Co So Tap Hop

CH 1 C s l thuyt tp hp I.
Mc tiu
Kin thc : Ngi hc Hiu cc khi nim v tp hp, quan h, nh x v bit xy dng cc v d minh ho cho mi khi nim . Nm c nh ngha ca cc php ton trn tp hp v nh x. Pht biu v chng minh cc tnh cht ca chng K nng : Hnh thnh v rn cho ngi hc cc k nng Thit lp cc php ton trn tp hp v nh x Vn dng cc kin thc v tp hp v nh x trong ton hc Cc quan h tng ng v th t Thi : Ch ng tm ti, pht hin v khm ph cc ng dng ca l tp hp ton dy v hc ton
II. Gii thiu ch :

STT 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Tn tiu ch Tp hp Cc php ton trn tp hp Quan h Quan h tng ng Quan h th t nh x n nh, ton nh, song nh v nh x ngc nh v to nh qua mt nh x Trang
III. iu kin cn thit thc hin mun

Kin thc:
Nm c kin thc ton hc trong chng trnh ton PTTH dng dy hc: Mt s thit b s dng trong khi t chc cc hot ng dy hc: my chiu projector, my chiu a nng, bng phoc mi ca... Ti liu tham kho: Cc ti liu trong th mc ca gio trnh
IV. Ni dung (Xem cc tiu ch 1.1 1.8)
Formatted: Heading02
Ti liu tham kho

[1] Phan Hu Chn Nguyn Tin Ti: S hc v lgc ton NXB Gio dc 1996. [2]Trn Din Hin : Cc bi ton v suy lun lgc NXB Gio dc 2001. [3] Trn Din Hin : Lgc gii tr NXB Khoa hc v k thut 1993. [4] nh Hoan v tp th tc gi : Ton 1 NXB gio dc 2004. [5] nh Hoan v tp th tc gi : Ton 2 NXB Gio dc 2004. [6] nh Hoan v tp th tc gi : Ton 3 NXB Gio dc 2004 [7] nh Hoan v tp th tc gi : Ton 4 NXB Gio dc 2005. [8] nh Hoan v tp th tc gi : Ton 5 NXB Gio dc 2004. [9] Xavier Roegiers : Guide Mathmatique de base Pari 1993.
TIU CH 1.1. TP HP Thng tin c bn 1. Khi nim tp hp Tp con cc tp hp bng nhau

1.1. Khi nim tp hp
Tp hp l mt trong cc khi nim c bn ca Ton hc. Khi nim tp hp khng c nh ngha m ch c m t qua cc v d: Tp hp cc hc sinh ca mt lp hc, tp hp cc cu th ca mt i bng, tp hp cc cun sch trn mt gi sch, tp hp cc s t nhin,... Mn ton hc nghin cu cc tnh cht chung ca tp hp, khng ph thuc vo tnh cht ca cc i tng cu thnh nn tp hp c xem l c s ca Ton hc hin i, v c gi l l thuyt tp hp. Khc vi nhiu ngnh Ton hc khc m s pht trin l kt qu c c t nhng c gng khng mt mi ca nhiu ti nng ton hc, cuc u tranh vi v cc v tip theo , s sng to nn l thuyt tp hp l cng trnh ca ch mt ngi: Giocgi Cngt (Georg Cantor 1845 1918), nh ton hc c gc Do Thi. Cc i tng cu thnh mt tp hp c gi l cc phn t ca tp hp . Ngi ta thng k hiu cc tp hp bi cc ch A, B, C, X, Y, Z,... v cc phn t ca tp hp bi cc ch a, b, c, x, y, z, ... Nu a l mt phn t ca tp hp A th ta vit a A (c l a thuc tp hp A). Nu a khng phi l mt phn t ca tp hp A th ta vit a A (c l a khng thuc tp hp A). C hai cch xc nh mt tp hp: Cch th nht l lit k tt c cc phn t ca tp hp. Tp hp A gm bn s t nhin 1, 3, 5, 7 c vit l: A = {1, 3, 5, 7}. Tp hp B gm ba phn t l cc ch a, b, c c vit l: B = {a, b, c}. Cch th hai l nu ln mt tnh cht chung ca cc phn t ca tp hp, nh c th nhn bit c cc phn t ca tp hp v cc i tng khng phi l nhng phn t ca n. Chng hn, V d 1.1 : Cho tp hp C cc c s ca 8. Khi , cc s 1, 2, 4, 8 l nhng phn t ca C, cn cc s 3, 5, 6, 13 khng phi l nhng phn t ca C. Ngi ta thng vit: C = {x : x l c s ca 8},
c l C l tp hp cc phn t x sao cho x l c s ca 8 : x biu th mi phn t ca tp hp C. V d 1.2 : Nu D l tp hp cc nc thuc chu th Vit Nam, Trung Quc, Lo l nhng phn t ca tp hp D, cn Php, Angiri, Canaa khng phi l nhng phn t ca D. Ta vit: D = {x : x l nc thuc chu } Ngi ta thng biu th tp hp A bi mt ng cong kn gi l lc ven (Venn).
Hnh 1
Nu chng hn tp hp Ac 4 phn t a, b, c, d th trn lc mi phn t c biu din bi mt im nm trong ng cong kn. Cc im e v f biu din nhng i tng khng phi l phn t ca tp hp A. Cc tp hp trong cc v d nu ch c mt s hu hn phn t. Ta gi chng l nhng tp hp hu hn. Tp hp c v s phn t c gi l tp hp v hn. Chng hn, tp hp cc hnh ch nht c cc kch thc tu l mt tp hp v hn, v ta khng th lit k tt c cc phn t ca n. Tng t, tp hp A cc s t nhin bi ca 3 cng l mt tp hp v hn. Tp hp A c biu din bi lc Ven trong Hnh 2. V khng th biu din tt c cc phn t ca A, ta ch a vo hnh mt s im c tn v mt s im khc khng c tn. Ngoi ra cn ghi ch thm rng s biu din tp hp l khng y . Ngi ta cng vit: A = {0, 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, ...}
Hnh 2
Hin nhin mi phn t tip sau c xc nh mt cch d dng. Tp hp khng c phn t no c gi l tp hp rng, k hiu l . Chng hn, tp hp cc nghim thc ca phng trnh x2 + 2 = 0 l tp hp rng. Ta vit: {x R : x2 + 2 = 0} = . (R l tp hp cc s thc). Tp hp cc s (t nhin) chn l c s ca 15 l tp hp rng: {x N: x l c s chn ca 15} = . Tp hp ch c mt phn t gi l tp mt phn t. Chng hn, tp hp cc th ca mt nc l tp mt phn t. Tp hp ch c mt phn t a c k hiu l {a}. Nh vy tp hp E cc nghim thc ca phng trnh 3x 21 = 0 l tp mt phn t: E = {7}. Tp hp T cc t s ca di mi ng trn v ng knh ca n l tp mt phn t: T = {}.
1.2. Tp con ca mt tp hp Cc tp hp bng nhau

a) Tp hp A c gi l mt tp con ca tp hp X nu mi phn t ca A u l nhng phn t ca X.
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Hnh 3
V d 1.3 : Tp hp A = {a, b, c, d} l tp hp con ca tp hp X = {a, b, c, d, e, f}. Khi ta vit: (1) hoc (2) X A (c l X cha A). K hiu c gi l du bao hm. H thc (1) hoc (2) gi l mt bao hm thc. V d 1.4 : Tp hp C cc hnh ch nht l mt tp con ca tp hp B cc hnh bnh hnh v mi hnh ch nht l mt hnh bnh hnh: C B (C cha trong B). A X (c l A cha trong X),
Hnh 4
V d 1.5 ; Tp hp N cc s t nhin l mt tp con ca tp hp Z cc s nguyn: N Z. Tp hp Q cc s hu t l mt tp con ca tp hp R cc s thc (v mi s hu t l mt s thc): Q R. Hin nhin tp hp X l mt tp hp con ca X. Nu A l mt tp con ca X v A X th A gi l mt tp con thc s ca X. Trong v d 3, A l mt tp con thc s ca X. Trong V d 4, C l mt tp thc s ca B. Tp hp A khng phi l mt tp hp con ca tp hp X nu c t nht mt phn t ca A khng thuc X.
Khi , ta vit: A X (hoc X A) v biu th quan h ny bng lc trong Hnh 5.
Hnh 5
V d 1.6 : Nu A = {a, b, c, d, e} v X = {a, b, c, f, g} th A X.
Hnh 6
V d 1.7 : Tp hp C cc hnh ch nht khng phi l mt tp con ca tp hp T cc hnh thoi: C T. Tht vy, hnh ch nht c chiu di khc chiu rng khng phi l mt hnh thoi. b) Hai tp hp A v B c gi l bng nhau nu mi phn t ca A l mt phn t ca B v mi phn t ca B l mt phn t ca A. Khi ta vit A = B. V d 1.8 : Tp hp cc nghim thc ca phng trnh x - 1 = 0 bng tp hp gm hai s -1 v 1:
2
{x R : x 1 = 0} = {1, 1}.
2
V d 1.9 : Nu A l tp hp cc s nguyn chia ht cho 2 v 3 v B l tp hp cc s nguyn chia ht cho 6 th A = B. Tht vy, mt s nguyn chia ht ng thi cho 2 v 3 khi v ch khi n chia ht cho 6. Nh vy mt s nguyn l mt phn t ca A khi v ch khi n l mt phn t ca B. Do A v B c cng cc phn t. T nh ngha tp con v cc tp hp bng nhau d dng suy ra: c) Vi cc tp hp bt k A, B, C, ta c: (i) (ii) (iv) (v) A, A A, Nu A B v B A th A = B, Nu A B th A B hoc B A.
(iii) Nu A B v B C th A C,
(ii) gi l tnh phn x, (iii) gi l tnh bc cu, (iv) gi l tnh phn ?i xng). Chng minh. Ta s chng minh (iv) v (v). (iv) Gi s A B v B A. Khi mi phn t ca A l mt phn t ca B v mi phn t ca B l mt phn t ca A. Theo nh ngha ca hai tp hp bng nhau, t suy ra A = B. (v) Ta chng minh (v) suy ra t (iv) bng phn chng. Tht vy, nu A B v B A th A = B. iu ny tri vi gi thit.
1.3. Tp hp nhng tp hp
Ta xem mt i bng ca mt cu lc b bng Anh, k hiu bi A, l mt tp hp cu th. Cc phn t ca tp hp ny l nhng cu th: A = {a , a , ..., am}.
1 2
Ta cng c th xt tp hp E cc i bng ca cc cu lc b bng Anh. Cc phn t ca tp hp ny l nhng i bng: Acxnan (Arsenal), Manchtxt Iunaiti (ManchesterUnited), Trenxi (Chelsea), ..., Niu Ctxn (New Castle), Livpunl (Liverpool). E = {A, M, T, ...., N, L}
Hnh 7
Tp hp E va nu l mt tp hp nhng tp hp v cc phn ca ca E l nhng tp hp. Ta c: a A : a l mt cu th ca i bng A,

1 1
A E : i bng A thuc tp hp cc i bng ca cc cu lc b bng Anh. Khng th vit a1 E v mi phn t ca E l mt i bng ch khng phi l mt cu th. Ta xt mt v d khc: Trng trung hc ph thng Nguyn Tri c 5 lp 10: 10A, 10B, 10C, 10D v 10E. Ta xem lp 10A, k hiu bi A, l mt tp hp hc sinh. Cc phn t ca tp hp ny l nhng hc sinh. Ta vit: A = {a , a , ..., am}.
1 2
Ta cng c th ni n tp hp E cc lp khi 10 ca trng. Cc phn t ca tp hp ny l cc lp khi 10 ca trng. E = {A, B, C, D, E}. Tp hp cc lp khi 10 ca trng l mt tp hp nhng tp hp.
1.4. S tp con ca mt tp hp hu hn
Mt cu hi t nhin c t ra l: Nu A l mt tp hp c n phn t t A c c thy bao nhiu tp con? Ta ch xt trng hp: n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4. a) Vi n = 0, ta c A = . Hin nhin ch c mt tp con; l chnh n, tp hp . Vy tp hp khng c phn t no c mt tp con. b) n = 1.
Gi s A l tp hp mt phn t: A = {a} (a l phn t duy nht ca A). Khi , cc tp hp v {a} l tt c cc tp con ca A. Vy A c c thy 2 tp con. Nu k hiu P(A) l tp hp tt c cc tp con ca tp hp A th ta c: P() = {} v P ({a}) = {, {a}}. c) n = 2. Gi s tp hp A c 2 phn t a v b: A = {a, b}. Khi A c cc tp con sau: , {a{, {b} v {a, b}. l tt c cc tp con ca A: P ({a, b}) = {, {a}, {b}, {a, b}}. Vy A c c thy 4 tp con. d) n = 3. d hnh dung, ta xt bi ton sau: Gi s c ba ngi a, b v c ca mt tp hp A c mi d khai mc mt cuc trin lm (ba ngi c mi c lp vi nhau). Hi c th c bao nhiu s kt hp khc nhau v s c mt ca mi ngi trong ngy khai mc trin lm? Ta hy xt mi kh nng (a n hoc khng, b n hoc khng, c n hoc khng) v biu din chng trn mt cy ch i, tc l mt cy m mi s phn cnh u c c t cp n, khng.
Hnh 8
Trn Hnh 8, ta thy c c thy 8 kh nng, mi kh nng tng ng vi mt tp con ca A = {a, b, c}, k c tp con l . Tp hp tt c cc tp con ca A l: P ({a, b, c}) = {{a, b, c}; {a, b}; {a, c}; {b, c}; {a}; {b}; {c}; }. Vy tp hp A = {a, b, c} c c thy 8 tp con. e) n = 4. Gi s tp hp B c bn phn t a, b, c, d : B = {a, b, c, d{. C th ngh n mt ngi th t, d, cng c mi n d khai mc trin lm. Khi , t mi trng hp trong 8 trng hp va nu trong d), s c hai kh nng, tu thuc vo vic d n hay khng n d khai mc. Do tp hp tt c cc tp con ca tp hp B l: P (B) = P ({a, b, c, d}) = {{a, b, c}; {a, b}; {a, c}; {b; c}; {a}; {b}; {c}; ; {a, b, c, d}; {a, b, d}; {a, c, d}; {b, c, d}; {a, d}; {b, d}; {c, d}; {d}}. Vy tp hp B = {a, b, c, d} c c thy 16 tp con. l 8 tp con ca tp hp A = {a, b, c} v 8 tp hp mi, nhn c bng cch thm d vo mi tp hp con ca A. Nh vy, Tp hp c c thy 1 = 2 tp con.
0
Tp hp c 1 phn t c c thy 2 = 2 tp con.

1

2

3
Tp hp c 4 phn t c c thy 16 = 2 tp hp con, ...

4
Bng phng php quy np, c th chng minh c rng tp hp c n phn t c c thy 2 tp hp con.
n
Hot ng 1.1. tm hiu cc khi nim c bn ca tp hp

Sinh viin t c thng tin ngun thc hin cc nhim v di y:
Nhim v
Nhim v 1: Tm hiu v:
Khi nim tp hp, cc phn t ca mt tp hp. Hai cch xc nh mt tp hp: Lit k cc phn t ca tp hp. Nu ln c mt tnh cht c trng ca cc phn t ca tp hp. Tp hp (cho cc v d v tp hp ). Cch biu din mt tp hp (hu hn v v hn) bng lc Ven. Nhim v 2 Tho lun c th gii thch c cc ni dung sau: nh ngha tp con ca mt tp hp v cc tp hp bng nhau. (Phn bit c cc phn t v cc tp con ca mt tp hp cho trc). Cch biu din tp con ca mt tp hp bng lc Ven. Mt vi tnh cht ca quan h bao hm. (Nu v chng minh c cc tnh cht ). Nhim v 3: Hiu c th no l tp hp ca mt s tp hp. (Hy cho mt vi v d v tp hp nhng tp hp). Lit k c tt c cc tp con ca mt tp hp c n phn t vi n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. Bit cch tnh s cc tp hp con ca mt tp hp hu hn.
nh gi hot ng 1.1
1. Hy lit k cc phn t ca cc tp hp sau: a) A l tp hp cc bi t nhin ca 3 ln hn 20 v nh hn 40; b) B l tp hp cc s nguyn t ln hn 30 v nh hn 50; c) C l tp hp cc c t nhin ca 36. 2. Hy lit k cc phn t ca cc tp hp sau: a) A = {x N : 2x 15x + 13 < 0};
2
b) B = {x R: 2x + 5x + 3x = 0};
3 2
c) C = {x Z : 6x + x 1 = 0}.
2
3. Cho cc tp hp A = {3, 7, 11, 15, 19, 23, 27};
B = {17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47}; C = {1,
1 1 1 1 1 1 , , , , , 46 23 61 8 4 2
2 2 2 2
Hy nu mt tnh cht c trng ca cc phn t ca mi tp hp cho (tc l tnh cht, nh nhn bit c mt i tng l phn t hay khng phi l phn t ca tp hp cho). 4. Cho cc tp hp A = {x N : x4 4 < 0}; B = {x N : 2x x < 10}; C = {x R : x + 20 < 11}; D = {x R : (x + 1) (2x 1) > 0}. Chng minh rng: A B v C D. 5. Cho A l tp hp cc c t nhin ca 30 v B = {x N : 4x 4x > 3}. ng ghi , sai ghi S vo trng:
AB;
B A;
A B;
BA
6. Gi C l tp hp cc tam gic cn, D l tp hp cc tam gic u v V l tp hp cc tam gic vung. ng ghi , sai ghi S vo trng.

V C; D C;
C V; C D;
V C; D V;
CV VD
7. Gi A l tp hp cc ch s 135x sao cho s t nhin chia ht cho 4 v B l tp hp cc ch s 137y sao cho s t nhin chia ht cho 2. Chng minh rng: A = B 8. Cho tp hp A = {a, b, c}. ng ghi , sai ghi S vo trng:

aA {a, b} A
{a} A
{a} A
{a, b} A
b {b, c}
1 2 3
{b} {b, c} {b} {b, c}
9. Cho tp hp A = {a , a , a }. Gi P (A) l tp hp tt c cc tp hp con ca tp hp A. a) Hy lit k tt c cc phn t ca P(A). b) P(A) c bao nhiu phn t ? 10. Cho tp hp B = {a , a , a , a }. Gi P(B) l tp hp tt c cc tp hp con ca tp hp Aa) Hy lit k tt c cc phn t ca P(B).
1 2 3 4
b) P(B) c bao nhiu phn t? 11. Cho cc tp hp A = {a, b, c}, B = {a, b, c, d}. Trong hai cch vit sau y, ci no ng, ci no sai? a) P(A) P(B) ; b) P(A) P(B). 12. Bng phng php quy np, hy chng minh rng nu tp hp A c n phn t th n c c thy 2 tp con.
n
TIU CH 1.2. CC PHP TON TRN CC TP HP Thng tin c bn 2.1. Giao ca cc tp hp

a) Giao ca hai tp hp A v B l tp hp to nn bi cc phn t chung ca hai tp hp , k hiu l: A B (c l A giao B) T nh ngha ca A B suy ra rng x A B khi v ch khi x A v x B. Ta vit: x A B x A v x B. V d 2.1 : Nu A l tp hp cc bi t nhin ca 4 v B l tp hp cc bi t nhin ca 6: A = {0, 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, ...}; B = {0, 6, 12, 18, 24, 30...} th A B l tp hp cc bi t nhin ca 12: A B = {0, 12, 24, 36...}
Hnh 9
V d 2.2 : Cho tp hp A = {x R : 2x 1 < 0}. Tm A N (N l tp hp cc s t nhin). Ta c: A = {x R : x < } Do : A N = {0}.
Hnh 10
Hai tp hp A v B gi l khng giao nhau hoc ri nhau nu A B = . V d 2.3 : Nu D l tp hp cc tam gic u v V l tp hp cc tam gic vung th D v V l hai tp hp ri nhau. Tht vy, mt tam gic khng th va u va vung. Do : D V = Phn c cc ng gch cho trong Hnh 11 biu th tp hp .
Hnh 11
T nh ngha giao ca hai tp hp suy ra rng: x A B x A hoc x B. b) i vi hai tp hp A v B bt k, ta c lc Ven di y. Lc ch ra bn min c nh s I, II, III, IV. Cc min ny c lm r bi mt cy ch i.
Hnh 12
Ngi ta cng biu din bn min nay trong mt bng ca hai tp hp A, B. Bng ny c gi l lc Carl (Caroll).
Hnh 13
V d 2.4 : Gi A l tp hp cc c t nhin ca 6 v B l tp hp cc c t nhin ca 8. Cc min I, II, III, IV c cho trong lc Ven l lc Carl trong Hnh 13. Mt s tnh cht ca php ly giao cc tp hp T nh ngha giao ca hai tp hp, d dng chng minh c cc ng thc sau: c) Vi cc tp hp bt k A, B, C, ta c: (i) (ii) A B = B A, (A B) C = A (B C),
(iii) A = , (iv) AA=A ng thc (ii) cho php, khi ly giao ca mt s hu hn tp hp, b cc du ngoc hoc ch th t php ly giao. Quan h gia bao hm thc v giao ca cc tp hp c cho trong nh l sau: d) Vi cc tp hp bt k A, B, C, D, ta c: (i) (ii) (iv) A B A, A B B, Nu A B v A C th A B C, A B A B = A.
(iii) Nu A B v C D th A C B D,
Chng minh: (ii) gi s A B, A C v x l mt phn t bt k ca A. Khi , x B v x C; do x B C. (iv) () Gi s A B. Khi , nu x A th x B, do x A B . T ta c A A B. Mt khc, theo (i), A B A. T hai bao hm thc trn suy ra A B = A. () gi s A B = A. Khi , nu x A th x A B ; do x B. Vy A B . e) Cc mnh lgic intx (Dins) l mt b gm 48 mnh g, i mt c phn bit bi t nht l mt thuc tnh (tiu chun) v nhiu nht l bn thuc tnh. Mi mnh g c xc nh bi bn thuc tnh:
C 24 mnh cng dy. Mi mnh c xc nh bi bn ch tng trng cho bn thuc tnh, nh phn bit c n vi cc mnh khc. Bn thuc tnh c nhc n theo th t sau: Hnh dng ln Mu sc dy.
Hnh 14
Hnh 14
Chng hn, VLD hay CBXM Hnh ch nht b xanh mng.

