IBN QUTAYBAH'S CONTRIBUTION TO QURNIC EXEGESIS

AN ANALYTICAL STUDY OF HIS WORK

TAWL MUSHKIL AL-QURN

BY

DR. MUHAMMAD AMIN A. SAMAD

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ABSTRACT This book is an attempt to present Ibn Qutaybahs contribution to Qurnic exegesis analyzing his work Tawl Mushkil al-Qurn (The Interpretation of the Difficult Passages of the Qurn). Ibn Qutaybah (d. 276/889) was one of the great Sunn scholars of the third/ninth century. He was a prolific writer and a scholar of many branches of learning, such as: kalm (scholastic theology), tafsr (Qurnic exegesis), H .adth (the Prophets Tradition), history and the science of language, including grammar, prose and poetry. He was said to be the third great writer of Arabic prose chronologically after Ibn Muqaffa (d. 141/759) and al-Jh .iz . (d. 254/868). He was one of the earliest commentators of the Qurn; he was earlier than al-T .abar (d. 310/923), al-T .abars (d. 548/1153), alZamakhshar (d. 538/1144) and Ibn Arab (d. 638/1240). Ibn Qutaybah took part in theological debate of his time and wrote his Tawl defending the Qurn against the attack of philosophic scepticism. His Tawl was a treatise on Qurnic rhetoric and on th e inimitability of the Qurn in which he clarified through philological explanations many Qurnic verses assumed to be obscure by some sceptics. This obscurity is based on their allegations of the existence of contradiction, disagreement and ungrammatical usage in the verses of the Qurn. Ibn Qutaybah in his Tawl countered these allegations with arguments based purely on Arabic usage in prose as well as poetry, and cited many poems of pre-Islamic as well as contemporary poets as shawhid (quotations serving as textual evidence). He dealt with the phenomena of figurative language, such as: metaphor, inversion, ellipsis and pleonasm, metonymy and allusion. He also dealt with ambiguous letters, words and particles in the verses of the Qurn.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to express my deepest appreciation to Dr. Abdul Khaliq Kazi, the former Associate Professor of Arabic and Islamic Studies and Head of Department of Asians Languages, the University of Melbourne for his advice, encouragement and support throughout this research. I am greatly indebted to Mr. Ali (Alan) Philpot, Mr. Barakatullah (Brian) Arab and Dr. Abdul Hadi T. Skinner who have edited, corrected the draft and proof-read the manuscript patiently and meticulously with their invaluable suggestions and advice which I highly appreciated. However, I am solely responsible for all the defects contained in this thesis, from organization structure, translations and expressed views to typographical errors. My thanks also go to Asst. Prof. Dr. Teddy Mantoro for his advice and assistance in many ways, as well as to those who have assisted me spiritually as well as materially, and contributed directly or indirectly to the accomplishment of this research. For this contribution I shall always be grateful.

Canberra, 6 December, 2011

Muhammad Amin A. Samad

TRANSLITERATION SYSTEM The English transliteration for Arabic names and terms followed in this thesis is as follows: a. Consonants: = a or = kh = sh = gh = n b. Vowels: Short: Fath.ah Kasrah ----- : = a ----- : = i long: = = = ) ) ) = b = d = s. = f = h = t = dh = d. = q = w = th = r = t. = k = y = j = z = z. = l = h. = s = = m

= (like alif)

D.ammah ----- : = u c. T marbt.ah: ah, e.g., srah (

T marbt.ah in id.fah: at, e.g., srat al-Baqarah ( d. Alif maqs.rah: , e.g., qad. ( ) and shr (

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LIST OF ABREVIATIONS

BSOAS EI2 IC IQ IR JAOS MW Q SEI SI

Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies Encyclopedia of Islam (New Edition) Islamic Culture Islamic Quarterly Islamic Review Journal of American Oriental Society Muslim World Qurn Shorter Encyclopaedia of Islam Studia Islamica

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TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT . . iii iv v vi vii xiv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

TRANSLITERATION SYSTEM LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION Chapter

..

I. THE SOURCES AND HISTORICAL BACKGROUND Study of Ibn Qutaybah .

A. An Evaluation of Some of the Literature Relevant to the 1 1 1 4 4 4 7 7 8

1. The Literary Works of Ibn Qutaybah a. Tawl Mushkil al-Qurn b. Tafsr Gharb al-Qurn

c. Gharb al-H .adth....... d. Adab al-Ktib 2. Books on Tafsr (Qurnic Exegesis) by Others ........ a. Majz al-Qurn by Ab Ubaydah .. b. Man l-Qurn by al-Farr .. c. Jmi al-Bayn f Tafsr al-Qurn by Ibn Jarr al-T .abar . 3. Books on Arabic Language and Literature a. Kitb al-Ad.dd by Ibn al-Anbr .

9 9 10 10

b. Al-S .h.ib f Fiqh al-Lughah by Ibn Fris

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c. Lisn al-Arab by Ibn Manz .r B. Historical Background

11 12 12

.. ..

1. A Short Synopsis of Ibn Qutaybahs Life 2. Political, Social, and Cultural Conditions in Ibn Qutaybahs Life a. Political Condition b. Social Condition c. Cultural Condition Qurnic Exegesis a. Tafsr and Tawl b. Categories of Tafsr

. .. ..

16 16 18 19

3. Historical Perspective on the Development of Early 23 23 25 26 28 30 32

(1) Traditional Commentary (2) Rational Commentary c. Early Development of Tafsr (3) Symbolic (Allegorical) Commentary

II. IBN QUTAYBAHS REFUTATION OF ALLEGATIONS OF SOLECISM, CONTRADICTION AND AMBIGUITY IN THE VERSES OF THE QURN A. Variant Readings in the Qurn 1. Inna hdhn lash.irn ) 2. Wa l-s.bin ) ( ( 49 49 69 70 75 79

B. Ungrammatical Usage in the Qurn

3. Wa l-muqmn al-s.alh )

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4. Nujj al-muminn )

..

85 ( ...... 87 88 88 90 94 94 95 97

5. Faas.s.addaqa wa akun min al-s.lih.n ) C. Contradiction and Disagreement in the Verses of the Qurn 1. Contradiction 2. Disagreement ..

D. Ambiguity of the Verses of the Qurn 1. The Meaning of Ambiguity

2. Muh.kamt and Mutashbiht 3. The Tawl of the Mutashbiht OF FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE A. Metaphor 1. Majz 2. Istirah III. IBN QUTAYBAHS TREATMENT OF THE PHENOMENA ..

107 107 107 114 121 122

. .. ..

B. Inversion (Maqlb)

1. Ascribing Something with Its Opposite Quality 2. Designating Two Contradictory Things Having One Basic Meaning with One Name

. .

123

3. Advancing What will Be Clear by Retarding, and Retarding What will Be Clear by Advancing 4. Inversion by Mistake 135 147 151 .

C. Ellipsis (H .adhf) and Brevity (Ikhtis.r) . 1. The Ellipsis of the Mud .f whose function is Replaced by the Mud.f Ilayh

153

2. The Ellipsis of the Verb

.. ..

154

3. The Ellipsis of the Main Clause of a Conditional or an Incomplete Sentence 156 158 160 161

4. The Ellipsis of One or Two Words 6. The Ellipsis of the Word l Been Mentioned before 9. Complex Ellipsis 1. Repetition

5. The Ellipsis of the Main Clause of an Oath

7. The Use of the Pronouns for Something Which Has not . 162 164 165 168 168 168 170 172 172 173 189 189 190 192 195 200 200 202 8. The Ellipsis of the Prepositions

..

D. Repetition (Takrr) and Pleonasm (Ziydah) . .. a. Repetition of Words 2. Pleonasm

b. Repetition of Meaning . . .. a. General Pleonasm b. Specific Pleonasm

E. Kinyah (Metonymy) and Tard . (Allusion) . 1. Kinyah (Metonymy) a. Kunyah ..

b. Fuln 2. Tard. (Allusion) 1. Imprecation 2. Repetition

F. The disagreement of the Word with Its Literal Meaning .

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3. Rhetorical Question 4. Imperative 5. Specification 6. Number a. Noun c. Verb 8. Juncture 9. Tempora

203 204 204 206 206 210 211 215 220 221 224

. .. .

b. Adjective (Quality)

. ..

7. Sudden Transition (Iltift)

10. Morphology

IV. IBN QUTAYBAHS TREATMENT OF AMBIGUOUS LETTERS, WORDS AND PARTICLES IN THE VERSES OF THE QURN . .. ( 228 214 234 A. Letters Assumed to Be Absurd and Stylistically Spoiling B. Words which Have Many Different Meanings 1. al-qad. ) 4. al-ahd ) 7. al-dn ) 2. al-hud ) ( 5. al-ill ) ( 8. al-mawl ) ) 3. al-ummah ) ( ( ( (

( 6. al-qunt ) ( 9. al-d.all )

10. al-imm ( 13. al-sabab ) 16. al-rijz ) 18. al-fard .)

( 11. al-s.alh ) .14. al-z.ulm ) (and al-rijs ) 19. al-khiynah )

( 12. al-kitb ) ( 15. al-bal ( 17. al-fitnah )

( 20. al-islm )

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21. al-mn ) 24. al-rh. ) 27. al-fath. ) 30. al-d.arb ) 33. al-nisyn ) 35. al-akhdh ) and al-bas ) 40. al-say ) )

( 22. al-d.urr ) 25. al-wah.y ) ( 28. al-karm ) ( 31. al-zawj )

( 23. al-h.araj ) 26. al-farah. ) ( 29. al-mathal ( ( 32. al-ruyah) ) ( 37. al-bas ) ( 39. al-rajm ) ( (

( 34. al-s.iqah ) ( 36. al-sult .n ) ( 38. al-khalq ) ( 41. al-muh.s.ant ) ( 44. al-amr )

( (

( 42. al-mat (

( 43. al-h.isb )

C. Meanings of Particles 1. kaayyin ) and suw )

312 ( 3. saw ) ( , siw ) (

( 2. kayfa ) ( 4. ayyna )

( 5. al-na ) ( 6. ann ) ( ( 9. lta ) (

7. waykaanna ) 10. mahm )

( 8. kaanna )

( 11. m ) ( 12. kda )

( 13. bal ) ( ( 16. lamm ) ) ( 21. l jarama )

14. hal ) ( 15. law l ) ( and law m ) 17. aw ) ( 18. am ) ( 19. l ) ( 20. awl ) ) ( 22. in al-khaffah ) ( 26. halumma )

( 23. h ) ( 24. hti )

25. tal ) )

( 27. kall ) ( 28. ruwaydan ( 31. laamruka ) (

( 29. al ( ) 30. al-wayl )

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32. iy ) ( 33. ladun (

D. The Substitution of Particles in the Verses of the Qurn 349 1. il ) ( 2. bi ) ( 3. al ) 6. li ( ) 7. min ) ( CONCLUSION BIBLIOGRAPHY 366 373 373 382 384 385 385 386 ( 4.an ) ( 5. f ) (

A. Arabic Sources C. Articles APPENDICES 2. Glossary

B. English and Other Language Sources .. ..

1. Authorities and Transmitters of the Qurn

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INTRODUCTION Ibn Qutaybah (d. 276/889) was one of the great and early scholars among Muslims who lived in the 9th century C.E. Although he was of a Persian origin he was considered one of the great masters of Arabic language and literature. His book Adab al-Ktib (The Accomplishment of the Secretary) which is one of the mains sources of this book indicates his mastery of Arabic philology. The Qurn was revealed in the early 6 th century C.E. in Arabic older than Old English (Anglo-Saxon) used in about 450 C.E. till 1150 C.E. which is totally non-understandable nowadays, as it consisted of almost purely Germanic vocabularies of Kentish, West Saxon, Mercian, and Northumbian dialects.1 On the contrary, the Arabic language of the Qurn which is called classical Arabic is still understood by people today, despite many difficult words and expressions in it. Here lies the importance of Ibn Qutaybah's book, Tawl Mushkil al-Qurn (The Interpretation of Difficult Passages of the Qurn) where he explained them referring to the Arabs' way of expression and the location of majz (figurative expression) in it. The Arabic language is called Lughat al-Add ("The Language of Opposite Meanings") where many words have the same opposite meanings which may confuse some people, such as the word arm which means "dawn" as well as "night". There are also words which have many different meanings, such as qa which means "to decree", "to order", "to inform", and "to make". Ibn Qutaybah explains these issues as well as variant readings, ungrammatical usage, the phenomena of figurative language, and many other issues in the Qurn. As Ibn Qutaybah was one of the earlier commentators of the Qurn, earlier than "the father of the commentary of the Qurn" al -abar (d. 310/923), his books Tawl Mushkil al-Qurn and Tafsr gharb al-Qurn (Commentary of the Obscure Passages of the Qurn) which is also used as reference in this book were referred to by the mufassirn (commentators of the Qurn) of later generations. Hence the contribution of Ibn Qutaybah in the field of tafsr (commentary of the Qurn) is indispensable for those who are interested in studying comprehensively the science of tafsr.

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At the end of each chapter of this book the endnotes are given more elaborately to facilitate further research for those who are interested in further study in their respective fields. The Arabic name "Allh" - the proper name of God among Muslims and a small minority of non-Muslim Arabs - is used in this research. However, when the translation of a Qurnic verse with the name "Allh" in it, the name is kept as given by its translator, either "Allah" or "God".
_______________ Standard Dictionary (New York: Funk & Wagnalls, 1973), p. 420 (s.v. English)

CHAPTER I SOURCES AND HISTORICAL BACKGROUND A. An Evaluation of Some of the Literature Relevant to the Study of Ibn Qutaybah There are numerous Arabic sources for our present study, dating from a generation earlier to a generation after that of Ibn Qutaybah. Ibn Qutaybah himself was a prolific writer and all - possibly except one - of his authentic works have been published. For the purpose of systematical survey we divide the sources into genre as follows: 1. The Literary Works of Ibn Qutaybah 2. Books on Tafsr (Qurnic exegesis) 3. Books on Arabic Language and Literature 1. The Literary Works of Ibn Qutaybah Ibn Qutaybah was a writer and a scholar of many branches of learning: kalm (theology), the science of language (including tafsr, h .adth, grammar and poetry), and history, political as well as religious. He was said to be the third great writer of Arabic prose chronologically after Ibn al-Muqaffa (d. 1 141/759) and al-Jh .iz . (d. 254/868). His books were considered a comprehensive encyclopaedia portraying the highest level of Islamic thinking which had been reached in the third century A.H..2 Lecomte in his dissertation on Ibn Qutaybahs works mentions sixty book titles, among which only sixteen are extant and authentic,3 and four of which are among my major sources for my study as follows: a. Tawl Mushkil al-Qurn This book is the object of my analytical study to assess Ibn Qutaybahs contributions to Qurnic exegesis. The motive for his writing the book was to defend the Qurn from the mulh .idn (heretics, unbelievers) who charged the Qurn with imperfection, such as contradiction, obscurity, and solecism. He said:
.... Therefore, I write this book collecting the interpretations of the 1. Gerard Lecomte, Ibn Kutayba, EI2, p. 847. 2. Al-Sayyid Ah .mad S .aqrs introduction to Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl Mushkil al-Qurn (Cairo: Dr al-Turth, 1393/1973), 2nd ed., p. 2 of the introduction. 3. See G. Lecomte, Ibn Qutayba (mort en 276/889): lhomme, son oevre, ses ides (Damascus: Catholic Printing Press, 1965), pp. 97-178.

difficult passages of the Qurn [which is also the title of the book] taken from the commentaries [of the commentators] adding with explanation and clarification, and referring to the Arabs' way of expression (lughat al-arab) - as long as there is no [contrary] view known (to me) from a well-informed leading scholar (m lam alam fhi 4 maqlan li-imm mut .t .ali) - to show the obstinate person the location of the majz (figurative expression) and how it is possible without judging [it] with [one's] personal opinion (ray), or deciding [it] with [ones own] interpretation (tawl)...5

In other words, apart from being a defence of the Qurn, the book also serves as a transmitter of the science of exegesis in Ibn Qutaybahs time to following generations, since he, as he claims, does not give us his personal opinion. To judge to what extent the book complies with this statement of Ibn Qutaybah, we have to compare it with other books of exegesis belonging to earlier and later generations. The present edition of the Tawl as stated by its editor, Saqr, is based on three manuscripts: (1) MS no. 518-tafsr at Dr al-Kutub al-Mis .riyyah library, written by Burhn al-Dn in 558/1163 with commentary in its margin. It contains one hundred and thirty-four folios, the first of which is missing. The symbol used by the editor to identify this manuscript in his notes is the letter J. (2) The manuscript at Murd Mull library, anonymously written in 532/1137-8 contains one hundred and seventeen folios. The symbol is the letter M. (3) MS no. 663-tafsr at Dr al-Kutub al-Mis .riyyah library, written by Muh .ammad ibn Ah .mad ibn Yah .y in 379/989-90, containing eighty-five folios. Although it is not the oldest manuscript, the scribe omitted many texts and poems used by the author as shawhid (quotations serving as textual evidence). Its symbol is the letter D.6 At the end of the book the editor includes a list showing the variant texts among the three manuscripts.7 At the bottom of the book he gives us his valuable commentary as footnotes. The purpose of this commentary, as he puts it, is either to support a view, to weaken a statement, to elaborate a
4. In manuscript D, instead of mut .t .ali (well-informed), it is written muttaba (followed), see Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 674. 5. In S .aqrs quotation the word lam is missing in the expression m lam alam, see ibid, p. 77 of the introduction. 6. Ibid., pp. 85-86 of S .aqrs introduction. 7. Ibid., pp. 673-94.

general concept, to clarify an obscure statement, to show the origin of an idea, or to agree with an opinion,8 so that the reader should have a better understanding of the text. b. Tafsr Gharb al-Qurn As Ibn Qutaybah did not want to make his work Tawl lengthy, he continued it in another book with a different title, namely, Tafsr Gharb al-Qurn (Commentary on the Obscure Passages of the Quran). Like his Tawl, the sources of this Tafsr are also books of exegesis and philology without departing from their schools (madhhib). He does not give us his views except as explanation of what he has chosen from his sources. He bases his choice on the most appropriate philological point of view and the closest to the sense of the context of the verse he is dealing with.9 The significance of this Tafsr for the present study lies in that it contains the commentary on some Qurnic verses explained or used as shawhid in the Tawl. It serves as a commentary and confirmation of Ibn Qutaybahs view in his Tawl. Like the Tawl this Tafsr is also edited by A. H. S .aqr, with footnotes as commentary, the purpose of which is similar to that which he had stated in the introduction to the Tawl mentioned above.10 His introduction is short, but contains valuable information in which he points out that the sources of the Tafsr are taken from various books of scholars. He relies mainly on the works of two philologists, Ab Ubaydahs (d. 210/-824) Majz al-Qurn (The Literary Expression of the Qurn) and al-Farrs (d. 207/822) Man l-Qurn (The Meanings of the Qurn).11 S .aqr states further in his introduction that Ibn Qutaybahs Tafsr became an important source for Qurnic commentators of later generations, such as al-T .abar (d. 311/923), al-Qurt .ub (d. 671/1272), al-Rz (d. 606/-1209), and Ab H .ayyn al-Andalus (d. 744-5/1344). Al- T .abar was said to have copied it literally on many occasions without mentioning Ibn Qutaybahs name.12
8. Ibid., p. 86 of S .aqrs introduction. 9. Idem, Tafsr Gharb al-Qurn, ed. A.H. S .aqr (Beirut: Dr al-Kutub al-Ilmiyyah, 1398/1978), p. 4. 10. Ibid., p. h of S .aqrs introduction. 11. Ibid., pp. j and d. 12. Ibid., p. d.

