-
ny B. Anropnrm npoexnnonnoro pemennx saaun yer
cneymmnm:
1) crpoxrcx n nnocxocrn L nnnnn yponnx h(h
1
,h
2
)

n
f(f
1
,f
2
), re h
2
// x, f
1
// x;
2) crponrcx nnauane m
2
B
2
, m
2
f
2
, sarem m
1
;
3) crponrcx nnauane n
1
B
1
, n
1
h
1
, sarem n
2
.
Hnnnx m(m
1
,m
2
) onpeenxer nanontmn naxnon
nnocxocrn L x nnocxocrn npoexnn H
2
, a nnnnx n(n
1
,n
2
)
onpeenxer nanontmn naxnon nnocxocrn L x nnocxocrn
npoexnn H
1
.

36
x
n
2
n
1
2
n
1
1
n
1
a
1
a
2
a
1
1
a
1
2
S
2
S
1
B
2
B
1
A
2
A
1
A
1
2
A
1
1
C
2
C
1
=
P n c . 7 . 9

7.4. Kaca1entnan nnocxoc1t n nopuant x nonepxnoc1n

B otxnonenno rouxe A nonepxnocrn L moxno nocrpo-
nrt enncrnennym xacarentnym nnocxocrt (pnc. 7.7). nx
+roro na nonepxnocrn uepes rouxy A neoxonmo nponecrn
ne xpnnte a n b, a sarem nocrponrt ne xacarentnte a
1
n b
1

coornercrnenno x a n b. Kacarentnax nnocxocrt A opasona-
na npxmtmn a
1
n b
1
. Hpxmax n A nastnaercx nopmantm no-
nepxnocrn L n rouxe A.
3aaua. ant c]epa n rouxa A na ne. Hocrponrt xaca-
rentnym nnocxocrt n nopmant x c]epe n rouxe A (pnc. 7.8).
Pemenne saaun moxer trt ntnonneno cneymmnm
opasom:
1) nocrponm ne oxpyxnocrn a(a
1
, a
2
) n b(b
1
,b
2
) na c]epe, nepecexammnecx n
rouxe A(A
1
,A
2
);
2) nponeem ne xacarentnte a
1
(a
1
1
, a
1
2
) n b
1

(b
1
1
, b
1
2
) x oxpyxnocrxm a n b
coornercrnenno; ncxomax xacarentnax nnocxocrt opasyercx xacarentntmn a
1

n b
1
;
3) nocrponm nopmant n(n
1
,n
2
) x nonepxnocrn c]ept no cneymmnm ycnonnxm:
n
1
b
1
1
, n
2
a
1
2
.
3amernm, uro nonepxnocrt c]ept cocronr rontxo ns otxnonenntx rouex.

















3aaua. ant xonnuecxax nonepxnocrt npamennx n rouxa A na ne. Hocrponrt
xacarentnym nnocxocrt n nopmant x nonepxnocrn n rouxe A (pnc. 7.9).
Pemenne saaun:
1) nocrponm na xonnuecxo nonepxnocrn ne nnnnn, nepecexammnecx n rouxe A:
oxpyxnocrt a(a
1
, a
2
) n npxmym b = SA(S
1
A
1
, S
2
A
2
);
2) nponeem xacarentnym a
1
(a
1
1
,a
1
2
) x oxpyxnocrn a; ne nepecexammnecx n rou-
xe A npxmte a
1
n SA opasymr xacarentnym nnocxocrt x nonepxnocrn xonyca;
A

a
b
a
1
b
1
n

P n c . 7 . 7
x
O
2
n
2
a
2
a
1
2
b
1
b
1
1
n
1
a
1
1
O
1
A
2
A
1
b
1
2
P n c . 7 . 8
37
3) npn nomomn npeopasonannx npamennx (cm. pnc. 7.9) nocrponm npomexyrou-
noe nonoxenne n
1
(n
1
1
,n
1
2
) ncxomo nopmann n, a sarem ee ncxomoe nonoxenne
n(n
1
,n
2
).
Bepmnna S enncrnennax ocoax rouxa na nonepxnocrn xonyca.

7.5. Hepnennxynnpnoc1t nyx nnocxoc1en

Onpeenenne. ne nnocxocrn nastnamrcx nepnennxynxpntmn, ecnn yron mex-
y nnmn panen 90. Hpnneem es oxasarentcrna reopemt crepeomerpnn, nonesnte
nx pemennx nocneymmnx merpnuecxnx saau.
1. Hpnsnax nepnennxynxpnocrn nyx nnocxocre: ecnn nnocxocrt npoxonr ue-
pes nepnennxynxp x pyro nnocxocrn, ro ona nepnennxynxpna +ro nnocxocrn.
2. Ecnn ne nnocxocrn, nepnennxynxpnte rperte nnocxocrn, nepecexamrcx, ro
npxmax nx nepeceuennx nepnennxynxpna rperte nnocxocrn.
3. nx naxnonno npxmo, ne xnnxmmecx nepnennxynxpom x nnocxocrn, nmeer
mecro yrnepxenne: uepes naxnonnym npoxonr enncrnennax nnocxocrt, nepnen-
nxynxpnax anno nnocxocrn.
Hocnenee yrnepxenne nosnonxer npenoxnrt cneymmn anropnrm nocrpoe-
nnx nnocxocrn, npoxoxme uepes naxnonnym AB n nepnennxynxpnym saanno
nnocxocrn L:
1) na AB ntnpaercx nponsnontnax rouxa E;
2) crponrcx npxmax t

raxnm opasom, uro t

E, t

h

, t

f

, re h

L, f

L
(pnc. 7.10), r.e. t

L.
Hnocxocrt (AB,t) yer enncrnenno nnocxocrtm, nepnennxynxpno
nnocxocrn L. 3amernm, uro uepes npxmym t

L npoxonr ne ona nnocxocrt, nep-
nennxynxpnax L.
3aaua. ana nnocxocrt L(CD, MN), re CD // MN n npxmax AB (pnc. 7.11).
Hocrponrt na Ku nnocxocrt, npoxoxmym uepes AB n
nepnennxynxpnym nnocxocrn L.
Anropnrm npoexnnonnoro pemennx saaun:
1) crpoxrcx nnnnn yponnx h(h
1
,h
2
)

n f(f
1
,f
2
) n nnocxocrn L,
npn +rom h
2
// x, f
1
// x;
2) crpoxrcx npoexnnn t
1
n t
2
npxmo t

raxnm opasom, uro
t
2
E
2
, t
2
f
2
; t
1
E
1
, t
1
h
1
, re E AB nponsnontnax
rouxa. Hnocxocrt (AB, t) pemenne saaun.
3aaua. ant nnocxocrn L(AB, DC) n A(KL, PT), re
AB DC, KL // PT, a raxxe rouxa E. Hocrponrt nnocxocrt,
npoxoxmym uepes rouxy E n nepnennxynxpnym oenm
nnocxocrxm L n A (pnc. 9.9).
Ono ns nosmoxntx pemenn anno saaun cocronr n cneymmem. Bnauane
crponrcx nnnnx nepeceuennx saanntx nnocxocre t

= L A. 3arem, na ocnonannn
npnneenntx reopem crepeomerpnn, crponrcx nnocxocrt, npoxoxmax uepes rouxy E
n nepnennxynxpnax nnnnn t. Fyyun enncrnenno, +ra nnocxocrt npecrannxer
coo pemenne saaun.
A
B
E
t

h
f
P n c . 7 . 1 0
38
x
x
1
A
2
B
2
A
1
A
4
B
1
B
4
C
2
D
1
E
4
b
a
P n c . 8 . 1
x
A
2
B
2
E
2
t
2
C
2
D
2
M
2
N
2
h
2
f
2
A
1
E
1
B
1
C
1
D
1
M
1
f
1
h
1
N
1
t
1
P n c . 7 . 1 1
Bosmoxen pyro anropnrm pemennx anno saaun (cm. pnc. 9.8):
1) ns anno rouxn E onycxaercx
nepnennxynxp a na nnocxocrt L;
2) ns rouxn E onycxaer nepnennxynxp
b na nnocxocrt A.
Hnocxocrt (a, b), re a b = E, ecrt
pemenne saaun. Paccmorpnm peannsannm
+roro anropnrma na Ku (cm. pnc. 9.9).
1. B nnocxocrn L nocrponm nnnnn
yponnx h
1
(h
1
1
, h
1
2
) n f
1
(f
1
1
, f
1
2
)

. Hpn +rom
h
1
2
// x; f
1
1
// x.
2. B nnocxocrn A nocrponm nnnnn
yponnx h
2
(h
2
1
, h
2
2
)

n f
2
(f
2
1
, f
2
2
)

. Hpn +rom
h
2
2
// x; f
2
1
//x.
3. Hs rouxn E onycxamrcx na
nepnennxynxpa: a L, b A. Hpn +rom
a
2
f
1
2
, a
1
h
1
1
; b
2
f
2
2
, b
1
h
2
1
.
ne npxmte a n b, nepecexammnecx n rouxe E, onpeenxmr ncxomym nnocxocrt,
r.e. nnocxocrt, nepnennxynxpnym saanntm nnocxocrxm L n A.

8. OHPEEAEHHE PACCTORHHH

Paccmorpnm rontxo onpeenenne paccroxnn, nocxontxy HB nnocxo ]nrypt
tna paccmorpena n n. 4.

8.1. Pacc1onnne o1 1ouxn o qnrypm (1ouxn, npnuon, nnocxoc1n)

Hpnneem cneennx ns nnannmerpnn, neoxonmte nx pemennx oosnauenntx
saau.
1. nnna orpesxa ecrt paccroxnne mexy ero xonnamn.
2. Hs rouxn, ne nexame na npxmo, moxno nponecrn nepnennxynxp x +ro npx-
mo, n npnrom rontxo onn.
3aaua. Onpeennrt nnny orpesxa AB
(pnc. 8.1).
B n. 4 tno npnneeno pemenne +ro sa-
aun meroom sament nnocxocre npoexnn.
Paccmorpnm pyroe pemenne pemenne me-
room npxmoyrontnoro rpeyrontnnxa. Ero
oocnonanne ntnonnnm, onnpaxct na yxasan-
nt mero sament. Btnonnxx pemenne an-
no saaun meroom sament, nonyunm A
4
B
4

ncxomym nnny. Bnnm, uro n coornercrnnn c
meroom sament E
4
B
4
= b. Ho+romy, ornoxnn
na nnnnn B
1
B
4
x
1
or rouxn B
1
orpesox
B
1
D
1
= E
4
B
4
= b, nonyunm npxmoyrontnt
39
rpeyrontnnx A
1
B
1
D
1
, n xoropom A
1
D
1
= A
4
B
4
, r.e. nnna rnnorenyst A
1
D
1
ecrt nc-
xomax nnna. Cneonarentno, nnny orpesxa AB moxno onpeennrt na nnocxocrn
npoexnn H
1
ncnontsyx paccroxnne b, cnxroe na nnocxocrn npoexnn H
2
. Hpn +rom
samena nnocxocre npoexnn c octm x
1
ne nyxna. Ananornuno moxno onpeennrt
ncxomym nnny na nnocxocrn H
2
. nx +roro ntcrpannaem npxmoyrontnt rpe-
yrontnnx B
2
A
2
C
2
, y xoroporo C
2
A
2
= a, re a onpeeneno na H
1
. B nrore nonyuaem
B
2
C
2
= B
1
C
1
ncxomax nnna orpesxa AB. Honxrno, uro neoxonmo crponrt nnmt
onn ns nyx npnneenntx npxmoyrontntx rpeyrontnnxon.
. ant npxmax AB n rouxa E nne npxmo (pnc. 8.2). Tpeyercx onpeennrt
paccroxnne (E, AB).
Hpoexnnonnt anropnrm pemennx
moxer trt cneymmnm:
1) meroom sament nnocxocre
npoexnn onpeenxercx nnna orpesxa
AB. Ha H
4
ona panna A
4
B
4
;
2) crponrcx ononnnrentnax na H
4
npoexnnx E
4
rouxn E;

3) nnonrcx nonax cncrema nnocxo-
cre npoexnn H
4
, H
5
raxax, uro ee oct
npoexnn x
2
nepnennxynxpna A
4
B
4
;
4) na H
5
crpoxrcx ononnnrentnte
npoexnnn orpesxa AB n rouxn E. Hpo-
exnnxmn yyr coornercrnenno rouxn
A
5
= B
5
n E
5
.
Paccroxnne (F
5
, E
5
) xnnxercx ncxo-
mtm paccroxnnem mexy anntmn
npxmo n rouxo. Bosnpamaem sarem
nocneonarentno npoexnnn orpesxa EF
na H
4
, H
1
, H
2
. nx +roro npononm nnauane E
4
F
4
// x
2
, a sarem crponm: (F
5
, F
4
) F
1
;
(F
4
, F
1
) F
2
.
B nrore nonyuaem E
1
F
1
, E
2
F
2
ocnonnte npoexnnn orpesxa EF, nnna xoroporo
ecrt ncxomoe paccroxnne. Heoxonmo orme-
rnrt, uro ecnn ne yunrtnart nonyuennte
nocrpoennx na H
5
, ro ocranmnecx nocrpoe-
nnx na H
2
, H
1
n H
4
coornercrnymr pemennm
saaun o nponeennn npxmo EF uepes an-
nym rouxy E, nepecexamme no 90 annym
npxmym AB.
. ant nnocxocrt L (AABC) n rou-
xa E. Onpeennrt paccroxnne or rouxn E o
nnocxocrn L (pnc. 8.3).
Pemenne saaun moxer trt ntnonneno
meroom sament nnocxocre npoexnn. Hpo-
exnnonnt anropnrm pemennx n +rom cnyuae
cneymmn:
x
x
1
x
2
E
2
B
2
A
2
A
1
A
4
A
5
E
1
E
4
E
5
B
1
B
4
B
5
F
2
F
1
F
4
F
5
= =
P n c . 8 . 2
x
x
1
A
2
B
2
C
2
E
2
F
2
E
1
E
4
A
1
A
4
B
1
B
4
C
1
C
4
F
1
F
4
h
2
h
1
h
4
=
P n c . 8 . 3
40
A

h
f
( A , )
P n c . 8 . 6
1) n nnocxocrn L crponrcx nnnnx yponnx,
nanpnmep h(h
1
, h
2
) , rax, uro h
2
// x;
2) nnonrcx nonax cncrema nnocxocre npoexnn H
1
, H
4
c octm x
1
rax, uro x
1
h
1
;
3) na H
4
crpoxrcx ononnnrentnte npoexnnn saanntx ]nryp B
4
C
4
nx AABC n
E
4
nx rouxn E;

4) nnna nepnennxynxpa E
4
F
4
ecrt ncxomoe paccroxnne (E, L).
nx nonnort pemennx crponm npoexnnn orpesxa EF na ocnonntx nnocxocrxx
npoexnn. nx +roro crponm nnauane E
1
F
1
// x
1
, a sarem (F
4
, F
1
) F
2
; E
2
F
2
, E
1
F
1
ocnonnte npoexnnn orpesxa EF nnnt .

8.2. Onpeenenne pacc1onnnn ueay napannentnmun qnrypaun

3aaua. ant napannentnte npxmte AB n CD. Onpeennrt paccroxnne mexy
+rnmn npxmtmn (pnc. 8.4).
Pemenne saaun ntnonnnm meroom
sament nnocxocre npoexnn. nx +roro
nnauane nneem nonym cncremy nnocxo-
cre npoexnn H
1
, H
4
c octm npoexnn
x
1
// A
1
B
1
n onpeennm HB orpesxon AB n
CD. Honyunm A
4
B
4
= HB orpesxa AB;
D
4
C
4
= HB orpesxa DC. 3arem nneem no-
nym cncremy nnocxocre npoexnn H
4
, H
5
c octm x
2
A
4
B
4
n nocrponm rouxn
D
5
= C
5
n A
5
= B
5
, xoropte yyr ntpox-
enntmn npoexnnxmn orpesxon AB n CD.
Hcxomtm paccroxnnem (AB, CD) yer
(A
5
, D
5
). Ocraercx nocrponrt ocnonnte
npoexnnn orpesxa nnnt . 3ry uacrt
pemennx saaun npenaraercx ntnonnnrt
camocroxrentno.
3aaua. ant napannentnte ]nrypt: npxmax a n nnocxocrt L. Onpeennrt
paccroxnne mexy a n L (pnc. 8.5).
nx pemennx saaun
neoxonmo nsxrt na
npxmo a nponsnontnym
rouxy A n onpeennrt
paccroxnne (A, L).
Tax xax (a, L) = (A, L),
ro paccroxnne (A, L) yer
pemennem anno saaun.
Onpeenenne paccroxnnx
(A,L) tno noxasano
panee.

x
1
x
2
x
A
2
A
1
A
4
A
5
B
2
B
1
B
4
B
5
=
C
2
D
2
D
1
D
4
D
5
C
1
C
4
C
5
=
P n c . 8 . 4
A

a
h
f
( A , )
P n c . 8 . 5
41
3aaua. ant napannentnte nnocxocrn L n A. Onpeennrt paccroxnne mexy L
n A (pnc. 8.6).
nx pemennx saaun neoxonmo nsxrt na ono ns nnocxocre, nanpnmep L,
rouxy A n onpeennrt paccroxnne (A, A). Tax xax (L, A) = (A, A), ro naennoe
paccroxnne (A, A) yer pemennem saaun.

8.3. Onpeenenne pacc1onnnn ueay cxpemnnammnuncn npnumun

Hpnneem es oxasarentcrn cneennx ns crepeomerpnn, neoxonmte nx peme-
nnx nasnanno saaun.
1. Omnm nepnennxynxpom nyx cxpemnnammnxcx npxmtx nastnaercx orpesox,
xonnt xoroporo nexar na anntx npxmtx n xoropt nepnennxynxpen x nnm.
2. Omn nepnennxynxp nyx cxpemnnammnxcx npxmtx cymecrnyer n enncr-
nen.
3. Paccroxnne mexy cxpemnnammnmncx npxmtmn panno nnne nx omero nep-
nennxynxpa.
3aaua. ant cxpemnnammnecx npxmte AB n CD. Onpeennrt paccroxnne mex-
y npxmtmn (pnc. 8.7).
Pemenne saaun ntnonnnm meroom sament nnocxocre npoexnn. Hpoexnnon-
nt anropnrm pemennx n +rom cnyuae moxer trt
cneymmnm:
1) nnonrcx nonax cncrema nnocxocre npoexnn
H
1
, H
4
, raxnm opasom, uro H
4
// AB, r.e. na Ku
crponrcx oct x
1
// A
1
B
1
;
2) na H
4
crpoxrcx nonte npoexnnn A
4
B
4
( HB orpes-
xa AB) n C
4
D
4
;
3) nnonrcx nonax cncrema nnocxocre H
4
, H
5
c
octm x
2
A
4
B
4
raxax, uro H
5
AB;
4) na H
5
crpoxrcx nonte npoexnnn orpesox C
5
D
5
n rouxa A
5
= B
5
;
5) crponrcx nepnennxynxp E
5
F
5
C
5
D
5
ns rouxn
E
5
(

= A
5
= B
5
);

B nrore, no cmtcny nocrpoenn n meroe sament
nnocxocre npoexnn n npnneennomy nonxrnm pac-
croxnnx mexy cxpemnnammnmncx npxmtmn, nonyua-
em, uro (E
5
, C
5
D
5
) = (AB, CD). nx nonnort peme-
nnx saaun neoxonmo nepnyrt orpesox EF nnno
(AB, CD) na ncxonte nnocxocrn npoexnn:
1) crponm E
4
F
4
// x
2
;
2) crponm E
1
F
1
no npoexnnxm E
5
F
5
, E
4
F
4
; E
2
F
2
no
npoexnnxm E
4
F
4
, E
1
F
1
.
Orpesxn E
2
F
2
, E
1
F
1
npecrannxmr coo ocnonnte
npoexnnn orpesxa EF.

x
x
1
x
2
A
2
B
2
C
2
E
2
F
2
A
1
A
4
A
5
B
1
B
4
B
5
C
1
C
4
C
5
D
1
D
4
D
5
D
2
E
1
E
4
E
5
F
1
F
4
F
5
= =
P n c . 8 . 7
42
A
B
C
D
E
A
1
B
1
E
1

P n c . 8 . 8
B crepeomerpnn nsnecrno eme ono onpeenenne paccmarpnnaemoro paccroxnnx:
paccroxnne mexy cxpemnnammnmncx npxmtmn panno paccroxnnm mexy napan-
nentntmn nnocxocrxmn, nponeenntmn uepes +rn npxmte.
Taxoe onpeenenne paccroxnnx nosnonxer npenoxnrt onee xoporxn nyrt
pemennx paccmarpnnaemo saaun. Hycrt AB n CD cxpemnnammnecx npxmte
(pnc. 8.8). Hepemecrnm n npocrpancrne npxmym AB
napannentno camo cee n nonoxenne A
1
B
1
o
nepeceuennx c CD. Ecnn nsxrt renept na npxmo AB
nmym rouxy E n onycrnrt ns +ro rouxn
nepnennxynxp EE
1
na opasonanmymcx nnocxocrt
L(CD, A
1
B
1
), ro nnna +roro nepnennxynxpa yer
ncxomtm paccroxnnem (AB,CD). Paccmorpnm
npoexnnonnoe pemenne saaun.
3aaua. ant cxpemnnammnecx npxmte AB n CD
(pnc. 8.9). Onpeennrt paccroxnne mexy nnmn.
Pemenne saaun moxer trt cneymmnm.
1. Hepenecem npxmym AB napannentno camo cee o nepeceuennx c CD. Taxnx
nepenocon moxer trt ecxoneunoe mnoxecrno. Onn ns nepenocon, nanpnmep
A
1
B
1
A
1
1
B
1
1
, A
2
B
2
= A
2
1
B
2
1
nanonee npocro nx annoro Ku napnanr.
2. Honyuaem nonte ycnonnx saa-
un: saana nnocxocrt L (A
1
B
1
, CD),
re A
1
B
1
CD n rouxa A; rpeyercx
onpeennrt paccroxnne (A, L). Pe-
menne saaun ntnonnxercx meroom
sament nnocxocre npoexnn no pa-
nee nsnoxenno cxeme npoexnnon-
noro pemennx.

9. OHPEEAEHHE YIAOB
MEY mHIYPAMH

unrypt npocrpancrna: npxmte
nnnnn, nnocxocrn, npxmte n nnoc-
xocrn moryr opasontnart mexy
coo yrnt reomerpnuecxne ]nry-
pt c coornercrnymmnmn +rnm ]nry-
pam nennunnamn. Paccmorpnm nan-
onee uacro ncrpeuammnecx n na-
ueprarentno reomerpnn yrnt.

9.1. Yrnm ueay npnumun

Hpnneem nsnecrnte ns mxontnoro xypca crepeomerpnn nonxrnx n onpeenennx,
neoxonmte nx pemennx nocneymmnx merpnuecxnx saau:
1) nnocxn yron ]nrypa, opasonannax nymx nyuamn c omnm nauanom n ono
x
x
1
A
2
B
2
C
2
D
2
E
2
E
1
E
4
h
2
A
1
A
4
C
1
B
1
1
B
1
4
D
1
D
4
A
1
1
B
1
h
1
h
4
A
1
2
B
1
2
=
=
P n c . 8 . 9
43
ns nnocxnx onacre, orpannuenno nmn;
2) yron mexy nepecexammnmncx npxmtmn nennunna nanmentmero ns nnocxnx
yrnon, opasonanntx +rnmn npxmtmn;
3) yron mexy cxpemnnammnmncx npxmtmn +ro yron mexy nepecexammnmncx
npxmtmn, napannentntmn anntm cxpemnnammnmcx npxmtm.
B nocnenem onpeenennn nennunna yrna mexy nymx cxpemnnammnmncx npx-
mtmn ne sanncnr or ntopa napt nepecexammnxcx npxmtx, napannentntx nm. Pac-
cmorpnm necxontxo saau na on-
peenenne yrnon.
. ant nepecexammnecx
orpesxn AB n AC (pnc. 9.1). Onpe-
ennrt yron mexy nnmn.
Hocxontxy ncxomt yron xnnx-
ercx nnocxo ]nrypo, ro pemenne
saaun cnonrcx x onpeenennm
HB nnocxo ]nrypt. Ee npoexnn-
onnoe pemenne nsnoxeno n n. 1.
Hanomnnm anropnrm +roro peme-
nnx. On ocnonan na meroe sament
nnocxocre npoexnn n npnmenn-
rentno x ycnonnxm anno saaun
moxer trt cneymmnm:
1) crponrcx nnnnx yponnx, na-
npnmep, h(h
1
,h
2
), npnnanexamax
nnocxocrn L(AB, AC), npn +rom h
2
// x;
2) crponrcx oct npoexnnn x
1
h
1
, uro coornercrnyer nneennm n npocrpancrne
nono cncremt nnocxocre npoexnn H
1
, H
4
, re H
4
h;
3) na H
4
crponrcx ntpoxennax npoexnnx B
4
C
4
nnocxocrn L;
4) crponrcx oct npoexnnn x
2
// B
4
C
4
, uro coornercrnyer nneennm n npocrpancrne
nono cncremt nnocxocre npoexnn H
4
, H
5
, re H
5
// L;
5) na H
5
crponrcx yron (A
5
C
5
, A
5
B
5
) = , xoropt n xnnxercx ncxomtm.
. ant ne cxpemnnammnecx npxmte AB n CD (pnc. 9.2). Onpeennrt
yron mexy nnmn.
Pemenne saaun ntnonnnm, onnpaxct na onpeenenne
yrna mexy cxpemnnammnmncx npxmtmn, npnneennoe
ntme, a raxxe yunrtnax anropnrm npoexnnonnoro peme-
nnx npetyme saaun. nx +rnx nene nepemecrnm ony
ns npxmtx, nanpnmep DC, n nonoxenne, xora ona, ocrana-
xct napannentno camo cee, yer nepecexart pyrym
npxmym AB. Taxnx nonoxenn cymecrnyer ecuncnennoe
mnoxecrno. Ono ns nnx, nanpnmep D
1
C
1
(D
1
1
C
1
1
, D
2
1
C
2
1
),
re D
1
1
C
1
1
// D
1
C
1
, D
2
1
C
2
1
= D
2
C
2
, noxasano na Ku
(cm. pnc. 9.2). B nrore nonyuaem napy nepecexammnxcx
npxmtx AB D
1
C
1
, yron mexy xoroptmn moxer trt
onpeenen na ocnonannn ntmenpnneennoro anropnrma.

x
x
1
x
2
A
2
B
2
C
2
h
2
A
1
B
4
B
5
B
1
A
4
A
5
C
1
C
4
C
5
h
1
P n c . 9 . 1
x
A
2
B
2
C
2
D
2
D
1
D
1
1
C
1
C
1
1
B
1
A
1
D
1
2
C
1
2
=
=
P n c . 9 . 2
44
3ry uacrt pemennx saaun pexomenyercx ntnonnnrt camocroxrentno.
Paccmorpnm eme ono npoexnnonnoe pemenne anno saaun. Cmtcn ero saxnm-
uaercx n nocrpoennn raxo ononnnrentno nnocxocrn npoexnn, na xoropo opro-
ronantnte npoexnnn saanntx cxpemnnammnxcx npxmtx cyrt nepecexammnecx
npxmte, coornercrnenno napannentnte +rnm cxpemnnammnmcx npxmtm. Vron mex-
y raxnmn oproronantntmn npoexnnxmn xnnxercx ncxomtm. Vxasannax nnocxocrt
npoexnn nepnennxynxpna npxmo xparuamero paccroxnnx mexy saanntmn
cxpemnnammnmncx npxmtmn.
3aaua. ant cxpemnnammnecx npxmte AB n CD. Onpeennrt yron mexy nnmn
(pnc. 9.3).
Hpoexnnonnoe pemenne +ro saaun, n coornercrnnn c npenoxenno ntme cxe-
mo, yer cneymmnm:
1) crponrcx oct npoexnnn x
1
// C
1
D
1
(x
1
moxno crponrt napannentno nmo ns
uertpex oproronantntx npoexnn npxmtx AB n CD), xoropax nmecre c nnocxocrxmn
H
1
, H
4
opasyer nonym cncremy nnocxocre npoexnn, raxym, uro H
4
// CD;
2) na H
4
crpoxrcx ononnnrentnte npoexnnn A
4
B
4
, C
4
D
4
npxmtx AB n CD, npn
+rom C
4
D
4
ecrt HB orpesxa CD;
3) crponrcx oct npoexnnn x
2
C
4
D
4
, xoropax nmecre c H
4
, H
5
opasyer nonym
cncremy nnocxocre npoexnn, raxym, uro H
5
CD;
4) na H
5
crpoxrcx ononnnrentnte npoexnnn A
5
B
5
n C
5
= D
5
npxmtx AB n CD;
5) crponrcx oct npoexnnn x
3
// A
5
B
5
, xoropax
nmecre c H
5
, H
6
opasyer nonym cncremy nnocxo-
cre npoexnn, raxym, uro H
6
// AB;
6) na H
6
crpoxrcx ononnnrentnte npoexnnn
A
6
B
6
n C
6
D
6
, npecrannxmmnx coo HB npx-
mtx AB n CD n opasymmnx mexy coo
yron , xnnxmmncx pemennem saaun.