0
Hnh vung ln dy
Tp hp tt c cc mnh lgic intx c k hiu l L
Cc tp con nhng mnh lgic c k hiu bi mt, hai hoc ba ch. Chng hn, V l tp hp cc mnh hnh vung v XM l tp hp cc mnh xanh mng. Lc Ven ca hai tp hp ny c cho trong Hnh 15. D thy. V XM = {x : x l mt mnh vung xanh mng} = {VBXM, VLXM}
Hnh 15
2.2. Hp ca cc tp hp
a) Hp ca hai tp hp A v B l tp hp to nn bi cc phn t thuc t nht mt trong hai tp hp , k hiu l A B (c l A hp B). T nh ngha ca A B suy ra rng: x A B x A hoc x B. V d 2.5 : Nu A = {a, b, c, d, e}; B = {b, e, f, g} th A B = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g} V d 2.6 : Hp ca tp hp cc s hu t v tp hp cc s v t l tp hp cc s thc. Hp ca tp hp Z cc s nguyn v tp hp Q cc s hu t l tp hp Q: Z Q = Q. T nh ngha hp ca hai tp hp suy ra rng: x A B x A v x B. V d 2.7 : Xt tp hp T cc mnh tam gic v tp hp X cc mnh c mu xanh trong b cc mnh Lgic intx. Khi T X l tp hp cc phn t thuc T hoc thuc X. l tp hp cc mnh hnh tam gic hoc c mu xanh.
Hnh 16
TUX l tp hp cc mnh tam gic hoc xanh. Mt s tnh cht ca php ly hp cc tp hp T nh ngha ca hp cc tp hp d dng suy ra: b) Vi cc tp hp bt k A, B, C, (i) (ii) (iv) A B = B A, (A B) C = A (B C), A A = A.
(iii) A = A, ng th (ii) cho php, khi ly hp ca mt s hu hn tp hp, b cc du ngoc ch th t cc php ly hp. Quan h gia bao hm thc v php ly hp c cho trong nh l sau: c) Vi cc tp hp bt k A, B, C, D, (i) (ii) (iv) A A B, B A B, Nu A C v B C th A B C, A B A B = B.
(iii) Nu A C v B D th A B C D,
Chng minh (ii) gi s A C v B C. Khi , nu x A B th x A hoc x B. Do x C. Vy A B C.
(iv) () Gi s A B. Khi , nu x A B th x B hoc x A B, do x B. Vy A B B. Mt khc, theo (i), ta c B A B. T hai bao hm thc va nu suy ra A B = B. () Gi s A B = B. Khi , theo (i), ta c: A A B = B. nh l sau nu ln quan h gia hai php ly hp v giao ca cc tp hp. d) Vi cc tp hp bt k A, B, C, (i) (ii) (iv) A (A B) = A, (A B) B = B, A (B C) = (A B) (A C).
(iii) A (B C) = (A B) (A C), Chng minh (i) V A A B nn A (A B) = A (theo (iv) trong 1.d)). (ii) V A B B nn (A B) B = B (theo (iv) trong c) (iii) Gi s x A (B C). Khi x A v x B C. Do x A v x B hoc x C. Nu x A v x B th x A B. Do x (A B) (A C). Tng t, nu x A v x C th x A C. DO x (A B) (A C). Vy: A (B C) (A B) (A C) (1) o li, nu x (A B) (A C) th x A B hoc x A C. Nu x A B th x A v x B B C; do x A (B C). Nu x A C th, chng minh tng t, ta cng c x A (B C). Vy: (A B) (A C) A (B C) (iv) c chng minh tng t Cng thc (iii) cho thy php hp c tnh phn phi i vi php giao; cng thc (iv) cho thy php giao c tnh phn phi i vi php hp. (2) T hai bao hm thc (1) v (2) suy ra ng thc trong (iii) cn chng minh:
2.3. Hiu ca hai tp hp

a) Hiu ca hai tp hp A v B l tp hp cc phn t thuc A nhng khng thuc B, k hiu l A \ B (c l A tr B). T nh ngha ca A \ B suy ra: x A \ B x A v x B.
V d 2.8 : Cho hai tp hp: A = {a, b, c, d, e, f}, B = (c, e, g, h, k}. Khi : A \ B = {a, b, d, f} V d 2.9 : Gi C l tp hp cc hnh ch nht, T l tp hp cc hnh thoi. Khi , C \ T l tp hp cc hnh ch nht m khng phi l hnh thoi (Hnh 18).
Hnh 17
Hnh 18
cng chnh l tp hp cc hnh ch nht m khng phi l hnh vung. V d 2.10 : Hiu ca tp hp cc s thc v tp hp cc s hu t l tp hp cc s v t. Hiu ca tp hp N cc s t nhin v tp hp Z l tp hp rng: N \ Z = . T nh ngha hiu hai tp hp suy ra rng: x A \ B x A hoc x B. Mt s tnh cht ca php tr Quan h gia bao hm thc v php ly hiu hai tp hp c cho trong nh l sau: b) Vi cc tp hp bt k A, B, C, D, ta c: (i) (ii) (iv) A \ B A, Nu A B v C D th A \ D B \ C, A B A \ B = .
(iii) Nu C D th A \ D A \ C,
Chng minh: (ii) Nu x A \ D th x A v x D. V A B v x A nn x B. V C D v x D nn x C. Nh vy, ta c x B v x C; do x B \ C. Vy A \ D B \ C. (iii) V A A nn trong (ii), thay B bi A, ta c (iii). (iv) suy ra t nh ngha hiu ca hai tp hp. Quan h gia php tr vi hai php hp v giao cc tp hp c nu trong nh l sau: c) Vi cc tp hp bt k A, B, C, ta c: (i) (ii) A \ (B C) = (A \ B) (A \ C), A \ (B C) = (A \ B) (A \ C).
((i) v (ii) c gi l cac cng thc Moocgng (Morgan)). Chng minh: (i) x A \ (B C) x A v x B C. x B C x B v x C. Do : x A \ (B C) x A v x B v x C x A \ B v x A \ C. x (A \ B) (A \ C). T ta c ng thc (i). (ii) c chng minh tng t.
2.4. Khng gian. Phn b ca mt tp hp

a) Trong cc ng dng ca l thuyt tp hp, cc tp hp c xt thng l cc tp con ca mt tp hp X cho trc. Tp hp X c gi l khng gian. Chng hn, trong s hc, ngi ta ch xt cc tp con ca tp hp N cc s t nhin. Khi , ta c khng gian N. Trong gii tch, tp hp R cc s thc c xem l khng gian v trong hnh hc, tp hp cc im ca khng gian clit c xem l khng gian. Khi nghin cu cc tp con ca mt khng gian X, ngi ta thng ng nht mt tp hp con A ca X vi mt tnh cht c trng T ca cc phn t ca A: Ch cc phn t ca A c tnh cht T, cc phn t khc ca X khng c tnh cht . Khi , thay cho x A, ta ni x c tnh cht T. Chng hn, tp hp P cc s nguyn t l mt tp hp con ca khng gian N cc s t nhin. Thay cho x P, ta ni rng x l mt s nguyn t. Tng
t, tp hp N cc nghim thc ca phng trnh (x 2) (x + x 6) = 0 l mt tp hp con ca khng gian R cc s thc. Thay cho x N, l ni rng x l mt nghim thc ca phng trnh va xt.
2 2
b) Gi s X l mt khng gian v A l mt tp con ca X. Tp hp X \ A c gi l phn b ca A v c k hiu l CA.
Hnh 19
Ch rng phn b ca mt tp hp ph thuc vo khng gian cha n. Chng hn, tp hp A = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4} c phn b trong khng gian N cc s t nhin l tp hp cc s t nhin ln hn 4, nhng trong khng gian Z cc s nguyn, phn b ca A l tp hp gm cc s nguyn m v cc s nguyn ln hn 4. T nh ngha phn b ca mt tp hp suy ra rng: Nu X l mt khng gian v A X th vi mi x X, x CA x A. Mt s tnh cht ca phn b ca tp hp T nh ngha ca phn b mt tp hp, d dng chng minh c rng: c) Vi cc tp con bt k A, B ca khng gian X, ta c: (i) (ii) (iv) (v) X A = A, X A = X, C = X, CCA = A,
(iii) CX = ,
(vi)
A B CB CA.
Chng minh (v) Nu x C(CA) th x CA; do x A. Vy CCA A. o li, nu x A th x CA, do x C(CA). Vy A CCA. T hai bao hm thc va nu suy ra ng thc cn chng minh. Quan h gia mt tp hp bt k vi phn b ca n trong khng gian. d) Vi mi tp con A ca khng gian X, ta c: (i) (ii) A CA = X, A CA = .
Chng minh (i) Nu x X th x A hoc x A, do x thuc t nht mt trong hai tp hp A v CA, tc l x A CA. o li, nu x A CA th x thuc t nht mt trong hai tp hp A v CA. V c hai tp hp ny u l nhng tp hp con ca X nn x X. T ta c ng thc (i). (ii) Nu x A CA th x A v x CA, tc l x A v x A, iu ny l v l. Vy tp hp A CA khng c phn t no, tc l A CA = . T nh l 3 c) v nh ngha phn b ca tp hp suy ra rng: e) Vi hai tp hp con bt k A, B ca khng gian X, ta c: (i) (ii) C(A B) = (CA CB, C(A B) = CA CB.
Nh vy, phn b ca tp hp hai tp hp bng giao cc phn b ca chng v phn b ca giao hai tp hp bng hp cc phn b ca chng. (i) v (ii) gi l cc cng thc Mocgng. Quan h gia hiu ca hai tp hp con bt k ca mt khng gian vi cc php ly phn b, hp v giao c nu trong nh l sau: f) Vi hai tp hp con bt k A, B ca khng gian X, ta c: (i) (ii) A \ B = A [B, A \ B = C(CA B).
Chng minh (i) x A \ B x A v x B x A v x [B x A [B. Do ta c ng thc trong (i).
(ii) Theo (v) trong c), ta c: A \ B = CC(A \ B). T (i) v (ii) trong e) suy ra: [(A \ B) = [(A [B) = [A [[B = [A B Do : A \ B = C(CA B) nh l sau thng c s dng trong thc hnh: g) Vi hai tp hp con bt k A, B ca khng gian X, (i) (ii) A B A [B = , A B [A B = X.
Chng minh (i) Ta bit rng A B khi v ch khi A \ B = . Mt khac,ta co A \ B = A [B (xem (i) trong f)). T suy ra ng thc cn chng minh: (ii) Theo (i), ch cn chng minh A {B = [A B = X. Tht vy, cc iu kin sau l tng ng: A CB = , C(A CB) = X, CA CCB = X (suy ra t cng thc Moocgng) CA B = X
b. hot ng. Sinh vin t c thng tin c bn, sau tho lun theo nhm 2, 3 ngi thc hin cc nhim v di y. Mi nhm c i din trnh by gio vin tng kt:
Nhim v Nhim v 1:
Nm vng nh ngha giao ca hai tp hp v c k nng thnh tho trong vic tm giao ca hai tp hp cho trc. Lp c lc Ven v lc Carl i vi hai tp hp A v B cho trc. Nm vng cc tnh cht ca php ly giao cc tp hp.
Nhim v 2:
Nm vng nh ngha hp ca hai tp hp v c k nng thnh tho trong vic tm hp ca hai tp hp cho trc. Lp c lc Ven ca hp hai tp hp. Nm vng cc tnh cht ca php ly hp cc tp hp. Nm vng quan h gia php ly hp v ly giao cc tp hp.
Nhim v 3:
Nm vng nh ngha hiu ca hai tp hp v c k nng thnh tho trong vic tm hiu ca hai tp hp cho trc. Lp c lc Ven ca hiu ca hai tp hp. Nm vng cc tnh cht ca php tr tp hp: Quan h gia php tr v bao hm thc. Quan h gia php tr v php ly hp v giao cc tp hp.
Nhim v 4:
Nm vng khi nim khng gian v nh ngha phn b ca mt tp hp v c k nng thnh tho trong vic tm phn b ca mt tp hp cho trc. Nm vng mt s tnh cht ca phn b ca tp hp: Quan h gia mt tp hp con ca mt khng gian vi phn b ca n. Php ly phn b ca hp v giao ca hai tp hp (cc cng thc Mocgng). Quan h gia phn b ca tp hp v bao hm thc. Quan h gia phn b ca tp hp vi php tr cc tp hp.
nh gi hot ng 1. 2
1. Gi A l tp hp cc s l gia 10 v 40 (ln hn 10 v nh hn 40) v B l tp hp cc s nguyn t gia 10 v 40. a) Tm cc tp hp A B, A B, A \ B v B \ A. b) Lp lc Ven i vi hai tp hp A v B. 2. Gi A l tp hp cc s t nhin chia ht cho 2 v B l tp hp cc s t nhin chia ht cho 5. a) Tm cc tp hp A B, A B, A \ B v B \ A. b) Lp s Ven i vi A v B. 3. Gi V l tp hp cc tam gic vung v C l tp hp cc tam gic cn. a) Tm cc tp hp V C, V C, V \ C v C \ V. b) Lp lc Ven i vi hai tp hp V v C.
4. Cho hai tp hp A = {x R : |x| 5} v B = {x R : 6 x < 0} Tm cc tp hp A B, A B, A \ B v B \ A. 5. Tm hai tp hp E v F nhng mnh lgic intx (E, F L ) trong mi lc di y bit rng mi tp hp c xc nh bi hai thuc tnh v giao E F l tp mt im:
0
Hnh 20
6. Trong tp hp L cc mnh lgic intx, gi N l tp hp cc mnh nu, BN l tp hp cc mnh b nu v V l tp hp cc hnh vung.

0
a) Xc nh cc min II, IV v V bng cch nu mt tnh cht c trng ca cc phn t ca mi min. b) Tnh s phn t ca mi min.
Hnh 21
7. Chng minh rng vi cc tp hp bt k A, B, ta c: a) A \ B = A \ (A B) ; b) A = (A B) (A \ B); c) A \ (A \ B) = A B. 8. Chng minh rng vi ba tp hp A, B, C bt k, ta c: a) A \ (B C) = (A \ B) \ C; b) A (B \ C) = (A B) \ C; c) (A B) \ C) = (A \ C) (B \ C); d) A \ (B \ C) = (A \ B) (A C). 9. Chng minh rng vi hai tp hp con bt k A, B ca khng gian X, nu [A [B = [A v B A th A = B. 10. Chng minh rng vi hai tp hp con A v B bt k ca khng gian X, A B [A [B = [B. 11. Hiu i xng ca hai tp hp A v B, k hiu l A B, l tp hp cc phn t thuc A hoc thuc B nhng khng thuc ng thi c hai tp hp : A B = (A \ B) (B \ A). Chng minh rng: a) A B = A = B, b) A B = B A, c) (A B) C = A (B C), d) A (B C) = (A B) (A C), e) A B = A B (A B), f) A \ B = A (A B). 12. Chng minh rng vi ba tp hp A, B, C bt k, A B = C B = A C. 13. Vi hai tp hp con bt k A, B ca khng gian X, ta nh ngha hp v giao ca hai tp hp da vo quan h bao hm nh sau: A B l tp con nh nht ca X cha A v B, A B l tp con ln nht ca X cha trong A v trong B. a) Chng minh cc nh ngha ny tng ng vi cc nh ngha bit.
b) p dng cc nh ngha va nu, hy chng minh cc khng nh sau: (i) A B A B = B, (ii) (A B) C = A (B C), (iii) (A B) C = (A C) (B C), A, B, C l nhng tp con bt k ca khng gian X. 14. Cho khng gian (tp hp X). Tp hp cc tp con A , A , ..., Am gi l mt php phn hoch ca X nu cc iu kin sau c tho mn.
1 2
(i)
Ai vi i = 1, 2, ..., m,
1 2
(ii) Ai Aj = vi i j (tc l cc tp hp A , A , ..., Am i mt ri nhau), (iii) A1 A2 ... Am = X. Chng minh rng mi tp cc tp con sau y ca L l mt php phn hoch ca L :
0 0
a) {, X, N}; b) {C, V, T, H}; c) {LM, BM, LD, BD}; d) B, LX, BX, L, N}. 15. Gi A l tp hp cc bi t nhin ca 3, B l tp hp cc s t nhin n sao cho n 1 l mt bi t nhin ca 3 v C l tp hp cc s t nhin n sao cho n 2 l mt bi t nhin ca 3. Chng minh rng: {A, B, C} l mt php phn hoch ca khng gian N. 16. Vi mt tp hp hu hn A bt k, k hiu N (A) ch s phn t ca A. Chng minh rng vi hai tp hp hu hn A, B bt k, ta c: N (A B) = N (A) + N (B) N (A B). 17. Cho ba tp hp hu hn A, B, C. Chng minh rng: N (A B C) = N (A) + N (B) + N (C) + N (A B C) N (A B) N (A C) N (B C). 18. Trong mt lp hc ngoi ng, tp hp A cc hc vin n c 4 phn t, tp hp B cc hc vin t 20 tui tr ln c 5 phn t. C 3 hc vin n t 20 tui tr ln. Tm s phn t ca tp hp A B. 19. Trn mt bi xe, c 42 xe gm taxi v xe but. C 14 xe mu vng v 37 xe but hoc xe khng c mu vng. Hi trn bi xe c bao nhiu xe but vng?
20. Mt lp hc c 40 hc sinh, trong c 15 em hc kh mn Ton, 16 em hc kh mn Vn v 17 em hc kh mn Ting Anh. C 5 em hc kh c hai mn Vn v Ton, 8 em hc kh c hai mn Ton v Anh, 6 em hc kh c hai mn Vn v Anh, v 2 em hc kh c ba mn. Hi c bao nhiu hc sinh ch hc kh mn Ton? Ch hc kh mn Vn? Ch hc kh mn Anh? Khng hc kh mn no?
TIU CH 1.3. QUAN H Thng tin c bn 3.1. Quan h hai ngi

3.1.1. Tch cc ca cc tp hp
a) Cp th t Ta bit rng tp hp gm hai phn t a v b c k hiu l {a, b}. K hiu {b, a} cng ch tp hp , tc l {a, b} = {b, a}. Tuy nhin trong nhiu trng hp ngi ta quan tm n th t ca hai phn t: a ng trc, b ng sau hay b ng trc, a ng sau. Khi ngi ta c hai dy c sp theo th t khc nhau: Dy a, b v dy b, a. l hai dy khc nhau, tr phi a = b. Mi dy c gi l mt cp th t ca hai phn t. Nh vy, Dy gm hai i tng a v b, c sp theo th t a ng trc, b ng sau gi l mt cp th t, k hiu l (a, b); a gi l phn t ng trc, b l phn t ng sau. Nu a b th (a, b) v (b, a) l hai cp th t khc nhau. Hai cp th t (a, b) v (c, d) l bng nhau khi v ch khi a = b v c = d. Cp th t (a, b) c biu din bi mt mi tn i t phn t ng trc a n phn t ng sau b.
Formatted: Heading03 Formatted: Heading04
Hnh 1
Nu a = b th mi tn tr thnh mt vng. V d 3.1 : Kt qu ca mt trn bng l: (3; 1), (1; 3); (2; 0). Cp th t (3; 1) c hiu l trn sn nh, i ch nh thng i khch: i ch nh ghi c 3 bn cn i khch ch ghi c 1 bn. Cp th t (1; 3) cho bit i ch nh thua i khch: Trong trn u, i ch nh ch ghi c 1 bn, trong khi i khch ghi c 3 bn. V d 3.2 : Din tch ca cc nc trn th gii (tnh trn mt ngn km ) cng c ghi bng cc cp th t, chng hn:
2
(Ty Ban Nha; 500), (Italia; 300), (Vit Nam, 330)
V d 3.3 : Mi s phc l mt cp th t (a, b) ca hai s thc. Ta bit rng hai s thc a v b khc nhau th (a, b) v (b, a) l hai s phc khc nhau; Hai s phc (a, b) v (c, d) bng nhau khi v ch khi chng c phn thc bng nhau v phn o bng nhau, tc l a = c v b = d. b) Tch cc ca hai tp hp. Cho hai tp hp X v Y. Tp hp tt c cc cp th t (x, y) trong x X, y Y gi l tch cc ca hai tp hp X, Y v c k hiu l X x Y. Nh vy, X x Y = {(x, y) : x X, y Y}. V d 3.4: Cho hai tp hp X = {x , x } v Y = {y , y , y }.
1 2 1 2 3
Khi X x Y = {(x , y ), (x , y ), (x , y ), (x , y ), (x , y ), (x , y )}
1 1 1 2 1 3 2 1 2 2 2 3
Hnh 2
Trong Hnh 2 a), mi phn t ca X x Y c biu din bi mt mi tn i t tp hp X vo tp hp Y. Ngi ta gi l lc hnh tn. Trong hnh 2 b), cc phn t ca X x Y c biu din bi cc im ca mt li xc nh bi hai tp hp X v Y. Ngi ta gi l lc cc. Trong trng hp tp hp X hoc tp hp Y c v s phn t, ta ch c th s dng lc cc.
V d 3.5 : Tch cc ca tp hp N cc s t nhin v tp hp R cc s thc l tp hp. N x R = {(x, y) : x N, y R}. Trong mt phng to , N x R c biu din bi tp hp cc im ca cc ng thng x = 0, x = 1, x = 2, ...
Hnh 3
im (2; ) nm trn ng thng x = 2, cc im (3; ) v (4; 2,2), theo th t, nm trn cc ng thng x = 3 v x = 4. Nu Y = X th tp hp X x X cn c k hiu l X . Nh vy,
2
X = {(x, y) : x X, y X}.
2
V d 3.6 : Cho tp hp X = {a, b}. Tm tp hp X .

2
Ta c: X = {(a, a), (a, b), (b, a), (b, b)}.

2
V d 3.7 : Cho tp hp X = [1,5; 4] = {x R = 1,5 x 4}. Tm X .

2
Ta c:
= [1,5; 4] x (1,5; 4] = {(x, y) : 1,5 x 4; 1,5 y 4}.
Hnh 4
Trong mt phng to , tp hp X c biu din bi tp hp cc im ca hnh vung gii hn bi cc ng thng x = 1,5, x = 4, y = 1,5 v y = 4 (Hnh 4).
2
c) Ta m rng nh ngha tch cc cho mt s hu hn tp hp. Cho m tp hp X , X , ..., Xm. Tp hp cc dy m phn t (x , x , ..., xm), trong x X , x X , ..., xn Xm gi l tch cc ca m tp hp X , X , ..., Xm v c k hiu l X x X x... x Xm.
1 2 1 2 1 1 2 2 1 2 1 2
X1 x X2 x... x Xm = {(x , x , ..., xm) : x X1, ... xm Xm}.

1 2 1
Nu X = X = ... = Xm th tp hp X x X x... x Xm c k hiu l Xm. Nh vy X l tp hp cc dy m phn t (x , x , ..., xm), trong x1, ..., xm X.
1 2 1 2 1 2
V d 3.8 : Tch cc R , trong R l tp hp cc s thc l khng gian clit ba chiu, tch cc Rm l khng gian clit m chiu.
3
V d 3.9 : Tm cc c s ca 4312. Ta c: 4312 = 2 x 7 x 11.

2 2
Mi c s ca 4312 c dng 2 x 7 x 11 , vi a = 0, 1, 2 hoc 3, b = 0, 1 hoc 2, c = 0 hoc 1.

a b c
t X = {2 , 2 , 2 , 2 }, Y = {7 , 7 , 7 }, C = {11 , 11 }. Khi , vi mi (x, y, z) X x Y x Z, tch xyz l mt c ca 4312.

