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Contents Page Restless Earth Climate and Change Battle for the Biosphere Water World Coastal Change and Conflict Extreme Climates Exam Questions 3 12 18 24 31 40 48
Key terms:
Atmosphere Hydrosphere Basalt Granite Biosphere Asthenosphere Convection Currents Magnitude Oceanic Crust Plate Margin Prediction Response Tectonic Hazards Core Continental Crust Primary Effects Secondary Effects The layers of gases/air around us. The layer of water. A dark coloured volcanic rock. Molten basalt spreads rapidly and is widespread. Found in oceanic crust. A low density igneous rock found in continental crust The very thin layer of living things on the crust. The upper part of the Earths mantle where the rocks are more fluid Circulating movements of the magma in the mantle caused by the heat of the core The size of an earthquake Part of the crust made from dense basaltic rocks Boundary between 2 tectonic plates Forecasting future changes The way in which people react to a situation e.g. an earthquake Threats posed by earthquakes, volcanoes etc Central part of the Earth consisting of a solid inner core made of iron and a more fluid outer core made of nickel Part of the crust made from less dense granitic rocks Immediate effects or impacts of a disaster e.g. mud flows, lava flows The after effects of a disaster e.g. disease spreads due to dirty water, loss of economy due to destruction of businesses
Meteorites give us a clue as to what the core is like. How do we know that the inside of the earth is hot? lava from volcanoes hot springs, geysers
Convection currents occurred in the mantle and these are driven by the heat of the core. This heat is created due to both the pressure of the overlying material but also produced by the radioactive decay of uranium etc in the core and mantle. As heat rises from the core it creates convection currents in the liquid outer core and mantle. These convection currents move the tectonic plates on top of them.
The different types of plate boundaries and the hazards they create Constructive plate boundary
Where two oceanic plates are moving apart from each other. New oceanic crust is forming constantly in the gap created. The magma is injected between the two plates. As it cools it forms new oceanic crust. The magma is runny. Shallow sided volcanoes form. HAZARDS:
Convection currents from the 4 mantle bring magma towards the surface. Magma is forced between the plates, cools and forms new oceanic crust.
Small earthquakes are formed by friction as the plates tear apart. Volcanoes that are not very explosive/dangerous. Examples are Iceland the Mid Atlantic Ridge
Collision Zone
A type of destructive boundary where two continental plates move towards each meet they push upwards forming mountain ranges e.g. Himalayas. HAZARDS: destructive earthquakes landslides volcanoes are rare other. As they
There are however, important exceptions for example the Hawaiian Islands have formed in the middle of the Pacific Ocean more than 3000km away from a plate boundary. This is explained via Hot-spot theory that there are fixed spots in the mantle where magma rises to the surface in the form of PLUMES.
How hazards are measured using the VEI, Richter Scale and Mercalli scale Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI)
Measures the destructive power of a volcano on a scale from 1 to 8.
Volcanoes are measured uses seismograph, or seismometer, which is an instrument used to detect and record earthquakes.
The Richter Scale is a logarithmic scale. A magnitude 6 earthquake is 10 times more powerful than a magnitude 5.
Predicting Volcanoes
Aircraft used to measure the amount of gas the volcano gives off Tiltmeters detect when the volcano swells up as it fills with magma Seismometers monitor earth tremors which will increase as magma rises Boreholes to measure water temperature as magma heats up
Made from basaltic lava (high temperatures, very low in silica with low gas content) means it flows long distances on the earths surface Creates very large, gently sloping shapes Example: Mauna Loa
CASE STUDY: Japan earthquake and tsunami - March 2011 MEDC/Developed Example
Key Facts 11th March 2011 9.0 on Richter scale 27,000 dead or missing Foreshocks (before the main event) began on 9th March and measured up to 7.2 on the Richter scale Location: Epicentre 130km east of Sendai, 32km below sea level Destructive plate boundary subduction zone between Eurasian Plate (continental) and Pacific Plate (oceanic) The slip occurred along 300km of plate margin and led to an increase in height of the North American Plate by 40m Effects: 7
The shift in plates caused the ocean above the plates to rise by 40metres; gravity pulls it back down creating waves and a tsunami wave. They can travel up to 800km per hour (the speed of an aeroplane!) The highest wave reached 30 metres Primary effects (direct): o Destruction of thousands of homes o Flooding of large areas of industrial and farmland o A ship carrying 100 people was washed away o A dam in north east of Fukushima burst its banks flooding many homes o Power, gas, TV, mobile cables disrupted o Death toll of 15,400
Secondary effects (in direct): o Half a million are homeless living in shelters o Disruption of road and rail meant rescue workers to reach remote locations o Damage to underground gas pipelines led to fires and ignited floating wood o Impact on oil supplies are refineries were ablaze o Failure in the cooling system of the Fukushima nuclear power plant radioactive materials escaped (more than 4000 times the normal radiation levels o There was a loss of 90 billion on the Japanese stock exchange the day after the disaster Short term response: 100,000 people took part in the disaster relief mission The Japanese Red Cross mobilised 230 emergency service teams to provide medical and emotional support to victims Many countries sent teams to help with search and rescue (UK and USA) Shelters were set up in schools An exclusion zone was set up around the Fukushima power plant Shelterbox an NGO sent 1500 disaster relief boxes containing tents, sleeping bags, cooking equipment in the first 3 weeks of the disaster. Long Term response o In 2007 Japans meteorological agency launched an earthquake early warning system (EEW). o A warning message is sent to TVs and mobiles once a foreshock is noticed. o Sea walls and tsunami floodgates have been built (although they did little to protect the area) o Buildings are all constructed to withstand seismic activity o Skyscrapers have base isolation (which separates the building from the ground with a rubber or spring layer) or mass dampers which move in opposition to