9.2. Yron ueay npnuon n nnocxoc1tm

Onpeenenne. Vrnom mexy naxnonno npx-
mo n nnocxocrtm nastnaercx yron mexy na-
xnonno n ee oproronantno npoexnne na +ry
nnocxocrt. Ecnn npxmax napannentna nnocxocrn
nnn nexnr n ne, ro yron mexy npxmo n nnoc-
xocrtm npnnnmaercx panntm nynm. B cnyuae
nepnennxynxpnocrn npxmo n nnocxocrn yron
mexy nnmn no onpeenennm panen 90. Hs onpe-
enennx cneyer, uro yron mexy npxmo n nnoc-
xocrtm saxnmuen n orpesxe 0 90.
3aaua. ant npxmax DE (pnc. 9.4) n nnoc-
xocrt L(AABC). Onpeennrt yron mexy nnmn.

x
x
1
x
2
x
3
A
2
B
2
C
2
D
2
A
1
A
4
A
5
A
6
B
1
B
4
B
5
B
6
C
1
C
4
C
5
C
6
D
1
D
5
D
6
D
4
=
P n c . 9 . 3
45

E
E
1
t
F

a
P n c . 9 . 5

x
x
1
x
2
A
2
B
2
C
2
E
2
D
2
h
2
B
1
B
4
C
1
C
4
A
1
A
4
D
1
D
4
E
1
E
4
E
5
E
h
1
E
1
E
1
4
F
4
F
5
F
F
1
E F = E
5
F
5
E E
1
= E
4
E
1
4
P n c . 9 . 4




















Hpoexnnonnoe pemenne saaun ocnontnaercx na nocrpoennn npxmoyrontnoro rpe-
yrontnnxa EE
1
F (pnc. 9.5), n xoropom: EF rnnorenysa
na saanno naxnonno a, npn +rom E nponsnontnax
rouxa, F = a L, L saannax nnocxocrt; E
1
F xarer
na nnocxocrn L, xoropt npecrannxer coo
oproronantnym npoexnnm orpesxa EF; = (EF, FE
1
)
ecrt ncxomt yron. Paccmorpnm anropnrm
npoexnnonnoro pemennx, xoropt npecrannen na
pncynxe 9.4.
1. B nnocxocrn L ntnpaercx nnnnx yponnx,
nanpnmep, ropnsonrant h(h
1
, h
2
). Hpn +rom h
2
// x.

46
x
x
1
x
2

a
2
t
2
h
2
f
2
h
1
2
E
2
1
2
2
2
A
2
B
2
C
2
h
1
1
E
1
1
1
2
1
a
1
t
1
A
1
C
1
B
1
h
1
f
1
h
1
4
1
4
2
4
E
4
= =
2
5
1
5
E
5
t
5
a
5
P n c . 9 . 6
2. Bnonrcx nonax cncrema nnocxocre npoexnn H
1
, H
4
c octm x
1
h
1
, raxax,
uro H
4
h

.
3. Ha H
4
crponrcx ntpoxennax npoexnnx A
4
B
4
nnocxocrn L n ononnnrentnax
npoexnnx D
4
E
4
npxmo DE.
4. Onpeenxmrcx ononnnrentnte npoexnnn F
4
n F
1
rouxn nepeceuennx F = a L,
npn +rom E
1
F
1
, E
4
F
4
npoexnnn rnnorenyst EF n npxmoyrontnom rpeyrontnnxe

EE
1
F.
5. Crponrcx nepnennxynxp E
4
E
4
1
A
4
B
4
, npn +rom E
4
E
4
1
= EE
1
xarer npxmo-
yrontnoro rpeyrontnnxa EE
1
F.
6. Bneennem cncremt nnocxocre npoexnn H
4
, H
5
c octm x
2
// E
4
F
4
n H
5
// EF
onpeenxercx HB rnnorenyst EF, pannax E
5
F
5
.
7. B cropone or npoexnnonntx nocrpoenn na Ku crponrcx npxmoyrontnt rpe-
yrontnnx EE
1
F no xarery EE
1
n rnnorenyse EF.
Vron = (E
1
F, EF) xnnxercx ncxomtm.
Paccmorpnm eme ono npoexnnonnoe pemenne, ocnonannoe na rpeyrontnnxe
EE
1
F.
. ant npxmax a n nnocxocrt L(AABC). Onpeennrt yron mexy nnmn
(pnc. 9.6).





















B npxmoyrontnom rpeyrontnnxe EE
1
F ncxomt yron moxer trt onpeenen
xax = 90 , re yron mexy npxmo a, na xoropo pacnonoxena rnnorenysa
EF(cm. pnc. 9.5), n nepnennxynxpom t L, na xoropom pacnonoxen xarer E
1
E
1
.
Hpenaraemoe nnxe npoexnnonnoe pemenne anno saaun nanpanneno na onpe-
enenne yrna = (a, t).
47
1. Hocrponm n nnocxocrn L ne nnnnn yponnx h(h
1
, h
2
) n f(f
1
, f
2
), re h
2
// x, f
1
// x.
2. Hs nponsnontno rouxn E a onycrnm nepnennxynxp t L, npn +rom t
2
npo-
xonr uepes E
2
, t
2
f
2
; t
1
npoxonr uepes E
1
, t
1
h
1
.

3. Onpeenxem yron =

(a, t

) n cneymme nocneonarentnocrn:
1) n nnocxocrn A(a, t

) ntnpaercx nnnnx yponnx, nanpnmep, h
1
(h
1
1
, h
2
1
), re
h
2
1
// x;
2) nneennem cncremt nnocxocre npoexnn H
1
, H
4
c octm x
1
h
1
1
crponrcx na
H
4
ntpoxennax npoexnnx E
4
h
4
1
nnocxocrn A;
3) nneennem cncremt nnocxocre npoexnn H
4
, H
5
c octm x
2
// E
4
h
4
1
crponrcx
na H
5
yron =

(t
5
, a
5
);

4) nocrpoennem npxmoro yrna onpeenxercx ncxomt yron =

(a, L) = 90 .

9.3. Yron ueay nnocxoc1nun

nx nyx nnocxocre cymecrnyer nonxrne nyrpannoro yrna.
Onpeenenne. nyrpanntm yrnom nastnaercx ]nrypa, opasonannax npxmo t

n
nymx nonynnocxocrxmn c ome rpannne t

, ne npnnanexamnmn ono nnocxo-
crn. Honynnocxocrn, opasymmne nyrpannt yron, nastnamrcx ero rpanxmn, npx-
max t

pepom nyrpannoro yrna. nyrpannt yron c rpanxmn L n A n pepom t

oo-
snauaercx LtA.
Ormernm na pepe rouxy n n xaxo rpann ns +ro rouxn nponeem nyu nepnen-
nxynxpno pepy. Opasonannt +rnmn nyuamn yron nastnaercx nnnentm yrnom
nyrpannoro yrna. Hnnent yron cnyxnr mepo nyrpannoro yrna. Bennunna ny-
rpannoro yrna ne sanncnr or ntopa ero nnnenoro yrna.
3aaua. ant ne nnocxocrn L(AABC) n A(AKML). Onpeennrt yron mexy nno-
cxocrxmn (pnc. 9.7).
Hpoexnnonnoe pemenne saaun saxnmuaercx n nocrpoennn nnnnn nepeceuennx
nnocxocre L n A, xnnxmmecx no onpeenennm pepom nyrpannoro yrna, n nocne-
ymmnm npoennponannem ee n rouxy na ononnnrentno nnocxocrn npoexnn. Hc-
xonte nnocxocrn L n A yyr nmert na +ro nnocxocrn ntpoxennte npoexnnn
npxmte, nepecexammnecx n yxasanno rouxe. Vron mexy +rnmn npxmtmn ecrt pe-
menne saaun. Hocneonarentnocrt npenaraemoro npoexnnonnoro pemennx yer
cneymme:
1) n ono ns nyx anntx nnocxocre, nanpnmep L, crponrcx nnnnx yponnx,
nanpnmep h(h
1
, h
2
), re h
2
// x;
2) nneennem nono cncremt nnocxocre npoexnn H
1
, H
4
c octm x
1
h
1
n H
4
h

crpoxrcx na H
4
ononnnrentnte npoexnnn nnocxocre B
4
C
4
nx L n AK
4
M
4
L
4
nx
nnocxocrn A;
3) ormeuamrcx orpesxn 1
4
2
4
n 1
1
2
1
ononnnrentnte npoexnnn nnnnn t(1
1
2
1
,1
4
2
4)
)
nepeceuennx saanntx nnocxocre;
4) n xaxo ns nnocxocre L n A ntnpaercx no ono rouxe, nanpnmep A L n
K L;
5) nneennem nono cncremt nnocxocre npoexnn H
4
, H
5
c octm x
2
// 1
4
2
4
n
48
H
5
// t(1,2) crpoxrcx na H
5
ononnnrentnte npoexnnn 1
5
2
5
, A
5
, K
5
coornercrnymmnx
]nryp: nnnnn nepeceuennx t

(1, 2) n rouex A, K;
6) nneennem nono cncremt nnocxocre npoexnn H
5
, H
6
c octm x
3
1
5
2
5
n
H
6
t(1,2) crponrcx na H
6
nnnent yron nyrpannoro yrna LtA, xoropt n
xnnxercx pemennem saaun.



Bosmoxno pyroe npoexnnonnoe pemenne
paccmarpnnaemo saaun, ocnonannoe na cne-
ymmem anropnrme:
1) n npocrpancrne ntnpaercx nponsnontnax
rouxa E (pnc. 9.8)
2) onycxamrcx na nepnennxynxpa : a

L,
re a npoxonr uepes rouxy E; b

A, re b npo-
xonr raxxe uepes rouxy E;

E
F
t

M
N
a
b
P n c . 9 . 8

x
1
x
2
x
3
x
A
2
B
2
C
2
K
2
L
2
M
2
h
2
K
1
A
1
M
1
C
1
h
1
L
1
B
1
M
4
L
4
K
4
B
4
C
4
A
4
K
5
A
5
K
6
A
6
1
4
2
4
1
1
2
1
2
5
2
6
1
5
1
6
=
P n c . 9 . 7
49
x
x
1
x
2
A
2
B
2
C
2
D
2
E
2
a
2
b
2
f
1
2
f
2
2
h
2
2
P
2
L
2
T
2
h
2
D
1
A
1
B
1
C
2
C
1
f
1
1
h
1
2
h
1
1
h
1
E
1
L
1
K
2
K
1
P
1
T
1
f
2
1
h
2
1
a
1
b
1
E
4
a
4
b
4
=
h
4
a
5
b
5
h
5
E
5

P n c . 9 . 9
3) ns cnocrn nnocxoro uertpexyrontnnxa EMFN cneyer, uro nennunna ncxo-
moro nnnenoro yrna nyrpannoro yrna LtA panna 180 , re = (a, b).
. ant nnocxocrn L(AB, DC), re AB DC n A(KL, PT), re KL // PT
(pnc. 9.9). Tpeyercx nocrpoennxmn onpeennrt yron mexy nnocxocrxmn.























Hocneonarentnocrt npoexnnonnoro pemennx moxer trt cneymme:
1) n nnocxocrn L crpoxrcx nnnnn yponnx f(f
1
1
, f
2
1

) n h(h
1
1
, h
2
1

), re f
1
1
// x, h
2
1
// x,
a n nnocxocrn A nnnnn yponnx h
2
(h
1
2
, h
2
2
) n f
2
(f
1
2
, f
2
2
), re h
2
2
// x, f
1
2
// x;
2) ns rouxn E npocrpancrna onycxamrcx na nepnennxynxpa a (a
1
,a
2
)

L n
b (b
1
, b
2
)

A, npn +rom a
2
f
2
1
, b
2
f
2
2
, a
1
h
1
1
, b
1
h
1
2
;
3) n nnocxocrn nocrpoenntx nepecexammnxcx npxmtx a n b ntnpaercx nnnnx
yponnx, nanpnmep h(h
1
, h
2
), re h
2

// x;
4) nnonrcx nonax cncrema nnocxocre npoexnn H
1
, H
4
c octm x
1
h
1
n H
4
h

;
5) na H
4
crponrcx ntpoxennax npoexnnx a
4
= b
4
nnocxocrn npxmtx a n b;
6) nnonrcx nonax cncrema nnocxocre npoexnn H
4
, H
5
c octm x
2
// a
4
n
H
5
// (a,b), re (a, b) nnocxocrt npxmtx a n b;
7) na H
5
crponrcx yron =

( a
5
, b
5
), xoropt nosnonxer onpeennrt ncxomt
yron mexy nnocxocrxmn L n A, pannt 180 .
B coornercrnnn c nonxrnem yrna n crepeomerpnn, yron mexy nnocxocrxmn onxen
trt ocrptm. Ho+romy neoxonmo npnnxrt n npnneennom npoexnnonnom peme-
nnn snauenne yrna mexy nnocxocrxmn L n A, pannoe .

50
10. KPHBLE AHHHH

Kpnnax nnnnx +ro mnoxecrno nocneonarentntx nonoxenn rouxn, nepe-
memammecx n npocrpancrne. Taxoe onpeenenne aer narnxnoe npecrannenne o
xpnno nnnnn xax o rpaexropnn rouxn.
nx nocrpoennx oproronantntx npoexnn xpnno (npocrpancrnenno nnn
nnocxo) neoxonmo nocrponrt npoexnnn pxa rouex, npnnanexamnx +ro xpn-
no, n coennnrt mexy coo ononmennte npoexnnn n ro xe nocneonarentno-
crn, n xaxo onn pacnonarannct na ne n npocrpancrne. Hpn saannn xpnno ee
npoexnnxmn neoxonmo yxasart npoexnnn xorx t ono rouxn, npnnanexame
xpnno. Tax, ecnn na npoexnnxx xpnno m (pnc. 10.1) ne yxasart npoexnnn rouxn A
(A
1
, A
2
), ro rontxo no npoexnnxm m
1
n m
2
nentsx cynrt o ]opme xpnno.
Hnnnn nopasenxmrcx na anrepanuecxne, ecnn
n exaprono cncreme xoopnnar onn onpeenxmrcx
anrepanuecxnmn ypannennxmn, n rpancnenenrnte,
ecnn onn onnctnamrcx rpancnenenrntmn ypanne-
nnxmn.
K anrepanuecxnm nnnnxm, n uacrnocrn, orno-
cxrcx oxpyxnocrt, +nnnnc, napaona, rnnepona,
acrpona n pyrne.
K rpancnenenrntm nnnnxm ornocxrcx cnny-
cona, cnnpant Apxnmea, nnxnona n pyrne.
Hnnnn moryr trt npocrpancrnenntmn n nnocxnmn.
Hnnnn, y xoroptx nce rouxn npnnanexar ono nnocxocrn, nastnamr nno-
cxnmn.
Kpnnax, rouxn xoropo ne nexar n ono nnocxocrn, nastnaercx npocrpancr-
nenno xpnno. Hpnmepom nnocxo xpnno xnnxercx oxpyxnocrt, npnmepom npo-
crpancrnenno xpnno nnnnnpnuecxax nnnronax nnnnx.

1 10 0. .1 1. . C Cn no on nc c1 1n na a x xp pn nn nm mx x, , n nn nn na ap pn na an n1 1n nm me e o o1 1n no oc cn n1 1e en nt tn no o o op p1 1o or ro on na an nt tn no or ro o n np po o- -
e en nn np po on na an nn nn n

Hpn nocrpoennn oproronantntx npoexnn xpnntx neoxonmo snart re nx
cnocrna, xoropte coxpanxmrcx (nnnapnanrnt) npn npoennponannn. K raxnm
cnocrnam ornocxrcx cneymmne:
1. Kacarentnte x xpnno npoennpymrcx n xacarentnte x ee npoexnnxm (sa nc-
xnmuennem, xora xacarentnax npoennpyercx n rouxy).
2. Hecocrnenntm (ecxoneuno yanenntm) rouxam xpnno coornercrnymr ne-
cocrnennte rouxn ee npoexnnn.
Hpn npoennponannn nnocxnx xpnntx n ononnenne x ormeuenntm yyr cnpa-
nennnt cneymmne cnocrna:
3. Hopxox npoexnnn anrepanuecxo xpnno panen nopxxy camo xpnno.
Hopxox anrepanuecxo xpnno onpeenxercx crenentm ypannennx, onnctnam-
mero +ry xpnnym.
x
m
2
m
1
A
2
A
1
P n c . 1 0 . 1
51
4. uncno ysnontx rouex (rouex, n xoroptx xpnnax nepecexaer camy cex) na
npoexnnn xpnno panno uncny ysnontx rouex camo xpnno.

10.2. Kounnexcnmn uep1ea oxpyanoc1n

Ecnn oxpyxnocrt pacnonoxena n nnocxocrn yponnx, ro na ony nnocxocrt
npoexnn ona npoennpyercx n orpesox, a na pyrym n oxpyxnocrt (n narypant-
nym nennunny). Ha pnc.10.2 noxasan xomnnexcnt ueprex oxpyxnocrn k, pacno-
noxenno n ropnsonrantno nnocxocrn yponnx . Ha
2
oxpyxnocrt npoennpyer-
cx n orpesox (uacrt npxmo
2
), a na
1
n
oxpyxnocrt.
Oxpyxnocrt, pacnonoxennax n nnocxocrn, ne
napannentno n ne nepnennxynxpno nnocxocrn
npoexnn, npoennpyercx na +ry nnocxocrt n xpnnym,
xoropax nastnaercx +nnnncom. namerpt
oxpyxnocrn yyr npoennponartcx n orpesxn, xo-
ropte nastnamrcx namerpamn +nnnnca. nnna
namerpa +nnnnca panna nnne namerpa
oxpyxnocrn, ymnoxenno na xocnnyc yrna naxnona
namerpa oxpyxnocrn x nnocxocrn npoexnn.
namerp oxpyxnocrn, pacnonoxennt na nnnnn
yponnx, npoennpyercx n narypantnym nennunny, rax
xax yron naxnona ero x nnocxocrn npoexnn panen nynm. 3ror namerp yer
ontme ncex ocrantntx namerpon, on n nasnan ontmnm namerpom +nnnnca.
namerp oxpyxnocrn, nepnennxynxpnt ontmomy, naxnonen x ro xe nnocxo-
crn npoexnn no nanontmnm yrnom. Ero nastnamr mantm namerpom +nnnnca.
Hocrpoenne +nnnnca no ontmomy n manomy namerpam, xoropte nsanmno
nepnennxynxpnt, npnneeno nnxe. Ha pnc. 10.3 noxasano nocrpoenne ono rou-
xn +nnnnca. Tax, nycrt ant: AB ontmo namerp +nnnnca; CD mant na-
merp +nnnnca. Hocne nponeennx ontmo oxpyxnocrn namerpom AB n mano
oxpyxnocrn namerpom CD, npononm nponsnontnt nyu m. uepes rouxy 1 na
ontmo oxpyxnocrn npononm orpesox, napannentnt mano ocn CD, a uepes
rouxy 2 na mano oxpyxnocrn orpesox, napannentnt ontmo ocn AB. Touxa
nepeceuennx nocrpoenntx orpesxon xnnxercx rouxo +nnnnca (rouxa M). Hponox
mnoxecrno nyue, npoxoxmnx uepes rouxy O (npoexnnx nenrpa oxpyxnocrn), n
nonropxx noxasannte nocrpoennx, nonyunm mnoxecrno rouex +nnnnca. 3arem no
nexany, coennxx +rn rouxn, nonyunm +nnnnc.
Ha pnc 10.4 noxasana nocneonarentnocrt nocrpoennx +nnnnca no ontmomy
namerpy n rouxe +nnnnca. ant: AB ontmo namerp +nnnnca; M rouxa +n-
nnnca. Hocneonarentnocrt nocrpoenn noxasana crpenxamn. 3rn nocrpoennx cne-
ymr ns paccmorpenntx na pnc. 10.3. Hocne onpeenennx rouxn 2, a snaunr, n ma-
no ocn CD, moxem nepern x nocrpoennm nmoro uncna rouex +nnnnca, xax noxa-
sano na pnc. 10.3.


x
o
2

2
o
1
k
1
k
2
P n c . 1 0 . 2
52
P n c . 1 0 . 3 P n c . 1 0 . 4
A B
C
D
O
m
1
2
M
A B
C
D
O
M
1
2


P n c . 1 0 . 5
P n c . 1 0 . 6
R
C
1
D
1
B
1
A
1
O
1
f
1
h
1
X C
2
D
2
O
2
= A
2
=
2
= h
2

2
= f
2
f
1
O
1
1
1
2
1
2
2
3
2
3
1
h
1
h
2
f
2
4
2
R
R
X
O
2


Hycrt oxpyxnocrt panyca R pacnonoxena renept no ]ponrantno npoenn-
pymme nnocxocrn , nenrp oxpyxnocrn rouxa O. nx naxoxennx ontmoro
namerpa +nnnnca neoxonma nnnnx yponnx. uepes rouxy O nponeem ropnson-
rant h (h
1
, h
2
) n nnocxocrn . Ha h
1
ornoxnm orpesxn O
1
A
1
=O
1
B
1
, nnnt xoroptx
pannt R. Orpesox A
1
B
1
+ro ontmo namerp +nnnnca, n xoropt npoennpyercx
oxpyxnocrt na H
1
. uepes rouxy O n nnocxocrn nponeem ]ponrant f(f
1
,f
2
). Ha f
2

ornoxnm orpesxn O
2
C
2
=O
2
D
2
, nnnt xoroptx pannt R. Touxn C n D xnnxmrcx
rouxamn oxpyxnocrn, xoropte pacnonoxent na ]ponrann f. Iopnsonrantnte npo-
exnnn +rnx rouex npnnanexar f
1
(rouxn C
1
n D
1
). Tax xax orpesox C
1
D
1
nepnen-
nxynxpen ontmomy namerpy A
1
B
1
, ro C
1
D
1
+ro mant namerp +nnnnca na H
1
.
53
Tenept no ontmomy namerpy A
1
B
1
n manomy namerpy C
1
D
1
crponm +nnnnc (ro-
pnsonrantnax npoexnnx oxpyxnocrn). uponrantno npoexnne oxpyxnocrn xnnx-
ercx orpesox C
2
D
2
, rax xax ]ponrantno npoennpymmax nnocxocrt n nce ]pon-
rantnte npoexnnn rouex oxpyxnocrn pacnonoxent na npxmo
2
mexy rouxamn
C
2
n D
2
. To xe camoe nonyunm, ecnn yem crponrt +nnnnc na H
2
no ontmomy
namerpy C
2
D
2
n manomy namerpy, nennunna xoroporo panna nynm.
Ecnn oxpyxnocrt pacnonoxena n nnocxocrn omero nonoxennx, ro ona npo-
ennpyercx na H
1
n +nnnnc (ropnsonrantnax npoexnnx oxpyxnocrn) n na H
2
roxe n
+nnnnc (]ponrantnax npoexnnx oxpyxnocrn). B +rom cnyuae +nnnnct crpoxrcx no
ontmomy namerpy n rouxe. Hycrt nnocxocrt omero nonoxennx, n xoropo pac-
nonoxena oxpyxnocrt panyca R, saana npxmtmn h (h
1
, h
2
) n f (f
1
,f
2
). Oparnm
nnnmanne na ro, uro n xauecrne npxmtx, saammnx nnocxocrt, nsxrt ee rnannte
nnnnn ropnsonrant n ]ponrant. Touxa O nenrp oxpyxnocrn. Ha h
1
crponm
ontmo namerp 1
1
2
1
(O
1
1
1
=O
1
2
1
=R). 3ro ontmo namerp ropnsonrantno
npoexnnn oxpyxnocrn. Ha f
2
crponm ontmo namerp 3
2
4
2
(O
2
3
2
= O
2
4
2
= R).
3ro ontmo namerp ]ponrantno npoexnnn oxpyxnocrn. Crponm nx rouxn 3
ropnsonrantnym npoexnnm 3
1
. Ha H
1
nmeem 1
1
2
1
ontmo namerp +nnnnca, 3
1

rouxa +nnnnca. Crponm nx rouxn 2 ]ponrantnym npoexnnm 2
2
. Ha H
2
nmeem 3
2
4
2


ontmo namerp +nnnnca, 2
2
rouxa +nnnnca. Tenept xaxym ns npoexnn ox-
pyxnocrn moxno nocrponrt no ontmomy namerpy n rouxe. Ecnn npn saannn
nnocxocrn oxpyxnocrn ropnsonrant n ]ponrant ne ncnontsonannct, ro nx nyxno
nponecrn, a sarem ntnonnnrt onncannte ntme nocrpoennx.

