Chapter 7 Energy Sources & Power Systems Introduction SECTION 7.

1 Exhaustible and Renewable Energy Sources SECTION 7.2 Inexhaustible Green Energy Sources SECTION 7.3 Types of Power Systems Chapter 7 Review and Assess Page 106

ESSENTIAL QUESTION Why would people choose to use one type of energy over another? The sun is the fundamental source of almost all the earth's other sources of energy. Plants absorb the sun's energy and use it to grow. We obtain that energy when we eat plant and animal foods. Over many ages, the remains of plants and animals are turned into coal and oil. Warmth from the sun creates wind, another source of energy. The sun's energy may also be used directly to power such devices as solar cells or batteries. Although many people use the terms energy and power interchangeably, they are not the same. Energy is the ability to do work. The more energy a device has, the more work it can do. Power is how much work can be done in a certain period of time and is measured in horsepower. A typical car uses the chemical energy in gasoline to move, or do work. A typical car may have a 230 horsepower engine. A solar car built by the University of Michigan uses the sun's energy to power it. Knowing the solar car has a 6.4 horsepower motor tells you the car can do less work than a typical car. Yet, the solar car uses energy at 98 percent efficiency. A typical car uses energy at only about 30 percent efficiency. Why might engineers want to focus efforts on solar cars?

Solar Power Panels These panels capture the sun's energy and transform it into electrical energy that people can use to provide power for devices. Even though solar energy is essentially pollution free, what problems may people encounter if they rely solely on this form of energy? Photo Credit: Mick Roessler/CORBIS STANDARDS TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY - ITEEA STL 4 Students will develop an understanding of the cultural, social, economic, and political effects of technology. ITEEA STL 5 Students will develop an understanding of the effects of technology on the environment. THE DESIGNED WORLD ITEEA STL 16 Students will develop an understanding of and be able to select and use energy and power technologies. SCIENCE -NSES D Students should develop an understanding of energy in the earth system, geochemical cycles, origin and evolution of the earth system, origin and evolution of the universe. COMMON CORE STATE STANDARDS MATHEMATICS Algebra Seeing Structure in Expressions Write expressions in equivalent forms to solve problems LANGUAGE ARTS Reading Craft and Structure Interpret words and phrases as they are used in the text, including determining technical, connotative, and figurative meanings, and analyze how specific word choices shape meaning or tone.

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Reading Guide Before You Read - How is energy used in different technologies to make power? How are different types of energy collected and used? Objectives

Analyze exhaustible, renewable, and inexhaustible energy sources. Evaluate the negative and positive effects of energy sources. Summarize the uses of six simple machines. Explain several devices used to transmit mechanical power.

Main Idea - Main Idea All systems use energy and power to function. Knowing the types of energy and the ways those energies are used to make power is important to the understanding of many social, financial, and political aspects of society. Reading Strategy 1. 2. 3. 4. Use your notebook to create an outline using colored headings in the chapter. Write a predictive question under each heading that you can use to guide your reading. As you read, answer your predictive questions in your notebook. Ask your teacher to help with answers you could not find.

Go online to your McGraw Hill Student site for downloadable graphic organizers. Vocabulary Content Vocabulary

exhaustible energy fossil fuel fracking nuclear fission renewable energy bioconversion inexhaustible energy photovoltaic cells power distribution grid geothermal energy electrolysis mechanical advantage simple machine pneumatic hydraulic direct current alternating current series circuit parallel circuits

Academic Vocabulary

refined passive principle

Chapter 7 - Energy Sources & Power Systems Introduction SECTION 7.1 Exhaustible and Renewable Energy Sources SECTION 7.2 Inexhaustible Green Energy Sources SECTION 7.3 Types of Power Systems Chapter 7 Review and Assess

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SECTION 7.1 Exhaustible and Renewable Energy Sources Exhaustible Sources of Energy Exhaustible energy sources are those that cannot be replaced or replace themselves very slowly over millions of years. They include uranium, which is a radioactive substance found in many metal ores. Fossil fuels are also exhaustible. They are formed from plants and animals that died millions of years ago. Covered by sediments and subjected to pressure and heat, the organisms eventually formed coal, oil, and natural gas deposits. Coal Coal Our most abundant fossil fuel, coal, is generally found in two forms: soft and hard. Soft coal contains more sulfur, a known pollutant, but is usually found closer to the earth's surface and is cheaper and safer to obtain through surface (strip) mining operations. Hard coal is less polluting and produces more Btus. However, hard coal is much more dangerous and costly to mine as it is generally found in veins deep within the earth. (See Figure 7.1) At our present rate of use, it is estimated that the world has enough recoverable coal reserves to last about 120200 years. As research continues, coal's major problems may be solved and we will use the reserves faster.

