Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
1.7 Pressure Head, Velocity Head, Potential Head and Total Head in a Pipeline........................................................15
We will be looking here at the flow of real fluid in pipes – real meaning a fluid that possesses viscosity
hence looses energy due to friction as fluid particles interact with one another and the pipe wall.
Recall from Level 1 that the shear stress induced in a fluid flowing near a boundary is given by Newton's
law of viscosity:
du
τ ∝
dy
This tells us that the shear stress, τ, in a fluid is proportional to the velocity gradient - the rate of change
of velocity across the fluid path. For a “Newtonian” fluid we can write:
du
τ =μ
dy
where the constant of proportionality, μ, is known as the coefficient of viscosity (or simply viscosity).
Recall also that flow can be classified into one of two types, laminar or turbulent flow (with a small
transitional region between these two). The non-dimensional number, the Reynolds number, Re, is used
to determine which type of flow occurs:
ρud
Re =
μ
For a pipe
Laminar flow: Re < 2000
Transitional flow: 2000 < Re < 4000
Turbulent flow: Re > 4000
It is important to determine the flow type as this governs how the amount of energy lost to friction relates
to the velocity of the flow. And hence how much energy must be used to move the fluid.
4 fLu 2
hf =
2 gd
Equation 5
This is known as the Darcy-Weisbach equation for head loss in circular pipes
(Often referred to as the Darcy equation)
This equation is equivalent to the Hagen-Poiseuille equation for laminar flow with the exception of the
empirical friction factor f introduced.
It is sometimes useful to write the Darcy equation in terms of discharge Q, (using Q = Au)
CIVE 2400: Fluid Mechanics Pipe Flow 5
4Q
u=
πd 2
64 fLQ 2 fLQ 2
hf = =
2 gπ 2 d 5 3.03d 5
Equation 6
Or with a 1% error
fLQ 2
hf =
3d 5
Equation 7
Consequently great care must be taken when choosing the value of f with attention taken to the source of
that value.
The value of f must be chosen with care or else the head loss will not be correct. Assessment of the
physics governing the value of friction in a fluid has led to the following relationships
1. hf ∝ L
2. hf ∝ v2
3. hf ∝ 1/d
4. hf depends on surface roughness of pipes
5. hf depends on fluid density and viscosity
6. hf is independent of pressure
Consequently f cannot be a constant if it is to give correct head loss values from the Darcy equation. An
expression that gives f based on fluid properties and the flow conditions is required.
As mentioned above the equation derived for head loss in turbulent flow is equivalent to that derived for
laminar flow – the only difference being the empirical f. Equation the two equations for head loss allows
us to derive an expression of f that allows the Darcy equation to be applied to laminar flow.
32μLu 4 fLu 2
=
ρgd 2 2 gd
16μ
f =
ρvd
16
f =
Re
Equation 8
Blasius, in 1913, was the first to give an accurate empirical expression for f for turbulent flow in smooth
pipes, that is:
0.079
f =
Re 0.25
Equation 9
This expression is fairly accurate, giving head losses +/- 5% of actual values for Re up to 100000.
1.4.3 Nikuradse
Nikuradse made a great contribution to the theory of pipe flow by differentiating between rough and
smooth pipes. A rough pipe is one where the mean height of roughness is greater than the thickness of
the laminar sub-layer. Nikuradse artificially roughened pipe by coating them with sand. He defined a
relative roughness value ks/d (mean height of roughness over pipe diameter) and produced graphs of f
against Re for a range of relative roughness 1/30 to 1/1014.
Colebrook and White did a large number of experiments on commercial pipes and they also brought
together some important theoretical work by von Karman and Prandtl. This work resulted in an equation
attributed to them as the Colebrook-White equation:
1 ⎛ k 1.26 ⎞
= −4 log10 ⎜ s + ⎟
⎜ 3.71d Re f ⎟
f ⎝ ⎠
Equation 10
It is applicable to the whole of the turbulent region for commercial pipes and uses an effective roughness
value (ks) obtained experimentally for all commercial pipes.
Note a particular difficulty with this equation. f appears on both sides in a square root term and so cannot
be calculated easily. Trial and error methods must be used to get f once ks¸Re and d are known. (In the
1940s when calculations were done by slide rule this was a time consuming task.) Nowadays it is
relatively trivial to solve the equation on a programmable calculator or spreadsheet.