the ground forces. Technology o The internet was vital for survivors and rescuers. o Skype provided free calls to landlines and internet from its 5000 Wi-Fi hotspots o Google set up person finder which matches those missing to survivors o Social network sites advised survivors on food and water availability. CASE STUDY: Haiti Earthquake- 12th January 2010 LDC Example Key Facts: - 7.0 magnitude on Richter scale - Worst earthquake to hit Haiti in 200 years - By 24th January Haiti had witnessed 52 aftershocks measuring 4.5 or greater - 3.5 million people lived in the area where moderate to heavy damage occurred - The epicentre was near Leogane, 25km west of Haitis capital Port-au-Prince. - The Haitian Government estimate that 230,000 people died, 300,000 were injured and 1 million were made homeless out of a population of 10 million. - Over 250,000 dwellings were destroyed or badly damaged Why did the earthquake occur? Haiti lies close to the boundary of two tectonic plates. The Caribbean plate is shifting by about 20mm a year, relative to the North American plate. The focus of the earthquake was 13km below the Earths surface on the Enriquillo-Plantain Garden 8
Fault. The plate had been locked for 250 years, so the pressure built up and eventually caused a massive earthquake, causing a fault line 65km long and with plate movement of 1.8 metres. Immediate Damage (primary): o Electricity supplies were disrupted o Roads were blocked (for over 10 days after the earthquake) o The public telephone system was knocked out, with no signal for mobile phones/internet o International airport was unusable due to control-tower damage, as was the harbour o Medical facilities were badly affected, with some hospitals destroyed o The main prison was wrecked and 4,000 inmates escaped Aftermath effects (secondary): o People took to sleeping in the streets because their homes were destroyed or they feared remaining buildings would collapse due to aftershocks o Shortages of fuel and drinking water o US authorities took control of the airport in an attempt to help aid get into the country o Mass graves had to be dug due to the high number of bodies and potential for them to spread diseases if they were not buried (bodies were brought to the graves in dumper trucks, there were so many!) Foreign AID: Much of the early work was done by Haitians and by teams from the Dominican Republic, the first country to respond. Within 24 hours, a medical team from Iceland had landed. A 50-person Chinese team followed. Qatar and Israel sent teams to set up field hospitals. The American Red Cross let people donate via text messages and set records by raising US$ 7 million in 24 hours. UK also offered financial aid. Continuing Problems: Two months after the quake, in March, the rainy season began. At this point, 50,000 survivors were still sleeping rough and 500,000 more were crowded into makeshift camps. The rain then turned these camps into mud and slush, causing further secondary hazards such as mudslides and disease outbreaks. The UN increased its relief appeal to US$1.44 billion and aimed to distribute plastic tarpaulin to 1,500 families a day.
o o o o
Passengers were stranded A cost to the airline industry of $2 billion Cost London 102 million in tourist income Disruption to air freight the UK imports 95% of its fruit
Why are people in developing countries at greater risk from tectonic hazards than people in developed countries?
More live in risky conditions no where else for them to live. Cant afford safe, well built houses they collapse easily Dont have insurance Governments dont have the money to provide aid. Poor communications no warning or evacuation.
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Key terms:
Climate Change Deforestation Ecosystems Enhanced Greenhouse Effect Geological Climate Events Global Warming Greenhouse gases Ice Age Little ice Age Megafauna Natural causes Orbital Changes Quaternary Period Solar Output Stratosphere Food Chains Extinction Desertification Long-term changes in temperature and precipitation The chopping down and removal of trees to clear and area of forest A community of plants and animals that interact with each other and their physical environment The increased greenhouse effect resulting from human action (emission of greenhouse gases) and leading to global warming Climate changes that result from major geological events such as volcanic eruptions A trend whereby global temperatures rise over time, linked in modern times with the human production of greenhouse gases Those gases in the atmosphere that absorb outgoing radiation, hence increasing the temperature of the atmosphere A period in the earths past when the polar ice caps were much larger than today A period of slight global cooling that lasted from around the mid-15th Century to the mid19th Century big animals which mostly weighed over 40kg e.g. Woolly mammoth and sabre-tooth cat Processes and forces that are not controlled by humans Changes in the pathway of the Earth around the sun and the tilt on its axis The most recent geological period of the Earths history The energy emitted from the sun Layer of air 10-50km about the Earths surface Plants and animals are linked together and dependence on each other for food Species of plant or animal dying out completely, so none survive Gradual change of the land into desert
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How climate has changed in the past and how do we know it was different
WEATHER = short term, day to day changes in the atmosphere. CLIMATE = the average weather conditions over 30 years. Graph shows that average temperatures in the past 2000 years have varied between 1-1.5c colder or warmer than average temperatures today. INTERGLACIALS = warm periods GLACIALS = cold periods ice ages ice sheets 400-3000m thick extended across the northern hemisphere.
Theories used to explain why climate has changed in the past (Natural events)....
1. ERUPTION THEORY very large and explosive volcanic eruptions change earths climate. Ash and gas spread around the stratosphere and stop sunlight reaching the earths surface cools the earth. Example is Mt Pinatubo, 1991, Philippines reduced global sunlight by 10% and cooled the earth 0.5 degrees for a year. SUNSPOT THEORY black areas on the suns surface. Sometimes there are more then they disappear. Spots mean greater activity and more solar energy being sent towards the earth warmer. ORBITAL THEORY/MILANKOVITH CYCLES Changes in the way the earth orbits the sun from circular to ellipse alters the amount of sunlight the earth receives. The earths axis also moves and wobbles about affecting how much sunlight is recieved
2.
3.