Figure 7.1

Coal Mining Technology - A long wall machine such as this grinds through the coal layer inside a mountain or deep underground. What do you think working in an underground mine might be like? Photo Credit: Les Stone/Corbis

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Oil - Oil During the last 60 years, oil and natural gas have replaced coal for home and transportation use. Oil and gas are more easily stored and moved and are less polluting than coal. Oil, in its refined state, is the most common energy source for transportation. Fuel oil is used to heat our houses. Oil is also used to make plastics. These uses have made oil the world's most important fuel. There are three sources of oil: crude oil, shale oil, and tar sands.

Crude oil is a thick, dark liquid trapped in pockets in the earth. Workers drill into the oil pocketssome more than six miles below the earths crustand pump the oil out. Shale oil is oil trapped inside shale rock. More than three-quarters of the oil reserves in the United States are in the form of shale oil. The shale must be mined and the rocks crushed and heated to extract the oil, a time-consuming and costly process. Tar sands, which are trapped within the sand, are the third source of oil. Heat is used to extract the liquid oil. (See Figure 7.2.)

Figure 7.2 Tar Sands Imagine what this oil-saturated sand must feel like. The tar sands in Alberta, Canada, cover an area the size of Florida. New technology and the rising cost of oil from other sources are making tar sands appear to be a viable oil resource. What do you think some challenges might be in recovering this oil? Photo Credit: (Tl) Veronique de Viguerie/Getty Images News/Getty Images, (tr) Lara Solt/Dallas Morning News/Corbis After the oil is obtained, it must be refined and separated into useful substances. During refining, the oil is heated until it changes into a gas. As the vapors rise, they condense into different liquids. Heavy oil products, such as diesel fuel, do not rise very high and are drained off. Lighter oil products, such as gasoline and kerosene, rise higher. This process is called fractioning. The oil that remains after fractioning is further refined by cracking. Cracking breaks down the oil into smaller gasoline molecules.

Unfortunately, oil has two major problems as an energy source. One, oil is an exhaustible energy source, especially crude oil. The other major problem with oil is that it creates pollution. Crude oil spills damage shorelines and kill fish and other wildlife. Burning oil in any form creates air pollution. Technology has reduced these problems, but the cost makes oil an increasingly expensive energy source.

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Natural Gas Natural Gas Natural gas is most commonly found in underground pools or with crude oil deposits and is obtained by drilling. Not all deposits contain the same type of gas. The most common gas is methane. Others include ethane, propane, and butane. Each has a different Btu rating, and propane is the hottest. The mixture of the natural gases used as fuel is generally based upon availability and cost. Natural gas is transported or stored under pressure. (See Figure 7.3)

Figure 7.3 Natural Gas Distribution Natural gas moves in pipelines from sources across the United States. Most pipes measure from 16 to 48 inches in diameter and are made of strong carbon steel engineered to handle the high pressure of the gas. What are some other features pipes might require? Photo Credit: Larry Lee Photography/CORBIS Natural gas creates fewer pollutants than other fossil fuels and has also been the cheapest for many years. However, not enough natural gas exists in our current reserves to meet future demands. Fortunately, researchers have uncovered other sources that may become cost effective to tap with new technology.

Geopressure reserves in high-pressure brine (salt water) pools deep within the earth release gas when the pools are tapped. Shale and tight sand reserves hold trapped natural gas. In a process called hydraulic fracturing, or fracking, a mixture of water, sand, and other chemicals is pumped under high pressure into rock layers, causing them to break. The sand lodges in the cracks, holds them open, and gas escapes.

Uranium Uranium - Uranium is mined from the earth and used to produce hot nuclear energy. This energy turns water into steam that is most often used to produce electrical energy. Although the United States' supply of uranium is limited, there is enough to last many years. This fact is based on our current number of only about 100 nuclear power plants. Nuclear power is generated in a nuclear power plant during controlled nuclear fission, which is the splitting apart of the nucleus of an atom. The atoms are bombarded with free neutrons (small particles that have escaped the nucleus of other atoms). When an atom splits, it forms two or more smaller nuclei, more free neutrons, and gamma rays. It also releases lots of energy. Under the right conditions, the new free neutrons strike other uranium atoms and a chain reaction takes place. If the reaction is maintained, it produces a steady flow of energy. During the fission reaction, heat energy is released. In the most common type of nuclear plant, a pressurized-water reactor, the core water is heated to about 580 degrees Fahrenheit. It is kept under pressure so it will not boil. The water is then piped through a steam generator where it heats a second supply of water, which turns to steam. Pressure from this steam turns the blades of a turbine. The turbine turns a generator that produces electricity. (See Figure 7.4)