10.3. Kounnexcnmn uep1ea nnnnnpnuecxon nnn1onon nnnnn

Hs npocrpancrnenntx xpnntx nanontmee
pacnpocrpanenne naxoxr nnnronte nnnnn. Hn-
nnnpnuecxo nnnrono nnnne nastnaercx
mnoxecrno nocneonarentntx nonoxenn rou-
xn, conepmamme pannomepnoe nepememenne
no npxmo, xoropax pannomepno npamaercx
noxpyr napannentno e ocn.
3a onn oopor npxmo noxpyr ocn rouxa
nepemecrnrcx no npxmo na nennunny P, nast-
naemym marom nnnrono nnnnn. Tax xax pac-
cmarpnnaemte nnxennx rouxn pannomepnt n
nsanmocnxsant, ro, nanpnmep, nonopory rouxn
na yron 180 (nononnna oopora) yer coor-
nercrnonart nepememenne no npxmo na nono-
nnny mara. Ho ananornn, sa 1/n uacrt oopora
rouxa nepememaercx na 1/n mara. Ha +rom ocno-
ntnaercx nocrpoenne xomnnexcnoro ueprexa
nnnnnpnuecxo nnnrono nnnnn.
Hycrt oct nnnrono nnnnn i nepnennxy-
nxpna H
1
, nauantnoe nonoxenne npxmo m, napannentno ocn i, n rouxn saano
x
2
1
3
1
5
1
6
1
7
1 8
1
i
1
4
1
P




1
2
2
2
3
2
4
2
5
2
6
2
7
2
8
2
9
2
m
1
= 1
1
= 9
1
i
2
D
P n c . 1 0 . 7
m
2
54
npoexnnxmn m
1
, m
2
n 1
1
, 1
2
coornercrnenno (pnc. 10.7). Hpoexnne nnnrono nnnnn
na H
1
yer oxpyxnocrt, rax xax paccroxnne or rouxn o ocn i ne nsmenxercx n
panno D/2. nx nocrpoennx ]ponrantno npoexnnn nnnrono nnnnn pasennm ox-
pyxnocrt na H
1
n orpesox na H
2
, coornercrnymmn mary P, na pannoe xonnuecrno
uacre (na pnc. 10.7 8 uacre). Tora nonopory npxmo m na 1/8 uacrt oopora
yer coornercrnonart nnnenoe nepememenne rouxn na 1/8 mara. Ha pnc. 10.7
rouxa sannmaer nonoxenne 2(2
1
, 2
2
). Hpn nonopore npxmo eme na 1/8 uacrt oopo-
ra, rouxa nonnmercx eme na 1/8 uacrt mara rouxa 3(3
1
, 3
2
) n r. . Honyuennte
]ponrantnte npoexnnn rouex nnnrono nnnnn coennxem no nexany.
Ecnn npamenne npxmo noxpyr ocn ntnonnxercx npornn uacono crpenxn, n
rouxa npn +rom nonnmaercx nnepx, ro raxax nnnronax nnnnx nastnaercx npano
nnnrono nnnne. Ecnn npamenne ntnonnxercx no uacono crpenxe, n rouxa npn
+rom nonnmaercx nnepx, ro nnnronax nnnnx nastnaercx neno nnnrono nnnne.
Hpxmax m npn npamennn noxpyr ocn i onnctnaer nnnnnpnuecxym nonepxnocrt
npamennx, no+romy nnnronax nnnnx nastnaercx nnnnnpnuecxo nnnrono nnnn-
e. Bce rouxn +ro nnnrono nnnnn npnnanexar nnnnnpnuecxo nonepxnocrn
npamenn.
Oparnm nnnmanne na ro, uro ropnsonrantno npoexnne nnnnnpnuecxo
nnnrono nnnnn xnnxercx oxpyxnocrt, a ]ponrantno xpnnax, xoropax nastnaer-
cx cnnycono. nx nonyuennx onee rounoro ueprexa nnnrono nnnnn neoxon-
mo oxpyxnocrt ennrt na ontmee uncno uacre (n >8).
Ecnn npn rex xe ycnonnxx opasonannx nnnrono nnnnn npxmax m nepecexaer
oct i, ro raxax nnnronax nnnnx nastnaercx xonnuecxo nnnrono nnnne.

11. HOBEPXHOCTH

11.1. Honn1ne nonepxnoc1n

B naueprarentno reomerpnn nonepxnocrn paccmarpnnamrcx xax mnoxecrno
nocneonarentntx nonoxenn nexoropo nnnnn, nepememammecx n npocrpancr-
ne no onpeenennomy saxony. Taxo cnoco opasonannx nonepxnocrn nastnaercx
xnnemarnuecxnm.
Hnnnx (xpnnax nnn npxmax) nnxercx n npocrpancrne no onpeenennomy sa-
xony n cosaer nonepxnocrt. Ona nastnaercx opasymme. B nponecce opasona-
nnx nonepxnocrn ona moxer ocranartcx nensmenno nnn menxrt cnom ]opmy. 3a-
xon nepememennx opasymme saaercx n nne conoxynnocrn nnnn n yxasann o
xapaxrepe nepememennx opasymme. 3rn nnnnn nastnamrcx nanpannxmmnmn.
Kpome xnnemarnuecxoro cnocoa, nonepxnocrt moxer trt saana
anannrnuecxn, r. e. onncana maremarnuecxnm ntpaxennem;
xapxacntm cnocoom, xoropt ncnontsyercx npn saannn cnoxntx nonepx-
nocre; xapxac nonepxnocrn npecrannxer coo ynopxouennoe mnoxecrno rouex
nnn nnnn, npnnanexamnx nonepxnocrn.
urot saart nonepxnocrt na xomnnexcnom ueprexe, ocrarouno nmert na
nem raxne +nemenrt nonepxnocrn, xoropte nosnonxmr nocrponrt xaxym ee rouxy.
Conoxynnocrt +rnx +nemenron nastnaercx onpeennrenem nonepxnocrn.
55
Onpeennrent nonepxnocrn cocronr ns nyx uacre:
reomerpnuecxo uacrn, nxnmuamme nocroxnnte reomerpnuecxne +nemenrt
(rouxn, nnnnn), xoropte yuacrnymr n opasonannn nonepxnocrn;
anropnrmnuecxo uacrn, saamme saxon nnxennx opasymme, xapaxrep
nsmenennx ee ]opmt.
B cnmnonnuecxom nne onpeennrent nonepxnocrn moxno sanncart n nne:
(I)[A], re I reomerpnuecxax uacrt onpeennrenx, A anropnrmnuecxax.
urot y nonepxnocrn ntennrt onpeennrent, cneyer ncxonrt ns xnnema-
rnuecxoro cnocoa ee opasonannx. Ho rax xax mnorne onnaxonte nonepxnocrn
moryr trt nonyuent pasnnuntmn nyrxmn, ro onn yyr nmert pasnnunte onpe-
ennrenn. Hnxe yyr paccmorpent nanonee pacnpocrpanennte nonepxnocrn n
coornercrnnn c xnaccn]nxannonntmn npnsnaxamn, npnxrtmn n xypce nauepra-
rentno reomerpnn.

11.2. Kon1yp n ouepx nonepxnoc1n

urot saart nonepxnocrt na xomnnexcnom ueprexe ocrarouno yxasart npo-
exnnn ne ncero mnoxecrna rouex n nnnn, npnnanexamnx nonepxnocrn, a rontxo
reomerpnuecxnx ]nryp, nxoxmnx n cocran ee onpeennrenx. Taxo cnoco saa-
nnx nonepxnocrn nosnonxer nocrponrt npoexnnn nmo ee rouxn. 3aanne nonepx-
nocrn npoexnnxmn ee onpeennrenx ne oecneunnaer narnxnocrt, uro sarpynxer
urenne ueprexa. nx nontmennx narnxnocrn, ecnn +ro nosmoxno, na ueprexe
yxastnamr ouepxonte nnnnn (ouepxn) nonepxnocrn.

S
A
B
C
C
/
B
/
A
/
m
m
/
P n c . 1 1 . 1

Kora xaxax-nnyt nonepxnocrt npoennpyercx napannentno na nnocxocrt
npoexnn , ro npoennpymmne npxmte, xacammnecx nonepxnocrn , opasymr
nnnnnpnuecxym nonepxnocrt (pnc. 11.1). 3rn npoennpymmnecx npxmte xacamrcx
nonepxnocrn n rouxax, opasymmnx nexoropym nnnnm m, xoropax nastnaercx
xonrypno nnnne.
56
Hpoexnnx xonrypno nnnnn m na nnocxocrt m
/
,

nastnaercx ouepxom no-
nepxnocrn. Ouepx nonepxnocrn orenxer npoexnnm nonepxnocrn or ocrantno uac-
rn nnocxocrn npoexnn.
Konrypnym nnnnm nonepxnocrn ncnontsymr npn onpeenennn nnnmocrn ro-
uex ornocnrentno nnocxocrn npoexnn. Tax, na pnc. 11.1 npoexnnn rouex nonepx-
nocrn , pacnonoxennte nenee xonrypa m, na nnocxocrn yyr nnnmtmn. Hpo-
exnnn ocrantntx rouex nonepxnocrn yyr nennnmtmn.

11.3. Touxa n nnnnn na nonepxnoc1n

Touxa npnnanexnr nonepxnocrn, ecnn ona npnnanexnr xaxo-nnyt nn-
nnn, npnnanexame nonepxnocrn.
Hnnnx npnnanexnr nonepxnocrn, ecnn nce ee rouxn npnnanexar nonepxno-
crn.
Cneonarentno, ecnn rouxa npnnanexnr nonepxnocrn, ro ee npoexnnn npn-
nanexar ononmenntm npoexnnxm nexoropo nnnnn +ro nonepxnocrn.
nx nocrpoennx rouex, nexamnx na nonepxnocrxx, nontsymrcx rpa]nuecxn
npocrtmn nnnnxmn (npxmtmn nnn oxpyxnocrxmn) +ro nonepxnocrn. B nexoroptx
cnyuaxx npnmenxmr xpnnte, xoropte npoennpymrcx n rpa]nuecxn npocrte nnnnn.
Hpnmept nocrpoennx neocrammnx npoexnn rouex n nnnn, npnnanexa-
mnx nonepxnocrxm, paccmorpent nnxe nx xaxo xnaccn]nxannonno rpynnt
nonepxnocre.

11.4. Honepxnoc1n (omne cneennn)

Hs mnoxecrna pasnnuntx nonepxnocre ntenxercx necxontxo xnaccon n sa-
nncnmocrn or ]opmt opasymme, a raxxe or ]opmt, uncna n pacnonoxennx na-
npannxmmnx:
1. Honepxnocrn saxonomepnte n nesaxonomepnte.
2. Hnneuarte (opasonannte nepememennem npxmo nnnnn) n nennneua-
rte (xpnnonnnente) nonepxnocrn.
3. Honepxnocrn pasneprtnammnecx (nnn ropct) n nepasneprtnammnecx.
4. Honepxnocrn c opasymme nocroxnno ]opmt n nonepxnocrn c opa-
symme nepemenno ]opmt.
5. Honepxnocrn c nocrynarentntm, npamarentntm nnn nnnrontm nnxenn-
em opasymme.
B noconn ns ncero mnoroopasnx nonepxnocre paccmorpent nnneuarte
nonepxnocrn, rpannte, nonepxnocrn npamennx, nnxnnuecxne n nnnronte.

11.5. Annenua1me nonepxnoc1n

Hnneuarax nonepxnocrt n omem cnyuae onosnauno onpeenxercx rpemx na-
npannxmmnmn nnnnxmn. Tora onpeennrent raxo nonepxnocrn nmeer nn:
u(t; k, l, m), re t npxmonnnenax opasymmax; k, l, m n omem cnyuae xpnno-
nnnente nanpannxmmne. Anropnrmnuecxym uacrt onpeennrenx moxno sanncart
57
rax: npxmonnnenax opasymmax n cnoem nnxennn nepecexaer nce rpn nanpan-
nxmmne.

11.5.1. Hnneuarte nonepxnocrn c nymx nanpannxmmnmn n nnoc-
xocrtm napannennsma

B nnxenepno npaxrnxe nanontmee pacnpocrpanenne nonyunnn nnneuarte
nonepxnocrn, y xoroptx ona ns nanpannxmmnx xnnxercx necocrnenno npxmo.
Ha ueprexe ee npecrannrenem xnnxercx nnocxocrt napannennsma. Opasymmax n
cnoem nnxennn nepecexaer ne nanpannxmmne n napannentna nexoropo nnocxo-
crn nnocxocrn napannennsma. Taxne nonepxnocrn nastnamr nonepxnocrxmn
Karanana. Onpeennrent raxo nonepxnocrn nmeer nn u(; k, l).
B sanncnmocrn or ]opmt nanpannxmmnx pasnnuamr cneymmne nonepxnocrn
Karanana: nnnnnpon, xonon n rnneponnuecxn napaonon (xocax nnocxocrt).
Hnnnnpon nnneuarax nonepxnocrt c nnocxocrtm napannennsma, y xoropo
oe nanpannxmmne xnnxmrcx xpnntmn nnnnxmn. Ha pnc. 11.2,a noxasan orcex
(uacrt) nnnnnpona, y xoroporo nnocxocrt napannennsma ropnsonrantno npo-
ennpymmax. Ha ropnsonrantno nnocxocrn npoexnn opasymmne napannentnt
mexy coo n napannentnt cney nnocxocrn (
1
). uponrantnte npoexnnn o-
pasymmnx nocrpoent ncxox ns ycnonnx nepeceuennx nanpannxmmnx k n l n coor-
nercrnymmnx rouxax 1, 2, 3, , 10. V xonona, n ornnune or nnnnnpona, ona ns
nanpannxmmnx npxmax. Inneponnuecxn napaonon nonyuaercx n pesyntrare
nepememennx npxmo no nym cxpemnnammnmcx npxmonnnentm nanpannxmmnm.

2
X X
1
2
2
2
3
2
4
2
5
2
6
2
8
2
7
2
9
2
1 0
2
3
1
1
1
5
1
7
1
9
1
2
1
4
1
6
1
8
1
1 0
1 1
1
3
1
5
1
7
1
9
1
2
1
4
1
6
1
8
1
1 0
1
a )
)
1
2
3
2
5
2
7
2
9
2
2
2
4
2
6
2
8
2
1 0
2

1
m
2
m
1
A
1
A
2
K
2
L
2
K
1
L
1
A
1
A
2
k
2
k
1
l
1
l
2
l
2
k
2
l
1
k
1
P n c . 1 1 . 2

Opasymmax nce npemx ocraercx napannentno nnocxocrn napannennsma. Ha
pnc. 11.2, nnocxocrt ]ponrantno npoennpymmax n npoexnnn opasymmnx
napannentnt ]ponrantnomy cney nnocxocrn (
2
).
58
Paccmorpnm npnnanexnocrt rouxn nonepxnocrxm Karanana. Hycrt saana
]ponrantnax npoexnnx rouxn A(A
2
), npnnanexame nonepxnocrn nnnnnpona
(pnc. 11.2, a). Tpeyercx nocrponrt ropnsonrantnym npoexnnm rouxn A. B coor-
nercrnnn c ycnonnem npnnanexnocrn rouxn nonepxnocrn nponeem uepes A
2
npo-
exnnm nnnnn m(m
2
), npnnanexame nnnnnpony. Tax xax nnnnx m npnnanexnr
nonepxnocrn, crponm ropnsonrantnte npoexnnn rouex nepeceuennx xpnno m c
opasymmnmn nnnnnpona. Mnoxecrno nonyuenntx rouex saamr ropnsonrant-
nym npoexnnm nnnnn m(m
1
). Hcxomax npoexnnx rouxn A(A
1
) yer pacnonoxena
na m
1
.
Hycrt renept ]ponrantnax npoexnnx rouxn A(A
2
) saana na nonepxnocrn rn-
neponnuecxoro napaonona. H n +rom cnyuae uepes A
2
moxno nponecrn npoex-
nnm nponsnontno xpnno m. Onaxo sect nsnecrno, uro npoexnnn opasymmnx
napannentnt cney nnocxocrn (
2
). Tora uepes A
2
npononm npoexnnm opa-
symme KL(K
2
L
2
) napannentno
2
. Iopnsonrantnym npoexnnm KL npononm uepes
rouxn K
1
n L
1
, npnnanexamnx nanpannxmmnm k n l, coornercrnenno. Hcxomax
npoexnnx rouxn A(A
1
) yer pacnonoxena na K
1
L
1
.

11.5.2. Konnuecxax n nnnnnpnuecxax nonepxnocrn

Konnuecxax nonepxnocrt opasyercx nnxennem npxmonnneno opasymme
no xpnnonnneno nanpannxmme. Hpn +rom opasymmax npoxonr uepes
X X
k
2
2
2
3
2
4
2
5
2
2
1 1
1
3
1
5
1
2
1
4
1
a )
)
1
2
3
2
5
2
2
2
4
2
A
1
A
2
A
2
S
1
S
2
k
1
k
2
k
1
4
1
3
1
5
1
A
1
S
1
t
1
S
2
t
2
P n c . 1 1 . 3
1
1
1
2
l
2
m
2

nexoropym nenonnxnym rouxy S, xoropax nastnaercx nepmnno (pnc. 11.3, a).
Konnuecxax nonepxnocrt xnnxercx uacrntm cnyuaem nnneuartx nonepxnocre
omero nna, xora ne nanpannxmmne, nanpnmep l n m, nepecexamrcx n rouxe S.
Ieomerpnuecxax uacrt onpeennrenx xonnuecxo nonepxnocrn nxnmuaer nanpan-
59
nxmmym k n nepmnny S. B sanncnmocrn or nna nanpannxmme xonnuecxax no-
nepxnocrt moxer trt samxnyro n nesamxnyro.
Hnnnnpnuecxax nonepxnocrt nonyuaercx n rom cnyuae, xora nce npxmonn-
nente opasymmne npoxoxr uepes nanpannxmmym k n nepecexamrcx n necocr-
nenno rouxe S (pnc. 11.3, ). Ieomerpnuecxax uacrt onpeennrenx xonnuecxo no-
nepxnocrn nxnmuaer nanpannxmmym k n necocrnennym nepmnny S (nanpannxm-
mn nexrop). Hnnnnpnuecxax nonepxnocrt raxxe moxer trt nesamxnyro nnn
samxnyro.
Touxa A npnnanexnr anntm nonepxnocrxm, rax xax ona npnnanexnr opa-
symmnm +rnx nonepxnocre. Ha xonnuecxo nonepxnocrn ona npnnanexnr opa-
symme 2S, a na nnnnnpnuecxo opasymme t.

11.5.3. Topc

Topc (nonepxnocrt c pepom nosnpara)
opasyercx nnxennem npxmonnneno opasymme,
xacammecx no ncex cnonx nonoxennxx nexoropo
npocrpancrnenno xpnno, nastnaemo pepom
nosnpara (or ]pann. tors) nnro, xpyuennt).
Pepo nosnpara m xnnxercx nanpannxmme
ropca. Topc cocronr ns nyx nonocre, pasenenntx
pepom nosnpara (pnc. 11.4).
Ecnn pepo nosnpara ntpoxaercx n rouxy,
nonepxnocrt ropca npenpamaercx n xonnuecxym
nonepxnocrt. B cnyuae, ecnn pepo nosnpara
xnnxercx necocrnenno rouxo, ropconax
nonepxnocrt cranonnrcx nnnnnpnuecxo.


11.6. Ipannme nonepxnoc1n n unororpannnxn

Ipanno nonepxnocrtm na-
stnaercx nonepxnocrt, opaso-
nannax nepememennem npxmonn-
neno opasymme no nomano
nanpannxmme. Ipannte no-
nepxnocrn moxno pasennrt na
na nna: nnpamnantnte (pnc.
11.5, a) n npnsmarnuecxne
(pnc.11.5, ).
Hnpamnantno nastnaercx
nonepxnocrt, opasonannax nepe-
memennem npxmonnneno opasymme no nomano nanpannxmme. Hpn +rom nce
opasymmne npoxoxr uepes nexoropym nenonnxnym rouxy S. Onpeennrent no-
nepxnocrn nomanax nanpannxmmax m n rouxa S.
1
7
6
5
4
3
2
l
1
l
2
l
3
l
4
l
5
l
6
l
7
P n c . 1 1 . 4
m
A
m
m
S
B
S
P n c . 1 1 . 5
a ) )
60
Hpnsmarnuecxo nastnaercx nonepxnocrt, opasonannax nepememennem npx-
monnneno opasymme no nomano nanpannxmme. Hpn +rom nce opasymmne
npoxoxr napannentno nexoropomy saannomy nanpannennm S. Onpeennrent no-
nepxnocrn nomanax nanpannxmmax m n nanpannenne S.
Touxn A n B npnnanexar nnpamnantno n npnsmarnuecxo nonepxnocrxm
coornercrnenno, rax xax npnnanexar npxmtm, pacnonoxenntm na +rnx nonepxno-
crxx.
Mnororpannnxom nastnaercx reno, nonepxnocrt xoroporo cocronr ns xoneu-
noro uncna nnocxnx mnoroyrontnnxon. Mnoroyrontnnxn nonepxnocrn nastnamr
rpanxmn, cropont mnoroyrontnnxon pepamn, a nepmnnt mnoroyrontnnxon
nepmnnamn mnororpannnxa. Paccmorpnm na nna mnororpannnxon nnpamny n
npnsmy.
Hnpamna npecrannxer coo mnororpannnx (pnc. 11.6 +ro npnmep esoc-
noro ueprexa), y xoroporo ona rpant ocnonanne (nponsnontnt mnoroyrontnnx
ABC). Ocrantnte rpann (oxonte) rpeyrontnnxn c ome nepmnno S, nastnae-
mo nepmnno nnpamnt. Touxa D npnnanexnr nonepxnocrn nnpamnt, rax xax
nexnr na npxmo S1, npnnanexame oxono rpann ASC.
Hpnsmo nastnaercx mnororpannnx, y xoroporo ocnonannx pannte mnoro-
yrontnnxn c coornercrnenno napannentntmn croponamn. Foxonte rpann npnsmt
napannenorpammt. Ecnn pepa oxontx rpane nepnennxynxpnt ocnonannm, ro
npnsmy nastnamr npxmo.
Ha pnc. 11.7 npnneen xomnnexcnt ueprex (esocnt, xax mnorne npnne-
ennte nnxe) rpexrpanno npnsmt. Bnnmocrt pepa AB onpeenena no xonxypn-
pymmnm rouxam 3 n 4. Touxa 4 pacnonoxena ntme rouxn 3, a snaunr, na H
1
npoex-
nnx rouxn 3 yer nennnmo. Tax xax rouxa 3 npnnanexnr pepy 12, ro ono rax-
xe yer nennnmtm.