0 1 2 3 0 1 2 0 1
3.2. nh ngha quan h hai ngi

Ta bit c th ng nht mt tp hp con A ca mt khng gian X vi mt tnh cht T no ca cc phn t ca khng gian X: Ch cc phn t ca A c tnh cht T, cc phn t ca X khng thuc A khng c tnh cht . Ni mt cch khc, x c tnh cht T x A (xem mc 4, hot ng 2, ch 1). Trong ton hc ngi ta thng quan tm n cc tnh cht ca cc cp th t, tc l cc tnh cht ca cc phn t ca tch cc. Cc tnh cht c gi l nhng quan h hai ngi, gi tt l quan h. Theo nhn xt va nu trn, c th xem cc quan h hai ngi l cc tp hp con ca cc tch cc. iu ny s c lm sng t qua cc v d. V d 3.10 : Ta k hiu P = P (R) l tp hp tt c cc tp con ca tp hp s thc R. Gia s thc v tp hp s thc {1, , 5} c quan h phn t thuc tp hp, tc l quan h {1, , 5}. Mt cch tng qut, c quan h ny gia mt s thc x v mt tp con A ca R khi v ch khi x A. Quan h va nu l mt tnh cht ca cc cp th t (x, A), trong x R, A P. Cp th t (x, A) trong x R, A P c tnh cht ny khi v ch khi x A. V vy c th xem quan h c xt l mt tp con ca tch cc R x P; tp con ny c to nn bi cc cp th t (x, A), trong x A. V d 3.11: Ta ni rng gia cc s nguyn dng 2 v 8, hoc 3 v 15, hoc 7 v 14 c quan h chia ht : 2 chia ht 8, 3 chia ht 15 v 7 chia ht 14. Mt cch tng qut, c quan h chia ht gia hai s nguyn dng x v y khi v ch khi x chia ht y. Quan h chia ht l mt tnh cht ca cc cp th t (x, y), trong x N*, y N*. Cp th t (x, y), trong x N*, y N* c tnh cht ny khi v ch khi x chia ht y. V vy, c th xem quan h chia ht l mt tp con ca tch cc N* x N* = (N*) . Tp con ny c to nn bi cc cp th t (x, y), trong x v y l hai s nguyn dng sao cho x chia ht y.
2
Mt cch tng qut, ta c: nh ngha:
Cho hai tp hp X v Y. Tp con R ca tch cc X x Y gi l mt quan h hai ngi trn X x Y. Nu R l mt tp con ca tch cc X x X th ta ni rng R l mt quan h hai ngi trn X (thay cho R l mt quan h hai ngi trn X x X.). Nu R l mt quan h hai ngi trn X x Y v (x, y) th ta vit x y v c l x c quan h R vi y. Nu (x, y) R th ta vit x R y v c l x khng c quan h R vi y). Quan h hai ngi thng c gi tt l quan h. V d 3.12 : Cho X = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, A = {1, 2}, B = {1, 4} v Y = {A, B}. Gi R l quan h phn t thuc tp hp trn X x Y. Theo nh ngha quan h hai ngi, ta c: R = {(1, A), (1, B), (2, A), (4, B)}. Cc phn t ca R, tc l cc cp th t, c biu din trong hai lc sau:
Hnh 5
V d 3.13 : Cho tp hp X = {2, 3, 5, 8, 15}. Hy tm quan h chia ht R trn X. Ta hiu R l quan h hai ngi trn X x X. Theo nh ngha quan h hai ngi, ta c: R = {(2, 2), (2, 8), (3, 3), (3, 15), (5, 5), (5, 15), (8, 8), (15, 15)}. Cc phn t ca R c biu din trong hai lc sau:
Hnh 6
Gi s R l mt quan h hai ngi trn X x Y. Tp hp cc phn t ng trc ca cc cp th t (x, y) thuc quan h R gi l tp xc nh ca quan h R, k hiu l D (R). Nh vy, phn t x X thuc D (R) khi v ch khi tn ti mt phn t y Y sao cho x R y: x D (R) tn ti y Y sao cho x R y. hay D (R) = {x X: Tn ti y Y sao cho x R y}. Tp hp cc phn t ng sau ca cc cp th t (x, y) thuc quan h R gi l tp nh (gi tt l nh) ca quan h R, k hiu l D* (R). Nh vy, phn t y Y thuc D* (R) khi v ch khi tn ti mt phn t x X sao cho x R y: y D* (R) tn ti x X sao cho x R y, hay D* (R) = {y Y: Tn ti x X sao cho x R y}. D* (R) = {1, 2, 4} , D* (R) = {A, B} = Y. V d 3.14 : Cho tp hp X = {2, 3, 5} v Y = N. Gi R l quan h chia ht trn X x N, tc l x R y khi v ch khi x l c s ca y. Khi . D* (R) = X = {2, 3, 5}, v D* (R) tp hp tt c cc s t nhin chia ht cho 2, 3 hoc 5: D* (R) = {2m : m N} {3n : n N} {5k : k N}. C th biu din quan h hai ngi R trn tp hp Rcc s thc bi lc cc. Quan h R c biu din bi mt tp con ca mt phng to Oxy. Tp xc nh D (R) ca quan h R c biu din bi hnh chiu ca Chng hn, vi quan h hai ngi R trong v d 12, ta c:
R trn trc honh Ox; tp nh D* (R) ca quan h c biu din bi hnh chiu ca R trn trc tung Oy (Hnh 7).
Hnh 7
2
Hnh 8
2 2
Trong Hnh 8, ta c lc biu din quan h hai ngi R trn R (R = R ) xc nh nh sau: Vi mi (x, y) R , x R y khi v ch khi x = y. D dng thy rng: D (R) = R v D*(R = [0, + ) = x : x 0
3.3. Mt s tnh cht thng gp ca quan h hai ngi

a) Quan h hai ngi R trn tp hp X gi l phn x nu vi mi x X, ta u c x R x. V d 3.15 : Quan h chia ht trn tp hp s nguyn dng N* l phn x v vi mi s nguyn dng x, x chia ht x. Quan h (nh hn hoc bng) trn tp hp cc s thc R l phn x v vi mi x R, x x. Gi s A l mt tp hp cc mnh lgc (A L ). Quan h RA c cng mu vi (mnh x c cng mu vi mnh y) hin nhin l phn x (Hnh 9).
0
Hnh 9
Hnh 10
Nu R l mt quan h phn x trn A th lc hnh tn ca n c mt vng ti mi im ca A (Hnh 9). Quan h l bnh phng ca trn N khng phi l mt quan h phn x v ch c h s 0 v 1 l bnh phng ca chnh n (Hnh 10). Nu quan h hai ngi R trn X khng phi l phn x th lc hnh tn ca n c t nht mt im ti khng c vng. Quan h hai ngi R trn tp hp X gi l i phn x nu vi mi x X, x u khng c quan h R vi x, tc l khng xy ra x R x. Ni mt cch khc, R l i phn x nu (x, x) R vi mi x X. V d 3.16 : Quan h < trn R l i phn x v vi mi x R, u khng c x < x. Nu quan h hai ngi R trn tp hp X l i phn x th lc tn ca n khng c mt vng no (Hnh 11).
Hnh 11
Hnh 12
Quan h vung gc vi trn tp hp cc ng thng ca mt mt phng l i phn x v mi ng thng u khng vung gc vi chnh n. Quan h l b ca trn mt tp hp ngi cho trc l i phn x. b) Quan h hai ngi trn tp hp X gi l i xng nu vi mi x, y X, x R y y R x. V d 3.17 : Gi s X l mt tp hp khc . Tp hp: R = {(x, x) : x X} X2 gi l quan h ng nht trn X.
Nh vy, vi mi x, y X, x R y x = y. D thy quan h ng nht trn X l i xng. Quan h vung gc vi trn tp hp cc ng thng ca mt mt phng l i xng. Quan h l anh hoc em trai ca trn mt tp hp tr em l i xng (Hnh 12). Nu quan h hai ngi R trn tp hp X l i xng th trong lc hnh tn ca n, h c mt mi tn i t x n y, t c mt mi tn i t y n x. Ch rng gia hai im x v y c th khng c mi tn no, nhng nu c th tt phi c hai mi tn i ngc hng nhau. Cho tp hp A = {1, 2, 3, 4}. Quan h nh hn hoc bng () trn A khng phi l mt quan h i xng (Hnh 13).
Hnh 13
Hnh 14
Nu quan h hai ngi R trn tp hp X khng phi l mt quan h i xng th trn lc tn ca R c t nht mt mi tn i t x n y m khng c mi tn ngc t y n x. Quan h hai ngi R trn tp hp X gi l phi i xng nu vi mi x, y X, x R y y R x. Ni mt cch khc, R l phi i xng nu vi mi x, y X (x, y) R (y, x) R. V d 3.18 : Quan h hai ngi < (nh hn) trn tp hp cc s thc R l phi i xng v vi hai s thc bt k x, y, cc iu kin x < y v y < x loi tr nhau. Gi R l quan h hai ngi xc nh trn tp hp cc s nguyn dng N* xc nh bi: x R y khi v ch khi x = 2y R l mt quan h phi i xng v vi mi x, y N* khng th ng thi xy ra x = 2y v y = 2a (Hnh 14).
Nu R l mt quan h phi i xng trn tp hp X th trn lc hnh tn ca R, gia hai im khc nhau x, y X, hoc khng c mi tn no, hoc ch c mt mi tn (khng c mi tn ngc) (Hnh 14). Quan h hai ngi R trn tp hp X gi l phn i xng nu vi mi x, y X, x R y v y R x x = y. V d 3.19 : Quan h hai ngi trn tp hp R l phn i xng v vi hai s thc bt k x, y, hai iu kin x y v y x ko theo x = y. Quan h hai ngi vung gc vi trn tp hp cc ng thng ca mt mt phng khng phi l mt quan h phn i xng. c) Quan h hai ngi trn tp hp X gi l bc cu nu vi mi x, y, z X, x R y v y R z x R z.
Hnh 15
Trn lc hnh tn ca quan h bc cu R, nu c mt mi tn i t x n y v mt mi tn i t y n z th c mt mi tn i t x n z. (Hnh 15). V d 3.20 : Quan h hai ngi chia ht trn tp hp cc s t nhin l bc cu v vi mi x, y, z N, nu x l mt c s ca y v y l mt c s ca z th x l mt c s ca z. Quan h hai ngi < trn tp hp R l bc cu. Quan h hai ngi vung gc vi trn tp hp cc ng thng ca mt mt phng khng phi l mt quan h bc cu.
3.4. Quan h ngc Hp ca hai quan h

a) Quan h ngc ca mt quan h cho trc
Cho hai tp hp X, Y v quan h hai ngi R trn X x Y. Quan h ngc ca quan h R, k hiu l R , l quan h hai ngi trn Y x X xc nh nh sau: Vi mi y Y, x X, y R x x R y.
1 1
(tc l (y, x) R (x, y) R).

1
V d 3.21: Gi X l tp hp nm thnh ph X = {H Ni, Cn Th, Bc Kinh, Vin Chn, Nam Kinh} = {h, c, b, v, n}, Y l tp hp hai nc. Y = {Vit Nam, Trung Quc} = {V, T}, v R l quan h l mt Thnh ph ca R l quan h hai ngi trn X x Y: R = {(h, V), (c, V), (b, T), (n, T)}.
Hnh 16
Quan h ngc R ca R l quan h hai ngi trn Y x X.

1
R = {(V, h), (V, c), (T, b), (T, n)}.

1
Hnh 17
Cc im biu din cc cp th t ca R i xng vi cc im biu din cc cp th t ca R qua ng phn gic th nht.

1
V d3.22 : Cho tp hp X = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9} v quan h hai ngi R l bnh phng ca trn X: R = {(0, 0), (1, ), (4, 2), (9, 3)}. Quan h ngc ca R l quan h R l cn bc hai ca trn X:
1
R = {(0, 0), (1, 1), (2, 4), (3, 9)}.

1
Hnh 18
b) Hp ca hai quan h Cho ba tp hp X, Y, Z, quan h R trn X x Y v quan h R trn Y x Z. Quan h R trn X x Z gm cc cp th t (x, z) X x Z tho mn iu kin sau:
1 2
Tn ti mt phn t y Y sao cho x R y v y R z gi l hp ca hai quan h R v R , k hiu l R R .

1 2 1 2 2 1
Nh vy, R = R R = {(x, z) X x Z: Tn ti y Y sao cho x R y v y R z}.

2 1 1 2
V d 3.23 : Cho ba tp hp Tp hp cc b X = {Mai, Tuyt} (th h th nht), tp hp cc anh ch Y = {Dungx, Loan, Cng} (th h th hai), tp hp cc chu Z = {Khi, Nga, Hng, Vn} (th h th ba), v hai quan h:
Quan h R l m ca trn X x Y:
1
R = {(Mai, Dng), (Tuyt, Loan), (Tuyt, Cng)}, quan h R l b ca trn Y x Z:

1 2
R = {(Dng, Khi), (Dng, Nga), (Cng, Vn)}.

2
Hnh 18
Quan h hp R R ca hai quan h R v R l quan h l b ni ca trn X x Z;

2 1 1 2
R R = {(Mai, Khi), (Mai, Nga), (Tuyt, Vn)}.

2 1
(B Mai l m ca anh Dng v anh Dng l b ca chu Khi nn B Mai l b ni ca chu Khi). Ni chung quan h R R v quan h R R l khc nhau. Trong v d va xt, ta c:
2 1 1 2
Hnh 19
V d 3.24 : Cho quan h R l mt na ca trn tp hp N* cc s nguyn dng v quan h R gp bn ln trn N*.

1 2
Tm R R
2
Ta c: R = {(1; 2), (2; 4), (3, 6), (4, 8), (5, 10), ...}
1
R = {(4; 1), (8; 2), (12, 3), (16, 4), (20, 5), ...}
2
Hnh 20
R R l mt quan h trn N*:

2 1
R R = {(2, 1), (4, 2), (6, 3), (8, 4), ...}.

2 1
R R l quan h gp i trn N*.

2 1
C th biu din tp hp N* ch bi mt ng cong kn. Khi , khi ln, phi phn bit cc mi tn biu din cc cp th t ca R , R v R R .
1 2 1 2
Hnh 21
Trong hnh cc cp th t ca cc quan h R R v R R , theo th t, c biu din bi cc mi tn xanh, mi tn c nt gch v mi tn .

1 2 2 1
B. Hot ng. tm hiu khi nim tnh cc v quan h hai ngi. Nhim v:
Nhim v 1:
Nm vng nh ngha tich cc ca hai tp hp v ca mt s hu hn tp hp. Bit biu din tch cc ca hai tp hp bng lc hnh tn v lc cc.
Nhim v 2:
Nm vng nh ngha quan h hai ngi trn X x Y v trn X. C k nng thnh tho trong vic xc nh cc cp th t ca mt quan h hai ngi trong cc tnh hung khc nhau. Biu din c quan h hai ngi bng lc hnh tn v lc cc.
Nhim v 3
Nm vng cc tnh cht phn x, i xng v bc cu ca quan h hai ngi. C k nng nhn bit mt quan h hai ngi cho trc c cc tnh cht hay khng? C k nng biu din cc quan h hai ngi c cc tnh cht nu bng lc hnh tn.
Nhim v 4:
Nm vng cc nh ngha ca quan h ngc ca mt quan h hai ngi cho trc v quan h hp ca hai quan h hai ngi cho trc. C k nng thnh tho trong vic xc nh quan h ngc v quan h hp. Biu din thnh tho cc cp th t ca quan h ngc v quan h hp bng lc hnh tn.
nh gi hot ng 3.1
1. Cho ba tp hp X, Y, Z. Chng minh cc ng thc sau: a) A x (B C) = (A x B) ( A x C), b) (B C) x A = (B x A) (C x A), c) A x (B C) = (A x B) (A x C), d) (B C) x A = (B x A) (C x A), e) A x (B \ C) = (A x B) \ (A x C), f) (B \ C) x A = (B x A) \ (C x A). 2. Cho ba tp hp A, B v C . Chng minh rng: a) A B A x C B x C, b) A B C x A C x B.
3. Gi s tp hp X c m phn t v tp hp Y c n phn t. Chng minh rng tp hp X x Y c mn phn t. 4. Gi s tp hp Xk c nk phn t, k = 1, 2, ...m. Chng minh rng tp hp X x X x ... x Xm c n n ... nm phn t.
1 2 1 2
5. Cho hai tp hp A = {2, 4, 7, 9} v B = {1, 3, 4, 5, 12, 14}. Tm quan h chia ht R trn A x B v biu din quan h R bng lc hnh tn. 6. Cho tp hp X = {1, 2, 7, 8}. Tm quan h chia ht R trn X v biu hin quan h R bng lc hnh tn. 7. Cho tp hp X = {1, 2, 6, 7, 8}. Tm quan h chia ht cho R trn X v biu din R bng lc hnh tn. 8. Tm quan h chia ht cho R trn tp hp cc s nguyn dng N* v biu hin R bng lc hnh tn. 9. Cho cc tp hp X = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7}, A = {1, 2, 9}, B = {4, 9}, C = {6, 7, 8} v Y = {A, B, C}. Tm quan h R phn t thuc tp hp trn X x Y. Biu din quan h ny bng lc hnh tn. 10. Cho cc tp hp A = {1, 2}, B = {1, 5, 7}, C = {1, 2, 5, 7, 8} v X = {A, B, C}. Tm quan h bao hm cha trong R trn X. (Quan h bao hm cha trong c cho bi A B khi v ch khi A B). 11. Cho tp hp X = {1, 2, 3, 5, 7}. Tm quan h nh hn (<) trn X (quan h nh hn c hiu theo ngha thng thng). 12. Gi R l quan h < trn R v R l quan h trn R. Hy biu din R v R bng lc cc.
1 2 1 2
13. Chng minh rng nu tp hp X c m phn t v tp hp Y c n phn t th c 2 quan h hai ngi trn X x Y.
mn
14. Quan h song song hoc trng nhau vi trn tp hp tt c cc ng thng ca mt mt phng c phi l mt quan h phn x, i xng, bc cu hay khng? 15. Trong mt mt phng cho mt im O c nh. Gi X l tp hp cc im ca mt phng v l quan h hai ngi trn X xc nh bi: x R y khi v ch khi x l im i xng ca im y qua im O. Hy nu cc tnh cht (phn x, i xng, bc cu) ca R. 16. Nu cc tnh cht (phn x, i xng, bc cu) ca quan h chia ht cho trn tp hp N* cc s nguyn dng.
17. Quan h R trn tp hp X, quan h R trn tp hp Y v quan h R trn tp hp Z c biu din bi cc lc hnh tn sau y:
1 2 3
Hnh 22
Trong ba quan h , quan h no l phn x. 18. Quan h R trn tp hp A, quan h R trn tp hp B l quan h R trn tp hp C c biu din bi cc lc hnh tn sau y:
1 2 3
Hnh 23
Quan h no trong ba quan h l i xng? bc cu? 19. Chng minh rng nu quan h hai ngi R trn tp hp X l i phn x v bc cu th n l phi i xng. 20. Gi R l quan h hai ngi gp 7 ln trn tp hp N* cc s nguyn dng: Vi mi x, y N*, x R y x = 7y. Tm quan h ngc R ca R.
1
21. Chng minh rng nu quan h hai ngi R trn tp hp X l phn x, i xng, bc cu th quan h ngc R ca n cng l phn x, i xng, bc cu.
1
22. Cho hai quan h hai ngi R R trn tp hp N* xc nh bi:

1 2
x R y x = 3y,
1
x R y y = x + 5.
2
Tm cc quan h hp R . R v R . R .
2 1 1 2
Formatted: Heading01, Left, Space Before: 0 pt, After: 0 pt
TIU CH 1.4. QUAN H TNG NG Thng tin c bn 4.1. nh ngha:

Quan h hai ngi R trn tp hp X gi l quan h tng ng trn X nu n l phn x, i xng v bc cu, tc l: a) Vi mi x X, x R x, b) Vi mi x, y X, x R y y R x, c) Vi mi x, y, z X, x R y v y R z x R z. Quan h tng ng thng c k hiu l ~. Khi x R y c k hiu l x ~ y c l x tng ng vi y. V d 4.1 : Gi ~ l quan h hai ngi trn R xc nh bi x ~ y x y Z. Trong Z l tp hp cc s nguyn. Quan h ~ l quan h tng ng R. Tht vy, vi mi x R, ta c x x = 0 Z; do ~ l phn x. Vi mi x, y R, nu x ~ y th x y Z; do y x = (x y) Z; Vy ~ l i xng. Cui cng, vi mi x, y, z R, nu x ~ y v y ~ z, tc l x y Z v y z Z th x z = (x y) + (y z) Z; do ~ l bc cu. V d 4.2 : Gi X l tp hp cc vect buc trong mt phng R (A, B l hai im ca mt phng). Nu (xA, yA) v (xB, yB) l cc to i ca hai im A v B th cc hiu xB xA v yB yA gi l cc thnh phn ca vect . Gi ~ l quan h hai ngi trn X xc nh bi:
2
~ xB xA = xD xC v yB yA = yD yC . D dng thy rng ~ l mt quan h tng ng trn X. V d 4.3 : Gi s l tp hp cc ng thng trong mt phng R . Gi ~ l quan h hai ngi trn xc nh nh sau: Vi mi a, b , a ~ b a // b hoc a trng vi b.
2
D thy ~ l mt quan h tng ng trn . V d 4.4 : Chia mt s t nhin bt k cho 3, s d ca php chia l 0 hoc 1 hoc 2. Quan h c cng s d vi... trong php chia cho 3 trn N hin nhin l
phn x, i xng v bc cu. Do n l mt quan h tng ng trn N.
4.2. Cc lp tng ng v tp thng

a) Gi s X l mt tp hp khc v ~ l mt quan h tng ng trn X. Vi mi phn t x X, ta k hiu l tp hp cc phn t y X sao cho x ~ y: = {y X : x ~ y}. Tp hp gi l lp tng ng ca quan h ~ trn X c i din l phn t x. Tp hp chia lp tng ng ca quan h trn X c gi l tp thng, k hiu l X/~.
Hnh 24
Cc tnh cht c bn ca cc lp tng ng ca quan h ~ c cho trong nh l sau: b) nh l: Gi s ~ l mt quan h tng ng trn tp hp X . Khi : (i) (ii) Vi mi x X, x , Vi mi x , x X, = x ~ x ,
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
(iii) Vi mi x , x X, nu Chng minh:
Th
1 2
= .
(i) V quan h ~ l phn x nn vi mi x X, x ~ x. Do x . (ii) Gi s = . Theo (i), ta c x ; do x . Vy x ~ x . o li, gi s x ~ x . Khi nu x ; th x ~ x , do x ~ x v quan h ~ l bc cu. Vy . Tng t, ta c . T hai bao hm thc trn suy ra = .
1 2 1 1 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 1 2 1 2 2 1 1 2
(iii) Gi s . Khi , tn ti x X sao cho x v x . Do x ~ x v x ~ x. T , ta c x ~ x v x ~ x . Do x ~ x . Theo (ii), t suy ra = .

