Linggo, Abril 01 2012 Action Research on Tardiness DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION REGION XII KIDAPAWAN CITY SCHOOLS DIVISION KIDAPAWAN

CITY NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL Roxas St., Kidapawan City

ACT ION RES EARCH DESI GN ABSTRACT Punctuality is one of the virtues beyond reproach. Much of the time and wealth will be saved if this virtue will be carried out to the system of every responsible citizen. Punctuality will encompass all of the positive action in all aspects. Though it was less appreciated in other situations like productivity against punctuality, none the less, it is still very vital in situations that needed it most. This study will determine the factors affecting students in their daily routine during school days. Always and often times being tardy in the flag ceremony, in attending classes after recess time in the morning and afternoon class sessions and during the first period in the afternoon class session. There are observed instances that during their transfer of room in their specialization subjects and other activities that needs outdoor activities, they are behind schedule in attending to it. I. BACKGROUND/STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM There is about 20% of the IV-Pisces Class in Kidapawan City National High School who are always late in attending the flag ceremony as well as in attending to their respective classes. This problem had accumulated from tolerable to habitual state and it has a significant impact in their performance at school. Most of the class had been influenced by their peers and this would be embedded in their mind pattern until college and ultimately to their vocation and their adventures in life. Other students had just the difficulty in optimizing their time as their subject related activities grows in bulk. Reported incidents on online games cyber addiction were prominent and this usually happens after lunch break. To figure it out, students set aside their precedence to study and learn thus the proponent of this research had to find out. Moreover, the researchers intention is to isolate the primary reason of tardiness and proactive intervention will be executed so as to curtail if it will not utterly do away with the quandaries. As the school inculcates discipline to have a world class graduates, globally competitive and well rounded individuals, the researcher had in mind to unearth the reason behind of this punctuality virtue which is annoyingly, losing its ground.

II. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. III.

BREAKDOWN OF PROBABLE CAUSES Distance between residence and school Sending/Reading SMS/Calling/chatting with friends thru mobile phone Sleeping habit/ TV shows obsession Online/LAN games/Social Networking Sites(SNS) cyber compulsion Financial Constraints/Standard of Living Family Values on punctuality Mode of transportation Traffic load of the route to school Subject/class related cause Teacher related cause Peer Influence/Camaraderie Bullying/ stress factor Classroom supervision SCOPE AND DELIMITATION OF THE STUDY The study will be conducted within the class of Fourth Year Pisces students. This group of student belongs to Science Curriculum Program of Kidapawan City National High School and considered as outstanding students of the Fourth year level. This group of student, total to 61 individuals, was also under the advisory of the researcher and the survey questions will be delimited to obtaining primary and secondary reasons of tardiness as well as assessing related factors underlying therewith. Information acquired and provided by students will be used to confirm or negate the feasible causes which were earlier stated. The result of the survey will then contribute insight in planning and drafting of the solutions in addressing the said problems being identified that needs appropriate action. An Action plan will be the final output of the said research to be implemented upon approval of the school administrator. The researcher will use a sampling method with inquiries which is not answerable by yes or no. The researcher arbitrarily selects this group of students for they well represent a typical student which his/her primary aim is to learn and excel in school. Moreover, the problem on tardiness was very observable in this group of students while they are supposedly being a model to other students.

IV.

ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS RELATED TO SURVEY

The survey was done utilizing the survey questions (please see attached Survey Sheet) and the result was tallied and will be scrutinized accordingly. The complexity of the Survey Sheet was intentionally prepared to extract valid and trustworthy answers from the subject population. The explicit outcome of the answers will be categorized in factors that affect their punctuality values in attending to their classes or other learning related activities. This will be classified as Internal and External factors and further be classified according to the details of each factor. The elucidation of the findings will be presented in non-statistical and technical languages which will generally benefit the readers as well as the subject of the study. Thus, the presentation will be done according to the intention of the researcher to shed light on this tricky rationalization. INTERNAL FACTOR The table below is representing the personal factor of every student which comprehensively supports the reasons in being late with; attending to classes, flag ceremony, and submitting paper works, etc. This information gives us the detail on how they spend their residual time after classes or while class is going on. This clearly shows that friends/peer influence plays vital role in students life; secondary is the compulsion with TV shows and the pre-occupation of mobile phone to students attention as well as the household chores that was understandably assigned to young adolescents in their share of tasks at home.

TIME MANAGEMENT

Figure 1.1 The table below (figure 1.2) supports the leniency of students in their study. Basically, a sound mind needs adequate sleep to function well especially in learning lessons at school. Adequacy on the number of hours of sleep per individual vary by its age category. A typical student in adolsecent stage needs 8-10 hours of sleep to have a keener sense of understanding the lessons all through out the day. A student who have a complete 10 hours of undisturbed and sounding sleep was generally gaining outstanding results in academic excellence. The graph below represent the sleep habit of the subject which was generally falls at 9:00 pm and 10:00 pm. If a student would sleep at 10:00 pm and should wake up at 5:00 am, therefore, the student had only 7 hours of sleep, this 1 to 3 hours depravation of sleep has significant effect on the learning period of every student. This would affect the mood, span of attention and mental aptitude.

Figure 1.2 Figure below (Figure 1.3) represents a small fraction on student outlook with respect to their study habit and school attendance. This was noted by the researcher for this small but dominant few had made significant stimulus in students who are easily influenced because of varied reasons. As the primary source of education, the parents should ultimately understand the right of every child for education and underlying obligations related therein. Parents and or guardians who are being complacent would greatly affect childs performance at school. Valuing the education has more on affirmative impact on the chart below with the students who are positively reinforced by parents.

Figure 1.3 EXTERNAL FACTORS To give due consideration on other factors that affects the schedules of the student, the researcher made a survey on the following:

Figure 1.5

Figure 1.6

Figure 1.4, 1.5 and 1.6 represents the external factors that affect tardiness of the students. Figure 1.4 states the distance of home to school and figure 1.5 will represent the mode of transportation/ utility to reach school and the time allotted to travel to school was shown at figure 1.6. In figure 1.4, it shows that 36% of the students were living at the distance of more than 2 kilometers and most these students had tricycle as the mode of transportation and they had to travel more or less 20 to 30 minutes to reach school. With these figure representation, a student would likely be late for school since the time allotted for travel is almost or half of the hour, they need to wake up early and prepare. A typical student needs 1.5 hours to prepare and travel to school, they should wake up as early as 5:00 am to have ample time for preparation and allocate time threshold for travel if the student aspires punctuality. Figure below shows the information on the students attitude towards punctuality in attending their subjects. The information is a negative reaction towards the subject thus affecting attendance and punctuality. Ranking first is the Science subject and followed by mathematics. The negative attitude towards this subject is mainly brought by dislike of the subject itself.

V.

Figure 1.8 SUMMARY OF DATA INTERPRETATION The figure above confirms the hypothesis of having students at 20 % (+/-) who are being late in attending the classes, flag ceremony and other learning related activities. The figure further states the factors that significantly affect the students performance at school. The researcher made an extra mile in identifying other factors which might affect the attitude towards learning by including the information gathering which was shown at figures 1.7 and 1.8. There was an indication that student had significantly disliked the subjects of Science and Mathematics and might be the reason for leniency in their study. The aversion towards the matter is merely on the subject and has nothing to do with the Subject Teacher. Moreover, there are students who fairly rated their teacher that might affect their performance at school. There is a student who was bullied in the classroom, a parent who negatively adjudged the education privileges of a child and a student who blatantly disliked the teacher, the number of student in this study with strikingly averse situation from the other student is less significant to negligible percentage. Furthermore, internal factors are to be the focus in making appropriate actions by the researcher. Giving weight in time management and valuing the virtue of punctuality.

VI. 1. 2.

ALTERNATIVE COURSES OF ACTION The student should be guided in their time management if the reason is the distance, financial constraints on the fare, traffic load of the route and mode of transportation. An arranged home visitation to personally confer with the parents or guardians about the situation of the student if the primary reason was financial support for the fare likewise readthrough the family ideals in punctuality and the attitude towards Child Education. Same feat will be done to students who are well buffered with extra cash spent for cyber compulsion.

3.

Evaluate the student regarding its learning difficulty to the concerned subject and confer to the subject teacher vis--vis the circumstances. Concrete action is to conduct an initial Multiple Intelligence Assessment to every student before the class begins early in June to determine the learning difficulties and or learning styles. Upon verifying the learning styles, the teacher will look into the design of lesson planning to address the situation. Look into the situation of the peer influence as well as bullying of classmates that might be the reason of deplorable attitude towards learning. Faithfully device an operant conditioning to give rewards to those who are early comers and reinforce consistency all through-out the school year. Organize a peer counselor among students. Selected students with venerable outlook in students life, behave well in campus, renowned for leadership capability and have a strong interpersonal skill. They will be assigned per problem-subject group or individual. ACTION Data Analysis/Interpretation Percentage

4. 5. 6.

VII.

Strategy 1.

Data to be Collected

Multiple Intelligence Inner strength, Assessment in June(every learning difficulties school year) and weaknesses 2. Time Management Weekly/Daily planner Percentage lecture/workshop with the of every student students in June (every school year) 3. After the MI Assessment, cull Background check andPercentage the prospect students(Strong confirmation of the Interpersonal Skills) to be interpersonal skills peer counselors and orient them in their assigned task. 4. Reward Psychology Early Bird Attendance Frequency Report 5. Student Journal and Process Family values and Percentage folio financial capability

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION REGION XII KIDAPAWAN CITY SCHOOLS DIVISION KIDAPAWAN CITY NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL Roxas St., Kidapawan City QUESTIONNAIRE (STUDENT) Name of Respondent:_________________________________ Year and Section: ____________ Directions: Please check/tick the box that suits your choice of answer provided for each question. Please accomplish honestly all of the questions and the information will be treated highly confidential. There are no wrong answers. 1. Is Kidapawan City National High School is the only school nearest from your home?

2.

How far is your home from school? Less than 500 meters More than 500 meters but less that 1 kilometer More than 1 kilometer More than 2 kilometers

3.

What is your mode of transportation? Bus/Van/Jeepney/Multicab Tricycle Motorcycle (owned) Extended Motorcycle (for hire/rented) Sent and fetched by family vehicle Leg Power (walking/hiking)

4.

How long does it takes for you to travel from home to school?

Approximately 10 minutes Approximately 20 minutes Approximately 30 minutes Approximately 45 minutes Approximately 1 hour More than 1 hour 5. How long does it take for you to transfer from one room to another in your next subject period? Approximately 3 minutes Approximately 5 minutes Almost 10 minutes More than 15 minutes 6. The subject that I dont like most was/were; (you can tick more than 1) English Pilipino Mathematics (Physics, Calculus, Advanced Algebra, etc.) Science Araling Panlipunan MAPEH None of the above 7. I dont like the subject because ; I dont like the teacher I dont like my classmate/s Somebody is bullying me from that class I did not like the subject itself 8. Time Management for me is; for the old and mature person tiresome, boring and redundant daily chore is a virtue to be valued and kept by students respecting the time of others helping me to accomplish many tasks 9. My parents value my education as; their only treasure for me to inherit learning things I needed on my own as they did in the past an alibi of not helping home chores

just sending me to school like my neighbors do expensive and sever the daily budget for food and other primary needs

10. I spend most of my time in; watching my favorite TV show/s playing online/LAN game/s working to earn money to subsidize my education hanging around with my friends sending/reading SMS/ talking/chatting with my friends doing household chores 11. The reason why I am late in attending my classes; working with other requirements distance of the specialization lecture area from my class room receiving calls/reading /answering text messages had to finish my snacks/lunch attending my extra-curricular activities 12. After almost ten months with the subject I am learning; I learned a lot of things about it I am picking informative things about the subject a thing or two nothing and I am not interested at all to do complacent measures just to pass this subject 13. I go to bed at; 7:45 pm 8:30 pm 9:00 pm 10:00 pm after midnight 14. My subject teacher is; skillful, efficient and effective in teaching the lesson is good in his/her field of expertise giving us load of homework/tasks which is beyond our capability a symbol of authority and tenacious funny lackluster and needs inspiration

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Baker, Amy J. L., Piotrkowski, Chaya S., and BrooksGunn, Jeanne (1998) EJ580313 The Effects of the Home Instruction Program for Preschool Youngsters (HIPPY) on Childrens School Performance at the End of the Program and One Year Later Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 13(4), 571588 Summary: This long-term experimental study examined outcomes for 182 HIPPY program and control-group children in New York. The study covers two cohorts of children over the course of the two-year program and one year later (at the end of first grade). The results were mixed. For Cohort I, the researchers found positive gains in the HIPPY childrens school performance both at the end of the program and in first grade, compared with the control group. For Cohort II, there were no significant differences between the HIPPY and control children. HIPPY is a free two-year program, delivered through home visits, to provide educational enrichment to poor and immigrant families with four- and fiveyear-old children.

During the program, mothers receive a series of books written for HIPPY, along with activity packets. The activities, each organized like a lesson plan that mothers follow, are designed to develop skills in three major areas: language, sensory and perceptual discrimination, and problem solving. During biweekly home visits, a trained paraprofessional models the lesson through role-play. Mothers read the books to their children, then engage them in the activities. The home visitors, recruited from backgrounds similar to their assigned families, are trained and supervised by professional HIPPY coordinators. The HIPPY program studied is based in a large city in New York. It is offered as a component of the school districts Early Childhood Center. All families in the study took part in the preschool program during the first year and enrolled in kindergarten during the second year. This study looks at the impact of the HIPPY program over and above the impact of the childrens classroom experience. Volunteer families were assigned randomly to HIPPY or a control group. Trained research assistants collected baseline data during home visits. At the end of the second program year, they assessed childrens cognitive skills. In addition, childrens

performance in kindergarten and first grade was assessed through test scores, school records, and teacher ratings of classroom adaptation. Baseline and postprogram cognitive skills were assessed using the Cooperative Preschool Inventory (CPI). The test scores were from the Metropolitan Readiness Test (MRT) and the Metropolitan Achievement Test (MAT). Regression analysis (ANCOVA) found no significant differences (age, gender, ethnicity, attrition, and family background) between the two cohorts. 1 This study looks at the impact of the HIPPY program over and above the impact of the childrens classroom experience. The Research Studies Southwest Educational Development Laboratory 85 OUTCOMES COHORT I COHORT II HIPPY Control HIPPY Control End of Program Reading 47.6 41.6 44.2 45.8 Math 52.0 43.7 46.8 51.3 Classroom Adaptation 3.7 2.8 3.2 3.4 One Year Later Reading 54.2 38.1 52.4 50.9 Math 55.6 48.6 56.5 58.3

Classroom Adaptation 3.6 2.8 3.5 3.4 Findings At the end of the program, the HIPPY children in Cohort I scored significantly higher on the CPI than control children. This finding did not appear in Cohort II. On the MRT, given in kindergarten, there were no differences between the HIPPY and control groups in either cohort. In first grade, teachers found that HIPPY children in Cohort I had adapted better to school than the control children. This finding also did not appear in Cohort II. For the year-after follow-up, HIPPY children in Cohort I scored higher on the MAT than control children. Yet again, this finding did not appear in Cohort II. Table 8. Overview of Effects in HIPPY Cohorts (mean scores) Analyses of the two cohorts to determine if differences between the two groups could explain the disparity in results did not reveal an answer. The researchers considered attrition, differences in the populations, and different levels of participation in the program. These did not differ significantly between the two cohorts. Conclusions Findings from Cohort I found that HIPPY children scored higher on important measures of school success than the control group. They outperformed their peers on both tests and teacher ratings. These positive effects were over and above those of their preschool and kindergarten experience. These findings are promising because research

suggests that children who start out as high performers tend to remain that way, while children who have a poor start tend to remain poor students. If a high-quality home support program can help low-income children gain skills beyond those contributed by preschool programs, their prospects for success later in school will be improved. Because these results did not appear in Cohort II, these conclusions are tentative. Their analysis of the data led the researchers to conclude that we may be seeing naturally occurring variations on the effects of programs within communities . . . Clearly more research on HIPPY is called for in order to account for these mixed results. Our findAt the end of the program, the HIPPY children in Cohort I scored significantly higher on the CPI than control children. A New Wave of Evidence: The Impact of School, Family, and Community Connections on Student Achievement 86 National Center for Family & Community Connections with Schools ings also alert us to the importance of replication studies and caution us about generalizing positive or negative results from single-sample, single-site evaluations (p. 584). In addition, Baker and her colleagues recommend that research follow HIPPY families

to determine longer-term effects. Gains from participation may grow or decline over time. If they decline, there may be a need for follow-up services to assist children in making the transition to formal schooling. Research can also examine how parents are affected by the program and what impact that has on children. Perhaps, they suggest, certain groups of families are more likely to benefit from the program than others. Ideally, HIPPY families will have higher expectations for their children and apply their skills to support learning throughout their childrens time in school.

Chrispeels, Janet, and Rivero, Elvira (2000) Engaging Latino Families for Student SuccessUnderstanding the Process and Impact of Providing Training to Parents Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans, LA Summary: The study examined the impact of a program intervention called the

Parent Institute for Quality Education (PIQE) on a group of 198 Latino immigrant parents in San Diego, California. The researchers explored the effect of participation in a series of parent information classes on immigrant parents sense of place in their childrens education. The findings from their study suggest that parents developed higher levels of engagement both with their children and with the school, especially with

the teachers, as a result of participation in the PIQE program. The PIQE program consisted of eight 90-minute sessions using a prescribed curriculum translated into the parents language. An important component of the training was the use of PIQE instructors who acted as cultural brokers. The researchers adopted this term from Delgado-Gaitn (1996), who used the term to refer to a white educator who, because of his long affiliation with the Latino community, was able to translate between his ethnic and cultural group and the Latinos. The instructors selected for the program were from backgrounds and life experiences similar to the participants, had succeeded in the U.S. system, and could interpret this system for the Latino parents. The researchers assessed parents perceptions of their role and place in their childrens education before and after their participation in the program. Data collection included pretest and posttest survey data, observations and videotapes of the training sessions,

in-depth interviews, and a review of artifacts. There were 198 graduates of the PIQE program (those who had attended at least four of the six content sessions). Data included surveys from 95 families and interviews with 11 families. Chrispeels had developed her own conceptual framework of parentcommunity-school partnerships (in 1992 and 1994) encompassing five major types of interactive relationships involving (1) two-way communication, (2) support of the child, family, and the schoolincluding meeting the childs basic needs, (3) learning about each other and how to work together, (4) sharing teaching responsibilities, and (5) collaborating in decision making and advocacy. The work of Hoover-Dempsey and Sandler (1997) and Reed, Jones, Walker, and Hoover-Dempsey (2000) provided a second framework that guided the study. They describe three factors that motivate parents to be involved that, they argue, explain why some families are more engaged with schools than others. These factors are how 1. parents define their role, responsibilities, and place in their childs life. 5The Research Studies Southwest Educational Development Laboratory 95 2. parents perceive the strength of their capabilities. 3. parents perceive the school invitations, demands, and opportunities for parent involvement.

Findings All families in the survey reported shifts in their parenting styles as a result of their participation. They attributed changes in their discipline methods, communication within the family and with teachers, and increased awareness of how to build the childs selfesteem to the information PIQE gave them. One of the most prevalent changes in this study was the increased number of literacy activities (such as reading more and going to the library more frequently) for both adults and children. A major discovery by parents was that they could initiate contact with the school and did not have to wait for the teacher to extend an invitation. The study suggests that parents will shift their parenting styles and their engagement with the school, especially with the teacher, when given information and an opportunity to explore how their attitudes and practices affect their children. The study suggested a refinement of Chrispeels model. The revised model indicates five variables that motivate parents to become involved with their childrens education, shown as interlocking circles: 1. Actual and perceived school invitations and opportunities to be involved. 2. Parents sense of place in their childs education. 3. Parents knowledge and skills about how to be involved. 4. Parents concept of parenting. 5. Parents aspirations and love for their child. Conclusions

The authors state that the data from this study indicate that the concepts about the parents role, based on cultural traditions brought from Mexico and prior experiences, can limit the range of types and level of involvement and can affect how parents interpret a schools invitations and opportunities to participate. This study, however, demonstrates that these concepts are not fixed, but can be altered by information provided by a cultural-broker initiative, such as PIQE, and that parents will respond when given new ways to construct their roles (p. 47).

Baker, Amy J. L., and Soden, Laura M. (1997) ED407127 Parent Involvement in Childrens Education: A Critical Assessment of the Knowledge Base Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Chicago, IL, 1997 Summary: This paper reviews more than 200 studies, reviews, papers, and articles on parent involvement and raises important issues about their quality and rigor. The

authors conclude with recommendations for researchers. The 200 studies reviewed in this paper fall into two basic categories: nonempirical (not based on direct research) and empirical. The 67 non-empirical articles included opinion papers, program descriptions, articles about theory, and reviews of research. The 145 empirical studies include 37 that describe the benefits of parent involvement for parents, and 108 examine the link between parent involvement and student achievement. Findings The reviewers identify several issues in the quality and rigor of the 108 empirical studies about engaging parents in their childrens education: Using a true experimental design. Children are assigned randomly to a program group and a control group, and tested before and after the intervention to compare results. Only three of the studies met this standard. Isolating the effects of engaging parents from other components of the program, or other influences. Defining parent involvement consistently. Some defined parent involvement as parent aspirations; others as activities at home (helping with homework) or at school (attending events, meeting with teachers); still others as parenting styles or behaviors. Reliable measuring tools have not been developed for any framework

or definition. Using objective measures of parent involvement, rather than parent, student, or teacher reports. Only 27 of these studies used objective measures or direct observation. Closed-ended self-report surveys cannot fully capture the dynamic transactional nature of parents involvement in their childrens education. Many of these processes could better be explored through open-ended and observational techniques which would produce rich data, shed light on complex processes, and generate new hypotheses. (p. 15) It is not surprising that program evaluations were empirically weak. Indeed, they may be the most challenging form of applied educational field research that exists. In addition to the constraints of conducting research in an applied setting, program evalua2 The reviewers identify several issues in the quality and rigor of the 108 empirical studies about engaging parents in their childrens education.A New Wave of Evidence: The Impact of School, Family, and Community Connections on Student Achievement

88 National Center for Family & Community Connections with Schools tions pose special obstacles for the researcher. Interventions are typically applied to special needs populations (such as at-risk students, low-income families, and families with limited English proficiency) heightening clinical and ethical issues. (pp. 1516) In many cases program evaluation must be paid out of the program budget, which is difficult in a setting where the needs of the program take priority over the demands of science (p. 16). Recommendations for future research The authors suggest that research in each of these areas is needed to provide new evidence of the impact of parent involvement on student achievement: Use experimental procedures, whenever possible. This will require more funding and new levels of partnership between program staff and researchers. Isolate the specific effects of parent involvement. This will require measuring the type and level of parent involvement separately from other aspects of the program and assessing the difference when the content is delivered by a parent or another adult. Clarify the definition of parent involvement. This will require being specific about how that type of involvement is being measured and how it fits into the larger field. Measure parent behavior objectively. This will require direct observation of parent

behavior and standard data-collection tools. Represent family influences accurately. This will require expanding the measure to include adults other than just the mother. Examine relationships among parent involvement, student achievement, and gender. Take into account the complex and transactional nature of interrelationships between parent involvement and its outcomes. Conclusions While the research evidence is less than conclusive, years of practice wisdom, theory, and related areas of research . . . all strongly suggest that parent involvement in their childrens formal schooling is vital for their academic success (p. 17). In particular, the cumulative knowledge of the studies reviewed suggest the importance of these types of involvement: A stimulating literacy and material environment. High expectations and moderate levels of parent support and supervision. Monitoring of TV viewing and homework completion. Joint learning activities at home. Emphasis on effort rather than ability. Promoting of independence and self-reliance. While the research evidence is less than conclusive, years of

practice wisdom, theory, and related areas of research . . . all strongly suggest that parent involvement in their childrens formal schooling is vital for their academic success. The Research Studies Southwest Educational Development Laboratory 89 3 Balli, Sandra J., Demo, David H., and Wedman, John F. (1998) EJ573101 Family Involvement with Childrens Homework: An Intervention in the Middle Grades Family Relations, 47(2), 149157 Summary: The study looked at a mathematics homework intervention that was designed to increase family involvement in homework. The study was based in three mathematics classes taught by the same teacher, with students who were similar in achievement level. Families of students who were prompted to involve a family member in the homework (by directions on involvement and requests for parents comments and signature) were significantly more involved in mathematics homework than families who did not receive prompts. There were no significant differences in posttest achievement.

Researchers investigated how differences in levels of family involvement in homework and in student achievement on a posttest were related to differential prompts for involvement in homework. The only variable manipulated in the study was prompting for family involvement. In the three sixth-grade mathematics classes she taught, a teacher distributed 20 homework assignments that required students to interact with a family member. By random selection, some students received assignments prompting them with directions on how to involve a family member, some received assignments that also prompted families to write comments and requested a parent signature, and some received no prompts. Participants were 74 Caucasian sixth graders (31 boys and 43 girls) and their predominately middle-class families. The three mathematics classes were nearly identical in terms of students previous mathematical achievement, with similar ranges of academic ability and family background. The teacher gave out 20 homework assignments that required students to interact with a family member and randomly assigned students to one of three groups. In Group 1, students received no prompts to involve family in the homework; students in Group 2 were prompted to involve family members; and in Group 3, not only were students

prompted to involve family, but family members were also prompted to be involved. Students were tested before and after the intervention. Additional data were gathered from surveys completed by all students about family involvement in homework and from parents written comments and telephone interviews. Multivariate and regression analyses of the data were conducted to assess the effects of the differential prompts, compare mean mathematics scores on the pretest and posttest, and determine influences of the prompts and selected demographic variables (family structure, family size, and parent educational level) on family involvement with mathematics homework.A New Wave of Evidence: The Impact of School, Family, and Community Connections on Student Achievement 90 National Center for Family & Community Connections with Schools Findings Each student completed all 20 homework assignments. Parents in groups 2 and 3 reported significantly more family involvement in mathematics homework than Group 1. Evidence of differences in family involvement between groups 2 and 3 was mixed: while parents reported no significant differences, students reported that family members were much more involved with homework for Group 3 than for Group 2. The study found no differences in involvement based on family size or family education level, nor was posttest achievement correlated with the demographic variables.

Achievement on the posttest was explained more by achievement on the pretest than by parent involvement in homework. From the comments of parents, the study also found that families benefited from workshops and other homework help since many of them were not taught the concepts or were not taught in the same way as their children. Conclusions The authors found that although the intervention significantly increased family involvement [in students mathematics homework], the increases in childrens achievement directly attributable to family involvement were not powerful enough to be statistically significant (p. 154). They suggest that this is because of the small sample. They did find a pattern of higher homework scores in Group 3, with prompts for involvement from both students and teachers, as compared with Group 2, which had only student prompts and Group 1, which had no prompts for family involvement in mathematics homework. The data suggest that if prompted by both teachers and students, parents are more likely to be involved with homework, a finding that is contrary to trends in the literature that report a decline of parent involvement in middle school.

SCHOOL IMPROVEMENT RESEARCH SERIES Research You Can Use Close-Up #1 Homework November 1987 Jocelyn A. Butler DEFINITION Homework is the time students spend outside the classroom in assigned activities to practice, reinforce or apply newly-acquired skills and knowledge and to learn necessary skills of independent study.

NATURE AND PURPOSE HOMEWORK CAN: Provide additional practice, increasing the amount of time students are actively engaged in learning and extending time on task. Be useful to teachers for monitoring student progress and diagnosing student learning problems. Be an effective way to increase student personal responsibility and individual accountability. Facilitate more rapid movement through the curriculum: students augment class time with outside study, freeing teachers to introduce new material more quickly. Lead to increased communications between parents and the schools and encourage parent awareness of student learning. Contribute to students' and parents' understanding that the school holds high expectations of students. RESEARCH INDICATES: Schools in which homework is routinely assigned and graded tend to have higher achieving students. Traditional homework assignments (pencil/paper work, preparatory reading assignments, etc.) in the early school years are not very effective and should be given sparingly, possibly not at all in primary grades.

Elementary grade homework should focus on establishing study habits and learning skills. There is general agreement that the amount of homework increases significantly as a student progresses through school. Homework should be necessary and useful, appropriate to the ability and maturity level of students, well explained and motivational, and clearly understood by students and parents. Students complete more homework when teachers make it central to course work, collect it routinely and spend class time reviewing it.Homework should be tied to current subject matter, assigned in amounts and levels of difficulty which students can complete successfully and should be checked quickly, with feedback to students. Giving homework on a regular basis may increase achievement and improve attitudes toward learning. ACTIONS FOR EFFECTIVENESS BOARD AND ADMINISTRATORS Create a district or schoolwide homework policy. Involve teachers and parents in planning. Use research as the basis for formulating policy. CLASSROOM TEACHERS Assign homework regularly. NEVER give homework as punishment; NEVER use "no homework" as a reward.

Vary homework assignments: short-term and longterm; practice of new skills; written or oral reports; preparation for new lessons; research projects; enrichment exercises; assignments to spur creativity; etc. Daily assignments should not be overly long: research shows that teachers usually underestimate the amount of time necessary for students to complete homework. Give classroom assignments built on homework to reinforce the value of homework. Give importance to homework through oral comments and by scoring papers regularly. Apply effective instructional practice to homework: frequent practice, good preparation, high success rate, check for understanding, correction and reteaching as necessary. Assure that students have concepts and skills necessary to do the assignment: insufficient preparation for homework may result in higher levels of student frustration. Review the assignment before giving it to students and anticipate difficulties. Teach students, especially middle school and up, the skills they need to study: organizing, listening, outlining, note-taking, etc. Give clear instructions. Be clear in informing students that they are responsible for the work and must complete assignments. Be clear on how homework assignments are tied to grades.

Define "late" for assignments and consequences for lateness, and clearly communicate both to students. Repeat periodically. Make sure students understand the reasons for the assignment. Have students write down assignments or hand out written assignments rather than relying only on communicating assignments orally. Correct homework. Correct homework quickly. Have students exchange and correct papers in class. Correct all papers/assignments yourself.Instead of correcting homework in class, have all students do new work related to homework concepts and correct/discuss them in class. Do not accept incomplete homework: return it to students for completion and enforce appropriate, announced consequences. Grade homework quickly and routinely so each student will be aware of individual progress: without feedback, homework may result in repetition of errors. Give feedback. In giving feedback, stress developmental comment: rather than give the correct answer, lead students through the process again so understanding is assured. Emphasize improvements and successes indicated by completed homework assignments. If some homework is not graded, give recognition to students for its completion. Involve parents.

Have parents sign an agreement promising that students will do homework without television. Provide parents, particularly of elementary students, with study guides to help them help their children learn. Contact parents early if the student begins to develop a pattern of late or incomplete work. Parents are often asked by students for help: if there is a major change in approach (e.g., the "new math"), alert parents and provide them with information: this avoids parental frustration that can lead to student frustration and disinterest. Let parents know they are partners in the student's education and that the sooner a good pattern of study is established, the better. PARENTS Set a regular study time each day that is not to be interrupted by family plans, school activities or television and with a definite beginning and ending time. Establish a study area, away from household distractions, with good light and space for studying. Make sure students have the materials they need to do assignments (paper, colored pencils, etc.) and a safe place to store them. Have the students organize school materials: study notes, assignments, books, papers, etc.

Have the student make a daily list of homework assignments so parent and student can both monitor progress on work. Help the student work to find the answer rather than doing the work just to get it done. Be supportive and give assistance when students get frustrated or discouraged with particularly difficult assignments. Contact the teacher to clear up any misunderstandings, troubleshoot problems and be better informed about the students' learning progress. STUDENTS Write down assignments. Be sure all assignments are clear: don't be afraid to ask questions if necessary. Set aside a regular time for studying. Find a quiet, well-lit place to study.SPECIAL OPTIONS Create a homework assistance program. Older students tutoring younger students; more advanced students tutoring less advanced students. "Hotline" approach wherein teachers are available for set hours each weekday to answer telephone inquiries from parents and students about homework assignments. Parent awareness program. Seminars for parents to help them help students learn: make clear the link of good homework performance to overall student achievement.

EXAMPLE: DISTRICT HOMEWORK POLICY #1 The Seattle Public Schools (Washington) in 1983 adopted districtwide homework policy and procedures. A single policy statement applied to all schools in the district: It is the policy of the Seattle School District that homework is required for all students. Homework standards and procedures will be established within each individual building following the guidelines established by the district. In addition to this policy, the board also formally adopted procedures, one set for each of three levels: high school, middle school and elementary school. Each set of procedures includes an introduction describing the district homework policy, procedural guidelines for homework standards at individual buildings to assure uniformity, fairness and flexibility, and lists of responsibilities for the school/staff, parents and students. One example follows. MIDDLE SCHOOL HOMEWORK PROCEDURES (G 60.02, ADOPTED JUNE 1983) INTRODUCTION Homework includes any class-related assignments to be accomplished outside of class time, whether voluntary or teacher assigned. Homework will be used by teachers as an extension of classroom instruction to expand or enrich the regular classwork or to assure mastery of a particular skill or concept.

PROCEDURES Each school will develop homework standards and procedures based upon the following guidelines. These standards and procedures will be reviewed and explained to staff, students and parents at the beginning of each school year. 1. SCHOOL/STAFF RESPONSIBILITIES The teacher's responsibilities in implementing homework policies are to: 1. Be sure your students understand and know how to complete assignments successfully.Opportunity should be provided during regular class time to monitor the students' understanding of the assignment. 2. Coordinate homework assignments with other teachers so that no student receives excessive assignments on a single night. Care should also be taken to prevent any one subject from dominating a student's homework time. 3. Flexibility is important when teachers become aware of student homework overload. 4. Avoid routine assignments over holiday and vacation time. 5. Give special consideration to limiting weekend assignments. 6. Provide specific written explanation of long-range assignments so that the requirements and expectations are clearly understood by the students and their parents. 7. No teacher should fail to assign needed homework when, in their judgment, homework is required to accomplish academic goals and objectives. 8. Follow a general guideline of 5-10 hours per week (1-2 hours per night) while giving

consideration to individual student needs and ability levels. 9. Homework will be considered as a part of the total learning process and will be monitored (specific feedback, check in, graded, etc.) in light of lesson objective to be accomplished. 10. PARENT RESPONSIBILITIES The parent's responsibilities are to: 1. Assist students to develop good study habits by providing a specific time and place for study which is free of television and other distraction. 2. Contact students' teachers or counselors regarding concerns about homework. 3. Student Responsibilities The student's responsibilities are to: 1. Be sure they understand the assignments. 2. Complete the assignments. 3. Turn the assignments in by the specific due date. EXAMPLE: DISTRICT HOMEWORK POLICY #2 The following is the homework policy for the Indianapolis, Indiana, Public Schools: MESSAGE TO PARENTS FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT It is the policy of the Indianapolis Public Schools that homework is, in general, an important pupil activity which contributes to the educative progress. Homework may serve to tie the school more closely to the home. It is a demonstration of teacher expectations to both pupil and parent. By

definition, homework is a task initiated and/or motivated in the classroom related to the objective of the course studied which is normally completed during out-of-class time. Homework may take the form of additional practice on exercises, reading of material on a specified subject, in-depth follow-up of classroom activities, or independent project work related to the subject. WHAT ARE THE PURPOSES OF HOMEWORK? Homework should: 1. Reinforce skills introduced in the classroom. 2. Achieve mastery of basic learning such as arithmetic facts.3. Promote independent indepth study of the chosen topics. 4. Provide opportunities for broad enrichment activities. 5. Promote wise and orderly use of time. HOW MUCH HOMEWORK SHOULD BE ASSIGNED? PRIMARY LEVEL. Homework is usually voluntary at the primary level. Pupils may complete work at home which was begun in class. Special projects may be undertaken which require more time and materials than the school can provide. Additional reading for pleasure should be encouraged. Work missed due to absence may be a proper basis for homework at the primary level. In general, daily or regularly scheduled homework is not assigned. INTERMEDIATE LEVEL. Homework in certain areas may be assigned on a regular basis, especially in reading and mathematics. The homework should be meaningful and consistent with

course objectives. In general, homework at this level should not total more than one hour, on the average, per day. Little or no homework should be assigned over weekends except voluntary projects. JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL (7-8). Homework at this level should be regularly assigned, not necessarily daily. Emphasis should be on reading and mathematics. Whenever possible, study time at school should be provided for homework with guidance and assistance from teachers made available. As a guideline, the total daily homework assignments should not require more than two hours and rarely more than one hour for out-ofclass preparation time. Weekend or holiday assignments should be largely on voluntary projects or make-up work. Teachers should plan cooperatively in making assignments, so that an equitable load results. HIGH SCHOOL (9-12). Regular homework should be assigned and expected for most high school courses. Typically, the initial phase of homework will begin in the classroom and be completed out-of-class, either at school or at home. Length of assignments will vary according to purpose and level, but it is suggested that moderate assignments completed and well done are more effective than lengthy or difficult ones poorly done. Generally, homework on weekends or holidays should be limited to review, voluntary projects or make-up work. WHAT ARE TEACHERS' RESPONSIBILITIES?

Teachers should be sure that: 1. The objectives of the lesson and resultant homework are fully understood. 2. The direction, extent and options in homework are clear. 3. Background and reference materials are available. 4. Students at various levels of achievement have a reasonable chance of completing assignments successfully. 5. An unfair burden of homework for a subject is not placed on the pupil. 6. Homework is collected promptly and a record made for each pupil. 7. Homework is checked and evaluated. 8. Homework is normally returned in a short period of time, but not to exceed two weeks, with an indication of the evaluation. Certain material may be retained for display purposes. 9. Parents are informed of their responsibilities. WHAT ARE PARENTS' RESPONSIBILITIES? Parents should:1. Observe closely how well the pupil does his homework and send a note to the teacher whenever the pupil is observed to be having difficulty with a particular assignment. 2. Support the school and the teachers in providing a suitable environment for homework. 3. Provide time and encouragement for their children to do good schoolwork, including homework. 4. Coordinate homework efforts with the teacher in special cases. 5. Guide or assist in homework when unusual difficulties arise (but never do the homework for

their child). 6. Provide educational activities that broaden the child's interests, such as visits to museums, the zoo and other places where learning can take place. 7. Monitor television and radio viewing and listening so that homework and other school activities do not suffer. 8. In unusual cases, provide opportunities for specialized help, such as tutoring, when progress falters and all school resources have not been as successful as desired. CONCLUDING STATEMENT The Indianapolis Board of School commissioners is eager to provide the best possible educational opportunities for all the school children in IPS schools. These include physical facilities, professional and supportive staff, learning materials and other resources. Only about six hours per day, on the average, of a pupil's time is under control of the schools. Therefore, parents and the public share the responsibility for educating children in all aspects of life. Homework, along with sports, special programs and other activities is an important link in a total educational program. EXAMPLE: A "HOMEWORK HOTLINE" The "Help with Homework Hotline" was developed in a cooperative effort among the Duval County Public Schools (Florida), the University of North Florida, Jacksonville University and Edward Waters College. The following describes the "hotline":

1. PURPOSE The Help with Homework Hotline was developed to achieve the following goals: 1. Provide a source of immediate aid for students and/or parents who are encountering problems in the completion of homework assignments. 2. Provide referral services for parents needing information or aid regarding school-related matters. 3. ORGANIZATIONAL FORMAT The Help with Homework Hotline is a telephone resource service developed as a cooperative venture between the Duval County Public School System and the University of North Florida. A bank of four telephones is housed in the school system's Professional Library and manned by certificated classroom teachers. A fifth telephone line is connected to a recorder which is activated when all incoming lines are busy. The recorded message requests caller's name and phone number and these calls are returned by the teachers prior to leaving each evening. 3. STAFFING The Homework Hotline is staffed by four teams of certified teachers. Each team includes at leasttwo elementary teachers and at least one teacher certificated in secondary language arts and one certificated in secondary math. Teams vary from six to eight members. Teachers serving as Hotline operators are enrolled in a mentor's level course offered by the College

of Education, University of North Florida, and earn three hours of credit for the semester. The University of North Florida provides a faculty member who conducts training for the Hotline operators and who helps provide ongoing supervision of the staff. Tuition and registration fees for each operator enrolled at UNF are funded by the Duval County School System. 4. PROJECT SUPERVISION Overall supervision of the Hotline is the responsibility of district level Community Education staff assisted by a UNF faculty member. Two certificated master teachers are employed on a parttime basis to help provide nightly, on-site supervision. 5. DAYS AND HOURS OF SERVICE The Homework Hotline is open from 5 - 8 p.m., Monday through Thursday on days public schools are in session. 6. PUBLICITY Posters announcing the Homework Hotline have been placed in every classroom in Duval County. Each student receives an adhesive backed sticker which gives the telephone number of the Homework Hotline and which may be attached to a notebook or telephone. Public Service Announcements for both radio and television have been distributed and are broadcast frequently. 7. DATA COLLECTION/EVALUATION

Each incoming call is logged in by the operator. A data sheet which includes information about the caller's grade level, subject matter, type of skill, etc., is completed by the operator. Evaluation of this information will be accomplished by the Research and Evaluation Department of the Duval County Public School System. 8. COST The approximate annual cost of the Homework Hotline is $7,800. This includes expenses for parttime employees ($4,500), supplies ($1,000), telephone service ($2,000) and telephone installation ($300). 9. RESULTS OF THE INITIAL ELEVEN WEEKS OF OPERATION During the first 11 weeks of operation (October 5 through December 17, 1981) the Homework Hotline operators assisted 5,714 callers for a weekly average of 521 calls and a nightly average of 140 calls. KEY STUDIES AND REPORTS The following list provides a sampling of key studies and reports which will serve as an introduction to the extensive literature on homework.England, David A. and Flatley, Joannis K. HOMEWORK-- AND WHY (PDK Fastback No. 218). Bloomington, Indiana: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation, 1985. A description of the research background supporting homework, general approaches to homework and guidelines for homework "dos and don'ts." Good, Thomas L. and Grouws, Douglas A. "Teaching and Mathematics Learning."

EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP, 37:1, 39-45, October 1979. A study of teacher behaviors that contributed to increased student learning identifies homework as key instructional behavior. Keith, T.Z. "Time Spent on Homework and High School Grades: A Large-Sample Path Analysis." JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY, 74:2, 248-253, 1982. Self-report data from about 20,000 high school seniors show a relationship between amount of homework and grade point average. Knorr, Cynthia L. A SYNTHESIS OF HOMEWORK RESEARCH AND RELATED LITERATURE. Paper presented to the Lehigh Chapter of Phi Delta Kappa, Bethlehem, PA: January 24, 1981. (ED 199 933) Review of literature and research on homework including historical trends in educators' attitudes and a synthesis of experimental findings regarding the effects of homework. LaConte, Ronald T. HOMEWORK AS A LEARNING EXPERIENCE: WHAT RESEARCH SAYS TO THE TEACHER. Washington, D.C.: National Education Association, 1981. (ED 217 022) Descriptions of the nature and purposes of homework and synthesis of the research on the usefulness of homework. Recommendations. Walberg, Herbert J., Paschal, Rosanne A. and Weinstein, Thomas. "Homework's Powerful Effects on Learning." EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP, 42:7, 76-79, April 1985.

A synthesis of 15 studies indicates homework benefits student achievement and attitudes, especially if it is commented upon or graded. OTHER RESOURCES American Association of School Administrators. HOMEWORK: HELPING STUDENTS ACHIEVE. Arlington, VA: American Association of School Administrators, 1985. Based on research on successful teaching and learning practices, a publication offering practical advice to parents and students on ways to be successful with homework. Austin, Joe Dan. "Homework Research in Mathematics." SCHOOL SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS, 79, 115-121, 1979. Summarization of the research on the effects of homework on mathematics achievement.Belmont School District, California. HOMEWORK SURVEYS. (ED 233 464.) A series of surveys, each including the current district homework policy, for parents, teachers and students. Brophy, J. and Good, T. "Teacher Behavior and Student Achievement." In Wittrock, Merlin C., (Ed.), HANDBOOK OF RESEARCH ON TEACHING (Third Edition). New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 328-375, 1986. In review of research linking teacher behavior to student performance, homework is cited as contributing to student achievement. Carney, Juanita. IDEAS AND TIPS FOR STRENGTHENING HOME/SCHOOL RELATIONS

San Diego Office of Education, 1984. Offers suggestions for improving home/school relations, including actions concerning homework to be taken by principal, parents, teachers. Coulter, Frank. SECONDARY SCHOOL HOMEWORK (Cooperative Research Study Report No. 7). Perth: University of Western Australia, Education Department of Western Australia, 1980. (ED 209 200) Research results support homework as a way to extend learning time and increase student achievement. Duckett, Jean C. HELPING CHILDREN DEVELOP GOOD STUDY HABITS: A PARENTS' GUIDE. 1983. (ED 240 061.) Suggestions to help parents guide their children in the development of good study habits, ranging from setting a definite time for study through provision of support and guidance. Foyle, Harvey C. "Homework: The Connection Between School and Home." NASSP BULLETIN, 70:487, 36-38, February 1986. An outline of policy and classroom practice that can increase the effectiveness of homework as an instructional tool. Goldstein, A. "Does Homework Help? A Review of Research." THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL JOURNAL, 60, 212-224, 1960.

A review of 17 experimental homework studies: four indicate a positive relationship between homework and achievement, four indicate no relationship, nine have mixed results. Harvard Graduate School of Education in association with Harvard University Press. "Homework." EDUCATION LETTER, 1:1, 1-3, February 1985. A review of research and issues raised in the ongoing dialogue about homework as an instructional practice. Irvine Unified School District. HOMEWORK ASSISTANCE NETWORK. Citation as outstandingprogram. 1983. (ED 238 425.) Description of district's cable television homework assistance program wherein high school honor students demonstrate assignments in response to parent or student telephone calls. Lee, Jackson F., Jr., and Pruitt, K. Wayne. "Homework Assignments: Classroom Games or Teaching Tools?" CLEARING HOUSE, 53:1, 31-35, September 1979. Presentation of a taxonomy for homework assignments and suggestions for pre-service and in-service teachers: practice, preparation, extension, creative homework assignments. Page, E. B. and Keith, T. Z. "Effects of U.S. Private Schools: A Technical Analysis of Two Recent Claims." EDUCATIONAL RESEARCHER, 10:7, 7-17, 1981.

Data from private and public schools show that amount of study time had an effect on student achievement. Rich, Dorothy et al. "Families as Educators of Their Own Children." In Brandt, Ronald S. (Ed.) PARTNERS, PARENTS AND SCHOOLS. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 26-40, 1979. Involvement of parents in homework as means to increase student achievement, including examples of successful programs. Ritchie, Joy S. A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE HOMEWORK PRACTICES. Lincoln, NE: Nebraska Association of Elementary School Principals, University of NebraskaLincoln Teachers College. (ND) A description of research results and of approaches to using homework as an effective instructional tool. Rutter, M., et al. FIFTEEN THOUSAND HOURS: SECONDARY SCHOOLS AND THEIR EFFECTS ON CHILDREN. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1979. In this study homework distinguished more effective from less effective secondary schools; portrays homework as an important school policy issue. San Mateo County School District, SMERC Information Center. HOMEWORK POLICIES OF SAN MATEO COUNTY SCHOOL DISTRICT. (ED 233 463.)

Individual homework policies developed by six elementary schools in a California District; adopted in 1980-1982. Some in draft form. South Carolina State Department of Education. PALS: PARENT ACTIVITIES FOR LEARNING BASIC SKILLS. June 1979. (ED 241 120). Activities to be sent home to parents of K-3 students; learning activities and games to help reinforce students' language arts and math skills and to enhance parental involvement.Strother, Deborah Burnett. "Homework: Too Much, Just Right, or Not Enough?" PHI DELTA KAPPAN, 65:6, 423-426, February 1984. A discussion of practical application of the homework research: parental expectations, extended time for learning, effects on achievement and practical suggestions. Turner, Thomas N. "The Joy of Homework." THE EDUCATION DIGEST, 44-47, February 1985. Discussion and suggestions for planning and giving homework assignments to assure student engagement and enjoyment of learning via homework assignments. Turvey, Joel S. "Homework: Its Importance to Student Achievement." NASSP BULLETIN, 70:487, 27-35, February 1986. Research review and recommendations for action by district/school and individual teachers. Walberg, Herbert J. "Improving the Productivity of America's Schools." EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP, 41:8, 19- 27, May 1984.

Discussion of nine factors to improve affective, behavioral and cognitive learning. Relationship of television viewing to homework explored. This publication is based on work sponsored wholly, or in part, by the Office of Educational Research and Improvement (OERI), U.S. Department of Education, under Contract Number 400-86-0006. The content of this publication does not necessarily reflect the views of OERI, the Department, or any other agency of the U.S. Government. November 1987

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Classwork & Homework: Troubleshooting Student Problems From Start to Finish Print Email Study & Organization Provide an incentive for arriving promptly (e.g., points toward earning a reward or privilege). Set up fun, short 'bellringer' activities before class to motivate students to show up on time. Establish a classwide reward system in which students 'clock in' (record their arrival time) as they enter the classroom. The teacher sets a cumulative time goal (e.g. 6 hours). Students who arrive early contribute the number of minutes between their arrival and the beginning of instruction to the growing class total. Students arriving late have the number of minutes that they were late subtracted from the class total. Once the class total matches the teacher's pre-set time goal, the entire class takes part in a desirable activity (such as watching a movie or having a pizza party). Require tardy students to 'make up' missed class time (e.g., being required to stay after school or complete extra assignments) if they lack a valid excuse for being late. Start a school-home note system to communicate with parents about student's arrival time, classroom attendance, and overall performance. Make sure that other teachers are releasing their classes on time to allow students adequate time to get to your classroom. Remind students at the end of class about the books or other work materials that they should bring to the next class session. Keep a collection of pens, pencils, and writing paper in the room that students can use if they forget their own.

1. The student does not get to class on time

2. The student does not consistently bring necessary work materials to class

Send parents a list of the essential materials that students should always bring to your class. Encourage parents to check with their child before school to ensure that he or she has all necessary work items. Teach the class a general system for organizing work and storing materials. Students should have an organizer with a section for every subject. Each section should include a calendar to record assignments, and space to store work in progress. The organizer should also be stocked with pens, pencils, and writing paper. Pair each student with a 'peer buddy'. Direct students to share with, or borrow from, their peer buddy if they forget a book, pencil, or other item. Also, have student pairs check with each other at the end of class to ensure that each has written down all assignments correctly and has the necessary study materials needed for homework. Have the student use a simple self-monitoring system. At the end of class each day, the student answers one question: "Did I have all necessary materials in class to do the work expected of me?" Offer the student an incentive (e.g., privilege, extra-credit points toward a grade, etc.) if he or she is able to answer 'YES' to the self-monitoring question a certain number of times per week. (For students with very poor organizational skills, you may start with an easy-toachieve goal-say 2 YES ratings pre week. As the student shows improvement, raise to bar to 3, then 4, and eventually 5 YES ratings per week. Also, spot-check the student's rating periodically to make sure that the student is being honest in his or her ratings.) Assign one staff member at your school to manage a caseload of students who are organizationally challenged. At the start of each day, that staff member 'checks in' with these students before they go to class. This person can quickly check students' schedules for the day and make sure that they have all necessary work materials. If a student is missing an important item, the check-in person should help that student to secure the missing item before class. Survey the student's academic skills to make sure that the student does not have skill deficits that he or she is hiding behind a mask of poor motivation. Offer the student the opportunity to earn points or tokens toward rewards or incentives by completing a certain amount of schoolwork. Review possible rewards with the student and allow him or her to choose those that he or she would find most motivating. Use cooperative learning activities to teach course content. Cooperative learning allows students to learn while also getting motivating social reinforcement through interaction with their peers. Weave high-interest topics into lessons to capture and hold student attention. To learn what topics most interest your students, just ask them (whether through class discussions, written surveys, or individual student-teacher conversations).

3. The student appears unmotivated to complete in-class work.

Offer the student choices in how he or she structures his or her learning experience in the classroom. For example, consider allowing students to select where they sit, who they sit with, what books they use for an assignment, or the type of product that they agree to produce (e.g., offering the option to students in a writing course of composing an opinion essay, a newspaper article, or letter to the editor). Give students a voice in structuring the lesson. For example, you might have the class vote on whether they wish to spend a class period working in student pairs at the computer center reviewing course content posted on an Internet site or remaining in the classroom working in larger student groups to pull out key course concepts from the textbook. Survey the student's academic skills to determine where his or her skill deficits lie. Adjust the student's classroom instruction to match his or her skill level. For example, a student who struggles in a higher reading group might be placed in a lower group. Give the student review sheets with completed models that demonstrate all steps of the learning strategy that he or she must use to do the assignment. Take care to write the review sheets so that the student is able to grasp the essential elements of the strategy when reviewing it independently. Link the student with a classmate, an older student, or an adult volunteer who can tutor the student in the area(s) of academic weakness. (Be sure that the student and tutor spend the majority of tutoring time actively working on the targeted skills rather than engaging in social conversation!) Provide the student with materials at his or her ability level on which the student can practice, practice, practice key skills being taught in the course. If the student is working independently on practice materials, provide the student with answer keys so that the student can rapidly check his or her work. Provide the student with study aids and reference materials designed to increase his or her comprehension of course material, such as guided notes and glossaries containing key course terms and their definitions. Select assignments that have high-interest 'real world' application for students to encourage their best effort. For example, have students write an autobiographical essay that can later be submitted as part of their application for a summer job. Create a 'quality rubric that lists the key dimensions of quality that you expect from the student's work. Require that the student rate all classwork using the rubric. Do not allow the student to hand in work until the student is able honestly to assign him- or herself the highest ratings possible. (NOTE: You can use this technique with one student or the entire class.)

4. The student appears unable to complete in-class work.

5. The student completes classwork quickly without attention to quality.

Divide students into pairs and have them exchange their completed assignments. Instruct students to rate the quality of their peer's work and to share their written evaluations with each other. Before collecting work, encourage students to make changes to their own assignments in response to peer editorial feedback. To avoid having students rush through an assignment so that they can have free time, give additional classwork to anyone done early. Occasionally surprise students by inviting 'guest reviewers' from outside the classroom (e.g., another teacher, principal, visitor from outside the school) to look at important student assignments and provide face-to-face feedback about the quality of the work. Make sure that students are not permitted to tease or mock their peers for giving an incorrect answer in your classroom. Students should feel safe to make mistakes-even in public--as they strive to master difficult course material and concepts. Let students know that a certain percentage of their course grade will be determined by their preparation for class discussion and willingness to participate in class. Write all student names onto index cards or slips of paper and place those names into a container. During class discussion, pose a question and give students a short period of 'think time'. At the end of that time, draw a name from the container and call on that student to attempt an answer. Then replace the student's name in the container and pose another question. (If you have students who are very shy about participating, you may allow them to pass if they do not know the answer when called on.) Meet with the student privately and give him or her a passage from the course text (or other relevant material). Provide the student with discussion questions that you plan to ask him or her in the next class session and let the student know that the answers to those questions are to be found in the passage. (If the student requires additional support, underline the portions of the passages where answers to the discussion questions are to be found.) Permit students who do not know the answer when called on to select a 'lifeline', a peer who they believe will know the correct answer. If a student uses a lifeline, however, do not accept the answer until the student using the lifeline states whether he or she judges the lifeline's answer to be correct. Allow students to consult their notes and the course text when responding to a discussion question. Have the student use a simple self-monitoring system. With the student, set a reasonable daily goal for responding to discussion questions (e.g., "In each class, I will raise my hand to answer at least 3 questions.") At the end of class, the student marks on a sheet how many times the student actually participated in discussion. If the student meets or exceeds the daily goal, the student is awarded

6. The student does not participate in large-group discussions.

a point or token that can be redeemed later for an incentive. Of course, the teacher should spot-check the student's rating periodically to make sure that the student is being honest in his or her ratings. 7. The student takes poor or incomplete notes on lecture content.

Base part of the course grade on the quality of the student's notes. Periodically collect student notes to grade and provide written feedback, doing so more frequently near the start of the school year. (NOTE: If you decide to grade student notes, be sure first to provide students who have disabilities that impact note-taking with appropriate accommodations, such as those discussed below.) Provide sets of 'guided notes' to students (notes which contain main headings and some key information but leave blanks where the student is to write in additional information). Keep a master set of teacher course notes available for students to borrow to check against their own notes. Or get the permission of a student in the class with good note-taking skills to photocopy his or her notes and make them available (e.g., with weekly updates) for other students to review. When covering important material in a course lecture, explicitly prompt students to write it down. Allow students to audiotape lectures. Or get into the routine of recording your own lectures and allow students to sign out those audiotapes for review. Encourage students to join study groups (e.g., in study halls, after school) to prepare for quizzes and tests. In these groups, students can compare notes, increasing the likelihood that students with poor note-taking abilities will fill in gaps in their own notes while reviewing essential course content. Work with the class to create a rubric for judging the quality of course notes. Periodically have students exchange notebooks and give structured feedback to each other about the quality of their note-taking. Require that students write up their feedback and share a copy with you. Use that feedback to flag students who are regularly rated as poor note-takers; spend time with them reviewing effective note-taking strategies. Seat the student near you in your teaching 'action zone', the section of the room that you tend to face most often when addressing the class. When giving individual instructions to--or making a request of--the student, first make eye contact, call the student's name, and be sure that he or she is clearly attending to you. Post a daily agenda on the board describing the main activities planned for the class. Include the approximate amount of time that each activity will require. Preview this agenda with the class before beginning instruction. Keep the agenda on the board through the entire class period.;

8. The student is unfocused and inattentive in class.

Break longer assignments down into smaller 'chunks' or sections. Allow the student the option of taking a short break after successfully completing each section. Before the student begins an independent assignment, have the student describe his or her work plan out loud for you. Tell the student that you plan to check in with him or her at the end of class to see what progress the student has made toward accomplishing his or her work goals. Teach at a brisk pace that is more likely to hold students' attention. Provide a quiet, less-distracting corner study space (e.g. study carrel) in a lessfrequented section of the classroom where the student can go when he or she needs to concentrate on independent work. Seat the student next to an accepting classmate with good work habits. Teach the student how quietly to ask the classmate for help whenever the student becomes confused or unsure about a class activity. Survey the student's academic skills to make sure that the student does not have skill deficits that he or she is hiding behind a mask of non-compliance or defiance. Use strategies to boost student motivation to learn (see ideas listed in section 3). When giving individual instructions to--or making a request of--the student, first make eye contact, call the student's name, and be sure that he or she is clearly attending to you. When interacting with the student, keep it positive. Attempt to have at least 3 positive interactions with the student (e.g., greeting the student, praising his or her behavior, acknowledging a correct answer) for each negative interaction (e.g., reprimand). Create a reward program that allows the student to earn points or tokens toward incentives or privileges for complying with adult requests. First, set a percentage goal for student compliance. (For example, if the student typically complies with only 50% of your requests, you might set an initial goal for improvement of 70% compliance.) Meet with the student before starting the program to teach the student your definition of compliance (e.g., 'The student carried out the teacher request within 20 seconds without complaining'). Inform the student that, for those periods during the day when a behavior program is in effect, the student can earn a point or token if he or she complies with teacher requests at or above the pre-set goal. The points or tokens can be redeemed periodically for rewards or privileges. Create a list of fair and appropriate consequences to be imposed whenever students refuse to comply with teacher requests. Explain to the class in advance what these consequences are and take care to be consistent in imposing them whenever a student fails to comply. (If possible, develop a series of consequences for misbehavior that can be delivered in the classroom, rather

9. The student refuses to comply with teacher requests to do work.

than simply sending the student to the principal's office at the first sign of defiance.) Teachers should note that providing only negative consequences when a chronically defiant student misbehaves is unlikely to work very well. Chances for success increase when negative consequences for misbehavior are paired with a reward system for positive student behavior. 10. The student seeks help from others even when he or she can do the work.

When the student asks for assistance unnecessarily, direct the student to attempt the problem or work on his or her own. Keep the interaction brief and businesslike. Reinforce the student for working independently: Approach the student at random intervals whenever he or she is engaged in work and give the student encouragement (for example, by briefly praising the student for effort). Meet with the student to generate a list of strategies that the student can use independently when he or she has problems with seatwork. Strategies might include referring to a model that demonstrates how to solve the problem type, referring to notes or the course text, or consulting reference resources such as dictionaries, glossaries, or maps to find an answer. Whenever the student approaches you for assistance, have the student first describe independent strategies he or she has already tried before giving the student assistance. Create a 'memory-friendly' classroom by publicly posting essential information (on the board or as posters) that students are likely to need for reference (e.g., the daily class schedule or agenda, in-class assignments, step-by-step breakdown of strategies for completing academic problems). When a student asks for assistance, point to the appropriate information resource and direct the student to find the answer on his or her own.;

11. The student does not ask for peer or teacher assistance, even when he/she clearly needs help.

Give the student a private signal to indicate the need for teacher assistance. For example, provide the student with a red folder ('help folder') containing practice worksheets. Meet privately with the student and tell the student that, whenever he or she is stuck and needs assistance on independent assignments, the student should pull out the folder and begin working on practice worksheets until the teacher can provide assistance. Monitor the room during seatwork; whenever you note the student working out of the red 'help folder' approach the student in a low-key manner to offer assistance. Give the student review sheets with completed models that demonstrate all steps of the learning strategy that he or she must use to do the assignment. Format the review sheets so that the student is able to grasp the content while working independently. Direct the student to attempt to resolve problems with seatwork by first referring to the completed models. Create a 'memory-friendly' classroom by publicly posting essential information (on the board or as posters) that students are likely to need for reference (e.g.,

the daily class schedule or agenda, in-class assignments, step-by-step breakdown of strategies for completing academic problems). Coach the student to consult the appropriate memory aid (e.g., posted academic strategies) whenever he or she needs assistance.

Allow students to complete seatwork assignments in pairs or small groups. Encourage them to ask each other for assistance as needed. Approach the student privately during seatwork. In a supportive manner, encourage the student to demonstrate ('think aloud') the strategy that he or she is using to complete the assignment. Correct the student if he or she is using the strategy in a faulty manner. Be sure to praise the student for effort. Meet with the student privately and together brainstorm a list of strategies that the student would be willing to use to get assistance during independent work. For example, the student may agree to first refer to his or her notes, then ask a peer, and as a last resort approach the teacher for help. Write up the student's 'help steps' as a checklist and remind the student to use these steps whenever seatwork is assigned. Type up all class assignments for the week or month and pass out to the class. Set up a 'homework hotline' that students (and parents!) can call with a prerecorded message listing current class assignments. Or create and regularly update a web page that students can visit to browse a listing of pending assignments and their due dates. Pair off students. At the end of each class, instruct students briefly to check each other's organizers or notebooks to ensure that each has accurately and completely recorded assignments from the board. Instruct the student to approach you at the end of each class period with his or her organizer or notebook. Read over the student's listing of assigned work. If the student's recording of the assignment is incomplete or incorrect, prompt him or her to write it correctly. Then initial the assignment page. Select a staff member (e.g., vice principal, reading teacher, counselor) who can serve as a 'check out' person at the end of the school day. Assign that staff member a caseload of students who have chronic difficulties accurately recording homework assignments. As each student stops by, the 'check-out' person reviews the student's recording of assignments to ensure that he or she has written them down completely.

12. The student does not write down homework assignments correctly or completely.

13. The student fails to take work materials home that are required for his/her homework assignment.

When writing assignments on the board, include a list of required work materials as a reminder to students. At the close of class, remind students what materials they will need for homework.

Have the student keep one set of textbooks at home and one at school. Post worksheets to be done as homework on the Internet where students can download and print off as needed. Explicitly teach students how to prepare at the end of each school day for that night's homework. Instruct students to review each instructor's homework assignment and verify that they have put the necessary work materials to do that assignment into their backpack or book bag. For students who need additional practice, walk them to their lockers at the end of the day and coach them as they pull together their homework materials.

14. The student does not have a regular routine (fixed time, location, etc.) for studying and completing homework.

Have the student complete a homework schedule each week with adequate time set aside daily for homework. Verify with the student's parent(s) that the student is abiding by the schedule. Meet with the student to identify both a place at home where the student can do homework without distractions and a set time for doing homework. Check in with the student occasionally to monitor his or her homework habits. If the home environment is not conducive for completing homework, encourage the student to find another location (e.g., local branch of the public library, community center) suitable for homework. Encourage the student to use study halls or other in-school time to get a head start on homework. Team up with other teachers to sponsor a 'homework club' where students can stay after school to complete homework with adult support and supervision. Consider having different teachers 'host' the club on different nights of the week. Train students in the specific steps needed to build a work plan for doing homework. Show them how to preview their afterschool assignments, order those assignments so that they do the most difficult first (when their energy level is highest), break larger assignments into smaller sub-tasks, and estimate how much time each assignment is likely to require. Assign students to create their own homework plans for a week and to turn them in to you. Follow up by asking students to reflect on how their use of these plans may have improved their homework completion. If you are giving students an especially challenging homework assignment, provide them with strategies (e.g., time-saving tips, techniques to check for mistakes, etc.) for doing that homework efficiently. Suggest to students that they take short breaks between homework assignments (e.g., spending 10 minutes watching television) to refresh and reenergize.

15. The student lacks an efficient strategy for completing homework assignments.

Recommend to students (and perhaps to their parents) that they remove unnecessary 'time-wasters' from the homework setting (e.g., Internet messaging, television, radio, cell phones). Enlist the student's parent to serve as a 'homework coach', meeting with the student each night to look over assignments, set up a plan for completing the homework, monitoring the student's actual time spent doing homework, and reviewing finished work to verify its completeness and quality. Meet with the student's parents and suggest that they check each morning to be sure that the student has all completed homework assignments in his or her backpack before leaving for school. Set up a homework chart for the student. Award the student a point for each day that he or she turns in homework. Allow the student to redeem collected points for rewards or privileges. Build a sense of personal accountability by requiring that students put their homework directly in your hand as they walk in the door at the beginning of class. Note which students fail to turn in homework and approach them before the class period is over to have them pledge when they will turn it in. Send 'overdue homework' notices home every several weeks to parents of your students. The notices should include enough information about the missing assignments so that the parents have all the information that they need to prod their child to get the work done and turn it in. Designate a staff member to be a 'homework check-in' person for selected students. At the beginning of the day, students go to the staff member in the school's main office and surrender their completed homework assignments. The staff member immediately puts students' homework in the appropriate teachers' mailboxes. Encourage students to complete their homework in study halls or in an afterschool 'homework club'. Appoint a staff member to collect students' completed homework before they leave for the day and to put finished homework into the appropriate teachers' mailboxes. Home Academic Interventions Behavior Interventions Products Workshops CBM Downloads RTI Help Contact

16. The student completes homework but fails to turn it in at school.

Homework Presentations: Are They Worth the Time? Kacy Heiser Rushville, NE Math in the Middle Institute Partnership Action Research Project Report in partial fulfillment of the MAT Degree Department of Mathematics University of Nebraska-Lincoln July 2008 Homework Presentations: Are They Worth the Time? Abstract

In this action research study of my eighth grade mathematics classroom, I investigated the use of daily homework presentations and how they impacted students written and oral reasoning, students attitudes towards mathematics homework and students grades and completion of mathematics homework. I discovered that implementing daily homework presentations had no influence on students grades or attitudes towards mathematics homework, however students did find homework presentations useful in helping them to better understand the mathematics they were learning. Students written and oral reasoning were increased through daily homework presentations as well. By requiring students to not only present daily homework problems, but also be active listeners during others presentations, students were more aware of their reasoning and thinking while completing mathematics homework. As a result of my research, I plan to continue using daily homework presentations in my classroom as a tool for students to communicate their thinking. Homework Presentations 1 Introduction Throughout my career as a mathematics teacher, I have always struggled with homework. More specifically, I have struggled with getting students to complete their own homework, understand the homework, and be able to explain their work. Providing immediate and helpful

feedback to students has always been difficult for me. Currently, I am teaching eighth grade mathematics. I have three groups of eighth graders and each group is a heterogeneous mix of abilities. We do not track students at our school, so the material taught and covered is the same for each group. Every day I spend the beginning of each class period reviewing and answering questions from the previous days homework. I have tried to have students answer the questions by presenting the work that they have done, but the students are either not willing or are not confident enough in their own work to share. Students seem to care more about simply getting the right answers, either by doing the work or copying someone elses answers, than they do about the process of learning mathematics. The homework that I assign daily usually consists of about 10-15 computation and skills practice problems with 5-8 written explanation type problems. Consistently, students do fine on the computation and practice problems but seem to struggle on the written explanation problems. They are searching for the correct way to write their answer instead of simply explaining their thinking and reasoning processes. After we have gone over any questions from the previous homework, students hand in their assignments and we move on to the new material for the day. I used to collect every

assignment daily and grade every problem. Doing this made getting all the assignments graded and handed back the next day very difficult. Consequently my students got their graded homework back one or two times a week. I know that the turnaround on homework was too long, Homework Presentations 2 and the feedback that students did get on their assignments seemed irrelevant. The students did not pay attention to my feedback because it had been almost a week since the homework was submitted. Overall, I was extremely unsatisfied with my grading procedure of homework and with the way students approached their homework assignments. In my perfect or ideal classroom, these issues would be solved. I would have time for five to eight student presentations daily. Through these presentations, the students would be able to communicate their learning not only to me but also to their peers. The students who are not presenting would be able to ask the presenter clarifying questions to assist in their understanding as well. All students would present at least twice a week (with pleasure), and they would do their own work (not copy). I would grade the presentations immediately to give the presenters feedback, and I would only grade the presented problems on other students homework. This would reduce the problems that are being graded. Turnaround on the assignments would be shorter, so that all students receive meaningful feedback in an appropriate amount of time.

I have realized throughout my own education and my career as an educator that effective communication is a key to learning. If I do not truly know what my students are learning or understanding, I cannot continue to build on that knowledge. My quest for solutions to the constant battle with mathematics homework has led me to research homework presentations. My overall goal is to research daily homework presentations and their impact in my mathematics classroom. I would like to see if daily homework presentations change student attitudes towards mathematics, as well as improve their written and oral reasoning skills. Along the way I am also interested if immediate and helpful feedback will increase completion of students daily homework. Homework Presentations 3 Problem Statement Homework has long been a struggle for all educators. As a teacher, I give homework because as a student, I was given homework. Similarly, I tend to grade homework how my own homework was assessed. By investigating homework presentations, I will help myself and my students because I will gain more insight into how they are learning, and they will better understand the material being taught. Students will be able to build their mathematical knowledge base not just because they have learned new skills but through the communication of

their learning as well. Students being able to communicate their knowledge is relevant and important not only to me, but to all educators because it demonstrates a deeper understanding of concepts or material. I believe other teachers in my building, especially the other mathematics teachers, will be interested in this research because we have been discussing our frustrations and difficulties for years. We all have struggled with these homework issues in our classrooms. Many teachers assess homework on a daily basis and I believe other teachers would find my research interesting and informative. As a society of educators in the world of No Child Left Behind, communication is extremely important for our students. My students assessment scores are evaluated and criticized by the public eye. I believe that increasing communication will increase our students achievement. My research relates to the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics principles and standards that deal with equity, learning, teaching, and communication. The equity principle maintains that teachers should require high expectations and strong support for all students. I believe that I currently have high expectations for all my students. Implementing homework presentations in class may possibly provide the support outlined in NCTMs equity principle. For Homework Presentations 4

students who may not be able to write what they are thinking, but can verbalize their thought process homework presentations are a possible support in the students mathematical learning process. Students who can explain their mathematical thinking in words will have the opportunity to work on their verbal communication through homework presentations. I see the connection in both teaching and learning because I need to understand what students know and students need to be able to learn with understanding. Again, I think the homework presentations will better assess what students know, and hopefully will encourage students to actively build their knowledge. Although it may seem obvious, there is also a connection with the communication process standard. The students must be able to communicate their thinking not only to me with words on paper, but also to their peers through their presentations and discussions. Literature Review Daily homework and the problems associated with it in my classroom have continually perplexed me. Because of this issue, I decided to conduct an action research project based on homework presentations and their effect (if any) on student grades, attitudes and oral reasoning. My research of the available literature revealed four main themes. The first theme is that teachers

must be aware of student attitudes and beliefs towards mathematics and mathematics homework in order to provide meaningful lessons and assignments for all students. Teacher-to-student written feedback is the second theme I identified. Written feedback is what helps to guide students when they are learning concepts in mathematics. Teachers need to be aware of the types of written feedback that they are providing their students, if any. A third theme is students oral reasoning and discourse in mathematics classrooms. I was unable to find any research that had been done on using daily homework presentations in Homework Presentations 5 mathematics classes, so I focused on discourse and oral reasoning. Classroom discussions and student discourse are beneficial ways for teachers to allow the students to talk about their thoughts on the content and their thought processes while working. Teachers also need to be able to build instructional decisions around their students understanding. Teachers can gain this knowledge by listening to their students oral reasoning and class discussions. The final theme that I identified is students homework completion. Getting students to complete homework on time has long been an issue for many educators and I believe that it is important for teachers to be aware of the reasons behind this issue, as well as possible ways to prevent this problem. The following sections will examine each of these themes in more detail and also explain the ways in

which my project differs from the published literature in these areas. Student Attitudes & Beliefs Will we have homework today? is a daily question from many mathematics students. The teachers answer is typically yes and the students response is generally negative. Many students today do not see the benefit or purpose of homework to their learning. Student attitudes toward homework and mathematics in general, are often considered unenthusiastic. Mengel, Holcroft and Zahn (1966) studied twenty-two hundred students ranging from kindergarten through eighth grade and the students eighty-four teachers to see if the way homework was presented to students would change their perceptions of homework. The authors found that when students were given more information and input into their assignments, the more interested students became in the assignment and completed the assignment on time. Homework has long been a vital part of the educational system. While Mengel, Holcroft and Zahn believe that teachers may play a more important role in student attitudes toward homework than initially thought, others disagree. Homework Presentations 6 Evertson, Emmer and Brophy (1980) did a study of seventh- and eighth-grade mathematics teachers to try to compare behaviors and characteristics of effective and less effective teachers. They found that the time that teachers devoted to student understanding within

the class and the frequency with which homework was assigned had a positive correlation with higher achievement and academic encouragement. Although this study looks on the surface to distinguish between good and bad teachers, with so many variables, we cannot say which variable, or class of variables, is most important in producing achievement or positive student attitudes (Evertson et al., 1980, p. 176). Due to the findings I would conclude that there needs to be further study done on positive student attitude with more focus on the students and less on the teachers. In my teaching tenure, I have always thought that students judge their selfworth in a classroom based on their ability to do the work. A study done in Italy (Mason, 2004) with fifth grade students who were given two different types of instruction--innovative and traditional--was focused on students mathematical beliefs. The instruction was innovative because the learning environment was changed to a more activity based, discovery learning environment. The study found that those students who had received innovative instruction had higher beliefs not only in themselves as learners, but also in their beliefs of mathematics and learning mathematics through problem solving. While Evertson, Emmer and Brophy (1980) studied student achievement and student

attitude linked to teacher characteristics and instructional practices, I will study student attitude linked to homework, and more specifically daily homework presentations. By changing the type of assignment and in essence the classroom environment, my study is similar to Mason (2004) who studied students mathematical beliefs through the changing of the learning environment. Homework Presentations 7 Unlike Mengel, Holcroft and Zahn (1966) who studied students attitudes toward homework based on changing instructions to an assignment, the entire structure of assignments changed in my study. Written Feedback Assessment should support the learning of important mathematics and furnish useful information to both teachers and students (NCTM, 2000, p. 22). When I read that in the NCTMs Principles and Standards for School Mathematics, I really begin to think about the type and frequency of feedback that is given to students in their classes. Schoen and Kreye (1974) did a study on 147 prospective elementary teachers. They split the teachers into five different groups and varied the written feedback they were to give students. The feedback ranged from simply marking an incorrect answer with an X to specifically using the students first name with an explanation as to why the given answer was incorrect, followed by the correct answer. The

authors found that although the variation in types of written feedback to students did not appear to make a difference in student achievement or attitude, there was a significant difference in retention for those students who received feedback specific to their error. The use of rubrics in assessing students has brought about another variation in written feedback to students. Stutzman and Race (2004) are both mathematics teachers in Colorado who wrote an article on the Excellent, Meets Expectations, Revisions Required and Fragmentary (EMRF) rubric assessment system they developed for their classrooms. The authors found that after initially implementing their new grading and feedback system, students felt uneasy and uncomfortable. However, after time students began to see the positive side of knowing what is expected of them. Stutzman and Race believe that providing students the expectations prior to assessment, and then giving the students feedback and opportunities to revise their work helps to Homework Presentations 8 promote an ongoing learning process within the mathematics classroom (2004, p. 39). This is an important piece of information for my research because I will be using rubrics to grade students daily homework presentations. Evens and Houssart (2004) conducted a study of over 400 written responses provided by 11-year-old students on a mathematics test. While most of the students were unable to provide a

complete and clear explanation, the authors found that with some assistance from their teachers and classmates, students responses could be developed into correct and complete responses. Unlike Schoen and Kreye (1974), the authors also found that when giving feedback to students responses, teachers should not provide a correct solution for students. Instead, teachers should encourage students to improve their initial answers by asking clarifying questions. A main component in my study was giving students written feedback to not only their daily presentations but also to the homework assignments being handed in and graded. Similar to Stutzman and Race (2004), I used a rubric during my study to grade students presentations and give them feedback. I did not, however, write a new rubric for each problem that was presented or assessed. My study also involved me giving feedback to student presentations through questioning similar to Evens and Houssart (2004), but differed in that I focused on oral responses instead of written responses. While Schoen and Kreye (1974) focused on different types of written feedback, my study focuses on simply making sure each student receives written feedback on their presentation and their graded problems. The type of feedback I focused on was correct or incorrect with some clarifying questions. Oral Reasoning

Communication is an essential part of mathematics and mathematics education (NCTM, 2000, p. 60). In a mathematics classroom, both teachers and students need to be able to Homework Presentations 9 communicate their thoughts and ideas to each other both in writing and orally. Kotsopoulas (2007) did a study of a ninth-grade mathematics classroom to find the gaps in students oral communication. During the study, the author found that the variety of representations of words in everyday language and within the mathematical register can create significant interference as students struggle (p. 302) to apply meaning to words in contexts they do not understand. The language of mathematics is complex and many words are borrowed from everyday language. Students struggle with the ability to attach a new and different meaning to words they may use everyday. Kotsopoulas believes that students need to participate in mathematical discussions and conversations in classrooms (p. 305) to become skilled at mathematical discourse. In order for students to be involved in mathematical discussions, the focus of the classroom needs to be switched from teacher lecture to student-centered discussions. Manouchehri (2007), a professor of mathematics education at Ohio State University conducted a study during a two-week time period at the beginning of the academic year. The focus was on problem solving and students ability to discuss their findings and support their

results. Although the age of the students was not mentioned in the article, Manouchehri found that teachers need to be flexible in their approach to curriculum and that providing students opportunities to informally discuss their thoughts and findings may lead to a change in course of instruction. Providing students the opportunity for discussion may lead the lesson in an unintended yet educational direction. Both Manouchehri (2007) and Kotsopoulas (2007) discussed results that favored discourse and teacher questioning in strengthening students mathematical knowledge. However, House (2004) conducted a study on the link between instructional practices and achievement in mathematics using data from the TIMSS 1999 assessment. The students involved in this study Homework Presentations 10 were 13-year-old students from Japan. House found that the use of cooperative learning and student-to-student discourse during a new concept had a negative correlation to student achievement. Although House cited other studies that showed positive correlations between cooperative learning and mathematics achievement, he suggests that cooperative learning activities must be carefully considered when developing instructional programs for mathematics learning (p. 205). He also suggests that the use of cooperative learning may not be linked with higher mathematics achievement when introducing a new mathematics concept. This says to me

that cooperative learning can be both helpful and harmful to mathematics achievement depending on how it is used within the classroom. Pape, Bell and Yetkin (2003) conducted a study on the collaboration of a seventh-grade mathematics teacher and a university researcher. Their study focused on developing students as self-regulated learners. One topic in their study focused on classroom discussions and students abilities to think mathematically. The seventh-grade teacher required her students to explain and support their reasoning. Papa, Bell and Yetkin found that in order for a teacher to expect that of students, the teacher needs to build a larger base for the subject matter that is being presented to the students. Having strong content knowledge will give the teacher the confidence to guide their students through discussions and assist teachers in being prepared for questions or comments that may arise during discussions. My research focused on students oral reasoning during daily presentations, more specifically, both the presenter and the listeners. This is in contrast to Houses (2004) study which mainly talked about student discourse in a small group setting. Like Manouchehri (2007), students presented their ideas to the class, but they did so on an individual basis and not in groups. As mentioned before, both Manouchehri and Kotsopoulas (2007) discussed results that Homework Presentations 11

favored discourse and teacher questioning in strengthening students mathematical knowledge. My study, however, focused more on discourse and questioning between students with less focus on the teacher. Homework Completion On-time completion of daily homework has long been an issue in my teaching tenure. Effective mathematics teaching requires understanding what students know and need to learn and then challenging and supporting them to learn it well (NCTM, 2000, p. 16). In order for me as a teacher to meet this principle of mathematics teaching, students need to complete and turn in their work, providing me the opportunity to give them feedback. Mengel, Holcroft and Zahn (1966) found during their study that when teachers were more responsive to student input and feedback, students were more likely to not only see the value of the homework, but take more responsibility for their homework and their learning. Corno (2000) researched how homework has changed and the dynamics surrounding the assigning of homework. The article discussed good and bad issues associated with homework from the perspective of inside school and outside school. Within this article, Corno discussed a variety of case studies designed to identify third-grade students responsibility in completing

different types of homework. These case studies showed that there were many factors that influenced whether or not homework was completed. Included in those factors was not only understanding of the material, but the environment in which the homework was being completed. Teachers need to be aware of not only the cognitive development of their students but also of the environment in which those students do work outside of school. Corno (2000) focused on the environment that may hamper a students ability to complete homework. This is helpful information for my research, but neither Mengel, Holcroft Homework Presentations 12 and Zahn (1966) nor Corno studied the types of homework assignments that were given. My research will compare what I do in my classroom nowtraditional assignments to daily homework presentations with selective grading on handed in assignments. I believe my research on daily homework presentations adds to the existing literature. In my review of the literature, I was not able to find any specific research on homework presentations in mathematics classrooms. Since the focus of my study was on any effects daily presentations may have on student attitudes and beliefs, students oral reasoning skills and homework completion, I believe my research can provide new information to future researchers. Many teachers are looking for a different way to assess student understanding through

homework. I hoped that my research on homework presentations would be able to provide the educational community with a new approach to homework. Purpose Statement The purpose of my study is to investigate the effects of daily homework presentations in my classroom. I examined the variables of students written and oral reasoning, student questions, homework completion rate, and student attitude regarding homework in seeking to answer the following research questions: What will happen to students grades after implementing daily homework presentations? In what ways (if at all) will written feedback (teacher to student) on daily presentations and graded problems influence students of homework? What will happen to the level of student reasoning, both oral and written, after implementing daily homework presentations? In what ways (if at all) will implementing daily homework presentations influence students attitude about mathematics homework? Homework Presentations 13 What will happen to my teaching when I institute daily homework presentations? Method This action research took place during the second semester of the 2007-2008 school year,

from January 8, 2008, through April 15, 2008. Data was collected from many sources throughout the research time period and was used to support my findings for my research questions. I collected and analyzed three types of data for each research question to support my findings. To describe what happened to students grades after implementing daily homework presentations, I conducted individual student interviews (see Appendix A for interview questions), kept copies of my grade book, and kept a personal journal to record my observations of how students responded to the daily homework presentations. I interviewed eight students throughout the months of March and April. The individual interviews focused on the students perception of themselves as learners in a mathematics classroom and their beliefs or attitudes towards mathematics and daily homework presentations. During the interviews, students were asked about their thoughts on homework presentations and whether or not they had noticed changes in their daily grades since beginning homework presentations. I also kept copies of my grade book to measure any changes in students grades. The last source of data for my first research question was my personal teacher journal. At the end of each week, I completed a journal entry by answering the reflection questions I had previously prepared (see Appendix B). I really struggled with the process of journaling

consistently and having enough information. The journals allowed me to keep notes on observations I made during the week and were a beneficial source of information for each of my research questions. Homework Presentations 14 To analyze how written feedback on daily presentations and graded homework influenced students completion of homework, I kept copies of students graded problems and presentations graded using a rubric (see Appendix C), interviewed a focus group of six students, and recorded observations in my personal teacher journal. The copies of students graded problems allowed me to look for comments or suggestions I had made to students and whether or not the students followed through with those comments by doing corrections or fix-ups for a better grade. The three focus group interviews (see Appendix D) were conducted once a month in February, March and April. The group interviews focused on mathematics in general, the students beliefs on learning mathematics, and how to achieve to their highest potential. Again, I used my personal teacher journal to record observations that I made during presentations on students preparedness to present problems and hand-in their daily homework. To analyze the impact of daily presentations on the level of students oral and written reasoning, I used student journals, copies of students graded problems, and my personal teacher

journal. Student journals were completed throughout this study (see Appendix E). The students were asked to journal on one or two questions every other week throughout this research. The journals focused on students individual beliefs and feelings related to mathematics homework, and whether or not they had seen any changes in their thoughts towards daily homework presentations over time. Another focus of the journals was on teacher-tostudent feedback and whether or not students felt it was helpful to them. Copies of student work were kept to observe any changes in the way students reasoned on their written work. The teacher journal was again a source of data for this part of the research. I recorded any noticeable changes or observations regarding students oral communication in my journal that I saw during class and during presentations. Homework Presentations 15 To describe any changes in students attitude about mathematics homework after implementing homework presentations, I gave a survey, had the students journal, conducted group interviews and recorded observations in my personal teacher journal. I gave the students a pre-, mid- and post- attitude survey (see Appendix F) to assess their attitudes and beliefs towards mathematics homework. Again, I used focus group interviews to assess their perceptions of mathematics homework and to see if any changes in their attitudes had occurred throughout the

time of the research. The students were asked to journal about their attitude towards mathematics in the beginning of the research. At the end of the research period, the students were asked to journal about any changes they had noticed in their attitude towards mathematics homework. Finally, at the end of each day, I recorded in my personal teacher journal observations I had made of students attitudes during the time that they were working on their homework assignments during class. It seemed that I ran into many challenges along my data collection journey. The amount of time that we were not in school became a major issue for me. It seemed that once the research began, the weather did not cooperate and we missed school nearly one day a week. I also have a lot of responsibilities within my building and school district, so I was pulled out of class a lot to go to meetings, portfolio reviews or school improvement workshops. Throughout the research period, I lost approximately 10% of my teaching time. I even had to ask my principal to please not take me out of class anymore unless it was an extreme emergency because I began to feel I was not going to be able to collect enough data for my research. Fortunately, when all was said and done, everything did work out and I collected a lot of valuable information. Homework Presentations 16 Findings

I taught eighth grade mathematics during the 2007-2008 school year at Gordon-Rushville Middle School. The school districts of Gordon and Rushville consolidated three years ago and we merged our sixth through eighth grades into a middle school. I had three groups of eighth graders and each group was a heterogeneous mix of abilities. We did not track students at our school, so the material that I taught was the same for each group of students. I have each of the groups for seventy-five minute periods three days a week (Monday, Tuesday and Thursday), and I have them for forty-five minutes on Friday. On Wednesday, I am the floater teacher for the eighth grade. On that day, I help the other eighth grade teachers with anything they may need such as taking a small group of students, assisting with administering a test, or even substituting for an absent teacher. If I am not needed in any of these areas, I work with the other mathematics teachers in my building developing curriculum for our middle school program, or I may work on our school improvement plan. If nothing else, I simply keep my head above water in my own planning. My classroom is set up with trapezoid tables that are put together to form hexagons for the students to work around. I have groups of three to four students who sit at each set of tables. I have small whiteboards that each student can use when we are working on problems together or

playing a review game. I also have two couches and a recliner that are in the back corner of my classroom that students use to sit at when working on homework or for cooperative group work. I meet the students at the door and shake their hands as they enter the room. This helps me get a read on how the students are feeling, and it also helps with attendance; I know who is either absent or tardy right away. Once class has begun, while I am taking attendance, the students are either signing up for presentations or milling around the room asking for help or Homework Presentations 17 helping others. Before I began my research, I would spend the beginning of each class answering questions students may have had on the previous homework. Since I have begun presentations, I expect the students to help each other. I try not to help them too much, especially if they are giving a presentation. I give the students about five minutes to ask and answer any questions they may have, then I begin class with a few minutes of good news. Any student who has good news to share has the opportunity to do so before we actually begin presentations. After good news, I ask students who are not presenting to turn in their papers (to avoid them copying off the board during presentations), and those who are presenting to put any work they would like to on the board. Each of the six presenters then presents his or her problem and answers any questions that

anyone may have. The presentations typically take approximately thirty minutes of class. After the presentations, we have a class discussion of anything the students found interesting or new during the presentations, and then we begin the new lesson for the day. My students do not have textbooks, so I type up notes for them and typically assignments that we go through together. During the notes, we do activities and problems together where the students either do them with their table group, or they sometimes come to the board and show their work and explain to the class what they have done. After we have completed the notes and the students seem to understand the new concept, I give them their assignment and they begin working. The assignments that I type up for the students usually consist of ten to fifteen calculation-type problems with six to eight real-world application and explanation problems. During this time, I am free to roam around the room and answer any questions or clarify any directions for the class. I encourage the students to seek help Homework Presentations 18 from those students at their table if possible. If they are all unsure, the students can ask me for help. Throughout my ten-year teaching career, I have always found it important for my students to work together. Yet I have had a hard time trusting in the fact that they were all doing

their own work. Since I have been teaching eighth grade, I have really begun to understand how important it is for my students to learn to cooperate and collaborate together. However, I have had a hard time getting them to see the benefits of working together and not copying. This is one of the main reasons for my action research on daily homework presentations. Through my research, I have found that students are empowered when given the opportunity to express their knowledge and learning through homework presentations. Many of my students were truly excited to be able to explain their work and understanding to the class during homework presentations. Although their attitude about mathematics homework was not really affected, they were excited about what they were learning through both giving presentations and listening to presentations. The data also suggests that students written reasoning skills were increased through homework presentations. Evidence to support my findings for each of the research questions follows. Student Grades Implementing daily homework presentations did not improve students average daily grades. Throughout this study, I wrote journals each week illustrating my observations on student responses to daily homework presentations. I noticed that students were excited about

homework presentations from the beginning largely due to a change in the classroom structure. Unfortunately the students excitement was not because they were getting to communicate their learning to others. In the beginning of the research period, students who signed up for a Homework Presentations 19 presentation were not graded on that daily assignment, only the presentation they gave. Grading only the presentation created a lot of miscommunication. Some students were only completing one or two problems and hoping to be able to sign up for a presentation and receive credit. The students who were not presenting were graded only on the six problems that were presented that day. Having only those six problems graded also caused problems in the beginning because the problems that were chosen for presentations were usually six of the more difficult problems on the assignment, and students were not getting them correct or completed. An excerpt from my personal journal supports this finding. In my one of my journals from early on in the research period I wrote: I have noticed that some students will jump to give presentations because the rest of their assignment may not be completely finished... This was a tough change in class for some students. When presentations began at the beginning of this semester, I also told the students that of those that dont present only the presented problems will be graded. I have noticed a lot of grumbling over that

issue I sense some real frustration with only the grading part of the students assignments and I am wondering if it is necessary. After being in class and talking with Ruth, I have decided to continue with everything as planned, except I will be grading everyones assignment, everyday. Students that give a presentation will get two grades for the day. (Personal Journal, February 1, 2008) After deciding to grade everyones assignment every day, I noticed that the students began to really get into giving presentations and the issues with how I was grading were gone. I also interviewed students individually on their perceptions towards mathematics and daily homework presentations. Some students were noticing small changes in their daily grades, but they were not sure of the reason. However, most students did not seem to feel there had been any changes in their daily grades. During individual interviews, students were asked Have you noticed any changes in your daily grades since beginning presentations? Why or Why not? Here are the responses to those questions: Homework Presentations 20 Average Grade of Daily Homework Assignments (12 points possible) 9.76 9.80 10.61 0

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Beginning Middle End average score Walter:My grades are kind of dropping and I dont really know why. John: a little worse because I dont hand in my papers on time. Jason: At first my grades were going down, but when I noticed that I just stepped it up and got it back up. Brian: No, not really because I usually do pretty good on both presentations and homework. From these students quotations, I noticed that the students were not noticing any changes in their daily homework grades. I also kept copies of my grade book and looked at students daily grades during three

different periods of this research. I looked at daily grades in the beginning, the middle and the end of the research. I was looking for any changes in daily grades. I made a graph to show the average grade on the homework assignments in the beginning, middle and end of the research period (see Figure 1). Figure 1. Average Grade of Daily Homework Assignments. Homework Presentations 21 From looking at the graph, one can see that the average daily grades were almost the same for the beginning, end and middle of my research. Although there is a slight increase in average daily grades from the beginning to the end, I attribute that mostly to the fact that in the beginning I was only grading the six problems that had been presented and students were not doing well on just those six problems. Throughout the course of my research, I found that homework presentations are a valuable tool in gaining insight of whether or not a student understands a concept. However, there is not enough evidence to say that homework presentations have made any impact on students daily homework grades. There was a small increase in student daily grades from the beginning to the end of the research. Yet, the change was not a significant enough to be able to conclude that homework presentations had an influence on daily grades. Homework Completion

When given descriptive feedback, students are more likely to correct their mistakes either for a higher grade or to learn for future assignments. For example when given following problem: Describe and correct the error that was made in writing 0.001 as a percent: 1% 100 1 0.001 = = . Here is Amys original response, and correction: Original Response: You should only move the decimal point two places when moving from a decimal to a percent = 0.1% I had written a comment on the original paper that she needed to describe and correct the error not just part of the error. I also asked, So what does the new problem look like and what should the answer be? Student Correction: Homework Presentations 22 The error is that you should only move the decimal over two places to the right and that the one should be over 1000 not 100. The problem should look like this: 0.1% 1000 1 0.001 = = .

Amy took my descriptive comments and re-did the problem to receive a better grade. The second time she did this problem she showed a better understanding of the problem. In my classroom, I have a policy that students can go back and re-do any previous work and receive credit for it. On daily work, they can get full credit back and for tests or quizzes they will receive half credit. During the course of this research, I had 40 of the 48 students, or about 83%, turn in corrections of one kind or another. Although I have nothing to compare that to, I believe it is a significant amount. I credit this to the fact that I was more conscious of the feedback I was giving students. While conducting the first focus group interview, I asked students, How much do you actually go back through your graded problems to see what you may have missed and the comments I have made? All of the students interviewed responded that they did go back and look at their graded homework for mistakes and comments. Gary: like every paper, it helps to see what you have written because then you can fix it next time you do a problem like that. Kim: it helps that it tells what you did wrong so you can fix it. I realized through this interview that it does make a difference what I comment on in students papers and students are actually reading them and using them to improve their homework and

their grade. Students had also done a journal that asked the question When you receive graded homework back, do you look to see if I have written any suggestions or feedback on how to fix your mistakes? Please explain why or why not. The majority, 79%, of the students responded Homework Presentations 23 that they did look at each paper for comments to either assist them with corrections or for future assignments. I also wrote in my journal regarding student corrections and the feedback I was giving them. From a journal in the beginning of my research I had written: I am trying to be more conscious of the feedback and comments I am making on students presentations and homework assignments. I have noticed an increase in students that are doing corrections to improve their grade. It seems that I have students turning in corrections that wouldnt normally turn them in and they must be reading the comments because their second attempt at the problems shows a better understanding of the concept and represents a more complete solution. (Personal Journal, February 14, 2008) From this journal I realized that giving descriptive feedback to students on their homework was encouraging more of them to turn in corrected solutions.

The evidence has shown that providing immediate and helpful feedback on homework was valuable not only to my students but to me. When given descriptive feedback on their homework, students were better able to correct their solutions and turn them back in to improve their grade. Besides improving their daily grade, students were able to gain a better understanding through the corrections. As a teacher, I was able to see that my students did have a better understanding of the concepts after they had done corrections. Student Reasoning After looking at all the evidence, I am confident that implementing daily homework presentations increases students oral and written reasoning. Throughout this study, students were given journal prompts to complete every other week. One of the journal prompts was, Describe your thoughts on daily presentations and how you think they have changed (if at all) your thought process while completing mathematics homework. Here are some of the responses: Homework Presentations 24 Amy: I like them very much. I think they help the class and the person presenting understand better. Alice: I understand it more and figure out how to do it better.

Stephanie: It has helped me learn to write all of my steps and be more complete with

my work. Conner: It has changed my thought process on how I would explain how to do it. I dont mind doing them or hearing them. Julia: I like doing presentations because they get me thinking about the problems that I may have missed on my assignment. The majority of students responded to this journal question in the same manner. 89% of students that felt that homework presentations helped them understand the mathematics better and improved their ability to explain their thought process. Another journal prompt was, Do you feel you are better able to understand mathematics homework and explain the mathematics since we have begun presentations? Please explain. Students shared these responses. Conner: Yes, a lot better for I have realized how much explaining things even to myself has increased my understanding. Misty: Kind of, because I just naturally write a book every time I give an explanation, but presentations kinda made me look at my explanation to double check that it was right. Stephanie: Yes I do, when I do not fully understand how to do a problem it is usually well explained so I comprehend and can do it the next time. All but one student responded to this journal in the same manner. The responses from the

students made me realize that students were taking homework presentations seriously and understood the value of presentations in their learning process. Looking back through my personal journal entries even early on in presentations, I had written how impressed I was with the quality of the presentations and the language the students were using. The questions and Homework Presentations 25 discussion from the students listening to the presentations were very interesting, and I was excited about the quality of the discussion and questions. I was especially impressed with the way students were asking questions and not just trying to point out others possible mistakes. I had written about my observations regarding homework presentations in a few of my journals throughout the research process. Here are some excerpts from my personal journals: I did notice that this week even though we only had one presentation, the students that signed up for them wouldnt normally sign up for a presentation. They seem to be getting the hang of presentations and actually enjoy being in front of the class explaining their work. I have also overheard a lot of comments from students about how much they like actually explaining their work or ideas in words rather than in writing (Personal Journal, February 15, 2008) I have also noticed that the students are doing a great job of helping each other and asking questions. (Personal Journal, February 1, 2008)

In the beginning, I had to continue to stress how important it was to be respectful of the presenter and to listen to be able to understand the problem or ask questions. This week, it went a lot better. (Personal Journal, February 8, 2008) I have one student that asks questions during presentations like I would ask it is like she is trying to be a mini-teacher. During presentations over the lesson on the sum of the angles of a polygon, she asked why use the formula 180(n 2) and when the presenter couldnt answer she then directed her next question to the whole class: Does everyone know where that formula comes from? Do you remember the activity we did drawing triangles inside the polygons? And she continued to explain it like she was the teacher. (Personal Journal, March 21, 2008) After looking back over my journal entries, I realized there was one theme that became evident. My students were beginning to take a more active role in their learning through the use of homework presentations. Students were beginning to rely on each other for help and to understand that even if their answer was incorrect, during a presentation, the rest of the class would help them through it. In looking over the copies of student work, I noticed a slight increase in students written reasoning. For example, after reviewing papers from Jessica, early assignments that required Homework Presentations 26 explanations were simply calculated and the reasoning was either not completed or not correct.

In later assignments Jessica not only did the calculations or diagrams necessary, but explained her reasoning or process as well. Here is an example of a question from an early assignment and the response from Jessica: Question: How many decimal places does 1.3 1 have? 1.3 2 ? 1.3 3 ? 1.3 7 ? Explain your reasoning. Jessica: Whatever the exponent is that is how many decimal points you will have. And here is a question from an assignment near the end of the research period: Question: How many pairs of vertical angles do two intersecting lines form? Draw a diagram and explain your reasoning. Jessica: There are two pairs of vertical angles because a and c are the same measure and b and d are the same measure because they are across from each other and that is the definition of vertical angles: a b d

c This not only showed me that this student understood the concept, but was able to explain their understanding by representing their solution in a diagram and in writing. Conner would usually leave questions blank that asked for explanations or diagrams in the beginning of the research. However, by the end of the research this student was completing these problems and giving great explanations. Here is a question and Conners response from an assignment towards the end of the research period. Question: Can two angles of a triangle be supplementary? Explain why or why not. Homework Presentations 27 Conner: No, because supplementary angles are two angles whose sum is 180 degrees and that is the sum of all three angles of a triangle. Therefore, you cannot have just two angles in a triangle be supplementary angles. This answer was not only complete, but demonstrated that the student understood the concept of supplementary angles and the sum of the angles of a triangle. The biggest discovery for me on student reasoning was that if students are given different methods of communicating their learning to others, they become more confident learners. In the beginning of this research period, students were apprehensive about giving presentations because they did not want to be wrong.

By the end of the research period, students were giving presentations even if they knew their answer was wrong in order for their peers to help them find their mistakes. The communication in my classroom blossomed more than I had expected, and I was truly impressed with the growth in my students. Student Attitudes Students felt that daily homework presentations helped them gain a better understanding of the mathematics they were learning, however, it did not change their attitude towards mathematics. Standing in front of a group of your peers to discuss ones method of solving a mathematics problem was a daunting task for some students. However, all the students have expressed the joy in showing their classmates a new or simpler approach to a mathematics problem. The students were asked to complete a mathematics attitude survey three different times during the semester. One question on the attitude survey read, Communicating with other students helps me have a better attitude towards mathematics. The first time students completed the survey, 77% of students either agreed or strongly agreed with that statement. The results of Homework Presentations 28 the same question on the third survey showed that 73% either agreed or strongly agreed with that

statement. There was not a significant difference in these percentages showing me that their attitudes did not change from the beginning to the end of the research. The fact that there were three people unavailable to take the third survey could also account for the difference. Students were also asked to journal about their thoughts on daily homework presentations. There were a variety of responses from students. Responses ranged from how helpful presentations were to that student specifically, to how helpful presentations were to the class and the students listening. Here are some journal responses from students regarding homework presentations: David: Presentations have helped me understand math better and I think it (attitude) has changed a little. Emily: No, I dont think presentations have changed my attitude towards math because, I dont think about giving presentations when Im working on my assignment. But, I do like how if I make a mistake, the other classmates presentations can help me understand usually. Austin: I think presentations make you think, if someone else read your work would they figure out how you got it? And they also prepare you for real life when you have to give a presentation for a job. Julia: Doing presentations has helped me a lot so I can see how other students are doing that problem and I can try that method too. They do not change my attitude towards math, just help me

understand. Misty: I feel that presentations have helped me because after I get my homework done, I go back over the ones I had trouble with so I know how to present them. I enjoy the presentations that we do and knowing that we are going to do a presentation in front of the whole class over what we are learning makes me pay better attention and try harder. Stephanie: Not specifically has it changed my attitude completely, but it does help me understand.Homework Presentations 29 The journal responses from students revealed that although attitudes towards homework were not affected through homework presentations, mathematical understanding was deepened. At the end of each of the group interviews, students were asked if they had anything to add that had not been previously asked. Here is what the students had to say: Amy: I like the whole presentation thing because they are usually harder problems and if someone is up there that knows what they are doing, or even if they dont know, you get a chance to understand the problem better. Gary: and it can help other kids in class if they dont get the problem and its shown to them on the board then they can figure out how to do it next time. Kim: (after being asked if students find it difficult to describe their process while completing a problem) it is actually kind of easier I

think. These responses only strengthened my assertion that homework presentations were viewed as valuable from the students point of view. I had written in my journal in the middle of the research period regarding my observations of student confidence in presentations. I did notice that this week, even though we only had presentations once, the students that signed up for them wouldnt normally sign up for a presentation. They seem to be getting the hang of presentations and actually enjoy being in front of the class explaining their work. I also have overheard a lot of comments from students about how much they like actually explaining in words their work or ideas rather than in writing. (Personal Journal, February 14, 2008) From this evidence, one can see that students did find homework presentations to be a valuable tool in their learning. Throughout the research period, student homework presentations were an important tool for learning within my mathematics classroom. Through the use of homework presentations, students felt they were better able to understand mathematics and they liked being able to see Homework Presentations 30 others solutions and show their solutions. Although presentations did not have any influence on student attitudes towards mathematics they provided a valuable learning experience in my classroom.

Teaching Insights I realized that I have a tendency to always want to jump in and save my students instead of allowing them to struggle with their thought for a while. In each journal entry, I have described the changes in my teaching and my struggles with letting go of control in the classroom. In the beginning of presentations, the students were really excited, and the students who were not presenting were asking great questions. Everyone responded well to this change, except for me. I had a difficult time letting the students struggle at the board and trying to take a less prominent role in the classroom. The students started out by directing their questions to me, instead of the presenter. It also seemed that for a while they were only trying to find any possible mistakes instead of looking at the process the presenter had described. I really tried hard to let the students direct the discussions, but I seemed to always speak up and help someone. I have always had a hard time with students doing work on the board or coming to the board to show an idea or process. My reservations are not because I want to have all the control, but I have always worried that if their idea or process was not exactly correct, the other students would simply make fun of them and it would hamper their confidence. I have worked hard to change this. I had written a journal regarding this:

In beginning a new unit on Geometry and Measurement, I started the class by simply asking students what they already knew. For the most part, the students answered the questions and were somewhat excited about moving on to this unit, but one group in particular was really excited. When I was asking them what they knew about angles, they just started rattling off all kind of information and one student was so excited she asked to come to the board and show something. It was great how they got into the lesson and we hadnt even started yet. The student Homework Presentations 31 came to the board and drew a protractor and then discussed how to use it to measure all kinds of angles (even those larger than 180 degrees). This was really enlightening to me to watch this exchange and we hadnt even really begun the lesson yet. (Personal Journal, March 7, 2008) This was a valuable experience for me because although I was apprehensive, the student was not and I really learned that it is okay for the students to share their ideas, even if there is a chance they arent completely correct. For me, this is a huge change in my teaching because before I would have probably asked the student to describe it to me, then if the student was correct I would either put it on the board or allow them to come to the board. I wrote about his internal struggle of mine in a couple of different personal journals:

Again, I am struggling with not jumping in and saving the students when they are struggling. Since the science teacher and I are working together on this project, he tells me that I help the students too much and I should let them struggle a little before jumping in. When he notices it, I know it is a problem. (Personal Journal, February 22, 2008) Before when a student would ask to come to the board to share an idea or thought, I probably would not let them because I wouldnt want them to be wrong and have the rest of the class laugh at them. I am beginning to allow the students to give all of their ideas and we build on them even if they are wrong. I was really inspired on Tuesday when one group was so excited and students were sharing things on the board. (Personal Journal, March 7, 2008) Both of these journals really show how difficult it has been for me to allow my students to struggle. The teacher in me has always thought that I had to protect my students from struggling with concepts. Throughout this entire research experience, I have worked hard to better understand myself as a teacher. I do understand that watching students struggle is not always the easiest thing to do, but I have learned through this research that it is almost necessary in order for students to really understand what they are learning. Although I have changed this a little in my

own classroom, it will be an issue that I deal with every day of every school year. I will have to continue to remind myself that it is okay for students to struggle, and that my students are Homework Presentations 32 actually capable of helping themselves and learning without my guidance all of the time. I have always encouraged my students to take ownership in their learning. I have learned through this research process that in order for my students to have ownership in their learning, I need to become more of a facilitator in my classroom and less of the leader of the classroom. Conclusions I believe that homework presentations have played an extremely important role in my classroom this semester. Although I was not able to see much change in student grades or attitudes, I did gain some great insight as to how students were learning and becoming more independent learners. I believe that homework presentations help students to better understanding the mathematics they are learning and are a powerful tool for student-to-student teaching. Students realized that homework presentations were important, not only for learning mathematics, but also because the presentations helped them feel more comfortable in their ability to speak in front of a group and present their ideas. Students were able to see, through presentations, that there are many ways to do a problem in mathematics and even though one

method is different from another, it does not mean it is wrong. My findings regarding student attitudes paralleled those of Mason (2004). In his study of fifth grade students, Mason found that with more innovative instruction, students had a higher confidence level in themselves as learners, specifically learners of mathematics. I noticed that although homework presentations are not necessarily innovative, the presentations did completely change the learning environment in the classroom, and my students definitely became more confident in their abilities as learners. Similar to Stutzman and Race (2004), who implemented a grading rubric into their classrooms, my students were also apprehensive to begin presentations after reviewing the rubric Homework Presentations 33 I would use to grade them. Throughout the course of this study, I tried to give a variety of types of feedback to my students. Like Schoen and Kreye (1974), when my students were given more specific feedback according to their mistake or asked clarifying questions, they were able to improve or correct their response when turning in their corrections. Evens and Houssart (2004), found that with assistance from teachers and classmates, a student would be able to improve their response I also used questioning during homework presentations to assist the students in providing a clear explanation of the problem. During the course of this research, I realized that I

no longer had to ask the clarifying questions because the students in the class were doing it, and the responses were clear and concise. The discussions that occurred during daily homework presentations were enlightening to hear. Like Manouchehri (2007) and Kotsopoulas (2007), who found that discourse and teacher questioning strengthened students mathematical knowledge, I found in my study that using questioning and discussion allowed my students to make their explanations and reasoning more clear to others. Although my research did not deal with cooperative learning specifically, I believe that there is a connection between cooperative learning and homework presentations. Students did not necessarily work in groups or teams on presentations, but as a class, they worked as a group to help each other through presentations. Unlike House (2004), who found that cooperative learning during a new mathematics concept had a negative correlation to student achievement, I noticed that when students were discussing concepts using correct terminology, they were better able to understand the topic or concept. Throughout this research project, I found that my students benefited from giving and listening to daily homework presentations. Although grades, homework completion, and student attitudes may not have been affected, my students did value the deeper understanding provided Homework Presentations 34

through the presentations. I also found that the more specific and meaningful my feedback on homework is to students, the more likely they are to try to correct or fix their error. There was a deeper understanding of mathematics in my classroom as a result of the homework presentations and the discussions that followed. Although presentations take a lot of time, not only giving, but preparing and grading, I do believe they enhance the learning environment of the classroom and are definitely worth the time. Implications As a result of this study, I plan to continue to use homework presentations in my mathematics classroom. Some students suggested that I continue with homework presentations next year the same as this year and do them for only one semester, but I plan to use them all year. I believe that my students and I will benefit from both hearing and giving presentations over mathematics problems. I also want to do more informal research into different ways to grade homework assignments because this issue continues to plague my classroom. The research I conducted has given new meaning to change and learning in my classroom. Peter Block, a business philosopher said, Too many decisions about changes are made by people untouched by the change process. In my educational experience, it has been a

top-down approach to change where I implemented or changed what I was told to change. Throughout this research, I believe that I have been able to make positive changes in my classroom for the benefit of my students. I have a better idea of what I want my classroom to look like, and I know that I am the driving force behind the changes necessary to get it there. I have been touched by the positive changes in my classroom. Homework Presentations 35 References Corno, L. (2000). Looking at homework differently. The Elementary School Journal, 100, 529548. Evens, H., & Houssart, J. (2004). Categorizing pupils written answers to a mathematics test question: I know but I cant explain. Educational Research, 46, 269-282. Evertson, C. M., Emmer, E. T., & Brophy, J. E. (1980). Predictors of effective teaching in junior high mathematics classrooms. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 11, 167178. House, J. D. (2004). The effects of homework activities and teaching strategies for new mathematics topics on achievement of adolescent students in Japan: Results from the TIMSS 1999 Assessment. International Journal of Instructional Media, 31, 199210. Kotsopoulos, D. (2007). Mathematics discourse: Its like hearing a foreign language.