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Figure 7.4 Nuclear Energy Uranium is the source of about 20 percent of the United States' electricity. It supplies more than 70 percent of Vermont's electricity. Find out if a nuclear plant is located in your state. How much of your state's energy does uranium supply? Photo Credit: Brand X Pictures/PunchStock

Exposure to radiation from a nuclear reaction can damage human cells. Special precautions must be taken to prevent radiation leaks. Although nuclear power plants built in the United States have proved very safe over the years, some people still have safety concerns. Disposal of radioactive nuclear wastes is another problem. Wastes are often stored at the power plant for future disposal. Now, new industries are being developed that use nuclear waste, thus lessening the amount to be disposed. Check It Out! Identify four types of exhaustible energy. Choose one and give an example of where you might find this type of energy being used. Renewable Sources of Energy -Renewable energy is from sources that can be used indefinitely if they are properly managed and maintained. Most renewable energy is processed from wood, plants, and waste products. As the supply and cost of fossil fuels change, renewable sources of energy will grow in importance. The most promising are ethanol, methanol, biodiesel fuel, waste products, and wood.

Ethanol - Ethanol is ethyl alcohol, a compound derived from plants. Small amounts can be mixed with unleaded gasoline to conserve fossil fuels. Some new flex-fuel cars and trucks are able to run on a mixture that is mostly ethanol. Overall, ethanol mixtures produce less pollution than pure gasoline. Methanol Also called methyl alcohol, methanol is a clean-burning liquid fuel that can be used in vehicles. Renewable methanol is made from wood, plants, or waste. Methanol produces more Btus than ethanol, so it does not need to be mixed with gasoline. It can be used as an alternative fuel in flex-fuel vehicles. Using methanol as a transportation fuel produces much less pollution, less dependence on crude oil, and a more stable fuel cost. Its disadvantage of slower engine starting has been overcome with advances in engine design.

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Biodiesel Fuel Vegetable oil is heated to a temperature of 130 degrees, filtered, and mixed with additives to produce biodiesel fuel. (See Figure 7.5.) Biodiesel fuel is cleaner burning than regular petroleum-based diesel. Exhaust fumes contain fewer pollutants, and the smell of the fuel is more pleasant. When mixed properly, the power level of the fuel is as high as that of regular diesel. However, because it is such a clean fuel, biodiesel loosens dirt and rust from surfaces, which can sometimes clog vehicle fuel systems. Also, straight vegetable oil fuels become very thick at temperatures below 45 degrees and require a heated fuel system.

Figure 7.5 Biodiesel Fuel - Many people use cooking oil waste such as this being collected from a restaurant. Commercially, biodiesel fuel can be made from soybeans and other oil producing bean plants. How much biodiesel fuel do you think your local restaurants could supply? Photo Credit: Bill Clark/CQ-Roll Call Group/Getty Images

Waste Products Bioconversion is a method of obtaining energy from waste products, such as food wastes, animal wastes, paper, cardboard, and wood wastes. All of these can be either burned or converted into fuels such as alcohol, oil, and methane gas. One process, called thermal conversion, or thermal depolymerization, produces a high-quality fuel oil from waste products such as turkey parts and plastic bottles. The resulting fuels are low in pollutants. Wood One of the oldest sources of heat energy, millions of homes are still heated by burning wood. As an energy source, wood is not clean burning and creates air pollution. Also, trees take a long time to grow, so using them as a fuel competes with its use in the construction industry, paper production, and furniture manufacturing. For wood to become an important energy source, the number of trees now grown on tree farms and in managed forests will need to quickly increase.

7.1 Check Your Understanding Perform the following tasks. 1. Compare exhaustible and renewable energy sources. Give two examples of how they are similar and how they are different. 2. Evaluate two types of exhaustible energy sources and explain how these energy sources affect the environment. 3. Apply You are tasked with determining which renewable energy source would be best to use for the energy needs near your home. Give evidence from the text supporting your choice of energy source.

Extend Develop Communication Skills Writing Research the types of renewable energy other countries use for electricity. Write a short essay detailing the advantages and disadvantages of using that type of energy and how it is different from where you live. Section 7.1 Review Chapter 7 - Energy Sources & Power Systems Introduction SECTION 7.1 Exhaustible and Renewable Energy Sources SECTION 7.2 Inexhaustible Green Energy Sources SECTION 7.3 Types of Power Systems Chapter 7 Review and Assess