1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
T nh l trn suy ra nh l sau gi l nguyn l ng nht cc phn t tng ng. c) nh l: Quan h tng ng ~ trn tp hp X chia X thnh cc tp con khc i mt ri nhau (cc tp hp con l cc lp tng ng ca quan h ~) sao cho hai phn t x, y ca tp hp X thuc cng mt tp con khi v ch khi chng tng ng vi nhau. Tp thng X / ~ l mt php phn hoch tp hp X. (Xem bi tp 14 trong Hot ng 2, Ch 1). d) V d v tp thng. Ta tr li bn v d nu. Trong V d 1, quan h tng ng ~ trn R chia tp hp R thnh cc lp tng ng. D dng nhn thy rng tt c cc s nguyn thuc cng mt lp tng ng v ngoi cc s nguyn khng c mt s thc no thuc lp tng ng . Trong V d 2, quan h tng ng ~ trn X chia tp hp cc Vect buc trong mt phng R thnh cc lp tng ng. Mi lp tng ng c gi l mt vct t do: l tp hp tt c cc vect buc tng ng vi mt vect buc cho trc. (Trong sch gio khoa ton trng ph thng hai vect tng ng c gi l bng nhau; l hai vect cng hng c di bng nhau, xem hnh 25).
2
Hnh 25
Trong v d 3, quan h tng ng ~ trn D chia tp hp cc ng thng trong mt phng R thnh cc lp tng ng. Mi lp tng ng c gi l mt phng. l tp hp tt c cc ng thng trong mt phng R song song hoc trng vi mt ng thng cho trc trong mt phng ny
2 2
Hnh 26
Trong V d 4, quan h c cng s d vi... trong php chia cho 3 chia tp hp N thnh ba lp tng ng: . Mi s t nhin chia ht cho 3 u thuc lp . Mi s t nhin c s d l 1 trong php chia cho 3 u thuc lp. Mi s t nhin c s d l 2 trong php chia cho 3 u thuc lp . Ta ly thm mt v d.
Hnh 27
V d 4.5 : Xt quan h hai ngi cng mu vi trn tp hp L cc mnh lgic intx.

0
D dng thy rng l mt quan h tng ng trn L . Quan h ny chia L thnh ba lp tng ng: , X, N.
0 0
l tp hp cc mnh mu , X l tp hp cc mnh mu xanh v N l tp hp cc mnh mu nu. Mi lp tng ng c 16 mnh vi hnh dng, ln v dy khc nhau
Hnh 28
4.3. ng dng ca nguyn l ng nht cc phn t tng ng

a) Xy dng tp hp cc s nguyn Ta nhc li rng k hiu N ch tp hp cc s t nhin v N = N x N ch tp hp tt c cc cp th t (m, n), trong m v n l nhng s t nhin.
2
Gi ~ l quan h hai ngi trn N x N xc nh bi (m , n ) ~ (m , n ) khi v ch khi m + n = m + n .

1 1 2 2 1 2 2 1
Quan h ~ l mt quan h tng ng trn N x N. Tht vy, v vi mi (m, n) N x N, ta c m + n = m + n, nn (m, n) ~ (m, n). Do quan h ~ l phn x. D rng thy rng quan h ~ l i xng. Cui cng nu (m , n ) ~ (m , n ) v (m , n ) ~ (m , n ) th m + n = m + n v m + n = m + n . Do m + n + m + n = m + n + m + n m + n = m + n , tc l (m , n ) tng ng (m , n ). Vy quan h ~ l bc cu.
1 1 2 2 2 2 3 3 1 2 2 1 2 3 3 2 1 2 2 3 2 1 3 2 1 3 3 1 1 1 3 3
Quan h tng ng ~ trn N x N chia tp hp N x N thnh cc lp tng ng i mt ri nhau. Cc lp tng ng ca quan h ~ trn tp hp N x N c gi l cc s nguyn. D dng thy rng: (0, 0) ~ (1, 1) ~ (2, 2) , (3, 3), ... Lp tng ng (0, 0) c i din l phn t (0, 0) gi l s nguyn 0.
~
Cc lp tng ng (m, n) c i din l phn t (m, n) trong m > n v m = n + k, k = 1, 2, ... xc nh cc s nguyn dng k = 1, 2, ...
~
Cc lp tng ng (m, n) c i din l phn t (m, n) trong m < n v n = m + k, k = 1, 2, ... xc nh cc s nguyn m k = 1, 2, 3, ...
~
Php cng v php nhn trong tp hp cc s nguyn, tc l trong tp thng N x N / ~ c nh ngha nh sau: (m , n ) + (m , n ) = (m + m , n + n ) .
~ ~ ~ 1 1 2 2 1 2 1 2
(m ,n ) . (m ,n ) = (m m + n n , m n + n m )
1 1 2 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
Ngi ta chng minh c rng cc php ton c xc nh nh trn khng ph thuc vo vic chn cc phn t i din ca cc lp tng ng, cc php ton tho mn cc quy tc v s hc bit trong tp hp cc s t nhin N; hn na, trong tp hp cc s nguyn, c th thc hin php tr i vi hai s bt k. b) Xy dng tp hp cc s hu t Ta k hiu Z l tp hp cc s nguyn, Z* l tp hp cc s nguyn khc 0. Tch cc Z x Z* l tp hp cc cp th t (m, n), trong m l mt s nguyn v n l mt s nguyn khc 0. Gi ~ l quan h hai ngi trn tp hp Z x Z* xc nh nh sau: (m , n ) ~ (m , n ) khi v ch khi m n = m n .
1 1 2 2 1 2 2 1
(Chng hn, ta c (2, 3) ~ (4, 6), (3, 5) ~ (18, 30),
(-3, 7) ~ (-12, 28), (-3, 7) ~ (6, 14) Ta chng minh ~ l mt quan h tng ng trn Z x Z*. Tht vy, d thy quan h ~ l phn x v i xng. Nu (m , n ) ~ (m , n ) v (m , n ) ~ (m , n ) th
1 1 2 2 2 2 3 3
m n = m n v m n = m n
1 2 2 1 2 3 3
(1)
Do : m n m n = m n m n m m n = m n m , v n 0. T suy ra rng nu m khc 0 th m n = m n ; do (m , n ) ~ (m , n ). Nu m = 0 th t hai ng thc trong (1) suy ra m = 0 v m = 0. Do ta cng c m n = m n , tc l (m , n ) ~ (m , n ). Vy quan h ~ l bc cu.
1 2 2 3 2 1 3 2 1 2 3 2 1 3 2 2 1 3 3 1 1 1 3 3 2 1 3 1 3 3 1 1 1 3 3
Quan h tng ng ~ trn Z x Z* chia tp hp Z x Z* thnh cc lp tng ng i mt ri nhau. Cc lp tng ng ca quan h tng ng ~ trn Z x Z* gi l cc s hu t. Lp tng ng (m, n)~ c i din l phn t (m, n) xc nh s hu t, k him l . Hai cp th t (m , n ) v (m , n ) thuc cng mt lp tng
1 1 2 2
ng, tc l m n = m n , xc nh cng mt s hu t. Nh vy, hai s hu

1 2 2 1
t l bng nhau. Php cng v php nhn trong tphp cc s hu t, tc l trong tp thng Z x Z*/~ c nh ngha nh sau: (m , n ) + (m , n ) = (m n + n m , n n ) ,
~ ~ ~ 1 1 2 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
(m , n ) . (m , n ) = (m m , n n )
~ ~ 1 1 2 2 1 2 1 2
Ngi ta chng minh c rng hai php ton c xc nh nh trn khng ph thuc vo vic chn cc phn t i din ca cc lp tng ng, cc php ton tho mn cc quy tc v s hc trong tp hp cc s nguyn; hn na, trong tp hp cc s hu t php chia cho mt s khc khng bao gi cng thc hin c.
Hot ng 4.1. Tm hiu v quan h tng ng Nhim v:

Nhim v 1: c cc thng tin c bn c c cc kin thc v:
nh ngha quan h tng ng. nh ngha lp tng ng, tp thng.
Mt s v d v quan h tng ng, tp thng.
Nhim v 2:
Trnh by v thy c tm quan trng ca nguyn l ng nht cc phn t tng ng: Quan h tng ng trn mt tp hp chia tp hp thnh cc lp tng ng i mt ri nhau. Bit vn dng mt cch sinh ng nguyn l ny trong cc v d v ng dng khc nhau.
nh gi hot ng 4.1
1. Gi ~ , ~ v ~ , theo th t, l quan h hai ngi c cng hnh dng vi, c cng ln vi v c cng dy vi trn tp hp L cc mnh lgic.
1 2 3 0
a) Chng minh rng chng l nhng quan h tng ng trn L .

0
b) Mi quan h chia tp hp L thnh my lp tng ng?

0
2. Gi R l quan h hai ngi c cng s d vi... trong php chia cho 4 trn tp hp N. a) Chng minh rng R l mt quan h tng ng trn tp hp N. b) Quan h tng ng R trn N chia tp hp N thnh my lp tng ng? Hy v s Ven biu din cc lp tng ng ca quan h R. 3. Cho tp hp X = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} v P = P(X) l tp hp cc tp con ca X. Gi ~ l quan h hai ngi trn P xc nh bi: A ~ B khi v ch khi N (A) = N (B) Trong N (C) l s phn t ca tp hp C X. a) Chng minh rng ~ l mt quan h tng ng trn P. b) Tm lp tng ng ca quan h ~ trn P, c i din l phn t {1, 3} ca P. 4. Gi X = R l tp hp cc im ca mt phng v ~ l quan h hai ngi trn tp hp R xc nh bi:
2 2
(x , y ) ~ (x , y ) khi v ch khi
1 1 2 2
.
2
a) Chng minh rng ~ l mt quan h tng ng trn R . b) Tm tp thng R / ~.

2
5. Cho mt tp hp X . Chng minh rng quan h ng nht R trn X l mt quan h tng ng trn X v tm tp thng X/R. 6. Gi D l tp hp cc ng thng trong mt mt phng v a l mt ng thng cho trc trong mt phng . Gi R l quan h hai ngi trn
D xc nh nh sau: Vi mi x, y D, x R y khi v ch khi x a v y a . R c phi l mt quan h tng ng trn D hay khng? 7. Cho cc tp con ca R : A = {x R : 1 x < 7}, B = {x R : x < 2} v C = {x R : 5 < x 10). Tn ti hay khng mt quan h tng ng R trn tp hp R sao cho cc tp hp A, B, C l nhng lp tng ng ca quan h R
2
8. Gi s X l mt tp hp khc , A , A , ..., Am l nhng tp con khc rng i mt ri nhau ca X v = X. Gi

1 2
~ l quan h hai ngi trn X xc nh nh sau:
Vi mi x, y X, x ~ y khi v ch khi tn ti mt s nguyn k {1, 2, ..., m} sao cho x Ak v y Ak. Chng minh rng ~ l mt quan h tng ng trn tp hp X v tm cc lp tng ng ca quan h ~ trn X. 9. Cho mt tp hp X v mt phn t a X. Gi P = P (X) l tp hp cc tp con ca X v ~ l quan h hai ngi trn P xc nh nh sau: Vi mi A, B P, A ~ B khi v ch khi A = B hoc a A B. a) Chng minh rng ~ l mt quan h tng ng trn tp hp P. b) Tm tp thng P/~. 10. K hiu C* ch tp hp cc s phc c phn thc khc 0. Gi R l quan h hai ngi trn C* xc nh bi (a + bi) R (c + di) khi v ch khi ac > 0. a) Chng minh rng R l mt quan h tng ng trn *. b) Minh ho hnh hc cc lp tng ng ca quan h R.
Tiu ch 1.5. Quan h th t Thng tin c bn

5.1. nh ngha:
Quan h hai ngi R trn tp hp X c gi l quan h th t nu n l phn x, bc cu v phn i xng, tc l nu R tho mn cc iu kin sau: a) Vi mi x X, x R x, b) Vi mi x, y, z X, (x R y v y R z) x R z, c) Vi mi x, y X, (x R y v y R x) x = y. Ngi ta thng k hiu quan h th t l . Nh vy x R y c vit l x y, c l x nh hn hoc bng y, hay y ln hn hoc bng x.
Formatted: Heading03, Space Before: 0 pt Formatted: Heading04
Nu l mt quan h th t trn tp hp X th cp (X, ) gi l mt tp hp sp th t. Ngi ta cng gi X l mt tp hp sp th t khi ch ni ti mt quan h th t no trn X. V d 5.1: Quan h hai ngi chia ht trn tp hp N* l mt quan h th t trn N* v: Vi mi s nguyn dng n, ta c n / n (n chia ht n), Vi mi m, n, k N*, (m / n v n / k) m / k, Vi mi m, n N*, (m / n v n / m) m = n, V d 5.2: Cho tp hp X v tp hp Q nhng tp con ca X (Q P(X)), Q . Quan h hai ngi cha trong trn Q l mt quan h th t v: Vi mi A Q, A A, Vi mi A, B, C Q, (A B v B C) A C, Vi mi A, B Q, (A B v B A) A = B. V d 5.3: Nu X l mt tp con khc ca tp hp cc s thc th quan h hai ngi trn X l mt quan h th t v vi mi x, y, z X, ta c: x x, (x y v y z) x z, (x y v y x) x = y. phn bit quan h th t trn mt tp hp X tu vi quan h trn R, ta gi quan h sau l quan h th t thng thng trn R. V d 5.4: Xt cc quan h hai ngi trn cc tp hp X, Y, Z c biu din bi cc lc hnh tn trong hnh 29
Hnh 29
Trong lc hnh tn 29 a), quan h hai ngi R trn tp hp X = {a, b} c xc nh bi: a R a, b R b, a R b. D dng thy rng R l mt quan h th t trn X. Quan h hai ngi R trn tp hp Y = {a, b, c} c biu din bi lc hnh tn 29 b) khng phi l mt quan h th t trn tp hp Y v n khng phi l quan h phn i xng : a R b, b R a v a b. Quan h hai ngi R trn tp hp Z = {a, b, c, d} c biu din bi lc hnh tn 29 c) khng phi l mt quan h th t trn Z v n khng phi l quan h bc cu: a R b v b R c nhng khng c a R c.
5.2. Quan h th t nghim ngt

a) nh ngha: Quan h hai ngi trn tp hp X gi l quan h th t nghim ngt nu n l i phn x v bc cu, tc l nu R tho mn cc iu kin sau: a) Vi mi x X, khng c x R x, tc l (x, x) R, b) Vi mi x, y, z X, (x R y v y R z) x R z. Quan h th t nghim ngt R thng c k hiu l <. Nh vy, x R y c vit l x < y, c l x ng trc y. V d 5.5: D dng thy rng quan h hai ngi ln hn (theo ngha thng thng) (>) trn tp hp R l mt quan h th t nghim ngt. Quan h hai ngi t hn trn mt tp hp cc mt hng cng l mt quan h th t nghim ngt. Ch rng quan h th t nghim ngt khng phi l mt quan h th t. Mi lin h gia quan h th t v quan h th t nghim ngt c cho trong hai nh l sau. b) nh l Nu l mt quan h th t trn tp hp X th quan h hai ngi < trn X xc nh bi x < y khi v ch khi x y v x y, l mt quan h th t nghim ngt trn X. Chng minh : T nh ngha ca quan h < suy ra rng < khng phi l mt quan h i phn x. Ta chng minh < l bc cu. Tht vy, gi s x < y v y < z. Khi , x y, y z, x y v y z. V l mt quan h bc cu nn t suy ra x z. Nu x = z th ta c z y v y z. Do y = z (suy ra t tnh phn i xng ca quan h ); iu ny mu thun vi y z. Vy x z. Nh vy, ta c x z v x z, tc l x < z.
o li, ta c: c) nh l Nu < l mt quan h th t nghim ngt trn tp hp X th quan h hai ngi trn X xc nh bi: x y khi v ch khi x < y hoc x = y, l mt quan h th t trn X. Chng minh : T nh ngha ca quan h suy ra rng l mt quan h phn x. Ta chng minh l quan h bc cu. Tht vy, gi s x y v y z. Khi , x < y hoc x = y v y < z hoc y = z. Nu x < y v y < z th x < z; do x z. Nu x < y v y = z th x < z; do x z. Nu x = y v y < z th x < z; do x z. Cui cng nu x = y v y = z th x = z, do x z. l quan h phn i xng. Tht vy, gi s x y v y x. Khi , x < y hoc x = y v y < x hoc y = x. Hai iu kin x < y v y < x loi tr nhau v nu xy ra ng thi hai iu kin ny th ta c x < x iu ny khng th v < l quan h i phn x. Hai iu kin x < y v y = x loi tr ln nhau. Hai iu kin x = y v y < x cng loi tr nhau. Do ch c th xy ra mt trng hp x = y v y = x. Nh vy cc iu kin x y v y x ko theo x = y. Gi s l mt quan h th t trn tp hp X v x, y l hai phn t ca X. Ta ni rng x ng trc y nu x y v x y. Khi , ta vit x < y (< l quan h th t nghim ngt trn X ni trong nh l b).
5.3. Quan h th t ton phn v quan h th t b phn.

Quan h th t trn tp hp X gi l ton phn nu vi hai phn t bt k x, y ca X, ta c x y hoc y x. Trong lc hnh tn ca quan h th t ton phn trn tp hp X, cc phn t ca X i mt c ni vi nhau bi t nht mt mi tn. Nu tn ti t nht hai phn t x, y ca X sao cho c hai iu kin x y v y x u khng xy ra th gi l quan h th t b phn. V d 5.6: Quan h th t (theo ngha thng thng) trn tp hp R l ton phn. Quan h chia ht trn tp hp N* l quan h th t b phn v chng hn s nguyn 3 v 7 l khng so snh c. Ta khng c 3 / 7, cng khng c 7 / 3. Quan h th t nghim ngt < trn tp hp X c gi l ton phn nu vi hai phn t khc nhau bt k x, y ca X, ta c x < y hoc y < x.
Nu tn ti t nht hai phn t khc nhau x, y ca X sao cho c hai iu kin x < y v y < x u khng xy ra th quan h < c gi l b phn. V d 5.7 : Xt cc quan h th t v quan h th t nghim ngt biu din bi cc lc hnh tn trong hnh 29 di y.
Hnh 30
Quan h th t trn tp hp A c biu din bi lc hnh tn 30 a) l ton phn. Quan h th t trn tp hp B trong Hnh 30 b) l b phn. Quan h th t nghim ngt trn tp hp C trong Hnh 30 c) l ton phn. Lc hnh tn trong Hnh 30 c) biu din quan h th t nghim ngt b phn trn tp hp D.
5.4. Cc phn t ti i, ti tiu

a) Gi s (X, ) l mt tp hp sp th t. Phn t x X c gi l ti i nu n khng ng trc bt k mt phn t no ca X, tc l khng tn ti x X sao cho x < x.
0 0
Ni mt cch khc, x X l phn t ti i nu khng tn ti x X sao cho x x v x x.

0 0 0
iu kin ny tng ng vi iu kin sau: Vi mi x X, nu x x th x = x .

0 0
V d 5.8: Cho tp hp X . Gi P = P(X) l tp tt c cc tp con ca X. Ta bit rng quan h hai ngi trn P l mt quan h th t. Do (P, ) l mt tp hp sp th t. Ta chng minh X l phn t ti i ca P.
Tht vy, gi s A P v X A. Khi , ta c A X v X A. Do A = X. Vy X l phn t ti i. Mi tp hp A P khc X u khng phi l phn t ti i v A X. Nh vy X l phn t ti i duy nht. V d 5.9 : Gi X l tp hp cc s nguyn ln hn 1 v l quan h trn X xc nh nh sau: Vi mi m, n X, m n khi v ch khi m chia ht cho n. D dng thy rng l mt quan h th t trn X. Ta chng minh rng mi s nguyn t u l mt phn t ti i. Tht vy, nu p l mt s nguyn t v n X, p n th n = p. Do p l mt phn t ti i. Nh vy tp hp sp th t X c v s phn t ti i. V d 5.10 : K hiu l quan h chia ht trn tp hp N*: Vi m, n nguyn dng, m n khi v ch khi m : n. Tp hp sp th t N* khng c phn t ti i v vi mi n N*, ta c n : 2n v 2n n, tc l n 2n v 2n n. Cc v d trn cho thy mt tp hp sp th t c th c mt hoc nhiu phn t ti i, cng c th khng c phn t ti i no. Trong lc hnh tn biu din quan h th t trn mt tp hp, phn t ti i c biu din bi mt im m t khng c mt mi tn no i n cc im khc. Trong hnh 31, c v d l hai phn t ti i ca tp hp sp th t X.
Hnh 31
b) Gi s (X, ) l mt tp hp sp th t. Phn t x X gi l ti tiu nu khng c mt phn t no ca X ng trc n, tc l khng tn ti x X, x x sao cho x x .

0 0 0
Trong lc hnh tn biu din quan h th t trn mt tp hp, phn t ti tiu c biu din bi mt im m khng c bt k mt mi tn no i t cc im khc n im . Trong Hnh 30, a v d v hai im ti tiu ca tp hp sp th t X. Ch rng d cng l im ti di ca X. V d 5.11 : Gi s P l tp hp tt c cc tp con ca tp hp X . Khi , tp hp sp th t (P, ) c mt phn t ti tiu duy nht, l tp hp . Tht vy, vi mi A P m A , ta c A = . Do l phn t ti tiu. Ngoi ra, vi mi A P m A , ta c A. Do A khng phi l phn t ti tiu. V d 5.12 : Gi s X l tp hp cc s nguyn ln hn 1. Ta bit rng (X, :) l mt tp hp sp th t (k hiu : ch quan h chia ht trn X). Nu p l mt s nguyn t th vi mi n X, m n : p, ta c n = p. Do p l mt phn t ti tiu ca tp hp sp th t X. Nh vy, X c v s phn t ti tiu, l tt c cc s nguyn t. V d 5.13 : Gi X l tp hp cc s nguyn ln hn 1 v l quan h chia ht cho trn X (Xem v d 9). Tp hp sp th t (X, ) khng c phn t ti tiu v vi mi n X, ta c 2n chia ht cho n v 2n n, tc l 2n n v 2n n. Cc v d trn cho thy mt tp hp sp th t c th c mt hoc nhiu phn t ti tiu v cng c th khng c phn t ti tiu no.
5.5. Cc phn t ln nht, nh nht

a) Gi s (X, ) l mt tp hp sp th t. Phn t x X gi l ln nht nu: x x vi mi x X.
0 0
b) nh l: Tp hp sp th t (X, ) c nhiu nht l mt phn t ln nht. Phn t ln nht l ti i. Chng minh Gi s x v x l nhng phn t ln nht trong tp hp sp th t X. Khi :
0 1
x x vi mi x X
0
v x x vi mi x X.
1
Do x x v x x . V quan h l phn i xng nn t suy ra x = x . Vy phn t ln nht, nu c, l duy nht.