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How climate change affected people and the environment during the Little Ice age
Impacts: ECONOMIC +VE English fisherman found herring normally located in the waters off Norway. Increase in deepsea fishing helped to build the maritime population ECONOMIC -VE Increasing grain prices and lower wine production Many farmsteads were destroyed, resulting in less tax Cod fishing greatly decreased, as the cod moved farther south. Advancing glaciers closed the gold mines. HEALTH Cool, wet summers led to outbreaks of St. Anthony's Fire illness Malaria in several parts of England Great Famine lasted 8 years 10-20% of farmers died from hunger ENVIRONMENT Beech trees, were replaced first by oak and then by pine. Cold and rain occurred in the spring and summer of 1315 In the Alps, valley glaciers grew in the colder climate FARMING Wheat and oats did not ripen so the harvests failed Farms high on hillsides were abandoned They had to change their crops from wheat to potatoes The Little Ice Age was a period of unusually cool conditions between the years of 1300 and 1850 A.D.
Geological Climate Events Ecosystems where plants and animals interact with each other and their environment in order to survive. Can be small e.g.
pond or large e.g. Tropical Rainforest.
How the greenhouse effect works and the types of human activities increasing greenhouse gases
Greenhouse gases of fossil fuels, from paddy fields oxide from aircraft
(CO2 from the burning deforestation, Methane and cattle, Nitrous engines and fertilisers)
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trap heat from leaving the atmosphere and re-radiate that heat back down to earth. The greater the concentration of greenhouse gases, the more heat is trapped and the warmer earth becomes. We need the NATURAL greenhouse effect it makes the planet 16 degrees warmer. Without it the earth would be too cold for us to survive. The extra greenhouse gases produces by humans burning fossil fuels power stations, transport, industry, homes.
GLOBAL WARMING = a warming of the earths temperatures caused by the ENHANCED greenhouse effect (humans have polluted the atmosphere so it is working more strongly). Global temperatures increase. sea levels rise THERMAL EXPANSION (water droplets expand as warm) and glaciers and ice sheets melt.
How greenhouse gas levels have changed over time and who the main producers of greenhouse gases
Since pre-industrial times, atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases have grown significantly as countries become more industrialised their people become consumers of energy and goods, as well as producers of air pollution through the burning of fossil fuels. Most greenhouse gases are produced by developed countries the EU, USA, and Japan.
average person
The USA produce the largest amounts of Co2 each year and the worlds current level of Co2 is increasing at a rate of 200x faster than at any time in the past million years. Rates of methane have also doubled since the 1800s due to the growing worlds population demanding an increasing amount of cows for meat. Emerging powers such as China and India are now in line with older polluters such as USA and Europe due to the take off of their development. China is now the worlds largest single polluter.
What scientists think might happen to climate and sea-levels in the future
Scientists do not know exactly how global warming might affect our planet but predictions include: - Temperatures to rise between 1.1c and 6.4c by 2100 - Sea levels to rise between 30cm and 1 metre by 2100 - Floods, droughts and heat waves would become more common - Storms and hurricanes would become stronger
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How might a developed country be affected by Global Warming? CASE STUDY MEDC: UK
1. Likely to be WARMER: COSTS Summer drought and water shortages, especially in the south. More illnesses e.g. sunstroke, skin cancer. Roads melt, railway lines buckle. Farmers change crops to those that need less water and more sun. Extinctions of some plants and animals as it gets too hot. Scotlands skiing resorts could be gone by 2050 More cases of tropical diseases like malaria
2. SEA LEVEL rise Low lying coasts could flood Greater erosion e.g. Holderness Sea defences and flood barriers (such as the Thames Barrier) costs millions of pounds. The Thames Barrier was raised four times between 1984-1990, 35 times between 1991 and 2000, and 67 times between 2001 and 2007. 3. More EXTREME WEATHER Extreme weather is hard to predict and costly.
Some scientists think that extreme weather might become more common in the UK as a result of global warming. This could mean more:
Heatwaves, like summer 2003, when temperatures reached 38oC Flooding, like in summer 2007, when parts of the Midlands had a months rainfall in 1-2 days Storms, like the great gales in 1987 and 1990, which caused millions of pounds of damage.
How climate change might affect people in the developing world CASE STUDY LEDC: Bangladesh the possible impacts of Global Warming
Bangladesh is a developing country which often suffers from disastrous flooding. Several factors combine to make the country very vulnerable to flooding. (See annotated map)
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Global warming can only make this situation worse. A recent study estimated that global warming by 2oC would lead to a 30cm rise in sea-level. Warming by 4oC would lead to a 100cm rise. In Bangladesh higher sea-levels and higher sea temperatures would lead to: More and stronger cyclones Accelerated coastal erosion Reduced river flow because of increased evapotranspiration Saltwater pollution of freshwater supplies in wells underground Destruction of mangrove forests and other habitats along the coast Increased pressure on land and resources inland Bangladesh Action Plan: The Bangladesh Action Plan (FAP) has been set up by the Government, the World Bank, and other foreign aid donors, to try and reduce the damage caused by floods both now and in the future. The main solution suggested by the FAP is to the coast and river banks. It is hoped that this will protect the country from flooding, even if the sea-level rises by 100cm. it will cost billions of dollars, which will have to come from the World Bank and other organisations based in MEDCs.
