AP Biology Lab 8: Population Genetics

Introduction
G.H Hardy and W. Weinberg developed a theory that evolution could be described as a
change of the frequency of alleles in an entire population. In a diploid organism that has
gene a gene loci that each contain one of two alleles for a single trait t the frequency of
allele A is represented by the letter p. The letter q represents the frequency of the a
allele. An example is, in a population of 100 organisms, if 45% of the alleles are A then
the frequency is .45. The remaining alleles would be 55% or .55. This is the allele
frequency. An equation called the Hardy Weinberg equation for the allele frequencies of
a population is p2+ 2pq+ q2 = 1. P represents the A allele frequency. The letter q represents
the a allele. Hardy and Weinberg also gave five conditions that would ensure the allele
frequencies of a population would remain constant.

A. The breeding population is large. The effect of a change in allele frequencies is

reduced.
B. Mating is random. Organisms show no mating preference for a particular
genotype.
C. There is no net mutation of the alleles.
D. There is no migration or emigration of organisms.
E. There is no natural selection. Every organism has an equal chance for passing on
their genotypes.

If these conditions are met then no change in the frequency of alleles or

genotypes will take place.

A simple class experiment will take place to serve as model of the evolutionary
process in a stimulated population. This experiment is great in order to test a few of the
basic parts of population genetics. In the experiment the class will place a piece of paper
in their mouth to see if they can taste the chemical PTC which is phenythiocarbamide.
People with the alleles AA, which is homozygous, and Aa, which is heterozygous, will be
able to taste the PTC. People that can’t taste PTC are aa.

Hypothesis
By allowing a class to see if they can taste PTC and recording the results the Hardy
Weinberg equation can be used to determine the allele frequencies of the class.

Materials
The materials used in this experiment are as follows: strips of PTC test paper, paper and
a pencil.

Methods
Begin by placing a piece of the PTC test paper in your mouth. Tasters will have a bitter
taste in their mouth. The frequency of tasters (p2 +2pq) is a found as a decimal by
dividing the total number of tasters by the total number of students in the class. The
frequency of nontasters (q2 ) is found by dividing the number of tasters by the number of
people in the class. Using the Hardy Weinberg equation the frequency of p and q can be
found. q is found by taking the square root of q2. p is found by using the equation 1-q=p.
Also calculate the frequencies of the North American population. Finally find 2pq that
represents the percentage of the heterozygous tasters in the class. Record the results in
table 8.1

Results

Table 8.1 Phenotypic Proportions of Tasters and Nontasters and Frequencies of the
Determining Alleles

Phenotypes Allele Frequencies

Tasters Nontasters p Q

P2 + 2pq Q2
Class # % # %
Population
.53 .47
7 77.78 2 22.22

North 55 45 .33 .67

American
Population

1. What is the % of heterozygous tasters 2pq in your class? 49.82%

2. What % of the North American population is heterozygous for the taster

trait? 44.15%

Case I Ideal Hardy Weinberg Populations

Introduction
In this experiment the entire class will represent an entire breeding population. In order
to ensure random mating, choose another student at random. The class will simulate a
population of randomly mating heterozygous individuals with an initial gene frequency
of .5 for the dominant allele A and the recessive allele a and genotype frequencies of .25
AA, .50 Aa and .25 aa. Your initial genotype is Aa. Record this on the data page. Each
member of the class will receive four cards. Two cards have a and two cards have A.
The four cards represent the products of meiosis. Each “parent” contributes a haploid set
of chromosomes to the next generation.
Hypothesis
By conducting the experiment under ideal conditions we will be able to show an ideal
Hardy Weinberg population.

Materials
The materials used in this experiment are as follows: cards labeled A and a, a pencil and
a piece of paper.