c. Gharb al-H .adth This book, Gharb al-H .adth (The Uncommon Words in the H .adth) consists of three volumes, and is edited by Dr. Abd Allh al-Jubr from four manuscripts: (1) the Z .hiriyyah manuscripts, written by Abd al-Ghan ibn Abd Allh ibn Abd al-Wh .id al-Maqdis at Fust . t ., Cairo, in 571/1175, in two volumes, but incomplete; (2) the manuscript of Sir A. Chester Beatty in Dublin, Ireland, volume two only, but makes the Z .hiriyyah manuscript complete; (3) the S .an (Sanna) manuscript, consisting of two volumes, but volume one is missing; (4) the Moroccan manuscript, consisting of four volumes, with volume four only extant.13 When Ibn Qutaybah found many h .adths (a h .dth) and isnads (chains of authorities on which the h .adths are based) had been omitted by Ab Ubayd in his work Gharb al-H .adth, he started writing his own Gharb al-H .adth, containing and explaining those missing h .adths and isnds, and quoting shawhid from poetry. When Ibn Qutaybah found some mistakes in Ab Ubayds Gharb al-H .adth, he corrected them in a separate book entitled Is .l h . al-Ghalat . (The Correction of Mistakes). In the earlier chapters of the Gharb al-H .adth Ibn Qutaybah explains the etymology of a number of technical terms, such as wud . (ablution), s .alh (prayer), kfir (unbeliever) and z .lim (transgressor). Then he explains uncommon words in the h .adths of the Prophet, followed by those of the s .ah .bah (companions of the Prophet), the tbin (lit., followers, the generation after the s .ah .bah) and the tbi al-tbin (lit., followers of the followers, the generation after the tbin). Apart from philological, etymological and grammatical information, the book also contains a number of Qurnic verses and poems dealt with by Ibn Qutaybah in his Tawl. Therefore, this book is also necessary for this study. d. Adab al-Ktib The book Adab al-Ktib (The Accomplishments of the Secretary) is a compendium and a manual of Arabic stylistics dealing with lexicography, orthography, orthoepy, also verb and noun formation. It has a long introduction where Ibn Qutaybah explains the circumstances that led him to
13. For further details, see idem, Gharb al-H .adth, ed. Dr. Abd Allh al-Jubr, 1st ed. (Baghdd: Mat .baah al-An, 1397/1977), vol. 1, pp. 90-114.

write this book. In his introduction Ibn Qutaybah described the literary decadence of his time. A writer would be satisfied with his good handwriting and correct writing of its letters. A poet would feel he had reached his pinnacle if he could cite some lines of poetry in praising a songstress and in describing a cup of wine. A person such as this would criticise the Quran without understanding the meaning of its verses, and would belie the Prophets tradition without knowing its isnd.14 The common lexical, orthographical and orthoepical mistakes in Ibn Qutaybahs time led him to write his Adab al-Ktib dealing with these subjects. The newly appointed vizier Abd Allh ibn Yah .y ibn Khqn, whom he praised in his introduction and for whom the book was written,15 was so pleased that he appointed him qd . (a judge) at Dnawar. The book is divided into four chapters. Chapter one, entitled Kitb al-Marifah (The Book of Suitable Terms), is the lexical study of various subjects in thirty-eight sections. In section one, for example, the word h .umah is commonly believed to mean the organ that stings in some insects such as the scorpions, while it means the poison and the harm from the sting.16 Chapter two entitled Kitb Taqwm al-Yad (The Book of Orthography) is the study of correct spelling, laid out in sixteen sections. In section two, for example, the omission and retention of the alif al-was .l (alif of connection) in the expression bismillh occurs respectively in the beginning and the middle or end of a sentence, such as and .17 Chapter three entitled Kitb Taqwm al-Lisn (The Book of Orthoepy) is the art of correct pronunciation treated in thirty-five sections. In section two, for example, the word al-ghasl is used for the act of washing, al-ghisl for the thing washed, and al-ghusl for the water used for washing.18 Chapter four entitled Kitb al-Abniyah (The Book of Word Formation) deals with the formation of verbs and nouns and their meanings. The formation of verbs is laid out in sixteen sections, such as in section four the
14. Idem, Adab al-Ktib, ed. von Max Grnert (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1900), p. 2. 15. Ibid., p. 6, n. b. 16. Ibid., p. 22. 17. Ibid., pp. 236-237. 18. Ibid., p. 337.

expression means I found So-and-so praiseworthy, I found him breaking his promise and I found him a coward.19 The meanings of the formed words are treated in twenty-nine sections, such as in section twenty-seven the expression means where al is substituted with f.20 The formation of nouns is treated in thirty-six sections. For example, in section two, words in fulah and fualah forms are attributes of objects and subjects respectively, e.g., rajul sukhrah (a mocked man) and sukharah (a mocker), rajul subbah (an insulted man) and subabah (an insulter), and rajul khudah (a cheated man) and khudaah (a cheater).21 The meanings of formed nouns are treated in ten sections. For example, section six deals with words used for both singular and plural, e.g., fulk (a ship or ships), and khalq Allh (a creature or creatures of Allah). The exception is the word zawj which means one of a pair or one pair (a couple).22 The Adab al-Ktib was published by Max Grunert from six manuscripts and one published text, identified as follows: A = Lyons Codex 541 (=259) B = Lyons Codex 535, an excellent old manuscript W = Wiener (Viennas) Manuscript G = Gawaliki (al-Jawliq)s commentary of Ibn Qutaybahs Adab al-Ktib L = Landbergs Codex containing 137 folios, of which 90 folios are vowalized R = Codex of Univers. Lips. Ref. 354 C = Published text, Cairo, 1300 A.H., 229 pages Variant texts are included in the footnotes - the sources of which are identified with the above letters.23 The Adab al-Ktib demonstrates Ibn Qutaybahs competence in this field of philology. Ibn Khaldn (d. 737/1337) in his work Muqaddimah said that he heard from some scholars in their teaching sessions that the Adab

19. Ibid., p. 473. 20. Ibid., p. 536. Cf. idem, Tawl, p. 567. 21. Idem, Adab al-Ktib, p. 567. 22. Ibid., pp. 641-642; cf idem, Tawl, p. 498. 23. Max Grnerts introduction in idem, Adab al-Ktib, pp. ix-x.

al-Ktib of Ibn Qutaybah was one among the four sources of adab science.24 The Adab al-Ktib is essential for this study. Many topics in Ibn Qutaybahs Tawl are also treated in his Adab al-Ktib, such as the substitution of particles and the meaning of terms, such as zawj. Moreover, the Adab al-Ktib gives us some idea how Ibn Qutaybah quotes the views of leading grammarians from both schools, the Bas .ran and the Kfan. 2. Books on Tafsr (Qur'nic Exegesis) by Others Books on tafsr, which are the main sources of Ibn Qutaybah, will be evaluated here. They are Ab Ubaydahs Majz al-Qurn and al-Farras Man al-Qurn. Al-Tabars work Jmi al-Bayn, which took Ibn Qutaybahs works as part of its sources, will also be evaluated here, as follows: a. Majz al-Qurn The book was edited by Fud Sezgin in two volumes. The author, Ab Ubaydah Mamar ibn al-Muthann, was one of the leading philologists of the Basran school. His main study was the rare expressions of the Arabic language and the history of the Arabs.25 Denounced for being an ajam non-Arab, for he was of Jewish-Persian origin - he tried to avenge himself by writing on the shortcomings of the Arabs in which he supported the Shub causes. This act resulted in the aversion of the people of Bas .rah 26 towards him. They did not even attend his funeral. The term majz in the case of Majz al-Qurn, as suggested by Gibb, means interpretation or paraphrase, as the book consists ... of brief notes on the meaning of selected words and phrases in the order of the suras. Majz al-Qurn, then, is a paraphrastic interpretation, or, in Wansbroughs term, periphristic exegesis of the Qurn.27 In the
24. The other three sources are al-Mubarrads al-Kmil, al-Jh .iz .s al-Bayn wa al-Tabyn, and Ab Al al-Ql al-Baghdds al-Nawdir, see Ibn Khaldn, Muqaddimah (Cairo: al-Mat .baah Azhariyyah, 1384/1930), p. 489. 25. R.A. Nicholson, A Literary History of the Arabs (Cambridge: The University Press, 1956), p. 344. 26. Carl Brockelmann, Tarkh al-Adab al-Arab, trans. Dr. Abd al-H .al m al-Najjr (Cairo: Dr al-Marif, 1961), vol. 2, p. 143. See also Yqt al-Rm, Kitb Irshd al-Arb il Marifat al-Adb, also known as Mujam al-Udab, and T .abaqt al-Udab, ed. D.S. Margoliouth (Egypt: [al-] Mat .baah al-Hindiyyah, 1925), vol. 7, p. 16. 27. H.A.R. Gibb, Ab Ubayda Mamar b. al-Muthann, EI2, 2, p. 158; and J.

introductory chapter, Ab Ubaydah mentions thirty-nine kinds of majz. The use of this term, as found by Wansbrough, is replaced by taqdr (restoration) by the later grammarian Ab al-Barakt ibn al-Anbr (d. 577/1181).28 By comparing Ibn Qutaybahs Tawl with Ab Ubaydahs Majz al-Qurn in examining majz we shall have some idea of the extent of the formers reliance on the latter as its main source and of the development of this term in general. b. Man l-Qurn The author of this book, al-Farr, the sobriquet of Ab Zakariyy Yah .y ibn Ziyd al-Kf, was the most well-known student of al-Kis (d. ca. 189/805). Like his teacher, he was also of Persian origin and belonged to the grammarians of the Kfan school. However, he also took his knowledge 29 from Ynus ibn H .abb al-Thaqaf of the Bas .ran school. He was also influenced, to some extent, by al-As .ma (d. 216/831), Ab Zayd al-Ans .r 30 (d. 215/830), and Ab Ubaydah, all belonging to the Bas .ran school. Thalab (d. 291/904) of the Kfan school who took his knowledge from al-Farr praised him so much that he said that without al-Farr the Arabic language would have collapsed.31 Al-Farr was the first grammarian of the Kfan school who continuously discussed grammatical problems in the verses of the Qurn in his Man l-Qurn.32 This continuous discussion frustrated Blachre who said that the book is highly disappointing and without any general themes, being confined for the most part to argumentation on casual syntax;...33 This book is, however, very important for this present study since Ibn Qutaybah quoted it several times in his Tawl .
Wansbrough, Majz al-Qurn: Periphrastic Exegesis, BSOAS (Univ. of London), vol. xxxiii, part 2 (1970), pp. 247-66. 28. Wansbrough, Majz al-Qurn, p. 157. 29. Brockelmann, Tarkh, vol. 2, p. 199. 30. R. Blachre, al-Farr, EI2, 2, p. 806. 31. Brockelmann, Tarkh, vol. 2, p. 199. 32. Ibid, 2, p. 196. 33. Blachre, al-Farr, p. 806.

c. Jmi al-Bayn f Tafsr al-Qurn The author of Jmi al-Bayn f Tafsr al-Qurn (The Comprehensive Exposition of the Interpretation of the Verses of the Qurn), Ibn Jarr al-T .abar (d. 310/923), is considered by Muslim scholars the father of the science of tafsr. It is said that he wrote forty pages every day for forty years. Many of his works were lost, but his Jmi has survived. He was a man of encyclopaedic learning who absorbed the whole mass of tradition in his time.34 Al-T .abars Jmi, better known as Tafsr al-T .abar, consists of thirty volumes containing collections of h .adths with their full isnd dealing with the commentary on the Qurn. Unlike Ibn Qutaybah who selected a few chapters from which he selected some verses of the Qurn in his Tawl and Tafsr, al-T .abar deals with whole chapters, although not whole verses, of the Qurn.35 Later commentators, such as al-Zamakhshar (d. 538/1143), Ibn At .iyyah (d. 542/1147 or 546/1151), Ibn Kathr (d. 774/1373) and al-Suyt . (d. 991/1505) followed al-T .abar in examining and explaining the whole Qurn in their tafsir works. Al-T .abars tafsr was highly recommended by Ibn Taymiyyah (d. 728/1328) who stated that it was one of the best, and the worthiest of its kind.36 The significance of al-T .abars Jmi for this present study is that it elaborates what Ibn Qutaybah is discussing in his Tawl and gives various interpretations from other commentators. Sometimes, he offers his own opinion. In so doing, the position of Ibn Qutaybah among Qurnic commentators will become obvious. 3. Books on Arabic Language and Literature Among the important sources on Arabic language and literature for this study are the works of Ab Bakr ibn al-Anbr, Ibn Fris and Ibn
34. Nicholson, A Literary History, pp. 145 and 351. 35. Ibn Qutaybah, for example, did not include seven srahs (chapters) in his Tawl, and mentioned one verse only in srah 54, namely verse 14. In his Tafsr he did not include thirty-two srahs, and dealt with one verse only from srah 21, namely, verse 10. His Tawl included the missing srahs in his Tafsr, and not vice versa. See his Tawl, pp. 595-621 and his Tafsr, pp. 547-554. 36. Ibn Taymiyyah, Majm Fatw Shaykh al-Islm Ah .mad ibn Taymiyyah, collected and arranged by Muh .ammad ibn Qsim al-s .im al-Najd, 37 vols. (Makkah: Maktabat al-Nahd .ah al-H .adthah, 1404 A.H.), vol. 13, p. 361.

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Manz .r, as follows: a. Kitb al-Ad .dd The author of Kitb al-Ad .dd (The Book of Opposite Meanings) was Ab Bakr ibn Qsim ibn al-Anbr (d. 328/940)37. He was a late contemporary of Ibn Qutaybah who attacked him most and who disagreed with him and his teacher Ab Ubaydah on many issues. He was the most brilliant student of Thalab of the Kfan school. He was said to have memorized three hundred thousand lines of poetry as shawhid for the Qurn and one hundred and twenty Qurnic commentaries with their 39 isnds.38 He was the tutor of the caliph al-Muqtadirs son Abd al-Wh .id. He was included among the sixth generation of the grammarians of the Kfan school by al-Zubayd (d. 379/989-10).40 The book contains some terms discussed by Ibn Qutaybah in his Tawl, such as al-mawl and hal. His view on the position of the al-rsikhn f l-ilm (those who are deeply rooted in knowledge) regarding the tawl of the mutashbiht (ambiguous verses of the Qurn) is different from that of Ibn Qutaybah. They will be dealt with in due course. b. Al-S . h .ib f Fiqh al-Lughah The book, al-S . h .ib f Fiqh al-Lughah wa Sunan al-Arab f Kalmih (al-S . h .ib in the Science of Language and Expression of the Arabs) was written by Ab al-H .usayn ibn Fris ibn Zakary, better known as Ibn Fris (d. 395/1004). He was a son of a jurist of the Shfi school and a student of the great Shfi scholar Ab al-H .asan Al al-Qat .t .n (d. 345/956) who was a student of Thalab, al-Mubarrad (d. 284-5/898) and Ibn Ab al-Duny (d. 281/894). Al-Qat .t .n was also a philololgist from whom Ibn Fris received his knowledge at Quzwayn.41
37. Ab Bakr Muh .ammad al-Zubayd, T .abaqt al-Nah .wiyyn wa l-Lughawiyyn, ed. Muh .ammad Ab al-Fad .l Ibrhm, 1st ed. (Egypt: Muh .ammad Sm al-Khnj), 1373/1954), p. 171. 38. Yqt al-Rm, Mujam al-Udab, vol. 7, p. 73. 39. Brockelmann, Tarkh, vol. 2, p. 214. 40. Al-Zubayd, T .abaqt, pp. 168-172. 41. See Ab al-H .usayn Ah .mad ibn Fris, al-S .h .ib f Fiqh al-Lughah wa Sunan al-Arab f Kalmih, ed. Mus .t .af al-Shuwaym (Beirut: A. Badrn & Co., 1383/1963), p. 6 (the editors introduction).

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Ibn Fris shifted from the Shfi to Mlik school at Rayy where he lived and died. Despite his being a follower of the Mlik school, Ibn Fris was suspected of having a Sh leaning, due to his glorifying Al, his being associated with the Sh enthusiast al-S .h .ib, living in the Sh dynasty, and 42 teaching the children of its rulers. The book was a collection of Ibn Friss writings on the science of language. The title of the book was given after the name of the vizier alS .h .ib Isml ibn Abbd who had a library where the book was to be lodged. Many subjects in Ibn Qutaybahs Tawl are also mentioned by Ibn Fris in his al-S .h .ib, such as the meanings of particles, istirah (metaphor), al-h .adhf wa l-ikhtis .r (ellipsis and brevity), al-takrr (repetition) and al-ziydah (pleonasm). Many similiarities are found between the two books which lead us to assume that Ibn Fris had copied from Ibn Qutaybahs Tawl without referring to him. c. Lisn al-Arab The book, Lisn al-Arab (The Language of the Arabs), was written by Jaml al-Dn Ab al-Fad .l Muh .ammad Mukarram ibn Al ibn Ah .mad al-Ans .r, better known as Ibn Manz .r and Ibn Mukarram (d. 711/1311-1312). It is an encyclopaedia containing various subjects, such as: philology, grammar, Islamic jurisprudence, literature, tafsr and h .adth. It was based on five earlier works, namely: Ab Mans .r Muh .ammad ibn Ah .mad al-Azhars Tahdhb al-Lughah, Ab al-H .asan Al ibn Isml ibn Sidhs al-Muh .kam, Muh .ammad ibn al-Athrs al-Nihyah, al-Jawhars al-Qms, and Ab Muh .ammad ibn Barrs commentary of al-Jawhars al-Qms. The book consists of fifteen volumes and was completed in 689/1290.43 So far, I have dealt with some of the literature relevant to the study of Ibn Qutaybahs Tawl. Other literature is quoted throughout this study. We now come to the historical background, the second part of this chapter.

42. See ibid., p. 9. 43. See Ab al-Fad .l Jaml al-Dn Muh .ammad ibn Manz .r, Lisn al-Arab 15 vols. (Beirut: Dr S .dir lil-T .ibah wa l-Nashr, [1374-5]/1955-1956), vol. 15, p. 494.

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B. Historical Background 1. A Short Synopsis of Ibn Qutaybahs Life Ab Muh .ammad Abd Allh ibn Muslim ibn Qutaybah al-Kf (from Kfah where he was born according to some historians) al-Marwaz (from Marw or Merv in Khorasan - presently called Mary in Turkmenistan, a southern republic in the former Soviet Union, now an independent state from which his father originated), al-Dnawar (from Dnawar where he became qd .) and al-Baghdd (from Baghdd according to other historians, and where he settled), was born in Kfah44 in 213/82845 and died in Baghdd in 276/889.46 The cause of his death was the eating of harsah
44. See Ibn al-Nadm, al-Fihrist (Egypt: al-Mat .baah al-Istiqmah, 1929), p. 86; Ab al-Barakt Ibn al-Anbr, Nuzhat al-Alibb f T .abaqt al-Udab, ed. Dr. t .iyyah mir (Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksel, [1962]), p. 128; and Ibn al-Athr, al-Kmil f l-Tarkh (N.p.: Idrat al-T .ibah al-Munriyyah, 1353 A.H.), vol. 7, p. 175. According to al-Khat .b al-Baghdd, al-Samn and al-Qift ., Ibn Qutaybah was born in Baghdd, see their respective works Tarkh Baghdd aw Madnat al-Salm, 14 vols. (Egypt: Maktabat al-Khnj, 1931), vol. 10, p. 170; al-Ansb (reproduced in fascimile from the manuscript in the British Museum add 23,355 with an introduction by D.S. Margoliouth, D. Litt. Leyden: E.J. Brill, Imprimerie Orientale; London: Luzac & Co., 1912. Repr. Baghdd: Maktabat al-Muthann, 1970), p. 447; and Inbh al-Ruwt al Anbh al-Nuh .h, ed. Muh .ammad Ab al-Fad .l Ibrhm, 3 vols. (Cairo: Dr al-Kutub alMis .riyyah, 1369-74/1950-5), vol. 2, p. 143. Ibn Khallikn mentioned Kfah and Baghdd without stating the correct one; see Ibn Khallikn, Wafayt al-Ayn wa Anb Abn al-Zamn, ed. Dr. Ih .sn Abbs (Beirut: Dr al-Thaqfah, [1970]), vol. 3, p. 43. 45. See al-Khat .b al-Baghdd, Tarkh Baghdd, vol. 10, p. 170; al-Samn, al-Ansb, p. 447; al-Qift ., Inbh al-Ruwt, vol. 2, p. 143; and Ibn Khallikn, Wafayt, vol. 3, p. 43. 46. This is the date given by the earliest biographer al-Zubayd, see T .abaqt alNah .wiyyn, p. 200; Shayms al-Dn al-Dhahb, Tadhkirat al-H .uffz ., 4 vols. (with continuous pagination), (Hyderabad-Deccan: Dr al-Marif al-Uthmniyyah, 1376/1956), vol. 2, p. 631; Ibn al-Nadm stated 270 A.H., see al-Fihrist, p. 86; Ibn al-Athr stated 276 A.H. and 270 A.H., see al-Kmil, vol. 7, p. 438, and Ibn Khallikn stated 270 A.H., 271 A.H. and 296 A.H., but the right one according to him was 276 A.H., see Wafayt, vol. 3, p. 43. This view is supported with the report of Qsim ibn As .bagh al-Bayyn (d. 340/952) who said that he came to Baghdd in 274/888 and learned from Ibn Qutaybah, see al-Khat .b al-Baghdd, Tarkh Baghdd, vol. 10, p. 170.