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Key terms:
Biodiversity Bio fuels Biome Biosphere CITES Conservation Deforestation Degradation Gene pool Goods Hydrological Cycle RAMSAR Services Superpower Countries Sustainability Unsustainable Water Table Wilderness The number and variety of living species found in a specific area Fuel sources derived from agricultural crops A plant and animal community covering a large area of the Earths surface The living part plants and animals of the Earth Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora an international agreement Managing the environment in order to preserve, protect or restore it The chopping down and removal of trees to clear an area of forest The social, economic and environmental decline of an area, often through deindustrialisation The genetic material contained by a specific population Produced items and materials The global stores of water and linking processes that connect them The RAMSAR Convention on Wetlands is an intergovernmental treaty for the conservation and wise use of wetlands Those things that are provided, bought and sold that are not tangible The worlds most powerful and influential nations- the USA and increasingly, China and India The idea that the current generation of people should not damage the environment in ways that will threaten future generations environment Unable to be kept going at the same rate or level The level in the soil or bedrock below which water is usually present Uncultivated, uninhabited and inhospitable regions
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How climate (temperature and precipitation) influences the distribution and types of biomes
Average temperature is the main factor affecting plant growth. Temperature gradually decreases as you move away from the equator and as latitude increases, so temperature decreases. LATITUDE:
At the equator the suns rays hit the earth at right angles, therefore concentrating the rays and making it very hot. At the poles the rays hit at a greater angle, so the rays are spread out over a greater area and is much less concentrated. Lack of heat and light limits vegetation growth so plants become stunted and low growing. Precipitation: Precipitation occurs in low-pressure belts, where air masses meet and air rises. At the equator the air is always rising = LOW pressure = clouds and rain = rainforests. At 30 degrees north and south of the equator the air is always sinking = HIGH pressure = no clouds and no rain = deserts. This means that in area such as UK and the Equator where year-round rainfall occurs, forests grow in these areas. Whilst in polar and desert area, high-pressure zones occur causing dry conditions.
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Example: Local factors affecting where a tropical rainforest can grow A climate graph
The RED line graph = average temperature for each month. The BLUE bar graph = average rainfall for each month. TEMPERAURE RANGE = difference between min and max temperatures.
How the biosphere provides important services to humans Goods and services
GOODS = things of value to us SERVICES = things that satisfy our needs The biosphere is a life-support system which provides many vital services such as: 1. Regulating the composition of the atmosphere forests remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere reducing global warming. Forests give out oxygen purifying the atmosphere 2. Maintaining the health of the soil forests provide leaf litter which forms humus. This makes the soil more fertile for growing crops 3. Regulating water within the hydrological cycle forests protects watersheds from soil erosion and intercept precipitation preventing flash flooding. They also trap silt therefore keeping the water pure. 4. Protect against natural hazards such as storms and floods 5. Pollination for food web/chains 6. Maintaining biodiversity
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How humans are directly degrading biomes by their actions, such as deforestation, including a named example
Every year the red list of endangered animals is produced. Increasingly, habitats are being damaged and destroyed this leads to increased threat of species survival. Immediate causes = logging, overfishing, pollution Root causes = increasing populations, economic development e.g. China, India now = more money and therefore consuming more food and fuel etc. Certain species and places are particularly under threat. There are 25 hotspots where there is greatest concentration of biodiversity (number of plants and animals).
DEFORESTATION: Logging increased flooding and increased soil erosion e.g. Amazon Rainforest. CHANGING LANDUSE to farmland/urban changes the ecosystem
POLLUTION air/water
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How global actions and agreements could help make this possible, including examples
GLOBAL ACTIONS (Countries working together) RAMSAR Convention on Conserving Wetlands, signed 1971 and adopted by 147 countries CITES Convention on Trade in Endangered Species, signed 1973 and adopted by 166 countries. The aim is to stop trade in products such as elephant ivory or crocodile skin handbags.
How local and national management can conserve biomes including examples
NATIONAL ACTIONS (a particular country) National Parks England and Wales areas protected from human exploitation and occupation e.g. The Peak District. Covering 13% of the land surface protecting areas of outstanding natural beauty Community Forests new areas of trees near cities Paying farmers to replace hedgerows LOCAL ACTIONS (local area) Biodiversity Action Plans (BAPS) protect natural vegetation in Great Britain. They arose from the Convention of Biodiversity at the 1992 Summit in Rio de Janeiro
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- Reintroduce wild boar which had been hunted to extinction aim in the future to introduce wolves and brown bears! (very controversial) SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT meeting the needs of the present without compromising the needs of future generations. Ways to do this Zoning Educating local people Ecotourism Protected areas Only cut large trees
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Key terms:
Aquifer Groundwater Hydrological cycle Impermeable Infiltration Intermediate Technology Joints Over abstraction Permeable Pollution Pores Precipitation Regulated Flow River Pollution Throughflow Water harvesting Water management schemes Water store Water Table Water stress An underground store of water, formed when water-bearing (permeable) rocks lie on top of impermeable rocks Water contained beneath the surface, as a reserve The global stores of water and linking process that connect them Not allowing water to pass through The process whereby water soaks into the soil and rock A technology that the local community is able to use relatively easily and without much cost Lines of weakness in a rock that water can pass along When water is being used more quickly than it is being replaced Allowing water to pass through The presence of chemicals, noise, dirt or substances which have harmful or poisonous effects on an environment Small air spaces round in a rock or other material that can also be filled with water When moisture falls from the atmosphere as rain, hail, sleet or snow The steady movement of water through a drainage basin that will not bring flash flooding The emission of harmful or poisonous substances into river water Water that flows slowly through the soil until it reaches a river Storing rainwater or used water (grey water) for use in periods of drought Programmes to control rivers, generally organised by local or central government A build-up of water that has collected on or below the ground, or in the atmosphere The level in the soil or bedrock below which water is usually present Occurs when the demand for water exceeds the amount available during a certain period, or when it is not good enough quality to use
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The key process, flows and stores of the hydrological cycle, and their names
STORES: rocks (can be stored for 100s yrs), soil, lakes, oceans (97% water stored BUT too salty to use) glaciers The soil, lakes and rocks hold relatively small amounts of fresh water but are in high demand as sources of water. TRANSFERS/FLOWS: Surface runoff, through flow, groundwater flow, infiltration, precipitation.