Mathematics Teacher, 101, 301-305. Manouchehri, A. (2007). Inquiry-discourse mathematics instruction. Mathematics Teacher, 101, 290-300. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. (2000). Principles and standards for school mathematics. Reston, VA: Author. Mason, L. (2004). Enhancing students mathematical beliefs: an intervention study. Learning and Instruction, 14, 153-176. Mengel, J. A., Holcroft, J., & Zahn, R. D. (1966). Attitudes toward homework. The Elementary School Journal, 67(1), 41-44. Pape, S. J., Bell, C. V., & Yetkin, I. E. (2003). Developing mathematical thinking and selfregulated learning: A teaching experiment in a seventh-grade mathematics classroom. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 53, 179-202. Personal Journal. Journal kept January 31, 2008 to April 15, 2008. Schoen, H. L., & Kreye, B. C. (1974). Five forms of written feedback to homework in a mathematics course for elementary teachers. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 5, 140-145. Student Interviews. (March 2008 to April 2008) Student Journals. (February 2008 to April 2008) Homework Presentations 36 Stutzman, R. Y & Race, K. (2004). EMRF: Everyday rubric grading. ., Mathematics Teacher, 97(1), 34-39. Homework Presentations 37

Appendix A Individual Student Interview Questions How would you describe yourself as a mathematics student? How would you describe yourself as a student in other school subjects? Tell me about your feelings and opinions toward giving presentations on daily mathematics homework problems. Do you think most other people in the class feel the same way? What do you like about presentations? What dont you like about presentations? How easy or hard is it to understand students explanations during their homework presentations? Think about how it used to be in class before we did homework presentations, when I explained homework problems that students found difficult: Do you think you understood homework better then or now? Do you think you tried more to get your homework completed then or now? Have you noticed any changes in your daily grades since beginning presentations? Why or why not? What do you think might be the consequences if I changed my grading procedures so that homework grades were only based on your presentations and not on your daily written assignment? How fair would that be?

 Do you think that how well you do on the homework presentations reflects how much you understand? Have presentations helped you understand more math this semester? Please explain why or why not. What advice would you give me about whether I should have my classes next year do homework presentations or not? Please explain. Is there anything you want to tell me about the homework presentations that I may not already have asked? Homework Presentations 38 Appendix B Personal Teacher Journal/Reflection 1. What are two or three observations you made this week regarding students attitude and responses toward daily presentations? 2. What are two or three observations you made this week regarding students preparedness in presentations and graded daily problems? 3. What are two or three observations you made this week regarding students attitudes while working in class? 4. How have this weeks presentations and graded problems influence your lesson plans (if at all)? 5. What is one question you have after this week?

6. What has changed in your teaching this week (if anything)? Homework Presentations 39 Appendix C Homework Presentation Rubric Explanation Mathematics Readiness Advanced Superior 4 Accurate response that is communicated clearly. Answers questions correctly Student uses correct mathematical language and symbols Student is ready to present Proficient Satisfactory, with Minor

Flaws 3 Main ideas are accurate, with some minor inaccuracies. Answers most questions correctly Student uses correct mathematical language and symbols with minor errors Student is ready to present Progressing Nearly Satisfactory, with Serious Flaws 2 Response has

minimal accuracy and explanation is minimal and/or unclear. Answers few questions correctly Student attempt, but does not use mathematical language and/or symbols correctly Student is not entirely ready to present Beginning Unsatisfactory 1 Response is inaccurate and explanation doesnt cover problem. No questions

answered No use of mathematical language and/or symbols Student is not ready to present Homework Presentations 40 Appendix D Group Interview Questions Interview #1 Why do you think teachers assign homework? How much do you think doing math homework helps students learn math? Please explain. What kind of feedback on homework is helpful to your learning? What would homework assignments look like if you were in charge? What kind of grading would be done on homework if you were in charge? What would you tell students who were going to have me as their math teacher next year what it takes to get good grades on their homework assignments? Is there anything you would like to ask me about math homework? Interview #2 Why do you think I have started having students do homework presentations? How easy or difficult is it to understand other students explanations during

homework presentations? How do you see homework presentations compared to what we used to do with checking homework in class? As I consider if I will use homework presentations in my math class next year, what advice would you give me? What do you see as the pros and cons? As I consider how to grade homework next year, what advice would you give me? What do you see as the pros and cons of how I am now grading homework? Is there anything you would like to ask me about homework and/or presentations? Interview #3 What advice would you give to next years eighth graders if I were to continue to use homework presentations I class? What advice would you give me if I were to continue to use homework presentations next year? What can I do as a teacher to make homework more meaningful to students? Think back to when we first began doing homework presentations: How have the presentations changed throughout the semester? Describe the pros and cons of doing homework presentations and hearing homework presentations. Is there anything you would like to ask me about homework and/or presentations? Homework Presentations 41 Appendix E

Student Journal Questions Journal 1 Please describe your thoughts on daily presentations and how you think they have changed (if at all) your thought process while completing math homework. Do you feel that daily presentations have affected your thoughts about math? Please explain why or why not. Journal 2 How do you feel about mathematics homework? Has your attitude towards mathematics changed since the beginning of the semester? Please explain why or why not. Journal 3 Do you feel you are better able to understand mathematics homework and explain the mathematics since we have begun presentations? Please explain. Have daily presentations influenced how much work or explanation you show on your daily work? Why or why not. Journal 4 What is your attitude toward mathematics and mathematics homework? Has it changed at all since beginning presentations? Explain why or why not. Do you feel that homework presentations specifically have changed your attitude about mathematics? Why or why not.

Journal 5 When you receive graded homework back, do you look to see if I have written any suggestions or feedback on how to fix your mistakes? Please explain why or why not. Do you feel you are doing a better job of getting your homework completed on time this semester? Please explain why or why not. Homework Presentations 42 Appendix F Student Mathematical Attitude Survey Please respond to the following items by drawing a circle around the response that most closely represents your opinions right now: Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Undecided (U), Disagree (D), or Strongly Disagree (SD). 1. Mathematics is enjoyable and stimulating to me. SA A U D SD 2. Communicating with other students helps me have a better attitude towards mathematics. SA A U D SD 3. I am interested and willing to acquire further knowledge of mathematics. SA A U D SD 4. The skills I learn in this class will help me in other classes. SA A U D SD 5. I learn mathematics well from lectures. SA A U D SD 6. I am sure I can learn mathematics.

SA A U D SD 7. Knowing mathematics will help me earn a living. SA A U D SD 8. Math is a worthwhile, necessary subject. SA A U D SD 9. Math is a fun subject. SA A U D SD 10. My teachers give me examples of how math is important in life. SA A U D SD 11. I believe math homework is helpful. SA A U D SD 12. I believe teachers assign math homework to help us learn better. SA A U D SD 13. I am good at completing my math homework assignments. SA A U D SD 14. I would be better at math if I understood how math relates to my life. SA A U D SD

How Can I develop students' self-confidence through respect and encouragement? By Liu Xia, Guyuan Teachers' College June, 2004. Abstract: This paper shows the educational development in some students, members of my own family and myself through my action research enquiry into how I can promote learning through respect and encouragement. It follows one class of Medical Major students, whose English level is perceived by the college as poor, as they develop confidence in learning. I show how I help them to believe in themselves as learners and how I take this new pedagogical knowledge into my family to help my nephews and my own son in their English learning. I find some contradictions in this process of encouragement, and recognise the necessity of making constructively critical comments to students. My new educational knowledge enables me to make recommendations about conditions for teaching and learning a foreign language. Why I chose this topic as my AR subject. There are several reasons for me to choose this topic as my AR subject. Firstly, I believe that love and being respected are essential to human beings. And students aged between 11 and 20 are at an important stage of development. Lacking self-confidence when facing frustration and failure is also a characteristic of teenagers. I asked 70 students in three different classes of Guyuan Teachers' College at random about this issue. Almost 100% of them said that self-confidence was very important both for studying as well as in their lives. 80% of them said that they were lacking in confidence when they faced difficulties. When asked whether they could gain confidence from their teacher, only 20% of them said "yes". From my point of view, as a teacher, building the students' self confidence and helping them to surmount a variety of difficulties through encouragement and respect seemed therefore particularly important. Secondly, in my teaching as well as in my life, I saw, heard and experienced many teaching methods, which were in opposition. For example, some people insist that teachers must be strict with their students. They think that beating and threats can make them study harder. They seemed to be saying that according to our Chinese tradition, only strict teachers can foster good students. Beating is a kind of love. Being strict with students is necessary. I have a friend who is an English teacher in a middle School. Here is a conversation between us: "Every time when I go to my classroom, I take a long stick in my hand", she said. "What do you do with it?" I asked. " To deal with the students who don't study hard," she answered. "Do you really beat your students when they haven't done well?" "Not really, I just threaten them by knocking my stick on the desk." "Does this way work"? "Sometimes it really works, but not always. The students will repeat their mistakes after ten days. I don't think this is a good way to educate, but I have no other better method." she said. There are others who believe in modern teaching methods think that respect and encouragement will make the children well-developed. They think that a teacher should be kind enough to his students. I agree with this latter idea. Just as Rosentar's experiment showed:

If a teacher has a affectionate heart and embraces a good anticipation to his students, the anticipation will produce happy and optimistic feelings and raise their interests in study. So a teachermust treat his students equally with respect and encouragement. (Psychology Course by Hu Yuexin ). I believe this idea and I want to help my students to develop their confidence through respect and encouragement. Thirdly, The AR research group led by Dr. Moira Laidlaw in Guyuan Teachers' College provided me with great help both in theory and practice. In September of 2003, I was very lucky to attend an AR meeting led by Moira. At first, I didn't really know what action research meant. As time went by, I attended several AR meetings, and I gradually began to know that it means to design plans, and do something constructive in your teaching process, consulting with what has happened and making comments on it. Now, I have an AR meeting almost every week. At the meetings I am able to learn from other AR members, I can also get information through Moira's help and through the Internet Website she has offered us. Also, I was greatly moved and encouraged by Dr. Laidlaw's words "I have been consciously influenced in my life by humanitarianism and liberalism, and most recently, by Christianity. I dont believe life should be simple and without problems, however, because as far as I can see, striving to overcome problems is a way to grow" I am deeply influenced by these words. She has made me clearly aware that people need respect and encouragement. No matter what job he does, no matter how old he is. I think this is natural. Because we are human beings, we are eager to be respected and encouraged. What did I do to strengthen this idea and use it in my teaching process? Saying "thank you" to the students who answered my questions in the class. Showing my gratitude for their answers. When I was still a student in the college ten years ago, I fortunately met my first foreign teacher, Susan, a warm-hearted English woman. She impressed me deeply because every time I answered her question, she always said "Thank You" to me. I was so moved by her simple words. I felt my answer was so important to her, and from then on, I struggled to answer her questions in class. Maybe one of the reasons was to obtain her sweet "Thank you". In my former study life, I had never heard any of my Chinese teachers saying "Thank you" to their students. Because for both teachers and students, answering the teachers question was so natural. There was no necessity for a teacher to say "Thank you" to his students. When I became a teacher myself. I never forgot to say "Thank you" to every student who answered my questions. Every time I said so, I could feel their pride in answering my question. For after my words, he or she blushed a little, and next time willingly gave an answer to my question.

To say "thank you" is not very difficult. But to have such a sense in oneself to want to say this, when it is not the cultural norm, that is not easy. It shows your appreciation to anothers reply. (2) Showing my respect and anticipation to the students by private conversation or praise words in the class. This is true especially for the students who are poorer in studying. Developing their confidence us crucial. According to psychologists, personal interests are driving forces of creative ability "In the process of studying English, if a student is interested in English, want to be a skillful and technological person ,at the same time, he wants to get a wide range of knowledge by means of English. This motivation will create great function in his studying". (Zhang Zhengdong) I also think that if one isn't interested in something, no matter what he does, it will be in vain. The psychologist has already testfied this point by many experiments. I began my AR research in some of the non-English major classes. For example, in the class of the Mixture of Western and Chinese Medicine of 2003, I attempted to carry out my action research. My students mainly graduated from some counties' high schools. Their oral English was poor when they entered Guyuan Teachers' College in September 2003. They couldn't even say a complete English sentence. For example, some of then might say: "Is you comes from Ningxia"? or "I isn't speak English." etc. But I was not disappointed by such sentences. I have confidence in improving their oral English because I believed that encouragement would work wonders. In their first English class in the college, I encouraged every one of them to introduce themselves. As I thought, many of them couldn't say a word, only Xu Baifang, Ge Wenyan, and Li Min could introduce themselves. After their introductions, I gave them a very warm applause and praised each of them greatly. In addition, I expressed my gratitude for setting a good example to others. Then I said to other students: "You can do as excellently as they did. What you need is confidence and encouragement. I will be grateful to every of you for helping me to accomplish our first oral English class". Then Wangzhen, Wu Jiandong, and Su Zhixiong introduced themselves bravely. Although there were mistakes. I praised each of them. After class, Wu Jiandong said to me: "I was greatly encouraged by your words, I know I made many mistakes, you and my classmates didn't laugh at me. That's quite different from my experience in my high school. I feel my action earned your respect". I was also encouraged by these words and decided to continue my plan and actions. Now, after a half term's exercises, almost all of the classmates can speak English actively in the English class. I wrote in my journal:

18.2.04. Today, I had my first English class of the new year. I was very happy to see my dear students again. They seemed more active in the class. After warm greetings, I told them: "We haven't seen for a long time; there must be a lot of things we want to say. You are to be given enough time to say what you wanted in groups. After ten minutes, I'd like every of you to say something in front of us. OK?" "OK. " they all answered happily. After ten minutes' heated discussion. We began our individual speeches. I was so surprised and yet happy to find they spoke English more fluently than they did last term. And the topics were much more rich and deep. They covered the topics of: Their colorful holiday life Their interests in computer Their active attitudes toward life Their feelings for their friends and relatives Their growth interests in English Their encouragements when facing difficulties They especially spoke of their confidence in studying English. Yu Li Bin said: "when I was in my high school, I didn't like studying English. Just because I didn't like my English teacher. He always insulted me by saying that I was so stupid a student. I was so angry, but I dared not say a word. For he was a teacher. Of course, I didn't get high mark in English in the Entrance Examination. That resulted in my appearance in Guyuan Teacher's College. But I was lucky enough to meet you. It was you who let me realize that I was not so stupid. I could do what others did. Even I could do much better than them. Failure couldn't defeat a person. The most important thing is having confidence. I became a real student under your encouragement". Some students as Huang Caili, Li Yu, Zhangzhen and Zhao Zengying were really interested in English. They often asked my questions voluntarily in the class and asked me to help them in studying English after class. Just as Liyu wrote in her composition: "Now, I really become interested in studying English. I can express my thoughts and feelings in English rather than in Chinese. I wrote down my secrets in English, it seems much easier to express my feelings by English than by Chinese. Although we have to pay more attention to our medicine subjects. We will not give up studying English. It is so much a marvelous subject. We like studying it. I want to try to speak English as much as I can." Four of them are going to attend the National Proficiency English Examination which will be held in June of 2004.They are in the second term of their first grade. No matter what kind of results they obtain, such action is really exciting. (3) Writing praise words in their exercise books I tried this way in my teaching process. It can testify to it as a very useful method. In a non-major English class of 2002, a boy named Ming Liang was once the monitor of his class. However, because of his excessive wrongdoings such as constant absence from class, or tardiness, the teacher

who is in charge of his class suspended him from the position of monitor. From then on, he was absent from class and late for school more frequently. He showed no interest in any subjects at all. In one English lesson, I asked every student to do exercises and hand them in at a specified time. The boy did his homework unwillingly but handed it in. After checking his exercises, I found that he was not so poor in English. At the end of his composition I wrote down this in his exercise book: "You are very clever. Don't waste your intelligence". And then, wonder of wonders. He was no longer absent from English class. Every time when I assigned homework, he handed it in before all the others. When I asked questions in the class, he answered them actively. In the second term of 2003-2004, his score of English was improved from 20th to 2nd place in his class. I never praised him in the class, because I know such a "bad boy" will feel awkward when praised in the public. However, I encouraged him by writing of my pleasure in his exercise- book continuously: "You really made great progress". "Well done, clever boy" etc. (4) Criticize some good students properly both in public and in private. Here, there is a significant point worth mentioning. In the conversations between my students and myself, I got to know that not every of them always wanted to be praised publicly. Especially those who studied comparatively well. Mu Feng Xia (in TVU class of 2003) said: "If I am always praised by the teacher, I will asked myself: "Am I really so excellent? I am not really worthy of such praise, whether the teacher really know me well? Maybe the teacher just made a mistake.'" Such words reminded me to be careful in praising students. I looked into some materials (see bibliography) with such questions. I finally found the answer: Students who were always successful are much confident than those who were not always successful. Boys are much more confident than girls. I began to realize that not all the praise was helpful. Some students who always felt superior to others have arrogant ideas. Such ideas may not only make them look down upon others but can also make them neglect their study. Thus they would fall behind. So proper warnings or even critiques of them would help them get rid of their arrogant ideas and let them know themselves more consciously. To these students, critique is also a kind of encouragement. But such critiques should be used very carefully. It doesn't mean that you can satirise them arbitrarily. I often criticized them with the kindest of attitudes and showed my strong belief in their potential. For example: After an examination of the students who major in medicine, I found Xu Baifang who was always first in her class had fallen behind to fifth place. I checked her examination paper and was surprised to see that she had made several obvious mistakes through carelessness. So after giving out the exam paper, I said in the class:

"From this exam, I am very glad to find that most of you have got a great progress. Such as Zhangzhen, Wang Xiaoyan etc. However, It is a pity that someone falls behind just because of some careless mistakes. Although she is still in the first five, she really hasn't done well. This is a danger sign for her. I am sure she will be aware of her mistakes clearly and get more progress". Without mentioning her name, her face already turned red and with her head lower and lower. After a few days, she came to me and said: "I know you referred to me that day. I really have arrogant ideas in my mind recently. Because I received much more praise than others. I think no one will be competed with me. But just as the exam result showed, I am not the best one in the class. I got your critique which seldom came to me. This shocked me deeply. I regard your words as encouragement rather than critique. Thank you for your kind 'critique'. It woke me up from my arrogant dream. I will try my best to study hard and do as you say." After that, in the last-term exam. She succeeded as she did before. (5) Widen my educational scope both in context and to education objects. In my conversations with the students, when I asked them: " Do you think it is important to get confidence when you were still children?" Almost all of them responded with YES definitely. Such answers resulted me in my personal life action research, and it is to this area of my enquiry as an educator that the next part of this report takes us. From my point of view, education exists not only in the classroom. Education is also not only the teachers' responsibility. I cherish this idea, I use this idea everywhere, to every person I meet. To my family members, relatives, friends, colleagues and so on. For example, during the winter holiday of 2004, my two sisters asked me to help their sons to study English. One is 15 years old (named Song Chenwei), and another is 13 years old (named Bai Chenguang). My elder sister said: "I am worried about my son. Most of their classmates have already learned English with the help of a private English teacher. My son is really a beginner . I am afraid he will be the last of his class. So I bought him a radio and tapes, forced him to recite the English words after class, but all of these efforts didn't work. He doesn't like studying English. He has no interest in English at all. You must help me." My eldest sister said to me: "Now that you are going to teach Bai Chenguang, teach my son also." "OK", I answered, "this is a good opportunity for me to perform my Action Research." Next morning, I called my nephews and my son: "Gentlemen, get up! We are going to play basketball on the school playground"

They were so happy to hear that .the three of them got ready in a surprisingly short time. We ran to the playground. Before playing, I said: "Anyone who can speak basketball in English will get a chance to choose his partner." The three of them answered my question loudly and correctly. "What a surprise. All of you speak English so well." I encouraged. "Another word. Who knows the word 'Cao Chang' in English?" "Playground" Only Song Chenwei knew the answer. "Do you two want to know this word?" I asked the two disappointed boys. "Yes , of course, what is it?" They asked eagerly. "Read it, Follow me"... In this way, I taught them at least 15 words and five simple sentences. "Tomorrow, we are going to play football, those who know more about football will get priority in the game. Those who can repeat the words and sentences we learned today will get a gift from me", I said. The next day, the three boys got up very early without being asked. They all prepared their sentences and phrases. I checked them satisfactorily, and then distributed my prepared gifts like rubbers, rulers, pencils etc to them. After ten days, we became intimate friends. Bai Chenguang said: "Aunt, you are the person I most respect. My mother and my teachers never play games with us. They never use such active methods teaching us. My mother often forces me to learn. She sometimes beats me when I don't obey her. You never scold me. But I become interested in English now. Next time, we are going to take part in the English Competition you designed for us, OK?" Song Chenwei said: "If only you were my mother. My mother is so indifferent to me. She never knows what I think. But you are quite different." Since leaving them, I have often phoned them and asked them about their lives, study and interests. They all willingly told me their troubles, their happiness and their progress. Bai Chengguang already begins writing to me in English. I wrote to him in response: "It is so marvellous that you can write letters in English. Your handwriting is so beautiful. Also the sentences you wrote are correct and fluent. I can't believe my eyes when I opened the letter. I read it repeatedly. You have got a surprising progress recently. Congratulations! I am so proud to have a nephew like you .You are such a excellent boy. Thank you for your letter. Wish you make progress every day..."

My Son In my family, My six-year-old son was often willing to talk with me. But I was sometimes busy with my work and neglected his wishes. One day, he looked very sad and said to me seriously: "Mother, can you spare me a little time to have a talk ?" I was shocked by his sadness and seriousness and began to notice him with the same seriousness. "Of course, my dear, you are my sunshine, I am willing to talk with you " I said. "Thank you, mother. Can you talk with me everyday?" He became happy at once and looked hopeful. "Sure. How about beginning our talk before we go to sleep?" I said. "It's a great pleasure. Thank you, mother," he said happily. Our conversation produced unexpected effects. Not only did I get to know his thoughts and feelings but also these conversations encouraged both of us greatly. Here is a conversation between us one night: My son: Mother, will everyone die some day? I: Yes, It's natural. All beings will die some day. My son: Will you also die? I: Yes. My son: What will I do if you die? I: You will grow up and become a real man. You will need less and less care from me. My son: I need your care forever. (Said with a cry) I: Maybe you can do something to delay my life and others . My son: How can I do? (asked eagerly) I: If you study hard and obtain a lot of knowledge, you may develop a kind of medicine which can delay one's death. Some experts who have the same ideas with you are also devoting themselves to such studies. In addition to studying the subjects you having now, you'd better study English a little earlier because you can get a lot of benefits from it. My son: Why? I: Because many advanced scientific results are demonstrated in English. You will not understand them without learning English. My son: Mother, is English very difficult to study? I: Not at all. You are so clever and such a lovable person, I am sure you will succeed. We can learn it at any time and anywhere if only you have interest and confidence. My son: I want to learn English. Can you help me? I: With Pleasure. Let's begin our learning process by saying "Let's have a good sleep" and do as it means." ... Our conversations are still going on. He tells me what he has experienced everyday and what his attitudes are on things. I tell him my experiences and feelings. We often have discussion on profound topics. It is understandable that his ideas are quite simple. But such conversations have

enriched his thoughts and comprehensive abilities. It has also developed his confidence in expressing himself. One day, I told my son: "Your Chinese teacher told me that she liked you very much, because you could answer questions actively in the class. That is quite different from what you have performed last term. She was very happy to find that you have got a great progress". On hearing such words, my son feels proud at once. He studies even harder than before. The other day, he asked me: ''Why didn't our teacher tell me such things herself " ? "They are not used to praising in the face of students", I answered. Yes, In China, some teachers are not used to expressing their real feelings in front of students, they think if they do so, they will lose their dignity as a teacher. These ideas are partly due to the long period of our feudalistic society. But from my point of view, humanitarianism and liberalism have gradually seeped into the Chinese mind. More and more teachers have accepted these ideas and use them in their teaching processes. Chinese governments have paid more attention to education both in theory and practice. The local education departments have organized several training-courses for teachers every year to help them with modern educational ideas. Furthermore, we are getting more and more advanced education methods from America and England by face to face contact or through broadcasts on TV and the Internet. What are my assessments on my AR research? "The Teaching process isn't an aimless one". (English Classroom Assessment and Reflection by Luo Shaoqian). Assessments on the teaching process will not only show us the students' knowledge and skills they have learned but also give us new teaching effects. I made some assessments on my AR research in three ways. (1) Through my Observation I mainly observed my students in the class. Generally speaking, most students' behavior in the class changed greatly. In the class of the Mixture of Western and Chinese Medicine, students like Su Zhixiong, Hai Tianjie, Zhang Xiaoyan, Cao Guangkui, Zhu Zhiyan, Zhu Qin etc all became active in answering questions. They become more active in the role-play performance. Also in the pair-work and group-work practice, they speak more English and didn't, they said, feel as shy as before. (2) Through the students' own assessments I asked them to assess themselves in the class or at the break time. For example, I might ask some of them: "Are you still afraid of making mistakes or do you have confidence in answering this difficult question?" Their positive answers increased. (3) Through tests

Tests can't give me a whole assessment on the students. But I was able to get some outinformation about the knowledge they have mastered. I could find out whether they had progressed or not. Who Can Help Me (1) Dr Moira Laidlaw Moira gives me a lot of help in my AR work. First, she introduced AR to me in a very patient and efficient way. I got to know something about AR while others as Zhao Xiaohong Li Peidong Ling Yiwen and other colleagues were at a more advanced stage. I was allowed to attend the meetings. But I was so confused with some terms, which I had never heard before. Moira helped me a lot by dividing the AR members into two groups. One group comprises beginners such as Ma Xia, Zhang Lina, He Lina, Yu Lili, Li Jun, Ma Hong, Liu Binyou, and myself. Another group contains Dean Tian Fengjun, Zhao Xiaohong, Li Peidong as well as other colleagues. This settled the problem. We have obtained corresponding knowledge about AR without further confusion. Now the two groups develop well in their separate ways. Second, Moira encourages me greatly in my writing of AR report. In Feb. 26, 2004. I finished a piece of paper concerned with AR, which contained only 4 pages in all. I handed it in to Moira and asked her to give me some comments. Unexpectedly, she praised my paper highly by saying that she had never read such a new idea in China before in terms of combining family and classroom research. She said my report is "groundbreaking". And immediately she convened a meeting and invited Dean Tian Fengjun, Zhao Xiaohong, Li Peidong and other beginners to discuss my paper. At the meeting, they gave me a lot of helpful advice on doing AR and Writing AR reports. For example, Zhao Xiaohong said: "As an AR report , it lacks of evidence. It should be written in a systematic way." Others comments on its lack of references and substantial evidences for the claims I made. Those are very useful pieces of advice and I accepted them seriously. Following such helpful advice, I expanded my writing into the document you are now reading with the working out of its five action planning points. When I secondly finished my draft, Moira corrected every mistake, even including all wrong punctuation. I am so impressed by her sincere attitude towards my work. Third, I invited Moira to my class. She gave me very helpful comments on my teaching. She encouraged me by saying that just as I showed in my AR report, my students were co-operating well with me and other students. She also said, however, that my students werent showing me and other students enough respect because some of them were busy with preparing their conversations whilst others were presenting. I told these comments to my students, and they guaranteed they would never make such a mistakes again. I also began to pay more attention to my awareness of organizing students in a proper way. I also learned from Moira's methods in encouraging students. I really saw that my encouragement and respect to students were not enough in themselves. I still need to improve my teaching methods. (2) Dean Tian Fengjun and other colleagues.

Dean Tian Fengjun and other colleagues helped me a lot in my work. Dean Tian often encourages us to read more books on AR and other subjects so that we can widen my minds and obtain more knowledge. He often reminds us of forming the habit of collecting data and evidence. He told us to respect Moira as she is so knowledgeable a woman and gives us such a lot of help. Shi Xingli, for example, she was also invited to my class and gave me some comments. She said: "I think your students are very active in the class. That's due to your efforts. But I don't think you arranged time properly. The students should be given enough time to prepare their conversations..." These are all very helpful comments. I 'd like to show my thankfulness to those who helped me a lot. What are the problems and corresponding recommendations from my AR research? Things are not always smooth . So it is with my AR research. By assessment, I found some problems: (1) Encouragement and respect sometimes don't work when a student is developing their selfconfidence. There is a student who is sixteen years old. He is often absent from class. I have talked with his classmates and the teacher who is in charge of his class. I knew that his parents had divorced recently. According to the law, he must live with his father. This issue upset him a lot. It is said he felt looked down upon by others because of his broken family. He doesn't like his stepmother. He doesn't want to stay at home. He also doesn't want to go to school. He chooses the Internet Bar as his "safe" place to idle his time in this unreal world. I tried my best to persuade him to study hard instead of idling away his life. What he offered me was just a hopeless smile, without any words. Such a smile on the face of a teenager stings me deeply. I had a private conversation with him and told him: "Everyone has the power to choose his own life. So do your parents. Maybe others will have their bias on this thing. You should have your own ideas. Every of us should live a free and happy life. This is a basic tenet of humanity. You also have a right to choose a hopeful future. I can give you special help in studying as well as in other aspects. You can obtain my help whenever you want". After hearing my words, he only gave me an indifferent and distrustful smile. He was then absent from class as usual. I talked with some leaders about him. They said they had persuaded him, warned him, punished him. All their efforts were in vain. I had no better idea too. So this also led to my conviction that I AR should involve itself in all aspects of society. From my point of view, AR research in education doesn't mean it is only limited to teachers and students. It has the potential to concern itself with different sections of society, such as parents, friends, relatives, communities, even governments. Just as the indifferent boy I mentioned in the former part. I could only see him in the class by chance (because he seldom attended classes). During that time, I had to carry out my teaching process, because other students were waiting for me to explain the difficulties in the text. I had no other time to talk with him. But he had already felt that he was unworthy of others concern. If all the people neglected him, he would neglect himself. This would result in the boy's tragedy. We have already seen so many tragedies, shall we continue to see more children going onward to their hopeless future? I call for the concern of all

those people around him. What these children need is little: only respect and encouragement. We can satisfy them easily. If only everyone of us has such an idea. (2) Large classes make the AR research much more difficult to do This maybe a serious and common problem in the schools of Guyuan and in China as a whole. I have had a class with 108 students in it. To carry out AR successfully is very difficult. I couldn't always make sufficient contact with every student. I couldnt even recall their names correctly. Such things may have discouraged the students greatly. Because some of them might have thought that the teacher just paid attention to these "special" students. Here is an example of my son again, to illustrate what I am saying about large clases in China. One day, he said to me despondently: "Mother, in order to answer the questions, I have raised my hands five times in the class. But the teacher didn't let me to answer the questions. I will no longer raise my hand ". I replied: "It isn't because the teacher didn't let you to answer questions, there are 98 students in your class. If the teacher always let you answer questions, other students may have the same feeling as you". I encouraged him. Large class may make the students feel they are neglected. I explained. But how can we explain that truth to all the students? Can all the students understand such thing? I have no positive ideas about this. Conclusion: In all, in the class, I believe the students attitudes changed greatly from the beginning of the year through my encouragement and respect. The whole class were able to take part in teaching activities voluntarily. I no longer needed to call out their names one by one to answer questions. Now after I asked a question, there were already several students prepared and competing to answer the question. They not only had courage to answer questions in the class, but also took part in extra-curricular activities organized by the English department. From April to the end of May of 2004, many of them participated in all kinds of activities such as the Speech Competition in English, Writing Competition in English, American and English Cultural Knowledge competition etc. No matter what results they achieved, such courage is worth praising to my mind. In my personal life, my two nephews are also greatly encouraged and respected. They can not only write to me in English, but also can make simple conversation with me. And the most important thing, they have more confidence both in me and in themselves. Through doing AR, I developed the idea that if you want to be successful, you must make sure that everything is well-prepared, carefully-carried out and assessments achieved promptly. Through doing AR on my topic, I have learned even more that everyone needs respect and encouragement. Once people feel they are being respected and encouraged, their potential and potential ability will be brought out. Respect and encouragement can work wonders. It can make a coward into a hero. In addition, one who respects and encourages others also earns himself respect and encouragement. As for me, my students now regard me as their friend. They sometimes invite me to take part in their parties. Some of them may call me to have a chat with them. There is not a definite line between us. My performance also earned myself confidence in doing AR research continuously.

I am so grateful to Moira's help. Without her kindest encouragement, I would not have carried out my action research so fully. Also, I would not have written down this report. Adults need encouragement too. Bibliography: 1. Psychology Course, by Hu Yuexin. 2. Pedagogy in Foreign Language by Zhang Zhengdong. Science Press 3. English Classroom Assessment and Reflection by Luo Shaoqian

1 Opinions About Homework: A collection of article summaries from the Marshall Memo, Kim Marshall, http://www.marshallmemo.com Robert Marzano and Debra Pickering on Productive Homework

The Case For and Against Homework by Robert Marzano and Debra Pickering in Educational Leadership, March 2007 (Vol. 64, #6, p. 74-79). www.ascd.org In this helpful article in Educational Leadership, researcher/consultant/writers Robert Marzano and Debra Pickering trace the ups and downs of homework over the years: - Early 20 th century It was believed that homework helped build disciplined minds; - 1940s There was growing concern that homework interfered with other activities; - Late 1950s Sputnik sparked a revival of rigorous homework to counter Soviet gains; - 1980s Some theorists said homework was detrimental to students mental health - Current There is a raging debate on the value of homework, including three recent anti-homework books. Marzano and Pickering agree with the critics that inappropriate homework is a waste of everyones time and may even decrease student achievement. They also concede that the research shows that homework produces quite modest gains in the early elementary grades. But they insist that plenty of research backs up the value of the right kind of homework. For one thing, they argue, it extends learning time, which is important given the relatively short amount of time that American

students spend in school compared to other countries. What makes the most sense, they argue, is implementing policies that will ensure that teachers assign homework that will produce learning gains. Marzano and Pickering say that the research doesnt offer very specific guidelines for school people, but they feel comfortable suggesting the following: Assign purposeful homework. For example: introducing new content; practicing a skill or process that students can do independently but not fluently; elaborating on information addressed in class; and giving students opportunities to explore topics that interest them. Assign homework thats likely to be completed. This means getting the difficulty and interest level right so that students can do it independently and with a high level of success. Homework that isnt completed has little value. Involve parents in appropriate ways. Teachers should send home clear guidelines that tell parents the ways they can be most helpful. One best practice is having parents act as a sounding board to help students summarize what they have learned from their homework. Parents should not be expected to act as teachers or to police their childrens homework completion.2 Dont overdo it. The amount of homework should be appropriate to students ages and allow time for other home activities. One rule of thumb is that total homework time should equal the childs

grade level times 10 (i.e., a sixth grader should be assigned about 60 minutes). Follow up with students. Homework should be checked and students should get prompt feedback and, if necessary, remediation. ---------------------The Skinny on Homework Does Homework Improve Academic Achievement? A Synthesis of Research 1987-2003 by Harris Cooper, Jorgianne Civey Robinson, and Erika Patall in Review of Educational Research, Spring 2006 (Vol. 76, #1, p. 1-62), no e-link available In this 62-page article in the spring issue of Review of Educational Research, three Duke University researchers synthesize the research on homework from 1987 to 2003. Noting that all studies they examined had design flaws, the authors nevertheless found credible evidence that homework has a positive influence on student achievement in the middle- and high-school grades (50 correlations were positive and 19 were negative). The evidence on the impact of homework in the elementary grades is very sparse and firm conclusions cant be drawn. As for non-academic benefits of homework, the researchers concluded that most have never been put to empirical test. Beyond these not-very-earth-shattering conclusions, the authors have a number of interesting observations about homework:

Since not all teachers assign homework and not all students complete the homework they are assigned, the impact of homework is very hard to pin down. Some studies suggest that the positive effects of homework on high-school achievement kick in when students do at least an hour a night. But the researchers note that its hard to interpret data on the correlation between time spent on homework and academic achievement, since students who are struggling academically may spend a great deal of time on their homework or none at all. Homework is an on-going source of friction between home and school, with parents complaining about it being too short or too long, too hard or too easy. Teachers give homework for a variety of purposes, including: (a) to have students practice or review material presented in class; (b) to establish communication between parent and child; (c) to fulfill directives from the principal or school district; and (d) to punish students. Studies have theorized about a number of potentially positive effects of homework, including: - Immediate achievement and learning, including better retention of factual knowledge, increased understanding, better critical thinking, concept formation, and information processing, and curriculum enrichment;3 - Long-term academic benefits, including more learning during leisure time, improved

attitude toward school, and better study habits and skills - Nonacademic benefits, including great self-direction, greater self-discipline, better time management, more inquisitiveness, and more independent problem-solving; - Parent and family benefits, including greater parental appreciation of and involvement in schooling, parental demonstrations of interest in childrens academic progress, and student awareness of the connection between home and school. Studies have also postulated some potentially negative effects of homework, which can operate in the same homes as the positives: - Student satiation, including loss of interest in academic material and physical and emotional fatigue; - Denial of access to leisure time and community activities; - Parental interference, including pressure to complete homework and perform well and confusion of instructional techniques; - Cheating, including copying from other students and help beyond tutoring; - Increased differences between high and low achievers. This last point is interesting: critics of homework argue homework actually widens the achievement gap, since more economically-advantaged students tend to have greater parental support and assistance, quieter places to study, and greater resources, including access to computers and the Internet.

---------------------Effective Ways to Get Students to Do Their Homework If Theyd Only Do Their Work by Linda Darling-Hammond and Olivia IfillLynch in Educational Leadership, Feb. 2006 (Vol. 63, #5, p. 8-13). www.ascd.org In this lead article in the February Educational Leadership, Stanford professors Linda DarlingHammond and Olivia Ifill-Lynch hear the plaintive cry of many teachers If I could only get them to do their work! and list the reasons so many students dont complete homework: not knowing how to do the assignments; jobs, babysitting, and other family responsibilities; undeveloped time management and planning skills; self-protection (Dont care about the stupid work); and general despair and lack of motivation. Teachers usually give failing grades to students who dont turn in homework to teach them a lesson, but this strategy rarely works; in fact, it may confirm students feeling that they cant be successful and result in even less homework being turned in. A more difficult but effective approach, say Darling-Hammond and Ifill-Lynch, is to create a strong academic culture that changes students beliefs and behaviors, convincing them to engage in their schoolwork. Here are some of the strategies successful schools use:4 Assign work that is worthy of effort. Before teachers give out a homework assignment, they should ask themselves, Does it make sense? Is it necessary? Is it useful? Is it authentic and engaging? Students are most likely to do homework when it is part of a meaningful curriculum unit and will

actually be used in class the next day. Make the work doable. Even if the work is engaging, say Darling-Hammond and Ifill-Lynch, students wont do it if they dont know how. Teachers should be sure the directions are clear and students can complete the assignment without help. Unless homework is a clear continuation of welltaught classwork, they write, it can actually exacerbate inequalities in learning instead of closing the gap. Students whose parents understand the homework and can help them with it at home have a major advantage over students whose parents are unable or unavailable to help. One way for teachers to monitor the difficulty level of homework is to allow students to get started on their assignments in class. Another is to discuss homework assignments with other teachers and continuously search for assignments that have the highest return rate. Find out what students need. Even when students have engaging work that they can do, say Darling-Hammond and Ifill-Lynch, they have to be motivated and organized to do it. They recommend that teachers reach out to students who are having difficulty and brainstorm strategies that work for them. Teachers should ask themselves, How does this student learn? What motivates him or her? What are relevant concerns, attitudes, aspirations, and beliefs? The goal is for the process to be transparent, concrete, manageable, and as simple as possible. One school conducted a homework audit and discovered that the problem was that many students had jobs after school. Teachers decided to devise

job-embedded homework assignments. Create space and time for homework. Some teachers invite students to do homework during their preparation periods or lunch breaks. Some schools set up a structured after-school homework time or success classes during the school day (in one school, the success classes were supervised by the principal, showing his commitment to the goal). Some schools mark homework assignments incomplete until they are handed in and extend deadlines into the next marking period, vacations, or even the summer. The bottom line, says New York City middle-school principal Jacqueline Ancess: The school needs to make it harder not to do the work than to do it! Make work public. Struggling learners benefit when learning goals and the desired quality of learning products are public and explicit, say Darling-Hammond and IfillLynch. One school made it a policy for all teachers to post the following items in their classrooms: - The content that the class was currently studying; - Where the class was in that study; - A list of products that students were required to create to demonstrate learning; - The completed student work products. Its also helpful for teachers to post or make available exemplars of proficient student work on similar projects so students have a clear picture of what is expected. All this helps students to know exactly

where they stand with their work and facilitates conversations with students who are falling behind.5 Encourage collaboration. This goes for collaboration among students (for example, 9 th graders working with 12 th graders) and among teachers. Schools that are organized as supportive learning communities with opportunities for collegial problem solving can better support their students in developing the practices and habits essential to doing schoolwork, conclude Darling-Hammond and IfillLynch. ---------------------Homework That Gets Done and Contributes to Learning Five Steps to More Effective Homework by Cathy Vatterott in Middle Ground, August 2010 (Vol. 14, #1, p. 29-31), no e-link available; the author is at vatterott@umsl.edu Homework that students cannot do without help is not good homework and is de-motivating. Homework should make students feel smarter, not dumber. Vatterott Cathy

In this Middle Ground article, University of Missouri/St. Louis professor Cathy Vatterott offers suggestions for increasing the homework completion rate and getting a bigger instructional bang for the buck:

 Provide a clear academic purpose Homework shouldnt present new knowledge; rather, it should enhance classroom learning by checking for understanding, practicing a skill learned in class, reviewing for a test or quiz, or previewing something students will learn soon. Make it do-able Homework that students cannot do without help is not good homework and is demotivating, says Vatterott. Homework should make students feel smarter, not dumber. Personalize Students should have choices and opportunities to gain ownership of the assignment. Make it interesting Students are much more likely to complete homework when it is clear, interesting, and fun. Middle grades students routinely complain about spaces too small to write in or too much information on a page, says Vatterott. Some examples of good assignments: - Write an op-ed piece defending a war, a theory, a method, a character, or an author. - Create a lesson plan to teach the water cycle to students in a lower grade. - Write a story or newspaper article showing you know the meaning of the 15 vocabulary words of the week. Differentiate One-size-fits-all homework does not fit all, says Vatterott. Homework can be differentiated by: - Time A 20-minute assignment for one student can take another student 60 minutes. One

solution is to make an assignment time-based rather than task-based, for example, Do as many problems as you can in 20 minutes, draw a line, and work longer if youd like. - Difficulty For example, fewer questions, or circling rather than writing answers. Many adaptations that teachers use for ELL or special-education students could benefit others as well.6 - Scaffolding Providing graphic organizers, word banks, multiplication tables, partiallycompleted math problems, and copies of class notes can make homework more do-able. - Interest/learning style For example, letting students choose which book to read or which aspect of a countrys culture to research, or let students choose how they will demonstrate what they have learned a report, poster, or video. Decriminalize grading Homework should not cause students to fail, says Vatterott. If homework carries too much weight in determining students grades, students may fail even though they have demonstrated mastery on tests and in-class assignments. Holding students accountable for homework should mean insisting that they finish rather than giving them a zero. Some possible policies: - Have a Zeros Arent Possible policy all work must be completed. - Use homework to check for understanding and give feedback. - Dont kill motivation or course grades by being too punitive. - If possible, dont give grades at all; give credit for completion only, not correctness or

accuracy. - Count homework 10 percent or less of final grades. - Be somewhat lenient on lateness; allow re-dos or give incomplete grades. Vatterott suggests ways of checking homework every day: (a) A quick visual check (these got it, these didnt) with immediate follow-up instruction for the students who didnt; (b) Student self-check (got it, not sure, didnt get it) with follow-up instruction for the latter two groups; and (c) Peer review students meet in groups, compare answers, ask each other questions, and report back to the teacher. Solve problems When students dont complete homework, figure out why. Reasons might include academic, organizational, motivational, situational (too many distractions at home, too many after-school activities), or personal (depression, anxiety, family issues). Solutions might include: - Let some students keep a copy of the textbook at home. - Assign homework buddies to work with or call for help. - Set a maximum amount of time to work on each assignment. - Prioritize assignments. - Give all assignments for the next week on Friday, due the following Friday. - Stagger due dates for each segment of long-term projects. - Allow parents or students to call the teacher at home if necessary. - Once a week, have students clean out lockers and reorganize their folders. - Coordinate core-subject homework assignments and limit the number of tests and projects at

any given point in time. Provide support Instead of trying to teach kids responsibility, lets force them to practice responsibility, says Vatterott. Some schools have ZAP (Zeroes Arent Possible) after-school programs four days a week, with mandatory early intervention for students who arent turning in homework on a regular basis. Other schools use advisory or study hall periods for homework support. 7 ---------------------A Theory About Homework Homework Inoculation and the Limits of Research by Bruce Jackson in Phi Delta Kappan, September 2007 (Vol. 89, #1, p. 55-59), no e-link available Over time, students determined to avoid homework discover that they can outlast most teachers in a battle of wills. - Bruce Jackson

In this Kappan article, recently retired California teacher Bruce Jackson puts forward an intriguing hypothesis on why the good homework habits that we strive to give students in elementary school fall apart when they get to high school. As an urban high-school teacher, Jackson noticed a stubborn resistance among a number of promising students to doing his geometry homework. Students who started the year with significant gaps in their math education really needed to study and do problem sets every night. If they did that, it

was entirely possible for them to overcome their math deficits and pass. But very few did their homework, and as a direct result, most of them failed, even though they said they wanted to go to college. Why would so many students willingly waste a year sitting through geometry class and earn zero credits toward graduation? Jackson wondered. All they had to do was spend 40-50 minutes a day at home and there was free tutoring available at lunch and after school. What were they thinking? When asked directly, Jackson says, these students offer a charming variety of excuses, evasions, defensive maneuvers, mea culpas, and doleful expressions, many well practiced from prior confrontations with parents or counselors. Almost all say that to succeed they would need to start doing all their homework. They further insist that they want to be successful. But then they didnt follow through. Jackson began to believe that this behavior pattern originated in elementary schools and operated in ways that students and adults didnt fully grasp. Heres his theory: In elementary school, homework is usually assigned without a strong belief that it improves achievement (research confirms that K-5 homework has little impact), but with the goal of instilling good work habits and responsibility. School boards, superintendents, and principals insist on homework and many parents expect it, so elementary schools are firmly in this pattern. The problem, says Jackson, is that doing homework becomes a sign of childhood dependency and submission to adult

authority. Good boys and girls obediently do their homework; rebellious boys and girls do not. Parents and schools with the necessary will power and resources can ensure that their third-graders will do their homework. Most 8- and 9-year olds, after all, will submit to sufficiently adamant adults, at least for a while. But homework isnt intrinsically pleasurable, and the seeds of future rebellion are sown. Along with the other indignities of childhood, homework has become something to be outgrown. Like broccoli or lima beans, it can be endured until one gains enough size, strength, and mental agility to create persuasive cover stories for what happened to it. 8 In middle school, the rebellion against homework picks up steam, especially among boys getting homework assignments from female teachers. Young males in American society are under intense social pressure to show rebellious, risk-taking behavior, writes Jackson, and for boys with few positive male role models, the need to establish masculine credentials by rejecting feminizing submission to authority is particularly strong. The peer group begins to see doing homework as a liability: only nerds, grinds, and other social losers maintain such goodygoody habits, says Jackson. Even moderate zeal around homework risks affecting contact with friends and limiting access to the currency of social interchange: whats hot on the Web and in film, TV, video games, music, gossip, and consumer goods. When homework compliance starts to fall off, teachers are often so overwhelmed

with the number of students that they dont follow up. Teachers may keep students who dont do homework after school, but this punishes teachers as much as it does students, and many lose the will to continue. Over time, says Jackson, students determined to avoid homework discover that they can outlast most teachers in a battle of wills. As fewer and fewer students do homework, teachers are caught in a selfreinforcing cycle. If lessons depend on students doing homework, and few students are doing it, the lessons will flop. So teachers tend to assign non-essential homework busywork or skills review. Heres the cycle: Fewer students doing homework Less classwork based on homework Less homework that matters Even less reason for students to do homework. Once this powerful feedback loop is in place, says Jackson, individual efforts to counter it are often self-defeating. Students still completing homework become more isolated and less able to justify their actions to their friends or themselves. Teachers trying to emphasize homework face a double load: one lesson plan for those who have done the assignment plus a separate one to keep the rest occupied and out of trouble. How much easier to give up and go with lesson plans that minimize the importance of homework.

 In high school, except for a small number of seriously college-oriented students, the culture has internalized the very opposite of what we thought we were teaching. Good homework habits are now an unhappy memory from early childhood dependency, writes Jackson. Obedience to parents and teachers is problematic and rarely practiced outside their immediate presence. Students have furthermore learned that homework is not really important to passing courses, that its mostly makework to keep them busy, that nothing serious happens if they dont do it. Finally, except for those in the brains crowd, taking homework seriously has become incompatible with their hoped-for social identity. For most students, the prevailing norm is to get by without showing off, and far too many figure they can get by without doing much homework. The real tragedy of this, says Jackson, is that in high school, homework really is important! And its a social leveler too, allowing students with weaker academic backgrounds to compete with better-9 prepared peers and make it to college. But the students who need it the most are the least likely to do it. So what is to be done? Alfie Kohn and others decry excessive homework and advocate abolishing it in the elementary grades or cutting way back. Jackson concedes that children from well-todo families might do fine without homework, given their ready access to books, the Internet, recreational programs, the arts, and college expectations. But for families without these class-based

resources, he says, how else but through homework can students catch up academically with their more advantaged peers? Alfie Kohn worries about over-homeworked children missing out on their childhood. Yet students in the low-income areas where Ive worked spend long hours in homes where television, video games, or older siblings are the only babysitters, and outside, the streets are unsafe. If this childhood is to be protected from the intrusion of homework, what chance do these students have of matching their middle-class peers in academic proficiency? Jackson thinks he has the solution: making elementary homework meaningful and enjoyable. Here are some components: - A well-designed home reading program that gets students hooked on independent reading, builds a self-sustaining reading habit that doesnt depend on obedience, tokens, or rewards, and cuts down on TV viewing and video game use. - Giving homework assignments that provide recognition and an academic payoff in school and help internalize the idea that individual effort outside school pays off. No one seriously contends that virtuoso performances in music or sports are achieved without extensive practice, says Jackson. Why should academic performances be different? - Assigning projects that dont feel like homework and motivate students to produce highquality products. Such long-term work, says Jackson, may do far more for building an academic identity than any number of stars, happy faces, or letter grades.

Despite the ambiguities of research, he writes, carefully planned homework can be a great equalizer at the elementary level and can serve as the foundation for a different and far more productive homework dynamic in middle and high schools. Jackson concludes with a call for better research and says the best insights for improving homework may come from action research by middle- and high-school teachers. He urges them to get to know their students and parents, loop with their students for as many years as possible, seek to understand the conditions under which homework gets done, and strive to make the homework they assign truly doable, worth doing, and in some way rewarding to the students themselves. ---------------------Less is More? Four Ideas for American Schools Learning from the World: Achieving More By Doing Less by Lawrence Baines in Phi Delta Kappan, October 2007 (Vol. 89, #2, p. 98-100), no e-link available In this provocative Kappan article, University of Toledo professor Lawrence Baines argues that American schools wont get better by lengthening the school year, assigning more homework, hooking 10 up more computers, and giving more tests. Countries that are outscoring us on international tests have not taken this approach, indicating that other factors are at work in getting higher student achievement: Homework Secondary-school math teachers in the U.S. assign an average 140 minutes of homework

a week, compared to 120 minutes a week in Korea. Despite this, Korean students outscore U.S. students, 584 to 502, on the TIMSS. The reason, says Baines, is that American teachers tend to assign textbook homework in which students are neither interested nor engaged. In examining homework policies around the world, he writes, researchers have concluded, The relationships between national patterns of homework and national achievement suggests that more homework may actually undermine national achievement. Many bleary-eyed American students would wholeheartedly agree. - Lawrence Baines ---------------------Findings from a New Poll on Homework Survey on Homework Reveals Acceptance, Despite Some Gripes by Debra Viadero in Education Week, Feb. 20, 2008 (Vol. 27, # 24, p. 10) http://www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2008/02/20/24homework_ep.h27.html. The survey is available at http://www.edweek.org/links A 2007 survey on homework by Harris Interactive (for the MetLife Insurance Company) was released two weeks ago and shed some light on the status of this muchdebated practice: 80 percent of teachers and parents and 70 percent of students said that homework is important or very important and support was even stronger among African-American and Hispanic parents, who overwhelmingly

believe that homework helps children learn more and reach their goals after high school. The survey also found: - 75 percent of students said they do at least 30 minutes of homework each weekday. - 45 percent of students said they do an hour or more. - 90 percent of students said getting homework done caused them anxiety, despite the fact that most students said they had enough time. - 25 percent of secondary-school students said their homework assignments were mostly busywork (this was down from 75 percent in a 2002 survey). - By contrast, only 16 percent of teachers rated homework quality as poor. - Teachers said they spend an average of 8 hours a week preparing and grading homework. - Veteran teachers tended to be more supportive of homework than new teachers. - Students who had the lowest opinion of homework and spent the least time on it were generally those who earned Cs and below, didnt have college plans, and rated their schools as fair or poor. - Similarly, parents who were the most critical of homework tended to be those who were the most alienated from their childrens schools, the most critical of how frequently teachers were in touch with them, and the amount of guidance their children received on homework. 11 ----------------------

So, if the kids who really need the practice arent attempting the homework and are getting little support at home, and the ones who do complete it are often getting too much support, is homework working for anybody? - Lisa Mangione Homework: Issues of Fairness and Effectiveness Is Homework Working? by Lisa Mangione in Phi Delta Kappan, April 2008 (Vol. 89, #8, p. 614-615), no e-link available In this Kappan article, Lisa Mangione, an Amherst, NY middle-school teacher, wonders about the efficacy of complex homework assignments that in many cases end up being outsourced to parents. And what about those students who will not get help with their homework, simply because the adults at home are unable or unwilling to help? Mangione asks. Should those students be penalized for choosing their parents badly? Mangione remembers her fathers advice when she first started teaching. A veteran educator, he told her, Homework should be independent practice. In other words, it should reinforce what was already modeled and taught, and students should be able to do it without parental help. And as for whether it should be graded, he made a sports analogy: homework is like practice that athletes do before a game, but It only counts in the game. So how can teachers get students to complete their homework without the leverage of grades

having it count? Mangione suggests that the same logical consequences might apply as in sports: if you dont practice, you wont do well in the game, so youd better not miss practice! In schools where homework is graded, there are serious equity issues. Homework is an entirely different animal from school to school, class to class, teacher to teacher, says Mangione, ranging from rote memorization of spelling words to long-term projects that encompass an entire unit of study. Given these differences, how can grades be fair from class to class? Not to mention the problem of some students getting lots of help from the big parental elves at home while others get none. All this vitiates the link between homework and students real understanding. The result is a dysfunctional dynamic. Unfortunately, says Mangione, the students who most need the practice and discipline of self-guided assignments are the ones who just never do them We may think that grading homework sends a message that it isnt optional, but the fact is, the students who are most at risk will almost always opt out. So, Mangione asks, if the kids who really need the practice arent attempting the homework and are getting little support at home, and the ones who do complete it are often getting too much support, is homework working for anybody?12 Not the way many schools are handling it, but Mangione believes it can work if its handled

properly. She concludes by quoting approvingly from the findings of homework expert Harris Cooper of Duke University: - The quality of homework assignments is more important than the quantity of time students spend on them. - Homework should be a mix of mandatory and voluntary assignments. - Students should be able to do their homework without parent assistance, except for creating a good environment in which to do the work. - Homework should not be graded; mandatory assignments that are not handed in should result in remediation, not a failing grade. - Schools and districts should have explicit guidelines for homework, accompanied by teacher training.

pep talk n Informal an enthusiastic talk designed to increase confidence, production, cooperation, etc.
Collins English Dictionary Complete and Unabridged HarperCollins Publishers 1991, 1994, 1998, 2000, 2003

Ads by Google www.fruitfulenglish.com ThesaurusLegend: Synonyms Related Words Antonyms Nou 1 n . pep talk - a speech of exhortation attempting to instill

enthusiasm and determination in a team or staff colloquialism - a colloquial expression; characteristic of spoken or written communication that seeks to imitate informal speech exhortation, incitement - the act of exhorting; an earnest attempt at persuasion

pep talk Noun---WORLD ENGLISH DICTIONARY a vigorous, emotional talk, as to a person or group, intended toarouse enthusi asm, increase determination to succeed, etc.: Thecoach gave the team a pep talk before the game. Relevant Questions

UCLA Center for Healthier Children, Families and Communities Building Community Systems for Young Children Building Community Systems for Young Children is a series of reports designed to support the implementation of Proposition 10: The California Children and Families Act. Each installment is written by a team of experts and provides comprehensive and

authoritative information on critical issues concerning young children and families in California. December 2001 Home Visiting: A Service Strategy to Deliver Proposition 10 Results By Lisa Thompson, MPH Family Health Programs Los Angeles County Department of Health Services Vickie Kropenske, MSN Hope St. Family Center Los Angeles, CA Christoph M. Heinicke, PhD Department of Psychiatry UCLA Medical School Deanna S. Gomby, PhD, MS Deanna Gomby Consulting Neal Halfon, MD, MPH UCLA Center for Healthier Children, Families and CommunitiesBuilding Community Systems for Young Children UCLA Center for Healthier Children, Families and Communities Copyright 2001 UCLA Center for Healthier Children, Families and Communities. Edited by Neal Halfon, MD, MPH; Ericka Shulman, MPP; and Miles Hochstein, PhD.

Building Community Systems for Young Children has been made possible through generous support from the David and Lucile Packard Foundation. Permission to copy and disseminate this document is granted as long as proper credit is given to the UCLA Center for Healthier Children, Families and Communities. Single copies of this report are available for $5 each by writing the UCLA Center for Healthier Children, Families and Communities, Box 951772, Los Angeles, CA 900951772. Phone (310) 206-1898. This document may be found on the web site of the UCLA Center for Healthier Children, Families and Communities (http://healthychild.ucla.edu). SUGGESTED CITATION: Thompson L, Kropenske V, Heinicke C, Gomby D, and Halfon N. Home Visiting: A Service Strategy to Deliver Proposition 10 Results, in N Halfon, E Shulman and M Hochstein, eds., Building Community Systems for Young Children, UCLA Center for Healthier Children, Families and Communities, 2001.Building Community Systems for Young Children UCLA Center for Healthier Children, Families and Communities Table of Contents I. Introduction.......................................................................................................... ................1 II Home Visiting Program Models..........................................................................................3

III. Funding Home Visiting Programs .......................................................................................9 IV Evaluation of Programs......................................................................................................11 V. Strategies to Strengthen the Quality of Home Visiting Programs .....................................17 VI. System-Level Strategies.....................................................................................................22 VII. Local Best Practices...........................................................................................................24 VIII. The Future of Home Visiting.............................................................................................25 IX. References........................................................................................................... ...............27 X. Appendix A: The Theoretical Basis of Home Visiting Programs.....................................29 XI. Appendix B : Home Visiting Program Characteristics......................................................30 XII. Appendix C : Common Home Visiting Programs Found in California.............................33 XIII. Appendix D: Funding Streams for the Home Visiting Programs in California.................37 XIV. Appendix E : Federal Funding Sources for Home Visiting Programs..............................39 XV. Appendix F: Summary of the Packard Foundation Report.................................................41 XVI. Appendix G: Examples of Home Visiting Program Performance Measures....................43 XVII. Appendix H: Fresno County's Nurse-Family Partnership Program..................................44

XVIII. Appendix I: The Hope Street Family Center Home Visiting Program..............................47 XIX. Appendix J : The Alameda County Commission's Every Child Counts Initiative...........50 Building Community Systems for Young Children UCLA Center for Healthier Children, Families and Communities - 1 Home Visiting: A Service Strategy to Deliver Proposition 10 Results I. Introduction Home visiting has emerged as an important service-delivery strategy because it potentially affords unique opportunities for reaching psychologically- and geographically-isolated populations, for gaining a more realistic and complete picture of the home environment, and engaging families with young children in a range of services designed to promote the healthy development of children and the well-being of parents. Home visiting has been a long-standing tradition in many European countries, and has recently reemerged over the past few decades in the United states as one of the key components in the delivery of comprehensive services for families with young children.[1] Home visiting programs, which under certain conditions have been shown to produce positive impacts on mothers and young children, are also frequently employed as a means to reduce barriers to accessing services, reach psychologically and geographically isolated populations, and to gain a more realistic and complete picture of the home environment. Further, the provision of services in the home helps to ensure that

curriculum/interventions are relevant to family circumstances and responsive to individual family needs. Prenatal and early childhood home visiting has been highlighted by the California Children and Families (Proposition 10) Commission as an important service-delivery strategy and program option for counties to consider as they develop comprehensive systems to support families with young children [2] in part because the goals of many home visiting programs are well matched with the Commissions strategic goals. For instance, home visiting programs have traditionally sought to improve families knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors regarding parenting, support childrens health and development, prevent child abuse and neglect, and facilitate maternal lifecourse development. These goals of home visiting programs are strongly aligned with the three Proposition 10 strategic results (improved family functioning, child development, and improved child health), and the three focus areas (parent education and support services, child care and early education, and health and wellness). Figure 1 lists the specific recommendations for the use of home visiting as an intervention strategy that appear throughout the California Children and Families Commission Guidelines. There has been a long history of support for home visiting in both the United States and in Europe by child and family advocates who view home-based services as one of the essential components in the

delivery of effective maternal and child health and child welfare services. However, evidence on the effectiveness of home visiting and its impact on short- and long-term outcomes has been inconsistent. As summarized in a recent overview of home visiting research, we still lack clarity as to if, how, and for whom home visiting produces positive outcomes.[3] Lack of clear evidence for short and long-term benefits has created controversy within the field of home visiting as well as concern by those charged with implementing services for young children and their families. WithinBuilding Community Systems for Young Children UCLA Center for Healthier Children, Families and Communities - 2 Figure 1. Recommendations Concerning Home Visiting Services as Listed in the California Children and Families Commission Guidelines In its guidelines, the California Children and Families Commission (Proposition 10) recommends that: q Pediatric nurse practitioners and family advocates based in community organizations work directly with young parents through a combination of home visiting and center-based approaches; q Organizations collaborate with or establish home visiting programs for early parent education programs, with emphasis on eliminating prenatal exposure to substance abuse; q Home-based programs be expanded to educate new parents on child development and family life skills; q Outreach to parents in their homes occurs particularly for at-risk and isolated families;

q Home visiting be utilized to prevent abuse and neglect, and to improve maternal, infant, and child health; q Public health nurse (PHN) home visitation programs be established following delivery of newborns; and q Childhood immunizations be increased by using home visitation strategies. California Children and Families Commission Guidelines. 1999, California Children and Families Commission: Sacramento this context, State and County Proposition 10 Commissioners are being asked to evaluate local service delivery systems and consider how to utilize home visiting to strengthen the continuum of care for families with young children. While a number of questions remain about the potential effectiveness of different home visiting programs, this report takes the position that the home visiting cup is not half-empty, but half-full. We believe that there is much to be learned and gained by efforts that focus on improving the quality of existing programs. Further, efforts to strengthen program linkages with other services for children and families, especially center-based family resource centers, child care providers, and school programs that offer child-focused services, may foster a more integrated and more demonstrably effective early childhood service-delivery system. To this end, the aim of this report is to assist

commissioners in the planning and policy-setting process by characterizing existing home visiting programs and models commonly employed in California, by summarizing the research literature highlighting key components and practices that have been associated with positive outcomes and recommending strategies for integrating home visiting programs into the continuum of comprehensive services for young children and their families. Our approach is to use the best evidence available regarding the effectiveness of different home visiting programs, and to consider strategies that will both improve our knowledge base about what works, while simultaneously advancing Proposition 10s goal to build the most effective system of services available for supporting childrens health and development. In this report, we begin with a listing of definitions and theoretical frameworks, and then describe a number of program models. We then turn to a review of the evidence about the effectiveness of different types of home visiting programs.Building Community Systems for Young Children UCLA Center for Healthier Children, Families and Communities - 3 II. Home Visiting Program Models Definition Home visiting in itself is not an intervention or a program, but rather a strategy for service delivery from which to launch any number of interventions designed to achieve a wide variety of outcomes.

Home visiting programs target different populations within the community via a variety of staffing and practice models, curricula, and intervention approaches. Many home visiting programs target populations and address outcomes distantly related to those of the Commission. For instance, there are home visiting programs that provide home health care to the elderly, address truancy in teenage boys, or offer respite care to family caregivers of the disabled. This report will focus on home visiting programs for families with young children that are preventive in nature, that begin prenatally or during the early months of life, and are sustained over an extended period during the childs first 5 years. As this report will demonstrate, even within this narrowed definition, programs vary greatly in their target populations, staffing models, and curricula and they encompass a broad range of primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention strategies targeted at health and development, education, and family-support outcomes. In addition, specific interventions taking place in the home often include some combination of the following services: assessments and problem identification, early childhood education, parent education and instruction, counseling and mental health services, health care, advocacy, case management, treatment services, care coordination, and referral assistance. History

Wasik, in her book Home Visiting: Procedures for Helping Families, describes the history of home visiting in the United States and Europe.[4] She outlines the key events and movements in the child health and welfare arena that have influenced the use of home visiting as a strategy to improve the well-being of vulnerable children and their families. Wasik explains that home visiting has its roots in Europe, and dates back at least to Elizabethan England. At the turn of the twentieth century in England, the public health nurse and child advocate Florence Nightingale, through her inspirational writings, was influential in defining the role of nurses and paraprofessionals in preventive health care in the community and establishing nurse training programs for home visiting. For many European countries today, including Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Ireland, the Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom, home visiting is a routine, widely accepted component of a more comprehensive system of care. European practices for maternal and child care are often described as a model for practice in the United States. However, as Kamerman has described, the lessons from Europe may be complicated because of the fundamental differences between our systems.[5] In contrast to the United States, Building Community Systems for Young Children UCLA Center for Healthier Children, Families and Communities - 4 -

many European home visiting programs are universal, are provided to and expected by both rich and poor, and thus are well accepted by the general public. Further, many European countries have broad government-funded health and social services systems and therefore can more easily implement and integrate home visiting programs into a comprehensive delivery infrastructure. Further discussion of the applicability of universal home visiting in the United States is discussed in section V of this report. Wasik explains that although there were early examples in the United States of nurse, teacher, and social worker home visiting models, home visiting did not truly evolve and become an organized component of public agencies until the beginning of the twentieth century. Nurse home visiting began in the United States in 1893, when two public health nurses, Lillian Wald and Mary Brewster, used home visiting as a means to address the poor health and terrible living environments of Manhattans Lower East Side residents.[6] Wald and Brewster, who would go on to become significant figures in the emerging field of maternal and child health, were the catalysts for the creation of the first White House Conference on Children (convened in 1909) as well as the establishment of the U.S. Childrens Bureau and the Organization of the Child Welfare Leagues of America. With the passage of the Sheppard-Towner Act in 1921, which organized the provision of

maternal and child health services, home visiting became part of the federal health infrastructure. The Great Depression also significantly increased the use of nurses to reach poor families in their homes. Social movements and technological developments in the mid-to-late twentieth century have increased the use of the home as a servicedelivery platform. For instance, since the 1960s, there have been increases in the numbers of medically fragile, pre-term, and highrisk infants cared for in homes, and a trend toward de-institutionalization of care for the disabled and chronically mentally ill.[4] Additionally, increased concerns about the effect of poverty on the cognitive performance of children in the 1960s contributed to the establishment of federal programs such as the national Head Start Program that still today provide early intervention services for poor children, including services in the home.[7] In the last two decades, the increase in public pressure to both reduce child maltreatment and prevent children from being unnecessarily removed from their homes has renewed the call for statewide and national home visiting programs. In 1991, the U.S. Advisory Board on Child Abuse responded to this crisis by recommending that the federal government begin phasing in a national, universal home visiting program for children during the neonatal period.[8] This recommendation was largely due to

promising results from a small number of well-done home visiting studies that indicated that home visiting programs had the potential to decrease the incidence of child abuse and neglect. Although the federal government did not respond positively to these recommendations, state governments, the private sector, and foundations have helped to institute several national and statewide initiatives to increase the availability of home visiting services. For instance, the Ronald McDonald Foundation awarded a $1 million grant to the National Committee for the Prevention of Child Abuse to launch Healthy Families America (HFA), aimed at replicating the Hawaii Healthy Start home visitingBuilding Community Systems for Young Children UCLA Center for Healthier Children, Families and Communities - 5 program. [9] [10] HFA, along with other programs commonly found in California, will be discussed later in this section. During this same period, the field of home visiting research emerged to examine empirically the benefits and limitations of home visiting as a service strategy. In the early 1990s home visiting blossomed as a result of preliminary evidence that well-designed home visiting programs could produce positive outcomes for children.[11] A recent national survey, commissioned by the Commonwealth Fund, found that many states are making substantial commitments to home visiting programs through policy development or direct support. Of the 42 states that responded to the

survey, 37 reported state-based home visiting programs, where state-based home visiting programs were defined as those that are guided by state policies and administered by state agencies.[12] Although California was not identified (or did not identify itself) as having a state-based home visiting program, significant funds are allocated toward home visiting in California, and various models of home visiting have been implemented across the state. These models and their funding sources are discussed later in this section and in Appendices C and I. Certain home visiting models, such as the Nurse Home Visiting Program that began in the 1970s in Elmira, New York, and has evolved into what is currently known as the NurseFamily Partnership (NFP) program, [13] have continued to show positive results for children and their families, using rigorous experimental designs. Most recently, however, the 1999 issue of The Future of Children, published by the David and Lucile Packard Foundation, methodically reviewed evidence about the impact and effectiveness of home visiting,[3] and suggested that the benefits of many programs are less than certain. These findings highlight the need to include program evaluation as an integral part of program implementation and continued funding to both increase knowledge of what contributes to an effective home visiting program, and also to ensure standards of program accountability. Theoretical Basis for Home Visiting

Before describing the different components of and wide variation in home visiting programs, it is important to outline the theoretical underpinnings that describe how home visiting, as a service strategy, is believed to support human development. Two influential theories that have guided model development for programs such as the Nurse-Family Partnership program, are Banduras theory of individual self-efficacy and Bronfenbrenners ecological model of human development. Selfefficacy in the context of home visiting sees the primary role of the home visitor as building confidence and capacity in families to achieve attainable goals. The ecological approach recognizes how family, friends, and community have an important environmental influence on an individuals life, and take these factors into account in constructing a long-term therapeutic plan.[14] In addition, this approach maintains that home visiting programs may be effective by using strategies that are not only directed at the child and family, but also address issues related to the familys relationship in their community.[15]Building Community Systems for Young Children UCLA Center for Healthier Children, Families and Communities - 6 Many home visiting programs are even more eclectic and combine key principles from various theories about what contributes to positive human development. Some home visiting programs have sought to build upon ecological theories of development by focusing on a relationship-based approach, incorporating attachment and object-relationship theory, including notions of

individuation-separation and self-efficacy. [16] Heinicke et al. describe this type of approach as one that focuses on the process whereby a person makes or maintains a positive relationship with another, develops an expectation of mutual satisfaction or trust, and uses that relationship to define and resolve internally and externally focused problems. Appendix A outlines various other assumptions, perspectives, and theories that programs have commonly incorporated into their home visiting programs. These concepts, based in both research and strong philosophical beliefs, provide the underlying logic for program design and development. Characteristics of Home Visiting Programs A home visiting program comprises many dimensions: its program goals, target population, intensity and array of services, average and maximum caseloads, and staff qualifications. Before describing current programs in California, it is important to describe these dimensions or program characteristics and how they differ among programs because certain components of programs have been shown to be associated with improved child and family outcomes. Appendix B organizes the major characteristics of home visiting programs and discusses their variation based on a variety of reports and research efforts, [3] [14] [17] including three home visiting surveys summarized below. Roberts and Wasik conducted a national survey in 1987 and 1988 of more than 4,000 home visiting

programs to obtain information on home visiting for families with children.[1, 17] Of the 1,904 agencies that returned questionnaires, 643 indicated that their home visiting programs focused on children from birth through age 3. Key findings from this survey include: Program domains: Thirty-nine percent of the programs were educational, 36% were healthrelated, 23% were from social service perspectives, and 2% were Head Start programs. Service array: More than 80% reported services to enhance child development/parenting skills. From 68% to 75% reported services to strengthen parental coping, provide emotional support, and deliver information and/or diagnostic services. Intensity of services: Half of the programs offered home visits on a weekly basis, 12% on a biweekly basis, 15% monthly, and 22% on some other schedule. A more recent national survey, commissioned by the Commonwealth Fund and published in May 2001, was conducted to assess state policies regarding home visiting through an examination of state-based home visiting programs targeting low-income families with young children.[12] Of the 42 states that responded to the survey, 37 reported state-based home visiting programs. Key findings from this survey include: Building Community Systems for Young Children UCLA Center for Healthier Children, Families and Communities - 7 Program domains: The most frequently reported purposes for home visiting were to improve parenting skills (81%), enhance child development (76%), or prevent child maltreatment and

neglect (71%). Approximately half of the programs identified maternity/infant outreach, high-risk infant follow-up, early intervention, or altering maternal life course as a main reason for home visits. A smaller proportion (24%) reported that follow-up to early hospital discharge was the primary purpose of the intervention. Service array: Most programs (98%) concentrated on offering advice and referrals. Home and family assessments also were reported as a component of a great majority of programs (88%), as was parent education in child development was reported as a service of many programs (86%). Mental health services (as opposed to referrals) were least likely to be delivered by home visitors (24%). Intensity of services: Most states reporting said that multiple home visits take place, generally on a routine schedule, but also on an as needed basis. A small group of statebased home visiting programs limited home visits to one per family. In April 2000, the Los Angeles County Department of Health Services developed an inventory of home visiting programs in the county and conducted phase I of the Los Angeles County Home Visiting Survey to track and assess the characteristics of home visiting programs targeting women and young children in the County. [18] The inventory identified 94 organizations operating 194 home visiting programs. Of the 194, phone surveys and self-administered questionnaires were

collected from 91 programs. Data were collected on model characteristics, target populations, staff qualifications, program capacity, and evaluation. The Los Angeles County Proposition 10 Commission is working collaboratively with the county to implement phase II of the survey. Key findings from this survey include: Program domains: Although most programs appear to be comprehensive, 40% reported that their primary program focus was on safety and survival, while 26% concentrated on schoolreadiness, 24% on good health, 5% on social and emotional well-being, and 2% on economic well-being (3% were not classified). Service array: Over 80% of the programs reported that their home visitors conduct case assessment and case management activities. The most frequently reported educational topics discussed in the home were parenting support and education on child health/development (80%) and home safety (74%). Intensity of services: Sixty-six percent reported scheduling weekly home visits, 18% monthly visits, 2% quarterly, and 1% reported conducting annual visits. Thirteen percent reported frequencies of visits that varied over time. Twenty-two percent of respondents provided services for less than 6 months, 40% provided services for 612 months, 28% for 1236 months, 2% for over 36 months, and 8% reported varied durations in services.

In comparing the results of these surveys, it is interesting to note that the earliest survey, conducted by Roberts and Wasik, categorized each program into one of four domains, whereas the two more recent surveys (the national survey commissioned by the Commonwealth Fund and the surveyBuilding Community Systems for Young Children UCLA Center for Healthier Children, Families and Communities - 8 conducted in Los Angeles County) addressed the extent to which programs focus on multiple domain areas. All three surveys reported that parenting skills and child development were core service components of their home visiting programs. However, the two most recently surveys underscored the striking lack of mental health services provided in the home. Perhaps the most important finding, addressed in both the Roberts and Wasik survey and the Los Angeles County survey, was that home visiting was provided at a relatively intensive level. At least half of the programs reported offering weekly home visits. This finding is encouraging because it is those programs offering more intense services that are thought to have more success in engaging families in their program activities. Universal vs. Targeted Approach An important issue when considering how to approach the design and development of home visiting services for a population is whether home visitation should be targeted to high-risk families or be universal and target all children and families. The resolution of this question has enormous cost,

design, and service-intensity implications. Some researchers have argued that intensive home visitation should not be considered on a universal basis because research has shown it to be costeffective only for those families at greatest risk.[3, 13, 19] Analysts have also argued that families who are not low-income, isolated, or lacking important social resources may not need early interventions and, if they do, are likely to access these services on their own. Advocates for universal home visiting programs[5] [8] argue that the targeted approach stigmatizes the service and prevents families who need it from accepting or staying with services. Further, targeted programs are often not successful in gaining long-term political support. Finally, there is the concern that programs that enroll families using individualized psychosocial risk screening tools may actually misclassify a large portion of families at intake because risk assessment systems are of questionable accuracy. [20] A compromise approach that addresses the issue of stigmatization offers time-limited initial home visits on a universal basis within a given community or geographic area, and then augmented home visiting only to those who have been determined to be at higher risk.[21] Public Health Nurse Home Visiting Programs Traditionally, public health nurses (PHNs), through local health departments, have played an important role in maternal and child health by offering some type of universal home visiting services to communities. In a recent examination of the current role of PHN home visiting services, the

Public Health Nursing Task Force of the California Nurses Association noted a decline in the role for PHNs in community-based health promotion and disease prevention activities for maternal and child health populations. [22] The decline over the last 10 years is due largely to the restructuring and downsizing of the public health system and the re-direction of funds to the private sector. The Public Health Nursing Task Force has called for a re-establishment of countywide PHN home visiting services for maternal and child health populations in order to address the issue of stigmatization.[22] They also believe that home visiting, offered universally within a givenBuilding Community Systems for Young Children UCLA Center for Healthier Children, Families and Communities - 9 community, can strengthen the continuum of services by linking high-risk families to appropriate public- and private-sector services and resources. Common Models Used in California Many organizations create their own unique home visiting program models based on agency experience, local best practices, and the needs and input of local community members. Other programs replicate or adapt known statewide or national program models that have shown some degree of success in other locales. Appendix C describes the characteristics of the most commonly employed home visiting programs in California Adolescent Family Life Program, Black Infant

Health, Cal-LEARN, California Safe and Healthy Families, Early Head Start and Head Start HomeBased Option, Early Start, Family Preservation, Healthy Families America, High-Risk Infant FollowUp, and the Nurse-Family Partnership program. These programs may reflect a standard model or a specific funding source that permits county by county variation in the models implemented. Family Preservation Programs are frequently excluded from discussions of home visiting because of the mandatory nature of family involvement, the broader age range of the target population, and the traditional focus on brief yet intensive services geared almost exclusively toward preventing children from entering the foster care system. Family Preservation Programs have been included in program descriptions in this report (see Appendix C). However, because there is evidence that some of them are shifting to interventions with longer durations and are offering a more comprehensive and integrated set of support services for families aimed at both the prevention of family problems and the prevention of child placement.[23, 24]. However, this report does not review the extensive literature on effectiveness of family preservation programs. III. Funding Home Visiting Programs Local agencies receive funding to operate home visiting programs through a combination of contracts, grants, fees for service, and charitable donations. Appendix D displays the major public funding sources/streams for some of the common home visiting programs in California. The funding

agencies listed in that appendix also provide references to a variety of other programs and initiatives and are not restricted to those programs listed in the table. Funding sources for home visiting programs come from: 1) local, state, and federal departments of health, mental health, education, social services, and probation; 2) Medi-Cal and Healthy Families; 3) voter initiatives such as Proposition 10 and Proposition 99; 4) private foundations; 5) non-profit organizations; 6) state litigation such as the Tobacco Settlement; 7) health plans; and 8) individual donors. Many of the funding streams that are available to home visiting programs are categorical in nature and therefore can create barriers to providing a comprehensive set of integrated services to children and their families. Categorical funding streams target narrowly defined aspects of family life, and Building Community Systems for Young Children UCLA Center for Healthier Children, Families and Communities - 10 have specific requirements regarding program design, curriculum, staffing, evaluation, and eligible target populations. As a result, home visiting programs often operate programs using a patchwork of categorical funds that try to meet the full range of their clients needs. A number of recent publications have been developed to help policymakers and program planners identify, pool, and leverage the various funding sources available for home visiting programs. For instance, Prevent Child Abuse America, which administers the Healthy Families America (HFA)

home visiting program model, has developed a variety of publications on financing home visiting programs aimed at reducing child abuse and neglect. Prevent Child Abuse America has four publications available to order on their website (www.healthy familiesamerica.org) that focus on financing issues for home visiting programs. They are 1) Healthy Families America, Medicaid and the Child Health Insurance Program; 2) Federal Funding for Child Abuse and Neglect Prevention: Accessing New Funding Sources; 3) State Tobacco Settlement Funds and Child Abuse Prevention Programs; and 4) Temporary Assistance for Needy Families and HFA: Accessing a New Funding Source. HFAs publications provide information on how to access funds from a variety of sources such as Medicaid, State Child Health Insurance Program (SCHIP), State Tobacco Settlements, and the Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) Program. The National Center for Children, Families and Communities (NCCFC), in collaboration with Replication & Program Strategies, Inc., compiles an annual guide to federal funding resources for the national implementation of the Nurse-Family Partnership program.[25] The NCCFC guide also provides background on major funding sources such as Medicaid and TANF, as well as Title V Maternal and Child Health Block Grant, and Title IV Child Welfare Services. Appendix E includes excerpts from this guide that summarize the key elements of Medicaid and TANF. The

guide also outlines how these resources may be used to fund all, or specific, components of the Nurse-Family Partnership model, and describes the experiences of individual sites in securing and administering funds from these sources. One of the richest sources of information regarding the financing of home visiting programs is The Finance Project, a non-profit organization dedicated to promoting more effective financing of family and childrens services. The Finance Project has developed three key publications to aid in the financing of home visiting programs.[26-28] Federal Funding for Early Childhood Supports and Services: A Guide to Sources and Strategies by Fisher, Cohen, and Flynn is designed to help policymakers and program managers take advantage of federal funding opportunities.[26] It identifies and summarizes nearly 60 federal programs that have the potential to support home visiting programs. Highlighted among them is a discussion of how Medicaid and Title IV-E funds have been used to support home visiting programs. For example, Fisher et al. discuss how Medicaid can potentially be used to cover the costs of activities such as intensive outreach to ensure that parents are able to access preventive health care or for case management services furnished as part of a stand-alone Medicaid service under the Targeted Case Management Option. Further, if the target population of a home visiting program was comprised of open protective services cases, the report Building Community Systems for Young Children

UCLA Center for Healthier Children, Families and Communities - 11 discusses how the case management and supervision costs of the program could be captured under Title IV-E administrative claiming. Financing Family Resource Centers: A Guide to Funding Sources and Strategies by Watson and Westheimer describes the characteristics of family resource centers (FRCs), principles and strategies for financing them, and current financing sources.[27] It also discusses potential reforms for improving the financing environment. As FRCs are often funded to administer home visiting programs, many of the resources listed in this guide also apply to home visiting programs operating out of FRCs and other community-based organizations. Watson and Westheimer also provide tools for tracking staff positions such as home visitors that are allocated to different funding sources, and discuss ways to diversify funding by recognizing that a particular service can often be presented in different ways to attract funders with different interests. Watson and Westheimer explain that one of the most striking trends has been the involvement of FRCs as service providers funded by TANF.

The Finance Projects report titled Financing Early Childhood Initiatives: Making the Most of Proposition 10 by Hayes provides a thorough discussion of financing early childhood development

programs as it relates to Californias Proposition 10 initiative.[28] This report describes the funding sources for early childhood initiatives, including federal funding streams that support programs for young children and their families. This report also provides a series of case studies that demonstrate that some communities are finding sustainable financial resources for their programs in spite of the limitations imposed on them by categorical funding streams. IV. Evaluation of Programs As with many complex intervention strategies, there are a number of barriers to determining and comparing how well home visiting actually works in a community setting. As a result, most of the research that has been conducted on home visiting programs has been based on efficacy studies, and thus there are limited data on the effectiveness of wide-scale program implementation. Research on efficacy shows the degree to which intervention strategies can work under ideal conditions with carefully selected populations and with optimal resources, whereas effectiveness research measures the impact that an intervention achieves in the real world under practical constraints.[29] Key barriers to determining the effectiveness of home visiting programs include these: Because many home visiting programs include a comprehensive curriculum and employ strategies within the home as well as those that are center-based, it is difficult to separate out

the effects of each of these components. There are limitations to measuring many of the outcomes that home visiting seeks to address. For example, programs may find it difficult to collect accurate information on risky sexual behaviors of their clients or illegal activities such as child abuse or substance abuse.Building Community Systems for Young Children UCLA Center for Healthier Children, Families and Communities - 12 Even though some valid and standard measurement tools exist, they are underutilized and not uniformly employed by home visiting programs. Further, the ability to compare effectiveness across programs is limited by the fact that although these programs often share common goals around the importance of childrens early years, they differ dramatically in many other dimensions such as the target population, staffing model, and the mix and intensity of services offered. In spite of these limitations, the field of research is growing, and there are a number of rigorous empirical studies that provide important information about the effectiveness of home visiting programs. As thissection reveals, however, research findings regarding home visiting programs are a source of controversy within the field because studies conducted of various model programs have yielded mixed results and the lack of systematic methods for conducting widescale reviews and meta-analysis of programs have led to varied interpretations. (Meta-analysis is a statistical analysis

of a collection of studies, especially an analysis in which studies are the primary units of analysis. Meta-analysis methods focus on contrasting and combining results from different studies, in hopes of identifying consistent patterns and sources of disagreement among those results.[30]) Another challenge to assessing the effectiveness of home visiting programs is that most of the research has examined home visiting in isolation from the service-delivery system in which it is functioning; the research has therefore provided little information on how to optimize the impact of the home visiting service component in the context of a broader set of early childhood development and family-support services. The Packard Foundation Report on Home Visiting One of the most comprehensive sources of information regarding evaluation results of home visiting programs for young children is the Spring/Summer 1999 issue of The Future of Children, published by the David and Lucile Packard Foundation.[31] Six national home visiting program models were chosen for review because they fairly represented the range of different home visiting models used across the country, and they were among the best studied, with evaluations of at least some of their program sites using rigorous randomized trials. A brief description of six programs and a summary of their evaluation findings are found in Appendix F.

Editors Gomby, Culross, and Behrman reviewed the individual program evaluations and, in their article, Home Visiting: Recent Program Evaluations Analysis and Recommendations, found the evaluation results to be mixed and, where positive, often modest in magnitude.[3] Their review of the studies revealed some benefits in parenting practices, attitudes, and knowledge, but found that the benefits for children in the areas of health, development, and rates of abuse and neglect were more elusive. Building Community Systems for Young Children UCLA Center for Healthier Children, Families and Communities - 13 Gomby et al. reported that only one program model, the Nurse-Family Partnership (referred to in 1999 as the Nurse Home Visitation Program), consistently revealed marked benefits in maternal life course. When focused on low-income and unmarried women, the Nurse-Family Partnership (NFP) was found by a RAND Corporation study to produce the largest economic return to government and society of all the major early childhood programs that have been carefully studied to date. [19] Gomby et al. found that when home visiting programs produced benefits, those benefits were often concentrated among particular subgroups of the families, but there was little consistency in these subgroups, even across sites that implemented the same program model. In most of the studies described, programs struggled to enroll, engage, and retain families. When program benefits were

demonstrated, they usually occurred only for a subset of the families originally enrolled in the programs, they rarely were present for all of a programs goals, and the benefits were often quite modest in magnitude. The editors recommended: Any new expansions of home visiting programs should be reassessed in light of the findings presented in that issue of the journal.. Existing programs should focus on efforts to improve the implementation and quality of services. Practitioners and policymakers should recognize the inherent limitations in home visiting programs and embrace more modest expectations for their success. Home visiting services are best funded as part of a broad set of services for families and young children. Other Recent Evaluations A number of other recent reviews provide additional information about the potential limitations and contributions of home visiting programs. The five reviews discussed below overlap somewhat in the studies selected for analysis, and all studies reviewed involved either random or quasi-random assignment of study participants to the intervention and control groups. Four of the five reviews include studies from Canada and/or Europe and thus may not be as relevant to the U.S. population.

This is particularly the case where studies are conducted in countries that have nationalized health care systems and offer universal home visiting services to all women. The first three reviews attempt to quantify the effect size as a means to compare and analyze results across studies.[32-34] They each use a different index/method for calculating the effect size, however, which limits the comparability of the reviews. Haddix et al. [29] explain that in metaanalysis an index of effect is used for measuring study characteristics on a common scale in order to compare and analyze results across studies in terms of the direction and magnitude of effect of a treatment or procedure under study. Typically an overall effect size at a 0.2 level should be considered small; medium effect sizes are at a 0.5 level; and large effect sizes are at a 0.8 level. The meta-analysis by MacLeod et al. used the standard method for calculating the overall effect size. (They subtracted the post-test mean of the comparison group from the posttest mean of theBuilding Community Systems for Young Children UCLA Center for Healthier Children, Families and Communities - 14 intervention group and divided the result by the pooled standard deviation.) If means and standard deviations were not reported, effect sizes were calculated from F statistics, chisquares and t statistics. Kendrick et al. did not attempt to calculate the overall treatment effect because means and standard deviations were not reported by all studies. Instead, separate effects were entered into the meta-analysis using Fishers method. Hodnett used pooled odds ratios as the overall estimate of

effect. The review by Heinicke and Ponce takes a novel qualitative approach to reviewing a variety of home visiting programs that employ a relation-based intervention between the family and the home visitor to address both process and outcome measures.[35] The final review in this section, by Olds et al., provides an updated analysis of studies of home visiting [36] that have been published since the Olds and Kitzman review in 1993.[11]. Although the updated review covers all major domains analyzed in the 1993 review, this section focuses on three of these domains, as they have not been covered elsewhere in this report. MacLeod and Nelson conducted a meta-analytic review of 56 programs to determine which types of programs are most successful in the prevention of child physical abuse and neglect and the promotion of family wellness.[32] The review, which covered the period from 1979 to 1998, included prevention programs in the United States and Canada that targeted children up to 12 years of age. Therapy and treatment interventions were excluded as well as those dealing with sexual abuse prevention or treatment. Thirty-two of the programs analyzed were home visiting programs. Effect size of intervention groups as compared with controls were calculated for outcomes such as out-of-home placement rates, direct and proxy measures of child maltreatment, measures of parent

attitudes, observations of parent behavior, and measures of the home environment. In general, the meta-analysis demonstrated that most interventions that aim to promote family wellness and prevent child maltreatment are successful. The mean effect size of 0.41 for all types of programs, when converted to a percentile, indicates that outcomes for the intervention group sample exceed 66% of those in the control/comparison group sample. Social support (reactive) interventions had the largest effect size (0.61, although this was based on only two studies), followed by multicomponent (proactive) interventions (0.56), and home visitation (proactive) (0.41). Media (proactive) interventions had the lowest effect size (0.13). This analysis found that the most successful types of programs tended to be both proactive and to begin prenatally or at birth. Gains made by proactive interventions were sustained and even increased over time. Those gains made through reactive interventions tended to fade more quickly. The home visiting programs that were most successful in preventing child maltreatment were those that lasted more than 6 months, and provided more than 12 home visits. Eckenrode et al., in a 15year follow-up study of the Elmira, New York Nurse-Family Partnership program, discuss the reasons why some programs may show little impact on child abuse and neglect.[37] They found that the presence of domestic violence may limit the effectiveness of interventions to reduce incidence of child abuse and neglect. Building Community Systems for Young Children

UCLA Center for Healthier Children, Families and Communities - 15 Kendrick et al. conducted a meta-analysis and systematic review on home visiting programs in the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom to evaluate the effectiveness of home visiting on parenting and quality of the home environment in relation to parenting.[33] To be included in the study, home visiting programs had to include at least one post-natal home visit. Of the 12 studies using the Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment (HOME) assessment tool, the meta-analysis found a highly significant effect of home visiting on parenting and the quality of the home environment. Twenty-one of 27 studies reporting other measures of parenting also found significant treatment effects favoring the home-visited group on a range of parenting measures. The majority of studies reviewed in Kendrick et al. used professional home visitors, most commonly nurses, but also teachers or social workers. The results of the eight studies that used lay workers appeared similar to the professionally staffed home visitor models with regard to improved parenting skills and the quality of the home environment. Six of the 27 studies failed to show positive results in the intervention groups; however, these studies did not appear to be a distinctive group in terms of the specific characteristics of the programs. Hodnett and Roberts conducted a systematic review of home-based programs offering social support

(including information, advice, and emotional support) for socially disadvantaged mothers to determine program effects on a variety of maternal and child health outcomes. [34] Eleven studies from the United States, Canada, Ireland, and the United Kingdom were included in the analysis. Trials were eligible for inclusion in the review if the study intervention involved social support during one or more postpartum home visits. Overall, the review found that home-based support programs may have benefits for socially disadvantaged mothers and their children. Specifically, the analysis found a trend (albeit non-significant) toward reduced child injury rates. However, the effect of home visitation on the occurrence of child abuse varied across studies in both magnitude and direction. The authors questioned the utility of reporting abuse as an outcome measure because of the potential for surveillance bias that is likely to result in an underestimation of benefits in the home visitation programs as compared with the control groups. Other findings of the meta-analysis included results on childhood immunizations, hospitalizations, and emergency department visits. In four of the six trials that examined immunization coverage rates, infants of visited mothers were less likely to have incomplete well-child immunizations. All four trials reporting the effect of home-based support on hospital admissions found a lower incidence of hospital admission in the visited group. Five of the six trials reporting the effect of home-based

support on the frequency of emergency department visits found that emergency department visits were reduced for home-visited children. Heinicke and Ponce examined 15 early family intervention studies conducted in the United States in which the relationship between the family and the intervener (the home visitor) was hypothesized to make a significant impact on both the process and outcome of the intervention.[35] The studies reviewed were family-focused in that the intervention addressed some aspect of parent, parent-child, and child functioning. All interventions began in pregnancy or in the first six months of life and Building Community Systems for Young Children UCLA Center for Healthier Children, Families and Communities - 16 involved a sustained relationship for at least a three-month period. Twelve of the 15 studies reviewed were randomized trials. The authors report that five areas of maternal functioning and maternal support changed as a function of a relation-based early family intervention and were accompanied by parallel change in motherchild functioning. Further, they found that at least three studies showed a positive impact on motherchild interaction. By contrast, child functioning was less consistently influenced in the studies reviewed. Five intervention studies showed a sustained, positive impact on general indices of cognitive functioning, six found no program effects, and four found an initial program effect that was not sustained at follow-up. Using the conceptual framework and hypotheses developed by the authors for the literature review,

Heinicke and Ponce present findings from their randomized trial of the UCLA Family Development Project, a relation-based home visiting/mother-infant support group intervention. They report that, by the first year of the childs life, the intervention made a significant impact on partner and familysupport measures, and on three social-emotional motherinfant transactions. [16] By 2 years of age, the project demonstrated a positive impact on two indices of the mothers support and on five areas of mother-child and child development [38] Olds et al. provide an updated analysis using 15 scientifically controlled home visiting studies conducted in the United States and Europe [36] published since the Olds and Kitzman review in 1993.[11] The authors re-examined their 1993 recommendations in major domains of maternal and child health and well-being in light of the recent studies. Olds et al. conclude that there are some populations of children with illnesses or vulnerabilities that appear to benefit from some well-designed and well-conducted home visiting programs, and that the success of such programs was due to the fact that the parents had a heightened sense of vulnerability and motivation to make use of the visitors services. But as a means of preventing child abuse and neglect, injuries to children, behavioral problems, and welfare dependence among families at social and economic risk, the authors assert that many home visiting programs have not met expectations. They state that aside from the Nurse-Family Partnership program and a few other programs that are

well-articulated and that employ professional visitors, most home visiting programs have failed to affect these outcomes. The Nurse-Family Partnership has produced consistent effects in these outcome domains in more than one trial. Olds et al. recommend that the other programs that have affected these outcomes must be considered experimental until they have been successfully replicated. Olds et al. explain that the limited or questionable effects of most home visiting programs are likely a result of the lack of carefully conducted programs of research and clinical work that are designed to lead up to testing interventions in randomized controlled trials. When such a program of research is not conducted before home visiting programs are subjected to rigorous testing, studies are done prematurely and often give false impressions that the investment in such programs is a waste ofBuilding Community Systems for Young Children UCLA Center for Healthier Children, Families and Communities - 17 resources. The last section of this report summarizes the authors recommendations on how program planners and policymakers can improve the design of home visiting programs to strengthen the program quality and to help certain programs prepare for selected testing of interventions in randomized controlled trials. Summary of Evaluations There are notable differences in the level of optimism expressed by the authors in this section about

the potential for home visitation programs to improve outcomes for young children and their families. The Packard Foundation report takes the most conservative and cautious approach to the field of home visitation. It advises that expansions of home visiting programs be reassessed in light of the reports findings, and it urges that emphasis be placed on improving the quality of existing services and strengthening the integration of home visiting as a service strategy into the continuum of services for families. MacLeod, Kendrick, Hodnett, et al. present a more optimistic, yet perhaps less rigorous review of home visiting. These authors, however, acknowledge the problems of publication bias that tend to overestimate the positive effects in meta-analyses. Although Heinicke and Ponce caution that measures used in the studies they reviewed were not always comparable across studies and that they made inferences regarding which findings were relevant to a particular domain, they conclude that, overall, relation-based early family intervention is effective in bringing about changes in the family system. Rather than being contradictory, these four reviews reflect the complexity and limitations of the field of evaluation research, not only for home visiting programs but for many other different types of intervention strategies that ambitiously attempt to address the myriad of issues affecting vulnerable young children and their families.

V. Strategies to Strengthen the Quality of Home Visiting Programs The next two sections recommend strategies that Proposition 10 commissions can employ to improve the quality of home visiting programs, to maximize their effectiveness through linkages with community-based organizations, and to work with state and local governments and key funding agencies to facilitate a more coordinated and coherent funding strategy for home visiting programs. Wherever possible, these recommendations are drawn from the gold standard: randomized controlled trials. However, since much of the knowledge in the field of home visiting has not been tested empirically, recommendations are also drawn from program evaluation and documented local best practices established by experienced home visiting professionals in the field. Improving the Design of Home Visiting Programs Olds et al. emphasize three essential principles that should be addressed in designing home visiting program interventions for young children and their families.[36] First, home visiting programBuilding Community Systems for Young Children UCLA Center for Healthier Children, Families and Communities - 18 interventions should be grounded in epidemiology and developmental research to help identify the adverse outcomes a program seeks to address and to understand the modifiable risks and protective factors associated with these outcomes. Accurately identifying adverse outcomes and modifiable

risks in a community helps to ensure that home visitors properly target their efforts. Second, even program interventions that are grounded in epidemiology will have difficulty changing deleterious client behaviors in the absence of a theoretical foundation. To address the challenges associated with changing client behavior, program interventions should employ a theory of behavior change such as self-efficacy theory or attachment and object relationship theory. Third, home visiting programs are much more likely to be effective if they are perceived as relevant and needed by the community being served. New interventions or existing interventions being employed in new communities should be pilot-tested before large-scale program expansion occurs. State and local Proposition 10 commissions can design their grant-giving initiatives to encourage home visiting agencies to adhere to these three overarching principles of program design. Below is a list of additional factors that Proposition 10 commissions may wish to consider when developing Requests for Proposals (RFPs) for home visiting programs and evaluating potential grantees. Well-Defined Program Protocol and Curriculum Effective home visiting programs demonstrate that they have a well-defined and documented program protocol and curriculum that allows flexibility to individualize activities to respond to

specific client needs or family crisis. Programs should assess their overall fidelity to the program model as well as track individual staff adherence to the curriculum in order to assess appropriate individualization and inappropriate departures from program protocols. Intensity of Services The intensity of services should be considered in light of program goals and family needs. No studies have determined the optimal frequency and duration of program services, but some researchers suggest that at least four visits or at least 3 to 6 months of service are needed before families can benefit.[3] This is an important issue because if program services are not offered frequently enough, families may not engage in the activities. Low family engagement and high attrition can severely affect a programs effectiveness. Staff Issues Qualifications It has been suggested that a home visiting program is only as good as the people who administer and staff it. Staff qualities are what draw participants in and keep them involved. Decisions about the educational, professional, and personal qualifications and standards are pivotal and dependent on each individual programs target population and goals. Although research has notBuilding Community Systems for Young Children UCLA Center for Healthier Children, Families and Communities - 19 yet delineated the best qualifications of staff, Gomby et al. recommended that home visitors be

extremely well trained and should have at least a high school diploma.[3] Professional versus paraprofessional - A key consideration for designing home visiting programs is whether to utilize professional or paraprofessional staff as home visitors. Typically, professional home visitors are defined as those who have earned credentials in a relevant field, such as education, nursing, or social work.[4] Under this definition, it is possible for paraprofessional home visitors to also hold advanced educational credentials; however, these degrees would be in fields other than those that relate directly to the field of home visiting. Paraprofessional home visitors are usually from the same community where a home visiting program is delivered and often share the same racial or cultural background of the clients. Program directors should make the decision regarding whether to hire professional or paraprofessional home visitors based on the goals, knowledge, and skills that the home visitors will need to implement the program successfully. There is significant literature on the potential strengths and weaknesses of both professional and paraprofessional home visitor staff. [9] [39-42] Professionals with clinical expertise can address the specific health, developmental, and counseling needs of families with knowledge and objectivity. Paraprofessionals, who are often hired from the community where home visiting services are provided, may share similar experiences and cultural

beliefs with clients, and often have knowledge of and involvement in community networks that can help to quickly gain families trust. In spite of these important observations, little empirical research has been conducted in this area. Olds et al. have presented results from a Denver trial of the NurseFamily Partnership that suggest that when comparing nurses and paraprofessionals in the NFP model, paraprofessional staff produce positive effects that fall (in magnitude) between those of the professional nurses and the control group. [42] One recommended staffing strategy that addresses the needs of families with varying risk levels is to employ both paraprofessionals and a team of multi-disciplinary professional home visitor staff. Although it is important to have only one primary home visitor who can build rapport and continuity with a family, establishing multi-disciplinary teams can bring the full resources of a program to families through case consultation and team supervision.[17] Single-discipline home visiting programs, such as those staffed only by nurses, can establish agreements with other programs to access consultants from other disciplines. Entering into formal partnerships with family resource centers to share resources, facilities, and co-house staff is an effective strategy whereby home visiting programs can offer their staff access to a variety of expertise and a comprehensive set of services to families. An example of such an approach was developed for Hope Street Family Center (see Appendix I).

Training and supervision are critical for achieving and maintaining quality in home visiting services. Resources should be allocated within a programs budget to assure that the home visitors can receive training and supervision from qualified individuals.[39] Home visitors need regular, formal and reflective supervision to provide them a safe time and place in which they can candidly discuss the Building Community Systems for Young Children UCLA Center for Healthier Children, Families and Communities - 20 families with whom they are working from both objective and subjective points of view.[43] They also need to receive non-judgmental and supportive feedback about their work. Emphasis on supervision for home visitors is particularly important because home visitors work in isolation during much of the day. It is therefore critical to provide supervision that helps them deal with the emotional stresses of working closely and over long periods of time with highneed families, and it helps them maintain objectivity, prevent drift from program protocols, and provide opportunity for reflection and professional growth.[3] Program Evaluation

Ongoing program evaluation of home visiting programs is essential to track the outcomes experienced by clients in a project and determining if the program is being implemented as intended, if staff are meeting their objectives, and where program improvements are needed. Sufficient funds

for program evaluation should be allocated during the program design phase of a project. Although each program collects data with which to assess the success of its unique goals and corresponding intervention strategies, communitywide evaluations and comparisons are facilitated by the use of standard measurement tools that have been tested and proven reliable and valid. A comprehensive list of measurement tools used in recent program evaluations is found in the 1999 home visiting issue of The Future of Children. [44] Proposition 10 commissions can play an important role in building an evaluation infrastructure among home visiting programs by establishing standardized evaluation guidelines and providing training on the use of evaluation models, measurement tools, and data collection and submission procedures. One recommended model for evaluating programs that is gaining momentum among Proposition 10 commissions and county health departments is the ResultBased Accountability (RBA) framework developed by the Fiscal Policies Study Institute.[45] RBA measures a home visiting programs success in terms of current performance in relation to past performance (using historical project data), and compares project trends to what is expected to occur in the absence of the project (using population statistics and relevant comparison group data where available). Where programs aim to change client knowledge and behavior, program evaluations

should be designed to collect these performance measures and make use of pre-test/pos-test evaluation methods to assess the potential extent of these changes. One key step for home visiting programs employing RBA is to work with clients, line staff, administration, and the community to identify and track the projects performance measures. As displayed in Figure 2, performance measures are conceptualized in a fourquadrant diagram to assess the quantity and quality of an agencys service inputs (often referred to as process measures), as well as the effect or outcomes for the clients in the project (also known as impact measures). Appendix G provides an example of the four-quadrant approach to performance measures as it might apply to a home visiting program. RBA recognizes that many conditions of well being are influenced by factorsBuilding Community Systems for Young Children UCLA Center for Healthier Children, Families and Communities - 21 that cannot always be changed quickly, and it defines success as turning away from the current trend, rather than turning on a dime to achieve an arbitrary target. Figure 2: A Four-Quadrant Approach to Performance Measurement QUANTITY QUALITY INPUT/EFFORT I. How Much Service Did We Deliver? II. How Well Did We Deliver Service?

OUTPUT/EFFECT III. How Much Change/ Effect Did We Produce? IV. What Quality of Change/Effect Did We Produce? Friedman, M., Results-Based Accountability. 1999, Fiscal Studies Policy Institute. One important area that affects a home visiting programs success is the level of engagement that families have in the program. Many home visiting programs struggle to enroll, involve, and retain families in home visiting services, and although to some degree family engagement may be beyond the control of individual programs, it may also reflect the design of the program intervention. To assess family engagement in a program, we recommend collecting data on the following three measures: 1) percent of families invited to enroll in the home visiting program that choose not to enroll; 2) ratio of expected versus completed home visits; and 3) percent of clients that leave the home visiting program before it the service was scheduled to end. Continuous Quality Improvement One important component to successful home visiting services is a Continuous Quality Improvement (CQI) program that adheres to the principle that programs need not regard current performance limits

as inevitable and that program improvements can be made if efforts are focused on changing systems rather than individuals. CQI typically uses management information systems, performance measure data, and staff and client feedback to systematically review overall program operations and the status of each clients case. Where problems or inadequacy in the program process are identified, CQI ensures that targeted quality improvement steps can be implemented. Employing CQI activities can help to ensure that home visiting services are implemented with fidelity to the model and are responsive to the needs of clients. The effectiveness of a CQI program can be limited by factors such as lack of supportive leadership, lack of involvement of all stakeholders, difficulty in defining the outcomes to be measured, inadequate data collection, resistance of staff, and conflicting time demands for team members. These factors limit a programs ability to implement program improvements quickly. One CQI model that has been shown to effect rapid change is known as the Model for Improvement developed by the Institute of Health Care Improvement as part of their Breakthrough Series. [46]Building Community Systems for Young Children UCLA Center for Healthier Children, Families and Communities - 22 This collaborative model is a method for teaching multi-disciplinary teams to identify their own problem areas, conduct a series of rapid-cycle tests to assess possible changes, and to implement

program improvements. Programs or a group of programs that are providing home visiting services can join together, identify change concepts, and work in collaboration toward implementing new approaches, learning from this process, and adapting interventions based on what is learned. The effectiveness of this technique was demonstrated in a 1996 Breakthrough Series that was a collaborative effort to reduce adverse drug events (injuries related to the use or nonuse of medications) in hospitals nationally.[47] Over a period of 15 months, 40 health care organizations worked collaboratively to test various quality improvement strategies. Eight types of improvement strategies, referred to as key change concepts, were implemented by seven or more hospitals with a success rate of 70%. This model has great potential for adaptation by home visiting programs particularly because it emphasizes practical program improvements, and does not require lengthy data collection before change can occur. VI. System-Level Strategies Integration of Home Visiting Programs into the Comprehensive Service Array Like any other part of the service-delivery system for young children, homevisiting programs cannot operate in isolation. The needs of families are complex, and no one program, intervention, or strategy is a panacea. Although a home visiting program does not have to provide comprehensive

services, consideration should be given to integrating home visiting with a broader set of early intervention and family-support programs from the health, education, developmental, and social services. Integration involves establishing mechanisms for home visiting programs to share information, coordinate activities, implement collaborative initiatives, and facilitate inter-program referral procedures. Linkages with center-based services that specialize in child-focused developmental activities are particularly important to improving childrens developmental outcomes in light of the research that indicates that there has been limited success with these outcomes when home visitation programs are administered without a child-focused center-based component.[3] Some of this may be related to the fact that most home visiting programs try to benefit children indirectly through changes in parents behavior, rather than directly through interventions with the children. Even those home visiting programs that focus on developmental outcomes by direct activities with the child may not spend the amount of time necessary to show a positive impact in this area. Clearly, a center-based program in which children participate for many hours each week has much more direct contact with children. Further, embedding home visiting programs in comprehensive family resource centers is believed to improve program effectiveness on a variety of other levels. [14] For the home visitors, having a

program that is integrated with the activities of a family resource center helps to increaseBuilding Community Systems for Young Children UCLA Center for Healthier Children, Families and Communities - 23 opportunities to consult with multidisciplinary staff. For the clients, combining home visiting with center-based activities helps to reinforce the educational efforts of both program components. For the parents, combining home visiting with a center-based component can help to reduce social isolation and can introduce them to additional resource staff. Combined, these factors may help to increase family engagement in home visiting programs and reduce family attrition. Linkages with the health care sector, including private-practice pediatricians, and obstetricians, community clinics, hospitals, and health plans are also critical. While home visitors can be health care advocates and improve access to care [48], health care providers can serve as a platform from which to identify and refer high-risk clients to local home visiting programs. Home visiting programs can increase the effectiveness of the health care sector by providing supplemental familysupport services that are often prohibited by managed care or providers budgetary reductions.[48] Coordinated Funding A number of financing strategies have been recommended to strengthen the short- and long-term value of the tobacco tax revenue and to help address some of the limitations imposed by categorical funding. In Financing Early Childhood Initiatives: Making the Most of Proposition 10, Hayes

recommends: Making better use of resources already being expended on young children and the families through pooled funding streams that combine dollars from several sources and then redistribute resources through a collaborative representative process. Pooled dollars can often be used to fund activities that normally cannot be funded directly form most categorical funding streams, such as collaborative communitywide planning and data collection efforts, and technical-assistance initiatives. Using Proposition 10 dollars to leverage federal and state matching funds for early childhood programs. Assisting communities to coordinate local strategies for aligning categorical funding from a number of agencies and funding streams to support a comprehensive set of integrated services for children and families. Using the financing resources such as those referenced in this report, state and local Proposition 10 commissions might consider developing recommendations for enacting the administrative and regulatory changes needed in California to facilitate a more coordinated and coherent funding strategy for home visiting programs. This might include an analysis of how Medi-Cal funds could potentially be used to support home visiting for eligible children and families. As of August 2000,

the NCCFC had documented at least 13 states and communities that are tapping into Medicaid to fund all or part of their nurse home visiting program,[25] and many regard this as a largely untapped resource in California for home visiting. If these issues could be addressed in a more systematic way, home visiting programs could better meet the full range of families needs. Building Community Systems for Young Children UCLA Center for Healthier Children, Families and Communities - 24 Technical Assistance for Home Visiting Programs Proposition 10 commissions can help to form county and statewide technical assistance organizations for home visiting programs and family resource centers that focus on improving the quality of programs, strengthening the continuum of services for young children and their families, and maximizing resources and minimizing fragmentation and duplication of effort. Technicalassistance organizations can bring local home visiting program staff together with other key community service providers and stakeholder to: Share information, coordinate activities, and implement collaborative initiatives; Develop clearly defined roles and responsibilities among service providers; Establish inter-agency referral procedures; Host comprehensive communitywide, multi-disciplinary staff training and inservice programs that give home visitors the opportunity to refresh and expand their skills; Conduct communitywide needs assessments and assets mapping that can be used by funders

and program planners to develop strategic plans as they relate to home visiting programs; Institute accrediting programs to help ensure accountability, uniformity, and quality of programs; Develop standard mechanisms to evaluate and analyze home visiting programs; and Create research networks to collect and disseminate the most up-to-date information regarding what has been shown effective in the field. VII. Local Best Practices Appendices H-J describe local best practices that exemplify the recommendations in this report. First, Fresno County describes its implementation of the Nurse-Family Partnership Program model (Appendix H). This program is an example of an expansion of a program model that has been proven effective for a variety of maternal and child outcomes. Currently, this model is being implemented in nine California counties. The second best practice highlighted in this report is the Hope Street Family Center in Los Angeles County (Appendix I), where home visiting is one component of a comprehensive set of services that are offered out of a community-based family resource center. The third is a summary of an ambitious relation-based home visiting program funded by the Alameda County Children and Families Commission (Appendix J) that aims to phase in a universal home

visiting component for all newborns and a targeted component for medically and socially fragile mothers and their infants. Building Community Systems for Young Children UCLA Center for Healthier Children, Families and Communities - 25 VIII. The Future of Home Visiting Home visiting, as a service-delivery strategy, will continue to have the unique ability to reach psychologically and geographically isolated populations, and to gain a more realistic and complete picture of the home environment and the nature of family relationships and circumstances. This report has outlined the key areas where state and local Proposition 10 commissions can play an important role in the provision of effective home visiting services for young children and their families. We conclude that the future for home visiting is promising if policies encourage the following: Program expansions of those models that have been proven effective empirically. In spite of the barriers and limitations to randomized controlled studies, the field of research is growing and there are a number of well-tested home visiting programs that may warrant replication. Piloting innovative new home visiting programs that are grounded in epidemiology and developmental research, have a strong theoretical foundation, and are perceived as relevant and needed by the community being served. These programs should have well-defined and

documented program protocols, and effectively address issues related to program intensity, staff qualifications, training and supervision, program evaluation, and continuous quality control. Linkages with a broader set of early intervention and family-support programs from the health, education, developmental, and social services. In particular, strong linkages can be created by embedding home visiting programs in family resource centers that specialize in child-focused developmental activities. Coordinated, sustainable, and flexible funding sources for home visiting programs. Pooled funding strategies can make better use of resources already being expended to provide more comprehensive and cohesive services. Collaboration through technical assistance organizations. The creation of such organizations could foster the sharing of key information in the field of home visiting, coordinated training and research activities, and serve as key forums for developing strategic plans as they relate to home visiting programs. Finally, state and local commissions may want to consider playing an important role in increasing what is known about the effectiveness of home visiting programs. Such an effort is critical in light of the plethora of unanswered questions relating to home visiting programs. Following are some of

the key research questions. Which home visiting models produce positive outcomes for their clients? How intensive must home visiting programs be in frequency and duration to make a significant positive impact on families? Can a paraprofessional be as effective as a professional home visitor, and in what setting?Building Community Systems for Young Children UCLA Center for Healthier Children, Families and Communities - 26 Can outreach efforts and intervention strategies that are specifically designed for fathers improve outcomes for children in home visiting programs? How can policymakers optimize the impact of the home visiting service component in the context of a broader set of early childhood development and family-support services? What potential synergies can be obtained by strategically linking home visiting services with other comprehensive strategies and services for young children and their families? How do community factors such as the availability of services and the political and economic environment influence the impact of home visiting programs? Proposition 10 commissions could develop policies and funding streams geared toward a strategic program of research and clinical work designed to lead up to selective testing of interventions in randomized controlled trials.[36] Such an initiative should include pilot testing home visiting models

that are grounded in epidemiology and the theory of behavior change, and appear to be well received in the community, and conducting small-scale trials before any full-blown randomized trials. In conclusion, with efforts in place to improve the quality and sustainability of home visiting programs, to integrate home visiting into the broader service-delivery system, and to build knowledge and facilitate its inclusion in community planning, state and local Proposition 10 commissions can achieve wise resource allocations and ever more creative and innovative home visiting programs for mothers and their young children.Building Community Systems for Young Children UCLA Center for Healthier Children, Families and Communities - 27 IX. References 1. Wasik, B.H. and R.N. Roberts, Survey of home visiting programs for abused and neglected children and their families. Child Abuse Negl, 1994. 18(3): p. 271-83. 2. California Children and Families Commission Guidelines. 1999, California Children and Families Commission: Sacramento. 3. Gomby, D.S., P.L. Culross, and R.E. Behrman, Home visiting: recent program evaluations--analysis and recommendations. The Future of Children, 1999. 9(1): p. 4-26, 195-223. 4. Wasik, B.H., Home visiting: Procedures for helping families. 1990, Newbury Park: Sage Publications. 5. Kamerman, S.B., Kahn A.J., Home health visiting in Europe. The Future of Children, 1993. 3(3).