Methods
Begin the experiment by turning over the four cards so the letters are not showing, shuffle
them, and take the card on top to contribute to the production of the first offspring. Your
partner should do the same. Put the two cards together. The two cards represent the
alleles of the first offspring. One of you should record the genotype of this offspring in
the Case I section on page 98. Each student pair must produce two offspring, so all four
cards must be reshuffled and the process repeated to produce a second offspring. Then,
the other partner should record the genotype. The very short reproductive career of this
generation is over. Now you and your partner need to assume the genotypes of the two
new offspring. Next, the students should obtain the cards requires to assume their new
genotype. Each person should then randomly pick out another person to mate with on
order to produce the offspring of the next generation. Follow the same mating methods
used to produce offspring of the first generation. Record your data. Remember to
assume your new genotype after each generation. The teacher will collect class data after
each generation.

Results

Case I

AA Aa aa

F1 1 5 2

F2 2 4 2

F3 1 6 1

F4 1 5 2

F5 1 5 2

Number of offspring with genotype AA =6x2= 12 A alleles

Number of offspring with genotype Aa = 25x1 = 25 A alleles
Total = 37 A alleles
P= .46

Number of offspring with genotype aa = 9x2 = 18 alleles

Number of offspring with genotype Aa = 25
Total = 43
Q = .54
2pq=.49
.22+.49+..29

1. What does the Hardy Weinberg equation predict for the new p and q.
It predicts that the new p and q will be determined by chance.

2. Do the results you obtained in this simulation agree? If not, why not?
No the results do not agree because the population is not perfect. The population size is
too small creating disequilibria.

3. What major assumptions were not strictly followed in this simulation?

The assumption the population is large was not followed because in fact the breeding
population used was very small.

Case II Selection

Hypothesis
Using this experiment we will be able to simulate natural selection and use the Hardy
Weinberg equation to determine the frequencies of the alleles.

Introduction
In this case you will modify the simulation to make it more realistic. In the natural
environment, not all genotypes have the same rate of survival; that is, the environment
might favor some genotypes while selecting against others. An example is the human
condition, sickle cell anemia. It is a disease caused by a mutation on one allele,
homozygous recessives often die early. For this simulation, you will assume that the
homozygous recessive individuals never survive, and that heterozygous and homozygous
dominant individuals survive ever time.

Materials
The materials used in this experiment are cards labeled A and a, a pencil and a piece of
paper.

Methods
Once again start with your initial genotype and produce fertile offspring as in Case I.
There is an important change in this experiment. Every time an offspring with the
genotype aa is produced it dies. The parents must continue to reproduce until two fertile
offspring are produced. As in Case I proceed through five generations, but select against
the aa every time.

Results

Case II

AA Aa aa

F1 2 6 0

F2 6 2 0

F3 6 3 0

F4 6 3 0

F5 4 4 0

Number of offspring with AA alleles 22x2= 44

Number of offspring with Aa alleles x1 = 18
Total = 62
P = .775
Number of offspring with genotype aa x2= 0
Number of offspring with genotype Aa – 18
Total a alleles = 18
Q = .225
2pq=.35
.60+.35+.05=1

1. How do the new frequencies of p and q compare to the initial frequencies in

Case I?
Through natural selection individuals with the genotype aa are eliminated causing a
decline in the number of a alleles in this case. So the p frequencies in this case are higher
than those in Case I and the q frequencies are lower than the q frequency in Case I.

2. How has the allele frequency of the population changed?

In the first trial p was .46 and q was .54. The frequency of dominant A alleles is higher
and the frequency of Aa is smaller because the total number of a alleles in the gene pool
was reduced when the individuals with the genotype aa were selected against and died
before they could reproduce.
3. Predict what would happen to the frequencies of p and q if you simulated
another five generations.
The frequency of q will continue to decrease, but it will not reach zero because the
heterozygous Aa remain.

4. In a large population would it be possible to completely eliminate a

deleterious recessive allele? Explain.
No, it is impossible to completely eliminate a deleterious, harmful, recessive allele.
Even though some people that express the trait because they are heterozygous recessive
may die before they can pass the trait on to offspring, the gene pool will always have this
allele because carriers are able to live normal lives and pass these alleles on to there
offspring. An example is hemophilia.