Intercepts precipitation
unreliable
Agricultural demand
urbanisation Energy reservoir storage for HEP = +lost through evaporation Industrial development
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WATER STRESS = when demand is greater than supply or when it is not of good enough quality to use. Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan are the most water stressed countries in the world they use huge quantities for irrigating cotton crops.
SW USA, Central Asia = PHYSICAL WATER SCARCITY Demand > availability Sub Saharan Africa = ECONOMIC WATER SCARCITY supply available but people cant afford to exploit them. Lack of money to build storage facilities or distribute water.
desertification
How too much or too little water can lead to problems in the UK, Asia and America Global warming means
Less rain for some areas Increased rate of glacier melt More extreme weather events floods and storms and droughts. turning sea water into
Richer countries e.g. Kuwait, Saudi Arabia (profit from oil) can buy their way out of trouble e.g. desalination fresh water (very expensive). Developing countries rely on rainfall for their crops + unstable food insecurity and famine.
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Asia
worlds population at risk Billions of people could have reduced water supplies Risk of starvation as subsistence farmers no longer able to supply water to crops
- Increased dependency on aid from other countries and the World Bank
Major rivers fed by seasonal melting of glaciers ensure sustainable water supply climate change could lead to permanent melting Increase in extreme weather events e.g. Cyclones in Bangladesh Increase sea level could flood low lying areas
Salt runoff from roads sewage Disposal of hazardous waste Cattle waste (slurry) Sources of water pollution Crop spraying
Runoff from building sites Industrial discharge Chemicals applied to golf courses
Fertilisers washed in
Developing countries The highest levels of pollution are found in rapidly developing countries like India and China they put economic growth before environmental protection. Rapidly growing cities means slums streams = badly polluted as no sewage systems in place. Chemicals added to crops = runoff. Developed countries E.g. UK, Japan have taken big steps to control pollution. Tertiary and quaternary industries cause less pollution than primary and secondary.
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How human use of stores and flows can reduce water supply
How people intervene in the water cycle: 1. CLOUD SEEDING: making it rain 2. DEFORESTATION: Decreased interception increased flooding 3. URBANISATION: Increased impermeable surfaces 4. OVERABSTRACTION: taking too much water from rivers and lakes 5. BUILDING DAMS AND RESERVOIRS 6. GLOBAL WARMING: melting glaciers
OVERABSTRACTION: Too much water is being taken from the river/lake/water source. Thames Valley, South England
Dramatic decrease in river flow Tributaries dried up Ecosystem damaged Droughts and increased demand from more homes increased use of groundwater supplies falling water table so the store of water is not used sustainably. Most water companies now have strict policies CAMS (Catchment Abstraction Management Strategies) for managing water levels.
RESERVOIR BUILDING: Adds a new store to the hydrological cycle. But.brings PROBLEMS:
Loss of land drowns villages, farmland Disease stagnant water mosquitoes Vegetation drowned releases methane = greenhouse gas BENEFITS: Water supply Recreation fishing, sailing, walking, wildlife
DEFORESTATION
Fewer trees = less Evapotranspiration. Less green water recycled = less rain. Soil left exposed to the sun and rain Less nutrients in the soil Raindrops wash out the finer soil, leaving coarse, heavy surface. Less interception greater flood risk
How large-scale water management can interfere with water supply e.g. Dams
BENEFITS Increased water supply Recreational use HEP Industry Habitat for water birds Fishing DISADVANTAGES loss of farmland/villages less navigation people have to be relocated disease stagnant water loss of cultural sites interferes with fish migration
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Key Facts The three Gorges project is named after three scenic gorges (Qutang Gorge, Wuxia Gorge and Xiling Gorge) on the Yangtze River in China. The building of the dam at Sandouping, near Yichang was approved in 1992 and building started in 1995. The dam was completed in 2009. The dam is 185m high and 2.3km long There are 5 ship locks to let ships pass from the lower part of the Yangtze river to the upper part The reservoir behind the dam is 600km (375 miles) long The maximum height of the water above the previous level of the river is 175m The main reasons for building the dam To prevent and control the floodwaters of the Yangtze River ( in the twentieth century more than 300,000 people died as a result of flooding on the Yangtze River) To generate 84.7 billion kilowatts of electricity per year through its 26 generators To improve transport along the Yangtze to Chongqing To supply water from the reservoir The impact of creating the reservoir The area to be flooded by the new reservoir includes: the three Gorges, 13 cities, hundreds of villages, a large amount of farmland, 1300 factories and many ancient monuments. A total of over 1,300,000 people have been moved from 1200 villages when the project was completed. It is believed that the water quality of Yangtze River tributaries has deteriorated after the reservoir began to store water.
This case study can also be used in your Extreme Climates small scale local management section!
Tanzania is a desperately poor country in east Africa, where life expectancy is just 46. 70% of Tanzanias rural population and 30% of urban dwellers have no access to safe water. Diarrhoea accounts for at least 20% of infant deaths. It is a common problem in places where water supplies are contaminated with sewage, and can prove fatal, particularly to children. International agency WaterAid brings intermediate technology to communities needing sewage-free water. Working in partnership with Tanzanias Anglican Church, for example, Water Aid helped the community of Chessa village construct a new well, 24 metres deep, fitted with an Afridev handpump. Fifteen families can now drink safe water underground. A key principle of WaterAid projects is that communities take ownership of the technology and are responsible for its upkeep. For this reason the technology must be simple, so that ordinary people can fix it when it breaks. The Afridev handpump provided in Chessa is not very sophisticated. Better handpumps exist with a lower rate of breakdown. However, when more advanced machines breakdown, a specialist engineer needs to be called in which can leave local people without water while they wait for repairs. An Afridev handpump may breakdown fairly often but it can quickly be repaired by a local caretaker. In Chessa, brothers Vincent and Lazaro William volunteered to be the Afridev handpumps caretakers. After one weeks training, they were given a toolkit consisting of a spanner and a wrench. They take the pump apart once a year to check the whole system, and fix whatever problems arise on a day-today basis. Also helping people in Tanzania is local radio soap show Pilika Pilika (Busy Busy). WaterAid supports the show and used it to spread messages on hygiene, sanitation and water management. In one recent episode, a major character had an unpleasant experience when he tripped up and fell into a well that had been heavily polluted with toilet water. The audience were reminded that they need to keep their water supplies free of sewage!