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(cooked meat and wheat pounded together) which caused him suffer heartburn, then lost consciousness and died. The word qutaybah is the diminutive form (tas .ghr) of qitbah, qitb or qatab which are the singular form of aqtb meaning intestines. This is also the meaning given by Ibn Qutaybah himself in his Adab al-Ktib.47 Another meaning of this term is given by Qutaybah ibn Muslim (d. 97/716) the governor (amr) of Khorasan who said that his name meant ikf (the packsaddle of the donkey). The name Ibn Qutaybah was also referred to by some authors as al-Qutab and very rarely al-Qutayb.48 Ibn Qutaybah was also the name of a traditionist among the Shis. In response to the Umaws fabricated traditions praising the s .ah .bah, especially Uthmn - but with the exception of Al and Ban Hshim - the Shis later also invented traditions of their own, praising Al and the Ban Hshim clan. They had their isnd names like al-Sudd and Ibn Qutaybah, so that the Sunns would think that they were the famous Sunn traditionists. To make a distinction between the two Sudds and Ibn Qutaybahs the Sunns called those who belonged to the Shis al-Sudd al-S .aghr (the Junior) who was Muh .mmad ibn Marwn, and Ibn Qutaybah the Shi, those who belonged to the Sunns were called al-Sudd al-Kabr (the Senior) who was Isml ibn Umar, and Ibn Qutaybah the Sunn.49 Very little was known about Ibn Qutaybahs early life. We only know that as a young boy he frequented the Qurnic school (kuttb) from which he learned and memorized some Qurnic verses, prophetic traditions and poetry, became trained in fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence), nah .w (grammar, syntax) and arithmetic. Then he frequented the great mosques of Baghdd where he learned various sciences from the ulam, such as theology, tafsr, sharah (Islamic law), h .adth, literature and history. He also studied books
47. See Ibn Qutaybah, Adab al-Ktib, p. 77. 48. For further details, see Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 1, pp. 660-661 (s.v. ).

49. According to Ah .mad Amn, al-Sudd al-S .aghr was an extremist Rfid . Sh; see A. Amn, Fajr al-Islm, 12th ed. (Cairo: Maktabat al-Nahd .ah al-Mis .riyyah, 1978), p. 275. The Sh traditionist who was called Ibn Qutaybah was probably Muh .ammad ibn al-H .usayn al-Asqaln (d. 301/913), who, according to Ab Al al-Nisbr, transmitted traditions in Palestine. See al-Dhahb, Kitb T .abaqt al-H .uffz ., ed. Wstenfeld (Gottingen: N.p., 1833-1834), p. 79, quoted by Lecomte, Ibn Qutayba, p. 29.

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translated from foreign languages, especially Persian.50 There were twenty-eight teachers of Ibn Qutaybah in the true sense recorded by Lecomte.51 Among his important teachers were those who were known for their attachment to the Sunnah, such as the Sunn theologian Ish .q ibn Ibrhm ibn Rhawayh al-Hanzal (d. ca. 237/851) who was a student of Ah .mad ibn H .anbal, the Sunn philologist and traditionist Ab H .tim Sahl ibn Muh .ammad al-Sijistn (d. 255/869), and the philologist al-Abbs ibn al-Faraj al-Riysh (d. 257/871) who transmitted the works of pioneers of philology in the second/eighth century, such as al-As .ma and Ab 52 Ubaydah. After the new caliph al-Mutawakkil changed the ideology of the state from Mutazilah to Sunn orthodoxy in 232/846 Ibn Qutaybah found himself favoured by the new government, because his views in his literary works agreed with the new trend. The vizier Ab al-H .asan Ubayd Allh ibn Yah .y ibn Khqn (d. 263/877) appointed him qd . of Dnawar in about 236/851, and he probably remained in this office until 256/870. Then he became an inspector of maz .lim (courts for the redress of wrongs) of Bas .rah until this city was sacked by the Zanj in 257/871. This new post was given to him probably due to the favour of another powerful Abbs official, Sad ibn Makhlad.53 Ibn Qutaybah was also a teacher. He was generous to his students with his knowledge and books. He even allowed them access to his books before they had paid their fees. Among his students was his son Ah .mad who later became qd . in Egypt in 321/933. Ibn Qutaybah continued teaching in Baghdd until the end of his life at the age of 61.54 Despite Ibn Qutaybahs reputation as a great Sunn scholar and an advocate of the Sunn orthodoxy, some ulam criticized and denounced him, among them being:
50. See Shawq Dayf, al-As .r al-Abbs al-Thn (Cairo: Dr al-Marif, 1977), p. 611. 51. See Lecomte, Ibn Qutayba, pp. 47-8, n. 2, 50-74. There are fourteen other teachers of Ibn Qutaybah, but of the second degree. For further details, see ibid., pp. 75-82. 52. Idem, Ibn utayba, E.I.2, p. 844. 53. Ibid., pp. 844-845. 54. See Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, S .aqrs introduction, pp. 35 and 38-39.

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(1). Ab al-H .asan Al ibn Umar al-Draqun (d. 385-995) accused him of leaning towards anthropomorphism (tashbh), deviating from the itrah (descendants of the Prophet).55 (2). Ab Abd Allh Muh .ammad ibn Abd Allh al-D .abb al-H .kim (d. 405/1014-5), also known as Ibn al-Bayyi, also accused Ibn Qutaybah of deviating from the itrah and turning away from the ahl al-bayt (the Prophet's household). (3). Ab Bakr Ah .mad ibn al-H .usayn al-Bayhaq (d. 458/ 1066) accused Ibn Qutaybah of being a Karrm, a sect among the anthropomorphism.56 These accusations were rejected by the ulam and biographers of Ibn Qutaybah, whose views were divided by Lecomte into two categories: very favourable and favourable. Those whose views belonged to the first category were: Ibn Taymiyyah,57 al-Dhahab (d. 748/1347), Ibn Kathr (d. 774/1372-3), and Ibn al-Imd (d. 1089/1678). Those whose views belonged to the second category were: Ibn al-Nadm (d. 385/995), al-Khat .b al-Baghdd (d. 463/1071), al-Samn (d. 562/1167), Ab al-Barakt Ibn al-Anbr (d. 577/1181), Ibn al-Jawz (d. 579/1201), al-Qift . (d. 646/1248), 58 Ibn Khallikn (d. 681/1282), and al-Suyt . .
55. Al-Draqut .n was a Shfi, but was suspected of being a Sh, see Lecomte, Ibn Qutayba, p. 15. 56. See al-Jubrs introduction in Ibn Qutaybahs Gharb al-H .adth, pp. 19-20; and S .aqrs introduction in Ibn Qutaybahs Tawl, pp. 49-51. 57. Ibn Taymiyyah says that the position of Ibn Qutaybah among the Sunns is like that of al-Jh .iz . among the Mutazils. As the former was the spokesman of the Sunnah, so was the latter of the Mutazilah. Quoting from Kitb al-Tah .dth bi-Manqib Ahl alH .adth by an unidentified writer Ibn Taymiyyah said that the people of Maghrib (Morocco) used to say that a house without any writing of Ibn Qutaybah has no goodness in it. See Ibn Taymyah, Tafsr Srat al-Ikhls ., ed. Dr. Muh .ammad Abd al-Munim Khafj (Cairo: Dr al-T .ibah al-Muh .ammadiyyah bi-al-Azhar, n.d.), p. 130. 58. See Lecomte, Ibn Qutayba, pp. 16-7. Among the biographers of the second category in favouring Ibn Qutaybah, al-Khat .b al-Baghdd and Ibn al-Jawz stated that Ibn Qutaybah was reliable, pious and virtuous, while Ibn Khallikn mentioned only that he was virtuous and reliable; see their respective works Tarkh, vol. 10, p. 170, alMuntaz .am f Tarkh al-Mulk wa l-Umam (Hyderabad Deccan: Mat .baat Dirat al-Marif al-Uthmniyyah, 1357-9 A.H.), vol. 5, p. 102; and Wafayt, vol. 2, p. 246.

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The earliest criticism came from Ibn Qutaybahs late contemporary Ab Bakr Muh .ammad ibn al-Qsim al-Anbar, who was a student of Thalab. He wrote a book entitled Rislat al-Mushkil criticizing Ibn Qutaybahs Tawl and his teacher Ab H .tim al-Sijistn. But his books are not extant except for Kitb al-Ad.dd in which he criticized Ibn Qutaybahs 59 works Is .l h . al-Ghalat . and Tawl. 2. Political, Social and Cultural Conditions in Ibn Qutaybahs Life a. Political Condition Ibn Qutaybah lived during the reigns of eight Abbs caliphs: al-Mamn (197-218/813-833), al-Mutas .im (218-227/833-842), al-Wthiq (227-232/842-847), al-Mutawakkil (232-247/847-861), al-Muntas .ir (247248/861-862), al-Mustan (248-252/862-866), al-Mutazz (252-255/ 866-869), al-Muhtad (255-256/869-870), and al-Mutamid (256-278/ 870-892). He was born in the first half of the third century of Hijrah, when the Abbs dynasty reached its ultimate glory and prosperity under al-Mamn. The Abbs empire extended to the Indian subcontinent and the border of China in the East, and to the coasts of the Atlantic Ocean in the West. However, the earlier period of al-Mamn witnessed much disturbance: civil war between the Hshims and the Alaws which ended with the defeat of the latter, rebellions against al-Mamn, and the rivalry betwen Arab and Persian elements in state affairs. Being a son of a Persian mother, Persian influence greatly increased during his reign. In order to please the Arabs he shifted the capital of his empire from Merv in Persia to Baghdd in 204/819.60 As a patron of learning, al-Mamn encouraged the search for knowledge. This caused the emergence of intellectual movements, among which was the Mutazil school of theology which he himself adopted and made the official madhhab of his empire. He supported its scholars in their debates against their opponents among the Sunn scholars. Al-Mamn was succeeded by his brother al-Mutas .im who followed
59. For further details, see S .aqrs introduction in Ibn Qutaybahs Tawl, pp. 70-76. 60. For further details, see Sir William Muir, The Caliphate: Its Rise, Decline and Fall (Oxford: The Religious Tract Society, 1891), p. 498.

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the same path in defending the Mutazil school. It was in this period that the fitnah (civil strife) of the issue of khalq al-Qurn (the creation of the Qurn) occurred in which Ah .mad ibn H .anbal (d. 241/856) was one of its victims. In this early Abbs period the Persians obtained high positions in the government, such as those of viziers and army leaders. However, this condition changed with the occurrence of the so-called Barmakid and Ban Sahl disasters. This resulted with the enmity between the Arabs and the Persians. The Arabs wanted to regain the glory they had enjoyed in the Umaw period, whereas the Persians were not satisfied with the high positions they already possessed; they wanted to bring back the glory of their ancient Sassanian empire. The seed of the Shubyah trend grew with the atheistic tendency, which later threatened the new empire. To get rid of these Persians and to counter their nationalistic ambition the caliph al-Mutas .im tried to replace them with Turkish slaves who were renowned for their perseverance on the battle-field. They were brought into the capital city Baghdd and their number kept increasing. Then the caliph built a new capital called Smarr61 where he moved in with them. Unlike the Persians who were highly civilized, the Turkish slaves were nomads. Their main skills were hunting, raiding and horse riding. As skilled fighters and army officials their influence in the state kept growing. It became so great that al-Mutawakkil who succeeded al-Wthiq could not resist it. However, he was successful in shifting to the Sunn orthodoxy as the madhhab of the state. He ordered people to abandon any debate on kalm (theology) and urged them to return to the Sunnah of the Prophet. He removed the vizier Abd al-Malik al-Zayyt and the qd . al-qud .t (the chief judge) Ah .mad ibn Ab Dwd from their positions for being Mutazils. But when he appointed his vizier Ubayd Allh ibn Yah .y ibn Khqn assisted by twelve thousand Arabs in his attempt to stop the penetration of the Turkish officers in the state, the Turkish officers sensed the threat. They assassinated this caliph and his vizier, and appointed the caliphs son al-Muntas .ir as a ruler.
61. The word smarr is derived from sarra man ra meaning whoever saw it rejoiced at its beauty, or wittily said that whoever saw it with the Turks settled there rejoiced to be at Baghdd and well rid of them. See Sir William Muir, The Caliphate, p. 509, n. 2. Another witty reading is that the word is derived from sa man ra meaning whoever saw it grieved from its bad condition.

18

Al-Muntas .ir ruled for six months only. He died in 248/862 and was succeeded by al-Mustan. The new caliph, who was unable to withstand the influence of his Turkish officers, moved to Baghdd. As he refused to return to Smarr they deposed him in 251/865 and appointed al-Mutazz as his successor. Baghdd was surrounded, and finally al-Mustan was assassinated. Al-Mutazz imprisoned his brother al-Muayyid when he heard a rumor that al-Muayyid wanted to depose him. However, he was finally deposed and assassinated by the Turkish officers who sensed his intention to rid himself of them. As his successor they appointed Muh .ammad ibn al-Wthiq who was called al-Muhtad. His piety seemed to bother them, and his intention to dissolve them ended with his assassination in 256/870. He was succeeded by al-Mutamid. Although al-Mutamid tried hard to regain his power with the help of his brother al-Muwaffaq who led his army in defending the state, this Abbs state was far from being stable. The T .hirs, Smns, and S .afaws were separating themselves from the Abbs empire in the East, while the T .lns were establishing their own state in Egypt; besides, the Romans were attacking the empire. This was the political condition of the Abbs empire in the time of Ibn Qutaybah. b. Social Condition The city of Baghdd, the seat of the Abbs caliphs, was flourishing with prosperity and luxury. Goods from the empires provinces overflowed into the city. The city itself, as well as the palaces of the caliphs and emirs, was decorated and furnished with goods brought by traders from China and India in the East and from Byzantine in the West. The citizens of Baghdd consisting of different elements contributed with their different and various traditions and cultures to the society. The Persians were sharing and competing with the Arabs in running the affairs of the state as well as in the fields of science and literature. The Turks were playing their important roles in the palaces and in the army with their military skills. The Greeks were contributing with their wisdom and literature, the Arabs with their poetry, eloquence, preserved geneology, ancient traditions, familiarity with and knowledge of horses, arms, military equipment and excellent memory. The Indians were contributing with their knowledge, such as: arithmetic, astronomy, medicine, maps and carpentry.62
62. Dr. Muh .ammad Zaghll Sallm, Ibn Qutaybah (Egypt: Dr al-Marif,

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Taverns and drinking gatherings were frequented by various people. They provided the venue for poets and men of letters to recite their works and exchange elegant talk while listening to songs and music. The citizens became more interested in beauty and art. They enjoyed flowers, fragrances, gentle voices and beautiful faces. They liked being clean, wearing good clothes and living in good houses. They enjoyed entertainment at their festivals and various occasions, and the Muslims joined their fellow citizens the Jews and the Christians in their religious festivities.63 Peoples addiction to alcohol made it one of the topics of their discussions in their gatherings and the object of appreciation among their poets, such as Ab Nuws (d. ca. 198/783) and Muslim ibn al-Wald (d. 207/823). They started questioning whether or not the type of alcohol called nabdh was among the prohibited alcohol (khamr) in Islam. The question developed into a very serious issue and eventually Ibn Qutaybah wrote a book entitled Kitb al-Ashribah (The Book of Beverage) portraying the controversial issue at that time and giving his legal judgement: khamr is prohibited by the Qurn, and nabdh is prohibited by the Sunnah.64 It is worthy to note that this easy and prosperous life was enjoyed by the ruling class only, namely, the caliphs, the emirs, the generals and their associates among the middle class, such as traders, high government officials and artisans. The lower classes in the land were not privy to such life. As a matter of fact, the deviation from the religion and irreligious practices within the society were not ignored by the people who wanted to bring the society back to the correct path and often revolted against the rulers. c. Cultural Condition Apart from the emergence of the Mutazil theological doctrine in the period of al-Mamn who adopted it and made it the official madhhab of his empire, and the shift to the Sunn orthodoxy by al-Mutawakkil who, unlike al-Mamn, did not like to be involved in theological debates, this era saw the flourishingof learning. Books of Greek, Persian and Indian antiquities were studied and translated into Arabic. The famous translator at this time was H .unayn ibn Ish .q (d. 261/873) who was well versed in the Greek,
1957), pp. 10-11. 63. Ibid., pp. 12-13. 64. See Ibn Abd Rabbih, al-Iqd al-Fard, ed. Ah .mad Amn et al. (Cairo: Mat .baat al-Istiqmah, 1372/1953), vol. 6, p. 355.

20

Syriac, Arabic and Persian languages. The result of extensive studies of these books produced Muslim scholars such as Ab Uthmn ibn Bah .r 65 al-Jh .iz . and Yaqb ibn Ish .q al-Kind (d. ca. 252/866). Books of other religions such as the Torah (al-Tawrh), the Gospel (al-Injl) and the Zoroastrian Avesta were also translated. Besides al-Jh .iz ., the other scholars in this field were al-Naz .z .m of the Mutazil school and 66 Ibn Qutaybah of the Sunn school. The Qurn and the H .adth were also extensively studied. Theological controversies and debates between the followers of the Mutazil and the Sunn schools necessitated the extensive study of both. The philologists studied the linguistic style of the Qurn, its words, their meanings and styles. Others studied events involved in certain verses, the asbb al-nuzl (the occasions which led to the revelation of the verses of the Qurn), and 67 the tawl of the s .ahbah in certain verses. It is noteworthy that the books on Qurnic exegesis at the end of the 2nd/8th century and the beginning of the 3rd/9th century were fragmentary and were confined to philological explanations of the verses. This was apparent in their titles, such as: Man l-Qurn which was the title of the works of al-Kis, al-Farr and al-Akhfash (d. 210/825), Irb al-Qurn, Lughat al-Qurn (The Language of the Quran), Gharb al-Qurn which was the title of the works of Ab Ubayd Qsim ibn Sallm (d. 223/838), and Majz al-Qurn which was the title of the works of Ab Ubaydah and 68 Qut .rub (d. 206/822). The extensive study of H .adth literature in the Abbs period produced great scholars, such as the founders of the four madhhib (schools of jurisprudence), namely, Ab H .anfah (d. 150/767), Mlik ibn Anas (d. 179/795), al-Shfi (d. 204/820), and Ah .mad ibn H .anbal. Moreover, efforts were also made in compiling, explaining, sorting, and setting aside the obscure h .adth and explaining the ambiguous ones. In this period, apart from the Musnad of Ah .mad ibn H .anbal, the six canonical books of h .adths called
65. M.Z. Sallm, Ibn Qutaybah, p. 17. 66. Ibid., p. 15. 67. Ibid., p. 16. 68. G. Lecomte, Ibn Qutayba, p. xxx; see also S .aqrs introduction in Ibn Qutaybah, Tafsr, p. j and M.Z. Sallm, Ibn Qutaybah, p. 18.

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al-Kutub al-Sittah (the Six Books) were compiled. They were the collections of al-Bukhr (d. 256/870), Muslim (d. 261/875), Ibn Mjah (273/886), Ab Dd (d. 275/888), al-Tirmidh (d. 279/892), and al-Nas (d. 303/892).69 In the field of grammar two main schools of philology appeared: the Bas.ran school whose leaders were Sbawayh (d. 179/196) and al-As.ma, and the Kfan school which came later with some differences, and still later developed into a school of its own, whose leaders were al-Kis and al-Farr. The caliphs of Baghdd took the side of the Kfan school, since the teachers of their children belonged to this school, such as al-Kis, alFarr, al-Mufad.d .al Muh.ammad ibn Yal al-D .abb and al-Sharq ibn Qat.t.m. Al-Mamn, for example, took the side against Sbawayh in a debate between the latter and al-Kis on a certain grammatical issue. Ibn Qutaybah who mixed the two schools was considered to belong to the Baghdd school. According to him al-Kis and al-Farr did not belong to the Kfan school, but to the Baghdd school70 which was the mixture of the two schools.71 Ab al-T .ayyib Abd al-Wh .id ibn Al al-Lughaw (d. 351/962) made a suggestion which was elaborated later on by Ibn al-Nadm that Ibn Qutaybah combined the two schools into a Baghdd synthesis. This view was considered doubtful and rejected by the contemporary scholars Lecomte and al-Jubr respectively. Lecomte said:
In fact, in addition to the point already emphasized by G. Weil... that the schools of Bas .ra and Kfa can scarcely have assumed their distinctive characteristics before the end of the 3rd/9th century, nothing has been found in Ibn utaybas philological work, or at least in what now
69 70 71

See M.Z. Sallm, Ibn Qutaybah, p. 16. Ibn Qutaybah, Adab al-Ktib, pp. 390 and 640.