1 0 0 1 1 0
Gi s x l phn t ln nht trong (X, ). Khi , vi mi x X, nu x x th v ta cng c x x (suy ra t nh ngha ca x ) nn x = x . Vy x l phn t ti i

0 0 0 0 0 0
Trong lc hnh tn biu din quan h th t trn mt tp hp, phn t ln nht c biu din bi mt im m ti mi im ca tp hp u c mt mi tn i t n im nu.
Hnh 32
Trong Hnh 32, d l phn ln nht ca tp hp sp th t A. V d 5.14 : Trong tp hp sp th t (P, ) (P = P (X) l tp hp tt c cc tp con ca hp X ), tp hp X l phn t ln nht. Tp hp sp th t (N*, :) khng c phn t ti i. Do , theo nh l b), tp hp N* khng c phn t ln nht. Xt tp hp sp th t (X, ), trong X l tp hp cc s nguyn ln hn 1 v l quan h chia ht cho trn X. Trong tp hp ny khng c phn t ln nht v vi mi n X, s n + 1 khng chia ht cho n. rng trong (X, ) c v s phn t ti i (xem V d 9). c) Gi s (X, ) l mt tp hp sp th t. Phn t x X gi l nh nht nu
0
x x vi mi x X. Tng t nh trong nh l b), d dng chng minh c rng.

0
d) Tp hp sp th t (X, ) c nhiu nht l mt phn t nh nht. Phn t nh nht l ti tiu. Trong lc hnh tn biu din quan h th t trn mt tp hp, phn t nh nht c biu din bi mt im m t c cc mi tn i n mi im Hnh 33 khc ca tp hp.
Hnh 33
Hnh 33, a l phn t nh nht ca tp hp sp th t A. V d 5.15: Trong tp hp sp th t (P, ), trong P l tp hp tt c cc tp con ca tp hp X , l phn t nh nht duy nht. Xt tp hp sp th t (X, ), trong x l tp hp cc s nguyn ln hn 1 v l quan h chia ht cho trn X. Trong V d 13, ta bit rng trong X khng c phn t ti tiu. Do , theo nh l d), tp hp sp th t X khng c phn t nh nht. Tp hp sp th t (X, :), trong X l tp hp cc s nguyn ln hn 1 v : l quan h chia ht trn X, khng c phn t nh nht v vi mi n X, n khng chia ht n + 1. rng tp hp sp th t ny c v s phn t ti tiu (xem V d 12).
5.6. Cc tp con ca mt tp sp th t. B Docn (Zorn).

a) Gi s (X, ) l mt tp hp sp th t v A l mt tp con ca X. Gi A l quan h hai ngi xc nh trn tp hp A nh sau: Vi mi x, y A, x y khi v ch khi x y.
A A
D dng thy rng l mt quan h th t trn A. Tp hp sp th t (A, ) gi l tp con sp th t ca tp hp sp th t (X, ).

A
Thay cho (A, ) ngi ta vit (A, ). Khi ni A l mt tp con ca tp hp sp th t (X, ) m khng gii thch g thm th ta hiu A l tp hp sp th t (A, ).
A
b) Gi s (X, ) l mt tp hp sp th t. Tp con A ca X gi l dy xch nu vi mi x, y X, x y hoc y x. Ni mt cch khc, A l mt dy sch nu quan h th t trn A l ton phn.
A
V d 5.16 :
Tp con A = {5, 15, 60} l mt dy xch trong tp hp sp th t (N*, :). Tp con B = {3, 6, 12, 18} khng phi l mt dy xch trong tp hp sp th t (N*, ), trong l quan h chia ht cho trn N v 18 khng chia ht cho 12. c) Phn t chn trn, chn di Gi s (X, ) l mt tp hp sp th t v A l mt tp hp con ca X. (i) (ii) x X gi l phn t chn trn ca A nu x x vi mi x A.
0 0
x X gi l phn t chn di ca A nu x x vi mi x A.
0 0
V d 5.17 : Xt tp hp sp th t (N*, :) v tp con A = {10, 15, 20}. D dng thy rng cc s 60, 120, 180, ... l nhng phn t chn trn ca A v cc s 1, 5 l cc phn t chn di ca A. V d 5.18 : Xt hai tp con Z (l tp cc s nguyn) v X = {x R : 1 x < 3} ca tp hp sp th t (R, ) ( l quan h th t thng thng trn R). D dng thy rng trong R khng c phn t chn trn cng khng c phn t chn di ca Z, mi s thc ln hn hoc bng 3 u l mt phn t chn trn ca A v mi s thc nh hn hoc bng 1 l mt phn t chn di ca A. Nh vy, mt tp con ca mt tp hp sp th t c th c mt hoc nhiu, cng c th khng c phn t chn trn, chn di. B m ta tha nhn sau y l mt nh l quan trng c p dng ? chng minh nhiu nh l. d) B Zoocn. Gi s (X, ) l mt tp hp sp th t. Nu trong X mi dy xch u c mt phn t chn trn th trong X c phn t ti i.
Hot ng. Tm hiu v quan h th t Nhim v:

Sinh vin c thng tin c bn thc hin cc nhim v sau
Deleted:
Nhim v 1
Trnh by cc khi nim quan h th t v quan h th t nghim ngt, quan h th t ton phn v b phn.
L gii mt s quan h th t thng gp nh quan h chia ht, quan h chia ht cho trn tp hp N*, quan h bao hm trn mt tp hp nhng tp hp ,quan h (nh hn hoc bng theo ngha thng thng) trn tp hp R. Nhn bit mt quan h cho trc trn mt tp hp c phi l mt quan h th t hay khng, bit cho cc v d v quan h th t. Biu din mt s quan h th t v quan h th t nghim ngt bng lc hnh tn.
Nhim v 2
Trnh by cc khi nim phn t ti i, ti tiu, phn t ln nht, nh nht, phn t chn trn, chn di, dy xch trong mt tp hp sp th t. Tm cc phn t nu trong mt tp hp sp th t cho trc. Biu din c cc phn t ny trong mt s quan h th t bng lc hnh tn.
nh gi hot ng 5.1
1. Cho tp hp X = {1, 3, 9, 18, 36}. Gi l quan h chia ht trn X. a) Chng minh l mt quan h th t trn X. b) Quan h th t trn X c phi l ton phn khng? 2. Cho tp hp A = {3, 6, 12, 36, 48}. Quan h chia ht cho trn A c phi l mt quan h th t khng? Nu c, n c phi l mt quan h ton phn khng? 3. Cho R l quan h hai ngi trn tp hp C cc s phc xc nh nh sau: Vi mi a + bi, c + di C, (a + bi) (c + di) khi v ch khi a c v b d. a) Chng minh rng l mt quan h th t trn C. b) R c phi l ton phn khng? 4. Cho tp hp X = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} v quan h hai ngi R xc nh trn X nh sau: Vi mi x, y X, x R y khi v ch khi x y v 2 : (x y). a) Chng minh rng R l mt quan h th t trn X. b) R c phi l ton phn khng? c) Biu din quan h R bng lc hnh tn. 5. Gi s X l tp hp tt c cc dy s thc v R l quan h hai ngi trn X xc nh nh sau: Vi mi dy s thc (xn) v (yn), (xn) R (yn) khi v ch khi tn ti mt s nguyn dng m sao cho xn yn vi mi n > m. a) Chng minh quan h R l phn x v bc cu. b) R c phi l quan h th t hay khng?
6. C th xc nh c bao nhiu quan h th t. Trn mt tp hp c hai phn t? 7. Cho tp hp sp th t (X, ), trong X = {2, 5, 8, 10, 20, 40} v l quan h chia ht trn X. a) Tm cc phn t ti i v ti tiu ca X. b) Tm phn t ln nht v nh nht (nu c) ca X. 8. Cho tp hp sp th t (X, ) vi X = {3 , 3 , 3 , 3 , 3 } v l quan h chia ht cho trn X. Tm gi tr ln nht v gi tr nh nht ca X.
5 6 7 8 9
9. Cc lc hnh tn trong Hnh 34 di y biu din cc quan h hai ngi RA, RB, RC, theo th t, trn cc tp hp A, B, C. Quan h no trong ba quan h l quan h th t?
Hnh 34
10. Hai lc hnh tn trong Hnh 35 di y biu din quan h hai ngi R v , theo th t, trn tp hp X v Y. a) Chng minh rng R l quan h th t trn X v Y l quan h th t trn Y. b) Tm cc phn t ti i, ti tiu v phn t ln nht, nh nht ca mi tp hp X v Y.
Hnh 35
11. Cho v d v mt tp hp sp th t c m phn t va l ti i va l ti tiu. Hng dn. Xem lc trong Hnh 35a) 12. Cho v d v mt tp hp sp th t c a) m + 1 phn t, trong c k phn ti i v mt phn t ti tiu, b) m + 1 phn t, trong c k phn t ti tiu v mt phn t ti i. 13. Trong mt phng to Oxy cho bn hnh trn D , D , D , D : D v D u c tm l im gc (0, 0) v c bn knh theo th t, l 1 v 2, D c tm l im (2, 0) v bn knh l 1, D c tm l im (2, 0) v bn knh l 4. Gi X l tp hp 4 hnh trn cho : X = {D , D , D , D } v l quan h cha trong trn X.
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
a) Hy biu din quan h bng lc hnh tn. b) Tm cc phn t ti i, ti tiu v phn t ln nht, nh nht (nu c) ca tp hp sp th t X. 14. Cho hai tp con A = {9, 18, 36, 72, 216} v B = {7, 14, 28, 56, 84} ca tp hp N*. A v B c phi l dy xch trong tp hp sp th t N* vi quan h chia ht hay khng? 15. Tm cc phn t chn trn v chn di (nu c) ca mi tp con A = {7, 11} v B = {2, 4, 6, ..., 2n, ...} trong tp hp sp th t {N*, }, trong l quan h chia ht trn tp hp N*. 16. Tm cc phn t chn trn v chn di (nu c) ca mi tp con A = {6, 9, 15} v B = {3 , 3 , 3 , ...} trong tp hp sp th t {N*, }, trong l quan h chia ht cho trn tp hp N*.
5 6 7
17. Gi s {R, } l tp hp sp th t, trong l quan h nh hn hoc bng (thng thng) trn tp hp cc s thc . a) Tm cc phn t chn trn v cc phn t chn di ca tp hp A = [7, 3) = {x R : 7 x < 3} trong R. b) Tm cc phn t chn trn v chn di (nu c) ca tp hp N cc s t nhin. 18. Chng minh rng trong mi tp con hu hn khc rng A ca tp hp sp th t (X, ) lun tn ti phn t ti i v phn t ti tiu. Nu ngoi ra, A l mt dy xch th tn ti phn t ln nht v phn t nh nht ca A.
TIU CH 1.6. NH X Thng tin c bn

nh x v hm s, mt trng hp c bit ca nh x, l nhng khi nim quen thuc vi chng ta t lu. y l nhng khi nim quan trng, thng gp khng ch trong mi b mn ton hc m c trong vt l, ho hc,... cng nh trong cc ngnh khoa hc, k thut khc. Ch ny dnh ring cho vic gii thiu nh ngha, cc khi nim c bn v nh x v mt s tnh cht chung ca nh x.
6.1. nh ngha nh x
Ta xt mt s v d V d 6.1 : Gi s X l tp hp gm 7 em hc sinh ca mt trng trung hc ph thng, trong 5 em Cng, Lun, Thi, Mai, Hnh l hc sinh khi 10, hai em Nguyt, Vit l hc sinh khi 11: X = {c, l, t, m, h, n, v}, Y l tp hp gm 5 lp 10A, 10B, 10C, 10D, 10E ca trng Y = {A, B, C, D, E}, v R l quan h hai ngi l hc sinh ca lp trn X x Y, xc nh bi: R = {(c, A), (l, B), (t, B), (m, C), (h, D)}. ((<, A) R hay c R A c hiu Cng l hc sinh lp 10A). Lc hnh tn biu din quan h R c cho trong Hnh 1 di y. Ta thy 5 phn t c, l, t, m, h ca tp hp X c quan h R vi nhng phn t trong tp hp Y, cn hai phn t n, v khng c quan h R vi bt c mt phn t no ca Y. Nh vy, ta c D (R) X, D(R) l tp xc nh ca quan h R: D (R) = (c, l, t, m, h}. l hc sinh ca lp
Hnh 1
Trn lc hnh tn biu din quan h R ta thy t mi im c, l, t, m, h c mt mi tn i ra v khng c mi tn no i t hai im n v v. V d 6.2 : Gi s X l tp hp gm 5 ng: Hng, Cung, San, Vit, Tun trong mt nh ca khu tp th: X = {h, s, c, v, t}, Y l tp hp gm 6 em: Dng, Anh, Loan, o, Mnh, Kit, nh : Y = {d, a, l, , m, k}, v l quan h hai ngi l b ca trn X x Y xc nh bi: = {(h, d), (s, a), (s, l), (c, ), (v, m), (t, k)}. ((h, d) hay h d c ngha ng Hng l b ca em Dng). Khc vi V d 1, y mi phn t ca tp hp X u c quan h vi mt phn t no ca Y, tc l D () = X. Trn lc hnh tn biu din quan h (Hnh 2), ta thy t mi im ca tp hp X u c mi tn i ra. Ngoi ra, phn t s ca X c quan h vi hai phn t a v l ca Y. Trn lc hnh tn, ta thy c hai mi tn t im s i ra.
Hnh 2
V d 6.3 : Gi s X l tp hp gm 7 hc sinh: Dng, Mai, Hnh, Tun, Cng, Qunh, Vit: X = {d, m, h, t, c, q, v}, Y l tp hp gm mt s h: Nguyn, L, Trn, ng, Hunh, V: Y = {N, L, T, , H, V}, v l quan h c h l trn X x Y xc nh bi = {(d, N), (m, N), (h, L), (t, T), (c, T), (q, ), (v, H)}. ((d, N) hay d N c ngha Dng c h l Nguyn). Trong v d ny, mi phn t ca tp hp X u c quan h vi mt phn t no ca tp hp Y, tc l D () = X. Ngoi ra, mi phn t ca X ch c quan h vi mt phn t duy nht ca Y.
Hnh 3
Trn lc hnh tn biu din quan h , ta thy t mi im ca tp hp X u c mt mi tn i ra. Hn na, khng c im no ca X m t c qu mt mi tn i ra. Tm li, quan h hai ngi trn X x Y tho mn iu kin sau: Vi mi phn t x ca tp hp X, tn ti mt phn t duy nht y ca tp hp Y sao cho x y. Quan h c gi l mt nh x. Mt cch tng qut, ta c: nh ngha: Gi s X v Y l hai tp hp. Quan h hai ngi f trn X x Y gi l mt nh x t X vo Y nu vi mi phn t x X, tn ti mt phn t duy nht y Y sao cho x f y. nh x f t tp hp X vo tp hp Y c k hiu l: f : X Y. Nu x l mt phn t ca tp hp X th phn t y ca tp hp Y sao cho x f y c gi l nh ca x qua nh x f v c k hiu l f (x). Hin nhin nh x f c xc nh nu nh f (x) ca mi phn t x X u c xc nh. V vy ngi ta cn dng k hiu x f (x), x X hoc x y, x X ch anh x f. Trong trng hp X l mt tp hp hu hn, ngi ta thng cho nh x di dng mt bng gm hai hng. Cc phn t ca tp hp X c ghi hng trn. nh tng ng chng (nhng phn t ca tp hp Y) c ghi hng di. Chng hn, nh x : X Y trong V d 3 c cho bng sau:
Trc kia ta ni d c quan h vi N v vit d N. By gi ta ni N l nh ca d qua nh x v vit: N = (d). Gi s f : X Y l mt nh x t tp hp X vo tp hp Y. Khi , X c gi l tp xc nh ca nh x f. Tp hp cc nh f (x) ca tt c cc phn t x ca tp hp X c gi l nh ca nh x f, k hiu l f (X). Nh vy, vi mi y Y, y f (X) khi v ch khi tn ti x X sao cho y = f (x), tc l: f(X) = {y Y : tn ti x X sao cho y = f(x)}.
Hin nhin f (X) l mt tp con ca Y. Tp hp Y cha nh ca nh x f c gi l tp n (hoc tp ch) ca f. Tr li cc v d xt, ta thy quan h trong V d 1 l quan h trong V d 2 khng phi l nhng nh x. Hin nhin quan h trong V d 3 l mt nh x nh nu. Tp xc nh ca nh x l X. (d) = N, (m) = N, (h) = L, ..., (v) = H. nh ca nh x l: (X) = {N, L, T, , H} Y. Khng c phn t no ca tp hp X c quan h vi phn t V Y, tc l V khng phi l nh ca bt k mt phn t no ca X. Nh vy (X) l mt tp con thc s ca Y, tc l (X) Y v (X) Y. V d 6.4 : Cho tp hp X = {a, b, c} v nh x f: X N xc nh bi bng sau:
a) Biu din nh x f bng lc hnh tn. b) Tm nh ca f. a) Lc hnh tn ca nh x f c cho trong Hnh 4 di y:
Hnh 4
b) nh ca nh x f l : f (X) = {1, 3, 5}. f (X) l mt tp con thc s ca N.
nh x m tp xc nh v tp n u l nhng tp hp s (nh N, Z, Q, R, C hoc cc tp con ca chng) thng c cho bi mt cng thc. Chng hn, khi cho hm s : f : R* R xc nh bi cng thc : x f(x) = , ta hiu rng mi s thc x 0 nhn mt phn t duy nht y = R lm nh ca n qua nh x f. (K hiu R* ch tp hp cc s thc khc khng :R* = R\{0}). V d 6.5 : nh x f : R R xc nh bi cng thc x f(x) = sin x l mt nh x t tp hp cc s thc R vo R. Tp xc nh ca hm s f l R. Tp n ca f cng l R. nh ca nh x l tp hp: f (R) = {y R : 1 y 1}, v vi mi s thc y, y f (R) khi v ch khi y = f (x) = sin x iu ny xy ra khi v ch khi 1 y 1 V d 6.6 : nh x f : R R xc nh bi cng thc x f(x) = x + 1 l mt nh x t tp hp cc s thc R vo R.
2
Tp xc nh ca nh x ny l R. Tp n ca f cng l R. nh ca nh x: f (R) = {y R : y 1}, v vi mi s thc y, y f (R) khi v ch khi y = f (x) = x + 1.

2
iu ny xy ra khi v ch khi y 1. V d 6.7 : Gi s X l mt tp hp cho trc tu . nh x I: X X xc nh bi x I (x) = x l mt nh x t X vo X. Tp xc nh ca nh x I l X. Tp n ca I cng l X. Hin nhin nh ca nh x I l I (X) = X. I c gi l nh x ng nht trn tp hp X. Khi c nhiu tp hp X, Y, ... c ng thi cp n, phn bit, ngi ta dng cc k hiu IX, IY, ... ch cc nh x ng nht trn cc tp hp X, Y, ... V d 6.8 : Php cng trn tp hp cc s thc R l mt nh x t tp hp R = R x R vo tp hp R:
2
nh x f: R x R R xc nh bi: (x, y) f (x, y) = x + y l mt nh x t tp hp R x R vo tp hp R. (nh ca phn t (x, y) R x R qua nh x f c k hiu l f (x, y) thay cho f ((x, y))). Tp xc nh ca nh x f l R xR. Tp n ca f l R. D dng thy rng nh ca f l f (R x R) = R. Tng t, php tr v php nhn trn tp hp R cng l nhng nh x t tp hp R x R vo tp hp R. V d 6.9 : K hiu R* ch tp hp cc s thc khc 0: R* = R \ {0}. Php chia trn R la f mt nh x t tp hp R x R* vo tp hp R: nh x f : R x R* R xc nh bi (x, y) f (x, y) = l mt nh x t tp hp R x R* vo tp hp R. Tp xc nh ca f l R x R*. Tp n ca f l R. D dng thy rng nh ca f l tp hp f (R x R*) = R.
6.2. nh x bng nhau

Gi s X v Y l hai tp hp, f v g l hai nh x t X vo Y. Ta ni rng hai nh x f v g l bng nhau, v vit f = g, nu f (x) = g (x) vi mi x X. Chng hn, nh x f : R R x f (x) = x 1
3
v nh x g: R R x g (x) = (x 1) (x + x + 1)
2
l hai nh x bng nhau.
6.3. Thu hp v thc trin nh x

a) Gi s f : X Y l mt nh x t tp hp X vo tp hp Y v A l mt tp con ca X. nh x g : A Y xc nh bi g (x) = f (x) vi mi x A, Gi l nh x thu hp (gi tt l thu hp) ca nh x f trn tp hp A v c k hiu l f/A. Nh vy, f/A : A Y l nh x xc nh bi: x f/A (x) = f(x). V d 6.10 : Gi s f: R R l nh x xc nh bi:
A v B l hai tp con ca R vi : A = {x R : x 0} v B = {x R : x < 0}. Khi , nh x thu hp ca f trn A l: f/A: A R x f/A (x) = , v nh x thu hp ca f trn B l: f/B: B R x f/B(x) = . b) Gi s X, Y l hai tp hp, A l mt tp con ca X, f: A Y v F: X Y l nhng nh x. Nu F/A = f, tc l F (x) = f (x) vi mi x A th nh x F c gi l nh x thc trin (gi tt l thc trin) ca nh x f ln tp hp X. V d 6.11 : Gi s f : Q {0, 1} l nh x t tp hp cc s hu t Q vo tp hp {0, 1} xc nh bi: f (x) = 1, vi mi x Q, v D : R {0, 1} l nh x xc nh bi:
Khi , nh x D l thc trin ca nh x f (t tp con Q ca R) ln tp hp R. nh x D c gi l hm s iritsl (Diritchlet). (iritsl Pit Guxtao Lgin (Diritchlet Peter Gustav Lejeune, 1805 1859) l nh ton hc c).
6.4. Hp ca cc nh x
a) Cho hai nh x f : X Y v g : Y Z. nh x h : X Z xc nh bi x h(x) = g [f(x)] gi l nh x hp ca hai nh x f v g, k hiu l gof.
Nh vy, gof: X Z l nh x xc nh bi: (gof) (x) = g[f(x)], x X. (Trong k hiu nh x hp gof ca nh x f v g, hy ch n th t ca hai nh x: g c vit trc f). Lc sau gip ta nh nh ngha nh x hp d hn.
Hnh 5
V d 6.12 : (i) cho hai nh x. f: R R x f (x) = 2 x v g : R R x f (x) = sin x. Khi , nh x hp ca f v g l: gof : R R x (gof) (x) = sin (2x ). (ii) cho hai nh x f : R R
+
x f (x) = (K hiu R+ ch tp hp cc s thc khng m), v g: R R x g (x) = cos x. Khi , nh x hp ca f v g l: gof: R R
x (fog) (x) = 2 sin x . Nh vy fog gof. Ngi ta ni rng php hp cc nh x khng c tnh giao hon. V d 6.12 : Cho hai nh x f : R R x f (x) = x v g : R P (R)
+
x g(x) = [x, x] = { R : x x} (P (R) l tp hp cc tp con ca R). nh x hp ca f v g l: gof : R P (R) x (gof) (x) = [x, x] V d 6.13 : D dng thy rng vi mi nh x f : X Y, fo IX = f v IY of = f, trong IX v IY, theo th t, l nh x ng nht trn X v Y. Khi , ta ni rng cc lc sau l giao hon.
Hnh 6
nh l sau y cho thy php hp cc nh x c tnh kt hp. c) nh l Vi mi nh x f : X Y, g : Y Z v h : Z V, ho (gof) = (hog) of. Chng minh
D thy ho (gof) v (hog) of u l nhng nh x t X n V
Hnh 7
Ta chng minh: (1) (2) v (3) [(hog) of] (x) = (hog) (f(x)) = h (g (f(x))).
[ho (gof)] (x) = [(hog) of] (x) vi mi x X. [ho (gof)] (x) = h ((gof) (x)) = h (g (f(x)))
Tht vy, vi mi x X, ta c
T hai ng thc (2) v (3) suy ra ng thc (1) cn chng minh.
6.5. Hm s Dy v dy s.
Gi s fi X Y l mt nh x. Nu tp n Y ca f l tp hp s thc th f : X R c gi l mt hm s thc. Nu Y = C th nh x f : X C c gi l mt hm s phc. Nu tp xc nh X ca f l tp hp cc s nguyn dng N* (hoc tp hp cc s t nhin N) th nh x f : N* Y (hoc f : N Y) c gi l mt dy v hn (gi tt l dy) phn t ca Y. Gi s f : N* Y l mt dy phn t ca Y. Vi mi s nguyn dng n, t yn = f (n); yn l nh ca n qua nh x f. Ngi ta thng dng k hiu (y , y , ..., yn, ...) hoc (yn) ch dy f (v mt nh x c xc nh bi nh ca cc phn t ca n).
1 2
c bit, nu X = N* (hoc N) v Y = R th nh x f: N* R c gi l mt dy s thc. nh x f : N* C (hoc f : N C) c gi l mt dy s phc. Nu X = {1, 2, ..., m} th nh x f : X Y c gi l mt dy (hu hn) m phn t ca Y. t yk = f (k), k = 1, ..., m. Dy m phn t ca Y thng c k hiu l (y , y , ..., ym).
1 2
Khi xt cc hm s thc f : X R hoc hm s phc f : X C, ngi ta gi nh f (x) ca phn t x qua nh x f l gi tr ca hm s f ti im x v gi nh f (X) ca f l tp cc gi tr ca hm s f. Chng hn, vi hm s f : R R, x f (x) = sin x, gi tr ca hm s ti im x = l f () = sin = v tp cc gi tr ca hm s l f (R) = {y R: 1 y 1}. Trong mt s trng hp ngi ta cho hm s thc f xc nh trn mt tp con X no ca R bi mt cng thc m khng cho trc tp hp X. Khi , ta hiu tp xc nh X ca hm s f l tp hp tt c cc s thc x sao cho f (x) c ngha. Chng hn, tp xc nh ca hm s thc f(x) = l tp hp: X = {x R : x 1}.
B. Hot ng 6.1. Tm hiu cc khi nim c bn v nh x Nhim v:

Sinh vin tho lun theo nhm 3 4 ngi thc hin cc nhim v sau ri c i din nhm trnh by
Deleted:
Nhim v 1
Cho ba v d v quan h hai ngi khng phi l nh x v biu din quan h bng lc hnh tn. Cho ba v d v nh x m tp xc nh v tp n u khng phi l nhng hm s, biu din nh x bng lc hnh tn v tm nh ca chng. Cho bn v d v nh x m tp xc nh l N, N*, Z, Q, R hoc tp con ca chng v ch ra tp xc nh v nh ca cc nh x . Cho v d v nh x c tp xc nh l tp hp s thc {x R : x 0} v nh l tp hp { x R : 0 x < 1}.
Nhim v 2
Cho ba v d v hai nh x bng nhau. Hai nh x. f : R R
+
x f (x) = v g : R R
+
x g(x) = x 1
C phi l hai nh x bng nhau hay khng?
Nhim v 3
Cho hai v d v nh x thu hp v nh x thc trin ca mt nh x cho trc. Cho hai v d v mt cp nh x f, g : X Y khc nhau nhng f/ = g/ , A l mt tp con ca X.
A A
Cho ba tp hp A, B, X, trong A B X. Tm quan h gia cc nh x. f/ , (f/ )/A v f/ .

A B AB
Nhim v 4
Cho hai v d v cc nh x f v g sao cho nh x hp gof tn ti nhng khng tn ti nh x hp fog. Cho hai v d v cc nh x f v g sao cho gof v fog u tn ti nhng gof fog. Cho hai v d v cc nh x f v g sao cho gof v fog u tn ti, hn na gof = fog.
nh gi hot ng 6.1
1. Cho hai tp hp X = {a, b, c, d, e}, Y = {0, 1, 2, 5, 7, 9} v quan h hai ngi R trn X x Y xc nh bi: R = {(a, 0), (b, 1), (c, 2), (e, 9)}. a) Biu din quan h R bng lc hnh tn. b) R c phi l mt nh x khng? 2. Cho hai tp hp A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, B = {a, b, c, d, e, f} v quan h hai ngi R trn A x B xc nh bi: = {(1, a), (2, a), (3, b), (4, d), (5, e), (3, c)}. a) Biu din quan h R bng lc hnh tn. b) R c phi l mt nh x khng? 3. Cho hai tp hp X = {3, 5, 7, 12}, Y = {1, 6, 13, 17, 35, 36} v quan h hai ngi chia ht trn X x Y. (Vi mi x X, y Y, x y khi v ch khi x chia ht y)/ a) Tm quan h . b) Biu din quan h bng lc hnh tn. c) c phi l mt nh x khng?
Deleted:
4. Cho hai tp hp A = {2, 3, 5, 7, 9} , B = {11, 13, 18, 35, 101} v quan h hai ngi chia ht f trn A x B. a) Tm quan h f v biu din f bng lc hnh tn. b) f c phi l mt nh x khng? Tm tp xc nh v nh ca f (nu f l nh x). 5. Lp 12A ca mt trng trung hc ph thng c 40 hc sinh. Mt s em tui 18, s cn li tui 17. Gi X l tp hp cc hc sinh lp 12A, Y = {17, 18} v R l quan h hai ngi trn X x Y xc nh nh sau: Vi mi x X, y Y, x R y khi v ch khi y l tui ca hc sinh x. a) R c phi l mt nh x khng? b) Tm tp xc nh v nh ca R (nu R l mt nh x). 6. Tp hp X c n phn t, tp hp Y c mt phn t. Hi c bao nhiu nh x t X vo Y? 7. Tp hp X c mt phn t, tp hp Y c m phn t. Hi c bao nhiu nh x t X vo Y? 8. Hai tp hp X v Y u c hai phn t. Hi c bao nhiu nh x t X vo Y. 9. Chng minh rng nu tp hp X c n phn t v tp hp Y c m phn t th c mn nh x t X vo Y. Hng dn: Gi s m l mt s nguyn dng tu v Y = {y , y , ..., ym}. Ta chng minh iu khng nh bng phng php quy np theo n. Gi s n = 1 v X = {x }. Khi c m = m nh x t X vo Y; cc nh x c xc nh nh sau: f (x ) = y , f (x ) = y , ... , fm (x ) = ym. Gi s iu khng nh ng cho n, tc l c mn nh x t tp hp X = {x , x , ..., xn} (c n phn t) vo tp hp Y. Ta chng minh c mn nh x t tp hp X = {x , x , ..., xn, xn } vo tp hp Y. Chia tp hp tt c cc nh x t X vo Y thnh m tp con i mt ri nhau nh sau: Tp con th nht gm tt c cc nh x f : X Y sao cho f (xn ) = y , tp con th hai gm tt c cc nh x f : X Y sao cho f (xn ) = y ,..., tp con th m gm tt c cc nh x f X Y sao cho f (xn ) = ym. Hy ch ra rng mi tp con c mn phn t.
1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 2 +1 1 2 +1 +1 1 +1 2 1 +1
10. K hiu P = P (R) ch tp hp tt c cc tp con ca tp hp cc s thc R. Cho nh x f : R P xc nh bi cng thc: f(x) = {y R : y x Tm f(-2), f(0) v f (x2). 11. Cho tp hp X = {x R : 0 x 2} v nh x f : X R xc nh bi:
Tm nh f (X) ca nh x f. 12. Hai nh x f; g : R R xc nh bi:
f (x) =
g (x) =
c phi l nhng nh x bng nhau hay khng? 13. Cng cu hi ca bi tp 12 i vi hai nh x u, v : R R xc nh bi:
v (x) = .
14. Tm cc nh x hp gof v fog (nu c) ca mi cp hm s sau y. Nu khng tn ti gof hoc fog th gii thch l do: a) f : R R
+
v g : R R x g(x) = ex
x f(x) = lnx
( l tp hp cc s thc dng: = {x R : x > 0};
b) f : R* R
g : R* R
x f (x) = hvx
x g(x) = cos x.
15. Cho hai nh x f, g : R R xc nh bi:
v g(x) = x + 1. a) nh ca nh x h : R R phi tho mn iu kin no c foh = goh? b) Tm ba hm s h : R R m nh h (R) l mt tp hp v hn (tc l tp hp c v s phn t) sao cho foh = goh. 16. Cho hai hm s f, g : R R xc nh bi: f(x) = v g(x) = 2x + 33.
2
Tm tp con X ca R sao cho: f/ = g/ .

X X
17. Cng cu hi ca bi tp 16 i vi hai hm s f, g : R R xc nh bi: f(x) = , g(x) = 3 x2. 18. Gi s A l mt tp con ca tp hp X. nh x jA : A X xc nh bi x jA (x) = x gi l php nhng tp con A vo tp hp X. Chng minh rng vi mi nh x f : X Y v vi mi A X, ta u c: f/ = fo jA.
A
19. Tm tp xc nh v tp cc gi tr ca hm s f(x) = 20. Chng minh rng nu Y l mt tp hp c m phn t th tn ti mn dy n phn t ca Y. Hng dn. p dng bi tp 9. 21. Gi s X v Y l hai tp hp bt k. K hiu YX ch tp hp tt c cc nh x f : X Y. Gi s X, Y, Z l ba tp hp v f : X Y l mt nh x cho trc. nh x df : ZY ZX xc nh bi df() = f
0
gi l nh x cm ng b?i nh x f. Cho bn tp hp X, Y, Z, W v f ZX
0
hai nh x f : X Y v g : Y Z. Gi df : WY WX, dg : WZ WY v dgof : WZ WX, theo th t, l nh x cm ng bi f, g v gof. Chng minh rng dgof = df . dg. 22. K hiu RR ch tp hp tt c cc nh x t tp R vo chnh n (xem bi tp 21). Gi l quan h hai ngi trn RR xc nh nh sau: Vi mi f, g RR, f g khi v ch khi f (x) g(x) vi mi x R. a) Chng minh rng l mt quan h th t trn RR. b) Chng minh rng trong tp hp sp th t RR khng c phn t ti i v phn t ti tiu. 23. Gi s R l mt quan h tng ng trn tp hp X. nh x: : X X/R x (x) = trong l lp tng ng cha phn t x X gi l, nh x thng. Gi s RX v RY, theo th t, l hai quan h tng ng trn hai tp hp X, Y v f : X Y l mt nh x sao cho vi mi x , x X,
1 2
x RXx f(x ) RY f(x ).

1 2 1 2
Chng minh rng tn ti nh x F : X / RX Y/RY sao cho lc sau giao hon.
Ngoi ra, nu f(X) = Y th F (X/RX) = Y/RY. ( v l hai nh x thng).

X Y
Formatted: Heading01, Line spacing: single
Tiu ch 1.7. n nh, ton nh, song nh v nh x ngc Thng tin c bn 7.1. n nh
Ta xt cc nh x trong v d sau: V d 7.1: Cho hai tp hp X = {a, b, c, d, e}, Y = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8} v hai nh x f : X Y, g : X Y xc nh b?i cc bng sau y:
Deleted:
Hai nh x f v g c biu din bi hai lc hnh tn trong Hnh 8 di y.
Hnh 2
Ta thy ba phn t b, d, e ca tp hp X u c nh qua nh x f l phn t 2 ca tp hp Y. Trong lc 8a), ba mi tn t ba im b, d, e ca X u i n im 2 ca Y. iu ny khng xy ra vi nh x g. Cc phn t a, b, c, d, e ca tp hp X c cc nh qua nh x g l nhng phn t i mt khc nhau ca tp hp Y. Trong lc 8 b), cc mi tn t hai im khc nhau ca X i n hai im khc nhau ca Y. Ni mt cch khc, hai phn
t khc nhau bt k ca tp hp X c nh qua nh x g l hai phn t khc nhau ca tp hp Y. nh x g c gi l mt n nh. Mt cch tng qut, ta c: nh ngha: nh x f: X Y gi l mt n nh nu hai phn t khc nhau bt k ca tp X c nh qua f l hai phn t khc nhau ca tp hp Y, tc l vi mi x , x X,
1 2
x x f(x ) f(x ).
1 2 1 2
Hin nhin, iu kin trn tng ng vi iu kin sau: Vi mi x , x X,

1 2
f(x ) = f(x ) x = x
1 2 1
Theo nh ngha va nu, hin nhin nh x f trong V d 1 khng phi l mt n nh. V d 7.2 : (i) nh x f : R R xc nh bi f(x) = x khng phi l mt n nh v chng hn, f(1) = f(1) = 1.
2
(ii) nh x g : N* Q xc nh bi g(n) = l mt n nh v vi hai s nguyn dng m, n bt k, nu m n th . (iii) nh x : R R xc nh bi (x) = sin x khng phi l mt n nh v chng hn, (0) = () = 0. Tuy nhin, nu t A = {x R : x } th nh x /A : A R, thu hp ca trn tp con A ca R l mt n nh. Tng t, nh x (x) = cos x khng phi l mt n nh. Tuy nhin, nu dt B = {x R : 0 x } th nh x /B : B R, thu hp ca trn tp con B ca R l mt n nh. nh x h : R R xc nh bi h(x) = x khng phi l mt n nh nhng nh x h/R R, thu hp ca h trn tp hp R cc s nguyn khng m R l mt n nh.
+ + +
(iv) Hin nhin, nu nh x f : X Y l mt n nh v A l mt tp con ca tp hp X th nh x f/A : A Y, thu hp ca f trn A, l mt n nh.
7.2. Ton nh
Ta tr li xt hai nh x f v g trong V d 2.1.
nh ca nh x f l f(X) = {1, 2, 3}. Mi phn t 4, 5, 6,7, 8 ca Y khng phi l nh ca bt k mt phn t no ca X qua nh x f; f(X) l mt tp con thc s ca Y, tc l f(X) Y v f(X) Y. Tng t, nh ca nh x g l g(X) = {1, 3, 4, 6, 7}. Mi phn t 2, 5, 8 ca Y khng nhn mt phn t no ca Y lm nh ca n qua nh x g. g(X) cng l mt tp con thc s ca Y. Ta xt mt v d khc. V d 7.3 : Cho hai tp hp X = {a, b, c, d, e, f} v Y = {M, N, P, Q}. Xt nh x : X Y cho bi bng sau:
nh x c biu din bi lc hnh tn trong hnh 9
Hnh 9
Khc vi hai nh x f v g trong V d 1, y nh ca l (X) = {M, N, P, Q} = Y. Nh vy mi phn t ca Y du l nh ca mt phn t no ca X qua nh x . Ngi ta gi nh x l mt ton nh. Mt cch tng qut, ta c: nh ngha nh x f: X Y c gi l mt ton nh nu nh ca nh x f bng tp n ca nh x, tc l: f(X) = Y. T nh ngha ca ton nh suy ra rng f : X Y l mt ton nh khi v ch khi vi mi y Y, tn ti t nht mt phn t x X sao cho f(x) = y. Hin nhin cc nh x f v g trong V d 1 khng phi l nhng ton nh. V d 7.4:
(i) t A = {x R : < x < }. nh x f : A R xc nh bi f(x) = tgx l mt ton nh v vi mi y R, tn ti x A sao cho f (x) = tgx = y. (ii) nh x g : R R xc nh bi g(x) = x khng phi l mt ton nh v nh ca nh x l tp hp g(R) = {x : x R} = R ; l mt tp con thc s ca R. Tuy nhin nh x : R R xc nh bi (x) = x l mt ton nh v (R) = R .
+ + +
(iii) nh x h : R Rxc nh bi h(x) = sinx khng phi l mt ton nh v h(R) = {sin x : x R} = {y R : 1 y 1} R. Tuy nhin, nu t A = {1 y 1} th nh x : R A xc nh bi (x) = sin x l mt ton nh. Ton nh f : X Y cn c gi l nh x t X ln Y. Chng hn, ngi ta gi ton nh : R R x (x) = x l nh x t R ln R hoc ton nh t X ln Y.
+ +
Hin nhin, nu nh x f : X Y khng phi l mt ton nh th thay tp n Y bi nh f(X) ca f, ta c ton nh : X f(X), x (x) = f(x) t X ln f(X).
7.3. Song nh
nh ngha: nh x f : X Y gi l mt song nh nu n va l mt n nh va l mt ton nh. f l mt ton nh khi v ch khi f(X) = Y, tc l vi mi y Y, tn ti x X sao cho f(x) = y. Nu x l mt phn t ca X sao cho f(x) = y th f(x) = f(x). V f l mt n nh nn t suy ra x = x. Do nh x f : X Y l mt song nh khi v ch khi vi mi phn t y Y, tn ti mt phn t duy nht x X sao cho f(x) = y. V d 7.5: (i) D dng thy rng nh x f : R R xc nh bi f(x) = x l mt ton nh. V vi hai s thc x , x khng m bt k, nu x x th f(x1) = = = f(x ) nn f cng l mt n nh. Do f l mt song nh t R ln R .
+ + 2 1 2 1 2 + + 2
(ii) nh x g: R xc nh bi g(x) = lnx l mt song nh t ln R v vi mi s thc y, tn ti mt s dng duy nht x sao cho lnx = y. ( l tp hp cc s thc dng: = {x R : x > 0}). (iii) nh x h : R Xc nh bi h(x) = ex l mt song nh vi mi s dng y, tn ti mt s thc duy nht x sao cho f(x) = ex = y.
(iv) nh x : R R xc nh bi f(x) = l mt song nh v vi mi s thc khng m y, tn ti mt thc khng m duy nht x sao cho (x) = = y.
+ +
(v) t A = {x R: 0 < x < }. nh x : A R xc nh bi g(x) = cotgx l mt song nh t A ln R v vi mi s thc y, tn ti mt phn t duy nht x A sao cho (x) = cotgx = y.
7.4. nh x ngc
Gi s f : X Y l mt song nh t tp hp X ln tp hp Y. Khi , vi mi phn t y Y, tn ti mt phn t duy nht x X sao cho f(x) = y. a) nh ngha: Gi s f : X Y l mt song nh t tp hp X ln tp hp Y. nh x: g:YX xc nh bi: y g(y) = x, trong x l phn t duy nht ca X sao cho f(x) = y, gi l nh x ngc ca nh x f. nh x ngc ca song nh f : X Y c k hiu l f .
1
Tnh cht c trng ca nh x ngc c cho trong nh l sau: b) nh l: Nu f : X Y l mt song nh v f : Y X l nh x ngc ca f th vi mi x X, y Y, f (f(x)) = x v f (f (y)) = y,
1 1 1
(1)
tc l: f = Ix v fo f = IY, trong IX v IY, theo th t, l nh x ng nht trn tp hp X v tp hp Y. Ni mt cch khc, hai lc sau l giao hon.
Hnh 10
Chng minh: Gi s y l mt phn t bt k ca Y. Khi f (y) = x, trong x l phn t duy nht ca X sao cho f(x) = y. Do f (f (y)) = f(x) = y. Ta chng minh h thc th hai trong (1). Nu x l mt phn t bt k ca X th y = f(x) Y. V f l mt n nh nn x l phn t duy nht c nh qua nh x f l y. Do f (y) = x v ta c f (f(x)) = f (y) = x.
1 1 1 1 1
Ta s thy f l nh x duy nht tho mn ng thi hai h thc trong (1). l h qu ca nh l sau:
1
c) nh l. Gi s hai nh x f : X Y v g : Y X tho mn cc h thc sau: g (f(x)) = x vi mi x X v f (g (y)) = y vi mi y Y (2) Khi (i) (ii) f v g l nhng song nh. g l nh x ngc ca f.
Chng minh : Trc ht ta chng minh f l mt song nh. Vi mi y Y, x = g(y) l mt phn t ca X. Theo gi thit, ta c f(x) = f(g(y)) = y. Do f l mt ton nh. Vi hai phn t bt k x , x X, nu f(x = f(x ) th g(f(x ) = g (f(x )). Do , t h thc th nht trong (2) suy ra x = x . Vy f l mt n nh. f va l ton nh va l n nh nn n l mt song nh. Tng t, g cng l mt song nh.
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By gi ta chng minh g l nh x ngc ca X, tc l g(y) = f (y) vi mi y Y. Tht vy, gi s y l mt phn t bt k ca Y v g (y) = x. T h thc th hai trong (2) suy ra f(x) = f(g(y)) = y. V f l mt n nh nn x l phn t duy nht ca x c nh l y qua nh x f. Do f (y) = x = g(y).
1 1
T nh l trn suy ra rng: d) Nu g : Y X l nh x ngc ca nh x f : X Y th f l nh x ngc ca g. Do : (f ) = f.

1 1
Quan h gia cc nh x ngc f v g ca hai song nh f : X Y v g : Y Z vi nh x ngc (gof) ca nh x hp gof Z c cho trong nh l sau.
1 1
e) nh l Cho hai nh x f : X Y v g : Y Z. Khi (i) (ii)

1
Nu f v g l nhng n nh th nh x hp gof l mt n nh. Nu f v g l nhng ton nh th gof l mt ton nh.

1 1
(iii) Nu f v g l nhng song nh th gof l mt song nh, v (gof) = f . g , tc l lc sau l giao hon.
Hnh 11
Chng minh t h = gof. (i) Vi mi x , x X, nu x x th do f l mt n nh nn f(x ) f(x ). V g l mt n nh nn g(f(x )) g(f(x )), tc l h(x ) h(x ). Vy h = gof l mt n nh.
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
(ii) Gi s z l mt phn t bt k ca Z. V g : Y Z l mt ton nh nn tn ti y Y sao cho g(y) = z. Li v f : X Y l mt ton nh nn tn ti x X sao cho f(x) = y. Do g(f(x)) = g(y) = z, tc l h(x) = z. Vy h l mt ton nh. (iii) Nu f v g l nhng song nh th f v g va l n nh va l ton nh. Do t (i) v (i) suy ra rng h = gof cng va l n nh va l ton nh, tc l gof l mt song nh. Do tn ti cc nh x ngc f : Y X, g : Z Y v (gof) : Z X. Ta chng minh:
1 1 1
(gof) (z) = f (g (z)) vi mi z Z.

1 1 1
Tht vy, gi s z l mt phn t bt k ca Z. V g l mt song nh nn tn ti mt phn t duy nht y Y sao cho: g(y) = z (1) V f l mt song nh nn tn ti mt phn t duy nht x X sao cho: f(x) = y (2) T (1) v (2) suy ra g (f(x)) = g(y) = z, tc l: h(x) = z (3) V g, f, h l nhng song nh nn t (1), (2), (3) suy ra: g (z) = y, f (y) = x v h (z) = x. Do :
1 1 1
f (g (z)) = f (y) = x = h (z).