Moody made a useful contribution to help, he plotted f against Re for commercial pipes – see the figure
below. This figure has become known as the Moody Diagram. [Note that this figure uses λ (= 4f) for
friction factor rather than f. The shape of the diagram will not change if f were used instead.]
He also developed an equation based on the Colebrook-White equation that made it simpler to calculate
f:
⎡ ⎛ 200 k 10 6 ⎞1 / 3 ⎤
f = 0.001375 ⎢1 + ⎜⎜ s
+ ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ d Re ⎟⎠ ⎥
⎦
Equation 11
This equation of Moody gives f correct to +/- 5% for 4 × 103 < Re < 1 × 107 and for ks/d < 0.01.
1 ⎡ k 5.1286 ⎤
= −4 log10 ⎢ s + 0.89 ⎥
f ⎣ 3.71d Re ⎦
Equation 12
or
2
⎡ ⎛ k 5.1286 ⎞⎤
f = 1 ⎢− 4 log10 ⎜ s + 0.89 ⎟ ⎥
⎣ ⎝ 3.71d Re ⎠⎦
Equation 13
Here the last term of the Colebrook-White equation has been replaced with 5.1286/Re0.89 which provides
more accurate results for Re > 105.
The problem with these formulas still remains that these contain a dependence on ks. What value of ks
should be used for any particular pipe? Fortunately pipe manufactures provide values and typical values
can often be taken similar to those in table 1 below.
In addition to head loss due to friction there are always head losses in pipe lines due to bends, junctions,
valves etc. (See notes from Level 1, Section 4 - Real Fluids for a discussion of energy losses in flowing
fluids.) For completeness of analysis these should be taken into account. In practice, in long pipe lines of
several kilometres their effect may be negligible for short pipeline the losses may be greater than those
for friction.
A general theory for local losses is not possible, however rough turbulent flow is usually assumed which
gives the simple formula
u2
hL = k L
2g
Equation 14
Where hL is the local head loss and kL is a constant for a particular fitting (valve or junction etc.)
For the cases of sudden contraction (e.g. flowing out of a tank into a pipe) of a sudden enlargement (e.g.
flowing from a pipe into a tank) then a theoretical value of kL can be derived. For junctions bend etc. kL
must be obtained experimentally.
Consider the flow in the sudden enlargement, shown in figure 6 below, fluid flows from section 1 to
section 2. The velocity must reduce and so the pressure increases (this follows from Bernoulli). At
position 1' turbulent eddies occur which give rise to the local head loss.
p1 A1 − p2 A2 = ρQ (u 2 − u1 )
p1 A1 − p2 A2 = ρA2u 2 (u 2 − u1 )
Rearranging gives
p2 − p1 u 2
= (u1 − u2 )
ρg g
Equation 17
Now apply the Bernoulli equation from point 1 to 2, with the head loss term hL
p1 u12 p u2
+ = 2 + 2 + hL
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g
And rearranging gives
u12 − u22 p2 − p1
hL = −
2g ρg
Equation 18
Combining Equations 17 and 18 gives
u12 − u 22 u 2
hL = − (u1 − u 2 )
2g g
hL =
(u1 − u2 )
2
2g
Equation 19
Substituting again for the continuity equation to get an expression involving the two areas, (i.e.
u2=u1A1/A2) gives
2
⎛ A ⎞ u2
hL = ⎜⎜1 − 1 ⎟⎟ 1
⎝ A2 ⎠ 2 g
Equation 20
Comparing this with Equation 14 gives kL
2
⎛ A ⎞
k L = ⎜⎜1 − 1 ⎟⎟
⎝ A2 ⎠
Equation 21
When a pipe expands in to a large tank A1 << A2 i.e. A1/A2 = 0 so kL = 1. That is, the head loss is equal to
the velocity head just before the expansion into the tank.