A
1
B
1
S
1
1
1
1
2
C
2
B
2
A
2
S
2
D
2
D
1
C
1
P n c . 1 1 . 6
A
1
B
1
C
1
A
/
2
B
/
2
C
2
C
/
2
B
2
A
2
B
/
1
A
/
1
C
/
1
D
2
D
1
1
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
3
1
= 4
1
P n c . 1 1 . 7
4
2
3
2

Touxa D (pnc. 11.7) npnnanexnr nonepxnocrn npnsmt, rax xax nexnr na
npxmo 12, npnnanexame nonepxnocrn npnsmt.
61
11.7. Honepxnoc1n npamennn

Honepxnocrtm npamennx nastnaercx nonepxnocrt, nonyuennax npn npama-
rentnom nnxennn opasymme (npxmo nnn xpnno) noxpyr nenonnxno npx-
mo, nastnaemo octm npamennx (pnc. 11.8). Ieomerpnuecxo uacrtm onpeenn-
renx nonepxnocrn npamennx xnnxercx opasymmax n oct npamennx. Kaxax rouxa
opasymme n npn cnoem npamennn onnctnaer oxpyxnocrt, nnocxocrt xoropo
nepnennxynxpna ocn i, a nenrp pacnonoxen
na ocn. 3rn oxpyxnocrn nastnamrcx
napannenxmn (na pnc. 11.8 nanpnmep,
oxpyxnocrt 1). Hanmentmax ns napannene
(oxpyxnocrt 2) nastnaercx ropnom, a nan-
ontmax (oxpyxnocrt 3) +xnaropom.
Hnocxocrt, npoxoxmax uepes oct
npamennx, nastnaercx mepnnanantno.
Hnnnx ee nepeceuennx c nonepxnocrtm
mepnnanom. Ecnn mepnnanantnax nnocxocrt
napannentna nnocxocrn npoexnn, ro na +ry
nnocxocrt mepnnan npoennpyercx es
ncxaxennx. Taxo mepnnan nastnaercx
rnanntm.
Ha ueprexe nonepxnocrt npamennx
onosnauno saaercx cnonm onpeennrenem.
Onaxo nx narnxnocrn ueprex nonepxnocrn o-
nonnxmr ouepxamn. Ha pnc. 11.9 noxasano no-
crpoenne ouepxon nx nonepxnocrn, saanno
octm i (i H
1
) n opasymme n. Bostmem na opa-
symme n(n
1
, n
2
) nponsnontnym rouxy 1(1
1
, 1
2
).
Hpn npamennn opasymme noxpyr ocn i(i
1
, i
2
),
rouxa 1 onnmer oxpyxnocrt, nnocxocrt xoropo
nepnennxynxpna ocn, a nenrp pacnonoxen na
ocn. Tax xax oct nonepxnocrn nepnennxynxpna
H
1
, ro nnocxocrt oxpyxnocrn napannentna H
1
n
oxpyxnocrt npoennpyercx na H
1
n oxpyxnocrt c
nenrpom i
1
, npoxoxmym uepes rouxy 1
1
. Ha H
2

oxpyxnocrt npoennpyercx n orpesox A
2
B
2
,
nepnennxynxpnt i
2
n pannt A
1
B
1
(namerpy
oxpyxnocrn). Touxn A
2
n B
2
npnnanexar
]ponrantnomy ouepxy nonepxnocrn. Btnonnnn
onncannte ntme nocrpoennx nx pyrnx rouex
opasymme n n coennnn nx nnanno nnnne,
nonyunm ]ponrantnt ouepx m
2
nonepxnocrn
npamennx. Iopnsonrantntm ouepxom
1
2
3
m
2
P n c . 1 1 . 8
n
i i
2
i
1
m
1
X
P n c . 1 1 . 9
i
2
i
1
n
2
m
2
1
2
2
2
A
2
B
2
D
2
C
2
D
1
C
1
1
1
A
1
B
1
m
1
n
1
3
1
62
nonepxnocrn xnnxercx oxpyxnocrt, npoxoxmax uepes rouxn C
1,
D
1
.
Hnxe npnneent nexoropte uacrnte nnt nonepxnocre npamennx, nx xo-
roptx noxasana reomerpnuecxax uacrt onpeennrenx n nocrpoent nx ouepxn.
Honepxnocrn, opasonannte npamennem npxmo nnnnn:
a) nnnnnpnuecxax nonepxnocrt npamennx nonyuena npamennem npxmo n
noxpyr napannentno e ocn i (pnc. 11.10);
) xonnuecxax nonepxnocrt npamennx opasonana npamennem npxmo n no-
xpyr nepecexammecx c ne octm i (pnc. 11.11);
n) onononocrnt rnneponon npamennx +ro nonepxnocrt, nonyuennax
npamennem npxmo n noxpyr cxpemnnammecx c ne octm i (pnc. 11.12).
n
1
= A
1
A
2
i
2
i
1
i
1
i
2
i
2
A
1
A
2
1
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
S
2
D
2
D
1
i
1
= S
1
P n c . 1 1 . 1 0 P n c . 1 1 . 1 1 P n c . 1 1 . 1 2
n
2
n
2
n
1
n
2
n
1

Honepxnocrn, opasonannte npamennem xpnntx nroporo nopxxa (ypannenne
raxo xpnno na nnocxocrn n exaprono cncreme xoopnnar anrepanuecxoe
nropo crenenn):
a) c]epa nonepxnocrt, opasonannax npamennem oxpyxnocrn noxpyr npx-
mo, npoxoxme uepes ee nenrp (na pnc. 11.13 nsxra oct, nepnennxynxpnax H
1
);
) rop nonepxnocrt, nonyuennax npn npamennn oxpyxnocrn noxpyr ocn, ne-
xame n nnocxocrn oxpyxnocrn, no ne npoxoxme uepes ee nenrp; ecnn oct ne
nepecexaer oxpyxnocrt, ro raxax nonepxnocrt nastnaercx orxptrtm ropom r > R
(pnc. 11.14), a ecnn nepecexaer nnn xacaercx ro saxptrtm ropom r R (pnc.
11.15);
n) +nnnncon npamennx nonepxnocrt, nonyuennax npamennem +nnnnca no-
xpyr ero ocn; ecnn octm npamennx xnnxercx manax oct +nnnnca (pnc. 11.16), ro no-
nyuaercx cxart +nnnncon npamennx, a ecnn ontmax oct +nnnnca ro ntrxny-
rt +nnnncon npamennx;
r) napaonon npamennx nonyuaercx no npamarentnom nnxennn napaont
noxpyr ee ocn (pnc. 11.17);
) nyxnonocrnt rnneponon npamennx nonepxnocrt, opasonannax npa-
mennem rnnepont noxpyr ee ecrnnrentno ocn (pnc. 11.18);
63

P n c . 1 1 . 1 3 P n c . 1 1 . 1 4 P n c . 1 1 . 1 5
A
2
1
2
2
2
1
1
2
1
A
1
1
2
2
2
A
1
B
1
i
1
2
1
1
1
R
i
2
i
2
i
1
A
2
B
2
R
i
2
i
1
r
r

P n c . 1 1 . 1 6 P n c . 1 1 . 1 7
P n c . 1 1 . 1 8
A
2
1
2
2
2
1
1
2
1
i
2
i
1
A
1
i
2
i
1
B
1
B
2
m
2
m
1
i
2
C
2
n
2
n
1
C
1
i
1
P n c . 1 1 . 1 9
i
2
C
2
n
2
n
1
C
1
i
1

e) onononocrnt rnneponon npamennx nonepxnocrt, opasonannax npa-
mennem rnnepont noxpyr ee mnnmo ocn (pnc. 11.19).

11.8. Hpnnaneanoc1t 1ouxn n nnnnn nonepxnoc1n npamennn

Hpn pemennn saau na npnnanexnocrt rouxn nonepxnocrn npamennx n xaue-
crne rpa]nuecxn npocrtx nnnn nanonee uacro ncnontsymrcx oxpyxnocrn.
Hsnecrno, uro rouxa npnnanexnr nonepxnocrn, ecnn ona npnnanexnr xaxo-
nnyt nnnnn nonepxnocrn. nx nnnnnpnuecxo nonepxnocrn npamennx nano-
nee npocrtmn nnnnxmn xnnxmrcx npxmte (opasymmne) n oxpyxnocrn. Cneona-
rentno, ecnn rpeyercx narn ropnsonrantnym npoexnnm rouxn A(A
1
) (no nsnecr-
no ]ponrantno npoexnnn A
2
), npnnanexamym nnnnnpnuecxo nonepxnocrn,
ro nyxno uepes rouxn nponecrn ony ns +rnx nnnn. Ha pnc. 11.10 uepes A
2
npone-
ena npxmonnnenax opasymmax n(n
2
). Tax xax npxmax n sannmaer ropnsonrantno
64
npoennpymmee nonoxenne, ro na H
1
ona npoennpyercx n rouxy n
1
(nonaraem, uro
npoexnnx opasymme na H
2
nnnmax). Tora n +ry xe rouxy npoennpyercx n rouxa
A(A
1
). C pyro cropont, nce oxpyxnocrn nnnnnpnuecxo nonepxnocrn npoenn-
pymrcx na H
1
n ony oxpyxnocrt, rax xax oct nonepxnocrn nepnennxynxpna H
1
.
Cneonarentno, ncxomax npoexnnx rouxn A(A
1
) yer naxonrtcx na +ro oxpyx-
nocrn.
uepes rouxy na xonnuecxo nonepxnocrn npamennx raxxe moxno nponecrn
npxmym n oxpyxnocrt. Ha pnc. 11.11 uepes A
2
nponeent npoexnnn opasymme
n(n
2
) n oxpyxnocrn 1
2
2
2
. Orpesox 1
2
2
2
panen namerpy oxpyxnocrn.

Hocne no-
crpoennx ropnsonrantntx npoexnn +rnx nnnn, onpeenxem no nnnnn npoexnn-
onno cnxsn ropnsonrantnym npoexnnm rouxn A(A
1
). Honaraem, uro na H
2
npoex-
nnx rouxn A(A
2
) nnnmax (naxonrcx nepe xonrypom nonepxnocrn ornocnrentno
H
2
). Ecnn ana ropnsonrantnax npoexnnx A
1
, a rpeyercx narn A
2
, ro nocrpoennx
ntnonnxmrcx n oparno nocneonarentnocrn.
Hocrpoennx ropnsonrantntx npoexnn rouex no nx ]ponrantntm npoexnnxm,
npn ycnonnn, uro rouxn npnnanexar coornercrnymmnm nonepxnocrxm, noxasant
na pnc. 11.13, 11.14, a raxxe na pnc. 11.16 11.18. B xauecrne nnnn nonepxnocre
ncnontsymrcx oxpyxnocrn (rpaexropnn rouex opasymmnx).
Hnnnx npnnanexnr nonepxnocrn, ecnn nce ee rouxn npnnanexar nonepxno-
crn. Ecnn nsnecrna ona npoexnnx nnnnn, npnnanexame nonepxnocrn, n rpey-
ercx nocrponrt nropym ee npoexnnm, ro cneyer na nsnecrno npoexnnn ntpart
necxontxo rouex, nocrponrt neocrammne npoexnnn n nonyuennte npoexnnn co-
ennnrt nnnne. Btop xonnuecrna rouex sanncnr xax or pasmepon nsopaxennx,
rax n or cnoxnocrn xpnno. B ontmnncrne cnyuaen, uem ontme rouex ntnpaer-
cx na ncxono npoexnnn, rem ntme rounocrt nocrpoenn nropo npoexnnn.
Ha pnc. 11.20 noxasan orcex xonnuecxo nonepxnocrn npamennx n nnnnx n na
+ro nonepxnocrn. Ecnn nsnecrna n
1
, ro nx nocrpoennx n
2
moxno ncnontsonart
xax npxmonnnente opasymmne nonepxnocrn, rax n oxpyxnocrn. Ha pnc. 11.20
]ponrantnax npoexnnx nnnnn n (n
2
) nocrpoena c nomomtm oxpyxnocre. Hpo-
]nntnax npoexnnx nnnnn n(n
3
) nocrpoena no rouxam nnnn n
1
n n
2
. Fyxnamn oo-
snauent xapaxrepnte rouxn nnnnn (xpanne rouxn, a raxxe npnnanexamne ouep-
xontm opasymmnm nonepxnocrn), a nn]pamn npomexyrounte.
nx ycranonnennx nnnmocrn npoexnn nnnnn ncnontsyem xonrypt t, m n k
nonepxnocrn. Tax, npn npoennponannn na H
1
nnnnx n nnnma, rax xax pacnonoxena
ntme ropnsonrantnoro xonrypa t(t
1,
t
2
). 3ro nnno na ]ponrantno npoexnnn. Hpn
npoennponannn na H
2
nnnmtm yer yuacrox E4CAB (E
2
4
2
C
2
A
2
B
2
), rax xax on
pacnonoxen nepe ]ponrantntm xonrypom m. 3ro cneyer ns ropnsonrantno
npoexnnn. Tora ocranmncx yuacrox n
2
yer nennnmtm. Bnnmocrt npo]nnt-
no npoexnnn nnnnn n ycranannnnaercx npn nsrnxe nanmarenx na nnocxocrt H
3
.
Vuacrox E4C(E
3
4
3
C
3
), pacnonoxennt sa npo]nntntm xonrypom k, yer nennn-
mtm, a ocranmncx nnnmtm. 3ro moxno ycranonnrt no ropnsonrantno nnn
]ponrantno npoexnnxm.

65
D
1
E
1
3
1
4
1
5
1
A
1
B
1
C
1
i
1
m
1
t
1
k
1
n
1
P n c . 1 1 . 2 0
B
2
C
2
A
2
D
2
E
2
3
2
5
2
t
2
t
3
m
2
m
3
i
3
i
2
k
3
k
2
A
3
C
3
B
3
5
3
3
3
4
3
D
3
E
3
4
2
n
2
n
3


11.9. Hnxnnuecxne nonepxnoc1n

Hnxnnuecxax nonepxnocrt +ro mnoxecrno nocneonarentntx nonoxenn oxpyx-
nocrn nocroxnnoro nnn nepemennoro panyca, nepememammecx n npocrpancrne.
Hnxnnuecxax nonepxnocrt omero nna saaercx rpemx nanpannxmmnmn m, n n k.
Ona ns nnx (n) saaer nonoxenne nenrpon oxpyxnocre, pyrax (m) nonoxenne
nnocxocre oxpyxnocre, a rpertx (k) panyct oxpyxnocre. B uacrnocrn, nnoc-
xocrn oxpyxnocre moryr trt nepnennxynxpnt nanpannxmme m. Paccroxnne
or nenrpa oxpyxnocrn o rouxn nepeceuennx nnocxocrn oxpyxnocrn c nanpan-
nxmme k xnnxercx panycom +ro oxpyxnocrn. Ecnn ona ns nanpannxmmnx, sa-
ammax nnocxocrn oxpyxnocre, npxmax, ro nce oxpyxnocrn yyr napannentnt
nexoropo nnocxocrn, a nonyuennax npn +rom nonepxnocrt nastnaercx nnxnnue-
cxo nonepxnocrtm c nnocxocrtm napannennsma. Ha pnc. 11.21, a npnneen onpe-
ennrent u(k, m, ) raxo nonepxnocrn. Opasymme xnnxercx oxpyxnocrt
n(n
1
, n
2
). Ta xe nonepxnocrt c nocrpoenntm ropnsonrantntm ouepxom n ocrpoen-
66
ntm ]ponrantntm noxasana na pnc. 11.21, . Hocrpoennx ouepxon ntnonnent n
raxo nocneonarentnocrn. uepes nponsnontnym rouxy
1
2
O nanpannxmme k npo-
neen orpesox
2
1
2
1 O . Touxa
1
2
O ]ponrantnax npoexnnx nenrpa oxpyxnocrn, a
orpesox
2
1
2
1 O ee panyc. nx nocrpoennx rouxn 2
2
or
1
2
O orxnatnaem orpesox
2
1
2
1 O , a na H
1
no nnnnn npoexnnonno cnxsn onpeenxem rouxy
1
1
O . Crponm ox-
pyxnocrt c nenrpom
1
1
O n panycom
2
1
2
1 O . nx nonyuennx neocrammero ]pon-
rantnoro ouepxa crponm px rouex, ananornuno rouxe 2
2
. 3arem +rn rouxn coennx-
em. Iopnsonrantnt ouepx nonepxnocrn npecrannxer coo ornammym mnoxe-
crna oxpyxnocre, nocrpoenntx no ananornn c onncanntm ntme.
m
2
m
1
n
2
n
1
k
2
k
1

2
k
2
m
2
n
2
n
1
a )
)
P n c . 1 1 . 2 1
O
1
O
2
O
2
O
1
2
O
1
O
1
1
1
2
2
2
1
1 2
1
m
1


m
2
m
1
n
2
n
1
k
2
k
1
a )
)
P n c . 1 1 . 2 2
O
1
O
2

2
O
1
2
O
1
1
A
2
A
1
m
2
m
1
n
2
n
1
k
2
k
1
O
1
O
2

2
O
1
2
O
1
1
A
2
A
1

uacrntmn nnamn nnxnnuecxo nonepxnocrn c nnocxocrtm napannennsma xn-
nxmrcx nonepxnocrn, y xoroptx nanpannxmmne m n k npxmte. Ha pnc. 11.22, a no-
xasana nonepxnocrt, nastnaemax +nnnnrnuecxnm nnnnnpom, a na pnc. 11.22,
nonepxnocrt +nnnnrnuecxoro xonyca. Tam xe noxasano nocrpoenne ropnsonrant-
67
no npoexnnn rouxn A no nsnecrno ]ponrantno. B xauecrne nnnnn nonepxnocrn
ncnontsonana npxmonnnenax opasymmax n oxpyxnocrt.

11.10. Bnn1onme nonepxnoc1n

Bnnrono nonepxnocrtm nastnaercx nonepxnocrt, xoropax onnctnaercx xa-
xo-nno nnnne (opasymme) npn ee nnnronom nnxennn. Bnnrontm nnxenn-
em nastnaercx cnoxnoe nnxenne, cocroxmee ns pannomepnoro npamarentnoro
nnxennx noxpyr ocn n pannomepnoro npxmonnnenoro nnxennx, napannentnoro
+ro ocn. Hpn nnnronom nnxennn rouxn nonyuaercx nnnronax nnnnx (cm. 10.1).
Ecnn opasymme nnnrono nonepxnocrn xnnxercx npxmax nnnnx, ro nonepx-
nocrt nastnaercx nnneuaro nnnrono nonepxnocrtm, nnn rennxonom. Iennxon
nastnaercx npxmtm nnn naxnonntm n sanncnmocrn or roro, nepnennxynxpna o-
pasymmax ocn rennxona nnn naxnonna.
Paccmorpnm nexoropte nnt nnneuartx nnnrontx nonepxnocre.
1. Hpxmo rennxon opasyercx nnxennem npxmonnneno opasymme m no
nym nanpannxmmnm. Ona ns nanpannxmmnx xnnxercx nnnnnpnuecxo nnnrono
nnnne t, a pyrax ee octm i. Hpnuem no ncex cnonx nonoxennxx opasymmax m
napannentna nnocxocrn, xoropax nastnaercx nnocxocrtm napannennsma. V npxmoro
rennxona opasymmax m nepecexaer nnnronym oct i no npxmtm yrnom. Hpxmo
rennxon ornocnrcx x uncny xononon n nastnaercx nnnrontm xononom.
2. Haxnonnt rennxon ornnuaercx or npxmoro rennxona rem, uro ero opa-
symmax m nepecexaer oct rennxona no nocroxnntm yrnom, ne panntm npxmomy
yrny. V naxnonnoro rennxona ona ns nanpannxmmnx xnnxercx nnnnnpnuecxo
nnnrono nnnne r, a pyrax ee octm i . Bo ncex cnonx nonoxennxx opasymmax
m napannentna opasymmnm nexoroporo xonyca npamennx. V +roro xonyca yron
mexy opasymme n octm, napannentno ocn rennxona, panen . On nastnaercx
nanpannxmmnm xonycom naxnonnoro rennxona.
3. Pasneprtnammncx rennxon opasyercx nnxennem npxmonnneno opa-
symme m, xacammecx no ncex cnonx nonoxennxx nnnnnpnuecxo nnnrono nn-
nnn n. Ona xnnxercx pepom nosnpara rennxona. Pasneprtnammncx rennxon xax
nnneuarax nonepxnocrt c pepom nosnpara ornocnrcx x uncny ropcon.

12. HOCTPOEHHE HEPECEHEHHH mHIYP

12.1. Hepeceuenne nonepxnoc1n n nnocxoc1n

Hnnnx nepeceuennx nonepxnocrn c nnocxocrtm npecrannxer coo nnnnm,
nastnaemym ceuennem. Touxn +ro xpnno moxno paccmarpnnart xax rouxn nepe-
ceuennx nnnn nonepxnocrn c nnocxocrtm nnn npxmtx nnocxocrn c nonepxnocrtm.
Orcma cneymr na napnanra nocrpoennx ceuennx:
1) ntnpaem xoneunoe uncno nnnn na nonepxnocrn n onpeenxem rouxn ne-
peceuennx nx c nnocxocrtm;
2) ntenxem xoneunoe uncno npxmtx na nnocxocrn n crponm rouxn nepeceue-
nnx nx c nonepxnocrtm.
68
3amernm, uro nosmoxno pemenne, npecrannxmmee coo xomnnannm +rnx
napnanron. B nmom cnyuae nocrpoenne ceuennx cnonrcx x mnoroxparnomy npn-
menennm anropnrma pemennx saaun na nepeceuenne nnnnn n nonepxnocrn.
Onpeenenne npoexnn nnnn ceuennx pexomenyercx naunnart c nocrpoennx
ero onopntx (xapaxrepntx) rouex. K nnm ornocxrcx rouxn, pacnonoxennte na
ouepxontx opasymmnx nonepxnocrn (onn onpeenxmr rpannnt nnnmocrn npo-
exnn xpnno), rouxn, yanennte na +xcrpemantnte paccroxnnx or nnocxocre
npoexnn n nexoropte pyrne. Hocne +roro onpeenxmr npomexyrounte rouxn ce-
uennx.
Hocrpoenne ceuennx cymecrnenno ynpomaercx,
ecnn nnocxocrt sannmaer npoennpymmee nonoxenne.
3ro cnxsano c rem, uro npoennpymmax nnocxocrt
xapaxrepnsyercx conparentntm cnocrnom. B +rom
cnyuae ona ns npoexnn ceuennx naxonrcx na cnee
nnocxocrn, r.e. nsnecrna.
1. Hocrponrt npoexnnn ceuennx xonn-
uecxo nonepxnocrn npamennx c ]ponrantno-npoenn-
pymme nnocxocrtm (pnc. 12.1).
. 3aannax nnocxocrt nepecexaer
ncxonym nonepxnocrt no +nnnncy, ]ponrantnax
npoexnnx xoroporo pacnonoxena na cnee +ro
nnocxocrn. Iopnsonrantnym npoexnnm ceuennx crponm
no rouxam n coornercrnnn c saaue na npnnanexnocrt
nnnnn nonepxnocrn (cm. pnc. 12.1).
Hpoexnnm +nnnnca na nnocxocrn
1
moxno
nocrponrt raxxe no ero ontmo
1

1
n mano C
1
D
1

ocxm. uponrantnax npoexnnx mano ocn +nnnnca (rouxn
C
2
=D
2
) naxonrcx na cepenne orpesxa
A
2
B
2
.
2. Hocrponrt nepeceuenne
mnororpannnxa nnocxocrtm (pnc. 12.2).
B nepeceuennn rpanntx nonepxnocre
nnocxocrxmn nonyuamrcx mnoroyrontnnxn.
Hx nepmnnt onpeenxmrcx xax rouxn
nepeceuennx peep rpanntx nonepxnocre
c cexyme nnocxocrtm.
Mnoroyrontnnx ceuennx moxer trt
nocrpoen nymx cnocoamn:
1. Bepmnnt mnoroyrontnnxa naxo-
xrcx xax rouxn nepeceuennx npxmtx
(peep) c cexyme nnocxocrtm;
2. Cropont mnoroyrontnnxa naxo-
xrcx xax nnnnn nepeceuennx rpane
(nnocxocre) mnororpannnxa c cexyme
nnocxocrtm.
1
1
1
2
2
1
= 2
2
3
1
4
1
C
2
= D
2
3
2
= 4
2

2
P n c . 1 2 . 1
A
2
A
1
B
1
C
1
D
1
B
2
S
2
A
2
B
2
C
2
C
1
B
1
A
1
S
1
1
2
2
2
3
2
3
1
2
1 1
1

2
P n c . 1 2 . 2
69
Ha pnc. 12.2 noxasano nocrpoenne ceuennx nnpamnt nnocxocrtm .
Cexymax nnocxocrt xnnxercx ]ponrantno-npoennpymme, cneonarentno, nce
nnnnn, nexamne n +ro nnocxocrn, connayr c ]ponrantntm cneom
2
nnocxocrn
. Cneonarentno, ]ponrantnax npoexnnx 1
2
2
2
3
2
ceuennx onpeennrcx npn nepe-
ceuennn ]ponrantntx npoexnn peep nnpamnt co cneom ()
2
.

Iopnsonrant-
nte npoexnnn rouex 1(1
1
), 2(2
1
) n 3(3
1
) naxonm ns ycnonnx npnnanexnocrn rouex
pepam nnpamnt.
3. Hocrponrt nnnnm nepeceuennx nnnnnpnuecxo nonepxnocrn npa-
mennx c nnocxocrtm ()
2
(pnc. 12.3).
. Bnauane naxonm onopnte rouxn A(A
1
, A
2
), B(B
1
, B
2
), C(C
1
, C
2
) n
D(D
1
, D
2
). Touxn A n B naxoxrcx n nepeceuennn opasymmnx ]ponrantnoro xon-
rypa nonepxnocrn n nnocxocrn (nnauane onpeenxem A
2
n B
2
, a sarem no nnnnxm
npoexnnonno cnxsn A
1
n B
1
). Touxn C n D xnnxmrcx rouxamn nepeceuennx ropn-
sonrantnoro xonrypa nonepxnocrn n nnocxocrn . Ha H
2
ropnsonrantnt xonryp
connaaer c npoexnne ocn nonepxnocrn npamennx, a na H
1
xnnxercx ouepxom. To-
ra nnauane crponm C
2
n D
2
, a sarem C
1
n D
1
.
P n c . 1 2 . 3
A
2
B
2
C
2
= D
2
1
2
= 2
2
5
2
= 6
2
3
2
= 4
2
7
2
= 8
2
B
3
2
3
4
3
D
3
6
3
8
3
A
3
1
3
3
3
C
3
5
3
7
3

2
C
1
B
1
3
1
1
1
2
1
4
1
D
1
5
1
6
1
8
1
A
1
y
y
y y
7
1


Touxn 1(1
1
, 1
2
), 2(2
1
, 2
2
), , 8(8
1
, 8
2
) +ro npomexyrounte rouxn ceuennx.
Onn nocrpoent nneennem npomexyrountx npxmonnnentx opasymmnx nonepx-
nocrn. Bnauane npononm npoexnnn opasymmnx na H
2
, nanpnmep uepes rouxn 1
2
,
2
2
(opasymmne ]ponrantno xonxypnpymmne). Ha H
3
+rn opasymmne npoenn-
pymrcx n rouxn 1
3
n 2
3
. Iopnsonrantnte npoexnnn opasymmnx nocrpoent no
nym saanntm, xax noxasano na pnc. 12.3, ornoxnn coornercrnymmne snauennx
xoopnnart y.

12.2. Hepeceuenne xonnuecxon nonepxnoc1n npamennn nnocxoc1tm

B sanncnmocrn or nanpannennx cexyme nnocxocrn n ceuennn xonnuecxo no-
nepxnocrn npamennx moryr nonyunrtcx pasnnunte nnnnn. Onn nastnamrcx xonn-
uecxnmn ceuennxmn. Ha pnc. 12.4 npnneena ]ponrantnax npoexnnx xonnuecxo
nonepxnocrn npamennx (oct i napannentna H
2
) n ]ponrantno npoennpymmne nnoc-
70
xocrn ,
1
2
,
2
2
, .
5
2
Ha pnc. 12.5 noxasant narnxnte nsopaxennx pesyntra-
ron nepeceuennx nnocxocrxmn ren, orpannuenntx xonnuecxo nonepxnocrtm npa-
mennx.
B pesyntrare nepeceuennx xonyca nnocxocrtm, nepnennxynxpno ocn xonyca,
nonyuaercx oxpyxnocrt (pnc. 12.4, a).