6. Fahy, E.T., Healing at home: New York visiting nurse service. Nursing and Health Care, 1994. 15(2): p. 66-73. 7. Kotch, J.B., Farel, A.M., The Child from one to four: The toddler and preschool years, in Maternal and Child Health, J.B. Kotch, Editor. 1997, Aspen Publishers, Inc.: Gaithersburg. 8. Krugman, R.D., Universal home visiting: A recommendation from the U.S. Advisory Board on Child Abuse and Neglect. The Future of Children, 1993. 3(3). 9. Daro, D.A., Harding, K.A., Healthy Families America: Using research to enhance practice. The Future of Children, 1999. 9(1). 10. Duggan, A., et al., Hawaii's healthy start program of home visiting for atrisk families: evaluation of family identification, family engagement, and service delivery. Pediatrics, 2000. 105(1 Pt 3): p. 250-9. 11. Olds, D., Kitzman, H., Review of research on home visiting for pregnant women and parents of young children. The Future of Children, 1993. 3(3). 12. Johnson, K.A., No place like home: State home visiting policies and programs. 2001, The Commonwealth Fund: New York. 13. Olds, D.L., et al., Prenatal and infancy home visitation by nurses: recent findings. The Future of Children, 1999. 9(1): p. 44-65, 190-1. 14. Carrilio, T.E., Considerations in developing a comprehensive, integrated system of support for families and children. 2000, San Diego State University, Social Policy Institute. 15. Ramey, C.T., Ramey, S.L., Home visiting programs and the health and development of young children. The Future

of Children, 1993. 3(3). 16. Heinicke, C.M., Fineman, N.R., Ruth, G., Recchia, S.L., Guthrie, D., Relationship-based intervention with at-risk mothers: Outcome in the first year of life. Journal of Infant Mental Health, 2001. 22(4): p. 431-462. 17. Powell, D.R., Inside home visiting programs. The Future of Children, 1993. 3(3). 18. Thompson, L.M., The Los Angeles County Home Visiting Survey, Unpublished Report. 2000, County of Los Angeles, Department of Health Services: Los Angeles. 19. Karoly, L.A., Greenwood, P.W., et al., Investing in our children. 1998: RAND. 20. Guterman, N.B., Enrollment strategies in early home visitation to prevent physical child abuse and neglect and the "universal versus targeted" debate: a meta-analysis of population-based and screening-based programs. Child Abuse Negl, 1999. 23(9): p. 863-90. 21. Home Visitation: Does it work? Forum, Children's Institute International, 2000. 22. Report of the Public Health Nursing Task Force. In Public Health Nurses: Advocating for Healthier Communities. 2000. Oakland, CA: Public Health Nursing Task Force and the CNA Nursing Practice Program. 23. McCroskey, J., Meezan, W., Family preservation and family functioning. 1997, Washington, DC: CWLA Press. 24. Ahsan, N., The Family Preservation and Support Services Program. The Future of Children, 1996. 6(3): p. 157-60. 25. Marshall, E., Nurse home visitation program: guide to identifying federal funding resourced for program implementation. 2000, National Center for Children, Families, and Communities and Replication & Program

Strategies, Inc.: Philadelphia. p. 37. 26. Fisher, H., Cohen, C., Flynn, M., Federal funding for early childhood supports and services: A guide to sources and strategies. 2000, The Finance Project: Washington, DC. 27. Watson, S., Westheimer, M., Financing family resource centers: A guide to sources and strategies. 2000, Carnegie Corporation of New York, The Finance Project.Building Community Systems for Young Children UCLA Center for Healthier Children, Families and Communities - 28 28. Hayes, C.D., Financing early childhood initiatives: Making the most of Proposition 10. 2000, UCLA Center for Healthier Children, Families, and Communities & The Finance Project. 29. Haddix, A.C., Teutsch S.M., Shaffer, P.A., Dunet, D.O., ed. Prevention Effectiveness: A guide to decision analysis and economic evaluation. 1996, Oxford University Press: New York Oxford. 30. Rothman, K.J., Greenland, S., Modern Epidemiology. Second ed. 1998, Philadelphia: Lippincott - Raven. 31. Behrman, B.E., ed. The Future of Children. Spring/Summer ed. Home Visiting: Recent Program Evaluations, ed. D. Gomby. Vol. 9. 1999, The David and Lucile Packard Foundation. 32. MacLeod, J. and G. Nelson, Programs for the promotion of family wellness and the prevention of child maltreatment: a meta-analytic review [In Process Citation]. Child Abuse Negl, 2000. 24(9): p. 1127-49. 33. Kendrick, D., et al., Does home visiting improve parenting and the quality of the home environment? A systematic review and meta analysis. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 2000. 82(6): p. 443-51.

34. Hodnett, E.D. and I. Roberts, Home-based social support for socially disadvantaged mothers. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 2000(2): p. CD000107. 35. Heinicke, C.M., Ponce, V.A., Relation-based early family intervention, in Developmental Approaches to Prevention and Intervention, D. Cicchetta, Sheree, T.L., Editor, University of Rochester Press: Rochester. p. 153-193. 36. Olds, D., et al., Update on home visiting for pregnant women and parents of young children. Current Problems in Pediatrics, 2000. 30(4): p. 107-41. 37. Eckenrode, J., et al., Preventing child abuse and neglect with a program of nurse home visitation: the limiting effects of domestic violence [see comments]. Jama, 2000. 284(11): p. 138591. 38. Heinicke, C.M., Fineman, Ponce, V.A., Guthrie, D., Relation based intervention with at-risk mothers: Outcome in the second year of life. Journal of Infant Mental Health, 2001 (In Press). 39. Wasik, B.H., Staffing issues for home visiting programs. The Future of Children, 1993. 3(3): p. 140-157. 40. Daaleman, T.P., The effect of a paraprofessional home visiting program on utilization of prenatal care. Kansas Medicine, 1997. 98(2): p. 6-9. 41. Hiatt, S., Paraprofessional home visitation: Conceptual and pragmatic considerations. Journal of Community Psychology, 1997. 25(1). 42. Korfmacher, J., et al., Differences in program implementation between nurses and paraprofessionals providing home visits during pregnancy and infancy: a randomized trial. American Journal of Public Health, 1999. 89(12): p.

1847-51. 43. Norman-Murch, T., Reflective supervision as a vehicle for individual and organizational development. Zero to Three, 1996. 17(2). 44. Gomby, D.S., Understanding evaluations of home visitation programs. The Future of Children, 1999. 9(1): p. 27-43. 45. Friedman, M., Result-Based Accountability. 1999, Fiscal Studies Policy Institute. 46. Kilo, C., A framework for collaborative improvement: Lessons from the Institute of Healthcare Improvement's Breakthrough Series. Quality Management in Health Care, 1998. 6(4): p. 1-13. 47. Leape, L.L., et al., Reducing adverse drug events: lessons from a breakthrough series collaborative. Joint Commission Journal on Quality Improvement, 2000. 26(6): p. 321-31. 48. The role of home-visitation programs in improving health outcomes for children and families. American Academy of Pediatrics. Council on Child and Adolescent Health. Pediatrics, 1998. 101(3 Pt 1): p. 486-9. 49. Byrd, M.E., Questioning the quality of maternal caregiving during home visiting. Image J Nurs Sch, 1999. 31(1): p. 27-32. 50. McCroskey, J. and W. Meezan, Family-centered services: approaches and effectiveness. Future Child, 1998. 8(1): p. 54-71.Building Community Systems for Young Children UCLA Center for Healthier Children, Families and Communities - 29 X. Appendix A: The Theoretical Basis for Home Visiting Programs Theory Assumption Psychodynamic

Tradition Assumes that the best way to effect change is through the quality of the relationship between the home visitor and the parent. The primary goal of the home visitor is to be emotionally available and responsive to the mother.[17] Parent Education Tradition Suggests that it is the parents access to expert information about child development that is the key to improving the competence of parents.[17] Empowerment Theory Defines the role of the home visitor as a facilitator or one who assists families to address problems in their lives and formulate and achieve realistic goals.[4] Family Systems Theory Recognizes the interdependence of family members and considers their interrelationships when designing interventions.[4] Social Exchange Theory Suggests that people will recognize the benefits and costs of certain behaviors through their interactions with others. To motivate parents to accept and engage in home visits,

practitioners of this model create a set of expectations to be accomplished during the home visits.[49] Parallel Process Describes the ways in which experiences in one relationship carry over into other relationships. By providing the parent with structure, support, and a corrective emotional developmental experience, the family-support staff strengthen the parents ability to bond with the child and to provide him/her with structure, security, and ageappropriate nurturing.[14] A variety of other theories have also served as the basis for program development including: Attachment and Object Relations Theory, Life Cycle/Development Theory, Crisis Theory, Psychosocial Rehabilitation Theory, Efficacy Theory, and Learned Helplessness Theory.[14]Building Community Systems for Young Children UCLA Center for Healthier Children, Families and Communities - 30 XI. Appendix B: Home Visiting Program Characteristics Program Dimension Program Variation Desired Results Improve and optimize child health, child development, school readiness and family functioning; Prevent and reduce family violence and substance abuse; Identify and treat children with special health care needs, developmental delays, or

disabilities; and/or Improve maternal life-course development (improved economic and educational outcomes, reduced subsequent pregnancies). Context of Home Visiting Services Home visiting may be the primary strategy employed to achieve the organizations mission; or It may be an adjunct support to other primary activities that are office-, school-, or center-based; and/or A home visiting program may be linked to other entities providing comprehensive services through a family resource center or within a community collaborative. The national survey commissioned by the Commonwealth Fund found that many state-based home visiting programs are part of a larger initiative. Nearly half of the programs were part of a larger maternal and child health initiative, 40% were linked to a comprehensive or integrated service initiative, and 38%were a component of a family resource center initiative. Prevention vs. Intervention The continuum of home visitation interventions includes strategies geared toward

the promotion and protection of wellness for all or a broad set of the population as well as interventions to ameliorate established problems in identified subsets of the population. Voluntary vs. Mandatory Most home visiting programs are completely voluntary. (There are no negative repercussions if the parent refuses to participate). Mandatory programs are those employed by protective agencies (child protective services, probation, etc.). They are used with families who have family problems related to child abuse or neglect requiring legal, court monitoring/intervention. Home visiting programs that work with the child in his or her biological home to prevent removal to foster placement or to reunify families that have been separated after an abusive or neglectful situation, are categorized as family preservation programs [50]. The Los Angeles survey found that 65% of programs in the county are voluntary, 22% are mandatory, and 13% claim to be a mixture of both. Target Populations and Enrollment Strategies

 Geographically based: Families with young children in a specific zip code, neighborhood, or other geographically identified area. Demographically focused: Families with young children who are targeted for enrollment based on maternal age (for instance, teen mothers), or economic, educational, employment, marital, racial/ethnic status, etc. Stage of familys life cycle: First-time mothers, pregnant women, infants and toddlers, children under 5, grandmothers caring for relatives (e.g., kinship care). Individually screened and enrolled based on health and/or psychosocial risk factors. Families where there has been a preterm birth, a neonatal intensive care unit Building Community Systems for Young Children UCLA Center for Healthier Children, Families and Communities - 31 Program Dimension Program Variation (NICU) graduate, medically fragile children and infants, or where there is evidence from either parent of substance abuse, mental illness, history of incarceration, or unwanted pregnancy.[20] Intensity of Home Visits Onset: Home visiting services may be initiated at various stages of the family life cycle or due to identified problems. For instance, health care providers or WIC agencies may refer mothers prenatally or at the birth of their children to home visiting programs. Child protective services may refer families to a family

preservation program after a reported incidence of child abuse. Frequency of home visits varies greatly but has been typically offered weekly or monthly. In some programs, frequency is predetermined according to a prescribed visiting pattern. In other programs, visiting schedules are individualized. The Los Angeles survey found that 66% of home visiting programs provide visits to at least some of their clients at least once per week, 18% provided visits on a monthly basis, only 2% limited visits to a quarterly basis, and 1% reported conducting annual visits. Thirteen percent reported varied frequency of home visits. Duration: The national survey by Roberts and Wasik found that a typical home visit usually lasted between 30 to 90 minutes, and that visits conducted by programs focused on child abuse tended to last longer. Period of time services are offered: Home visiting services may be offered for several months or years or for a brief period of time, as part of an initial assessment process, for a particular family crisis, or during a key stage for parent education (i.e. during the newborn period). The Los Angeles survey found that 13% of respondents provided services for less than 3 months. Nine percent provided services for a duration between 36 months, 40% for 612 months, 28% for 1236 months, 2%

for over 36 months, and 8% reported varied durations in services.[18] This is consistent with the national survey by Roberts and Wasik that found half of the home visiting programs to visit homes for 6 months to 2 years. The intensity of home visits (in terms of frequency, duration and period of services offered) varies in relation to the caseload size, the level of risk and family engagement, the intensity of the curriculum and the availability of resources. Caseloads Caseloads can range from 5 to 65 families per home visitor; and Caseloads vary widely as a function of case complexity, curriculum program goals, and funding levels. Service Array Services/activities provided in the home include: Case assessments and diagnostic screenings; Early childhood education; Parent education; Health care interventions and physical therapy; Case management/coordination of services; Psychological support and counseling; and Referrals and linkage as appropriate to health, education, family-support, and social services. Focus areas for the home visiting activities listed above include: child health, child development, school readiness, maternal life-course development (improved economic and educational outcomes, reduced subsequent pregnancies), family

violence, family functioning, and substance abuse.Building Community Systems for Young Children UCLA Center for Healthier Children, Families and Communities - 32 Program Dimension Program Variation The national survey conducted by Roberts and Wasik found that most programs deliver a variety of services. More than 80% reported services to enhance child development and or parenting skills and from 68% to 75% reported that they deliver services to strengthen parental coping, provide emotional support to families, deliver information and/or conduct diagnostic services. The services that were rarely offered included job training, home maker, or respite care services. The Los Angeles survey found that over 80% of the home visiting programs offered case assessment and case management services. Only 3% provided physical therapy, 4% occupational therapy, and 8% provided respite care. The most frequently reported educational topics were parenting support and education on child health/development (80%), home safety (74%), child abuse prevention (62%), substance abuse prevention (36%), and school readiness (36%). [17] Staff

Qualifications Staff qualifications are comprised of home visitors educational background, work experience, and on-the-job training; Programs utilize a variety of staffing models including: Professional vs. paraprofessional; Combination of professional and paraprofessional; and Single discipline (e.g. nurse home visitor) vs. multi disciplinary team The national survey by Roberts and Wasik found that 76% of the programs employed at least some paraprofessionals and 54% required home visitors to have a bachelors degree. XII. Appendix C: Common Home Visiting Programs Found in California Name of Home Visiting Program and Desired Outcomes Target Population: Voluntary vs. Mandatory Intensity of Services and Caseload (intended not actual) Staff Qualifications Adolescent Family Life Program (AFLP) Help pregnant and parenting teens have healthy babies Prevent subsequent pregnancies to teenage girls Help teen parents graduate from high

school Forty-seven AFLP programs operate in 42 California counties. www.dhs.ca.gov/pcfh/mchb/adolescent.htm Pregnant or parenting teens For females up to age 20 years For males up to 21 years. Males must be actively involved in caring for the child Voluntary enrollment Generally starts prenatally Visits occur approximately once per month Services provided for a period of 1 to 3 years Caseload - 40 families Varies: Educators Social Workers Case Managers Black Infant Health Program Reduce disparities in rate of African American infant deaths and the rate of

low-birthweight infants Reduce mothers use of tobacco and alcohol Reduce the incidence of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) BIH operates in 14 counties and two cities where 97 percent of African-American births occur in California. www.dhs.ca.gov/pcfh/mchb/Black_infant.htm African American pregnant and parenting women and their infants Voluntary enrollment Generally starts prenatally Visits occur up to once per month Services provided for a period of 1 to 3 years Caseload varies between 25 and 75 families Paraprofessionals Community Health and Outreach WorkersName of Home Visiting Program and Desired

Outcomes Target Population: Voluntary vs. Mandatory Intensity of Services and Caseload (intended not actual) Staff Qualifications Cal-Learn Program Reduce welfare dependency Assist teens on CalWORKs to stay in or return to school Enhance parenting skills Improve child health and development www.dss.cahwnet.gov/getser/callearn.html Teens under 19 years old on CalWORKs who are pregnant or parenting and have not yet completed high school Mandatory enrollment Generally starts prenatally Visits occur approximately once per month Services provided until teen receives high

school diploma/equivalent or turns 20 years old Caseload 40 families Bachelors Degree in social work, psychology, and child development or a related field California Safe and Healthy Families (Cal-SAHF) Prevent/reduce welfare dependency Reduce avoidable hospitalization and medical costs Reduce interventions by child welfare, law enforcement, and the courts Prevent adverse outcomes for children and families (health, development education, substance abuse) Promote positive parenting Enhance autonomy and self-sufficiency There are 19 pilot programs in California. www.childsworld.org/welfare/homvis.htm Overburdened families defined variably by local programs using demographic characteristics or risk assessment checklists

 Voluntary enrollment Generally starts prenatally. Visits occur up to once per week fading to quarterly as needed Services provided for a period of up to 3 years Caseload: 25 families Multi-disciplinary teams that may consist of professionals and paraprofessionals with varying specialties from health, education, and social services. Name of Home Visiting Program and Desired Outcomes Target Population: Voluntary vs. Mandatory Intensity of Services and Caseload (intended not actual) Staff Qualifications Early Head Start Promote healthy prenatal outcomes for pregnant women Enhance the development of very young children

 Promote healthy family functioning Enhance parenting skills Optimize child health Approximately 42 grantees operate in California. www.ehsnrc.org Low-income families with infants, toddlers ages 0-3 years, and pregnant women Voluntary enrollment Visits occur weekly Service provided through age 3 Caseload: 10-12 families Minimum standard is an Associate Degree in early childhood education. Early Start Promote healthy prenatal outcomes Improve physical and emotional development Promote healthy family functioning Optimize child health

www.dds.ca.gov/EarlyStart/main/prev004.cfm Families of infants and toddlers from birth up to 36 months with developmental delays and disabilities Voluntary enrollment Visits provided quarterly Caseload: Approximately 60 families Bachelors Degree with a focus in early childhood development Family Preservation Child safety Avoidance of out-of-home placement Early family reunification Family functioning and stability The program operates in 56 counties in California. www.childsworld.org/welfare/fampres.htm Families with children ages 0-18 years under supervision by local child protective services Mandatory enrollment (parents

custody of child may be based on participation in program) Visits occur between 14 times per week Services provided for 612 months Caseloads vary ranging between 5-15 families, depending on acuity Minimum of a Bachelors Degree in social work, psychology, or related fieldName of Home Visiting Program and Desired Outcomes Target Population: Voluntary vs. Mandatory Intensity of Services and Caseload (intended not actual) Staff Qualifications Head Start Home-Based Option Improve child development Improve the parents teaching interaction and problem-solving skills There are approximately 168 grantees in California. It is not known how many have opted for the home-based component.

www2.acf.dhhs.gov/programs/hsb/ Low-income children ages 3-5 years Voluntary enrollment Visits occur weekly Services provided for a minimum of 2 years Caseload: 10-12 families Associate Degree in early childhood education is minimum requirement Healthy Families America Promote positive parenting Prevent child abuse and neglect www.healthyfamiliesamerica.org Family identified as at risk for child abuse, either prenatally or at delivery Voluntary enrollment Visits occur weekly, fading to quarterly Services provided starting prenatal

through age five Caseload: 25 families Paraprofessionals and those with bachelors degrees High-Risk Infant Follow-up Program Optimize development Promote child health Strengthen parenting skills www.dhs.ca.gov/pcfh/cms/HTML/HRIF.htm Newborns, typically NICU graduates who are at increased risk for developmental disabilities Visits occur weekly, decreasing to biweekly, monthly and quarterly, Services provided through age 2 Caseload 20-25 families per home visitor depending on acuity Bachelors Degree in the area of nursing, psychology child development, and related fields Nurse-Family Partnership

 Improve pregnancy outcomes Improve child health and development Improve families economic selfsufficiency There are currently nine replication sites in California. www.nccfc.org Low-income, first-time mothers Voluntary enrollment Services begin prenatally Visits occur weekly fading to monthly Services provided through 2 nd birthday Caseload: 25 families Bachelors Degree in nursingBuilding Community Systems for Young Children UCLA Center for Healthier Children, Families and Communities -37-

XIII. Appendix D: Funding Streams for Home Visiting Programs in California Home Visiting Program Funding Stream Adolescent Family Life Program (AFLP) Federal Title V, Maternal and Child Health (MCH) Block Grant California MCH Branch awards funds to local community service providers and health departments.

Black Infant Health Program Federal Title V, MCH Block Grant California MCH Branch awards funds to local community service providers and health departments. California Safe and Healthy Families (Cal-SAHF) California Department of Social Services, Office of Child Abuse Prevention Office of Criminal Justice and Planning, Answers Befitting Children (ABC) grants Cal-Learn Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996 administered by Department of Health and Human Services California Work Opportunity and Responsibility to Kids (CalWORKs) Program, administered by Department of Social Services. Funds allocated to County social service agencies who contract out to local AFLP providers Child Abuse Prevention Intervention and Treatment (CAPIT) Program

Funding is derived from three state legislative initiatives. AB 1733 authorizes state funding for child abuse prevention and intervention services. AB 2994 establishes a County Childrens Trust Fund which requires that $4 of any $7 fee for a certified copy of a birth

certificate shall be paid for prevention services. SB750 enables counties to add $3 to this surcharge. Administered by the California Department of Social Services Early Head Start Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families (ACF) Grants are awarded by ACF Regional Offices to local public and private grantee organizations. Some grantees subcontract to delegate agencies. Early Start The Federal Early Intervention Program for Infants and Toddlers with Disabilities was enacted in 1986 under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. State legislature passed the California Early Intervention Services Act in 1993. Administered by the California Department of Developmental Services and California Department of Education Family Preservation Federal Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1993 provided new funds under Title IV-B, the Child and Family Services Program of the Social Security Act. State legislation, AB 546 allows counties to use part of their child welfare funding for programs which prevent or limit unnecessary placement. California Department of Social Services County Department of Children and Family Services, and the Department of Mental HealthBuilding Community Systems for Young Children UCLA Center for Healthier Children, Families and Communities -38-

Home Visiting Program Funding Stream Head Start Home-Based Option

Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families (ACF) Grants are awarded by ACF Regional Offices to local public and private grantee organizations. Some grantees subcontract to delegate agencies.Building Community Systems for Young Children UCLA Center for Healthier Children, Families and Communities -39-

XIV. Appendix E: Federal Funding Sources for Home Visiting Programs Excerpts from: Marshall, E., Nurse Home Visitation Program: Guide to Identifying Federal Funding Resourced for Program Implementation. 2000, National Center for Children, Families, and Communities and Replication & Program Strategies, Inc.: Philadelphia. p. 37. Medicaid Title XIX of the Social Security Act, commonly known as Medicaid, allocates federal matching funds to states providing medical services to certain groups of needy low income families, pregnant women, children and the elderly. Medicaid is managed at the Federal level by the Health Care Financing Administration (HCFA), a division of the Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS). The federal government sets broad parameters and policies regarding the design and administration

of Medicaid. Operating within these guidelines, states ultimately decide who is eligible, what services will be covered and who may provide covered services. Medicaid provides coverage to those classified as categorically needy or more liberally classified as categorically related. As of August 2000, the National Center for Children, Families and Communities report found that 13 of 28 states that had implemented the Nurse Home Visiting model were tapping into Medicaid to fund all or part of their programs. Sites are accessing Medicaid in two different ways. The most prevalent is through the option states have under federal Medicaid rules to amend their state plans to provide what is often called targeted case management. The other, used less often, is through provisions in federal law that allow HCFA to waive various requirements so that states may provide other kinds of services. The advantage of Medicaid is that it has the potential to be an ongoing source of support. However, securing Medicaid funding can be complicated and time-consuming. States recognize that allowing coverage of a new service may commit them to pay for that service in the long-run, and thus, tend to exercise extra scrutiny in these situations. Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) The Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) (Public Law 104-193), was established by

the Personal Responsibilities and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996 (PRWORA), which was signed into law August 22, 1996. TANF is a block grant program intended to move welfare recipients into the workforce and make welfare a program of temporary assistance. States decide the services or benefits that are to be provided by their TANF programs as well as the eligibility requirements. States must use all of their federal TANF funds for services that lead to the achievement of the following four purposes outlined in the federal TANF statute: Provide assistance to needy families so that children may be cared for in their homes or in the homes of relatives;Building Community Systems for Young Children UCLA Center for Healthier Children, Families and Communities -40-

End needy parents dependence on government benefits by promoting job preparation, employment and marriage; Prevent and reduce the incidence of out-of-wedlock pregnancies and establish annual numerical goals for preventing and reducing the incidence of these pregnancies; and Encourage the formation and maintenance of two-parent families. The NCCFC report found that TANF offers nurse home visiting sites funding that can legitimately support a greater portion of nurse home visiting programs non-medical services than Medicaid. While TANF funds cannot be used to support health care services per se, it is intended to support all

manner of services that can reasonably be said to stabilize and strengthen families, prevent or reduce placing children in foster care, and prevent or reduce out-of-wedlock pregnancies. For this reason, TANF is second only to Medicaid in terms of being the most accessed source of funding among nurse home visiting programs. Building Community Systems for Young Children UCLA Center for Healthier Children, Families and Communities XV. Appendix F: Summary of the Packard Foundation Report The Spring/Summer 1999 issue of The Future of Children, published by the David and Lucile Packard Foundation, provides detailed program descriptions of six national home visiting programs and their evaluations. Below are excerpts from the report followed by a summary of the key evaluation findings. [3] Summary description of programs in the Packard Foundation report: The Nurse Home Visitation Program (recently named the Nurse-Family Partnership) was developed by Dr. David Olds and is a two-year nurse visiting program targeting low-income first-time mothers. NHVP aims to improve pregnancy outcomes, child health and development, and maternal life course. Hawaiis Healthy Start Program is a five-year program employing primarily paraprofessionals and those with bachelors degrees as home visitors. The program targetsparents of newborns -41-

in Hawaii who were identified as being at risk for abuse and neglect. It aims to optimize child development, parenting skills, utilization of a medical home, and prevent child abuse. Parents as Teachers (PAT) is a three-year program using paraprofessionals and degreed visitors. The program targets families with young children typically up to age 3, and aims to prepare children for school, empower parents to achieve parenting skills, and to prevent and reduce child abuse. Home Instruction Program for Preschool Youngster (HIPPY) is a two-year program using paraprofessionals. The program targets families with preschool- kindergartenaged children, and aims to empower parents as primary educators and help children prepare for school. Comprehensive Child Development Program (CCDP) is a five-year program that uses paraprofessionals and those with associate degrees. The program targets lowincome families with young children, and aims to enhance the physical and psychosocial development of children, support parents, and assist families in becoming economically selfsufficient. Healthy Families America (HFA) is a five-year program that is based on the Hawaii Healthy Start Program and similarly uses paraprofessionals and those with bachelors degrees. The program targets parents who were identified as at risk for child abuse, and aims to promote

positive parenting and prevent child abuse and neglect. Excerpts from Home Visiting: Recent Program Evaluations - Analysis and Recommendations pp. 4-26 [3] Note: The reports analysis and recommendations were based on the most methodologically rigorous studies of the six major program models, and not on all the evaluations ever done of these programs.

Parenting Skills: Several programs found benefits in this area, but typically on self-report scales rather than in observed parent-child interactions. Results suggest that these programs may lead parents to change some of the precursor attitudes, though not necessarily the behaviors that are related to child development or the prevention of abuse. Utilization of Preventive Health Services: None of the evaluations found benefits in immunization rates or the number of well-child visits. The Hawaii Healthy Start Program did Building Community Systems for Young Children UCLA Center for Healthier Children, Families and Communities -42-

find that more home-visited than control group families reported having a regular medical provider. Birth Outcomes: Of the six programs, only the NHVP measured preterm births and birth weights. Of the two studied sites for the NHVP model, only one showed reductions in preterm births and percentage of low-birthweight babies, but these improvements were only found for very young

teens and smokers. Child Development: A few statistically significant findings occurred with the two programs in which childrens development was a primary focus - HIPPY and PAT. Results were mixed between study cohorts and study sites, and were relatively small in size. Children born to Latina mothers participating in one site of the PAT program showed improvement on measures of cognitive, linguistic, and social development, and self-help behavior. Childrens Behavior: Only the NHVP Elmira study and the CCDP assessed childrens behavior, and only the NHVP Elmira study assessed behavior more than a few years after the end of the program. In a 15-year follow-up of children in Elmira, no improvements were found for school suspensions, initiation of sexual intercourse, and various anti-social acts and behavioral problems. However, Elmira did show fewer instances of running away, arrests, and convictions, fewer cigarettes smoked per day, fewer days having consumed alcohol, and less lifetime promiscuity. Child Abuse and Neglect: Study findings may be limited due to the difficulty in accurately measuring child abuse. The clearest evidence that home visiting can prevent child abuse comes from the Elmira study of NHVP in which long-term follow-up of families indicated children in

the intervention group had fewer substantiated child abuse reports over the course of the first 15 years of the childrens lives. The families that showed the most benefit were those who had the least sense of control. In a PAT program for teen parents, the teens that received both PAT home visiting and case management services showed improvement, but the groups that received only PAT home visiting or only case management services did not. The Hawaii Healthy Start Program and the HFA found no improvements in child abuse and neglect, but they did show improvements in the mothers self-reported use of harsh discipline and on scales associated with risk for abuse. Maternal Life Course: Although altering maternal life course was not an explicit goal for most of these programs, all of the evaluations (except HIPPYs) measured outcomes such as maternal employment, completion of school, or deferral of subsequent births. Only NHVP found benefits in these areas, and only for poor unmarried (largely teen) women. Building Community Systems for Young Children UCLA Center for Healthier Children, Families and Communities -43-

XVI. Appendix G: Examples of Home Visiting Program Performance Measures QUANTITY QUALITY INPUT OR EFFORT

Quadrant I How much did we do? # of clients enrolled # of clients who declined participation # of referrals received # of visits completed # of home visitors recruited to provide services # of client recruitment outreach presentations # of clients graduating from (completing) program Quadrant II How well did we do it? Average caseload per home visitor Ratio of clients accepting vs. declining participation Ratio of completed vs. expected visits % of home visitors recruited and remaining in project Rate of client attrition OUTPUT OR EFFECT Quadrant III Is anyone better off? # of infants with normal birth weight

 # of adult clients earning a living wage # of minor clients enrolled in school or General Educational Development (GED) Diploma # of clients who reduce smoking # of clients with referrals for child abuse reports # of clients delaying subsequent pregnancies while enrolled in project Average standardized score (using the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test) measuring cognitive development of child at age 3 Quadrant IV What percent are better off? % of infants with normal birth weight % of adult earning a living wage % of minor clients enrolled in school or GED % of clients who reduce smoking % of clients with referrals for child abuse reports % of clients delaying subsequent pregnancies while enrolled in project

 % of clients fully immunized at age 2Building Community Systems for Young Children UCLA Center for Healthier Children, Families and Communities -44-

XVII. Appendix H: Fresno Countys Nurse-Family Partnership Program Fresno County is one of nine California sites implementing the Nurse-Family Partnership (NFP) Program. (For a complete list of all sites, see the table at the end of this Appendix). NFP programs are replication sites for the Nurse Home Visitation Program (NHVP) developed by Dr. David Olds and are supported through training, technical assistance, and data management and analysis by the National Center for Children, Families, and Communities at the University of Colorado. The goals of Fresno Countys NFP Program are to: 1. Improve pregnancy outcomes by helping women improve their healthrelated behaviors, including reducing use of cigarettes, alcohol, and illegal drugs; 2. Improve child health and development by helping parents provide more responsible and competent care for their children; and 3. Improve families economic self-sufficiency by helping parents develop a vision for their own future, plan future pregnancies, continue their education and find work. The target population of the NFP program is first-time mothers who reside in Fresno County. The county has an extensive outreach program that receives referrals from the Department of

Employment and Temporary Assistance, doctors offices, school nurses, and door-to-door outreach in high-risk areas. All first-time mothers at less than a 28 weeks gestation are referred to the NFP Program. Women who are pregnant but dont meet the NFP eligibility criteria are referred to other home visiting programs in the county such as Black Infant Health, Babies First (Healthy Start), Comprehensive Case Management Program for high-risk women, Public Health Nursing, CalLEARN, or the Adolescent Family Life Program. While it is important to follow the planned schedule of visits, adjustments are made based on the familys own situation. The visits last about 1 to 1 hours. The nurses responsibilities during the visit are to listen to the clients needs and concerns, provide information and resources, and assist the client in setting and meeting health and life goals. The clients responsibilities are to be open to information, apply what makes sense, set their own goals, and carry out plans to meet those goals. Fresno Countys NFP program is 100% funded by the county, and its nurse home visitors must have a baccalaureate nursing degree. Other qualifications such as prior experience working with maternal/child populations, strong interpersonal skills, and sensitivity to the values and beliefs of differing racial and ethnic communities are helpful. An experienced nurse home visitor will follow 25 clients, and nurses who are new to the program will follow 20 clients for the first year. This

allows the nurse to become proficient in the model and familiar with available county services. One of the most important roles that the nurse home visitors play is to help families identify their needs and then gain access to the community resources that can meet those needs. The nurses main focus is on the mother, but she also works with the father and other members in the household. During home visits, the nurse focuses on the following six domains: 1) personal health; 2) environmental health; 3) life-course development; 4) maternal role; 5) family and friends; and 6) health and human services.Building Community Systems for Young Children UCLA Center for Healthier Children, Families and Communities -45-

The needs of the client set the priority for what is covered at each visit. Each nurse is given a mixed caseload of demanding and less demanding cases. The nurse fashions the program around the client; the mothers personal and social support resources determine the specific components. Nurses are trained in Nursing Child Assessment Satellite Training (NCAST). The program teaches them how to evaluate the interaction between child, environment, and mother. The nurse is trained in infant states and teaches parents how and when to interact with the baby. By helping parents learn baby cues engagement cues (when baby wants to be with you) and disengagement cues (when baby is telling you he/she needs a break) parents can then help guide more satisfactory interactions with

their children. Training is also provided in the Partners in Parent Education (PIPE). The PIPE topic areas are: 1) Listen, listen, listen; 2) Love is layers of sharing; and 3) Playing is learning. Fresno has two added components to the program. The first is a mental health component provided by a licensed mental health clinician who works with the nurses to assist the clients if they have any mental health issues. She also makes home visits if the client agrees to services. The second added component is a support group called Mommy and Me Play Group that aims to prevent the depression and isolation experienced by many first-time mothers. The group encourages mothers to implement the skills gained during their PIPE training that they receive from nurses during the course of their home visits. Other topics that are covered are parenting issues and English as a second language. The support group also organizes educational outings for mothers that increase their knowledge of local resources. First-time mothers in the program support each other as they become more empowered through solving parenting problems, breastfeeding, nutrition, and violence issues. A well-tested and maintained record-keeping and clinical information system has proven to be both clinically and administratively useful in the successful operation of theprogram. In order to monitor performance, specific information is collected at each home visit by completing data forms. These

data forms, which cover maternal/infant health assessments, health habits, demographics, parenting issues, and personal beliefs, help the developers of the program at the National Center in Colorado provide useful feedback and technical assistance as implementation proceeds. Furthermore, the record keeping system helps to assure that families are receiving comprehensive assessments and education services by the nurse home visitors as well as referrals to services available in their community. Contact Person: Carol R. Henry, RN, BSN Supervising Public Health Nurse Maternal, Child & Adolescent Health Human Services System Department of Community Health Chenry@fresno.ca.gov (559) 445-3542Building Community Systems for Young Children UCLA Center for Healthier Children, Families and Communities Nurse-Family Partnership Program California Sites Site Location & Initial Training Date Contact Person Phone Number Email Address Fresno, CA Jan. 1998* -46-

Connie Woodman Carol Turk-Henry (S) 559-445-3307 559-445-3542 cwoodman@fresno.ca.gov cturk@fresno.ca.gov Kern County, CA (Bakersfield) Jan. 2001 Cindy Wasson 661-868-0400 wassonc@co.kern.ca.us Los Angeles, CA Jan. 1998* Jeanne Smart Cindy Chow (S) 213-240-8192 213-240-8425 jsmart@dhs.co.la.ca.us cchow@dhs.co.la.ca.us Monterey, CA Jan. 1999 Linda Wolleson (S) 831-755-4611 wollesenl@co.monterey.ca.us Orange County, CA Jan. 1999 Kathleen Parris Pat Place (S)

714-834-8150 714-834-8218 kparris@hca.co.orange.ca.us pplace@hca.co.orange.ca.us Riverside, CA Oct. 2000 Judy Halstead Earp Barbara Livak (S) 909-358-5516 909-358-5006 jearp@co.riverside.ca.us blivak@co.riverside.ca.us Sacramento, CA Mar.2001 Bernice Walton 916-875-5471 waltonb@dhhs.co.sacramento.ca.us San Diego, CA Oct. 1999 Rose Fox Gaby Kuperman (S) 619-409-3303 619-668-3641 rfoxxxhe@co.san-diego.ca.us gkuperhe@co.san-diego.ca.us Santa Clara, CA Jan. 1999

Sandie Couser Laura Brunetto (S) 408-299-4305 408-299-4305 sandie.couser@hhs.co.santaclara.ca.us laura.brunetto@hhs.co.santaclara.ca.us (S) Denotes the nurse supervisor for the program (*) Part of initial Weed and Seed Initiative Building Community Systems for Young Children UCLA Center for Healthier Children, Families and Communities -47-

XVIII. Appendix I: The Hope Street Family Center Home Visitation Program Desired Results The Hope Street Family Center home visitation program is part of a national effort to promote the overall health, social, emotional, cognitive, and physical development of children, 0 to5 years of age, while simultaneously enhancing family self-sufficiency and the capacity of families to nurture and care for their young children. Context of Home Visiting Services The Hope Street Family Center was established in 1992, as a collaboration between the University of California, Los Angeles and California Hospital Medical Center. Located on the campus of the California Hospital Medical Center, Hope Street is a family resource center that integrates home

visitation with comprehensive center-based early childhood education, parenting, adult education, family literacy, and child care services. Target Population The target population for home visitation services includes pregnant women, infants, toddlers, and pre-school-aged children who meet federal low-income guidelines and live within the service area of central Los Angeles. The Hope Street Family Center targets a population of nearly 500,000 residents, one-third of whom are under 17 years of age, with 10% four years of age or younger. Seventyseven percent of the population is Latino; 9% African-American; 7% Asian; and 6% Caucasian. Thirty-eight percent of households have incomes of less than $15,000. Nearly 40% of youth 0-17 years of age have no health insurance. Downtown Los Angeles is ranked as the highest low-literacy area in the county. Intensity of Home Visits The home visitation model employed by Hope Street uses a combination inhome and center-based design that is flexible, fluid, and responsive to the changing circumstances of individual families. Home visitation options include (a) weekly home visits, approximately 90 minutes in duration; (b) weekly or biweekly home visits coupled with center-based activities for parents and children, one to five times per week; and (c) weekly or bi-weekly home visits concurrent with daily center-based

early childhood education services for children, 0-5 years of age. These various options offer parents choices as family needs and circumstances change over time. For example, a family may participate in home visitation services only during the prenatal period or immediately after the childs birth. When the child is older or as parents return to work or school, the family may opt to participate in a combination of center- and home-based services. Home visitation services are provided within an ecologic framework that considers the needs of the child as well as the needs and resources of the childs family and community. Services are designedBuilding Community Systems for Young Children UCLA Center for Healthier Children, Families and Communities -48-

to be comprehensive, continuous, and family-focused. They typically begin prenatally and extend through the childs fifth year of life.

Caseloads Home visit caseloads average 10-12 families per home visitor. Service Array Home visitation activities typically fall into the broad categories of early childhood education, parenting education, health education and anticipatory guidance, and case management/family support services. Center-based services include a family literacy program; English as a Second Language (ESL)

classes; continuation high school coursework leading to a high school diploma; parenting education classes; infant, toddler and preschool early childhood education classes; fullday childcare; and Mommie and Me or Daddy and Me playgroups. Additional center-based services include monthly Dads and Kids outings, family field trips, camping opportunities for parents and children, and a program of structured after-school mentoring and recreational activities for school-aged siblings. Staff Qualifications Qualities and characteristics used to guide staff hiring include: (a) linguistic and cultural competence, (b) an understanding of how to serve young children within the context of their family, (c) experience in providing home-based services, and (d) a willingness to acquire new skills and expand ones area of expertise. Home visitors are required to have a minimum of a bachelors degree in the areas of early childhood education, social work, psychology, nursing, or a related field. The program also utilizes a supervisory team with masters degrees in psychology, social work, early childhood education, and nursing. This mix of backgrounds and areas of clinical expertise encourages staff to employ multidisciplinary approaches in planning, developing, and implementing home visitation services. Standardized Curriculum

The home visitation program utilizes a locally developed curriculum that draws heavily upon the Partners in Parenting (PIPE) and Creative Curriculum (Trister-Dodge). The content of the home visit is the result of weekly planning between the parent and the home visitor and is based upon an assessment of family interests, needs, and strengths in the areas of health and nutrition, child development and parenting, education and training, family relationships and community supports, and the physical home environment. The extent to which the program model is implemented and the extent to which parents and children are participating in program services is monitored through regular review of MIS data and reports, weekly case conferences, monthly chart audits, weekly individualsupervision and case discussions, and regular joint home visits.Building Community Systems for Young Children UCLA Center for Healthier Children, Families and Communities Special Outreach Many of the fathers in the families who receive home visitation services are working and unable to participate in home visits conducted during the day. Through the Daddy and Me playgroups and the Dads and Kids Saturday activities, the program makes a special effort to ensure that fathers have opportunities to spend time with their young children, in ways that strengthen the development of healthy, positive relationships. -49-

Educational, health care, and recreational services are also offered for schoolaged siblings and for the graduates of the early childhood home visitation program. These services support the foundation for school readiness that was laid down during the pre-school years and help insure childrens continued academic success. Program Evaluation and Continuous Quality Improvement The Hope Street Family Centers evaluation and continuous quality improvement plans utilizes information gathered from MIS statistics, community assessment data, parent surveys and focus group interviews, staff surveys and focus group interviews, community focus group interviews, observational assessments, and clinical case reviews and chart audits as the basis for short and longterm program evaluation, development and planning activities. Extensive program and fiscal audits are conducted on an annual basis by an independent evaluation consultant and at least every 3 years by a monitoring team representing the principal funding agency. Integration and Coordinating Funding The Hope Street Family Center is supported by funds from the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Head Start Bureau; California Department of Education; City of Los Angeles; Los Angeles County Children and Families First, Proposition 10 Commission; California Hospital Medical Center Foundation; UniHealth Foundation; Catholic Healthcare West Southern California; and a variety of private donors and foundations.

Linkages with the Service System The Hope Street Family Center is active in a broad array of community collaboratives and service provider networks. In addition, the Center has entered into formal partnerships that include shared resources (facilities, staff, and finances) with the Los Angeles Unified School District, LosAngeles County Department of Health Services, and four community based agencies. Contact Person: Vickie Kropenske, PHN, MSN Director, The Hope Street Family Center California Medical Hospital Los Angeles, California KropenskeV@CHW.edu (213) 742-6385Building Community Systems for Young Children UCLA Center for Healthier Children, Families and Communities -50-

XIX. Appendix J: The Alameda County Children and Families Commission Every Child Counts Initiative One of the core strategies of the Alameda County Children and Families Commissions Every Child Counts (ECC) initiative is to provide family-support services which concentrate on five core areas: prenatal services, home visits after birth, intensive family support, infant mental health, and school readiness. The ECC has a two-pronged approach to providing home visiting services to families with young children under the Family Support Services initiative (refer to the website ackids.org for

more details). First, the universal strategy provides one to three home visits to all newborns through age three regardless of income or psychosocial risk factors. Second, targeted and intensive family support services focus on at-risk families. The ECCs family support approach employs empirically validated best practices and employs a family-centered, relationship-based framework. The universal home visiting component is currently being phased-in at three of the 11 local hospitals. Hospital Outreach Coordinators (HOCs) greet mothers, their newborns and families in the hospitals and explain the home visiting program. HOCs receive written consent from the mothers in the hospitals to participate and share program information, and they also enroll families into the program as appropriate. Once clients are enrolled into the program, HOCs make electronic referrals to the designated contractors for the provision of home visiting services. Project contractors are Alameda County Public Health Nurses (PHNs), the City of Berkeley PHNs, and a communitybased organization in the City of Alameda. PHNs conduct the first home visit within 48-72 hours of the initial referral, and provide up to three home visits per client. The home visiting model is relationship-based with specific protocols and curriculum designed to cover key domains, as they are relevant to the mother and familys life-course

development. If clients are found to have greater needs, the Plus 10 program makes an additional 10 home visits available to the family with added protocols including a maternal mental health assessment. The second component of the Family Support Services home visiting strategy is to target intensive family support services for children who are medically fragile, parents who are teenagers, and families with referrals due to child protection. Special Start is a joint projectof Childrens Hospital Oakland and the Alameda County Public Health Department. Childrens Hospital follows the medically fragile infants and PHNs from the Special Start unit of the county follow the babies born who are determined to be at high social risk. With grants from Every Child Counts, the East Bay Perinatal Council and Tiburcio Vasquez Health Center, who provide services to teen mothers, have expanded their Cal-LEARN and Adolescent Family Life Programs to provide more extensive family support services. Clients receiving intensive family support services can be followed up to the childs fifth birthday as necessary. For both the universal and intensive family support services components, multi-disciplinary teams are available for consultation including developmental, substance abuse, and infant mental health specialists. Building Community Systems for Young Children UCLA Center for Healthier Children, Families and Communities -51 -

As of March 2001, 1268 families had been offered family support services, and of those 1217 (96%) enrolled in the universal one to three home visiting component. Of those enrolling, 1144 (94%) signed consent forms and 146 (12%) went on to be offered the Plus 10 home visits program. Under the intensive family support component, Childrens Hospital Oakland and Public Health Nursing from July to December 2000 provided home visiting services to 218 medically fragile babies and their families through the Special Start Program. The Alameda County, Children and Families Commissions Every Child Counts (ECC) home visiting initiative is very ambitious and exciting. It is unique in California, as it aims to provide both universal and targeted home visiting services that are based on the bestpractices of various proven effective models. With approximately 20,000 new births in Alameda County each year, this home visiting initiative can potentially have a significant impact on the well-being of young children and their families in the county. Contact Person: Deborah Bremond, PhD Director of Family Support Services Alameda County Children and Families First Commission ackids@alameda.ca.us (510) 667-3960

Definition of Home Visiting (Source: HRSA/ACF Funding Opportunity Announcement, 7-1-10, page 7) Home visiting is defined as an evidence-based program, implemented in response to findings from a needs assessment, that includes home visiting as a primary service delivery strategy (excluding programs with infrequent or supplemental home visiting), and is offered on a voluntary basis to pregnant women or children birth to age 5 targeting the participant outcomes in the legislation which include improved maternal and child health, prevention of child injuries, child abuse, or maltreatment, and reduction of emergency department visits, improvement in school readiness and achievement, reduction in crime or domestic violence, improvements in family economic self-sufficiency, and improvements in the coordination and referrals for other community resources and supports.

1 MODULE 1 : GUIDANCE : CONCEPT AND NEEDS Concept of Guidance Unit Structure : 1.0 Introduction 1.1 Objectives 1.2 Meaning and Principles of Guidance 1.2.1 Meaning of Guidance 1.2.2 Guidance and Education : Guidance and Counseling

1.2.3 Principles of Guidance 1.3 Need and Importance of Guidance 1.4 Scope of Guidance: Guidance Services 1.5 Implications of Areas of Guidance in Global Context. 1.5.1 Personal 1.5.2 Educational 1.5.3 Vocational 1.5.4 A vocational 1.5.5 Social 1.5.6 Moral 1.5.7 Health 1.5.8 Leisure-time 1.6 Let us sum up 1.0 INTRODUCTION We are social beings and, so in some way or other we need help and guidance of others. Mother, father, grand parents, teachers and other elders, home, school and society guide youngsters for successful living. Due to explosion of knowledge, industrialization and changes in socio-economic set up the need of professional guidance is felt in the present day society. In this unit you will be familiarized with concept, principles, need of guidance and implications of areas of guidance on global context.2 1.1 OBJECTIVES After going through this unit you will be able to:

Define the meaning of guidance Describe the need for guidance State the principles of guidance Explain different areas of guidance 1.2 MEANING AND PRINCIPLES OF GUIDANCE 1.2.1 Meaning of Guidance: Literally guidance means to direct, to point out, to show the path. It is the assistance or help rendered by a more experienced person to a less experiences person to solve certain major problems of the individual (less experienced) i.e. educational, vocational, personal etc. Guidance is a concept as well as a process. As a concept guidance is concerned with the optimal development of the individual. As a process guidance helps the individual in self understanding (understanding ones strengths, limitations, and other resources) and in self-direction (ability to solve problems, make choices and decision on ones own). 1.2.2 Guidance and Education; Guidance and Counselling, Guidance and Education : The aim of education is to achieve the fullest possible realization of possibilities inherent in the individual. Education fosters all aspects of an individuals personality. Guidance is an integral part of education and helps in achieving the goals of education. Guidance is quite essential for the development of individual which is the main objective of education. The Education

Commission (EC-1964-66) observes Guidance should be regarded as an integral part of education and not as a special, psychological or social service which is peripheral to educational purposes. It is meant for all students not just for those who deviate from the norm in one direction or the other. Jone, A.J., pointing out the relationship between guidance and education observes, All guidance is education but some aspects of education are not guidance. Their objectives are the same the development of the individual but methods used in education are by no means the same as those used in guidance.3 Guidance and Counseling : The terms guidance and counselling have been loosely or interchangeably used. Guidance is a term which is broader than counseling and it includes counseling as one of its services. Butter makes a logical separation of the counseling process i.e. (i) adjustive and (ii) distibutive phase. In the adjustive phase, the emphasis is on social, personal and emotional problems of the individual, in the distributive phase the focus is upon educational, vocational and occupational problems. The distributive phase can be most aptly described as guidance while the adjustive phase can be considered as description of counselling. 1.2.3 Principles of Guidance: Guidance is based upon the following principles. (i) Holistic development of individual : Guidance needs to be provided in the context of total development of

personality. (ii) Recognition of individual differences and dignity: Each individual is different from every other individual. Each individual is the combination of characteristics which provides uniqueness to each person. Similarly human beings have an immense potential. The dignity of the individual is supreme. (iii) Acceptance of individual needs: Guidance is based upon individual needs i.e. freedom, respect, dignity. (iv) The individual needs a continuous guidance process from early childhood throughout adulthood. (v) Guidance involves using skills to communicate love, regard, respect for others. 1.3 NEED AND IMPORTANCE OF GUIDANCE Guidance is needed wherever there are problems. The need and importance of guidance are as follows. Self understanding and self direction: Guidance helps in understanding ones strength, limitations and other resources. Guidance helps individual to develop ability to solve problems and take decisions. Optimum development of individual Solving different problem of the individual Academic growth and development Vocational maturity, vocational choices and vocational adjustments

Social personal adjustment4 Better family life Good citizenship For conservation and proper utilization of human resources For national development Guidance is helpful not only for student and teacher in an educational institution but also to the parents ,administrators, planners and community members. Check Your Progress I Q.1 Define guidance Q.2 Explain the relation between guidance & counseling. Q.3 State the relation between guidance & Education. Q.4 Why do we need guidance? Q.5 What should be the principles of guidance? 1.4 DIFFERENT SCHOOL GUIDANCE SERVICES The school is expected to provide more than just teaching and instruction. A school guidance programme includes all those activities other than instructional which are carried out to render assistance to pupils in their educational, vocational, personal development and adjustment. The fundamental aim of guidance programme being the maximum development of the child, all guidance programme must be geared toward attainment of the goal. Guidance services can assist the pupils in knowing themselves-their potentialities and limitations, making appropriate choices in educational, vocational and other fields. Some of the

important guidance services are; The orientation services Student inventory services5 Career Information services Counseling services Group guidance services Placement services Research and evaluation services 1.5 IMPLICATIONS OF AREAS OF GUIDANCE IN GLOBAL CONTEXT The students life is getting complex day by day. Students in the twenty-first century have facing many perplex and difficult situations i.e. to make wise curricular and other curricular choices, to acquire basic study skills for optimum achievement, adjustment with peers etc. In its beginning guidance was concentrated on problems relating to vocations. It was largely concerned with getting jobs for young people. Now guidance has gone for beyond this. It is now concerned with the entire individual in all aspects. The areas of guidance are very vast. The following are some of the important areas of guidance. 1.5.1 Personal: Students face many personal problems related to themselves, their parents and family, friends and teachers, etc. They often have memories related to home or family which creates feeling of disappointment in them. If their parents are expecting too

much of them it leaves them with a feeling of incompetence and insecurity leading poor self-concept and self esteem. The objectives of personal guidance are to help the individual in his/her physical, emotional, social, rural and spiritual development. The aims and objectives of personal guidance are : To assist the individual in understanding himself/herself. To assist the individual involving the personal problems. To assist the individual in taking independent decisions and judgement. To assist the individual to view the world and the social environment in right perspective. To assist the individual in making sound adjustments to different problems confronted in life. Personal guidance is necessary at all stages of life. At the elementary school stage opportunities should be given to students 6 for their self expression. Personal guidance at this stage deals with the problems related to feeling of insecurity, social acceptance, discipline etc. At the secondary stage, the students have more intricate personal problems. During the secondary stage adolescent students due to peculiar physical, emotional and social developments undergo noticeable changes in their attitude and behaviour. Personal guidance at this stage should therefore focus on personal and social adjustment. Personal guidance at the tertiary stage aims at helping them view

life in relation to reality. The scope of personal guidance at this stage is very wider. 1.5.2 Educational Guidance: If one closely examines the problems of young pupils in schools and colleges, one would exactly realize the need of educational guidance. Educational problems head the needs of students problems. So education is an important guidance area. Educational guidance is related to every aspect of education school / colleges, the curriculum, the methods of instruction, other curricular activities, disciplines etc. Educational guidance is the assistance given to the individual (i) to understand his/her potentialities (ii) have a clear cut idea of the different educational opportunities and their requirements (iii) to make wise choices as regards to school, colleges, the course : curricular and extra curricular. Some of the aims and objectives of educational guidance are: To assist the pupil to understand him/herself i.e. to understand his/her potentialities, strength and limitations. To help the child make educational plans consist with his/her abilities, interests and goals. To enable the student to know detail about the subject and courses offered. To assist the student in making satisfactory progress in various school/ college subjects. To help the child to adjust with the schools, its rules,

regulations, social life connected with it. To help the child in developing good study habits. To help the child to participate in out of class educational activities in which he can develop leadership and other social qualities.7 At the elementary stage guidance programme must help the children to make good beginning, to plan intelligently, to get the best out of their education and prepare them for secondary schools. Educational guidance needs to be used in diagnosing difficulties, in identifying the special needs of children. At the secondary stage educational guidance should help the pupils to understand themselves better, to understand different aspects of the school, to select appropriate courses to get information about different educational opportunities, to develop good study habits. The students should be helped to be acquainted with the vocational implications of various school subjects. Educational guidance at the tertiary stages must oriented students about purpose and scope of higher studies and helps them to stimulate their studies. Each college/ university must have a guidance unit with due provision of guidance services. 1.5.3 Vocational Guidance: You know that bread and butter aims is one of the main aims of education. Due to advancement in science and technology and consequent charges in industry and occupations have been emerged. There are thousands of specialized jobs/ occupations. In

this context, there is a great need for vocational guidance. Vocational guidance is a process of assisting the individual to choose an occupation, prepare for it, enter upon it and progress in it. It is concerned primarily with helping individuals make decisions and choices involved in planning a future and building a career. The purpose behind assisting the youth to choose, prepare, enter and progress in a vocation is the optimum growth of the individual. Some of the aims and objectives of vocational guidance are: Assisting pupil to discover his/her own abilities and skills to feet them into general requirements of the occupation under consideration. Helping the individual to develop an attitude towards work that will dignify whatever type of occupation s/he may wish to enter. Assisting the individual to think critically about various types of occupations and to learn a technique for analyzing information about vocations. Assisting pupils to secure relevant information about the facilities offered by various educational institutions engaging in vocational training.8 At the elementary stage, although no formal guidance programmes are needed, the orientation to vocation can be initiated at this stage. At this stage some qualities and skills which have grater vocational significance viz. love and respect for manual work (ii) training in use of hands (iii) spirit of

cooperative work (iii) sharing (vi) appreciation for all works (vii) good interpersonal relationship are to be developed. At the secondary stage vocational guidance should help the students to know themselves, to know the world of work, to develop employment readiness to develop decision making rules. At the higher education stages it should be more formal one. The objectives of guidance at this stage are to help the students to get information about different career, training facilities, apprenticeship etc. 1.5.4 Avocational Guidance: The individual student spends only a small portion of his time i.e. 4 t0 6 hours per day in school. The rest of the time needs to be effectively managed and utilized by the child for his/her progress and development. Avocational guidance helps the child to judiciously utilize the leisure time. The other co-curricular activities play an important role in all-round development of the child .But many parents, teachers and children put secondary importance to these activities. The students need to be properly guided for effective participation in varied types of avocational pursuits so that they are able to shape their interpersonal behavior in desirable direction and widen their outlook. 1.5.5 Social Guidance: We are social animals. But social relationships constitute a problem area for most of the students. School/educational

institution is a miniature society and pupil from different socioeconomic status, linguistic and socio-cultural background read there.Students some time may face problems in adjustment and social relationship. It is very important that the students to be helped in acquiring in feeling of security and being accepted by the group;in developing social relationship and in becoming tolerant towards others. This is the task of social guidance. Formally social guidance can be given by educational institutions whereas informal guidance may be provided by Family, religious institutions, Media etc.9 1.5.6 Moral Guidance: Moral values occupy an important place in our life.Some times due to influence of diverse factors students tell lies and indulge in undesirable practices. Moral guidance helps in bringing these students in to proper track and help in their all round development. 1.5.7 Health Guidance: Health is regarded as the wealth.Total health i.e. preventive and curative is the goal of health guidance.The health guidance may be a cooperative effort of Principal, Doctors, Counsellor/psychologist, Teachers, Students and parents. For promoting preventive care the conditions of school hostel, canteen needs to be checked. Similarly health education through formal classes and information is essential in school education stages. In the present day the concern of health guidance also pertains to guidance in HIV/AIDs.

1.5.8 Leisure time guidance : Guidance for leisure is basically a part of personal guidance. the individual should know how to utilize his/her leisure time fruitfully. leisure generally refers to free time a person at his disposal. leisure in modern time is available to those who are technically trained and efficient. But, unfortunately most of us do not know how to utilize the leisure time. That is why guidance for leisure is necessary. Leisure can be fruitfully utilized for two purposes. First of all Leisure provides us time for personal development. One can increase his efficiency by utilising his leisure time. The second use of leisure is that it helps the individual to be more productive by getting the necessary rest and recreation. Jones divides leisure time activities into four groups. 1. Escape activities 2. General culture or appreciation activities. 3. Creative activities and 4. Service activities It has also been suggested that individuals should spend their leisure time in social welfare activities. For professional growth are must take active interest in the professional society of his profession.10 Thus it is quite evident that guidance for leisure is extremely important in modern society because it helps the individual to attain efficiency and become a useful member of the society.

Therefore, it has been suggested that in the school curriculum there should be provision for teaching about various leisure time activities so that children will able to know about them. Check Your Progress II Q.1 What are the different guidance services? Q.2 Differentiate between vocational & a vocational guidance. Q.3 Explain the use of leisure time guidance. Q.4 Write short notes on : a) Objectives of educational guidance. b) Need of vocational guidance. c) Orientation services. d) Personal guidance 1.6 LET US SUM UP Guidance is a concept as well as a process. Guidance is different from education and counseling. Guidance is based upon the principles of holistic development of individual, recognition of individual differences and dignity and acceptance of individual needs. Guidance is needed wherever there are problems. Guidance helps in optimum development of individual, Solving different problem of the individual, Academic growth and development, Vocational maturity, vocational choices and vocational adjustments, Social personal adjustment., Better family life, for conservation and proper utilization of human resources, and national development. Guidance is helpful not only for student and teacher in an educational institution but also to the parents,

administrators, planners and community members. A school guidance programme includes all those activities other than 11 instructional which are carried out to render assistance to pupils in their educational, vocational, personal development and adjustment. The areas of guidance are very vast. Some of the important areas of guidance are personal, educational, vocational, avocational, health, social etc. UNIT END EXERCISES 1. What is guidance? Discuss the need and importance of guidance. 2. Discuss the principles upon which guidance is based. 3. State the importance of educational guidance and vocational guidance. 4. Write short notes on: a) Personal guidance b) Guidance and education c) Guidance and Counselling SUGGESTED READINGS Agrawal,R(2006) Educational,Vocational Guidance and Counselling,New Delhi,Sipra Publication Bhatnagar,A AND Gupta,N(1999).Guidance and Counselling:A theoretical Approach(Ed),New Delhi,Vikash Publishing House Jones, A.J.(19510.Principles of Guidance and Pupil Personnel work,New Y ork,MiGraw Hill Kochhar, S.K., (1985): Educational and Vocational Guidance in

Secondary Schools,New Delhi,Strling Publisher NCERT (2008).Introduction to Guidance,Module -1,DEPFE,New Delhi 12 1A Module -1 TYPES AND AGENCIES OF GUIDANCE 1A.0 Introduction 1A.1 Objectives 1A.2 Types of Guidance: Individual and Group 1A.2.1 Individual guidance 1A.2.2 Group Guidance: Concept, Need and Significance 1A.2.3 Organization of Group Guidance activities 1A.2.4 Techniques of Group Guidance 1A.2.5 Advantages of Group Guidance 1A.2.6 Limitations of Group Guidance 1A.3 Agencies of Guidance at different Levels 1A.3.1 International Level Agencies 1A.3.2 National Level Agencies 1A.3.3 State Level Agencies 1A.3.4 Local Level Agencies 1A.4 Let us Sum up 1A.0 INTRODUCTION In the previous unit you have learnt about meaning,

importance and areas of guidance. You have also learnt about different school guidance services. One of the services is group guidance service .From the organization point of view guidance can be of two types i.e. individual and group. Many institutions/organizations work in the area of guidance and counseling. In this unit you will learn about importance of group guidance and international, national and state level agencies of guidance. 2.1 OBJECTIVES After going through this unit, you should be able to: define group guidance13 aware of the need and importance of group guidance know the practical consideration of organization of group guidance activities; understand the limitations of group guidance activities; and deal effectively with the problems of organization of such group guidance activities state the role and functions of different agencies at international, national and state levels. 1A.2 TYPES OF GUIDANCE: INDIVIDUAL AND GROUP

1A.2.1 Individual guidance: Individual guidance is tailored to an individual. It is advice, strategy or planning designed for a singular person or thing and their unique situation. This is in contrast to general guidance which

is frequently based on demographic information such as age or income or meant for the general population. The most common reference to individual guidance is in reference to children or students. This is ideally the role of guidance, educational or career http://www.ehow.com/careers/ counselors. Individual guidance can be used to refer to any advice, usually professional advice, given to a person based on their unique circumstances. This could include legal services, career counseling, financial planning, medical or psychological advice or a number of other areas where a trained professional is looked to for direction in a given area. 1A.2.2 Group Guidance: Concept, Need and Significance: Group refers to collection of people, interaction between individuals, development of shared perceptions, the development of affective ties and the development of interdependence of roles. For example many students and teacher/teachers at one school may gather together to form a group. Group guidance encompasses those activities of guidance which are carried on in a group situation to assist its members to have experiences desirable or even necessary for making appropriate decisions in the prevailing contexts. In a more specific term, it is guiding the individual in a group situation. Group could be of any type ,but for guidance purposes a group should have a common goal. Just collection of individual may not be called a group for organizing guidance activities. Selection of group 14

members will have to depend on sharing a common problem, volunteering to be members and willingness to group activities. Jones, A.J(1951)define group guidance as any group enterprise or activity in which the primary purpose is to assist each individual in the group to solve his problems and to make his adjustment. Group guidance is used to address the developmental needs of a functional group consisting of a number of students to implement programme that would benefit them at all time.Students in group with common problems and concerns are helped in groups i.e. small or large. In other words, if guidance is to be available to all, it should be planned in groups. Some of the objectives of group guidance are: 1. To help people in identifying common problems, analyse them and find relevant solutions 2. To place a wide range of information before people with common problems which could be useful for them for finding solutions? 3. To provide a platform where people with common problems could interact with each other and could be benefited by each others perspectives, ideas and experiences 4. To help in creating an atmosphere where people could get an opportunity to express themselves and in the process analyze themselves.

1A.2.3 Organization of Group Guidance Activities: Planning of group guidance activity may focus the following points. 1. Need Assessment: The need assessment must be done to find out the common problems of individuals in the group. This can be done by administering questionnaire, checklists and interview. 2. Determining size of the group and time, venue for group activities: Depending upon the group activity the size of the group should be fixed. The size should be approachable and manageable. The venue should be selected taking in to account the group selected for activity. 3. Selection of members and role specifications: The participants selection for group guidance activity is also very important. The students for example should be communicated about their roles in group activities.15 4. Orientation of Members: The group goals should be clarified. It should be stated in clear, objective and measurable terms. 5. Monitoring of activities and evaluation of outcomes: If we want to conduct the activities purposefully, it should be properly monitored taking into account the goal/s.Feedback about activity needs to be collected from participants. Some of the common group guidance activities are: Class talk, career talk, displays and exhibitions. 1A.2.4 Techniques of Group Guidance:

A number of techniques are used in organizing group guidance. Group Discussion: For example at senior secondary stage students should have knowledge about different career.A group discussion may be organized in the school. For organization of the group discussion proper room/hall, group and relevant topic and expert/resource person should be selected. The group discussion will be useful only if the members participate effectively without the fear and all the members have the opportunity to participate. But the effectiveness of the groupm discussion depends upon the facilitator and the group selected. Problemsolving: For solving individual as well as common problems, problem solving can be applied as a technique. It comprises of the following steps; Existence of common problem Focused description of the problem Initiation of action for solving problem based on relevant facts Analysis of problem in the light of data collected Listing of possible solutions and Evaluation of them Acceptance of degree of acceptance of solution in the group Role play: In small group role playing can be adopted as a technique of guidance. Role playing is a method where real life situations are simulated by group members/participants. This provide new insight, intuitions, skills and understanding of opposing viewpoints. The role playing may comprise of the following steps;

Existence of common problem Orientation of group to role playing and the problem16 Assigning of roles Preparation of other members/audience to observe intelligently Assessing the role play Concluding session and feedback Other methods like case study and sociometric technique can be used as group guidance technique. 1A.2.5 Advantages of Group guidance: We have discussed about different activities and approaches of group guidance. Some of the advantages of group guidance are as follows: Inspires learning and understanding: Interaction in group setting inspires learning and understanding of students. The student learns from other member of group. Saves time and effort: Group guidance technique can save time and effort of both the counselor and students. The time saved can be used for the more problems of students. Improvement of students attitude and behavior Development of wholesome and helpful awareness of unrecognized needs and problems of student/s 1A.2.6 Limitations of Group Guidance: Group guidance though serves a useful purpose, but they difficult and complex

cannot be taken as a substitute for individual counseling. Group activities serve many of the objectives of the school guidance programme, but not all of these. Further students may feel hesitant to come out with their personal problems in the group. So, in these cases group guidance cannot be of help. Group guidance activities serve useful purposes specially saving in time and effort. While organizing these activities, some problems that a counsellor may face are mentioned below: A rigid type of administration is often a major cause of trouble. Generally, when the counselor asks for time in the time table for conducting these guidance activities, he/she may get a discouraging reply, the time table is already full. No periods are free. So the counsellor is left with no other choice than to take the substitute management period.17 Lack of cooperation on part of the administration as well as the staff members may also create problems in organizing such activities. Teacher may feel this as an addition burden. Lack of adequate funds is another problem. Check Your Progress I Q.1 What is individual guidance? Q.2 What is group guidance? Q.3 What are the objectives of group guidance? Q.4 How can you organize group guidance activities? Q.5 State the techniques of group guidance. Explain Role play technique of group guidance.

1A.3 AGENCIES OF GUIDANCE AT DIFFERENT LEVELS: Different agencies i.e. government and private at international, national and regional level have been doing significant works in the area of guidance. These agencies are working in training /orientation, career guidance services or development of materials for guidance workers/functionaries. 1A.3.1 International Level: International Association of Educational and Vocational Guidance (IAEVG)is a worldwide guidance and counselling organization, whose mission is to promote the development and quality of educational and vocational guidance. IAEVG s mission is also to ensure that all citizens who need and want educational and vocational guidance and counselling can receive this counselling from a competent and recognized professional. The objectives of the organization are as follows :18 To promote communication among persons and organizations active in educational and vocational guidance. To encourage the continuing development of ideas, practice and research in the field of guidance and counselling on each level, national and international, in developing and developed countries. To advise government and national or international organizations on the development of guidance systems and further the exchange of professionals and experts.

To collect and disseminate information of interest in the field of educational and vocational guidance practice, study and research The Mission of IAEVG is to: advocate that all citizens who need and want educational and vocational guidance and counselling can receive this counselling from a competent and recognized professional recommend the basic nature and quality of service that should typify the service provided to students and adults recommend the essential training and other qualifications that all counsellors in educational and vocational guidance should have urge governments to enhance, facilitate or establish an agency, institution, or office with responsibility to develop and maintain policies governing the provision of educational and vocaitonal guidance the provision of training and continuing education programs for counselling and guidance practitioners the development and provision of appropriate and effective methods and materials for guidance the conduct of research and development to create new, more comprehensive, and better ways of conducting educational and vocational guidance the development of appropriate methods of evaluation af

counselling and guidance The Association publishes a newsletter three times a year. Furthermore IAEVG publishes the International Journal for Educational and Vocational Guidance which is a refereed journal publishing articles in relation to work and leisure, career development, career counseling and guidance and career education. The website can be found at www.iaevg.org/19 Cedefop, the European Agency to promote the development of vocational education and training, is the European Unions centre of expertise to support the development of VET and evidencebased policymaking. One important task for Cedefop is to provide guidance practitioners with advice, research, analysis and information. On Cedefops website European Training Village (ETV)there is an area with information on lifelong guidance (Choose lifelong guidance in the left menu). Here you will find information on European guidance projects, links to publications and research results, examples of good guidance strategies and practices and a live network for all the actors who have an interest in the field. The website can be found at www.cedefop.europa.eu/ FEDORA is an organisation for those involved in student guidance in institutions of higher education in Europe. The FEDORA network has especially the focus on the higher student mobility across Europe and the challenges that gives to the guidance practitioners. FEDORA contributes to the further

development of the guidance practitioners competencies so they can better support, inform and guide the students on mobility issues. FEDORA organizes congresses, conferences and summer universities and each event takes place every three years. All types of events take place in different countries in the FEDORA member states each year. The website can be found at fedora.plexus.leidenuniv.nl/ IAC (International Association for Counselling) wishes to encourage the exchange of ideas, research findings and personal experience in the field of counselling and guidance. This happens, among others, through organising conferences and publishing the International Journal for the Advancement of Counselling. The website can be found at www.iac-irtac.org/ The International Centre for Career Development and Public Policy, ICCDPP, has the task to facilitate international sharing of knowledge and information concerning public policy and career development issues. ICCDPP has a base for knowledge and information which contains proceedings from international symposia, and reports and news provided to the site by the users and by other international contacts. ICCDPP is supported by OECD, the World Bank, and the European Commission etc. The website can be found at www.iccdpp.org The Nordic Association of Educational and Vocational Guidance is a coalition of national associations for education and vocational guidance in the Nordic countries and the self-governing

areas of Aaland Islands and Faeroe Islands. The aim of NFUE is to 20 strengthen professional educational and vocational guidance in Nordic countries. NAEVG organizes seminars and conferences and develops cooperation with the Baltic countries. The website can be found at www.nfsy.org The European Lifelong Guidance Policy Network aims to assist the European Union Member States and the Commission in moving European cooperation on lifelong guidance forward in both the education and the employment sectors. The purpose is to promote cooperation at Member State level on lifelong guidance and to propose appropriate structures and support mechanisms in implementing the priorities identified in the Resolution on Lifelong Guidance (2004). The ELGPN was established by the Member States and the Commission has foreseen to support the activities of the network in 2007-2008 under the Lifelong Learning Programme. The website can be found at ktl.jyu.fi/ktl/elgpn/ International Labour Organization(ILO): The ILO is the international organization responsible for drawing up and overseeing international labour standards. It is the only 'tripartite' United Nations agency that brings together representatives of governments, employers and workers to jointly shape policies and programmes promoting Decent Work for all. This unique arrangement gives the ILO an edge in incorporating 'real world' knowledge about employment and work.The

organization publishes the results of research related to changing nature of work and employment which is important for policy makers and other users. 1A.3.2 National Level Agencies: At national level the following organizations work in the area of guidance and counseling. National Council of Educational Research and Training(NCERT):The Department of Psychology and Foundation of Education(DEPFE), a Department under NCERT,New Delhi and Pandit Sunderlal Sharma Central Institute of Vocational Education(PSSCIVE) ,Bhopal a constituent of NCERT organize programme on guidance and Counselling.Some of the functions of PSSCIVE are: To advise and assist the Ministry of Human Resource Development, State Governments and Union Territory Administration in the implementation of the Vocational Education and Work Experience Programme.21 To function as the technical wing of the Joint Council of Vocational Education on all matters relating to Vocational Education Programme (VEP). To promote, supervise and guide the establishment of a comprehensive management system for VEP. To serve as a resource institution for both formal and nonformal VEP. To orient and train various key functionaries of VEP, including teachers.

To evaluate and monitor VEP in States/UTs. To ensure uniformity and maintain quality standards in vocational teaching and learning. To provide guidance and counseling on Vocational Education and Training to the people at large. DEPFE is the department of NCERT which coordinates guidance activities in the country. The department runs an International Diploma Course in Guidance and Counseling in collaboration with Commonwealth of Learning, Canada. This course is offered at the Department of Educational Psychology and Foundations of Education (DEPFE), NCERT New Delhi as well as five Regional Institutes of Education located at Bhubaneswar Bhopal, Mysore, Shillong, and Ajmer. Besides the department conducts training programme in the field of guidance and counseling. Central Institute for Research and Training in Employment Service (CIRTES) was established in October, 1964 under the aegis of Directorate General of Employment & Training (DGE&T), Ministry of Labour, Government of India. Later, in 1970 and in 1987, the Institute was expanded with the added responsibilities of developing career literature and to provide guidance for the promotion of self-employment. The Objectives of CIRTES are: Planning and conducting training programmes for Employment Service Personnel at State, National and International Levels.

Conducting research into problems concerning the activities of the Employment Service. Development and publication of career literature and audiovisual aids for use in Vocational Guidance and Career Literature Programmes. 22 Development of motivational material for promotion of selfemployment. There are four divisions of CIRTES i.e. training division, research division, career study center and self employment guidance cell. 1.TRAINING DIVISION Training Division caters to the training needs of all the Employment Officers of the country in placement, vocational guidance, employment market information, self-employment promotional activities and other related matters. Instructional materials and training aids are devised and developed to assist the States in organizing training programmes for the staff of their employment exchanges. Besides, special training programmes for the employment officers of foreign countries under various ILO bilateral programmes are organized on request basis. The Division also associates with other training organisations for imparting training in the field of vocational guidance and selfemployment. 2. RESEARCH DIVISION Research Division conducts studies on organizational, operational and procedural aspects of NES, labour market conditions and other related matters. Development of various

tools and techniques and evaluation of various programmes of NES inter alia come under its purview. 3. CAREER STUDY CENTRE (CSC) CSC develops and publishes the career literature in the shape of bookelets and pamphlets/folders on various careers/occupations covering their job content, educational preparatory requirements, employment and self-employment opportunities, as a reference tool to meet the career planning needs of students, job seekers, Vocational Guidance Officers/Counsellors and others. These publications are disseminated to Employment Exchanges, University Employment Information & Guidance Bureaux (UEIGBx), Coaching-cumGuidance Centre for SC/ST, colleges, schools and also to other agencies engaged in vocational guidance activities, through Employment Exchanges as per their jurisdiction. 4. SELF-EMPLOYMENT GUIDANCE CELL (SEGC) SEGC prepares informative and motivational material to assist Employment Officers in guiding and confidence building among job seekers for adopting self-employment ventures. It also 23 provides training to the Employment Officers on self-employment promotional related activities. Directorate General of Employment and Training(DGE&T),under Ministry of Labour evolves policy

and standards for vocational guidance activities through employment exchanges.

Other organizations like University Grants Commission (UGC), All India Council of Technical Education (AICTE) also works on guidance and counseling. 1A.3.3 State Level Agencies of Guidance: At state level SCERT, Bureau of Educational and Vocational Guidance, Directorates of Employment work for guidance of students. SCERT/State Guidance Bureaus coordinates guidance services at the state level. They organize state level training./orientation for guidance personnel. State Directorates of Employment coordinates vocational guidance programme through employment exchanges in states.They also develop publication on occupational information. Universities; In university employment bureaus facilities are provided for students. 1A.3.4 Local Level: At the local level some district employment exchanges, private agencies and institutional level organizations work for guidance and counseling. The role of NGOs at different level for providing guidance activities is also very important. Check your Progress II Write short notes on the following : a) IAEVG b) CIRTES

c) SEGC d) ILO e) SCERT 1A.4 LET US SUM UP24 Individual guidance can be used to refer to any advice, usually professional advice, given to a person based on their unique circumstances. Group guidance is used to address the developmental needs of a functional group consisting of a number of students to implement programme that would benefit them at all time Organization of Group Guidance Activities should focus on Need Assessment, Determining size of the group and time, venue for group activities, Selection of members and role specifications, Orientation of Members, Monitoring of activities and evaluation of outcomes. Problem solving, role play, group discussion, case study and sociometric are some of the important techniques of group guidance. At international level IAEVG, Cedefop, ILO, Nordic Association of Educational and Vocational Guidance work in the area of guidance. At the national level NCERT, CIRTES and DGE & T are important organizations in the field of guidance. UNIT END EXERCISES 1. Explain the term group guidance. 2. Discuss any two group guidance activities which are carried out in school. 3. Discuss various techniques of group guidance with suitable

examples. 4. Prepare a list of national and international agencies of guidance listing their works. SUGGESTED READINGS Agrawal,R(2006) Educational,Vocational Guidance and Counselling,New Delhi,Sipra Publication Bhatnagar,A AND Gupta,N(1999).Guidance and Counselling:A theoretical Approach(Ed),New Delhi,Vikash Publishing House Jones, A.J.(19510.Principles of Guidance and Pupil Personnel work,New York,MiGraw Hill Kochhar, S.K., (1985): Educational and Vocational Guidance in Secondary Schools,New Delhi,Strling Publisher 25 2 GUIDANCE FOR POPULATION WITH SPECIAL NEEDS a. Mentally Challenged Learners: Slow Learners, Mentally Retarded and Gifted. b. Learning Disabilities: Dyslaxia, Dysgraphia and Dyscalculia. Unit Structure 2.0 Objectives 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Mentally Challenged learners 2.2.1 Slow learners

2.2.2 Mentally Retarded 2.2.3 Gifted 2.3 Learning disabilities 2.3.1 Dyslenia 2.3.2 Dysgraphia 2.3.3 Dyscalculia 2.4 Let us sum up 2A.0 OBJECTIVE After reading this unit you will be able to : Define mentally challenged learners. State different types of mentally challenge of learners. Identify special problems of slow learners. Explain learning disabilities. Tell examples of disability. Identify the learning disability of students.26 2A.1 INTRODUCTION Children who have been determined to require special attention and specific necessities than other children. Special needs children face a lot of emotional, social and psychological problems due to their disability. A teacher can prove to be very helpful to students in providing personal and academic support. A little help and concern from a teacher can help them stabilize their emotional, social and psychological levels into a more balanced learner in the classroom. Under a teacher's guidance, students will feel secure and more engaged in the learning process. Teacher

guidance can help students with special needs express their feelings and communicate their needs freely in the classroom which will create a more constructive student/teacher engagement and understanding. Therefore by providing guidance to students with Special needs, teachers can effectively help students towards a greater academic and social adjustment to their learning environment. 2.2 MENTALLY CHALLENGED LEARNERS SLOW LEARNERS: MEANING Slow-learners are those who fail in school because of their low intellectual abilities. Their IQ ranges from 55 / 60 to 85 / 90. They have a wide range of abilities and a variety of characteristics depending on their background. The term Slow-learners is used to cover various group of students otherwise referred to Dull,Retarded or Educationally Subnormal. Now the term Slow-learners is used more widely to indicate the fairly large group of children whose learning is slowed down by one or more factors of which limited ability may be one even though their intellectual potential may be considerably higher. Definitions Knoff (1987) Slow Learner is the one who learn or underachieve, in one or more academic areas, at a rate that is below average yet not at the level considered comparable to that of an educable mentally retarded student. Types of SL:

Very Backward Due to retarded mental development accompanied by psycho-social deficiency. Ability not quite limited but having difficulty in learning than average children due to school, family or personal factors.27 They may derive benefits from special classes not limited in intelligence but have problems in reading and writing where as arithmetic and other subjects are high. Their causes may range from specific perpetual difficulties to emotional maladjustment. For them some kind of remedial teaching is required. In some schools there are many SL, for them sometimes special class is required. The children receive education in special school or class move to a regular school after the backwardness is removed. These children are hard to identify as they even manage in a less advanced society and do not drew attention easily as deaf, blind or physically handicapped do. The period at which their limitations arise are most obvious is that of school years. 2.2.1 SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF THE SLOW-LEARNERS: 1. Since in physical appearance they look like normal children, parents and teachers have the same expectations from them as from the latter. 2. When they are not able to live up to these expectations, parents and teachers scold and punish them instead of trying

to find out the reason behind their failure. 3. Their classmates make fun of them. 4. Consequently, they are bewildered and confused, wondering what wrong they have committed. 5. Since their basic needs of being loved, accepted and recognised are not met, they develop emotional problems and behaviour difficulties. 6. They generally have a low self-concept due to their limited experience of success and due to the low opinion expressed of them by parents, teachers and others around them. CHARACTERISTICS 1) In physical appearance they are no different from normal children and therefore likely to get admission into schools for normal children where the curriculum is drawn up to meet the needs of average children. So they find it extremely difficult to cope with the education imparted in these schools, unless special provision is made for them and the curriculum is oriented towards practical and real life activities. 28 2) They are capable of being educated in ordinary schools and even achieving a moderate degree of success, if they are allowed to proceed at a slower pace and the syllabus is adapted to suit their abilities. 3) But, they will not be able to keep pace with the average children and never be able to learn all the things we expect normal children to master by the time they leave school.

4) They will not be able to go for higher studies despite all the guidance and educational facilities made available to them. 5) They have poor memories. Their attention span is short and they cannot concentrate on one topic 6) Weakness in thinking capacity, finding out relationships, similarity, familiarity, reasoning, object characteristic observing, poor language and number concept development. 7) Poor verbal ability, Brief vocabulary. 8) Difficulty in abstractions. 9) Weakness in the memory. 10) Constant Feeling of Insecurity. Physical Characteristics: Poor in dressing, using drawing & writing materials and tools. Need large practice in climbing, jumping, dancing, skipping, games etc. Sometimes SL have better physical development than mental development. Their capacity to learn is reduced because of sickness, minor ailments, malnutrition etc. Causes Poorer powers of retention. Weakness in Attention Physical or mental personal inadequacy. Having limited capacity for taking responsibility

Unable to control feelings of aggression or outburst. Solation. Showing the sign of slow learner doesnt mean that the child is slow learner, there are other factors that could cause the process of slow learning Emotional growth:29 Feelings about one self and the developing of these feeling positive or negative is called emotional growth, Emotional and social development are often link together because they are relevant. In the initial stages child learn the feelings of trust, fear, and love later on as he grow he develops the feeling of friendship, pride, and relationship which also guide toward social-emotional development of the child.. if the child is ignore in this stage and proper care is not provided to them, they build negative emotion and they avoid trust initially parents and later on other people, they isolated them self from the outer world. Furthermore, a neglected child, feel him self rejected, and unsecured, it affect the developing skills of the child to socialize with others children. In this stage the changes are very rapid in child and every change bring new change in the behaviour of the child and each change brings about new skills. Child develop multi skills in this stage, the most important one is positive feelings about self and trust building with others Environment: Children react to their environment in early stages and he

learns from the environment in which they grow. Create a safe environment for them and reduce the stress on your child and remove the things which are physical threats to the children e.g.: abusive behaviour and unsafe toys etc With whom the child is spending his time, what is their intellectual level. And how they treat the child, when children have a secure environment, it flourishes their abilities in positive direction. Studies show those children who have better environment show better confidence in life and in education. Growth and opportunities of Learning : Opportunities of learning is very necessary for the development of children cognitive abilities, Parents should provide rich learning environment to their children and open new windows of learning opportunities for them. They need simple playable activities and games to develop their brains, Show them new things and arrange new activities for them to enhance their thinking skill. Absenteeism: Absenteeism from the school is another factor which can affect the ability of learning of a child, when a child is often absent from the class, he could catch with other student in school, he need extra home work with the help of parents to cover his short coming other wise he lose his self confidence EDUCATIONAL PROVISIONS30 Use of appropriate methods of learning Motivation

Learning Readiness A practical approach Concept formation Grading of work Assessment of progress Consolidation Active methods individualization of treatment Cooperation between various professionals Parent Education and Guidance There are several other strategies that are useful. Computers are great to use in the classroom. Computers never tire or get interrupted making the drill and practice more effective and fun. It is important to allow the student time to get out of his/her seat to let off energy and relieve a little stress. A classroom that utilizes centers is good for this. In giving instructions you should say the childs name or touch them before giving the direction, write the directions on the board or paper for each child to keep, and ask that the student repeat the direction orally. This helps to reinforce the direction and gives them something to refer back to if they forget. Once the student turns in the work or answers orally, provide immediate feedback. This assures the student of their answer or allows them to correct the answer and keeps them on task. The most important, strategies is to provide three or four hours of academic work. Slow learners are not efficient learners and

therefore require more hours of academic instruction to keep pace. A very big problem that every school faces, i.e. the difficulty to deal with the slow learners. The teachers have their big headache over these children. Handle them in homework & class work, understanding the topic, etc are the areas concerned with the slow learners. We try to advise them or we try to get result by hook or crook through putting negative enforcement by punishing them. It is estimated that due to that problem many slow learners or dropout students are being termed as weak students & thrown out of the school. But that is not the solution. The result of the action of the throwing out the child out of the school paves the way to create a dark spot in the life of the victim child. Then, where are the solutions? If the teachers will give time to think over those children, definitely the solution comes in their hand. It is also the proof in history that many slow learners have become qualified themselves as the scientists & writers in their life. So, why not we experiment with these slow learners who are with us? Have we thought over it? Have we tried to understand the life of a slow learner? The 31 following discussion may help the teachers to improve the skill of the slow learners. 1. Psychological Analysis & Problem solution The more & more we think about the child the more we get the solution. Firstly, we have to search the problem area of the child. The problem of the child may be his family or friends or his personal condition. If we go for personal asking questions as a

relative of his own, then we can be assured about getting some difficulties for which the child is not reading. Them we, from our level will try to get solution of this problem. 2. Guidance from his level Child has a level of his own. Level of understanding is different from one child to another. The weak child more often cant understand the studies because he has not understood the previous formula / concept in the previous classes. How can he understand the concept of class IX if he has not understood the simple concept of class VII & VIII? Thats why the child should be personally taught from his understanding level. 3. Encouragement in small success The greatest factor for the success of the life of the child is his encouragement. If we try to find out the strengths of the weak child then we come across some of them. If we try to applaud him with encouraging words & give confidence he definitely feels his importance & worth. Once the child has grown his confidence means he will definitely improve. The most important cause of his weakness is we; the teachers always give importance to the good children & neglect the weaker in the class. Encouragement can change the whole personality of a child. 4. Fixing the goal & Prescribi9ng a Time table The child should be persuaded to make a time table for the study purpose. Sometimes some children have no goal regarding study. The teacher should observe those children & inspire them to

fix the goal for the life & help him to make a time table for every day work so that the child will be captured through the time table to do the things at write time. 5. Giving Memory tips More often the child forgets what ever he learns. Thats why he loses his confidence on him & differentiates between him & the good students. The teachers role is to give the tips such as how to recall, in which way to write systematically, when to learn, how to learn etc. 6. Giving importance in the class -32 Its always seen that the class room teaching goes on with the direction & understanding of the strong children. But if the average children do not understand your teaching & you are just running towards the completion of syllabus then the whole teaching is a futile one. Some times its very urgent to go near the weak child & ask personally whether he has understood or not. Here the teachers asking approach should be very polite & sweet, not rude. 7. Self reading method Most of the weak children are found that they neglect self reading. They may have the language understanding problem for which they do not take interest to read. If the teacher freely tells the child to come at home or to him in extra time for understanding the key words then little the child will take interest to self reading. Then definitely he improves himself slowly. 8. Questions for Practice -

Some questions can be given time to time to engage the learner in the habit of study. That is a practice which can enable the student to come across the learning point at a regular basis. 9. Special guidance beyond school hour Basically we the teachers now have become very professional. After school hour we hesitate to give even a single minute to the children which reduce our rapport. The weak children, they need special attention beyond school hour that is personally to take up the childs difficulty. We the teachers, beyond school hour, either we waste time in gossiping or earn money in tuition. If we give 1 hour extra time for the weak children then definitely they will improve. Because it is very difficult to give time to the weak ones in the classroom itself. 10. Seating arrangement More often we see that the strong children in the class room dont wish to sit with the weak children. The weak ones always sit with the weak. This is another cause for the no improvement of the weak children. If the class teacher prepares seating arrangements properly to benefit the weak children-to make arrangement to sit the strong one with the weak one & instruct to the strong one to help the weak one in studies then the weak ones may be improved in studies. 11. Search physical or mental problem The teacher should find out any physical or mental problem of the child. A child is not writing anything from the black board

means may be some eye defect. A child is not obeying the words of the teacher, may be some mental problem is there. Some children are severely affected by the physical problems which made them 33 lazy to read & write. Firstly the teacher / parent should find out the problems then treat them accordingly. 12. Creating confidence level in his interest areas The teacher should observe the child & secretly know the interest areas of the child. Even if the child plays, act, does some work the teacher / parent should find out his interest / specialty. Because every child is special. The encouragement can be started from the childs interest areas. When the child builds his confidence in his interest area then we can expand & inspire the same confidence in other areas also. 13. BE A FRIEND TO HIM Be a friend to the weak child. Teacher should try to knowingly mix with the child more & more with him. Unknowingly when the friendship is build with that child then the child starts loving the teacher. The starting of love starts the surrender of the child towards the same teacher. Then the teacher, whatever he tells the child obeys it. The mystery of all success is the love, understanding & friendship. Oh teacher! Many more children are waiting to catch your lovable hand. They are searching you as a friend. They are so called by the society as slow learners or weak ones but actually they are not. May be some unfortunate moment misguided them. Is

it not noble to improve them, support them to develop in their own pace? Is it not wise to take care of them? The history has proved the slow learners such as Thomas Edison & Gandhi as the world class Scientist & Leader respectively. Every child is special. As every child has a soul, there is every possibility of improvement, sooner or later. The goal of the soul is to develop. The source of energy is lying within them but the only thing is to stretch the hand of confidence towards them which will solve their problem & improve their quality. 2.2.2 Mental retardation: Introduction: A developmental disability characterized by significantly sub average general intellectual functioning, with concurrent deficits in adaptive behavior. The causes are many and include both genetic and environmental factors as well as interactions between the two. In most cases the diagnosis is not formally made until children have entered into school settings. In the preschool years, the diagnosis is more likely to be established by evidence of delayed maturation 34 in the areas of sensory-motor, adaptive, cognitive, social, and verbal behaviors. By definition, evidence of mental retardation must exist prior to adulthood, where vocational limitation may be evident, but the need for supervision or support may persist beyond the usual age of social emancipation. Definition: Mental retardation is a developmental disability that first

appears in children under the age of 18. It is defined as an intellectual functioning level (as measured by standard tests for intelligence quotient) that is well below average and significant limitations in daily living skills (adaptive functioning). Limitations in adaptive behavior must also be demonstrable in order to satisfy diagnostic criteria for mental retardation. This criterion is important because certain artistic or other gifts may not be revealed by formal IQ testing, and different levels of learning difficulty may be accentuated by the demands of specific environments. Outside such environments, an individual may navigate a normal course in life. Levels of Mental Retardation: Mental retardation varies in severity. There are four different degrees of mental retardation: mild, moderate, severe, and profound. These categories are based on the functioning level of the individual. Individuals with mental retardation are typically sub classified in terms of the manifest severity of cognitive disability as reflected by the ratio of mental age to chronological age, or intelligence quotient (IQ). Sub average intellectual functioning is defined as an IQ score of at least two standard deviations below the mean, or approximately 70 to 75 or below. Mild, moderate, severe, and profound degrees of mental retardation refer to below the normal IQ for the general population. Class IQ

Profound mental retardation Below 20 Severe mental retardation 20 34 Moderate mental retardation 35-49 Mild mental retardation 50 69 Borderline intellectual functioning 70 84 Mild Mental Retardation:35 Approximately 85 percent of the mentally retarded population is in the mildly retarded category. Their IQ score ranges from 50 to 75, and they can often acquire academic skills up to the sixth grade level. They can become fairly self-sufficient and in some cases live independently, with community and social support. Moderate Mental Retardation: About 10 percent of the mentally retarded population is considered moderately retarded. Moderately retarded individuals have IQ scores ranging from 35 to 55. They can carry out work and self-care tasks with moderate supervision. They typically acquire communication skills in childhood and are able to live and function successfully within the community in a supervised environment such as a group home. Severe Mental Retardation: About 3 to 4 percent of the mentally retarded population is

severely retarded. Severely retarded individuals have IQ scores of 20 to 40. They may master very basic self-care skills and some communication skills. Many severely retarded individuals are able to live in a group home. Profound Mental Retardation: Only 1 to 2 percent of the mentally retarded population is classified as profoundly retarded. Profoundly retarded individuals have IQ scores under 20 to 25. They may be able to develop basic self-care and communication skills with appropriate support and training. Their retardation is often caused by an accompanying neurological disorder. The profoundly retarded need a high level of structure and supervision. The American Association on Mental Retardation (AAMR) has developed another widely accepted diagnostic classification system for mental retardation. The AAMR classification system focuses on the capabilities of the retarded individual rather than on the limitations. The categories describe the level of support required. They are: intermittent support, limited support, extensive support, and pervasive support. Intermittent support, for example, is support needed only occasionally, perhaps during times of stress or crisis. It is the type of support typically required for most mildly retarded individuals. At the other end of the spectrum, pervasive support, or life-long, daily support for most adaptive areas, would be required for profoundly retarded individuals. Causes:

Low IQ scores and limitations in adaptive skills are the hallmarks of mental retardation. Aggression, self-injury, and mood disorders are sometimes associated with the disability. The severity of the symptoms and the age at which they first appear depend on the cause. Children who are mentally retarded reach 36 developmental milestones significantly later than expected, if at all. If retardation is caused by chromosomal or other genetic disorders, it is often apparent from infancy. If retardation is caused by childhood illnesses or injuries, learning and adaptive skills that were once easy may suddenly become difficult or impossible to master. In about 35 percent of cases, the cause of mental retardation cannot be found. Biological and environmental factors that can cause mental retardation include genetics, prenatal illnesses and issues, childhood illnesses and injuries, and environmental factors. Genetics: About 5 percent of mental retardation is caused by hereditary factors. Mental retardation may be caused by an inherited abnormality of the genes, such as fragile X syndrome. Fragile X, a defect in the chromosome that determines sex, is the most common inherited cause of mental retardation. Single gene defects such as phenylketonuria (PKU) and other inborn errors of metabolism may also cause mental retardation if they are not found and treated early. An accident or mutation in genetic development may also cause retardation. Examples of such accidents are development of an extra chromosome 18 (trisomy 18) and Down

syndrome. Down syndrome is caused by an abnormality in the development of chromosome 21. It is the most common genetic cause of mental retardation. Prenatal Illnesses and Issues: Fetal alcohol syndrome affects one in 600 children in the United States. It is caused by excessive alcohol intake in the first twelve weeks (trimester) of pregnancy. Some studies have shown that even moderate alcohol use during pregnancy may cause learning disabilities in children. Drug abuse and cigarette smoking during pregnancy have also been linked to mental retardation. Maternal infections and illnesses such as glandular disorders, rubella, toxoplasmosis, and cytomegalovirus infection may cause mental retardation. When the mother has high blood pressure (hypertension) or blood poisoning (toxemia), the flow of oxygen to the fetus may be reduced, causing brain damage and mental retardation. Birth defects that cause physical deformities of the head, brain, and central nervous system frequently cause mental retardation. Neural tube defect, for example, is a birth defect in which the neural tube that forms the spinal cord does not close completely. This defect may cause children to develop an accumulation of cerebrospinal fluid on the brain (hydrocephalus). By putting pressure on the brain hydrocephalus can cause learning impairment.37 Childhood Illnesses and Injuries:

Hyperthyroidism, whooping cough, chickenpox, measles, and Hib disease (a bacterial infection) may cause mental retardation if they are not treated adequately. An infection of the membrane covering the brain (meningitis) or an inflammation of the brain itself (encephalitis) cause swelling that in turn may cause brain damage and mental retardation. Traumatic brain injury caused by a blow or a violent shake to the head may also cause brain damage and mental retardation in children. Environmental Factors: Ignored or neglected infants who are not provided the mental and physical stimulation required for normal development may suffer irreversible learning impairments. Children who live in poverty and suffer from malnutrition, unhealthy living conditions, and improper or inadequate medical care are at a higher risk. Exposure to lead can also cause mental retardation. Many children develop lead poisoning by eating the flaking lead-based paint often found in older buildings. Diagnosis: A complete medical, family, social, and educational history is compiled from existing medical and school records (if applicable) and from interviews with parents. Children are given intelligence tests to measure their learning abilities and intellectual functioning. Such tests include the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale, the Wechsler Intelligence Scales, the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence, and the Kaufmann Assessment Battery for

Children. For infants, the Bayley Scales of Infant Development may be used to assess motor, language, and problem-solving skills. Interviews with parents or other caregivers are used to assess the child's daily living, muscle control, communication, and social skills. The Woodcock-Johnson Scales of Independent Behavior and the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scale (VABS) are frequently used to test these skills. Treatment: Training in independent living and job skills is often begun in early adulthood. The level of training depends on the degree of retardation. Mildly retarded individuals can often acquire the skills needed to live independently and hold an outside job. Moderate to profoundly retarded individuals usually require supervised community living. Family therapy can help relatives of the mentally retarded develop coping skills. It can also help parents deal with feelings of guilt or anger. A supportive, warm home environment is essential to help the mentally retarded reach their full potential. Prognosis:38 Individuals with mild to moderate mental retardation are frequently able to achieve some self-sufficiency and to lead happy and fulfilling lives. To reach these goals, they need appropriate and consistent educational, community, social, family, and vocational supports. The outlook is less promising for those with severe to profound retardation. Studies have shown that these individuals have a shortened life expectancy. The diseases that are usually

associated with severe retardation may cause the shorter life span. People with Down syndrome develop in later life the brain changes that characterize Alzheimer's disease and may develop the clinical symptoms of this disease as well. Prevention: Immunization against diseases such as measles and HIV prevents many of the illnesses that can cause mental retardation. In addition, all children should undergo routine developmental screening as part of their pediatric care. Screening is particularly critical for those children who may be neglected or undernourished or may live in disease-producing conditions. Newborn screening and immediate treatment for PKU and hyperthyroidism can usually catch these disorders early enough to prevent retardation. Good prenatal care can also help prevent retardation. Pregnant women should be educated about the risks of drinking and the need to maintain good nutrition during pregnancy. Tests such as amniocentesis and ultra sonography can determine whether a fetus is developing normally in the womb. Strategies: Activities should be divided into manageable parts and carefully sequenced to offer a progression of skills. Repetition of important tasks may also facilitate learning. Whenever possible, it is helpful to provide a demonstration so participants can model the desired behavior. Use verbal instructions that are clear and easy to understand.

Provide careful supervision of all activities especially those in which accidents or injuries are possible, but be careful not to overprotect participants. Explain required learning tasks in terms of concrete concepts. Stress real life applications. Plan activities that are age appropriate. Plan activities that require skills useful in community living, job training, etc. Try to ensure that the challenges of an activity correspond with the skills of the participants. 39 When possible start an activity at the participants current skill level rather than the lowest possible level. Small group and cooperative activities may facilitate social development for those with deficiencies in adaptive behavior. Establish necessary rules for appropriate behavior, and use consistent consequences. Parental Concerns: All states are required by law to offer early intervention programs for mentally retarded children from the time they are born. The sooner the diagnosis of mental retardation is made, the more the child can be helped. With mentally retarded infants, the treatment emphasis is on sensori motor development, which can be stimulated by exercises and special types of play. It is required that special education programs be available for retarded children starting at three years of age. These programs concentrate on

essential self-care, such as feeding, dressing, and toilet training. There is also specialized help available for language and communication difficulties and physical disabilities. As children grow older, training in daily living skills, as well as academic subjects, is offered. Counseling and therapy are another important type of treatment for the mentally retarded. Retarded children are prone to behavioral problems caused by short attention span, low tolerance for frustration, and poor impulse control. Behavior therapy with a mental health professional can help combat negative behavior patterns and replace them with more functional ones. A counselor or therapist can also help retarded children cope with the low selfesteem that often results from the realization that they are different from other children, including siblings. Counseling can also be valuable for the family of a retarded child to help parents cope with painful feelings about the child's condition and with the extra time and patience needed for the care and education of a special-needs child. Siblings may need to talk about the pressures they face, such as accepting the extra time and attention their parents must devote to a retarded brother or sister. Sometimes parents have trouble bonding with an infant who is retarded and need professional help and reassurance to establish a close and loving relationship. 2.2.3 Gifted Children: Meaning: Someone who shows, or has the potential for showing, an

exceptional level of performance in one or more areas of expression. Characteristics of Gifted Students: Learn Quickly and Easily40 Able to use abstract thought and critical reasoning Exhibit Verbal Proficiency Have a high energy level Become bored and frustrated Dislike repetition Receive negative adult attitudes to smartness Dominate Discussions Difficulty with listening skills Become frustrated with inactivity and lack of challenge Be extremely persistent Concentrate on tasks of high interest for extended periods of time Exhibit unusual emotional depth and intensity Be highly sensitive Be acutely perceptive Disrupt class routine Resist interruptions or schedules Perceived as stubborn or uncooperative Be unusually vulnerable Perceived as immature Be confused if thoughts and feelings not taken seriously

 Aim at perfection Exhibit independence and nonconformity Heightened self-awareness Relate more to older children and adults Feel frustrated Fear failure Challenge and question indiscreetly Exhibit rebellious behavior Social isolation Low self-esteem due to seeing differences from peers as bad Seen as a show off Keen sense of humor Possess unusual imagination Causes Experience Biological Factors Social Factors No single factor that causes giftedness Difficulties for Gifted Children: Chil41 Perfectionism Isolation Underachievement vs. Selective Achievement v Selective Impostor Syndrome Impostor Syndrome Masking Abilities Masking Abilities Delinquency

Depression Anxiety Suicide Strategies for Teaching Gifted Students: Create alternative activities that go beyond the regular curriculum. Work with students to design an independent project that they would be interested in completing for credit If possible, involve students in academic competitions in your area. Create tiered assignments, which have different expectations for different levels of learners. Computers can be used to complete alternative activities and independent projects. Program For Gifted Acceleration and Enrichment: Acceleration refers to the speeding up of instruction. Gifted children are fast learners and require little repetition of information. Enrichment refers to the increased depth of study of a particular topic. It extends the regular curriculum. Both are needed in some form. Multiple Options: Is the program a one size fits all program or are there various options for the different needs of the different types of gifted children? A profoundly gifted child has significantly different educational needs than does a mildly gifted child, for example. In addition, a child may be exceptionally gifted in math, but not in

language arts. Multiple options are essential. Student Learning Expectations Learning outcomes must be clear. The students may have fun, but they must also learn something new. Challenging Curriculum Gifted children need a stimulating curriculum. Without it, they can "tune out," losing interest in school. A curriculum for gifted children should require them to stretch their minds. 42 Flexibility Flexibility is needed in order to respond to the needs of individual gifted children. Rigid adherence to the system often prevents some gifted children from appropriate challenges. Staff Development Plan Teachers who have been trained to work with gifted children are much more effective than those who have not. Guidance Component Gifted children often feel isolated or "different." They sometimes don't feel like they fit in socially with the other children. They also can be very sensitive and have a harder time than other children dealing with the day-to-day stress of school or growing up. The guidance can be individual or group guidance. Honoring Academic Talent Schools must honor all talent areas in the same way athletic talent is honored Names of achievers can be listed or announced in the same way sports heroes are listed and announced.

TIPS FOR NURTURING GIFTED CHILDREN Appreciate gifted learners as children. Interact with families with gifted children. Recognize how the personal and instructional needs of a gifted child differ from others. Appreciate the differences among high achievers, gifted learners, and creative thinkers. Understand the developmental crises for gifted students. Assure your child that being different is okay. Be an encourager. Emphasize that what is learned is more important than any grade. Be an active listener and elicit childrens perceptions. Follow their interests and leads in learning situations rather than pressure them with your agenda. Talk up to them. Enjoy music, plays, museums, art, sports, and historical places together and discuss the experience. 43 Model life-long learning habits Facilitate real-life reading, writing, science, and math experiences. Give books and learning games as presents, and then spend time together reading and playing those games. Recognize that gifted children need to question and respond critically.