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SECTION 7.2 Inexhaustible Green Energy Sources Career Center Green Technologies - Using green energy technologies, such as solar energy collectors, takes a lot of planning and coordination between business and government. Many different roles in the process aid in this coordination, including green technology engineers. Energy from Sun, Wind, Water, and Earth Like those resources classified as renewable in this chapter, inexhaustible energy sources can be used indefinitely. But unlike them, inexhaustible energy sources will always be available. It does not matter how much of them we use. They include the sun, flowing water, wind, earth heat, tides, ocean heat, solar salt ponds, and hydrogen. The Sun The Sun - Solar energy is energy directly from the sun - If all the energy arriving from the sun each day were collected and controlled, we would have all the energy we need. Unfortunately, our devices for collecting and controlling the sun's energy in large quantities are inefficient and not widely usedtherefore, are also expensive. The actual amount of time each day when we can collect the sun's energy is also limited. Today, we use the sun's energy for thermal (heat) energy and for electricity. Thermal Energy Thermal Energy - As you know, thermal energy, or heat, is produced by the movement of molecules. The closer the molecules are packed together, the faster the heat is transferred. When heat is transferred through a fluid, such as air or water, the process is called convection.

Like warm air rising toward the ceiling in a room, the warmest fluid molecules always move toward those that are cooler. You have probably felt your skin become warmer when you stepped into sunlight. The sun's light energy is transformed into thermal energy when it strikes a surface such as your skin. Passive solar heating works in the same way by allowing the sun's light to warm a surface such as a brick wall or stone floor. Later, these heated surfaces can warm the cooler air in the room. Active solar heating systems involve solar collectorsdark-colored panels containing water, air, or another fluid. The light energy that strikes the collectors is transformed into thermal energy that is stored in the fluid running through them. The heated substance is then dispersed through the building. Solar collectors can also be composed of curved mirrors that focus the light on a container that holds water. The water becomes so hot that it becomes steam and can be used to operate electricity-generating turbines. Electricity Electricity - Devices that convert sunlight directly into electricity are photovoltaic cells. Light energy travels as tiny energy particles called photons. When photons strike the materials contained in a photovoltaic cell, the photons release electrons, particles within the atoms of the materials. The flow of these free electrons is electricity. When coupled with a battery storage system, photovoltaic cell technology is more efficient than solar panels. (See Figure 7.6.)

Figure 7.6 Photovoltaic Cells - The cost of producing photovoltaic cells is decreasing. In many parts of the world where there are no large power plants, portable computers, televisions, and lights are powered by solar cells. What devices have you used that were powered by solar cells? Photo credit: Warren Gretz/DOE/NREL

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Flowing Water Flowing Water - We gather the potential energy of water by trapping it behind dams. Much of this water is used to produce electrical power in a hydroelectric power plant. As water drains from the reservoir created by the dam, it flows through a sluice (a special waterway tunnel). Rotated by this directed flow of water, a turbine near the end of the sluice drives a generator that produces electricity. (See Figure 7.7)

Figure 7.7 Energy of Flowing Water - The hydroelectric plant in the Bonneville Dam on the Columbia River supplies about half the electricity used in the Northwest. What are some problems with this energy source? Photo Credit: Royalty-Free/CORBIS About 20 percent of all electricity produced in the United States is from hydroelectric power. However, dams require that large areas of land be abandoned for reservoirs. The natural environment is altered and wildlife may be destroyed. Wind Wind - Wind energy was a very important energy source before the rural parts of the United States were developed. Where the wind blew much of the time, people built windmills. They used this direct mechanical energy to pump water, grind grain, and perform other useful tasks. When the wind did not blow, however, the work did not get done. Today, windmills have been engineered to produce electricity. The wind turns a specially designed propeller that is connected to an electrical generator. Initially, the electricity is stored in banks of batteries. Unfortunately, large amounts of electricity cannot be stored economically, and there is a limit to the economic use of windmills. Today, due to advanced switching technology, electricity that is not immediately used is sold to the grid, or power distribution system. Large farms of wind-powered electrical generators are being installed near cities and industries as a source of electricity. (See Figure 7.8)

Figure 7.8 Wind Energy - These are just a few of about 4000 windmills on a wind farm near Palm Springs, California. They provide enough electricity to power Palm Springs and the surrounding valley. What do you think it would sound like to stand near a wind farm? Photo Credit: Doug Sherman/Geofile A power distribution grid is part of every community in the U.S. This system is made up of a power plant, substations that change and divert the electricity, and transmission lines that may be above ground, or buried. Grids are powered by every kind of resource, not just wind. Even some individual homes can generate enough electricity to sell back what is not used to their local grid.

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Geothermal Energy Geothermal Energy Geothermal energy is heat generated within the earth. It is the result of the decay of radioactive materials beneath the earth's surface. (See Figure 7.9) This heat is trapped unless it escapes through geysers and volcanoes.