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Key terms:
Backwash Bay Coastal Flooding Coastal Management Concordant Coast Constructive Wave Deposition Destructive Wave Discordant coast Do Nothing Erosion Fetch Geological Structure Hard Engineering Hard rock Coast Headland Holistic approach ICZM Longshore Drift Mass Movement Soft rock coast Spit Stack Strategic Realignment Stump Sub-aerial processes the movement of a wave retreating back to sea, away from the beach sheltered area of coastline made from soft rock When areas of land are flooded by the sea. The processes and plans applied to coastal areas by local authorities and agencies layers of hard and soft rock which lay parallel against the coastline wave which has a larger swash than backwash Placing sand and sediment in a certain place by a wave, erosion, transportation or humans. wave which has a larger backwash than swash layers of hard and soft rock which run vertically against the coastline, forming headlands and bays. An approach that allows natural processes to take their course without any intervention breaking down of rock and sediment the distance a wave travels before hitting the coastline The way in which the rocks are arranged, both vertically and horizontally a heavily managed area of the coastline, e.g. sea wall, groyne more resistant rock which is harder to erode or weather, e.g. granite outcrop of land at sea made from hard rock An approach to environmental management that threats the whole area as an interrelated system A sustainable method of coastal management, managing the whole coastal area from the shoreline to several kilometres inland as one area. Process of sediment moving along the coastline. The down slope movement, by gravity, of soil and/or rock by the processes of slumping, falling, sliding and flowing less resistant rock which is easily eroded or weathered, e.g. limestone sand and sediment which is attached to the coastline but sticks out at sea A detached column of rock located just offshore The reorganisation of coastal defences that is often part of managed retreat A stack that has collapsed, leaving a small area of rock above sea-level the weathering of rock and the impacts of wind and rain
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Swash Weathering
the movement of a wave onto the beach the weather breaking down rock
Shape of cliffs On the cliff face At the foot of the cliff face
Hard rock coast e.g. Granite at Lands end Cornwall High, steep and rugged Cliff face often bare with no vegetation and little loose rock A few boulders and rocks have fallen from the cliff
Soft Rock coast e.g. Scarborough Yorkshire May be high but are less rugged and not so steep May be piles of mud and clay which have slipped down the face of the cliff Very few rocks, some mud and sand
Some rocks are very resistant to erosion e.g. granite. Some rocks are least resistant e.g. clays and will erode quickly.
How landforms such as cliffs and stacks form including key terms
Wave Cut Notch/Platform
1. 2. 3. 4. The sea attacks the base of the cliff forming a wave-cut notch. The notch increases in size causing the cliff to collapse. The process repeats and the cliff continues to retreat. A wave cut platform is left at the bottom. Exposed at low tides.
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CONCORDANT coastline the rock type is the same along the whole coastline.
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The weaker rock here is limestone. The hard rock here is sandstone. The soft rock erodes much faster than the hard rock creating bays. The more resistant rock is left sticking out as headlands. Weaknesses in the rock can be: JOINTS: small, natural cracks FAULTS: larger cracks caused in the past by tectonic movements
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Rock fall occur when fragments of rock weathered from a cliff face fall under gravity and collect at the base Slumping occurs when the bottom of a cliff is eroded by the waves making the slope steeper. The cliff can then slide downwards due to rain saturation which lubricates the rocks and makes it heavier.
Longshore Drift
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The particles of sand or shingle are transported along the beach in a zig zag movement, carried by the swash and backwash. As the prevailing wind is usually in the same direction so LSD usually is too.
Tombolo Bar
A tombolo is where the sediment joins the mainland to an island. A bar joins two sections of mainland.
Sand
Plants that grow on the sand dunes need to be tough Long roots to hold them in place during strong winds Tough, waxy leaves Can survive being sprayed with salt water E.g. marram grass
Dune Plants
How some coasts are threatened by rapid erosion and rising sea levels Coasts and the Changing Climate
With increasing sea levels due to thermal expansion (water particles expand as they warm up) and the melting of the ice sheets. Low lying coastlines e.g. Bangladesh, Essex, Pacific islands = at risk. STORM SURGES: The gravity of the moon creates tides. Twice a day we have high tides which gives raised sea levels. A few times a year we have spring tides which are very high. If a spring tide and low air pressure coincide = a STORM SURGE = huge waves flooding the coast. Global warming could make depressions more powerful and therefore storm surges more common. Higher sea levels and more storms would = faster erosion rates. Current sea defences would be useless and we would have to spend a lot of money on new ones.
SEA WALLS
reflect the waves back out to sea Costly Makes it hard to access the beach The wall itself erodes = high maintenance costs.
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GROYNES
Trap and stop the longshore drift from moving along. Builds up a nice big sandy beach. This is the best form of protection against erosion the wave moves around every grain of sand, taking lots of energy out of the wave (energy is dissipated). Good for tourism Has a negative impact down the coast which is starved of sediment here the beach becomes smaller and offers less protection so erosion rates increase greatly. This = conflict.