 Maintain a sense of humor! 2.3 LEARNING DISABILITIES: Dyslaxia, Dysgraphia and Dyscalculia What is a learning disability? A child with a learning disability cannot try harder, pay closer attention, or improve motivation on their own; they need help to learn how to do those things. A learning disability, or learning disorder, is not a problem with intelligence. Learning disorders are caused by a difference in the brain that affects how information is received, processed, or communicated. Children and adults with learning disabilities have trouble processing sensory information because they see, hear, and understand things differently. Symptoms and types of learning disabilities and disorders Motor difficulties and learning disabilities: Motor difficulty refers to problems with movement and coordination whether it is with fine motor skills (cutting, writing) or gross motor skills (running, jumping). A motor disability is sometimes referred to as an output activity meaning that it relates to the output of information from the brain. In order to run, jump, write or cut something, the brain must be able to communicate with the necessary limbs to complete the action. Signs that your child might have a motor coordination disability include problems with physical abilities that require handeye coordination, like holding a pencil or buttoning a shirt. Math difficulties and learning disabilities:

Learning disabilities in math vary greatly depending on the childs other strengths and weaknesses. A childs ability to do math will be affected differently by a language learning disability, or a visual disorder or a difficulty with sequencing, memory or organization. A child with a mathbased learning disorder may struggle with memorization and organization of numbers, operation signs, and number facts. 44 Language difficulties and learning disabilities: Language and communication learning disabilities involve the ability to understand or produce spoken language. Language is also considered an output activity because it requires organizing thoughts in the brain and calling upon the right words to verbally explain something or communicate with someone else. Signs of a languagebased learning disorder involve problems with verbal language skills, such as the ability to retell a story and the fluency of speech, as well as the ability to understand the meaning of words, parts of speech, directions, etc. Reading difficulties and learning disabilities: There are two types of learning disabilities in reading. Basic reading problems occur when there is difficulty understanding the relationship between sounds, letters and words. Reading comprehension problems occur when there is an inability to grasp the meaning of words, phrases, and paragraphs. Signs of reading difficulty include problems with: letter and word

recognition , understanding words and ideas . reading speed and fluency, general vocabulary skills. Writing difficulties and learning disabilities: Learning disabilities in writing can involve the physical act of writing or the mental activity of comprehending and synthesizing information. Basic writing disorder refers to physical difficulty forming words and letters. Expressive writing disability indicates a struggle to organize thoughts on paper. Symptoms of a written language learning disability revolve around the act of writing and include. They include problems with: neatness and consistency of writing , accurately copying letters and words , spelling consistency, writing organization and coherence. Auditory and visual processing: the importance of the ears and the eyes. The eyes and the ears are the primary means of delivering information to the brain, a process sometimes called input. If either the eyes or the ears arent working properly, learning can suffer and there is a greater likelihood of a learning disability or disorder. Professionals may refer to the ability to hear well as auditory processing skills or receptive language. The ability to hear things correctly greatly impacts the ability to read, write and spell. An inability to distinguish subtle differences in sound, or hearing sounds at the wrong speed make it difficult to sound out words and understand the basic concepts of reading and writing.

Problems in visual perception include missing subtle differences in shapes, reversing letters or numbers, skipping words, 45 skipping lines, misperceiving depth or distance, or having problems with eyehand coordination. Professionals may refer to the work of the eyes as visual processing. Visual perception can affect gross and fine motor skills, reading comprehension, and math. Common Types of Learning Disabilities Dyslexia Difficulty processing language Problems reading, writing, spelling , speaking Dyscalculia Difficulty with math Problems doing math problems, understanding time, using money Dysgraphia Difficulty with writing Problems with handwriting, spelling, organizing ideas Dyspraxia (Sensory Integration Disorder) Difficulty with fine motor skills Problems with handeye coordination, balance, manual dexterity

Auditory Processing Disorder Difficulty hearing differences between sounds Problems with reading, comprehension, language Visual Processing Disorder Difficulty interpreting visual information Problems with reading, math, maps, charts, symbols, pictures Diagnosis and testing for learning disabilities and disorders Specialists trained to do psychological testing and result interpretation Clinical psychologist School psychologist Educational psychologist Developmental psychologist Neuropsychologist Psychometrist

Occupational therapist (tests sensory disorders that can lead to learning problems) Speech and language therapist Sometimes several professionals coordinate services as a team to obtain an accurate diagnosis, including input from your 46 child's teachers. Recommendations can then be made for special education services or speechlanguage therapy school system. 2.3.1 Dyslexia Definition: The term "Dyslexia" is used to cover a wide range of learning problems. It refers to a specific difficulty in learning, either inborn or acquired, in reading, spelling and written language. This may also be accompanied by difficulty in number work. It is a neurological condition in which the child has tremendous difficulty acquiring language skills, even though she may be intellectually bright, with oral skills so good that she is able to bluff her way through the early classes. Dyslexia is a broad term defining a learning disability that impairs a person's fluency or accuracy in being able to read, write, and spell, and which can manifest itself as a difficulty with phonological awareness, phonological decoding, orthographic coding, auditory short-term memory, and/or rapid naming. Dyslexia is separate and distinct from reading difficulties resulting from other causes, such as a non-neurological deficiency with vision or hearing, or from poor or inadequate reading instruction. There are

three proposed cognitive subtypes of dyslexia: auditory, visual and attentional. Although dyslexia is not an intellectual disability, it is considered both a learning disability and a reading disability. Dyslexia and IQ are not interrelated, since reading and cognition develop independently in individuals who have dyslexia. The National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke gives the following definition for dyslexia: "Dyslexia is a brain-based type of learning disability that specifically impairs a person's ability to read. These individuals typically read at levels significantly lower than expected despite having normal intelligence. Although the disorder varies from person to person, common characteristics among people with dyslexia are difficulty with spelling, phonological processing (the manipulation of sounds), and/or rapid visual-verbal responding. In adults, dyslexia usually occurs after a brain injury or in the context of dementia. It can also be inherited in some families, and recent studies have identified a number of genes that may predispose an individual to developing dyslexia". [ Signs and symptoms: The symptoms of dyslexia vary according to the severity of the disorder as well as the age of the individual. The chronological sequence of events:47 1. In the first year the child may be a bit slow in acquiring the alphabet and some aspects of sight vocabulary.

2. By about 7 years of age, the child may begin to have difficulty in reading and spelling and may therefore become demotivated. 3. As the child grows older and is not given appropriate help in reading, writing and spelling, these will further lag behind the chronological age. 4. The child, faced with his own failure, will show a low self esteem. 5. Another feature therefore, is a secondary anxiety problem which manifests itself in many ways. The child may be withdrawn, anxious, aggressive or 'playful '. Preschool-aged children: It is difficult to obtain a certain diagnosis of dyslexia before a child begins school, but many dyslexic individuals have a history of difficulties that began well before kindergarten. Children who exhibit these symptoms early in life have a higher likelihood of being diagnosed as dyslexic than other children. These symptoms include: delays in speech slow learning of new words not crawling difficulty in rhyming words, as in nursery rhymes low letter knowledge letter reversal or mirror writing (for example, "" instead of "R") Early primary school children:

Difficulty learning the alphabet or letters order Difficulty with associating sounds with the letters that represent them (sound-symbol correspondence) Difficulty identifying or generating rhyming words, or counting syllables in words [33] (phonological awareness) Difficulty segmenting words into individual sounds, or blending sounds to make words [34] (phonemic awareness) Difficulty with word retrieval or naming problems [35][36][37] Difficulty learning to decode written words Difficulty distinguishing between similar sounds in words; mixing up sounds in polysyllabic words (auditory discrimination) (for example, "aminal" for animal, "bisghetti" for spaghetti) Older primary school children: Slow or inaccurate reading (although these individuals can read to an extent). 48 Very poor spelling [38] which has been called dysorthographia (orthographic coding) Difficulty reading out loud, reading words in the wrong order,

skipping words and sometimes saying a word similar to another word (auditory processing disorder) Difficulty associating individual words with their correct meanings Difficulty with time keeping and concept of time when doing a certain task Difficulty with organization skills (working memory) Children with dyslexia may fail to see (and occasionally to hear) similarities and differences in letters and words, may not recognize the spacing that organizes letters into separate words, and may be unable to sound out the pronunciation of an unfamiliar word (auditory processing disorder). DYSLEXIA SYMPTOMS: A discrepancy between the pupil's ability and their actual achievement If you notice that a child who appears to be average or bright when they are talking to you is struggling to read, spell or cope with math/s, this may be the strongest indicator that they may be dyslexic. It is very common for dyslexic children to be quite able, especially in the areas of creativity (art, drama, drawing, etc) and physical co-ordination (physical education, swimming, sports, model-making, etc.). However, there are differences in the neural links in their brain that makes it hard for them to deal with text (and often with numbers) without extra support. A reading age or grade level of two years below what you would expect from them is a sign of possible dyslexia. Obviously, this could also be caused by other

factors such as lengthy absences from school due to illness. A family history of learning difficulties: Dyslexia is most often inherited through the genes. It can also be caused by early ear infections. In both cases it is harder for a young child to distinguish the difference between similar sounding words. The numbers of boys and girls who are dyslexic are roughly the same. Difficulties with spelling: Spelling is the activity which causes most difficulty for dyslexic children. Noticing spelling errors in short, simple words is 49 the way in which most dyslexic children first come our attention. Examples of words which cause particular difficulty are: any, many, island, said, they, because, enough, and friend. Other words will sometimes be spelt in the way that you would expect them to be spelt if our spelling system were rational, for example does/dus, please/pleeze, knock/nock, search/serch, journey/jerney, etc. Dyslexic children also experience difficulties with 'jumbled spellings'. These are spelling attempts in which all the correct letters are present, but are written in the wrong order. Examples include dose/does, freind/friend, siad/said, bule/blue, becuase/because, and wores/worse. 'Jumbled spellings' show that the child is experiencing difficulty with visual memory. Non-dyslexic children and adults often use their visual memory when trying to remember a difficult spelling: they write down two or three possible

versions of the word on a spare piece of paper and see which spelling 'looks right'. They are relying on their visual memory to help them, but the visual memory of a dyslexic child may not be adequate for this task. Confusion over left and right: A fairly quick way to establish this type of confusion is to ask a child to point to your left foot with his or her right hand. If you try similar instructions - in a non-threatening environment - you will soon be able to see if this causes difficulties or not. (Try it on a colleague - who is not dyslexic - and you can see how a nondyslexic person is able to sort out the left and right elements quite readily.) You may also notice difficulties with east and west, or in following directions like 'Go to the end of the road and turn left, then right, etc'. Writing letters or numbers backwards: You will have noticed some children who mix up 'b' and 'd', or even 'p' and the number 9. These letters are the same in their mirror image, and cause regular confusion for a dyslexic person. Some pupils make a point of always writing the letter 'b' as au upper-case or capital 'B', as they find this much easier to remember in terms of the direction it faces. Difficulties with math/s: One feature of dyslexia is difficulties with sequencing getting things in the right order. Math/s depends on sequences of 50 numbers - 2. 4. 6. 8. etc. Whilst many people are aware that

dyslexic children and students have problems with reading and spelling, they do not know that math/s can also be a real challenge. Difficulties organizing themselves: Whilst you may quite reasonably think that all children live their lives in a mess, this is particularly so for dyslexic children and students, who may have genuine difficulties with planning and thinking ahead to when a book or pen might be needed next. They can really benefit from help with organizing papers and folders under a simple color-coded system. Difficulty following 2- or 3-step instructions: 'Go to Mrs. Brown and ask her if Peter Smith is in school today. Oh, yes, and ask if I can borrow her dictionary' - such an instruction is just too much! It involves both sequencing and memory skills, and you would be very surprised to see a dyslexic child return with the dictionary and information about Peter Smith! Dyslexic children love to take messages as much as any other child, but it has to be a less complicated instruction, e.g. 'Ask Mrs. Brown if I can borrow her stapler'. Causes: Research shows that dyslexia is unrelated to home environment, intellect or social class. Dyslexics usually follow the normal distribution curve of IQ pattern, and several dyslexics have average to above average IQ. Birth traumas such as oxygen deprivation, head injuries and certain medications such as those for seizures are also one of

the factors. Recent research also indicates that the brains of dyslexics differ structurally from brains of others. Their information processing system also differs in a distinctive manner. There is also some evidence to suggest that dyslexia is largely inherited. Main characteristics: Adequate and sometimes above average ability to understand and comprehend. Poor development of written language skills Lack of ability to differentiate between letters of similar shape, such as 'b' and 'd', 'p' and 'q'. Mirror image reversal of these letters. 51 Lack of strong preference for either right-handedness or lefthandedness. Tendency to transpose word images: to read 'saw' as 'was', 'on' as 'no', etc. Serious inability to spell and learn things in sequence, such as months of the year. Difficulty in spelling, reading and writing. Some children have difficulty in spatial orientation too. Difficulty in copying notes and answering examination questions. Diagnosis: There is a grave danger of classifying a slow learner as dyslexic. A child can be considered a dyslexic, if: her intelligence

is high but her academic achievements are low and she demonstrates a few of the recognised dyslexic symptoms including: 1. a disparity between her actual reading ability and listening comprehension ability 2. sequencing and visual memory deficit and 3. problems in spelling. Treatment: Dyslexics learn best in highly structured environment. They have a poor visual memory for words and must go back to basic phonics and phonetic techniques in a multi-sensory teaching approach. The magic formula is: drill, practice and repetition There is no medicine or drug that can cure dyslexia, only remedial teaching can. Assessment: Assessment of children with learning problems provides the basis for remediation. Assessment information is of two types: 1. General information: This includes case history material, general abilities of the child, observational data, etc. It gives an overall picture of the child and suggests a beginning point for remediation. 2. Specific information: This gives results of direct measurement of the students performance in language, arithmetic and other areas that provides the basis for further instruction.52 Assessment of general abilities: This is done to determine

whether the child functions at a lower or higher level of intelligence for her age. This cannot be done only on the basis of academic records. A child may be intelligent but due to lack of motivation or other factors perform poorly in academics. Some of the other ways of judging the child's general abilities are as follows: Observing the child's general capacity in areas other than academics compared to other children her age, such as, comprehension, ability to go out and buy things, counting, understanding TV programmes, etc. Observing the child when she plays with other children of her age group A Dyslexic Child in the Classroom: A guide for teachers: Much can be done by integrating the child into the class environment (which is predominantly a learning environment) where he/she can feel comfortable and develop confidence and self esteem. Class teachers may be particularly confused by the student whose consistent underachievement seems due to what may look like carelessness or lack of effort. These children can be made to feel very different from their peers simply because they may be unable to follow simple instructions, which for others seem easy. It is a class teacher's responsibility to provide an atmosphere conducive to learning for all pupils within their class.

Class teachers need to have an understanding of the problems that the dyslexic child may have within the classroom situation. Hopefully, with this knowledge, a great deal of misunderstanding of a child's behaviour can be prevented. In a positive and encouraging environment, a dyslexic child will experience the feeling of success and self-value. Of particular importance is an understanding of the problems that poor auditory short term memory can cause, in terms of retaining input from the teacher. Examples of poor auditory short term memory can be a difficulty in remembering the sounds in spoken words long enough to match these, in sequence, with letters for spelling. Often children with poor auditory short term memory cannot remember even a short list of instructions.53 The following items should provide useful guidelines for teachers and parents to follow and support : In the class: Of value to all children in the class is an outline of what is going to be taught in the lesson, ending the lesson with a resume of what has been taught. In this way information is more likely to go from short term memory to long term memory. When homework is set, it is important to check that the child correctly writes down exactly what is required. Try to ensure that the appropriate worksheets and books are with the child to take home.

In the front of the pupils' homework book get them to write down the telephone numbers of a couple of friends. Then, if there is any doubt over homework, they can ring up and check, rather than worry or spend time doing the wrong work. Make sure that messages and day to day classroom activities are written down, and never sent verbally. i.e. music, P. E. swimming etc. Make a daily check list for the pupil to refer to each evening. Encourage a daily routine to help develop the child's own selfreliance and responsibilities. Encourage good organizational skills by the use of folders and dividers to keep work easily accessible and in an orderly fashion. Break tasks down into small easily remembered pieces of information. If visual memory is poor, copying must be kept to a minimum. Notes or handouts are far more useful. Seat the child fairly near the class teacher so that the teacher is available to help if necessary, or he can be supported by a well-motivated and sympathetic classmate. Copying from the blackboard: Use different colour chalks for each line if there is a lot of written information on the board, or underline every second line with a different coloured chalk. Ensure that the writing is well spaced.

Leave the writing on the blackboard long enough to ensure the child doesn't rush, or that the work is not erased from the board before the child has finished copying. Reading:54 A structured reading scheme that involves repetition and introduces new words slowly is extremely important. This allows the child to develop confidence and self esteem when reading. Don't ask pupils to read a book at a level beyond their current skills, this will instantly demotivate them. Motivation is far better when demands are not too high, and the child can actually enjoy the book. If he has to labour over every word he will forget the meaning of what he is reading. Save the dyslexic child the ordeal of having to 'read aloud in class'. Reserve this for a quiet time with the class teacher. Alternatively, perhaps give the child advanced time to read preselected reading material, to be practiced at home the day before. This will help ensure that the child is seen to be able to read out loud, along with other children Real books should also be available for paired reading with an adult, which will often generate enthusiasm for books. Story tapes can be of great benefit for the enjoyment and enhancement of vocabulary. No child should be denied the pleasure of gaining access to the meaning of print even if he cannot decode it fully. Remember reading should be fun.

Spelling: Many of the normal classroom techniques used to teach spellings do not help the dyslexic child. All pupils in the class can benefit from structured and systematic exposure to rules and patterns that underpin a language. Spelling rules can be given to the whole class. Words for class spelling tests are often topic based rather than grouped for structure. If there are one or two dyslexics in the class, a short list of structure-based words for their weekly spelling test, will be far more helpful than random words. Three or four irregular words can be included each week, eventually this should be seen to improve their free-writing skills. All children should be encouraged to proof read, which can be useful for initial correction of spellings. Dyslexics seem to be unable to correct their spellings spontaneously as they write, but they can be trained to look out for errors that are particular to them. Remember, poor spelling is not an indication of low intelligence. 2.2.2 Dyscalculia: "Dyscalculia" is a lesser-known learning disability that affects mathematical calculations. It is derived from the generic name "mathematics difficulty". 55 A student with any degree of mathematics difficulty may be considered to have "dyscalculia" by some educational specialists.

UNDERLYING CAUSES: Dyscalculia has several underlying causes. One of the most prominent is a weakness in visual processing. To be successful in mathematics, one needs to be able to visualize numbers and mathematics situations. Students with dyscalculia have a very difficult time visualizing numbers and often mentally mix up the numbers, resulting in what appear to be "stupid mistakes." Another problem is with sequencing. Students who have difficulty sequencing or organizing detailed information often have difficulty remembering specific facts and formulas for completing their mathematical calculations. SYMPTOMS: Many students with disabilities have histories of academic failure that contribute to the development of learned helplessness in mathematics. It is important that mathematics instructors recognize the symptoms of dyscalculia and take the necessary measures to help students that are affected. Some of the symptoms are: Students might have spatial problems and difficulty aligning numbers into proper columns. Have trouble with sequence, including left/right orientation. They will read numbers out of sequence and sometimes do operations backwards. They also become confused on the sequences of past or future events Students typically have problems with mathematics concepts in

word problems, confuse similar numbers (e.g., 7 and 9; 3 and 8), and have difficulty using a calculator. It is common for students with dyscalculia to have normal or accelerated language acquisition: verbal, reading, writing, and good visual memory for the printed word. They are typically good in the areas of science (until a level requiring higher mathematics skills is reached), geometry (figures with logic not formulas), and creative arts. Students have difficulty with the abstract concepts of time and direction (e.g. inability to recall schedules, and unable to keep track of time). They may be chronically late. Mistaken recollection of names. Poor name/face retrieval. Substitute names beginning with same letter. Students have inconsistent results in addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. Students have poor mental 56 mathematics ability. They are poor with money and credit and cannot do financial planning or budgeting (e.g. balancing a checkbook). Short term, not long term financial thinking. May have fear of money and cash transactions. May be unable to mentally figure change due back, the amounts to pay for tips, taxes, etc When writing, reading and recalling numbers, these common mistakes are made: number additions, substitutions, transpositions, omissions, and reversals. Inability to grasp and remember mathematics concepts, rules

formulas, sequence (order of operations), and basic addition, subtraction, multiplication and division facts. Poor long-term memory (retention & retrieval) of concept mastery. Students understand material as they are being shown it, but when they must retrieve the information they become confused and are unable to do so. They may be able to perform mathematics operations one day, but draw a blank the next. May be able to do book work but can fails all tests and quizzes. May be unable to comprehend or "picture" mechanical processes. Lack "big picture/ whole picture" thinking. Poor ability to "visualize or picture" the location of the numbers on the face of a clock, the geographical locations of states, countries, oceans, streets, etc. Poor memory for the "layout" of things. Gets lost or disoriented easily. May have a poor sense of direction, loose things often, and seem absent minded. May have difficulty grasping concepts of formal music education. Difficulty sight-reading music, learning fingering to play an instrument, etc. May have poor athletic coordination, difficulty keeping up with rapidly changing physical directions like in aerobic, dance, and exercise classes. Difficulty remembering dance step sequences rules for playing sports. Difficulty keeping score during games, or difficulty remembering how to keep score in games, like bowling, etc. Often looses track of whose turn it is during games, like cards and board

games. Limited strategic planning ability for games, like chess. MITIGATIVE STRATEGIES: Although dyscalculia may be difficult to diagnose, there are strategies that teachers and parents should know about to aid students in learning mathematics. 1. Encourage students to work extra hard to "visualize" mathematics problems. Draw them or have them draw a picture to 57 help understand the problem, and make sure that they take the time to look at any visual information that is provided (picture, chart, graph, etc.) 2. Have the student read problems out loud and listen very carefully. This allows them to use their auditory skills (which may be strength). 3. Provide examples and try to relate problems to real-life situations. 4. Provide younger students with graph paper and encourage them to use it in order to keep the numbers in line. 5. Provide uncluttered worksheets so that the student is not overwhelmed by too much visual information (visual pollution). Especially on tests, allow scrap paper with lines and ample room for uncluttered computation. 6. Discalculia students must spend extra time memorizing mathematics facts. Repetition is very important. Use rhythm or music to help memorize. 7. Many students need one-on-one attention to fully grasp certain

concepts. Have students work with a tutor, a parent, or a teacher after school hours in a one-on-one environment. 8. If possible, allow the student to take the exam on a one-to-one basis in the teacher's presence. 9. The student might like instant answers and a chance to do the problem over once s/he is wrong. Often their mistakes are the result of "seeing" the problem wrong. 10. In early stages, design the test problems "pure," testing only the required skills. In their early learning, they must be free of large numbers and unnecessary destructive calculations. 11. Allow more than the "common" time to complete problems and check to see that student is not panicking (tears in eyes, mind frozen). 12. Most importantly, be PATIENT! Never forget that the student WANTS to learn and retain. Realize that mathematics can be a traumatic experience and is highly emotional because of past failures. The slightest misunderstanding or break in logic can overwhelm the student and cause emotional distress. Pity will not help, but patience and individual attention will. It is typical for students to work with until they know the material well and then get every problem wrong on the test. Then 5 minutes later, they can perform the test with just the teacher, on the chalkboard, and many times get all problems correct. Remember that this is very frustrating for the teacher/parent as well as the student. Patience is essential.58

13. Assign extra problems for practice and maybe a special TA (teaching assistant) or special education is assigned to assist the affected student. 14. When presenting new material, make sure the student with discalculia is able to write each step down and talk it through until they understand it well enough to teach it back to you. 15. Go over the upcoming lesson with so that the lecture is more of a review. 16. Computer-assisted instruction (CAI) mathematics courses (instruction targeted to special students) can be developed. 2.3.3 DYSGRAPHIA: "Dysgraphia" is a learning disability resulting from the difficulty in expressing thoughts in writing and graphing. It generally refers to extremely poor handwriting. Most learning disabled students experience difficulty with handwriting and probably could be considered "dysgraphic". Underlying Causes: Students with dysgraphia often have sequencing problems. Studies indicate that what usually appears to be a perceptual problem (reversing letters/numbers, writing words backwards, writing letters out of order, and very sloppy handwriting) usually seems to be directly related to sequential/rational information processing. These students often have difficulty with the sequence of letters and words as they write. As a result, the student either needs to slow down in order to write accurately, or experiences

extreme difficulty with the "mechanics" of writing (spelling, punctuation, etc.). They also tend to intermix letters and numbers in formulas. Usually they have difficulty even when they do their work more slowly. And by slowing down or getting "stuck" with the details of writing they often lose the thoughts that they are trying to write about. Students with an attention deficit disorder (especially with hyperactivity) often experience rather significant difficulty with writing and formulas in general and handwriting in particular. This is because ADHD students also have difficulty organizing and sequencing detailed information. In addition, ADHD students are often processing information at a very rapid rate and simply don't have the fine-motor coordination needed to "keep up" with their thoughts. Some students can also experience writing difficulty because of a general auditory or language processing weakness. Because of their difficulty learning and understanding language in general, 59 they obviously have difficulty with language expression. Recall that written language is the most difficult form of language expression. Although most students with dysgraphia do not have visual or perceptual processing problems, some students with a visual processing weakness will experience difficulty with writing speed and clarity simply because they aren't able to fully process the visual information as they are placing it on the page. SYMPTOMS:

1. Students may exhibit strong verbal but particularly poor writing skills . 2. Random (or non-existent) punctuation. Spelling errors (sometimes same word spelled differently); reversals; phonic approximations; syllable omissions; errors in common suffixes. Clumsiness and disordering of syntax; an impression of illiteracy. Misinterpretation of questions and questionnaire items. Disordered numbering and written number reversals. 3. Generally illegible writing (despite appropriate time and attention given the task). 4. Inconsistencies : mixtures of print and cursive, upper and lower case, or irregular sizes, shapes, or slant of letters. 5. Unfinished words or letters, omitted words. 6. Inconsistent position on page with respect to lines and margins and inconsistent spaces between words and letters. 7. Cramped or unusual grip, especially holding the writing instrument very close to the paper, or holding thumb over two fingers and writing from the wrist. 8. Talking to self while writing, or carefully watching the hand that is writing. 9. Slow or labored copying or writing - even if it is neat and legible. STRATEGIES: 1. Encourage students to outline their thoughts. It is important to get the main ideas down on paper without having to struggle with the details of spelling, punctuation, etc60

2. Have students draw a picture of a thought for each paragraph. 3. Have students dictate their ideas into a tape recorder and then listen and write them down later. 4. Have them practice keyboarding skills. It may be difficult at first, but after they have learned the pattern of the keys, typing will be faster and clearer than handwriting. 5. Have a computer available for them to organize information and check spelling. Even if their keyboarding skills aren't great, a computer can help with the details. 6. Have them continue practicing handwriting. There will be times throughout a student's life that they will need to be able to write things down and maybe even share their handwriting with others. It will continue to improve as long as the student keeps working at it. 7. Encourage student to talk aloud as they write. This may provide valuable auditory feedback. 8. Allow more time for written tasks including note-taking, copying, and tests. 9. Outline the particular demands of the course assignments/continuous assessment; exams, computer literacy etc. so that likely problems can be foreseen. 10. Give and allow students to begin projects or assignments early. 11. Include time in the student's schedule for being a 'library assistant' or 'office assistant' that could also be used for catching up or getting ahead on written work, or doing alternative activities related to the material being learned.

12. Instead of having the student write a complete set of notes, provide a partially completed outline so the student can fill in the details under major headings (or provide the details and have the student provide the headings). 13. Allow the student to dictate some assignments or tests (or parts thereof) a 'scribe'. Train the 'scribe' to write what the student says verbatim and then allow the student to make changes, without assistance from the scribe. 14. Remove 'neatness' or 'spelling' (or both) as grading criteria for some assignments, or design assignments to be evaluated on specific parts of the writing process. 15. With the students, allow abbreviations in some writing (such as b/c for because). Have the student develop a repertoire of 61 abbreviations in a notebook. These will come in handy in future note-taking situations. 16. Reduce copying aspects of work; for example, in Math, provide a worksheet with the problems already on it instead of having the student copy the problems. 17. Separate the writing into stages and then teach students to do the same. Teach the stages of the writing process (brainstorming, drafting, editing, and proofreading, etc.). Consider grading these stages even on some 'one-sitting' written exercises, so that points are awarded on a short essay for brainstorming and a rough draft, as well as the final product. 18. On a computer, the student can produce a rough draft, copy it,

and then revise the copy, so that both the rough draft and final product can be evaluated without extra typing. 19. Encourage the student to use a spellchecker and, if possible, have someone else proofread his work, too. Speaking spellcheckers are recommended, especially if the student may not be able to recognize the correct word (headphones are usually included). 20. Allow the student to use cursive or manuscript, whichever is most legible 21. Encourage primary students to use paper with the raised lines to keep writing on the line. 22. Allow older students to use the line width of their choice. Keep in mind that some students use small writing to disguise its messiness or spelling. 23. Allow students to use paper or writing instruments of different colors. 24. Allow student to use graph paper for math, or to turn lined paper sideways, to help with lining up columns of numbers. 25. Allow the student to use the writing instrument that is most comfortable for them. 26. If copying is laborious, allow the student to make some editing marks rather than recopying the whole thing. 27. Consider whether use of speech recognition software will be helpful. If the student and teacher are willing to invest time and effort in 'training' the software to the student's voice and learning to

use it, the student can be freed from the motor processes of writing or keyboarding. 62 28. Develop cooperative writing projects where different students can take on roles such as the 'brainstormer,' 'organizer of information,' 'writer,' 'proofreader,' and 'illustrator.' 29. Provide extra structure and use intermittent deadlines for longterm assignments. Discuss with the student and parents the possibility of enforcing the due dates by working after school with the teacher in the event a deadline arrives and the work is not upto-date. 30. Build handwriting instruction into the student's schedule. The details and degree of independence will depend on the student's age and attitude, but many students would like to have better handwriting. 31. Keep in mind that handwriting habits are entrenched early. Before engaging in a battle over a student's grip or whether they should be writing in cursive or print, consider whether enforcing a change in habits will eventually make the writing task a lot easier for the student, or whether this is a chance for the student to make his or her own choices. Beware of overload, the student has other tasks and courses. 32. Teach alternative handwriting methods such as "Handwriting Without Tears." <www.hwtears.com/inro.htm> 33. Writing just one key word or phrase for each paragraph, and then going back later to fill in the details may be effective. 34. Multisensory techniques should be utilized for teaching both

manuscript and cursive writing. The techniques need to be practiced substantially so that the letters are fairly automatic before the student is asked to use these skills to communicate ideas. 35. Have the students use visual graphic organizers. For example, you can create a mind map so that the main idea is placed in a circle in the center of the page and supporting facts are written on lines coming out of the main circle, similar to the arms of a spider or spokes on a wheel. 36. Do papers and assignments in a logical step-wise sequence. An easy way to remember these steps is to think of the word POWER. P - plan your paper O - organize your thoughts and ideas W - write your draft E - edit your work R - revise your work, producing a final draft 63 37. If a student becomes fatigued have them try the following: Shake hands fast, but not violently. * Rub hands together and focus on the feeling of warmth. * Rub hands on the carpet in circles (or, if wearing clothing with some mild texture, rub hands on thighs, close to knees) * Use the thumb of the dominant hand to click the top of a ballpoint pen while holding it in that hand. Repeat using the index finger. * Perform sitting pushups by placing each palm on the chair with fingers facing forward. Students push down on their hands, lifting

their body slightly off the chair. 38. Allow student to tape record important assignments and/or take oral tests. 39. Prioritize certain task components during a complex activity. For example, students can focus on using descriptive words in one assignment, and in another, focus on using compound sentences. 40. Reinforce the positive aspects of student's efforts. 41. Be patient and encourage student to be patient with himself. Strategies For Spelling Difficulties: 1. Encourage consistent use of spell checker to decrease the overall demands of the writing task and encourage students to wait until the end to worry about spelling. 2. Encourage use of an electronic resource such as the spell check component in a Franklin Language Master to further decrease the demands. If student has concurrent reading problems, a Language Master with a speaking component is most helpful because it will read/say the words. 3. Have the student look at each word, then close their eyes and visualize how it looks, letter by letter. 4. Have the student spell each word out loud while looking at it, then look away and spell it out loud again several times before writing it down. 5. Have the students break the spelling list down into manageable sections of only 3 to 5 words. Then take a break after mastering each section.

6. Have a scrabble board and computer accessible for affected students.64 References: Ames, L. & Chase, J. (1980). Don't push your preschooler (Revised ed.). New York: Harper and Row. Calkins, L., with Adellino L. (1997). Raising lifelong learners. A parent's guide. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Chess, S. & Thomas, A. (1987). Know your child. New York: Basic Books, Inc. Johnson, D. (1999). The language of instruction. The Journal o f Learning Disabilities Associate of Massachusetts, 9(2), 1-6. Lauren, J. (1997). Succeeding with L. D. Minneapolis, MN: Free Sprit Publishing Co. Lewis, R., Strauss, A. , & Lehtinen, L. (1960). The other child. New York: Grune and Stratton. Osman, B. (1979). Learning disabilities: A family affair. New York: Random House. Silver, L. (1998). The Misunderstood Child: Understanding and coping with your child's learning disabilities (3rd ed.). New York: Times Books. Smith S. (1994). Different is not bad: different is the world; A book about disabilities. Longmont, CO: Sopris West. 65 2A

GUIDANCE FOR POPULATIONS WITH SPECIAL NEEDS c. Disadvantaged Groups: Social, Economical and Educational (Over Achievers and Under Achievers d. Women: Exploitation at Home and Work e. Senior Citizens: Emotional, social and Physical Problems 2C. DISADVANTAGED GROUPS: SOCIAL, ECONOMICAL AND EDUCATIONAL (OVER ACHIEVERS AND UNDER ACHIEVERS Unit Structure 2A.0 Objectives 2A.1 Introduction 2A.2 The Underachievers: Meaning 2C.3 Concept of underachievers 2C.4 Signs and Symptoms of underachievers 2A.5 The Cause 2A.6 Characteristics: Personal and School 2A.7 Suggestions 2A.8 Strategies 2A.9 Strategies for Improving Academic Performance 2A.10 Overachiever: Meaning 2A.11 Concept of Overachiever: Symptoms and Remedies66 2A.12 The Negative Aspects of Overachieving 2A.13 Maintaining Balance

2A.14 Unit End Exercise 2A.15 References 2A.0 OBJECTIVES: After reading this unit the student will be able to: State the Meaning of Underachievers Explain the Concept of underachievers State Signs and Symptoms of underachievers Explain the Causes of Underachievement List the Personal and School Characteristics of Underachievers State the Suggestions for helping Underachievers Explain the Strategies for helping Underachievers Explain the Strategies for Improving Academic Performance State the Meaning of Overachiever Explain the Concept of Overachiever: Symptoms and Remedies Explain the Negative Aspects of Overachieving Explain how to Maintain Balance 2A.1 INTRODUCTION Overachieving and underachieving are two conditions which are experienced by many people. These are most commonly noticed in children, in terms of academics, sports and other activities which they take part in. Over-and-underachieving are issues that must be addressed by confidence building. There are various ways helping a child become more confident, and these

should be seriously considered if parents hope to see him or her grow into well-balanced adulthood. THE UNDERACHIEVERS: MEANING Under achieving implies that children should be achieving a certain norm at the certain age or time, and they currently are not. The Underachievers are often termed as the mistaken identity of low-ability students. They are endowed with high intellectual potential but suffer from the crisis of low scholastic performance. Certain traits such as rebellious attitude, frequently lying, fear phobia with regard to success, day dreaming, inattentiveness, etc 67 may be either one reason in isolation or multiple reasons in combination with another. It may also occur due to physical deformities. Underachieving is the state in which a person performs significantly below his or her obvious potential. Parents can more readily relate to the problems faced by an underachieving child, because they tend to focus heavily on reversing this trend for most of the childs life. CONCEPT OF UNDERACHIEVERS Underachievers are kids who have a lot of potential but don't live up to that potential in school. Underachievers span all social, economic, and ability levels. Many underachievers have very high IQ's. Teachers and parents often accuse underachievers of being lazy, of having attitude problems, or of not caring about themselves. Sometimes these kids get into trouble at school and at

home. Nobody realizes that underachievement is the issue. An underachiever child tends to have little interest in school work and related activities, invariably blames others for mistakes, is generally disorganized and either socializes too much or too little. The fact is that though they seem to be opposite syndromes, overachieving and underachieving are really related conditions that stem from low self esteem. Children who focus on achieving too much actually consider their academic grades as barometers of their personal worth. Underachievers are scared to perform well and may even be averse to trying simply because they lack sufficient self esteem. For reasons that may well lie in problematic parenting styles, such kids assume that they are not good enough to succeed at anything. Two types of under achievement have been identified. The first is where children only achieve on occasions, apparently when the mood takes them. More likely, their refusal to work or put themselves forward for selection in a team can be linked with some emotional crisis that suddenly erupts: a relationship may break up; a family problem may arise; a personality clash may develop with a specific teacher. Generally, these children have few long-term problems if they can get immediate help to overcome their difficulty and their progress at school is closely monitored. These children are known as situational underachievers. The second type of underachiever is a much more serious problem for the school, the home and particularly for themselves.

The chronic underachiever has many characteristics that give him a label hard to remove. Over 80 percent of identified underachievers are boys! They may become aggressive, giving vent to their 68 frustration by causing trouble or they may become sulky and withdrawn and refuse to develop their talent. SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF UNDERACHIEVERS Commonly encountered characteristics of underachievers may include the following : 1. often impulsive with poor personal judgment and adjustment abilities; 2. poor test results at school and no hobbies or interests at home; 3. a low self-image, often displaying distrust, indifference, lack of concern and/or hostility; 4. feel victimized or helpless and may not accept any responsibility for themselves or their actions; 5. feel rejected by their family and resist attempts to help by parents or teachers 6. choose friends with similar negative attitudes to school, show no leadership qualities and may be less mature than their peers; 7. have little motivation with poor study habits; may refuse to do homework or leave much work incomplete; 8. either cannot plan for the future or set goals well below their true ability or potential. THE CAUSES: underachievers are made and not born. It is the child's

choice to underachieve. We have to look at both sides of the education coin: the school and the home. The pressure on children, especially at secondary school, to conform to the mediocre often has more influence than anything parents or teachers can say. Fortunately, negative peer pressure is usually a passing phase. As the pressure to succeed at the Higher School Certificate increases, so too does the realization that one way to a happy and successful future is to work hard to obtain a particular job or to gain a place at university or college. Another cause of under achievement can be family background. There can be difficulties when some members of the family perceive a bright child is showing off.69 If a child is frequently on the move, for one reason or another, it can mean that he is never in a school long enough for any talent to be recognized by himself or his teachers, let alone developed and nurtured. It's quite possible for people with the potential to do exceptionally well, to go through life without realizing that they have a gift which can, and should, be developed. The major cause of under achievement among the talented is emotional disturbance between parent and child. Children like this are angry at the parents for some reason and vent their anger and frustration in many ways. They feel they must hurt their parents by failing at school and not allowing them to take pride in their achievements. When conflict exists between the parents when one parent

(often the father) is a stern perfectionist and the other tries to compensate for this, the child starts to achieve to please dad, but then feels pressure from mum which carries the message : 'You don't need to work so hard!'. The child becomes confused trying to please both parents. Sometimes the family has unrealistic, perfectionist expectations and the child equates his/her own worth with doing well at school rather than simply being an individual. There might be a negative relationship with a father who feels threatened by his son surpassing him and being more successful at school than he was. Some parents are 'pushy' and try to relive their own lives through their children and force them along at too fast a pace, causing stress and unhappiness. Such pushy parents cannot accept that their children are only children. The child's only defense is to deliberately fail at school. A vicious circle like this can only be broken if the parents learn to understand what is happening. The role model that a parent displays might not be acceptable to the child and lead to his being constantly embarrassed and having a poor self esteem. Any of these problems is likely to create a poor self-image. Fearing success so much, the child creates failure. Such a child prefers not to complete work rather than be awarded a grade that he or she feels will not reach the parents' expectations. Home origins of underachievement:

 The over welcome child Early illness Birth order (later, not first)70 Marital discord Conflicting parenting styles Kind mom/ogre dad Wonderful dad/ogre mom Dummy dad Mousy mom CHARACTERISTICS All underachievers, whether dependent or dominant in their behaviour exhibit: Forgetfulness Disorganisation Carelessness and superficiality on tasks Non-academic interests Manipulation of relations with parents and teachers Loneliness and social withdrawal Personal Low self-concept, negative self-evaluation Social immaturity, unpopular with peers Choose companions who do not like school Feelings of rejection, helplessness, feeling victimized Hostile toward adult authority figures Low aspirations for future, career, less persistent and

assertive Externalization of conflicts, problems School Lack of discipline in tasks, high distractibility Dont see connection between effort and achievement outcomes Few strong hobbies or interests Resistant to influence from teachers, parents Withdraw in classroom situations Lack of study skills, Weak academic motivation Leave schoolwork incomplete, nap during study times Perform well on synthesis tasks but not on tasks requiring precise, analytic processing SUGGESTIONS:71 It is essential to build the child's self-confidence and independence. Encourage the child to see him or herself as a unique individual with a valuable contribution to make to family and society. Never take away the thing or things that a child loves and succeeds in. Don't lecture or nag a child. Reason is always preferable. Don't pressure the child into doing something because you think it's a good idea. Don't set artificial times for work to be done at all costs and

make the child feel that you are being a martyr. This reinforces the idea of failure, not only at school but at home as well. Be more natural in your interest and enthusiasm. Don't keep checking up on the child's progress. This seems to the child that her or she is irresponsible and not in control of life. It also implies a damaging lack of trust. Learn to Trust the Child's Judgment. Get used to saying things which make it clear that the child's feelings are important and that you value his or her opinions. Explain that it's all right to feel angry but that it must be expressed in acceptable ways. Your relationship with your child must be based on mutual respect. It often helps an underachieving child to point out achievable goals for them. Put the goals in some priority order, but be flexible. Guide, don't push. Give underachievers the opportunity to work at their area of ability and make sure someone the child respects is available when help is needed. Isolation is a fine fertilizer for under achievement. STRATEGIES

Single-sided interests Identify acceptable minimums for tasks Pick up pace of instruction Identify have to have skills and focus on these Help child focus on their single-sided interests

Claims of boredom Develop diagnostic- prescriptive instruction Compact the regular curriculum72 Use continuous progress for learning Fast paced content presentations Subject acceleration Find cause of boredom Perfectionism Teach strategies for when to quit, how to match effort to tasks, setting goals, focusing on successes not failures, and separating self-concept from products Role model mistake making Peer Pressure to Underachieve Selectively encourage certain friendships Take interest in childs friends Encourage extra- curriculars Teach strategies for resisting peer pressure Lack of Organizational Skills Study habits training Strategies for developing work plans, priorities, balance, flexibility Provide consistent space and schedule for study at home Stress Teach time management techniques Relaxation exercises

 Exercise routines Socialization opportunities STRATEGIES FOR IMPROVING ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE Supportive Strategies Behaviors that affirm the worth of the child in the classroom and convey the promise of greater potential and success yet to be discovered and enjoyed Daily class meetings to discuss students concerns Directive atmosphere to show who is in charge Daily written contracts of work to be done Free time scheduled each day to show import of relaxation, free choice Use of concrete, predictable teaching methods73 Eliminate work already mastered Allow independent study on topics of personal interest Non authoritarian atmosphere Permit students to prove competence via multiple methods Teach through problem solving rather than rote drill Intrinsic Strategies Behaviors that are designed to develop intrinsic achievement motivation through the childs discovery of the rewards available as a result of efforts to learn, achieve, and contribute to the group Daily review of/reward for small successes Allow students to evaluate work prior to teacher marking Frequent, positive contact with family about childs progress

 Verbal praise for any self-initiating behaviors Assign specific responsibilities for classroom maintenance, management Practice reflective listening, comment to clarify student statements Student sets daily/weekly/monthly goals with teacher approval Remedial Strategies Behaviors that are used to improve the students academic performance in an area of learning difficulty which led to experience of failure and loss of motivation to engage in learning tasks Programmed instruction materials, students grade own papers upon completion Peer tutoring of younger students in areas of strength Small group instruction in common areas of weakness Encourage students to work on projects not involving marks or external evaluation Self-selected weekly goals for improvement Private instruction in areas of weakness Use of humor and personal example to approach academic weakness areas Familiarize students with learning styles and personal implications for performance OVERACHIEVER: MEANING: Overachieving can be defined as performing far better than

what is expected. In academics, it is defined as one's academic 74 performance which is way higher than one's performance in standardized tests such as intelligence quotient (I.Q.) tests. A child may be an overachiever if he feels an impulsive need to get perfect grades and be on top of everybody else in his class. Overachieving and the diametric opposite trait of underachieving are two rather common conditions in todays times. The seed for either trait is often planted in childhood, when many children fall into these categories in terms of academic performance, sports and many other activities. We define overachieving as a state in which a person performs far better than what is expected or even necessary. An overachieving child, for instance, feels prevailed upon to obtain very high grades, with the objective being to top the class. Most parents would not find anything wrong with this. After all, which parents do not want their children to be the best among their peers? This is precisely where the problem lies children take their cue from their parents in most things, and in this case the stage is being set for some significant mental, physical, emotional and social problems in later life. Overachieving kids tend to skip meals, sleep less than required and refrain from social interactions and informal conversations. All that matters is getting As. If such tendencies percolate over into adulthood which they invariably do such a

person is a prime candidate for some rather large social and health issues. CONCEPT OF OVERACHIEVER Overachieves are used to setting impossible goals and then meeting them, but they can melt down when their extraordinary efforts fail. They can also develop unhealthy habits, like working long hours and skipping meals and sleep. Few overachievers become truly dysfunctional, but its important to recognize the warning signs before behaviour become destructive. 1. Work Addiction: Symptoms: Some overachievers use work to avoid negative feelings. They constantly think and talk about work, cant turn it off at the end of the day, and dont take vacations or lunch breaks. What to do: Workaholics tend to drag out a task with unnecessary attention to detail, so you need to establish their priorities for them 75 and monitor progress closely. Reward the results of their work, not the amount of time they spend, and insist that they take lunch breaks and leave at a decent hour. 2. Depression and Self-Criticism: Symptoms: Inability to cope with failure is another warning sign. If a colleague is Unusually quiet or low-energy, taking lots of sick days, or skipping meetings and Company functions particularly after a setback at work take note. Everyone fails now and then, but its difficult for overachievers to deal with that,

On occasion, you will see dysfunctional behaviour that drives the person to the point of suicide when theyve set a goal they can never, ever meet. What to do: Tread carefully. Managers need to refer the person to a professional psychologist for help and not try and deal with it on their own, Address the issue directly with the employee, but dont tell them, Instead, refer anyone with an emotional problem to a mental health professional . 3. Unethical Behavior: Symptoms: Most overachievers dont fall into this category, but some can cross legal and ethical boundaries in order to reach their goals. If someone on consistently breaks rules to get ahead for example, neglecting to fill out Paper work because it takes too much time and they cant be bothered ,dont ignore the problem. It could lead to serious legal issues. What to do: If an Overachiever has acted unethically, keep an eye on the situation and record your observations. When youve gathered sufficient evidence, approach the person with someone to serve as a witness. At this point, they will realize theyve crossed a serious line and will shape up or get professional help. 4. Hypercriticism: Symptoms: If an overachiever shows blatant disregard for other opinions or actively looks for faults in others, it can cause a serious rift with colleagues. Sometimes criticism is necessary to improve performance and get work done, but it becomes destructive when

negative comments far outweigh the positive ones. What to do: A counsellor, can provide guidance without the overachiever becoming alarmed at the stigma of professional help. Mentoring programs that pair experienced members can also assist 76 in putting hypercritical overachiever back on the right track. Mentors can provide wise counsel on tough workplace challenges and give feedback to develop new skills and competencies. 5. Physical or Emotional Abuse: Symptoms: Most warning signs are difficult for the overachiever to recognize in himself. The biggest is a quick loss of temper, such as swearing, yelling, huffing out of a room, or pounding on the table. Sometimes an overachiever will tease other team members in order to motivate them without realizing that it causes undue stress. What to do: Set guidelines and clear boundaries. Make a list of contingency plans. THE NEGATIVE ASPECTS OF OVERACHIEVING 1. Loss of focus or passion Overachievers are often spread quite thin. With only so many hours in the day and so much energy and effort to give, you have to divide your attention among a number of endeavors if you over schedule your time. When you feel pressure to excel in every area, you may lose the chance to discover a genuine personal interest or talent as you attempt to master all your activities. Consequently, you are likely to lose sight of what you truly like and to get less enjoyment from the things you do.

2. Poor physical health The workload and time constraints of the typical overachiever leave relatively little time for sleep. In fact, sleep deprivation is common among overscheduled students, with many of them sleeping less than six hours per night. Excessively busy kids tend to suffer from poor eating habits, as well. If you don't have the time to sit down to three solid meals per day, you may have to grab food on the go, and such diets are often full of fats and sugar. Teens need sufficient sleep and nourishment to stay physically and mentally strong, so if you have too much to do, you may end up sacrificing your health. 3. Poor mental health school demands and frustrations and taking on too many activities or having too high expectations are the leading causes of teenage stress. The desire to please others, as well as our cultures clear emphasis on success, is creating a generation of workaholics who are draining themselves mentally and emotionally.77 4. Unhealthy self-image Overachievers often bases their feelings of self-worth on their accomplishments. The more they do, and the more they do well, the better they feel about themselves. Reliance on external validation, though, can be extremely harmful. If you focus on grades, test scores, awards, and other external markers of success, you can lose sight of your inner identity. Overachieving frequently causes students to forget that self-worth is measured

from within rather than by what others think or say. 5. Problems getting into college The majority of colleges indicate that they are looking for allround students. Essentially, they prefer applicants who achieve balance among their academic pursuits, their extracurricular activities, and their personal lives. When admissions officers look at resumes, they are attempting to assess leadership, commitment, and integrity. If you're an overachiever, beware. More is not necessarily better. MAINTAINING BALANCE 1.Do what you like Sit down and make a list of your commitments. Then, rank them according to how much you enjoy each one. Weed out the activities from which you gain little or no pleasure. Instead, create a schedule of activities that reflects your true interests and passions, and dont be afraid to cut something out or to say no if youre being pressured to stay involved. In the end, youll be a happier person. 2. Schedule time to relax If you never have a minute to rest or have fun, you are doing too much. Take a look at your calendar and carve out specific times to ease off your usually hectic pace. All work and no play will end up stressing you out. 3. Take care of yourself, inside and out Make sure that you eat healthy foods and that you get a sufficient amount of sleep each night. Also, remember that exercise

is a necessary ingredient for both a strong body and a strong mind. And when youre feeling overwhelmed or stressed, take a break. Most importantly, ask for help when you need it. Parents, friends, teachers, and counselors are all people to turn to if you start to experience burnout.78 UNIT END EXERCISE Compare Underachievers and overachievers with respect to meaning, concept, symptoms and causes. Describe the strategies to improve academic performance of Underachievers. Explain the Negative Aspects of Overachieving. Describe the plan of action for helping Underachievers. How would you as a teacher help Underachievers. REFERENCES: Blanchard, J. (2002) Teaching and targets: self-evaluation and school improvement, Routledge/Falmer Blanchard, J. (2007) Up close and personalised boosting creativity and individual learning, Curriculum Briefing: Restructuring learning changing curriculums, vol 5, no 3, Optimus Education DfES (2003) Every child matters: change for children, DfES Durrant, M. (1995) Creative strategies for school problems, Norton Dweck, C. (2000) Self-theories: their role in motivation, personality, and development, Psychology Press

Fielding, M. and Bragg, S. (2003) Students as researchers: making a difference, Routledge/Falmer Harris, A. and Chapman, C. (2002) Effective leadership in schools facing challenging circumstances, NCSL MacBeath, J., Demetriou, H., Rudduck, J. and Myers, K. (2003) Consulting pupils: a toolkit for teachers, Pearson Publishing Metcalf, L. (1999) Teaching toward solutions: step-by-step strategies for handling academic, behaviour and family issues in the classroom, Simon & Shuster OConnell, B. (1998) Solution-focused therapy, Sage Publications Rudduck, J. and Flutter, J. (2004) How to improve your school: giving pupils a voice, Continuum Press 79 2D. WOMEN: EXPLOITATION AT HOME AND WORK Unit Structure 2D.0 Objectives

2D.1 Introduction 2D.2 Sexual Harassment at the Workplace 2D.3 Suggestions 2D.4 Forms of violence against women 2D.5 Kinds of Violence against Women 2D.6 Challenging Traditional Attitudes 2D.7 Framework of guiding principles to combat violence against women 2D.8 Identifying Good Practices and Approaches 2D.9 Strategies that underlie good practices 2D.10 Unit End Exercise 2D.0 OBJECTIVES After reading this unit the student will be able to: Explain Sexual Harassment at the Workplace. State the Suggestions for preventing Sexual Harassment at the Workplace. State the Forms and Kinds of Violence against Women Analyze the Challenging traditional Attitudes towards Violence against Women. Explain the Framework of guiding principles to combat violence against women. Describe the strategies required of good practices for preventing violence against women. Analyze the plan to tackle women bully at workplace 2D.1 INTRODUCTION Although, there are many groups of women who defend

womens rights they are still exploited. That is to say women are 80 easier to be exploited than men. women usually have law salaries .For example, women work long hours in factories but they are given low salaries in comparison to men Hence, women contribute themselves to their fact of being exploited by accepting to work for minor wage. In addition, women are exploited in media broadly. So, they become like goods which are sold and bought. For instance, in advertisements we usually see women presenting products or an idea about products, but unfortunately, they use their bodies to attract consumers. However, the consumers do not focus on the quality of the product being advertised but they focus on the quality of the women who advertise the product. In fact, this is the purpose of the advertisement agencies where very skilled people work on those advertisements. 2D.2 SEXUAL HARASSMENT AT THE WORKPLACE: There is a pressing need to examine the aspect of sexual harassment at workplace from the perspective of emancipation of women as well as the abuse of the image in which a woman is cast. India doesnt have any legislation to deal with sexual harassment at work places at the moment. The sexual harassment of women at work place (prevention, prohibition and redressal) bill, 2006 is still under consideration. Various womens groups have been lobbying with Parliamentarians to get it passed at the earliest. However, only time will reveal as to when it shall actually come into

force. Till then, the guidelines that the Supreme Court has laid down in the Vishaka case are to be followed. These guidelines encompass a comprehensive definition of sexual harassment, directions for establishment of a complaint mechanism and the duty under which employers are obligated to obviate any such act. It also directs the legislators to formulate law on the basis of these guidelines. Abstract guidelines by the Supreme Court without any established mechanism to protect women in form of legislation mean that the only legal remedy available to fight this evil is approaching the Court under Art. 32 for violations of gender equality, right to life and liberty and right to profession which is subject to the condition of a safe environment safeguarded as fundamental rights under the constitution under Art. 14, 15 and 21. In light of the legal scenario that surrounds sexual harassment, working women need to follow a code to protect them. 2D.3 SUGGESTIONS:81 Be Aware: Its the simplest thing for safety that one can pursue, rigorously and consciously. By being alert and detecting any signs of this heinous evil in your immediate surroundings, one can prevent such events from taking place. Precautions like dressing appropriately, compliment the need for awareness. 1. Trust your gut: No definition can comprehensively include all aspects of sexual harassment and it is subjective as well. There is no bracket formula to determine whether an act, perhaps

bordering on somewhat friendly, constitutes an act of sexual harassment or not. But, for you, anything that puts you in a discomfort zone, some place that youd want to extricate yourself from is sexual harassment. 2. Say no: The thin line of demarcation between sexual interest and sexual harassment shouldnt be disregarded. A sexual interest can be doused by a negative reply. Also, just because the person concerned is a senior, does not mean you cannot say no. Sometimes, a stinging retort may work wonders; however, it can worsen the attention-craving situation of the perpetrator at times. It is essential to remember that these are only the basic things that one can do to prevent such events from taking place and the first sign of any kind of serious trouble, should necessitate a proper complaint at an official level; either within the organization or before the police under section 354 of the Indian Penal Code dealing with assault or criminal force to a woman with the intent to outrage her modesty, section 509 dealing with word, gesture or act intended to insult the modesty of a woman or section 209 which deals with obscene acts or songs. Bullying: Bullying is the common denominator of harassment, discrimination, prejudice, abuse, persecution, conflict and violence. When the bullying has a focus (eg race or gender) it is expressed as racial prejudice or harassment, or sexual discrimination and

harassment, and so on. Although bullying often lacks a focus, bullies are deeply prejudiced but at the same time sufficiently devious to not reveal their prejudices to the extent that they contravene laws on harassment and discrimination. Dealing with workplace bullying Step 1: Regain control Recognise what is happening to you as bullying Criticisms and allegations, which are ostensibly about you or your performance and which sometimes contain a grain of truth, are not about you or your performance. Do not be 82 fooled by that grain of truth into believing the criticisms and allegations have any validity - they do not. The purpose of criticism is control; it has nothing to do with performance enhancement. Criticisms and allegations are a projection of the bully's own weaknesses, shortcomings, failings and incompetence; every criticism or allegation is an admission by the bully of their misdeeds and wrongdoing, something they have said or done - or failed to do. You may be encouraged to feel shame, embarrassment, guilt and fear - this is a normal reaction, but misplaced and inappropriate. Guilt and fear are well-known as tactics of control. This is how all abusers, including child sex abusers, control and silences their victims. You cannot handle bullying by yourself - bullies use

deception, amoral behaviour and abuse of power. Get help. There is no shame or failure in this - the bully is devious, deceptive, evasive and manipulative - and cheats. Step 2: plan for action Find out everything you can about bullying. Overcome all the misperceptions about bullying (that "it's tough management", etc). Step 3: Take action Keep a log (journal, diary) of everything - it's not each incident that counts, it's the number, regularity and especially the patterns that reveal bullying. With most forms of mystery, deception, etc it's the patterns that are important. The bully can explain individual incidents but cannot explain away the pattern. It's the pattern which reveals intent. Keep your diary in a safe place, not at work where others can and will steal it; keep it at home, and keep photocopies of important documents in a separate location (not at work); in several cases the bully has rifled the desk drawers of their target, stolen the diary and then used it as "evidence" of misconduct. Keep copies of all letters, memos, emails, etc. Get and keep everything in writing otherwise the bully will deny everything later. Carry a notepad and pen with you and record everything that the bully says and does. Also make a note of every

interaction with personnel, management, and anyone else connected with the bullying. Expect to be accused of "misconduct" and "unprofessional behaviour" and a few other things when you do this. 83 Record everything in writing; when criticisms or allegations are made, write and ask the bully to substantiate their criticisms and allegations in writing by providing substantive and quantifiable evidence.. Denial is everywhere. The person who asserts their right not to be bullied is often blowing the whistle on another's incompetence (which the bullying is intended to hide). Expect the bully to deny everything, expect the bully's superiors to deny and disbelieve everything, and - as evidenced by thousands of cases reported to my Advice Line - expect personnel/human resources to disbelieve you and deny the bullying, for they will already have been deceived by the bully into joining in with the bully and getting rid of you. Click here for more on how and why Human Resources often don't support targets of bullying. The serial bully likes to play people off against each other so try to reunite yourself with your employer against the bully. Point out professionally to your HR people that the serial bully is encouraging the employer and employee to engage in adversarial interaction and destructive conflict in which there are no winners, only losers.

Night Shifts for Women: Before the amendment in the Factories Act, under s.66 women were not allowed to work night shifts. However after the amendment was approved, women are permitted to work between 10 p.m. to 6 a.m. in sectors including the Special Economic Zone, IT sector and Textiles subject to the condition that the employers shall be obligated to perform the duty to protect them. This is clearly given in the proviso to the section which is as following: provided adequate safeguards in the factory as regards occupational safety and health, equal opportunity for women workers, adequate protection of their dignity, honour and safety and their transportation from the factory premises to the nearest point of their residence. Hence, women can now work night shifts in these sectors. If you work the night shift, here are some things you have the right to expect, along with some tips for you: 1. You can demand that your employer have any or all of the following: female wardens, proper lighting, secure transport facility, security at entry and exit points etc. 2. Be extra careful to prevent any mishap by staying alert. 3. Always ensure you have company while going to and from work. 84 4. Keep the contacts of family, friends or relatives who can quickly be contacted in case of emergency. 5. If possible taking self defense classes.

Equal Opportunities for Women: Not getting equal pay, being denied opportunities for growth and promotion are some examples of the kind of economic exploitation that women are subjected to in certain sectors. In spite of legislation in place (Equal Remuneration Act, 1976) it is widely observed that women are usually underpaid as compared to their male counterparts performing the same job. Delhi High Court in 2005 in its ruling in The Cooperative Store Ltd. (Super Bazar) v. Bimla Devi and other laid down that unequal pay is not only a violation of the said act but also, of Article 14 of the Constitution, Right to Equality. Furthermore, India is a signatory to the International Labour Organisation Convention for the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, to which India is a signatory, specifically to Article 11 that deals with the elimination of discrimination in the field of employment. However, in spite of allegiance to an International Convention, having a specific legislation in force and a High Court ruling declaring equal pay to be incorporated in fundamental rights, the stark reality of the situation is different. Women still get underpaid. What women can do in similarly placed situations? Here are some tips: 1. Be Aware and Assertive: when one is aware of her rights, can one assert the same by approaching the immediate head of the organization or the concerned authority. 2. Be an efficient and a good worker: The organization will be

reluctant to lose an employee if you have carved out a niche for yourself and are in the least indispensable. 3. Form a Group: Collective bargaining is powerful, so by rounding up all the women in the organization who shall in most probability be facing the same or similar problem and dealing with the situation collectively is quite effective as well. 4. Seek Help: If things get out of hand, the only solution remaining is to approach the Courts. Forms of Violence against Women Violence against women manifests itself as physical, sexual and/or psychological harm. These categories of violence are not mutually exclusive, and forms of Violence against women should be 85 understood broadly to encompass a range of behaviors designed to exert power and control over women. The UN Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women classifies three primary forms based on where the acts occur and the relationship between victim and executor (1) violence in the family; (2) violence in the community; and (3) violence carried out by the State. Violence carried out in the family includes domestic violence, also referred to as intimate-partner violence or spousal abuse to clarify that the executor and victim have a long-term relationship. Marital rape and child sexual abuse are also types of Violence against women occurring in the home. Community-based violence includes rape and sexual assault,

sexual harassment in the workplace and in educational institutions, as well as the exploitation of women and girls through human trafficking and prostitution. Violence carried out by the State includes the use of rape during war or by law enforcement, security or military forces both during armed conflict and in peacetime or by peacekeeping personnel in non-conflict settings as well as abuse of women in State custody or under State control. These categories serve as guidance to understand the scope of Violence against women, but they should not be adhered to rigidly. Service-providers and advocates who work with Violence against women survivors often encounter forms of Violence against women that are not yet wellrecognized by law enforcement and legal systems, such as stalking or the use of new technologies, the Internet and electronic mail, to execute cyber violence against women. This compilation sometimes makes use of the term genderbased violence. Gender-based violence (GBV) refers to harm that is executed against a person (female or male) as a result of power inequalities that are themselves based on gender roles. Due to gender discrimination, which places women in vulnerable and disempowered positions, female victims suffer exacerbated consequences as compared with what men endure. 2D.4 KINDS OF VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN Domestic violence Violence against women in the family occurs in developed and developing countries alike. It has long been considered a

private matter by bystanders -- including neighbors, the community and government. But such private matters have a tendency to become public tragedies. Traditional practices In India women fall victim to traditional practices that violate their human rights. The persistence of the problem has much to do 86 with the fact that most of these physically and psychologically harmful customs are deeply rooted in the tradition and culture of society. Female genital mutilation According to the World Health Organization, 85 million to 115 million girls and women in the population have undergone some form of female genital mutilation and suffer from its adverse health effects. There is a growing consensus that the best way to eliminate these practices is through educational campaigns that emphasize their dangerous health consequences. Several Governments have been actively promoting such campaigns in their countries. Son preference Son preference affects women in India. Its consequences can be anything from foetal or female infanticide to neglect of the girl child over her brother in terms of such essential needs as nutrition, basic health care and education. .Dowry-related violence and early marriage In India, weddings are preceded by the payment of an

agreed-upon dowry by the bride's family. Failure to pay the dowry can lead to violence. Early marriage, especially without the consent of the girl, is another form of human rights violation. Early marriage followed by multiple pregnancies can affect the health of women for life. Violence in the community Rape Rape can occur anywhere, even in the family, where it can take the form of marital rape or incest. It occurs in the community, where a woman can fall prey to any abuser. It also occurs in situations of armed conflict and in refugee camps. Sexual assault within marriage In India sexual assault by a husband on his wife is not considered to be a crime: a wife is expected to submit. It is thus very difficult in practice for a woman to prove that sexual assault has occurred unless she can demonstrate serious injury. Sexual harassment Sexual harassment in the workplace is a growing concern for women. Employers abuse their authority to seek sexual favours from their female co-workers or subordinates, sometimes promising promotions or other forms of career advancement or simply creating an untenable and hostile work environment. Women who 87 refuse to give in to such unwanted sexual advances often run the risk of anything from demotion to dismissal. But in recent years more women have been coming forward

to report such practices -- some taking their cases to court. Prostitution and trafficking Many women are forced into prostitution either by their parents, husbands or boyfriends -- or as a result of the difficult economic and social conditions in which they find themselves. They are also lured into prostitution, sometimes by "mail-order bride" agencies that promise to find them a husband or a job in a foreign country. As a result, they very often find themselves illegally confined in brothels in slavery-like conditions where they are physically abused and their passports withheld. Violence against women migrant workers Female migrant workers typically leave their countries for better living conditions and better pay -- but the real benefits accrue to both the host countries and the countries of origin. But migrant workers themselves fare badly, and sometimes tragically. Many become virtual slaves, subject to abuse and rape by their employers. Working conditions are often appalling, and employers prevent women from escaping by seizing their passports or identity papers. Pornography Another concern highlighted is pornography, which represents a form of violence against women that "glamorizes the degradation and maltreatment of women and asserts their subordinate function as mere receptacles for male lust". Violence against refugee and displaced women

Women and children form the great majority of refugee populations all over the world and are especially vulnerable to violence and exploitation. In refugee camps, they are raped and abused by military and immigration personnel, bandit groups, male refugees and rival ethnic groups. They are also forced into prostitution. 2D.5 CHALLENGING TRADITIONAL ATTITUDES The meaning of gender and sexuality and the balance of power between women and men at all levels of society must be reviewed. Combating violence against women requires challenging the way that gender roles and power relations are articulated in society. In many countries women have a low status. They are 88 considered as inferior and there is a strong belief that men are superior to them and even own them. Changing people's attitude and mentality towards women will take a long time -- at least a generation, many believe, and perhaps longer. Nevertheless, raising awareness of the issue of violence against women, and educating boys and men to view women as valuable partners in life, in the development of a society and in the attainment of peace are just as important as taking legal steps to protect women's human rights. It is also important in order to prevent violence that nonviolent means be used to resolve conflict between all members of society. Breaking the cycle of abuse will require concerted collaboration and action between governmental and nongovernmental actors, including educators, health-care authorities,

legislators, the judiciary and the mass media The Declaration provides a definition of gender-based abuse, calling it "any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual or psychological harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or in private life". The definition is amplified in article 2 of the Declaration, which identifies three areas in which violence commonly takes place: Physical, sexual and psychological violence that occurs in the family, including battering; sexual abuse of female children in the household; dowry-related violence; marital rape; female genital mutilation and other traditional practices harmful to women; non-spousal violence; and violence related to exploitation; Physical, sexual and psychological violence that occurs within the general community, including rape; sexual abuse; sexual harassment and intimidation at work, in educational institutions and elsewhere; trafficking in women; and forced prostitution; Physical, sexual and psychological violence perpetrated or condoned by the State, wherever it occurs. Finally, women are exploited everywhere even in developed countries. Womens exploitation makes them lose their morality and responsibility towards their sons and their daughter.

Women should be aware of themselves to avoid this kind of exploitation which invades the societies. 89 2D.6 FRAMEWORK OF GUIDING PRINCIPLES TO COMBAT VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN Womens rights as human rights: A critical strategy for all advocacy work is to clearly demonstrate that violence against women is linked to other human rights violations and therefore States have commitments to exercise due diligence. An important related principle behind all good practices is that they address the root causes of violence against women, such as structural inequalities between men and women, issues of power and control and gender discrimination. Women themselves at the center: Essential characteristics of all good practices is that they empower women, economically, politically or in other ways, to make changes in their lives and in society. Women survivors, particularly service users, should be participants in program design, implementation and evaluation. Effective interventions are those that are based on understanding the needs articulated by women themselves and not on behalf of women. Men are responsible and also engaged: A guiding principle of practices addressing violence against women is that they target men. Programs that address men range from those that acknowledge mens responsibility as executors of violence and establish appropriate prosecution and treatment measures, to

others that engage non-violent men as positive role models, as activists in preventing violence against women and as advocates for gender equality in all spheres. Political commitment and leadership: Good practices are those that are based on and supported by a clear political will from national authorities. Leaders at all levels, in political office, representing religious authorities, from the local community and even recognized sports figures or celebrities, can influence how violence against women is perceived and can play a role in changing societal tolerance for this problem. Evidence-based approaches: All effective interventions are underpinned by accurate empirical data about the scope of violence against women, its causes and its consequences for individual women survivors but also for family members and society at large. Many interventions may have some positive effect on alleviating violence in general e.g. limiting the depiction of violent acts on television or in film,but an essential strategy to address violence against women is acknowledgment and awareness raising of the specific and underlying causes of this form of violence.90 2D.7 IDENTIFYING GOOD PRACTICES AND APPROACHES Coordination, co-operation and partnerships: A multi sectoral approach that coordinates and integrates a wide range of actors is a principle that guides any work on improving overall response to violence against women. The specific actors or stakeholders

involved may vary depending on the type of VAW addressed, but the strategy is the same to work with a broad range of professionals and services from the national to the community and grass-roots level and to forge partnerships across sectors. Sharing of knowledge, skill building and training: The use of knowledge-exchange and educational programs is a tactic, rather than a strategy. Nevertheless, it is included here to illustrate the guiding principle that practitioners who are working on VAW should regularly and routinely share information and participate in skill building. As a corollary, training for service providers, law enforcement, the legal and health sectors, policy makers and any other key stakeholders should be integrated into routine staff development and be informed by agreed-upon standards and guidelines. 2D.8 STRATEGIES THAT UNDERLIE GOOD PRACTICES Real change toward ending violence against women requires a coordinated and sustained effort on many levels.Good practices are supported by various strategies that determine on which level a project operates and how it interacts with other programming. Interventions can be viewed along a spectrum from micro level, those that provide for the needs of victims, change societal attitudes, build awareness of women and men, to meso level, those that target local institutions, and lastly macro-level, those that address higher-level policy or legislative change. Put another

way, some interventions can be characterized as short-term, those that aim for immediate improvement of the situation and others take a long-term approach; they strive for system change. Determining how short-term and long-term advocacy interact is an important part of strategy development that underpins good practices. Although violence against women is a distinct social problem that should be addressed through targeted initiatives, it also has important links to other issues of womens human rights, health and development. Therefore, an effective strategy behind good practices is to approach violence against women not as an isolated problem. It is an effective practice overall to integrate anti-VAW 91 messages into programs where there are significant intersections, for example on HIV/AIDS prevention, reproductive health, family planning, law reform, micro-enterprise development or land access and use programs. Prevention The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends that the prevention of violence against women be considered a high priority for national health, social and legal agendas of both industrialized and developing countries. The WHO also defines prevention activities at three levels: primary prevention (stopping violence from occurring); secondary (immediate responses after violence has occurred to limit its consequences) and tertiary (longer-term treatment and support for victims of violence to prevent further adverse effects). Despite the recognized value of primary

prevention, experts note that there is a significant lack of sustained and long-term investment in such efforts. Primary prevention can take a number of forms but at their core they focus on changing gender-related attitudes and stereotypes at the individual level, among both men and women, and at the societal level. Awareness Raising Campaigns Awareness raising is at the core of prevention efforts and can include working with the general public to change societal attitudes and tolerance of violence against women, to expose the public to the magnitude of this problem, to end secrecy about violence against women and to send a clear message that it should not be tolerated. Awareness raising activities can also target specific groups with narrow messages. Included in this resource are examples of innovative communication methods specific to domestic violence, sexual assault and harassment, harmful traditional practices, trafficking and commercial sexual exploitation, mainly in the form of posters and video clips. Public Awareness Public awareness raising campaigns can be used to initiate public debate about violence against women and challenge social norms. Indeed, some of the more promising awareness campaigns are those that use mainstream media and common technology to promote seldom-heard or thought-provoking messages about violence against women. For example, NGOs have partnered with

mobile phone providers to send anti-violence text messages to their customers.75 The term social marketing describes the use of techniques from the advertising world used to promote messages of social significance. Global Campaigns92 The UN is currently running several global campaigns to raise awareness of specific aspects of violence against women and to call for further action. UNITE to End Violence Against Women (2008-2015) focuses on global advocacy; strengthened efforts and partnerships at the national and regional levels; and UN leadership by example. States are urged to enact or strengthen laws and enforce such laws to end impunity. The Secretary-General will form a global network of male leaders to assist in mobilizing men and boys to become involved in the struggle to end violence against women. Empowering Women Women themselves are a critical focus of any initiative to eliminate violence against women. While there are, of course myriad projects directed to women specifically, many, such as selfhelp groups or telephone hotlines, these are services to assist women who have already in some way identified themselves as experiencing or having survived violence. Activists against VAW point to the fact that some women lack awareness that genderbased violence is not simply an inevitable part of being female but are a human rights violation and mechanisms exist for redress. Thus, awareness raising that targets women may have some of the

features of awareness rising for the general public, such as promoting the unacceptability of violence against women. Most often, however, awareness raising for women takes the form of outreach which can be directed to women in risk groups, such as women who are preparing to travel abroad for work or commercial sex workers, or to specific groups who may have limited access to information, such as rural women, women who lack education, women with disabilities, migrant or refugee women. Legal literacy is a specific form of outreach to provide women with information about local laws with an aim to improve their understanding of how to access the legal system to protect ones rights. An important principle behind all awareness raising materials for women is that they contain messages of empowerment and give women concrete alternatives to either avoid violence or escape it if it has already occurred.81 Economic empowerment programs are often characterized as prevention work, but because they are also effective components of assistance services for women survivors of violence. Key Actions 1. Designate appropriately trained, knowledgeable, and accountable personnel to be responsible for recruitment and hiring of employees and consultants. These personnel should be trained in human resources, knowledgeable about the risks of staff misconduct with regard to sexual violence, including sexual 93 exploitation, and must be held accountable for implementing

internationally recognised standards in hiring practices. 2. When recruiting local/national and international staff, including short-term consultants, interns, and volunteers, careful hiring practices should include reference checks for all categories of employee. Reference checks should specifically include questions seeking information about the candidate related to any prior acts, personnel actions, or criminal history. Careful reference checks can filter out those candidates with a history of exploitative behaviour, particularly those who move from one emergency situation to the next, or who have criminal records for sexual violence. 3. Do not hire any person with a history of perpetrating any type of gender-based violence, including sexual exploitation, sexual abuse, or domestic violence. 4. Coordinate with other organisations to establish systems for sharing information about (names of) employees terminated for engaging in sexual exploitation or abuse. Any such system must be established in accordance with relevant laws governing employers and employees. 5. Recruit more women employees at all levels. Sexual exploitation and abuse are grounded in gender inequality; therefore, activities in emergency situations must be conducted in a gender-sensitive manner and the views and perspectives of women and girls must be adequately considered. Human Resources must endeavour to increase the numbers of local/national and international women staff hired to work in

emergencies. Identify, understand, and address obstacles to employing women. Recognise that women, especially if they are local/national, may have some limits on their access to and availability for work. There may be low literacy rates among adult females in the population, or cultural beliefs that limit opportunities for women to work. Implement strategies and employment schemes to accommodate women and remove obstacles. 2E. SENIOR CITIZENS: EMOTIONAL, SOCIAL AND PHYSICAL PROBLEMS94 Unit structure: 2E.0 Objectives 2E.1 Introduction 2E.3 Concept of Senior citizens 2E.4 Problems and issues 2E.5 Facilities for the senior citizens 2E.6 Signs and symptoms of depression in the elderly 2E.7 Causes and risk factors of depression in the elderly 2E.8 Tips for helping a depressed elderly 2E.9 Ways to combat and prevent depression 2E.10 Counseling and therapy 2E.11 Current Situation of the Health Issues of Senior Citizens 2E.12 Action Plan by the Health Ministry 2E.13 Are senior citizens an asset or liability?

2E.14 Unit End Exercise 2E.0 OBJECTIVES After reading this unit the student will be able to: Discuss the problems and issues of Senior citizens. State the facilities for the senior citizens Describe the Signs and symptoms of depression in the elderly List the Causes and risk factors of depression in the elderly Describe Tips for helping a depressed elderly Suggest Ways to combat and prevent depression Identify Current Situation of the Health Issues of Senior Citizens Suggest Action Plan by the Health Ministry Justify Are senior citizens an asset or liability? 2E.1 INTRODUCTION95 Senior citizens provide much needed comfort and wisdom to their families and communities, but there are also times when they need assistance. The guidance center can help them with certain needs. If a senior citizen is struggling to pay his or her rent, a worker at the guidance center can point him or her to local nonprofit groups that may offer utility vouchers 2E.2 CONCEPT OF SENIOR CITIZENS As we age, a great number of changes occur in our body. Such changes are the root cause for various diseases. Heart disease is more commonly seen in senior citizens. Most of the

senior citizens do not even know that they are at the risk of heart disease. As we age, our general activities get reduced. As the body needs have reduced, the cholesterol or the bad fat gets deposited in various tissues and even in arteries blocking them or narrowing them resulting in decreased blood flow to the heart. This situation finally leads to heart attack due to blockage of blood supply to the heart. Senior citizens with diabetes are at increased risk for myocardial infarction. Hence, it is essential to maintain appropriate sugar levels by regular usage of medications. To avoid the risk of heart attack it is essential to follow certain practices. They include consuming low fat or zero cholesterol foods, involving in some sort simple exercises regularly, quit habits such as smoking and consumption of alcohol. It is essential to take a healthy nutritious diet rich in fresh fruits and vegetable. Thus, by knowing the facts of heart disease in senior citizens, they can easily combat heart attack. 2E.4 PROBLEMS AND ISSUES Senior citizens who are living alone have been found abused, robbed, humiliated, and, in many cities in India, they have been found murdered. The most important problem senior citizens face today is loss of independence. All other issues fall under this umbrella of inconvenience and distress. Whether older persons have financial hardships, failing health or isolation

Deteriorating health, malnutrition, lack of shelter, fear, depression, senility, isolation, boredom, non-productivity, and financial incapacity are the most common problems that senior citizens all over the world face today. These problems can be 96 grouped into two categories that relate to the physical and mental health and the financial capacity of the senior citizen. The rise in the number of those who are non-productive and who do not generate any hope immediately raises an economic problem. It is also a social problem: Who is going to provide support to them and how? Apart from food and shelter, the old need care and medicines. They also crave love and tender care. They would like to interact, be heard, be visible, and would like a bit of space of their own and have a constructive and creative role to play in society. Among the old, the problems of old women, single, divorced and widowed, are different from those of old men. 1. Physical and mental health Stability of physical and mental health is a key concern that senior citizens have to contend with as they go through their twilight years. The human body is a system that wears out with long and repetitive use; and quite easily, with neglect and abuse. Aging is a life-cycle stage where the human capacity to think, act, relate, and learn starts to falter and deteriorate. Aging breeds illnesses such as loss of memory, immobility, organ failure, and poor vision. These are critical dysfunctions that could sideline a senior citizen to a lonely and miserable

life. While a clean and discreet lifestyle in his or her prime could reduce the susceptibility of a senior citizen to dreaded post-retirement illnesses, the onset of any dysfunction is one unpredictable happening even if the person might have had robust financial health.. 2. Financial capacity Possessing sustainable financial capacity before, during, and after the inception of a senior status is both a basic problem and an elusive dream for most people. This financial dilemma is common among senior citizens who are usually relegated to an abject position of economic inactivity. Lack or absence of financial capacity creates a stressful life and invites the entry of problems other than physical and mental health issues. For instance, domestic problems in an extended family system can aggravate the problem of a financially-destitute senior citizen. A financially secure senior citizen with the same illness, however, may have a longer life to live because money can give quick and convenient access to life-giving remedies. Even with state-of-mind dysfunctions like severe depression, boredom, nervous breakdown, and self-pity, financial capacity can buy options to rejuvenate and refresh a financially-capable senior citizen, through travels, elderly recreation, social renewal, and continuing education. A poor senior citizen in the same state of 97 mental degradation cannot afford to do the same; and more so, be

back into the mainstream of society. Ageing marginalized An overwhelming number of people live in rural areas but migration from rural to urban areas is substantial, which creates problems for the ageing at both ends. If children go to urban areas leaving behind the aged in the rural areas, that creates one set of problems, and if the old are taken along, it creates another set of problems. The growth of the urban population has been haphazard, and there are acute shortages of housing and other facilities. The health care system is woefully inadequate and there is hardly any specialised agency focusing on the old. There are no programmes available to train people taking care of the aged. In other words, the entire responsibility of taking care of the old continues to be with the traditional institution of the family. Ageing in urban areas The entire responsibility of support and care of the ageing falls on the male children with whom the ageing live. The composition of the family in urban areas is becoming nuclear and smaller, as a result of which there are fewer people available in the house to provide care and comfort to the ageing. Those who are available are torn apart by the stresses of urban living. Women too in the urban areas are now working outside the family. They have fixed schedules of work and have other pressures on them. Children are loaded with their studies, competitive examinations and concerns for making their careers.

The authority that the ageing exercised on their children in the past as a result of greater experience has almost vanished, and the aged are now told, You dont know. There are several reasons for this admonishment. First, the children of the ageing are not in the same profession. Second, the quantum of information which their children claim to have makes the ageing look almost primitive. Third, the whole techno-economic situation has now completely changed, which leaves the ageing bewildered and redundant. When paucity of accommodation, high cost of living, general stress and tensions at all levels are added to these, the problems of the aged are extremely serious. Discussion In the past, ageing was not a serious issue and societies did not give it priority. They dealt with it as a natural phenomenon. Family members were responsible for the care and management of the old. But now the situation is different. The size of the people in the ageing category is already bulging and it is growing very fast. The problems posed by ageing are by no means accidental and isolated. They have grown as a result of the development process 98 itself. At family, community and government levels the problems of the ageing get no or very low priority. It is taken for granted that the problem will get solved on its own or that it is a problem of individual families, with communities and governments having nothing to do with it. The family, where the ageing is supposed to get care and comfort, is on the rocks and in any case shrinking.

The members of the family are spread around in pursuit of their careers. The old, on their part, are not getting detached either. They think that they are going to live for ever and that in any case this is not the time to quit. They are bored looking after grandchildren, listening to religious discourses and devotional music, making rounds of holy places or just sitting before the small screen. They seek companionship, appropriate creative and constructive roles. In India even systematic thinking as to what should be the policy towards the ageing has not begun. At this stage the country is caught up in the whirlpool of market forces and resultant consumerism. A shift from consumption to conservation, from individual to community, is bound to take place, which will be in keeping with the Indian ethos. It is possible to be modern with the emphasis on conservation and focus on the community. Taking care of the aged means highlighting the importance of conservation and humanitarianism. It will also strengthen the community, for the aged can be best taken care of within the fold of the family, bound by filial rights, duties and obligations. There is no institution that can replace the family but there is room to build into it the ideas of equality, justice and freedom. All this will not happen automatically. The focus has to be human development. That will provide new strength to the family and further support from the community. Thus a combination of modern knowledge and intense feeling for those who are non-productive can provide physical and emotional comfort

to the old. 2E.5 FACILITIES FOR THE SENIOR CITIZENS The facilities for the Seniors citizens like retirement homes, medical aid , free meals, Indoor games and outdoor games transportation, nursing, healthy, environment ,domestic help Books & magazines etc. to be provided by the government. Senior Citizens Discounts Our governments are announcing many schemes every year for the senior citizens. The Indian Railways and Indian Airlines give some senior citizen discounts up to 30% but most of the senior citizens are not in a position to avail the available facilities. All the Public Sector banks give 0.5 % interest to senior citizens.99 Senior citizens Retirement The activities of senior citizens increase after the retirement. All the market and government related work has to be done by these elderly persons after retirement. There are no senior citizen jobs available for them., They have social problems &, housing problems. The government should find some jobs for seniors citizens.. There are groups of aging Senior citizens. These seniors have no activity to do whole day. These senior people find difficult to spend the whole day honourably. They need elder care by their own family members. There are very few Retirement homes. They need assisted living facilities. These old people have all type of problems after retirement.

They have family problems. Their children do not want to live with them.. They have to travel long distance to collect their pension or pay the electricity, telephone, water bills. They are living in the houses bought against home loans, and paying back the home loans out of pension. Senior citizens medical insurance Senior citizens have health problems. They are getting injuries every day due to uneven surface of bad roads. No one is ready to help them .The senior citizens health insurance required is not affordable. Mental Illnesses Senior Citizens are susceptible to a variety of mental illnesses. Depression is the most common of these. 2E.6 SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF DEPRESSION IN THE ELDERLY Sadness Fatigue Abandoning or losing interest in hobbies or other pleasurable pastimes Social withdrawal and isolation (reluctance to be with friends, engage in activities, or leave home) Weight loss; loss of appetite Sleep disturbances (difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep, oversleeping, or daytime sleepiness) 100 Loss of self-worth (worries about being a burden, feelings of

worthlessness, self-loathing) Increased use of alcohol or other drugs Fixation on death; suicidal thoughts or attempts Unexplained or aggravated aches and pains Hopelessness Helplessness Anxiety and worries Memory problems Loss of feeling of pleasure Slowed movement Irritability Lack of interest in personal care (skipping meals, forgetting medications, neglecting personal hygiene) Lack of interest in activities you enjoyed doing Sadness or unexplained crying spells, jumpiness or irritability Loss of memory, inability to concentrate, confusion or disorientation Thoughts of death or suicide Change in appetite and sleep patterns Persistent fatigue, lethargy, aches and other unexplainable

physical problems If a senior citizen is depressed, you can make a difference by offering emotional support. Listen to your loved one with patience and compassion. Dont criticize feelings expressed, but point out realities and offer hope. You can also help by seeing that your friend or family member gets and accurate diagnosis and appropriate treatment. Help your loved one find a good doctor, accompany him or her to appointments, and offer moral support. Causes and risk factors that contribute to depression in the elderly: Loneliness and isolation Living alone; a dwindling social circle due to deaths or relocation; decreased mobility due to illness or loss of driving privileges. Reduced sense of purpose - Feelings of purposelessness or loss of identity due to retirement or physical limitations on activities. Health problems Illness and disability; chronic or severe pain; cognitive decline; damage to body image due to surgery or disease. 101 Medications Many prescription medications can trigger or exacerbate depression. Fears Fear of death or dying; anxiety over financial problems or health issues. Recent bereavement - The death of friends, family members, and pets; the loss of a spouse or Helping a depressed friend or

relative 2E.7 TIPS FOR HELPING A DEPRESSED ELDERLY: Invite your loved one out. Depression is less likely when peoples bodies and minds remain active. Suggest activities to do together that your loved one used to enjoy: walks, an art class, a trip to the museum or the moviesanything that provides mental or physical stimulation. Schedule regular social activities. Group outings, visits from friends and family members, or trips to the local senior or community center can help combat isolation and loneliness. Be gently insistent if your plans are refused: depressed people often feel better when theyre around others. Plan and prepare healthy meals. A poor diet can make depression worse, so make sure your loved one is eating right, with plenty of fruit, vegetables, whole grains, and some protein at every meal. Encourage the person to follow through with treatment. Depression usually recurs when treatment is stopped too soon, so help your loved one keep up with his or her treatment plan. If it isnt helping, look into other medications and therapies. Make sure all medications are taken as instructed. Remind the person to obey doctor's orders about the use of alcohol while on medication. Help them remember when to take their dose. Watch for suicide warning signs. Seek immediate professional help if you suspect that your loved one is thinking about

suicide. 2E.8 WAYS TO COMBAT AND PREVENT DEPRESSION: Getting out in to the world Try not to stay cooped up at home all day. Connecting to others Limit the time youre alone. 102 Participating in activities you enjoy Pursue whatever hobbies or pastimes bring or used to bring you joy. Volunteering your time Helping others is one of the best ways to feel better about yourself and regain perspective. Taking care of a pet Get a pet to keep you company. Learning a new skill Pick something that youve always wanted to learn, or that sparks your imagination and creativity. Enjoying jokes and stories Laughter provides a mood boost. Maintaining a healthy diet Avoid eating too much sugar and junk food. Choose healthy foods that provide nourishment and energy, and take a daily multivitamin. Exercising Even if youre ill, frail, or disabled, there are many safe exercises you can do to build your strength and boost your moodeven from a chair or wheelchair. 2E.9 COUNSELING AND THERAPY Studies have found that therapy works just as well as medication in relieving mild to moderate depression. And unlike antidepressants, therapy also addresses the underlying causes of the depression.

Supportive counseling includes religious and peer counseling. It can help ease loneliness and the hopelessness of depression. Psychotherapy helps people work through stressful life changes, heal from losses, and process difficult emotions. Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) helps people change negative thinking patterns, deal with problems in healthy ways, and develop better coping skills. Support groups for depression, illness, or bereavement connect people with others who are going through the same challenges. They are a safe place to share experiences, advice, and encouragement. 2E.10 CURRENT SITUATION OF THE HEALTH ISSUES OF SENIOR CITIZENS: Every Senior Citizen has to cope up with his health and associated problems by taking special care by way of proper life style, exercises, regular walking without talking, yoga-pranayam, proper diet and keeping busy physically and mentally by keeping in view the dictum -``Use it or Lose it. ` Number of Senior Citizens 103 suffering from Hyper Tension, Heart Problems, Diabetes, Arthritis etc is very large. Facilities to diagnose and treat old age ailments are very much limited and treatments, whether surgical or by medicines are very very costly. With limited income and no affordable health security schemes available to Senior Citizens, most of the Senior Citizens do not dare to go for any treatment and

leave everything to Gods grace! Many are not able to travel independently to Govt./Municipal hospitals, where they have to wait in long queues and treatment mooted out to them is almost inhuman! Apart from ward boys, even well educated Doctors taught to serve all with missionary zeal misbehave with elders and even insult them. They are not available on their seats for a long time or remain busy chit-chatting! They along with all medical and para medical staff in all Public & Private Hospitals should be given periodical orientation course for treating Senior Citizens in a proper way. This is envisaged in para 40 of National Policy on Older Persons, 1999. 2E.11 ACTION PLAN BY THE HEALTH MINISTRY i) Implement all the provisions of NPOP, 99 in para 33 to 48 by 313-2008. ii) Increase Govt/Municipal Hospitals and provide free treatment to all Senior Citizens, as done by Maharashtra Govt. Provide specific number of earmarked beds in each hospital. Raise the image of the Public hospitals by giving better and humane service. iii) Make it statutorily compulsory to provide separate departments for Geriatric, Alzheimer, and Hospice Care in each Hospital in Public as well as Private sector. iv) Fix outer limit of fees by Private Hospitals for treatment, pathological examination, and consultations of Senior Citizens. v) As many Senior Citizens are not mobile, provide Mobile Hospitals and make compulsory for each Doctor to visit certain

number of such Senior Citizens at their residence regularly. vi) Provide free medicines to needy Senior Citizens for common ailments like hyper tension, heart, diabetics, arthritics etc by special budget provisions, donors etc vii) Provide user-friendly Medical Security Insurance on lines of Arogya Kavach of Pimpri (Pune), Sahyadri Scheme of Pune, Yasashvini of Karnataka. viii) A simple directive of separate queues, which is not implemented by most of the Hospitals should be monitored. x) Create a Health Welfare Fund. Provide Convalescent Homes, Holiday Homes, Day Care Centres etc. Provide health care facilities in Vrudhashrams. 104 xi) Provide opportunities for second careers, activity centres to keep them active to utilize and maintain their mental health by holding competitions by way of Essay writing, Quiz, Brain Storming Sessions etc at District, State & Centre level periodically on subjects of social & national interest to get views & guidance from Think-Tank of the Nation xii) Crate health awareness literature for preventive measures & healthy life style and make easily available. xii) Health Ministry must, if necessary by legislation, make it compulsory for every Corporate Body, Businessman and if possible, every Employer to provide health facilities to all their surviving retired employees and their spouses on par with serving employees. They must be made to raise the pension, where it is

paid, on every revision of pay-scale of the post on which the employee had retired on the same principle, as envisaged by Supreme Court. Long lasting proper solution may lie in declaring the Health Care as a fundamental right for every citizen right from the birth and insuring everyone 2E.12 ARE SENIOR CITIZENS AN ASSET OR LIABILITY? The tag senior citizen is generally given to a person who is between 58 and 65 years of age and has superannuated from active service. This age band fixed for retirement was based on the old system followed decades ago when longevity was lower than 60 years. With the advance in medical sciences and health supporting systems, longevity now goes up to 75. Perhaps, the retirement age needs revision to make use of the services of experienced people for some more time in the interest of national development. Some senior citizens have the right attitude, take things in their stride, plan well their post-retirement life and keep their body and mind in reasonable good trim. They largely have a positive approach. There are others who take a dim view of life and think of retirement as something of a punishment. While the optimists keep themselves busy with productive work, the pessimists become dejected, feel neglected and find fault with everyone. Family situations and financial position do play a part in influencing the lives of elders. Some are fortunate to live with their

children or within their reach in the same city/town. They lead a relatively satisfied life. The longer the distance, the greater their feeling of insecurity and loneliness. If the children are within the country, the parents are fairly satisfied they can visit them or the children can come home for occasions like marriages and festivals. The pangs of separation and the fear of loneliness, on the other 105 hand, increase if the children live abroad. Thus the elders' lives are situation-dependent. The presence of relatives and old-age homes, however comfortable, cannot provide for emotional needs. Some people overcome the blues by taking recourse to cultural and social activities but others suffer silently. Low income and poor health aggravate the misery. Thus arises the question whether senior citizens are an asset or liability to the families and society at large. The answer is they are undoubtedly an asset if they have the right attitude to life. The present-day elders truly represent the generation of the preIndependence era known for a value-based life. They were accomplished, humble and honest and practiced to a large extent what was taught. As most senior citizens are highly experienced, they can contribute tremendously The present time society needs to give senior citizens, a life of dignity in their twilight years. Urbanization, migration, industrialization, women entering in the labor force and many such social changes has steadily chipped away the joint family system.

The result is that senior citizens are now forced to face a life of despair and loneliness. There are very few mechanisms to look into the problems of senior citizens. We can solve social problem by the change in social reality and application of knowledge. Because the root of this problem is lack of education, so we should provide education to this particular social group. Educated senior citizen can deal with the problem in a better way. And finally the family member of these people must understand that the old person in their home is an asset not liability. The education and the mindset of family member can reduce this problem form the society 2E.13 UNIT END EXERCISE 1. Discuss the problems and issues of Senior citizens. 2. State the facilities for the senior citizens 3. Describe the Signs and symptoms of depression in the elderly 4. List the Causes and risk factors of depression in the elderly 5. Describe Tips for helping a depressed elderly 6. Suggest Ways to combat and prevent depression 7. Identify Current Situation of the Health Issues of Senior Citizens 8. Suggest Action Plan by the Health Ministry 9. Justify Are senior citizens an asset or liability?106 3 MODULE II CAREER GUIDANCE WORK & MENTAL

HEALTH Unit Structure 3.1. Meaning of work, Compensation and Incentives. 3.1.1 Meaning of work. 3.1.2 Meaning of Compensation 3.1.3. Meaning of Incentive 3.2 Relation between work and leisure, work and incentives 3.2.1 Work and Leisure 3.2.2 Work and Incentives 3.3 Meaning, Characteristics and Need for Mental Health 3.3.1 Definition and Meaning of Mental Health 3.3.2 Characteristics of Mental Health 3.3.3 Need for Mental Health 3.4 Role of Guidance Personnel in promoting and preserving Mental Health 3.5 Let us Sum up 3.1. MEANING OF WORK, COMPENSATION AND INCENTIVES 3.1.1 Meaning of work: Introduction:Work has evolved a lot since the industrial revolution partly due to the progress of sciences and technologies. Major 107 transformations happened in the organizational structure and culture, with their consequences on the organizations of work 3.1.1 Meaning of work:-

Work is life, idleness is death With a few exceptions, nearly everyone has to work in order to make a living. The most obvious reason to work is the sheer necessity for survival. For those who wish to live a more affluent life, they work harder and longer to get extra income or overtime remuneration. Work, then, is equivalent to a higher standard of living. Work is either paid or unpaid. Paid work is what most people associate with team work Unpaid work, includes housework and school work. Most people in full time employment work 5 days a week, although there has been an increase in the number of people working at weekends and part time. In recent years the ability to work flexible hours has grown its importance. People do not necessarily enjoy work but they all enjoy the reward of their work and the reward is so tangible and immediate that no one can fail to appreciate it. Therefore it can be said that the primary objective of the multitude to work is for survival and for tangible material reward. Major approaches to study of meaning of work:There are three major approaches to the study of the meaning of work, the definitions of work, the orientations of work and the coherence of work. As such we can define the meaning of work in three ways, as illustrated in figure The significance of work:

The concept of meaning of work can be defined as the significance of the subject attributes to work, his representation of work, and the importance it has in his life. Work is central in many cultures, although every culture has its own values and conceptions about it. However, it seems that work is important and significant for a majority of people considering the time that individuals devote to work in their lives, the numerous functions which it accomplishes for them and the fact that work is closely linked with other important aspects of daily life such as family, leisure, religion and community life.108 The notion of work has several definitions but they all share the idea of a purposeful activity. This notion generally refers to expanding energy through a set of co-ordinated activities aimed at producing something useful. Work may be pleasant or unpleasant and may or may not be associated with monetary exchanges. Moreover it does not necessarily have to be accomplished in the context of a job. 3.1.2 Meaning of compensationIn financial terms, the salary and wages you pay to your employees for the work they do, no financial forms of compensation can also be offered to attract and retain staff. Ask any human resources consultant where financial compensation ranks in the hierarchy of employee requirements, and youre likely to get a range of answers. Some say its the most important thing others declare wages are the only important thing.

Still others say that while financial compensation isnt the most important thing its important enough that if your paid isnt fair, all the other employee benefits in the world may not be enough to keep employees on board. Obviously its important to know whether you are paying enough and how to get the most for what you are paying. In addition, you have to know how to bolster the actual dollars you lay out in salary and wages with non financial compensation. You dont pay employees in a vaccum. Thats another way of saying that the level of compensation that will attract and keep employees is set primarily by other employers. While theres no formula that will tell you the ideal salary for each position within your company there are appropriate ranges. Some of the key sources for determining suitable salary ranges for your employees are 1. Classified advertisement listings for specific positions both in your daily newspaper and on the internet. 2. Professional and trade organizations for the specific fields in which youre hiring. Most organizations regularly publish salary data. 3. Human resources consultants. 4. Specialized recruiters in the appropriate fields. While no one can discount the importance of financial rewards, keep in mind that todays job candidates are more concerned with corporate environment and quality of life issues

than over before. In our executive survey conducted by Robert half. International Corporate Culture rivaled employee benefits are 109 important for candidates during job interviews. Many small businesses use this trend as a competitive advantage, offering such non financial perks as flexible work schedules, casual dress days, additional vacation time and tele commuting opportunities. The costs of this approach are minimal, particularly when compared to the value added benefits of improved recruitment, productivity and retention. Regardless of the monetary and non-monetary ways you compensate your employees, creating an employee-friendly environment and determining competitive compensation ranges take time Both require being flexible and adaptable to changing workplace trends and local conditions. The investment is worth the difference between a good company and a great company is its people. 3.1.3 Meaning of Incentive:A reward for a specific behavior designed to encourage that behavior also called inducements. Can you motivate employees during a recession with a successful employee incentive plan? By stuart Jennings: Bonus plans Pay for performance programs MBO programme commission plans stock option stock appreciation rights.

Employee incentive plans go by many different names, youve undoubtedly seen your share. But, with our economy struggling, how should you approach your employee incentive plans differently to reach your organizations goals? Or can an employee incentive plan actually create the results you need? 3.2. RELATION BETWEEN WORK AND LEISURE, WORK AND INCENTIVES: 3.2.1. Work and leisure Work work plays a major role in peoples like. When you think of work there are several definitions depending upon your own experiences and the society in which you live. In western societies, paid employment is considered to be the most important type of work. Work is socially defined and needs to be understood in particular contexts work provides an individual with income, self identity and status. Leisure :110 Leisure is also an important aspect of peoples lives. Leisure activities are those associated with the beach, outdoor living and sport and form an important part of an Australian identity. Leisure can be defined as time not spent working or meeting the necessaries of life. It is also linked to quality of life issues. There is strong relationship between the type of work an individual does and the way they spend their leisure time. Leisure has become a commodity to be purchased and this results in the exclusion of some groups in society. Market forces

exclude the unemployed the poor and elderly from participation. Leisure can be divided in active and passive forms. Interrelationship between work and leisure The differentiation between work and leisure is basic to all definitions. Generally work is understood to be remunerative, required by social norms and necessary for the maintenance of the self and family Leisure is non work i.e. leisure is not remunerative, not required by social expectations, and not necessary for status or survival. However, all non work is not considered leisure. The relationship between work and leisure work is dependent upon quality of life issues and varies with each individual depending upon their choice of work. For some groups of people leisure is an extension of their work activities. Leisure activities are related to job satisfaction and involvement in work. Work also provides the financial means with which to participate in leisure Leisure activities engaged in by individuals are dependent on the work undertaken and level of education. Professional sports people engage in leisure activate and also receive monetary payments. For some people the skills they have also extend into a means of earning a living. Educational institutions provide individuals with necessary skills and the means to participate in meaningful employment. This in turn also influences the types of leisure activities undertaken and often provides status, control and a degree of choice about participation in leisure activities. The media is increasingly influencing leisure activities.

3.2.2. Relationship between work and Incentives-Managing employee performance is steadily rising to the top of many senior leaders agendas. The fast pace of business, an ultra-competitive marketplace and increasing customer demands have made it difficult for leaders to quickly and effectively respond to everchanging market conditions. Compounded by declining workforce productivity, escalating employee disengagement and the forthcoming retirement of 76 million baby boomers, companies are 111 being forced to finally focus their attention on their most valuable assets: their employees. Corporations worldwide are scrambling to find effective ways to attract and retain the best talent, but also to elevate their performance, productivity and service levels to new heights. Embodied in this quest is the ability to align individual behaviors with strategic corporate objectives and, importantly, to motivate and reward those who meet or exceed those objectives. In todays business climate, organizations must achieve maximum return on investment (ROI) in their people to boost corporate performance and gain a competitive advantage. The new must have Employee performance is everything its what distinguishes top performing companies from those who are struggling. Statistics show that companies who recognize their people outperform companies that dont by 30 to 40 percent. Businesses are beginning to understand the value of investing

resources to establish, market and support improved performance improvement strategies for one compelling reason: satisfied, motivated and dedicated individuals are increasingly critical to corporate survival and imperative for growth. When senior management discusses motivating employees, the conversation typically turns to 401k plans, health care benefits, stock options and other compensation vehicles. Recognition and incentive programs are rarely mentioned in the context of that conversation, despite the fact that 78 percent of companies have at least one performance-related program in place. This must change if leaders expect to take advantage of the full arsenal of tools available to help them achieve their corporate objectives. Research is proving that recognition and incentive programs are powerful and effective vehicles for boosting corporate performance and the bottom line. Smart Human Resource executives are taking the cue and expanding their portfolio of solutions to include incentive programs, as well as recognition programs in that arsenal. Incentives are commonly associated with sales initiatives; so few professionals outside of the sales arena have fully embraced them as tried-and-true methods for raising overall employee productivity. This is a missed opportunity because we have learned that incentive programs can be used to inspire employees throughout the enterprise. A recent study found that 88 to 95 percent of all incentive programs reach or exceed their goals, and that the ROI on non-sales employee programs (200 percent) is

actually greater than the ROI on incentives directed to sales staff (134 percent). 112 Exploring the broader use of incentives compliments another innovative corporate trend aligning internal and external branding efforts to maximize customer satisfaction and profitability. Internal branding is defined as motivating internal audiences (employees) to deliver the quality service promised by advertising and sales. Research by The Forum for People Performance Management & Measurement at Northwestern University discovered a direct link between employee satisfaction, customer satisfaction, and a companys profitability, even when the employees did not have direct customer contact. If you want employees to understand the corporate message and to treat your customers the right way, you have to set the example by making sure they have that message and they're treated with the same care and respect you want them to demonstrate to customers. Internal branding also thrusts motivation and performance improvement into the C-suite because brand equity is a C-level priority, giving HR professionals an opportunity to demonstrate the strategic value of recognition to the CEO. Proven results = C-suite interest We now have a growing body of compelling research from credible sources around the world on the positive and significant impact of recognition and incentive programs on a companys financial performance. The research demonstrates that companies

who engage in incentive and recognition programs are significantly outperforming their competitors (who don't run programs) in bottom line savings, contributions to the profit line and shareholder return. This is important news for companies seeking every possible advantage in the marketplace. The research has attracted the attention of business leaders and helped them to realize that everyone in their company is affecting the organizations ability to compete and thrive. Theres no better vehicle for a CEO to communicate what's important to the company than to recognize and reward people for the behaviors and results that drive the company towards success. Recognition programs have proven to be a highly effective means of aligning the boardroom and the lunchroom and cascading the companys strategic imperatives throughout the organization and into the hands of the people who can make them a reality. people who are often anxious to make a meaningful contribution. Maximizing ROI Frequently, companies run a number of disparate recognition and incentive programs that span various departments. A common approach has been to allow each department to implement a unique program with goals and rewards specific to the individuals in that unit. 113 However, when you have independent programs within an organization there is often poor accountability for ROI or clear line of sight to overall results. Most companies dont really know how

much theyre actually spending on programs let alone how much value theyre extracting from them. Running a multitude of disparate programs also undermines the opportunity for creating a consistent, over-arching performance-based culture throughout the company. Additionally, theres the danger that employees will perceive that one department is favored over another or that some managers are offering more generous awards. Companies are consolidating many of their programs to decrease expenses and increase effectiveness. Multiple programs are being pulled into one corporate-wide program with numerous sub-programs and variations to address the specific needs of different business units or geographical locations. This consolidation helps strip-out cost and administrative burden while insuring a unified message and application throughout the enterprise. Organizations are also becoming much more aware of all the contributors to corporate success and are implementing performance and recognition programs to help align and recognize more employees for their contributions to those successes. Employers have realized that everyone in the company not just the sales team can contribute to revenue growth and operational efficiencies that help a company prosper. Leaders need to gain the support and buy-in from everyone who can influence company results. Keep in mind that if youre not actively engaging employees in your goals, they may be working against your efforts even if its

done unintentionally and inadvertently. Nowadays, some of those additional participants are likely to be based around the world. The internet allows us to easily execute programs across borders and many HR professionals are delighted to finally be able to offer something better than watered down versions of their domestic programs to those employees who live and work beyond the corporate office. Offshore employees are pushing for these programs as well, unwilling to be bystanders in the companys recognition efforts any longer. Online program technology does the heavy lifting of language translation, currency conversions, and creating multiple award catalogs that reflect the brands and types of awards that will be compelling and relevant in different countries. Track and measure Demand is rising steadily for more measurement in recognition and incentive programs. Companies are looking to 114 reward the quantifiable, actionable behaviors of their employees and more metrics are being introduced into programs. Theres also a growing interest in tracking program performance throughout its course, rather than waiting until the end to assess the results. Sales incentive programs have always been focused on measurement, usually on revenue growth or sales. Traditionally, recognition programs have been more discretionary: you catch someone doing something beyond the call of duty and reward them. Now many recognition programs are also focusing on very

specific corporate goals or initiatives to avoid being viewed as an entitlement or risking programs being eliminated due to ambiguous results. Tracking metrics during the program allows you to quantify the end result and also affect the outcome you can intercede if a group is not performing well and provide extra training or assistance. Or, you can spread the word about a successful initiative so that everyone can benefit from the example. Inspire reward achieve As workplaces change, employees are asked to adapt, learn, re-adapt, and re-learn in order to ensure that companies themselves retain a competitive edge. Recognizing these employees for service, achievement or performance is vital to corporate health. A well-known veteran of recognition, Herb Kelleher, former CEO of Southwest Airlines believes that anyone who looks at things solely in terms of factors that can easily be quantified is missing the heart of the business, which is people." Herb has it exactly right on a number of levels. First, as companies have automated their back offices with Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) solutions and implemented Customer Relationship and Supply Chain Management systems (CRM), they have benefited significantly from the efficiencies and cost savings of these applications. The next big thing is to focus on implementing and improving those processes and programs that manage our people assets. Recognition and incentive programs

are a proven, strategic opportunity to do just that. Few initiatives can deliver such significant ROI and also advance the companys reputation as a great place to work in the process. Secondly, as people performance is increasingly being recognized as the means with which companies can gain competitive edge, people are also identified as the method to achieving those results. As more and more leaders make the shift to a strategic view of recognition and incentives, and the powerful dynamics of rewarding those individuals who directly contribute to 115 the success of the organization, the gap will widen between the companies who thrive and those that will struggle or disappear. Outdated view: Strategic view: Employees as expenses Employees as assets and profit drivers Recognition and incentive programs as a discretionary cost Recognition and incentive programs as a major source of shareholder value Recognition and incentive program owners as administrators Recognition and incentive program owners as thought leaders Finally, Herbs words remind us that the people we influence with recognition and incentive programs are busy spending their day influencing other vital corporate assets customers! The link between customer satisfaction and loyalty, and employee satisfaction and loyalty has been firmly established: happy customers are a result of happy and engaged employees. That means that putting performance programs to work for you is

far more than a nice idea. Its the strategic and profitable thing to do. Check your Progress Q.1 Define work, compensation & incentives. Q.2 Differentiate between compensation and incentives. Q.3 Relate work with leisure. Q.4 Relate work with incentives. 3.3. MEANING, CHARACTERISTICS AND NEED FOR MENTAL HEALTH It has always been easier to define mental illnesses than to define mental health. More recently many have recognized that mental health is more than the absence of mental illness. Even though many of us dons suffer from a diagnosable mental disorder, 116 it is clean that some of us are mentally disorder it is clear that some of us are mentally healthier than others. 3.3.1Definition and Meaning of Mental Health Mental health is a concept that refers to a human individuals emotional, psychological and intellectual well being. A branch of medicine that deals with the achievement and maintenance of psychological well being. 1. Definition: A state of emotional & psychological well being in which an individual is able to use his or her cognitive and emotional capabilities function in society, and meet the ordinary demands of everyday life.