In a sudden contraction, flow contracts from point 1 to point 1', forming a vena contraction. From
experiment it has been shown that this contraction is about 40% (i.e. A1' = 0.6 A2). It is possible to
assume that energy losses from 1 to 1' are negligible (no separation occurs in contracting flow) but that
major losses occur between 1' and 2 as the flow expands again. In this case Equation 16 can be used from
point 1' to 2 to give: (by continuity u1 = A2u2/A1 = A2u2/0.6A2 = u2/0.6)
⎛ 0.6 A2 ⎞ (u 2 / 0.6 )2
2
hL = ⎜⎜1 − ⎟⎟
⎝ A2 ⎠ 2g
u 22
hL = 0.44
2g
Equation 22
i.e. At a sudden contraction kL = 0.44.
Large losses in energy in energy usually occur only where flow expands. The mechanism at work in these
situations is that as velocity decreases (by continuity) so pressure must increase (by Bernoulli).
When the pressure increases in the direction of fluid outside the boundary layer has enough momentum to
overcome this pressure that is trying to push it backwards. The fluid within the boundary layer has so
little momentum that it will very quickly be brought to rest, and possibly reversed in direction. If this
reversal occurs it lifts the boundary layer away from the surface as shown in Figure 8. This phenomenon
is known as boundary layer separation.
Y-Junctions
Bends
Figure 9: Local losses in pipe flow
The values of kL for these common situations are shown in Table 2. It gives value that are used in
practice.
kL value
Practice
Bellmouth entry 0.10
Sharp entry 0.5
Sharp exit 0.5
90° bend 0.4
90° tees
In-line flow 0.4
Branch to line 1.5
Gate value 0.25
(open)
Table 2: kL values
As all of these elements of the equation have units of length, they are often referred to as the following:
p
pressure head =
ρg
u2
velocity head =
2g
potential head = z
total head = H
In this form Bernoulli’s equation has some restrictions in its applicability, they are:
• Flow is steady;
• Density is constant (i.e. fluid is incompressible);
• Friction losses are negligible.
• The equation relates the states at two points along a single streamline.
over a hill) before falling to its final level.
Figure 10: Reservoir feeding a pipe
To analyses the flow in the pipe we apply the Bernoulli equation along a streamline from point 1 on the
surface of the reservoir to point 2 at the outlet nozzle of the pipe. And we know that the total energy per
unit weight or the total head does not change - it is constant - along a streamline. But what is this value
of this constant? We have the Bernoulli equation
p1 u12 p2 u22
+ +z = H = + +z
ρg 2 g 1 ρg 2 g 2
We can calculate the total head, H, at the reservoir, p1 = 0 as this is atmospheric and atmospheric gauge
pressure is zero, the surface is moving very slowly compared to that in the pipe so u1 = 0 , so all we are
left with is total head = H = z1 the elevation of the reservoir.
A useful method of analysing the flow is to show the pressures graphically on the same diagram as the
pipe and reservoir. In the figure above the total head line is shown. If we attached piezometers at points
along the pipe, what would be their levels when the pipe nozzle was closed? (Piezometers, as you will
remember, are simply open ended vertical tubes filled with the same liquid whose pressure they are
measuring).
pressure
head
H
elevation
velocity Total head line
head
pressure hydraulic
head grade line
H
elevation
velocity Total head line
head
pressure hydraulic
H
elevation
Figure 13: Piezometer levels and velocity heads with fluid flowing in varying diameter pipes
The velocity head at each point is now different. This is because the velocity is different at each point. By
considering continuity we know that the velocity is different because the diameter of the pipe is different.
Which pipe has the greatest diameter?
velocity
head
Total head line
pressure
head
hydraulic
grade line
H − hf
elevation
Figure 14: Hydraulic Grade line and Total head lines for a constant diameter pipe with friction
How can the total head be changing? We have said that the total head - or total energy per unit weight - is
constant. We are considering energy conservation, so if we allow for an amount of energy to be lost due
to friction the total head will change. Equation 19 is the Bernoulli equation as applied to a pipe line with
the energy loss due to friction written as a head and given the symbol h f (the head loss due to friction)
and the local energy losses written as a head, hL (the local head loss).
p1 u12 p u2
+ + z1 = 2 + 2 + z 2 + h f + hL
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g
Equation 23
a)
We use the Bernoulli equation with appropriate losses from point A to C
and for entry loss kL = 0.5 and exit loss kL = 1.0.