Figure 7.9 Geothermal Energy - California leads the list of nine states that use geothermal energy to generate electricity. This source supplies about 5 percent of the state's needs. Do you think geothermal sources supply enough energy to warrant the effort of developing them? Photo Credit: Phil Degginger/Alamy The most efficient use of geothermal energy is to produce or capture steam in order to power electricity-generating turbines. Usable geothermal energy can be found in hot, dry rock fields; dry steam fields; hot water fields; and fields of lesser heat. The engineering and technology available to use these potential energy sources vary. Where hot, dry rocks are close to the surface, water is injected to produce steam. The steam is piped to the earth's surface and used to power turbines. Dry steam fields are easily tapped to gain pressurized steam to produce electricity. Hot water fields contain water ranging from 350 to 700 degrees. While inside the earth, water does not boil because of the surrounding pressure. As the hot water comes to the surface, pressure is released and it begins to boil. Boiling water makes steam, which can be harnessed to drive turbines. Fields of lesser heat also contain hot water but at a lower temperature. With these lower temperatures, steam is not created, but the heat energy can be used directly to heat structures or even to operate a land-based system used to drive a turbine. Check It Out! Identify four types of inexhaustible energy. Choose one and explain why the use of this energy source has less impact on the environment.

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Other Inexhaustible Energy Sources Ocean Tides, Waves, and Currents Ocean Tides, Waves, and Currents Much is still unknown about energy sources that lie below the surface of oceans. However, some, such as tides and currents, have proven to be useful. Tides are the rising and lowering of water levels caused by the moon's gravitational pull and the rotation of the Earth. High tide is when the water has risen to its highest level. Low tide is the opposite. Changes leading to high and low tide last about six hours each. In some parts of the world the difference between high and low tide is more than 40 feet, but differences much less than that are more common. Strong currents develop as the water moves in and then out. If the water is channeled through a turbine, electricity can be produced. (See Figure 7.10) Because the flow of the water reverses twice each day, the engineering required for the turbine generator is more complex. The cost of operating and maintaining tidal-controlled hydroelectric plants is high, but tidal energy is very reliable.

Figure 7.10 Tidal Power Plants - The largest tidal power plant is in France. It includes 24 turbines and has been operating since 1967. Scotland plans to place 10 turbines on the floor of a deep water channel. They will look more like wind turbines. Why do you think some smaller countries such as Scotland are focusing on inexhaustible energy sources? Ocean waves and currents are other sources of energy. Devices like the sea snake, a 450-footlong red steel snake that floats on the ocean's surface, use the ocean's motion to power generators that provide electricity. One sea snake can supply the needs of about 500 homes for a year. This technology is already being used in countries such as Scotland and Portugal. Researchers estimate that it could eventually provide up to 13 percent or more of the world's energy.

Ocean Heat Ocean Heat - Tropical oceans collect and store heat from the sun. Water near the surface is warm. Water deep under the surface remains very cold. This temperature difference is used to produce electricity, a process called Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC). An OTEC system is much like a refrigerator. A liquid, generally ammonia, is cycled through a closed system of pipes. At one end of the system, where the ocean water is very cold, the ammonia is a liquid. As the ammonia cycles through the hot ocean water, its pressure increases and it changes into a gas. The pressurized gas turns a turbine that is connected to an electrical generator. After the ammonia gas has done its work, it is cooled by the cold water into a liquid and the cycle starts over again.

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Solar Salt Ponds Solar Salt Ponds - Solar salt ponds, natural ponds generally found in the western United States, are another source of electrical energy. The sun's rays pass through the top layer of salt water and heat the water on the bottom. Since there is very little movement in heavy salt water, the bottom water gets hotter and hotter, often reaching 250 degrees. A system similar to that used for OTEC heats and cools ammonia, which operates a turbine generator. Hydrogen Hydrogen - Pure hydrogen, a gas, is one of the most common elements on Earth and burns easily, causing no pollution. There are few problems using hydrogen as a fuel. However, it is hard to produce. Water consists of two atoms of hydrogen (H) bonded to one atom of oxygen (O). Hydrogen bonds in water are very strong and require a great amount of energy to be broken. Although there are several ways of doing this, electrolysis seems to be the most promising. During electrolysis, electricity passes through water. This separates the hydrogen and oxygen atoms. So far, the cost of the electricity used for the electrolysis is greater than the value of the produced hydrogen. As the cost of electricity decreases and the cost of other transportation fuels increase, the use of hydrogen-fueled vehicles may increase. Hydrogen can also be used to produce electricity in a fuel cell. Fuel cells are like batteries. Hydrogen is combined with oxygen, and electrons are released.