Case III Heterozygote Advantage

Hypothesis
Using this experiment we will be able to show the advantage of heterozygotes in a
population undergoing natural selection.

Introduction
From Case II, it is easy to see that the lethal recessive allele rapidly decreases in the
population. However in a real population there is an unexpectedly high frequency of the
sickle cell allele in some populations. Case II did not accurately depict a real situation.
In the real world heterozygotes have an advantage over homozygous dominant
organisms. This is accounted for in Case III. In this Case everything is like Case II
except if your offspring is AA, flip a coin. If it is heads the individual dies, id it is tails it
lives.

Materials
The materials used in this Case are cards marked A and a, and a coin.

Methods
Once again simulate five generations, staring again with the initial genotype form Case I.
Again the genotype aa never survives. However the genotype AA will have a fifty-fifty
chance of living. Determine if it survives by flipping a coin. Tails it lives and heads it
dies. Finally total the class genotypes and calculate the p and q frequencies.
Results

Case III

AA Aa aa

F1 3 5 0

F2 1 7 0

F3 2 6 0

F4 2 6 0

F5 4 4 0

Number of individuals with the genotype AA =12x2=24

Number of individuals with genotype Aa= 28x1=28
Total = 52
P=.65
Number of individuals with genotype aa=0
Number of individuals with genotype Aa = 28
Q= .35
2pq = .455

1. Explain how the changes in p and q frequencies in Case II compare with

Case I and Case III.
The frequency of p in Case II was higher than p in case I because in Case II and q was
lower in Case II than Case I because in Case II aa were selected against. In Case III the
frequency of p is lower than the p is case II because unlike in Case II in Case III the
individuals with AA did not always survive. The q increased because in Case III more
heterozygotes survived than in Case II. This displays the heterozygote advantage.

2. Do you think the recessive allele will be completely eliminated in either Case
II or Case III?
No, the recessive allele will not be eliminated because there will always be
heterozygotes.

3. What is the importance of heterozygotes, the heterozygote advantage, in

maintaining genetic variation in populations?
The heterozygotes have both alleles, which is needed for genetic variation.
Heterozygotes are essential for there to be genetic variation in a population.
Case IV Genetic Drift

Hypothesis
By using this experiment we will be able to simulate genetic drift in an isolated
population.

Materials
The materials used in this experiment are cards labeled either A or a.

Methods
The simulation used in these experiments can be used to look at genetic drift. Then go
through five generations like Case I but do not switch mates. Record the genotypic
frequencies of p and q for the class after the fifth generation.

Results

Case IV

AA Aa Aa

F13 1 1 0

F2 1 1 0

F3 1 1 0

F4 2 0 0

F5 2 0 0

Number of individuals with the phenotype AA= 7x2=14

Number of individuals with Aa =18
Total = 32
P=0.4
Number of individuals with the phenotype aa= 15x2=30
Number of individuals with the phenotype Aa= 18
Total =48
Q=0.6
2pq= .48
.16+0.48+.36=1

1. Explain how the initial genotypic frequencies of the populations compare.

The original % of the hybrid was 100. After the % of the hybrid was 50.
2. What do your results indicate about the importance of population size as an
evolutionary force?
The small determined that this is not natural selection.

Error Analysis
In each of the cases rounding decimals could have contributed to inaccurate results. Also
inaccurately converting the data into terms of p and q could have cased errors in the
results. Finally, the small size of the breeding population used increased the likelihood of
errors taking place.

Conclusion
After completing the four Cases a few conclusions have been developed. When
heterozygotes for a certain allele die it contributes to the decrease of the frequency of that
allele in the gene pool. When a large number of individuals survive and are able to
produce viable offspring then frequencies for the alleles they contained will increase.
Also for several traits that can cause death the heterozygote has the advantage in
surviving. Finally, when individuals of a population breed with the same mate for several
generations genetic drift can take place and there will be more of a certain allele than that
of another allele.