1 1 1 1
f) Hon v ca mt tp hp Gi s X l mt tp hp cho trc. Mi song nh f : X X t tp hp X ln X gi l mt hon v ca tp hp X.
Hin nhin nh x ng nht IX trn tp hp X l mt hon v ca tp hp X. T nh l e) suy ra rng nh x hp ca hai hon v ca tp hp X l mt hon v ca tp hp X. Nu X l mt tp hp hu hn, chng hn X c n phn t th nh ngha ca hon v nu trn tng ng vi nh ngha hon v ca mt tp hp n phn t m ta bit trong sch gio khoa ton bc ph thng trung hc.
Hot ng 7.1. Tm hiu n nh, ton nh v song nh

Sinh vin c thng tin c bn ri tho lun theo nhm 2 ngi thc hin cc nhim v sau:
Nhim v
Nhim v 1 :
Cho ba v d v nh x khng phi l n nh cng khng phi l ton nh. Cho ba v d v n nh khng phi l ton nh. Cho ba v d v ton nh khng phi l n nh. Cho ba v d v nh x f : X Y khng phi l n nh nhng thu hp f/ ca n trn mt tp con A ca X l mt n nh.
A
Cho n nh x f : X X , f : X X , ... fn = Xn Xn v t h = fn . fn . ... . f : X Xn.

1 1 2 1 2 1 1 1
Nu h ... hn l nhng n nh th h c phi l mt n nh hay khng?

1
Nu h , ..., hn l nhng ton nh th h c phi l mt ton nh hay khng?

1
Nu h , ..., hn l nhng song nh th h c phi l mt song nh hay khng?

1
Nhim v 2 : Tp hp X c m phn t, tp hp Y c n phn t cho m < n. Tn ti hay khng mt ton nh t X ln Y? Tp hp X c m phn t, tp hp Y c n phn t. Gi s m > n. Tn ti hay khng mt n nh t X vo Y? Cho hai v d v nh x f : X Y khng phi l song nh nhng nh x thu hp h = f/ ca f trn mt tp hp con A ca X l mt song nh. Tm nh x ngc ca h.
A
Tm hai cp nh x f : X Y v g : Y Z sao cho f khng phi l mt ton nh nhng nh x hp gof l mt ton nh.
nh gi hot ng 7.1
1. Cho hai tp hp A = {a, b, c, d}, B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} v hai nh x f : A B, g : A B xc nh bi hai bng sau:
a) Biu din cc nh x f v g bi lc hnh tn. b) f v g c phi l n nh khng? 2. Cho hai tp hp X = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}, Y = {a, b, c, d, e, f} v hai nh x f, g : X Y xc nh bi cc bng sau:
a) Biu din cc nh x f v g bi lc hnh tn. b) f v g c phi l ton nh hay khng? 3. Cho hai tp hp X = {a, b, c, d, e}, Y = {1,2,3,4,5} v hai nh x f, g : X Y xc nh bi cc bng sau:
a) Biu din f v g bi lc hnh tn. b) Chng minh rng f v g l nhng song nh v tm nh x ngc ca f v g. 4. Cho hai s thc a, b, a 0. Chng minh rng nh x f : R R xc nh bi f(x) = ax + b l mt song nh v tm nh x ngc ca f. 5. Chng minh rng cc nh x sau y l nhng song nh v tm nh x ngc ca mi nh x : a) f : R R xc nh bi f(x) = ,
+ +
b) g : R R xc nh bi g(x) = x ,
3
c) h : R* R*, x h(x) = ,
d) u : A A, x u(x) = , trong A =R \ {1}
6. Gi s C l tp hp cc im ca ng trn ng knh AB v D l tp hp cc im ca tip tuyn vi ng trn ti im B. Vi mi im M D, gi N l giao im ca ng thng AM vi ng trn. a) nh x f : D C xc nh bi f(M) = N c phi l mt n nh hay khng? b) f c phi l mt song nh hay khng? 7. Cho tp hp s thc A = {x R : 1 x 1} v hai nh x f : R R, g : R A xc nh bi
Chng minh rng nh x hp gof l mt ton nh. 8. Gi s f : X X l mt ton nh t tp hp X ln X. Chng minh rng nu fof = f th f l nh x ng nht trn tp hp X. 9. Cho ba nh x f, g : X Y v h : Y Z. Chng minh rng nu h l mt n nh v hof = hog th f = g. 10. Cho ba tp hp X, Y, Z v nh x f : Y Z c tnh cht sau: Vi mi nh x u, v : X Y, fou = fov u = v. Chng minh rng f l mt n nh. 11. Cho hai nh x f : X Y v g : Y Z. Chng minh rng: a) Nu nh x hp h = gof l mt n nh th f l mt n nh, b) Nu h l n nh v f l ton nh th g l n nh, c) Nu h l ton nh v g l n nh th g v f l nhng ton nh. 12. Gi s f : X Y v g : Y X l hai ton nh tho mn ng thc gof = IX. Chng minh rng g l nh x ngc ca f. 13. Cho tp hp A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} v hai hon v f : A A v g : A A ca tp hp A xc nh bi:
Tm cc hon v hp gof v fog. 14. Gi s X v Y l hai tp hp c n phn t (N(X) = n v N(Y) = n). Chng minh rng c tt c n! song nh t tp hp X ln tp hp Y. T suy ra rng s hon v ca mt tp hp n phn t l n! Hng dn : iu khng nh ng vi n = 1. Tht vy, gi s X = {a } v Y = {b }. Ch c mt song nh t X ln Y : l nh x f : X Y xc nh bi f (a ) = b . Nh vy, nu X v Y l nhng tp hp c mt phn t th c 1 = 1! song nh t X ln Y.
1 1 1 1
Gi s iu khng nh ng vi n, tc l c n! song nh t tp hp X ln tp hp Y, nu X v Y u c n phn t. Ta chng minh iu khng nh ng cho n + 1. Tht vy, gi s X = {a , a , ..., an, an } v Y = {b , b , ... , bn, bn }. Phi chng minh c c thy (n + 1) ! song nh t X ln Y. Ta chia tp hp tt c cc song nh t X ln Y thnh n + 1 tp con nh sau:
1 2 +1 1 2 +1
Tp con th nht A gm tt c cc song nh f : X Y sao cho f (an ) = b . Tp con th hai A gm tt c cc song nh f : X Y sao cho f(an ) = b , ... . Tp con th n + 1 An gm tt c cc song nh f : X Y sao cho f (an ) = bn . Cc tp con A , ..., An i mt ri nhau. Hy chng minh rng mi tp hp Ak c n! phn t, k = 1, 2, ..., n + 1.
1 +1 1 2 +1 2 +1 +1 +1 1 +1
15. Gi s tp hp X c k phn t, tp hp Y c n phn t, k n. Chng minh rng c c thy n (n 1) ... (n k + 1) n nh t X vo Y. Hng dn : Ta chng minh iu khng nh bng php quy np theo k. iu khng nh ng vi k = 1. Gi s X = {x } v Y = {y , y , ..., yn}, n l mt s nguyn dng bt k, n > 1. Khi , c c thy n n nh t X vo Y: l cc nh x f : X Y, x f (x ) = y , nh x f : X Y , x f (x ) = y , ..., nh x fn : X Y, x fn (x ) = yn. Gi s iu khng nh ng cho k, tc l nu X c k phn t v Y c n phn t, k n th c c thy n (n 1)
1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 1 2 1 2 1 1
... (n k + 1) n nh t X vo Y. Ta chng minh iu khng nh ng cho k + 1, tc l nu tp hp X c k + 1 phn t v tp hp Y c n phn t, k + 1 n th c c thy n (n 1) ... (n (k + 1) + 1) n nh t X vo Y. Tht vy, gi s X = {x , x , ..., xk, xk }, Y = {y , y , ..., yn}. Chia tp hp tt c cc n nh t X vo Y thnh n tp con nh sau: Tp con A gm tt c cc n nh f : X Y sao cho f (xk ) = y , tp con A gm tt c cc n nh f : X Y sao cho f (xk ) = y , ..., tp con An gm tt c cc n nh f : X Y sao cho f (xk ) = yn. Cc tp con A , ..., An i mt ri nhau. Hy chng minh rng mi tp con Ak c (n 1) (n 2) ... ((n 1) k + 1).
1 2 +1 1 2 1 +1 1 2 +1 2 +1 1
TIU CH 1.8. NH V TO NH QUA MT NH X Thng tin c bn 8.1. nh ca mt tp hp qua mt nh x

a) nh ngha: Gi s f : X Y l mt nh x v A l mt tp con ca X. Tp hp cc nh ca tt c cc phn t ca A qua nh x f gi l nh ca tp hp A qua nh x f, k hiu l f(A). Nh vy, vi mi x Y, y f(A) khi v ch khi tn ti x A sao cho y = f(x). Do : f(A) = {y Y: Tn ti x A sao cho y = f (x). V d 8.1 : Cho hai tp hp X = {a, b, c, d, e}, Y = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} v nh x f : X Y xc nh bi bng sau:
nh x f c biu din bi lc hnh tn trong Hnh 1 di y.
Hnh 1
Cho hai tp con A v B ca X : A = {a, c, e}; B = {a, d}. nh ca A v B qua nh x f l: f(A) = {1, 2}; f (B) = {1, 5}. V d 8.2 : (i) Gi s f : R R l nh x xc nh bi f (x) = x , A = {, 3, 7} v R l tp hp cc s thc khng dng, R = {x R: x 0}. Khi :
2
f(A) = {2, 9, 49} v f (R ) = R .

+
(ii) Gi s D : R {0, 1} l nh x xc nh bi: 1 vi x Q,
D(x) = 0 vi x R\ Q. (D l hm s iritsl). Tm nh ca cc tp hp A = {1, 1, 0,5, 1, 118}, B = {, , e}, C = {, 100} qua nh x D. Ta c: f(A) = {1}; f(B) = {0}; f(C) = {0, 1}. (iii) Cho nh x f: R R xc nh bi f(x) = 3x v cc tp hp s thc A = {x R : 2 x 5}, B = {x R : x < 1}. nh ca A v B qua nh x f l: f(A) = {y R : 15 y 6} v f(B) = {y R : y > 3}. Mt vi tnh cht ca nh b) nh l Cho nh x f : X Y v cc tp con A, B ca X. Khi : (i) (ii) Nu A B th f(A) f(B), f (A B) = f (A) f(B),
(iii) f (A B) f(A) f(B). Chng minh (i) Nu y f(A) th tn ti x A sao cho y = f (x). V A B nn t suy ra x B v y = f (x). Do y f(B). Vy f(A) f(B). (ii) V A A B nn, theo (i), ta c f(A) f(A B). Tng t, (1) (2) f(B) f(A B). Do f(A) f(B) f (A B). f(A B) f(A) f(B).
Ta chng minh bao hm thc ngc Gi s y l mt im bt k ca f(A B). Khi , tn ti x A B sao cho y = f(x). V x A B nn x A hoc x B. Nu x A th y = f(x) f(A), do y f(A) f(B). Nu x B th y f(B); do y f(A) f(B). Ta chng minh (2). T (1) v (2) suy ra ng thc (ii) cn chng minh. (iii) V A B A nn, theo (i), ta c f (A B) f (A), Tng t, f(A B) f(B). Do f(A B) f (A) f(B). Ch :
Trong (iii), khng th thay du bi du =. Chng hn, xt nh x f : R R xc nh bi f(x) = x v cc tp s thc R = {x R : x 0}, R = {x R : x 0}. Khi R R = {0}; f (R R ) = f ({0}) = {0}; f(R ) = R , f(R ) = R v f(R v f (R ) f(R ) = R . Nh vy, f (R R } l mt tp con thc s ca f (R ) f(R ).
2 + + + + + + + + + + +
Tuy nhin, nu f : X Y l mt n nh th bao hm thc (iii) tr thnh ng thc. c) nh l Nu nh x f : X Y l mt n nh th vi hai tp con A, B bt k ca X, ta u c: f (A B) = f(A) f(B). Chng minh Theo nh l b), (iii), ta c f(A B) f(A) f(B). Ta chng minh: (1) f(A) f(B) f(A B).
1
Gi s y f(A) f(B). Khi y f(A) v y f(B). Do , tn ti x A sao cho y = f(x ) v tn ti x B sao cho y f(x ). T ta c f(x ) = f(x ). V f l mt n nh nn ng thc va nu ko theo x = x . Nh vy, ta c x A, x B v y = f(x ), tc l x A B v y = f(x ). Do y f (A B).T c ng thc (1) cn chng minh .
1 2 2 1 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 1
d) nh l Nu f : X Y l mt nh x th vi hai tp con bt k ca X, ta c: f(A) \ f(B) f (A\B). Chng minh Gi s y f(A) \ f(B). Khi y f(A) v y f(B). Do , tn ti x A sao cho f(x) = y. Hin nhin x B (v nu x B th y = f(x) f(B)). Nh vy, ta c x A, x B v y = f(x), tc l x A \ B v y = f(x). Do y f (A\B). T ta c bao hm thc cn chng minh.
1 2
Ch Trong bao hm thc ca nh l khng th thay du bi du =. Ta ly li v d va xt: f : R R l nh x xc nh bi f(x) = x , R v R l hai tp con ca R. Khi , f(R ) = R , f(R ) = R , f(R ) \ f(R ) = R \R = , R \R = R \{0} = , f(R \R ) = f () = .
2 + + + + + + + + + +
Ta thy f (R ) \ f (R ) l tp con ca f (R \R ) v f (R ) \ f (R ) f (R \R ).
+ + + +
Trong phn cu hi v bi tp, ta s chng minh rng nu f : X Y l mt n nh th bao hm thc trong nh l d) tr thnh ng thc.
8.2. To nh ca mt tp hp qua mt nh x
a) nh ngha: Gi s f : X Y l mt nh x v C l mt tp con ca Y. Tp hp tt c cc phn t x X sao cho f(x) C gi l to nh ca tp hp C qua nh x f, k hiu l f (C).
1
Nh vy, vi mi x X, x f (C) khi v ch khi f(x) C.

1
f (C) = {x X : f(x) C}.

1
Ch rng trong k hiu f (C), f khng phi l nh x ngc ca f. Vi mi nh x f : X Y v vi mi tp con C ca Y, to nh f (C) ca C lun tn ti, trong khi ch song nh f mi c nh x ngc.
1 1 1
Hin nhin f (Y) = X.

1
V d 8.3 : Cho hai tp hp X = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g}, Y = {M, N, P, Q, R} v nh x f : X Y xc nh bi bng sau:
(i) Biu din nh x f bi lc hnh tn. (ii) Tm to nh ca cc tp hp C = {M, N, P} v D = {P, Q, R} qua nh x f. (i) nh x f c biu din bi lc hnh tn trong Hnh 2.
Hnh 2
(ii) To nh ca cc tp hp C v D qua nh x f l f (C) = {a, b, c, d, f}; f (D) = {d, e, g}.

1 1
V d 8.4 : (i) Gi s f : R R l nh x xc nh bi f(x) = x, C = {y R : 1 y 3}. Khi : f (C) = {1 x 3} {3 x 1}.

1
(ii) Cho nh x g: R R xc nh bi g(x) = sin x, C = {1, 1}, D = {0}. Khi : g (C) = { + k : k Z} ; g (D) = {k : k Z}.
1 1
(iii) Vi nh x h : R R xc nh bi
3}.
C = {y R : 1 y < 1}, D = {y R : y 1}, E = {y R : y >

1 1 1
Ta c: f (C) = R \ Q; h (D) = Q; h (D) = . Mt vi tnh cht ca to nh b) nh l Gi s f: X Y l mt nh x, C v D l nhng tp con ca Y. Khi : (i) (ii) (iv) Nu C D th f (C) f (D),
1 1
f1 (C D) = f (C) f (D),
1 1 1 1
(iii) f1 (C D) = f (C) f (D), f1 (C\D) = f (C) \f D).

1 1
Chng minh (i) Gi s C D. Nu x f (C) th f(x) C. V C D nn f(x) D; do x f (D).

1 1
(ii) V C C D nn, theo (i), ta c f (C) f (C D).

1 1
Tng t, ta c f (D) f (C D). Do :

1 1
(1) (2)
f (C) f (D) f (C D).

1 1 1
Ta chng minh bao hm thc ngc f (C D) f (C) f (D).

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Tht vy, nu x f (C D) th f(x) C D. Do f(x) C hoc f(x) D. Nu f(x) C th x f (C); do x f (C) f (D). Nu f(x) D th x f (D), do x f (C) f (D). T ta c bao ham fthc (2). T (1) v (2) suy ra ng thc (ii) cn chng minh.
1 1 1
(iii) V C D C nn f (C D) f (C). Tng t,

1 1
ta c f (C D) f (D). Do
1 1
(3) (4)
f (C D) f (C) f (C) f (D).

1 1 1 1
Ta chng minh: f (C) f (D) f (C D).

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Tht vy, nu x f (C) f (D) th x f (C) v x f (D). Do f(x) C v f(x) D. T suy ra f(x) C D; do x f (C D). Ta chng minh (4). T (3) v (4) suy ra ng thc (iii). (iv) Cc iu kin sau l tng ng: x f (C \ D),
1
f(x) C \ D, f(x) C v f(x) D, x f (C) v x f (D),

1 1
x f (C) \ f (D).
1 1
Do ta c ng thc (iv) . Quan h gia nh v to nh c cho trong nh l sau: c) nh l Gi s f : X Y l mt nh x t tp hp X vo tp hp Y. Khi : (i) Vi mi tp con C ca Y, ta c: (1) (2) f(f (C)) C,
1
(ii) Vi mi tp con A ca X, ta c: A f (f(A)).

1
Chng minh (i) Nu y f (f (C)) th tn ti x f (C) sao cho y = f(x).

1 1
V x f (C) nn f (x) C, tc l y C. Do f (f (C)) C.

1 1
(ii) Nu x A th f (x) f(A). Do x thuc to nh ca tp hp f(A) qua nh x f, tc l x f1 (f(A)). Vy A f1 (f(A)) . Ch : (i) Trong bao hm thc (1) khng th thay du bi du =. Ta xt v d sau: V d 8.5 : Cho hai tp hp X = {a, b, c, d}, Y = {M, N, P, Q, R} v nh x f : X Y xc nh bi bng sau:
nh x f c biu din bi lc hnh tn trong Hnh 3.
Hnh 3
Vi tp con C = {M, N, P, R} ca tp hp Y, ta c: f (C) = {a, b, c}, f(f (C)) = {M, N}.

1 1
Ta thy f(f (C)) l mt tp con thc s ca C, tc l f (f (C)) C.

1 1
Mt v d khc: Gi s g : R R l nh x xc nh bi g(x) = x v C = {x R : x 1} l mt tp con ca R. Khi , ta c f (C) = R v f(f (C)) = R .

2 1 1 +
y, ta li thy f (f (C)) l mt tp con thc s ca C.

1
Trong phn cu hi v bi tp ta s chng minh rng nu C f(X) th bao hm thc (1) trong nh l c) tr thnh ng thc. (ii) Trong bao hm thc (2), khng th thay du bi du =. Ta xt v d sau: V d 8.6 :
Cho hai tp hp X = {a, b, c, d, e, f}, Y = {M, N, P, Q, R, S, T} v nh x f : X Y xc nh bi bng sau:
nh x c biu din bi lc hnh tn trong Hnh 4.
Hnh 4
Vi tp con A = {a, b, c} ca tp hp X, ta c: f(A) = {M, N, P} v f (fA)) = {a, b, c, d, e}.

1
Ta thy A l mt tp con thc s ca tp hp f (f(A)).

1
Ta xt mt v d khc: cho nh x D : R {0, 1} xc nh bi: 1 vi x Q, D(x) = 0 vi x R \ Q. (D l hm s iritsl). Vi tp con A = {1, } ca R, ta c: D(A) = {1} v D (D(A)) = d ({1}) = Q.
1 1
A l mt tp con thc s ca D (D(A)).

1
Trong phn cu hi v bi tp, ta s chng minh rng nu nh x f : X Y l mt n nh th bao hm thc (2) trong nh l c) tr thnh ng thc. d) Quan h gia to nh ca mt tp hp qua mt song nh v nh ca tp hp qua nh x ngc ca song nh.
Gi s f : X Y l mt song nh t tp hp X ln tp hp Y. Khi f c nh x ngc g = f : Y X. Ta s ch ra rng nu C l mt tp con ca Y th to nh f (C) ca tp hp C qua nh x f v nh g(C) ca tp hp C qua nh x g = f l hai tp hp bng nhau: g (C) = f (C).
1 1 1 1
Tht vy, vi mi x X, cc iu kin sau l tng ng: x g(C), Tn ti y C sao cho g(y) = x, f(x) = y v y C x f (C).
1
Vy g(C) = f (C).
1
Ta minh ho iu khng nh va nu qua mt v d. V d 8.7 : Cho hai tp hp X = {a, b, c, d, e, f}, Y = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} v song nh f : X Y xc nh bi bng sau:
nh x f c biu din bi lc hnh tn trong Hnh 5
Hnh 5
nh x ngc g = f : Y X ca f c cho trong bng sau:

1
Vi tp con C = {1, 2, 3, 4} ca tp hp Y : To nh ca tp hp C qua nh x f l:
f (C) = {a, b, c, d}
1
nh ca tp hp C qua nh x ngc g = f ca C l
1
g(C) = {a, d, b, c}. Ta thy g(C) = f (C).

1
Nh vy, Nu nh x f : X Y khng phi l mt song nh v C l mt tp con ca Y th k hiu f (C) ch to nh ca tp hp C qua nh x f. (Trong trng ny f khng c nh x ngc).
1
Nu nh x f : X Y l mt song nh v C l mt tp con ca Y th nh (f ) (C) ca C qua nh x ngc f : Y X ca f cng l to nh f (C) ca C qua nh x f.