1
2

2
2

3
2

4
2

5
2
a )
) n ) r ) )
P n c . 1 2 . 4
i
2
s
2
s
2
s
2
s
2
s
2
i
2 i
2
i
2
i
2


3nnnnc nonyuaercx n rom cnyuae, ecnn cexymax nnocxocrt nepecexaer nce opa-
symmne nonepxnocrn n ne nepnennxynxpna ocn i (pnc. 12.4, ).
Hnocxocrt
3
2
napannentna ono opasymme nonepxnocrn n nepecexaer
ony nononnny xonnuecxo nonepxnocrn. Ceuennem xnnxercx napaona (pnc. 12.4,
n).
Hnocxocrt
4
2
napannentna nym opasymmnm n nepecexaer oe nononnnt
xonnuecxo nonepxnocrn (ceuenne rnnepona) (pnc. 12.4, r).
Hnocxocrt
5
2
npoxonr uepes nepmnny xonnuecxo nonepxnocrn (ceuenne
ne nepecexammnecx npxmte) (pnc. 12.4, ).













a) ) n) r) )
Pnc. 12.5
71
12.3. Hepeceuenne nnnnn n nonepxnoc1n.

Hnnnx n nonepxnocrt
nepecexamrcx n omem cnyuae n
necxontxnx rouxax A, B, .
Anropnrm nx onpeenennx
moxer trt nocrpoen na rex xe
paccyxennxx, uro n npn
nocrpoennn rouxn nepeceuennx
npxmo n nnocxocrn. e-
crnnrentno, rouxn , ,
nepeceuennx nnnnn m n
nonepxnocrn npnnanexar
raxxe nnnnxm, npoxoxmnm
uepes +rn rouxn n nexamnm na
saanno nonepxnocrn. Kpnnym
n moxno paccmarpnnart xax
npoexnnm nnnnn m na no-
nepxnocrt . Tora, n cnyuae
napannentnoro npoennponannx,
nnnnn n n m yyr pacnonarartcx na ono nnnnnpnuecxo nonepxnocrn, y xoro-
po nanpannxmme xnnxercx xpnnax m, a opasymmne napannentnt nanpannennm
npoennponannx. B cnyuae ecnn
nnnnx npxmax, ro n n m
naxoxrcx n ono nnocxocrn
(pnc. 12.6). Ecnn nanpannenne
npoennponannx yer
nepnennxynxpno xaxo-nno
nnocxocrn npoexnn, nnnnn n n
m yyr xonxypnpymmnmn
ornocnrentno
coornercrnymme nnocxocrn
npoexnn.
1. ant npxmax m
n rop. Hocrponrt rouxn nepece-
uennx npxmo n nonepxnocrn.
(pnc. 12.7)
.
1. Btnpaem na saanno
nonepxnocrn nnnnm n, nanpn-
mep, ]ponrantno xonxypnpym-
mym c saanno npxmo m.
Hnnnn n n m nepecexamrcx, r.x. onn naxoxrcx n ono ]ponrantno-npoennpym-
me nnocxocrn.

A
B
m

P n c . 1 2 . 6
n
1
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
1
2
5
1
6
1
7
1
8
1
m
2
=
2
A
2
A 1
n
1
B
1
m
1
2
2
= 3
2
n
2
3
2
= 4
2
6
2
= 7
2
P n c . 1 2 . 7
8
2
B
2
72
2. Onpeenxem ropnsonrantnym npoexnnm nnnnn n (n
1
), ncxox ns ycnonnx
npnnanexnocrn ee nonepxnocrn.
3. Haxonm rouxn n nepeceuennx nnnn n n m, xoropte n xnnxmrcx ncxo-
mtmn.
4. Vcranannnnaem nnn-
mocrt npoexnn npxmo. Tax,
xax yuacrox npxmo m, pac-
nonoxen nnyrpn nonepxnocrn,
ro on nennnm na
1
n
2
.
Kpome +roro, na
2
nennnm
orpesox npxmo m npanee rouxn

2
o rouxn na ouepxe
nonepxnocrn, a na
1
nenee
rouxn 5
1
, raxxe o rouxn na
ouepxe nonepxnocrn. 3rn
orpesxn saxptrt nonepxnocrtm
naxoxrcx sa xonrypamn
nonepxnocrn.
2. ant xpnnax n
n nnnnnpon (a, b, ) (pnc.
12.8). Hocrponrt rouxn nepe-
ceuennx nnnnn n nonepxnocrn.
.
1. Ha nonepxnocrn nnnnn-
pona nnonm xpnnym m,
]ponrantno xonxypnpymmym c
nnnne n. 3rn xpnnte nepecexamrcx
(n omem cnyuae), r.x. pacnonoxent
na ono ]ponrantno npoennpymme
nnnnnpnuecxo nonepxnocrn, y
xoropo nnnnx n nanpannxmmax, a
opasymmne nepnennxynxpnt
2
.
2. Crponm ropnsonrantnym npo-
exnnm xpnno m(m
1
) (m).
3. Haxonm ropnsonrantnym npo-
exnnm rouxn (
1
) -
1
= n
1
m
1
, a
sarem n
2
(
2
n
2
).
3. ant npxmax n n
xonnuecxax nonepxnocrt (pnc. 12.9).
Hocrponrt rouxn nepeceuennx nnnnn
n nonepxnocrn.
. Hocrannennym saauy
raxxe moxno pemnrt, saan na
xonnuecxo nonepxnocrn nnnnm m,
n
1
m
1
n
2
= m
2
1
2
2
2
3
2
4
2
5
2
1
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
5
1
A
2
b
2
A
1
a
2
a
1
b
1

2
P n c . 1 2 . 8
S
1
1
1
2
1
1
2
2
2
m
1
1
m
2
1
n
1
3
1
4
1
4
2
3
2
A
1
n
2
A
2
B
2
5
2
5
1
S
2
P n c . 1 2 . 9
m
1
2
m
2
2
B
1
73
xonxypnpymmym c npxmo n ornocnrentno nnocxocrn npoexnn
1
nnn
2
. Hony-
uennte xpnnte yyr nexantnte, uro rpeyer snaunrentntx nocrpoenn n cnnxa-
er rounocrt pemennx saaun. Tax xax saannax nonepxnocrt nnneuarax, ro n xaue-
crne nnnnn m na nonepxnocrn nenecoopasno nsxrt npxmym (nnn npxmte). Tora
anropnrm pemennx saaun yer cneymmnm:
1. Cnpoennpyem ns rouxn S npxmym n na nnocxocrt
1
, r.e. onpeennm nen-
rpantnym npoexnnm npxmo n na nnocxocrt
1
. nx +roro npononm na npoenn-
pymmnx nyua uepes rouxn 1 n 5 npxmo o nepeceuennx c nnocxocrtm npoexnn

1
. Touxn 1 n 2 saamr nenrpantnym npoexnnm npxmo n na
1
.
2. Crponm opasymmne m
1
n m
2
na xonnuecxo nonepxnocrn, xonxypnpymmne
c n ornocnrentno H
1
npn ee nenrpantnom npoennponannn.
3. Haxonm rouxn n nepeceuennx npxmo n c opasymmnmn m
1
n m
2
.
Touxn n ncxomte.
4. Vcranannnnaem nnnmocrt npoexnn npxmo n.

12.4. Hepeceuenne nonepxnoc1en

Hnnnx nepeceuennx nyx nonepxnocre npecrannxer coo n omem cnyuae
npocrpancrnennym xpnnym. Hmax rouxa +ro nnnnn npnnanexnr xax nepno,
rax n nropo nonepxnocrxm n moxer trt onpeenena n nepeceuennn nnnn, npo-
neenntx na +rnx nonepxnocrxx. Tora nmeem cneymmne napnanrt pemennx
anno saaun:
1) ntnpamr na ono ns nonepxnocre
xoneunoe uncno nnnn n crpoxr rouxn nepeceue-
nnx nx c pyro nonepxnocrtm (cm. 12.3);
2) ntenxmr na saanntx nonepxnocrxx
na cemecrna nnnn n naxoxr nx rouxn
nepeceuennx. Bo nropom napnanre ntenenne
nepecexammnxcx nap xpnntx ntnonnxmr c
nomomtm ncnomorarentntx nonepxnocre
nocpennxon.
Paccmorpnm noponee anropnrm pemennx
saaun c ncnontsonannem nonepxnocre noc-
pennxon. 3ror cnoco saxnmuaercx n cneymmem.
Hycrt ant nepecexammnecx nonepxnocrn n (pnc. 12.10). Bneem ncno-
morarentnym cexymym nonepxnocrt
1
. 3ra nonepxnocrt nastnaercx nocpenn-
xom. Ona nepeceuer nonepxnocrn n no nnnnxm m
1
n k
1
, coornercrnenno. Hepe-
ceuenne nnnn m
1
n k
1
acr rouxy M, npnnanexamym ncxomo nnnnn nepeceuennx
t, rax xax ona npnnanexnr oenm nonepxnocrxm. Bnox px nocpennxon, nonyua-
em cemecrno rouex nnnnn nepeceuennx.
B xauecrne nonepxnocre nocpennxon nanonee uacro npnmenxmr nnocxocrn
nnn c]ept. B sanncnmocrn or nna nocpennxon ntenxmr cneymmne nanonee
uacro npnmenxemte cnocot nocrpoennx nnnnn nepeceuennx nyx nonepxnocre:
a) cnoco cexymnx nnocxocre;
P n c . 1 2 . 1 0

m
1
k
1
M

1
t

i
74
A
1
B
1
C
1
D
1
E
1
F
1
A
2
F
2
B
2
E
2
C
2
D
2
1
1
2
1
3
1
1
2
2
2
3
2
P n c . 1 2 . 1 1
) cnoco c]ep.
Hocpennxn ntnpamrcx rax, urot nnnnn m
i
n k
i
moxno tno nerxo nocrpo-
nrt, r.e. urot onn tnn rpa]nuecxn npocrtmn (npxmte nnn oxpyxnocrn).










































75
3aaua ynpomaercx, ecnn ona ns nonepxnocre sannmaer npoennpymmee nonoxe-
nne. Tora +ra nonepxnocrt ntpoxaercx n oxpyxnocrt (nnnnnpnuecxax) nnn
mnoroyrontnnx (npnsmarnuecxax). Ona ns npoexnn ncxomo nnnnn yer naxo-
nrtcx na ntpoxenno npoexnnn nonepxnocrn, a snaunr, nsnecrna. Bropax npoex-
nnx nnnnn naxonrcx ns ycnonnx npnnanexnocrn ee nonepxnocrn. Ha pnc. 12.11
noxasano nocrpoenne nnnnn nepeceuennx nnnnnpnuecxo n xonnuecxo nonepx-
nocre npamennx. Tax xax oct nnnnnpnuecxo nonepxnocrn nepnennxynxpna H
1
,
ro na H
1
nonepxnocrt npoennpyercx n oxpyxnocrt. Ha +ry xe oxpyxnocrt npoenn-
pyercx n ncxomax nnnnx. Touxn A, B, C, D, E n F onopnte rouxn. Touxn A n F
npnnanexar ropnsonrantnomy, a rouxa E ]ponrantnomy xonrypy nnnnnpnue-
cxo nonepxnocrn. Ha ]ponrantnom xonrype xonnuecxo nonepxnocrn pacnono-
xent rouxn B n C. Touxa D +xcrpemantnax.
pyrne rouxn nnnnn nepeceuennx, oosnauennte nn]pamn, npomexyrounte.
uponrantnte npoexnnn nnnnn nocrpoent ns ycnonnx npnnanexnocrn ee xonnue-
cxo nonepxnocrn.

12.4.1. Cnoco ncnomorarentntx cexymnx nnocxocre

Paccmorpnm npnmenenne ncnomorarentntx cexymnx nnocxocre na npnmepe
nocrpoennx nnnnn nepeceuennx c]ept c xonycom npamennx
(pnc. 12.12, 12.13).
. 3aannte nonepxnocrn
nonepxnocrn npamennx. Ocn saanntx no-
nepxnocre napannentnt H
2
, (nmo na-
merp c]ept moxer trt npnnxr sa oct
npamennx), a nx omax nnocxocrt cnmmer-
pnn napannentna ]ponrantno nnocxocrn
npoexnn. Cneonarentno, na saanntx
nonepxnocrxx moxno ntennrt na ceme-
crna oxpyxnocre, pacnonoxenntx n
nnocxocrxx, napannentntx ropnsonrantno
nnocxocrn npoexnn. 3ro snaunr, uro nx
pemennx anno saaun moxno ncnont-
sonart n xauecrne nocpennxon ropn-
sonrantnte nnocxocrn yponnx.
Pnc. 12.12
Xapaxrepntmn rouxamn npoexnn nnnnn nepeceuennx nonepxnocre xnnxmr-
cx rouxn , n C, D. Touxn , naxoxrcx n nepeceuennn ouepxontx opasym-
mnx nonepxnocre, r.x. +rn opasymmne pacnonoxent n ome nnocxocrn cnm-
merpnn nonepxnocre.
Touxn C n D xnnxmrcx rouxamn nnnmocrn ropnsonrantno npoexnnn nnnnn
nepeceuennx. Hx nocrpoennx ntnonnent n raxo nocneonarentnocrn:
1) uepes nenrp c]ept O nponeena ropnsonrantnax nnocxocrt yponnx ;
76
2) nocrpoena ropnsonrantnax npoexnnx
oxpyxnocrn panyca R
1
, no xoropo
nnocxocrt nepecexaer xonnuecxym no-
nepxnocrt; +ra xe nnocxocrt nepecexaer
c]epy no +xnaropy (oxpyxnocrn maxcnmant-
noro panyca);
3) nocrpoena ropnsonrantnax npoexnnx
oxpyxnocrn panyca R
1
, no xoropo nnoc-
xocrt nepecexaer xonnuecxym nonepxnocrt;
+ra xe nnocxocrt nepecexaer c]epy no
+xnaropy (oxpyxnocrn maxcnmantnoro pa-
nyca);
4) onpeenent rouxn C
1
, D
1
nepeceuennx
oxpyxnocrn panyca R
1
c ouepxom c]ept;
5) ycranonnent ]ponrantnte npoexnnn
rouex C(C
2
), D(D
2
) ns ycnonnx npn-
nanexnocrn nx nnocxocrn .
nx nocrpoennx npomexyrountx rouex
1(1
1
,1
2
), 2(2
1
,2
2
), , 6(6
1
,6
2
) nnnnn nepeceue-
nnx saanntx nonepxnocre ncnontsyem
nnocxocrn
1
2
,
2
2
n
3
2
.
Honyuennte rouxn coennnm nnanno
xpnno nnnne.
Bnnmocrt nnnnn nepeceuennx onpee-
nxercx na xaxo nonepxnocrn orentno.
3arem ycranannnnamrcx yuacrxn, nnnmte ononpemenno nx oenx nonepxnocre.
Tax, npn npoennponannn xonnuecxax nonepxnocrt cnonx rouex ne saxptnaer, a
c]epa saxptnaer rouxn, pacnonoxennte nnxe ropnsonrantnoro xonrypa. Touxn C
n D, pacnonoxennte na ropnsonrantnom ouepxe, orenxmr nnnmym uacrt nnnnn
or nennnmo. Hennnmax uacrt noxasana mrpnxono nnnne. Ha H
2
npoexnnn nn-
nmo uacrn nnnnn nepeceuennx connaaer c npoexnne nennnmo, rax xax ]pon-
rantnte ouepxn oenx nonepxnocre pacnonoxent n nnocxocrn cnmmerpnn no-
nepxnocre.


12.4.2. Cnoco xonnenrpnuecxnx c]ep

3ror cnoco mnpoxo ncnontsyercx npn pemennn saau na nocrpoenne nnnn
nepeceuennx nonepxnocre npamennx c nepecexammnmncx ocxmn. B ocnone +roro
cnocoa nexnr cneymmee cnocrno nonepxnocre npamennx: ne coocnte no-
nepxnocrn npamennx nepecexamrcx no oxpyxnocrxm, uncno xoroptx panno uncny
rouex nepeceuennx nx nonymnpnnanon. 3rn oxpyxnocrn nexar n nnocxocrxx,
nepnennxynxpntx ocn nonepxnocre npamennx. V c]ept nmo namerp moxno
npnnxrt sa oct npamennx. Cneonarentno, c]epa c nenrpom na ocn nonepxnocrn

1
2

2
2

3
2

2
A
2
B
2
5
2
= 6
2
3
2
= 4
2
1
2
= 2
2
A
1
B
1
C
1
D
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
5
1
6
1
1
1
P n c . 1 2 . 1 3
C
2
= D
2
R
1
O
1
O
2
77
npamennx nepecexaer +ry nonepxnocrt no ono nnn necxontxnm oxpyxnocrxm.
Ecnn oct nonepxnocre npamennx napannentna nnocxocrn npoexnn, ro na +ry
nnocxocrt nnnnx nepeceuennx npoennpyercx n orpesox npxmo nnnnn. Ha pnc.
12.14, a n pnc. 12.14, noxasano nepeceuenne c]ept nnnnnpnuecxo n xonnue-
cxo nonepxnocrxmn npamennx, coornercrnenno. Ha pnc. 12.14, n npnneent nepe-
cexammnecx coocnte nnnnnpnuecxax n xonnuecxax nonepxnocrn npamennx.
P n c . 1 2 . 1 4
a ) )
n )

Paccmorpnm npnmenenne ncnomorarentntx xonnenrpnuecxnx c]ep c]ep c
nocroxnntm nenrpom. 3ror cnoco npnmenxmr npn ntnonnennn cneymmnx ycno-
nn:
a) nepecexammnecx nonepxnocrn onxnt trt
nonepxnocrxmn npamennx;
) ocn +rnx nonepxnocre onxnt nepece-
xartcx; rouxy nx nepeceuennx npnnnmamr sa
nenrp ncnomorarentntx c]ep;
n) nnocxocrt cnmmerpnn nonepxnocre
onxna trt napannentna xaxo-nno nnocxocrn
npoexnn (n npornnnom cnyuae npnmenxmr
npeopasonanne ueprexa).
Paccmorpnm nocrpoenne nnnnn nepeceuennx
xonnuecxnx nonepxnocre npamennx. Ha pnc.
12.15 noxasano narnxnoe nsopaxenne, a na
Pnc. 12.15 pnc. 12.16 xomnnexcnt ueprex +rnx nonepxno-
cre. Honepxnocrn n nx pacnonoxenne yonnernopxmr npnneenntm ntme yc-
nonnxm.
Hpexe uem crponrt npomexyrounte rouxn, neoxonmo narn onopnte rou-
xn nnnnn nepeceuennx. Touxn A, B, K n L, a raxxe E, F, C n D +ro rouxn, npn-
nanexamne xonrypam nonepxnocre. Hx moxno narn cnocoom xonnenrpnue-
cxnx c]ep nnn c nomomtm nnocxocre nocpennxon (
2
) n (
1
).
Paccmorpnm renept nocrpoenne npomexyrountx rouex na npnmepe rouex 5 n 6.
Hocrpoennx ntnonnxem na ]ponrantno nnocxocrn npoexnn. C]epa nocpennx
(
2
) c nenrpom n rouxe O(O
2
) nepecexaer xonnuecxne nonepxnocrn no oxpyxno-
crxm, xoropte na H
2
npoennpymrcx n orpesxn
) (
2
i i
m m
n
) (
2
i i
n n
(npoexnnn nyx
pyrnx oxpyxnocre ne noxasant). Touxn 5
2
=6
2
nx nepeceuennx xnnxmrcx ]pon-
78
rantntmn npoexnnxmn rouex 5 n 6, xoropte npnnanexar nnnnn nepeceuennx no-
nepxnocre, rax xax npnnanexar xaxo ns +rnx nonepxnocre.
Iopnsonrantnte npoexnnn rouex 5 n 6 naxonm ns ycnonnx npnnanexnocrn
rouxn nonepxnocrn. B annom cnyuae ncnontsyercx npnnanexnocrt rouex oxpyx-
nocrn
i
m
na neprnxantno xonnuecxo nonepxnocrn. Touxn 5
2
n 6
2
naxoxrcx no
nnnnn npoexnnonno cnxsn na
) (
1
i i
m m
.
P n c . 1 2 . 1 6
C
2
= D
2
E
2
= F
2
B
2
A
2
K
2
L
2
1
2
= 2
2
3
2
= 4
2
5
2
= 6
2
K
1
L
1
B
1
A
1
E
1
F
1
C
1
D
1
5
1
6
1
1
1
2
1
4
1

2
R m a x
R
m i n
3
1

1
m
i
2
n
i
2
m
i
1
n
i
1

2
O
2
O
1

79
Ananornuno moxno nocrponrt nmoe xonnuecrno rouex ncxomo nnnnn nepe-
ceuennx. Onaxo nyxno nmert n nny, uro ne nce c]ept moryr trt ncnontsonant
nx pemennx saaun. Paccmorpnm npeentnte rpannnt ncnomorarentntx c]ep.
Panyc c]ep nocpennxon nsmenxercx n nanasone
R
max
R R
min
,
re R
min
mnnnmantnt panyc c]ept, R
max
maxcnmantnt panyc c]ept.
C]epa mnnnmantnoro panyca R
min
+ro c]epa, xoropax xacaercx ono no-
nepxnocrn n nepecexaer pyrym (nnn roxe xacaercx). Ha pnc. 12.21 raxax c]epa xa-
caercx ropnsonrantno xonnuecxo nonepxnocrn. C nomomtm c]ept mnnnmant-
noro panyca nocrpoent rouxn 1
2
=2
2
n

3
2
=4
2
. Iopnsonrantnte npoexnnn rouex 1,
2, 3 n 4 nocrpoent ananornuno rouxam 5 n 6.
Panyc maxcnmantno c]ept panen paccroxnnm or rouxn nepeceuennx oce
nonepxnocre o camo yanenno rouxn nepeceuennx xonrypntx opasymmnx
+rnx nonepxnocre. Ha pnc 12.16 R
max
=O
2
L
2
.
nx ycranonnennx nnnmocrn npoexnn nnnnn nepeceuennx anannsnpyem pac-
nonoxenne rouex ornocnrentno xonrypon nonepxnocre. Tax, ornocnrentno H
1
,
nnnmtm yer yuacrox xpnno, pacnonoxennt ntme xonrypa ropnsonrantno
xonnuecxo nonepxnocrn (nropax nonepxnocrt na nnnmocrt na H
1
ne nnnxer). Io-
pnsonrantnax npoexnnx nennnmo uacrn nnnnn noxasana mrpnxono nnnne.
Touxn A, B n K, L npnnanexar ]ponrantntm xonrypam nonepxnocre n orenxmr
nnnmym uacrt nnnnn nepeceuennx or nennnmo npn npoennponannn na H
2
.
uponrantnte npoexnnn nnnmo n nennnmo uacre nnnnn nepeceuennx na pnc.
12.16 connaamr.

12.4.5. Cnoco +xcnenrpnuecxnx c]ep

Cnoco +xcnenrpnuecxnx c]ep npnmenxmr npn ycnonnn, uro
1) ona ns nonepxnocre nonepxnocrt npamennx, a pyrax nnxnnuecxax
(nmeer cemecrno oxpyxnocre);
2) nonepxnocrn nmemr o-
mym nnocxocrt cnmmerpnn;
3) omax nnocxocrt cnm-
merpnn napannentna nnocxocrn
npoexnn (n npornnnom cnyuae
cneyer npnmennrt npeopa-
sonanne ueprexa).
1. Hocrponrt ]pon-
rantnym npoexnnm nnnnn
nepeceuennx nonepxnocre n
, omax nnocxocrt cnmmerpnn
xoroptx napannentna H
2
(pnc.
12.17).
. 3aannte no-
nepxnocrn n nx pacnonoxenne
yonnernopxmr ycnonnxm npn-
P n c . 1 2 . 1 7

2
A
2
O
1
2
O
2
2
m
2
B
2
1
2
= 2
2
i
2
n
2
80
mennmocrn cnocoa +xcnenrpnuecxnx c]ep, xoropt n npnmenxem nx pemennx
nocrannenno saaun.
Onopntmn rouxamn xnnxmrcx rouxn (A
2
) n (B
2
), pacnonoxennte n nepece-
uennn ouepxontx opasymmnx. Hocrpoenne npomexyrountx rouex ntnonnxem n
raxo nocneonarentnocrn:
1) npononm na xonnuecxo nonepxnocrn oxpyxnocrt, xoropax pacnonoxena n
nnocxocrn, napannentno ee ocnonannm n na
2
npoennpyercx n orpesox m(m
2
);
B
2
A
2
D
2
C
2
M
2
= N
2
K
2
= L
2
5
2
= 6
2
3
2
= 4
2 1
2
= 2
2
B
1
A
1
5
1
6
1
1
1
3
1
4
1
D
1
C
1
M
1
N
1
2
1
P n c . 1 2 . 1 8
i
2
= O
2
i
1
j
1
= O
1
m
1
1
m
2
1
m
1
2
= m
2
2
n
2
j
2

1
n
1

2
2) npononm nepnennxynxp x nnocxocrn oxpyxnocrn m uepes ee nenrp O
1
n
naxonm nenrp O
2

c]ept-nocpennxa;
3) npononm npoexnnn c]ept c nenrpom n rouxe O
2
nocpecrnom xpannx ro-
uex oxpyxnocrn m(m
2
);
4) crponm oxpyxnocrt n(n
2
), no xoropo c]epa npecexaer nonepxnocrt npame-
nnx ;
81
5) onpeenxem rouxn 1
2
=2
2
nepeceuennx nocrpoenntx oxpyxnocre.
Hpoexnnn pyrnx rouex nnnnn nepeceuennx onpeenxmr ananornuno.
Ha H
2
npoexnnn nnnmoro n nennnmoro yuacrxon nnnnn nepeceuennx conna-
yr.
Hpu+e:auue. Hpenoxnre pemenne +ro saaun, ncnontsyx nropoe cemecrno
oxpyxnocre na +nnnnrnuecxom xonyce (cm. n. 12.5).
Hpu+ep 2. Hocrponrt npoexnnn nnnnn nepeceuennx ropa n xonnuecxo no-
nepxnocrn npamennx (pnc. 12.18).
Peueuue. Hcxonte nonepxnocrn n nx pacnonoxenne yonnernopxmr ycnonn-
xm npnmennmocrn cnocoa xonnenrpnuecxnx n +xcnenrpnuecxnx c]ep. Hpomexy-
rounte rouxn 1, 2, 3 n 4 nocrpoent cnocoom xonnenrpnuecxnx c]ep, a rouxn 5 n 6
cnocoom +xcnenrpnuecxnx c]ep.
Touxn 5 n 6 nocrpoent no anropnrmy, npnneennomy n npnmepe 1. Oxpyx-
nocrt na rope ntenena nneennem ]ponrantno-npoennpymme nnocxocrn (
2
).
Touxn 1, 2, 3, 4 nocrpoent n cneymme nocneonarentnocrn:
1) nocrpoent npoexnnn c]ept (
1
,
2
) c nenrpom n rouxe O(O
1
,O
2
);
2) onpeenent npoexnnn oxpyxnocrn n(n
1,
n
2
), no xoropo c]epa nepecexaer
xonnuecxym nonepxnocrt;
3) nocrpoent npoexnnn oxpyxnocre m
1
n m
2
, no xoroptm c]epa nepecexaer
rop; cnauana nocrpoent m
1
1
n m
2
1
, a sarem m
1
2
n m
2
2
(noxasano crpenxamn);
4) nepeceuenne npoexnn oxpyxnocre m n n saaer npoexnnn rouex 1, 2, 3, 4.
Touxn A, B, C, D, a raxxe K, L, M, N xnnxmrcx onopntmn. Hepnte pacnono-
xent n nepeceuennn ouepxontx opasymmnx nonepxnocre, a nropte na c]epe
mnnnmantnoro panyca (+xcrpemantnte).