For the local losses from Table 2 for a sharp entry kL = 0.5 and for the sharp exit as it opens in to the
atmosphere with no contraction there are no losses, so
u2
hL = 0.5
2g
Friction losses are given by the Darcy equation
4 fLu 2
hf =
2 gd
Pressure at A and C are both atmospheric, uA is very small so can be set to zero, giving
u2 4 fLu 2 u2
zA = + zC + + 0.5
2g 2 gd 2g
u2 ⎛ 4 fL ⎞
z A − zC = ⎜1 + 0.5 + ⎟
2g ⎝ d ⎠
Substitute in the numbers from the question
u2 ⎛ 4 × 0.08 × 15 ⎞
4= ⎜1.5 + ⎟
2 × 9.81 ⎝ 0.1 ⎠
u = 1.26m / s
b)
To find the pressure at B apply Bernoulli from point A to B using the velocity calculated above. The
length of the pipe is L1 = 5m:
2
pB u 4 fL1u 2 u2
zA = + +z + + 0.5
ρg 2 g B 2 gd 2g
pB u 2 ⎛ 4 fL1 ⎞
z A −zB = + ⎜1 + 0.5 + ⎟
ρg 2 g ⎝ d ⎠
pB 1.26 2 ⎛ 4 × 0.08 × 5.0 ⎞
− 1.5 = + ⎜1.5 + ⎟
1000 × 9.81 2 × 9.81 ⎝ 0.1 ⎠
p B = −28.58 × 103 N / m 2
Figure 16:
For the entrance use kL = 0.5 and the exit kL = 1.0. The join at C is sudden. For both pipes use f = 0.01.
So
H = hf1 + hf2 + hL entry + hL join + hL exit = 9m
2g ⎝ π ⎠ 2g ⎝ d1 d 2 ⎠
When two or more pipes in parallel connect two reservoirs, as shown in Figure 17, for example, then the
fluid may flow down any of the available pipes at possible different rates. But the head difference over
each pipe will always be the same. The total volume flow rate will be the sum of the flow in each pipe.
The analysis can be carried out by simply treating each pipe individually and summing flow rates at the
end.
Two pipes connect two reservoirs (A and B) which have a height difference of 10m. Pipe 1 has diameter
50mm and length 100m. Pipe 2 has diameter 100mm and length 100m. Both have entry loss kL = 0.5 and
exit loss kL=1.0 and Darcy f of 0.008.
Calculate:
a) rate of flow for each pipe
b) the diameter D of a pipe 100m long that could replace the two pipes and provide the same
flow.
a)
Apply Bernoulli to each pipe separately. For pipe 1:
p A u A2 p u2 u 2 4 flu12 u2
+ + z A = B + B + z B + 0.5 1 + + 1.0 1
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g 2 g 2 gd1 2g
pA and pB are atmospheric, and as the reservoir surface move s slowly uA and uB are negligible, so
B B
⎛ 4 fl ⎞ u2
z A − z B = ⎜⎜ 0.5 + + 1.0 ⎟⎟ 1
⎝ d1 ⎠ 2g
⎛ 4 × 0.008 × 100 ⎞ u12
10 = ⎜1.0 + ⎟
⎝ 0.05 ⎠ 2 × 9.81
u1 = 1.731 m / s
For pipe 2:
p A u A2 p u2 u 2 4 flu22 u2
+ + z A = B + B + z B + 0.5 2 + + 1.0 2
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g 2 g 2 gd 2 2g
Again pA and pB are atmospheric, and as the reservoir surface move s slowly uA and uB are negligible, so
B B
For this pipe, diameter D, velocity u , and making the same assumptions about entry/exit losses, we have:
p A u A2 p u2 u 2 4 flu 2 u2
+ + z A = B + B + z B + 0.5 + + 1.0
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g 2 g 2 gD 2g
2
⎛ 4 fl ⎞u
z A − z B = ⎜ 0.5 + + 1.0 ⎟
⎝ D ⎠ 2g
4 × 0.008 × 100 ⎞ u
2
⎛
10 = ⎜1.0 + ⎟
⎝ D ⎠ 2 × 9.81
⎛ 3.2 ⎞ 2
196.2 = ⎜1.0 + ⎟u
⎝ D⎠
The velocity can be obtained from Q i.e.