Lecomte quoted Ab al-T .ayyib Abd al-Wh .id al-Lughaw who said that the city of Baghdd was not a city of knowledge, but a city of government. The existing knowledge was brought to the city to please the caliphs and their courts. Al-T .ayyib said further that the people of Baghdd mixed everything; they did not make any distinction among the schoolars of Bas .rah or between al-Rus and al-Kis, or even between the reading of the H .ijz and that of H .amzah. The only thing they did was invent technical terms, such as h .afd . for jarr, s .ifah for z .arf, h .urf al-s .ift for h .urf aljarr and nasq for at .f, see Lecomte. Ibn Qutayba, p. 391, n. 2, quoting Ab al-T .ayyib, Martib al-Nah .wiyyn (Cairo: N.P., 1375/1955), pp. 101-102.

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survives, which could really justify this point of view. Although he in effect contrasts them with the Bas .rans, he regularly refers to those who were later to be attached to the School of Kfa as Baghdds, and the synthesis of which so much has been made is no more than a genuine eclecticism which never claimed to form a school. All that can be said is that Ibn utayba in fact joins certain reputedly Kfi tendencies to others considered to be Bas .ran. His position may be summarized by stating that in grammar he remains on the whole a supporter of the norm, i.e., Bas .ran, in spite of his attachment to the teaching of al-Kis and of al-Farr, whereas in a more general way, in philology and especially in poetry, he does not hesitate to depart from the usually accepted views, an attitude considered to be Kfi.72

In rejecting the view that Ibn Qutaybah was one of the founders of the Baghdd school of grammar which was the mixture of the two schools, the Bas .ran and the Kfan, al-Jubrs argument is as follows: (1). Ibn Qutaybah cited only linguistic aspects (wujh min al-lughah) from the two schools, and probably aspects of grammatical orientation in special issues, as found in his Adab al-Ktib and Gharb al-H .adth. (2). Despite his vast knowledge of grammar, Ibn Qutaybah did not express his views on this subject. He cited the views of grammarians without expressing which was the more acceptable one, whereas in the field of linguistics (lughah) he exercised ijtihd (independent judgement) and gave his fatw (legal opinion) on its issues. Therefore, in al-Juburs opinion, Ibn Qutaybah was not a grammarian (nah .w), but one of the 73 philologists (fuqah al-lughah). Other grammarians worthy of mention here are: Ibn al-Sikkt (d. 244/858-859) who was the last grammarian of the Kfan school who taught the son of Jafar al-Mutawakkil and who wrote Is .lh . al-Mant .iq (Reconstruction of Logic) and Tahdhb al-Alfz . (Expression Training), Thalab who gave his commentary on the compiled poetry of the pre-Islamic poet Zuhayr ibn Ab Sulm (d. 5/627), al-Mzin (d. 249/863) who was said to be the first to formulate the ilm al-tas .rf (etymology), and al-Mubarrad who combined philology with literature in his work al-Kmil f l-Lughah wa l-Adab (The Perfect Book on Linguistics and Literature).74
72. Lecomte, Ibn utayba, p. 846. 73. See al-Jubrs introduction in Ibn Qutaybah, Gharb al-H .adth, pp. 17-19. 74. Sallm, Ibn Qutaybah, p. 18.

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Among the poets of this period were: Ab Tammm (d. 228/843) who had a dwn (compiled poems), Ab Ubdah al-Buh .tur (d. 283-284/897) who had also a dwn, Dibil al-Khuz who composed poems in praising ahl al-bayt (the Prophet's household), Ibn al-Rm (d. 282-283/896), and Ibn al-Mutazz (d. 296/863) each of whom had their own dwn.75 3. Historical Perspective on the Early Development of Qurnic Exegesis a. Tafsr and Tawl The word tafsr is the mas .dar (verbal noun) from the second form of the verb fasara, namely, fassara which means to explain, to expound, to interpret, or to comment. Tafsr is the explanation, revealing and exposing the sensible meaning ( ). It is also said that the word fasara is the inversion (maqlb) of the word safara which means unveiling or uncovering. For example, the expression (the woman uncovered) means she revealed her face, and the expression (the dawn uncovered) means it unveiled the sky of the darkness of night with its light. Tafsr, then, is the meanings of the verses of the Qurn which need explanation.76 Technically, the definition of tafsr as given by al-Zarkash (d. 794/1392) is as follows: It is a knowledge through which the Book of Allah revealed to His Prophet Muh .ammad, peace be upon him, may be understood, its meaning may be clear, and its legal judgements and wisdom
75. Ibid., p. 19. 76. Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 5, p. 55; Jall al-Dn Muh .ammad al-Suyt ., al-Itqn f Ulm al-Qurn, ed. M. A. Ibrhm, 4 vols. 1st ed. (Cairo: Maktabat wa Mat .baat al-Mashhad al-H .usayn, 1387/1967), vol. 4, p. 167; and Ab l-Fad .l Muh .ammad Murt .ad . al-Zabd, Tj al-Ars min Jawhir al-Qms (Egypt: al-Mat .baah al-Khayryah, 1306/[1888]), vol. 3, p. 470. According to Muh .ammad Fud Abd al-Bq, the word tafsr is mentioned once only in the Qurn, as follows: And no question do they bring to thee but We reveal to thee the truth and the best explanation (tafsr). (Q. 25:33). See M.F Abd al-Bq, al-Mujam al-Mufahras li-Alfz . al-Qurn al-Karm ([Cairo]: Dr wa Mabi al-Shab, n.d.), p. 519 (s.v. ).

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may be discovered..."77 The word tawl is the mas .dar from the second form of the verb la (which means returning), namely, awwala which means returning (something), as if the commentators return the verse to its various possible meanings. It is the act of reducing of (two or more) senses or interpretations which an expression can have or allow to one that which suits the apparent meaning. The Arabic expression la ilayh means he returned to him, while ( ) means he arranged, evaluated and explained the statement ( ).78 Technically, according to early commentators in general, such as Ab Ubaydah and al-T .abar, tawl has the same meaning as tafsr, so that tawl al-Qurn has the same meaning as tafsr al-Qurn.79 However, Muqtil ibn Sulaymn states on the authority of Ibn Abbs that tafsr is what is known by the ulam, while tawl by Allah alone.80 But Ibn Abbs was also reported to have said that some tafsrs are known to man, and others to Allah alone.81 Later commentators, however, make the distinction between the two terms with divergent opinions: tafsr belongs to the s .ahbah, while tawl belongs to the fuqah (legists);82 tafsr, as mentioned by al-Mturd
77. See al-Zarkash, al-Burhn f Ulm al-Qurn, ed. Muh .ammad Ab al-Fad .l Ibrhm, 4 vols (Beirut: Dr al-Marifah, n.d.), vol. 1, p. 13. 78. Qms al-Mu, 2nd ed., 4 vols. in 2 bindings (Cairo: Mat .baat Mus .t .af l-Bb l-H .alab, 1371/1952), vol. 3, p. 341 (s.v. ); and al-Zabd, Tj al-Ars, vol. 7, p. 215 (s.v. ). The term tawl is mentioned 17 times in the Qurn according to M.F. Abd al-Bq. It deals with the interpretation of visions as in Q. 12:6, 21, 36-37, 44-45, and 100-1, of strange behaviour as in Q. 18:78 and 82, of obscure verses as in Q. 3:7 where tawl is mentioned twice, of the unseen as in Q. 10:39 where tawl is mentioned once, and with the fulfilment of the event in the Hereafter as in Q. 7:53 where tawl is also mentioned twice. See M.F. Abd al-Bq, al-Mujam, p. 97 (s.v. ). 79. Al-Zabd, Tj al-Ars, vol. 7, p. 215; see also Ibn Taymiyyah, Tafsr Srat al-Ikhls ., p. 113; and al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 4, p. 167. 80. Muqtil, Tafsr, M.S. Hasan Husnu 17, 2r quoted by Wansbrough, Quranic Studies (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1977), p. 155. 81. Al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 4, p. 188. 82. Al-Mturd, Tawlt al-Qurn, M.S. Medine 180, quoted by Wansbrough, Quranic Studies, p. 154.

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(d. 333/944), has a single interpretation, while tawl has many interpretations; tafsr, according to al-Rghib al-As .bahn (d. 502/1109), is more common than tawl, as the former is used mostly for words and their synonyms, while the latter mostly for meanings and sentences; moreover, tafsr is used for both divine and secular books, tawl for divine books only;83 tafsr is based on riwyah (transmission of tradition), while tawl involves diryah (comprehension), namely, research and investigation;84 tafsr is the obvious meaning of the verses, while tawl is the deep meaning derived from the verses through research and investigation. The commentators give the preponderance - which is neither definite nor final to avoid giving final interpretation to what is really meant by Allah in the Qurn - to what they think the most suitable meaning over other meanings.85 b. Categories of Tafsr Based on its sources there are three main categories of tafsr: traditional commentary ( , also called and ),
83. Al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 4, p. 167. 84. Ibid., p. 168; and al-Zarkash, al-Burhn, vol. 2, p. 150. 85. Al-S .bn, al-Tibyn f Ulm al-Qurn (Damascus: Maktabat al-Ghazl, 1401/1981), 2nd ed., p. 63. Ibn Qutaybah used both terms tawl and tafsr in the title of his works, namely, Tawl Mushkil al-Qurn and Tafsr Gharb al-Qurn, the latter being the continuation of the former. Apparently, he did not make any distinction between the two terms, as he stated that he wrote his Gharb al-Qurn in order that his Tawl would not become too long. However, according Lecomte, Ibn Qutaybah did make such a distinction: tafsr is simply paraphrasing simple texts or difficult ones due to exclusively lexicographic order, whereas tawl is a kind of tafsr with deeper meaning. See Lecomte, Ibn Qutayba, pp. 290-294. According to Ibn Taymiyyah, al-T .abar used the term tawl meaning tafsr when he used the expression (the statement concerning the interpretation of this verse) in his Jm. In other words, al-T .abar did not make a distinction between tawl and tafsr. See Ibn Taymiyyah, Tafsr Srat al-Ikhls ., p. 113. Contrary to this view is that of Dr. Mus .t .af Zayd who maintained that al-T .abar did make a distinction between the two terms. When al-T (the .abar used the expression interpretation of this verse according to me), in Zayds view, is what the Prophet meant when he prayed for his cousin Ibn Abbs, saying (O Allah, give him understanding in religion and teach him tawl [of the Qurn]), see Dr. M. Zayd, Dirst f l-Tafsr (Cairo: Dr al-Fikr al-Arab, n.d.), p. 17.

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rational commentary (

, also called

and

), and

symbolic or allegorical commentary ( briefly as follows:

). They will be dealt with

(1) Traditional Commentary. It is either the commentary of the Qurn by the Qurn itself, by the Sunnah of the Prophet, or by the s .ahbah. An example of the commentary of the Qurn by itself is as follows: One Qurnic verse mentions that cattle are lawful to Muslims for food, but not without exception. It says: ... Lawful to you is the [flesh of every] beast that feeds on plants, save what is mentioned to you [hereafter]: ... (Q. 5:1, Asad)86 The commentary of the expression save what is mentioned to you [hereafter] is given in another verse, as follows: ...
Forbidden to you is carrion, and blood, and the flesh of swine, and that over which any name other than Gods has been invoked, and the animal that has been strangled, or beaten to death, or killed by a fall, or gored to death, or savaged by a beast of prey, save that which you [yourselves] may have slaughtered while it was still alive; and [forbidden to you is] all that has been slaughtered on idolatrous altars. (Q. 5:3, Asad).87

This is the strongest commentary of this category of tafsr, since it comes from the Qurn itself. It is Allah Who explains what He means in the Qurn. The example of the commentary of the Qurn by the Sunnah of the Prophet is as follows: When the verse Those who have attained to faith, and who have not obscured their faith by wrongdoing - it is they who shall be secure, since it is they who have found the right path! (Q. 6:82, Asad) was revealed, it distressed the s .ahbah. They asked the Prophet, saying: O Messenger of Allah, is there any of us who has not obscured his faith by wrongdoing?
86. See also Q. 22:30. 87. For another example, see Q. 44:3 where the commentary of the Blessed Night is given in Q. 97:1 which is, in turn, clarified in Q. 99:3-5.

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The Prophet answered: It is not what you think it means. Havent you heard what the pious servant of Allah [i.e., Luqman the sage] said to his son? He said: O my dear son! Do not ascribe divine powers to aught beside God: for, behold, such [a false] ascribing divinity is indeed an awesome wrong! (Q. 31:13, Asad). It [i.e., 88 the word z .ulm in the verse] means shirk (polytheism). This Prophetic commentary of the Qurn is also strong, since it is the duty of the Prophet to explain what has been revealed to the people, as mentioned in the Qurn, as follows:

And upon thee [too] have We bestowed from on high this reminder, so that thou might make clear unto mankind all that has ever been thus bestowed upon them, and that they might take thought. (Q. 16:44, Asad).

However, the acceptance of this Prophetic commentary is also on condition that it is reported by reliable authorities. With regard to the commentary of the s .ahbah, although not so strong as the two commentaries mentioned earlier, it is also accepted by the Muslims. This is because the s .ahbah were people who met the Prophet, witnessed the revelation, knew the asbb al-nuzl and knew more of the Arabic language and its eloquence which enabled them to better understand the divine texts. Although the traditionist al-H .kim accepted the commentary of the s .ahbah and raised it to the same level of the Prophetic commentary, one has to be careful in accepting this commentary of the s .ahbah or the tbin for the following reasons: There are many commentaries attributed to the s .ahbah or tbin without isnd (chains of authority), so that we cannot make a distinction between the genuine and the fabricated ones. Moreover, many isrilyt (Jewish legends) were spread among Muslims, some of which contained legends and beliefs contradictory to the teachings of Islam. There were also some extremists who fabricated sayings and attributed them to the s .ahbah to support their views, or to flatter the rulers. There is also the possibility that the atheists (zandiqah) fabricated sayings and attributed
88. Muh .ammad Al al-S .bn (ed.), Mukhtasar Tafsr Ibn Kathr, 3 vols. (Beirut: Dr al-Qurn al-Karm, 1402/1981), vol. 2, pp. 594-595.

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89 them to the s .ahbah or the tbin in order to destroy Islam.

(2) Rational commentary. It is a commentary based exclusively on the commentators ability to grasp the meanings of the Qurnic verses due to the absence of traditional commentary on the verses in question. This can be accomplished only if he possesses and exercises the knowledge of the sciences of the Qurn and the Arabic language, such as naskh (abrogation of legal passages of the Qurn), asbb al-nuzl, ah .km (laws contained in the Qurn), irb, balghah (eloquence), and classical Arabic poetry. The commentary of this genre, however, was opposed by a group of Muslim scholars for the following reasons: (a) They said that rational commentary was a statement concerning Allah without knowledge, an act which was prohibited by Allah, as mentioned in Q. 2:169 and 7:33. (b) They contended that it was the duty of the Prophet to explain the Qurn as mentioned in Q. 16:44, and this duty was exclusively the Prophets privilege. (c) The Prophet warned people from giving interpretation of the Qurn based on their personal opinion. In a tradition on the authority of Ibn Abbs the Prophet said: Whoever speaks on the Qurn without knowledge (ilm) let him make his place in Hell.90 (d) The s .ahbah and the tbin refrained from giving their interpretation of the Qurn with their personal opinion. Ab Bakr, for example, was reported to have said: Any land may carry me, and any sky may overshadow me if I spoke on the Qurn with my personal opinion or with what I have no knowledge.91
89. See al-Zarqn, Manhil al-Irfn f Ulm al-Qurn, 2 vols. (Beirut: Dr al-Fikr, 1408/1988), vol. 2, pp. 23-24. 90. See Ibn Taymiyyah, Majm Fatw, vol. 13, p. 370. Quoting from Ibn al-Anbrs work al-Radd al Man Khlafa Mus .h .af Uthmn, which is not extant, alQurt .ub mentions two interpretations on the above h .adth: (a) Whosoever gives his own opinion on the ambiguous verses of the Qurn on which neither the s .ah .bah nor the tbin have ever expressed their opinion, he will be exposed to Allahs wrath; (b) Whoever gives an opinion that he knows is wrong about the verses of the Qurn, he will be exposed to Allahs wrath, and this is the right view according to al-Qurt .ub; see al-Jmi, vol. 1, p. 32. In another tradition on the authority of Jundub, the Prophet said: Whoever interprets the Qurn by independent reason is wrong even if he arrives at the right meaning. For similar h .adths, see al-Tirmidh, Jmi, vol. 5, p. 199 no. 2950 (chap. tafsr al-Qurn). See also al-S .bn, al-Tibyn, p. 154. 91. See Ibn Taymiyyah, Majm Fatw, vol. 13, pp. 371-372 and al-S .bn, al-Tibyn, p. 154.

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On the other hand, Muslim scholars en masse accept the rational interpretation for the following reasons: (a) Allah urges Muslims to contemplate the contents of the Qurn when He said:
[All this have We expounded in this] blessed divine writ which We have revealed unto thee, [O Muhammad,] so that men may ponder over its messages, and that those who are endowed with insight may take 92 them to heart. (Q. 38:29, Asad)

They maintain that pondering over the Qurn can be achieved only by searching its deeper meanings and mysteries, and therefore, giving ones personal opinion in the interpretation of the Qurn is justified. (b) Muslim scholars are urged to discover the laws in the Qur'an by searching and finding its deeper meanings, based on Q. 4:83, and this can only be carried out by giving ones independent judgement. (c) If rational interpretation is prohibited because it is based on independent judgement, then the use of independent judgement in Islamic laws would also have been prohibited. Consequently, many of these Islamic laws would have been ineffective. This is contrary to what has been established among Muslim scholars that a mujtahid (a legist who exercises ijtihd, i.e., independent judgement in a legal question based upon the interpretation of the Qurn and the Sunnah) is always rewarded, whether his judgement is right or wrong. (d) The s .ahbah themselves have different interpretations on some Qurnic verses, as the Prophet did not explain all the verses of the Qurn. He explained only those which needed explanation, leaving the rest to be understood by the s .ahbah themselves. If personal opinion was not allowed on the Qurn, the Prophet would have explained the whole Qurn, and the s .ahbah would not have given their personal opinion.(e) The Prophet prayed for his cousin Ibn Abbs that Allah would teach him the tawl of the Qurn. If the term tawl here means the interpretation based on what have been reported from the Prophet rather than Ibn Abbss own personal opinion, then singling him out with this prayer would have been futile. The arguments of scholars who opposed rational commentary were countered by other scholars with the following arguments: (a) Giving one's interpretation on the Qurn with ijtihd (lit., exertion, namely, independent judgement) is not a statement concerning Allah without knowledge, but
92. For similar verses, see Q. 4:82 and 47:24.

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rather with knowledge and which is permitted in religion, since a mujtahid according to a h .adth will be rewarded with two merits if he is right, and one merit if he is wrong in his ijtihd. Since ijtihd is a meritorious act, it cannot be a prohibited one at the same time. (b) With regard to the Prophets warning against practising tafsr without knowledge, Ibn al-Naqb gives us five views which constitute five types of prohibited tafsr, namely, tafsr without having the sciences required for it; tafsr of ambiguous passages which are known by Allah alone; tafsr intended to support a straying sect, and in so doing, making the tafsr subordinate to the sect; stating with certainty the meaning intended by Allah without proof; and lastly, tafsr 93 based on ones own discretion (istih .sn) and whim (haw). (c) That the Prophet was appointed to explain the Qurn does not mean that nobody else was allowed to do it. This is apparent as the verse mentioned above ends with and that they might take thought. (Q. 16:44, Asad). Many verses in the Qurn were not explained by the Prophet, and it is the duty of Muslim scholars to find their meanings and interpretations. (d) The s .ahbahs restraint from giving their own tafsr was a precaution against stating what may not have been meant by Allah. Ab Bakr himself gave his personal opinion concerning the kallah (a deceased person who has left as heir neither a descendant nor an ascendant)94 in the Qurn 4:176 and said: I say it with my opinion; if it is right it is from Allah, and if it is not, it is from Satan.95 Among the exponents of the rational commentary, to mention a 96 few, were al-Ghazl, al-Rghib al-As .bahn, and al-Qurt .ub. (3) Symbolic (Allegorical) Commentary. It is a commentary of the Qurn which is different from its apparent meaning due to some hints which appeared through inspiration to some dedicated people endowed with knowledge. Contrary to the acquired knowledge known as , this type of knowledge known as comes directly from Allah, as

93. Al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 4, p. 191. 94. Kallah is one of the three terms which Umar wished the Prophet had defined in his lifetime, the other two being the khilfah (caliphate, succession) and the rib (usury), see A.Y. Ali, The Holy Qurn (Doha: Qatar National Printing Press, n.d.), p. 182, n. 520. 95. Al-S .bn, al-Tibyn, pp. 164-166. 96. Ibid., pp. 167-8.