12.5. Hepeceuenne nonepxnoc1en n1oporo nopnxa

B omem cnyuae ne nonepxnocrn nroporo
nopxxa nepecexamrcx no npocrpancrnenno
xpnno uerneproro nopxxa. Cneyer ormernrt,
uro npn nexoroptx ocotx nonoxennxx
ornocnrentno pyr pyra nonepxnocrn nroporo
nopxxa moryr nepecexartcx no nnocxnm
xpnntm nroporo nopxxa, ro ecrt npocr-
pancrnennax xpnnax nepeceuennx pacnaaercx
na ne nnocxne xpnnte. Vcnonnx pacnaennx
xpnno uerneproro nopxxa na ne xpnnte
nroporo nopxxa ]opmynnpymrcx n nne
cneymmnx reopem.
Teope+a 1. Ecnn ne nonepxnocrn nroporo
nopxxa nepecexamrcx no ono nnocxo xpn-
no, ro onn nepecexamrcx n eme no ono nno-
cxo xpnno. Hnnmcrpanne +ro reopemt xn-
nxercx pnc. 12.19, na xoropom noxasant ]pon-
rantnte npoexnnn c]ept n +nnnnrnuecxoro xonyca, nepecexammnxcx no nym ox-
m
2
n
2
1
2
2
2
3
2
4
2

P n c . 1 2 . 1 9
82
pyxnocrxm m(m
2
) n n(n
2
). Oxpyxnocrt m napannentna ocnonannm (nnocxocrn
oxpyxnocrn) xonnuecxo nonepxnocrn, a oxpyxnocrt n nocrpoena n coornercrnnn
c reopemo 1.
2 (reopema o nonom
conpnxocnonennn). Ecnn ne nonepx-
nocrn nroporo nopxxa nmemr xacanne n
nyx rouxax, ro nnnnx nx nsanmnoro
nepeceuennx pacnaaercx na ne nnocxne
xpnnte nroporo nopxxa.
Hnocxocrn +rnx xpnntx npoyr
uepes npxmym, coennxmmym rouxn xa-
cannx. Ha pnc. 12.20 noxasano nocrpoenne
nnnnn nepeceuennx xonnuecxo
nonepxnocrn npamennx n +nnnnrnuecxoro
nnnnnpa (ocn nonepx-nocre
nepecexamrcx n napannentnt H
2
). Hnnnn
nepeceuennx +nnnnct nexar no ]pon-
rantno-npoennpymmnx nnocxocrxx,
npoxoxmnx uepes npxmym AB,
coennxmmym rouxn xacannx A n B, a
raxxe rouxn 1, 2 n 3, 4 (rouxn nepeceue-
nnx ouepxon nonepxnocre).
3 (reopema Monxa). Ecnn
ne nonepxnocrn nroporo nopxxa onn-
cant oxono rperte nonepxnocrn nroporo
nopxxa nnn nnncant n nee, ro nnnnx nx
nsanmnoro nepeceuennx pacnaaercx na ne nnocxne xpnnte. Hnocxocrn +rnx xpn-
ntx npoyr uepes npxmym, coennxmmym
rouxn nepeceuennx nnnn xacannx. 3ra
reopema xnnxercx uacrntm cnyuaem reopemt
2. Ecnn ocn nepecexammnxcx nonepxnocre
npamennx napannentnt xaxo-nno
nnocxocrn npoexnn, ro na +ry nnocxocrt
xpnnte nnnnn npoennpymrcx n orpesxn npx-
mtx.
Ha pnc. 12.21 npnneen npnmep no-
crpoennx nnnnn nepeceuennx nyx xonnue-
cxnx nonepxnocre npamennx, ocn xoroptx
nepecexamrcx n napannentnt H
2
. Hcxonte
nonepxnocrn onncant noxpyr c]ept n nme-
mr c nnmn xacanne no oxpyxnocrxm t(t
2
) n
k(k
2
). 3rn oxpyxnocrn nepecexamrcx n rou-
xax 1 n 2. Hnocxocrn nnnn nepeceuennx
npoxoxr uepes npxmym 12 n rouxn nepece-
uennx ouepxon nonepxnocre A, D, B n C.
A
2
B
2
C
2
D
2

1
2
= 2
2
t
2
k
2
P n c . 1 2 . 2 1
A
1
B
1
A
2
= B
2
m
2
n
2
m
1
= n
1
1
2
2
2
3
2
4
2
P n c . 1 2 . 2 0
1
1
= 2
1
3
1
= 4
1

83
13. PA3BEPTKH HOBEPXHOCTEH

Onpeenenne. Ecnn nonepxnocrt, npecrannxemym n nne ronxo, rnxo n ne-
pacrxxnmo nnenxn, moxno nyrem nsrnannx conmecrnrt c nnocxocrtm es paspt-
non n cxnaox, ro nonepxnocrt, onaammax +rnm cnocrnom, nastnaercx pasnep-
rtnammecx, a ]nrypa, nonyuennax n pesyntrare conmemennx nonepxnocrn c nnoc-
xocrtm, nastnaercx pasneprxo. B maremarnxe oxasano, uro x pasneprtnammnmcx
ornocxrcx nnmt rpn rpynnt nnneuartx nonepxnocre: xonnuecxne, nnnnnpnue-
cxne n ropconte (nonepxnocrn xacarentntx x npocrpancrnenno xpnno). V +rnx
nonepxnocre nont xaxo npxmonnneno opasymme cymecrnyer enncrnen-
nax xacarentnax nnocxocrt, y ocrantntx nnneuartx nonepxnocre nont opa-
symme npxmo cymecrnyer ecxoneunoe mnoxecrno raxnx nnocxocre. Hsrnanne
nonepxnocrn na nnocxocrt npnnonr x coornercrnnm, ycranannnnaemomy mexy
mnoxecrnom rouex nonepxnocrn n mnoxecrnom rouex ee pasneprxn. 3ro coornercr-
nne onaaer cneymmnmn cnocrnamn:
1) rouxe nonepxnocrn coornercrnyer enncrnennax rouxa pasneprxn n naoopor;
2) nnnt coornercrnenntx nnnn nonepxnocrn n ee pasneprxn pannt;
3) yrnt, opasonannte nnnnxmn na nonepxnocrn, pannt yrnam, opasonanntm
coornercrnymmnmn nnnnxmn na pasneprxe;
4) nnoman coornercrnenntx ]nryp na nonepxnocrn n na pasneprxe pannt.
Hs npnneenntx cnocrn ntrexamr cnecrnnx:
1) npxmax nnnnx nonepxnocrn npeopasyercx n npxmym nnnnm pasneprxn;
2) napannentnte nnnnn nonepxnocrn npeopasymrcx n napannentnte npxmte ee
pasneprxn.
nx pasneprtnammnxcx nnneuartx nonepxnocre crpoxrcx rpa]nuecxn npn-
nnxennte pasneprxn, nocxontxy n nponecce nocrpoennx pasneprxn +rn nonepxno-
crn samenxmrcx (annpoxcnmnpymrcx) nnncanntmn nnn onncanntmn mnororpan-
ntmn nonepxnocrxmn. Tounte pasneprxn annpoxcnmnpymmnx mnororpanntx no-
nepxnocre npnnnmamrcx sa npnnnxennte pasneprxn pasneprtnammnxcx no-
nepxnocre. nx nonepxnocre, xoropte ne xnnxmrcx pasneprtnammnmncx, crpo-
xrcx ycnonnte pasneprxn no cneymme cxeme:
HH PH IH TP, re HH nepasneprtnammax nonepxnocrt, PH pasnep-
rtnammaxcx nonepxnocrt, IH rpannax nonepxnocrt, TP rounax pasneprxa,
+ran annpoxcnmannn npetyme nonepxnocrn nocneymme. Hocxontxy n
pesyntrare nocneonarentntx annpoxcnmann ncxonax nonepxnocrt samenxercx
rpanno, ro paccmorpnm nnauane nocrpoennx rountx pasneprox rpanntx nonepx-
nocre.

13.1. Pasnep1xn rpannmx nonepxnoc1en

Onpeenenne. Pasneprxo rpanno nonepxnocrn nastnaercx mnoxecrno coen-
nenntx n nnocxocrn mnoroyrontnnxon, xonrpy+nrntx (panntx) coornercrnenno ee
rpanxm. Ho coennennem nonnmaercx nocneonarentnoe pasmemenne mnoro-
yrontnnxon pasneprxn, xoropoe coornercrnyer nocneonarentnomy pacnonoxennm
rpane nonepxnocrn.
84
x
S
2
A
2
B
2
C
2
S
0
A
1
B
1
C
1
S
1
S
B
A
C
S
B
A
C
C
C
P n c . 1 3 . 1
x
A
2
B
2
C
2
E
2
F
2
D
2
B
1
A
1
E
1
F
1
C
1
D
1
M
N 4 3 2 1
D
A
C
E
F
D
A
B
P n c . 1 3 . 2
. ana nnpamna SABC (pnc. 13.1). Hocrponrt pasneprxy ee nonepxno-
crn.
Ocnonanne ABC nnpamnt npnnanexnr nnocxocrn npoexnn H
1
, no+romy
AA
1
B
1
C
1
ero HB. nx onpeenennx HB oxontx peep nnpamnt nocnontsyemcx
meroom npxmoyrontnoro rpeyrontnnxa (cm. n. 8.1). SS
0
x omax pasnocrt nt-
cor xonnon peep anno nnpamnt. Orxnatnax or rouxn S no ocn X orpesxn
SB = S
1
B
1
, SC = S
1
C
1
, SA = S
1
A
1
, nonyuaem S
0
B, S
0
C, S
0
A HB peep nnpamnt.
3arem n cropone, ncnontsyx nsnecrnte npannna nocrpoennx rpeyrontnnxa no ero
croponam, ntnonnxem cocrnenno nocrpoennx pasneprxn nnpamnt.











. ana rpexrpannax
npnsma ABCDFE (pnc. 13.2).
Hocrponrt pasneprxy ee oxo-
no nonepxnocrn.
Ocnonannx ABC n DFE anno
npnsmt napannentnt nnocxocrn
npoexnn H
1
n, cneonarentno,
npoennpymrcx na +ry nnocxocrt
n HB. Kaxym ns oxontx rpa-
ne npnsmt npecrannxem n nn-
e nyx rpeyrontnnxon, pase-
nnn rpant naronantm. Ho me-
roy npxmoyrontnoro rpeyront-
nnxa onpeenxem HB rpex na-
ronane BD, BE n CD n onoro
pepa (pepa no ycnonnm saaun
pannt). B nrore na narpamme
narypantntx nennunn orpesxon
nonyuaem:
85
x
x
1
A
2
B
2
C
2
B
1
2
A
1
2
C
1
2
A
1
B
1
C
1
A
1
1
B
1
1
C
1
1
1
2
2
2
3
2
2
1
3
1
1
1
1
4
2
4
3
4
1 3
2 1
B
B
1
C
C
1
A
A
1
B
B
1
B
B
1

1
P n c . 1 3 . 3
MN omax pasnocrt ntcor peep; N1 = A
1
D
1
= B
1
F
1
= C
1
E
1
; N2 = D
1
C
1
,
N3 = B
1
D
1
, N4 = B
1
E
1
; M1 HB pepa, M2 HB naronann DC, M3 HB narona-
nn BD n M4 HB naronann BE. Hmex HB peep npnsmt, rpex ee naronane n
cropon rpeyrontnnxon ocnonann, crponm pasneprxy oxono nonepxnocrn xax co-
noxynnocrn rpeyrontnnxon, ntcrpannaemtx no nx croponam.
Mero, xoroptm tnn nocrpoent pasneprxn n paccmorpenntx nyx saauax, na-
stnaercx meroom rpeyrontnnxon (mero rpnanrynxnnn). Mero ocnonan na nos-
moxnocrn nocrpoennx enncrnennoro (no ]opme) rpeyrontnnxa no ero saanntm
croponam. 3amernm, uro uertpe, nxrt, . orpesxon onpeenxmr ecxoneunoe mno-
xecrno uertpex, nxrn, . yrontnnxon. Mero rpeyrontnnxon nanonee npocr n
ynnnepcanen npn nocrpoennn rountx pasneprox rpanntx nonepxnocre, a raxxe
npnnnxenntx n ycnonntx pasneprox nnneuartx nonepxnocre.
Paccmorpnm cnennantnte merot nocrpoennx pasneprox rpanntx nonepxno-
cre.
. ana rpexrpannax npnsma ABCA
1
B
1
C
1
(pnc. 13.3). Hocrponrt pasneprxy
npnsmt.



















nx nocrpoennx pasneprxn npnmennm mero nopmantnoro ceuennx. Mero npn-
mennm nx npnsmarnuecxnx nonepxnocre, y xoroptx oxonte pepa npecrannx-
mr coo nnnnn yponnx. Hocneonarentnocrt nocrpoenn n meroe nopmantnoro
ceuennx cneymmax:
1) npnsma paccexaercx nnocxocrtm A nepnennxynxpno ee pepam;
2) onpeenxmrcx HB cropon mnoroyrontnnxa, no xoroptm nnocxocrt A nepece-
xaer nonepxnocrt npnsmt;
3) mnoroyrontnnx xax nomanax nnnnx pasnopaunnaercx n orpesox npxmo, nnyr-
pn xoropo ormeuamrcx rouxn, coornercrnymmne nepmnnam mnoroyrontnnxa;
86
4) uepes +rn rouxn nponoxrcx npxmte, nepnennxynxpnte orpesxy pasneprxe
mnoroyrontnnxa;
5) na nepnennxynxpntx npxmtx or yxasanntx rouex orxnatnamrcx orpesxn,
npecrannxmmne HB coornercrnymmnx orpesxon peep nnpamnt;
6) xonnt orpesxon peep nocneonarentno coennxmrcx orpesxamn npxmtx nn-
nn;
7) x nocrpoenno pasneprxe oxono nonepxnocrn ocrpannamrcx HB mnoro-
yrontnnxon ocnonann npnsmt.
Hpnmennm nsnoxennym nocneonarentnocrt x name saaue. Hocxontxy pepa
npnsmt AA
1
, BB
1
, CC
1
no ycnonnm saaun xnnxmrcx ropnsonranxmn, ro A
1
A
1
1
,
B
1
B
1
1
, C
1
C
1
1
ecrt HB +rnx peep. Pacceuem oxonym nonepxnocrt npnsmt nnocxo-
crtm A, nepnennxynxpno ee pepam. Hocxontxy pepa xnnxmrcx ropnsonranxmn,
ro A H
1
n A
1
ropnsonrantnt cne nnocxocrn A. 1
1
2
1
3
1
n 1
2
2
2
3
2
npoexnnn
nopmantnoro ceuennx npnsmt. Hpoexnnx A 1
4
2
4
3
4
npecrannxer coo HB nop-
mantnoro ceuennx, nocrpoennym meroom sament nnocxocre npoexnn, re
x
1
// A
1
. B cropone or Ku, na ropnsonrantno npxmo, nocneonarentno pacnonara-
em orpesxn 13 = 1
4
3
4
, 32 = 3
4
2
4
, 21 = 2
4
1
4
n npononm uepes nx xonnt neprnxantnte
npxmte. Ha +rnx npxmtx orxnatnaem orpesxn:
1B = 1
1
B
1
, 1B
1
= 1
1
B
1
1
; 3C = 3
1
C
1
, 3C
1
= 3
1
C
1
1
; 2A = 2
1
A
1
, 2A
1
= 2
1
A
1
1
.
Mnoroyrontnnx BCABB
1
A
1
C
1
B
1
npecrannxer coo pasneprxy oxono no-
nepxnocrn saanno npnsmt. ocrponn x ne AABC n AA
1
C
1
B
1
, nonyuaem nonnym
pasneprxy npnsmt.
. ana npnsma ABCA
1
C
1
B
1
(pnc. 13.4). Hocrponrt ee pasneprxy.
nx nocrpoennx pasneprxn
npnsmt moxno ncnontsonart
nsnecrnt mero pacxarxn.
Ero npnmenenne nosmoxno
nx raxnx npnsmarnuecxnx
nonepxnocre, y xoroptx o-
xonte pepa n nnocxocrn oc-
nonann xnnxmrcx npxmtmn n
nnocxocrxmn yponnx. Cyrt
meroa saxnmuaercx n nocne-
onarentnom npamennn rpa-
ne npnsmt noxpyr ee oxo-
ntx peep o nonoxennx co-
nmemennx c nnocxocrtm, xo-
ropax npoxonr uepes ono ns
peep n napannentna nnocxo-
crn npoexnn, r.e. xaxax
rpant ocrannxer cno orneua-
rox n +ro nnocxocrn. Mnoxecrno nocneonarentno nonyuenntx n pacnonoxen-
ntx orneuarxon n nnocxocrn npecrannxer coo pasneprxy oxono nonepxno-
crn npnsmt. Paccmorpnm pemenne anno saaun. Foxonte pepa npnsmt xnnxmr-
cx ]ponranxmn, a nnocxocrn ocnonann ropnsonrantntmn nnocxocrxmn yponnx.
x
A
2
B
2
C
2
A
1
2
A
1
1
B
1
2
B
1
1
C
1
2
C
1
1 C
1
A
1
B
1

1
2

1
2

1
2
A
0
A
0 1
B
0
B
0 1
C
0
C
0 1
P n c . 1 3 . 4
87
h




2 r
r




x
P n c . 1 3 . 5
R




h

r




x
S
2
S
1
S
P n c . 1 3 . 6
Vcnonnx saaun coornercrnymr meroy pacxarxn. Hycrt nepnoe npamenne
npamenne rpann ACC
1
A
1
, nponcxonr noxpyr ocn CC
1
. Honepnem +ry rpant o co-
nmemennx c nnocxocrtm pasneprxn, npoxoxme uepes pepo CC
1
n napannentno
nnocxocrn npoexnn H
2
. B +rom cnyuae nepmnnt A n A
1
yyr npamartcx n npo-
ennpymmnx nnocxocrxx u H
2
n u
1
H
2
coornercrnenno, xoropte nepnennxy-
nxpnt pepy AA
1
. Conmemennte nonoxennx A
0
n A
01
nepmnn A n A
1
yyr npn-
nanexart ]ponrantntm cneam u
2
n u
2
1
nnocxocre u n u
1
coornercrnenno n or-
croxrt or rouex C
2
n C
2
1
na paccroxnnn C
2
A
0
= C
2
1
A
01
= A
1
C
1
= A
1
1
C
1
1
. Cneymmnm
npamennem noxpyr ocn A
0
A
01
onnaemcx conmemennx rpann ABB
1
A
1
c nnocxo-
crtm pasneprxn. Hpn +rom conmemennte nonoxennx B
0
n B
01
nepmnn B n B
1
coor-
nercrnenno yyr npnnanexart ]ponrantntm cneam A
2
n A
2
1
nnocxocre A H
2

n A
1
H
2
n orcroxrt or rouex A
0
n A
01
na paccroxnnn B
0
A
0
= B
01
A
01
= B
1
A
1
= B
1
1
A
1
1
.
Hocnenee, rperte npamenne, yer nponcxonrt noxpyr ocn B
0
B
01
n nosnonnr no-
nyunrt conmemenne rpann BCC
1
B
1
c nnocxocrtm pasneprxn, npn +rom conmemen-
nte nonoxennx C
0
n C
01
nepmnn C n C
1
yyr npnnanexart ]ponrantntm cneam
L
2
n L
2
1
npoennpymmnx nnocxocre L

H
2
n L
1
H
2
n orcroxrt or rouex B
0
n B
01
na
paccroxnnn C
0
B
0
= C
01
B
01
= C
1
B
1
= C
1
1
B
1
1
. Honyuennt n nrore nocrpoenn mnoro-
yrontnnx C
2
A
0
B
0
C
0
C
01
B
01
A
01
C
2
1
yer npecrannxrt coo pasneprxy oxono no-
nepxnocrn saanno npnsmt.

13.2. Hpnnnaennme pasnep1xn pasnep1mnammnxcn nonepxnoc1en

Hocrpoenne npnnnxenntx pasneprox ntnonnxercx n cneymme nocneona-
rentnocrn:
1) saannym pasneprtnammymcx nnneuarym nonepxnocrt samenxmr (annpox-
cnmnpymr) rpanno nonepxnocrtm;
2)crpoxr rounym pasneprxy rpanno nonepxnocrn;
3)rounym pasneprxy npnnnmamr sa npnnnxennym pasneprxy saanno nonepx-
nocrn.
nx nexoroptx nnneuartx pasneprtnammnxcx nonepxnocre ner neoxonmocrn
n nx samene rpanntmn nonepxnocrxmn. Tax, nanpnmep, orcex nnnnnpnuecxo no-
nepxnocrn npamennx panyca r n
ntcoro h nmeer pasneprxo
npxmoyrontnnx co croponamn h n 2r
(pnc. 13.5).
88
x
S
2
A
2
B
2
C
2
D
2
S
0
S
S
1
S
A
1
A
A
B
1
B
D
1
D
D
C
1
C
C
B
P n c . 1 3 . 7
Pasneprxo xonnuecxo nonepxnocrn npamennx ntcoro h n ocnonannem pany-
ca r xnnxercx cexrop panyca R =
2 2
h r c yrnom =
R
r 2
(pnc. 13.6). Paccmorpnm
npnmep nocrpoennx npnnnxenntx pasneprox.
. an orcex xonnuecxo nonepxnocrn (pnc. 13.7). Hocrponrt ero npn-
nnxennym pasneprxy.
Hnocxym xpnnym nnnnm
nanpannxmmym xonnuecxo
nonepxnocrn nnauane samenxmr
nnncanno nomano nnnne
ABCD(A
1
B
1
C
1
D
1
, A
2
B
2
C
2
D
2
),
xoropax no ycnonnm saaun
npnnanexnr nnocxocrn
npoexnn H
1
n no+romy
A
1
B
1
C
1
D
1
ee HB. 3arem
coennxmr nepmnnt nomano c
nepmnno S xonnuecxo
nonepxnocrn n nonyuamr
nnncannym nnpamnantnym
nonepxnocrt SABCD, xoropo
samenxmr annym xonnuecxym
nonepxnocrt. Hcnontsyx mero
npxmoyrontnoro rpeyrontnnxa,
crpoxr narpammy HB peep
nnncanno nnpamnantno no-
nepxnocrn. Hpn +rom SS
0
o-
max pasnocrt ntcor xonnon
peep nnpamnt; SD = S
1
D
1
,
SC = S
1
C
1
, SB = S
1
B
1
, SA =
= S
1
A
1
; S
0
D, S
0
C, S
0
B, S
0
A
npecrannxmr coo HB pe-
ep nnpamnt. SDCBA pas-
neprxa oxono nonepxnocrn
saannoro xonnuecxoro orcexa.
. an orcex nonepx-
nocrn +nnnnrnuecxoro nnnnn-
pa (pnc. 13.8). Hocrponrt pas-
neprxy ee oxono nonepxno-
crn.
Bnnmem n annym nonepx-
nocrt nexoropym npnsmarnue-
cxym nonepxnocrt, pasennn
nanpannxmmym nnnnm nnnnn-
pa oxpyxnocrt, na pannoe
uncno uacre, nanpnmep na 12
x
A
1
B
1
C
1
D
1
B
1
1
A
1
1
C
1
1
D
1
1
E
1
E
1
1
F
1
F
1
1
K
1 K
1
1
A
2
B
2
K
2
C
2
D
2
E
2
F
2
K
1
2
A
1
2
B
A
C
D
E
F
F
1
E
1
D
1
C
1
B
1
A
1
P n c . 1 3 . 8
89
x
a
2
a
1
A
2
B
2
C
2
D
2
E
2
F
2
F
1
E
1
D
1
C
1
A
1
B
1
E
1
2
D
1
2
C
1
2
B
1
2
A
1
2
A
1
1
B
1
1
C
1
1
D
1
1
E
1
1
A
A
0
A
B
C
D
E
A
1
B
1
C
1
D
1
E
1
F
A
1
B
1
0
C
1
0
D
1
0
E
1
0
F
0
B
C
D
E E
D
C
B
m
1
m
2
P n c . 1 3 . 9
(na pncynxe, n cnny cnmmerpnunocrn saanno nonepxnocrn, nx npocrort no-
crpoenn ntnonneno enenne nononnnt nonepxnocrn na 6 uacre). Foxonte pepa
nnncanno npnsmt xnnxmrcx ]ponranxmn, a ee ocnonannx mnoroyrontnnxn npn-
nanexar ropnsonrantntm nnocxocrxm yponnx. Ho +ro npnunne oxonte pepa
npoennpymrcx na H
2
n HB, a mnoroyrontnnxn ocnonann n HB na H
1
.
Ormeuennte ycnonnx saaun coornercrnymr meroy pacxarxn nx nocrpoennx
pasneprxn nnncanno npnsmt. Hocxontxy npnsma nmeer nnocxocrt cnmmerpnn,
npoxoxmym uepes nnnnm nenrpon opasymmnx +nnnnrnuecxn nnnnnp oxpyx-
nocre n xnnxmmymcx ]ponrantno nnocxocrtm yponnx, ro nx coxpamennx no-
crpoenn ntnonnnm nocrpoennx pasneprxn rontxo nononnnt npnsmt. Bpamenne
npnsmt no meroy pacxarxn cneyer naunnart c pepa KK
1
(K
1
K
1
1
, K
2
K
2
1
). Ho+romy
nnocxocrtm pasneprxn npnsmt yer ]ponrantnax nnocxocrt yponnx, npoxoxmax
uepes pepo KK
1
. Hocneonarentntm npamennem noxpyr peep npnsmt onnaemcx
conmemennx ncex ee rpane c nnocxocrtm pasneprxn. Hpn +rom K
2
F = K
2
1
F
1
=
= K
1
1
F
1
1


= K
1
F
1
; FE = F
1
E
1
= F
1
1
E
1
1
= F
1
E
1
n r. . Honyuennt mnoroyrontnnx
ABCD D
1
C
1
B
1
A
1
npecrannxer coo rounym pasneprxy nononnnt oxono no-
nepxnocrn nnncanno npnsmt, xoropax n cnom ouepet onpeenxer npnnnxennym
pasneprxy coornercrnymme nononnnt nonepxnocrn +nnnnrnuecxoro nnnnnpa.
. an orcex ropcono nonepxnocrn (pnc. 13.9). Hocrponrt ero pasneprxy.


