7.2 Check Your Understanding Perform the following tasks. 1. Compare renewable and inexhaustible energy sources. Give two examples of how they are similar and how they are different. 2. Evaluate two types of inexhaustible energy sources and explain how using these energy sources lessen the effect on the environment. 3. Apply You are tasked with creating a new type of vehicle that will run on an inexhaustible form of energy. Choose one inexhaustible energy source, and explain why this would be best for a vehicle to use. Extend Develop Communication Skills Speaking Explain to a classmate which type of inexhaustible energy source would be best to use in the town where you live. Use evidence from the text to support your answer. Section 7.2 Review Chapter 7 - Energy Sources & Power Systems Introduction SECTION 7.1 Exhaustible and Renewable Energy Sources SECTION 7.2 Inexhaustible Green Energy Sources SECTION 7.3 Types of Power Systems Chapter 7 Review and Assess

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SECTION 7.3 Types of Power Systems Mechanical Power Systems Power systems must have a source of energy and a process. Energy is one of the inputs power systems use. During the process, the input energy is converted into a form that can accomplish work. The three most common types of power systems include mechanical, fluid, and electrical. Each of these systems usually converts one type of energy into another. As you know, mechanical energy is the energy of motion. When it is timed, it becomes mechanical power. Machines are the devices we use to convert and control mechanical power. All machines work on the same basic principles, which include mechanical advantage and the principles of the six simple machines.

Mechanical Advantage Mechanical Advantage - Using a machine multiplies human strength or force. This is called mechanical advantage. One way to calculate mechanical advantage is to compare output force to input force or input distance to output distance. The difference is written as a ratio. With any machine, the distance ratio and the force ratio will equal each other, so the only information needed to calculate mechanical advantage is the distances or forces involved. (See Figure 7.11.)

Figure 7.11 Mechanical Advantage - When using a machine, if 6 pounds of force move a 30-pound load, the mechanical advantage is 30:6, or 5:1, or 5. However, the 6 pounds of force must move five times as far as the 30-pound load. What would the mechanical advantage be if a 100-pound load were moved with 25 pounds of force? Simple Machines Simple Machines Simple machines are devices that create mechanical advantage. All complex machines are based on these six machinesthe pulley, the lever, the wheel and axle, the screw, the inclined plane, and the wedge. (See Figure 7.12)

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Figure 7.12 Simple Machines - The lever, wheel and axle, pulley, inclined plane, wedge, and screw are simple machines. Each of the machines provides mechanical advantage. What are some simple machines you use every day? Photo Credit: (tl) Comstock Images/Jupiterimages, (tr) Darren Greenwood/Design Pics, (cr) Car Culture/Car Culture Collection/Getty Images, (tl) Tyler Stableford/The Image Bank/Getty Images, (bc) BrandX Pictures/Getty Images, (br) Mark Douet/Photographer's Choice/Getty Images

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Controlling Mechanical Power Systems Controlling Mechanical Power Systems Mechanical power can be used directly without changing it. However, usually mechanical power is changed in some way before we put it to use. In that case, control devices such as gears, pulleys, sprockets and chains, clutches, and couplings transmit the power. Typically these devices change the input power in three ways: the device switches the power on and off, the device changes the direction of the power, or the device changes the force and speed of the power. Gears Gears - Gears are basically wheels with teeth cut around their outer edge. The teeth of one gear mesh with the teeth of another. Changing the number or size of gears increases speed or power (See Figure 7.13)

Figure 7.13 Gears - Gears transmit speed or power in different ways to accomplish different tasks. What devices that you use every day use the mechanical power of gears? Photo Credit: Lawrence Manning/CORBIS

Pulleys and Belts Pulleys and Belts - A pulley and belt power system is not the same as the simple machine pulley discussed earlier. A pulley is a grooved metal disk connected to a shaft. A flexible belt fits into the groove and transfers power from one pulley to another. Sprockets and Chains Sprockets and Chains - Sprockets and chains are driven by a pulley/belt instead of another gear. The teeth on the sprocket mesh with the chain. The timing of the rotation is controlled. (See Figure 7.14)

Figure 7.14 Sprockets - Sprockets look similar to gears, but transmit power through a chain instead of meshing gears. How do you think a sprocket allows a bicycle to move? Photo Credit: Dave King/Dorling Kindersley/Getty Images Benefits of Machines People use machines every day to help them do their jobs safely and more efficiently. Each of the machines gives its user mechanical advantage by reducing the amount of force needed to do a job. Many different machines have many different benefits.

Photo Credit: Image Source/PunchStock

Green reSource Silent Work Rebuilding the flood protection walls in New Orleans should be a very loud process. Much of the work also has to be done in protected wetland areas. To combat these issues, engineers at Giken have designed a new, ultra-quiet piler.