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mentioned in the Qurn, as follows: (and unto whom We had imparted knowledge [issuing] from Ourselves. Q. 18:65, Asad).97 There is a great difference between the esoterical commentary ( ) claimed by the Bt .ins (adherents of inner meanings of the Qurn) and the symbolic commentary ( ). To the Bt .ins, the only acceptable meaning is the esoterical one, whereas the Sfs accept both the ostensible and the symbolic meanings. The Sfs urge people to learn the ostensible meaning before they learn the symbolic meaning. They say that whoever claims to have understood the mysteries of the Qurn - through mystical interpretation - without knowing the ostensible meaning is like a man who claims to have reached the roof of the house without passing through the door.98 Muslim scholars have different views on this symbolic tafsr. Those who reject it associate it with the esoterical tafsr which, in their view, distorts the meaning of the Qurn. However, the exponents of this type of tafsr give conditions for its validity, as follows: it is not contrary to its obvious meaning; it is not considered the only valid meaning by rejecting the obvious one; it is not a remote meaning which is beyond the context of its words, such as interpreting the term lamaa as a verb meaning to shine ather than indeed with in the verse For, behold, God is indeed with the doers of good. (Q. 29:69, Asad); it is not contrary to Islamic teachings and to reason; and finally, it does not contain a view which might confuse people.99 One example of the symbolic commentary is Ibn Abbss interpretation of the verse: When Gods succour comes, and victory, (Q. 110:1, Asad) as a sign of the Prophets approaching death.100
97. Idem, (ed.), Mukhtas .ar, vol. 2, p. 427. See also Q. 2:282. 98. See al-Zarqn, Manhil al-Irfn, vol. 2, p. 79. 99. See al-S .bn, al-Tibyn, p. 175; al-Zarqn mentions the fifth condition is that the allegorical commentary has to be supported by a legal shhid (textual evidence); see al-Zarqn, Manhil al-Irfn, vol. 2, p. 81. 100. See Ab Abd Allh Muh .ammad ibn Muh .ammad al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi liAh .km al-Qurn, 20 vols. in 10 bindings (Beirut: Dr Ih .yal-Turth al-Arab, 1967), vol. 20, p. 232; Ab Abd Allh Muh .ammad b. Isml al-Bukhr, S .ah .h .

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c. Early Development of Tafsr The Qurn was revealed to Prophet Muhammad in the Arabic language.101 Although in clear Arabic,102 the s .ahbah had different levels of knowledge in understanding the Qurn. This is natural, since it is unlikely that any book written on any subject in any particular language and style will be fully understood by any native speaker of that language. Umar, for example, did not know the meaning of the word abban in the verse (And fruits and fodder. Q. 80:31). On one occasion, whilst he was reading from the pulpit the verse (Or [that He will] take them to task through slow decay? Q. 16:47, Asad), he asked the meaning of takhawwuf. A Bedouin of Hudhayl tribe told him that according to the language of this tribe the word means tanaqqus . 103 (diminution, decrease). Besides Umar, Ibn Abbs who was nicknamed turjumn al-Qurn (the interpreter of the Qurn), was reported to have said that he had not known the meaning of the word ft .ir in the verse ( ) : He is the Creator of the heavens and the earth, Q. 6:14, Dawood)104 until two Bedouins came to him asking his judgement on their dispute over a well; one of them said an fat .artuh (I was the one who made it), while the other said an ibtadatuh (I was the one who started digging it.)105
al-Bukhr (N.p: Dar al-Fikr, n.d.), pp. 183-184. Another classification of tafsr which appeared in the second half of the second century A.H. was the following categories: legalistic tafsr, linguistic tafsr, formal tafsr of scholars, and the tafsr of the mutashbiht which is known to Allah only; see M.O.A. Abdul, The Historical Development of Tafsir, Islamic Culture (Hyderabad, The Islamic Culture Board), vol. l, no. 1 (July, 1976), p. 144. Wansbrough, on the other hand, gives us five categories of tafsr i.e., narrative (haggadic), legal (halakhic), textual (masoretic), rhetorical, and allegorical; for further details, see J. Wansbrough, Quranic Studies, pp. 119-246. 101. See Q. 12:2, 39:28 and 42:3. 102. See Q. 26:195. 103. See Dr. Muh .ammad H .usayn al-Dhahab, al-Tafsr wa l-Mufassirn, 3 vols (Cairo: Dr al-Kutub al-H .adthah, 1396/1976), vol. 1, p. 74; and Ah . mad Amn, Fajr al-Islm, p. 196. 104. See also Q. 12:101, 14:10, 35:1, 39:46 and 42:11. 105. Al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 1, p. 44; al-Suyt . did not mention that the

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It was also reported that he had not known the meaning of the word iftah . in the verse (Our Lord! Judge rightly between us and our people, Q. 7:89) until he heard a woman called Dh Yazan say to her husband meaning (I shall prosecute you).106 Generally speaking, the s .ahbah understood the Qurn more than any other people, since it was revealed in their language. However, they had different levels of understanding. Some of them had more knowledge of the Arabic language and were more familiar with its pre-Islamic literature which helped them grasp the meanings of the Qurnic texts - than other people. Others used to accompany the Prophet and witnessed the asbb al-nuzl of certain Qurnic verses. Some others knew more of the ways of the Arabs in the pre-Islamic era. Those who knew the Arabs way of performing their pilgrimage and worshipping their idols, and those who were familiar with the customs and traditions of the Jews and Christians in pre-Islamic Arabia had better understanding of Qurnic verses dealing with these particular subjects.107 The Prophet explained to the s .ahbah the meanings of Qurnic verses which were not understood by them or those that needed explanation. Zakt, for example, originally means growth, but technically means obligatory charity, was explained by the Prophet in detail. This explanation was later transmitted to the people of the next generation, so that they also became well-acquainted with the divine texts. However, such information was included in the h .adth literature, since tafsr as an independent science emerged later in the early third century A.H. After the death of the Prophet questions on Qurnic verses were
statement an ibtadatuh was that of the other Bedouin in the dispute. See al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 4 106. Al-T .abar mentioned that the word fatah .a which means qad . (to judge) is the language of the Murd tribe and that according to al-Farr the people of Umn (Oman) called their qad . by the name al-ftih . and al-fatth .; see Ab Jafar ibn Jarr al-T .abar, Jmi al-Bayn f Tafsr al-Qurn, 30 vols. (Beirut: Dr al-Marifah lilT .ibaah wa al-Nashr, 1406-7/1986-7), vol. 9, p. 3; and al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi , vol. 1, p. 44. Al-Suyuti gives the meaning of uftih .uk as uh .kimuk (I argue with you), see al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 5. 107. A. Amn, Fajr al-Islm, pp. 197-199.

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directed to the s .ahbah. The prominent exegetes among them in this period were: Abd Allh ibn Abbs, Abd Allh ibn Masd, Al ibn Ab T .lib and Ubayy ibn Kab; to a lesser degree, Zayd ibn Thbit, Ab Ms al-Ashar, Abd Allh ibn al-Zubayr, Ab Bakr, Umar and Uthmn. They moved to other cities in Muslim lands and transmitted to people what they had learned from the Prophet and what they knew from the asbb al-nuzl. They opened schools for teaching tafsr in important cities. In Makkah the school was led by Ibn Abbs; among his students were: Sad ibn Jubayr (d. 94/713), Mujhid ibn Jabr (d. 103/722) whose tafsr has been published,108 T .ws ibn Kaysn al-Yamn (d. 106/725), Ikrimah (Ibn Abbss client, d. 105/723) and At .a ibn Ab Rabh (d. 114/732). In Madnah, it was led by Ubayy ibn Kab (d. 22/641); among his students were: Muh .ammad ibn Kab al-Qurz . (d. 117/735), al-Rfi ibn Mahrn (his agnomen was Ab al-liyah al-Riyh, d. 90/709 or 117/735 or 93/712) and Zayd ibn Aslam (his agnomen was Ab Usmah, the client of Umar, d. 136/754). In Iraq it was led by Abd Allh ibn Masd (d. 32/652); among his students in Kfah were Alqamah ibn Qays (d. ca. 62/682 or 72/692) and Masrq ibn al-Ajda (d. 63/683). In Bas .rah, they were al-H .asan al-Bas .r (d. 110/728), Qatdah ibn Dimah al-Sudus (d. 118/736), At .a ibn Ab Muslim al-Khurasn (d. 135/753) and Murrah ibn Shurh .l al-Hamadhn (his agnomen was Ab 109 Ismal, d. 76/696). In this period of the tbin, many isriliyyt (Jewish traditions used to amplify Qurnic allusions) found their way into tafsr. This is because people were curious to know the details of stories mentioned in the Qurn. For example, they wanted to know the size of Prophet Noahs ark, the number and names of the as .h .b al-kahf (Men of the Cave) and the colour of
108. The complete tafsr of Mujhid was edited and published by A. Surt based on a manuscript from the sixth century of Hijrah. It was entitled Tafsr Mujhid, 2 vols (Beirut: n.d.). See Ahmad von Denffer, Ulm al-Qurn: An Introduction to the Science of the Qurn (Leicester: The Islamic Foundation, 1403/1983), p. 130. Mujhid was reported to have asked Ibn Abbss commentary on the whole Qurn and recorded it. For this reason Sufyn al-Thawr said: If the commentary comes from Mujhid it is sufficient for you. See Ibn Taymiyyah, Majm Fatw, vol. 13, p. 369. 109. Al-S .bn, al-Tibyn, pp. 73-84; A. Amn, Fajr al-Islm, pp. 204-205; and Dr. Muh .ammad B. Mahrn, Dirst Tarkhiyyah min al-Qurn al-Karm (N.p.: Imm Muh .ammad ibn Sud Islamic University, 1400/1980), pp. 104-105.

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their dog, the kind of tree from which Allah talked to Prophet Moses and the kind of birds which were revived by Allah for Prophet Abraham. Such details could be found in the Torah or its commentary and legends put into it.110 Moreover, some of the Jews who converted to Islam brought the isriliyyt with them. Although the Prophet was reported to have said that Muslims should neither believe nor disbelieve what the people of the Book related to them, they consulted them; even Ibn Abbs was reported to have listened to them.111 Ibn Khaldn gave us his account on this matter and said:

110. These are, according to Ibn Taymiyyah, unnecessary details which have been concealed by Allah in the Qurn; see Ibn Taymyah, Majm Fatw, vol. 13, p. 367. 111. Mahrn mentions nine reasons for the infiltration of isriliyyt and nas .rniyyt (legends from Christians) in tafsr which have been mentioned above. For further details, see Mahrn, Dirst Tarkhiyyah, pp. 105-111. Ibn Abbs was reported to have asked Kab al-Ah .br the interpretation of the term Umm al-Kitb (the Mother of the Book) and al-marjn (the coral), see Ignaz Goldziher, Madhhib al-Tafsr al-Islm, trans. & annot. Dr. Abd al-H .alm al-Najjr (Cairo: Mat .baah al-Sunnah al-Muh .ammadiyyah, 1374/1955), p. 88; and al-T .abar, Jmi, vol. 17, pp. 9 and 126. Such questions do not necessarily mean that Ibn Abbs did not know the meaning of these words, but rather to learn Kab al-Ah .brs understanding of these words based on his knowledge of the Jewish tradition. Ibn Abbs was also reported to have asked Kab al-Ah .br the meaning of the verse: They extol His limitless glory by night and by day, never flagging [therein] (Q. 21:20, Asad) and how the angels glorify Allah continuously. Do your blinking of your eyes and your breathing afflict you?, asked Kab al-Ah .br. No, answered Ibn Abbs. The angels continuous glorification of Allah is like that, said Kab al-Ah .br. See al-T .abar, Jmi, vol. 17, p. 19. In justifying Ibn Abbss questioning the Jewish converts to Islam, Muh .ammad al-Dhahab said that the questions did not touch the aqdah (belief) or us .l al-dn (the fundamentals of the religion of Islam), but rather the stories of the past. In this way, Ibn Abbs was combining two h .adths: one allowed the Muslims to speak about Ban Isrl (the children of Israel, namely, the Jews and their tradition) without restriction, and the other prohibited the Muslims from believing or disbelieving the people of the Book (the Jews and the Christians). However, al-Dhahb does not maintain that Ibn Abbs asked the Jewish converts in such an extensive way as assumed by Goldziher and A. Amn, since many stories reported by al-T .abar in his Jmi were not sound, and Ibn Abbs himself warned the Muslims from asking the people of the Book; see al-Dhahb, al-Tafsr wa l-Mufassirn, vol. 1, pp. 71-74.

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.... The Arabs had no books or scholarship. The desert attitude and illiteracy prevailed among them. When they wanted to know certain things that human beings are usually curious to know, such as the reason for the existing things, the beginning of creation, and the secrets of existence, they consulted the earlier people of the Book about it and got information from them. The people of the Book were the Jews who had the Torah and the Christians who followed the religion (of the Jews). Now the people of the Torah who lived among the Arabs at that time were themselves Bedouins. They knew only as much about the matter as is known to ordinary people of the Book (in contrast to the learned rabbis). The majority of those Jews were Himyarites who had adopted Judaism. When they became Muslims, they clung to the information they possessed, such as information about the beginning of creation and information of the types of forecasts and predictions. That information had no connection with the commandments of the Islamic Law. Such men were Kab b. al-Ah .br, Wahb b. Munabbah, Abdallh b. Sallm and similar people. The Qurn [sic] commentaries were filled with materials of such tendencies transmitted on their authority. 112

It was commonly believed that the recording of oral traditions attributed to the Prophet started only at the second century of A.H. after the death of all of the s .ah .bah and prominent tbin, such as Sad ibn al-Musayyab (d. 100/713) and al-H .asan al-Bas .r. Mlik ibn Anas, for example, stated that Ibn Shihb al-Zuhr (d. 124/742) was the earliest compiler.113 However, the extant and earliest religious book written in the early period of Islam was al-S .ah .fah al-S .ah . h .ah (The Authentic Scroll) of Hammm ibn Munabbih. The compiler Ibn Munabbih (d. 101/719) was a student of the prominent s .ah .b (a companion of the Prophet) Ab Hurayrah (d. 58/677). Two identical manuscripts of it were found; one in Damascus, and the other in Berlin. It was discovered, edited and published by Muhammad Hamidullah in Damascus in 196l. It contained one hundred and thirty-eight h .adths on the authority of Ab Hurayrah. Many of these h .adths were identical to those reported by Ah .mad ibn H .anbal in his Musnad and al-Bukhr in his S .ah .h .. Some s .ah .bah and tbin had
112. Ibn Khaldn, Muqaddimah, p. 368; the translation is rendered by Rosenthal, see idem, The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History, trans. Franz Rosenthal, 3 vols. (New York: Pantheon Books Inc., 1958), vol.2, p. 445. 113. See Ibn al-Jawz, Kitb S .ifat al-S .afwah, 4 vols. 1st ed. (Hyderabad Deccan: Mat .baat Dirat al-Marif al-Uthmniyyah, 1357/[1938]), vol. 2, p. 78.

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recorded the h .adths, but their recordings were lost, such as Sad ibn Ubdah (d. 15/637), Ibn Abbs (d. 69/689), Samrah ibn Jundub (d. 60/680), Jbir ibn Abd Allh (d. 78/670), Abd Allh ibn Amr ibn al-s . 114 (d. 65/685) and Sad ibn Jubayr (d. 95/714). In the early period of the second century A.H. religious knowledge had not yet been divided into branches and therefore scholars were not specialists in one particular branch. Tafsr was still included in the H .adth and the mufassirn (scholars on tafsir) were themselves muh .addithn (scholars on h .adths), until the two sciences separated completely in the early third century A.H. Among scholars who wrote tafsr based on what they had learned from the s .ah .bah and the tbin with sanad (isnd, chains of authorities on which traditions and historical writings are based) were Wak ibn al-Jarrh . (d. 196/811), Sufyn ibn Uyaynah (d. 198/813), Shubah ibn al-Hajjj (d. 160/776), Abd al-Razzq ibn Hammm (d. 211/827) and Ab Khlid Yazd ibn Hrn (d. 206/822).115 Unfortunately, none of these works are extant. However, there are some extant works of this second century A.H., among which are: Tafsr (MS. Husnu 17) of Muqtil ibn Sulaymn (d. 150/767), al-Srah al-Nabawiyyah (Cairo, 1955) of Ibn Ish .q (d. 151/768) in the recension of Ibn Hishm (d. 218/834), Tafsr (MS. Ayasofya 118) of Muh .ammad ibn Sib al-Kalb (d. 146/763), and Tafsr al-Qurn al-Karm (Rampur, 1965), of Sufyn al-Thawr (d. 161/778). They contained mainly commentaries and paraphrastic explanations in addition to the asbb al-nuzl, except Ibn Ish .qs Srah which contained mainly the Prophets biography and asbb al-nuzl.116
114. See Dr. S .ubh . al-S .lih ., Ulm al-H .adth wa Mus .t .alah .uh (Beirut: Dr al-Ilm lil-Malyn, n.d.), pp. 23-33. Sad ibn Jubayr was reluctant to write a tafsr, probably because he did not want to give his personal opinion of the Qurn, particularly the mutashbiht. One day he was asked to do so and he replied: To lose a part of my body is better than to write a tafsr; see Ibn Khallikn, Wafayt al-Ayn, edited and annotated by Muh .ammad Muhy al-Dn Abd al-H .amd, 6 vols. (Cairo: Maktabat alNahd .ah al-Mis .riyyah, 1384/1964), vol. 2, pp. 112-113. However, eventually he consented when he was asked by the Caliph Abd al-Malik ibn Marwn. 115. For further details see al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 4, pp. 211-212. 116. These books belonged to the category of haggadic (narrative) tafsr as suggested by Wansbrough; see Quranic Studies, pp. 122-138. Some Muslim scholars considered Muqtil ibn Sulaymn as an unreliable authority, because he was said to have received his knowledge from the people of the Book and to have been a Zayd

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In this period of compilation the Abbs dynasty was seizing political power after successfully overthrowing the Umaw dynasty in 132/750. In this critical situation, traditions exaggerating Ibn Abbss piety, virtue and knowledge, were invented for the political ends of his descendants who were ruling the Muslim empire. Moreover, before the Abbs dynasty took power the qus .s . s . (story tellers) had already used the highly respected position of Ibn Abbss family among Muslims to fabricate traditions in his and Alis name. Consequently, according to al-Shfi, there were only about one hundred traditions handed down by Ibn Abbs.117 Ibn H .anbal was reported to have said that there are three things which have no basis: tafsr, malh .im (apocalyptic h .adths), and maghz (accounts of the early 118 battles in Islam). As h .adths, tafsr and sayings ascribed to Ibn Abbs transmitted through various channels and isnds were so numerous that there was hardly a single Qurnic verse without one or more commentaries attributed to him. This led the critics among scholars to examine and evaluate these channels and isnds. Among the critics of h .adth and tafsr transmission in this period were Yah .y ibn Sad al-Qat .t .n (d. 198/813) and Abd al-Rah .mn ibn Mahd (198/814). Their views were widely accepted by scholars such as the traditionist Ah .mad ibn H .anbal and Yah .y ibn Man (d. 233/848) and 119 scholars of the following generation. Among the evaluated channels are the following: (1). Muwiyah ibn S .lih . - Al ibn Ab T .alh .ah al-Hshim (d. 143/760-1) Ibn Abbs. This is the best channel. Although it was reported that Al
with anthromorphic leanings; others accepted him as reliable. Al-Shfi, for example, praised him and put his knowledge in tafsr on the same level as Zuhayr ibn Ab Sulms in poetry and Ab H .anfahs in Islamic jurisprudence; see Kaml al-Dn al-Dumyar, H .ayt al-H .ayawn al-Kubr (Egypt: al-Mat .baah al-Sharqiyyah, ca. 1300/[1882-1883]), vol. 1, pp. 297-298 (article dhubb). However, Ab H .tim reported from al-Sammk who said that Ikrimah stated: Everything I have told you about (the interpretation of) the Qurn is from Ibn Abbs. See al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 4, p. 211. 117. See al-Suy. t, al-Itqn, vol. 4, p. 209. 118. See Ibid., p. 178. 119. See Ibid., p. 209; and Nabia Abbott, Qurnic Commentary and Tradition. Studies in Arabic Literary Papyri II (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1967) , p. 112.