90
Topconax nonepxnocrt +ro nnneuarax pasneprtnammaxcx nonepxnocrt, opaso-
nannax xacarentntmn npxmtmn x npocrpancrnenno xpnno, xoropax nmeer nasna-
nne pepa nosnpara +ro nonepxnocrn. B name saaue orcex saanno nonepxno-
crn orpannuen pepom nosnpara a (a
1
, a
2
), nnocxo xpnno m (m
1
, m
2
) n orpesxom
AA
1
ee opasymme. 3amennm xpnnym m nnncanno nomano nnnne A
1
B
1
C
1
D
1
E
1
F
c npoexnnxmn A
1
1
B
1
1
C
1
1
D
1
1
E
1
1
F
1
n A
2
1
B
2
1
C
2
1
D
2
1
E
2
1
F
2
. 3arem nocrynnm cneymmnm
opasom:
1) coennnm rouxn A n B
1
nx nonyuennx orpesxa AB
1
(A
1
B
1
1
, A
2
B
2
1
);
2) ormernn rouxy nepeceuennx AB
1
a = B(B
1
, B
2
), coennnm rouxn B n C
1
nx
nonyuennx orpesxa BC
1
(B
1
C
1
1
, B
2
C
2
1
);
3) ormernn rouxy nepeceuennx BC
1
a = C(C
1
, C
2
), coennnm rouxn C n D
1
nx
nonyuennx orpesxa CD
1
(C
1
D
1
1
, C
2
D
2
1
);
4) ormernn rouxy nepeceuennx CD
1
a = D(D
1
, D
2
), coennnm rouxn D n E
1
nx
nonyuennx orpesxa DE
1
(D
1
E
1
1
, D
2
E
2
1
);
5) ormernn rouxy nepeceuennx DE
1
a = E(E
1
, E
2
), coennnm rouxn E n F
1
nx
nonyuennx orpesxa EF(E
1
F
1
, E
2
F
2
).
B nrore ntnonnennx nocrpoenn nonyunm nnncannt n pepo nosnpara a npo-
crpancrnennt mnoroyrontnnx ABCDEF(A
1
B
1
C
1
D
1
E
1
F
1
, A
2
B
2
C
2
D
2
E
2
F
2
) n nnncan-
nym n ropconym nonepxnocrt rpannym nonepxnocrt c pepamn AA
1
, AB
1
, BC
1
,
CD
1
, DE
1
, EF.
Ouennno, rpanxmn nnncanno n ropconym nonepxnocrt rpanno nonepxnocrn
xnnxmrcx rpeyrontnnxn, y xoroptx ne nepmnnt xnnxmrcx nepmnnamn nnocxo
nomano nnnnn, nnncanno n nnnnm m, a rpertx nepmnna +ro nepmnna npocrpan-
crnenno nomano, nnncanno n pepo nosnpara a. Cropona onoro ns nyx coce-
nnx rpeyrontnnxon npnnanexnr cropone pyroro n cnyxnr pepom rpanno no-
nepxnocrn. antnemne nocrpoennx saxnmuamrcx n onpeenennn HB nyx ns rpex
cropon xaxoro rpeyrontnnxa meroom npxmoyrontnoro rpeyrontnnxa, nocxontxy
rpertx cropona cnpoennponana na H
1
n HB. nx +roro crponrcx narpamma HB cro-
pon rpeyrontnnxon rpane. Hpn +rom na npxmo AA
0
or rouxn A
0
orxnatnamrcx
pasnocrn ntcor xonnon orpesxon cropon rpeyrontnnxon, a no ocn x or rouxn
A
0
nnnt ropnsonrantntx npoexnn +rnx cropon. Hpnuem A
0
F
0
= E
1
F
1
, A
0
E
0
1
=
= D
1
E
1
1
, A
0
D
0
1
= C
1
D
1
1
, A
0
C
0
1
= B
1
C
1
1
, A
0
B
0
1
= A
1
B
1
1
, A
0
A
1
= A
1
A
1
1
.3arem ntnonnx-
mrcx nocneonarentnte nocrpoennx rpeyrontnnxon rpane no rpem nx croponam,
npnnoxmne x nnocxo onacrn, orpannuenno nnnne ABCDD
1
C
1
B
1
A
1
. 3ra
nnocxax onacrt yer npnnnxenno pasneprxo saanno ropcono nonepxno-
crn.

13.3. Ycnonnme pasnep1xn nepasnep1mnammnxcn nonepxnoc1en

Paccmorpnm necxontxo npnmepon, cneyx yxasanno panee cxeme nocrpoennx
ycnonno pasneprxn nonepxnocrn.
3aaua. ana nonepxnocrt npamennx (pnc. 13.10). Hocrponrt ee pasneprxy.
Ouennno, annax nonepxnocrt ne xnnxercx pasneprtnammecx n nx nee moxno
nocrponrt nnmt ycnonnym pasneprxy. Pasennm nonepxnocrt npamennx ocentmn
nnocxocrxmn A
i
, re i = 1, 2, 3, , na pannoe uncno uacre (orcexon) n ntepem
91
6 u a c r e
x
S
2
S
1
S
1
2
2
2
3
2
4
2
5
2
5
4
3
2
1
5
1
1
1
A
1
B
1
A
2
B
2
= =
A
B
4
1
3
1
2
1
t
2
t
1

2
1

1
1
D
1
C
1
D
2
C
2
= =
P n c . 1 3 . 1 0
ony ns nnx (nanpnmep, mecrym uacrt), orpannuennym npoennpymmnmn nnocxo-
crxmn A
1
n A
2
, nmemmnmn ropnsonrantnte cnet A
1
1
n A
2
1
. Hpnmem ouepxonym
nnnnm t(t
1
, t
2
) sa nanpannxmmym nnnnm nnnnnpnuecxo nonepxnocrn c orpesxamn
ee ]ponrantno - npoennpymmnx opasymmnx mexy nnocxocrxmn A
1
n A
2
.



Orcexom +ro nonepxnocrn ntnonnena annpoxcnmannx ntpanno uacrn
ncxono nonepxnocrn. B coornercrnnn co cxemo nocrpoennx ycnonno pasneprxn
ntnonnnm nropym annpoxcnmannm, samennn orcex nnnnnpnuecxo nonepxnocrn
orcexom npnsmarnuecxo nonepxnocrn. nx +roro ntepem na nanpannxmme t px
rouex, nanpnmep S, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, n nponeem uepes nnx ]ponrantno npoennpymmne
opasymmne, nanpnmep, AB 5. Orpesxn +rnx npxmonnnentx opasymmnx mex-
y ocentmn nnocxocrxmn A
1
n A
2
samenxmr coornercrnymmne orpesxn napannene
(oxpyxnocre) ncxono nonepxnocrn n xnnxmrcx pepamn npnsmarnuecxo no-
nepxnocrn, a nomanax nnnnx S12345, nnncannax n nnnnm t , xnnxercx nanpannxm-
me nnnne +ro nonepxnocrn. Tounax pasneprxa npnsmarnuecxo nonepxnocrn,
nnncanno n nnnnnpnuecxym nonepxnocrt, yer cnyxnrt npnnnxenno pas-
neprxo onncanno nnnnnpnuecxo nonepxnocrn n ycnonno pasneprxo orcexa
ncxono nonepxnocrn npamennx. nx nocrpoennx pasneprxn orcexa nnncanno
npnsmarnuecxo nonepxnocrn nponeem n cropone or ncxonoro Ku ropnsonrant-
nym nnnnm n ntepem na ne rouxy 5. Ho oe cropont or rouxn 5 ormernm ropn-
sonrantno n cnmmerpnuno rouxn A n B raxne, uro AB = A
1
B
1
. Beprnxantno or rou-
xn A ornoxnm orpesox 54 = 5
2
4
2
. 3arem or rouxn 4 ropnsonrantno n cnmmerpnuno
ormernm rouxn C n D raxne, uro CD = C
1
D
1
n r. . B nrore nocrpoenn nonyuaem
na pxa rauex, cnmmerpnuntx ornocnrentno nnnnn 5S. Coennnn rouxn xaxoro
pxa nexantntmn xpnntmn, nonyunm ycnonnym pasneprxy ntenennoro orcexa nc-
xono nonepxnocrn. Hpncoennnn x ne raxne xe (pannte) pasneprxn ocrantntx
orcexon, nonyunm nonnym ycnonnym pasneprxy nonepxnocrn.


92
x
1
2
2
2
3
2
4
2
5
2
6
2
7
2
A
2
B
2
1
1 1
2
1
1
2
C
2
D
2
7
1
2
7
1 1
2
1
1
1
2
1
1
3
1
1
4
1
1
5
1
1
6
1
1
7
1
1
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
A
B
C D

1
2

2
N
2
M
2
t
1
1
t
2
m
2
=
m
1
1
P n c . 1 3 . 1 1

. ana

uerneprt nonepxnocrn ropa (pnc. 13.11). Hocrponrt ee pasneprxy.
nx pemennx saaun pacceuem uerneprt nonepxnocrn ropa ]ponrantno npoenn-
pymmnmn ocentmn nnocxocrxmn A
i
, i = 1, 2, 3 na pannte orcexn n ntennm onn
ns nnx, nanpnmep saxnmuennt mexy cexymnmn nnocxocrxmn H
1
n A
1
. Hponeem
nnocxocrt cnmmerpnn A

+roro orcexa. Ona paccexaer orcex ropa no oxpyxnocrn t ,
npn +rom t
2
= 1
2
7
2
, re t
1
1
HB +ro oxpyxnocrn. 3amennm ntenennt orcex no-
nepxnocrn uerneprn ropa orcexom onncanno nnnnnpnuecxo nonepxnocrn c na-
npannxmme t n opasymmnmn ]ponrantntmn nnnnxmn yponnx, saxnmuenntmn
mexy nnocxocrxmn H
1
n A
1
. Orpesxn +rnx opasymmnx n npeenax mexy H
1
n A
1
samenxmr orpesxn coornercrnymmnx napannene (oxpyxnocre) nonepxnocrn uer-
neprn ropa. Hanpnmep orpesox AB(A
2
B
2
) npxmo samenxer yry napannenn
1
1
1
11
(1
2
1
1
2
11
), orpesox CD(C
2
D
2
) samenxer yry napannenn 7
1
7
11
(7
2
1
7
2
11
) n r. . Ho-
cne +roro samennm orcex onncanno nnnnnpnuecxo nonepxnocrn orcexom npns-
marnuecxo nonepxnocrn, nnncanno n nnnnnpnuecxym.


Hnnnx m (m
2
) nomanax nnnnx, nnncannax n oxpyxnocrt t n npoxoxmax uepes
nepmnnt 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7. 3ra nnnnx cnyxnr nanpannxmme nnncanno npnsmarn-
uecxo nonepxnocrn n nmeer cnoe HB nomanym nnnnm m
1
1
, npoxoxmym uepes
nepmnnt 1
1
1
, 2
1
1
,, 7
1
1
. Opasymmne AB, , CD nnnnnpnuecxo nonepxnocrn
xnnxmrcx pepamn npnsmarnuecxo nonepxnocrn. Tounax pasneprxa orcexa nnn-
canno npnsmarnuecxo nonepxnocrn xnnxercx npnnnxenno pasneprxo orcexa
onncanno nnnnnpnuecxo nonepxnocrn n ycnonno pasneprxo orcexa
93
A
B
C
S
1
S
2
S
3
1
2
3 4
5
6
P n c . 1 3 . 1 3
x
S
3
2
m
2
C
2
t
2
=
r
1
P n c . 1 3 . 1 2
S
2
2
S
1
2
B
2
A
2
r
2
r
3
A
1
B
1
C
1
S
1
1
t
1
m
1
nonepxnocrn ropa. nx nocrpoennx ycnonno pasneprxn ormernm n cropone or Ku
na ropnsonrantno npxmo rouxy 1 n cnmmerpnunte rouxn A n B raxne, uro AB =
= A
2
B
2
. Ha neprnxantno npxmo na rouxe 1 ornoxnm orpesox 12 = 1
1
1
2
1
1
n npone-
em uepes rouxy 2 ropnsonrantnym npxmym, na xoropo nocrponm cnmmerpnunte
rouxn M n N rax, uro MN = M
2
N
2
n r. . B nrore nocrpoenn nonyunm na neprn-
xantno cnmmerpnuntx roueuntx pxa A, N, C n B, M,, D. Orpasnn nx cnmmer-
pnuno ornocnrentno ropnsonrantno npxmo AB n nponex uepes xaxt ns nnx
nexantnym xpnnym, nonyunm ycnonnym pasneprxy ntenennoro orcexa nonepxno-
crn ropa. oannn x ne raxne xe (pannte) pasneprxn ocrantntx orcexon, nonyunm
nonnym ycnonnym pasneprxy uerneprn nonepxnocrn ropa nnn xe nce ero nonepx-
nocrn.
. ana nonepxnocrt npamennx c octm
npamennx t n opasymme xpnno m (pnc.13.12).
Hocrponrt ee pasneprxy.
Ouennno, annax nonepxnocrt moxer nmert
rontxo ycnonnym pasneprxy. nx ee nocrpoennx
moxno npnmennrt mero xonycon. Pemenne saaun
n +rom cnyuae moxer trt cneymmnm:
1) samenxem opasymmym m nomano nnnne
ABCS
1
(A
1
B
1
C
1
S
1
1
, A
2
B
2
C
2
S
1
2
);
2) paccexaem saannym nonepxnocrt npamennx
nnocxocrxmn, nepnennxynxpntmn ocn t n
npoxoxmnmn uepes nepmnnt nomano;
3) opasymmnecx n ceuennxx oxpyxnocrn
npnnnmaem n xauecrne ocnonann xonnuecxnx
nonepxnocre c nepmnnamn n panycamn
ocnonann: S
1
, r
1
; S
2
, r
1
; S
2
, r
2
; S
3
, r
2
; S
3
, r
3
;
4) nx xaxo xonnuecxo nonepxnocrn crponm
ee rounym pasneprxy na
ocnone panee npnneenno
]opmynt
i
=
R
r 2
, re r
npnnnmaer snauennx r
1
, r
2
, r
3
; R
npnnnmaer snauennx S
1
C, S
2
C,
S
2
B, S
3
B, S
3
A;
1
= 3S
1
4,
2
=
= 2S
2
5,
3
= 1 S
3
6.
B nrore nocrpoenn nonyuaem
ycnonnym pasneprxy ncxono
nonepxnocrn npamennx,
cocrannennym ns rpex rountx
pasneprox raxnx xonnuecxnx
nonepxnocre: nonno S
1
, r
1
n
nyx yceuenntx nonepxnocre
S
2
, r
1
, r
2
; S
3
, r
2
,

r
3
.

94
14. AKCOHOMETPHHECKHE HPOEKHHH

B nepenoe c rpeuecxoro xstxa cnono axconomerpnx osnauaer nsmepenne no
ocxm. Ocoennocrtm axconomerpnuecxoro npoennponannx xnnxercx ro, uro nmecre
c ]nrypo na nnocxocrt npoennpyercx n npocrpancrnennax cncrema xoopnnar,
cnxsannax c +ro ]nrypo. Hpn +rom nn ona ns oce cncremt xoopnnar ne npo-
ennpyercx n rouxy. Hcnontsonanne axconomerpnuecxoro npoennponannx nosnonxer
nontcnrt narnxnocrt nsopaxennx ]nrypt.
Paccmorpnm npoexnnonnym
cxemy nonyuennx axconomerpnue-
cxo npoexnnn npocreme ]n-
rypt rouxn (pnc. 14.1). Touxa A
n npocrpancrnennax cncrema xo-
opnnar Oxyz cnxsant xoopn-
narno nomano OA
x
A
1
A, snent-
xmn xoropo xnnxmrcx xoopn-
narnte orpesxn OA
x
= x
A
,
A
x
A
1
= y
A
, A
1
A = z
A
.
Hnocxocrt H' axconomerpnue-
cxax nnocxocrt, s nanpannenne
npoennponannx. Bce npoennpym-
mne npxmte napannentnt s. Ecnn
npxmax s ne nepnennxynxpna H',
ro nmeem xocoyrontnoe npoennponanne n nonyunm xocoyrontnym axconomerpnue-
cxym npoexnnm. Ecnn npxmax s nepnennxynxpna H', ro nmeem oproronantnoe npo-
ennponanne n nonyunm oproronantnym (npxmoyrontnym) axconomerpnuecxym
npoexnnm. B antnemem paccmarpnnaercx oproronantnoe npoennponanne n opro-
ronantnte axconomerpnuecxne npoexnnn.
Ha nnocxocrn H' nocne npoennponannx nonyunm: A' axconomerpnuecxax
npoexnnx rouxn A; O'x'y'z' axconomerpnuecxax cncrema xoopnnar (npoexnnx
cncremt Oxyz); x', y', z' axconomerpnuecxne ocn (npoexnnn oce x, y, z); A
1
' ax-
conomerpnuecxax npoexnnx ropnsonrantno npoexnnn rouxn A, nnn nropnunax
npoexnnx rouxn A; O'A
x
'

A
1
'

A' axconomerpnuecxax xoopnnarnax nomanax (npo-
exnnx nomano OA
x
A
1
A). 3nentx axconomerpnuecxo xoopnnarno nomano na-
pannentnt coornercrnymmnm axconomerpnuecxnm ocxm, rax xax napannentnte
npxmte npoennpymrcx n napannentnte npxmte.
Hycrt yron mexy octm x n octm x' (npoexnnx x na H') panen , mexy y n y'
, mexy z n z' . Ecnn orpesox pacnonoxen na ocn x nnn na nnnnn napannentno
ocn x, ro ero yron naxnona x nnocxocrn H' panen , ecnn na ocn y, ro , ecnn
na ocn z, ro . Tora O'A
x
' = OA
x
cos, A
x
'A
1
' = A
x
A
1
cos, A
1
'A' =
=A
1
Acos. Bneem cneymmne oosnauennx: u = cos; v = cos; w = cos. uncna
u, v, w nastnamrcx xo+]]nnnenramn ncxaxennx no axconomerpnuecxnm ocxm x', y',
z' coornercrnenno. 3nax xoopnnart rouxn A(x
A
; y
A
; z
A
) n xo+]]nnnenrt u, v, w,
x
z
y
x '
O
s
A
A '
O '
y '
z '
A
1
'
A
x
'
A
x
A
1
H '
P n c . 1 4 . 1
95
moxno narn axconomerpnuecxne xoopnnart rouxn A' (x
A
';y
A
';z
A
'): x
A
'

= x
A
u; y
A
' =
= y
A
v; y
A
'

= y
A
w. nx xo+]]nnnenron ncxaxennx cnpanennna sanncnmocrt
u
2
+ v
2
+ w
2
= 2, (14.1)
xoropym npnnnmaem es oxasarentcrna.
Hocxontxy npoexnnn ]nrypt na napannentnte nnocxocrn pannt, ro nmecro H'
(pnc. 14.1) moxno nsxrt nmym nnocxocrt e napannentnym. nx nontmennx na-
rnxnocrn oproronantntx axconomerpnuecxnx npoexnn nonoxnrentnte nonyocn
oce x, y, z pacnonaramr n onom nonynpocrpancrne ornocnrentno axconomerpnue-
cxo nnocxocrn, nponeenno uepes nauano xoopnnar (pnc. 14.1, rouxa O). Hpn
+rom yrnt , , yyr onee nynx, no menee enxnocra rpaycon. Tora xo+]]n-
nnenrt u, v, w (xocnnyct +rnx yrnon) yyr menee ennnnt, no onee nynx.
Ecnn nsnecrnt xo+]]nnnenrt ncxaxennx u, v, w, ro nerxo narn yrnt , ,
( = arcos u, = arcos v, = arcos w). 3nax xo+]]nnnenrt ncxaxennx u, v, w n on-
peennn no nnm yrnt , , , moxno narn yrnt mexy axconomerpnuecxnmn ocx-
mn. uopmyna (1.1) nx pacuera npoexnnn yrna, xoropax npn npoennponannn npxmo-
ro yrna ( = 90
0
) na nnocxocrt H'

(
1
= ') nmeer nn
cos '

= tgtg. (14.2)
Hanpnmep, yron mexy ocxmn x n y panen 90, r.e. (x,y) = 90, on npoennpyercx na
nnocxocrt H'

n yron mexy ocxmn x'

n y'. Ho ]opmyne (14.2) cos(x',y')

= tgtg,
re yron mexy x n x'

, yron mexy y n y'. Ho nennunne xocnnyca naem
yron mexy axconomerpnuecxnmn ocxmn x'

n y'. Ananornuno moxno narn n na
pyrnx yrna.
Oparnm nnnmanne na ro, uro yrnt mexy axconomerpnuecxnmn ocxmn onee
90

(rynte), r.e. npxmte yrnt mexy ocxmn npoennpymrcx n rynte yrnt mexy
axconomerpnuecxnmn ocxmn. ecrnnrentno, n ]opmyne (14.2) ranrenct ocrptx
yrnon onee nynx, snaunr, xocnnyc npoexnnn yrna orpnnarenen, r.e. npoexnnx yrna
onee 90.
Paccmorpnm nocrpoenne axconomerpnuecxo npoexnnn rouxn A no xomnnexc-
nomy ueprexy +ro rouxn (pnc. 14.2). Hycrt na axconomerpnuecxo nnocxocrn H'

nsnecrno nonoxenne oce x', y', z' n nsnecrnt xo+]]nnnenrt ncxaxennx no +rnm
x O
x ' ( u )
y ' ( v )
z ' ( w )
O '
A '
A
x
'
A
1
'
A
2
z
A
x
A
y
A
A
1
x
A
y
A
A
x
z
A
u
v
w
P n c . 1 4 . 2 P n c . 1 4 . 3
96
ocxm u, v, w (pnc. 14.3). Oparnm nnnmanne na ro, uro na pnc. 14.3 axconomerpnue-
cxax nnocxocrt xnnxercx nnocxocrtm ueprexa. Oct z'

ncera pacnonaraercx neprn-
xantno. 3amepnn na xomnnexcnom ueprexe coornercrnymmne orpesxn, ysnaem xo-
opnnart x
A
, y
A
, z
A
. Vmnoxnm xoopnnart na xo+]]nnnenrt ncxaxennx, nocrpo-
nm axconomerpnuecxym xoopnnarnym nomanym OA
x
'A
1
'A' n axconomerpnuecxym
npoexnnm rouxn A rouxy A'. Ecnn xaxax nno xoopnnara menee nynx (orpnna-
rentnax), ro axconomerpnuecxn xoopnnarnt orpesox (sneno axconomerpnuecxo
xoopnnarno nomano) orxnatnaercx n npornnononoxnym cropony ornocnrent-
no nonoxnrentnoro nanpannennx, yxasannoro crpenxo na axconomerpnuecxo ocn.