πD 2
Q = Au = u
4
4Q 0.02852
u= =
πD 2 D2
So
2
⎛ 3.2 ⎞⎛ 0.02852 ⎞
196.2 = ⎜1.0 + ⎟⎜ ⎟
⎝ D ⎠⎝ D 2 ⎠
0 = 241212 D 5 − 1.5D − 3.2
which must be solved iteratively
i.e. the solution is between 0.107m and 0.1058m but 0.107 if sufficiently accurate.
CIVE 2400: Fluid Mechanics Pipe Flow 21
1.11.2 An alternative method
An alternative method (although based on the same theory) is shown below using the Darcy equation in
terms of Q
fLQ 2
hf =
3d 5
And the loss equations in terms of Q:
u2 Q2 42 Q 2 Q2
hL = k =k = k = 0.0826 k
2g 2 gA2 2 gπ 2 d 2 d4
For Pipe 1
10 = hL entry + hf + hL exit
Q2 0.008 × 100Q 2 Q2
10 = 0.0826 × 0.5 + + 0.0826 × 1.0
0.054 3 × 0.055 0.054
Q = 0.0034 m 3 / s
Q = 3.4 litres / s
For Pipe 2
10 = hL entry + hf + hL exit
Q 2 0.008 × 100Q 2 Q2
10 = 0.0826 × 0.5 + + 0.0826 × 1.0
0.14 3 × 0.15 0.14
Q = 0.0188 m 3 / s
Q = 18.8 litres / s
A B
C
D
For these problems it is best to use the Darcy equation expressed in terms of discharge – i.e. equation 7.
fLQ 2
hf =
3d 5
When three or more pipes meet at a junction then the following basic principles apply:
It is usual to ignore minor losses (entry and exit losses) as practical hand calculations become impossible
– fortunately they are often negligible.
One problem still to be resolved is that however we calculate friction it will always produce a positive
drop – when in reality head loss is in the direction of flow. The direction of flow is often obvious, but
when it is not a direction has to be assumed. If the wrong assumption is made then no physically possible
solution will be obtained.
In the figure above the heads at the reservoir are known but the head at the junction D is not. Neither are
any of the pipe flows known. The flow in pipes 1 and 2 are obviously from A to D and D to C
respectively. If one assumes that the flow in pipe 2 is from D to B then the following relationships could
be written:
z a − hD = h f 1
hD − z b = h f 2
hD − z c = h f 3
Q1 = Q2 + Q3
The hf expressions are functions of Q, so we have 4 equations with four unknowns, hD, Q1, Q2 and Q3
which we must solve simultaneously.
If the direction of the flow in pipe 2 was wrongly assumed then no solution will be found. If you have
made this mistake then switch the direction to obtain these four equations
z a − hD = h f 1
z b − hD = h f 2
hD − z c = h f 3
Q1 + Q2 = Q3
Looking at these two sets of equations we can see that they are identical if hD = zb. This suggests that a
good starting value for the iteration is zb then the direction of flow will become clear at the first iteration.
Water flows from reservoir A through pipe 1, diameter d1 = 120mm, length L1=120m, to junction D from
which the two pipes leave, pipe 2, diameter d2=75mm, length L2=60m goes to reservoir B, and pipe 3,
diameter d3=60mm, length L3=40m goes to reservoir C. Reservoir B is 16m below reservoir A, and
reservoir C is 24m below reservoir A. All pipes have f = 0.01. (Ignore and entry and exit losses.)
We know the flow is from A to D and from D to C but are never quite sure which way the flow is along
the other pipe – either D to B or B to D. We first must assume one direction. If that is not correct there
will not be a sensible solution. To keep the notation from above we can write za = 24, zb = 16 and zc = 0.