2. Dianne Hales and Robert Hales define mental Health as the capacity to think rationally and logically and to cope with the transitions, stresses, traumas and losses that occur in all lives, in ways that allow emotional stability and growth. In general mentally healthy individuals value themselves, perceive reality as it is, accept its limitation and possibilities, respond to its challenges carry out their responsibilities, establish and maintain close relationships, deal reasonably with others, pursue work that suits their talent and training and feel sense of fulfillment that makes the efforts of daily living worthwhile. Definitions of mental health are changing. It used to be that a person was considered to have good mental health simply if they showed no signs or symptoms of a mental illness. But in recent years there has been a shift towards a more holistic approach to mental health. Today we recognize that good mental health is not just the absence of mental illness. Nor is it absolute some people are more mentally healthy than others, whether you are mentally ill or not. These realizations are promoting a new kind of focus on mental health that identifies components of mental wellness and mental fitness and explore ways to encourage them. It is commonly known in the mental health field that in order to achieve good mental health, you also need a healthy dose of self esteem. However what has not been stressed adequately is the importance and need to nurture such traits such as positive

emotional wellness, optimism, memories and happiness. 3.3.2. Characteristics of mental health:117 Ability to enjoy life The ability to enjoy life is essential to good mental health, can you live in the moment and appreciate the now? Are you able to learn from the past and plan for the future without dwelling on things you cant change or predict James Taylor wrote that the secret of life is enjoying the passing of time. Any fool can do it. There aint nothing to it The practice of mindfulness, meditation is one way to cultivate the ability to enjoy the present. We of course need to plan for the future at times and we also need to learn from the past. Too often we make ourselves miserable in the present by worrying about the future.

Resilience The ability to bounce back from adversity has been referred to as resilience. Are you able to bounce back from hard times. Can you manage the stress of a serious life event without losing your optimism and a sense of perspective? It has been long known that some people handle stress better than others, why do some adults raised in alcoholic families do well, while others have repeated problems in life? The Characteristic of resilience is shared by those who cope well with stress. Balance : Balance in life seems to result in greater mental health. Are you able to juggle the many aspects of your life? Can you recognize when you might be devoting too much time to one

aspect, at the expense of others? Are you able to make changes to restore balance when necessary? We all need to balance time spent socially with time spent alone. e.g Those who spend all of their time alone may get labeled as loners and they may lose many of their social skills. Extreme social isolation may even result in a split with reality. Those who ignore the need for some solitary times also risk such a split. Balance these two needs seems to be the key although we all balance these differently. Other areas where balance seems to be important include the balance between work and play, the balance between sleep and wakefulness, the balance between rest and exercise, and even the balance between time spent indoors and time spent outdoors. Flexibility- Do you feel and express a range of emotions? When problems arise can you change your expectations of life, others, yourself to solve the problem and feel better. We all know some people hold very rigid opinions. No amount of discussion can change their views.118 Such people often set themselves up for added stress by the rigid expectations that they hold working on making our expectations more flexible can improve our mental health. Mental healthy people experience a range of emotions and allow themselves to express these feelings. Some people shut off certain feelings finding them to be unacceptable. This emotional rigidity may result in other mental health problems.

Self actualization Do you recognize and develop your strengths so that you can reach your full potential? What have we made of the gifts that we have been given? We all know people who have surpassed their potential and others who seem to have squandered their gifts. We first need to recognize our gifts, of course, and the process of recognition is part of the path toward self actualization. Mentally healthy persons are in the process of actualizing their potential. In order to do this we must first feel secure. There are just a few of the concepts that are important in attempting to define mental health. The ability to form healthy relationships with others is also important. Adult and Adolescent mental health also includes the concepts of self esteem and healthy sexuality. How we deal with loss and death to also an important of mental health. Mental Health is more than just the absence of mental illness. It includes how you feel about yourself and how you adjust to life events. However, the National Mental Health Association cites 10 characteristics of people who are mentally healthy. 1. They feel good about themselves 2. They do not become overwhelmed by emotions such as fear, anger, love, jealousy, guilt or anxiety 3. They have lasting and satisfying personal relationships 4. They feel comfortable with other people 5. They can laugh at themselves and with others

6. They have respect for themselves and for others even if there are differences. 7. They are able to accept lifes disappointments 8. They can meet lifes demands and handle their problems when they arise. 9. They make their own decisions 119 10.They shape their environment whenever possible and adjust to it when necessary. 3.3.3. Need for Mental Health Many people are reluctant to use mental health services because of the stigma of having an emotional problem. Society has a tendency to view mental health issues differently from medical ones. When someone breaks a leg, has chest plains, or needs to get a prescription, theyll see a doctor. However, when they experience depression, excessive fears, or a problem with alcohol, they may be embarrassed to seek help. Many people view these conditions as weaknessess they should handle themselves, unfortunately, this view prevents them fro getting professional assistance that may alleviate their problems. To recognize an emotional problem and receive help is not at all a sign of weakness. Rather, these positive actions are characteristics of strong individuals. Also, seeing a therapist at a mental health clinic or student counseling centre is completely confidential. No information will be released without your permission except in situations involving child, or elder abuser or suicidal intent.

3.4. ROLE OF GUIDANCE PERSONNEL IN PROMOTING AND PRESERVING MENTAL HEALTH. The main purpose of the Mental Health Act is to provide authority, criteria and procedures for involuntary admission and treatment. However, the Act also contains protections to ensure that these provisions are applied in an appropriate and lawful manner. Safeguards for the rights of people involuntarily admitted to a psychiatric facility include rights notification, medical examinations at specified time periods, second medical opinions on proposed treatment and access to review panels and the court guide to the Mental Health Act 2 Most people in British Columbia requiring hospital treatment for mental disorders are voluntarily admitted to hospital, just like people with other illnesses. A sizable number of people with serious mental disorders, however, refuse to accept psychiatric treatment. (In 2003 there were approximately 8,000 involuntary admissions.) Without involuntary admission and treatment made possible by the Mental Health Act, these seriously mentally ill people would continue to suffer, causing significant disruption and harm to their lives and the lives of others. With involuntary hospital admission and treatment, most people quickly improve to the point that they can continue as 120 voluntary patients or resume their lives in the community. The majority of people involuntarily admitted are discharged within one

month. A person can only be admitted as an involuntary patient under the Mental Health Act to facilities designated by the Minister of Health. The term designated facility in the Act and in this Guide refers to designated inpatient Provincial mental health facilities, psychiatric units and observation units. A list of hospitals and other facilities designated as psychiatric units, Provincial mental health facilities (inpatient) and observation units is in Appendix 1. Observation units are short stay units in small hospitals, where the person is stabilized within a few days and, if continuing inpatient treatment is necessary, transferred. Section 22(7) of the Act and Section 2(2) of the Regulation require that a patient admitted to an observation unit must be transferred to a Provincial mental health facility or a psychiatric unit within 5 days after a second Medical Certificate is received by the director of the observation unit. This transfer requirement applies only to patients who need further inpatient care and does not apply if the patient is discharged, or released on extended leave (Section 6.0). There is no legal authority for a hospital or any other health care facility that has not been designated as a provincial mental health facility or a psychiatric unit or observation unit to hold or admit a person for whom a Medical Certificate has been completed. The hospital or certifying physician may have the patient transported to the designated facility. It is the mutual obligation of the closest designated facility and the non-designated hospital to

find a bed for the patient. A non-designated hospital should only care for the patient while in transit to a designated facility. As an example, it is usually preferable to temporarily admit to hospital someone awaiting transportation to a psychiatric unit than to hold them in a jail cell. Non-designated hospitals are advised to develop protocols with the closest designated facility. The person responsible for the operation of a designated facility is referred to in the Mental Health Act as the director. The director is responsible for ensuring each patient is provided with professional service, care and treatment appropriate to the patients condition (Section 8 of the Act).3 Guide to the Mental Health Act Job stress can be defined as the harmful physical and emotional response that occurs when the requirements of the job do not match the capabilities, resources or needs of the worker (18). Job stress can cause poor health and can increase rates of workrelated injuries and accidents.121 Some potential causes of work related stress are overwork, lack of clear instructions, unrealistic deadlines, lack of decisionmaking, job insecurity, isolated working conditions, surveillance, and inadequate child-care arrangements Although sexual harassment and discrimination are often excluded from lists of traditional job stressors, they must be included in any comprehensive analysis of the causes of workplace stress. Sexual harassment is a stressor for women in the workplace; and discrimination is a stronger predictor of health outcomes, including mental ill-health, for ethnic minorities than traditional job stressors

(20). Some of the many effects of stress include numerous physical ailments as well as mental health problems such as depression and increased rates of other possible stress-reducing accommodations include: altering the pace of work; lowering the noise level of work; providing water, tea or soda and crushed ice to combat a dry mouth caused by some medications; extra encouragement and praise of job performance, but only if warranted and not obviously excessive; while taking steps to reduce stress, avoidance of over-protection of the employee; making sure the employee is treated as a member of the team and not excluded from social events, business meetings or other activities relevant to the job. Mental health at work Should you mention your panic attacks at the interview? Can you take time off sick with depression? What are the pros and cons of telling your employer, and what are your rights? If you have a mental health condition such as depression, anxiety or bi-polar disorder, you may not feel you want to tell current or prospective employers. When mental health charity Rethink surveyed 3,000 mental health service users, half the respondents said they felt they had to hide their health problems and 41% were put off applying for jobs in the first place.

But it doesn't have to be like that. Good employers realise that a staff member who has experienced mental illness such as depression can be an asset. They often have a better understanding of their own strengths and weaknesses and can help and support other members of staff with similar problems. And new legislation currently going through the House of Lords means you won't have to answer questions about your health before being offered a job.122 Positive employers Some employers go out of their way to show their commitment to equal opportunities. For example, over 590 organisations have signed up to the Mindful Employer Charter for Employers who are Positive About Mental Health. Jobcentre Plus awards the 'two ticks' symbol to companies in England, Scotland and Wales who have shown they are positive about employing disabled people, which applies to some mental health conditions, and committed to supporting their needs in the workplace. "Having experience of mental distress does not mean you cant have a successful career" "This doesn't mean employers who aren't involved in the scheme can't be supportive," says Emma Mamo, senior policy and campaigns officer at mental health charity Mind. "The important thing to remember is that having experience of mental distress does not mean you can't have a successful career. Many high achievers have a mental health problem so if you're a career-driven

person, don't let it stop you from pursuing your chosen path." Support in the workplace "One in four people experience a mental health problem in any one year, so it's by no means rare to develop a problem while you are at work," says Emma. "Telling your employer what you are going through can help them to support you through tough times. Employers will often work with individuals to make adjustments that are mutually beneficial, for example support managing your workload, working from home, or even small things like changing where your desk is." "If you qualify for protection under the Disability Discrimination Act, your employer should make reasonable adjustments to support you in the workplace. This could include relaxing absence rules and limits, or allowing you to work flexi hours to make up the time." The legal situation An amendment to the Equality Bill bans employers from asking applicants about their health until after a job offer has been made. Under this legislation, you can choose to tell a prospective employer that you have a mental health condition, for example if they are part of the 'two ticks' scheme, but they can't ask about it at the application or interview stage. Information about your mental health is considered to be 'sensitive personal data' under data protection legislation. Employers should ensure only appropriate access is given to

any information they hold about your mental health. 123 The main body of legislation concerning unfair treatment in the workplace is the Disability Discrimination Act 1995, which covers mental illness and related problems. Your employer has a duty to ensure the health, safety, and welfare of their employees, and must not discriminate against mentally ill/disabled staff or applicants (provided they employ more than 15 people). If you're worried about your rights or feel you're experiencing discrimination, you can get advice from your local Citizens Advice Bureau, your trade union if you belong to one and charities such as Mind. If you think you have been unfairly dismissed, you can take your employer to a tribunal, but you must act quickly as there's a three-month time limit.

Directors are appointed by the authority, usually a health authority (i.e., the Board), operating the designated facility (Section 3 of the Regulation). The director may authorize specific individuals or positions to carry out the director functions. For example, physicians may be authorized to admit and discharge. The senior nurse on duty in the hospital or the ward or a physician could be authorized to sign consent forms for involuntary treatment or warrants after regular business hours. These authorizations should be in written form, signed by the director. Check your Progress II

Q.1 Define mental health & state its characteristics. Q.2 Explain the role of Guidance personnel in promoting and preserving mental health. 3.5 LET US SUM UP The central themes of this monograph were: to address the importance of work for people with mental health problems; to discuss the different vocational strategies and programmes for people with a mental health disorder; and to consider the role of the workplace in promoting good mental health practices for 124 employees. Integral to these themes is the identification of good practices by employers as well as vocational rehabilitation agencies and professionals. It is clear that there are many factors involved in addressing the importance of work for people with mental health problems, as well as identifying effective practices that encourage employment, re-employment and retention. Social support systems, mental health professionals and employers all have a significant role in helping individuals define options, make choices, learn to manage potentially disabling conditions, and avoid longterm hospitalization. The ultimate goal is for individuals to obtain and/or return to gainful, worthwhile activity, such as meaningful work Access to satisfying work remains one of the most soughtafter goals of the adult population of most countries. Employers, employees and unions are starting to realize that, for this population, mental health problems are the single most important cause of disability responsible for a global burden of disease larger than that due to infections, AIDS, cancer and physical accidents.

The impact of mental health problems on absenteeism, productivity and job satisfaction is only starting. Given the importance of work, and due to advances made in the prevention, treatment and rehabilitation of persons with mental health problems, it makes eminent sense to address all aspects of the mental well-being of employees. For the same reasons, the disability associated with severe mental health problems can no longer serve as an excuse to deny those who so wish reasonable access to competitive employment. Unit End Exercises: Q.1 What is work? Explain the relation of work with leisure & incentives. Q.2 What is mental health? Why it is necessary? How can you preserve mental health? References: www.goole.com 125 4 Module - II VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE Unit Structure 4.0 Objectives. 4.1 Introduction. 4.2 Nature and scope of vocational guidance.

4.2.1 Concept of vocational guidance. 4.2.2 Need and Functions of vocational guidance. 4.3 Factors affecting vocational choice: 4.4 Approaches to career guidance: 4.5 Hollands theory of career development: 4.6 Burnout and career guidance: 4.6.1 Meaning of burnout: 4.6.2 Coping with burnout: 4.7 Let us sum up. 4.0 OBJECTIVES. After going through this unit you will be able to: Describe the concept, need and functions of vocational guidance. State the factors affecting the vocational choices. Explain the Hollands theory of career guidance and its importance. Define burnout and the guidance strategies used for coping from career burnout. 4.1 INTRODUCTION We all will agree that in recent time there are variety of educational streams as new occupational opportunities are coming every other day. As there is variety of occupational opportunities 126 available to the students, it is not always possible for students to meet the requirements of the available opportunities as all individual differ in the abilities, interest, attitude and skill from each

other. Thus it is very necessary to know about ones own abilities, skills etc. To help in this process the role of vocational guidance becomes very important. In this unit we will discuss about vocational guidance, and other phenomenon related to the vocational guidance. 4.2 NATURE AND SCOPE OF VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE: 4.2.1 Concept of vocational guidance. Vocational guidance according to DAW is that which have to be made well before the school leaving stage. Indeed with comprehensive education potentially offering a greater educational opportunity a good case for an increasingly important role for vocational guidance can be made. It is worthwhile to look at some of the concepts or frames of refences that are fundamental to a consideration of occupational choice. Crites suggest that there are five sets of concepts that need to be consider. Firstly, how far is occupational choice the result of systematic behavior as opposed to chance? Clearly the practice of vocational guidance is concerned with systematizing choice. Thus , vocational guidance is not only adjustment but also achievement and development of the individuals to the maximum extent to be successful in their chosen occupations to be satisfied and usefull to the society. Let us discuss the objectives of vocational guidance: To assist the student to know about the characteristics , functions ,duties of the occupations of his choice.

 To enable him to find out what are the specific criteria as skills ,abilities, age etc. are required for the occupations of his choice. To assist the student to know about his skills ,abilities, interests for making wise choices. To assist the student to acquire the technique of analysis before making any final choice. To provide opportunity for experiences in school and out of school this may provide an idea of the work environment to the student. To help the student realize that all honest labour is worthwhile.127 The recommendations of Education Commission set up by Government of India in 1964 indicated the aims and scope of vocational guidance. These recommendations suggest the following: The aim of guidance is not just to help student in making vocational choices but also be focused on the development of the child as good citizen. Guidance should be provided in solving learning difficulties, academic excellence, developing study habits and must be started at the primary stage itself. Guidance role is very crucial at the college level as at this stage student faces many problems related to educational vocational and personal. They should be make aware about

the job market and how to make adjustment in it. Information may be provide about the training, competitive examinations and scholarships available. Check your progress- I Q1- Enlists two aims of vocational guidance given by Education Commission of India. 4.2.2 NEED AND FUNCTIONS OF VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE: Bringing individuals at par with the demands of the jobs: As we all know that individual differences exist among all and no two individuals can have the same abilities, skills and personalities. We can understand it with an example as a person can be skilled in doing a desk job while the other can be skilled in the field job so the skill differs and thus the demand for the job also different from different individuals. Thus here vocational guidance is needed for matching the right job with right individual. Assessing the right skill of an individual: The capabilities and the limitations of an individual should be known to him e.g. a person may have interest in painting but may not have the skill to take it as a career. So here the work of 128 vocational guidance comes to assist the individual in assessing himself and then accordingly choosing the right kind of job. Expansion of the world of work: Now a days jobs are available at national as well as international levels. And it gives rise to many queries as how one can choose the best from several alternatives? How to know about

the details of the occupation? How to apply? And many more all these are dealt with the help of vocational guidance. FUNCTIONS OF VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE: Assessment of the individual in terms of his academic achievement, skills attitude, interest , limitations etc. Assessment of individuals present environment such as financial resources , family background and family expectations etc. Assessing the suitability of the individual with that of the job demands. Helping the individual to come at par with the job requirements. Counseling for the adjustment in the job . Follow-up services in the form of feed back from the individuals for further modification in the guidance programme if needed. Check your progress : II Q2. What is the importance of knowing once skill for vocational guidance? 4.3 FACTORS EFFECTING VOCATIONAL CHOICE: 1) Personal Factors Affecting Career Selection Aptitudes - What natural abilities do you possess? Interests inventories - what gives you satisfaction?129 Your personality - Do you perform best in low-pressure or high-pressure working environments? 2) Social Influences on Career Opportunities Demographic trends

 Increase in working parents means more demand for food service and child care. More leisure time means more interest in health, and recreation products and services. Increased demand for further employment training creates opportunities for teachers and trainers. Geographic trends Where jobs are, salaries, and living costs. Economic Conditions affect career opportunities 3) Trends in Industry and Technology affect career opportunities Automated production methods have decreased the need for many entry-level employees in factories. Check your progress: III Q3- Name the factors responsible for career choice. 4.4 APPROACHES TO CAREER GUIDANCE: Career guidance refers to services and activities which assist individuals, of any age and at any point throughout their lives, to make educational, training and occupational choices and to manage their careers. Such services may be found in schools, universities and colleges, in the workplace. It may take place 130 individually or in group, and may be face-to-face or at a distance. It include career information provision (in print, ICT-based and other forms), assessment and self-assessment tools, counseling interviews, career education programmes.Guidance workers often

encounter individuals having very little idea about the skills which they have and the career related to the skill. Sometimes, sufficient time devoted to the early stages of an interview, finding out about the individual. There are many approaches to career guidance as Computer-aided guidance. Others are facial expression, especially glints in the eyes, can be used to know levels of interest in particular types of work. Often, the client will be interested in more than one. Individual judgment is required to look at likely interactions between traits, and selecting the appropriate one. 4.5 HOLLANDS THEORY OF CAREER DEVELOPMENT: The Holland Codes represents a set of personality types described in a theory of careers and vocational choice formulated by psychologist JOHN L. HOLLAND .Holland's theory argued that "the choice of a vocation is an expression of personality" and that the six factor typology he articulated could be used to describe both persons and work environments. His model has been adopted by the U.S. Department of Labor for categorizing jobs relative to interests. The Holland Codes are usually referred to by their first letters: RIASEC. He present his theory graphically as hexagon. The shorter the distance between their corners on the hexagon, the more closely they are related. Holland's (1992) theory of career guidance is based on four basic assumptions. The first assumption is that most people can be characterized as one or a combination

of six personality types. Second, the theory assumes that the work environment can be classified into the same six categories of personality. Third the theory assumes that people seek out environments compatible with their personality types. And, fourth, the theory holds that particular behavioral patterns emitted in any environment are determined by personality and environmental types. The six personality and work environment types described by Holland are as follows: Realistic- Working with your hands, tools, machines, and things; practical, mechanically inclined, and physical.viz. agriculture, computer engineer, basket ball player, chef, Gardner, martial arts , pilot etc131 Investigative- Working with theory and information, analytical, intellectual, scientific. Viz. lawyer, statistician, surgeon. Artistic- Non-conforming, original, independent, chaotic, creative. Viz. actor, writer ,dancer. Social- Cooperative environments, supporting, helping, healing/nurturing. Viz. psychologist, professor, social worker, physician. Enterprising- Competitive environments, leadership, persuading. Viz public relation, administration, journalism, marketing, management. Conventional- Detail-oriented, organizing, clerical. Viz.

proof reader, copy editing, clerk, librarian. Check your progress : IV Q4- What does RIASEC stands for? 4.6 BURNOUT AND CAREER GUIDANCE: 4.6.1 Meaning of burnout: First let us discuss about the concept of burnout. What is the meaning of the term burnout? Burnout is a psychological term for the experience of long-term exhaustion and diminished interest. It should not be looked as a disorder but as Problems related to lifemanagement difficulty. The most well-studied measurement of burnout in the literature is the Maslach Burnout Inventory. Maslach and her colleague Jackson first identified the construct "burnout" in the 1970s, and developed a measure that weighs the effects of emotional exhaustion and reduced sense of personal accomplishment. This indicator has become the standard tool for measuring burnout in research on the syndrome. The Maslach Burnout Inventory uses a three dimensional description of exhaustion, cynicism and inefficacy. 132 Many theories of burnout include negative outcomes related to burnout, including job function, health related outcomes, and mental health problems. The term burnout in psychology was coined by HERBERT FREUDENBERGER in 1974. Psychologists Herbert Freudenberger and Gail North gave 12 phases of burnout, which are not necessarily followed sequentially:

 A compulsion to prove oneself Working harder Neglecting one's own needs Displacement of conflicts (the person does not realize the root cause of the distress) Revision of values (friends or hobbies are completely dismissed) Denial of emerging problems (cynicism and aggression become apparent) Withdrawal (reducing social contacts to a minimum, becoming walled off; alcohol or other substance abuse may occur) Behavioral changes become obvious to others Depersonalization (life becomes a series of mechanical functions) Inner emptiness Depression Burnout syndrome The signs can vary from individual to individual, but the following are some universal indicators that one can use to determine if career burnout is occurring. Depression-Feelings of despair and sadness that last for weeks or months usually signal that something in your life is not working like it should and is cause for an investigation into the cause potentially your job.

 Lack of energy-If individual experience constant fatigue throughout the day. Lack of desire-if an individual find that he just dont care if he is successful or not its a warning that the individual may have become burned out. Decreased productivity- if the productivity of an individual is decreased and he is not coming upto the desired expected result. 133 Increased absences and/or tardiness- if an individual finds every opportunity to skip out on work. Boredom-Occasional boredom in ones career is completely normal; however, pervasive feelings of weariness and dreariness are not and are an indicator of potential burnout. Anger/resentment in workplace-Frequently lashing out at coworkers and/or supervisors is unacceptable under any circumstance. This behavior deserves immediate attention due to its potentially abusive nature. Sleep problems-Insomnia or occasional fatigue can happen to anyone but are a cause for concern if they become constant and a part of your everyday life. Sleep disturbances are your bodys way of saying it is overworked. Check your progress : V Q5- Define the term burnout. 4.6.2 COPING WITH BURNOUT:

There are a variety of ways that both individuals and organizations can deal with burnout. In his book, Managing stress: Emotion and power at work (1995), Newton argues that many of the remedies related to burnout are motivated not from an employee's perspective, but from the organization's perspective. Let us now discuss some of the common strategies for dealing with burnout.134 ORGANIZATIONAL ASPECTS: Employee assistance programs (EAP)- Employee Assistance Programs were designed to assist employees in dealing with the primary causes of stress. Some programs included counseling and psychological services for employees. But now a days it is less utilized as compared to stress management training (SMT). Stress management training (SMT).-Stress Management Training (SMT) is employed by many organizations today as a way to get employees to either work through stress or to manage their stress levels; to maintain stress levels below that which might lead to higher instances of burnout. INDIVIDUAL ASPECTS: Problem-based coping-Individual can cope with the problems related to burnout and stress by focusing on the causes of the stress. This type of coping has successfully been linked to reductions in individual stress. Appraisal-based coping-Appraisal-based coping strategies deal with individual interpretations of what is and is not a stress inducing

activity. Check your progress : VI Q6- What do you understand by SMT? 4.7 LET US SUM UP: In this unit we have discussed about nature and scope of vocational guidance, why vocational guidance is needed and how it helps an individual is discussed under the functions of vocational guidance. The factors which affect vocational choice as social, demographic, geographical, personal has also been talked about. An attempt has been made to acquaint you about the Hollands theory of career development, usually referred as RIASEC as it 135 contains six factor typology, They are Realistic, Investigative, Artistic Social, Enterprising, Conventional. Meaning and clear understanding has been made by discussing about burnout and career guidance and also about the different strategies of coping with burnout. SUGGESTED READING: Agarwal, J.C,(1985), Educational Vocational Guidance And Counseling, Doaba House, New Delhi. Agarwal ,R.(2007), Educational Vocational Guidance And Counseling,principles, techniques and programmes. Shipra publication , Delhi. Kochhar, S.K, (1980) Guidance And Councelling, Sterling Publishers, New Delhi. Nanda, S.K and Sharma S,(1992) Fundamentals Of Guidance,

Chandigarh. UNIT END EXERCISE Q1. What are the objectives of vocational guidance? Q2. Describe the organizational and individual coping strategies of burnout. Q3. Explain the Hollands theory of career guidance. Q4. Discuss in detail 12 phases of burnout given by Herbert Freudenberger and Gail North. REFERENCES Agarwal ,R.(2007), Educational Vocational Guidance And Counseling,principles, techniques and programmes. Shipra publication , Delhi. http://www.lenus.ie/hse/bitstream/10147/46051/1/10499.pdf www.careersteer. www.lotsofessays.com/viewpaper/1693190.html www.careerstrides.com wikipedia.org/wiki 136 5 OCCUPATIONAL INFORMATION AND JOB SATISFACTION Unit Structure 5.1 Objectives 5.2 Introduction 5.3 Need and Sources of Occupational Information

5.3.1 Concept 5.3.2 Need and importance 5.4 Collection, Filing and Classification of Occupational Information 5.4.1 Sources of Occupational Information 5.4.2 Types of Occupational Information Materials 5.4.3 Methods of Collection of Occupational Information 5.4.4 Classification of Occupational Information 5.4.5 Filing of Occupational Information 5.5 Dissemination of Occupational information 5.5.1 Group Techniques 5.5.2 Individual Techniques 5.6 Job Satisfaction 5.6.1 Meaning of job satisfaction 5.6.2 Factors of Job satisfaction 5.7 Job Analysis, Job Specifications and Job Profile 5.8 Let us Sum Up 5.1 OBJECTIVES After going through this unit you will be able to: Explain the need and importance of occupational information in the present day List different sources of occupational information i.e. primary secondary, international, national and local List different methods of collection of occupational information137 Describe various techniques of dissemination of

occupational information Identify various factors of job satisfaction Point out the relationship between job analysis, job specifications and job profile. 5.1 INTRODUCTION Tremendous explosion of knowledge in science and technology in the modern days has enriched the store house of information .The scientific and technological advancements have brought in many changes in social and economic structure of our country. Among the many challenges faced by our youths today is the choice of a right career. The occupational information, one of the important components of guidance programme is basic to career planning and adjustment. This unit provides you an overview of meaning, need and sources of occupational information, methods of collection, classification and filing of occupational information, and techniques of dissemination of occupational information. It also familiarizes you with factors affecting jobsatisfation, job analysis, job specifications and job profile. 5.3 CONCEPT AND NEEDS OF OCCUPATIONAL INFORMATION 5.3.1 Concept: Occupational information is information about the world of work. Occupational information covers pertinent and reliable information relating to various occupations e.g. job contents,

training and preparation for the occupation, entry in to occupation, working conditions, salaries, emoluments, employment outlooks and prospects etc. 5.3.2 Need and Importance: Occupational information service is one of the important guidance services. The need and importance of occupational information is as follows. Career Planning: Due to vastness of educational and occupational opportunities available today the student needs accurate reliable and useful information. Occupational information is one of the essential aspects of career planning.138 Career Development: Occupational information is also essential for career development of students. The individuals appropriate skills, attitudes, interests, abilities, values and self concept depend upon accurate information about specific jobs. Vocational thinking: In the early stage i.e elementary stage, occupational information helps to widen the vocational thinking .This helps them to explore the vocational world. Changing Perceptions: Occupational information helps to check the pre conceived distorted notion of individual regarding some job. Placement:

As the student gets reliable and accurate information about the job, through occupational information it helps in placement. The student gets information about personality traits required for a particular job, which helps in getting the job. Apart from this, occupational information has important role in preparation of selection tests for jobs, upgradation of skills of employed manpower and international comparison of occupational data. 5.4 COLLECTION, FILING AND CLASSIFICATION OF OCCUPATIONAL INFORMATION 5.4.1 Sources of Occupational Information: There is array of sources for bringing occupational information materials in different forms for use by teachers, counselors and students. These sources can be classified on the basis of nature and scope of information. On the basis of nature of the source of occupational

information it is classified as Primary and Secondary source of information On the basis of the scope of information it is classified as International, National and Local Primary and Secondary Sources: The primary source is the original or direct source from here we get the relevant occupational information. The information collected from the employer, employee/worker, and government bodies/agencies are example of primary sources.139

The secondary sources of information are those which use information collected or published by the original sources. These are also called indirect sources. International, National, Local Sources: Many international, national and state/local level organizations/agencies n bring out publications related to occupations. Some of the International, national and state/local level sources are given below. Different agencies: Level Organisation / Agencies International a)United Nations Organization United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Association(UNESCO),Paris(www.unesco.org) United Nations Industrial Development Organizations(UNIDO) www.unido.org International Labour Organisation(ILO) National Directorate General of Employment and Training(DGE&T),New Delhi www.dget.nic.in

Directorate of Audio Visual Publicity(DAVP) ,New Delhi www.davp.nic.in Union Public Service Commission(UPSC) , New Delhi www.upsc.gov.nic.in National Council of Educational Research and Training(NCERT) , New Delhi www.ncert.nic.in

All India Council of Technical Education(AICTE) New Delhi www.aicte.ernet.in

University Grants Commission(UGC) New Delhi www.ugc.ac.in Indira Gandhi National Open University(IGNOU) ,New Delhi www.ignou.ac.in National Institute of Rural Development(NIRD),Hyderabad National Institute of Health and Family Welfare(NIHFW), New Delhi State/Local State Guidance Bureaus SCERTs/SIEs State government departments (Revenue, Health, Industry, Labour, Social Welfare, Mining etc) State /District employment offices Non Government Organisations University Employment Information Cells and Guidance Bureaus140 5.4.2 Types of Occupational Information Materials: The materials prepared by different agencies, institutions for occupational information broadly classified in to three types i.e print material, audiovisual materials and electronic materials Print Materials Audio/Visual Electronic Occupational Monographs Employment News News Paper and Magazines Recruitment Literatures Occupational reviews

Career films Career photographs Posters and charts Audio Recording Radio Television Computers Before using any material, you need to evaluate the accuracy, relevance, format and usefulness of the information. 5.4.3 Methods of Collection of Occupational Information: How can you collect occupational information? The occupational information can be collected through various methods i.e follow up surveys, community occupational survey, community educational survey and want ad survey. Follow up Survey: The follow up survey can be conducted to find out career adjustments of school leavers. These provide information about educational and employment opportunities in the community. The occupational facts provided by the survey help the school students to plan their career realistically. Community Occupational Survey: The community educational survey is an enumeration and description of jobs in a geographically defined area. The survey provides an overview of occupational information about community specific occupations, man power trends and requirements. If you

want to conduct a community occupational survey, you have to visit with your colleagues to a near by office/agency/industry and obtain relevant information on name and address of the organization, existing occupations, man power requirements i.e. job openings, eligibility, requirements and salary. Community Educational Survey: A community educational survey is conducted to collect detailed information about educational institutions in a particular geographical area. This survey covers all types of educational institutions such as schools, colleges(medical, engineering, vocational) ,distance education centers etc. Relevant information collected on courses offered, number of seats, procedure of 141 admission ,fees,hostel,scholarship etc will give insight .The prospectus, information bulletin of different institutions can be studied and analyzed to compare educational facilities. Want Ad Survey: This is the simplest and least expensive survey. It is a periodic (weekly, monthly, quarterly) tabulation of the job openings as advertised in news papers. Here two types of advertisements i.e. help want ads and situation vacant ad appearing in local news papers or neighbuoring metropolitan news papers are used. While the first type advertisement provides information regarding job openings the second type of ads provide data of supply of workers for possible job openings. The tabulation of data in this survey may be done according to broad group of classification (NCO), based on

interst, curricular streams etc. Want ad surveys are of great value to metropolitan and small cities. 5.4.4 Classification of Occupational Information: Collection of a lot of occupational information necessitates storing it in a systematic manner so that that can be used by others with out difficulty whenever required. For a meaningful storage of occupational information we have to know different ways of classifying information. Occupational information can be classified in a number of ways such as by occupation, industry, socioeconomic status, interests, and educational levels etc.All these classification schemes have their own merits and limitations. Some of the Classification schemes are discussed below. Classification by Occupation: National Classification of Occupation (NCO-2004) As per the NCO-2004 occupations have been classified into the following nine divisions and skill levels. Division Title Skill Level

1. Legislatures, Senior Officials and Managers 2. Professionals 3. Technicians and Associate professionals 4. Clerks 5. Service workers and shop, market sales workers 6. Skilled agricultural and fishery workers

7. Craft and related trade workers 8. Plant and machine operators and assemblers 9. Elementary Occupations Not defined IV II II II II II I142 NCO-2004 groups together 2945 occupations, each occupations has been assigned a six digit code, a distinct title and a definition. The occupations have been first assigned to ten occupational divisions (identified by the initial digit in the code number) that are comprised of 30 sub-divisions (identified by first two digit of the code number).The subdivisions have 116 groups (identified by first three digit of the code number) Classification by Industry: National Industrial Classification-2004(NIC-2004) The Central Statistical Organization (CSO) has developed the NIC-2004 in India . It has 17 sections, 62 Divisions, 161 groups, 310 classes and 1191 subclasses. The 17 sections are listed by one letter alpha code from A to Q as below.

A. Agriculture, hunting and forestry B. Fishing C. Mining and quarrying D. Manufacturing E. Electricity, gas and water supply F. Construction G. Wholesale and retail trade; repair of motor vehicles, motor cycles and personal and household goods H. Hotels and restaurants I. Transport ,storage and communication J. Financial intermediation K. Real estate, renting and business activities L. Public administration and defence;compulsory social security M. Education N. Health and social work O. Other community, Social and personal service activities P. Activities of private households as employers and undifferentiated production activities of households Q. Extraterritorial organizations and bodies The NIC-2004 adopts a five digit classification where the first 2 digits indicate Division, the first three digits represent Group, and four digits indicate Class. The subclasses (if exists) are indicated by all the five numbers. The NIC-2004 has been used in the country for population census, industrial survey etc.143 Classification Based on Interest:

In this classification scheme, occupations are categorized according to interest areas .Comprehensive Interest Schedule by Vohra (1993) lists eight interest areas i.e. influential, venturous, artistic, scientific, analytical, social, nature and clerical. The type of occupation related to interests are administrative and enterprising (Influential), Defence and Sports (venturous), Creative and performing (Artistic), Medical and technical (Scientific), Expressive and computational (analytical), Humanitarian and education (social). 5.4.5 Filing of Occupational Information: In school situation educational/occupational information may be available in both bound and unbound form. The unbound materials may include leaflets, folders, news paper clippings, notice etc. Similarly the bound materials include proseptus, hand book, information brochures etc. Some popular filing plans for unbound information materials are alphabetic Plan, Classification based upon educational level , based on academic subjects or Curricular stream and geographical files etc. Alphabetic Plan: In this system, occupational information is classified according to the first alphabet of each occupation. Here occupational headings to be used are collected from occupational or industrial classification. Classification based upon Educational Level: Various Levels of education i.e. elementary school,

secondary school, higher secondary school, post school diploma certificate, graduation, post graduation and M.Phil/Doctorate.

Classification based on academic subjects or Curricular Stream Specific requirement of subjects of study for particular occupation is the basis of this classification. Geographical Files Occupational information can also be filed geographically by city or state Characteristics of a good filing system: In order to select a filing system for the school, the guidance worker should examine all the classification system available .Then 144 a filing plan needs to be selected suitable to the requirements of the school. Following are the characteristics of a good filing system suggested by Hoppock (1976, 1.63): It should provide a safe place for housing written and printed documents, clippings from newspapers and magazines, posters, pictures, films taperecordings, pamplates, books and anything else that may contain useful occupational information. It should provide one and only one designated location for each item to be filed,so that there may be no confusion where to file an item or where to find it. It should be easy to use, so that all who use it can find what

they want with a minimum time and effort. It should bring together as many as possible of the materials on any one occupation or industry or employer. It should bring together related occupations or industries or employers It should provide some means of quickly finding material in omnibus books and other publications which describe several different occupations. It should be expandable, so that it can grow as the collection grows. It should provide for filing and finding related materials, such as the results of follow up studies and community occupational surveys. Check your Progress-I Q.1 What is occupational information? State the various sources of occupational information. Q.2 What are the different types of occupational information? How can you collect & classify it? Q.3 What is filling of occupation? Explain the characteristics of a good felling system. 145 5.5 DISSEMINATION OF OCCUPATIONAL

INFORMATION Dissemination of occupational information about various educational and occupational opportunities and their requirements is necessary to give exposure to students. The dissemination of

occupational information helps student to be informed about different careers, to make an appropriate career choice and to apply the information to solve various career related problems. Occupational information can be effectively disseminated to students through group as well as individual techniques. 5.5.1 Group Techniques: In school much of the information on career in general is disseminated through group activities. Group techniques are used in guidance to help the normal individuals to understand themselves, acquire information and learn to analyse problems in order to make realistic educational and vocational choices. Following are some of the group techniques of dissemination of occupational information. Career Talk: It is a popular technique of dissemination of career information. As per students needs professionals, school alumni can be invited to deliver career talk in regular classroom. The topic of the career talk should be carefully decided keeping in view the age group, interest and educational level. Generally a career talk contains the following1. Introduction about the occupation 2. General and specific nature of work 3. Work conditions 4. Earnings 5. Qualifications required[age,education,skills/aptitude] 6. Methods of entering the job

7. Advancement/Promotions 8. Employment outlook 9. Sources of Further information Group Discussion: In group discussion the group of members share information collected by each one of them and gain insight about a particular occupation. The group discussion should start with prior information to the group about the occupation to be discussed, initiative by group leader, interaction among students [groups] and reflection of discussion. 146 Field Trips: Field trips provide a pragmatic, interesting, enjoyable and extremely useful method of learning and imparting occupational information (Joneja, 1997).The students get relevant information about different occupation by visiting industries and offices. While selecting the industry/organization/place the objective/purpose must be taken into account. Such places may be selected where ex students are working, because they will be able to provide more information and help in making the tour/trip effective. It requires a lot of planning and preparation. After the trip group wise presentation needs to be organized. Career Exhibition: It is one of the important techniques of disseminating occupational information. A great variety of career information materials are available from various sources. Exhibition of career information materials may be arranged by the teacher/counselor in the school library, guidance room, hall, and corridor or in classroom or at any other place where all students

can see them. School Assemblies: School assemblies being a regular feature of secondary and senior secondary schools, can provide opportunities for effective dissemination of occupational information which may be of interest to most of the school students. Subject Teaching: There is also scope for dissemination of Occupational information in secondary school through subject teaching. In Language, social science, mathematics, science there is maximum scope for diffusion of occupational information. The dissemination of occupational/career information by subject teachers motivate the students to learn the subject matter with interest and to explore further information(NCERT,2008). Publications: The educational institution may publish Guidance Newsletter periodically for teachers and students of the institution. 5.5.2 Individual Techniques: Individual methods of dissemination of occupational information are used to help different types of student to develop an understanding of themselves, and make career related decisions and adjustments .Individual counseling sessions are helpful for dissemination of occupational know how. However, as this needs one to one interaction professional expertise is essential on the part of teacher to disseminate career information. Group techniques are more useful and economic.147 5.6 JOB SATISFACTION 5.6.1 Meaning of Job Satisfaction:

Job satisfaction is a persons attitude towards the job. Positive attitude towards job are equivalent to job satisfaction where as negative attitude are equivalent to job dissatisfaction. Job satisfaction describes how content an individual is with his/r her job. The happier people are within their job, the more satisfied they are said to be. Job satisfaction is not the same as motivation, although it is clearly linked. For the first time in 1935 ,the concept of job satisfaction gained momentum through the publication by Hoppock on job satisfaction.Hoppock in his monograph has defined job satisfaction as any combination of psychological, physiological and environmental circumstances that causes a person truthfully to say I am satisfied with my job. Job satisfaction has been defined as a pleasurable emotional state resulting from the appraisal of ones job (Locke, 1976) an affective reaction to ones job (Cranny, Smith & Stone, 1992) and an attitude towards ones job (Brief, 1998). Weiss (2002) argued that job satisfaction is an attitude but points out that researchers should clearly distinguish the objects of cognitive evaluation which are affect (emotion), beliefs and behaviours. This definition suggests that we form attitudes towards our jobs by taking into account our feelings, our beliefs, and our behaviors. Job satisfaction may also be defined as summation of employees feelings in four important areas. 5.6.2 Factors of Job satisfaction:

Job satisfaction can be influenced by a variety of factors, e.g. the quality of one's relationship with their supervisor, the quality of the physical environment in which they work, degree of fulfillment in their work, etc. Numerous research results show that there are many factors affecting the job satisfaction. There are particular demographic traits (age, education level, tenure, position, marital status, years in service, and hours worked per week) of employees that significantly affect their job satisfaction. Motivating factors are achievement, recognition, the job conducted, responsibility, promotion and the factors related to the job itself for personal development. Motivating factors in the 148 working environment result in the job satisfaction of the person while protective ones dissatisfy him/her. Maslow connects the creation of the existence of people's sense of satisfaction with the maintenance of the classified needs. These are: physiological needs (eating, drinking, resting, etc.), security needs (pension, health insurance, etc.), the need to love (good relations with the environment, friendship, fellowship, to love and to be loved), need to self-esteem (self-confidence, recognition, adoration, to be given importance, status, etc.) need of selfactualization (maximization of the latent [potential] power and capacity, development of abilities, etc). Insufficient education, inability to select qualified workers for the job, lack of communications, lack of job definitions, all affect job satisfaction

negatively. It has been asserted that participating in the management, having the decision making power, independence on the job and the unit where the individual works, have positive impact upon the job satisfaction. The job itself (the work conducted), and achievement and recognition at work result in satisfaction while the management policy, relations with the managers and colleagues result in dissatisfaction. Factors related to the job itself such as using talents, creativity, responsibility, recognition have influence on the job satisfaction. Age is one of the factors affecting job satisfaction. Studies conducted in five different countries prove that the elder workers are more satisfied. The role people play and the status they enjoy are all too often determined by age. Besides other things, age is also an important consideration in determining a persons promotion or his/her failure to receive it. Length of service is also a factor affecting job satisfaction. Similarly, by some researchers, sex is also found to have an influence on job satisfaction. Besides. Job satisfaction and devotion to the job, affected each other reciprocally, and they have great impact upon performance. The most significant of the factors affecting performance are economical, technical, socio-political, cultural and demographical ones. However, most efforts to improve performance seem to center on improving the conditions surrounding the work. These are worthwhile efforts, but they usually

result only in short-term improvements in attitudes and productivity, and the situation often returns quickly to normal.149 5.7 JOB ANALYSIS, JOB SPECIFICATIONS AND JOB PROFILE 5.7.1 Job Analysis: Job analysis is the process of objectively determining the specific duties, responsibilities and working conditions associated with a specific job, as well as the personal skills and qualifications required to perform that job satisfactorily. It is the process of getting information about the job. Thus, the purpose of job analysis is to establish and document the job relatedness of employment procedures. It investigates exactly: What the worker does in a particular job? How s/he does that particular job? Why s/he does it ?and How much skill is required to do it ? What are the physical demands, environmental conditions associated with this specific job? Some of the methods of job analysis are: 1. Review of job classification system 2. Interviews: Incubement interviews and supervisor interview 3. expert panel 4. observation 5. Incubement work logs

Advantages of Job analysis: 1. Job analysis helps the personnel manager at time of recruitment and selection of right personnel in right job 2. Understanding the extent and scope of training required in the field 3. It helps in chalking out the compensation plan for employees 4. It helps the personnel in performance appraisal of employees. These may be used individually or in combination. Job analysis can be done in two ways: job description and job specifications. 5.7.2 Job Specifications:150 Job specification is a statement which tells us minimum acceptable human qualities which helps to perform a job. It helps in selecting an appropriate person for an appropriate position. The components covered under job specifications are: 1. job title and designation 2. educational qualification for that title 3. physical and other related attributes 4. Mental Health 5. Special attributes and abilities 6. maturity and dependability 7. Relationship of that job with other jobs Advantages of Job Specifications 1. It is helpful in preliminary screening in selection procedures 2. It helps in giving due justifications to each job

3. It helps in designing training and development programmes 4. It helps the supervisors for counseling and monitoring performance of employees 5. It helps in job evaluation 6. It helps the management to take decisions regarding promotions, transfer and giving extra benefits to employees. 5.7.3 Job Profile: Job Profile is a breakdown of the duties and tasks required of and performed by a person for a specific title. Job profile or the Key Result Areas indicate a list of activities that you are doing or will be doing in any job. It defines your job responsibilities (the activities you are autorized to do in any job). Whenever you wish to switch to new job, your existing and previous experience is counted on the basis of your job profile and that is why job opportunities depend on the job profile. Job profiles list a general description of the work position including required duties, position goals and departmental placement. Also, job profiles list candidate educational and experience requirements. For example, the candidate "must have three years of sales experience." Many job profiles also list the position's salary or hourly wage. A job profile presents a clear picture of the position to the candidate. After reading the job profile, job seekers can make an informed decision as to whether the job is right for them. For applicants, a well-written job profile serves as a valuable interview

preparation tool. 151 Check your Progress Q.1 Write short notes on the following : a) Job analysis b) Job satisfaction c) Job profile d) Advantages of job analysis e) Advantages of job specifications. 5.8 LET US SUM UP Occupational information, one of the essential guidance services is helpful for career development, career adjustment, vocational thinking and changing perceptions of students. Occupational information is collected from primary and secondary sources. Agencies / organisations working at international, national and state/local level bring publications pertaining to occupations from time to time. Occupations are classified based upon Occupation, Industry, educational level, interest etc. Different methods like follow up survey, community occupation survey, community education survey and want on ad are used to collect relevant data on occupational information. Occupational information is disseminated by individual and group techniques. Job satisfaction is related to many factors like motivation, demographic factors, gender etc. There is relationship between Job analysis, job specification and job profile. UNIT END EXERCISES152

1. What is occupational information? Discuss the need and importance of occupational information. 2. Prepare a list of national level organizations/agencies working for publication and dissemination of occupational information. 3. What are different types of occupational information materials available? Discuss with example any five forms of each type of material. 4. What is the classification scheme of NCO-2004 5. Discuss various factors responsible for job satisfaction 6. Write short notes on a)Job Profile(b)Job Specifications SUGGESTED READINGS Joneja,G.K(1997).Occupational Information in Guidance.National Council Of Educational Research and Training, New Delhi Locke (1976).Cited in Brief,A.P ;Weiss,H.M(2001).Organizational Behaviuor ,Annual Review of Psychology,53,279-307,p282 Weiss,H.M(2002).Deconstructing Job Satisfaction:Separating evaluatuions,beliefs and affective experiences.Human Resource Managementb Review,12,173-194 Vohra,S(1993).Comprehensive Interest Schedule .PSY-COM Services,New Delhi NCERT(2008).Career Information in Guidance,Module-5 and 12, National Council Of Educational Research and Training, New Delhi Hoppock,R(1935). Job Satisfaction, Harper and Bros,New York. 153

6 PSYCHOMETRIC METHODS AND TECHNIQUES FOR GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING QUANTITATIVE TECHNIQUES Unit Structure : 6.0 Introduction 6.1 Objectives 6.2 Psychological Tests 6.2.1 Intelligence Test 6.2.2 Interest Inventories 6.2.3 Aptitude Test 6.2.4 Achievement Test 6.2.5 Attitude Scale 6.2.6 Personality Test 6.3 Let us sum up 6.0 OBJECTIVES : After completion of this unit, you would be able to : Describe the meaning and uses of different psychological tests in guidance and counseling Intelligence Test Interest Inventories Aptitude Test Achievement Test Attitude Scale

 Personality Test 6.1 INTRODUCTION : 154 The goal of assessment is to help counselors to develop an understanding of the client or an individual. By using assessment and appraisal procedures, you will be able to gain understanding of the individual and in turn foster individuals understanding himself or herself. In this sense, you will appreciate that assessment and appraisal processes and procedures are the means of obtaining comprehensive understanding of students thereby fulfilling the goal of counseling. It is essential that, you need to be familiar with the major tools and techniques of assessment, the purpose for which they are used and how the information provided by these can be used in understanding the individual. Psychological testing is one of the ways of assessment. The selection of any tool whether quantitative or qualitative depends on the type of information the counselor is interested in gathering. In most cases both are required to be used for holistic assessment an appraisal. In this unit, you will read about psychological tests, which are the tools for quantitative assessment. 6.2 PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS : Psychological tests are designed to assess the characteristics of people such as their abilities, attitudes, motivations, interests, needs and values and so on. Psychological

test can be defined as a sample of an individuals, behaviour, obtaining under standard conditions and scored according to a fixed set of rules that provide a numeric score (Anastasi, 2003). In a standardized test, individual scores are compared with a norm or standard arrived at on the basis of performance of sample of individuals of the same age or grade level from around the country who took the same test when it was first developed. Good standardized tests are the result of years of research. Tests may take many forms. Usually, they comprise of a series of items / questions with well-defined correct answers such as in case of tests of intelligence or achievement, while others such as personality inventories, do not have right or wrong answers, but are designed to assess persons pre-dispositions, tendencies and preferences. Tests can be used to compare the same individual on two or more traits and also compare two or more individuals on the same trait. Such an assessment is usually quantitative. Although most of the psychological tests provide relatively objective and quantifiable scores such as tests of intelligence abilities / aptitudes. Some other 155 tests may also provide descriptive and qualitative interpretations. You will learn about these in Unit 7. A standard test has a manual which provides complete information of how the test was developed, evidence of its consistency, accuracy and objectivity. It also consists of detailed instructions for administering, scoring, interpreting the test, its uses and possible misuses. The test manual thus, provides you the

requisite information to allow you to make an informed judgement as to whether the test is suitable for your use. Besides, the requirement to select the appropriate psychological test, a counselor needs to develop various skills in test administration, scoring, interpretation and communicating results to clients. The following section will describe some type of tests and the purpose for which they are used. Psychological tests are classified into different types depending on their content and the way they are administered. Tests vary in their content depending on the aspect of behaviour that is assessed, for example, some tests are designed to assess abilities, others assess motivation, personality characteristics etc. Psychological tests are also classified into individual and group tests, verbal tests and non-verbal tests and performance tests. Let us discuss one by one quantitative methods and techniques. 6.2.1 Intelligence Tests : Intelligence has been one of the most popular psychological terms used in identifying individual differences. It has helped to explain that people differ from each other in their ability to understand complex ideas or to learn from experience. Different theorists have tried to explain intelligence in different ways following different approaches. Theories by Binet, Weschler Spearman and Thustone are based on the psychometric approach where intelligence is considered as an aggregate of abilities. It is expressed in terms of a single index of abilities. Howard Gardeners

theory of multiple intelligences puts forth that intelligence is not a single entity and there exists multiple intelligences, each distinct from others. According to him, there are nine distinct intelligences that are relatively independent of each other. These different types of intelligences interact and work together to provide a solution of a problem. The nine types of intelligences proposed by Gardener are briefly discussed below. 1. Linguistic Intelligence : The capacity to use language fluently and flexibly, to express ones thinking and understanding others. Used in reading a book, writing a paper, a novel or a poem; and 156 understanding spoken words. Poets and writers exhibit this ability. 2. Logical Mathematical Intelligence : Thinking logically, critically, using abstract reasoning to manipulate symbols and solve mathematical problems. 3. Spatial Intelligence : Abilities involved in forming, using and transforming mental images. Used in getting from one place to another, in reading a map, and is packing suitcase in the trunk of a car so that they all fit into a compact space. Pilots, sailors, interior decorators, surgeons, fashion designers generally exhibit this ability. 4. Musical Intelligence : Capacity to produce, create and manipulate musical patterns. Used in singing a song, composing a sonata, playing a trumpet or even appreciating the structure of a piece of music.

5. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence : Ability to use ones body and muscle structure in a coordinated planned way. Used in dancing, playing basket ball, running a mile or throwing a javeline. Athletes, dancers, actors, gymnasts, sports person, surgeon exhibit this more than others. 6. Interpersonal Intelligence : Used in relating to other people, such as when we try to understand another persons behaviour, motives or emotions, counselors, psychologists, politicians, social workers, religious leaders are shown to be high on this ability. 7. Intrapersonal Intelligence : Knowledge of ones internal strengths and limitations and using that knowledge to relate to others. 8. Naturalistic Intelligence : Complete awareness to our relationship with the natural world, useful in recognizing the beauty of different species of flora and fauna and making a distinction in the natural world. 9. Existential Intelligence : Can be defined as the ability to be sensitive to, or have the capacity for, conceptualizing or tackling deeper or larger questions about human existence, such as the meaning of life, why are we born, why do you die, what is consciousness or how did we get here. The multiple intelligences approach focuses on ways in which people can be intelligent. 157 Theorists have also tried to explain intelligence in terms of

information processing approach wherein the focus is on how an intelligent person thinks, acts and solves problems. Sternbergs information processing approach focuses on how solutions are arrived. According to Sternberg, the critical aspect of what constitutes intelligence is not necessarily the speed with which one arrives at a solution but the processes one uses. Processing information quickly does not mean it was done accurately or correctly. A relative rather than an impulsive style of problem solving has been associated with higher ability to solve problems. Jumping to conclusions without adequate reflection can lead to erroneous thinking. The notion of emotional intelligence broadens the concept of intelligence and involves ; i) perceiving or sensing emotions, ii) using emotion to assist thoughts, iii)understanding emotions, and iv)managing emotions. The concept of IQ dominated intelligence testing for a long time. With the emerging view of intelligence as multifaceted, the concept of intelligence as a single unitary ability or a composite of scores on different abilities is not considered valid. The concept of IQ has been found to be misleading. As counselors, the focus should be on a holistic assessment focusing on strengths and weaknesses of the client. This would help to plan remedial measures for intervention. The multiple intelligences approach is an alternative approach to assessment of intelligence. It emphasizes a

variety of abilities and skills (and not just an aggregate of mental abilities), which are required for success in life situations. As the meaning of intelligence differs from one culture to another there is a need to understand the cultural context for measuring intelligence. Even though tests of intelligence assist counselors and other personnel in providing a view of the clients abilities, the scores of these tests need to be used with caution. 6.2.2 Interest Inventories : In order to help students make vocational and & educational choices, the counselor needs to know his/her interest for activities. The study of interest would help you as counselor to better understand the students in terms of his/her likes and dislikes. In this section, you will learn about the concept of interest and its assessment.158 You might have observed in your class that some students show more inclination to mathematics, while others in computers, some in literary activities, in paining etc. Interest is an expression of our likes and dislikes or our attractions or aversions. An individual chooses the most acceptable, suitable alternative out of many, go after preferred objectives, activities etc. and consequently

desires satisfaction, success and happiness out of the activities selected. It is because of his or her natural liking fro these activities over others. Interest refers to activities that on individual likes to engage in enjoys. Types of Interest : Interest can be classified in different ways. Supper (1990) classified interest as (i) expressed (ii) manifest or observed and (iii) measure or tested. Interest testing is done to achieve some purpose such as : To provide teachers and counselors with information regarding the students preference and aversions which will help then acquire better understanding of students and their problems. To enable teachers, counselors and parents to assist the testes to prepare his educational and vocational terms consistent with his interest. To help in the selection of the right person for the right work, and thus same frustration, unhappiness and disappointment in the live of the individuals and increase productive capacity of individual. Methods of Assisting Interests159 We can use (i) formal assessment techniques and (ii) informal assessment techniques to discover a students

interest. i) Formal Assessment Techniques : Interest inventories are formal techniques for measuring interests. They are considered more reliable at discovering on individuals interest than interviews as the inventories address a large number of questions representing a broad range of carriers. There are many inventories now in use and majority of them deal with occupational interest. Interest Inventories The Strong Vocational Interest Bank (SVIS) and Kuder preference Record (KPR) are significant milestones in the area of interest measurement and a number of revisions of the original forms have been undertaken. Both the interest inventories however better in terms of approaches in construction and purpose for which they are used. The SVIB is based on the assumption that a person who has the interest typical of successful people in a given occupation will enjoy and find satisfaction in that occupation. The KPR constructed by G. Frederic Kuder, assets preferences for specific activities. Each item contains three choices. The subject has to select one of the three choices as his first choice, and another as his third choice.

An example of the choices given in an item are : Build bird houses Write articles about birds Drawn sketches of birds.160 This particular item aims to test three types of interests, namely mechanical, literacy and an artistic. The main difference in the two types of inventories is that in Kuder preference record the subject is forced to say which one of the three activities he likes best and which one he likes least, even though he may not like any of the that, hence it is called forced choice pattern type. In Strong Vocational Interest blank, the subject has to differentiate between L (like), I (indifferent) or D (dislike). Hence it is called category-response type of assessment. As counselor if you want a description of a persons so that inferences could be done regarding suitability for one of the very large number of jobs, Kuder Preference Record is your preferable tool of interest assessment. On the other hand if the purpose is to appraise the individually interest for a limited number of specific jobs, then strong Vocational Interest Blank is more useful. It is important to remember that the SVIB and KPR tell nothing about the ability or aptitude of an individual. These to be assessed by other methods. Results of interest inventories or tests are particularly useful

to the counselor as : The items of interest inventories are non-threatening and so the student is more likely to respond honestly. The student, with the assistance of the counselor, is helped to see the discrepancy, if any, between his/her view of ones interests and those assessed by the interest inventories. It also provides the counsellor a view into whether the clients expressed interests are shifted to what s/he is pursuing. You have read about two distinct types of interest inventories. Besides, these two, some tools are available and used by the counselor and the individual her / himself.161 Informal Assessment Techniques : It includes clients expression of interests and observation. The clients interviews regarding his/her interests provide the counselor a good beginning for understanding the client. For example, the books s/he reads, and the amount of time spent on reading provides on indication of clients interests on the kind of reading s/he does. As counselors you can supplement this information by using

qualitative techniques of assessment such as observation of the activities a client participates in or information gathered from anecdotal records and written works as sources informal information regarding client interests. Cautions on the use of Interest inventories As counselor, you should keep in the following cautions in mind while using the results of interest inventories. Interest data of an individual provides a profile of the pattern of their interests (what they like doing) and should not be taken as the strength of the individual). Interest results tell us only about the likelihood of an individual finding enjoyment in a particular type of activity or occupation and not s/he is capable of. A high score on an interest inventory so should not be considered analogues to success in a career. You have read in the above section that assessment of interest indicates of a simple level what a person likes to do and enjoy. It is important to remember interests indicate the clients and not his or her strength. The emphasis of interest inventories is on self-exploration. One should know about one self and be able to relate this information to what one is doing. Thus the results of interest inventories should not be seen in an isolate manner but should be supplemented with information from other techniques such as observation, interview, informal talk etc. interest results are of little value themselves. They should be considered with 162

achievement and aptitude scores to help individuals make educational and career choices. 6.2.3 Aptitude Tests : Aptitude is thought of as a natural tendency, special ability, or capacity or cluster of abilities. Often these natural abilities are looked at in relationship to a persons readiness to learn or their suitability for a particular career. For example, in order to be successful architect, one must possess the cluster of abilities such as a keen sense of observation, a sense of aesthetic visual memory, abstract reasoning, and an ability to sketch free hand. So, aptitude may be defined as a trait that characterizes an individuals ability to perform in an area or to acquire the learning necessary for performance in a given area. It presumes an inherent or native ability that can be developed to its maximum through learning or other experiences. However, it can not be expanded beyond a certain point, even by learning. Although that may be a debatable concept, it is stated here as a basis on which aptitude tests are developed. In theory, then, an aptitude test measures the potential of one to achieve in a given activity or to learn to achieve in that activity. Aptitude tests may potentially be used by counselors and others because. They may identify potential abilities of which the individual is not aware;

 They may encourage the development of special or potential abilities of a given individual. They may provide information to assist on individual in making educational and career decisions or other choices between competing alternatives; They may serve as an aid in predicting the level of academic or vocational success on individual might anticipate; and They may be useful in grouping individuals with similar aptitudes for development and other educational purposes. Types of Aptitude Tests :163 There are different types of aptitude tests. Some of them are single aptitude tests like tests of mechanical aptitude, clerical aptitude, teaching aptitude, musical aptitude and so on. Such tests covering a group of related abilities are necessary for performing in an occupation like becoming a mechanic, clerk, teacher, musician etc. Another type of aptitude test is work sample aptitude test. It requires the individual to perform all or part of a given job under the conditions that exist on the job. An example of a work sample test for the job of automobile mechanic is to repair a faulty carburetor. Besides this, there are differential tests Batteries as well. A commonly know Differential Aptitude Tests (DAT). Bennett,

Seashore and Wesman (1984) battery consists of eight subtests of verbal reasoning, numerical reasoning abstract reasoning, spatial reasoning, clerical speed and accuracy, mechanical reasoning, language usage, spelling, grammar, combination of such abilities is required for success in different occupations. Such test batteries can give comprehensive information about the relative picture of the students specific abilities. Administration of total battery can prove to be costly in terms of time but one can make selective use of certain sub tests. For example, a student trying to explore whether s/he will have the required aptitude to go to engineering, may not be required to take tests like clerical speed, language usage, grammatical or verbal reasoning tests but may be required to take numerical abstract and spatial reasoning tests. Most of the batteries of tests available for assessment of aptitude at school stage are in the form of test batteries consisting of the underlying abilities required for success in different occupations rather than direct assessment of job aptitudes. Caution in the use of Aptitude Test Data : It is important that counselors select and use aptitude tests carefully, keeping in view the students/clients needs. If aptitude test data must be used, it should be used along

with previous achievement data, present interests, leisure time activities and work habits etc. in order to guide the students into various occupational possibilities. 164 The aptitude test samples certain abilities of the individual and helps to find what he/she can do now and how well it can be done further. On the basis of present performance, estimate of his/her future achievement is inferred which is in terms of probability only. It may also be kept in mind that aptitude tests score only provide leads or suggestions or to help in career planning and do not automatically match individuals to suitable courses or studies, and occupations. These are factors like willingness, hard work, that contribute to or ones success in a career which are not measured by aptitude tests. Check your Progress-I Q.1 What is Psychological Tests? State the name of different types of Psychological. Q.2 What is intrest inventories? What cautions you should take while using it? Q.3 Explain various types of Test. 6.2.4 Achievement Tests : Achievement is what one successfully accomplishes in an area of study / activity / domain. In the case of students, it may be conceptualized as successful learning of the assigned educational

material. Such learning is usually demonstrated to teachers and 165 others either through a verbal presentation or a written examination. An achievement test measures knowledge and skills attained by the student in a particular area, usually acquired after classroom teaching or training. In an educational system, achievement test scores are often used to determine the level of instruction for which a student is prepared, to indicate academic strengths and weakness, and to indicate the relative standing of the student in a group/class. Achievement test data, in combination with other data, is used to help guidance counselors plan students future educational programmes. Types of Achievement Test : Achievement tests are of different kinds, each scoring a different purpose and providing different information on students academic proficiency. These have been classified in various ways, and understanding of which helps the counselor to understand their functions. Formative and Summative Tests : Formative tests are used to measure progress made in knowledge and skills before and during instruction. Summative achievement tests are given at the end of course instruction, so as to assess the outcome of the instruction. Progonostic tests : Readiness or prognostic tests are used to predict how well an individual is expected to profit from training. Diagnostic Test : Diagnostic achievement tests provide

information on performance of the students in different subjects and indicate their strengths and weakness in reading, arithmetic and language usage. Achievement test can be either criterion referenced (CRT) or norm referenced (NRT). The two tests differ in their intended purposes, the way in which content is selected, and the scoring process which defines how the test results must be interpreted. Norm Referenced Tests (NRTs) are designed to highlight achievement differences between and among students and provide a rank order of students across a continuum of achievement from high achievers to low achievers. These types of tests are used to help counselors/ teachers to clarify students for remedial or gifted programmes. Criterion-reference tests (CRTs) determine the 166 strengths of the test taker i.e. what they can do and what they know, not how they compare to others. They report how well students are doing relative to a predetermined performance level on an specified set of educational goals or outcomes included in the school curriculum. An achievement test is designed to measure how much a person knows about a specific topic or area such as math, geography or science. Achievement tests can be standardized test or teacher-made tests. Uses of Achievement Test Data Data from standard achievement tests can be used for promoting, classifying, diagnosing or evaluating students.

Counselors can also use the achievement tests for : Helping clients in decision making. A counselor can use the achievement test scores to initiate decision on taking appropriate choices for a career. Assisting in diagnosis counselors can make use of achievement test data to diagnose problems faced by the students in different subject areas. Accordingly corrective remediation can be planned and carried out. Encouraging self-study. The student through achievement data, is able to gain insight into his/her strengths and weakness in different subjects which can motivate him/her to put in the desire effort. Achievement test are used as learning measures of (1) the amount of learning, (2) the rate of learning (3) comparisons with others or with achievement of self in other areas, (4) level of learning in sub-areas, and (5) strengths and workers in a subject matter area because of their extensive use and relatively easy task of identifying appropriate context measures. Achievement tests of both kinds i.e. standardized and teacher made tests are based on the content taught and are considered valid. These are used to assess the level of overall proficiency to meet the entry requirements to certain/ programmes or the proficiency in a particular subject. The informal classroom achievement test is suited to a select performance of a group of students. It is flexible and accommodates testing students on a 167

local curriculum. The two types of tests can be used in a complementary manner. 6.2.5 Attitude Scale : Attitudes are expressions of how much we like or dislike various things. We tend to approach and seek out to be associated with things we like, we avoid, shun or reject things we do not like. Attitude represent our evaluations and performance towards a wide variety of objects, events, persons, and situations. The defining characteristics of attitudes is that they express evaluations along the lines of liking-disliking, pro-anti, favouring disfavouring or positive negative (Petty and Cacippo, 1981). By restricting the term attitude to evaluation, we distinguish attitudes from beliefs or opinions. Attitude includes certain aspects of personality as interests, appreciations and social conduct. Attitudes are learnt, they are adopted. They have aspects as directions, intensity etc. In the following section we will know how attitudes tested. Types of Attitude Scales : Attitudes need to be tested because our social life depends on some desirable attitudes. The success in certain vocations also depends on some attitudes. Attitudes can be tested through various techniques. Various scaling techniques have led to the development of different types of attitude scales which provide quick and convenient measure of attitudes. However, the method of equal appearing intervals and method of summative ratings have been extensively used in attitude or opinion research. The

attitude scales which are developed using these scaling techniques consists of a number of carefully edited and selected items called statements. The method of equal appearing intervals was originally developed by Thurstone and Chave. The attitude score of an individual obtained by this method has an absolute interpretation in terms of the psychological continuum of scale value of the statements making up the scale. If this score falls in the middle range of the psychological continuum, the attitude of the individual is described as neutral. If it falls towards the favourable end of the continuum, it is described as favourable and if it falls towards the unfavourable ends, it is described as unfavourable. In the method of summated ratings developed by Likert, the item score is obtained by assigning arbitrary weights of 5, 4, 3, 2 and 1 for Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Undecided (U), Disagree (D) and Strongly Disagree (SD) for the statements favouring a point of view. On the other hand, the scoring weights of 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 are used for the respective responses for 168 statements opposing this point of view. An individuals score on a particular attitude scale is the sum of his rating on all the items. In addition to the above two scales, there some more techniques, such as, Error Choice Technique, Free Response Technique, Paired Comparisons, Opinion Polling or Surveying, diaries, auto-biographic etc. are used for testing attitude. Attitude scales are used to measure the degree of positive or

negative feeling associated with any slogan, person, institution, religion, political party etc. Attitude scales are also used in publicopinion surveys in order to make some important and crucial decisions. Educationists, for example, conduct opinion surveys to find out how people feel about educational issues. 6.2.6 Personality Test : Often by persons use the term personality to indicate the physical make up of an individual. The term Personality however, signifies much more than simply the physical looks of a person and has a very broad meaning. It includes the emotional, motivational, inter-personal, attitudinal and even moral aspects of a person. some researchers have included intelligence also as part of personality. Personality refers to a unique combination of characteristics of an individual, which pre-disposes the person to behave in a particular and consistent way. Personality testing is necessary to achieve the following purposes. It helps the students in proper educational and vocational choice. Personality plays an important role in an individual, personal, educational and vocational adjustment and success. It is, therefore, important to diagnose the individuals personality pattern to see whether he posses the traits which are likely to contribute significantly to his adjustment to the course or career he is choosing. It helps the individual in resolving emotional conflicts. Personality diagnosis becomes essential when the difficulty the

individual encounters in making proper adjustment with the educational and occupational choices, lies in emotional conflict about which the client has no knowledge. When the cause of the mental conflict is diagnosed, it may be possible for him to solve his problem in his own way. It helps the clinical psychologist. A clinical psychologist can use personality assessments to help choose the best therapy for his clients. Thus, personality assessment is important for educational, career, personal and social counseling. Techniques of Testing Personality :169 A number of techniques are used for testing personality. The techniques are : Interview Observation Self-report Measures Checklists Rating Scales Situational Tests or Behavioural Tests Projective Techniques Anecdotal Records Autobiography The Daily Diary Here we can discuss some of the techniques of assessment of personality like self-report measures, projective techniques and behavioral assessment.

Self-Report Measures : Self-report measures are personality scales that ask individuals to answer a series of questions / statements about their characteristic behaviour. When you respond to a self-report personality inventory, you endorse statements as true or false as applied to you. You indicate how often you behave in a particular way or you rate yourself with respect to certain qualities. The logic underlying this approach is simple. Who know you better than you do ? A variety of personal characteristics can be measured through self-report inventories. Projective Technique : Projective techniques focus on a composite picture of the personality as a whole. This method is called the projective techniques because the individual is stimulated to project his personality into the test exercises. The stimuli used in projective techniques attempt to arouse responses that are a projection of the innerself or motives and personality traits that are usually hidden and often even unsuspected by the individual himself. The subject may be asked to respond to series of picture, inkblots or similarly ambiguous stimuli. The interpretation of

responses requires a long period of training and should be done only by those who are specially qualified. The most popularly known projective technique is the Rorschach Inkbolts Test and Thematic Apperception Test (TA). An Illustration showing the Drawing of a Card of TAT An Illustration of Rorschach Inkblot170 Behavioural Assessment : The manner in which a student / client behaves in different situations can provide you with meaningful information about his / her personality. Observation of behaviour, teacher reports, interviews, ratings and situations tests serve as the basis of behavioural analysis. The choice of a specific personality test is difficult but extremely relevant as different tests yield somewhat different, yet overlapping types of information. Some provide limited information while other provides a lot of information, some of which is very technical to understand. Of course, the more the information available, you may be able to help in more domains. You should choose a test that is relevant to clients. The test must have norms available. You should also be aware of the limitations of the test, particularly the conditions in which it may mislead the respondents or you. Even when a test is used the counselor may interpret and use the test scores along with non-test information, keeping in mind the age, gender, social group, culture, language of the client. Check your Progress-II

Q.1 Write short notes on the following : a) Types of achievement tests. b) Uses of achievement test data c) Techniques of testing personality d) Types of attitude scale. 6.3 LET US SUM UP : Psychological test is an objective and standardized measure of a sample of behaviour. Tests are used for selection, classification, diagnosis and prediction. School counselors, teachers and administrators use test data for different purposes. The essential characteristics of standardized psychological test are : objectivity, reliability, validity and norms. Counselors need to develop skills in test administration, scoring, interpretation of test 171 results, and communicating results to their clients. General considerations for counselors in the appraisal process relate to being in good psychological health, developing sensitivity for the client, showing open mindedness, respecting the client, having attentiveness and showing empathy towards the client. Tests and testing have been criticized because of their misuse and issues like labeling, inaccuracy, culture bias, invading privacy, encouraging competition. There is a need for standardization of all procedures and scoring of psychological tests for accuracy in results. Counselors need to take cautions in using psychological tests like interest inventories, aptitude tests, achievement tests, intelligence tests, attitude scale, personality

tests. SELF-EVALUATION EXERCISES : 1. Explain the meaning of a psychological test 2. Name three types of aptitude test 3. How does the notion of intelligence changed over the years. 4. List five techniques for testing personality 5. State the four key abilities of Emotional Intelligence Answer Key to Self-Evaluation Exercises : 1. Elaborate on the following points Define psychological test Covers both the qualitative and quantitative aspects of measurements. 3. Elaborate on the fact that a good IQ and scholastic record are not the only indicators of intelligence in a student, but the concept today has broadened to include multiple and emotional intelligence. As is sometimes seen, on academically bright person may be facing a lot of problems in inter-personal relationships. 5. Elaborate on the following points : Perception, appraisal and expression of emotion Emotional facilitation of thinking Understanding and analyzing emotions; employing emotional knowledge172 Reflective regulation of emotions to promote emotional and intellectual growth

SUGGESTED READINGS : Benett, G.K., Seashore, H.G. & Wesman, A.G., 1984 Differential Aptitude Tests : Technical Supplement, Psychological Corporation, New York Educational Testing Services (ETS), New Jersey Shertzer, B. & Linlen, J.D. 1979. Fundamentals of individual Appraisal : Assessment techniques for counselors. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston Gardner, H. 1983. Frames of Mind : The Theory of Multiple Intelligence. Basic Book, New York. Sternberg R.J., 2007. Cognitive Psychology (4 th ed.) Yale University, Indian Edition. Cervone, D. and Shoda, Y 1999. The Coherence of Personality. . Gilford, New York. Assessment and Appraisal in Guidance and Counselling I, NCERT, New Delhi Assessment and Appraisal in Guidance and Counselling II, NCERT, New Delhi Kochar, S.K. (1985) : Educational Guidance and Counselling. 173 6A QUALITATIVE ASSESSMENT TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES FOR GUIDANCE AND

COUNSELLING Unit Structure : 6A.0 Objectives 6A.1 Introduction 6A.2 Qualitative Assessment Test and Tools 6A.2.1 Socio-metric Technique 6A.2.2 Case Study 6A.2.3 Cumulative Record Card 6A.2.4 Autobiography 6A.2.5 Observation 6A.2.6 Interviews 6A.2.7 Homevisits 6A.3 Ethical basis in the use of Psychological Tests and Tools 6A.4 Let us sum up 6A.5 Self-Evaluation Exercises 6A.6 Suggested Readings 6A.0 OBJECTIVES : After completion of this unit, you will be able to : Describe the important characteristics of seven qualitative methods Sociometric Technique Case Study Cumulative Record Card Autobiography Observation

 Interviews Use qualitative methods to develop a holistic understanding of the client Describe ethical basis in the use of psychological tests and tools174 6A.1 INTRODUCTION : You have read in the previous unit about the uses of psychological tests which are the tools for quantitative assessment of an individual / client. As you know, tests provide a score related to a particular area of the individual. This score in itself does not tell everything about the individual. To enhance your understanding about an individual / client, you will need to use other assessment techniques that provide explanations of both the why and how of a particular situations or incident. This is the basis of the qualitative assessment. The focus of qualitative enquiry is not on highlighting differences among the individuals but on the uniqueness of individuals. Qualitative assessment helps to understand an individuals behaviour in relation to the context and situation. In this unit, you will read about qualitative assessment tools. There are a number of standard techniques used to form a qualitative assessment. Observation, interviews, sociometry, case study, analysis of documents, informal talks, artifacts, rating scales, checklists, self-descriptions etc. are all sources of data in qualitative. You will study in this unit how the techniques of sociometry, case study, cumulative record card, autobiography, observation, interviews and home visits are used for qualitative

assessment to develop a holistic view of the client. You will also read about ethical basis in the use of psychological tests and tools. 6A.2 QUALITATIVE ASSESSMENT TECHNIQUES : Qualitative assessment techniques are commonly employed for various settings. These techniques provide a broader, variable and more subjective approach to data gathering and interpretation for human assessment. There are different types of qualitative assessment, techniques used by the guidance worker and counselors. We shall now discuss various qualitative assessment techniques for guidance and counseling. 6A.2.1Sociometry Techniques : The purpose of this technique is to study the nature of social relationship of individual within a group. It offers on opportunity to identify personality problems, especially in isolates and the rejects. The technique is a useful source of information for appraisal of social behaviour of students. Various aspects of personal-social development of the client can be more effectively evaluated by using sociometric technique. You too may have observed that in certain areas like leadership 175 ability, concern for others, or effectiveness in doing group work etc. peers often know each others strengths and weakness better than the teacher or the counsellor. The intimate interactions that occur in the give-and-take of peer relations seldom fully visible to an outside observer. Hence peer appraisal is important to build an understanding of the client. You shall now learn about sociometry

which can be effectively used with clients and their peers. Sociometry is a technique for evaluating the social acceptance of the client or individual student. It also provides information on the social structure of a group or class of which client is apart. It provides information relating to how each individual is perceived by the group/class. Students are required to give their choices of companions for some group situation or activity. In the example given below childrens acceptance is assessed for choices of sitting companions, work companions and play companions. Example : Name _______________________ Date Some new arrangements will be made for sitting, working in small groups, and playing group games. I would like to know the names of those children you would like to sit with, to play with you and to work with you. You may choose anyone in your class you wish, including those students who are absent. Your choices will not be seen by any one else. Make the choices carefully so that the groups can be arranged the way you really want them. At times it is not possible to give everyone their first choice so make sure you give three choices for each question. I would choose to sit with those children. I would choose to sit with these children. 1._____________________2._______________

3.___________________ I would choose to work with these children. 1._____________________2._______________ 3.___________________ I would choose to play with these children. 1._____________________2._______________ 3.___________________176 As you may have observed, that given example illustrates some important principles of sociometric choice, these are : i) The choices should be real choices that are natural part of classroom activities. ii) The basis of choice and restrictions on the choices made should be indicated clearly. iii) All students should be equally free to participate in the activity. iv) Choices made by the students should be kept confidential. Although some differences in choice can be from one situation to another, a large element of social acceptance runs through all the choices. It is suggested by sociometric experts that negative choices should be avoided unless absolutely essential. Questions such as Whom they would not want as comparison may disturb both the group morale and the emotional development of students / client. It is important to keep in mind that the number of choices made by the student is restricted. Two or three choices for each activity is considered as a suitable number for children otherwise

they find it difficult to discriminate when number of choices is large. The sociometric data is provided in the form of a sociogram which shows attractions and repulsions within a group and helps the teacher and the counsellor in discovering the problems of students in relation to the group. Use of Sociometric Results Counsellors and teachers can use sociometric results for : Organising classroom groups, Improving individual students social adjustment, Improving groups social structure, and Evaluating the influence of school practices on students social relations. 6A.2.2Case Study : A case study is an in-depth, intensive and detailed study of an individual or the client. The focus in case study is on factors 177 contributing to the development of particular personality patterns and /or problems. The case study employs all possible tools and techniques that seem appropriate to understand an individual (e.g., observation, interview, self-reports, teachers ratings, checklist, sociometry, document analysis, anti-biographics etc.). It gives detailed information regarding different perspectives that can not be attained by any other methods. Case study is the most comprehensive of all analytical techniques because it makes use of all other assessment techniques. Case study as an assessment technique is used by

counselors to provide a means of integrating and summarizing all available information about the client in order to determine what further steps should be taken to enhance his or her development. Remember that collection of case study data is not simple stockpiling of information. Rather, the purpose of a case study is to present the client as a fully functioning totality within his her environment. Therefore, a case may be selected to understand the mechanism by which problems accrue or a case study may attempt to achieve a better understanding of the problems of a child. For example, a case study may be conducted on student who has a problem in reading or in arithmetic. We employ case study method to study the whole individual (in her dynamic developmental process) so that we may better understand his concerns, the reasons for his actions and behaviours and plan the course of action, which is appropriate for him. Therefore we may say case study is a synthesis and interpretation of information about the client and his/her relationships to his / her environment. As counselors it would help you to understand the nature and cases of the clients behaviour, personality trends and difficulties in adjustment. Then the question arises how to conduct a good case study? You will now learn about the characteristics of a good case study, types of information used, how a case study is organized and how to report a case study. Characteristics of a Good Case Study : A good case study is concerned with the individuals past,

present and future. The data colleted from different sources, at different times through various tools and techniques, should be analyzed synthesized and presented in a manner to present a complete view of the individual/ clients life.178 A good case study is dynamic and longitudinal and not static and cross sectional. The focus of the case study may be the whole individual or a small part. The focus of the study varies widely and depends on the age of the client, the purpose of assessment, the working situation and the experience of the counselor. Types of information used in a Case Study : You have learnt that the aim of gathering information about a person is to develop a holistic perspective, to be able to understand him / her and provide proper guidance and counseling. The various kinds of information used in a case study are gathered from all reliable sources. Cumulative records, observations, interviews, self reports, tests, peer appraisal data, teaches perceptions, from parents, friends, relatives. Organization of a Case Study : The organization of case study depends on two major factors : The purpose for which the case study is being prepared. This depends upon the heads of the client, counselor, parents, referral agency or purpose of study. The competencies and skill of the counselor/researcher in

collecting, organizing and using information. Organization involves providing an outline or format and developing and executing a logical plan such as to present the information in an integrated manner. An Outline for a Case Study Report : An exemple of proforma for reporting a case study of a client is given below : i) Identification of data : should consist of Name of the Client : Sex : Male / Female 179 Fathers Name : Mothers Name : Fathers occupation : Date of Birth : Class : School : Language used at home : Present and permanent address : ii) Referral Source Personal history : Date of assessment Duration : Nature of problem Opinion of parents: Onset and teachers : Seriousness :

Frequency of occurrence of problem: iii) Educational History and Record Cumulative record card/ancetotal record : Is there any change school with reason. iv) Health background v) Home and family background and neighbourhood vi) Friends and acquaintance The steps in developing a case study are given below. Recognition and determination of the status of the problem to be investigated. Collection of data relating to the factors and circumstances associated with the given problem. Diagnosis or identification of causal factors as a basis for remedial or developmental treatment. Application of remedial or adjustment measures.180 Subsequent follow-up to determine the effectiveness of the treatment. Caution in using Case Study : A counselor may guard against errors which creep in unknowingly. The case study should penetrate into the problems under study. It should not be superficial. Parents should be contacted. Medical opinion should be sought. All those who come into contact with the individual should be approached. The study not be one sided. All possible details should be gathered and not even the

slightest detail should be over looked. 6A.2.3 Cumulative Record Card : Cumulative record cards, personal data cards and permanent data cards are some of the synonyms to denote a record system which gives us a picture of the student from many different sources. It is progressively developed and maintained over a longer period of time, and gives a summarized growth record indicating the direction and rate of development. It shifts the emphasis from one-time or once a year performance in a few academic subjects to the full development regarding all the important aspects of education and general, physical, social and mental development over a longer period of time. Essentially meaningful and functionally adequate information is collected from various sources, techniques, tests, interviews, observations, case study and the like, is assembled in a summary form on a cumulative record card, so that it may be used when the student needs our advice for the solution of some educational or vocational problem. The cumulative record has been defined as a method of recording, filing and using information essential for the guidance of students. A cumulative record and supplies information on points such as the following. a) Personal : (i) name, (ii) date of birth, (iii) place and evidence of birth, (iv) sex, (v) colour (vi) residence b) Home : (i) Names of parents, (ii) occupation of the parents,

(iii) parents live or dead (iv) economic status, (vI) number of siblings, older or younger, (vi) language spoken in the house.181 c) Test Scores (i) general intelligence, (ii) achievement, (ii) other test scores, (iv) personality traits. d) School Attendance : (i) days present or absent each year, (ii) schools attend with data. e) Health : record physical disabilities, vaccination record, diseases suffered from. f) Miscellaneous : (i) vocational plans (ii)extra curricular activities,(iii) counselors note. If we analyze the items recorded on a cumulative record card, we find that only such items are included as are recorded in a case study. Data collected through non-standardized techniques like check lists, questionnaires, autobiographies do not find a place in the record card file. It must be remembered that recording and filing of information are not so important as using the information. Need and Importance of Cumulative Record : The cumulative records about students provide useful information to teachers, counselors and administrators. The need and importance of cumulative records in guidance are given below : Importance in Guidance : The basic principle and assumptions of guidance take into consideration the individual differences. Cumulative records reveal such individual differences and indicate the nature and amount of professional assistance needed by individual students of various

stages of their development. It is useful in analyzing the future needs of the individual student and proper educational and occupational guidance can be offered on the basis of his needs. Importance in Teaching : The cumulative records of different students help the teacher in classifying students in accordance with scholastic attitudes and mental abilities. They are diagnostic tools to analyze a behaviour problem or an educational one. For example, why is a student backward in the class? What steps can be taken to remove his / her backwardness? Cumulative record indicate the students who had special help and adjust the teaching accordingly. 182 Characteristics of a Good Cumulative Record : The following are the characteristics of a good cumulative record. 1. Information gathered should be complete, comprehensive and adequate so that valid inferences may be drawn. 2. Information recorded should be true and valid. Like other tools of measurement, a cumulative record can be valid only when it measures what it intends to measure. 3. Information to be reliable should be collected by a number of teachers and then pooled. A cumulative record should be reevaluated from time-totime. A cumulative record should be objective and free from

personal opinions and prejudices. It should be usable. A cumulative record may be card types, folder type or booklet type. Check your progress-I Q.1 Uses of socionetric techniques Q.2 Cautions in using case-study. Q.3 Characteristics of a good cumulative Recordcaud. 6A.2.4 Autobiography :183 You might have read a number of autobiographies of great personalities, some of the common are My Experiments with Truth by Mahatma Gandhi, autobiography of an unknown Indian by Niral C. Choudhury. An autobiography is a description of an individual in his own words. As a guidance technique for studying the individual, it gives a valuable information about the individuals interests, abilities, personal history, hopes, ambitions, likes, dislikes, etc. In guidance, structured autobiographic items are given to the individual and he is asked to write them out. The autobiographical material is verified by various other means. Since feelings, values and attitude can not be measured by any other technique, autobiography appears to be the one technique for appraising these characteristics. 6A.2.5 Observation : Observation is the most direct method of learning about the development of children. Since it requires focus on the childs behaviour, observation allows the counselor to know the child as a

unique individual, rather than as a member of a group. One of the most accurate ways to learn about children is to observe them in their daily activities. It requires systematic and rigorous observation, which involves far more than just being present and looking around. To understand fully the complexities of many situations, direct participation and observation of the student/client is considered one of the best approaches. What to Observe : Observation is often used by teachers to understand the cognitive, affective, and motor development of children. What kind of individual actions are important for a counselor to observe and record, what has to be observed would depend a lot on the problem faced by the client, no exclusive list of indicators can be given. How to Observe : Systematic and objective observation requires preparation and training. Training includes how to write descriptively, recording 184 field notes, using method for validating observations. Preparation for observation has mental, physical, intellectual and psychological dimensions. The quality of information gathered from observation can be increased with training in the observers skills. The observer must know what to look for, how to record desired information and how to explain the behaviour. The accuracy, validity and reliability of observations can be improved through rigorous training and careful preparation. It is important to remember that the purpose of observational data

is to describe. the setting that was observed, the activities/behaviour that took place in the given setting, the people who performed the behaviour or participated in the activities, and the meaning of what was observed from the perspective of those observed. As counselors you can make use of different sources for collection of observational data. These sources could be documents (such as personal diaries, registers, or memos, etc.) interviews, informal talks, physical settings (how space is used, lighting etc.), social settings (communication pattern, how decisions are taken etc.), non-verbal cues, or unobstructie indicators (equipment in the laboratory, books used in the library, conditions of carpets etc.). Variations in Observation : Counsellors can make observations in a 185 number of settings such as homes, schools, classrooms, communities and organizations depending on the needs of the student. Variations occur due to a number of factors associated with nature of counselors participation, extent of involvement, duration of observation, duration and focus of observation (Patton,

1990) these five factors can cause variations in an observation. Nature of Participation : Observation can be made by being part of clients setting i.e. full participant or it can be made by observing from distance i.e. as a spectator. The extent to which the counselor or observer participates in the setting /case being studied can also cause variations in observation. A counselor can start as a spectator and gradually become a full participant or vice versa. Portrayed of Observer Role : The observations made can be overt i.e. purpose of making observation is not revealed to the client or it can be covert i.e., clients know that observations are being made. Duration of Observation : Observations can vary from one hour to one year. However, all the observations should last long enough to get the answers to clients problem. Focus of Observation : The focus of observation could be to gain holistic view of the client, therefore, all the necessary aspects of the client have to be considered, or on the other hand, one single aspect can be studied. Methods of Recording Observation :186 After having learned about what and how to observe, you now read to learn about the technique to record observations i.e. field note taking. Field Note :

Field notes contain the description of what has been observed. They are descriptive, should be dated, should contain basic information about when and where the observation took place, who was present, what the physical setting was like, what activities took place, and what social interactions occurred. It should permit the counselor, as observer, to experience the activity observed while reading the observation and analyzing the data collected. There are a number of ways for developing field notes. Anecdotes records and critical event records are two examples of field notes. Guidelines for Observation : There are a few rules to follow when making observations as part of a qualitative enquiry. Be descriptive in taking field notes (anecdotal records, critical incidents). Gather information from different perspectives (client, peers, parents, and teachers etc). Cross-validate and triangulate by using data from different sources; observation, interview and documents, etc. and using more than one investigator. Present the views of the people, their experiences in their own words. Separate description from interpretation and judgement. 6A.2.6 Interviews :187 The purpose of interviewing is to know what going on in a

persons mind. You interview people to find out from them those things you cant directly observe such as feelings, intentions and thoughts. You can not observe things that happened in the past, or the meanings attached to things or incidents going on around. To obtain information about these you have to ask questions. This helps you to know anothers perspective. In-depth, open-ended interviewing aims to capture the clients experiences and perspectives on their problem in their own terms. Open-ended interviewing is based on the assumption that others perspective is meaningful. It is important to remember that skillful interviewing involves much more than asking questions. Now, you will learn about the types of interviews content of interview, and guidelines on how to question to conduct an interview with the client. Types of Interviews : You will now read about the different types of interviews. Informal Conversational Interview : It relies on spontaneous questioning which may take place as part of the counsellors participant-observation. Over the course of an informal talk, the client may not even realize that she / he is being interviewed. In such interviews, the data gathered would be on aspects that differ for each client depending on the issues that emerge from the conservation. The major advantage is that the interview is highly individualized to the client and produces information or insights that the counselor/ interviewer may not have

anticipated. This type of interview requires the counselor to be experienced in the content area and strong in interpersonal skill. Interview Guide Approach : It involves deciding before the interview, the issues that are to be explored with the client i.e., identifies topics, but not actual 188 wording of questions, thereby offering flexibility. These identified issues are used to guide the interview and keep it on track and ensure that they are covered. This kind of interview is focused and hence the data collected are more systematic and comprehensive than informal conversational interview. Standardized Open-ended Interview : This interview consists of set of questions arranged in a sequence, which are asked to each client. It minimizes the variation in the questions passed to the client at the same time provides scope to the client to give responses that are open-ended. This reduces the possibility of biases that come from having different types of interviews with different people. Data obtained from such interviews are systematic and thorough for each client but it reduces flexibility and spontaneity because the questions are predetermined thus leaving little scope for issues that may emerge during the course of the interview. The advantage of these type of interview is that it is the most structured and efficient of the qualitative interviewing techniques. The Focus Group Interview : In the interview the counselor becomes a facilitator among

the interviewees in a group setting where they hear and react to one anothers responses. Focus groups can be used by counselors to assess the needs of a student group, obtain general background information about a topic or diagnose the potential problems of a group of students. In this type of interview the counsellors role is of a moderator, directing the interaction and inquiry in a manner that the purpose of interview is served.189 The common characteristic of all qualitative approaches to interviewing is that the people being interviewed respond in their own words and provide own personal perspectives. Content of Interviews : Before an interview is conducted it is important to plan the type of interview whether it will be the informal consersation, the interviewing guide approach, the standardized open-ended interview or the focus group. Then it is important to know about the different kinds of questions that could be asked while interview the client. The counselor must decide what questions are to be asked, the sequence of questions, the details required, time of the interview and how to word the actual questions. The different kinds of questions that could be asked by the counselor are behaviour / experiential questions, opinion/ values questions, feeling questions, knowledge questions, sensory questions, demographic questions. How to Question : The way the question is worded is important. There are no fixed rules of sequencing questions for an interview. Informal

conversational interviews are flexible and, therefore, fixed schedule is not required. However, standardized open-ended interviews must have a sequence because of their structural formed. General Principle of Interview : The following are the guidelines to make an interview successful. The counsellor should feel the need of interview and counseling. The counselor should have all relevant data about the client before he starts counseling. A rapport should be established between the counselor and the counselee. It is a sort of personal relationship of mental 190 trust and respect based on the feelings of confidence and security. Discussion should be restricted to issue at hand. When the counselee expresses himself he should be accepted. The counselor will gain nothing by antagonizing or embarrassing the counselee. The counselee should be allowed to take the lead in making decisions. The interview should end with a constructive note. Interview is an art and a skill that is developed with practice. 6A.3 ETHICAL BASIS IN THE USE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS AND TOOLS : Guidance like other professions has its own ethics, the core of which is respect for the individual. Every counselee is equal in

the eyes of the counselor. Further the action of the counselor is governed by the belief that every individual possesses certain strengths. A good counselor helps to facilitate the strengths of the individual and overcome his / her weaknesses. Another important aspect of guidance ethics is that the counselor regards all information or data about the individual as strictly confidential and never tries to misuse the data. The counselee confides everything to the counselor, and it is the moral duty of the counselor to maintain confidentiality. Besides, the counselor should never use the counseling session for the purpose of indoctrination or for the satisfaction of his own needs. He must always respect the freedom and dignity of the counselee. It is also important for the counselors to adhere to the ethical norms in the use of psychological test scores. Check your progress-II 1.191 6A.4 LET US SUM UP : Qualitative assessment provides an in-depth understanding and a holistic perspective about a client. The qualitative approach differs from a quantitative approach in its methodology of studying people. In fact, they provide answer to different questions. Qualitative approach is known to be descriptive, flexible, subjective, in-depth, interpretive and holistic in nature. The focus is on the uniqueness of an individual. One way to strengthen

qualitative analysis is to use triangulation i.e. use of several methods to study the same behaviour / phenomena. Observation and open-ended interview are two important tools of qualitative inquiry. Systematic and objective observation requires preparation and training. The observer must know what to look for, how to record the obtain information and how to explain. Interviews help to obtain the client perspective. Those are different approaches to collect qualitative data through open-ended interviewing. Before conducting interview, it is important to decide the kind of questions to be asked, their sequence, thinking and wording them. Sociometry is a technique for evaluating the social acceptance of individual students and the social structure of a group i.e. how each individual in a group is perceived. Case study is an in-depth, intensive and detailed study of each and every pertinent aspect of an individual or phenomenon. Case study method is used for summarizing and integrating assessment information. The information used in a case study gathered from all reliable sources, cumulative records, observations, interview, task, peer appraisals, home visit and teachers perception etc. Ethical codes and standards have been developed for proper use of psychological test. It is important for the counselors to adhere to the ethical norms while using the tools. UNIT END EXERCISES :192 1. How can be inaccuracies in observations be reduced ?

2. What are the characteristics of a good case study ? 3. Discuss in brief the importance of cumulative records in teaching. 4. List any five qualitative assessment techniques you would like to use in your school. 5. Fill in the blanks with appropriate answer given below. a) Sociometry is a method for evaluating the ____________ of an individual and the ______________ of a group. b) Peer appraisal technique life sociometric procedures are especially useful in evaluating___________ development. c) Sociometry is based on students ___________ of comparisons for some activity. d) In order to organize and classroom groups, teachers can make use of _____________ technique to know this group structure. (a) Sociometric (b) Personal Social (c) Social acceptance, social structure (d) Choices Answer Key to Self-Evaluation Exercises : 1. By being descriptive in taking field notes (anecdotal records, critical incidents) By gathering information from different perspectives (client, peer, parents, teachers etc.) By cross validating and triangulating data from different sources such as observation, interview, documents etc. and by using more than one investigator.

 By presenting the views of the people, their experiences in their own words. By separating description from interpretation and judgement. 2. Elaborate on the following points A good case study is always concerned with the individuals past, present and future i.e. it should provide complete view of an clients life. A case study should be dynamic and longitudinal and not static or cross-sectional. It should provide all the necessary information to plan remediation and it should provide scope to review the effects of remediation programme.193 The focus of case study should vary widely i.e. it may focus on whole individual or small selected segment of an individual or client such as aggressive behaviour of the individual or client. 3. Indicate the relationship scholastic attainment and the mental abilities In classifying pupils in accordance with scholastic aptitudes and mental abilities. Help in identification of students who need individual attention, remedial teaching, enrichment teaching etc. Helps the teachers in writing reports about individual students. 5. a) - c b) - b c) - d d) - a

SUGGESTED READINGS : Stake, R.E., 1995. The Art of Case Study Research. Sage, London Wragg, E.C., 1994. An Introduction to Classroom Observations. Routledge, London Manual for Guidance Counsellor, NCERT, New Delhi Anastasi, A. 2003. Psychological Testing (5 th ed.), Mc. Millan, New York Hood A.B. and Johnson, R.W., 1997. Assessment in Counselling (2 nd ed.). American Counselling Association, Alexandria, VA Assessment and Appraisal in Guidance and Counselling I, NCERT, New Delhi Assessment and Appraisal in Guidance and Counselling II, NCERT, New Delhi Kochar, S.K. (1985). Educational Guidance and Counselling 194 7 CONCEPT OF COUNSELLING Unit Structure:

7.0 Objectives 7.1 Introduction 7.2. Concept of Counselling 7.2.1 Meaning of Counselling 7.2.2 Characteristics of Counselling 7.2.3 Functions of Counselling 7.3 Principles of Counselling 7.4 Goals of Counselling 7.5 Types of Counselling 7.5.1 Directive Counselling 7.5.2 Non directive Counselling 7.5.3 Eclectic Counselling 7.5.4 Online Counselling 7.6 Process of Counselling 7.6.1 Stages of Counselling 7.6.2 Skills of Counselling 7.7 Characteristics & skills of a counsellor 7.8 Role & Functions of counsellor 7.9 Let us sum up 7.0 OBJECTIVES After reading this unit, students will be able to: Explain the concept of counselling State the types of counselling Explain the process of counselling Explain the characteristics & skills of counsellor

Describes the role & functions of a counsellor195 7.1 INTRODUCTION In the first unit, you have read about guidance. Sometimes you may be confused about the two terms guidance & counselling. In this unit, we will discuss about the concept of counselling, its meaning, principles & goals. We will also know about the process of counselling & role & functions of a counsellor. Counselling is the central aspect of the whole guidance programme. All the activities and Services of the guidance programme leads to and help in the Counselling process. Counselling is aimed at helping the individual in solving problems in future and also enhancing personal, social, emotional, educational and vocational development. Counselling has Remedial, Preventive and Developmental value. 7.2 THE CONCEPT OF COUNSELLING Counselling the intimate and vital part of entire guidance. Websters Dictionary defines Counselling as consultation, mutual interchange of opinions, deliberating together. Wren says counselling is a dynamic and purposeful relationship between two people who approach a mutually defined problem with mutual consideration for each other to the end that the younger or less mature, or more troubled of the two is aided to a self determined resolution of his problem. Counselling is helping a person to come to see who he really is, what he has and does not have, what he can do easily, what he can do with difficulty and what he cannot do at all. It is a

close sharing of a human relationship with one who has for him a high regard; one who can offer him unconditional acceptance, but one who has no guarantees, no answers. Counselling is a process that occurs between two individualscounsellor and counselee (client) It. takes place within a professional setting. It is initiated and maintained as a means of facilitating changes in the behaviour of the client. It is a professional task for professionally trained people. 7.2.1 MEANING OF COUNSELLING196 Though the term guidance and counselling is used interchangeably, both the terms have different meaning. We have studied about guidance, now we will know about counselling. In everyday life, we find counselling goes on at many levels. In a family, parents counsel their children, doctors counsel patients, lawyers to clients and teachers to students. There is no limitation to the problems or counsellors in providing counselling, so, let us know what counselling is. According to Webster dictionary counselling is defined as Consultation, mutual interchange of opinions, deliberating together. Counselling is a dynamic and purposeful relationship between two people who approach a mutually defined problem, with mutual consideration of each other to the end that the younger or less mature or more troubled of the two is aided to a self

determined resolution to his problem - WrenCounselling is an interaction process which facilitates meaningful understanding of self and environment and results in the establishment and or clarification of goals and values for future behaviors -Shertzer and Stone.Counselling is an accepting, trusting and safe relationship in which clients learn to discuss openly what worries and upsets them, to define precise behaviour goals, to acquire the essential social skills and to develop the courage and self confidence to implement desired new behaviour- Merle M. Ohlsen.Counselling is a process by which a troubled person (client) is helped to tell and behave in a more personally satisfying manner through interaction with an uninvolved person (counsellor) who provides information and reactions which stimulate the client to develop behaviour which enable him to deal more effectively with himself and his environment. -Edwin Lewis.If all the definitions are analyzed we can come to the following conclusions. Counselling is a two way process. It involves two individuals. There is mutual relationships between the two individuals. It helps an individuals to gain self understanding self acceptance and self realization197 It helps an individual to become happier more creative and better adjusted.

Let us now discuss what Counselling is not. Counselling is a process which included a number of activities like giving information, advice & counselling etc. But it is not an individual activity like giving information / advice / suggestion / recommendation only. From this it is clear that what counselling is. Counselling constitutes the three activities like I - Informing A- Advising and C - Counselling Informing: Here the role of the counsellor is to give appropriate and correct information to the clients. For example you are a student and you need counselling to select your course for the future. Here the role of the counsellor is to give you information about the availability of different courses & its future prospects. Advising: In this stage the counsellor suggests appropriate courses of action. Here the counsellor will offer you several options and recommends one according to your aim or interest. For example if your aim is to be an engineer, the counsellor will suggest you a course related to applied mathematics. Counselling: In this stage counsellor helps the students to clarify his needs, feelings or motivations so that he can make the appropriate

decision for himself. For example if you will tell, you have no aim or you can not decide what you will do in the future. So the counsellor will ask you if you are not sure about what to do in future but you must want to do something interesting so describe about your idea. Like this the counsellor can motivate you to find out your idea & can recommend you the course according to your interest. So counselling is student dependent rather than knowledge dependent. As a counsellor or a person needs skill rather than knowledge it needs high level of interpersonal skills. So counselling 198 is a process which constitutes information, advising and counselling. You can think of these three activities as a continuous spectrum of areas which merge into each other. 7.2.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF COUNSELLING: The concept of Counselling will be clear to you by knowing its meaning, characteristics & functions. Counselling involves two individuals - one seeking help and the other, a professionally trained person, who can help the first. There should be a relationship of mutual respect between the two. The counsellor should be friendly and cooperative and the counselee should have trust and confidence in the counsellor. The aim of counselling is to help a student form a decision, make a choice or seek direction. It helps a counselee to acquire independence and develop a sense of responsibility, explore and utilize his potentialities.

It is more than advice giving. The progress comes through the thinking that a person with a problem does for himself rather than through solutions offered by the counsellor. Its function is to produce changes in the individual that will enable him to extricate himself from his difficulties. Emotional rather than purely intellectual attitudes are the raw material of the counselling process. It helps an individual to know himself better, gives him confidence, encourages his selfdirectedness and provides him with new vision to grow. Check Your Progress 1. Define Counselling. 2. Explain the characteristics of Counselling. 7.2.3 FUNCTIONS OF COUNSELLING:199 Like guidance, counselling has also three fold functions adjust mental, oriental and developmental. Adjustmental Functions: Rapid social change brought about by industrialization and urbanization has led to several perplexing problems. The pace of this change is ever on the increase, thus making adjustment a continuous process of grappling way with new situations. Counselling helps the student in making the best possible adjustment to the current situations be it in educational institution, occupational world, in the home & in the community. Professional and individualized aid is given in making immediate & suitable adjustment at problem points.

Oriental function: Oriental function means to orient the person about his environmental constraints & resources and her personal constraints & resources by giving information and awareness in problems of career planning, educational programming etc. Awareness of the need to plan in the context of the complexity of the world of work is an essential pre-requisite of going through education and preparation for after education. So oriental function is the important function in the counselling process. It is a link between adjustment and development function. If the person is properly oriented, he can develop his plan properly & adjust suitable with himself and society. Developmental function Developmental function means not only to help the students having problems but also to help the students before the problems arise. For example, we are giving vaccination to the child as a preventive measure. Even then when the child suffers from a particular disease we take the help of special doctor to cure it. So both the processes are coming under health development. Likewise in the counselling process the function of counselling is to prevent emergence & maladjustment and cure the person having maladjustment to adjust with the problem situation. Therefore the development function helps in. Self-development Self-realization200

Development of society and National development So we can say that counselling has not only its functions towards the individual but to the society & nation also. 7.3 PRINCIPLES OF COUNSELLING We have already discussed the meaning and principles of guidance. Now we will discuss the principles of counselling. The principles on which the process of counselling is based areIt involves a face-to-face relationship between two persons. It is emotional rather than purely intellectual attitude. It is more than advice giving. The progress comes through the thinking that a person with a problem does for himself. It involves solution of immediate problem as well as the future decision of the individual. The counsellor should follow the above principles while counselling to make the process of counselling effective. It is not an easy task. To make the process successful the counsellor should also follow certain principles in his own self to develop his skills. He should follow the principles as given below during counselling. Warmth: The Counsellor should communicate personal warmth and make the client feel welcome valued as individuals. Acceptance: The Counsellor should accept the person & his feelings for what he is without criticizing him. He should also accept the person

irrespective of age, race, sex, etc. Genuineness: The counsellor should be very honest with himself and with client he should be very open, friendly and undefensive. Empathy: Instead of showing sympathy to the person having problem, the counsellor should show empathy, which means to sense the feelings and experience of another person.201 In order to make good relationship the above qualities should be acquired by a counsellor. He should imbibe these qualities to follow the principles of counselling properly. Check you progress - III Q.1 Write the full form of I A C, which constitutes the meaning of counselling. Q.2 The function which helps in self-realization is the function of counselling. Q.3 Write the meaning of empathy. 7.4 GOALS OF COUNSELLING: WELCOME TO THE COUNSELLORS CABIN When you enter The Cabin you will be greeted by a warm and friendly atmosphere that invites you Come on in and make yourself at home. Prominently displayed a copy of The Serenity Prayer, which serves as both counselling mantra and mission statement. It reads as follows:

GOD GRANT ME THE SERENITY TO ACCEPT THE THINGS I CANNOT CHANGE, COURAGE TO CHANGE THE THINGS I CAN, AND WISDOM TO KNOW THE DIFFERENCE. SERENITY is an acronym use to explain the major components of counselling program to help you determine if you would benefit from engaging in this process.202 Spirituality-associated with wholeness/wellness; a sense of meaning/purpose Evaluation - assess the problem by taking it apart and putting it back together Relationships-Your relationships define and represent who you are. Emotions - What are you feeling right now? Its important to know. Needs - Identify your needs; they are directly related to what you are feeling. Interpersonal skills - Life is a series of conversations. What is you style? Treatment - Your personal plan of thinking, feeling, and acting differently. You - Since you are the expert on you, you are the key to your success. As a counsellor you should focus on wellness and personal growth and work extensively on helping people to enhance the quality of their relationships. Many of clients are in search of meaning and direction in various

life settings including school, family, and career all of which involve relationships. Empowerment over life comes through thinking clearly and making wise choices. Unfortunately, problems can become so overwhelming it is difficult to accomplish either one of these. Counselling will equip you with life strategies to help you think, feel, and act differently in order to enhance the quality of your life. If you read the above statements of Dr. Sackys Cabin, one of the counsellors cabin you will understand the goals of counselling. The acronym serenity is the goals of counselling.203 7.5 THE TYPES OF COUNSELLING Based on the nature of the counselling process and the role of the counsellor, the following are the three types of counselling Types of Counselling Directive Counselling Non-Directive counselling Eclectic Counselling -WILLIAMSON -CARL ROGERS -BORDIN 7.5.1 DIRECTIVE COUNSELLING: B. G. Williamson is the chief exponent. The counsellor assumes the major responsibility of solving the problem. Counsellor identifies, defines, diagnoses and provides a solution to the problem. Counsellor directs thinking by informing explaining, interpreting and advising. Counsellor-oriented.

Emphasis is on the problem. Steps: Role of the Counsellor Analysis- collecting data from various sources to understand the clients problem. Synthesis - interpreting and organizing data to reveal students assets, liabilities, adjustments etc. Diagnosis - identifying the nature and cause of the problem. Prognosis-predicting the future development of the problem. Counselling - taking steps to bring about adjustment Follow up- helping with recurrence or new patterns. Merits Time saving and economical Gives happiness to the counselee as he gets a solution to this problem.204 Emphasis is on the intellectual rather than the emotional aspect. Demerits Kills the initiative Makes him helpless Does not guide counselee to be efficient and confident Undemocratic Made dependent 7.5.2 NON DIRECTIVE COUNSELLING (Client-oriented / Centered Counselling): Chief exponent - Carl Rogers

Counselee is allowed free expression Counsellor only directs and guides Counsellor asks a few questions, so as to think about the solution of the problem. Counselee takes active part, gains insight into the problem with the help of the counsellor and arrives at the decision and action to be taken Counsellors role is passive Goal is independent and integration of the client rather than the solution Role of the counsellor is to create an atmosphere in which the counselee can work out his own understanding Emotional aspect rather than the intellectual aspect is stressed Counselling relationship is the establishment of a warm, permissive and accepting climate which helps the client to express his self structure. Merits Freedom of the individual Relieves tensions due to catharsis Moves toward acceptance of himself Confronts weaknesses without feeling threatened Demerits Time consuming Wisdom and judgement of the client cannot be relied upon

All the problems cannot be sorted out through talking205 7.5.3 ECLECTIC COUNSELLING : Chief exponent - Bordin (Thome) Counselling may be evaluated along a continuum from directive to non directive to directive Eclectic is a continuation and synthesis of directive and nondirective counselling Both counsellor and counselee are active and cooperative Both do the talking in turn The problem is solved jointly The counsellor studies the needs and personality of the client and then selects the technique (appropriate). Begins with directive but switches over to non-directive or vice versa as demanded by the situation. Steps Initial interview Develops rapport and does structuring so that client understands what to expect from the counselling Tentative diagnosis and plan of counselling is formulated Gathers information about the client and the client needs to be helped to assimilate this information Client achieves emotional release and gains insights, modifies perceptions/attitudes about himself and situations Check Your Progress-IV 1. Name the types of counselling with their exponents.