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Clutches Clutches - Clutches control on and off switching. There are generally two types: friction and centrifugal. Friction clutches operate using pressure to transfer power flow. A centrifugal clutch works on the principle of centrifugal force. The faster an object is rotated around an axis, the more outward force that object develops and the more pressure it exerts. Couplings Couplings - Couplings are permanent connections used to transmit power. Rigid couplings offer a stable connection between a power source and a driven device. The advantage of couplings is that they can be disassembled to change power sources or appliances. Check It Out! Identify six simple machines. Choose one and explain how it changes the amount of force required to do work. Fluid Power Systems Fluid power is the use of pressurized liquids or gases to control and transmit power. The liquids and gases in a fluid power system receive pressure from an outside source, such as a compressor. Fluid pressure can be either a positive or negative number (usually written in psi, or pounds per square inch). Work can be accomplished by a fluid power system at positive psi readings or in a vacuum. The control of fluid systems often depends on volume. You cannot compress a liquid. Gas, on the other hand, will compress as pressure is applied. Controlling Fluid Power Systems Controlling Fluid Power Systems Gases are compressed by a compressor and liquids are pressurized by a pump. The process of transmission and control through pipes and hoses is the key to an effective fluid power system.

Pneumatics Pneumatics - Modern uses of pneumatic power include tool operation, assembly line processing, and high-speed drilling. Pneumatics is a clean process. Filtered compressed air or other inert gases do not contaminate like oil-operated power systems. (See Figure 7.15.)

Figure 7.15 Pneumatic Power Nailer - This power nailer is a pneumatic tool. It uses compressed air to perform work much quicker than using a hammer. What advantages are there to using compressed air to do work? Hydraulics Hydraulics - The components of a hydraulic system include a pump to pressurize a liquid, usually oil, that comes from a reservoir through a filter into transmission lines. The oil then passes through a hand-operated shut-off valve, by a pressure relief valve, to a control valve. From the control valve, the pressurized oil goes to an actuator, which is usually a cylinder. The actuator then converts the fluid power into mechanical power. (See Figure 7.16)

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Figure 7.16 Hydraulic System - Pressure applied at one end of the hydraulic system is transferred to do work at the other end. What advantages are there to a hydraulics power system? Check It Out! Identify two types of fluid power systems. How are they alike? How are they different? Electrical Power Systems We use electrical power in countless ways. It provides light, heat, and motion. To understand how it works, you must understand the principles on which it is based. Atoms consist of three types of particles: protons, neutrons, and electrons. Electrons have a negative charge, and protons have a positive charge. Particles with opposite charges are attracted to one another. An atom seeks to be in a balanced state. The positive charge of the protons in the nucleus keeps the negatively charged electrons in balance. However, electrons in the outer orbits sometimes break free and move to other atoms that are out of balance and have a positive charge. This movement of electrons is called electrical current. (See Figure 7.17.)

Figure 7.17 Conductors - Atoms have protons, neutrons, and electrons. An atom is balanced if there are the same numbers of electrons as protons. If there is an imbalance, the electrons will jump to another atom. This movement of electrons creates electricity. How would an understanding of which materials are good conductors be important when working with electricity? Connection CONNECTION Find the Resistance in a Parallel Circuit In order to work with electricity safely, electricians need to know how much current is moving through the circuit. Electricians also need to know about the resistance, which is a property of materials that slows down electrical current in a circuit. Electricians use simple formulas to determine this information.

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Types of Current and Circuits Types of Current and Circuits Alternating current and direct current are the two types of electrical flow available from our energy sources. In direct current (DC), the electrons flow in only one direction. DC power can be stored in batteries, and alternating current (AC) cannot. Also, DC current is used to operate most electronic equipment because the flow of electrons is constant and lower voltages accomplish greater amounts of work. Alternating current is the most common type of current used in household and industrial circuits. AC is used to send electrical power over long distances. In AC, the direction of electron flow is first in one direction, then in the opposite direction, and then in the original direction. This sequence makes up one AC cycle, or hertz. In many countries, including the United States, AC flows at 60 cycles per second. Electrical circuits both begin and end at the same power source. A circuit must also contain a device that uses electricity, such as a buzzer or lightbulb. If electrons do not keep flowing, the circuit is not complete and electricity will be shut off. An electronic switch is used to open and close the circuit, turning things on and off. In a series circuit, electricity flows along a single path, or wire, to more than one electrical device. If one device in the path, or wire, stops working, they all stop. In parallel circuits, electricity flows along more than one path, or wire. If one device stops working, the other devices are unaffected. Most of the circuits in your home are parallel circuits.