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ibn Ab T .alh .ah did not hear the tafsr directly from Ibn Abbs but from his students Mujhid or Sad ibn Jubayr, his tafsr was accepted as reliable. Al-T .abar, Ibn Ab H .tim, Muslim and other h .adth compilers relied on his transmission. Ah .mad ibn H .anbal said of it as follows: There is a scroll in Egypt on tafsr transmitted by Al ibn Ab T .alh .ah, and if a man goes there to get it is not a great thing, meaning that it deserved this great effort. (2). Qays ibn Muslim al-Kf (d. 130/748) - At . ibn al-Sib - Sad ibn Jubayr - Ibn Abbs. This is also a very good channel, the isnd is s .ah .h . (sound) based on the conditions laid down by al-Bukhr and Muslim. (3). Ibn Ish .q - Muh .ammad ibn Ab Muh .ammad (the client of Zayd ibn Thbits family) - Ikrimah or Sad ibn Jubayr - Ibn Abbs. This channel is still good, and the isnd is h .asan (good) according to the standard laid down in accepting h .adths. 4). Al-D .ah .h .k ibn Muzh .im al-Hill (d. 103/722) - Ibn Abbs. This is a weak channel. It is weaker if the channel is Juwaybir - al- D .ah .h .k - Ibn Abbs. (5). Isml ibn Abd al-Rah .mn (al-Sudd al-Kabr, d. 128/745) - Ab Mlik (or Ab S .lih ., Ummu Hns client) - Ibn Abbs. The reports of al-Sudd al-Kabr are found in the collections of h .adth compilers Muslim, Ab Dwd, Ibn Mjah, al-Nas and al-Tirmidh. Ibn Ab H .tim did not include them among the sound reports. (6). Muqtil ibn Sulaymn - Ibn Abbs. Although praised by al-Shfi, many scholars considered him weak, because he reported from Mujhid and al- D .ah .h .k, but he never had contact with them. Moreover, he was known to be a follower of al-tajsm and al-tashbh (anthropomorphism). Al-Suyt . preferred al-Kalb to Muqtil. When Wak was asked about Muqtils tafsr, he said, Do not look at it. When he was asked what to do with it, he said, Bury it. Ah .mad ibn H .anbal said about him: I 120 do not like to report anything from Muqtil. (7). Muh .ammad ibn Sib al-Kalb - Ab S .lih . - Ibn Abbs. This is the worst channel, especially if Muh .ammad ibn Marwn (al-Sudd al-S .aghr, d. 189/805) is included in it. Al-Kalb was reported to have
120. See Muhy l-Dn ibn Sharaf al-Nawaw, Tahdhb al-Asm wa l-Lught, 3 vols. (Cairo: al-Mat .baah al-Munriyyah, 1927), vol. 2, p. 111.

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said on his death-bed: Everything I have told you from Ab S .lih . are lies. His reports were frequently narrated by al-Thalab and 121 al-Wh .id. In the late second and early third century A.H. lexical tafsr became more developed. Apart from traditional sources and lexical explanation, grammatical phenomena as well as symbolic problems were also included. Grammatical phenomena were justified with shawhid from ancient poetry and secular rhetoric, while symbolic problems were solved by applying the periphrastic principle taqdr (supposition), but mainly expressed with the term majz. Among the extant lexical tafsr in this period are Man l-Qurn of al-Farr, Majz al-Qurn of Ab Ubaydah, and later Tawl Mushkil al-Qurn of Ibn Qutaybah.122 The process of tafsr compilation with isnd reached its culmination with Ibn Jarr al-T .abar. His tafsr belonged to the category of tafsr bi l-mathr. Immediately after putting the verse - partly or wholly - he explained it by paraphrasing and mentioning oral traditions from the s .ah .abah or tbi with full isnd. He evaluated them, especially if two or more meanings or variant readings were involved, and gave his opinion, although he was against al-tafsr bil-ray. He gave his own legal judgement from the Qurnic verses, as he had a madhhab of his own. As a compiler, al-T .abar also included some contradictory traditions and isrilyt, all with their isnd in his tafsr. For example, he mentioned a tradition from Muwiyah from Al ibn T .alh .ah from Ibn Abbs who said that the meaning of in Q. 2:260123 is (cut them into pieces). Then
121. Al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 4, pp. 208-9; H .ajji Khalfah, Kashf al-Z .unn an Asm l-Kutub wa l-Funn (Lexicon), edited by Gustavus Fluegel, 7 vols. (Leipzig and London: Published for the Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland, 1835-1856), vol. 2, pp. 334-335; and al-Dhahb, al-Tafsr wa l-Mufassirn, vol. 1, pp. 77-81. One of the prominent authorities on tafsr in this period, Amir Ab Amr al-Shab (d. 103/721), was reported to have rebuked Ab S .lih .: How could you interpret the Qurn when you cannot read it? He was also reported to have told al-Sudd (al-Kabr): Beating your backside with a drum is better than this circle of yours. With regard to al-D .ah .h .k, he did not meet Ibn Abbs, and he did not claim to have met him, but he met Sad ibn Jubayr at al-Rayy from whom he took Ibn Abbss tafsr. See al-T .abar, Jmi, vol. 1, p. 31. 122. See Wansbrough, Quranic Studies, pp. 218-27. 123. The verse runs as follows: Asad

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al-T .abar mentioned another tradition that he was told by Muh .ammad ibn Sad, having heard it from his father, that he was told by his uncle who was told by his father from his father from Ibn Abbs, that means (tie them up).124 Scholars objections to his tafsr was that some of his
and Pickthall translated it respectively as follows: Said He: Take, then four birds and teach them to obey thee and (His Lord) said: Take four of the birds and cause them to incline unto thee,... See Muh .ammad Asad, The Message of the Qurn, trans. and expl. (Gibraltar: Dr al-Andalus, 1984), p. 59; and Muh .ammad M. Pickthall, trans., The Glorious Qurn (New York: Muslim World League, 1977), p. 41. 124. See al-T .abar, Jmi, vol 3, pp. 35-6. Accepting both meanings, Ibn Kathr said that the birds were tied up, slaughtered, and cut into pieces. See al-S .bn (ed.), Mukhtasar, vol. 1, p. 237. Ibn Qutaybah holds the same view based on his understanding of the texts. He states that the expression means (join them to you). Then the birds were cut into pieces. The ellipsis of the expression faqat tihunna (then cut them into pieces) is apparent in the verse .. (then place them separately on every hill [around thee], Asads translation). The word juzan means in pieces, namely, after the birds had been cut into pieces. A similar expression would be Take this cloth and make it a banner on every lance of yours, meaning, it has to be cut into pieces before the pieces are made into banners; see Ibn Qutaybah, Tafsr, p. 96; and idem, Gharb al-H .adth, vol. 2, p. 593. Ibn al-Anbr includes the term s .ra among the words which have opposite meanings. He states that the expression means I collected it (

) as well as I cut and separated

it ( ); see Muh .ammad ibn Qsim ibn al-Anbr, Kitb al-Ad .dd, edited from a unique transcript by M.A. Ibrhm (Kuwayt: Dr al-Turth al-Arab, 1960), p. 36. The term s .urhunna is the language of Madnah, Hijz and Bas .rah, meaning cause them to incline. The variant reading s .irhunna is that of a group of people in Kfah meaning cut them into pieces. But a group of grammarians of Kfah state that in the Arabic language neither fas .urhunna nor fas .irhunna means cut them into pieces, but both mean cause them to incline. S .irhunna is the language of Hudhayl and Slm; see al-T .abar, Jmi, vol. 3, pp. 35-6. A. Y. Ali, rejecting the idea of slaughtering, translated s .urhunna as tame them, see A.Y. Ali, The Holy Qurn, p. 106. Pickthall and Asad shared the same view and translated it respectively as cause them to incline unto thee and teach them to obey thee as mentioned above. However, the term of s .urhunna meaning cut them into pieces, according to Ibn Abbs, agrees with that in the Nabatean language, see Abd Allh Ibn Abbs, Kitb Gharb al-Qurn, verified and presented by Dr. Ah .mad Blt . (Cairo: Maktabat al-Zahr, 1993),p. 40. Nabatea or Nabata was an ancient Arab kingdom in South-West Asia, now West Jordan; see Ab

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authorities were weak, such as al-Sudd al-S .aghr and Juwaybir, and that it contained some isriliyyt which he acknowledged. However, these materials had their own valuable contribution to his tafsr collection. It is said that it is in itself an encyclopedia of traditional commentary in which various views of religion during his time were recorded and critically evaluated. Al-T .abars method of writing tafsr was followed by many commentators in later generations, such as Ibn At .iyyah, Ibn Kathr, and alSuyt .. Ibn At .iyyah was a grammarian, a philologist, a man of letters, a poet and a qd . in Andalusia. His work al-Muh .arrir al-Wajz f Tafsr al-Kitb al-Azz (The Short Deliverer in the Commentary of the Glorious Book) was a collection of opinions mentioned by commentators of traditional commentary. It was praised by Ibn Khaldn who considered it the first tafsr in which traditions were critically scrutinised. All commentaries were abridged, and the most likely interpretations were selected.125 It was also praised by Ibn Taymiyyah who preferred it to al-Zamakhshars 126 al-Kashshf, although al-T .abars tafsr is the soundest one. It is still in manuscripts consisting of ten volumes. The second great commentator of traditional tafsr after al-T .abar was Ibn Kathr whose agnomen was Ab al-Fid. His work Tafsr al-Qurn al-Az .m contains commentaries from the salaf (the s .ah .bah, tbin and tbi al-tbin) with isnd. He evaluated them and rejected the unsound ones. He mentioned the verse, explained it in simple language, gave shawhid from other verses, or h .adths to clarify the meaning, and rejected the isriliyyt. Al-Suyt . was a prolific writer. His work al-Durr al-Manthr f l-Tafsr bi l-Mathr (The Scattered Pearls in Traditional Exegesis) was a short copy of his Turjumn al-Qurn. However, another and more popular exegesis was Tafsr al-Jallayn written by his teacher Jall al-Dn al-Mah .all (d. 863/1459) and later continued by himself. Al-Mah .all started
al-Qsim ibn Sallm, Lught al-Qabil al-Wridah f l-Qurn al-Karim: Riwyat an al-S .ah .b l-Jalil Ibn Abbs, Rad .iya Allh anhu. Edited, commented and annotated by Dr. Abd al-H .amd al-Sayyid T .alab. Kuwayt: Mat .bt Jmiat alKuwayt, 1985, pp. 61-62, n. 2. 125. Ibn Khaldn, Muqaddimah, vol. 2, p. 446. 126. See Ibn Taymyah, Majm Fatw, vol. 13, p. 388.

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his tafsr from the beginning of chapter 18 (srat al-Kahf) till the end (srat al-Ns), including chapter 1 (srat al-Ftih .ah), then he passed away. Al-Suyt . continued the work from chapter 2 (srat al-Baqarah) till chapter 17 (srat al-Isr). The book is not purely traditional as it lacks isnd. Another leading commentator after al-T .abar was Mah .md ibn Umar al-Zamakhshar (538/1143-1144) whose agnomen was Jr Allh. Contrary to his contemporary Ibn At .iyyah who was a Mlik Sunn, al-Zamakhshar was a H .anaf Mutazil. His tafsr entitled al-Kashshf an H .aqiq al-Tanzl (The Unveiler of the Realities of the Revelation) was a purely rational commentary. The characteristic of this tafsr is that it offers brief explanation, contains no isriliyyt, largely relies on Arabic expression and philological interpretation of the Qurn through his mastery of Arabic language. In addition, it uses a question-and-answer dialogue style if you say... (fain qulta ...) I would say... (qultu...). His main interest was in the rhetoric of the Qurn which was neglected by al-T .abar. As a Mutazil he put great efforts in interpreting the Quran in such a way as to suit the Mutazil theology in general, and in Allahs abolute oneness and justice in particular. For example, the verse meaning Some faces will on that Day be bright with happiness, looking up to their Sustainer (Q. 75:22-23, Asad) indicates that Muslims will see Allah in the Hereafter. But as a Mutazil, al-Zamakhshar did not believe in seeing Allah in the Hereafter, because He is spiritual. Therefore, he explained the word nz .irah stating that it has an idea of expectation, like the word muntaz .irah (expecting), giving an example in the expression (I am looking forward to what So-and-so will do to me).127 These verses belong to the category of the mutashbiht according to the Mutazils, whereas verses that agree with their view are placed by them into the category of muh .kamt (clear verses), such as the following verse: No human vision can encompass Him, whereas He emcompasses all human vision: for He alone is unfathomable, all-aware. (Q. 6:103, Asad). Similarly, al-Zamakhshar
127. Ab al-Qsim Mah .md ibn Umar al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf an H .aqiq al-Tanzl, ed. by W. Nassau Lees et al. with continuous pagination, 2 vols. (Calcutta: Mat .baat al-Ls, 1856), vol. 2, p. 157.

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explained the term kurs (throne) in the verse which means His throne doth extend over the heavens and the earth... (Q. 2:255, Ali). He gave four interpretations on this verse, three metaphorically, namely, Allahs greatness, knowledge, and power, and one literally which was a report that Allah created a throne beside the Arsh (the Throne) under which were the sun and the moon, or, as reported by al128 H .asan, the Throne itself. In the second half of the sixth century A.H. a Sunn commentator, Fakhr al-Dn al-Rz (d. 606/1209), wrote his tafsr called Mafth . al-Ghayb (The Keys of the Unknown). Since he was interested in philosophy and scientific explanation of the universe, he explained verses which refer to nature and its phenomena, such as rain and earthquake. As a Shfi follower, he explained the legal prescriptions of the Quran according to this school, although he also mentioned other madhhabs. As a Sunn he refuted the Mutazils use of reasoning and tradition to support their view. He mentioned asbb al-nuzl more often, but he did not go into the details of rhetoric or grammar. He used istit .rd (digression) so much that his tafsr contained many subjects which were not necessarily logically related. It is not surprising that it was said in exaggeration that his tafsr contains everything except tafsr.129 The frequent use of istinbat . (deduction) in his approach strongly emphasises the rationalistic nature of his commentary. He wrote his tafsr until srat al-Anbiy (chapter 21), about half of the Qurn. The work was continued by his student Shihb al-Dn al-Khw, then by Najm al-Dn al-Qml, probably from the notes of his lectures. At the seventh/thriteenth century another Sunn commentator appeared, al-Bayd .w (d. 685/1286 or 691/1292). His work Anwr al-Tanzl wa Asrr al-Tawl (The Lights of the Revelation and the Mysteries of the Tawl) is a mixture of traditional and rational commentaries. He took the tafsr from al-Zamakhshar and selected from him his own tafsr by removing from it most of the Mutazil theology, such as the expression (praise be to Allah Who created the Qurn), since as a Sunn he did not believe in the creation of the Qurn. The remaining Mutazil ideas were debated by him by presenting the Sunn commentary, consulting
128. Ibid., vol. 1, p. 170 129. Al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 4, p. 213.

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and using the similar method used by al-Rz and al-Rghib al-As .bahn in their tafsr books. In presenting variant readings, he used the term wa f qirah (and in another variant reading) and wa qla (and it is said) for the variant reading he approved and doubted respectively. He took great interest in grammar and the Shfi fiqh to which he belonged. Following al-Zamakhshars method he cited h .adth at the end of each srah mentioning its value. One of the major Sh books on tafsr is the work of Ab Al alFad .l al-T .abars (d. 496/1153 or 538/1144) entitled Majma al-Bayn f Tafsr al-Qurn (The Collection of the Explanation on the Commentary of the Qurn). As a Mutazil follower, he expanded the Mutazil thought, and as a Sh, he gave more symbolic (allegorical) commentary in his tafsr. For example, after giving the interpretation of the verse Then We raised you up after your death so that you might give thanks (Q. 2:56) he stated that according to some people among the upholders of the Sh school, this verse proved that the rajah (return after occultation) was a possible occurrence for some people. This is because the manifestation of miracles among imms and saints (awliy) is possible.130 He gives a different interpretation of the term al-ghayb in the verse (Those who believe in the unseen Q. 2:3) and supports the view of Ibn Masd and a group of people among the s .ah .bah that the word al-ghayb here means what is unknown to people. This is because this interpretation is more general and includes the time of al-Mahdis occultation (ghaybah) and return (rajah).131 Among the Ismil Shs it is worth-mentioning Isml ibn Hibat Allh (d. 1173-4/1760). His tafsr is entitled Mizj al-Tasnm (The Mixture of Tasnm).132 For the Ismils the ostensible meaning of the Qurn is only
130. Ab Al al-Fad .l ibn al-H .asan al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn f Tafsr al-Qurn, 10 vols. in 5 bindings (S .ayd: Mat .baat al-Irfn, 1333/[1915]), vol. 1, p. 115. 131. Ibid., p. 38. This Sh view is also obvious in his commentary on the light verse (Q. 24:35) where he quoted the statement of the Sh eighth imm, Al al-Rid . (d. 203/818), that the mishkt (the niche) is the Sh community, and the mis .bh . (the lamp) is Prophet Muh .ammad. See ibid., vol. 7, p. 143. 132. The title is derived from the Qurnic verse And mixed with the water of Tasnm (Q. 83:27). This mixture of pure wine and Tasnm is

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the symbol of its inner meaning. Therefore, the whole Qurn is mutashbiht and in need of interpretation which is known only by their imms. One example of this esoteric interpretation (al-tafsr al-bt .in) of the Qurn attributed to Ibn Hawshab al-Kf (d. 266/880) is as follows: The seven verses of the sra [i.e., srat al-Ftih .ah (chapter 1)] symbolise the seven degrees of religion. The sra of Praise [i.e. srat al-H .amd, another name for srat al-Ftih .ah] opens the Book of God, and similarly the degrees of religion open the door of knowledge in Gods religion.133 The idea of inner meaning was derived from the following verse: .... And thereupon a wall will be raised between them [and the believers], with a gate in it: within it [bt .inuhu] will be grace and mercy, and against the outside thereof 134 [z .hiruhu], suffering. (Q. 57:13, Asad). One of the compilers of the allegorical tafsr was Ab Abd alRah .mn al-Sulam (d. 412/1021). His work Haqiq al-Tafsr (The Realities of Interpretation) contained neither philological explanation nor traditional commentary, despite his recognition of its validity. He confined himself exclusively to the symbolic meanings of the Qurnic verses which had not previously been compiled and the sayings of the s .fs and other important personalities, such as al-H .allj (ex. 309/922) and Jafar al-S .diq (d. 135 148/756). An example of al-Sulams tafsr is the interpretation of the
for as .h .b al-yamn (those of the right hand, i.e., people who will enter Paradise in general), while the pure water of Tasnm is for al-muqarrabn (those who are brought near unto their Lord, i.e., people who will enter Paradise with the privilege of being near to God). See al-S .bn, Mukhtas .ar Tafsr, vol. 3, p. 616. 133 Translated from edition of Arabic text by Kamil Hussein in Collectanea of the Ismaili Society (Leiden: N.p., 1948), vol. 1, p. 189, quoted by John Alden Williams (ed.), Islam (New York: George Braziller, 1961), p. 235. 134 See al-Zarqn, Manhil al-Irfn, vol. 2, p. 74. 135. Al-H (I am the Truth), and Jafar al.allj was reported to have said S . d .iq was reported to have fallen down and lost consciousness while he was performing his prayer. When he was asked what happened, he said that he kept on repeating a Qurnic verse until he heard it spoken by its Speaker. See al-Zarqn, Manhil al-Irfn, vol. 2, pp. 91 and 87. However, Ibn Taymiyyah said that a large number of sayings attributed to Jafar al-S .diq were not authentic; see Ibn Taymiyyah, al-Rasil al-Munriyyah, vol. 1, p. 230, quoted by Jullandri, Qurnic Exegesis and Classical

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verse ) Yet if We were to ordain for them, Lay down your lives, or, Forsake your homelands, only a very few of them would do it... (Q. 4:66, Asad). The word (lay down your lives) and (forsake your homelands) mean respectively that Prophet Moses asked his people to kill their selves and to remove worldly love from their hearts.136 When the mystical commentary of the s .fs was denounced by the ulam, al-Ghazl (d. 504/1111) came to the rescue. Being himself a s .f, he said that the words of the Qurn belong to the world of humanity, whereas their meanings belong to what he called the world of angels. He contended that man cannot reach the truth because of the weakness of his faith, his lust for wordly things and his adherence to the literal meaning of the Qurn which can only be revealed to the elect through intuition. Defending the mystical interpretation of the Qurn through intuition which occurs when reason stops, he said: Why should it be impossible that beyond reason there should be a further plane, on which appear things which do not appear on the plane of the intelligence, just as it is possible for the intelligence itself to be a plane above the discriminating faculty and senses?137 Apart from the mystical interpretation used by the s .fs, Muh .y l-Dn ibn Arab (d. 638/1240) and later his student Abd al-Razzq al-Kshn (d. 730/1330) used another category of mystical tafsr, namely, (speculative or theosophical commentary). Without openly rejecting the obvious meanings of the verses, they went further with their speculative interpretation to support the idea of (Unity of Being). Ibn Arabs tafsr was lost, but we can find some glimpse of it in his works al-Futh .t al-Makkiyyah and Fus . s . al-H .ikam. He was charged by some ulam like Ibn Taymiyyah and al-Taftzn with heresy, and his idea of h .ull
Tafsr, IQ xii (1968), p. 109. 136. MS. no. 50 fol. 48, Dr al-Kutub al-Mis .r, Cairo, p. 78, quoted by Jullandri, Qurnic Exegesis, p. 109. 137. Al-Gazl, Mishkt al-Anwr, ed. Ab al-Al Aff (Cairo: Dr al-Qawmyah lil-T .ibah wa l-Nashr, 1383/1964), pp. 77-8; and W.H.T. Gairdner, Al-Ghazzalis Mishkt al-Anwr (The Niche for Lights), a translation with introduction (Lahore: Sh. Muhammad Ashraf, 1952), pp. 146-147.