2. Differentiate between Directive and Non-Directive counselling. 3. Why is Eclectic Counselling preferred to Directive and Nondirective counselling? 7.5.4 ON LINE COUNSELLING:206 Online counselling refers to the provision of professional mental health counselling services concerns via the internet. Services are typically offered via email, real time chat and video conferencing. Some clients use online counselling in conjunction with traditional psychotherapy, and others use it as an occasional check-in tool for their lives. Online Counselling: Online counselling is simply communicating with a qualified, professional counsellor/therapist by email or chat through your computer, Instead of having to make a visit to your counsellors office; you can receive the same professional care in the comfort of your own home. If you have a microphone, we can speak to each other through the computer. Whether you choose only a few email exchanges or on ongoing dialogue with the counsellor over time, you have the opportunity to share your concerns, pose questions, and gain further insight into the problems you are addressing. Advantages of using Online Counselling Convenient - any time, any place, whatever suits you Flexible - you control everything, receive help when you

want it Can deal with embarrassing issues without having to see anyone Your anonymity is protected Get to the root of the problem quicker as writing lets you get in touch with your feelings More cost and time effective as you can deal with more issues in a session No need to take time off work Receive specialized help no matter where you live in the world. Why choose online counselling? Easy access to a professional counsellor or therapist though email or live chat Select an experienced professional from many qualified to deal with your problem You can select a counsellor who lives anywhere in the world Convenience - takes place in your home or wherever you are 24 hours a day 7 days a week207 Cheaper than regular counselling Anonymity and security Flexibility - either you can get quick answers or guidance to problems or you can schedule regular sessions Live Chat The first few minutes of all Live chat sessions are

completely free of charge. Since payment starts only when you choose to hire the counsellor, you have the opportunity to discuss you questions and/or concerns, negotiate a price that suits your budget and ensure that you feel comfortable with this specific counsellor. Email Email counselling is another form of online counselling that may suit your needs. You may find that expressing concerns and questions in writing helps organize and focus on your problem It is an extremely convenient way for you to communicate with a counsellor The benefits of online counselling with Live person Liveperson is one of the best and most well known online counselling specialists You will have an enormous choice of professionals you can seek help from - (experts in over 600 categories) You will find Liveperson very user-friendly You can consuit with professionals in real time via Live chat and email. You will find Liveperson is reliable, very easy to use and enables you to get instant answers to your most urgent questions. I full recommend this service to you because so many

people have benefited from it. Disadvantages of Counselling or Therapy by Email Remote counselling via email carries many disadvantages as well as advantages in comparison to traditional, face-to-face counselling. Communication and the Counselling Relationship208 Communicating only introduces particular challenges for creating and sustaining a working relationship. Lack of Visual and Verbal Cues It can be difficult enough to understand exactly what someone is saying in a face-to-face setting, but stripped of the kinds of visual and auditory verbal cues which we take for granted when communicating in person the struggle to understand takes on a whole new dimension. Part of the beauty of the English lenaguage is that the same statement an take on a whole range of subtle meanings: but without that grin or frown that raised eyebrow, that softened voice or dead-pan delivery, figuring out which meaning a person intends can be a real challenge. The lack of visual cues is also especially important for clients who would like to discuss a visible physical disability and would like their counsellor to be able to see exactly what they are talking about. Lack of Physical Presence The lack of a physical presence of another person in the same room may make some people feel less emotionally intimate

and less comforted in times of distress. Asynchronous Nature of Email It can be frustrating to have to wait for the counsellor to reply when using email and other forms of communication that are asynchronous (meaning that two people are writing at different times, as opposed to conversing in real time). Urgency In a similar vein, the inevitable time delay associated with email exchanges precludes the kind of urgent attention (or even emergency response) which is possible in a face-to-face setting No Regular Appointment Times Just as the freedom to work without fixed appointment times can be an advantage for some clients, the absence of the structure which fixed appointments provide can be a disadvantage for others. Many clients prefer the structure of having to attend a session at the same time every week.209 Computer concerns Relying on computers as a communications medium can bring technology into the foreground of the counselling process as an unwelcome participant. Equipment and Internet Service Failures Hardware or software failure or internet service failure can impact the online availability of both counsellor and client. Ideally, the technology becomes transparent, so it simply serves as a tool for communication, without requiring attention in and of itself. In

practice, however, even the best technological tools sometimes require attention, and it can be frustrating it this occurs during a counselling exchange. Confidentiality and Privacy in Shared Environments Using computers at work, in an internet cafe or public library, or any other environment where other people have access to the same equipment introduces particular pitfalls for confidentiality and privacy in email counselling. Of course, there are thins that the face to face counselling covers that the e-therapy lacks. We are talking of the Non-verbal communication that is missing when the screen separates people. Also, it may happen that a person needs to be physically comforted when being in a counselling session and we can not do that on-line. Being aware of those disadvantages, we as professionals, face our role with all our heart and seriousness so as to make the best out of all the strengths of the online counselling. 7.6 THE PROCESS OF COUNSELLING Counselling is a process. It means that Counselling involves a sequence of identifiable events spread over a period of time. The time taken, the sequence of events, and dynamics involved, the nature and extent of exploration, differ from individual to individual. However there are certain basic stages, which form the essentials of counselling processes. The process of counselling comprises of certain concepts, they are as follows:210 Readiness:

The counselee are of two types i.e. one who seeks assistance voluntarily and the other who are referred. The Counselling presupposes a desire on the part of the counselee that makes him come for the assistance. This desire is referred to as readiness. Counter Will: People experience difficulty in asking for help and accepting it, because they are reluctant to face the consequences of change or an admission of inadequacy of failure. The negative feeling that holds back one from seeking help is referred to, as counter will. Case History: Case History is a systematic collection of facts about the counselees past and present life. However focus of attention varies from case to case. Rapport : It is a warm friendly and understanding atmosphere created by the counsellor, which is catalytical in the formation of an effective counselling relationship. Warmth of relationship and feeling of trust, which grows out of unconditional acceptance are important in contributing to the establishment of rapport. Transference: It refers to the counsellor transferring amotions originally felt toward someone early in life. The counselee is encouraged to express his/her feelings and emotions freely. The counsellor acknowledges these feelings and handles in a therapeutic way.

Counter Transference: This occurs when counsellor project their unresolved conflicts upon the counselee. When counsellor feels uncomfortable and experience feelings of anger, resentment or become overemotional. This is unhealthy. Resistance: It refers to counselees move to oppose the counsellors attempt to work towards set goals. This influences counselling outcome positively. Resistance ranges from open hostility to passively resistant behavior like being late for an appointment 7.6.1 STAGES OF THE COUNSELLING PROCESS:211 A process is an identifiable sequence of events taking place over time e.g. Process of human development from birth to death. The First Stage: Initial Disclosure: Initially the client expresses two sets of feelings i.e. i) I know I need help ii) I wish I werent here. Therefore central task of the counsellor in this stage is to allay the clients fears and encourage self-disclosure. Attending paying careful attention to the clients words and actions. Counsellor observes clients behavior for indications of content and feeling not expressed in verbal message. It is the first contact between the client and the counsellor, but it remains important throughout the counselling process.

In this stage, clients are helped to articulate their personal concerns and to place those concerns in a context so that the counsellor can understand the personal meanings and significance the client attaches to them. The main aim of this stage is promote trust in the client. Following characteristics describe the helping relationship. Empathy - Understanding others experience as if it were yours. Genuineness - Being natural, consistent in behavior and dependable in the relationship. Unconditional positive regard - Caring without condition Concreteness - Using clear language to describe the clients situation. The Second Stage: In-depth Exploration Client begins to formulate a new sense of hope and direction. Counsellor at first discusses the diagnostic impressions of the clients dynamic and coping behavior. As the relationship becomes more secure, the counsellor begins to confront the client with observations about his/her goals or behavior. This will help the client arrive at newly challenged and refined views of self.212 Immediacy - is referred to in 3 ways. i) General discussions about the progress of counselling relationship. ii) Immediate response to the clients statement disclosing

current thoughts about counselling. Iii) Counsellors personal response to a client in the present This stage becomes emotionally stressful, because client faces the inadequacy of habitual behaviors. In this stage client and counsellor come to a mutually acceptable diagnosis of the problem. The Third Stage: commitment to Action: How to accomplish goals that have emerged in the previous two stages. Client relates his behaviour to accomplish goals. This stage includes identifying possible alternative courses of actions (decisions) the client might choose. Once an action decision is made the client tries some new behaviors. The counsellor supports and reinforces the trying of new behaviors. 7.6.2 THE SKILLS OF COUNSELLING: Listening - It is the process of hearing the other person. a) During listening it is important to show that the counsellor is listening through the minimal prompts such as head nods, yes, no etc. They indicate that I am with you. Overuse of these should be avoided. b) Behavioural aspects of listening - (SOLER) S - Sit squarely O - Openness L - Leaning E - Eye contact R - Relax

Aspects of Listening Linguistic aspects - words, phrases, figures of speech213 Paralinguistic aspects - timing, volume, tone pitch, ums and errs, fluency Non-Verbal aspects: facial expression, gestures, touch, body position, and proximity to the counsellor, body movement and eye contact. Attending and showing receptiveness It is the act of truly focusing on the other person. It involves consciously making ourselves aware of what the other person is saying and of what they are trying to communicate to us. Observing Body Messages Non-verbal aspects of communication refer to body language. The way the client expresses through the use of their body. They offer clues about the clients internal status beyond the words. Morris calls it Man Watching. Body language depends on context in which it occurs, the nature of the relationship, individuals personal style, personality of the person. Therefore avoid assuming what person is saying with their body languages. Listening Blocks Attraction: Attention is focused on what you are feeling rather than what client is saying. Physical condition: Sick/tired, without realizing it you tune out certain things client is saying. Concerns: Preoccupied with you own concerns.

Over-eagerness: Listen to only a part and respond. Similarity of Problems: Same as your own problem. Your mind wanders. Differences: Different experiences of yours and client. Distracting. Effective Listening: Attention focuses outward Suspension of judgment Attention to the behavioral aspects (SOLER) Avoidance of interpretation Development of free-floating attention Communicating:214 It is the exchange of ideas and opinions between two or more people through speech, writing or signs. The communication included physical setting as well as psychological predispositions of the receiver. Communication = thoughts and feelings Factors Involved in the communication Purpose: Specific Distribution: Environment Timing Feedback Follow-up Causes of Communication Breakdown

Lack of consideration of the other persons feelings and personality Use of technical language Not thinking about other, how they get affected (networking missing) Lose human factor (envy, jealousy) Clarification: To get definite information through this to help clarify the clients thinking without pressurizing. Concreteness: Using clear language to describe the clients life situation. It promotes clear insight in clients life and provides counsellor with a fuller sense of the uniqueness of the clients experiences. Restatement: Enables the counsellor to let the counselee realize that he is being fully understood and accepted. Counsellor exactly repeats as said by the client. Client thus gets a rest and a chance to collect his thoughts before going forward. Paraphrasing: The counsellor summarises. He chooses/selects those ideas and feelings which seem most important and relevant and feeds them back to the client in a more organized form. Ways to Impede Communication Counsellors predispositions Premature advice giving Lecturing 215 Excessive questioning Story telling

Questioning: What it is? Questions are used to draw out information from others. How to use it? There are several types of question. Choose the most appropriate: Open-ended questions: Open questions promote discovery and stimulate thinking. They are useful to help the other person to start talking about a topic, outline a situation, give a broad description of what happened and how he or she reacted. There are three broad types of open question: Clarifying question What specifically does that mean to you? Can I make sure I understand that? If I hear correctly, what you are saying is Creative questions How have you seen others handle similar situations? What do you think about? Would you like to talk more about it? Id be interested in hearing more What would be your approach if there were no constraints? Process questions What would you like to get from this session? What do I need to communicate to ensure everyone understands your role?

What authority do you think you need to complete this task? Follow-up or probing questions The purpose of follow-up questions is to get information, broaden decisions and understand reasons and motivations. Do not over use why. It causes people to become defensive. In what way would this help achieve greater customer satisfaction?216 What other aspects of this should be considered? How would you involve others in accomplishing this plan? Follow-up questions are useful for probing - getting to the heart of a topic, checking information and filling in detail. A particular type of follow-up question is the reflective question, useful for gaining a clearer understanding, revealing more information or uncovering feelings. You say you were pleased. Incompetent. You say he reacted to this How did he react.? Closed questions Closed questions are those that lead to either yes or no. They are useful in checking facts quickly but can lead to a onesided conversation. Examples are: Have you been shopping recently? Is there enough money in the bank? Have you done this sort of work before?

A closed question can be useful lead into open questions once an area to explore has been identified. Less useful questions Certain types of questions are less useful. Try not to use them - these include: Leading questions (I assume you) Hypothetical questions (If you were in my place.) Multiple questions. 7.7 CHARACTERISTICS & SKILLS OF A COUNSELLOR A good counsellor should be: A good listener & good communicator Respectful to other persons feelings & point of view. Kind, caring and understanding Non-prdgemental Trustworthy & respectful of peoples confidentiality Relaxed and calm217 Warm & approachable The ability to motivate & inspire clients. 7.8 ROLE & FUNCTIONS OF COUNSELLOR Counsellor is a specialist in education. Counsellors responsibilities can be classified into a) Diagnostic, b) therapeutic c) Evaluation and Research with specialized services and skills. A counsellor is selected by virtue of interest, training, experience and competence.

The specific functions of a counsellor are: Orientation of Students Student appraisal Educational and Occupational information service Holding counselling interviews Placement Research and Evaluation The Counsellor: Design and initiate a comprehensive career development programme Involve teachers, students, parents, community resources. Plans students competencies for use in the classroom Include Para professionals Assist students in career selection, prepare them and progress in it. The counsellor acts as a facilitator. The Counsellor need to keep up-to-date information regarding new career trends and to participate in professional experiences to improve their skills. Check Your Progress-V 1) Teacher can be called a counsellor at home. Explain. 2) Why counsellor is called a facilitator?218 7.9 LET US SUM UP: In this unit we have discussed The concept of counselling The Principles, goals, processor, stages & skills of

counselling. Various types of counselling like: Directive counselling Nondirective counselling & Online counselling The characteristics, skills, Roles and functions of a counsellor. This unit gives you an outline of counselling process. An analysis of different types of counselling and its uses & misuses gives an idea of using different types of counselling for different purposes in different situations. In short, this unit is an attempt to describe the counselling process & role & functions of the counsellors for effective counselling. Unit End Exercises: Q.1 Counselling is remedial, preventive and developments justify. Q.2 What is counselling. Explain the skills of counselling. Q.3 What is online counselling? How can it help you? References: Kochhar, S. K. (1990) Educational and vocational Guidance in Secondary Schools. Sterling publisher, New Delhi. Bengalee, Mehro D. (1990) Guidane & Counselling, Sheth Publication, Mumbai. Gibson & Michel (1986) Introduction to Counselling and guidance. Mac Milan Publishing Company.

www.google.com219 8 COUNSELLING APPROACHES Unit Structure : 8.0 Objectives 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Cognitively Oriented counseling approaches 8.2.1 Trait and factor oriented counselling approaches 8.3 Affectively oriented counselling approaches 8.3.1 Psychoanalytic approach to counselling 8.4 Conditions influencing counselling 8.4.1 Physical setting 8.4.2 Privacy 8.4.3 Recording 8.5 Legal and ethical considerations in counselling 8.6 Let us Sum up 8.0 OBJECTIVES After reading this unit you will be able to : State the approaches to counselling Explain cognitive oriented counselling approach and afftective oriented counselling approach Describe the factors influencing counselling Discuss the legal and ethical considerations in counselling 8.1 INTRODUCTION

In the previous chapter, you have studied about the concept of counselling , types of counselling and the role and functions of a counsellor. You may observe that the perspective of counselling changes from counsellor to counsellor. There are differences in training, Clients and settings and even goals. But the basic 220 perspective of counselling remains the same with different emphasis. Along with differences it is worth to note the commonalites. Common to all these perspectives are the notions that: Counselling is aimed at helping people make choices and act on them. Counselling is a learning process and Counselling enables personality development. Therefore prospective counselors should be aware of major approaches to counselling so as to enable them to acquire a sound basis for developing their own personal brand of counselling. The current trends in this area are broadly classified into three approaches. They are : Cognitive approaches Affective approaches and Behavioural approaches. The approaches are closely paraller with the three aspects of personality- cognition,affectiona and co-nation i.e. knowing, feeling and doing . In this unit we will discuss the cognitive and affective approaches to counselling.

8.2 COGNITIVELY ORIENTED COUNSELLING APPROACHES Cognitive Approaches As Feorge and Cristiani (1981) have pointed out, in the cognitive approaches, the process of counseling is the curing of unreason by reason; i.e., to help clients eliminate most emotional disturbances by learning to think rationally, to help them get rid of illogical, irrational ideas and attitudes and substitute logical, rational ideas and attitudes. It is believed that this process helps the client to attain rational behaviour, happiness, and self-actualization. For example Transactional Analysis (TA) aims at the internal dialogues of individuals, which occurs between a. counseling is aimed at helping people make choices and act on them, b. counselling is a learning process, and c. counselling enables personality development A recent and much accepted definition is :221 Counseling denotes a professional relationship between a trained counselor and client. This relationship is usually person-toperson, although it may sometimes involve more than two people. It is designed to help clients to understand and their self determined goals through meaningful resolution of problems of an emotional or interpersonal nature(Burks and Stefflre,1979). The merit of the definition by Burks and Steffler is that it is sufficiently theoretilcal and at the same time reasonably

operational. Theory and Practice of Counselling: Theory and practice should go hand in hand. Many trained counselors initially adhere to the theory while starting their career as counsellor. However, even those who are fanatically tied down to one theory appear to change over time. This is because the client is a human being and he is the link between the theory and practice of the counsellor. Rigid theories, like the Procrustean bed, repel the human psyche. When the man does not fit into the theory the counselor its compelled to change his theory. This is one of the most demanding challenges of counselling. Counselors should keep their minds more receptive and flexible. The psychological concept of individual difference must be understood thoroughly. Individual clients differing in their personalities come with dissimilar problems, goals and aspirations. To believe that all those clients would benefit from one kind of theory is unrealistic. It is useful to know that all the well-known theories have emerged from the practice of individual counselors personal experience with counselees. This is why we have different theories and practices. Trying to know theories as old and new broadens our perspective. But what would be ultimately useful is the one that is carved out from the counselors experience with the various ego states and the struggles between the real parts of their behaviour (whether the same is productive or counter productive) and the behaviour of others by identifying which ego state is in

power at any given time. TA thus gives the clients information about the various types of transactions that occur among individuals and to help them identify the kinds of behavior in which they are involved. The goal of TA is to help clients review their past decisions and make new decisions about their present behaviour. It is assumed that this would change their life direction into developing an autonomous life style characterized by awareness, spontaneity. This, it s believed that would, eliminate a life style characterized by manipulative game- playing a self- defeating neurotic tendencies.222 Directive teaching is the core in all the cognitive approaches. For example in Rational Emotive Therapy(RET) the counselor takes up an active teaching role to educate clients. The RET counselor makes the client understand that the latters internationalized sentences are quite illogical and especially the current illogical thinking are self-defeating verbalizations of the client. The success if the counselor lies in bringing illogical thinking forcefully to the clients attention. He must also show to the counselee how these thoughts are maintaining his unhappiness and how a rethinking and maintenance of logically and rationality make him happy and contented. In reality therapy, the meaning of reality and the necessity to act responsibly are taught by the counselor. 8.2.1 Trait and Factor Oriented counselling approaches: The trait- factor approach has developed from a marriage of

differential psychologys research and theories to Parsons vocational guidance concepts. The approach was born at the Minnesota Employment Stabilization Research Institute and the University of Minnesota Test Bureau as a practical response to educational and vocational adjustment problems of the unemployed and students. It is still closely identified with educational and vocational counseling. The approach has placed heavy reliance on the scientific method by attempting systematically to observe and measure individuals. Traits are categories that are used for describing individual differences in behavior, and statistical methods of factor analysis are used to ascertain how many factors are sufficient to account for similarities and difference in individuals. Trait- factorists have relied heavily on empirical objective data for a logical problem solving approach to client problems. Thus, the approach may be placed in the constellation of theories that are more cognitively than affectively oriented. Its basic model of analysis, synthesis, diagnosis, prognosis, counseling, and follow-up is a structured, stepwise attempt to help the client become selfcounseled. The major component of the model is the integration of objective test data with client subjective data to arrive at a differential diagnosis. As it has evolved, the trait-factor approach has become more developmental, dynamic, process-oriented, and eclectic. It has moved to a person times environment fit approach, which is seen not as static but as reciprocal and dynamic (Martin & SwartzKulstad,2000). Vocational counseling, in particular, is not seen as

fixed but as a continuing experience with definable stages. The contemporary approach is eclectic in that it sees merit and utility in cognitive therapies such as the reality, rational-emotive, and behavioral approach is eclectic in that it sees merit and utility in cognitive therapies such as the reality, rational-emotive, and 223 behavioural approaches. The logical basis of the approach relies heavily on a mentoring and teaching role by the counselor to influence and change the irrational thinking and behavior of the client. A great deal of knowledge, experience, and expertise is assumed of the counselor. Trait-factor counseling is most commonly founding school, employment, and rehabilitation counseling. By including a broader diagnostic scheme, more advanced information-processing concepts, and a more adaptive counseling style, the person times environment fit approach has matured beyond the old trait-factor model. The person times environment model includes these elements by organizing personal constructs, the world of work, person times environment interactions and then applying them in a problem-solving seque3nce. Including current concepts of problem solving, information processing, and attitude change has reinvigorated a venerable approach to career counseling (Chartrand, 1991). Frank Parsons Trait and Factor Theory of Occupational Choice: People perform best when they are in jobs best suited to

their abilities Frank parsons is regarded as the founder of the vocational guidance movement. He developed the talent- matching approach, which was later developed into the Trait and Factor Theory of Occupational Choice. At the centre of Parsons theory is the concept of matching. He states that occupational decision making occurs when people have achieved. An accurate understanding of their individual traits (aptitudes, interests, personal abilities ) A knowledge of jobs and the labour market Rational and objective judgement about the relationship between their individual traits, and the labour market. This three-part theory still governs most current practice. The trait and factor theory operates under the premise that it is possible to measure both individual talents and the attributes required in particular jobs. It also assumes that people may be matched to an occupation thats a good fit . Parsons suggests that when individuals are in jobs best suited to their abilities they perform best and their productivity is highest. In his book, Choosing a Vocation Parsons maintains that personal counsel is fundamental to the career search. In particular, 224 he notes seven stages for a career counsellor to work through with clients: 1. Personal data: create a statement of key facts about the person, remembering to include every fact that has bearing on the vocational problem.

2. Self-analysis :a self-examination is done in private and under the instruction of the counsellor. Every tendency and interest that might impact on the choice of a life work should be recorded . 3. The clients own choice and decision : this may show itself in the first two stages. The counsellor must bear in mind that the choice of vocation should be made by the client, with the counsellor acting as guide. 4. Counsellors analysis: the counsellor tests the clients decision to see if it is in line with the main quest. 5. Outlook on the vocational field: the counsellor should be familiar with industrial knowledge such as lists and classifications of industries and vocations, in addition to locations of training and apprenticeships. 6. Induction and advice: a broad-minded attitude coupled with logical and clear reasoning are critical at this stage. 7. General helpfulness : the counsellor help[s the client to fit into the chosen work, and to reflect on the decision. Much of Parsons work still guides career counselling today, though it is not without criticism. Matching assumes a degree of stability within the labour market. However, the reality is that the markets volatility means individuals must be prepared to change and adapt to their circumstances. It has been criticized for being overly cognitive and reductionistic. That is, relying on objective measurements of traits may lead to an oversimplified view of the human condition. Further,

the very existence of valid and reliable objective tests, and of stable traits, remains highly questionable. Trait-factor counseling is also limited insofar as it only seeks to describe a clients potential rather than help him achieve it. E.G, Williamson (1965) was the only traitfactor theorist to address this question: he argued that the counselor has the responsibility to promote the self-actualization of his client, rather than just measuring it. Behavioral therapy, like trait-factor counseling, is firmly grounded in the scientific method, and it is committed to bringing experimental findings into clinical practice in order to change clients behavior and resolve personal 225 and social problems (Corey, 1986). Behaviorism has its roots in Pavlovs (1927). Trait-factor counseling is the only counseling method which has its root in vocational counseling. It dates back to 1908, when Frank Parsons founded the Boston Vocational Bureau and stated his conviction that in order to choose the best career, one had to understand oneself, the characteristics of different job environments, and the relationship between these variables. Traitfactor theory was further developed during the testing movement in the U.S./during the 1930s by psychologists like E.G. Williamson, John Darley, and Donald G. Paterson (Downing, 1975). Trait-factor counseling is an extremely cognitive approach based on the scientific method and the theory of individual differences. Its major underlying assumptions include the following: 1. Each person has a unique pattern of traits (i.e. interests, abilities, and characteristics) that are relatively stable and rarely

change after adolescence. 2. These traits are measurable Check your progress-1 1) Explain cognitive approach of counseling. 2) Explain Trait-factor oriented counseling. 8.3 AFFECTIVELY ORIENTED COUNSELLING APPROACHES As the term suggests the affective approaches in counseling focus their attention to what is going on inside the individual, and particularly what the individual is experiencing at a given time. Client- centered counseling of Rogers is perhaps the most well-defined technique in the affective approaches. It also highlights an issue in counseling; namely, how much responsibility can be placed on the client for his own problem solving?226 Rogers believed that when the individual perceived himself as behaving in manner consistent with his picture of himself, he generally experiences feelings of adequacy, security, and worth. If on the other hand, he acts in a manner different from the way he defines himself, he experiences what is known as threat and feels insecure, inadequate, or worthless. Under pressure and with no other alternative, he may then defend himself against this threat using one or more of the commonly described defense mechanisms Unless counseling eliminates this defensive chain reaction and strengthens his self-concept, the defensive behaviour would increase vulnerability to further threat, guilt, thereby creating

more distortion and more self-defeating mechanisms. The role of the therapist is not just eliminating the defense mechanisms. Rogers highlights the importance of Congruence. It means the close matching of awareness and experience. In this context, the client centered counselors emphasizes the importance of accurate communication. If a client is aware of communicating a feeling which he is genuinely experiencing, his behavior is said to be congruent or integrated. In incongruent communication the awareness and experience of the client are two different if not opposing things. So also the recipient may experience an awareness of phony communication. The implication here for the counselor is that the counselor should help client to face courageously the incongruence between awareness and experience so that communication of his real experiences is in full awareness and not distorted with defense mechanisms and neurotic constrictions. The self-theory of Rogers also assumes a perspective called phenomenology. According to this perspective, peoples reality is that which they perceive. The way to understand individuals is to infer the phenomenological field from their behavior. In other words, the internal frame of reference of the client is used in counseling with the implication that counselors must attempt to perceive clients perceptual worlds as closely as they can. This is known as the empathic skill of the counselor. Individual clients need to strive for wholeness is the focus in

Gestalt therapy and counseling. This school of counseling gives importance to the internal world of the individual. Striving for the gestalt or the wholeness is actually a striving for an integration of thinking, feeling, and behaving. The key concept here is awareness. It is believed that the counselors help the clients work toward a total awareness of his experiences. Gestalt psychologists po0ilnt out that such awareness permits self-regulation and selfcontrol in the direction of increased integration and creativity. Recently, one of the major forces that have come to occupy an important place in psychology is Existentialism. Unlike 227 Psychoanalysis, existentialism is a temperamental way of looking at life . It is basically a philosophy of experiences which need not necessarily be categorized into cognitive compartments. Man is essentially an emotional being rather than a rational animal! The existence of man is unique because he is the only being who reacts to the fact of his existence. The awareness of ones own existence and the possibility of non-existence alters the inner world or the phenomenology. These new premises create new experiences and needs that are yet to be known. The predicament of human beings is such that it includes the individuals capacity for increased selfawareness, the search for unique meaning in a meaningless world, being alone and being in relation with others, freedom to choose ones fate, responsibility, anxiety, finiteness and death, and a basic urge for self-actualization. As a theory existentialism is sound and appealing, but the practice of counseling on the basis of this theory is difficult. However, the existential counselor tries to understand

the client as a being and as a being in the world Counselors are supposed to expose his own inner reality and at the same time be human. This according to existentialists enables clients to become aware of similar conditions and qualities in themselves. It is pointed out that through his process clients come to recognize their potentialities and achieve self-growth by accepting it as their respo0nsibility. In a nut shell, it can be said that making the client accept responsibility for him selfish the aim of existential counseling The three basic approaches (Cognitive, Affective, and Conative) with their differing foundations vary in their theory and practice of counselling By about 1973, Patterson began to think in terms of commonalities among the approaches. Fortunately most of the controversies existed only as academic gymnastics at a theoretical level. The practicing counselors were undergoing transformation as the clients were not interested in theories and their subtleties but were interested only in immediate problem solving. This demand of the client to the counsellor had made many counselors to abandon their dogmatic approach. Orientation of the counselors started changing towards a pragmatic approach. The client and his needs became more important than the counselors theory and dogma. This was how personal theory emerged. Here it is absolutely necessary to point out that training in some known approach is better than no training. Corey(19977) recommends the eclectic approach as a framework to begin with . However, George and Cristiani (1981) point out that although

beginning counselors need a firm understanding of all the major approaches, they should start first with a thorough grounding in one theoretical approach to counselling. It is further pointed out that judicious integration and assimilation of techniques from other approaches could be done with experience. 228 8.3.1 Psychoanalytic Approach to Counselling: The original so called taking therapy involves analyzing the root causes of behaviour and feelings by exploring the unconscious mind and the conscious mind & relation of it. Many theories and therapies have evolved from the original Freudian psychoanalysis which utilizes free association, dreams and transference, as well other strategies to help the client know the functions of their own minds. Psychoanalysis was developed in the late 19 th century by Sigmund Friend. His therapy explores the dynamic workings of a mind understood to consists of three parts. The hedonistic id, the rational ego and the moral superego, Frend maintained that the condition of the unconscious mind is profoundly influenced by childhood experiences. So in addition to dealing with the defense mechanisms used by an overburdened ego, his therapy addresses fixations and other issues by probing deeply into clients youth. Psychoanalysis has three main components: 1. a method of investigation of the mind and the way one thinks.

2. a systematized set of theories about human behaviour. 3. a method of treatment of psychological or emotional illness. Under the broad umbrella of psychoanalysis, there are at least 22 theoritical orientations regarding human mentation and development. The various approaches in treatment called psychoanalysis vary as much as the theories do. The term also refers to a method of studying child development. Psychoanalytical counselling is concerned with how we deceive ourselves as to our intentions, desires and beliefs and how these deceptions creates conflict between our expressed goals and our actions. It also give rises to psychodynamic counselling. The term psychodynamic means pertaining to the laws of mental action and its use pre-supposes that there are some principles that determine the relationship between mind and action and that these can be formulated as a basis for therapeutic intervention. Traditionally, the principles underlying psychodynamic counselling as presented as derivations of the psychoanalytic school founded by Sigmund Fend. But current psychodynamic counselling draws from a much wider range of theoritical influences. One of the most fundamental tenets is that we are unaware of many of our motives and that if these are known to us we are able to make better, less conflicted choices. However, we are often resistant to or defended against recognizing these hidden motives termed unconscious by most psychodynamic theorists and hence are unable to changeindeed we seem to have a compulsion to repeat past behaviour.

These repetitions are thought to arise because of earlier experience 229 where our behaviour successfully enabled us to cope by ignoring or repressing difficult feelings. Psychodynamic counselling this has theory of why we are enable to change, how this inutility arises and how it affects our lives. Psychoanalysis is an intensive process, whereas psychoanalytic therapy is based upon psychoanalysis but is less intensive. Psychodynamic counselling evolve from psychoanalytic theory, however it tends to focus on more immediate problems, be more practically based and shorter term than psychoanalytic theory. Goals of the psychoanalytic approach: The goal of psychoanalytic approach are: To make the unconscious conscious To strive to probe into the deeper part of the psyche. To get the issues that were not resolved during cognitive development. To understand and experience the issues and to bring change in the character. Principles of psychoanalytic theory: The general principles are: Help the person to tell his or her story. Establish a solid working alliance Deal with resistance Gather background information and history.

Select the problem or issue to be worked on explore the precipitating events. Collaborate with the client to form a diagnosis and treatment plan. Increase the clients awareness regarding defensiveness. Revirit resistance to interventions. Explore the clients transference. Examine how the past is impacting the present. Help the client behave more effectively. Provide feedback and confront discrepancies. Negotiate with the client regarding home work assignments.230 Remind the client of the termination date. End therapy as agreed upon with the client. Schedule follow up as needed. Check your progress- 2 1) What is affective oriented counselling approach? 2) Explain the concept of psychoanalytic approach of counselling. 8.4 CONDITIONS INFLUENCING COUNSELLING The counselling process is influenced by several characteristics that help it become a productive time for the client and counsellor. Not all characteristics apply to all situations, but generally, the following help to bring about positive results. Structure Setting Client qualities

Counsellors qualities 8.4.1 Physical setting Counselling can happen any where, but the professional generally works in a place the provides: Privacy Confidentiality Quiet and Certain comfort When working with a client, you want to send a message that you are listening. This can be done by being attentive both verbally 231 & non-verbally. The following SOLAR acronym will remind you about your physical setting which gives confidence to your client that you are listening. S: Face the client Squarely, that is, adopt a posture that indicates involvement. O: Adopt an Open posture sit with both feet on the ground to begin with your hands folded, one over the other. L: As you face your client, lean toward him or her. Be aware of their space needs. E: Maintain eye contact. Looking away or down seems that you are bored or ashamed of what the client is saying. Looking at the person suggests that you are interested and concerned. R: As you incorporate these skills into your attending listening skills, relax. 8.4.2 Privacy

Trust is an essential component in the development of helping relationships. Counselors regard the promise of confidentiality to be essential for the development of client trust. Most individuals seeking counseling services assume that what they divulge counseling will be kept in confidence by their counselor, with limited exceptions (Glosoff, Herlihy & Spence, 2000). This is most likely true for children and adolescents as well as adults. Managing confidentiality when counseling minors, however, is more complex than when counseling adults. School counselors must balance their ethical and legal responsibilities to their clients, clients parents and school systems. This complex balancing act is one reason that the topic issues in school counseling. In attempting to weigh their legal and ethical obligations, it is helpful for school counselors to clearly identify those they consider to be clients. School counselors are part of an educational community. As such, they consult with teachers, administrators and parents. It is important for school counselors to clarify that their consultation is on behalf of students and that only the students are their clients (except if school counselors offer counseling to students families). The Code of Ethics and Standards of Practice of the American Counseling Association (ACA, 1995) and the Ethical Standards for School Counselors of the American School Counselor Association (ASCA, 1998) are two resources available to help school counselors manage privacy and confidentiality in their

counseling relationships. School counselors can also look to moral 232 principles or shared beliefs or agreed upon assumptions that guide the ethical reasoning of helping professionals (Remley & Herlihy, 2001, p.3) upon which the codes of ethics are based. The moral principles most often cited in relation to ethical practices of counselors include the following : Veracity or telling truth Justice or fairness Nonmaleficence or doing no harm Beneficence or doing good Autonomy or respecting free choice Fidelity or keeping promises The moral principle of beneficence refers to the responsibility to help clients gain something positive from engaging in counseling. It also includes counselors duty to help society in general and people who are potential clients (Welfel, 2002, p.34). Autonomy refers to respecting the freedom of clients to choose their own directions and make their own choices within the counseling relationship. Respecting a clients autonomy does not mean that counselors encourage clients to make decisions independent of significant others (e.g. parents) in their lives or regardless of community and cultural implications. It does mean that counselors refrain from imposing goals, avoid being judgmental and are accepting of different values (Herlihy & Corey, 1996,p.4). Applying moral principles to situations involved in respecting

the rights of minor clients served in school settings is not always easy. To be effective advocates for their clients rights, school counselors must have a good grasp of issues related to the following concepts: the legal status of minors and the legality and ethics of privacy, confidentiality, privileged communication, and informed consent. Each of these are reviewed along with relevant ethical standards and factors that complicate school counselors ability to maintain a relationship based on students confidence that they can speak freely and without fear of disclosure. Finally, implications for the practice of school counselors is presented. The Legal Status of Minors The ACA (1995) Code of Ethics and Standards of Practice specifically references the term minor twice, both in relation to matters of consent. The Ethical Standards for School Counselors (ASCA, 1998) include standards specific to counseling minors throughout the entire document. Neither setoff ethical guidelines, however, defines the term minor. Typically, 18 is considered the legal age of majority, unless otherwise designated. Minors, therefore, can legally be defined as those persons under the age of 233 18. Amendment XXVI (1971) to the U.S. Constitution established the right of 18-year-old citizens to vote and by extension has influenced the generally accepted age at which minors are extended other adult rights. For example, 18 is cited in the Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA) as the age at which the transfer of rights from parents to students occurs (FERPA,

1974). School counselors, therefore are faced with 18 as the age at which their clients are legally assumed to be mature, to have full ownership and controlof their privacy rights. The legal concept of the age of majority has implications for minor clients rights to make choices about entering into counseling as well as their rights to privacy and confidentiality. Overall, although monor clients have an ethical right to privacy and confidentiality in the counseling relationship [the] privacy rights of minor legally being to their parents or guardians (Remley & Herlihy, 2001,p. 184). Isaacs and Stone (1999) noted that the Supreme Court has upheld parents legal right to make critical decisions about their children. (The term parents refers to all who function in the parental role and have the legal rights of parents.) Many people consider the decision to enter into counseling to be an example of a critical decision. Further, because counsellingis considered tobe a contractual relationship, minors cannot legally agree to be counseled on their own (Remley & Herlihy,p.179). There are some exceptions to this. For example, many states have enacted laws allowing for individuals younger than 18 to receive counseling or medical services without parental consent. Additionally, most states have laws that allow minors to be declared legally emancipated from their parents and a few states allow to be deemed a mature minor and capable of understanding the ramifications of counselling. 8.4.3 Record Keeping

Counsellors record keeping practices are increasingly governed by legislation. In some provinces, new Freedom of Information and Protection of Privacy legislation and Personal Health Information acts have given counselors new guidelines about the way they keep records. The federal Youth Criminal Justice Act will also influence counselors practices on record keeping. For school counselors, legislation regarding the administration of public schools adds other imperatives. Some provinces have synthesized these various legislative requirements into policy statements that provide counselors with a guide for the management of their counseling records. In schools, pupil records are typically held in three areas: the cumulative file in the main office; the young offender file if one exists, held in a secure location by the principal and the counseling 234 or special education files normally maintained by the counselor and resource teacher. The cumulative file component includes things such as identification information, parent/guardian information, citizenship, school history, relevant health information, academic information on marks, attendance, awards and correspondence & legal documents. Some counseling information, such as results of psycho educational assessments that may inform programming decisions can also be included in this file. The counseling and special education files typically included additional such as: special education or resource information;

clinician reports and meeting notes; referrals to other agencies; diagnostic testing results and reports from service providers outside of the school such as hospitals and treatment facilities. The Youth Criminal Justice Act component contains information about a young offender that may be used; to ensure compliance with a court order; to ensure the safety of staff, students and others; and to assist in the rehabilitation of the young offender. Most legislation is in agreement that there are certain conditions under which a person may be refused access to information in a file. They are: if disclosure might cause an invasion of the privacy of a third party; if disclosure could be detrimental to the education of the pupil; if disclosure could cause physical or emotional harm to someone; or if disclosure could interfere with an enactment or investigation. Personal Health Information legislation. (Manitobas for example), adds additional conditions under which access may be refused. These include: if disclosure may endanger the mental or physical health or safety of a person; if disclosure may reveal information about person who has not consented to disclosure; if disclosure could identify a third party who supplied the info in confidence under circumstances where confidence could be expected; or if the information was compiled for legal purposes. The Youth Criminal Justice Act demands that the offenders file must be kept separate from any other record or the young

person; that on other person has access to the information except if authorized under the Act; and that the record be destroyed when the information is no longer required for the purpose for which it was disclosed. In cases of divorced or separated parents, the Divorce Act of Canada states that, Unless the court orders otherwise, a spouse who is granted access to a child of the marriage has the right to 235 make inquiries, and to be given information as to the health, education and welfare of the child. Provincial family law usually supports this notion as in Manitobas legislation, for example, which states: Unless a court otherwise orders, the non-custodial parent retains the same right as the parent granted custody to receive school, medical, psychological, dental and other reports affecting the child. (Family Maintenance Act Manitoba) While the legislation described about is very similar from province to province, it is important to check on the specific wording of these kinds of acts in your own jurisdiction. Counselors are often concerned about transferring information when a student transfers to a new school. Generally, both the cumulative file and the counseling or special education file must go to the new school. A strategy that will help give counselors some sense of security is to retain the counselling records themselves, and place a notice in the cumulative file to the effect that counseling information exists on this student and may be obtained by contacting the counsellor directly. In this way, the

records can go form professional to professional, and their security and privacy be ensured. Many schools have the parents or students, (if they are the age of majority) , sign a release from to allow the transfer of these records. Lawyer, Robert Solomon and Consultant, Dennis Lucas have each offered suggestion about effective record keeping. These ideas include: Keeping all entries in chronological order; Recording information while its fresh. Making any alterations with a straight line, dated and initialed; Sticking to behaviors and concise description Staying away from diagnosis & interpretation Limiting records only to directly relevant info; Including record keeping information in your informed consent form, Record ingredients may include: Name and date: Presenting issue: Past history of issue (if described in an earlier record); Current status of issue changes since last visit: Treatment/goals/homework/actions; Check-back date/time;236 Referral info: To whom, where, when, what was said; Administrative info: timetable, credits, etc. To ensure the protection of your students and yourself, it is

important to check your employers policies on access to information, the CCA Standards of Practice on record keeping, and the privacy legislation in your province. If no workplace policy exists, it is critical that such a policy on record keeping be created. In some provinces, requests for information can be referred to the individual appointed as Privacy and Access Coordinator for your school hoard. This individual can, with input from you, decide to release the whole record, release parts of it, or deny access altogether. Parents then have the right of appeal to a provincial privacy adjudicator such as the provincial ombudsman in provinces where these procedures are not mandated, it is important to follow the CCA policy that school counselors should make every effort to ensure that there is a school-based procedure in place to adjudicate any requests from parents or guardians for access to counseling records. As a proactive step to avoid misunderstanding with students and parents, it is essential to have a good informed consent form in place. A consent form used in a school setting may say something like this: In all discussions between us you have a right to expect that anything we talk about will remain confidential. We will respect and guard your right to confidentially very carefully, but you need to know that are a few cases where are a few cases where that may not apply. These are the situations where information may by shared with someone else:

1) if you ask me to speak with someone else for you or give them information you wish them to have 2) If I feel that you or someone else may being danger or in need or protection, 3) If a court orders the release of information, 4) If required by law, as in cases of child abuse. 5) To consult with another professional person in confidence to try to find solutions or answers for you. Check your Progress III 1) Write short note on a) Privacy in counselling b) Record keeping in Counselling237 c) Importance of physical setting in counselling. 8.5 LEGAL AND ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN COUNSELLING Counselors like all professionals have ethical responsibilities and obligations. The principal rule supporting ethical obligations is that the counselor must act with full recognition of the importance of clients rights, the ethics of the profession. Counseling is not a value free or neutral activity (Grant 1992). It is a profession based on values, which are orienting beliefs about what is good and how that good should be achieved. (Bergin 1985), the relationship of moral standards and values, individual or cultural, in the life of that client. Professional bodies of counselling have development

ethical standards for which they have made available to the practitioners. Professional organizations for practicing counselling and psychotherapy are : American Psychological Association (APA) British Association for Counselling (BAC) and American Counselling Association (ACA) Need for ethical codes: Ethical codes help professionalize and Protect an association by government and promote stability within the profession. The need for ethical cods are: To control internal disagreement. To protect practitioners from the public To protect client from incompetent counselors. Especially in mal practice issues. Clients can also use codes to evaluate questionable treatment from the counselors. Ethical Issues:238 Ethical codes are not set in stone. They serve as principles upon which to guide practice. There are two dimensions to ethical decision making: o Principle ethics: Overt ethical obligations that must be addressed. o Virtue ethics: Above and beyond the obligatory ethics and are idealistic. Ethical Issues: Ethical codes and standards of practice for counselors

have been formulated by the American Counseling Association (ACA) and American Psychological Association (APA). Ethical codes are guidelines for what counselors can and cannot do. Each counselling situation is unique and sometimes the counselor must interpret the code. Ethical Issues that influence Clinical Practice Client Welfare: Client needs come before counselor needs and the counselor needs to act in the clients best interest. Informed Consent Counselors need to inform clients as to the nature of counseling and answer questions so that the client can make an informed decision. Confidentiality: Clients must be able to feel safe within the therapeutic relationship for counseling to be most effective. What the client says stays in the session unless the client is threatening harm to self or others. Ethical Issues that influence Clinical Practice Dual Relationships: When a counselor has more than one relationship with a client (e.g. The counselor is a friend and the counselor). Sexual Relationships: Professional organizations strongly prohibit sexual relationships with clients and in some states it is a criminal offense.239 Privileged Communication

It is legal protection of the client which prevents a counselor from disclosing what was said within the counseling sessions(s). This right belongs to the client and not counselor. Laws concerning privileged communication vary from state to state. When to break confidentiality Tara off is Board of Regents of the University of California. A landmark case with the end result being that counselors have a duty to warn if a client threatens another persons life or with significant bodily harm. When a child under the age of 18 is being sexually abused. If the counselor determines the client needs hospitalization. If the information is involved in a court action. Privileged Communication Doesnt Apply When a counselor is performing a court ordered evaluation. When the client is suicidal. When the client sues the counselor. When the client uses a mental disorder as a legal defense. When an underage child is being abused. When a client discloses an intent to commit a crime or is dangerous to others. When a client needs hospitalization.

Legal Issues and Managed Care Counselors have the duty to appeal adverse decisions regarding their clients. Counselors have a duty to disclose to clients regarding the limitations of managed care and the limits of confidentiality under managed care.240 Counselors have a duty to continue treatment and are not supposed to abandon a client just because the client does not have the financial means to pay for services. Malpractice When a counselor fails to provide reasonable care or skill that is generally provided by other professionals and it results in injury to the client. Four conditions must exist: o The counselor has duty to client. o The duty of care was not met. o The client was injured in the process. o There was a close causal relationship between the counselors failure to provide reasonable care and the clients injury. Suggestions on Avoiding Malpractice Precounseling: Make sure to cover all information counselling: The financial costs of counselling. Any special arrangements. The competencies of the counselor.

Avoid dual relationships. Clearly indicate if a treatment is experimental. Identify limits to confidentiality. Help the client make an informed choice. Suggestions on Avoiding Malpractice (Continued) Ongoing Counseling: Maintain confidentiality. Seek consultation when necessary. Maintain good client records. Take proper action when a client poses a clear and imminent danger to themselves or others. Comply with the laws regarding child abuse and neglect. Termination of Counselling:241 Be sensitive to the clients feelings regarding termination. Initiate termination when the client is not benefiting from services. Address the clients post-terminations concerns. Evaluate the efficacy of the counseling services. An Ethical-Legal Decision Making Mode: Determine if an ethical-legal issue needs to be addressed. Address contextual issues such as culture and personal bias. Formulate an ethical-legal course of action. Implement an action plan. Counselor Competence

Counselors need to accurately represent their credentials and qualifications. Counselors need to continue their education. Counselors need to only provide services for which they are qualified. Counselors need to keep up on current information of the field and especially in specialty areas. Counselors need to seek counselling when they have personal issues. Ethical and Legal concerns: Major areas related to ethical 8 legal issues must focus on the following major areas: Informed consent Confidentiality Duty to warn/duty to protect Pertinent Legal and Ethical issues: Any appropriate course of action must be determined on a case by case basis. Any policy requiring automatic dismissal or withdrawal of a student who expresses disturbing behaviour is legally vulnerable. The issue is often about assessing risk. A significant risk constitutes a high probability of substantial harm not just a slightly increased, or remote risk.242

Any assessment must be based on a reasonable onedical judgement relying on the most current medical knowledge and the best available objective evidence. If you analyse all the legal & ethical issues concerned with counselling you can conclude it in the words of mark Twain that a to be good is noble, but to teach others to be good is nobler and less trouble. Governance of professional practice by Ethics and Law: Law is created by legislature and courts. It governs citizens of federal, country and state. Whereas Ethics rooted in philosophy crated by Professional associations like APA & ACA. It govern members of profession & guide practice. How can you consider an issue as legal or ethical? We can consider an issue as legal if Lowers are involved Matter has come to court The counselor may be in danger of being accused of misconduct. Check your progress-4 1) Explain the different ethical issues to be taken into consideration in counselling. 8.6 LET US SUM UP In this unit we have discussed about counselling approaches. There are three approaches to counselling like:

Cognitive approach Affective approach & Behavioral approach243 But in this unit we have discussed only two approaches like cognitive & affective approaches. Under cognitive approach we have also discussed the trait & factor approach of counselling with special reference to Frank Persons Trait & factor approach to occupational choice. In affective approach we have discussed Psychoanalytic approach & its goals & principles we have also go through physical setting, Privacy & recording as conditions which comes as the influential factors in counselling. As in other professions legal & ethical issues are important, so it is also necessary in counselling process. 8.7 UNIT END EXERCISES 1. What are the different types of approaches in counselling. Explain cognitive approaches to counselling. 2. What is affective oriented counselling approach. Explain the psychoanalytic approach to counselling. 3. What are different conditions which influence counselling. Explain the importance of recording in counselling. 4. What is your opinion regarding considerations of legal & ethical issues in counselling Justify your opinion. Bibliography: www. Google.com 244

1 MODULE 1 : GUIDANCE : CONCEPT AND NEEDS Concept of Guidance Unit Structure : 1.0 Introduction 1.1 Objectives 1.2 Meaning and Principles of Guidance 1.2.4 Meaning of Guidance 1.2.5 Guidance and Education : Guidance and Counseling 1.2.6 Principles of Guidance 1.3 Need and Importance of Guidance 1.4 Scope of Guidance: Guidance Services 1.7 Implications of Areas Guidance in Global Context. 1.5.1 Educational 1.5.2 Vocational 1.5.3 A vocational 1.5.4 Social 1.5.5 Moral 1.5.6 Health 1.8 Let us sum up 1.9 Check your progress 1.10 Suggested readings 1.0 INTRODUCTION We are social beings and, so in a some way or other we

need help and guidance of others. Mother, father, grant parents, teachers and other elders, home, school and society guide youngsters for successful living. Due to explosion of knowledge, industrialization and changes in socio-economic set up the need of professional guidance is felt in the present day society.245 In this unit you will be familiarized with concept, principles, need of guidance and implications of areas of guidance on global context. 1.2 OBJECTIVES After going through this unit you will be able to: Define the meaning of guidance Describe the need for guidance State the principles of guidance Explain different areas of guidance 1.2 MEANING AND PRINCIPLES OF GUIDANCE 1.2.1 Meaning of Guidance: Literally guidance means to direct, to point out, to show the path. It is the assistance or help rendered by a more experienced person to a less experiences person to solve certain major problems of the individual (less experienced) i.e. educational, vocational, personal etc. Guidance is a concept as well as a process. As a concept guidance is concerned with the optimal development of the individual. As a process guidance helps the individual in self understanding (understanding ones strengths, limitations, and

other resources0 and in self-direction (ability to solve problems, make choices and decision on ones own). 1.4.2 Guidance and Education; Guidance and Counselling, Guidance and Education : The aim of education is to achieve the fullest possible realization of possibilities inherent in the individual. Education fosters all aspects of an individuals personality. Guidance is an integral part of education and helps in achieving the goals of education. Guidance is quite essential for the development of individual which is the main objective of education. The Education Commission (EC-1964-66) observes Guidance should be regarded as an integral part of education and not as a special, psychological or social service which is peripheral to educational purposes. It is meant for all students not just for those who deviate from the norm in one direction or the other.246 Jone, A.J., pointing out the relationship between guidance and education observes, All guidance is education but some aspects of education are not guidance. Their objectives are the some the development of the individual but methods used in education are by no means the same as those used in guidance. Guidance and Counseling : The terms guidance and counselling have been loosely or interchangeably used. Guidance is a term which is broader than counseling and it includes counseling as one of its services. Butter makes a logical separation of the counseling process i.e. (i)

adjustive and (ii) disbibutive phase in the adjustive phase, the emphasis is on social, personal and emotional problems of the individual, in the distributive phase the focus is upon educational, vocational and occupational problems. The distributive phase can be most aptly described as guidance while the adjustive phase can be considered as description of counselling. 1.2.3 Principles of Guidance Guidance is based upon the following principles. (vi) Holistic development of individual : Guidance needs to be provided in the context of total development of personality. (vii) Recognition of individual differences and dignity: Each individual is different from every other individual. Each individual is the combination of characteristics which provides uniqueness to each person. Similarly human beings have an immense potential. The dignity of the individual is supreme. (viii) Acceptance of individual needs: Guidance is based upon individual needs i.e. freedom, respect, dignity. (ix) The individual needs a continuous guidance process from early childhood throughout adulthood. (x) Guidance involves using skills to communicate love, regard, respect for others. 1.5 NEED AND IMPORTANCE OF GUIDANCE Guidance is needed wherever there are problems. The need

and importance of guidance are as follows. Self understanding and self direction: Guidance helps in understanding ones strength, limitations and other resources. Guidance helps individual to develop ability to solve problems and take decisions. Optimum development of individual Solving different problem of the individual247 Academic growth and development Vocational maturity, vocational choices and vocational adjustments Social personal adjustment Better family life Good citizenship For conservation and proper utilization of human resources For national development Guidance is helpful not only for student and teacher in an educational institution but also to the parents ,administrators, planners and community members. 1.6 DIFFERENT SCHOOL GUIDANCE SERVICES The school is expected to provide more than just teaching and instruction. A school guidance programme includes all those activities other than instructional which are carried out to render assistance to pupils in their educational, vocational, personal development and adjustment. The fundamental aim of guidance programme being the maximum development of the child, all

guidance programme must be geared toward attainment of the goal. Guidance services can assist the pupils in knowing themselves-their potentialities and limitations, making appropriate choices in educational, vocational and other fields. Some of the important guidance services are; The orientation services Student inventory services Career Information services Counseling services Group guidance services Placement services Research and evaluation service 1.5 IMPLICATIONS OF AREAS OF GUIDANCE IN GLOBAL CONTEXT The students life is getting complex day by day. Students in the twenty-first century have facing many perplex and difficult situations i.e. to make wise curricular and other curricular choices, to acquire basic study skills for optimum achievement, adjustment with peers etc. In its beginning guidance was concentrated on problems relating to vocations. It was largely concerned with getting 248 jobs for young people. Now guidance has gone for beyond this. It is now concerned with the entire individual in all aspects. The areas of guidance are very vast. The following are some of the important areas of guidance. 1.5.1 Personal

Students face many personal problems related to themselves, their parents and family, friends and teachers, etc. They often have memories related to home or family which creates feeling of disappointment in them. If their parents are expecting too much of them it leaves them with a feeling of incompetence and insecurity leading poor self-concept and self esteem. The objectives of personal guidance are to help the individual in his/her physical, emotional, social, rural and spiritual development. The aims and objectives of personal guidance are : To assist the individual in understanding himself/herself. To assist the individual involving the personal problems. To assist the individual is talking independent decisions and judgement. To assist the individual to view the world and the social environment in right perspective. To assist the individual in making sound adjustments to different problems confronted in life. Personal guidance is necessary at all stages of life. At the elementary school stage opportunities should be given to students for their self expression. Personal guidance at this stage deals with the problems related to feeling of insecurity, social acceptance, discipline etc. At the secondary stage, the students have more intricate personal problems. During the secondary stage adolescent students due to peculiar physical, emotional and social

developments undergo noticeable changes in their attitude and behaviour. Personal guidance at this stage should therefore focus on personal and social adjustment. Personal guidance at the tertiary stage aims at helping them view life in relation to reality. The scope of personal guidance at this stage is very wider. 1.5.2 Educational Guidance If one closely examines the problems of young pupils in schools and colleges, one would exactly realize the need of 249 educational guidance. Educational problems head the needs of students problems. So education is an important guidance area. Educational guidance is related to every aspect of education school / colleges, the curriculum, the methods of instruction, other curricular activities, disciplines etc. Educational guidance is the assistance given to the individual (i) to understand his/her potentialities (ii) have a clear cut idea of the different educational opportunities and their requirements (iii) to make wise choices as regards to school, colleges, the course : curricular and curricular. Some of the aims and objectives of educational guidance are: To assist the pupil to understand him/herself i.e. to understand his/her potentialities, strength and limitations. To help the child make educational plans consist with his/her abilities, interests and goals. To enable the student to know detail about the subject and courses offered.

To assist the student in making satisfactory progress in various school/ college subjects. To help the child to adjust with the schools, its rules, regulations, social life connected with it. To help the child in developing good study habits. To help the child to participate in out of class educational activities in which he can develop leadership and other social qualities. At the elementary stage guidance programme must help the children to make good beginning, to plan intelligently, to get the best out of their education and prepare them for secondary schools. Educational guidance needs to be used in diagnosing difficulties, in identifying the special needs of children. At the secondary stage educational guidance should help the pupils to understand themselves better, to understand different aspects of the school, to select appropriate courses to get information about different educational opportunities, to develop good study habits. The students should be helped to be acquainted with the vocational implications of various school subjects. Educational guidance at the tertiary stages must oriented students about purpose and scope of higher studies and helps them to stimulate their studies. Each college/ university must have a guidance unit with due provision of guidance services. 250 1.5.3 Vocational Guidance: You know that bread and butter aims is one of the main

aims of education. Due to advancement in science and technology and consequent charges in industry and occupations have been emerged. There are thousands of specialized jobs/ occupations. In this context, there is a great need for vocational guidance. Vocational guidance is a process of assisting the individual to choose an occupation, prepare for it, enter upon it and progress in it. It is concerned primarily with helping individuals make decisions and choices involved in planning a future and building a career. The purpose behind assisting the youth to choose, prepare, enter and progress in a vocation is the optimum growth of the individual. Some of the aims and objectives of vocational guidance are: Assisting pupil to discover his/her own abilities and skills to feet them into general requirements of the occupation under consideration. Helping the individual to develop an attitude towards work that will dignify whatever type of occupation s/he may wish to enter. Assisting the individual to think critically about various types of occupations and to learn a technique for analyzing information about vocations. Assisting pupils to secure relevant information about the facilities offered by various educational institutions engaging in vocational training. At the elementary stage, although no formal guidance programmes are needed, the orientation to vocation can be

initiated at this stage. At this stage some qualities and skills which have grater vocational significance viz. love and respect for manual work (ii) training in use of hands (iii) spirit of cooperative work (iii) sharing (vi) appreciation for all works (vii) good interpersonal relationship are to be developed. At the secondary stage vocational guidance should help the students to know themselves, to know the world of work, to develop employment readiness to develop decision making rules. At the higher education stages should be more formal one. The objectives of guidance at this stage are to help the students to get information about different career, training facilities, apprenticeship etc. 1.5.4 Avocational Guidance:251 The individual student spends only a small portion of his time i.e. 4 t0 6 hours per day in school. The rest of the time needs to be effectively managed and utilized by the child for his/her progress and development. Avocational guidance helps the child to judiciously utilize the leisure time. The other curricular activities play an important role in all-round development of the child .But many parents, Teachers and children put secondary importance to these activities. The students need to be properly guided for effective participation in varied types of avocational pursuits so that they are able to shape their interpersonal behavior in desirable direction and widen their outlook. 1.5.5 Social Guidance

We are social animals. But social relationships constitute a problem area for most of the students. School/educational institution is a miniature society and pupil from different socioeconomic status, linguistic and socio-cultural background read there.Students some time may face problems in adjustment and social relationship. It is very important that the students to be helped in acquiring in feeling of security and being accepted by the group;in developing social relationship and in becoming tolerant towards others. This is the task of social guidance. Formally social guidance can be given by educational institutions whereas informal guidance may be provided by Family, religious institutions, Media etc. 1.5.6 Moral Guidance Moral values occupy an important place in our life.Some times due to influence of diverse factors students tell lies and indulge in undesirable practices. Moral guidance helps in bringing these students in to proper track and help in their all round development. 1.5.7 Health Guidance Health is regarded as the wealth.Total health i.e. preventive and curative is the goal of health guidance.The health guidance may be a cooperative effort of Principal, Doctors, Counsellor/psychologist, Teachers, Students and parents. For promoting preventive care the conditions of school hostel, canteen needs to be checked. Similarly health education through formal classes and information is

essential in school education stages. In the present day the concern of health guidance also pertains to guidance in HIV/AIDs. 1.7 LET US SUM UP252 Guidance is a concept as well as a process. Guidance is different from education and counseling.Guidance is based upon the principles of holistic development of individual, recognition of individual differences and dignity and acceptance of individual needs .Guidance is needed wherever there are problems. Guidance helps in optimum development of individual, Solving different problem of the individual, Academic growth and development, Vocational maturity, vocational choices and vocational adjustments, Social personal adjustment., Better family life, for conservation and proper utilization of human resources, and national development. Guidance is helpful not only for student and teacher in an educational institution but also to the parents, administrators, planners and community members. A school guidance programme includes all those activities other than instructional which are carried out to render assistance to pupils in their educational, vocational, personal development and adjustment. The areas of guidance are very vast. Some of the important areas of guidance are personal, educational, vocational, avocational, health, social etc. 1.8 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1. What is guidance? Discuss the need and importance of guidance.

2. Discuss the principles upon which guidance is based. 3. State the importance of educational guidance and vocational guidance. 4. Write short notes on: a) Personal guidance b) Guidance and education c) Guidance and Counselling 1.8 SUGGESTED READINGS Agrawal,R(2006) Educational,Vocational Guidance and Counselling,New Delhi,Sipra Publication Bhatnagar,A AND Gupta,N(1999).Guidance and Counselling:A theoretical Approach(Ed),New Delhi,Vikash Publishing House Jones, A.J.(19510.Principles of Guidance and Pupil Personnel work,New Y ork,MiGraw Hill 253 Kochhar, S.K., (1985): Educational and Vocational Guidance in Secondary Schools,New Delhi,Strling Publisher NCERT(20080.Introduction to Guidance,Module -1,DEPFE,New Delhi 3 MODULE II :- CAREER GUIDANCE WORK & MENTAL HEALTH Unit Structure 3.1. Meaning of work, Compensation and Incentives. 3.1.1 Meaning of work.

3.1.2 Meaning of Compensation 3.1.3. Meaning of Incentive 3.2 Relation between work and leisure, work and incentives 3.2.1 Work and Leisure 3.2.2 Work and Incentives 3.3 Meaning, Characteristics and Need for Mental Health 3.3.1 Definition and Meaning of Mental Health 3.3.2 Characteristics of Mental Health 3.3.3 Need for Mental Health 3.4 Role of Guidance Personnel in promoting and preserving Mental Health 3.1. MEANING OF WORK, COMPENSATION AND INCENTIVES 3.1.1 Meaning of work: Introduction:-254 Work has evolved a lot since the industrial revolution partly due to the progress of sciences and technologies major transformations happened in the organizational structure and culture, with their consequences on the organizations of work 3.1.1 Meaning of work:Work is life, idleness is death With a few exceptions, nearly everyone has to work in order to make a living. The most obvious reason to work is the sheer necessity for survival. For those who wish to live a more affluent life, they work harder and longer to get extra income or overtime

remuneration. Work, then, is equivalent to a higher standard of living. * Work is either paid or unpaid. Paid work is what most people associate with team work *Unpaid work, includes housework and school work. Most people in full time employment work 5 days a week, although there has been an increase in the number of people working at weekends and part time. In recent years the ability to work flexible hours has grown its importance. *People do not necessarily enjoy work but they all enjoy the reward of their work and the reward is so tangible and immediate that no one can fail to appreciate it. Therefore it can be said that the primary objective of the multitude to work is for survival and for tangible material reward. Major approaches to study of meaning of work:There are three major approaches to the study of the meaning of work, the definitions of work, the orientations of work and the coherence of work. As such we can define the meaning of work in three ways, as illustrated in figure The significance of work: The concept of meaning of work can be defined as the significance of the subject attributes to work, his representation of work, and the importance it has in his life. *Work is central in many cultures, although every culture has its own values and conceptions about it. However, it seems that work 255

is important and significant for a majority of people considering the time that individuals devote to work in their lives, the numerous functions which it accomplishes for them and the fact that work is closely linked with other important aspects of daily life such as family, leisure, religion and community life. The notion of work has several definitions but they all share the idea of a purposeful activity. This notion generally refers to expanding energy through a set of co-ordinated activities aimed at producing something useful. Work may be pleasant or unpleasant and may or may not be associated with monetary exchanges. Moreover it does not Necessarily have to be accomplished in the context of a job. 3.1.2 Meaning of compensationIn financial terms, the salary and wages you pay to your employees for the work they do, no financial forms of compensation can also be offered to attract and retain staff. Ask any human resources consultant where financial compensation ranks in the hierarchy of employee requirements, and youre likely to get a range of answers. Some say its the most important thing others declare wages are the only important thing. Still others say that while financial compensation isnt the most important thing its important enough that if your paid isnt fair, all the other employee benefits in the world may not be enough to keep employees on board. Obviously its important to know whether you are paying

enough and how to get the most for what you are paying. In addition, you have to know how to bolster the actual dollars you lay out in salary and wages with non financial compensation. You dont pay employees in a vacuum. Thats another way of saying that the level of compensation that will attract and keep employees is set primarily by other employers. While theres no formula that will tell you the ideal salary for each position within your company there are appropriate ranges. Some of the key sources for determining suitable salary ranges for your employees are 1. Classified adv. listings for specific positions both in your daily newspaper and on the internet. 2. Professional and trade organizations for the specific fields in which youre hiring. Most organizations regularly publish salary data. 3. Human resources consultants.256 4. Specialized recruiters in the appropriate fields. While no one can discount the importance of financial rewards, keep in mind that todays job candidates are more concerned with corporate environment and quality of life issues than over before. In our executive survey conducted by Robert half. International Corporate Culture rivaled employee benefits are important for candidates during job interviews. Many small businesses use this trend as a competitive advantage, offering such non financial perks as flexible work schedules, casual dress

days, additional vacation time and tele commuting opportunities. The costs of this approach are minimal, particularly when compared to the value added benefits of improved recruitment, productivity and retention. Regardless of the monetary and non-monetary ways you compensate your employees, creating an employee-friendly environment and determining competitive compensation ranges take time Both require being flexible and adaptable to changing workplace trends and local conditions. The investment is worth itthe difference between a good company and a great company is its people. 3.1.3 Meaning of Incentive:A reward for a specific behavior designed to encourage that behavior also called inducements. Can you motivate employees during a recession with a successful employee incentive plan? By stuart Jennings: Bonus plans Pay for performance programs MBO programme commission plans stock option stock appreciation rights. Employee incentive plans go by many different names, youve undoubtedly seen your share. But, with our economy struggling, how should you approach your employee incentive plans differently to reach your organizations goals? Or can an employee incentive plan actually create the results you need? 3.2. RELATION BETWEEN WORK AND LEISURE,

WORK AND INCENTIVES: 3.2.1. Work and leisure Work work plays a major role in peoples like. When you think of work there are several definitions depending upon your own experiences and the society in which you live. In western societies, 257 paid employment is considered to be the most important type of work. Work is socially defined and needs to be understood in particular contexts work provides an individual with income, self identity and status. Leisure : Leisure is also an important aspect of peoples lives. Leisure activities are those associated with the beach, outdoor living and sport and form an important part of an Australian identity. Leisure can be defined as time not spent working or meeting the necessaries of life. It is also linked to quality of life issues. There is strong relationship between the type of work an individual does and the way they spend their leisure time. Leisure has become a commodity to be purchased and this results in the exclusion of some groups in society. Market forces exclude the unemployed the poor and elderly from participation. Leisure can be divided in active and passive forms. Interrelationship between work and leisure The differentiation between work and leisure is basic to all definitions. Generally work is understood to be remunerative, required by social norms and necessary for the maintenance of the self and family leisure is non

work i.e. leisure is not remunerative, not required by social expectations, and not necessary for status or survival. However, all non work is not considered leisure. The relationship between work and leisure work is dependent upon quality of life issues and varies with each individual depending upon their choice of work. For some groups of people leisure is an extension of their work activities. Leisure activities are related to job satisfaction and involvement in work. Work also provides the financial means with which to participate in leisure Leisure activities engaged in by individuals are dependent on the work undertaken and level of education. Professional sports people engage in leisure activate and also receive monetary payments. For some people the skills they have also extend into a means of earning a living. Educational institutions provide individuals with necessary skills and the means to participate in meaningful employment. This in turn also influences the types of leisure activities undertaken and often provides status, control and a degree of choice about participation in leisure activities. The media is increasingly influencing leisure activities. 3.2.2. Relationship between work and Incentives-Managing employee performance is steadily rising to the top of many senior leaders agendas. The fast pace of business, an ultra-competitive 258 marketplace and increasing customer demands have made it difficult for leaders to quickly and effectively respond to everchanging market conditions. Compounded by declining workforce

productivity, escalating employee disengagement and the forthcoming retirement of 76 million baby boomers, companies are being forced to finally focus their attention on their most valuable assets: their employees. Corporations worldwide are scrambling to find effective ways to attract and retain the best talent, but also to elevate their performance, productivity and service levels to new heights. Embodied in this quest is the ability to align individual behaviors with strategic corporate objectives and, importantly, to motivate and reward those who meet or exceed those objectives. In todays business climate, organizations must achieve maximum return on investment (ROI) in their people to boost corporate performance and gain a competitive advantage. The new must have Employee performance is everything its what distinguishes top performing companies from those who are struggling. Statistics show that companies who recognize their people outperform companies that dont by 30 to 40 percent. Businesses are beginning to understand the value of investing resources to establish, market and support improved performance improvement strategies for one compelling reason: satisfied, motivated and dedicated individuals are increasingly critical to corporate survival and imperative for growth. When senior management discusses motivating employees, the conversation typically turns to 401k plans, health care benefits,

stock options and other compensation vehicles. Recognition and incentive programs are rarely mentioned in the context of that conversation, despite the fact that 78 percent of companies have at least one performance-related program in place. This must change if leaders expect to take advantage of the full arsenal of tools available to help them achieve their corporate objectives. Research is proving that recognition and incentive programs are powerful and effective vehicles for boosting corporate performance and the bottom line. Smart Human Resource executives are taking the cue and expanding their portfolio of solutions to include incentive programs, as well as recognition programs in that arsenal. Incentives are commonly associated with sales initiatives; so few professionals outside of the sales arena have fully embraced them as tried-and-true methods for raising overall employee productivity. This is a missed opportunity because we have learned that incentive programs can be used to inspire employees throughout the enterprise. A recent study found that 88 to 95 259 percent of all incentive programs reach or exceed their goals, and that the ROI on non-sales employee programs (200 percent) is actually greater than the ROI on incentives directed to sales staff (134 percent). Exploring the broader use of incentives compliments another innovative corporate trend aligning internal and external branding efforts to maximize customer satisfaction and profitability. Internal branding is defined as motivating internal audiences (employees) to

deliver the quality service promised by advertising and sales. Research by The Forum for People Performance Management & Measurement at Northwestern University discovered a direct link between employee satisfaction, customer satisfaction, and a companys profitability, even when the employees did not have direct customer contact. If you want employees to understand the corporate message and to treat your customers the right way, you have to set the example by making sure they have that message and they're treated with the same care and respect you want them to demonstrate to customers. Internal branding also thrusts motivation and performance improvement into the C-suite because brand equity is a C-level priority, giving HR professionals an opportunity to demonstrate the strategic value of recognition to the CEO. Proven results = C-suite interest We now have a growing body of compelling research from credible sources around the world on the positive and significant impact of recognition and incentive programs on a companys financial performance. The research demonstrates that companies who engage in incentive and recognition programs are significantly outperforming their competitors (who don't run programs) in bottom line savings, contributions to the profit line and shareholder return. This is important news for companies seeking every possible advantage in the marketplace. The research has attracted the attention of business leaders

and helped them to realize that everyone in their company is affecting the organizations ability to compete and thrive. Theres no better vehicle for a CEO to communicate what's important to the company than to recognize and reward people for the behaviors and results that drive the company towards success. Recognition programs have proven to be a highly effective means of aligning the boardroom and the lunchroom and cascading the companys strategic imperatives throughout the organization and into the hands of the people who can make them a reality. people who are often anxious to make a meaningful contribution. Maximizing ROI260 Frequently, companies run a number of disparate recognition and incentive programs that span various departments. A common approach has been to allow each department to implement a unique program with goals and rewards specific to the individuals in that unit. However, when you have independent programs within an organization there is often poor accountability for ROI or clear line of sight to overall results. Most companies dont really know how much theyre actually spending on programs let alone how much value theyre extracting from them. Running a multitude of disparate programs also undermines the opportunity for creating a consistent, over-arching performance-based culture throughout the company. Additionally, theres the danger that employees will perceive that one department is favored over another or that some

managers are offering more generous awards. Companies are consolidating many of their programs to decrease expenses and increase effectiveness. Multiple programs are being pulled into one corporate-wide program with numerous sub-programs and variations to address the specific needs of different business units or geographical locations. This consolidation helps strip-out cost and administrative burden while insuring a unified message and application throughout the enterprise. Organizations are also becoming much more aware of all the contributors to corporate success and are implementing performance and recognition programs to help align and recognize more employees for their contributions to those successes. Employers have realized that everyone in the company not just the sales team can contribute to revenue growth and operational efficiencies that help a company prosper. Leaders need to gain the support and buy-in from everyone who can influence company results. Keep in mind that if youre not actively engaging employees in your goals, they may be working against your efforts even if its done unintentionally and inadvertently. Nowadays, some of those additional participants are likely to be based around the world. The internet allows us to easily execute programs across borders and many HR professionals are delighted to finally be able to offer something better than watered down versions of their domestic programs to those employees who live

and work beyond the corporate office. Offshore employees are pushing for these programs as well, unwilling to be bystanders in the companys recognition efforts any longer. Online program technology does the heavy lifting of language translation, currency conversions, and creating multiple award catalogs that reflect the 261 brands and types of awards that will be compelling and relevant in different countries. Track and measure Demand is rising steadily for more measurement in recognition and incentive programs. Companies are looking to reward the quantifiable, actionable behaviors of their employees and more metrics are being introduced into programs. Theres also a growing interest in tracking program performance throughout its course, rather than waiting until the end to assess the results. Sales incentive programs have always been focused on measurement, usually on revenue growth or sales. Traditionally, recognition programs have been more discretionary: you catch someone doing something beyond the call of duty and reward them. Now many recognition programs are also focusing on very specific corporate goals or initiatives to avoid being viewed as an entitlement or risking programs being eliminated due to ambiguous results. Tracking metrics during the program allows you to quantify the end result and also affect the outcome you can intercede if a group is not performing well and provide extra training

or assistance. Or, you can spread the word about a successful initiative so that everyone can benefit from the example. Inspire reward achieve As workplaces change, employees are asked to adapt, learn, re-adapt, and re-learn in order to ensure that companies themselves retain a competitive edge. Recognizing these employees for service, achievement or performance is vital to corporate health. A well-known veteran of recognition, Herb Kelleher, former CEO of Southwest Airlines believes that anyone who looks at things solely in terms of factors that can easily be quantified is missing the heart of the business, which is people." Herb has it exactly right on a number of levels. First, as companies have automated their back offices with Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) solutions and implemented Customer Relationship and Supply Chain Management systems (CRM), they have benefited significantly from the efficiencies and cost savings of these applications. The next big thing is to focus on implementing and improving those processes and programs that manage our people assets. Recognition and incentive programs are a proven, strategic opportunity to do just that. Few initiatives can deliver such significant ROI and also advance the companys reputation as a great place to work in the process.262 Secondly, as people performance is increasingly being recognized as the means with which companies can gain competitive edge, people are also identified as the method to

achieving those results. As more and more leaders make the shift to a strategic view of recognition and incentives, and the powerful dynamics of rewarding those individuals who directly contribute to the success of the organization, the gap will widen between the companies who thrive and those that will struggle or disappear. Outdated view: Strategic view: Employees as expenses Employees as assets and profit drivers Recognition and incentive programs as a discretionary cost Recognition and incentive programs as a major source of shareholder value Recognition and incentive program owners as administrators Recognition and incentive program owners as thought leaders Finally, Herbs words remind us that the people we influence with recognition and incentive programs are busy spending their day influencing other vital corporate assets customers! The link between customer satisfaction and loyalty, and employee satisfaction and loyalty has been firmly established: happy customers are a result of happy and engaged employees. That means that putting performance programs to work for you is far more than a nice idea. Its the strategic and profitable thing to do. 3.3.Meaning, Characteristics and need for Mental Health It has always been easier to define mental illnesses than to define mental health. More recently many have recognized that mental health is more than the absence of mental illness. Even

though many of us dons suffer from a diagnosable mental disorder, it is clean that some of us are mentally disorder it is clear that some of us are mentally healthier than others. 3.3.1Definition and Meaning of Mental Health Mental health is a concept that refers to a human individuals emotional, psychological and intellectual well being. A branch of medicine that deals with the achievement and maintenance of psychological well being. 1. Definition: A state of emotional & psychological well being in which an individual is able to use his or her cognitive and emotional capabilities function in society, and meet the ordinary demands of everyday life.263 2. Dianne Hales and Robert Hales define mental Health as the capacity to think rationally and logically and to cope with the transitions, stresses, traumas and losses that occur in all lives, in ways that allow emotional stability and growth. In general mentally healthy individuals value themselves, perceive reality as it is, a accept its limitation and possibilities, respond to its challenges carry out their responsibilities, establish and maintain close relationships, deal reasonably with others, pursue work that suits their talent and training and feel sense of fulfillment that makes the efforts of daily living worthwhile. Definitions of mental health are changing. It used to be that a person was considered to have good mental health simply if they

showed no signs or symptoms of a mental illness. But in recent years there has been a shift towards a more holistic approach to mental health. Today we recognize that good mental health is not just the absence of mental illness. Nor is it absolute some people are more mentally healthy than others, whether you are mentally ill or not. These realizations are promoting a new kind of focus on mental health that identifies components of mental wellness and mental fitness and explore ways to encourage them. It is commonly known in the mental health field that in order to achieve good mental health, you also need a healthy dose of self esteem. However what has not been stressed adequately is the importance and need to nurture such traits such as positive emotional wellness, optimism, memories and happiness. 3.3.2. Characteristics of mental health: * Ability to enjoy life The ability to enjoy life is essential to good mental health, can you live in the moment and appreciate the now? Are you able to learn from the past and plan for the future without dwelling on things you cant change or predictJames Taylor wrote that the secret of life is enjoying the passing of time. Any fool can do it. There aint nothing to it The practice of mindfulness, meditation is one way to cultivate the ability to enjoy the present. We of course need to plan for the future at times and we also need to learn from the past. Too often we make ourselves miserable in the present by worrying about the future.

* Resilience The ability to bounce back from adversity has been referred to as resilience. Are you able to bounce back from hard times. Can you manage the stress of a serious life event without losing your optimism and a sense of perspective? It has been long known that some people handle stress better than others, why do some adults raised in alcoholic families 264 do well, while others have repeated problems in life? The Characteristic of resilience is shared by those who cope well with stress. *.Balance : Balance in life seems to result in greater mental health. Are you able to juggle the many aspects of your life? Can you recognize when you might be devoting too much time to one aspect, at the expense of others? Are you able to make changes to restore balance when necessary? We all need to balance time spent socially with time spent alone. E.g Those who spend all of their time alone may get labeled as loners and they may lose many of their social skills. Extreme social isolation may even result in a split with reality. Those who ignore the need for some solitary times also risk such a split. Balance these two needs seems to be the key although we all balance these differently. Other areas where balance seems to be important include the balance between work and play, the balance between sleep and wakefulness, the balance between rest and exercise, and even

the balance between time spent indoors and time spent outdoors. Flexibility- Do you feel and express a range of emotions? When problems arise can you change your expectations of life, others, yourself to solve the problem and feel better. We all know some people hold very rigid opinions. No amount of discussion can change their views. Such people often set themselves up for added stress by the rigid expectations that they hold working on making our expectations more flexible can improve our mental health. Mental healthy people experience a range of emotions and allow themselves to express these feelings. Some people shut off certain feelings finding them to be unacceptable. This emotional rigidity may result in other mental health problems. *.Self actualization Do you recognize and develop your strengths so that you can reach your full potential? What have we made of the gifts that we have been given? We all know people who have surpassed their potential and others who seem to have squandered their gifts. We first need to recognize our gifts, of course, and the process of recognition is part of the path toward self actualization. Mentally healthy persons are in the process of actualizing their potential. In order to do this we must first feel secure.265 There are just a few of the concepts that are important in attempting to define mental health. The ability to form healthy relationships with others is also important.

Adult and Adolescent mental health also includes the concepts of self esteem and healthy sexuality. How we deal with loss and death to also an important of mental health. Mental Health is more than just the absence of mental illness. It includes how you feel about yourself and how you adjust to life events. However, the National Mental Health Association cites 10 characteristics of people who are mentally healthy. 11.They feel good about themselves 12.They do not become overwhelmed by emotions such as fear, anger, love, jealousy, guilt or anxiety 13.They have lasting and satisfying personal relationships 14.They feel comfortable with other people 15.They can laugh at themselves and with others 16.They have respect for themselves and for others even if there are differences. 17.They are able to accept lifes disappointments 18.They can meet lifes demands and handle their problems when they arise. 19.They make their own decisions 20.They shape their environment whenever possible and adjust to it when necessary. 3.3.3. NEED for Mental Health Many people are reluctant to use mental health services because of the stigma of having an emotional problem. Society has a tendency to view mental health issues differently from medical ones. When someone breaks a leg,

has chest plains, or needs to get a prescription, theyll see a doctor. However, when they experience depression, excessive fears, or a problem with alcohol, they may be embarrassed to seek help. Many people view these conditions as weaknessess they should handle themselves, unfortunately, this view prevents them fro getting professional assistance that may alleviate their problems. To recognize an emotional problem and receive help is not at all a sign of weakness. Rather, these positive actions are characteristics of strong individuals. Also, seeing a therapist at a mental health clinic or student counseling centre is completely confidential. No information will be released without your 266 permission except in situations involving child, or elder abuser or suicidal intent. 3.4. ROLE OF GUIDANCE PERSONNEL IN PROMOTING AND PRESERVING MENTAL HEALTH. The main purpose of the Mental Health Act is to provide authority, criteria and procedures for involuntary admission and treatment. However, the Act also contains protections to ensure that these provisions are applied in an appropriate and lawful manner. Safeguards for the rights of people involuntarily admitted to a psychiatric facility include rights notification, medical examinations at specified time periods, second medical opinions on proposed treatment and access to review panels and the court. Guide to the Mental Health Act 2

Most people in British Columbia requiring hospital treatment for mental disorders are voluntarily admitted to hospital, just like people with other illnesses. A sizable number of people with serious mental disorders, however, refuse to accept psychiatric treatment. (In 2003 there were approximately 8,000 involuntary admissions.) Without involuntary admission and treatment made possible by the Mental Health Act, these seriously mentally ill people would continue to suffer, causing significant disruption and harm to their lives and the lives of others. With involuntary hospital admission and treatment, most people quickly improve to the point that they can continue as voluntary patients or resume their lives in the community. The majority of people involuntarily admitted are discharged within one month. A person can only be admitted as an involuntary patient under the Mental Health Act to facilities designated by the Minister of Health. The term designated facility in the Act and in this Guide refers to designated inpatient Provincial mental health facilities, psychiatric units and observation units. A list of hospitals and other facilities designated as psychiatric units, Provincial mental health facilities (inpatient) and observation units is in Appendix 1. Observation units are short stay units in small hospitals, where the person is stabilized within a few days and, if continuing inpatient treatment is necessary, transferred. Section 22(7) of the Act and Section 2(2) of the Regulation require that a patient

admitted to an observation unit must be transferred to a Provincial mental health facility or a psychiatric unit within 5 days after a second Medical Certificate is received by the director of the 267 observation unit. This transfer requirement applies only to patients who need further inpatient care and does not apply if the patient is discharged, or released on extended leave (Section 6.0). There is no legal authority for a hospital or any other health care facility that has not been designated as a provincial mental health facility or a psychiatric unit or observation unit to hold or admit a person for whom a Medical Certificate has been completed. The hospital or certifying physician may have the patient transported to the designated facility. It is the mutual obligation of the closest designated facility and the non-designated hospital to find a bed for the patient. A non-designated hospital should only care for the patient while in transit to a designated facility. As an example, it is usually preferable to temporarily admit to hospital someone awaiting transportation to a psychiatric unit than to hold them in a jail cell. Non-designated hospitals are advised to develop protocols with the closest designated facility. The person responsible for the operation of a designated facility is referred to in the Mental Health Act as the director. The director is responsible for ensuring each patient is provided with professional service, care and treatment appropriate to the patients condition (Section 8 of the Act).3 Guide to the Mental Health Act Job stress can be defined as the harmful physical and emotional

response that occurs when the requirements of the job do not match the capabilities, resources or needs of the worker (18). Job stress can cause poor health and can increase rates of workrelated injuries and accidents. Some potential causes of work related stress are overwork, lack of clear instructions, unrealistic deadlines, lack of decisionmaking, job insecurity, isolated working conditions, surveillance, and inadequate child-care arrangements Although sexual harassment and discrimination are often excluded from lists of traditional job stressors, they must be included in any comprehensive analysis of the causes of workplace stress. Sexual harassment is a stressor for women in the workplace; and discrimination is a stronger predictor of health outcomes, including mental ill-health, for ethnic minorities than traditional job stressors (20). Some of the many effects of stress include numerous physical ailments as well as mental health problems such as depression and increased rates of Other possible stress-reducing accommodations include: altering the pace of work; lowering the noise level of work; providing water, tea or soda and crushed ice to combat a dry mouth caused by some medications; 268 extra encouragement and praise of job performance, but only if warranted and not obviously excessive; while taking steps to reduce stress, avoidance of over-protection of the employee;

 making sure the employee is treated as a member of the team and not excluded from social events, business meetings or other activities relevant to the job. Mental health at work Should you mention your panic attacks at the interview? Can you take time off sick with depression? What are the pros and cons of telling your employer, and what are your rights? If you have a mental health condition such as depression, anxiety or bi-polar disorder, you may not feel you want to tell current or prospective employers. When mental health charity Rethink surveyed 3,000 mental health service users, half the respondents said they felt they had to hide their health problems and 41% were put off applying for jobs in the first place. But it doesn't have to be like that. Good employers realise that a staff member who has experienced mental illness such as depression can be an asset. They often have a better understanding of their own strengths and weaknesses and can help and support other members of staff with similar problems. And new legislation currently going through the House of Lords means you won't have to answer questions about your health before being offered a job. Positive employers Some employers go out of their way to show their commitment to equal opportunities. For example, over 590 organisations have signed up to the Mindful Employer Charter for

Employers who are Positive About Mental Health. Jobcentre Plus awards the 'two ticks' symbol to companies in England, Scotland and Wales who have shown they are positive about employing disabled people, which applies to some mental health conditions, and committed to supporting their needs in the workplace. "Having experience of mental distress does not mean you cant have a successful career" "This doesn't mean employers who aren't involved in the scheme can't be supportive," says Emma Mamo, senior policy and campaigns officer at mental health charity Mind. "The important thing to remember is that having experience of mental distress does not mean you can't have a successful career. Many high 269 achievers have a mental health problem so if you're a career-driven person, don't let it stop you from pursuing your chosen path." Support in the workplace "One in four people experience a mental health problem in any one year, so it's by no means rare to develop a problem while you are at work," says Emma. "Telling your employer what you are going through can help them to support you through tough times. Employers will often work with individuals to make adjustments that are mutually beneficial, for example support managing your workload, working from home, or even small things like changing where your desk is." "If you qualify for protection under the Disability Discrimination Act, your employer should make reasonable

adjustments to support you in the workplace. This could include relaxing absence rules and limits, or allowing you to work flexi hours to make up the time." The legal situation An amendment to the Equality Bill bans employers from asking applicants about their health until after a job offer has been made. Under this legislation, you can choose to tell a prospective employer that you have a mental health condition, for example if they are part of the 'two ticks' scheme, but they can't ask about it at the application or interview stage. Information about your mental health is considered to be 'sensitive personal data' under data protection legislation. Employers should ensure only appropriate access is given to any information they hold about your mental health. The main body of legislation concerning unfair treatment in the workplace is the Disability Discrimination Act 1995, which covers mental illness and related problems. Your employer has a duty to ensure the health, safety, and welfare of their employees, and must not discriminate against mentally ill/disabled staff or applicants (provided they employ more than 15 people). If you're worried about your rights or feel you're experiencing discrimination, you can get advice from your local Citizens Advice Bureau, your trade union if you belong to one and charities such as Mind.

If you think you have been unfairly dismissed, you can take your employer to a tribunal, but you must act quickly as there's a three-month time limit. 270 Directors are appointed by the authority, usually a health authority (i.e., the Board), operating the designated facility (Section 3 of the Regulation). The director may authorize specific individuals or positions to carry out the director functions. For example, physicians may be authorized to admit and discharge. The senior nurse on duty in the hospital or the ward or a physician could be authorized to sign consent forms for involuntary treatment or warrants after regular business hours. These authorizations should be in written form, signed by the director. CONCLUSIONS The central themes of this monograph were: to address the importance of work for people with mental health problems; to discuss the different vocational strategies and programmes for people with a mental health disorder; and to consider the role of the workplace in promoting good mental health practices for employees. Integral to these themes is the identification of good practices by employers as well as vocational rehabilitation agencies and professionals. It is clear that there are many factors involved in addressing the importance of work for people with mental health problems, as well as identifying effective practices that encourage employment, re-employment and retention. Social support

systems, mental health professionals and employers all have a significant role in helping individuals define options, make choices, learn to manage potentially disabling conditions, and avoid longterm hospitalization. The ultimate goal is for individuals to obtain and/or return to gainful, worthwhile activity, such as meaningful work Access to satisfying work remains one of the most soughtafter goals of the adult population of most countries. Employers, employees and unions are starting to realize that, for this population, mental health problems are the single most important cause of disability responsible for a global burden of disease larger than that due to infections, AIDS, cancer and physical accidents. The impact of mental health problems on absenteeism, productivity and job satisfaction is only starting. Given the importance of work, and due to advances made in the prevention, treatment and rehabilitation of persons with mental health problems, it makes eminent sense to address all aspects of the mental well-being of employees. For the same reasons, the disability associated with severe mental health problems can no longer serve as an excuse to deny those who so wish reasonable access to competitive employment. 271 7A (A) CONCEPT OF COUNSELLING Unit Structure: 7A.0 Objectives

7A.1 Introduction 7A.2. Concept of Counselling 7A.2.1 Meaning of Counselling 7A.2.2 Characteristics of Counselling 7A.2.3 Functions of Counselling 7A.3 Principles of Counselling 7A.4 Goals of Counselling 7A.5 Types of Counselling 7A.5.1 Directive Counselling 7A.5.2 Non directive Counselling 7A.5.3 Eclectic Counselling 7A.5.4 Online Counselling 7A.6 Process of Counselling 7A.6.1 Stages of Counselling 7A.6.2 Skills of Counselling 7A.7 Characteristics & skills of a counsellor 7A.8 Role & Functions of counsellor 7A.9 Let us sum up 7A.0 OBJECTIVES After reading this unit, students will be able to: Explain the concept of counselling State the types of counselling Explain the process of counselling Explain the characteristics & skills of counsellor Describes the role & functions of a counsellor272

7A.1 INTRODUCTION In the first unit, you have read about guidance. Sometimes you may be confused about the two terms guidance & counselling. In this unit, we will discuss about the concept of counselling, its meaning, principles & goals. We will also know about the process of counselling & role & functions of a counsellor. Counselling is the central aspect of the whole guidance programme. All the activities and Services of the guidance programme leads to and help in the Counselling process. Counselling is aimed at helping the individual in solving problems in future and also enhancing personal, social, emotional, educational and vocational development. Counselling has Remedial, Preventive and Developmental value. 7A.2 THE CONCEPT OF COUNSELLING Counselling the intimate and vital part of entire guidance. Websters Dictionary defines Counselling as consultation, mutual interchange of opinions, deliberating together. Wren says counselling is a dynamic and purposeful relationship between two people who approach a mutually defined problem with mutual consideration for each other to the end that the younger or less mature, or more troubled of the two is aided to a self determined resolution of his problem. Counselling is helping a person to come to see who he really is, what he has and does not have, what he can do easily, what he can do with difficulty and what he cannot do at all. It is a close sharing of a human relationship with one who has for him a

high regard; one who can offer him unconditional acceptance, but one who has no guarantees, no answers. Counselling is a process that occurs between two individualscounsellor and counselee (client) It. takes place within a professional setting. It is initiated and maintained as a means of facilitating changes in the behaviour of the client. It is a professional task for professionally trained people. 7A.2.1 MEANING OF COUNSELLING273 Though the term guidance and counselling is used interchangeably, both the terms have different meaning. We have studied about guidance, now we will know about counselling. In everyday life, we find counselling goes on at many levels. In a family, parents counsel their children, doctors counsel patients, lawyers to clients and teachers to students. There is no limitation to the problems or counsellors in providing counselling, so, let us know what counselling is. According to Webster dictionary counselling is defined as Consultation, mutual interchange of opinions, deliberating together. Counselling is a dynamic and purposeful relationship between two people who approach a mutually defined problem, with mutual consideration of each other to the end that the younger or less mature or more troubled of the two is aided to a self determined resolution to his problem - Wren-

Counselling is an interaction process which facilitates meaningful understanding of self and environment and results in the establishment and or clarification of goals and values for future behaviors -Shertzer and Stone.Counselling is an accepting, trusting and safe relationship in which clients learn to discuss openly what worries and upsets them, to define precise behaviour goals, to acquire the essential social skills and to develop the courage and self confidence to implement desired new behaviour- Merle M. Ohlsen.Counselling is a process by which a troubled person (client) is helped to tell and behave in a more personally satisfying manner through interaction with an uninvolved person (counsellor) who provides information and reactions which stimulate the client to develop behaviour which enable him to deal more effectively with himself and his environment. -Edwin Lewis.If all the definitions are analyzed we can come to the following conclusions. Counselling is a two way process. It involves two individuals. There is mutual relationships between the two individuals. It helps an individuals to gain self understanding self acceptance and self realization274 It helps an individual to become happier more creative and better adjusted. Let us now discuss what Counselling is not.

Counselling is a process which included a number of activities like giving information, advice & counselling etc. But it is not an individual activity like giving information / advice / suggestion / recommendation only. From this it is clear that what counselling is. Counselling constitutes the three activities like I - Informing A- Advising and C - Counselling Informing: Here the role of the counsellor is to give appropriate and correct information to the clients. For example you are a student and you need counselling to select your course for the future. Here the role of the counsellor is to give you information about the availability of different courses & its future prospects. Advising: In this stage the counsellor suggests appropriate courses of action. Here the counsellor will offer you several options and recommends one according to your aim or interest. For example if your aim is to be an engineer, the counsellor will suggest you a course related to applied mathematics. Counselling: In this stage counsellor helps the students to clarify his needs, feelings or motivations so that he can make the appropriate decision for himself.

For example if you will tell, you have no aim or you can not decide what you will do in the future. So the counsellor will ask you if you are not sure about what to do in future but you must want to do something interesting so describe about your idea. Like this the counsellor can motivate you to find out your idea & can recommend you the course according to your interest. So counselling is student dependent rather than knowledge dependent. As a counsellor or a person needs skill rather than knowledge it needs high level of interpersonal skills. So counselling 275 is a process which constitutes information, advising and counselling. You can think of these three activities as a continuous spectrum of areas which merge into each other. 7A.2.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF COUNSELLING: The concept of Counselling will be clear to you by knowing its meaning, characteristics & functions. Counselling involves two individuals - one seeking help and the other, a professionally trained person, who can help the first. There should be a relationship of mutual respect between the two. The counsellor should be friendly and cooperative and the counselee should have trust and confidence in the counsellor. The aim of counselling is to help a student form a decision, make a choice or seek direction. It helps a counselee to acquire independence and develop a sense of responsibility, explore and utilize his potentialities. It is more than advice giving. The progress comes through

the thinking that a person with a problem does for himself rather than through solutions offered by the counsellor. Its function is to produce changes in the individual that will enable him to extricate himself from his difficulties. Emotional rather than purely intellectual attitudes are the raw material of the counselling process. It helps an individual to know himself better, gives him confidence, encourages his selfdirectedness and provides him with new vision to grow. Check Your Progress 1. Define Counselling. 2. Explain the characteristics of Counselling. 7A.2.3 FUNCTIONS OF COUNSELLING:276 Like guidance, counselling has also three fold functions adjust mental, oriental and developmental. Adjustmental Functions: Rapid social change brought about by industrialization and urbanization has led to several perplexing problems. The pace of this change is ever on the increase, thus making adjustment a continuous process of grappling way with new situations. Counselling helps the student in making the best possible adjustment to the current situations be it in educational institution, occupational world, in the home & in the community. Professional and individualized aid is given in making immediate & suitable adjustment at problem points. Oriental function:

Oriental function means to orient the person about his environmental constraints & resources and her personal constraints & resources by giving information and awareness in problems of career planning, educational programming etc. Awareness of the need to plan in the context of the complexity of the world of work is an essential pre-requisite of going through education and preparation for after education. So oriental function is the important function in the counselling process. It is a link between adjustment and development function. If the person is properly oriented, he can develop his plan properly & adjust suitable with himself and society. Developmental function Developmental function means not only to help the students having problems but also to help the students before the problems arise. For example, we are giving vaccination to the child as a preventive measure. Even then when the child suffers from a particular disease we take the help of special doctor to cure it. So both the processes are coming under health development. Likewise in the counselling process the function of counselling is to prevent emergence & maladjustment and cure the person having maladjustment to adjust with the problem situation. Therefore the development function helps in. Self-development Self-realization277 Development of society and

National development So we can say that counselling has not only its functions towards the individual but to the society & nation also. 7.A.3 PRINCIPLES OF COUNSELLING We have already discussed the meaning and principles of guidance. Now we will discuss the principles of counselling. The principles on which the process of counselling is based areIt involves a face-to-face relationship between two persons. It is emotional rather than purely intellectual attitude. It is more than advice giving. The progress comes through the thinking that a person with a problem does for himself. It involves solution of immediate problem as well as the future decision of the individual. The counsellor should follow the above principles while counselling to make the process of counselling effective. It is not an easy task. To make the process successful the counsellor should also follow certain principles in his own self to develop his skills. He should follow the principles as given below during counselling. Warmth: The Counsellor should communicate personal warmth and make the client feel welcome valued as individuals. Acceptance: The Counsellor should accept the person & his feelings for what he is without criticizing him. He should also accept the person irrespective of age, race, sex, etc.

Genuineness: The counsellor should be very honest with himself and with client he should be very open, friendly and undefensive. Empathy: Instead of showing sympathy to the person having problem, the counsellor should show empathy, which means to sense the feelings and experience of another person.278 In order to make good relationship the above qualities should be acquired by a counsellor. He should imbibe these qualities to follow the principles of counselling properly. Check you progress - III Q.1 Write the full form of I A C, which constitutes the meaning of counselling. Q.2 The function which helps in self-realization is the function of counselling. Q.3 Write the meaning of empathy. 7A.4 GOALS OF COUNSELLING: WELCOME TO THE COUNSELLORS CABIN When you enter The Cabin you will be greeted by a warm and friendly atmosphere that invites you Come on in and make yourself at home. Prominently displayed a copy of The Serenity Prayer, which serves as both counselling mantra and mission statement. It reads as follows: GOD GRANT ME THE SERENITY

TO ACCEPT THE THINGS I CANNOT CHANGE, COURAGE TO CHANGE THE THINGS I CAN, AND WISDOM TO KNOW THE DIFFERENCE. SERENITY is an acronym use to explain the major components of counselling program to help you determine if you would benefit from engaging in this process.279 Spirituality-associated with wholeness/wellness; a sense of meaning/purpose Evaluation - assess the problem by taking it apart and putting it back together Relationships-Your relationships define and represent who you are. Emotions - What are you feeling right now? Its important to know. Needs - Identify your needs; they are directly related to what you are feeling. Interpersonal skills - Life is a series of conversations. What is you style? Treatment - Your personal plan of thinking, feeling, and acting differently. You - Since you are the expert on you, you are the key to your success. As a counsellor you should focus on wellness and personal growth and work extensively on helping people to enhance the quality of their relationships. Many of clients are in search of meaning and direction in various life settings including school, family, and career all of which

involve relationships. Empowerment over life comes through thinking clearly and making wise choices. Unfortunately, problems can become so overwhelming it is difficult to accomplish either one of these. Counselling will equip you with life strategies to help you think, feel, and act differently in order to enhance the quality of your life. If you read the above statements of Dr. Sackys Cabin, one of the counsellors cabin you will understand the goals of counselling. The acronym serenity is the goals of counselling.280 7A.5 THE TYPES OF COUNSELLING Based on the nature of the counselling process and the role of the counsellor, the following are the three types of counselling Types of Counselling Directive Counselling Non-Directive counselling Eclectic Counselling -WILLIAMSON -CARL ROGERS -BORDIN 7A.5.1 DIRECTIVE COUNSELLING: B. G. Williamson is the chief exponent. The counsellor assumes the major responsibility of solving the problem. Counsellor identifies, defines, diagnoses and provides a solution to the problem. Counsellor directs thinking by informing explaining, interpreting and advising. Counsellor-oriented. Emphasis is on the problem.

Steps: Role of the Counsellor Analysis- collecting data from various sources to understand the clients problem. Synthesis - interpreting and organizing data to reveal students assets, liabilities, adjustments etc. Diagnosis - identifying the nature and cause of the problem. Prognosis-predicting the future development of the problem. Counselling - taking steps to bring about adjustment Follow up- helping with recurrence or new patterns. Merits Time saving and economical Gives happiness to the counselee as he gets a solution to this problem.281 Emphasis is on the intellectual rather than the emotional aspect. Demerits Kills the initiative Makes him helpless Does not guide counselee to be efficient and confident Undemocratic Made dependent 7A.5.2 NON DIRECTIVE COUNSELLING (Client-oriented / Centered Counselling): Chief exponent - Carl Rogers Counselee is allowed free expression

Counsellor only directs and guides Counsellor asks a few questions, so as to think about the solution of the problem. Counselee takes active part, gains insight into the problem with the help of the counsellor and arrives at the decision and action to be taken Counsellors role is passive Goal is independent and integration of the client rather than the solution Role of the counsellor is to create an atmosphere in which the counselee can work out his own understanding Emotional aspect rather than the intellectual aspect is stressed Counselling relationship is the establishment of a warm, permissive and accepting climate which helps the client to express his self structure. Merits Freedom of the individual Relieves tensions due to catharsis Moves toward acceptance of himself Confronts weaknesses without feeling threatened Demerits Time consuming Wisdom and judgement of the client cannot be relied upon All the problems cannot be sorted out through talking282

7A.5.3 ECLECTIC COUNSELLING : Chief exponent - Bordin (Thome) Counselling may be evaluated along a continuum from directive to non directive to directive Eclectic is a continuation and synthesis of directive and nondirective counselling Both counsellor and counselee are active and cooperative Both do the talking in turn The problem is solved jointly The counsellor studies the needs and personality of the client and then selects the technique (appropriate). Begins with directive but switches over to non-directive or vice versa as demanded by the situation. Steps Initial interview Develops rapport and does structuring so that client understands what to expect from the counselling Tentative diagnosis and plan of counselling is formulated Gathers information about the client and the client needs to be helped to assimilate this information Client achieves emotional release and gains insights, modifies perceptions/attitudes about himself and situations Check Your Progress 1. Name the types of counselling with their exponents. 2. Differentiate between Directive and Non-Directive

counselling. 3. Why is Eclectic Counselling preferred to Directive and Nondirective counselling? 7A.5.4 ON LINE COUNSELLING:283 Online counselling refers to the provision of professional mental health counselling services concerns via the internet. Services are typically offered via email, real time chat and video conferencing. Some clients use online counselling in conjunction with traditional psychotherapy, and others use it as an occasional check-in tool for their lives. Online Counselling: Online counselling is simply communicating with a qualified, professional counsellor/therapist by email or chat through your computer, Instead of having to make a visit to your counsellors office; you can receive the same professional care in the comfort of your own home. If you have a microphone, we can speak to each other through the computer. Whether you choose only a few email exchanges or on ongoing dialogue with the counsellor over time, you have the opportunity to share your concerns, pose questions, and gain further insight into the problems you are addressing. Advantages of using Online Counselling Convenient - any time, any place, whatever suits you Flexible - you control everything, receive help when you want it

Can deal with embarrassing issues without having to see anyone Your anonymity is protected Get to the root of the problem quicker as writing lets you get in touch with your feelings More cost and time effective as you can deal with more issues in a session No need to take time off work Receive specialized help no matter where you live in the world. Why choose online counselling? Easy access to a professional counsellor or therapist though email or live chat Select an experienced professional from many qualified to deal with your problem You can select a counsellor who lives anywhere in the world Convenience - takes place in your home or wherever you are 24 hours a day 7 days a week284 Cheaper than regular counselling Anonymity and security Flexibility - either you can get quick answers or guidance to problems or you can schedule regular sessions Live Chat The first few minutes of all Live chat sessions are completely free of charge.

Since payment starts only when you choose to hire the counsellor, you have the opportunity to discuss you questions and/or concerns, negotiate a price that suits your budget and ensure that you feel comfortable with this specific counsellor. Email Email counselling is another form of online counselling that may suit your needs. You may find that expressing concerns and questions in writing helps organize and focus on your problem It is an extremely convenient way for you to communicate with a counsellor The benefits of online counselling with Live person Liveperson is one of the best and most well known online counselling specialists You will have an enormous choice of professionals you can seek help from - (experts in over 600 categories) You will find Liveperson very user-friendly You can consuit with professionals in real time via Live chat and email. You will find Liveperson is reliable, very easy to use and enables you to get instant answers to your most urgent questions. I full recommend this service to you because so many people have benefited from it Click now to get started

Disadvantages of Counselling or Therapy by Email Remote counselling via email carries many disadvantages as well as advantages in comparison to traditional, face-to-face counselling. Communication and the Counselling Relationship285 Communicating only introduces particular challenges for creating and sustaining a working relationship. Lack of Visual and Verbal Cues It can be difficult enough to understand exactly what someone is saying in a face-to-face setting, but stripped of the kinds of visual and auditory verbal cues which we take for granted when communicating in person the struggle to understand takes on a whole new dimension. Part of the beauty of the English lenaguage is that the same statement an take on a whole range of subtle meanings: but without that grin or frown that raised eyebrow, that softened voice or dead-pan delivery, figuring out which meaning a person intends can be a real challenge. The lack of visual cues is also especially important for clients who would like to discuss a visible physical disability and would like their counsellor to be able to see exactly what they are talking about. Lack of Physical Presence The lack of a physical presence of another person in the same room may make some people feel less emotionally intimate and less comforted in times of distress.

Asynchronous Nature of Email It can be frustrating to have to wait for the counsellor to reply when using email and other forms of communication that are asynchronous (meaning that two people are writing at different times, as opposed to conversing in real time). Urgency In a similar vein, the inevitable time delay associated with email exchanges precludes the kind of urgent attention (or even emergency response) which is possible in a face-to-face setting No Regular Appointment Times Just as the freedom to work without fixed appointment times can be an advantage for some clients, the absence of the structure which fixed appointments provide can be a disadvantage for others. Many clients prefer the structure of having to attend a session at the same time every week.286 Computer concerns Relying on computers as a communications medium can bring technology into the foreground of the counselling process as an unwelcome participant. Equipment and Internet Service Failures Hardware or software failure or internet service failure can impact the online availability of both counsellor and client. Ideally, the technology becomes transparent, so it simply serves as a tool for communication, without requiring attention in and of itself. In practice, however, even the best technological tools sometimes

require attention, and it can be frustrating it this occurs during a counselling exchange. Confidentiality and Privacy in Shared Environments Using computers at work, in an internet cafe or public library, or any other environment where other people have access to the same equipment introduces particular pitfalls for confidentiality and privacy in email counselling. Of course, there are thins that the face to face counselling covers that the e-therapy lacks. We are talking of the Non-verbal communication that is missing when the screen separates people. Also, it may happen that a person needs to be physically comforted when being in a counselling session and we can not do that on-line. Being aware of those disadvantages, we as professionals, face our role with all our heart and seriousness so as to make the best out of all the strengths of the online counselling. 7A.6 THE PROCESS OF COUNSELLING Counselling is a process. It means that Counselling involves a sequence of identifiable events spread over a period of time. The time taken, the sequence of events, and dynamics involved, the nature and extent of exploration, differ from individual to individual. However there are certain basic stages, which form the essentials of counselling processes. The process of counselling comprises of certain concepts, they are as follows:287 Readiness: The counselee are of two types i.e. one who seeks

assistance voluntarily and the other who are referred. The Counselling presupposes a desire on the part of the counselee that makes him come for the assistance. This desire is referred to as readiness. Counter Will: People experience difficulty in asking for help and accepting it, because they are reluctant to face the consequences of change or an admission of inadequacy of failure. The negative feeling that holds back one from seeking help is referred to, as counter will. Case History: Case History is a systematic collection of facts about the counselees past and present life. However focus of attention varies from case to case. Rapport : It is a warm friendly and understanding atmosphere created by the counsellor, which is catalytical in the formation of an effective counselling relationship. Warmth of relationship and feeling of trust, which grows out of unconditional acceptance are important in contributing to the establishment of rapport. Transference: It refers to the counsellor transferring amotions originally felt toward someone early in life. The counselee is encouraged to express his/her feelings and emotions freely. The counsellor acknowledges these feelings and handles in a therapeutic way. Counter Transference:

This occurs when counsellor project their unresolved conflicts upon the counselee. When counsellor feels uncomfortable and experience feelings of anger, resentment or become overemotional. This is unhealthy. Resistance: It refers to counselees move to oppose the counsellors attempt to work towards set goals. This influences counselling outcome positively. Resistance ranges from open hostility to passively resistant behavior like being late for an appointment 7A.6.1 STAGES OF THE COUNSELLING PROCESS:288 A process is an identifiable sequence of events taking place over time e.g. Process of human development from birth to death. The First Stage: Initial Disclosure: Initially the client expresses two sets of feelings i.e. i) I know I need help ii) I wish I werent here. Therefore central task of the counsellor in this stage is to allay the clients fears and encourage self-disclosure. Attending paying careful attention to the clients words and actions. Counsellor observes clients behavior for indications of content and feeling not expressed in verbal message. It is the first contact between the client and the counsellor, but it remains important throughout the counselling process. In this stage, clients are helped to articulate their personal

concerns and to place those concerns in a context so that the counsellor can understand the personal meanings and significance the client attaches to them. The main aim of this stage is promote trust in the client. Following characteristics describe the helping relationship. Empathy - Understanding others experience as if it were yours. Genuineness - Being natural, consistent in behavior and dependable in the relationship. Unconditional positive regard - Caring without condition Concreteness - Using clear language to describe the clients situation. The Second Stage: In-depth Exploration Client begins to formulate a new sense of hope and direction. Counsellor at first discusses the diagnostic impressions of the clients dynamic and coping behavior. As the relationship becomes more secure, the counsellor begins to confront the client with observations about his/her goals or behavior. This will help the client arrive at newly challenged and refined views of self.289 Immediacy - is referred to in 3 ways. i) General discussions about the progress of counselling relationship. ii) Immediate response to the clients statement disclosing current thoughts about counselling.