14.1. Op1oronantnan (npnuoyrontnan) nsoue1pnuecxan npoexnnn

Oproronantnax nsomerpnuecxax npoexnnx (nsomerpnx) xnnxercx oproronant-
no axconomerpnuecxo npoexnne npn u = v = w. Ho ]opmyne (14.1) nonyunm u =
=v = w = 0,82. Ho ]opmyne (14.2) onpeennm, uro yron mexy nmtmn ocxmn 120.
Hocrpoenne nsomerpnn rouxn ntnonnxercx rax xe, xax noxasano na pnc. 14.2,
14.3. Kaxym xoopnnary rouxn neoxonmo ymnoxnrt na 0,82. Taxax nsomerpnx
nastnaercx rouno nnn reopernuecxo. Ecnn nsomerpnm rouxn ntnonnnrt n mac-
mrae 1,22 : 1, ro xoopnnary rouxn nyxno ymnoxnrt na 0,82 (xo+]]nnnenr ncxa-
xennx no ocn), a sarem ymnoxnrt na 1,22 (ynennuenne ns-sa ntnonnennx n mac-
mrae), n rora nsomerpnuecxax xoopnnara, nanpnmep, x
A
' panna 0,821,22x
A
= x
A
.
3naunr, npn ntnonnennn nsomerpnn n macmrae 1,22 : 1 (macmra npnneennx)
moxno xoopnnart rouxn ne ymnoxart na xo+]]nnnenrt ncxaxennx, a part nx
raxnmn xe, xax na xomnnexcnom ueprexe. Hsomerpnx, ntnonnennax n macmrae
1,22 : 1, nastnaercx npnneenno nnn npaxrnuecxo, xo+]]nnnenrt ncxaxennx
npn +rom u = v = w = 1.
Ha pnc. 14.4 noxasan xomnnexcnt ueprex xya co cpesanno nepmnno. Ha
x
y
z
O
t '
r '
q '
G '
1 , 2 2 : 1
1 2 0
1




2




0

1
1
1
t
2
t
1
q
2
r
1
r
2
q
1
G
2
G
1
=
=
P n c . 1 4 . 4 P n c . 1 4 . 5
t '
q '
r '
97
pnc. 14.5 nocrpoena ero npnneennax nsomerpnx. Pxom c nsomerpne ana cxema
pacnonoxennx nsomerpnuecxnx oce c yxasannem xo+]]nnnenron ncxaxennx n
macmraa npnneennx. Ha pnc. 14.4 n xauecrne cncremt xoopnnar, cnxsanno c
xyom, nsxra Gtqr, a ne cncrema xoopnnar Oxyz xomnnexcnoro ueprexa, xax na
pnc. 14.2, 14.3. Cncrema Gtqr saana cnonmn npoexnnxmn G
1
t
1
q
1
r
1
n G
2
t
2
q
2
r
2
. Tenept
+ra cncrema npoennpyercx n nsomerpnuecxym cncremy xoopnnar, n ornocnrentno
nee epyrcx xoopnnart nepmnn xya. Hsomerpnm xya nerxo nocrponrt, ecnn no-
crponrt nsomerpnm ero nepmnn n coennnrt nx. Hocrpore, n xauecrne ynpaxne-
nnx, nsomerpnm xya, cnxsan c nnm cncremy xoopnnar xomnnexcnoro ueprexa
Oxyz, xoropax n +rom cnyuae yer npoennponartcx n nsomerpnuecxym cncremy xo-
opnnar.
Ha pnc. 14.6 noxasan xomnnexcnt ueprex xpnno k. Ha pnc. 14.7 nocrpoena
npnneennax nsomerpnx +ro xpnno. B xauecrne cncremt xoopnnar, cnxsanno c
xpnno, nsxra cncrema xoopnnar xomnnexcnoro ueprexa Oxyz, xoropax npoennpy-
ercx n nsomerpnuecxym cncremy xoopnnar O'x'y'z'. nx nocrpoennx nsomerpnn
xpnno neoxonmo nocrponrt nsomerpnm pxa ee rouex n coennnrt nx xpnno
nnnne. Tax moxno nocrponrt nsomerpnm nmo xpnno, no nx nocrpoennx nso-
merpnn oxpyxnocrn yono ncnontsonart cnennantnte merot.
Hycrt oxpyxnocrt namerpom d pacnonoxena n nnocxocrn Oxy (nnn n nnocxo-
crn, napannentno Oxy). 3ra oxpyxnocrt npoennpyercx na axconomerpnuecxym
nnocxocrt n +nnnnc. Bce namerpt +nnnnca, xpome onoro, yyr mentme namer-
pa oxpyxnocrn. Fontmo namerp +nnnnca panen namerpy oxpyxnocrn n xnnxercx
npoexnne namerpa oxpyxnocrn, pacnonoxennoro na nnnnn yponnx, napannent-
no axconomerpnuecxo nnocxocrn H'. Fontmo namerp pacnonoxen na npoexnnn
nnnnn yponnx. Hnnnx yponnx coxpannr ne rontxo nnny namerpa d oxpyxnocrn,
no n npxmo yron c npxmo nnnne, xoropax e nepnennxynxpna (reopema o npo-
ennponannn npxmoro yrna). Oct z nepnennxynxpna nnocxocrn Oxy, a snaunr, nep-
nennxynxpna nmo npxmo +ro nnocxocrn, n rom uncne n nnnnn yponnx. Tora
1 , 2 2 : 1
1 2 0
1




2




0

1
1
1
k
2
k
1
k
1
'
x
k '
x '
y '
z '
O
O '
P n c . 1 4 . 6 P n c . 1 4 . 7
x '
z '
y '
98
axconomerpnuecxax npoexnnx nnnnn yponnx, na xoropo pacnonoxen ontmo
namerp +nnnnca, nepnennxynxpna npoexnnn ocn z axconomerpnuecxo ocn z'.
Mant namerp +nnnnca nepnennxynxpen ontmomy namerpy.
Hpn ntnonnennn nsomerpnn n macmrae 1,22 : 1 ontmo namerp yer pa-
nen 1,22d. Mant namerp panen 0,71d (npnnnmaem es ntnoa). 3nnnnc crponrcx
no ontmomy n manomy namerpam. Honropxx nce cxasannoe ntme, nx nnocxocre
Oxz n Oyz, nonyunm pacnonoxenne +nnnncon, noxasannoe na pnc. 14.8. Oxpyx-
nocrt t, pacnonoxennax n nnocxocrn Oxy nnn e napannentno nnocxocrn, npoenn-
pyercx na H' n +nnnnc t', xoropt
xnnxercx nsomerpne oxpyxno-
crn t. Hsomerpne oxpyxnocrn n,
npnnanexame nnocxocrn Oxz
nnn e napannentno nnocxocrn,
yer +nnnnc n'. Hsomerpne ox-
pyxnocrn k, npnnanexame
nnocxocrn Oyz nnn e napan-
nentno nnocxocrn, yer +nnnnc
k'. Hsomerpnn oxpyxnocre,
npnnanexamnx nnocxocrxm
Oxy, Oxz, Oyz nnn nm napan-
nentntm nnocxocrxm, crpoxrcx n
raxo nocneonarentnocrn: crpo-
nrcx nsomerpnx nenrpa oxpyxno-
crn; crpoxrcx ontmo n mant
namerpt; no ontmomy n mano-
my nmerpam crponrcx px rouex
+nnnnca; rouxn +nnnnca coen-
nxmrcx nnanno xpnno.
Ecnn oxpyxnocrt npnna-
nexnr nnocxocrn omero nonoxennx, ro npxmo, nepnennxynxpno +ro nnocxo-
crn, na nsomerpnn ner. Ho+romy neoxonmo na xomnnexcnom ueprexe uepes nenrp
oxpyxnocrn nponecrn orpesox npxmo nepnennxynxpno nnocxocrn oxpyxnocrn.
3arem nocrponrt nsomerpnm +roro orpesxa n nponecrn ontmo namerp nepnen-
nxynxpno nsomerpnn +roro orpesxa, uepes nsomerpnm nenrpa oxpyxnocrn. Font-
mo namerp panen 1,22d, re d namerp oxpyxnocrn. anee, na xomnnexcnom
ueprexe oxpyxnocrn nsxrt nmym rouxy oxpyxnocrn n nocrponrt ee nsomerpnm.
Tenept na nsomerpnn ecrt ontmo namerp +nnnnca n ona ero rouxa. 3naunr,
moxno ntnonnnrt nocrpoenne +nnnnca no ontmomy namerpy n rouxe.

14.2. Op1oronantnan (npnuoyrontnan) nue1pnuecxan npoexnnn

Oproronantnax nmerpnuecxax npoexnnx (nmerpnx) xnnxercx oproronantno
axconomerpnuecxo npoexnne npn u = w, v = 0,5u. Ho ]opmyne (14.1) nonyunm:
u = w = 0,94: v = 0,47. Ho ]opmyne (14.2) onpeennm, uro yron mexy ocxmn x' n y'
panen 97
0
10', yron mexy ocxmn x' n y'

panen 13125'.
x '
y '
z '
n '
t '
k '
1




,




2




2




d




1 , 2 2 d
1




,




2




2




d




0




,




7




1




d




0




,




7




1




d




0




,




7




1




d




P n c . 1 4 . 8
99
Hocrpoenne nmerpnn rouxn ntnonnxercx rax xe, xax noxasano na pnc. 14.2,
14.3. Ko+]]nnnenrt ncxaxennx: u = w = 0,94; v = 0,47. Taxax nmerpnx nastnaer-
cx rouno (reopernuecxo). Touno rax xe, xax n nsomerpnn, nnonrcx macmra
npnneennx, xoropt n
+rom cnyuae panen 1,06 : 1,
rax xax 0,941,06 1. Ko-
+]]nnnenrt ncxaxennx
npn +rom u = w = 1, v = 0,5.
nmerpnx, ntnonnennax n
macmrae 1,06 : 1, nastna-
ercx npnneenno (npax-
rnuecxo) nmerpne.
Ha pnc. 14.9 noxasana
nmerpnx xya co cpesan-
no nepmnno, xomnnexc-
nt ueprex xoroporo npn-
neen na pnc. 14.4. Pxom c
nmerpne ana cxema
pacnonoxennx nmerpnue-
cxnx oce c yxasannem xo+]]nnnenron ncxaxennx n macmraa npnneennx. Ha
pnc. 14.10 noxasana nmerpnx xpnno k, xomnnexcnt ueprex xoropo npnneen
na pnc. 14.6.
Oxpyxnocrn t, n, k, pacnonoxennte n nnocxocrxx Oxy, Oxz, Oyz nnn nm na-
pannentntx nnocxocrxx, npoennpymrcx n +nnnnct t', n', k'

(pnc. 14.11). Fontmne
namerpt pannt 1,06d, rax xax macmra npnneennx 1,06 : 1. Mant namerp y t' n
k' panen 0,35d, y n' 0,94d
(npnnnmaem es ntnoa).
nmerpnx oxpyxnocrn,
npnnanexame nnocxocrn
omero nonoxennx, crponr-
cx rax xe, xax n nsomerpnx.
Fontmo namerp +nnnnca
panen 1,06d, re d namerp
oxpyxnocrn.
B nocrpoennn nsomer-
pnn n nmerpnn ]nrypt
mnoro omero, rax xax nso-
merpnx n nmerpnx +ro ua-
crnte cnyuan (xonxpernte
nnt) npxmoyrontno axconomerpnuecxo npoexnnn, no ecrt n ornnunx, ntsnan-
nte rem, uro y nsomerpnn n nmerpnn pasnte xo+]]nnnenrt ncxaxennx no ocxm.

x '
z '
y '
O '
9 7 1 0 '
1 3 1 2 5 '
1 , 0 6 : 1
1
1
0 , 5
P n c . 1 4 . 9
x '
z '
y '
9 7 1 0 '
1 3 1 2 5 '
1 , 0 6 : 1
1
1
0 , 5
x '
z '
k '
y '
O '
k
1
'
P n c . 1 4 . 1 0
x '
z '
y '
100
B xypce nnxenepno rpa]nxn
npn ntnonnennn nsomerpnn n
nmerpnn erane nx nont-
mennx narnxnocrn enaercx
ntpes uacrn erann. Ha pnc.
14.12, 14.13 noxasant nsomer-
pnx n nmerpnx xya c nnnnn-
pnuecxnm ornepcrnem. Ha-
npannenne mrpnxonxn n xax-
o ns nnocxocre onpeenxer-
cx no rpeyrontnnxy mrpnxon-
xn, xoropt oannen x nso-
paxennm oce. Bepmnnt rpe-
yrontnnxon mrpnxonxn nexar
na ocxx n yanent or nauana
xoopnnar na paccroxnnx,
nponopnnonantnte xo+]]nnn-
enram ncxaxennx. B nsomerpnn
+rn paccroxnnx pannt mexy
coo (u = v = w = 1), n nmer-
pnn paccroxnne no ocn y n na pasa mentme, uem no ocxm x n z (u = w =1, v = 0.5).






0 , 9 4 d
x '
z '
y '
t '
k '
n '
1




,




0




6




d




1 , 0 6 d
1 , 0 6 d
0 , 3 5 d
0 , 3 5 d
P n c . 1 4 . 1 1
1 , 2 2 : 1
1 2 0
1




2




0

1
1
1
P n c . 1 4 . 1 2
P n c . 1 4 . 1 3
9 7 1 0 '
1 3 1 2 5 '
1 , 0 6 : 1
1
1
0 , 5
x '
z '
y '
x '
z '
y '
101

15. 3AAHH AR CAMOCTORTEALHOIO PEmEHHR

1. Hocrponrt Ku (H
1
H
2
H
3
) rouex A(30; 40; 20), B(60; 40; 30) (pnc. 15.1).
2. ana rouxa A(70; 60; 30). Hocrponrt rouxy B, cnmmerpnunym rouxe A or-
nocnrentno H
1
(pnc. 15.2).
3. ant npxmte a // b omero nonoxennx. Hocrponrt npxmym h // H
1
, nepece-
xammym a n b n yanennym or H
1
na 30 mnnnnmerpon (pnc. 15.3).
4. ant A(90; 40; 30), B(10; 15; 20), C(60; 45; 20), D(30; 15; 40). Hocrponrt
npxmte (AB) n (CD). 3anncart xoopnnart xonxypnpymmnx rouex (pnc. 15.4).
5. ana nnocxocrt (ABC), npoexnnn D
2
, E
1
, F
2
. Hocrponrt npoexnnn D
1
, E
2
,
F
1
, ecnn D, E, F npnnanexar nnocxocrn (ABC) (pnc. 15.5).
6. ana nnocxocrt (DFE). uepes rouxy D nponecrn ropnsonrant h, uepes rou-
xy F ]ponrant f n +ro nnocxocrn (pnc. 15.6).
7. Hocrponrt rouxy nepeceuennx npxmo e n nnocxocrn (ABC), yxasart nn-
nmocrt (pnc. 15.7).
8. Hocrponrt nnnnm nepeceuennx nnocxocre (ABC) n (DFE) (pnc. 15.8).
9. Hocrponrt Ku npano nnnrono nnnnn, pacnonoxenno na nnnnnpe n
npoxoxme uepes rouxy A (onn nnrox), mar nnnrono nnnn panen 80 mnnnnmer-
pon (pnc. 15.9).
10. Hocrponrt npoexnnn oxpyxnocrn R40, c nenrpom O, npnnanexame
nnocxocrn (pnc. 15.10).
11. Hocrponrt nropte npoexnnn rouex, npnnanexamnx c]epe (pnc. 15.11).
12. Hocrponrt nropym npoexnnm nnnnn, npnnanexame xonnuecxo no-
nepxnocrn (pnc. 15.12).
13. Hocrponrt nnnnm nepeceuennx nnocxocrn n xonnuecxo nonepxnocrn
(pnc. 15.13).
14. Hocrponrt nnnnm nepeceuennx npnsmt n npoennpymme nnocxocrn
(pnc. 15.14).
15. Hocrponrt nnnnm nepeceuennx nonepxnocre: a) pnc. 15.15, ) pnc.15.16,
n) pnc. 15.17.
16. Onpeennrt narypantnym nennunny (HB) orpesxa n yron ero naxnona x
nnocxocrn H
1
(pnc. 15.18).
17. Onpeennrt yron mexy npxmo n nnocxocrtm (pnc. 15.7).
18. Onpeennrt yron mexy nnocxocrxmn (pnc. 15.8).
19. Onpeennrt paccroxnne or rouxn N o npxmo (BC) (pnc. 15.19).
20. Onpeennrt yron n paccroxnne mexy anntmn npxmtmn (pnc. 15.20).
21. Onpeennrt HB (ABC) n nocrponrt nenrp nnncanno oxpyxnocrn (pnc.
15.21).
22. uepes rouxy D nponecrn npxmym napannentnym nnocxocrn (ABC), n ne-
pecexammym npxmym EF (pnc. 15.22).
23. Hocrponrt nsomerpnm ]nrypt (pnc. 15.23).
24. Hocrponrt nmerpnm ]nrypt (pnc. 15.24).
102
p




=




8




0




R

3

0

x
z
y
y '
x
O
O
. 1 5 . 1 . 1 5 . 2 . 1 5 . 3
. 1 5 . 4
. 1 5 . 5 . 1 5 . 6
. 1 5 . 7
. 1 5 . 8 . 1 5 . 9
a
2
A
2
B
2
D
2
C
2
F
2
A
1
E
1
B
1
C
1
D
2
F
2
E
2
E
1
F
1
D
1
e
2
B
2
A
2
C
2
C
1
e
1
B
1
A
1
A
2
B
2
C
2
E
2
F
2
D
2
D
1
F
1
E
1 C
1
A
1
B
1
A
2
A
1
b
2
b
1
a
1


103

. 1 5 . 1 3 . 1 5 . 1 4 . 1 5 . 1 5
. 1 5 . 1 6 . 1 5 . 1 7 . 1 5 . 1 8

2
A
2
B
2
A
1
B
1

1
6




0

. 1 5 . 1 0 . 1 5 . 1 1 . 1 5 . 1 2
O
2

2
O
1
C
2
A
2
D
1
B
1
e
2


104
P n c . 1 5 . 1 9 P n c . 1 5 . 2 0 P n c . 1 5 . 2 1
P n c . 1 5 . 2 2
P n c . 1 5 . 2 3 P n c . 1 5 . 2 4
N
2
B
2
C
2
C
1
N
1
B
1
A
2
B
2
D
2
C
2
D
1
A
1
C
1
B
1
A
1
B
1
C
1
C
2
B
2
A
2
D
2
F
2
B
2
E
2
A
2
A
1
E
1
B
1
D
1
F
1
C
2
C
1


25. ocrponrt na H
1
npoexnnm nnocxoro nxrnyrontnnxa ABEFC, ecnn A(50;
10; 15), B(25; 0; 0), C(30; 30; 30), E(10; ; 5), F(5; ; 15).
26. Hocrponrt npxmym t, napannentnym npxmo (EF) n nepecexammym npx-
mte (AB) n (CD), ecnn A(80; 10; 5), B(50; 20; 25), C(65; 30; 30), D(40; 20; 5), E(30;
5; 15), F(5; 30; 15).
27. Harn rouxy nepeceuennx nnocxocrn (a // b) n npxmo (MK), yxasart nn-
nmocrt. Onpeennrt yron mexy npxmo n nnocxocrtm (pnc. 15.25).
28. Harn rouxn nepeceuennx npxmo e c nonepxnocrtm ropa, yxasart nnn-
mocrt npoexnn npxmo (pnc. 15.26).
29. Hocrponrt nnnnm nepeceuennx nonepxnocre: a) pnc. 15.27; ) pnc. 15.28.
30. Ha npxmo nnnnn (CD) narn rouxy, pannoyanennym or xonnon orpesxa
AB, ecnn A(70; 30; 10), B(35; 15; 40), C(90; 20; 35), D(40; 30; 45).
31. Hocrponrt npoexnnm A
2
B
2
orpesxa AB, ecnn ero narypantnax nennunna
panna 70 mm n A(80; 30; 30), B(30; 60; ).
105
32. Hocrponrt pannocroponnn rpeyrontnnx ABC, ecnn saana ero cropona
AB n nsnecrno, uro nnocxocrt rpeyrontnnxa cocrannxer 45 c nnocxocrtm npoex-
nn H
2
, A(125; 30; 20), B(80; 30; 40). Onpeennrt uncno pemenn.
33. Hocrponrt: a) nsomerpnm nnnnnpa n nnnrono nnnnn (saaua 9, pnc.
15.9); ) nmerpnm xonyca n nnnnn e (saaua 12, pnc. 15.12).
34. Hocrponrt pasneprxy: a) nonepxnocrn npnsmt (pnc. 15.14); ) nnnnnpn-
uecxo nonepxnocrn n nnnrono nnnnn (saaua 9, pnc. 15.9); n) xonnuecxo no-
nepxnocrn n nnnnn e (saaua 12, pnc. 15.12); r) c]ept panyca 50 mm.





































P n c . 1 5 . 2 7 P n c . 1 5 . 2 8
P n c . 1 5 . 2 5 P n c . 1 5 . 2 6
x
a
2
b
2
a
1 b
1
M
1
O
e
2
e
1
M
2
K
2
K
1

106
BHBAHOIPAmHHECKHH CHHCOK

1. Fyennnxon A.B. Haueprarentnax reomerpnx / A.B. Fyennnxon, M.. Ipo-
mon. M.: Btcm. mx., 1973. 416 c.
2. Bonxon B.. Ieomerpnuecxoe moennponanne n xypce naueprarentno reo-
merpnn: Vue. nocone / B.. Bonxon, H.K. Kynnxon. Omcx: Hs-no OmITV, 1995.
58 c.
3. Bonxon B.. Copnnx saau no naueprarentno reomerpnn / B.. Bonxon,
A.A. Hxmxon, K.H. Hanuyx. Omcx: OmITV, 2000. 108 c.
4. Iopon B.O. Kypc naueprarentno reomerpnn / B.O. Iopon, M.A. Cemen-
non-Ornencxn. M.: unsmarrns, 1962. 420 c.
5. Hnanon I.C. Haueprarentnax reomerpnx: Vuennx nx nyson. M.: Mamn-
nocrpoenne, 1995. 224 c.
6. Koron H.H. Haueprarentnax reomerpnx. M.: Btcm. mx., 1970. 384 c.
7. Kynnxon H.K. 3nemenrt naueprarentno reomerpnn: Vue. nocone.
Omcx: Hs-no OmITV, 2000. 80 c.
8. Kynnxon H.K. Hepeceuenne nonepxnocre: Vue. nocone / H.K. Kynnxon,
H.I. Herponcxax. Omcx: Hs-no CnAH, 2001. 36 c.
9. Kypc naueprarentno reomerpnn (na ase 3BM): Vuennx nx nnx.-rexn.
nyson / A.M. Tennnn, I.C. Hnanon, H.I. Haprona, B.C. Honoson, B.H. xynnn; no
pe. A.M. Tennnna. M.: Btcm. mx., 1983. 175 c.
10.Harept A.H. Hnxenepnax rpa]nxa /A.H. Harept, 3.A. Konecnnxona. M.:
Btcm. mx., 1985. 176 c.
11.Mnxanenxo B.E. Hnxenepnax rpa]nxa /B.E. Mnxanenxo, A.M. Honoma-
pen. Knen: Bnma mx., 1985. 295 c.
12. Haueprarentnax reomerpnx: Vuennx nx nyson / H.H. Kptnon, H.H. Ho-
annencxn, C.A. M+n, B.H. Hnxonaen, I.C. Hxonnnxona. M.: Btcm. mx., 1977.
231c.
13. Hanuyx K.H. Haueprarentnax reomerpnx. Touxa, npxmax n nnocxocrt:
Vue. nocone. Omcx: Hs-no OmITV, 1996. 180 c.
15. Hocnxncxn A.. Kparxn xypc naueprarentno reomerpnn. M.: Btcm.
mx., 1974. 191 c.
16. uernepyxnn H.u. Haueprarentnax reomerpnx / H.u. uernepyxnn, B.C. He-
nnnxn, 3.H. Hpxnnmnnxona n p. M.: Btcm. mx., 1963. 420 c.
17. uponon C.A. Haueprarentnax reomerpnx. M.: Mamnnocrpoenne, 1983.
240 c.









107



Hpencnonne. 3
Oosnauennx n cnmnonnxa 4
1. Oproronantnoe (npxmoyrontnoe) npoennponanne n ero cnocrna 5
2. Komnnexcnt ueprex 7
2.1. Komnnexcnt ueprex rouxn.. 8
2.2. Komnnexcnt ueprex npxmo .. 11
2.3. Komnnexcnt ueprex nnocxocrn.. 13
3. Bsanmnoe nonoxenne rouex n npxmtx, nx npnnanexnocrt nnocxocrn 15
3.1. Bsanmnoe nonoxenne rouxn n npxmo. enenne orpesxa npxmo n an-
nom ornomennn.

15
3.2. .Bsanmnoe nonoxenne npxmtx 16
3.3. Hpnnanexnocrt rouxn n npxmo nnocxocrn 17
4. Hpeopasonanne xomnnexcnoro ueprexa 20
4.1 Mero sament nnocxocre npoexnn 20
4.2. Onpeenenne paccroxnnx mexy nymx rouxamn 21
4.3. Hpoennponanne npxmo omero nonoxennx n rouxy na nonym nnocxocrt
npoexnn... 22
4.4. Hpoennponanne nnocxocrn omero nonoxennx n npxmym na nonym
nnocxocrt npoexnn. Haxoxenne narypantno nennunnt nnocxo ]nrypt..

23
5. Hepnax n nropax nosnnnonnte saaun.... 25
5.1. Bsanmnoe nonoxenne npxmo n nnocxocrn.. 25
5.2. Hocrpoenne rouxn nepeceuennx npxmo c nnocxocrtm.. 25
5.3. Hpxmax n nnocxocrt sannmamr omee nonoxenne... 27
5.4. Bsanmnoe nonoxenne nnocxocre.. 29
6. Merpnuecxne saaun. Oproronantnax npoexnnx npxmoro yrna... 32
7. Hocrpoenne nsanmno nepnennxynxpntx ]nryp. 33
7.1. Hepnennxynxpnocrt nyx npxmtx... 33
7.2. Hepnennxynxpnocrt npxmo n nnocxocrn 34
7.3. Hnnnn nanontmero naxnona.. 35
7.4. Kacarentnax nnocxocrt n nopmant x nonepxnocrn. 36
7.5. Hepnennxynxpnocrt nyx nnocxocre.. 37
8. Onpeenenne paccroxnn. 38
8.1. Paccroxnne or rouxn o ]nrypt (rouxn, npxmo, nnocxocrn)... 38
8.2. Onpeenenne paccroxnnx mexy napannentntmn ]nrypamn 40
8.3. Onpeenenne paccroxnnx mexy cxpemnnammnmncx npxmtmn.. 41
9. Onpeenenne yrnon mexy ]nrypamn 42
9.1. Vrnt mexy npxmtmn 42
9.2. Vron mexy npxmo n nnocxocrtm.. 44
9.3. Vron mexy nnocxocrxmn. 47
10. Kpnnte nnnnn. 50
108
10.1. Cnocrna xpnntx, nnnapnanrnte ornocnrentno oproronantnoro npo-
ennponannx.

50
10.2. Komnnexcnt ueprex oxpyxnocrn ... 51
10.3. Komnnexcnt ueprex nnnnnpnuecxo nnnrono nnnnn. 53
11. Honepxnocrn.... 54
11.1. Honxrne nonepxnocrn... 54
11.2. Konryp n ouepx nonepxnocrn... 55
11.3.Touxa n nnnnx na nonepxnocrn 56
11.4. Honepxnocrn (omne cneennx).. 56
11.5. Hnneuarte nonepxnocrn 56
11.6. Ipannte nonepxnocrn n mnororpannnxn.. 59
11.7. Honepxnocrn npamennx... 60
11.8. Hpnnanexnocrt rouxn n nnnnn nonepxnocrn npamennx.... 63
11.9. Hnxnnuecxne nonepxnocrn.. 65
11.10. Bnnronte nonepxnocrn.. 66
12. Hocrpoenne nepeceuenn ]nryp 67
12.1. Hepeceuenne nonepxnocrn n nnocxocrn. 67
12.2. Hepeceuenne xonnuecxo nonepxnocrn npamennx nnocxocrtm.. 69
12.3. Hepeceuenne nnnnn n nonepxnocrn... 71
12.4. Hepeceuenne nonepxnocre 73
12.5. Hepeceuenne nonepxnocre nroporo nopxxa 81
13. Pasneprxn nonepxnocre. 83
13.1. Pasneprxn rpanntx nonepxnocre... 83
13.2. Hpnnnxennte pasneprxn pasneprtnammnxcx nonepxnocre..... 87
13.3. Vcnonnte pasneprxn nepasneprtnammnxcx nonepxnocre.. 90
14. Axconomerpnuecxne npoexnnn.. 94
14.1. Oproronantnax (npxmoyrontnax) nsomerpnuecxax npoexnnx... 96
14.2. Oproronantnax (npxmoyrontnax) nmerpnuecxax npoexnnx..... 98
15. 3aaun nx camocroxrentnoro pemennx... 101
Fnnnorpa]nuecxn cnncox 106