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(substantial union of a divine spirit with man) and as heretical. 138 However, some others defended him, such as al-Frzbd and al-Suyt . . An example of this speculative commentary is the verse And He is with you wherever you may be... (Q. 57:4, Asad) which is explained by al-Kshn in his Tawlt al-Qurn (The Interpretations of the Qurn) as God is everywhere because He created His existence everywhere. This Tawlt was mistakenly ascribed to Ibn Arab. In this chapter a glimpse of some literature related to the study of Ibn Qutaybahs contribution to Qurnic exegesis, a short synopsis of Ibn Qutaybahs life, political, social and cultural conditions in his life as well as a glimpse of early Qurnic exegesis have been presented. We have seen that Ibn Qutaybah was born when the Abbs dynasty reached its ultimate glory and prosperity under al-Mamn in the first half of the third century A.H. He witnessed the government's shifting from the Mutazil theological school to the Sunn orthodoxy under al-Mutawakkil as the madhhab of the state. He found himself in line with the new trend and became a champion and an advocate of the Sunn orthodoxy. He defended the Qurn and the Sunnah against philosophic scepticism and heresies in his time through his writings.

138.T.H. Weir, Ibn Arabi, SEI, p. 146 and Jullandri, Qurnic Exegesis, pp. 113-114.

138

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CHAPTER II IBN QUTAYBAH'S REFUTATION OF ALLEGATIONS OF SOLECISM, CONTRADICTION AND AMBIGUITY IN THE VERSES OF THE QURN A. Variant Readings in the Qurn There has never been any disagreement among the ulam that the Qur'n was revealed in seven ah.ruf (lit., "letters"), as it was reported by many s.ah.bah, such as Umar, Uthmn, Ubayy ibn Kab, Ab Hurayrah, Abd Allh ibn Abbs, and Abd Allh ibn Masd139 in many h.adths. One of these h.adths runs as follows:
[from Umar b. al-Khat .t .b] 140 I heard Hishm b. H .kim recite the sra of the Furqn (25) during the lifetime of the Messenger of God, may God bless him and grant him peace. I listened to his recitation, and [noticed that] he was reciting according to many h .arfs in which the Messenger of God had never had me recite. I was about to grab hold of him in [the middle of his] prayer, but I waited till he had recited the final salutations. When he had finished, I seized him by his robe and said: 'Who taught you to recite the sra which I have just heard you recite?' He said: 'The Messenger of God taught me to recite it.' I said: 'You are lying. By God, the Messenger of God himself taught me to recite this s ra which I have just heard you recite.' So I hurriedly took him to the Messenger of God and said: 'O Messenger of God, I have heard this man recite the sra of the Furqn in Al-Suyt . mentions also other s .ah .bah, all twenty-one in number, see alItqn, vol. 1, p. 131. Ibn al-Jazar also mentions the same names, but excludes Sulaymn ibn Surd, see al-Nashr f l-Qirat al-Ashr, ed. by Muh .ammad Al alD .abb (Egypt: al-Maktabah al-Tijriyyah al-Kubr, n.d.), vol. 1, p. 21. Hishm ibn H .kim ibn H .izm ibn Khuwaylid al-Qurash al-Asad was one of the s .ah .bah. He belonged to the Quraysh tribe of Ban Asad (ibn Khuzaymah); see Ibn H .ajar al-Asqaln, Kitb al-Is .bah f Tamyz al-S .ah .bah 4 vols. (Baghdd: Dr alUlm al-H .adthah, n.d.), vol. 3, p. 603.
140. 139.

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h .arfs in which you never taught me to recite, and it was you yourself who taught me to recite the sra of the Furqn.' (...) The Messenger of God said: 'Let him go, Umar; and you Hishm, recite.' So he recited for him the recitation I had heard him recite and the Messenger of God said: 'It was sent down like that.' Then the Messenger of God said: '[Now] you recite, Umar', and I recited it as the Messenger of God had taught me. Then the Messenger of God said: 'It was sent down like that.' Then the Messenger of God said: 'Indeed, this Qur'n was sent down in seven 141 h .arfs. You should recite whichever comes easily to you.'[15]

But the ulam have different opinions on the meaning of the term ah.ruf in these h.adths. According to al-H .fiz . Ab H .tim ibn al-H .ayyn alBust (d. 354/965) as reported by al-Qurt.ub, there are 35 different opinions, but al-Qurt.ub himself mentions five opinions only.142 The term h.arf (pl. ah.ruf) means "an edge", "an aspect", "a boundary", "a margin", "a side", and "a part of something". A letter is called h.arf because it is a part of the alphabet.143 The example of the word h.arf meaning wajh (an aspect, a side) in the Qurn is as follows: "And there is, too, among men many a one who worships God on the border-line [of faith]: thus, if good befalls him, he is satisfied with Him, but if a trial assails him, he turns away utterly,..." (Q. 22:11, Asad). Here worshipping Allah when one is only in favourable conditions or in doubt is called "worshipping Allah one-sidedly".144
Al-T .abar, Jmi, vol. 1, p. 10; John Cooper, The Commentary of the Qurn by Ab Jafar Muh .ammad b. Jarr al-T .abar, being an Abridged Translation of Jmi al-Bayn an Tawl Ay al-Qurn, with introduction and notes (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987), vol. 1, p. 17; Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp. 34-35; and al-Bukhr, S .ah .h ., vol. 6, p. 100. Al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 1, pp. 42-46. Al-Suyt . says that there are forty different opinions, but he mentions sixteen opinions only, then he mentions the thirtyfive different opinions given by Ibn H .ibbn al-Bust, see al-Itqn, vol. 1, pp. 131-141. Ibn al-Jazar, al-Nashr, vol. 1, p. 23. 144. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp. 35-6. Lane's translation of the above verse is as follows: "And of men is he who serves God standing aloof with respect to religion, in fluctuating state, like him who is in the outskirts of the army, who, if sure of victory and spoil, stands firm, and otherwise flees." See Edward W. Lane, Arabic-English Lexicon,
143. 142. 141.

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As many different views exist concerning what the seven ah.ruf correspond to, some important ones are mentioned here, as follows: a. As the term ah.ruf is applicable to the alphabet, the word, the meaning and the side, it is considered ambiguous, so the seven ah.ruf is ambiguous. This is the view of the grammarian Ibn Sadn.145 b. They are the seven dialects of the Arabs in which the Qurn was revealed, among which was the dialect of the Quraysh. The other dialects are those of the Hudhayl, Thaqf, Hawzin, Kinnah, Tamm, and Yamn.146 This is the correct view according to al-Bayhaq. However, according to Ab H .tim al-Sijistn, the seven dialects are: the Quraysh, Hudhayl, Tamm, al-Azd, Rabah, Hawzin, and Sad ibn Bakr. Ibn Qutaybah, who rejects this view, insists that the Quran was revealed in the language of the Quraysh, citing the Quranic verse: "And never have We sent forth any apostle otherwise than [with a message] in his own people's tongue, " (Q. 14:4, Asad).147 c. They are the seven categories of the contents of the Qurn, namely: nahy (prohibiting), amr (commanding), h.all (lawful), h.arm (unlawful), muh.kam (clear), mutashbih (ambiguous), and amthl (parables). Another view is that they are: amr, zajr (reprimand), targhb (encouragement of good), tarhb (discouragement of evil), jadal (dialectic), qas.as. (narrative), and mathal (parable, pl. amthl)148. Yet another view is that they are: wad (promise), wad (threat), h.all, h.arm, mawiz. (exhortations), amthl, and ih .tijj (protest). Several categories are also included by some scholars, such as nsikh (abrogating) and manskh (abrogated). d. They are dialectal readings for a single expression or a single word, with different vowelisations, but have the same meaning, such as the
Book 1, 8 pts. with continuous pagination (New York: Fredrick Ungar Publishing Co., 1956), pt. 2, p. 550. For further details, see al-T .abar, Jmi, vol. 17, pp. 93-94; see also J. Cooper, Commentary, vol. 1, pp. 29-30. 145. Al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 1, p. 131.
146. 147. 148.

Ibn al-Jazar, al-Nashr, vol. 1, p. 24. Al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 1, p. 135.

The two views are based on h .adth, see al-T .abar, Jmi, vol. 1, p. 24; and J. Cooper, Commentary, vol. 1, p. 29.

52

expression "come!" can be expressed in many different dialects, such as: halumma, aqbil, tal, iyyya, qas.d, nah .w, and qurb. This view is attributed by Ibn Abd al-Barr to the majority of the ulam, pointing out the h.adth reported by Ah.mad and al-T .abrn on the authority of Ab Bakrah, as follows: The Prophet said: "Gabriel said: 'O Muh.ammad, recite the Qurn according to one h.arf.' Michael said: 'Request more [than this for him].' He said: '[Recite] according to two h.arfs.' [This continued] until it reached seven ah.ruf. Each one is curative and sufficient - as long as one does not finish up a verse of punishment with a verse of mercy, or a verse of mercy with one of punishment - as if one were to say tal, aqbil, and halumma (all meaning 'come')..."149 This type of variant reading was permitted at first, since it was difficult for the early Muslims to recite the Qurn with one reading due to their illiteracy and lack of ability to grasp and memorise the Qurnic verses perfectly. For example, Ibn Masd was reported to have read to an unidentified person the verse "Verily, [in the life to come] the tree of deadly fruit will be the food of the sinful." (Q. 44:43-4, Asad). But the man read t.am alyatm ("the food of the orphan"). When Ibn Masd failed to correct him, he said: "Can you read t.am al-fjir ("the food of the insolent)?" When the man said "yes", he said: "So, do it!" Later, when the one reading became easy for people, these variant readings became abrogated. This is the view of Sufyn ibn Uyaynah, Ibn Wahb, Ibn 150 Abd al-Barr, al-T .ah.w, al-Bqilln, al-T .abar and others. In other words, in the early period of Islam, those Arabs who could not memorise or recite correctly the Qurn, due to reasons such as illiteracy and lack of memory or ability to articulate properly, were temporarily permitted to recite it in their own words and languages, provided that they did not change the meaning. Once they could recite it properly as taught by the Prophet, they had to adhere to it, and their former readings became abrogated and later called qirt munkarah ("rejected

J. Cooper's translation, see Cooper, Commentary, vol. 1, p. 21; see also alSuyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 1, p. 134. Al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 1, pp. 134-135. According al- al-T .abar, the person was Ab al-Dard rather than Ibn Masd, see Jmi, vol. 25, p. 78
150.

149.

53

readings"). This is apparently what al-T .abar meant when he stated that the Uthmnic recension contained one reading only. e. They are seven variant readings based on seven aspects. According to Ibn Qutaybah, they are as follows: 1. The variant irb (desinential or grammatical inflection, rules governing vowel endings) of the word or the vowelisation of its letters which changes neither its s.rah (form) nor its meaning, such as the reading wa hal yujz ill l-kafru, meaning "Is ever any requited [thus] but the utterly ingrate?" instead of wa hal nujz ill l-kafra, meaning "But do We ever requite [thus] any but the utterly ingrate?" (Q. 34:17, Asad). Both readings convey the same idea and meaning, namely, only the ingrate - like the people of Sheba whose ungratefulness led to the downfall of their kingdom Sheba, as mentioned in the previous verses - will be requitted by Allah.151 The first reading belonged to Ibn Kathr, Nfi, Ab Amr and Ibn mir, while the second reading belonged to H .amzah, al-Kis, H .afs. and 152 s.im. 2. The variant irb of the word and the vowelisation of its letters which change its meaning only, not its s.rah, such as the reading of rabbun (in the nominative) and bada (in the indicative) instead of rabban (in the vocative) and bid (in the imperative) in the verse rabbun bada bayna asfrin, meaning "long has our Sustainer made the distance between our journey-stages!" instead of rabban bid bayna asfrin, meaning "Our Sustainer! Make long the distances between
Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 36. See Ab Bakr Ibn Mujhid, Kitb al-Sabah f l-Qirat, verified by Dr. Shawq D .ayf, 2nd ed. (Cairo: Dr al-Marif, 1400/[1979-1980]), pp. 528-529. AlFarr also mentions the two variant readings without giving any details of it, see Abu Zakariy Yah .y al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, ed. A.Y. Najt and M.A. al-Najjr , 3 vols. (Egypt: al-Hayah al-Mis .riyyah al-mmah lil-Kuttb, 1972-1980), vol. 2, p. 359. Another example is the verse wa yamurna l-nsa bi l-bakhli instead of bi l-bukhli; both have the same meaning, namely, "and bid others to be niggardly" (Q. 4:37 and 57:24, Asad). The mas .dar (verbal noun) bakhal is the root of the verb bakhila and bakhala, whereas bukhl is that of bakhula. The other similar variant reading is il maysurah instead of il maysarah (Q. 2:280), see Ibn Qutaybah Tawl, p. 36; it is like the terms maqbarah and maqburah, and mashraqah and mashruqah, see alZamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 181.
152. 151.

54

our journey-stages." (Q. 34:19, Asad). According to Ibn Qutaybah, these two variant readings serve dual purposes: describing the prayer of the people of Sheba (Saba) and the answer to this prayer.153 The first reading belonged to Ab S .lih., Muh.ammad ibn al-H .anafyah, Ab alliyah, Nas.r ibn s.im and Yaqb. It was also reported that Ibn Abbs said that the people of Sheba complained that Allah had made their journey-stages long, although Allah had shortened the journey for them. They made this statement arrogantly and discontentedly ( ). This reading was chosen by Ab H .tim who said that the people of Sheba did not ask Allah to lengthen their journey-stages but rather to shorten them.154 The second reading was that of the masses (qirat l-mmah) according to al-Qurt.ub. It was the reading of Nfi, s.im, Ibn mir, H .amzah and al-Kis according to Ibn 155 Mujhid. 3. The variant letters of the word which change its meaning only without changing its irb and s.rah, such as wanz.ur il l-iz.mi kayfa nunshiruh, meaning "and look at the bones how We revive them", instead of kayfa nunshizuh, meaning "how We put them together" (Q. 2:259, Asad).156 The first reading belonged to Ibn Kathr, Nfi and
Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp. 36-37 and 41. Another example cited by Ibn Qutaybah which belongs to this category of variant reading is the reading of Ibn Abbs waddakara bada amahin, meaning "and he remembered after forgetting" instead of waddakara bada ummatin, meaning "he remembered after a long period of time" (Q. 12:46). The two readings mean that the man who had been released from prison remembered the case of Prophet Joseph after a period of time and after he had forgotten it. Both readings, Ibn Qutaybah asserts, were revealed to the Prophet to include these two meanings, ibid., pp. 37 and 40. 154. See al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 14, pp. 290-291. The first reading is also chosen by Asad in translating the verse in question, see The Message, p. 34. 155. See al-Qur t .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 14, p. 290; Ibn Mujhid, Kitb al-Sabah, p. 529. Apart from the variant readings rabban bid and rabbun bada, al-Farr also mentions rabban baid, rabban bauda, and rabbun baada, see Man lQurn, vol. 2, pp. 359-360. They are all written in one rasm, namely . Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp. 37 and 41. Another example is the reading of furrigha an qulbihim, meaning "fear is emptied [i.e., freed] from their hearts" instead of fuzzia an qulbihim, meaning "the terror [of the Last Hour] is lifted from their hearts." (Q. 34:23, Asad), see ibid., pp. 37 and 42. The latter reading belongs to the
156. 153.

55

Ab Amr, whereas the second belonged to s.im, Ibn mir, H .amzah 157 and al-Kis. 4. The variant words which change the s.rah, but not the meaning, such as the variant reading of Ibn Masd as well as Abd al-Rah.mn ibn alAswad in knat ill zaqyatan wahidah instead of s.ayh.atan wh .idah both readings mean "Nothing was [needed] but one single blast [of Our punishment]" (Q. 36:29, Asad), since the word zaqyah is the synonym of s.ayh.ah (lit. "a shout").158 5. The variant words which change its s.rah and meaning, such as Al's reading of wa t.alin mand.d, meaning "and a clustered spadix" instead of wa t.alh.in mand.d, meaning "and a clustered acacia" (Q.56:29).159 However, according to Ab Bakr al-Anbr, Al went back to the Qurn (Uthmnic recension) accepting that wa t.alh .in was the right reading. When it was read to him wa t.alh .in mand.d he said: "Why don't you read wa t.alin?" and cited the verse lah t.alun nad.d "(and tall-palm-trees) with their thickly clustered dates." (Q. 50:10, Asad). Qays ibn Abbd said to him: "O Prince of the believers, shall we rub it off from the mus.h.af?" He answered: "Today the Qurn (meaning the Uthmnic recension) is not to be disturbed ( )."160
seven qurr except Ibn mir who read fazzaa; see Ibn Mujhid, Kitb al-Sabah, p. 530. 157. See Ibn Mujhid, Kitb al-Sabah, p. 189. 158. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 37; al-T .abar, Jmi, vol. 1, p. 18 and al-Qur t .ub, alJmi, vol. 15, p. 21. Another example is the reading of ka l-s .f al-manfsh instead of ka l-ihn al-manfsh, both have the same meaning, namely, "like fluffy tufts of wool." (Q. 101:5, Asad), see Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 37. 159. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 37. Instead of wa t .alin mand .d, Ibn al-Jazar who quoted Ibn Qutaybah's view mistakenly put wa t .alin nad .d which he himself rejected and said that this reading has nothing to do with the varying of readings (

); see Ibn al-Jazar, al-Nashr, vol. 1, pp. 27-28. Al-Suyt. correctly quoted the
same variant reading, see al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 1, p. 132. In another report when Al was asked whether the term wa t .alh .in should be replaced with wa t .alin in the mus .h .af, he answered: "The Qurn should be neither disturbed nor replaced" (
160.

); see al-Qurt.ub, al-Jmi, vol. 17,

56

6. The variant reading by means of inversion ( ), such as Ab Bakr's reading of wa jat sakrat l-h.aqq bi l-mawt, meaning "and the agony of truth comes in death," instead of wa jat sakrat lmawt bi l- h.aqq, meaning "and the agony of death comes in truth." (Q. 50:19, Pickthall).161 Al-Qurt.ub states that Ibn Masd also read the above verse the same as the reading of Ab Bakr and that we should not follow this reading. He contends that there are two reports about Ab Bakr's reading: one which is the same as the one in the mus.h.af, and that is what we should follow, and the other is what is mentioned above and should be rejected; probably he forgot when he read that reading, or the narrator might have made mistakes in narrating this report. Moreover, as reported by Ab Bakr al-Anbr, Masrq said that when Ab Bakr was dying, he called his daughter ishah. When she saw him she said: "This is like what the poet said: ... a day when she rattled in her throat (in dying) and the heart became annoyed with it'". Ab Bakr told her: "Why don't you read wa jat sakrat l-mawt bi l- h.aqq?" Here he did not read the verse with inversion.162 7. The variant reading by means of addition and omission , such as amilat (with the omission of h) instead of amilathu in the verse wa m amilathu aydhim, meaning "and their hands made it not" (Q. 36:35).163 The first reading belonged to H .amzah, and alKis, whereas the second belonged to Ibn Kathr, Nfi, Ab Amr,
pp. 208-209. 161. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp. 24 and 37; and al-T .abar, Jmi, vol. 26, p. 100. See Ab al-Fid Isml Ibn Kathr, Tafsr al-Qurn al-Az .m, with introduction by Dr. Yusf Abd al-Rah .mn al-Murish, 4 vols. (Beirut: Dr alMarifah, 1407/1987), vol. 4, p. 240; and al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 17, pp. 12-13. It is also the view of Ibn H .azm that the above variant reading of Ab Bakr belonged to the category of the qirat munkarah. He asserts that anybody other than the Prophet could make mistakes and should not be followed; see Ab Muh .ammad Al Ibn H .azm, alIh .km f Us .l al-Ah .km, ed. Ah .mad Shkir, 8 vols. in 2 bindings (Cairo: Mat .baat als .imah, n.d.), vol. 4, p. 537. 163. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 38.
162.