REVETMENTS
Slatted wooden or concrete structures built at the base of the cliff Absorb and spread the wave energy through the slats Do not interfere with longshore drift Regular maintenance is needed Expensive
CONFLICT
FOR HARD ENGINEERING Locals want hard engineering it looks like something serious is being done to protect them. Local businesses e.g. caravan parks, hotels. Local politicians who want the residents support. AGAINST HARD ENGINEERING Local taxpayers who dont live at the coast. Environmentalists worry about habitats being destroyed. People who live down coast negative effects.
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Defences may cause erosion down coast May be impossible to soon due to global warming and sea level rise. In some places defences are being abandoned and nature let take its course. At the moment the government thinks it is too expensive to protect farmland/isolated houses. conflict hard to convince people whove lived there all their lives that protecting their property is not sustainable. We dont know the impact rising sea levels will have so planning new defences is difficult.
Modern management Holistic management managing the whole stretch of coast and not just one place. Holistic management takes into
account: The needs of different groups of people Economic costs and benefits The environment of land and sea ICZM Integrated Coastal Zone Management SMP Shoreline Management Plans for long stretches of coast. This should stop one place building groynes if it will effect down the coast.
Council choices
Councils have 4 choices of how to manage the coast: 1. HOLD THE LINE: use defences to stop erosion and keep the coast where it is. Expensive. 2. ADVANCE THE LINE: move the coast further into the sea. Very expensive. 3. STRATEGIC RETREAT: gradually let the coast erode and move people/businesses away as necessary. Compensation has to be paid. 4. DO NOTHING: let nature take its course. Councils would undertake a cost-benefit- analysis to identify whether the option is economically viable e.g. loss of houses if nothing is done, cost of building defences against the sea vs. people not losing their farms and land
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Example of the impacts of Coastal Management: Mappleton The village of Mappleton is greatly under threat by coastal erosion along the coastline and by 1998, the main road running through the village was only 500m from the cliff top and in places it is now only 50m. The village is under threat due to the easily eroded boulder clay (glacial till) which makes up the cliff line. The area suffers from erosion rates of up to 2m per year. Protecting Mappleton To reduce the amount of erosion threatening Mappleton, 2 rock groynes were constructed in 1991 to encourage the build up of beach in front of Mappleton by trapping longshore drift. This meant that those waves would break on the beach rather than attacking the cliffs. Problems for further down coast Those living south of Mappleton village have experienced the 'knock-on' effects of the coastal management. The groynes at Mappleton have disturbed the natural longshore drift movement, trapping the coastal material. Therefore whilst material is still being moved south of Mappleton, there is no fresh sediment to replace it. Beaches have become even narrower and the cliffs are unprotected. Estimates suggest that it has accelerated cliff erosion south of Mappleton to 10m / yr.
Dont forget you can use Barton on sea and Milford on Sea as a CASE STUDY
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Extreme Climates
Physical characteristics of Australia Adaptations of Flora (plants) and Fauna (animals) semi-arid areas Adaptations by people in semi-arid areas (Aborigines, The Outback) Problems facing people in semi-arid areas (climate change, tourism, land degradation) Sustainable LOCAL management of the Sahel Region (Diguettes/Bunding)
Key Words
Adapt Boreholes Biodiversity Conservation farming Cultural Dilution Desert Diguettes Drought avoidance Drought tolerance Drylands El Nino Fauna Flora Hunting and Gathering Indigenous population Kyoto Summit Mitigate Succulence Windpumps Adapting to a climate of increased greenhouse gases e.g. using air conditioning, building the Thames Barrier A deep hole drilled in the ground to find water The range of plants and animals A method of farming to reduce soil erosion and drought The weakening of traditional cultures due to the introduction of western beliefs and languages. An environment that receives less than 250mm of rainfall each year. A line of stones, laid along the contours of gently sloping farmland. The aim of them is to form barriers to soil erosion and increase soil fertility. Plants that survive one season, have a rapid life cycle, and die after seeding (avoiding drought conditions). Plants that have mechanisms to survive drought e.g., extensive deep roots which penetrate soil and rock to get at underground water a.k.a semi-arid environments) are classified as environments with an annual rainfall of between 250mm and 500mm A reversal of normal air currents across Australia and the Pacific Ocean. It brings drought to Australia every 5-7 years. Animals Plants Finding edible plants and animals traditionally part of the Aboriginal lifestyle. Native population to the area A global summit held in 1997 to cut greenhouse gas emissions by 5.2% by 2012. Reduce climate change by reducing greenhouse emissions Plants that store water in their fleshy leaves, stems or roots e.g. Australian Eucalypt trees Create pressure to draw water from aquifers to the surface
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A desert is an environment that receives less than 250mm of rainfall each year. Drylands (a.k.a semi-arid environments) are classified as environments with an annual rainfall of between 250mm and 500mm Distribution of arid environments
Rain bearing winds low across the Pacific towards Australia The mountains that border the coast The Great Dividing Range cause air to rise and cool rapidly. This leads to condensation and precipitation (rain). As the air descends from the mountains is warms and becomes drier a RAIN SHADOW is created and creates low rainfall in western areas. The further west the winds blow, the drier they are the driest areas are in Western Australia.
This graph is a CLIMATE GRAPH it shows the RAINFALL and TEMPERATURE for Marble Bar in north-western Australia.
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Reach for the stars tip - learn temperatures to use as evidence in your answers. Note when peak rainfall is in the year how does this link to the temperature?