Controlling Electrical Power Systems Controlling Electrical Power Systems Electrical power systems are grouped into four major work output categories: light, motion, heat, and communication. Electricity is converted into other forms of energy that do work. Solenoids change electricity into linear motion. A solenoid is a coil of wires with a movable plunger core. The plunger may be attached to water valves on a washing machine or the power locks on your car. 7.3 Check Your Understanding Perform the following tasks. 1. Evaluate the uses of each of the six simple machines. Compare two of the simple machines. 2. Explain What is the major difference between pneumatics and hydraulics? 3. Summarize how electrical current is created. Extend Develop Communication Skills Listening With a partner, share examples of simple machines that you encounter every day. Have your partner explain how the simple machine reduces the amount of effort needed to do a job. Section 7.3 Review Chapter 7 - Energy Sources & Power Systems Introduction SECTION 7.1 Exhaustible and Renewable Energy Sources SECTION 7.2 Inexhaustible Green Energy Sources SECTION 7.3 Types of Power Systems Chapter 7 Review and Assess

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Think Like an Engineer Engineering Design Process: Convert Energy Design Brief How much energy do you use in a typical day? You may only think of tasks that require a lot of work, such as participating in a physical education class or working at a job after school. However, even the simplest tasks use various forms of energy and energy conversions. 1. Identify a Problem or Opportunity 1. Identify a Problem or Opportunity Your team has been tasked to design a device that will accomplish a simple daily task using different forms of energy and several energy conversions. Be creativeyour device does not have to be practical as long as it performs energy conversions. 2. Define the Project Constraints 2. Define the Project Constraints Your device must use an odd assortment of materials found around the house or school. For example, a skateboard, toothbrush, rope, and candle might be used to create an automatic toothbrush. It must make use of at least three forms of energy. Your device must involve at least four operations in which energy conversion takes place. The energy conversions must be labeled with tags or signs. The work achieved by the device must simulate a task you complete on a daily basis. Your device must be a real model, and you must demonstrate your device for the class. It must accomplish the task for which it has been designed. 3. Research and Brainstorming 1. Discuss possible solutions with your team. You may want to look at a Rube Goldberg Machine. Rube Goldberg was a cartoonist who designed complex energy conversion devices using random materials. Research his designs. Ask: What are some examples of actual devices that show energy conversions? How can our devices emulate the ones we use every day? Maybe your device will be even more creative than his cartoons! 2. Brainstorm the best design that will solve your problem. For example, avoid designs that require complex machinery or other equipment. 4. Development and Prototyping 1. Propose device designs. Choose among your alternative solutions for the device. Choose the device that will be the most effective showing your classmates the energy conversion. 2. Decide on the device design you will use. Gather any needed tools or materials. Then, make a drawing. 3. Before you begin building your device, make sure you understand how to use the tools and materials that you will be using safely. If you are unsure, have your teacher demonstrate their proper use. Obey all other safety rules, too. 4. Create a working model of your device.

5. Testing, Analysis, and Optimization 1. Analyze your chosen solution. Ask: Did the device work properly? Did it show the energy conversion that we intended? Are the energy conversions properly labeled? 2. Refine your design. Change the design of the device if needed. 3. After any changes or improvements have been made, create your final version. 6. Evaluation and Presentation 6. Evaluation and Presentation Demonstrate your device for the class. Be prepared to answer questions. Turn in your device to your teacher. In your presentation, be sure to include the name of your activity, your definition of the problem, and a description of how you solved the problem.

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Connect Activity Center Go to the Activity Center to review chapter vocabulary. Main Ideas

All sources of energy can be classified into three types: exhaustible, renewable, and inexhaustible. Exhaustible energy sources cannot be replaced, renewable energy sources can be used indefinitely if managed properly, and inexhaustible energy sources will always be available. The three most common types of power systems are mechanical, fluid, and electrical. All types of power are used to do work in a certain amount of time. Mechanical power uses mechanical energy to do work, fluid power uses pressurized gases and liquids to do work, and electrical power uses the flow of electrons to do work.

Understanding Concepts 1. 2. 3. 4. What is the fundamental source of almost all the Earth's other sources of energy? How can electricity be produced from flowing water? What is one major disadvantage of using wood as an energy source? Name several devices used to transmit mechanical power.

Thinking Critically 1. Evaluate In what ways could the government encourage energy conservation? 2. Describe How would society be different if wind were a primary source of energy today? 3. Analyze How might pneumatics and hydraulics be used in other fields of technology discussed in this textbook? 4. Explain The bicycle in the photo has sprockets and chains. How many other simple machines does the bicycle have?

Photo credit: Fuse/Getty Images Problem Solving 1. Energy and Power Monitor either your own or someone else's driving habits. How can gas be conserved? Create an analysis to show your findings. 2. Assess Research wind farms and report how efficiently they use energy. Is this form of energy the best for the area in which you live? Ch 7 Review