For flow A to D
z a − hD = h f 1
f1 L1Q12
24 − hD = = 16075 Q12
3d15
Assume flow is D to B
hD − zb = h f 2
f 2 L2Q22
hD − 8 = = 84280 Q22
3d 25
For flow is D to C
hD − zc = h f 3
f 3 L3Q32
hD − 0 = = 171468 Q32
3d 35
The final equation is continuity, which for this chosen direction D to B is
Q1 = Q2 + Q3
hj Q1 Q2 Q3 Q1=Q2+Q3 err
24.00 0.00000 0.01378 0.01183 0.02561 0.02561
20.00 0.01577 0.01193 0.01080 0.02273 0.00696
17.00 0.02087 0.01033 0.00996 0.02029 -0.00058
17.10 0.02072 0.01039 0.00999 0.02038 -0.00034
17.20 0.02057 0.01045 0.01002 0.02046 -0.00010
17.30 0.02042 0.01050 0.01004 0.02055 0.00013
17.25 0.02049 0.01048 0.01003 0.02051 0.00001
17.24 0.02051 0.01047 0.01003 0.02050 -0.00001
So the solution is that the head at the junction is 17.24 m, which gives Q1 = 0.0205m3/s, Q1 =
0.01047m3/s and Q1 = 0.01003m3/s.
Had we guessed that the flow was from B to D, the second equation would have been
zb − hD = h f 2
f 2 L2Q22
8 − hD = = 84280 Q22
3d 25
and continuity would have been Q1 + Q2 = Q3 .
If you then attempted to solve this you would soon see that there is no solution.
[For this particular question the method shown above is easier to apply – but the method shown below
could be seen as more general as it produces a function that could be solved by a numerical method and
so may prove more convenient for other similar situations.]
Again for this we will assume the flow will be from reservoir A to junction D then from D to reservoirs B
and C. There are three unknowns u1, u2 and u3 the three equations we need to solve are obtained from A
to B then A to C and from continuity at the junction D.
Flow from A to B
p A u A2 p u2 4 fL2u12 4 fL2u 22
+ +z A = B + B +zB + +
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g 2 gd1 2 gd 2
Putting pA = pB and taking uA and uB as negligible, gives
4 fL2u12 4 fL2u22
z A −zB = +
2 gd1 2 gd 2
Put in the numbers from the question
4 × 0.01 × 120u12 4 × 0.01 × 60u22
16 = +
2 g 0.12 2 g 0.075
16 = 2.0387u12 + 1.6310u22
(equation i)
Flow from A to C
p A u A2 p u2 4 fL2u12 4 fL3u32
+ + z A = C + C + zC + +
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g 2 gd1 2 gd 3
Putting pA = pc and taking uA and uc as negligible, gives
4 fL2u12 4 fL3u32
z A − zC = +
2 gd1 2 gd 3
Put in the numbers from the question
4 × 0.01 × 120u12 4 × 0.01 × 40u32
24 = +
2 g 0.12 2 g 0.060
24 = 2.0387u12 + 1.3592u32
(equation ii)
Fro continuity at the junction
Flow A to D = Flow D to B + Flow D to C
Q1 = Q2 + Q3
πd 2
πd 22 πd 32
1
u1 = u2 + u3
4 4 4
2 2
⎛d ⎞ ⎛d ⎞
u1 = ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ u 2 + ⎜⎜ 3 ⎟⎟ u3
⎝ d1 ⎠ ⎝ d1 ⎠
with numbers from the question
u1 − 0.3906u 2 − 0.25u3 = 0
(equation iii)
A pipe joins two reservoirs whose head difference is 10m. The pipe is 0.2 m diameter, 1000m in length
and has a f value of 0.008.
a) What is the flow in the pipeline?
b) It is required to increase the flow to the downstream reservoir by 30%. This is to be done
adding a second pipe of the same diameter that connects at some point along the old pipe and runs
down to the lower reservoir. Assuming the diameter and the friction factor are the same as the old
pipe, how long should the new pipe be?
10m
Original pipe
New pipe
100
0m
a)
fLQ 2
hf =
3d 5
0.008 × 1000Q 2
10 =
3 × 0.25
Q = 0.0346 m 3 / s
Q = 34.6 litres / s
b)
H = 10 = h f 1 + h f 2 = h f 1 + h f 3
∴
hf 2 = hf 3
2 2
f 2 L2Q2 f LQ
5
= 3 3 53
3d 2 3d 3
as the pipes 2 and 3 are the same f, same length and the same diameter then Q2 = Q3.
As f1 = f2, d1 = d2
10 =
f1Q12 ⎛
L +
(1000 − L1 ) ⎞
2 ⎜ 1 ⎟
3d1 ⎝ 4 ⎠
The new Q1 is to be 30% greater than before so Q1 = 1.3 × 0.034 = 0.442 m3/s