1 1 1
Hot ng 8.1. Thc hnh xc nh nh v to nh ca tp hp qua nh x Nhim v:

Sinh vin t c thng tin c bn sau tho lun theo nhm 2, 3 ngi thc hin cc nhim v sau:
Nhim v 1:
Cho ba v d v nh ca mt tp hp qua mt nh x. Biu din cc nh x bi nhng lc hnh tn v nh ca tp hp bi lc Ven Cho ba v d v to nh ca mt tp hp qua mt nh x. Biu din cc nh x bi nhng lc hnh tn v to nh bi lc Ven
Nhim v 2:
Cho hai v d chng t trong bao hm thc (iii) ca nh l 1b,1d), khng th thay du bi du =.
Nhim v 3:
Cho hai v d chng t trong bao hm thc (1) ca nh l 2c), khng th thay du bi du =. Cho hai v d chng t trong bao hm thc (2) ca nh l 2c), khng th thay du bi du =.
nh gi hot ng 8.1
1. Cho hai tp hp X = a , b , c , d , e , f , g , h ; Y = 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9, nh x f: X Y xc nh bi bng sau
v hai tp con A , B ca X : A = a , b , c ; B = c , d , h a) Biu din nh x f bi lc hnh tn v cc tp hp A, B bi lc Ven b) Tm f(A), f(B) , f(A B), f(A) f(B), A B, f(A) f(B) v f(A B) c) Nu mi quan h gia hai tp hp f(A B) v f(A) f(B) 2. Cho hai tp hp X = 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6, Y = m , n , p , q , r , s , t nh x f : X Y xc nh bi bng
v hai tp con A = 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , B = 4 , 5 , 6 ca X a) Biu din nh x f bi lc hnh tn v cc tp hp A, B bi lc Ven b) Tm f(A), f(B), f(A) \ f(B), A \ B v f(A \ B) c) Nu mi quan h gia hai tp hp f(A \ B) v f(A) \ f(B) 3. Chng minh rng nu nh x f: X Y l mt n nh th vi hai tp con bt k A v B ca X, ta c: f( A \ B) = f(A) \ f(B) 4. Cho hai tp hp X = a , b , c , d , e , f , Y = 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 nh x f : X Y xc nh bi bng
v tp con C = 1 , 2 , 3 , 7 , 8 ca X a) Biu din nh x f bi lc hnh tn v tp hp C bi lc Ven b) Tm cc tp hp f (C) v f (f (C))

1 1
c) Nu mi quan h gia hai tp hp C v f (f (C)).

1
5. Cho nh x f. Chng minh rng vi mi tp con C ca f(X) ta c f(f (C)) =C

1
6. Cho hai tp hp X = 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8, Y = a , b , c , d , e , f, g, nh x f : X Y xc nh bi bng
v tp con A = 3 , 4 , 5 ca tp hp X a) Biu din nh x f bi lc hnh tn v tp hp A bi lc Ven b) Tm cc tp hp A v f (f(A))

1
c) Nu mi quan h gia hai tp hp f(A) v f (f(A))

1
7. Chng minh rng nu nh x f: X Y l mt n nh th vi mi tp con A ca X ta c: A = f (f(A))

1
8. Cho nh x f: X R v hai tp hp A, B, A X, B R. Tm nh f(A) v to nh f (B) trong mi trng hp sau

1
a) f(x) = sin 2x ; X = x R : 0 x 6, A = x R : 0 x U x R : x + B = y R : 1 y 0 b) f(x) = | x 4| , X = R , A = x R : 0 x 1, B = y R : 2 y 4

2
c) f(x) = | x2 2x| , X = R , A = x R : | x| 1, B = y R : 0 y 9. Cho nh x f: R R xc nh bi f(x) = |x + 1| v tp hp A = x R; 1 x 2 Tm f(A) v f (f(A))

1
10. Cho nh x f : R R xc nh bi f(x) = x + x + 1, A = x R : |x| 2, B = y R : 0 y 1. Tm nh f(A) v to nh f (B)

8 4 1
11. Gi s R [x] l tp hp cc a thc vi cc h s thc v Rn[x] l tp hp cc a thc c bc nh hn hoc bng n, vi cc h s thc v g: Rn[x] R[x] l nh x xc nh bi g(P) = P(x + 1)
2
a) Tm nh ca tp hp cc a thc c bc 1 b) Tm to nh ca tp hp cc a thc c bc 0 v to nh ca tp hp ch c mt phn t l a thc x + 1

2
12. Cho nh x f: X Y. A X , B Y Chng minh rng: f(A f (B)) = f(A) B

1
13. Gi s f: X Y l mt nh x, A l mt tp con ca X, B l mt tp con ca Y v g = f/ . Chng minh rng g (B) = A f (B)

1 1 A
14. Chng minh rng ton nh f: X Y t tp hp X ln tp hp Y l mt song nh khi v ch khi to nh ca mi tp con mt phn t ca Y l mt tp con mt phn t ca X 15. Cho nh x f : X Y v g: Y W. Gi h: X x Y V x W l nh x xc nh bi (x, y) h (x, y) = (f(x), g(y)) Chng minh rng nu M V, N W th h (M x N) = f (M) x g (N)
1 1 1
(nh x h c gi l tch ca hai nh x f v g, v c k hiu l f x g) 16. Cho hai nh x f: X Y v g: X Z. Gi h: X Y x Z l nh x xc nh bi x h(x) = (f(x), g(x)). Chng minh rng nu B Y, C Z th h (B x C) = f (B) f (C) (nh x h c gi l nh x phc)
1 1 1
Thng tin phn hi cho ch 1

C S CA L THUYT TP HP TIU CH 1.2. TP HP Hot ng 1.1

Khi nim Tp hp. Tp con. Cc tp hp bng nhau. 1. a) b) c) 2. a) b) A = [21, 24, 27, 30, 33, 36, 39} B = {31, 37, 41, 43, 47} C = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9, 12, 18, 36} A = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6} B = {0, 1, }; c) C = .
3. a) A l tp hp bng s hng u ca cp s cng c s hng u l 3 v cng sai l 4 b) B l tp hp cc s nguyn t ln hn 16 v nh hn 50; c) C l tp hp bng s hng u ca cp s nhn c s hng u l 1 v cng bi l . 5. 6. 7. 8. S, S, , , , S, S, S, S, ,
1 2
, , , , S,
3
. . . S. .
1 2 1 3 2 3 1 2 3
9. (A) = {, {a }, {a }, {a }, {a , a }, {a , a }, {a , a }, {a , a , a }}. b) P (A) c 8 phn t. 10. a) B = {, {a }, {a }, {a }, {a , a }, {a , a }, {a , a }, {a , a , a },

1 2 3 1 2 1 3 2 3 1 2 3
a , {a , a }, {a , a }, {a , a },
4 1 4 2 4 3 4
{a , a , a }, {a , a , a }, {a , a , a }, {a , a , a , a }}.
1 2 4 1 3 4 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
b P(B) c 16 phn t. 11. a) Sai; b) ng.

n
12. Hin nhin iu khng nh ng vi n = 0. Gi s iu khng nh ng vi n, tc l tp hp A = {a , a , ..., an} c 2 tp con. Ta chng minh tp hp B = {a , a , ..., an, an } c 2 tp con. Chia cc tp con ca B lm hai loi:
1 2 n+1 1 2 +1
(i) Cc tp con ca B khng cha an ,

+1
(ii) Cc tp con ca B cha an

n
+1
D thy mi loi u c 2 phn t.
Hot ng 2.1
Cc php ton trn cc tp hp 1. V B A nn: A B = A, A B = B, B \ A = . A \ B = {15, 21, 25, 27, 33, 35, 39}. 2. a) A B l tp hp cc s t nhin chia ht cho 2 hoc chia ht cho 5: A B = {0. 2. 4. 5. 6. 8. 10. 12. 14. 15. 16. 18. 20, ...}. A B l tp hp cc s t nhin c mt trong cc dng sau: 10n, 10n + 2, 10n + 4, 10n + 5, 10n + 6, 10n + 8, n N. A B l tp hp cc bi t nhin ca 10: A B = {0, 10, 20, 30, 40, ...} = {10n : n N}. A \ B l tp hp cc s chn khng phi l bi ca 5: A \ B = {2, 4, 6, 8, 12, 14, 16, 18, 22, 24, 26, 28, ...}. A \ B l tp hp cc s t nhin c mt trong cc dng sau: 10n + 2, 10n + 4, 10n + 6, 10n + 8, n N. B \ A l tp hp cc s l bi ca 5: B \ A = {5, 15, 25, 35, ...} = {10n + 5 : n N}. 3. a) V C l tp hp cc tam gic vung cn. V C l tp hp cc tam gic vung hoc cn. V \ C l tp hp cc tam gic vung nhng khng cn. C \ V l tp hp cc tam gic cn nhng khng vung. 4. A B = {x R : x < 0} {x R; x 5}; A B = {x R: 5 x 5}; A \ B = {x R : x < 6} {x R : x 5}; B \ A = {x R : 5 < x < 0}. 5. a) E = LM; F = TX; c) E = HD; F = BX. 6. a) Min II cha cc mnh b mu nu, khng phi l hnh vung. Min IV cha cc mnh hnh vung ln mu nu. Min V cha cc mnh hnh vung mu v xanh. b) Min II cha 6 mnh. Min IV cha 2 mnh. Min V cha 8 mnh. b) E = ND, F = HB;
18. Tp hp A B c 6 phn t. 19. Gi A l tp hp cc xe (taxi v but) c mu khc mu vng. Tp hp A c: 42 14 = 18 phn t. Gi B l tp hp cc xe but Tp hp A B c 37 phn t. B \ A l tp hp cc xe but vng. Ta c: A B = A (B \ A), trong B \ A v A l hai tp hp khng giao nhau. T d dng tnh c c 9 xe but vng. 20. 4 hc sinh ch hc kh mn Ton, 7 em ch hc kh mn Vn, 5 em ch hc kh mn Anh; 9 em khng hc kh mn no.
TIU CH 1.3. QUAN H Hot ng 3.1

Quan h hai ngi 5. R = {(2, 4), (2, 12), (2, 14), (4, 4), (4, 12), (7, 14)}. 6. R = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 7), (1, 8), (2, 2), (2, 8), (7, 7), (8, 8)}/ 7. R = {(1, 1), (2, 1), (2, 2), (6, 1), (6, 2), (6, 6), (7, 1), (7, 7), (8, 1), (8, 2), (8, 8}. 8. R = {(1, 1), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 1), (3, 3), (4, 1), (4, 2), (4, 4), ...}. 9. R = {(1, A), (2, A), (4, B), (7, C)}. 10. R = {(A, A), (A, C), (B, B), (B, C), (C, C)}. 11. R {(1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 5), (1, 7), (2, 3), (2, 5), (2, 7), (3, 5), (3, 7), (5, 7}. 12. Trong mt phng to , tp hp R1 c biu din bi tp hp cc im ca na mt phng nm pha trn ng phn gic th nht y = x, tp hp R c biu din bi tp hp cc im ca mt phng khng nm trn ng phn gic th nht.
2
14. l quan h phn x, i xng v bc cu. 15. R l mt quan h i xng nhng khng phn x v khng bc cu. 16. l quan h phn x, bc cu nhng khng i xng. 17. Quan h R trn Y l phn x; R v R khng phi l nhng quan h phn x.
2 1 2
18. Quan h R trn Y l i xng. Khng c quan h no l bc cu.

2
20. R = {(7, 1), (14, 2), (21, 3), (28, 4), ...}
1
= ((7n, n) : n N*}. 22. R . R = {(3, 6), (6, 7), (9, 8), (12, 9), (15, 10), ...}
2 1
= {(3n, n + 5) : n N*}. R . R = {(1, 2), (4, 3), (7, 4), (10, 5), ...}
1 2
= {(3n 2, n + 1) : n N*}.
Hot ng 4.1
Quan h tng ng 1. ~ chia L thnh 4 lp tng ng.
0 1
~ chia L thnh 2 lp tng ng.

0 2
~ chia L thnh 2 lp tng ng vi.

0 3
2. b) Quan h tng ng R trn N chia N thnh bn lp tng ng. 3. b) {1, 3} = {{1, 2}, {1, 3{, {1, 4}, {1, 5}, {2, 3{,
~
{2, 4}, {2, 5}, {3, 4}, {3, 5}, {4, 5}}. 4. b) Tp thng R /~ l tp hp cc ng trn trong mt phng c tm l im gc v im gc.
2
5. X/R = {{x} : x X}. 6. R khng phi l mt quan h phn x. 7. Khng tn ti mt quan h tng ng R tho mn iu kin nu v A C . 8. X/~ = {A, A , ..., Am}.
2
9. Vi mi tp con A cha a ca X, = {A} (lp tng ng cha A l tp hp mt phn t). Mi tp hp con ca X khng cha a u tng ng vi nhau, chng to nn mt lp tng ng ca quan h ~. Vy P / ~ = {{A}; a A X} , trong B l mt tp con ca X khng cha a, l tp hp tt c cc tp con ca X khng cha a. 10. Tp thng C*/R c hai phn t: Tp hp cc im ca hai na mt phng bn phi v bn tri ca trc tung to nn hai lp tng ng ca quan h R.
Hot ng 5.1
Quan h th t 1. B) l quan h ton phn. 2. khng phi l mt quan h ton phn. 3. b) Khng.
4. b) Khng. 5. R khng phn i xng. 6. Ba quan h th t. 7. a) 40 l phn t ti i; 2 v 5 l nhng phn t ti tiu. b) 40 l phn t ln nht ca X; X khng c phn t nh nht. 8. 3 l gi tr ln nht ca X; 3 l gi tr nh nht ca x.
5 9
9. RC l quan h th t trn C. 10. b) Mi phn t ca X u l mt phn t ti i, ng thi l phn t ti tiu. Tp hp sp th t X khng c phn t ln nht v phn t nh nht. a, e, f l cc phn t ti tiu ca Y; c l phn t ti i, cng l phn t ln nht ca Y. 13. b) D l phn t ti tiu; D l phn t ti tiu, cng l phn t ti i. D l phn t ti i. Tp sp th t X khng c phn t nh nht v khng c phn t ln nht.
1 3 4
14. A l dy xch, B khng phi l dy xch. 15. 1 l phn t chn di ca A; Cc s 77n, n N* l cc phn t chn trn ca A. 1 v 3 l cc phn t chn di ca B; B khng c phn t chn trn. 16. 1 v 3 l cc phn t chn trn ca A. Cc s 90n, n N* l cc phn t chn di ca A. Cc s 1, 3, 3 , 3 , 3 , 3 l cc phn t chn trn ca B. Khng c phn t chn di ca B trong {N*, }.
2 3 4 5
17. a) Mi s thc nh hn hoc bng 7 u l mt phn t chn di ca A; mi s thc ln hn hoc bng 3 u l mt phn t chn trn ca A. b) S khng v cc s thc m l cc phn t chn di ca N. Khng c phn t chn trn ca N trong R.
TIU CH 1.6. NH X Hot ng 6. 1

nh ngha v cc khi nim c bn v nh x 1. b) R khng phi l mt nh x. 2. b) R khng phi l mt nh x. 3. c) khng phi l mt nh x.
4. b) f l mt nh x. Tp xc nh ca f l A; f(A) = {18, 35}. 5. a) R l mt nh x. b) Tp xc nh ca nh x R l X; nh ca nh x l R(X) = {17, 18{ 6. C mt nh x t X vo Y. 7. C m nh x t X vo Y. 8. 4 nh x. 10. f(2) = {x R : x 2}; f(0) = {x R : x 0}; f(x ) = {y R : y x }.
2 2
11. f (X) = {x R : 1 x 0} {x R : 1 < x }. 12. f v g l hai nh x bng nhau. 13. u v v l hai nh x bng nhau. 14. a) gof) (x) = x, x > 0; (fog) (x) = x, x R. b) gof khng tn ti; (fog) (x) = ln , x R*. c) gof khng tn ti; (fog) (x) = ln (cos x), x . 15. a) h (R) khng cha hai s htc 2 v 1. b) p dng a). 16. X = {3, } hoc X l mt tp con ca tp hp {3, }. 17. X = {1, 1} hoc X l mt tp con ca tp hp {1, 1}. 19. Tp xc nh ca f l: X = . f (X) = {0}.
Hot ng 7.1
n nh, ton nh, song nh v nh x ngc 1. b) f khng phi l mt n nh; g l mt n nh. 2. b) f khng phi l mt ton nh; g l mt ton nh. 3. b) nh x ngc ca f v g c cho trong hai bng sau:
4. f (y) = , y R.
1
5. a) f : R R , y f (y) = y .
1 + + 1 2
b) g : R R, y g (y) = .
1 1
c) h : R* R*, y h (y) =
1 1
d) u : A A, y u (y) = .
1 1
6. a) f l mt n nh. b) f khng phi l mt song nh. 13.
Hot ng 8.1
nh v to ca mt tp hp qua mt nh x 1. b) f(A) = {1, 2, 4}; f (B) = {4, 2, 8}; f (A B) = {1, 2, 4, 8}, A B = {c{; f (A) f (B) = {2, 4}; f (A B) = {4}. c) f (A B) l mt tp con thc s ca f (A) f (B).
2. b) f(A) = {p, r, q{, f(B) = {q, r, t}; f (A) \ f (B) = {p}; A \ B = {1, 2, 3}; f (A \ B} = {p, r}. c) f (A) \ f(B) l mt tp con thc s ca f (A\B). 4. b) f (C) = {a, b, c}; f (f (C)) = {1, 2, 3}.
1 1
c) f (f (C)) l mt tp con thc s ca C.

1
6. b) f (A) = {b, c}; f (f(A)) = {2, 3, 4, 5}.

1
c) A l mt tp con thc s ca f (f(A)).

1
8. a) f(A) = {y R : 0 y 1}; f (B) = {y R : x } {x R : x 2} {x R : x }

1
b) f(A) = {y R : 3 y 4}; f (B) = {x R : x } {x R : 2 x } {x R : x }

1
c) f(A) = {y R : ) y 3}; f (B) = {x R : 1 x } {x R : x 1 + }.

1
9. f(A) = {y R : 2 y 3}; f (f(A)) = {x R : 1 x 2} { x R : 4 x 3}.

1
10. f(A) = {y R : 1 y 273}; f (B) = {0}.

1
11. a) nh ca tp hp cc a thc c bc 1 l tp hp cc a thc c bc 0 v cc a thc bc hai c dng P(x) = + b.

2
b) To nh ca tp hp cc a thc c bc 0 l tp hp cc a thc c bc 0. To nh ca tp hp ch c mt phn t l a thc x + 1 l tp hp ch c mt phn t l a thc Q(x) = x.

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CH 1 C s l thuyt tp hp I.

II. Gii thiu ch :

III. iu kin cn thit thc hin mun

IV. Ni dung (Xem cc tiu ch 1.1 1.8)

Ti liu tham kho

TIU CH 1.1. TP HP Thng tin c bn 1. Khi nim tp hp Tp con cc tp hp bng nhau

1.2. Tp con ca mt tp hp Cc tp hp bng nhau

Formatted: Heading04 Formatted: Font: Times New Roman

Khi , ta vit: A X (hoc X A) v biu th quan h ny bng lc trong Hnh 5.

V d 1.6 : Nu A = {a, b, c, d, e} v X = {a, b, c, f, g} th A X.

Tp hp E va nu l mt tp hp nhng tp hp v cc phn ca ca E l nhng tp hp. Ta c: a A : a l mt cu th ca i bng A,

Tp hp c 1 phn t c c thy 2 = 2 tp con.

Tp hp c 2 phn t c c thy 4 = 2 tp con.

Tp hp c 3 phn t c c thy 8 = 2 tp con.

Tp hp c 4 phn t c c thy 16 = 2 tp hp con, ...

Hot ng 1.1. tm hiu cc khi nim c bn ca tp hp

3. Cho cc tp hp A = {3, 7, 11, 15, 19, 23, 27};

{b} {b, c} {b} {b, c}

TIU CH 1.2. CC PHP TON TRN CC TP HP Thng tin c bn 2.1. Giao ca cc tp hp

V d 2.2 : Cho tp hp A = {x R : 2x 1 < 0}. Tm A N (N l tp hp cc s t nhin). Ta c: A = {x R : x < } Do : A N = {0}.

Chng hn, VLD hay CBXM Hnh ch nht b xanh mng.

Tp hp tt c cc mnh lgic intx c k hiu l L

Chng minh (ii) gi s A C v B C. Khi , nu x A B th x A hoc x B. Do x C. Vy A B C.

2.3. Hiu ca hai tp hp

2.4. Khng gian. Phn b ca mt tp hp

b) Gi s X l mt khng gian v A l mt tp con ca X. Tp hp X \ A c gi l phn b ca A v c k hiu l CA.

Chng minh (i) x A \ B x A v x B x A v x [B x A [B. Do ta c ng thc trong (i).

6. Trong tp hp L cc mnh lgic intx, gi N l tp hp cc mnh nu, BN l tp hp cc mnh b nu v V l tp hp cc hnh vung.

TIU CH 1.3. QUAN H Thng tin c bn 3.1. Quan h hai ngi

(Ty Ban Nha; 500), (Italia; 300), (Vit Nam, 330)

V d 3.6 : Cho tp hp X = {a, b}. Tm tp hp X .

Ta c: X = {(a, a), (a, b), (b, a), (b, b)}.

V d 3.7 : Cho tp hp X = [1,5; 4] = {x R = 1,5 x 4}. Tm X .

= [1,5; 4] x (1,5; 4] = {(x, y) : 1,5 x 4; 1,5 y 4}.

X1 x X2 x... x Xm = {(x , x , ..., xm) : x X1, ... xm Xm}.

V d 3.9 : Tm cc c s ca 4312. Ta c: 4312 = 2 x 7 x 11.

Mi c s ca 4312 c dng 2 x 7 x 11 , vi a = 0, 1, 2 hoc 3, b = 0, 1 hoc 2, c = 0 hoc 1.

t X = {2 , 2 , 2 , 2 }, Y = {7 , 7 , 7 }, C = {11 , 11 }. Khi , vi mi (x, y, z) X x Y x Z, tch xyz l mt c ca 4312.

3.2. nh ngha quan h hai ngi

Mt cch tng qut, ta c: nh ngha:

3.3. Mt s tnh cht thng gp ca quan h hai ngi

3.4. Quan h ngc Hp ca hai quan h

(tc l (y, x) R (x, y) R).

Quan h ngc R ca R l quan h hai ngi trn Y x X.

R = {(V, h), (V, c), (T, b), (T, n)}.

Cc im biu din cc cp th t ca R i xng vi cc im biu din cc cp th t ca R qua ng phn gic th nht.

R = {(0, 0), (1, 1), (2, 4), (3, 9)}.

Tn ti mt phn t y Y sao cho x R y v y R z gi l hp ca hai quan h R v R , k hiu l R R .

Nh vy, R = R R = {(x, z) X x Z: Tn ti y Y sao cho x R y v y R z}.

R = {(Mai, Dng), (Tuyt, Loan), (Tuyt, Cng)}, quan h R l b ca trn Y x Z:

R = {(Dng, Khi), (Dng, Nga), (Cng, Vn)}.

Quan h hp R R ca hai quan h R v R l quan h l b ni ca trn X x Z;

R R = {(Mai, Khi), (Mai, Nga), (Tuyt, Vn)}.

V d 3.24 : Cho quan h R l mt na ca trn tp hp N* cc s nguyn dng v quan h R gp bn ln trn N*.

R R l mt quan h trn N*:

R R = {(2, 1), (4, 2), (6, 3), (8, 4), ...}.

R R l quan h gp i trn N*.

Trong hnh cc cp th t ca cc quan h R R v R R , theo th t, c biu din bi cc mi tn xanh, mi tn c nt gch v mi tn .

22. Cho hai quan h hai ngi R R trn tp hp N* xc nh bi:

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TIU CH 1.4. QUAN H TNG NG Thng tin c bn 4.1. nh ngha:

phn x, i xng v bc cu. Do n l mt quan h tng ng trn N.

4.2. Cc lp tng ng v tp thng