2. Drought Tolerance During droughts (long periods without rainfall) some plants have adapted so that their leaves fall off. This stops water being lost from the plants through the stomata on the leaves. Some plants have developed really deep roots which are able to get water from deep underground. 3. Drought Avoidance These are annual plants (plants that only flower once). After flowering they die, but leave behind their seeds, which can survive for years before growing into plants when it rains again. 42
Fauna (animals) adaptations to survive in Australias outback , The Bilby small marsupial Nocturnal to avoid dehydration in the daytime heat. Burrows for moister cooler conditions Has low moisture needs, obtaining enough from its food such as bulbs, fungi and insects. The Perentine giant lizard can grow up to 2.5 metres in length Digs, burrows and hides in deep rock crevices Hibernates from May to October to avoid cold Has low moisture needs. The Red Kangaroo Hopping (fast energy efficient form of travel) to find food in the sparsely populated desert Feeds at dawn and dusk when the air is cooler Sleeps throughout most of the day Dew is an important part of its water intake Rain triggers a hormonal response in females so breeding only occurs during rains. Licks its forearms to cool off. However extreme droughts, desertification or changes to the climate due to man-made climate change can lead to all species of plants and animals becoming vulnerable.
Buildings
Clothing
Transport Energy
Human adaptations in Australias outback Problems: o Poor soils little organic material little farming low income o Lack of water supplies for people and animals o Most people in the outback are miners. Wages are high to attract workers but living there needs lots of energy to run air conditioning. Managing problems o Most farms have dams or reservoirs to store water o Farms use boreholes to trap into underground water supplies in the bedrock. If you drill a borehole water comes up either under natural pressure or by using wind pumps. 43
o Building underground the town of Coober Pedy in south Australia is almost wholly underground. Houses are cut into solid rock where daytime and night-time cold are evened out. In Parachilna the hotel is built 1m below the ground and is cooled by the surrounding rock. Solar panels are used for lighting and fans no air conditioning is needed. Kitchen and bathroom water is recycled as grey water for watering the gardens.
people Aborigines
Aboriginal beliefs and lifestyle o Their beliefs focus on the land they see themselves as caretakers of the land o Traditionally they survived as hunters and gatherers finding edible plants and animals o They created conditions where grubs could live and breed o They built dams across rivers to catch fish and make pools where birds would gather o Aboriginal crafts were based on hunting (boomerangs) or music and tribal celebrations (didgeridoos) As generations split and younger people moved to the cities stories about care of the land are being lost. Aboriginal Food Fruits Seeds Grubs Meat Bush tomatoes, desert limes, bush bananas Wattle seeds from Wattle trees are used in biscuits, drinks and dressings Witchetty grubs are the larvae of moths and beetles, which are eaten raw or cooked. They taste like scrambled eggs and peanut butter with a crispy chicken skin. Traditional wild animals such as kangaroo, crocodile or emu
The Aboriginal Population Has 2/3 life expectancy of white Australians (52) Has Australias worst drug and alcohol abuse; homelessness is also a problem Sees its traditional lifestyle disappearing there is a risk knowledge and beliefs will disappear unless action is taken to preserve them.
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Introduction of western language and beliefs this has led to an increase in drug and alcohol abuse among Aborigines
Overgrazing Deforestation
Process of Desertification An increase in population leads to more intensive farming methods to get more food from the land. This leads to a loss of nutrients from the soil that eventually leads to the soil becoming infertile, so no plants will grow and the soil can become eroded by the wind leading to the land turning to desert. With desertification spreading the people of the Sahel are forced to farm on less and less land. This can lead to their cattle overgrazing the available grasslands, which can lead to the plants dying and desertification taking place. With a growth in population there is a greater demand for firewood. This leads to more trees being cut down. The soil then becomes exposed to the wind and is more easily eroded, leading to desertification.
Climate Change can also make desertification worse. A change in rainfall patterns due to climate change can lead to desertification in two ways: If the rains dont arrive, the grasslands of the Sahel die. This leaves the soil exposed and can then be easily eroded by the wind. When the rains then do arrive, the exposed soil is easily washed away by the heavy rain.
Bunding in Burkina Faso. The low walls built from local materials helps stop the soil from being eroded or washed away. This stops desertification.
Global Scale: Case Study Kyoto and Copenhagen Agreements Climate change is a major cause of desertification, so stopping climate change should help stop desertification. Global agreements such as Kyoto (1997) and Copenhagen, when governments from all over the world agree to reduce carbon dioxide emissions, are the worlds way of responding to the global problem of climate change. 46
By encouraging the use of renewable energy instead of fossil fuels, it is hoped that climate change will not be as extreme and areas of the world such as the Sahel will not suffer from unpredictable rainfall. (see climate change revision guide re Copenhagen and Kyoto
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2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
Explain why some cliffs erode more rapidly than others (6) Higher Describe and explain the process of Longshore Drift (6) What is a concordant coastline? (2) Describe how changing sea levels can impact coastlines (4) Using named examples, explain the effects of erosion at the coast on people (6) Using named examples, explain how coastal management choices can cause conflict at the coast (6) Describe how strategic retreat would work as a coastal management strategy (4) Using examples, explain how sea level rise could threaten people and their property (6 marks)
Topic 8: Extreme Climates 1. Suggest one reason why an increase in tourism may damage the culture of people living in an extreme climate. (1) 2. Describe one way in which people living in an extreme climate have adapted to this environment. (2) 3. For either a named hot arid or a named polar region, explain the local actions which have been taken to help achieve sustainability. (6) 4. For either a hot arid or a polar region, explain how vegetation has adapted to this extreme climate. (6) 5. For either a hot arid or a polar region, explain how vegetation has adapted to this extreme climate. (6) 6. Describe one problem faced by people living in areas of extreme climate. (2) 7. For a named hot arid or polar region, explain how life is changing for its people.(6) 8. For a named hot arid or polar region, describe how climate change could threaten people and natural systems. (6)
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