Iii) Counsellors personal response to a client in the present This stage becomes emotionally stressful, because client faces the inadequacy of habitual behaviors. In this stage client and counsellor come to a mutually acceptable diagnosis of the problem. The Third Stage: commitment to Action: How to accomplish goals that have emerged in the previous two stages. Client relates his behaviour to accomplish goals. This stage includes identifying possible alternative courses of actions (decisions) the client might choose. Once an action decision is made the client tries some new behaviors. The counsellor supports and reinforces the trying of new behaviors. 7A.6.2 THE SKILLS OF COUNSELLING: Listening - It is the process of hearing the other person. a) During listening it is important to show that the counsellor is listening through the minimal prompts such as head nods, yes, no etc. They indicate that I am with you. Overuse of these should be avoided. b) Behavioural aspects of listening - (SOLER) S - Sit squarely O - Openness L - Leaning E - Eye contact R - Relax Aspects of Listening

Linguistic aspects - words, phrases, figures of speech290 Paralinguistic aspects - timing, volume, tone pitch, ums and errs, fluency Non-Verbal aspects: facial expression, gestures, touch, body position, and proximity to the counsellor, body movement and eye contact. Attending and showing receptiveness It is the act of truly focusing on the other person. It involves consciously making ourselves aware of what the other person is saying and of what they are trying to communicate to us. Observing Body Messages Non-verbal aspects of communication refer to body language. The way the client expresses through the use of their body. They offer clues about the clients internal status beyond the words. Morris calls it Man Watching. Body language depends on context in which it occurs, the nature of the relationship, individuals personal style, personality of the person. Therefore avoid assuming what person is saying with their body languages. Listening Blocks Attraction: Attention is focused on what you are feeling rather than what client is saying. Physical condition: Sick/tired, without realizing it you tune out certain things client is saying. Concerns: Preoccupied with you own concerns. Over-eagerness: Listen to only a part and respond.

Similarity of Problems: Same as your own problem. Your mind wanders. Differences: Different experiences of yours and client. Distracting. Effective Listening: Attention focuses outward Suspension of judgment Attention to the behavioral aspects (SOLER) Avoidance of interpretation Development of free-floating attention Communicating:291 It is the exchange of ideas and opinions between two or more people through speech, writing or signs. The communication included physical setting as well as psychological predispositions of the receiver. Communication = thoughts and feelings Factors Involved in the communication Purpose: Specific Distribution: Environment Timing Feedback Follow-up Causes of Communication Breakdown Lack of consideration of the other persons feelings and

personality Use of technical language Not thinking about other, how they get affected (networking missing) Lose human factor (envy, jealousy) Clarification: To get definite information through this to help clarify the clients thinking without pressurizing. Concreteness: Using clear language to describe the clients life situation. It promotes clear insight in clients life and provides counsellor with a fuller sense of the uniqueness of the clients experiences. Restatement: Enables the counsellor to let the counselee realize that he is being fully understood and accepted. Counsellor exactly repeats as said by the client. Client thus gets a rest and a chance to collect his thoughts before going forward. Paraphrasing: The counsellor summarises. He chooses/selects those ideas and feelings which seem most important and relevant and feeds them back to the client in a more organized form. Ways to Impede Communication Counsellors predispositions Premature advice giving Lecturing 292 Excessive questioning Story telling Questioning:

What it is? Questions are used to draw out information from others. How to use it? There are several types of question. Choose the most appropriate: Open-ended questions: Open questions promote discovery and stimulate thinking. They are useful to help the other person to start talking about a topic, outline a situation, give a broad description of what happened and how he or she reacted. There are three broad types of open question: Clarifying question What specifically does that mean to you? Can I make sure I understand that? If I hear correctly, what you are saying is Creative questions How have you seen others handle similar situations? What do you think about? Would you like to talk more about it? Id be interested in hearing more What would be your approach if there were no constraints? Process questions What would you like to get from this session? What do I need to communicate to ensure everyone understands your role? What authority do you think you need to complete this

task? Follow-up or probing questions The purpose of follow-up questions is to get information, broaden decisions and understand reasons and motivations. Do not over use why. It causes people to become defensive. In what way would this help achieve greater customer satisfaction?293 What other aspects of this should be considered? How would you involve others in accomplishing this plan? Follow-up questions are useful for probing - getting to the heart of a topic, checking information and filling in detail. A particular type of follow-up question is the reflective question, useful for gaining a clearer understanding, revealing more information or uncovering feelings. You say you were pleased. Incompetent. You say he reacted to this How did he react.? Closed questions Closed questions are those that lead to either yes or no. They are useful in checking facts quickly but can lead to a onesided conversation. Examples are: Have you been shopping recently? Is there enough money in the bank? Have you done this sort of work before? A closed question can be useful lead into open questions

once an area to explore has been identified. Less useful questions Certain types of questions are less useful. Try not to use them - these include: Leading questions (I assume you) Hypothetical questions (If you were in my place.) Multiple questions. 7A.7 CHARACTERISTICS & SKILLS OF A COUNSELLOR A good counsellor should be: A good listener & good communicator Respectful to other persons feelings & point of view. Kind, caring and understanding Non-prdgemental Trustworthy & respectful of peoples confidentiality Relaxed and calm294 Warm & approachable The ability to motivate & inspire clients. 7A.8 ROLE & FUNCTIONS OF COUNSELLOR Counsellor is a specialist in education. Counsellors responsibilities can be classified into a) Diagnostic, b) therapeutic c) Evaluation and Research with specialized services and skills. A counsellor is selected by virtue of interest, training, experience and competence. The specific functions of a counsellor are:

Orientation of Students Student appraisal Educational and Occupational information service Holding counselling interviews Placement Research and Evaluation The Counsellor: Design and initiate a comprehensive career development programme Involve teachers, students, parents, community resources. Plans students competencies for use in the classroom Include Para professionals Assist students in career selection, prepare them and progress in it. The counsellor acts as a facilitator. The Counsellor need to keep up-to-date information regarding new career trends and to participate in professional experiences to improve their skills. Check Your Progress 1) Teacher can be called a counsellor at home. Explain. 2) Why counsellor is called a facilitator?295 7A.9 LET US SUM UP: In this unit we have discussed The concept of counselling The Principles, goals, processor, stages & skills of counselling.

Various types of counselling like: Directive counselling Nondirective counselling & Online counselling The characteristics, skills, Roles and functions of a counsellor. This unit gives you an outline of counselling process. An analysis of different types of counselling and its uses & misuses gives an idea of using different types of counselling for different purposes in different situations. In short, this unit is an attempt to describe the counselling process & role & functions of the counsellors for effective counselling. Unit End Exercises: Q.1 Counselling is remedial, preventive and developments justify. Q.2 What is counselling. Explain the skills of counselling. Q.3 What is online counselling? How can it help you? References: Kochhar, S. K. (1990) Educational and vocational Guidance in Secondary Schools. Sterling publisher, New Delhi. Bengalee, Mehro D. (1990) Guidane & Counselling, Sheth Publication, Mumbai. Gibson & Michel (1986) Introduction to Counselling and guidance. Mac Milan Publishing Company. www.google.com296

 8 COUNSELLING APPROACHES Unit Structure : 8.0 Objectives 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Cognitively Oriented counseling approaches 8.2.1 Trait and factor oriented counselling approaches 8.3 Affectively oriented counselling approaches 8.3.1 Psychoanalytic approach to counselling 8.4 Conditions influencing counselling 8.4.1 Physical setting 8.4.2 Privacy 8.4.3 Recording 8.5 Legal and ethical considerations in counselling 8.6 Let us Sum up 8.7 Unit End Exercise 8.0 OBJECTIVES After reading this unit you will be able to : State the approaches to counselling Explain cognitive oriented counselling approach and afftective oriented counselling approach Describe the factors influencing counselling Discuss the legal and ethical considerations in counselling 8.1 INTRODUCTION

In the previous chapter, you have studied about the concept of counselling , types of counselling and the role and functions of a 297 counsellor. You may observe that the perspective of counselling changes from counsellor to counsellor. There are differences in training, Clients and settings and even goals. But the basic perspective of counselling remains the same with different emphasis. Along with differences it is worth to note the commonalites. Common to all these perspectives are the notions that: Counselling is aimed at helping people make choices and act on them. Counselling is a learning process and Counselling enables personality development. Therefore prospective counselors should be aware of major approaches to counselling so as to enable them to acquire a sound basis for developing their own personal brand of counselling. The current trends in this area are broadly classified into three approaches. They are : Cognitive approaches Affective approaches and Behavioural approaches. The approaches are closely paraller with the three aspects of personality- cognition,affectiona and co-nation i.e. knowing, feeling and doing . In this unit we will discuss the cognitive and affective approaches to counselling.

8.2 COGNITIVELY ORIENTED COUNSELLING APPROACHES Cognitive Approaches As Feorge and Cristiani (1981) have pointed out, in the cognitive approaches, the process of counseling is the curing of unreason by reason; i.e., to help clients eliminate most emotional disturbances by learning to think rationally, to help them get rid of illogical, irrational ideas and attitudes and substitute logical, rational ideas and attitudes. It is believed that this process helps the client to attain rational behaviour, happiness, and self-actualization. For example Transactional Analysis (TA) aims at the internal dialogues of individuals, which occurs between a. counseling is aimed at helping people make choices and act on them, b. counselling is a learning process, and c. counselling enables personality development298 A recent and much accepted definition is : Counseling denotes a professional relationship between a trained counselor and client. This relationship is usually person-toperson, although it may sometimes involve more than two people. It is designed to help clients to understand and their self determined goals through meaningful resolution of problems of an emotional or interpersonal nature(Burks and Stefflre,1979). The merit of the definition by Burks and Steffler is that it is sufficiently theoretilcal and at the same time reasonably

operational. Theory and Practice of Counselling: Theory and practice should go hand in hand. Many trained counselors initially adhere to the theory while starting their career as counsellor. However, even those who are fanatically tied down to one theory appear to change over time. This is because the client is a human being and he is the link between the theory and practice of the counsellor. Rigid theories, like the Procrustean bed, repel the human psyche. When the man does not fit into the theory the counselor its compelled to change his theory. This is one of the most demanding challenges of counselling. Counselors should keep their minds more receptive and flexible. The psychological concept of individual difference must be understood thoroughly. Individual clients differing in their personalities come with dissimilar problems, goals and aspirations. To believe that all those clients would benefit from one kind of theory is unrealistic. It is useful to know that all the well-known theories have emerged from the practice of individual counselors personal experience with counselees. This is why we have different theories and practices. Trying to know theories as old and new broadens our perspective. But what would be ultimately useful is the one that is carved out from the counselors experience with the various ego states and the struggles between the real parts of their behaviour (whether the same is productive or counter productive) and the behaviour of others by identifying which ego state is in

power at any given time. TA thus gives the clients information about the various types of transactions that occur among individuals and to help them identify the kinds of behavior in which they are involved. The goal of TA is to help clients review their past decisions and make new decisions about their present behaviour. It is assumed that this would change their life direction into developing an autonomous life style characterized by awareness, spontaneity. This, it s believed that would, eliminate a life style characterized by manipulative game- playing a self- defeating neurotic tendencies.299 Directive teaching is the core in all the cognitive approaches. For example in Rational Emotive Therapy(RET) the counselor takes up an active teaching role to educate clients. The RET counselor makes the client understand that the latters internationalized sentences are quite illogical and especially the current illogical thinking are self-defeating verbalizations of the client. The success if the counselor lies in bringing illogical thinking forcefully to the clients attention. He must also show to the counselee how these thoughts are maintaining his unhappiness and how a rethinking and maintenance of logically and rationality make him happy and contented. In reality therapy, the meaning of reality and the necessity to act responsibly are taught by the counselor. 8.2.1 Trait and Factor Oriented counselling approaches: The trait- factor approach has developed from a marriage of

differential psychologys research and theories to Parsons vocational guidance concepts. The approach was born at the Minnesota Employment Stabilization Research Institute and the University of Minnesota Test Bureau as a practical response to educational and vocational adjustment problems of the unemployed and students. It is still closely identified with educational and vocational counseling. The approach has placed heavy reliance on the scientific method by attempting systematically to observe and measure individuals. Traits are categories that are used for describing individual differences in behavior, and statistical methods of factor analysis are used to ascertain how many factors are sufficient to account for similarities and difference in individuals. Trait- factorists have relied heavily on empirical objective data for a logical problem solving approach to client problems. Thus, the approach may be placed in the constellation of theories that are more cognitively than affectively oriented. Its basic model of analysis, synthesis, diagnosis, prognosis, counseling, and follow-up is a structured, stepwise attempt to help the client become selfcounseled. The major component of the model is the integration of objective test data with client subjective data to arrive at a differential diagnosis. As it has evolved, the trait-factor approach has become more developmental, dynamic, process-oriented, and eclectic. It has moved to a person times environment fit approach, which is seen not as static but as reciprocal and dynamic (Martin & SwartzKulstad,2000). Vocational counseling, in particular, is not seen as

fixed but as a continuing experience with definable stages. The contemporary approach is eclectic in that it sees merit and utility in cognitive therapies such as the reality, rational-emotive, and behavioral approach is eclectic in that it sees merit and utility in cognitive therapies such as the reality, rational-emotive, and 300 behavioural approaches. The logical basis of the approach relies heavily on a mentoring and teaching role by the counselor to influence and change the irrational thinking and behavior of the client. A great deal of knowledge, experience, and expertise is assumed of the counselor. Trait-factor counseling is most commonly founding school, employment, and rehabilitation counseling. By including a broader diagnostic scheme, more advanced information-processing concepts, and a more adaptive counseling style, the person times environment fit approach has matured beyond the old trait-factor model. The person times environment model includes these elements by organizing personal constructs, the world of work, person times environment interactions and then applying them in a problem-solving seque3nce. Including current concepts of problem solving, information processing, and attitude change has reinvigorated a venerable approach to career counseling (Chartrand, 1991). Frank Parsons Trait and Factor Theory of Occupational Choice: People perform best when they are in jobs best suited to

their abilities Frank parsons is regarded as the founder of the vocational guidance movement. He developed the talent- matching approach, which was later developed into the Trait and Factor Theory of Occupational Choice. At the centre of Parsons theory is the concept of matching. He states that occupational decision making occurs when people have achieved. An accurate understanding of their individual traits (aptitudes, interests, personal abilities ) A knowledge of jobs and the labour market Rational and objective judgement about the relationship between their individual traits, and the labour market. This three-part theory still governs most current practice. The trait and factor theory operates under the premise that it is possible to measure both individual talents and the attributes required in particular jobs. It also assumes that people may be matched to an occupation thats a good fit . Parsons suggests that when individuals are in jobs best suited to their abilities they perform best and their productivity is highest. In his book, Choosing a Vocation Parsons maintains that personal counsel is fundamental to the career search. In particular, 301 he notes seven stages for a career counsellor to work through with clients: 1. Personal data: create a statement of key facts about the person, remembering to include every fact that has bearing on the vocational problem.

2. Self-analysis :a self-examination is done in private and under the instruction of the counsellor. Every tendency and interest that might impact on the choice of a life work should be recorded . 3. The clients own choice and decision : this may show itself in the first two stages. The counsellor must bear in mind that the choice of vocation should be made by the client, with the counsellor acting as guide. 4. Counsellors analysis: the counsellor tests the clients decision to see if it is in line with the main quest. 5. Outlook on the vocational field: the counsellor should be familiar with industrial knowledge such as lists and classifications of industries and vocations, in addition to locations of training and apprenticeships. 6. Induction and advice: a broad-minded attitude coupled with logical and clear reasoning are critical at this stage. 7. General helpfulness : the counsellor help[s the client to fit into the chosen work, and to reflect on the decision. Much of Parsons work still guides career counselling today, though it is not without criticism. Matching assumes a degree of stability within the labour market. However, the reality is that the markets volatility means individuals must be prepared to change and adapt to their circumstances. It has been criticized for being overly cognitive and reductionistic. That is, relying on objective measurements of traits may lead to an oversimplified view of the human condition. Further,

the very existence of valid and reliable objective tests, and of stable traits, remains highly questionable. Trait-factor counseling is also limited insofar as it only seeks to describe a clients potential rather than help him achieve it. E.G, Williamson (1965) was the only traitfactor theorist to address this question: he argued that the counselor has the responsibility to promote the self-actualization of his client, rather than just measuring it. Behavioral therapy, like trait-factor counseling, is firmly grounded in the scientific method, and it is committed to bringing experimental findings into clinical practice in order to change clients behavior and resolve personal 302 and social problems (Corey, 1986). Behaviorism has its roots in Pavlovs (1927). Trait-factor counseling is the only counseling method which has its root in vocational counseling. It dates back to 1908, when Frank Parsons founded the Boston Vocational Bureau and stated his conviction that in order to choose the best career, one had to understand oneself, the characteristics of different job environments, and the relationship between these variables. Traitfactor theory was further developed during the testing movement in the U.S./during the 1930s by psychologists like E.G. Williamson, John Darley, and Donald G. Paterson (Downing, 1975). Trait-factor counseling is an extremely cognitive approach based on the scientific method and the theory of individual differences. Its major underlying assumptions include the following: 1. Each person has a unique pattern of traits (i.e. interests, abilities, and characteristics) that are relatively stable and rarely

change after adolescence. 2. These traits are measurable Check your progress-1 1) Explain cognitive approach of counseling. 2) Explain Trait-factor oriented counseling. 8.3 AFFECTIVELY ORIENTED COUNSELLING APPROACHES As the term suggests the affective approaches in counseling focus their attention to what is going on inside the individual, and particularly what the individual is experiencing at a given time. Client- centered counseling of Rogers is perhaps the most well-defined technique in the affective approaches. It also highlights an issue in counseling; namely, how much responsibility can be placed on the client for his own problem solving?303 Rogers believed that when the individual perceived himself as behaving in manner consistent with his picture of himself, he generally experiences feelings of adequacy, security, and worth. If on the other hand, he acts in a manner different from the way he defines himself, he experiences what is known as threat and feels insecure, inadequate, or worthless. Under pressure and with no other alternative, he may then defend himself against this threat using one or more of the commonly described defense mechanisms Unless counseling eliminates this defensive chain reaction and strengthens his self-concept, the defensive behaviour would increase vulnerability to further threat, guilt, thereby creating

more distortion and more self-defeating mechanisms. The role of the therapist is not just eliminating the defense mechanisms. Rogers highlights the importance of Congruence. It means the close matching of awareness and experience. In this context, the client centered counselors emphasizes the importance of accurate communication. If a client is aware of communicating a feeling which he is genuinely experiencing, his behavior is said to be congruent or integrated. In incongruent communication the awareness and experience of the client are two different if not opposing things. So also the recipient may experience an awareness of phony communication. The implication here for the counselor is that the counselor should help client to face courageously the incongruence between awareness and experience so that communication of his real experiences is in full awareness and not distorted with defense mechanisms and neurotic constrictions. The self-theory of Rogers also assumes a perspective called phenomenology. According to this perspective, peoples reality is that which they perceive. The way to understand individuals is to infer the phenomenological field from their behavior. In other words, the internal frame of reference of the client is used in counseling with the implication that counselors must attempt to perceive clients perceptual worlds as closely as they can. This is known as the empathic skill of the counselor. Individual clients need to strive for wholeness is the focus in

Gestalt therapy and counseling. This school of counseling gives importance to the internal world of the individual. Striving for the gestalt or the wholeness is actually a striving for an integration of thinking, feeling, and behaving. The key concept here is awareness. It is believed that the counselors help the clients work toward a total awareness of his experiences. Gestalt psychologists po0ilnt out that such awareness permits self-regulation and selfcontrol in the direction of increased integration and creativity. Recently, one of the major forces that have come to occupy an important place in psychology is Existentialism. Unlike 304 Psychoanalysis, existentialism is a temperamental way of looking at life . It is basically a philosophy of experiences which need not necessarily be categorized into cognitive compartments. Man is essentially an emotional being rather than a rational animal! The existence of man is unique because he is the only being who reacts to the fact of his existence. The awareness of ones own existence and the possibility of non-existence alters the inner world or the phenomenology. These new premises create new experiences and needs that are yet to be known. The predicament of human beings is such that it includes the individuals capacity for increased selfawareness, the search for unique meaning in a meaningless world, being alone and being in relation with others, freedom to choose ones fate, responsibility, anxiety, finiteness and death, and a basic urge for self-actualization. As a theory existentialism is sound and appealing, but the practice of counseling on the basis of this theory is difficult. However, the existential counselor tries to understand

the client as a being and as a being in the world Counselors are supposed to expose his own inner reality and at the same time be human. This according to existentialists enables clients to become aware of similar conditions and qualities in themselves. It is pointed out that through his process clients come to recognize their potentialities and achieve self-growth by accepting it as their respo0nsibility. In a nut shell, it can be said that making the client accept responsibility for him selfish the aim of existential counseling The three basic approaches (Cognitive, Affective, and Conative) with their differing foundations vary in their theory and practice of counselling By about 1973, Patterson began to think in terms of commonalities among the approaches. Fortunately most of the controversies existed only as academic gymnastics at a theoretical level. The practicing counselors were undergoing transformation as the clients were not interested in theories and their subtleties but were interested only in immediate problem solving. This demand of the client to the counsellor had made many counselors to abandon their dogmatic approach. Orientation of the counselors started changing towards a pragmatic approach. The client and his needs became more important than the counselors theory and dogma. This was how personal theory emerged. Here it is absolutely necessary to point out that training in some known approach is better than no training. Corey(19977) recommends the eclectic approach as a framework to begin with . However, George and Cristiani (1981) point out that although

beginning counselors need a firm understanding of all the major approaches, they should start first with a thorough grounding in one theoretical approach to counselling. It is further pointed out that judicious integration and assimilation of techniques from other approaches could be done with experience. 305 8.3.1 Psychoanalytic Approach to Counselling: The original so called taking therapy involves analyzing the root causes of behaviour and feelings by exploring the unconscious mind and the conscious mind & relation of it. Many theories and therapies have evolved from the original Freudian psychoanalysis which utilizes free association, dreams and transference, as well other strategies to help the client know the functions of their own minds. Psychoanalysis was developed in the late 19 th century by Sigmund Friend. His therapy explores the dynamic workings of a mind understood to consists of three parts. The hedonistic id, the rational ego and the moral superego, Frend maintained that the condition of the unconscious mind is profoundly influenced by childhood experiences. So in addition to dealing with the defense mechanisms used by an overburdened ego, his therapy addresses fixations and other issues by probing deeply into clients youth. Psychoanalysis has three main components: 1. a method of investigation of the mind and the way one thinks.

2. a systematized set of theories about human behaviour. 3. a method of treatment of psychological or emotional illness. Under the broad umbrella of psychoanalysis, there are at least 22 theoritical orientations regarding human mentation and development. The various approaches in treatment called psychoanalysis vary as much as the theories do. The term also refers to a method of studying child development. Psychoanalytical counselling is concerned with how we deceive ourselves as to our intentions, desires and beliefs and how these deceptions creates conflict between our expressed goals and our actions. It also give rises to psychodynamic counselling. The term psychodynamic means pertaining to the laws of mental action and its use pre-supposes that there are some principles that determine the relationship between mind and action and that these can be formulated as a basis for therapeutic intervention. Traditionally, the principles underlying psychodynamic counselling as presented as derivations of the psychoanalytic school founded by Sigmund Fend. But current psychodynamic counselling draws from a much wider range of theoritical influences. One of the most fundamental tenets is that we are unaware of many of our motives and that if these are known to us we are able to make better, less conflicted choices. However, we are often resistant to or defended against recognizing these hidden motives termed unconscious by most psychodynamic theorists and hence are unable to changeindeed we seem to have a compulsion to repeat past behaviour.

These repetitions are thought to arise because of earlier experience 306 where our behaviour successfully enabled us to cope by ignoring or repressing difficult feelings. Psychodynamic counselling this has theory of why we are enable to change, how this inutility arises and how it affects our lives. Psychoanalysis is an intensive process, whereas psychoanalytic therapy is based upon psychoanalysis but is less intensive. Psychodynamic counselling evolve from psychoanalytic theory, however it tends to focus on more immediate problems, be more practically based and shorter term than psychoanalytic theory. Goals of the psychoanalytic approach: The goal of psychoanalytic approach are: To make the unconscious conscious To strive to probe into the deeper part of the psyche. To get the issues that were not resolved during cognitive development. To understand and experience the issues and to bring change in the character. Principles of psychoanalytic theory: The general principles are: Help the person to tell his or her story. Establish a solid working alliance Deal with resistance Gather background information and history.

Select the problem or issue to be worked on explore the precipitating events. Collaborate with the client to form a diagnosis and treatment plan. Increase the clients awareness regarding defensiveness. Revirit resistance to interventions. Explore the clients transference. Examine how the past is impacting the present. Help the client behave more effectively. Provide feedback and confront discrepancies. Negotiate with the client regarding home work assignments.307 Remind the client of the termination date. End therapy as agreed upon with the client. Schedule follow up as needed. Check your progress- 2 1) What is affective oriented counselling approach? 2) Explain the concept of psychoanalytic approach of counselling. 8.4 CONDITIONS INFLUENCING COUNSELLING The counselling process is influenced by several characteristics that help it become a productive time for the client and counsellor. Not all characteristics apply to all situations, but generally, the following help to bring about positive results. Structure Setting Client qualities

Counsellors qualities 8.4.1 Physical setting Counselling can happen any where, but the professional generally works in a place the provides: Privacy Confidentiality Quiet and Certain comfort When working with a client, you want to send a message that you are listening. This can be done by being attentive both verbally 308 & non-verbally. The following SOLAR acronym will remind you about your physical setting which gives confidence to your client that you are listening. S: Face the client Squarely, that is, adopt a posture that indicates involvement. O: Adopt an Open posture sit with both feet on the ground to begin with your hands folded, one over the other. L: As you face your client, lean toward him or her. Be aware of their space needs. E: Maintain eye contact. Looking away or down seems that you are bored or ashamed of what the client is saying. Looking at the person suggests that you are interested and concerned. R: As you incorporate these skills into your attending listening skills, relax. 8.4.2 Privacy

Trust is an essential component in the development of helping relationships. Counselors regard the promise of confidentiality to be essential for the development of client trust. Most individuals seeking counseling services assume that what they divulge counseling will be kept in confidence by their counselor, with limited exceptions (Glosoff, Herlihy & Spence, 2000). This is most likely true for children and adolescents as well as adults. Managing confidentiality when counseling minors, however, is more complex than when counseling adults. School counselors must balance their ethical and legal responsibilities to their clients, clients parents and school systems. This complex balancing act is one reason that the topic issues in school counseling. In attempting to weigh their legal and ethical obligations, it is helpful for school counselors to clearly identify those they consider to be clients. School counselors are part of an educational community. As such, they consult with teachers, administrators and parents. It is important for school counselors to clarify that their consultation is on behalf of students and that only the students are their clients (except if school counselors offer counseling to students families). The Code of Ethics and Standards of Practice of the American Counseling Association (ACA, 1995) and the Ethical Standards for School Counselors of the American School Counselor Association (ASCA, 1998) are two resources available to help school counselors manage privacy and confidentiality in their

counseling relationships. School counselors can also look to moral 309 principles or shared beliefs or agreed upon assumptions that guide the ethical reasoning of helping professionals (Remley & Herlihy, 2001, p.3) upon which the codes of ethics are based. The moral principles most often cited in relation to ethical practices of counselors include the following : Veracity or telling truth Justice or fairness Nonmaleficence or doing no harm Beneficence or doing good Autonomy or respecting free choice Fidelity or keeping promises The moral principle of beneficence refers to the responsibility to help clients gain something positive from engaging in counseling. It also includes counselors duty to help society in general and people who are potential clients (Welfel, 2002, p.34). Autonomy refers to respecting the freedom of clients to choose their own directions and make their own choices within the counseling relationship. Respecting a clients autonomy does not mean that counselors encourage clients to make decisions independent of significant others (e.g. parents) in their lives or regardless of community and cultural implications. It does mean that counselors refrain from imposing goals, avoid being judgmental and are accepting of different values (Herlihy & Corey, 1996,p.4). Applying moral principles to situations involved in respecting

the rights of minor clients served in school settings is not always easy. To be effective advocates for their clients rights, school counselors must have a good grasp of issues related to the following concepts: the legal status of minors and the legality and ethics of privacy, confidentiality, privileged communication, and informed consent. Each of these are reviewed along with relevant ethical standards and factors that complicate school counselors ability to maintain a relationship based on students confidence that they can speak freely and without fear of disclosure. Finally, implications for the practice of school counselors is presented. The Legal Status of Minors The ACA (1995) Code of Ethics and Standards of Practice specifically references the term minor twice, both in relation to matters of consent. The Ethical Standards for School Counselors (ASCA, 1998) include standards specific to counseling minors throughout the entire document. Neither setoff ethical guidelines, however, defines the term minor. Typically, 18 is considered the legal age of majority, unless otherwise designated. Minors, therefore, can legally be defined as those persons under the age of 310 18. Amendment XXVI (1971) to the U.S. Constitution established the right of 18-year-old citizens to vote and by extension has influenced the generally accepted age at which minors are extended other adult rights. For example, 18 is cited in the Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA) as the age at which the transfer of rights from parents to students occurs (FERPA,

1974). School counselors, therefore are faced with 18 as the age at which their clients are legally assumed to be mature, to have full ownership and controlof their privacy rights. The legal concept of the age of majority has implications for minor clients rights to make choices about entering into counseling as well as their rights to privacy and confidentiality. Overall, although monor clients have an ethical right to privacy and confidentiality in the counseling relationship [the] privacy rights of minor legally being to their parents or guardians (Remley & Herlihy, 2001,p. 184). Isaacs and Stone (1999) noted that the Supreme Court has upheld parents legal right to make critical decisions about their children. (The term parents refers to all who function in the parental role and have the legal rights of parents.) Many people consider the decision to enter into counseling to be an example of a critical decision. Further, because counsellingis considered tobe a contractual relationship, minors cannot legally agree to be counseled on their own (Remley & Herlihy,p.179). There are some exceptions to this. For example, many states have enacted laws allowing for individuals younger than 18 to receive counseling or medical services without parental consent. Additionally, most states have laws that allow minors to be declared legally emancipated from their parents and a few states allow to be deemed a mature minor and capable of understanding the ramifications of counselling. 8.4.3 Record Keeping

Counsellors record keeping practices are increasingly governed by legislation. In some provinces, new Freedom of Information and Protection of Privacy legislation and Personal Health Information acts have given counselors new guidelines about the way they keep records. The federal Youth Criminal Justice Act will also influence counselors practices on record keeping. For school counselors, legislation regarding the administration of public schools adds other imperatives. Some provinces have synthesized these various legislative requirements into policy statements that provide counselors with a guide for the management of their counseling records. In schools, pupil records are typically held in three areas: the cumulative file in the main office; the young offender file if one exists, held in a secure location by the principal and the counseling 311 or special education files normally maintained by the counselor and resource teacher. The cumulative file component includes things such as identification information, parent/guardian information, citizenship, school history, relevant health information, academic information on marks, attendance, awards and correspondence & legal documents. Some counseling information, such as results of psycho educational assessments that may inform programming decisions can also be included in this file. The counseling and special education files typically included additional such as: special education or resource information;

clinician reports and meeting notes; referrals to other agencies; diagnostic testing results and reports from service providers outside of the school such as hospitals and treatment facilities. The Youth Criminal Justice Act component contains information about a young offender that may be used; to ensure compliance with a court order; to ensure the safety of staff, students and others; and to assist in the rehabilitation of the young offender. Most legislation is in agreement that there are certain conditions under which a person may be refused access to information in a file. They are: if disclosure might cause an invasion of the privacy of a third party; if disclosure could be detrimental to the education of the pupil; if disclosure could cause physical or emotional harm to someone; or if disclosure could interfere with an enactment or investigation. Personal Health Information legislation. (Manitobas for example), adds additional conditions under which access may be refused. These include: if disclosure may endanger the mental or physical health or safety of a person; if disclosure may reveal information about person who has not consented to disclosure; if disclosure could identify a third party who supplied the info in confidence under circumstances where confidence could be expected; or if the information was compiled for legal purposes. The Youth Criminal Justice Act demands that the offenders file must be kept separate from any other record or the young

person; that on other person has access to the information except if authorized under the Act; and that the record be destroyed when the information is no longer required for the purpose for which it was disclosed. In cases of divorced or separated parents, the Divorce Act of Canada states that, Unless the court orders otherwise, a spouse who is granted access to a child of the marriage has the right to 312 make inquiries, and to be given information as to the health, education and welfare of the child. Provincial family law usually supports this notion as in Manitobas legislation, for example, which states: Unless a court otherwise orders, the non-custodial parent retains the same right as the parent granted custody to receive school, medical, psychological, dental and other reports affecting the child. (Family Maintenance Act Manitoba) While the legislation described about is very similar from province to province, it is important to check on the specific wording of these kinds of acts in your own jurisdiction. Counselors are often concerned about transferring information when a student transfers to a new school. Generally, both the cumulative file and the counseling or special education file must go to the new school. A strategy that will help give counselors some sense of security is to retain the counselling records themselves, and place a notice in the cumulative file to the effect that counseling information exists on this student and may be obtained by contacting the counsellor directly. In this way, the

records can go form professional to professional, and their security and privacy be ensured. Many schools have the parents or students, (if they are the age of majority) , sign a release from to allow the transfer of these records. Lawyer, Robert Solomon and Consultant, Dennis Lucas have each offered suggestion about effective record keeping. These ideas include: Keeping all entries in chronological order; Recording information while its fresh. Making any alterations with a straight line, dated and initialed; Sticking to behaviors and concise description Staying away from diagnosis & interpretation Limiting records only to directly relevant info; Including record keeping information in your informed consent form, Record ingredients may include: Name and date: Presenting issue: Past history of issue (if described in an earlier record); Current status of issue changes since last visit: Treatment/goals/homework/actions; Check-back date/time;313 Referral info: To whom, where, when, what was said; Administrative info: timetable, credits, etc. To ensure the protection of your students and yourself, it is

important to check your employers policies on access to information, the CCA Standards of Practice on record keeping, and the privacy legislation in your province. If no workplace policy exists, it is critical that such a policy on record keeping be created. In some provinces, requests for information can be referred to the individual appointed as Privacy and Access Coordinator for your school hoard. This individual can, with input from you, decide to release the whole record, release parts of it, or deny access altogether. Parents then have the right of appeal to a provincial privacy adjudicator such as the provincial ombudsman in provinces where these procedures are not mandated, it is important to follow the CCA policy that school counselors should make every effort to ensure that there is a school-based procedure in place to adjudicate any requests from parents or guardians for access to counseling records. As a proactive step to avoid misunderstanding with students and parents, it is essential to have a good informed consent form in place. A consent form used in a school setting may say something like this: In all discussions between us you have a right to expect that anything we talk about will remain confidential. We will respect and guard your right to confidentially very carefully, but you need to know that are a few cases where are a few cases where that may not apply. These are the situations where information may by shared with someone else:

1) if you ask me to speak with someone else for you or give them information you wish them to have 2) If I feel that you or someone else may being danger or in need or protection, 3) If a court orders the release of information, 4) If required by law, as in cases of child abuse. 5) To consult with another professional person in confidence to try to find solutions or answers for you. Check your Progress III 1) Write short note son a) Privacy in counselling b) Record keeping in Counselling314 c) Importance of physical setting in counselling. 8.5 LEGAL AND ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN COUNSELLING Counselors like all professionals have ethical responsibilities and obligations. The principal rule supporting ethical obligations is that the counselor must act with full recognition of the importance of clients rights, the ethics of the profession. Counseling is not a value free or neutral activity (Grant 1992). It is a profession based on values, which are orienting beliefs about what is good and how that good should be achieved. (Bergin 1985), the relationship of moral standards and values, individual or cultural, in the life of that client. Professional bodies of counselling have development

ethical standards for which they have made available to the practitioners. Professional organizations for practicing counselling and psychotherapy are : American Psychological Association (APA) British Association for Counselling (BAC) and American Counselling Association (ACA) Need for ethical codes: Ethical codes help professionalize and Protect an association by government and promote stability within the profession. The need for ethical cods are: To control internal disagreement. To protect practitioners from the public To protect client from incompetent counselors. Especially in mal practice issues. Clients can also use codes to evaluate questionable treatment from the counselors. Ethical Issues:315 Ethical codes are not set in stone. They serve as principles upon which to guide practice. There are two dimensions to ethical decision making: o Principle ethics: Overt ethical obligations that must be addressed. o Virtue ethics: Above and beyond the obligatory ethics and are idealistic. Ethical Issues: Ethical codes and standards of practice for counselors

have been formulated by the American Counseling Association (ACA) and American Psychological Association (APA). Ethical codes are guidelines for what counselors can and cannot do. Each counselling situation is unique and sometimes the counselor must interpret the code. Ethical Issues that influence Clinical Practice Client Welfare: Client needs come before counselor needs and the counselor needs to act in the clients best interest. Informed Consent Counselors need to inform clients as to the nature of counseling and answer questions so that the client can make an informed decision. Confidentiality: Clients must be able to feel safe within the therapeutic relationship for counseling to be most effective. What the client says stays in the session unless the client is threatening harm to self or others. Ethical Issues that influence Clinical Practice Dual Relationships: When a counselor has more than one relationship with a client (e.g. The counselor is a friend and the counselor). Sexual Relationships: Professional organizations strongly prohibit sexual relationships with clients and in some states it is a criminal offense.316 Privileged Communication

It is legal protection of the client which prevents a counselor from disclosing what was said within the counseling sessions(s). This right belongs to the client and not counselor. Laws concerning privileged communication vary from state to state. When to break confidentiality Tara off is Board of Regents of the University of California. A landmark case with the end result being that counselors have a duty to warn if a client threatens another persons life or with significant bodily harm. When a child under the age of 18 is being sexually abused. If the counselor determines the client needs hospitalization. If the information is involved in a court action. Privileged Communication Doesnt Apply When a counselor is performing a court ordered evaluation. When the client is suicidal. When the client sues the counselor. When the client uses a mental disorder as a legal defense. When an underage child is being abused. When a client discloses an intent to commit a crime or is dangerous to others. When a client needs hospitalization.

Legal Issues and Managed Care Counselors have the duty to appeal adverse decisions regarding their clients. Counselors have a duty to disclose to clients regarding the limitations of managed care and the limits of confidentiality under managed care.317 Counselors have a duty to continue treatment and are not supposed to abandon a client just because the client does not have the financial means to pay for services. Malpractice When a counselor fails to provide reasonable care or skill that is generally provided by other professionals and it results in injury to the client. Four conditions must exist: o The counselor has duty to client. o The duty of care was not met. o The client was injured in the process. o There was a close causal relationship between the counselors failure to provide reasonable care and the clients injury. Suggestions on Avoiding Malpractice Precounseling: Make sure to cover all information counselling: The financial costs of counselling. Any special arrangements. The competencies of the counselor.

Avoid dual relationships. Clearly indicate if a treatment is experimental. Identify limits to confidentiality. Help the client make an informed choice. Suggestions on Avoiding Malpractice (Continued) Ongoing Counseling: Maintain confidentiality. Seek consultation when necessary. Maintain good client records. Take proper action when a client poses a clear and imminent danger to themselves or others. Comply with the laws regarding child abuse and neglect. Termination of Counselling:318 Be sensitive to the clients feelings regarding termination. Initiate termination when the client is not benefiting from services. Address the clients post-terminations concerns. Evaluate the efficacy of the counseling services. An Ethical-Legal Decision Making Mode: Determine if an ethical-legal issue needs to be addressed. Address contextual issues such as culture and personal bias. Formulate an ethical-legal course of action. Implement an action plan. Counselor Competence

Counselors need to accurately represent their credentials and qualifications. Counselors need to continue their education. Counselors need to only provide services for which they are qualified. Counselors need to keep up on current information of the field and especially in specialty areas. Counselors need to seek counselling when they have personal issues. Ethical and Legal concerns: Major areas related to ethical 8 legal issues must focus on the following major areas: Informed consent Confidentiality Duty to warn/duty to protect Pertinent Legal and Ethical issues: Any appropriate course of action must be determined on a case by case basis. Any policy requiring automatic dismissal or withdrawal of a student who expresses disturbing behaviour is legally vulnerable. The issue is often about assessing risk. A significant risk constitutes a high probability of substantial harm not just a slightly increased, or remote risk.319

Any assessment must be based on a reasonable onedical judgement relying on the most current medical knowledge and the best available objective evidence. If you analyse all the legal & ethical issues concerned with counselling you can conclude it in the words of mark Twain that a to be good is noble, but to teach others to be good is nobler and less trouble. Governance of professional practice by Ethics and Law: Law is created by legislature and courts. It governs citizens of federal, country and state. Whereas Ethics rooted in philosophy crated by Professional associations like APA & ACA. It govern members of profession & guide practice. How can you consider an issue as legal or ethical? We can consider an issue as legal if Lowers are involved Matter has come to court The counselor may be in danger of being accused of misconduct. Check your progress-4 1) Explain the different ethical issues to be taken into consideration in counselling. 8.6 LET US SUM UP In this unit we have discussed about counselling approaches. There are three approaches to counselling like:

Cognitive approach Affective approach & Behavioral approach320 But in this unit we have discussed only two approaches like cognitive & affective approaches. Under cognitive approach we have also discussed the trait & factor approach of counselling with special reference to Frank Persons Trait & factor approach to occupational choice. In affective approach we have discussed Psychoanalytic approach & its goals & principles we have also go through physical setting, Privacy & recording as conditions which comes as the influential factors in counselling. As in other professions legal & ethical issues are important, so it is also necessary in counselling process. 8.7 UNIT END EXERCISES 1. What are the different types of approaches in counselling. Explain cognitive approaches to counselling. 2. What is affective oriented counselling approach. Explain the psychoanalytic approach to counselling. 3. What are different conditions which influence counselling. Explain the importance of recording in counselling. 4. What is your opinion regarding considerations of legal & ethical issues in counselling Justify your opinion. Bibliography: www. Google.com

2 Module -2 TYPES AND AGENCIES OF GUIDANCE321 2.0 Introduction 2.1 Objectives 2.2 Types of Guidance: Individual and Group 2.2.1 Individual guidance 2.2.2 Group Guidance: Concept, Need and Significance 2.2.3 Organization of Group Guidance activities 2.2.4 Techniques of Group Guidance 2.2.5 Advantages of Group Guidance 2.2.6 Limitations of Group Guidance 2.3 Agencies of Guidance at Different Levels 2.3.1 International Level Agencies 2.3.2 National Level Agencies 2.3.3 State Level Agencies 2.3.4 Local Level Agencies 2.4 Let us Sum up 2.5 Check your Progress 2.6 Suggested Readings 2.0 INTRODUCTION In the previous unit you have learnt about meaning, importance and areas of guidance. You have also learnt about different school guidance services. One of the services is group guidance service .From the organization point of view guidance can

be of two types i.e. individual and group. Many institutions/organizations work in the area of guidance and counseling. In this unit you will learn about importance of group guidance and international, national and state level agencies of guidance. 2.1 OBJECTIVES After going through this unit, you should be able to: define group guidance aware of the need and importance of group guidance know the practical consideration of organization of group guidance activities;322 understand the limitations of group guidance activities; and deal effectively with the problems of organization of such group guidance activities state the role and functions of different agencies at international, national and state levels. 2.2 TYPES OF GUIDANCE: INDIVIDUAL AND GROUP

2.2.1 Individual guidance: Individual guidance is tailored to an individual. It is advice, strategy or planning designed for a singular person or thing and their unique situation. This is in contrast to general guidance which is frequently based on demographic information such as age or income or meant for the general population. The most common reference to individual guidance is in reference to children or

students. This is ideally the role of guidance, educational or careerhttp://www.ehow.com/careers/ counselors. Individual guidance can be used to refer to any advice, usually professional advice, given to a person based on their unique circumstances. This could include legal services, career counseling, financial planning, medical or psychological advice or a number of other areas where a trained professional is looked to for direction in a given area. 2.2.2 Group Guidance: Concept, Need and Significance: Group refers to collection of people, interaction between individuals, development of shared perceptions, the development of affective ties and the development of interdependence of roles. For example many students and teacher/teachers at one school may gather together to form a group. Group guidance encompasses those activities of guidance which are carried on in a group situation to assist its members to have experiences desirable or even necessary for making appropriate decisions in the prevailing contexts. In a more specific term, it is guiding the individual in a group situation. Group could be of any type ,but for guidance purposes a group should have a common goal. Just collection of individual may not be called a group for organizing guidance activities. Selection of group members will have to depend on sharing a common problem, volunteering to be members and willingness to group activities. Jones, A.J(1951)define group guidance as any group

enterprise or activity in which the primary purpose is to assist each 323 individual in the group to solve his problems and to make his adjustment. Group guidance is used to address the developmental needs of a functional group consisting of a number of students to implement programme that would benefit them at all time.Students in group with common problems and concerns are helped in groups i.e. small or large. In other words, if guidance is to be available to all, it should be planned in groups. Some of the objectives of group guidance are: 5. To help people in identifying common problems, analyse them and find relevant solutions 6. To place a wide range of information before people with common problems which could be useful for them for finding solutions? 7. To provide a platform where people with common problems could interact with each other and could be benefited by each others perspectives, ideas and experiences 8. To help in creating an atmosphere where people could get an opportunity to express themselves and in the process analyze themselves.

2.2.3 Organization of Group Guidance Activities: Planning of group guidance activity may focus the following points. 6. Need Assessment: The need assessment must be done to

find out the common problems of individuals in the group. This can be done by administering questionnaire, checklists and interview. 7. Determining size of the group and time, venue for group activities: Depending upon the group activity the size of the group should be fixed. The size should be approachable and manageable. The venue should be selected taking in to account the group selected for activity. 8. Selection of members and role specifications: The participants selection for group guidance activity is also very important. The students for example should be communicated about their roles in group activities. 9. Orientation of Members: The group goals should be clarified. It should be stated in clear, objective and measurable terms.324 10.Monitoring of activities and evaluation of outcomes: If we want to conduct the activities purposefully, it should be properly monitored taking into account the goal/s.Feedback about activity needs to be collected from participants. Some of the common group guidance activities are: Class talk, career talk, displays and exhibitions. 2.2.4 Techniques of Group Guidance A number of techniques are used in organizing group guidance. Group Discussion: For example at senior secondary stage students should have knowledge about different career.A group

discussion may be organized in the school. For organization of the group discussion proper room/hall, group and relevant topic and expert/resource person should be selected. The group discussion will be useful only if the members participate effectively without the fear and all the members have the opportunity to participate. But the effectiveness of the groupm discussion depends upon the facilitator and the group selected. Problemsolving: For solving individual as well as common problems, problem solving can be applied as a technique. It comprises of the following steps; Existence of common problem Focused description of the problem Initiation of action for solving problem based on relevant facts Analysis of problem in the light of data collected Listing of possible solutions and Evaluation of them Acceptance of degree of acceptance of solution in the group Role play: In small group role playing can be adopted as a technique of guidance. Role playing is a method where real life situations are simulated by group members/participants. This provide new insight, intuitions, skills and understanding of opposing viewpoints. The role playing may comprise of the following steps; Existence of common problem Orientation of group to role playing and the problem Assigning of roles 325

Preparation of other members/audience to observe intelligently Assessing the role play Concluding session and feedback Other methods like case study and sociometric technique can be used as group guidance technique. 2.2.5 Advantages of Group guidance: We have discussed about different activities and approaches of group guidance. Some of the advantages of group guidance are as follows: Inspires learning and understanding: Interaction in group setting inspires learning and understanding of students. The student learns from other member of group. Saves time and effort: Group guidance technique can save time and effort of both the counselor and students. The time saved can be used for the more problems of students. Improvement of students attitude and behavior Development of wholesome and helpful awareness of unrecognized needs and problems of student/s 2.2.6 Limitations of Group Guidance: Group guidance though serves a useful purpose, but they cannot be taken as a substitute for individual counseling. Group activities serve many of the objectives of the school guidance programme, but not all of these. Further students may feel hesitant difficult and complex

to come out with their personal problems in the group. So, in these cases group guidance cannot be of help. Group guidance activities serve useful purposes specially saving in time and effort. While organizing these activities, some problems that a counsellor may face are mentioned below: A rigid type of administration is often a major cause of trouble. Generally, when the counselor asks for time in the time table for conducting these guidance activities, he/she may get a discouraging reply, the time table is already full. No periods are free. So the counsellor is left with no other choice than to take the substitute management period.326 Lack of cooperation on part of the administration as well as the staff members may also create problems in organizing such activities. Teacher may feel this as an addition burden. Lack of adequate funds is another problem. 2.3 Agencies of Guidance at Different Levels: Different agencies i.e. government and private at international, national and regional level have been doing significant works in the area of guidance. These agencies are working in training /orientation, career guidance services or development of materials for guidance workers/functionaries. 2.3.1 International Level: International Association of Educational and Vocational Guidance (IAEVG)is a worldwide guidance and counselling organization, whose mission is to promote the development and

quality of educational and vocational guidance. IAEVG s mission is also to ensure that all citizens who need and want educational and vocational guidance and counselling can receive this counselling from a competent and recognized professional.The objectives of the organization are as follows To promote communication among persons and organizations active in educational and vocational guidance. To encourage the continuing development of ideas, practice and research in the field of guidance and counselling on each level, national and international, in developing and developed countries. To advise government and national or international organizations on the development of guidance systems and further the exchange of professionals and experts. To collect and disseminate information of interest in the field of educational and vocational guidance practice, study and research The Mission of IAEVG is to: advocate that all citizens who need and want educational and vocational guidance and counselling can receive this counselling from a competent and recognized professional recommend the basic nature and quality of service that should typify the service provided to students and adults recommend the essential training and other qualifications that all counsellors in educational and vocational guidance should

have 327 urge governments to enhance, facilitate or establish an agency, institution, or office with responsibility to develop and maintain policies governing the provision of educational and vocaitonal guidance the provision of training and continuing education programs for counselling and guidance practitioners the development and provision of appropriate and effective methods and materials for guidance the conduct of research and development to create new, more comprehensive, and better ways of conducting educational and vocational guidance the development of appropriate methods of evaluation af counselling and guidance The Association publishes a newsletter three times a year. Furthermore IAEVG publishes the International Journal for Educational and Vocational Guidance which is a refereed journal publishing articles in relation to work and leisure, career development, career counseling and guidance and career education. The website can be found at www.iaevg.org/ Cedefop, the European Agency to promote the development of vocational education and training, is the European Unions centre of expertise to support the development of VET and evidencebased policymaking. One important task for Cedefop is to provide

guidance practitioners with advice, research, analysis and information. On Cedefops website European Training Village (ETV)there is an area with information on lifelong guidance (Choose lifelong guidance in the left menu). Here you will find information on European guidance projects, links to publications and research results, examples of good guidance strategies and practices and a live network for all the actors who have an interest in the field. The website can be found at www.cedefop.europa.eu/ FEDORA is an organisation for those involved in student guidance in institutions of higher education in Europe. The FEDORA network has especially the focus on the higher student mobility across Europe and the challenges that gives to the guidance practitioners. FEDORA contributes to the further development of the guidance practitioners competencies so they can better support, inform and guide the students on mobility issues. FEDORA organizes congresses, conferences and summer universities and each event takes place every three years. All types of events take place in different countries in the FEDORA member 328 states each year. The website can be found at fedora.plexus.leidenuniv.nl/ IAC (International Association for Counselling) wishes to encourage the exchange of ideas, research findings and personal experience in the field of counselling and guidance. This happens, among others, through organising conferences and publishing the

International Journal for the Advancement of Counselling. The website can be found at www.iac-irtac.org/ The International Centre for Career Development and Public Policy, ICCDPP, has the task to facilitate international sharing of knowledge and information concerning public policy and career development issues. ICCDPP has a base for knowledge and information which contains proceedings from international symposia, and reports and news provided to the site by the users and by other international contacts. ICCDPP is supported by OECD, the World Bank, and the European Commission etc. The website can be found at www.iccdpp.org The Nordic Association of Educational and Vocational Guidance is a coalition of national associations for education and vocational guidance in the Nordic countries and the self-governing areas of Aaland Islands and Faeroe Islands. The aim of NFUE is to strengthen professional educational and vocational guidance in Nordic countries. NAEVG organizes seminars and conferences and develops cooperation with the Baltic countries. The website can be found at www.nfsy.org The European Lifelong Guidance Policy Network aims to assist the European Union Member States and the Commission in moving European cooperation on lifelong guidance forward in both the education and the employment sectors. The purpose is to promote cooperation at Member State level on lifelong guidance

and to propose appropriate structures and support mechanisms in implementing the priorities identified in the Resolution on Lifelong Guidance (2004). The ELGPN was established by the Member States and the Commission has foreseen to support the activities of the network in 2007-2008 under the Lifelong Learning Programme. The website can be found at ktl.jyu.fi/ktl/elgpn/ International Labour Organization(ILO): The ILO is the international organization responsible for drawing up and overseeing international labour standards. It is the only 'tripartite' United Nations agency that brings together representatives of governments, employers and workers to jointly 329 shape policies and programmes promoting Decent Work for all. This unique arrangement gives the ILO an edge in incorporating 'real world' knowledge about employment and work.The organization publishes the results of research related to changing nature of work and employment which is important for policy makers and other users. 2.3.2 National Level Agencies: At national level the following organizations work in the area of guidance and counseling. National Council of Educational Research and Training(NCERT):The Department of Psychology and Foundation of Education(DEPFE), a Department under NCERT,New Delhi and Pandit Sunderlal Sharma Central Institute of Vocational Education(PSSCIVE) ,Bhopal a constituent of NCERT organize

programme on guidance and Counselling.Some of the functions of PSSCIVE are: To advise and assist the Ministry of Human Resource Development, State Governments and Union Territory Administration in the implementation of the Vocational Education and Work Experience Programme. To function as the technical wing of the Joint Council of Vocational Education on all matters relating to Vocational Education Programme (VEP). To promote, supervise and guide the establishment of a comprehensive management system for VEP. To serve as a resource institution for both formal and nonformal VEP. To orient and train various key functionaries of VEP, including teachers. To evaluate and monitor VEP in States/UTs. To ensure uniformity and maintain quality standards in vocational teaching and learning. To provide guidance and counseling on Vocational Education and Training to the people at large. DEPFE is the department of NCERT which coordinates guidance activities in the country. The department runs an International Diploma Course in Guidance and Counseling in collaboration with Commonwealth of Learning, Canada. This course is offered at the Department of Educational Psychology and Foundations 330 of Education (DEPFE), NCERT New Delhi as well as five

Regional Institutes of Education located at Bhubaneswar Bhopal, Mysore, Shillong, and Ajmer. Besides the department conducts training programme in the field of guidance and counseling. Central Institute for Research and Training in Employment Service (CIRTES) was established in October, 1964 under the aegis of Directorate General of Employment & Training (DGE&T), Ministry of Labour, Government of India. Later, in 1970 and in 1987, the Institute was expanded with the added responsibilities of developing career literature and to provide guidance for the promotion of self-employment. The Objectives of CIRTES are: Planning and conducting training programmes for Employment Service Personnel at State, National and International Levels. Conducting research into problems concerning the activities of the Employment Service. Development and publication of career literature and audiovisual aids for use in Vocational Guidance and Career Literature Programmes. Development of motivational material for promotion of selfemployment. There are four divisions of CIRTES i.e. training division,research division ,career study center and self employment guidance cell. 1.TRAINING DIVISION Training Division caters to the training needs of all the

Employment Officers of the country in placement, vocational guidance, employment market information, self-employment promotional activities and other related matters. Instructional materials and training aids are devised and developed to assist the States in organizing training programmes for the staff of their employment exchanges. Besides, special training programmes for the employment officers of foreign countries under various ILO bilateral programmes are organized on request basis. The Division also associates with other training organisations for imparting training in the field of vocational guidance and selfemployment. 2. RESEARCH DIVISION331 Research Division conducts studies on organizational, operational and procedural aspects of NES, labour market conditions and other related matters. Development of various tools and techniques and evaluation of various programmes of NES inter alia come under its purview. 3. CAREER STUDY CENTRE (CSC) CSC develops and publishes the career literature in the shape of bookelets and pamphlets/folders on various careers/occupations covering their job content, educational preparatory requirements, employment and self-employment opportunities, as a reference tool to meet the career planning needs of students, job seekers, Vocational Guidance Officers/Counsellors and others. These publications are disseminated to Employment Exchanges, University Employment

Information & Guidance Bureaux (UEIGBx), Coaching-cumGuidance Centre for SC/ST, colleges, schools and also to other agencies engaged in vocational guidance activities, through Employment Exchanges as per their jurisdiction. 4. SELF-EMPLOYMENT GUIDANCE CELL (SEGC) SEGC prepares informative and motivational material to assist Employment Officers in guiding and confidence building among job seekers for adopting self-employment ventures. It also provides training to the Employment Officers on self-employment promotional related activities. Directorate General of Employment and Training(DGE&T),under Ministry of Labour evolves policy

and standards for vocational guidance activities through employment exchanges. Other organizations like University Grants Commission(UGC),All India Council of Technical Education(AICTE) also works on guidance and counseling. 2.3.3 State Level Agencies of Guidance: At state level SCERT,Bureau of Educational and Vocational Guidance,Directorates of Employment work for guidance of students. SCERT/State Guidance Bureaus coordinates guidance services at the state leThey organize state level training./orientation for guidance personnel. State Directorates of Employment coordinates vocational

guidance programme through employment exchanges in 332 states.They also develop publication on occupational information. Universities; In university employment bureaus facilities are provided for students. 2.3.4 Local Level: At the local level some district employment exchanges, private agencies and institutional level organizations work for guidance and counseling. The role of NGOs at different level for providing guidance activities is also very important. 2.4 LET US SUM UP Individual guidance can be used to refer to any advice, usually professional advice, given to a person based on their unique circumstances. Group guidance is used to address the developmental needs of a functional group consisting of a number of students to implement programme that would benefit them at all time Organization of Group Guidance Activities should focus on Need Assessment, Determining size of the group and time, venue for group activities, Selection of members and role specifications, Orientation of Members, Monitoring of activities and evaluation of outcomes. Problem solving, role play, group discussion, case study and sociometric are some of the important techniques of group guidance. At international level IAEVG, Cedefop, ILO, Nordic Association of Educational and Vocational Guidance work in the

area of guidance.At the national level NCERT, CIRTES and DGE&T are important organizations in the field of guidance. Check your Progress 1. Explain the term group guidance 2. Discuss any two group guidance activities which are carried out in school. 3. Discuss various techniques of group guidance with suitable examples. 4. Prepare a list of national and international agencies of guidance listing their works. 2.6 SUGGESTED READINGS333 Agrawal,R(2006) Educational,Vocational Guidance and Counselling,New Delhi,Sipra Publication Bhatnagar,A AND Gupta,N(1999).Guidance and Counselling:A theoretical Approach(Ed),New Delhi,Vikash Publishing House Jones, A.J.(19510.Principles of Guidance and Pupil Personnel work,New York,MiGraw Hill Kochhar, S.K., (1985): Educational and Vocational Guidance in Secondary Schools,New Delhi,Strling Publisher 334 5 OCCUPATIONAL INFORMATION AND JOB SATISFACTION Unit Structure 5.1 Objectives

5.2 Introduction 5.3 Need and Sources of Occupational Information 5.3.1 Concept 5.3.2 Need and importance 5.4 Collection, Filing and Classification of Occupational Information 5.4.1 Sources of Occupational Information 5.4.2 Types of Occupational Information Materials 5.4.3 Methods of Collection of Occupational Information 5.4.4 Classification of Occupational Information 5.4.5 Filing of Occupational Information 5.5 Dissemination of Occupational information 5.5.1 Group Techniques 5.5.2 Individual Techniques 5.6 Job Satisfaction 5.6.1 Meaning of job satisfaction 5.6.2 Factors of Job satisfaction 5.7 Job Analysis, Job Specifications and Job Profile 5.8 Let us Sum Up 5.9 Unit End Exercise 5.10 Suggested Readings 5.1 OBJECTIVES After going through this unit you will be able to: Explain the need and importance of occupational information in the present day List different sources of occupational information i.e.

primary-secondary,international,national and local335 List different methods of collection of occupational; information Describe various techniques of dissemination of occupational information Identify various factors of job satisfaction Point out the relationship between job analysis, job specifications and job profile. 5.1 INTRODUCTION Tremendous explosion of knowledge in science and technology in the modern days has enriched the store house of information .The scientific and technological advancements have brought in many changes in social and economic structure of our country. Among the many challenges faced by our youths today is the choice of a right career. The occupational information, one of the important components of guidance programme is basic to career planning and adjustment. This unit provides you an overview of meaning, need and sources of occupational information, methods of collection, classification and filing of occupational information, and techniques of dissemination of occupational information. It also familiarizes you with factors affecting jobsatisfation, job analysis, job specifications and job profile. 5.3 CONCEPT AND NEEDS OF OCCUPATIONAL INFORMATION

5.3.1 Concept: Occupational information is information about the world of work. Occupational information covers pertinent and reliable information relating to various occupations e.g. job contents, training and preparation for the occupation, entry in to occupation, working conditions, salaries, emoluments, employment outlooks and prospects etc. 5.3.2 Need and Importance: Occupational information service is one of the important guidance services. The need and importance of occupational information is as follows. Career Planning: Due to vastness of educational and occupational opportunities available today the student needs accurate reliable 336 and useful information. Occupational information is one of the essential aspects of career planning. Career Development: Occupational information is also essential for career development of students. The individuals appropriate skills, attitudes, interests, abilities, values and self concept depend upon accurate information about specific jobs. Vocational thinking: In the early stage i.e elementary stage, occupational

information helps to widen the vocational thinking .This helps them to explore the vocational world.

Changing Perceptions: Occupational information helps to check the pre conceived distorted notion of individual regarding some job. Placement: As the student gets reliable and accurate information about the job, through occupational information it helps in placement. The student gets information about personality traits required for a particular job, which helps in getting the job. Apart from this, occupational information has important role in preparation of selection tests for jobs, upgradarion of skills of employed manpower and international comparison of occupational data. 5.4 COLLECTION, FILING AND CLASSIFICATION OF OCCUPATIONAL INFORMATION 5.4.1 Sources of Occupational Information: There is array of sources for bringing occupational information materials in different forms for use by teachers, counselors and students. These sources can be classified on the basis of nature and scope of information. On the basis of nature of the source of occupational

information it is classified as Primary and Secondary source of information On the basis of the scope of information it is classified as International, National and Local Primary and Secondary Sources: The primary source is the

original or direct source from here we get the relevant occupational 337 information. The information collected from the employer, employee/worker, and government bodies/agencies are example of primary sources. The secondary sources of information are those which use information collected or published by the original sources. These are also called indirect sources. International, National, Local Sources: Many international, national and state/local level organizations/agencies n bring out publications related to occupations. Some of the International, national and state/local level sources are given below. Different agencies: Level Organisation / Agencies International a)United Nations Organization United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Association(UNESCO),Paris(www.unesco.org) United Nations Industrial Development Organizations(UNIDO) www.unido.org International Labour Organisation(ILO) National Directorate General of Employment and Training(DGE&T),New Delhi www.dget.nic.in

Directorate of Audio Visual Publicity(DAVP) ,New Delhi www.davp.nic.in Union Public Service Commission(UPSC) , New Delhi www.upsc.gov.nic.in

National Council of Educational Research and Training(NCERT) , New Delhi www.ncert.nic.in

All India Council of Technical Education(AICTE) New Delhi www.aicte.ernet.in

University Grants Commission(UGC) New Delhi www.ugc.ac.in Indira Gandhi National Open University(IGNOU) ,New Delhi www.ignou.ac.in National Institute of Rural Development(NIRD),Hyderabad National Institute of Health and Family Welfare(NIHFW), New Delhi 338

State/Local State Guidance Bureaus SCERTs/SIEs State government departments (Revenue, Health, Industry, Labour, Social Welfare, Mining etc) State /District employment offices Non Government Organisations University Employment Information Cells and Guidance Bureaus 5.4.2 Types of Occupational Information Materials: The materials prepared by different agencies, institutions for occupational information broadly classified in to three types i.e print material, audiovisual materials and electronic materials Print Materials Audio/Visual Electronic Occupational Monographs

Employment News News Paper and Magazines Recruitment Literatures Occupational reviews Career films Career photographs Posters and charts Audio Recording Radio Television Computers Before using any material, you need to evaluate the accuracy, relevance, format and usefulness of the information. 5.4.3 Methods of Collection of Occupational Information: How can you collect occupational information? The occupational information can be collected through various methods i.e follow up surveys, community occupational survey, community educational survey and want ad survey. Follow up Survey: The follow up survey can be conducted to find out career adjustments of school leavers. These provide information about educational and employment opportunities in the community. The occupational facts provided by the survey help the school students to plan their career realistically. Community Occupational Survey:

The community educational survey is an enumeration and description of jobs in a geographically defined area. The survey provides an overview of occupational information about community specific occupations, man power trends and requirements. If you want to conduct a community occupational survey, you have to visit with your colleagues to a near by office/agency/industry and obtain 339 relevant information on name and address of the organization, existing occupations, man power requirements i.e. job openings, eligibility, requirements and salary. Community Educational Survey: A community educational survey is conducted to collect detailed information about educational institutions in a particular geographical area. This survey covers all types of educational institutions such as schools, colleges(medical, engineering, vocational) ,distance education centers etc. Relevant information collected on courses offered, number of seats, procedure of admission ,fees,hostel,scholarship etc will give insight .The prospectus, information bulletin of different institutions can be studied and analyzed to compare educational facilities. Want Ad Survey: This is the simplest and least expensive survey. It is a periodic (weekly, monthly, quarterly) tabulation of the job openings as advertised in news papers. Here two types of advertisements i.e. help want ads and situation vacant ad appearing in local news papers or neighboring metropolitan news papers are used. While

the first type advertisement

provides information regarding job

openings the second type of ads provide data of supply of workers for possible job openings. The tabulation of data in this survey may be done according to broad group of classification (NCO), based on interst, curricular streams etc.Want ad surveys are of great value to metropolitan and small cities. 5.4.4 Classification of Occupational Information: Collection of a lot of occupational information necessitates storing it in a systematic manner so that that can be used by others with out difficulty whenever required. For a meaningful storage of occupational information we have to know different ways of classifying information. Occupational information can be classified in a number of ways such as by occupation, industry, socioeconomic status, interests, and educational levels etc.All these classification schemes have their own merits and limitations. Some of the Classification schemes are discussed below. Classification by Occupation: National Classification of Occupation (NCO-2004) As per the NCO-2004 occupations have been classified into the following nine divisions and skill levels.340 Division Title Skill Level

10. Legislatures, Senior Officials and Managers 11.Professionals 12.Technicians and Associate

professionals 13.Clerks 14.Service workers and shop, market sales workers 15.Skilled agricultural and fishery workers 16.Craft and related trade workers 17.Plant and machine operators and assemblers 18.Elementary Occupations Not defined IV II II II II II I NCO-2004 groups together 2945 occupations, each occupations has been assigned a six digit code, a distinct title and a definition. The occupations have been first assigned to ten occupational divisions (identified by the initial digit in the code number) that are comprised of 30 sub-divisions (identified by first two digit of the code number).The subdivisions have 116 groups (identified by first three digit of the code number) Classification by Industry:

National Industrial Classification-2004(NIC-2004) The Central Statistical Organization (CSO) has developed the NIC-2004 in India . It has 17 sections, 62 Divisions, 161 groups, 310 classes and 1191 subclasses. The 17 sections are listed by one letter alpha code from A to Q as below. R. Agriculture, hunting and forestry S. Fishing T. Mining and quarrying U. Manufacturing V. Electricity, gas and water supply W. Construction X. Wholesale and retail trade; repair of motor vehicles, motor cycles and personal and household goods Y Hotels and restaurants . Z. Transport ,storage and communication AA. Financial intermediation341 BB. Real estate, renting and business activities CC. Public administration and defence;compulsory social security DD. Education EE. Health and social work FF.Other community, Social and personal service activities GG. Activities of private households as employers and undifferentiated production activities of households HH. Extraterritorial organizations and bodies

The NIC-2004 adopts a five digit classification where the first 2 digits indicate Division, the first three digits represent Group, and four digits indicate Class. The subclasses (if exists) are indicated by all the five numbers. The NIC-2004 has been used in the country for population census, industrial survey etc. Classification Based on Interest: In this classification scheme, occupations are categorized according to interest areas .Comprehensive Interest Schedule by Vohra (1993) lists eight interest areas i.e. influential, venturous, artistic, scientific, analytical, social, nature and clerical. The type of occupation related to interests are Administrative and enterprising (Influential), Defence and Sports (venturous), Creative and performing (Artistic), Medical and technical (Scientific), Expressive and computational (analytical), Humanitarian and education (social). 5.4.5 Filing of Occupational Information: In school situation educational/occupational information may be available in both bound and unbound form. The unbound materials may include lesflets,folders,news paper clippings, notice etc.Similarly the bound materials include proseptus,hand book, information brochures etc.Some popular filing plans for unbound information materials are Alphabetic Plan, Classification based upon Educational Level , based on academic subjects or Curricular Stream and geographical files etc. Alphabetic Plan:

In this system, occupational information is classified according to the first alphabet of each occupation. Here occupational headings to be used are collected from occupational or industrial classification. Classification based upon Educational Level:342 Various Levels of education i.e. elementary school, secondary school, higher secondary school, post school diploma certificate, graduation, post graduation and M.Phil/Doctorate.

Classification based on academic subjects or Curricular Stream Specific requirement of subjects of study for particular occupation is the basis of this classification. Geographical Files Occupational information can also be filed geographically by city or state Characteristics of a good filing system: In order to select a filing system for the school, the guidance worker should examine all the classification system available .Then a filing plan needs to be selected suitable to the requirements of the school. Following are the characteristics of a good filing system suggested by Hoppock (1976, 1.63): It should provide a safe place for housing written and printed documents, clippings from newspapers and magazines, posters, pictures, films.tape recordings, pamplates, books

and anything else that may contain useful occupational information. It should provide one and only one designated location for each item to be filed,so that there may be no confusion where to file an item or where to find it. It should be easy to use, so that all who use it can find what they want with a minimum time and effort. It should bring together as many as possible of the materials on any one occupation or industry or employer. It should bring together related occupations or industries or employers It should provide some means of quickly finding material in omnibus books and other publications which describe several different occupations. It should be expandable, so that it can grow as the collection grows. It should provide for filing and finding related materials, such as the results of follow up studies and community occupational surveys.343 5.5 DISSEMINATION OF OCCUPATIONAL INFORMATION Dissemination of occupational information about various educational and occupational opportunities and their requirements is necessary to give exposure to students. The dissemination of occupational information helps student to be informed about

different careers, to make an appropriate career choice and to apply the information to solve various career related problems. Occupational information can be effectively disseminated to students through group as well as individual techniques. 5.5.1 Group Techniques: In school much of the information on career in general is disseminated through group activities. Group techniques are used in guidance to help the normal individuals to understand themselves, acquire information and learn to analyse problems in order to make realistic educational and vocational choices. Following are some of the group techniques of dissemination of occupational information. Career Talk: It is a popular technique of dissemination of career information. As per students needs professionals, school alumni can be invited to deliver career talk in regular classroom. The topic of the career talk should be carefully decided keeping in view the age group, interest and educational level. Generally a career talk contains the following10.Introduction about the occupation 11.General and specific nature of work 12.Work conditions 13.Earnings 14.Qualifications required[age,education,skills/aptitude] 15.Methods of entering the job 16.Advancement/Promotions

17.Employment outlook 18.Sources of Further information Group Discussion: In group discussion the group of members share information collected by each one of them and gain insight about a particular occupation. The group discussion should start with prior information to the group about the occupation to be 344 discussed, initiative by group leader, interaction among students [groups] and reflection of discussion. Field Trips: Field trips provide a pragmatic, interesting, enjoyable and extremely useful method of learning and imparting occupational information (Joneja, 1997).The students get relevant information about different occupation by visiting industries and offices. While selecting the industry/organization/place the objective/purpose must be taken into account. Such places may be selected where ex students are working, because they will be able to provide more information and help in making the tour/trip effective. It requires a lot of planning and preparation. After the trip group wise presentation needs to be organized. Career Exhibition: It is one of the important techniques of disseminating occupational information. A great variety of career information materials are available from various sources. Exhibition of career information materials may be arranged by the teacher/counselor in the school library, guidance room, hall, and corridor or in classroom or at any other place where alls students can see them.

School Assemblies: School assemblies being a regular feature of secondary and senior secondary schools, can provide opportunities for effective dissemination of occupational information which may be of interest to most of the school students. Subject Teaching: There is also scope for dissemination of Occupational information in secondary school through subject teaching. In Language, social science, mathematics, science there is maximum scope for diffusion of occupational information. The dissemination of occupational/career information by subject teachers motivate the students to learn the subject matter with interest and to explore further information(NCERT,2008). Publications: The educational institution may publish Guidance Newsletter periodically for teachers and students of the institution. 5.5.2 Individual Techniques: Individual methods of dissemination of occupational information are used to help different types of student to develop an understanding of themselves, and make career related decisions and adjustments .Individual counseling sessions are helpful for dissemination of occupational know how. However, as this needs one to one interaction professional expertise is essential on the part of teacher to disseminate career information. Group techniques are more useful and economic.345 5.6 JOB SATISFACTION 5.6.1 Meaning of Job Satisfaction: Job satisfaction is a persons attitude towards the job.

Positive attitude towards job are equivalent to job satisfaction where as negative attitude are equivalent to job dissatisfaction. Job satisfaction describes how content an individual is with his/r her job. The happier people are within their job, the more satisfied they are said to be. Job satisfaction is not the same as motivation, although it is clearly linked. For the first time in 1935 ,the concept of job satisfaction gained momentum through the publication by Hoppock on job satisfaction.Hoppock in his monograph has defined job satisfaction as any combination of psychological, physiological and environmental circumstances that causes a person truthfully to say I am satisfied with my job. Job satisfaction has been defined as a pleasurable emotional state resulting from the appraisal of ones job (Locke, 1976) an affective reaction to ones job (Cranny, Smith & Stone, 1992) and an attitude towards ones job (Brief, 1998). Weiss (2002) argued that job satisfaction is an attitude but points out that researchers should clearly distinguish the objects of cognitive evaluation which are affect (emotion), beliefs and behaviours This definition suggests that we form attitudes towards our jobs by taking into account our feelings, our beliefs, and our behaviors Job satisfaction may also be defined as summation of employees feelings in four important areas. 5.6.2 Factors of Job satisfaction: Job satisfaction can be influenced by a variety of factors,

e.g. the quality of one's relationship with their supervisor, the quality of the physical environment in which they work, degree of fulfillment in their work, etc. Numerous research results show that there are many factors affecting the job satisfaction. There are particular demographic traits (age, education level, tenure, position, marital status, years in service, and hours worked per week) of employees that significantly affect their job satisfaction. Motivating factors are achievement, recognition, the job conducted, responsibility, promotion and the factors related to the job itself for personal development. Motivating factors in the 346 working environment result in the job satisfaction of the person while protective ones dissatisfy him/her. Maslow connects the creation of the existence of people's sense of satisfaction with the maintenance of the classified needs. These are: physiological needs (eating, drinking, resting, etc.), security needs (pension, health insurance, etc.), the need to love (good relations with the environment, friendship, fellowship, to love and to be loved), need to self-esteem (self-confidence, recognition, adoration, to be given importance, status, etc.) need of selfactualization (maximization of the latent [potential] power and capacity, development of abilities, etc). Insufficient education, inability to select qualified workers for the job, lack of communications, lack of job definitions, all affect job satisfaction negatively. It has been asserted that participating in the

management, having the decision making power, independence on the job and the unit where the individual works, have positive impact upon the job satisfaction. The job itself (the work conducted), and achievement and recognition at work result in satisfaction while the management policy, relations with the managers and colleagues result in dissatisfaction. Factors related to the job itself such as using talents, creativity, responsibility, recognition have influence on the job satisfaction. Age is one of the factors affecting job satisfaction. Studies conducted in five different countries prove that the elder workers are more satisfied. The role people play and the status they enjoy are all too often determined by age. Besides other things, age is also an important consideration in determining a persons promotion or his/her failure to receive it. Length of service is also a factor affecting job satisfaction. Similarly, by some researchers, sex is also found to have an influence on job satisfaction. Besides. Job satisfaction and devotion to the job, affected each other reciprocally, and they have great impact upon performance. The most significant of the factors affecting performance are economical, technical, socio-political, cultural and demographical ones. However, most efforts to improve performance seem to center on improving the conditions surrounding the work. These are worthwhile efforts, but they usually result only in short-term improvements in attitudes and productivity,

and the situation often returns quickly to normal. 5.7 JOB ANALYSIS, JOB SPECIFICATIONS AND JOB PROFILE347 5.7.1 Job Analysis: Job analysis is the process of objectively determining the specific duties, responsibilities and working conditions associated with a specific job, as well as the personal skills and qualifications required to perform that job satisfactorily. It is the process of getting information about the job. Thus, the purpose of job analysis is to establish and document the job relatedness of employment procedures. It investigates exactly: What the worker does in a particular job? How s/he does that particular job? Why s/he does it ?and How much skill is required to do it ? What are the physical demands, environmental conditions associated with this specific job? Some of the methods of job analysis are: 1. Review of job classification system 2. Interviews: Incubement interviews and supervisor interview 3. expert panel 4. observation 5. Incubement work logs Advantages of Job analysis:

5. Job analysis helps the personnel manager at time of recruitment and selection of right personnel in right job 6. Understanding the extent and scope of training required in the field 7. It helps in chalking out the compensation plan for employees 8. It helps the personnel in performance appraisal of employees. These may be used individually or in combination. Job analysis can be done in two ways: job description and job specifications 5.7.2 Job Specifications: Job specification is a statement which tells us minimum acceptable human qualities which helps to perform a job. It helps in selecting a appropriate person for an appropriate position. The components covered under job specifications are 8. job title and designation 348 9. educational qualification for that title 10.physical and other related attributes 11.Mental Health 12.Special attributes and abilities 13.maturity and dependability 14.Relationship of that job with other jobs Advantages of Job Specifications 7. It is helpful in preliminary screening in selection procedures 8. It helps in giving due justifications to each job 9. It helps in designing training and development programmes

10. It helps the supervisors for counseling and monitoring performance of employees 11. It helps in job evaluation 12. It helps the management to take decisions regarding promotions, transfer and giving extra benefits to employees. 5.7.3 Job Profile: Job Profile is a breakdown of the duties and tasks required of and performed by a person for a specific title. Job profile or the Key Result Areas indicate a list of activities that you are doing or will be doing in any job. It defines your job responsibilities (the activities you are autorized to do in any job). Whenever you wish to switch to new job, your existing and previous experience is counted on the basis of your job profile and that is why job opportunities depend on the job profile. Job profiles list a general description of the work position including required duties, position goals and departmental placement. Also, job profiles list candidate educational and experience requirements. For example, the candidate "must have three years of sales experience." Many job profiles also list the position's salary or hourly wage. A job profile presents a clear picture of the position to the candidate. After reading the job profile, job seekers can make an informed decision as to whether the job is right for them. For applicants, a well-written job profile serves as a valuable interview preparation tool.

5.8 LET US SUM UP Occupational information, one of the essential guidance services is helpful for career development, career adjustment, vocational thinking and changing perceptions of students. Occupational information is collected from primary and secondary sources. Agencies/organisations working at international, national 349 and state/local level bring publications pertaining to occupations from time to time. Occupations are classified based upon Occupation, Industry, Educational Level, interest etc. Different methods like follow up survey, community occupation survey, community education survey and want on ad are used to collect relevant data on occupational information. Occupational information is disseminated by individual and group techniques. Job satisfaction is related to many factors like motivation, demographic factors, gender etc. There is relationship between Job analysis, job specification and job profile. 5.9 UNIT END EXERCISE 7. What is occupational information? Discuss the need and importance of occupational information. 8. Prepare a list of national level organizations/agencies working for publication and dissemination of occupational information. 9. What are different types of occupational information materials available? Discuss with example any five forms of each type of material.

10.What is the classification scheme of NCO-2004 11.Discuss various factors responsible for job satisfaction 12. Write short notes on a)Job Profile(b)Job Specifications 5.10 SUGGESTED READINGS Joneja,G.K(1997).Occupational Information in Guidance.National Council Of Educational Research and Training, New Delhi Locke (1976).Cited in Brief,A.P ;Weiss,H.M(2001).Organizational Behaviuor ,Annual Review of Psychology,53,279-307,p282 Weiss,H.M(2002).Deconstructing Job Satisfaction:Separating evaluatuions,beliefs and affective experiences.Human Resource Managementb Review,12,173-194 Vohra,S(1993).Comprehensive Interest Schedule .PSY-COM Services,New Delhi NCERT(2008).Career Information in Guidance,Module-5 and 12, National Council Of Educational Research and Training, New Delhi Hoppock,R(1935). Job Satisfaction, Harper and Bros,New York.350 6 PSYCHOMETRIC METHODS AND TECHNIQUES FOR GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING QUANTITATIVE TECHNIQUES Unit Structure : 7.0 Introduction 6.3 Objectives

6.4 Psychological Tests 6.2.7 Intelligence Test 6.2.8 Interest Inventories 6.2.9 Aptitude Tests 6.2.10 Achievement Tests 6.2.11 Attitude Scale 6.2.12 Personality Test 6.4 Let us sum up 6.5 Self-evaluation Exercises 6.6 Suggested Readings INTRODUCTION : The goal of assessment is to help counselors develop an understanding of the client or an individual. By using assessment and appraisal procedures, you will be able to gain understanding of the individual and in turn foster individuals understanding himself or herself. In this sense, you will appreciate that assessment and appraisal processes and procedures are the means of obtaining comprehensive understanding of students thereby fulfilling the goal of counseling.351 It is essential that, you need to be familiar with the major tools and techniques of assessment, the purpose for which they are used and how the information provided by these can be used in understanding the individual. Psychological testing is one of the ways of assessment. The selection of any tool whether quantitative or qualitative

depends on the type of information the counselor is interested in gathering. In most cases both are required to be used for holistic assessment an appraisal. In this unit, you will read about psychological tests, which are the tools for quantitative assessment. 6.1 OBJECTIVES : After completion of this unit, you would be able to : Describe the meaning and uses of different psychological tests in guidance and counseling Intelligence Test Interest Inventories Aptitude Tests Achievement Tests Attitude Scale Personality Test 6.2 PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS : Psychological tests are designed to assess the characteristics of people such as their abilities, attitudes, motivations, interests, needs and values and so on. Psychological test can be defined as a sample of an individual, behaviour, obtaining under standard conditions and scored according to a fixed set of rules that provide a numeric score (Anastasi, 2003). In a standardized test, individual scores are compared with a norm or standard arrived at on the basis of performance of sample of individuals of the same age or grade level from around the

country who took the same test when it was first developed. Good standardized tests are the result of years of research. Tests may take many forms. Usually, they comprise of a series of items / questions with well-defined correct answers such as in case of tests of intelligence or achievement, while others such as personality inventories, do not have right or wrong answers, but are designed to assess persons pre-dispositions, tendencies and preferences.352 Tests can be used to compare the same individual on two or more traits and also compare two or more individuals on the same trait. Such an assessment is usually quantitative. Although most of the psychological tests provide relatively objective and quantifiable scores such as tests of intelligence abilities / aptitudes. Some other tests may also provide descriptive and qualitative interpretations. You will learn about these in Unit 7. A standard test has a manual which provides complete information of how the test was developed, evidence of its consistency, accuracy and objectivity. It also consists of detailed instructions for administering, scoring, interpreting the test, its uses and possible misuses. The test manual thus, provides you the requisite information to allow you to make an informed judgement as to whether the test is suitable for your use. Besides, the requirement to select the appropriate psychological test, a counselor needs to develop various skills in test administration, scoring, interpretation and communicating results to clients. The following section will describe some type of tests and

the purpose for which they are used. Psychological tests are classified into different types depending on their content and the way they are administered. Tests vary in their content depending on the aspect of behaviour that is assessed, for example, some tests are designed to assess abilities, others assess motivation, personality characteristics etc. Psychological tests are also classified into individual and group tests, verbal tests and non-verbal tests and performance tests. Let us discuss one by one quantitative methods and techniques. 6.2.7 Intelligence Tests : Intelligence has been one of the most popular psychological terms used in identifying individual differences. It has helped to explain that people differ from each other in their ability to understand complex ideas or to learn from experience. Different theorists have tried to explain intelligence in different ways following different approaches. Theories by Binet, Weschler Spearman and Thustone are based on the psychometric approach where intelligence is considered as an aggregate of abilities. It is expressed in terms of a single index of abilities. Howard Gardeners theory of multiple intelligences puts forth that intelligence is not a single entity and there exists multiple intelligences, each distinct from others. According to him, there are nine distinct intelligences that are relatively independent of each other. These different types of intelligences interact and work together to provide a solution of a problem. The nine types of intelligences proposed by Gardener are

briefly discussed below. 353 10. Linguistic Intelligence : The capacity to use language

fluently and flexibly, to express ones thinking and understanding others. Used in reading a book, writing a paper, a novel or a poem; and understanding spoken words. Poets and writers exhibit this ability. 11. Logical Mathematical Intelligence : Thinking logically, critically, using abstract reasoning to manipulate symbols and solve mathematical problems. 12. Spatial Intelligence : Abilities involved in forming, using and transforming mental images. Used in getting from one place to another, in reading a map, and is packing suitcase in the trunk of a car so that they all fit into a compact space. Pilots, sailors, interior decorators, surgeons, fashion designers generally exhibit this ability. 13. Musical Intelligence : Capacity to produce, create and manipulate musical patterns. Used in singing a song, composing a sonata, playing a trumpet or even appreciating the structure of a piece of music. 14. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence : Ability to use ones body and muscle structure in a coordinated planned way. Used in dancing, playing basket ball, running a mile or throwing a javeline. Athletes, dancers, actors, gymnasts, sports person, surgeon exhibit this more than others. 15. Interpersonal Intelligence : Used in relating to other

people, such as when we try to understand another persons behaviour, motives or emotions, counselors, psychologists, politicians, social workers, religious leaders are shown to be high on this ability. 16. Intrapersonal Intelligence : Knowledge of ones internal strengths and limitations and using that knowledge to relate to others. 17. Naturalistic Intelligence : Complete awareness to our relationship with the natural world, useful in recognizing the beauty of different species of flora and fauna and making a distinction in the natural world. 18. Existential Intelligence : Can be defined as the ability to be sensitive to, or have the capacity for, conceptualizing or tackling deeper or larger questions about human existence, such as the meaning of life, why are we born, why do you die, what is consciousness or how did we get here. The multiple intelligences approach focuses on ways in which people can be intelligent. 354 Theorists have also tried to explain intelligence in terms of information processing approach wherein the focus is on how an intelligent person thinks, acts and solves problems. Sternbergs information processing approach focuses on how solutions are arrived. According to Sternberg, the critical aspect of what constitutes intelligence is not necessarily the speed with which one arrives at a solution but the processes one uses. Processing

information quickly does not mean it was done accurately or correctly. A relative rather than an impulsive style of problem solving has been associated with higher ability to solve problems. Jumping to conclusions without adequate reflection can lead to erroneous thinking. The notion of emotional intelligence broadens the concept of intelligence and involves ; v) perceiving or sensing emotions, vi)using emotion to assist thoughts, vii) understanding emotions, and viii) managing emotions. The concept of IQ dominated intelligence testing for a long time. With the emerging view of intelligence as multifaceted, the concept of intelligence as a single unitary ability or a composite of scores on different abilities is not considered valid. The concept of IQ has been found to be misleading. As counselors, the focus should be on a holistic assessment focusing on strengths and weaknesses of the client. This would help to plan remedial measures for intervention. The multiple intelligences approach is an alternative approach to assessment of intelligence. It emphasizes a variety of abilities and skills (and not just an aggregate of mental abilities), which are required for success in life situations. As the meaning of intelligence differs from one culture to another there is a need to understand the cultural context for measuring intelligence. Even though tests of intelligence assist counselors and other personnel in providing a view of the clients

abilities, the scores of these tests need to be used with caution. 6.2.8 Interest Inventories : In order to help students make vocational and & educational choices, the counselor needs to know his/her interest for activities. The study of interest would help you as counselor to better understand the students in terms of his/her likes and dislikes. In this section, you will learn about the concept of interest and its assessment.355 You might have observed in your class that some students show more inclination to mathematics, while others in computers, some in literary activities, in paining etc. Interest is an expression of our likes and dislikes or our attractions or aversions. An individual chooses the most acceptable, suitable alternative out of many, go after preferred objectives, activities etc. and consequently desires satisfaction, success and happiness out of the activities selected. It is because of his or her natural liking fro these activities over others. Interest refers to activities that on individual likes to engage in enjoys. Types of Interest : Interest can be classified in

different ways. Supper (1990) classified interest as (i) expressed (ii) manifest or observed and (iii) measure or tested. Interest testing is done to achieve some purpose such as : To provide teachers and counselors with information regarding the students preference and aversions which will help then acquire better understanding of students and their problems. To enable teachers, counselors and parents to assist the testes to prepare his educational and vocational terms consistent with his interest. To help in the selection of the right person for the right work, and thus same frustration, unhappiness and disappointment in the live of the individuals and increase productive capacity of individual. Methods of Assisting Interests356 We can use (i) formal assessment techniques and (ii) informal assessment techniques to discover a students interest. ii) Formal Assessment Techniques : Interest inventories are formal techniques for measuring interests. They are considered more reliable at discovering on individuals interest than interviews as the inventories address a large number of questions

representing a broad range of carriers. There are many inventories now in use and majority of them deal with occupational interest. Interest Inventories The Strong Vocational Interest Bank (SVIS) and Kuder preference Record (KPR) are significant milestones in the area of interest measurement and a number of revisions of the original forms have been undertaken. Both the interest inventories however better in terms of approaches in construction and purpose for which they are used. The SVIB is based on the assumption that a person who has the interest typical of successful people in a given occupation will enjoy and find satisfaction in that occupation. The KPR constructed by G. Frederic Kuder, assets preferences for specific activities. Each item contains three choices. The subject has to select one of the three choices as his first choice, and another as his third choice. An example of the choices given in an item are : Build bird houses Write articles about birds Drawn sketches of birds.357 This particular item aims to test three types of interests, namely mechanical, literacy and an artistic.

The main difference in the two types of inventories is that in Kuder preference record the subject is forced to say which one of the three activities he likes best and which one he likes least, even though he may not like any of the that, hence it is called forced choice pattern type. In Strong Vocational Interest blank, the subject has to differentiate between L (like), I (indifferent) or D (dislike). Hence it is called category-response type of assessment. As counselor if you want a description of a persons so that inferences could be done regarding suitability for one of the very large number of jobs, Kuder Preference Record is your preferable tool of interest assessment. On the other hand if the purpose is to appraise the individually interest for a limited number of specific jobs, then strong Vocational Interest Blank is more useful. It is important to remember that the SVIB and KPR tell nothing about the ability or aptitude of an individual. These to be assessed by other methods. Results of interest inventories or tests are particularly useful to the counselor as : The items of interest inventories are non-threatening and so the student is more likely to respond honestly. The student, with the assistance of the counselor, is helped to see the discrepancy, if any, between his/her view of ones interests and those assessed by the interest

inventories. It also provides the counsellor a view into whether the clients expressed interests are shifted to what s/he is pursuing. You have read about two distinct types of interest inventories. Besides, these two, some tools are available and used by the counselor and the individual her / himself. Informal Assessment Techniques :358 It includes clients expression of interests and observation. The clients interviews regarding his/her interests provide the counselor a good beginning for understanding the client. For example, the books s/he reads, and the amount of time spent on reading provides on indication of clients interests on the kind of reading s/he does. As counselors you can supplement this information by using qualitative techniques of assessment such as observation of the activities a client participates in or information gathered from anecdotal records and written works as sources informal information regarding client interests. Cautions on the use of Interest inventories As counselor, you should keep in the following cautions in mind while using the results of interest inventories. Interest data of an individual provides a profile of the

pattern of their interests (what they like doing) and should not be taken as the strength of the individual). Interest results tell us only about the likelihood of an individual finding enjoyment in a particular type of activity or occupation and not s/he is capable of. A high score on an interest inventory so should not be considered analogues to success in a career. You have read in the above section that assessment of interest indicates of a simple level what a person likes to do and enjoy. It is important to remember interests indicate the clients and not his or her strength. The emphasis of interest inventories is on self-exploration. One should know about one self and be able to relate this information to what one is doing. Thus the results of interest inventories should not be seen in an isolate manner but should be supplemented with information from other techniques such as observation, interview, informal talk etc. interest results are of little value themselves. They should be considered with achievement and aptitude scores to help individuals make educational and career choices.359 6.2.9 Aptitude Tests : Aptitude is thought of as a natural tendency, special ability, or capacity or cluster of abilities. Often these natural abilities are looked at in relationship to a persons readiness to learn or their suitability for a particular career. For example, in order to be successful architect, one most possess the

cluster of abilities such as a keen sense of observation, a sense of aesthetic visual memory, abstract reasoning, and an ability to sketch free hand. So, aptitude may be defined as a trait that characterizes an individuals ability to perform in a area or to acquire the learning necessary for performance in a given area. It presumes an inherent or native ability that can be developed to its maximum through learning or other experiences. However, it can not be expanded beyond a certain point, even by learning. Although that may be a debatable concept, it is stated here as a basis on which aptitude tests are developed. In theory, then, an aptitude test measures the potential of one to achieve in a given activity or to learn to achieve in that activity. Aptitude tests may potentially be used by counselors and others because. They may identify potential abilities of which the individual is not aware; They may encourage the development of special or potential abilities of a given individual. They may provide information to assist on individual in making educational and career decisions or other choices between competing alternatives; They may serve as an aid in predicting the level of academic or vocational success on individual might anticipate; and

 They may be useful in grouping individuals with similar aptitudes for development and other educational purposes. Types of Aptitude Tests :360 There are different types of aptitude tests. Some of them are single aptitude tests like tests of mechanical aptitude, clerical aptitude, teaching aptitude, musical aptitude and so on. Such tests covering a group of related abilities are necessary for performing in an occupation like becoming a mechanic, clerk, teacher, musician etc. Another type of aptitude test is work sample aptitude test. It requires the individual to perform all or part of a given job under the conditions that exist on the job. An example of a work sample test for the job of automobile mechanic is to repair a faulty carburetor. Besides this, there are differential tests Batteries as well. A commonly know Differential Aptitude Tests (DAT). Bennett, Seashore and Wesman (1984) battery consists of eight subtests of verbal reasoning, numerical reasoning abstract reasoning, spatial reasoning, clerical speed and accuracy, mechanical reasoning, language usage, spelling, grammar, combination of such abilities is required for success in different occupations. Such test batteries can give comprehensive information about the relative picture of the students specific abilities.

Administration of total battery can prove to be costly in terms of time but one can make selective use of certain sub tests. For example, a student trying to explore whether s/he will have the required aptitude to go to engineering, may not be required to take tests like clerical speed, language usage, grammatical or verbal reasoning tests but may be required to take numerical abstract and spatial reasoning tests. Most of the batteries of tests available for assessment of aptitude at school stage are in the form of test batteries consisting of the underlying abilities required for success in different occupations rather than direct assessment of job aptitudes. Caution in the use of Aptitude Test Data : It is important that counselors select and use aptitude tests carefully, keeping in view the students/clients needs. If aptitude test data must be used, it should be used along with previous achievement data, present interests, leisure time activities and work habits etc. in order to guide the students into various occupational possibilities. The aptitude test samples certain abilities of the individual and helps to find what he/she can do now and how well it can be done further. On the basis of present performance, 361 estimate of his/her future achievement is inferred which is in terms of probability only.

 It may also be kept in mind that aptitude tests score only provide leads or suggestions or to help in career planning and do not automatically match individuals to suitable courses or studies, and occupations. These are factors like willingness, hard work, that contribute to or ones success in a career which are not measured by aptitude tests. 6.2.10 Achievement Tests : Achievement is what one successfully accomplishes in an area of study / activity / domain. In the case of students, it may be conceptualized as successful learning of the assigned educational material. Such learning is usually demonstrated to teachers and others either through a verbal presentation or a written examination. An achievement test measures knowledge and skills attained by the student in a particular area, usually acquired after classroom teaching or training. In an educational system, achievement test scores are often used to determine the level of instruction for which a student is prepared, to indicate academic strengths and weakness, and to indicate the relative standing of the student in a group/class. Achievement test data, in combination with other data, is used to help guidance counselors plan students future educational programmes. Types of Achievement Test : Achievement tests are of different kinds, each scoring a

different purpose and providing different information on students academic proficiency. These have been classified in various ways, and understanding of which helps the counselor to understand their functions. Formative and Summative Tests : Formative tests are used to measure progress made in knowledge and skills before and during instruction. Summative achievement tests are given at the end of course instruction, so as to assess the outcome of the instruction. Progonostic tests : Readiness or prognostic tests are used to predict how well an individual is expected to profit from training. Diagnostic Test : Diagnostic achievement tests provide information on performance of the students in different subjects and 362 indicate their strengths and weakness in reading, arithmetic and language usage. Achievement test can be either criterion referenced (CRT) or norm referenced (NRT). The two tests differ in their intended purposes, the way in which content is selected, and the scoring process which defines how the test results must be interpreted. Norm Referenced Tests (NRTs) are designed to highlight achievement differences between and among students and provide a rank order of students across a continuum of achievement from high achievers to low achievers. These types of tests are used to help counselors/ teachers to clarify students for remedial or gifted programmes. Criterion-reference tests (CRTs) determine the strengths of the test taker i.e. what they can do and what they

know, not how they compare to others. They report how well students are doing relative to a predetermined performance level on an specified set of educational goals or outcomes included in the school curriculum. An achievement test is designed to measure how much a person knows about a specific topic or area such as math, geography or science. Achievement tests can be standardized test or teacher-made tests. Uses of Achievement Test Data Data from standard achievement tests can be used for promoting, classifying, diagnosing or evaluating students. Counselors can also use the achievement tests for : Helping clients in decision making. A counselor can use the achievement test scores to initiate decision on taking appropriate choices for a career. Assisting in diagnosis counselors can make use of achievement test data to diagnose problems faced by the students in different subject areas. Accordingly corrective remediation can be planned and carried out.363 Encouraging self-study. The student through achievement data, is able to gain insight into his/her strengths and weakness in different subjects which can motivate him/her to put in the desire effort. Achievement test are used as learning measures of (1) the amount of learning, (2) the rate of learning (3) comparisons

with others or with achievement of self in other areas, (4) level of learning in sub-areas, and (5) strengths and workers in a subject matter area because of their extensive use and relatively easy task of identifying appropriate context measures. Achievement tests of both kinds i.e. standardized and teacher made tests are based on the content taught and are considered valid. These are used to assess the level of overall proficiency to meet the entry requirements to certain/ programmes or the proficiency in a particular subject. The informal classroom achievement test is suited to a select performance of a group of students. It is flexible and accommodates testing students on a local curriculum. The two types of tests can be used in a complementary manner. 6.2.11 Attitude Scale : Attitudes are expressions of how much we like or dislike various things. We tend to approach and seek out to be associated with things we like, we avoid, shun or reject things we do not like. Attitude represent our evaluations and performance towards a wide variety of objects, events, persons, and situations. The defining characteristics of attitudes is that they express evaluations along the lines of liking-disliking, pro-anti, favouring disfavouring or positive negative (Petty and Cacippo, 1981). By restricting the term attitude to evaluation, we distinguish attitudes from beliefs or opinions. Attitude includes certain aspects of personality as

interests, appreciations and social conduct. Attitudes are learnt, they are adopted. They have aspects as directions, intensity etc. In the following section we will know how attitudes tested. Types of Attitude Scales : Attitudes need to be tested because our social life depends on some desirable attitudes. The success in certain vocations also depends on some attitudes. Attitudes can be tested through various techniques. Various scaling techniques have led to the development of different types of attitude scales which provide quick and convenient measure of attitudes. However, the method of equal appearing intervals and method of summative ratings have been extensively used in attitude or opinion research. The attitude scales which are developed using these scaling techniques 364 consists of a number of carefully edited and selected items called statements. The method of equal appearing intervals was originally developed by Thurstone and Chave. The attitude score of an individual obtained by this method has an absolute interpretation in terms of the psychological continuum of scale value of the statements making up the scale. If this score falls in the middle range of the psychological continuum, the attitude of the individual is described as neutral. If it falls towards the favourable end of the continuum, it is described as favourable and if it falls towards the unfavourable ends, it is described as unfavourable. In the method of summated ratings developed by Likert,

the item score is obtained by assigning arbitrary weights of 5, 4, 3, 2 and 1 for Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Undecided (U), Disagree (D) and Strongly Disagree (SD) for the statements favouring a point of view. On the other hand, the scoring weights of 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 are used for the respective responses for statements opposing this point of view. An individuals score on a particular attitude scale is the sum of his rating on all the items. In addition to the above two scales, there some more techniques, such as, Error Choice Technique, Free Response Technique, Paired Comparisons, Opinion Polling or Surveying, diaries, auto-biographic etc. are used for testing attitude. Attitude scales are used to measure the degree of positive or negative feeling associated with any slogan, person, institution, religion, political party etc. Attitude scales are also used in publicopinion surveys in order to make some important and crucial decisions. Educationists, for example, conduct opinion surveys to find out how people feel about educational issues. 6.2.12 Personality Test : Often by persons use the term personality to indicate the physical make up of an individual. The term Personality however, signifies much more than simply the physical looks of a person and has a very broad meaning. It includes the emotional, motivational, inter-personal, attitudinal and even moral aspects of a person. some researchers have included intelligence also as part of personality. Personality refers to a unique combination of

characteristics of an individual, which pre-disposes the person to behave in a particular and consistent way. Personality testing is necessary to achieve the following purposes. 365 It helps the students in proper educational and vocational choice. Personality plays an important role in an individual, personal, educational and vocational adjustment and success. It is, therefore, important to diagnose the individuals personality pattern to see whether he posses the traits which are likely to contribute significantly to his adjustment to the course or career he is choosing. It helps the individual in resolving emotional conflicts. Personality diagnosis becomes essential when the difficulty the individual encounters in making proper adjustment with the educational and occupational choices, lies in emotional conflict about which the client has no knowledge. When the cause of the mental conflict is diagnosed, it may be possible for him to solve his problem in his own way. It helps the clinical psychologist. A clinical psychologist can use personality assessments to help choose the best therapy for his clients. Thus, personality assessment is important for educational, career, personal and social counseling. Techniques of Testing Personality : A number of techniques are used for testing personality. The techniques are : Interview

 Observation Self-report Measures Checklists Rating Scales Situational Tests or Behavioural Tests Projective Techniques Anecdotal Records Autobiography The Daily Diary Here we can discuss some of the techniques of assessment of personality like self-report measures, projective techniques and behavioral assessment. Self-Report Measures : Self-report measures are personality scales that ask individuals to answer a series of questions / statements about their characteristic behaviour. When you respond to a self-report personality inventory, you endorse statements as true or false as applied to you. You indicate how often you behave in a particular way or you rate yourself with respect to certain qualities. The logic underlying this approach is simple. Who know you better than you do ? A variety of personal characteristics can be measured through self-report inventories. 366 Projective Technique : Projective techniques focus on a composite picture of the personality as a whole. This

method is called the projective techniques because the individual is stimulated to project his personality into the test exercises. The stimuli used in projective techniques attempt to arouse responses that are a projection of the innerself or motives and personality traits that are usually hidden and often even unsuspected by the individual himself. The subject may be asked to respond to series of picture, inkblots or similarly ambiguous stimuli. The interpretation of responses requires a long period of training and should be done only by those who are specially qualified. The most popularly known projective technique is the Rorschach Inkbolts Test and Thematic Apperception Test (TA). Behavioural Assessment : The manner in which a student / client behaves in different situations can provide you with meaningful information about his / her personality. Observation of behaviour, teacher reports, interviews, ratings and situations tests serve as the basis of behavioural analysis. The choice of a specific personality test is difficult but extremely relevant as different tests yield somewhat different, yet overlapping types of information. Some provide limited information

while other provides a lot of information, some of which is very technical to understand. Of course, the more the information available, you may be able to help in more domains. You should choose a test that is relevant to clients. The test must have norms available. You should also be aware of the limitations of the test, particularly the conditions in which it may mislead the respondents or you. Even when a test is used the counselor may interpret and use the test scores along with non-test information, keeping in mind the age, gender, social group, culture, language of the client. 6.3 LET US SUM UP : Psychological test is an objective and standardized measure of a sample of behaviour. Tests are used for selection, classification, diagnosis and prediction. School counselors, teachers and administrators use test data for different purposes. An Illustration showing the Drawing of a Card of TAT An Illustration of Rorschach Inkblot367 The essential characteristics of standardized psychological test are : objectivity, reliability, validity and norms. Counselors need to develop skills in test administration, scoring, interpretation of test results, and communicating results to their clients. General considerations for counselors in the appraisal process relate to being in good psychological health, developing sensitivity for the client, showing open mindedness, respecting the client, having attentiveness and showing empathy towards the client.

Tests and testing have been criticized because of their misuse and issues like labeling, inaccuracy, culture bias, invading privacy, encouraging competition. There is a need for standardization of all procedures and scoring of psychological tests for accuracy in results. Counselors need to take cautions in using psychological tests like interest inventories, aptitude tests, achievement tests, intelligence tests, attitude scale, personality tests. 6.4 SELF-EVALUATION EXERCISES : 6. Explain the meaning of a psychological test 7. Name three types of aptitude test 8. How does the notion of intelligence changed over the years. 9. List five techniques for testing personality 10. State the four key abilities of Emotional Intelligence Answer Key to Self-Evaluation Exercises : 2. Elaborate on the following points Define psychological test Covers both the qualitative and quantitative aspects of measurements. 3. Elaborate on the fact that a good IQ and scholastic record are not the only indicators of intelligence in a student, but the concept today has broadened to include multiple and emotional intelligence. As is sometimes seen, on academically bright person may be facing a lot of problems in inter-personal relationships.

5. Elaborate on the following points : Perception, appraisal and expression of emotion Emotional facilitation of thinking368 Understanding and analyzing emotions; employing emotional knowledge Reflective regulation of emotions to promote emotional and intellectual growth 6.5 SUGGESTED READINGS : Benett, G.K., Seashore, H.G. & Wesman, A.G., 1984 Differential Aptitude Tests : Technical Supplement, Psychological Corporation, New York Educational Testing Services (ETS), New Jersey Shertzer, B. & Linlen, J.D. 1979. Fundamentals of individual Appraisal : Assessment techniques for counselors. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston Gardner, H. 1983. Frames of Mind : The Theory of Multiple Intelligence. Basic Book, New York. Sternberg R.J., 2007. Cognitive Psychology (4 th ed.) Yale University, Indian Edition. Cervone, D. and Shoda, Y 1999. The Coherence of Personality. . Gilford, New York. Assessment and Appraisal in Guidance and Counselling I, NCERT, New Delhi

Assessment and Appraisal in Guidance and Counselling II, NCERT, New Delhi Kochar, S.K. (1985) : Educational Guidance and Counselling. 369 7 QUALITATIVE ASSESSMENT TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES FOR GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING Unit Structure : 7.0 Introduction 7.1 Objectives 7.2 Qualitative Assessment Test and Tools 7.2.1 Socio-metric Technique 7.2.2 Case Study 7.2.3 Cumulative Record Card 7.2.4 Autobiography 7.2.5 Observation 7.2.6 Interviews 7.3 Ethical basis in the use of Psychological Tests and Tools 7.4 Let us sum up 7.5 Self-Evaluation Exercises 7.6 Suggested Readings 7.0 INTRODUCTION : You have read in the previous unit about the uses of psychological tests which are the tools for quantitative assessment

of an individual / client. As you know, tests provide a score related to a particular area of the individual. This score in itself does not tell everything about the individual. To enhance your understanding about an individual / client, you will need to use other assessment techniques that provide explanations of both the why and how of a particular situations or incident. This is the basis of the qualitative assessment. The focus of qualitative enquiry is not on highlighting differences among the individuals but on the uniqueness of individuals. Qualitative assessment helps to understand an individuals behaviour in relation to the context and situation. In these unit, you will read about qualitative assessment tools. There are a number of standard techniques used to form a 370 qualitative assessment. Observation, interviews, sociometry, case study, analysis of documents, informal talks, artifacts, rating scales, checklists, self-descriptions etc. are all sources of data in qualitative. You will study in this unit how the techniques of sociometry, case study, cumulative record card, autobiography, observation, interviews and home visits are used for qualitative assessment to develop a holistic view of the client. You will also read about ethical basis in the use of psychological tests and tools. 7.1 OBJECTIVES : After completion of this unit, you will be able to : Describe the important characteristics of seven qualitative methods Sociometric Technique

 Case Study Cumulative Record Card Autobiography Observation Interviews Use qualitative methods to develop a holistic understanding of the client Describe ethical basis in the use of psychological tests and tools 7.2 QUALITATIVE ASSESSMENT TECHNIQUES : Qualitative assessment techniques are commonly employed for various settings. These techniques provide a broader, variable and more subjective approach to data gathering and interpretation for human assessment. There are different types of qualitative assessment, techniques used by the guidance worker and counselors. We shall now discuss various qualitative assessment techniques for guidance and counseling. 7.2.1 Sociometry Techniques : The purpose of this technique is to study the nature of social relationship of individual within a group. It offers on opportunity to identify personality problems, especially in isolates and the rejects. The technique is a useful source of information for appraisal of social behaviour of students. Various aspects of personal-social development of the client can be more effectively evaluated by using sociometric technique. 371 You too may have observed that in certain areas like leadership

ability, concern for others, or effectiveness in doing group work etc. peers often know each others strengths and weakness better than the teacher or the counsellor. The intimate interactions that occur in the give-and-take of peer relations seldom fully visible to an outside observer. Hence peer appraisal is important to build an understanding of the client. You shall now learn about sociometry which can be effectively used with clients and their peers. Sociometry is a technique for evaluating the social acceptance of the client or individual student. It also provides information on the social structure of a group or class of which it client is apart. It provides information relating to how each individual is perceived by the group/class. Students are required to give their choices of companions for some group situation or activity. In the example given below childrens acceptance is assessed for choices of sating companions, work companions and play companions. Example : Name _______________________ Date Some new arrangements will be made for sitting, working in small groups, and playing group games. I would like to know the names of those children you would like to sit with, to play with you and to work with you. You may choose anyone in your class you wish, including those students who are absent. Your choices will not be seen by any one else. Make the choices carefully so that he groups

can be arranged the way you really want them. At times it is not possible to give everyone their first choice so make sure you give three choices for each question. I would choose to sit with those children. I would choose to sit with these children. 1._____________________2._______________ 3.___________________ I would choose to work with these children. 1._____________________2._______________ 3.___________________ I would choose to play with these children. 1._____________________2._______________ 3.___________________372 As you may have observed, that given example illustrates some important principles of sociometric choice, these are : v) The choices should be real choices that are natural part of classroom activities. vi) The basis of choice and restrictions on the choices made should be indicated clearly. vii) All students should be equally free to participate in the activity. viii) Choices made by the students should be kept confidential. Although some differences in choice can be from one situation to another, a large element of social acceptance runs through all the choices. It is suggested by sociometric experts that negative choices should be avoided unless absolutely essential.

Questions such as Whom they would not want as comparison may disturb both the group morale and the emotional development of students / client. It is important to keep in mind that the number of choices made by the student is restricted. Two or three choices for each activity is considered as a suitable number for children otherwise they find it difficult to discriminate when number of choices is large. The sociometric data is provided in the form of a sociogram which shows attractions and repulsions within a group and helps the teacher and the counsellor in discovering the problems of students in elation to the group. Use of Sociometric Results Counsellors and teachers can be sociometric results for : Organising classroom groups, Improving individual students social adjustment, Improving groups social structure, and Evaluating the influence of school practices on students social relations. 7.2.2 Case Study : A case study is an in-depth, intensive and detailed study of an individual or the client. The focus in case study is on factors 373 contributing to the development of particular personality patterns and /or problems. The case study employs all possible tools and techniques that seem appropriate to understand an individual (e.g., observation, interview, self-reports, teachers ratings, checklist,

sociometry, document analysis, anti-biographics etc.). It gives detailed information regarding different perspectives that can not be attained by any other methods. Case study is the most comprehensive of all analytical techniques because it makes use of all other assessment techniques. Case study as an assessment technique is used by counselors to provide a means of integrating and summarizing all available information about the client in order to determine what further steps should be taken to enhance his or her development. Remember that collection of case study data is not simple stockpiling of information. Rather, the purpose of a case study is to present the client as a fully functioning totality within his her environment. Therefore, a case may be selected to understand the mechanism by which problems accrue or a case study may attempt to achieve a better understanding of the problems of a child. For example, a case study may be conducted on student who has a problem in reading or in arithmetic. We employ case study method to study the hole individual (in her dynamic developmental process) so that we may better understand his concerns, the reasons for his actions and behaviours and plan the course of action, which is appropriate for him. Therefore we may say case study is a synthesis and interpretation of information about the client and his/her relationships to his / her environment. As counselors it would help you to understand the nature and cases of the clients behaviour,

personality trends and difficulties in adjustment. Then the question arises how to conduct a good case study? You will now learn about the characteristics of a good case study, types of information used, how a case study is organized and low to report a case study. Characteristics of a Good Case Study : A good case study is concerned with the individuals past, present and future. The data colleted from different sources, at different times through various tools and techniques, should be analyzed synthesized and presented in a manner to present a complete view of the individual/ clients life.374 A good case study is dynamic and longitudinal and not static and cross sectional. The focus of the case study may be the whole individual or a small part. The focus of the study varies widely and depends on the age of the client, the purpose of assessment, the working situation and the experience of the counselor. Types of information used in a Case Study : You have learnt that the aim of gathering/ information about a person is to develop a holistic perspective, to be able to understand him her and provide proper guidance and counseling. The various kinds of information used in a case study are gathered from all reliable sources. Cumulative records, observations, interviews, self reports, tests, peer appraisal data, teaches perceptions, from parents, friends, relatives. Organization of a Case Study :

The organization of case study depends on two major factors : The purpose for which the case study is being prepared. This depends upon the heads of the client, counselor, parents, referral agency or purpose of study. The competencies and skill of the counselor/researcher in collecting, organizing and using information. Organization involves providing an outline or format and developing and executing a logical plan such as to present the information in an integrated manner. An Outline for a Case Study Report : An exempler performa for reporting a case study of a client is given below : vii) Identification of data : should consist of Name of the Client : Sex : Male / Female 375 Fathers Name : Mothers Name : Fathers occupation : Date of Birth : Class : School : Language used at home : Present and permanent address : viii) Referral Source

Personal history : Date of assessment Duration : Nature of problem Opinion of parents: Onset and teachers : Seriousness : Frequency of occurrence of problem: ix) Educational History and Record Cumulative record card/ancetotal record : Is there any change school with reason. x) Health background xi) Home and family background and neighbourhood xii) Friends and acquaintance The steps in developing a case study are given below. Recognition and determination of the status of the problem to be investigated. Collection of data relating to the factors and circumstances associated with the given problem. Diagnosis or identification of causal factors as a basis for remedial or developmental treatment. Application of remedial or adjustment measures.376 Subsequent follow-up to determine the effectiveness of the treatment. Caution in using Case Study : A counselor may guard against errors which creep in unknowingly.

 The case study should penetrate into the problems under study. It should not be superficial. Parents should be contacted. Medical opinion should be sought. All those who come into contact with the individual should be approached. The study not be one sided. All possible details should be gathered and not even the slightest detail should be over looked. 7.2.3 Cumulative Record Card : Cumulative record cards, personal data cards and permanent data cards are some of the synonyms to denote a record system which gives us a picture of the student from many different sources. It is progressively developed and maintained over a longer period of time, and gives a summarized growth record indicating the direction and rate of development. It shifts the emphasis from one-time or once a year performance in a few academic subjects to the full development regarding all the important aspects of education and general, physical, social and mental development over a longer period of time. Essentially meaningful and functionally adequate information is collected from various sources, techniques, tests, interviews, observations, case study and the like, is assembled in a summary form on a cumulative record card, so that it may be used when the student needs our advice for the solution of some educational or vocational problem. The cumulative record has been defined as a method of

recording, filing and using information essential for the guidance of students. A cumulative record and supplies information on points such as the following. g) Personal : (i) name, (ii) date of birth, (iii) place and evidence of birth, (iv) sex, (v) colour (vi) residence h) Home : (i) Names of parents, (ii) occupation of the parents, (iii) parents live or dead (iv) economic status, (vI0 number of siblings, older or younger, (vi) language spoken in the house. i) Test Scores (i) general intelligence, (ii) achievement, (ii) other test scores, (iv) personality traits.377 j) School Attendance : (i) days present or absent each year, (ii) schools attend with data. k) Health : record physical disabilities, vaccination record, diseases suffered from. l) Miscellaneous : (i) vocational plans (ii)extra curricular activities,(iii) counselors note. If we analyze the items recorded on a cumulative record card, we find that only such items are included as are recorded in a case study. Data collected through non-standardized techniques like check lists, questionnaires, authobiographics do not find a place in the record card file. It must be remembered that recording and filing of information are not so important as using the information. Need and Importance of Cumulative Record : The cumulative records about students provide useful

information to teachers, counselors and administrators. The need and importance of cumulative records in guidance are given below : Importance in Guidance : The basic principle and assumptions of guidance take into consideration the individual differences. Cumulative records reveal such individual differences and indicate the nature and amount of professional assistance needed by individual students of various stages of their development. It is useful in analyzing the future needs of the individual student and proper educational and occupational guidance can be offered on the basis of his needs. Importance in Teaching : The cumulative records of different students help the teacher in classifying students in accordance with scholastic attitudes and mental abilities. They are diagnostic tools to analyze a behaviour problem or an educational one. For example, why is a student backward in the class? What steps can be taken to remove his / her backwardness? Cumulative record indicate the students who had special help and adjust the teaching accordingly. Characteristics of a Good Cumulative Record :378 The following are the characteristics of a good cumulative record. 4. Information gathered should be complete, comprehensive and adequate so that valid inferences may be drawn.

5. Information recorded should be true and valid. Like other tools of measurement, a cumulative record can be valid only when it measures what it intends to measure. 6. Information to be reliable should be collected by a number of teachers and then pooled. A cumulative record should be reevaluated from time-totime. A cumulative record should be objective and free from personal opinions and prejudices. A should be usable. A cumulative record to be a useable may be card types, folder type or booklet type. 7.2.4 Autobiography : You might have read a number of autobiographics of great personalities, some of the common are My Experiments with Truth by Mahatma Gandhi, autobiography of an unknown Indian by Niral C.Choudhury. An autobiography is a description of an individual in his own words. As a guidance technique for studying the individual, it gives a valuable information about the individuals interests, abilities, personal history, hopes, ambitions, likes, dislikes, etc. In guidance, structured autobiographic items are given to the individual and he is asked to write them out. The autobiographical material that is verified by various other means. Since feelings, values and attitude can not be measured by any other technique, autobiography appears to be the one technique for appraising these characteristics. 7.2.5 Observation :

Observation is the most direct method of learning about the development of children. Since it requires focus on the childs behaviour, observation allows the counselor to know the child as a unique individual, rather than as a member of a group. One of the most accurate ways to learn about children is to observe them in 379 their daily activities. It requires systematic and rigorous observation, which involves far more than just being present and looking around. To understand fully the complexities of many situations, direct participation and observation of the student/client is considered one of the best approaches. What to Observe : Observation is often used by teachers to understand the cognitive, affective, and motor development of children. What kind of individual actions are important for a counselor to observe and record, what has to be observed would depend a lot on the problem faced by the client, no exclusive list of indicators can be given. How to Observe : Systematic and objective observation requires preparation and training. Training includes how to write descriptively, recording field notes, using method for validating observations. Preparation for observation has mental, physical, intellectual and psychological dimensions. The quality of information gathered from observation can be increased with training in the observers skills. The observer must know what to look for, how to record desired information and how to explain the behaviour. The accuracy, validity and reliability

of observations can be improved through rigorous training and careful preparation. It is important to remember that the purpose of observational data is to describe. the setting that was observed, the activities/behaviour that took place in the given setting, the people who performed the behaviour or participated in the activities, and the meaning of what was observed from the perspective of those observed. As counselors you can make use of different sources for collection of observational data. These sources could be documents (such as personal diaries, registers, or memos, etc.) interviews, informal talks, physical settings (how space is used, 380 Dimensions of Variations in Observation lighting etc.), social settings (communication pattern, how decisions are taken etc.), non-verbal cues, or unobstructie indicators (equipment in the laboratory, books used in the library, conditions of carpets etc.). Variations in Observation : Counsellors can make observations in a number of settings such as homes,

schools, classrooms, communities and organizations depending on the needs of the student. Variations occur due to a number of factors associated with nature of counselors participation, extent of involvement, duration of observation, duration and focus of observation (Patton, 1990) these five factors can cause variations in an observation. Nature of Participation : Observation can be made by being part of clients setting i.e. full participant or it can be made by observing from distance i.e. as a spectator. The extent to which the counselor or observer participates in the setting /case being studied can also cause variations in observation. A counselor can start as a spectator and gradually become a full participant or vice versa. Portrayed of Observer Role : The observations made can be overt i.e. purpose of making observation is not revealed to the client or it can be covert i.e., clients know that observations are being made.381 Duration of Observation : Observations can vary from one hour to one year. However, all the observations should last long enough to get the answers to clients problem.

Focus of Observation : The focus of observation could be to gain holistic view of the client, therefore, all the necessary aspects of the client have to be considered, or on the other hand, one single aspect can be studied. Methods of Recording Observation : After having learned about what and how to observe, you now read to learn about the technique to record observations i.e. field note taking. Field Note : Field notes contain the description of what has been observed. They are descriptive, should be dated, should contain basic information about when and where the observation took place, who was present, what the physical setting was like, what activities took place, and what social interactions occurred. It should permit the counselor, as observer, to experience the activity observed while reading the observation and analyzing the data collected. There are a number of ways for developing field notes. Anecdotes records and critical event records are two examples of field notes. Guidelines for Observation : There are a few rules to follow when making observations as part of a qualitative enquiry. Be descriptive in taking field notes (anecdotal records, critical incidents). Gather information from different perspectives (client, peers,

parents, and teachers etc). 382 Cross-validate and triangulate by using data from different sources; observation, interview and documents, etc. and using more than one investigator. Present the views of the people, their experiences in their own words. Separate description from interpretation and judgement. 7.2.6 Interviews : The purpose of interviewing is to know what going on in a persons mind. You interview people to find out from them those things you cant directly observe such as feelings, intentions and thoughts. You can not observe things that happened in the past, or the meanings attached to things or incidents going on around. To obtain information about these you have to ask questions. This helps you to know anothers perspective. In-depth, open-ended interviewing aims to capture the clients experiences and perspectives on their problem in their own terms. Open-ended interviewing is based on the assumption that others perspective is meaningful. It is important to remember that skillful interviewing involves much more than asking questions. Now, you will learn about the types of interviews content of interview, and guidelines on how to question to conduct on interview with the client. Types of Interviews : You will now read about the different types of interviews.

Informal Conversational Interview : It relies on spontaneous questioning which may take place as part of the counsellors participant-observation. Over the course of an informal talk, the client may not even realize that she / he is being interviewed. In such interviews, the data gathered would be on aspects that differ for each client depending on the issues that emerge from the conservation. The major advantage is that the interview is highly individualized to the client and produces information or insights that the counselor/ interviewer may not have 383 anticipated. This type of interview requires the counselor to be experienced in the content area and strong in interpersonal skill. Interview Guide Approach : It involves deciding before the interview, the issues that are to be explored with the client i.e., identifies topics, but not actual wording of questions, thereby offering flexibility. These identified issues are used to guide the interview and keep it on track and ensure that they are covered. This kind of interview is focused and hence the data collected are more systematic and comprehensive than informal conversational interview. Standardized Open-ended Interview : This interview consists of set of questions arranged in a sequence, which are asked to each client. It minimizes the variation in the questions passed to the client at the same time provides scope to the client to give responses that are open-ended. This reduces the possibility of biases that come from having different

types of interviews with different people. Data obtained from such interviews are systematic and thorough for each client but it reduces flexibility and spontaneity because the questions are predetermined thus leaving little scope for issues that may emerge during the course of the interview. The advantage of these type of interview is that it is the most structured and efficient of the qualitative interviewing techniques. The Focus Group Interview : In the interview the counselor becomes a facilitator among the interviewees in a group setting where they hear and react to one anothers responses. Focus groups can be used by counselors to assess the needs of a student group, obtain general background information about a topic or diagnose the potential problems of a 384 group of students. In this type of interview the counsellors role is of a moderator, directing the interaction and inquiry in a manner that the purpose of interview is served. The common characteristic of all qualitative approaches to interviewing is that the people being interviewed respond in their own words and provide own personal perspectives. Content of Interviews : Before an interview is conducted it is important to plan the type of interview whether it will be the informal conservation, the interviewing guide approach, the standardized open-ended interview or the focus group. Then it is important to know about the different kinds of questions that could be asked while interview the

client. The counselor most decide what questions are to be asked, the sequence of questions, the details required, time of the interview and how to word the actual questions. The different kinds of questions that could be asked by the counselor are behaviour / experiential questions, opinion/ values questions, feeling questions, knowledge questions, sensory questions, demographic questions. How to Question : The way the question is worded is important. There are no fixed rules of sequencing questions for an interview. Informal conversational interviews are flexible and, therefore, fined schedule is not required. However, standardized open-ended interviews most have a sequence because of their structural formed. General Principle of Interview : The following are the guidelines to make an interview successful. The counsellor should feel the need of interview and counseling.385 The counselor should have all relevant data about the client before he starts counseling. A rapport should be established between the counselor and the counselee. It is a sort of personal relationship of mental trust and respect based on the feelings of confidence and security. Discussion should be restricted to issue at hand. When the counselee expresses himself he should be accepted. The counselor will gain nothing by antagonizing or

embarrassing the counselee. The counselee should be allowed to take the lead in making decisions. The interview should end with a constructive note. Interview is an art and a skill that is developed with practice. 7.3 ETHICAL BASIS IN THE USE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS AND TOOLS : Guidance like other professions has its own ethics, the core of which is respect for the individual. Every counselee is equal in the eyes of the counselor. Further the action of the counselor is governed by the belief that every individual possesses certain strengths. A good counselor helps to facilitate the strengths of the individual and overcome his / her weaknesses. Another important aspect of guidance ethics is that the counselor regards all information or data about the individual as strictly confidential and never tries to misuse the data. The counselee confides everything to the counselor, and it is the moral duty of the counselor to maintain confidentiality. Besides, the counselor should never use the counseling session for the purpose of indoctrination or for the satisfaction of his own needs. He must always respect the freedom and dignity of the counselee. It is also important for the counselors to adhere to the ethical norms in the use of psychological test scores. 7.4 LET US SUM UP : Qualitative assessment provides an in-depth understanding

and a holistic perspective about a client. The qualitative approach differs from a quantitative approach in its methodology of studying people. In fact, they provide answer to different questions. Qualitative approach is known to be descriptive, flexible, subjective, in-depth, interpretive and holistic in nature. The focus is 386 on the uniqueness of an individual. One way to strengthen qualitative analysis is to use triangulation i.e. use of several methods to study the same behaviour / phenomena. Observation and open-ended interview are two important tools of qualitative inquiry. Systematic and objective observation requires preparation and training. The observer must know what to look for, how to record the obtain information and how to explain. Interviews help to obtain the client perspective. Those are different approaches to collect qualitative data through open-ended interviewing. Before conducting interview, it is important to decide the kind of questions to be asked, their sequence, thinking and wording them. Sociometry is a technique for evaluating the social acceptance of individual students and the social structure of a group i.e. how each individual in a group is perceived. Case study is an in-depth, intensive and detailed study of each and every pertinent aspect of an individual or phenomenon. Case study method is used for summarizing and integrating assessment information. The information used in a case study

gathered from all reliable sources, cumulative records, observations, interview, task, peer appraisals, home visit and teachers perception etc. Ethical codes and standards have been developed for proper use of psychological test. It is important for the counselors to adhere to the ethical norms while using the tools. 7.5 SELF-EVALUATION EXERCISES : 6. How can be inaccuracies in observations be reduced ? 7. What are the characteristics of a good case study ? 8. Discuss in brief the importance of cumulative records in teaching. 9. List any five qualitative assessment techniques you would like to use in your school. 10. Fill in the blanks with appropriate answer given below. e) Sociometry is a method for evaluating the ____________ of an individual and the ______________ of a group. f) Peer appraisal technique life sociometric procedures are especially useful in evaluating___________ development. g) Sociometry is based on students ___________ of comparisons for some activity. h) In order to organize and classroom groups, teachers can make use of _____________ technique to know this group structure. 387 (a) Sociometric (b) Personal Social (c) Social acceptance, social structure (d) Choices Answer Key to Self-Evaluation Exercises :

4. By being descriptive in taking field notes (anecdotal records, critical incidents) By gathering information from different perspectives (client, peer, parents, teachers etc.) By cross validating and triangulating data from different sources such as observation, interview, documents etc. and by using more than one investigator. By presenting the views of the people, their experiences in their own words. By separating description from interpretation and judgement. 5. Elaborate on the following points A good case study is always concerned with the individuals past, present and future i.e. it should provide complete view of an clients life. A case study should be dynamic and longitudinal and not static or cross-sectional. It should provide all the necessary information to plan remediation and it should provide scope to review the effects of remediation programme. The focus of case study should vary widely i.e. it may focus on whole individual or small selected segment of an individual or client such as aggressive behaviour of the individual or client. 6. Indicate the relationship scholastic attainment and the mental abilities In classifying pupils in accordance with scholastic aptitudes and mental abilities.

 Help in identification of students who need individual attention, remedial teaching, enrichment teaching etc. Helps the teachers in writing reports about individual students. 5. a) - c b) - b c) - d d) - a388 7.6 SUGGESTED READINGS : Stake, R.E., 1995. The Art of Case Study Research. Sage, London Wragg, E.C., 1994. An Introduction to Classroom Observations. Routledge, London Manual for Guidance Counsellor, NCERT, New Delhi Anastasi, A. 2003. Psychological Testing (5 th ed.), Mc. Millan, New York Hood A.B. and Johnson, R.W., 1997. Assessment in Counselling (2 nd ed.). American Counselling Association, Alexandria, VA Assessment and Appraisal in Guidance and Counselling I, NCERT, New Delhi Assessment and Appraisal in Guidance and Counselling II, NCERT, New Delhi Kochar, S.K. (1985). Educational Guidance and Counselling

 389 1 VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE Unit Structure 1.0 Objectives. 1.1 Introduction. 1.2 Nature and scope of vocational guidance. 1.2.1 Concept of vocational guidance. Check your progress. 1.2.2 Need and Functions of vocational guidance. Check your progress. 1.3 Factors effecting vocational choice: Check your progress. 1.4 Approaches to career guidance: 1.5 Hollands theory of career development: Check your progress. 1.6 Burnout and career guidance: 1.6.1 Meaning of burnout: Check your progress. 1.6.2 Coping with burnout: Check your progress. 1.7 Let us sum up.

1.8 Suggested reading. 1.9 Model questions. 1.10 References. 1.0 OBJECTIVES. After going through this unit you will be able to: Describe the concept need and functions of vocational guidance. State the factors affecting the vocational choices. Explain the Hollands theory of career guidance and its importance.390 Define burnout and the guidance strategies used for coping from career burnout. 1.1 INTRODUCTION We all will agree that in resent time there are variety of educational streams as new occupational opportunities are coming every other day. as there is variety of occupational opportunities available to the students, it is not always possible for students to meet the requirements of the available opportunities as all individual differ in the abilities, interest, attitude and skill from each other. Thus it is very necessary to know about ones own abilities, skills etc. to help in this process the role of vocational guidance becomes very important. In this unit we will discuss about vocational guidance, and other phenomenon related to the vocational guidance. 1.2 NATURE AND SCOPE OF VOCATIONAL

GUIDANCE: 1.2.1 Concept of vocational guidance. Vocational guidance according to DAW is that which have to be made well before the school leaving stage. Indeed with comprehensive education potentially offering a greater educational opportunity a good case for an increasingly important role for vocational guidance can be made. It is worthwhile to look at some of the concepts or frames of refences that are fundamental to a consideration of occupational choice. Crites suggest that there are five sets of concepts that need to be considere . firstly, how far is occupational choice the result of systematic behavior as opposed to chance? Clearly the practice of vocational guidance is concerned with systematizing choice. Thus , vocational guidance is not only adjustment but also achievement and development of the individuals to the maximum extent to be successful in their chosen occupations to be satisfied and usefull to the society. Let us discuss the objectives of vocational guidance: To assist the student to know about the characteristics , functions ,duties of the occupations of his choice. To enable him to find out what are the specific criteria as skills ,abilities, age etc. are required for the occupations of his choice. To assist the student to know about his skills ,abilities, interests for making wise choices.391 To assist the student to acquire the technique of analysis

before making any final choice. To provide opportunity for experiences in school and out of school this may provide an idea of the work environment to the student. To help the student realize that all honest labour is worthwhile. The recommendations of Education Commission set up by Government of India in 1964 indicated the aims and scope of educational vocational guidance. These recommendations suggest the following: The aim of guidance is not just to help student in making vocational choices but also be focused on the development of the child as good citizen. Guidance should be provided in solving learning difficulties, academic excellence, developing study habits and must be started at the primary stage itself. Guidance role is very crucial at the college level as at this stage student faces many problems related to educational vocational and personal. They should be make aware about the job market and how to make adjustment in it. Information may be provide about the training, competitive examinations and scholarships available. Check your progress: Q1- Enlists two aims of vocational guidance given by Education Commission of India.

1.2.2 NEED AND FUNCTIONS OF VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE: Bringing individuals at par with the demands of the jobs: As we all know that individual differences exist among all and no two individuals can have the same abilities skills and personalities. We can understand it with an example as a person can be skilled in doing a desk job while the other can be skilled in 392 the field job so the skill differs and thus the demand for the job also different fro different individuals. Thus here vocational guidance is needed for matching the right job with right individual. Assessing the right skill of an individual: The capabilities and the limitations of an individual should be known to him e.g. a person may have interest in painting but may not have the skill to take it as a career. So here the work of vocational guidance comes to assist the individual in assessing himself and then accordingly choosing the right kind of job. Expansion of the world of work: Now a days jobs are available at national as well as international levels. And it gives rise to many quiries as how one can choose the best from several alternatives? How to about the details of the occupation? How to apply? And many more all these are dealt with the help of vocational guidance. FUNCTIONS OF VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE: Assessment of the individual in terms of his academic achievement, skills attitude, interest , limitations etc. Assessment of individuals present environment such as

financial resources , family background and family expectations etc. Assessing the suitability of the individual with that of the job demands. Helping the individual to come at par with the job requirements. Counseling for the adjustment in the job . Follow-up services in the form of feed back from the individuals for further modification in the guidance programme if needed. Check your progress: Q2. What is the importance of knowing once skill for vocational guidance?393 1.3 FACTORS EFFECTING VOCATIONAL CHOICE: 1) Personal Factors Affecting Career Selection Aptitudes - What natural abilities do you possess? Interests inventories - what gives you satisfaction? Your personality - Do you perform best in low-pressure or high-pressure working environments? 2) Social Influences on Career Opportunities Demographic trends Increase in working parents means more demand for food service and child care. More leisure time means more interest in health, and recreation products and services. Increased demand for further employment training creates opportunities for teachers and trainers.

 Geographic trends Where jobs are, salaries, and living costs. Economic Conditions Affect Career Opportunities 3) Trends in Industry and Technology Affect Career Opportunities Automated production methods have decreased the need for many entry-level employees in factories. Check your progress: Q3- Name the factors responsible for career choice.394 1.4 APPROACHES TO CAREER GUIDANCE: Career guidance refers to services and activities which assist individuals, of any age and at any point throughout their lives, to make educational, training and occupational choices and to manage their careers. Such services may be found in schools, universities and colleges, in the workplace. It may take place individually or in group, and may be face-to-face or at a distance. It include career information provision (in print, ICT-based and other forms), assessment and self-assessment tools, counseling interviews, career education programmes.Guidance workers often encounter individuals having very little idea about the skills which they have and the career related to the skill. Sometimes, sufficient time devoted to the early stages of an interview, finding out about the individual. There are many approaches to career guidance as Computer-aided guidance. Others are facial expression, especially

glints in the eyes, can be used to know levels of interest in particular types of work. Often, the client will be interested in more than one. Individual judgment is required to look at likely interactions between traits, and selecting the appropriate one. 1.5 HOLLANDS THEORY OF CAREER DEVELOPMENT: The Holland Codes represents a set of personality types described in a theory of careers and vocational choice formulated by psychologist JOHN L. HOLLAND .Holland's theory argued that "the choice of a vocation is an expression of personality" and that the six factor typology he articulated could be used to describe both persons and work environments. His model has been adopted by the U.S. Department of Labor for categorizing jobs relative to interests. The Holland Codes are usually referred to by their first letters: RIASEC. He present his theory graphically as hexagon. The shorter the distance between their corners on the hexagon, the more closely they are related. Holland's (1992) theory of career guidance is based on four basic assumptions. The first assumption is that most people can be characterized as one or a combination of six personality types. Second, the theory assumes that the work environment can be classified into the same six categories of personality. Third the theory assumes that people seek out environments compatible with their personality types. And, fourth, the theory holds that particular behavioral patterns emitted in any environment are determined by personality and environmental

types.395 The six personality and work environment types described by Holland are as follows: Realistic- Working with your hands, tools, machines, and things; practical, mechanically inclined, and physical.viz. agriculture, computer engineer, basket ball player, chef, Gardner, martial arts , pilot etc Investigative- Working with theory and information, analytical, intellectual, scientific. Viz. lawyer, statistics, surgeon. Artistic- Non-conforming, original, independent, chaotic, creative. Viz. actor, writer ,dancer. Social- Cooperative environments, supporting, helping, healing/nurturing. Viz. psychologist, professor, social worker, physician. Enterprising- Competitive environments, leadership, persuading. Viz public relation, administration, journalism, marketing, management. Conventional- Detail-oriented, organizing, clerical. Viz. proof reader, copy editing, clerk, librarien. Check your progress: Q4- What does RIASEC stands for? 1.6 BURNOUT AND CAREER GUIDANCE: 1.6.1 Meaning of burnout: First let us discuss about the concept of burnout. What is the

meaning of the term burnout?Burnout is a psychological term for the experience of long-term exhaustion and diminished interest. It should not be looked as a disorder but as Problems related to lifemanagement difficulty. The most well-studied measurement of burnout in the literature is the Maslach Burnout Inventory. Maslach and her colleague Jackson first identified the construct "burnout" in 396 the 1970s, and developed a measure that weighs the effects of emotional exhaustion and reduced sense of personal accomplishment. This indicator has become the standard tool for measuring burnout in research on the syndrome. The Maslach Burnout Inventory uses a three dimensional description of exhaustion, cynicism and inefficacy. Many theories of burnout include negative outcomes related to burnout, including job function, health related outcomes, and mental health problems. The term burnout in psychology was coined by HERBERT FREUDENBERGER in 1974. Psychologists Herbert Freudenberger and Gail North gave 12 phases of burnout, which are not necessarily followed sequentially: A compulsion to prove oneself Working harder Neglecting one's own needs Displacement of conflicts (the person does not realize the root cause of the distress) Revision of values (friends or hobbies are completely

dismissed) Denial of emerging problems (cynicism and aggression become apparent) Withdrawal (reducing social contacts to a minimum, becoming walled off; alcohol or other substance abuse may occur) Behavioral changes become obvious to others Depersonalization (life becomes a series of mechanical functions) Inner emptiness Depression Burnout syndrome The signs can vary from individual to individual, but the following are some universal indicators that one can use to determine if career burnout is occurring. Depression-Feelings of despair and sadness that last for weeks or months usually signal that something in your life is not working like it should and is cause for an investigation into the cause potentially your job.397 Lack of energy-If individual experience constant fatigue throughout the day. Lack of desire-if an individual find that he just dont care if he is successful or not its a warning that the individual may have become burned out. Decreased productivity- if the productivity of an individual

is decreased and he is not coming upto the desired expected result. Increased absences and/or tardiness- if an individual finds every opportunity to skip out on work. Boredom-Occasional boredom in ones career is completely normal; however, pervasive feelings of weariness and dreariness are not and are an indicator of potential burnout. Anger/resentment in workplace-Frequently lashing out at coworkers and/or supervisors is unacceptable under any circumstance. This behavior deserves immediate attention due to its potentially abusive nature. Sleep problems-Insomnia or occasional fatigue can happen to anyone but are a cause for concern if they become constant and a part of your everyday life. Sleep disturbances are your bodys way of saying it is overworked. Check your progress: Q5- Define the term burnout. 1.6.2 COPING WITH BURNOUT: There are a variety of ways that both individuals and organizations can deal with burnout. In his book, Managing stress: Emotion and power at work (1995), Newton argues that many of the remedies related to burnout are motivated not from an employee's perspective, but from the organization's perspective. Let us now discuss some of the common strategies for dealing with

burnout.398 ORGANIZATIONAL ASPECTS: Employee assistance programs (EAP)- Employee Assistance Programs were designed to assist employees in dealing with the primary causes of stress. Some programs included counseling and psychological services for employees. But now a days it is less utilized as compared to stress management training (SMT). Stress management training (SMT).-Stress Management Training (SMT) is employed by many organizations today as a way to get employees to either work through stress or to manage their stress levels; to maintain stress levels below that which might lead to higher instances of burnout. INDIVIDUAL ASPECTS: Problem-based coping-Individual can cope with the problems related to burnout and stress by focusing on the causes of the stress. This type of coping has successfully been linked to reductions in individual stress. Appraisal-based coping-Appraisal-based coping strategies deal with individual interpretations of what is and is not a stress inducing activity. Check your progress: Q6- What do you understand by STM? 1.7 LET US SUM UP: In this unit we have discussed about nature and scope of vocational guidance, why vocational guidance is needed and how it

helps an individual is discussed under the functions of vocational guidance. The factors which effect vocational choice as social, demographic, geographical, personal has also been talked about. An attemped has been made to acquaint you about the Hollands theory of career development, usually referred as RIASEC as it 399 contains six factor typology they are Realistic, Investigative, Artistic Social, Enterprising, Conventional. Meaning and clear understanding has been made by discussing about burnout and career guidance and also about the different strategies of coping with burnout. 1.8 SUGGESTED READING: Agarwal, J.C,(1985), Educational Vocational Guidance And Counseling, Doaba House, New Delhi. Agarwal ,R.(2007), Educational Vocational Guidance And Counseling,principles, techniques and programmes. Shipra publication , Delhi. Kochhar, S.K, (1980) Guidance And Councelling, Sterling Publishers, New Delhi. Nanda, S.K and Sharma S,(1992) Fundamentals Of Guidance, Chandigarh. 1.9 MODEL QUESTIONS Q1- What are the objectives of vocational guidance? Q2- Describe the organizational and individual coping strategies of burnout. Q3- Explain the Hollands theory of career guidance.

Q4- Discuss in detail 12 phases of burnout given by Herbert Freudenberger and Gail North. 1.10 REFERENCES Agarwal ,R.(2007), Educational Vocational Guidance And Counseling,principles, techniques and programmes. Shipra publication , Delhi. http://www.lenus.ie/hse/bitstream/10147/46051/1/10499.pdf www.careersteer. www.lotsofessays.com/viewpaper/1693190.html www.careerstrides.com wikipedia.org/wiki 400 SYLLABUS M.A. EDUCATION PART - II GROUP B, PAPER 8, GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING Course Objectives To develop an understanding of Concept, need of guidance Career guidance Concept, approaches and testing in counseling Counseling and intervention strategies in contemporary times MODULE I : GUIDANCE : CONCEPT AND NEED 1. Concept of Guidance a. Meaning, Principles, Need and Scope of Guidance

b. Meaning and Implications of Areas of Guidance in Global Context : Personal, Educational, Vocational, a-Vocational, Social, Moral, Health and Leisure-time c. Types of Guidance : Individual Guidance and Group Guidance. d. Agencies of Guidance : International, National, State and Local Levels. 2. Guidance for Population with Special Needs a. Mentally challenged Learners : Slow Learners, Mentally Retarded and Gifted. b. Learning Disabilities : Dyslexia, Dysgraphia and Dyscalculia c. Disadvantaged Groups : Social, Economical and Educational (Over Achievers and Under Achievers) d. Women : Exploitation at Home and Work e. Senior Citizens : Emotional, Social and Physical Problems MODULE II : CAREER GUIDANCE 3. Work and Mental Health a. Meaning of Work, Compensation and Incentives b. Relation between Work and Leisure and Work and Incentives401 c. Meaning, Characteristics and Need for Mental Health d. Role of Guidance Personal in Promoting and Preserving Mental Health 4. Vocational Guidance a. Nature and Scope of Vocational Guidance

b. Factors affecting Vocational Choice c. Approaches to Career Guidance, Employment Trends d. Hollands Theory of Career Development e. Burnout and Career Guidance 5. Occupational Information & Job Satisfaction a. Need and Sources of Occupational Information b. Methods of Collection, Filling, Classification, and Dissemination of Occupational Information c. Meaning and Factors of Job Satisfaction d. Relationship between Job Analysis, Job specification and Job Profile 6. Psychometric Methods and Techniques for Guidance and Counselling a. Psychological Tests : Intelligence Tesis, Interest Inventories, Aptitude Tests, Achievement Tests, Attitude Scales, Personality Tests. b. Other Testing Tools and Techniques : Sociometric Technique, Case Study, Cumulative Record Card, Autobiography, Observation, Interviews, Home visits. c. Ethical Basis in the Use of Psychological Tests and Tools 7. Concept of Counselling a. Concept : Meaning, Principles, Goals, and Types of Counselling. b. Counseling Processes : Stages and Skills c. Characteristics and skills of a Counsellor

d. Counsellors Role and Functions e. Types of Counselling : directive, Non-directive, Eclectic and Online 8. Counselling Approaches a. Cognitively Oriented Counselling Approaches : Trait and Factor402 b. Affectively Oriented Counselling Approaches : Psycho analytic. c. Conditions Influencing Counselling : Physical Setting, Privacy, Recording d. Legal and Ethical Considerations in Counselling MODULE IV : COUNSELLING AND INTERVENTION STARTEGIES IN CONTEMPORARY TIMES 9. Counselling in Current Areas a. Conflict Resolution b. Training for Assertiveness c. Stress Management d. Life Style Planning e. HIV / AIDS : Pre, Post Counselling and Stigma. 10.Intervention Strategies a. Rational Emotive Therapy b. Crisis Intervention Techniques c. Grief and Bereavement Intervention Strategies d. Disaster Menagement ASSIGNMENTS OF INTERNAL ASSESSMENT

1. Conducting and Reporting a Case Study of any Individual with Special Needs. 2. Preparation of a Job profi9le of any one Career. REFERENCES : 1. Agarwal J. C. (1985) Educational Vocational Guidance and Counselling, Doaba House New Delhi. 2. Bernard Harold W. (1969) Principles of Guidance AlliedPublishers Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi. 3. Bernard and Fullmer (1972) The School Counsellor Consultant Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company. 4. Bhati S. S. (1979) Jobs Careers and Personality New Delhi, Indian-Institute of International Understanding. 5. Borrow Harold W. (1973) Career Guidance for a New Age Boston, Houghton Miffing Company. 6. Chibber S. K. (1999) Guidance and Counselling Common Wealth Publishers, New Delhi403 7. Drummond, R. J. and Ryan, C. W. Career Counselling And Development Appraoch Prentice hall of India, New Delhi. 8. Gothard, W. P. : (1985) Vocational Guidance Theory and Practice, Croom Helm London. 9. Hoppak R. (1976) Occupational Information : Where to Get and How to Use in Counselling and Teaching, Mc Graw Hills Publications New York. 10. Jaffrey A. Kotler and Elien Kothar, (1993) Teacher as a Counsellor, Sage Publication London.

11. Jones, J. A., (1979) Principles of Guidance, Mc Graw Hill New York. 12. Kemp Gratton (1978) Foundations of Group Counselling Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi. 13. Kochhar, S. K., (1980) Guidance and Counselling, Sterling Publishers, New Delhi. 14. Kevin, Anglo (1987) Vocationalizing Education an International Perspective Pergamon Press, Oxford London. 15. Mosher, Carle, Kehas (Ed) (1972) Guidance on Examinations, Harcourt, Brace & Wond. 16. Mc Daniel. Henry (1956) Guidance in Modern School. Holt, Rinchart and Winston New York. 17. Nanda, S. K. and Sharma S., (1992) Fundamentals of Guidance, Chandigarh. 404

Impact of Student Motivation, Achievement, and Success in a Self-contained Special Education Classroom By Christine Lancaster RATIONALE I teach a self-contained special education class for first through fourth grade students who have severe to profound learning disabilities. For students to be enrolled in my class, they have to have been unsuccessful in the general education classroom. Typically, their problems begin in kindergarten and, despite modifications and accommodations made along the way, by the end of first grade or the beginning of second grade, these students have fallen behind. They are used to not being able to do the work. They have stopped seeing themselves as learners and have developed strategies for avoiding work. They can appear withdrawn, have behavior issues, and/or can be inattentive. One student said to me on his first day in my room, I dont read. Ill go play. Even though they are younger than eight years old, they see themselves as failures in the classroom. After being in my classroom for a short time, I see students blossom. Those who before

did not complete any homework at home, begin doing so. Children, who did not previously participate, begin to be active participants. Students who used to hide under the table when it was time to listen to a story now sit attentively on the rug during the read-aloud. Instead of flipping pages aimlessly in the book, children begin looking at the words and figure out the story from the words and the pictures. Instead of being filled with words that are copied down even when the student doesnt know what they say, journals begin to be filled with words that have been sounded out. As these children begin to meet with success, they change. Mine is a large, urban district where the push is towards inclusion; that is, providing remediation within the context of the regular classroom. The district is moving away from self-2 contained special education classrooms like mine. I became interested in taking a look at how the experience of success impacts my students. This research has implications for my school, my district, and many other districts that are working to eliminate self-contained special education classrooms. QUESTION What happens when I establish a classroom environment where my first through fourth grade students with severe learning disabilities experience high levels of success? CONTEXT

Shepard Elementary School, a pre-K-6 public school of approximately 650 students, is located a few blocks from the prestigious University of Chicago. Built in 1886, Shepards three-story building and its playground take up one block on a tree-lined street in the Hyde Park neighborhood of Chicago. It is a neighborhood schoolany children who live within its boundaries can be enrolled at Shepard. Remaining vacancies are distributed through a lottery system directed by the Chicago Public Schools. There are three classes at each grade level. Special education programs at Shepard include two classrooms for students with severe learning disabilities, a hearing-impaired preschool, and support for hearing-impaired students of all grade levels. All students are included with the general education classes as appropriate. Shepard is a multi-racial/multi-ethnic school. Eight percent of the students are Limited English Proficient. The students are 57% African American, 18% Caucasian, 16% Asian, and 9% Latino; 34% of students receive free lunch. My school has made its overall AYP (Adequate Yearly Progress) benchmark each year. Based on statewide standardized testing, approximately 72% of the students met the standards in reading and math last year. The attendance rate is 95%. The principal has been with Shepard for 3 17 years and is very supportive of the staff. As an experienced special educator, the principal

supports a variety of service delivery models for special education instruction, ranging from selfcontained classrooms to full-inclusion classes. My classroom has a different profile from the rest of the school. While most of the students at Shepard reside within the neighborhood, only two of my students live there. Six are bussed in because their home school is not able to meet their needs. Though 34% of Shepard students qualify for free lunch, 89% of the students in my class receive free lunch. All of my students are African-American. A third live in single parent homes. In all two parent homes, both parents work outside of the home. Mine is one of seven classrooms that serve severe to profound learning disabled students in the Chicago public elementary schools; it is one of two that serves first, second, and third graders. Our multidisciplinary program was developed to be comparable to private day schools in the Chicago area for students with learning disabilities. I teach eight students language arts, math, and social studies. Everyone is included with the general education classes for team taught science classes. My classroom includes three fourth graders, two third graders, two second graders and one first grader. Two students are girls. For the first half of the year, we worked with a teachers assistant for four periods of the day. Along with their services for learning disabilities, most students in my classroom also have

language disorders so they receive speech and language services. Additionally, most students attend a weekly group focusing on social skills. In addition to the components of balanced literacy used throughout the school, we use a variety of multi-sensory reading programs (Wilson Reading System, 2002; the Lindamood Bell LiPS programboth scientificallybased reading systems). 4 LITERATURE REVIEW The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA 2004) offers a definition for learning disabilities that is used in schools across the United States: The term specific learning disability means a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or written, which disorder may manifest itself in the imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or do mathematical calculations. Such term includes such conditions as perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia. Such term does not include a learning problem that is primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor disabilities, of mental retardation, of emotional disturbance, or of environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage. (Cortiella, 2006)

Public Law 94-142 encourages districts to educate students in the leastrestrictive environment and has led to debates over the benefits and drawbacks of different educational placements for students with learning disabilities. Least-restrictive environment is educational instruction in a placement that encourages maximum interaction between disabled and nondisabled children at a level appropriate to both (Baumel 2007). This can range from a student being in a regular education class who receives support from a special education teacher in the classroom, to a resource room model, to a self-contained special education classroom where a student is in a separate class for most of the day. Elbaum (2002) found that students in less restrictive settings have increased social acceptance, improved social skills, and higher selfesteem. In many schools, when the IEP team decides the placement for a student, they are frequently guided by such research. 5 In their longitudinal study, Chapman, Tunmer, and Prochnow (2000) examined the relationship between academic self-concept (how students thinks of themselves in academic settingsthe extent to which they see themselves as learners) and readingrelated performance in early elementary school children. This study was based on earlier findings that academic selfconcept develops in response to early learning experiences. That is, childrens experiences with

learning when they first begin school correspond to how they feel about themselves as learners. Students with poor pre-reading skills exhibited a negative academic selfconcept. For example, those students who began school with poor phonological awareness and lettername knowledgenot unlike many students with severe learning disabilitieswere found to have a negative self-concept soon after they began school and this negative image remained relatively constant as the children progressed in school (Chapman et al., 2000). Additionally, Chapman et al. (2000) found academic self-concept predicted later reading performance. Among school-age children, it is estimated that 6% of students have specific learning disabilities in reading. Chapman and colleagues research make it seem highly likely that selfconcept will have a major impact on these children and that the special education services that these students typically require should address the issue of self-concept. Gottfried (1990) found academic intrinsic motivation to be related to academic achievement, IQ, and perception of competence. He also found that academic intrinsic motivation, at ages seven and eight, led to higher academic intrinsic motivation at age nine and in later elementary school years independent of achievement and IQ. Boersma, Chapman, and Battle (1979) and Elbaum and Vaughn (2003) found that there was no reliable association

between self-concept and educational placementselfcontained, resource, or inclusion. Moreover, Morovitz and Motta (1992) found that the self-esteem of students in self-contained classes is not significantly lower than that of non-learning disabled students in general education, even though self-contained students have greater difficulty in school than those in less-restrictive 6 placements. They also found that students in the self-contained class had selfesteem higher or equal to that of regular class students who are experiencing learning problems. Lazarus and Callahan (2000) looked at the attitudes toward reading among students in resource room settings and found that their positive attitudes equaled or exceeded the attitudes of low and average nondisabled students in the regular education classroom. Social comparison theory suggests that students compare themselves to their peers in their class, and this may explain Morovitz and Mottas (1992) finding of high selfconcept in students in self-contained settings. It may also help to explain Butler and Marinov-Glassmans (1994) finding that children in self-contained classrooms compared themselves to others in their class as a reference group, not with their general education peers. This led to a strong, positive self-concept among children in the self-contained environment. In addition to comparing themselves to academically similar peers in the selfcontained classroom, children in these classrooms tend to receive more intensive remedial services which

can lead to faster growth in academic achievement. That is, as the students achievement levels rise, so do their self-concept and motivation (Boersma et al., 1979; Chapman et al., 2000; Elbaum & Vaughn, 2003; Forman, 1988; Gottfried, 1990). It seems that motivation, achievement, and self-concept are so intertwined that changes in one affect all three. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS Between September 2006 and March 2007, I studied my students in an attempt to tease out how motivation, attitudes, and achievement interplay with each other in my selfcontained, special education classroom. My data came from four sources: student work, observational and anecdotal notes, student surveys, and my teacher journal. I have focused my study on four boysJohn, JJ, Detrell, and Jason whose progress seemed typical for children in my class. 7 Student work consisted of writing samples from two students collected during our thrice-weekly writers workshop. During writers workshop, students participated in a minilesson, followed by independent work, conferencing time, and sharing with the class. I focused on changes in the number of words written, consonant sounds correctly represented, and sight words used and written correctly. Observational and anecdotal notes were completed almost daily from DecemberMarch

through observational checklists and note-taking sheets (see Appendices A and B). The observational checklist and anecdotal note sheets contained information that pertained to achievement, motivation, attitudes, and classroom habits by covering such areas as strategies used, book choices, independent reading behaviors, and progress with the Wilson Reading System (2002). By using these checklists, I was able to see changes in student attitudes (how they approached work by comments they made) and changes in achievement that were difficult to measure in more formal ways. Most important, this was a means to note instances of student success in our classroom and to track its impact. A student survey (see Appendix C) was given once in January and once in March. The questions were developed to assess each students motivations and attitudes towards school and our classroom. I wrote in my teacher journal after school approximately three times a week between October and March. I used the journal to reflect on the data gathered during the day and to synthesize my data. Classroom Environment We follow a pretty consistent morning routine in our classroom. I begin each morning by greeting my students at the door when they enter the room. As they unpack their bags and turn in

their homework, we chat about their time since they left school. Next, they choose one or two books and settle in on the rug for DEAR (Drop Everything and Read) time. They can read 8 quietly with a friend. They can also use this time to read the Morning Message before we go over it as a group. The Morning Message is written on a dry erase board beside the rug. On it I post the date, the name of the student who will be first in line, our specials for the day, and any other important information about upcoming activities or activities recently completed. During DEAR time, I check everyones homework, hold reading conferences, and practice sight words with individual students. After about thirty minutes, we move on to the Greetinga varying set of activities all of which enable each student to be greeted by name and to greet another child by name. Next, we sit down for the Morning Message. We take turns reading the message, talking about what it says. Students are given opportunities to come up and circle different words in the message, look for different sounds or words, and correct mistakes in the message. Last, we read it together and address any questions children have about the day. Then, we move to writers workshop. This school year, we began using the Writers Workshop Model for teaching writing. Specifically, we used Lucy Calkins Units of Study for Primary Writing: A Yearlong Curriculum

(2003). The workshop model is a five-stage process that begins with review of the previous session, which is followed first by a mini-lesson during which the goals for the day are introduced, then group/guided practice with the skill, independent writing (with conferencing from the teacher), and finally sharing writing. This model is easily individualized. The review in the beginning enables all students to begin at the same place. The mini-lesson focuses on one skill and seems to have a remarkable impact on my students. As I noted in my journal, Minilesson on stretching words to sound them out: Everyone was more successful at this than I predicted. It seemed to get kids on the right foot for working on their own too. This was highly successful before independent work and it seemed to work well! JJ stretched out superbowl to sowpog and back to pad. He got more sounds correct than usual and didnt seem as frustrated. (2.20.07) 9 The guided practice gives struggling students a chance to practice before they try on their own, thus giving students support with new skills. And both the independent work and the sharing with the group give kids a chance to demonstrate their new skills. Studying My Class Using my teacher journal and my anecdotal notes, I quickly noticed that there were distinct differences between days which I described in my journal as bad day, frustrating, difficult

day, and days that were described as wonderful. On bad days, the students began the day having problems. On mornings like these, a mood seemed to settle in over our classroom. Class participation dropped. Trying to get a class discussion started was often like pulling teeth. Some students would get that glazed-over look. Others would begin sniping at each other. When time for independent work came, some students seemed to plod along, not accomplishing much, while others would break down saying the work is too hard, and some would simply stare out the window. By contrast, a good day in my journal was one during which every student had something to share with the class, the discussions were animated, the kids got along, and they went right to work at independent work time. On these days, they seemed proud of their work, and both the quality and quantity of it increased. I was puzzled by the contrast. As I studied my journal, it appeared to me that the difference in the days seemed to have something to do with the level of success the students felt at the start of the day. It seemed to me that when students met with failure early in the day, it affected the classroom atmosphere in a negative way. This led me to wonder what I could do to get us back on track when students felt they had failed, and to move smoothly through the rest of our morning. I began my inquiry by studying my journal and notes to see if I could identify what

seemed to be causing bad days. I came up with four issues: district-mandated assessments, frequent absences and tardiness, problems on the playground before school began, and 10 incomplete homework. I then set about trying to find ways to handle each so that my students days would all become successful. District-mandated Assessments The district-mandated assessments seemed to be the most problematic activity that my class encountered early in the day as is clear from the following journal entry after our first assessment morning: a super frustrating day for everyone today. The district-mandated Learning First Assessment may have something to do with that. Another challenging task. Maybe this bad day ties right into the high success classroom. Also very frustrating to see all the unsuccessfulness/failure at the beginning of the day. This may be something to continue to watch. Perhaps that low success just permeated everything throughout the day. For instance, Jason missed Friday (book fair and movie), Johnmissed Friday, did not do his homework, JJ had trouble on the playground (before school)all started the day with very unsuccessful activities. (12.11.06) The assessments are pegged to grade level which means that each assessment is two to three grade levels above the reading and math skills of my students. Despite their clear learning

disabilities, none of my students was considered so disabled as to qualify for an alternative assessment. While I could modify the conditions of the assessment making it untimed and giving students as much as 80 minutes to do what their grade level peers were required to do in 45 minutes, many of my students could not complete it. I was not allowed to read the reading section of the test to those who could not read. The most I could do was tell them to look through a question, circle words they knew, and then try to read and answer the question. I have seen students struggle to read the first paragraph of a five-paragraph story for 30 minutes and simply not be able to finish because they cant read well enough to answer the questions. While the math section is read to them, no 11 additional explanation may be given. By the end of the assessment, students were understandably frustrated. I tried responding to these assessment mornings (one per quarter) by giving the kids a snack timea rare occurrence in the morning in our classroom. I found that once we repaired the break in routine this way, we could move into the Morning Message and then students would get right down to work. Frequent Absences and Tardiness The insertion of a snack into the morning routine did not seem to help kids who were frequently

absent or late, a circumstance I described in my journal in February: John Difficult day for John. During DEAR time, he came in late, chose only one book instead of two, and was upset when he couldnt switch books. He refused to read or look at his book and ended up away from the group, sitting in a chair. During independent readinghe was given his choice of decodable books to readstalled at getting started by arranging his reading buddy, bean bag chair, and choosing books. Chose book with only one word, dot, in it. Reminded many times to read. Appeared not to. Did not participate fully during sound drill or work with Ms. H. (classroom assistant) Why? Just an off day? Three-day weekend? Will offer more structure tomorrow to see what happens. I figured that I needed to develop something that would help these children get over their insecurity about what had been happening in the classroom when they were not there. I focused my efforts on John, a second grade student in my class, whose frequent tardiness throughout the year seemed to have an overwhelming effect on his ability to get down to work as well as to work independently. I tried conferences with his mother and notes home; nothing changed. I tried different ways of welcoming John into the classroom to try to build his self-esteem from the moment he walked in the door; that seemed not to have an impact. Then, one day, I tried having 12

him sit right by me while I checked his homework. I complimented him on his well done work, and then I sent him to read. That worked! Trouble on the playground before schoolarguments, pushing and kicking was a problem for some of my students, especially for JJ, a third grader in my class who had begun with me in first grade after only spotty preschool attendance, multiple foster homes, and physical and emotional abuse. This, too, required a special intervention. JJ and I tried leaving what had happened before school at the door of the classroom; we tried writing about it so as to let it be. Finally, I tried spending a slightly longer period of time with the Morning Message thereby giving JJ more opportunities to participate. While behavior during DEAR time remained tricky, the Morning Message could turn things around for JJ: If he was asked to come to the board for an extra turn or two to find words or sounds, his confidence appeared to grow and he became more enthusiastic about his work for the morning. Incomplete Homework Every once in a while, two to three students came to school not having finished their homework. The routine for checking homework and the response to incomplete homework was as follows: As homework was checked during DEAR time, I called students over whose homework was

incomplete and said, Your math/reading is not done. You will need to stand at the wall at recess. This meant that during recess they would stand by the wall, watching recess and not talking to anyone. My journal notes described the problem: Three boys did not return homework. Consequences were dealt. Difficult time for the rest of the morning with Morning Message and whole and small group work. (2.8.07) Once I focused on this interaction, I realized that I needed to change the entire process. If students did not finish their homework, I called them over from their books and gave them a choice of either going back to their reading or finishing their homework at their desk. Everyone 13 chose completing their homework then and there. They still had to stand at the wall at recess, but the opportunity to finish their homework seemed to bring back their feelings of success. When they rejoined us at the Morning Message, these students seemed to feel as successful as if they had completed their homework at home. After I began this, I noted in my journal a decrease in problems resulting from incomplete homework. Good Days I also noted in my journal how a great day in the class seemed to lead to students tackling challenges independently. For example, JJ (the third grade child who had problems on the

playground) had a severe learning disability characterized by gaps in his working and short-term memory which affected his ability to read and write. In January, he could read some sight words and knew most consonant sounds. However, he could not blend sounds into words and was most comfortable with copying. When expected to sound out words, he would sit and write a letter or tworarely letters that were actually in the word. In January, we went on a field trip to see an enactment of a book we had read together. Everyone had a great time. When we got back, everyone talked about the play. I decided we would write about it. For the first time ever, JJ sounded out a word in his writing. It was the first time he had written a sentence that I could read. He wrote, we gat no the pis in the pis srmw ming we was omos We got on the bus and the bus started moving we was going. He used his sounds for the words got, started and moving. He wrote with ease, not the usual struggle. Throughout my observations of my class, I found situations when high success in our classroom environment was followed by better work and high focus throughout the day. It seemed as if giving students more opportunities to be successful helped to counteract any negativity that came from rough starts to the day. 14 Monitoring Student Achievement

My journal and anecdotal notes show student growth throughout the year. My best examples of change were two second graders, John and Detrell, who began the school year with many poor work habits but were showing huge progress by March. To measure their progress, I took three representative samples of their work. The writing samples were compared on the basis of: 1. Mean number of words written: The average number of words written over the three samples. 2. Accuracy of consonant sounds correct in non-sight words: This assesses the students ability to sound out a word. For example, the word cat written as ct gets a score of 2 out of 2. Dog written as dk would get a score of 1 out of 2. 3. Total number of different sight words used: The total number of different sight words used (all three samples). 4. Mean number of sight words spelled accurately: The number of sight words spelled accurately. 5. Mean number of sight words used (per writing sample): The average number of sight words used per sample. JOHN When I looked through my observations and journal, I saw a change in John (second grader

described above) who entered my class for half days in the last month of first grade. He had been unsuccessful in both kindergarten and first grade and was facing retention in first grade until his severe learning disability was identified. When he entered my classroom he was able to independently write only his name and dog. He could read five sight words. He would ask to go to the bathroom or get water every time we began independent work. He often asked many 15 questions about topics unrelated to our discussions. It seemed as if he was doing all he could to avoid working. His first writing of the year can be seen in Figure 1. John wrote his name (blurred out) and two initials to stand for his brothers. The sounds he chose to stand for his brothers names are incorrect. He showed no real evidence of a storyinstead, describing a similar situation every day (see Figure 1). Figure 1: Johns writing in the Fall Name is written accurately. Two initials are used to represent brothers names. Neither initial is correct. M N m Dog Me and my dog ME my fat dog

Me my friends dog By December, I could see changes and recorded them in the following months:

JohnWriters Workshop: worked for 30 seconds, then began making noises. Next, he went back to saying the words slowly. Began talking about unrelated topics. Lost choice time minutes. Went back to work erased b (the only letter he had written down) John was attempting to write bus. He has now been working on bus for 10 minutes and 23 seconds. Next he begins to write, and then erase, rewrite, and erase the b in bus, saying that sound over and over again. (12/13/07) 16 JohnUses where Christmas begins as written on our calendar to write Christmas begins sits and says words. (12/19/07) JohnUsed the word wall to write a few sight words; stuck to the days topic. (1/9/07) **no stretching out of words JohnI worked with John to choose a work to publish only three of nine are finished This needs to be a goal for next quarter. (1/30/07) Johnwrites one sentence using stretching words! (2/22/07) Between September and February, John had adapted our classroom strategy/habit of stretching out words to spell them. The spring writing samples show more of a story structure. More sight

words are used and more words are written (see Figure 2). Figure 2: Johns writing in the Spring 17 I dinlike De Sod I Dinsos De so mz bing I didnt like the show I didnt show The show was boring I Went to the uenis I won a lot of teit I pot my in the mhei. A Rse I tltc it the ckain I goat a toe bait bell I Lot I went to the Chuck E Cheeses I won a lot of tickets I put my in the machine A receipt I took it the counter I got a toy basketball I left I Se De Sor4sdegb Sebob herbrinhe sno Serbeb packts friend I see the show 4 spongebob Spongebob runs in the house Spongebob Patricks friend Changes in Johns Word Use

In September, the mean number of words that John used in his stories was 3.34; by March, it was 18. The accuracy of consonant sounds correct in non-sight words grew from 44% to 62%. The number of sight words used grew from 3 to 12 and the number of sight words spelled accurately grew from 50% to 92.3%. Detrells Work Another example of change shows in my notes on Detrell who is another student like John who came to me for the last month of first grade, and began full days in our classroom the following fall. In the regular education first grade, Detrell rarely participated appropriately. He typically sat under his desk or the table during read alouds and when he was supposed to read on his own. 18 There is record that he received an increasing number of discipline reports from the assistant principal for acting out in the classroom. When he began second grade in the fall, Detrell did not read books independently. He would browse the pictures, but made no attempt to read the words (see Figure 3). Figure 3: Detrells writing in the fall DHNDJNPNCTaZoe SCEMBCC. Detrell and DJ and PH and cat and Zoe Skeeball. Detrellnmom wat to Gat the

mal Detrell and mom went to get the mail. Detrell n DJnBSD Playwdyy Detrell and DJ play with their yoyos. As the year progressed, Detrell began reading books on his own during DEAR time. By March, he was attempting to read The Butter Battle Book. I noticed that he was decoding when possible and retelling the story. He read and re-read Go, Dog, Go and unsuccessfully attempted Three Little Wolves. By mid-March, I saw him attempt Green Eggs and Ham and heard him remark to himself, DangI can read this and he did read most of it; but, he abandoned it when it got too tough. By June, he had successfully read several Little Bear books independently. Detrells writing showed remarkable changes (see Figure 4). In the fall, the mean number of words in his stories was nine; by Spring, it was 42. The number of different sight words used grew from 3 to 19 and the mean number of sight words spelled accurately grew from 40% to 87%. In his reading, the accuracy of consonant sounds read correct in words that were not sight words grew from 73% to 89%. 19 Figure 4: Detrells Writing in the Spring

went to get me sum woetr I luk ot the winbow I sow a Gicit The BFG gavr Detrell he put Detrell in the tisho the BFG iuk ham in his kav Went to get me some water I look out the window I saw a gaint The BFG grabbed Detrell he put Detrell in the tissue the BFG took him in his cave. The tom I went to my DJ hmoe it wus new 2 cats that 2 cat a wazs sit on me. And That 2 cat wazs Ku too me 1 cat is A boy 1 cat is A girl. The time I sent to my DJ home it was new 2 cats That 2 cat was sit on me and that 2 cat was come to me 1 at is a boy 1

cat is a girl. I wocup but the cat wus on me hed wiwu that cat on my hed I the cat Was Big of miman It was fribay And wen I gat Bak he was big in Detrell Said my wish cum chuw The ca is Big. I woke up but the cat was on me head Well that cat on my head. I the cat was big of remind me it was Friday And when I got back he was big and Detrell said my wish come true the cat is big. Detrells responses to the survey question, How good are you at reading? Writing? Math?, provide a nice indicator of changes in his thinking over the course of the year. In January he said, 20 Sometimes I dont know how to read words, sometimes I do. If I dont know how to read

words, I sound them out. He described his writing as not really that good, but claimed, I good at math. By March, he was claiming to be good at reading: Yes, I keep tapping it out, and writing because it is easy to spell words. Everytime I go home, he said, my brother has me do my ABCs to see what letters I know. My mom is so proud. He saw improvement in math, too: I good at math, because I remember in first grade I did math and now I know how to do it this year. JASON Like John and Detrell, other students showed changes in motivation and commensurate changes in the quality of their work. Jason was a fourth grade student who spent only one period a day language artsin the regular education fourth grade class. During the period, the students in that classroom were working independently or in small groups on individualized work. Because Jason had his own individualized work, he should have been successful during this time. However, the classroom teacher reported that during independent work time, he would sit and do nothing, even though he had been given work appropriate to his skill level. She also claimed that he rarely completed his homework. His teacher and I decided to try keeping him full-time in the self-contained classroom. Jason was disappointed by the change in his schedule and his disappointment made me try to

find a way to get him to complete his homework and to work independently in the fourth grade classroom. I noticed that he liked to write stories about a space alien named Zim. I gave him a blank composition book to use to draw his stories. On the days Jason came to school with his homework completed, he could go to the fourth grade class to work on his story. Once this policy was implemented, I saw a change in Jason and in his work habits which I chronicled in my journal: We pulled Jason from the fourth grade because he isnt completing any work. He 21 doesnt like this, but he hasnt been completing his homework, and I dont want to reward this behavior. Ms. G and I talked about putting him back in for the social experience, beginning with something he would be successful with. We should start this on Tuesday or Wednesday. Maybe this will help things out. (1.23.07) The difference in Jason when he has done his homework vs. when he has not done his homework is huge. When his homework is done, he eagerly attacks classroom activities. When it has not been done, everything is difficult and a struggle (2.28.07). Jason has enjoyed writing his Zim story. His success in this task has begun to carry over to his other activities. His homework is complete more often and he is enthusiastic about other tasks. JJ

In January, our class began a new reading program, the Wilson Reading System (2002). This is a systematic, scientifically proven method of reading instruction, focusing on decoding and spelling and seemed most appropriate for Detrell and JJ who seemed to flourish after we introduced this program. The success they felt appeared to carry over into other classroom activities. One day in January, JJ carried the word list we had been practicing over to the rug. He chose to practice reading his words as the other students were using their free time to talk with each other. Survey Results The most common question I hear from teachers and parents about my small, selfcontained, special education class is whether the students feel bad about being in a small class. I decided to survey my students, once in January and once in March, to ascertain their feelings about being in the self-contained, small class. 22 In both January and March, the students responses to the questions: What do you like about being in a small class like ours? How do you think being in a small class helps your reading, writing, and math? were overwhelmingly about the quietness and calmness of the selfcontained class (see Figure 5). Figure 5: Student Responses in January and March January March

 We can all do something at once and it is more quiet. We can think more.the big class scared me to do it. There was more pressure when there is something that was hard before. Now when I do it, I feel like I did something right You can put a lot of stuff in it, it looks big When I was in my big class, we didnt have much teachers. They didnt go around. Now that Im in a little class, I get more help We can get more work done Its not a lot of kids its not every loud in here Youre not yelling much because Ms. G- s kids (general education class) can do things right, but they dont. And there are so many it is hard to make them all listen. Its easy to listen It isnt that small actually. When there are a lot of kids, usually there are a lot of problems. Get more work done Its not that many kids. So, there doesnt have to be a lot of talking.I can learn better. In my old class a whole bunch of people used to be talking

They also commented on getting more work done; they claimed that it was easier to learn and listen. Hearing such comments from students who did not seem to see themselves as learners at the beginning of the year was remarkable. Their responses suggest that they had begun to think about themselves as learners and of what might help them with their work. FINDINGS/CONCLUSIONS I began this project searching for an explanation for the changes I see in my students once they enter my class. This was especially important to me because the trend in special education seems to be to move away from self-contained classrooms and towards inclusion classes. My belief is 23 that students experience of success impacts their selfconcepts and motivation which, in turn, leads to more advances in achievement. It seems to me that it is easier for severely learningdisabled students to experience such success in a selfcontained environment. As I observed and studied my classroom over the year, I was struck by the ways in which theory, research, my practice, and my students actions seemed to coalesce to corroborate my theory. However, I do recognize that my inquiry and actions taken in response to data that I gathered were critical to my students progress, so I can no longer claim that it is the selfcontained classroom alone that makes the difference. Part of what may be happening may be explained by the work of Morovitz and Motta (1992) and Butler and Marinov-Glassman (1994): in a small special education class, the students

stop comparing themselves to the students in the regular-education setting and compare themselves instead to the students in their new situation, thereby developing a higher selfconcept. Another factor may have been my developing breaks with the routine that helped children reset themselves, as was the case with John and the quarterly assessment, with JJs writing, with Johns absences and tardiness. I now think that experiencing success instead of failure early in the day seems to affect motivation and achievement throughout the daya clear demonstration of Chapman and colleagues (2002) finding that motivation, self-concept, and achievement are deeply intertwined. And, as John and Detrells reading progress suggests, it is not just a matter of experiencing success early in the day but throughout the day. As their self-concept and motivation began to change, they seemed to become more comfortable in their class work and this, in turn, led to higher achievement. It is difficult for teachers to zero-in on individual students as my assistant and I were able to do with my small class. This is what makes the self-contained environment so special and so powerful. So, for example, we could take time with the Calkins (2003) model, especially with the guided practice 24 which seemed to support students use of new habits and skills when working independently: The success they felt from practicing the skills first as a group, then in the mini-lesson led to

their adopting the new skills as their own. Much of the push for inclusion seems to stem from concerns that learners selfesteem is negatively impacted by being in self-contained classes (Zigmond, 2003). I have not seen this happen among my students. Jason, John, JJ, and Detrell are four examples from my eight students, but I could have used any of the other four as well. It is not the selfcontained classroom per se that makes the difference, but certainly the small numbers of children and the focused attention that each is able to get in that environment makes it an important part of any effort to help change the achievement trajectory of severely learning-disabled students. Since completing this study, I have also come to the conclusion that developing an inquirystance, which is what action research supports, is essential to practice, particularly in the special education classroom. POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS Assumptions that self-contained special-education classrooms are detrimental to a students selfconcept should be examined on a case-by-case basis. Early elementary students with severe learning disabilities can benefit from intensive services to build both achievement and selfconcept. Students self-concept should be considered when deciding special education placement. Smaller class size in both special-education and regular-education classrooms would allow teachers to better differentiate instruction for their students. District mandated assessments

should be examined for their impact on special education students and alternative measures of achievement should be accepted as an important part of the assessment protocol for them and all students. 25 REFERENCES Baumel, J., (2007). Frequently used educational terms. Retrieved June 20, 2007, from http://schwablearning.org Boersma, F.J., Chapman, J.W., & Battle, J. (1979). Academic self-concept change in special education students: Some suggestions for interpreting self-concept scores. The Journal of Special Education, 13(4), 433-442. Butler, R., & Marinov-Glassman, D., (1994). The effects of educational placement and grade level on the self-perceptions of low achievers and students with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 27(5), 325-333. Calkins, L. (2003). Units of study for primary writing: A yearlong curriculum. Portsmouth, NH: First Hand. Chapman, J.W., Tunmer, W.E., & Prochnow, J.E. (2000). Early readingrelated skills and performance, reading self-concept, and the development of academic selfconcept: A longitudinal study. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92(4), 703-708. Cortiella, C. (2006). IDEA 2004 Close Up: Evaluation and eligibility for specific learning disabilities. Retrieved January 5, 2007, from http://schwablearning.org

Elbaum, B. (2002). The self-concept of students with learning disabilities: A metaanalysis of comparisons across different placements. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 17(4), 216-226. Elbaum, B., & Vaughn, S. (2003). Self-concept and students with learning disabilities. In H. L. Swanson, K.R. Harris & S. Graham (Eds.), Handbook of learning disabilities (229-241). New York: The Guilford Press. Forman, E.A. (1988). The effects of social support and school placement on the self-concept of LD students. Learning Disability Quarterly, 11, 115-124. Gottfried, A.E. (1990). Academic intrinsic motivation in young elementary school children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82(3), 525-538. 26 Lazarus, B.D., & Callahan, T., (2000). Attitudes toward reading expressed by elementary school students diagnosed with learning disabilities. ReadingPsychology, 21, 271-282. Morovitz, E., & Motta, R.W. (1992). Predictors of self-esteem: The roles of parent-child perceptions, achievement, and class placement. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 25(1), 72-80. Wilson, Barbara. (2002). Wilson reading system. Millbury, MA: Wilson Language Training Corporation. Zigmond, N. (2003). Searching for the most effective service delivery model for students with

learning disabilities. In H. L. Swanson, K.R. Harris & S. Graham (Eds.), Handbook of learning disabilities (pp. 110-122). New York: The Guilford Press. 27 Appendix A Behaviors Checklist/Notes Activity ____________ Date______________ Student 1 Student 2 Student 3 Student 4 Student 5 Student 6 Student 7 Time on Task

Engagement with Task

(Scale of 1 4) includes active listening

Working Independently? Using the Word Wall Working on Decoding Independently Stretching out Words Book Choices during DEAR time Class Participation/ Hand Raising Tackling Problems Independently Use this chart with: DEAR, Writers Workshop (WW), Readers Workshop (RW), Independent Reading (IR), Science (S), Math Problem Solving (M), Guided Reading (GR) 28

Appendix B Anecdotal Notes Date Name Notes

29 Appendix C Survey Spring 2007 Name: _________________________ Date: __________________________ 1. What is your favorite part about our class? 2. What is your favorite learning activity that we do in class? 3. What do you like about being in a small class like ours? 4. How do you think being in a small class helps your reading, writing, and math? 5. Do you like school more or less than you used to? 6. Have you gotten better at your reading, writing, and math? How can you tell? 7. What is something at school you have improved at this year? 8. How good are you at reading? Writing? Math? (use back)

HOME VISITATION BEST PRACTICES: A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Submitted to: Birth and Beyond Submitted by: LPC Consulting Associates, Inc. P.O. Box 188529 Sacramento, CA 95818

May 2007 1 Table of Contents Page SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION

SECTION 2: SECTION 3:

SECTION 4:

2 SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION Home visitation is designed to prevent child abuse and neglect and promote optimal child development and prevent negative outcomes, including academic underachievement, psychological maladjustment and antisocial behavior (Ammerman et al, 2006, p. 105). Home visits typically begin during pregnancy and last until the child reaches two to five years of age. Programs target diverse areas of infant nutrition, parenting skills, home safety and maternal health. When compared to other types of prevention programs, home visitation programs include distinct features and seek to create change by providing parents with: (1) social support, (2) case management and

links with community resources, and (3) education about child development and parenting (Gomby, 2005). Home visiting research has expanded tremendously over the past two decades and new studies continue to be produced each year. Current research indicates that there are thousands of publicly and privately funded home visitation programs in the U.S. which provide services to at least half million children (Ammerman, 2006; Daro, 2006). In 2001, approximately 37 states had state-based home visiting systems or programs (Daro, 2006; Johnson, 2001) and program evaluations illustrate that home visitation is a promising prevention strategy for parents and their young children. A review of the child abuse literature illustrates that there are contrary findings on diverse home visitation programs (Gomby, 2005). However, the most recent metaanalyses and studies conclude that home visitation is effective, despite variations in effect sizes, and can provide a wide range of societal benefits, from a meaningful reduction in childhood maltreatment to enhancing positive parent-child interactions (Ammerman, 2006; Daro, 2006; Drummond, 2006; Geeraert, 2004, Karoly, 2005). Relevant literature identifies a broad range of home visitation programming. For the purposes of this paper the researcher focused on: (1) the research evaluating home

visitation programs, (2) home visitation program best practices, and (3) model program profiles. The following section reviews the effectiveness of home visitation programs. 3 SECTION 2: HOME VISITING EFFECTIVENESS The literature review on home visitation is based on a review of over 15 publications from 2000 to the present. As stated earlier, recent research on home visitation draws a variety of conclusions about the effectiveness of home visitation programs (Daro, 2006, Geeraert, 2004, Karoly, 2005). One of the most recent and comprehensive studies on home visitation, produced by RAND, Early Childhood Interventions: Proven Results, Future Promises (Karoly, 2005), reviews early childhood intervention research and published evaluations for 20 early childhood programs. This study expands and confirms findings from an earlier study, Investing in Our Children: What We Know and Dont Know about the Costs and Benefits of Early Childhood Interventions (Karoly, 1998). Key findings from RAND (Karoly, 2005) are: 1. Evaluations demonstrate that early childhood interventions programs can improve the lives of participating children and families in both the short and long term;

2. Effective early childhood intervention programs return more to society in benefits than they cost; 3. Programs enable youth to lead more successful lives because such programs help children improve their analytical skills, raise academic achievement in school and develop socially; 4. Evaluations of childhood intervention programs can inform policymakers and practitioners about program outcomes. In addition to RANDs findings, Daro (2006) summarized key home visitation out outcomes: Table 1- At-A-Glace: Home Visitation Evaluation Findings New Parents: Short-term outcomes Better birth outcomes Enhanced parent-child interactions More efficient use of health care services Enhanced child development and early detection of developmental delays Long-term outcomes Reduction in the frequency and severity of maltreatment Reduced welfare dependency Higher rates of school completion and

job retention Toddlers: Short-term outcomes Early literacy skills Social competence Parent involvement in learning Long-term outcomes Stronger school performance Fewer behavior problems Higher rates of high school graduation From Daro (2006), p.7 4 Abt Associates (Layzer, 2001) undertook a meta-analysis of family support literature since 1965 as part of a contract with the federal government. The database used by Abt Associates included literature on all available family support programs. The study therefore focused on a broad review of family support literature which included some information on home visiting programs. In contrast, Sweet and Appelbaum (2004) conducted a similar meta-analysis but their study focused solely on home visiting programs. Both of the studies are compared below. Sweet and Appelbaum (2004) utilized the database of studies from Abt Associates for their meta-analysis, focusing on home visiting programs. This study examined child

outcomes (separated into cognitive, socio-emotional and prevention of child abuse outcomes) and parent and maternal outcomes (separated into parenting behavior, parenting attitudes and enhancement of life course groups). Sweet and Appelbaum (2004) note that their meta-analytic review of home visiting programs does not completely span the field of outcomes available for analysis. According to their study, Home visiting does seem to help families with young children, but the extent to which this help is worth the cost of creating and implementing programs has yet to be determined...More precise and detailed conceptualization and measurement of both program intervention implementation and service delivery may allow for a more clear understanding of the utility of home visiting programs (Sweet and Appelbaum, 2004, p. 1448). Layzers (2001) meta-analysis of family support programs included 900 research reports. The researchers coded 665 studies (representing 260 programs). About half of the programs analyzed were home visiting programs and the analysis addressed both short-term and long-term effects of program outcomes. Some of the findings included: Support services for families produce small positive effects in childrens

cognitive development, social and emotional development as well as in parenting attitude, knowledge, behavior and general family functioning; Larger effects are found in programs that focus on children with special needs and those that provide early childhood education directly to children; Teen parents benefit from case management and organized parent-child activities (Layzer, 2001). Interestingly, Sweet and Appelbaum (2004) found no differences between the effectiveness of professional and paraprofessional home visitors, whereas Layzer (2001) found professional staff to be more effective in terms of producing positive outcomes for parents. In sum, the literature shows that early childhood intervention programs have a statistically significant effect on a range of outcomes, both early in childrens educational careers and later into adolescence and adulthood. However, the size of cognitive and behavioral effects is comparatively modest and may decrease as children grow older. In contrast, the effects of some outcomes like educational placement, grade retention and 5 a decrease in criminal activity are substantial and can be maintained in the long term as children transition into adulthood (Ammerman, 2006; Cerny, 2001; Daro, 2006; Drummond, 2002; Karoly, 2005; NGA Center for Best Practices, 2002; Sweet and Appelbaum, 2004; Tandon, 2005). 6

SECTION 3: HOME VISITATION PROGRAM BEST PRACTICES Recent research has identified best-practices for managing effective home visitation programs. The following sections address various components of home visitation programs best practices. These components include: (1) modest expectations, (2) program implementation, (3) the home visit forum and collaboration, (4) staffing, (5) client participation, (6) institutional and societal change and evaluation. Modest Expectations Daro (2006) argued that the dissatisfaction with the level of impacts achieved by home visitation reflects, in part, the high expectations with which the strategy was initially embraced in the early 1990s. Prevention advocates had come to believe they had achieved perfect alignment between what the empirical data indicated would work and what policymakers were wiling to support (p. 13). However, Daro (2006) pointed out that expectations and goals may be too high for social intervention programs to achieve. Modest expectations should be placed on what intervention programs can alter, whereas a greater emphasis should be placed on altering individual parenting behaviors and societal contexts that may contribute to child maltreatment, for example. Thus,

critics of home visitation may have been more comfortable with accepting the modest outcomes that some programs achieved. But, if prevention advocates argued that only modest outcomes would be produced by such programs, policymakers may have been less likely to support the programs or offer support, in the form of funding (Daro, 2006). Implementation of programs Implementation of home visitation programs can lead to success or failure. A variety of program models exist, with an array of components, and a range of standards for uniformity in practice (Karoly, 2005). The needs of families and children are unique and the quality of home visitation programs will effect outcomes not only for clients, but for programs. Therefore, existing home visitation programs and their national headquarters should launch efforts to improve the implementation and quality of services. Such efforts should include: Ongoing assessments of practice concerning, the enrollment, engagement and attrition of families; Training requirements and support for staff; and Consistent delivery of curricula (Harvard Family Research Project, 2007). Recently, a few leading home visiting models have brought together researchers and

practitioners to formulate practice standards and guidelines. 7 Home Visit Forum and Collaboration Programs are being improvement continuously. For instance, the Home Visit Forum is a component of the Harvard Family Research Project; the forum provided an opportunity for members to share descriptive data, identify common definitions used in selfmonitoring, and discover common performance issues across their programs (Harvard Family Research Project, 2007). Since 2000, six programs, the Nurse Family Partnership, Health Families of America, Parents as Teachers, Parent-Child Home Program, HIPPY USA, and Early Head Start, have been part of a collaborative group called the Home Visit Forum. The forum established a continuous learning loop to improve collaboration and partnerships across agencies that would ultimately advance research, policies, practices, training strategies and increase capacity in the home visitation field. Participants in the forum have been working continuously to create areas for crossprogram cooperation, not only to improve individual programs but to strengthen the home visitation field as whole (Harvard Family Research Project, 2007). Figure 1 - Operating Framework of the Home Visit Forum Since the projects inception the forum has developed a number of shared standards, such as staff training and supervision. In addition, the forum has advocated for program

expansion based on best practices standards. For instance, some ways to meet high expectations placed on programs include: Initial Forum Development Participants share information and seek better understanding of each others efforts. Cross-Model Learning Mini-grants and ongoing discussion offer opportunities for models to collectively examine common research questions and to identify ways in which models compliment each other Creating Common Products and Vision Models engage in the development of joint projects designed to establish common

practice standards and assumptions and to define home visitation within a broader context of early childhood interventions. Instrumental Outcomes Enhanced service quality within home visitation services Greater efficiency in targeting home visitation services Greater appreciation of the role of home visitation services within the broader network of early intervention services for young children and their parents Lessons and tools developed for the field Ultimate Outcomes Improved physical, emotional, and cognitive outcomes for children A model of learning for continuous improvement 8 Linking specific program elements to specific outcomes; Hiring staff that are highly trained and knowledgeable; Supervision that includes observation of the provider and participant; Building organizational capacity; Improving the quality of services through program evaluation; Integrating home visitation with other programs or providing links to other community resources; and Implementing programs consistently (Harvard Family Research Project, 2007).

Program approaches and goals may vary. However, forum participants and the literature review pointed out a number of key factors that can assist programs meet high expectations (Daro, 2005, Harvard Family Research Project, 2007). Local programs may want to consider reviewing research that has been generated by the forum or developing some type of community forum locally to support of these efforts. Research results should be fed into ongoing quality-improvement efforts of existing home visiting programs, perhaps using mechanisms, such as a research network, that bring researchers and practitioners together on an ongoing, collaborative basis (Karoly, 2005). Home visiting programs cannot solve all societal problems. Therefore, they must build collaborative relationships with other local community programs that target atrisk families. Home visitation programs must collaborate with other programs to provide some type of wrap-around service, in conjunction with the intervention. Other important avenues of change in existing programs include combining funding streams, decreasing bureaucratic control and requirements, and providing program independence at the local level. The suggestion mentioned above would not necessarily require the development of a new program model, but an active effort on the part of

policy makers, practitioners and community members to resolve challenges that face social, education and health care institutions that support children and families (Daro, 2006; Gomby, 2005; Geeraert, 2004, Karoly, 2005; Sweet and Appelbaum, 2004). Staffing Home visitors are relied upon to create relationships with families to communicate program messages. Educational requirements for home visitors vary from program to program and a variety of options exist on the type of educational qualifications required of program staff. Programs face consistent staffing challenges, such as high staff turnover and burnout. Staff educational levels, burnout, and turnover can contribute to the success or failure of home visitation programs. Below are selected best practices, used by model programs to support staff members: Home visitation programs should provide training to new staff and current staff members to increase the quality of services delivered to families and to teach them how to contact hard-to-reach families; Close supervision of home visitors should be done on a regular basis to assist staff with professional growth and manage job related stress; 9 Regular supervision will also ensure that staff members are following the home

visitation program model, protocols and procedures (Karoly, 2005). Client participation Engaging families in home visitation services is a critical part of the program model. Home vitiation is based on regularly scheduled visits to clients homes. Program models vary in terms of type of curricula used, duration of visits, and content. Program outcomes are related to the level of client participation. Recent literature illustrates that keeping a family engaged in home visitation services is one of the greatest challenges programs face. Some of the best practices identified in the literature to keep clients engaged include: Home visitation programs need to create schedules that coincide with the schedules of employed families and convince these families that they can actively participate in the program; Families that are unemployed maybe easier to engage in home visitation programs but may have a difficult time meeting program goals and may need more direction and assistance; Parents are unlikely to stay engaged with a home visitation program, unless they are convinced that services will meet their families needs; A decrease in family engagement by program clients may indicate that program modification is necessary (Ammerman, 2006). Programs such as PAT, HFA, and HIPPY suggest that parents need social support and

home visitation programs can meet that need by providing support. Parenting books, magazines and a variety of self-help materials are popular among parents. This suggests that parents are searching for help and support. If families remain engaged with home visitation programs, program support must be supplemented with information and other assistance programs. Thus, program curricula may be a key part of its success in engaging and retaining families (PAT, HFA, HIPPY, 2007). Institutional and Societal Change Negative outcomes, such as child abuse and neglect or low academic achievement cannot be addressed effectively by a single program. Therefore, problems must be examined within individual and social contexts. Planning processes within intervention programs must consider participant risk factors in a variety of societal contexts. For instance, program staff should consider the social norms that may influence parents actions and therefore shape the environment a child grows up in. In addition, it is important to consider changes that must occur in other major institutions that serve at risk families (Daro, 2006; Gomby, 2005; Geeraert, 2004, Karoly, 2005; Sweet and Appelbaum, 2004). 10

Prevention programs will thrive if paired with modest program expectations and a commitment to systemic change. For instance, Daro (2006) pointed out, Although programs can change a parents willingness to access health services, health services need to alter their structure and funding procedures to become more accessible. Similarly, the concept of child protection must include interventions that support families before serious abuse or neglect become the normative frameworks shaping parent-child interactions (p. 13). Home visitation programs can prepare children for school, but the public school system must be prepared to help children who face academic challenges (Daro, 2006; Gomby, 2005; Geeraert, 2004, Karoly, 2005; Sweet and Appelbaum, 2004). It is difficult to change individuals behaviors, particularly when problems like poverty are communitywide. Therefore, it is important for programs to examine not only individual behavioral issues but broader policy solutions to address these issues. Cultural Considerations Gomby (2005) argues that culture is related to parenting practices. For instance, parents hold different cultural beliefs about the best way to handle crying, breastfeeding, discipline, early literacy skills, and obedience and autonomy in children. Home visitation programs may not be as effective with some families, if cultural is not consider or advice

offered by home visitors does no consistent with familial beliefs of parenting. Gomby (2005) reviewed one study that showed several African American and Latina parents ignored home visitors advice and considered it to be white people stuff, whereas working class families were more likely to question home visitors advice on parenting and reading to infants on a daily basis. Different parental ideologies tend to be significantly important, if mothers live with extended families or their mothers. Changes in parental behaviors may be difficult because the mother must not only change her behavior but convince her family to change their behavior. Parental behavioral changes can cause problems within family networks, therefore some home visitation programs have reached out to extended family members, like fathers and grandparents. For instance Early Head Start programs use a variety of strategies to engage extended family members, especially fathers (Gomby, 2005). Gomby (2005) pointed out that the current studies do not clearly illustrate what cultural group benefits the most. For instance, children of Latina mothers who are enrolled in a PAT Salinas Valley project, benefited more than other groups on child development

outcomes. Early Head Start released interim study results on African American children and the data strongly suggested that African American children benefited more from the program than while children. HFAs San Diego program completed a study on second pregnancies and the results showed that white but not African American or Hispanic women were more likely to defer second pregnancies after going through the HFA program. 11 Evaluation The literature review revealed the importance of program evaluation because it will provide a clear understanding of the utility of home visiting programs. Incorporating program evaluation into both program intervention and service delivery will require that programs are designed with evaluation in mind. Sweet and Appelbaum (2004) recommended that at the beginning of a programs inception, staff must identify the following: how families will be affected by the program, what population will be affected the most, and more importantly how the effect will be measured, resolved and reported. Sweet and Appelbaum (2004) argued that designing programs with an evaluation component will allow for a through evaluation of the field and provide individual programs with methods to improve program practices. 12

SECTION 4: HOME VISITATION PROGRAM PROFILES As previously mentioned, a broad range of home visitation programs exist in the United States. The descriptions of the following programs illustrate examples of evidencebased practices that have led to positive outcomes for home visitation programs. Nurse Family Partnership (NFP) The NFP is an evidence-based nurse home visitation program that improves the health, well-being and self-sufficiency of low-income, first-time parents and their children. The program provides intensive visitation by nurses during a womans pregnancy through the first two years after birth; the program was developed by Dr. David Olds. The Prevention Research Center for Family and Child Health is directed by David. The goal of this center is the examination of long-term impacts of the NFP (NFP, 2007). The frequency of home visits changes with the stages of pregnancy and as the child grows, and can be adapted to the mothers needs. The goal is to visit every week to two weeks, depending on the phase of the program. Detailed visit-by-visit program guidelines are organized around challenges mothers and children typically encounter during pregnancy and infancy. Program topics focus on six areas: (1) personal health;

(2) environmental health; (3) life-course development; (4) maternal role; (5) family and friends; and (6) health and human services. Visitors assess maternal, child and family functioning. Depending on the results of the assessments and family specific needs and priorities, strength-based interventions are used to assist mothers (NFP, 2007). A major characteristic of the NFP program is its use of research to determine program effectiveness and to improve services. The NFP has conducted extensive research on the model over the last three decades. Randomized controlled trials were conducted with three diverse populations beginning in Elmira, New York, 1977; in Memphis, Tennessee, 1987; and Denver, Colorado, 1994. All three trials targeted firsttime, low-income mothers. Longitudinal follow-up studies are continuing, under the direction of Dr. David Olds. The follow-up studies are examining program effects on maternal economic self-sufficiency, substance abuse, and childrens adaptive functioning, including their mental health, criminal behavior, and productive life-course as the children reach adolescence and young adulthood (NFP, 2007). NFP data is collected by nurse home visitors at local sites and is reported through NFPs web-based Clinical Information Systems (CIS). NFP managers administer the CIS system and they also provide support for data entry as well as reporting. Data

provides NFP sites with information on how to improve current policies and practices, program management and information on whether a site is adhering to the program model (NFP, 2007). For instance, some of the positive and consistent program effects include: improved prenatal health, decreased childhood injuries, fewer subsequent pregnancies, increased 13 time between births, increased maternal employment and improved school readiness. NFP continues to conduct follow-up research, specifically examining the longterm outcomes for mothers and children in the three trials (NFP, 2007). Health Families of America (HFA) HFA is a network of programs that expanded on the experiences of the Hawaii Healthy Start program. HFA has been implemented in over 300 programs across the country. At-risk mothers are identified and enrolled either during pregnancy of shortly after the birth of the child. The intervention involves home visits by trained paraprofessionals who provide information on parenting and child development, parenting classes, case management, and other issues (HFA, 2007). HFA conducts systematic assessments of all families, in their targeted population. Within a targeted HFA community, more than 90 percent of HFA programs reach out to

either new parents or first-time parents. Staff members are specially trained to assess each families needs; during an assessment the staff member will listen to the families concerns and interests as well as provide the family with appropriate community referrals. High risk families are encouraged to participate in home visiting. Families set specific goals with their home visitor and generally the frequency of visits decreases as families meet their goals (HFA, 2007). Interestingly, HFA selects home visitors based on their personal characteristics versus formal education. HFA indicated that home visitors must have the skills to keep families engaged in the program and establish trusting relationships. In 2002, HFA reported that 82 percent of home visitors attended or graduated from college, specializing in child development, social work, nursing or education. A majority (87%) of HFA home visitors had prior experience in home visitation programs (HFA, 2007). HFA has implemented a credentialing system that monitors a set of research-based standards to monitor a range of services areas, like staffing and program content. Ongoing quality improvement is monitored by revising standards, periodically, to meet the changing needs of families and programs. Prevent Child Abuse America (PCA)

assist local HFA programs with a variety tasks. For instance, PCA national staff developed standardized data collection tools and system that are used by over 80 sites. The common data collection system enables staff to monitor program implementation and ensure that programs comply with standards (HFA, 2007). In 2004, an HFP Implementation Study evaluated the effect of program, staff, and family characteristics on family retention, intensity of services, and staff turnover across approximately 90 HFA sites (HFA, 2007). Some of the positive program outcomes include: reducing child maltreatment, enduring healthy child development, encouraging school readiness, promoting family self-sufficiency and demonstrating positive parenting (HFA, 2007). 14 Parents as Teachers (PAT) PAT is a home visiting program for parents and children with a main goal of having healthy children ready to learn by the time they go to school. Parent educators visit parents monthly. Typically visits begin during the mothers pregnancy and may continue until the child enters kindergarten. Social services agencies, school districts, hospitals and churches offer PAT programs to their clients. In addition, PAT programs are offered as part of comprehensive service-delivery systems or family resource centers (PAT,

2007). The Parents as Teachers National Center (PATNC) provides a variety of services to local centers. For instance, PATNC assists centers with training and technical assistance, curriculum and materials development as well as research and evaluation to ensure centers focus on continuous quality improvement. PATNC also advocates for comprehensive public policies that support children and families during the early years of a childs life. For instance, PAT developed the Standards and SelfAssessment Guide in 2004. PAT programs go through a self-assessment process every three years. The self-assessment emphasize continuous quality improvement by examining indicators like service delivery and program management. As a result of evaluation standards PAT has noticed positive program outcomes. Some of the outcomes include: PAT participants were more likely to engage in home literacy, exhibit positive behaviors and there was a decrease in child maltreatment. In addition, PAT children had higher school readiness scores and were less likely to be retained a year between kindergarten and third grade (PAT, 2007). Finally, PAT hires parent educators locally. Even though programs select personnel, PATNC encourages local programs to hire staff members who have experience in

health care, education or social work, relating to children and young families. Certified PATNC trainers train all new parent educators (home visitors) prior to beginning work in the field. In addition, 10 to 20 hours of in-service training is required for staff members to keep their certificate current (PAT, 2007). Parent-Child Home Program (PCHP) The PCHP targets children 24 to 30 months old whose parents have a limited education. The innovative program has emphasized the importance of quality parentchild verbal interaction to promote the cognitive and social-emotional development that children need in order to enter school with the tools they need to become successful students (PCHP, 2007). The program involves bi-weekly visits by a home visitor and each week the visitor brings a new toy or book to demonstrate ways the parents can engage the child. The program also encourages the parent to read to the child. PCHP ensures that families receive appropriate referrals to other community agencies, if they need services. Home visitors also help parents plan or set educational goals for themselves and their children (PCHP, 2007). 15 Most paraprofessionals working for the PCHP program are former program participants and families. The paraprofessionals work with families who face numerous challenges,

such as poverty, low educational levels, language barriers and other obstacles to educational success. This position is important to many PCHP paraprofessionals because it is often their first job and is significant step for career advancement and educational opportunities. PCHP provides training and technical assistance to individual sites, training materials for program coordinators, annual conferences as well as assisting sites with evaluation and research projects among other services. PCHP utilizes a PCHP management information system that site coordinators use for data reporting. Home visitors document each session with a family and they report data on the level of activity and involvement of the parent and child with program materials (PCHP, 2007). The information reported is reviewed by managers and home visitors and is applied to program practices. PCHP positive outcomes include: enhanced interaction between parents and children; increased use of positive parenting behaviors; improved child behaviors related to social-emotional development; and increased pre-literacy skills (PCHP, 2007). HIPPY USA (Home Instruction Program for Preschool Youngsters) HIPPY is designed for families with 3 year olds whose parents have a limited education.

This program teaches parents how to teach their children and make their home more conducive to learning. At the bi-weekly visits, parents receive books and toys, and the home visitor instructs parents in the use of the educational materials. The program continues until the child completes kindergarten (HIPPY, 2007). HIPPY home visitors receive intensive training prior to beginning their job as well as ongoing weekly training. Professional coordinators supervise HIPPY home visitors. Generally, coordinators have formal education in social work or early childhood education. Coordinators recruit parents, hire and train paraprofessional home visitors, organize parent group meetings, and ensure that families are linked to other services in the community. Paraprofessionals and coordinators meet weekly to discuss program activities, share experiences, solve problems and also work on careerdevelopment plans for the paraprofessionals (HIPPY, 2007). HIPPY recently established a HIPPY program-credentialing procedure that focuses on improving its quality assurance program. The national office provides a range of service to assist sites with guideline compliance, such as a training of trainers, a mentoring program, and an internship program. To guarantee local program quality, the national

office helps local sites develop new and improved training and technical assistance tools as well as revisions to the HIPPY evaluation tool kit. In addition, HIPPY USA conducts ongoing curriculum development to ensure that all materials are developmentally appropriate, culturally relevant, and reflect the growth that occurs in children and parents as they progress through the program (HIPPY, 2007). 16 The HIPPY research reports show that there is accumulated evidence demonstrating the positive impacts of HIPPY, both on childrens school readiness when entering kindergarten and first grade, and on performance in higher grades. The reports also show the programs positive impact on parent involvement and on the communities implementing the HIPPY model (HIPPY, 2007). Early Head Start (EHS) EHS is a federally funded program for low-income women who are pregnant or families with a child younger than 24 months old. Families may receive services until the child is three years old. Programs offer home-visit services, center-based services, or a combination (EHS, 2007). EHS standards focus on three areas: (1) Early Childhood Development and Health Services, (2) Family and Community Partnerships, and (3) Program Design and Management. Since EHS was established in 1994 they have operated under

performance standards mentioned above. The standards define the scope of services that programs must offer to children and families. In addition, continuous training and technical assistance is provided to staff and programs involve parents and community members in policy, program design, curriculum and management decisions (EHS, 2007). 17 SECTION 5: CONCLUSION Home visitation by itself cannot be viewed as the only solution to prevent child abuse, increasing academic achievement, or improving parent-child relationship, among other issues. (add info on wrap around services) The research generated thus far illustrates the effectiveness of the home visitation model and the increasing capacity to accomplish stated program goals and objectives as well as achieve positive outcomes for parents and children. Continuing to achieve positive outcomes will require a focus on continuous quality improvement, in areas such as staff training, supervision and content development. 18 REFERENCES Anisfeld, E., Sandy, J. & Gutterman, N. (2004). Best beginnings: A randomized controlled trial of a paraprofessional home visiting program. Retrieved April 2007 from http://www.healthyfamiliesamerica.org/downloads/eval_NY_bb_2004.pdf

Ammerman, R. T., Stevens, J., Putnam, F. W., Altaye, M., Hulsmann, J. E., & Lehmkuhl, H. D., et al. (2006). Predictors of early engagement in home visitation. Journal of Family Violence, 21(2), 105-115. Chaffin, M. (2004). Is it time to rethink Healthy Start/Health Families? Child Aube and Neglect, 28(10), 589-595. Cerny, J. E., Inouye, J. (2001). Utilizing the child abuse potential inventory in a community health nursing prevention program for child abuse. Journal of Community Health Nursing, 18(4), 199-211.

Daro, D. & Cohn-Donnelly, A. (2002). Charting the waves of prevention: Two steps forward, on step back. Child Abuse Prevention and Neglect, 26, 731-742. Daro, D. (2006). Home visitation: Assessing progress, managing expectations. Ounce of Prevention Fund and Chapin Hall Center for Children. Retrieved April 2007 from http://www.buildinitiative.org/pdf/HomeVisitingFinalPDF.pdf Drummond, J. E., Weir, A. E., Kysela, G. M. (2002). Home visitation practice: Models, documentation, and evaluation. Public Health Nursing, 19(1), 21-29. Duggan, A., McFarlane, E., Fuddy, L., Burrell, L. Higman, S. M., Windham, A., et al. (2004). Randomized trial of a statewide home visiting program: Impact in preventing child abuse and neglect. Child Abuse and Neglect, 28, 597-622. Duggan, A., McFarlane, E. C., Windham, C. A., Rohde, C., Salkever, D. S., Fuddy, L.

(1999). Evaluation of Hawaiis Health Start Program. The future of children, 9(1), 66-90. Duggan, A., Windham, A., McFarlane, E., Fuddy, L., Rohde, C., Buchbinder, S., et al. (2005). Hawaiis health start program of home visiting for at-risk families: Evaluation of family identification, family engagement, and service delivery. American Academy of Pediatrics. Geeraert, L., Van den Noorgate, W., Grietens, H., Onghena, P. (2004). The effects of early preventions programs for families with young children at risk for physical child abuse and neglect: A meta-analysis. Child Maltreatment, 9(3), 277-291. 19 Gomby, D. (2005). Home visitation in 2005: Outcomes for children and parents. Invest in Kids Working Paper No. 7. Committee for Economic Development: Invest in Kids Working Group. Retrieved April 2007 from http://www.ced.org/docs/report/report_ivk_gomby_2005.pdf Gomby, D. S., Culross, P. L., & Behrman, R. E. (1999). Home visiting: Recent program evaluations analysis and recommendations. The Future of Children: Recent Program Evaluations, 9(1), 4-26. Harvard Family Research Project. (2007). About home visit forum. Retrieved April 2007 from http://www.gse.harvard.edu/hfrp/projects/home-visit/index.html Healthy Families of America (HFA). (2007) About us. Retrieved April 2007 from http://www.healthyfamiliesamerica.org/home/index.shtml

Home Instruction for Parents of Preschool Youngsters, HIPPY USA. (2007). About HIPPY Retrieved April 2007 from http://www.hippyusa.org/ . Early Head Start (EHS). (2007). About us. Retrieved April 2007 from www.ehsnrc.org Johnson, K. (2001). No place like home: State home visiting policies and programs. Report prepared for The Commonwealth Fund. Retrieved April 2007 from http://www.cmwf.org/usr_doc/johnson_home_452.pdf Karoly, L. A., Greenwood, P. W., Everingham, S.S., Hoube, J., Kilburn, M. R., Rydell, C. P. (1998). Investing in our children: What we know and dont know about the costs and benefits of early childhood interventions. Santa Monica, CA: RAND. Karoly, L. A., Kilburn, M. R., Cannon, J. S. (2005). Early childhood interventions: Proven results, future promise. Santa Monica, CA: RAND. Layzer, J. I., Goodson, B. D., Bernstein, L. & Price, C. (2001). National evaluation of family support programs. Final report volume A: The meta-analysis. Abt Associates. MacMillian, H. L., Thomas, B., H., Jamieson, E., Walsh, C. A., Boyle, M. H., & Shannon, H. S. (2005). Effectiveness of home visitation by public-health nurses in prevention of the recurrence of child physical abuse and neglect: A randomized controlled trail. Lancet, 365, 1786-1793. NGA Center for Best Practices. (2002). Issue brief: The benefits and financing of home

visiting programs. Health Policy Studies Division: Cornell University. Nurse Family Partnership (NFP). (2007). About us. Retrieved April 2007 from http://www.nursefamilypartnership.org/ 20 Parent-Child Home Program (PCHP). (2007). Recent Research. Retrieved April 2007 from http://www.parent-child.org/ Parents as Teachers (PAT) (2007). About us. Retrieved April 2007 from http://www.parentsasteachers.org/ Stevens, J., Ammerman, R. T., Putnam, F. G., & Van Ginkel, J. B. (2002). Depression and trauma history in first-time mothers receiving home visitation. Journal of Community Psychology, 30(5), 551-564. Sweet, M. A. & Appelbaum, M. I. (2004). Is home visiting an effective strategy? A metaanalytic review of home visiting programs for families with young children. Child Development, 75(5), 1435-1456. Tandon, S., D., Parillo, K., M., Jenkins, C. & Duggan, A. K. (2005). Formative evaluation of home visitors role in addressing poor mental health, domestic violence, and substance abuse among low-income pregnant and parenting women. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 9(3), 273-283.

The Real Meaning of Homework It's not just about grades; here's the lowdown.

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Good study habits have lifelong benefits.

The obvious aim of assigning homework is to get your child to practice and strengthen academic skills. By devoting the proper time to homework, your child stands a much better chance of making good grades. But homework has other important values. Homework can and should be a characterbuilding experience. Handled properly by teachers and parents, homework helps a child develop emotional and behavioral skills needed in the adult world.

Homework's Hidden Values 1. Responsibility: Homework is the child's responsibility. If you get too involved, you set the process on its head. 2. Independence: Because it's the first time someone other than a parent assigns frequent tasks to the child, homework breaks new ground. How this golden opportunity is managed will either enhance or obstruct your child's progress toward self-direction. 3. Perseverance: There's no point to a child's doing homework if every time the child becomes frustrated, you step right in and make it all better. It's OK to let your child struggle a bit with a problem. 4. Time management: Children need to be told when to finish their homework, not when to start it. That way, instead of learning to waste time, the child learns to manage it. 5. Initiative: Like a muscle, the ability to be a self-starter strengthens with exercise. That's why it's essential that the child decide when it's time to begin each homework assignment. 6. Self-reliance: Homework can affirm a child's feeling of competency. Mismanaged, it deflates that feeling. Unfortunately, there is no in-between. 7. Resourcefulness: The ability to be inventive in the face of problems is the very stuff of being human. Homework provides a wonderful setting for your child to practice such cleverness.

If you don't believe those are important lessons, consider an exercise done at a recent seminar. An audience of several hundred teachers was asked a series of questions: "How many of you use algebra on a regular basis?" Three hands went up. "Physics?" Two hands. "How many refer to your world history regularly?" Twenty hands -- still only 10 percent. "Now, how many of you need to accept difficult responsibilities on a daily basis?" All hands up. "How many of you must persevere in the face of frustration every single day of your lives?" All the hands stayed in the air. "Manage your time properly?" Still no hands went down. The point, and the teachers in the audience that day proved it, was that the factual material we learn in school is not the most valuable lesson being learned. The truly worthwhile learning happens "behind the scenes." This, not grades, is the stuff of future success.

guidance and counseling, concept that institutions, especially schools, should promote the efficient and happy lives of individuals by helping them adjust to social realities. The disruption of community and family life by industrial civilization convinced many that guidance experts should be trained to handle problems of individual adjustment. Though the need for attention to the whole individual had been recognized by educators since the time of Socrates, it was only during the 20th cent. that researchers actually began to study and accumulate information about guidance.
This development, occurring largely in the United States, was the result of two influences: John Dewey and others insisted that the object of education should be to stimulate the fullest possible growth of the individual and that the unique qualities of personality require individual handling for adequate development; also in the early 20th cent., social and economic conditions stimulated a great increase in school enrollment. These two forces encouraged a reexamination of the curricula and methods of secondary schools, with special reference to the needs of students who did not plan to enter college. The academic curriculum was revised to embrace these alternative cultural and vocational requirements (see vocational education). Early guidance programs dealt with the immediate problem of vocational placement. The complexities of the industrial economy and the unrealistic ambitions of many young people made it essential that machinery for bringing together jobs and workers be set up; vocational guidance became that machinery. At the same time, counseling organizations were established to help people understand their potentialities and liabilities and make intelligent personal and vocational decisions. The first vocational counseling service was the Boston Vocational Bureau, established (1908) by Frank Parsons, a pioneer in the field of guidance. His model was soon copied by many schools, municipalities, states, and private organizations. With the development of aptitude and interest tests, such as the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test and the Strong Vocational Interest Blank, commercial organizations were formed to analyze people's abilities and furnish career advice. Schools organized testing and placement services, many of them in cooperation with federal and state agencies. Under the provisions of the National Defense Education Act (1958), the federal government provided assistance for guidance and counseling programs in the public secondary schools and established a testing procedure to identify students with outstanding abilities. The U.S. Dept. of Labor has been an active force in establishing standards and methods of vocational guidance, helping states to form their own vocational guidance and counseling services. The personnel departments of many large corporations have also instituted systems of guidance to promote better utilization of their employees. Modern high school guidance programs also include academic counseling for those students planning to attend college. In recent years, school guidance counselors have also been recognized as the primary source for psychological counseling for high school students; this sometimes includes counseling in such areas as drug abuse and teenage pregnancy and referrals to other professionals (e.g., psychologists, social workers, and learning-disability

specialists). Virtually all teachers colleges offer major courses in guidance, and graduate schools of education grant advanced degrees in the field.

Bibliography
See E. Landy et al., Guidance in American Education (3 vol., 1966); B. E. Schertzer and S. C. Stone, Foundations of Counseling (1980); W. G. Herron, Contemporary School Psychology (1984).

The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia Copyright 2007, Columbia University Press. Licensed from Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.www.cc.columbia.edu/cu/cup/

What is the meaning of guidance and counseling? Psychology Questions Answers.com > Wiki Answers > Categories > Science > Social Sciences > Psychology Best Answer Guidance is gotten from the word 'guide', which means to direct, help, steer, etc. Guidance can be explained as the process through which a guide or a trained personnel gives directions, information, help, etc to a person about how to do something or go about something in order to understand him/herself and the things that go around him/her better. These things include knowing how he/she is; his/her strengths and weaknesses; his/her capabilities; his emotions; etc. On the other hand, counselling can be explained as the process whereby a counsellor and a counsellee (client) meet privately in order to have a face-toface or one-on-one interaction in a more confidential way. In this interaction, the counsellor, who has more experience and trained, listens to the problem of the counsellee (client), who has a problem, and he/she gives advice about the problem so that the counsellee (client) will make a decision or a choice. This decision or choice that the counsellee(client) will make after the interaction will be the best or wise one ever for him/her. Guidance and counselling is having some advantages as; it helps pupils to understand his or her own world, that is, pupils are able to fit to his/her environment; lastly, it helps pupils to make informed decisions in the future and also to identify their abilities and develop them. There are some differences between guidance and counselling, and these include: guidance is less private, less confidential and more open but more

public whilst counselling is more personal and more confidential. Also, guidance is most of the times initiated by the counsellor whilst counselling is most of the times initiated by the counsellor (client). Lastly, guidance activities are more planned whilst counselling activities are less planned and opened. In conclusion, guidance is a bigger or a broader term whilst counselling is a smaller or a sub of guidance so, this makes counselling to be one of the services of guidance.

I. I tr ducti t Guid c d C u i g by Auma Okuma II. Pr r qui it C ur r K w dg Module wo and Module Tree Welcome to Module 4 As a prerequisite to study this module you need to have some backgroundknowledge to human growth and development and the dierent stages that achild goes through whilst growing up. Tese stages are inancy, early childhood,adolescence and early adulthood. Te knowledge about these areas make it pos-sible or you to see the relevancy and application o Guidance and Counselingto help children overcome lie challenges and associated problems that ace themboth inside and outside the school environment. You also need some backgroundknowledge about the Social, Moral, and Personality development and the generalsocialization processes that inuence young people as they interact with theirenvironment. Tis interaction between the child and the environment can impactpositively or negatively. You may also need to be conversant with the processes that go in education,issues connected with quality education, the education o the girl-child, actorsthat make children drop-out o schools, and those connected with high or low perormance, emotional issues or development or career aspirations and visions o children. Tis means that you as their teacher and counselor have a lot to contri-bute to the wellness o these learners and their uture successes. Te knowledgeand skills o guidance and counseling are useul in helping them. You may at this opportune moment be thinking how inadequate you are as aras guidance and counseling is concerned. You may imagine that you neither havethe knowledge nor the skills to do so; you need not worry because this modulehas been written to help you out. It is going to equip you with all the knowledgeand skills to become a good and eective guidance and counseling teacher inthe school. As you go through this module, it is very clear that you are becoming an agento change. Guidance and Counseling is all about change. In school, there areyoung people o dierent ages, sex, interests and lie orientations. Tey all need

African Virtual University some kind o proper guidance so that they can change without any pressure exertedon them. Since they are young, lack real lie experience about lie in general, areunaware o themselves, hey do not in any way know how to bring about changesnor understand their implications on their lives. Among them are those whomay resist change because they are already tuned to particular approach to lie,or are accustomed to what lie means to them, and thereore would not like tochange at all. Tis is the core o what you are about to begin doing, when youhave completed the course. You are going to work with them and endeavor tocause desirable adjustments in them. Tese changes that are anticipated will bea reection that you will have imbued them with skills o coping and/or whatthey can do on their own, to make changes in their lives. We live in a world ull o rapid changes. Tese changes are coming about becauseo the technological developments taking place every now and then. raditionalcultures, belies, values and social relations in the traditional societies are beingeroded very quickly by oreign cultures, through television, internet, magazines,music and other toxic inuences. All these rapid changes are living young peopleconused, uncertain, and alienated. Tis state o aairs can be very devastatingemotionally.Tese rapid changes leave us all conused to extent that we do not know what todo, or the next step to take. Tis is when your knowledge and skills in counselingbecome very handy to all o us. How all o us, including your students will change will depend on your ability to conduct guidance and counseling, notwithstan-ding our dierences in terms o interest, personality, cultural background andlie circumstances.So you as a teacher-counselor, you have embarked on another journeya journey to help people, especially the learners to deal with changes that come suddenly and unexpectedly into their lives. Your positive and prompt contributions willin the end make them live independent, happy and eective lie. Beore you cando that, you need to acquire the knowledge, skills and mental set o a committedguidance and counselor in the school where you will be working.Te Module Four: An Introduction to Guidance and Counseling has been writtento make you become a good and eective and a prolic Guidance and Counselorin the school as well in the community