57
164 Ibn mir and H .afs. who took it from s.im. Another example cited by Ibn Qutaybah is the addition of unth ("female") according to Ibn Masd's variant reading at the end of the verse

, meaning "Behold, this is my brother: he has ninety-nine ewes." (Q. 38:23, Asad).165 The variant readings which have different meanings as mentioned above belong to the category of ikhtilf taghyur (difference by variation) which serve as complements or commentary to the others. With regard to the variant readings which contradict each other which belong to the category of what Ibn Qutaybah called ikhtilf tad.dd (difference by contradiction) this kind of reading is not permissible; it does not exist except in verses dealing with injunction or prohibition among abrogating (nsikh) and abrogated (manskh) verses.166 Although Muslim scholars have different interpretations regarding the meaning of the seven variant readings of the Qurn, they all agree to its validity as part of revelation. A question arises whether the seven variant readings are included in the present Uthmnic recension. Some scholars among the fuqah (Muslim jurists), qurr (Qurn reciters), and mutakallimn (Muslim scholastic theologians), such as Ibn H .azm, confirm it, contending that they are part of the revelation, and as such, are also preserved by Allah, based on the Qurnic verse: ".... Lo! We verily are its Guardian" (Q. 15:9).167 The second view is that of the great majority of the ulam. They say that the Uthmnic recension contains the seven variant readings which agree to the rasm (orthography) - also called s.rah or shakl (consonantal outline, consonantal skeleton) - of this recension only, compiled according

See Ibn Mujhid, Kitb al-Sabah, p. 540. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 38; and al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 15, p. 174. The addition of unth (female) and dhakar (male) for emphasis is common among the Arabs; they say, for example, ("this is a male man"), see al-T .abar, Jmi,
165.

164.

vol. 23, p. 91. 166. See Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 40; and al-Tirmidh, Sunan, vol. 5, pp. 193-194 (h .adth no. 2943). 167. Ibn H .azm, al-Ih .km, vol. 4, pp. 520-521.

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to the Prophet's last presentation of the Qurn to Gabriel.168 Any other variant reading which is different from the rasm of the Uthmnic recension is unacceptable. Moreover, reading the variant readings based on dialects was permitted only in the beginning of Islam, when the Arabs had difficulty in using the Quraysh dialect.169 The third view is that of al-Qsim ibn Farh. al-Sht.ib (d. 590/1194) who said that the seven ah.ruf were included in Ab Bakrs compilation, but only one variant reading in the Uthmnic recension.170 Based on this statement of Ibn Qutaybah, the possible readings are those belonging to aspect one (such as wa hal yujz ill l-kafru instead of wa hal nujz ill l-kafra) and two (such as rabbun bada instead of rabban bid), and probably also aspect three (such as nunshiruh instead of nunshizuh) of his categorization. However, according to Muslim scholars who advocate the seven variant readings based on the seven Arabic tribal dialects, the only remaining reading in the Uthmnic recension is the language of the Quraysh tribe to which the Prophet and the people of Makkah belonged. Moreover, as mentioned earlier, the Prophet's order to read the Qurn with the seven variant readings was only permitted to ease the burden for the illiterate and non-Quraysh Arabs with their different tribal dialects. After the death of the Prophet, the s.ah.bah still read the Qurn in seven variant readings according to the readings they had received from him. Disputes concerning these variant readings appeared and later became intense and almost caused fitnah (dissention), especially among Muslim armies stationed far away from Makkah and Madnah. This happened in 30/651 during the campaign of Azerbaijan and Armenia when the people of Shm (Syria) and Iraq met and listened to each other's reading of the Qurn. When they heard the difference in their readings they disagreed and almost accused each other of infidelity. In the meantime, the number of variant readings was increasing in the course of time until it reached about thirty, spreading throughout the Muslim lands. This incident was witnessed by Hudhayfah al-Yamn who became alarmed and feared of the spread of this fitnah. He went back to Madnah and told Uthmn: "Rescue this community before they disagree like the
168. 169.

Ibn al-Jazar, al-Nashr, vol. 1, p. 31. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 42. 170. See al-Zarkash, al-Burhn, vol. 1, p. 223.

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disagreement among the Jews and the Christians." This news so shocked Uthmn that he immediately acted accordingly. It was to prevent this fitnah that Uthmn ordered Zayd ibn Thbit, Abd Allh ibn al-Zubayr, Sad ibn al-s. and Abd al-Rah.mn ibn alH .rith ibn Hishm to copy the texts of the Qurn from the authorized copy kept by H .afs.ah, the Prophet's wife and Umar's daughter. He said that if the three last scribes disagreed with the former (Zayd ibn Thbit) about the texts of the Qurn, they should write them in the dialect of the Quraysh, as the Qurn was revealed in their dialect.171 Then Uthmn sent four copies to different cities accompanied with a qri: to Makkah with Abd Allh ibn alSib, to Syria with al-Mughrah ibn Shihb, to Bas.rah with mir ibn Abd al-Qays, and to Kfah with Ab Abd al-Rah.mn al-Sulam. In Madnah two copies were kept, one with Zayd ibn Thbit, and another by Uthmn for himself. These qurr taught people in their respective cities the variant readings which had been confirmed being from the Prophet, reported by a h.adth mutawtir (a h.adth handed down by many chains of unimpeachable transmitters), and in agreement with the rasm of the copy (of the Uthmnic recension) they possessed. They did not teach them the abrogated readings nor those which had been reported with a h.adth h.d (a h.adth reported by one chain of transmitters), although it agreed with the rasm of the copy. In so doing, the variant readings reported with tawtur and which agreed with the rasm of the copy were recorded and preserved. It was reported that Uthmn also sent a copy to Yaman (Yemen) and Bahrayn. He ordered all other copies to be burnt, including the mus.h.af of Ibn Masd and of Ubayy ibn Kab. As the Uthmnic recension was written without dots and vowelisation it included all mutawtir readings from the Prophet, such as fatabayyan (Q. 4:94) which was the reading of all qurr (as in our present mus.h.af) 172 except H .amzah who read fatathabbat. Similarly, bushran (Q. 7:57) which was the reading of s.im (as in our present mus.h.af) is also read nashran, which was the reading of Amash and H .amzah; bushr is the easing (takhff) of bushur, the broken plural of bashr; nashr is the mas.dar of the

171. 172.

Ibn H .azm, al-Ih .km, vol. 4, p. 523. See al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 5, p. 337.

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verb nashara (to spread).173 These variant readings were not the result of an ijtihd in finding possible readings in Uthmnic recension, but rather from the readings taught by the Prophet himself to the s.ah.bah. The s.ah.bah, in turn, taught them to the people of the next generation, the tbin until they reached us. Ab Amr ibn al-Al (d. 154/771), who was one of the seven qurr and one of the leading grammarians of Bas.rah, said that if he were allowed to read other than what had already been read and taught he would have read a different reading. When he was asked by al-As.ma how to make the distinction between wa tarakn alayh (Q. 37:108) and wa brakn alayh (Q. 37:113) since both were written orthographically the same in the Uthmnic codices, he answered that it could only be known by hearing it from the early mashyikh (scholars). This also indicates that variant readings had already existed earlier than the Uthmnic recension, and therefore, were not the product of it.174 We have noticed that among the seven variant readings advocated by Ibn Qutaybah which could be included in the Uthmnic recension are three readings only. They are those which do not change in the rasm, although they change in the irb, the meaning or the wording. What happens, then, with the rest of the variant readings? They are found in the books of tafsr. We have also noticed that there are many interpretations regarding the meaning of the term ah.ruf. The Qurnic commentators know that it has something to do with reading the Qurn, as the Prophet allowed us to read whichever is convenient for us among the seven ah.ruf. The term "seven" itself does not necessarily mean the exact number. It could be a metonym for "several", since this term is often synonymous with "several" in Arabic
Al-Qurt .ub mentions seven variant readings of bushran. They are: (1) bushran itself and (2) nashran, as mentioned above; (3) nushuran which was the reading of Ab Amr and the people of the two holy cities, Makkah and Madinah; nushur is the broken plural of nshir in the pattern of shhid and shuhud; (4) nushran which was the reading of al-H .asan and Qatdah; nushr is the easing (takhff) of nushur, like reading kutb and rusl for respectively kutub and rusul; (5) bushr which was the reading of Muh .ammad al-Yamn; (6) bashran; bashr is the mas .dar of bashara which means bashshara (to bring good news); and (7) bushur. Al-Qurt .ub does not give us the names of the qurr to whom the last two variant readings belong; see al-Jmi, vol. 7, pp. 228-229. 174. See the introduction of Dr. Shawq D .ayf (ed.) in Ibn Mujhid, Kitb alSabah, p. 12.
173.

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usage. Likewise, the term "seventy" and "seven hundred" could mean respectively "many" and "very many."175 According to (al-Qd.) Iyd. (d. 544/1149), the term "seven", "seventy", and "seven hundred" indicates the greatness in number of units, tens and hundreds respectively.176 It is not surprising, then, that the grammarian Ibn Sadn (d.230/845) suggests that the term ah.ruf meant in the h.adth is ambiguous.177 It is noteworthy to include the views of two contemporary scholars regarding the meaning of seven ah.ruf and their existence or non-existence in the Uthmnic codices. They are Mann al-Qat.t.n and Muh .ammad Abd al-Az .m al-Zarqn. According to the contemporary scholar Mann alQat.t.n the more acceptable view is that the seven ah.ruf are the seven languages of the Arabs for one meaning, such as aqbil, tal, halumma, ajjil and asri. They are different words for one meaning, namely, "come! This is the view of Sufyn ibn Uyaynah and Ibn Jarr al-T .abar. Among the arguments of followers of this view are as follows: (1). A man read a different reading from what Umar had learned from the Prophet. The Prophet told them that both were correct, and said that the Qurn is correct as long as the verse of mercy is not substituted with that of punishment and vice versa. (Reported by Ah.mad ibn H .anbal with reliable transmitters as well as al-T .abar). (2) Busr ibn Sad said that Ab Juhaym al-Ans.r told him that two men disagreed on a verse, each claimed to have received it from the Prophet. When they asked him about it he said that the Qurn was sent down with seven ah.ruf, that they should not dispute over the Qurn, for disputing over it could lead to infidelity (kufr). (Reported by Ah.mad). (3). Al-Amash said that Anas read inna nshiat al-layl hiya ashaddu wat.an wa as.wabu ql (Q. 73:6). When he was told that it should be wa aqwamu ql he said that aqwamu, as.wabu and ahyau are the same. (Reported by al-T .abar, Ab Yal and al-Bazzr with sound 178 transmitters).
175. 176. 177. 178.

See Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 8, pp. 145-146. See al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 1, p. 131. Ibid. Ibn Kathr, Tafsr, vol. 4, p. 465.

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(4) The tbi Muh.ammad ibn Srn said that he was told that Gabriel and Michael came to the Prophet. Gabriel told the Prophet to read the Qurn in two h.arfs. Michael told Gabriel to give him more which he did until it reached seven ah.ruf. Muh.ammad ibn Srn said further that there is no variance of reading in the matters of h.all, h.arm, amr or nahy. It is like saying tal, halumma and aqbil. We read in knat ill s.ayh.atan wh.idah (Q. 36:29 and 53), whereas Ibn Masd read in knat ill zaqyatan wh.idah. (Reported by al-T .abar, the h.adth is mursal as the name of the s.ah.bah was not mentioned in the isnd).179 The argument against the view that the seven readings are seven languages (dialects) of the Arabs is that there are more than seven languages of the Arabs. In addition, Umar and Hishm ibn H .kim who had different readings belonged to the same Quraysh tribe and language. It was unlikely that Umar would reject his own language. Therefore, the difference was in wording but the same in meaning as mentioned above.180 Al-T .abar who has the same view answers a hypothetical question: "Where can we find in the Qurn a single reading read in seven different languages with different wordings but agree in meaning?" He says: "We do not claim that they still exist nowadays." "What, then, would happen to the other six variant readings?", another hypothetical question. He answered that the Muslim community was ordered to preserve the Qurn and was given a choice in reading and keeping any of the seven ah.ruf.181 At the time of Uthmn, the situation necessitated adherence to one reading only in order to avoid the fitnah (civil strife). The Muslim community which is immune from error (mas.m) agreed to this decision.182 The third view is that the seven ah.ruf are the seven aspects: amr, nahy, h.all, h.arm, muh.kam, mutashbih and amthl. The argument against this view is that since the Muslims are allowed to choose any of the seven ah.ruf,
See Mann al-Qat .t .n, Mabh .ith f Ulm al-Qurn. 19th edition (Beirut: Muassasat al-Rislah, 1406/1983), pp. 162-163. 180. Ibid, p. 163 181. See al-T .abar, Jmi, vol. 1, p. 20. There is a h .adth stating that "the community of Muh .ammad (or, in another version, 'my community') will never agree on an error". (Reported by al-Bukhr, alTirmidh, Ibn Mjah, and Ah .mad ibn H .anbal).
182. 179.

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they may choose the h.arm aspect of a particular verse, whereas others choose its h.all aspect. It is inconceivable that the legal judgment of something could be halal and h.arm at the same time. Moreover, the flexibility in the possibility in reading up to seven ah.ruf would not be in turning something h.all, for example, into h.arm, or changing its meaning. The h.adth mentioned before stated that the Prophet confirmed that variant readings would not be contradictory to each other.183 The fourth view says that the seven ah.ruf are based on seven aspects (similar to Ibn Qutaybah's view). However, al-Qat.t.t.n states that some of these variant readings claimed by the followers of this view are of h.d (reported by one chain of authority), whereas there has never been any disagreement among Muslim scholars that the accepted readings of the Qurn are those reported in mutawtir (many chains of authority). Furthermore, the majority of the claimed variant readings vary only in the vowelisation of consonants of the words and the way of expressing them, like the variant irb, tas.rf (conjugation), tafkhm (emphatic pronunciation), imlah (inclining), iz.hr (clear pronunciation), idghm (contraction) and ishmm (giving "the flavour" of one sound to another). These types of variant readings do not change the wording or the meaning, and therefore belong to one word.184 Al-Qat.t.n states further that the upholders of this fourth view believe that the Uthmnic codices include all these seven ah.ruf. Since the Uthmnic codices write without alif following letter mm, it can be read either in singular (liamnatihim) or in plural (liamntihim). The same with which is written without alif after letter b, so that it can also be read bid. However, this cannot be applied to variant readings based on addition (ziydah) and omission (naqs), such as wa aadda lahum janntin tajr tah.tah l-anhr (Q. 9:100) and min tah.tih l-anhr with the additional min. Another example is the reading wa m khalaqa l-dhakara wa l-unth (Q. 92:3) and wa l-dhakara wa l-unth with the omission of m khalaqa. Similarly, the variant reading based on inversion and

183.

Al-Qat .t .n, Mabh .ith, pp. 164-165. 184. Ibid., pp. 165-166.

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substitution cannot be included in the Uthmnic codices.185 Al-Qat.t.n contends that should the seven ah.ruf be included in the Uthmnic codices, the Uthmnic codex - the copy kept by Uthmn himself which is also called al-Mus.h.af al-Imm, the Master Copy of the Qurn - would not have become conclusive in settling the conflict in difference of readings. This conflict was permanently settled only by uniting people in one of the seven ah.ruf revealed in the Qurn. Otherwise, the conflict would have remained unsettled and there would not have been any difference between Uthmnic compilation and that of Ab Bakr. The permission to read in seven ah.ruf was only given in the beginning to obviate inconvenience. This permission was no longer needed in the time of Uthmn. The compilation of the Qurn in one reading by Uthmn was agreed by the s.ah.bah. It was such a great work, al-Qat.t.n contends, that it ended the conflict in variant readings and united the community.186 Another contemporary scholar, Shaykh Muh.ammad al-Zarqn, chooses the view of Ab al-Fad.l al-Rz regarding the seven ah.ruf which is almost similar to that of Ibn Qutaybah. Al-Zarqn quoted al-Rz's view as follows: 1) The variation of number and gender of the noun: singular, dual or plural, masculine or feminine, such as the reading (liamntihim) in plural and (liamnatihim) in singular. 2) The variation in tenses of the verb: md. (past), mud.ri (imperfect) and amr (imperative), such as reading ql rabban bid bayna asfrin and ...rabbun baada... 3) The variation in wujh al-irb (aspects of grammatical inflection), such as wa l ["not" indicating negation] yud.rru ktibun wa l shahd and wa l ["not" indicating prohibition] yud .rra... (for being majzm by l) 4) Variation by means of omission and addition, such as wa m khalaqa ldhakara wa l-unth and wa l-dhakari wa l-unth with the omission of m khalaqa. 5) Variation by means of inversion, such as wa jat sakratu l-mawt bi lh.aqq which is also read wa jat sakratu l- h.aqq bi l-mawt.

185. 186.

Ibid., p. 166. Ibid., pp. 1 and 666-667

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6) Variation by means of substitution, such as munshizuh and nunshiruh, as well as wa tal h.in and wa talin. 7) Variation of languages (dialects) in fath., imlah, tarqq (softening the pronunciation), tafkhm, iz.hr and idghm, such as the opening and shading in reading at and ms in the verse (Q. 79:15) and Q. 20:9), so that it is read at and at as well as ms and ms. Similarly, the word bal is read bal as well as bal in bal qdirn (Q. 75:4).187 One of the main differences between al-Razi's view and that of Ibn Qutaybah is that Ibn Qutaybah does not include the variation of dialects in pronouncing words as one of the seven ah.ruf. The reason is that despite these variations, such as the Hudhals in pronouncing letter h. of h.att sounding like the letter ayn and read att h.n for h.att h.n, they still belong to the same word and meaning. On the contrary, al-Rz counts it as one of the seven ah.ruf to which al-Zarqn leans, since the difference among the Arab tribes in the past was mainly in dialects.188 Al-Zarqn quotes Ibn H .ajar who stated that al-Rz adopted and edited Ibn Qutaybah's view on the seven a h.ruf.189 According to al-Zarqn the seven ah.ruf in al-Rz's view were included in the Uthmnic codices. Each of these codices contained the rasm which agrees with all or some of the seven ah.ruf, so that each codex contained at least one h.arf. The word liamnatihim (Q. 70:32), for example, both in singular or in plural are included in these codices, because it was written in the singular, but a small alif was added to it to indicate that it can be read in plural.190 The word yakifna and yakufna, rabban bid and
See al-Zarqn, Manhil al-Irfn, vol. 1, pp. 155-157. Ibid., pp. 161-163. 189. Ibid., p. 158. 190. The reading liamnatihim in the singular is that of Ibn Kathr, whereas the rest of the qurr read liamntihim in the plural. Al-T .abar states that the correct reading is liamntihim in the plural. Dr. Labb al-Sad criticises al-T .abar in this and other cases where correct readings were considered wrong by him. Al-Sad contends that this reading of Ibn Kathr was also transmitted with tawtur (handed down by many chains of unimpeachable transmitters). Moreover, like the rest of the qurr, Ibn Kathr read al-amnt and amntikum in the plural in Q. 4:58 and Q. 8:27
188. 187.

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rabbun bada, as well as wa l yud.rru and wa l yud.rra are all included in these codices, since they contained no vowel signs.191 With regard to the fourth variant reading which is variation by means of addition and omission al-Zarqn gives an example other than that given above. It is wa aadda lahum janntin tajr tah.ah l-anhr and ...min tah.tih... with the addition of min, both readings are mutawtir, and both agree with the rasm of the mus.h.af. The reading with the addition of min agrees with that in the Meccan codex (the mus.h.af sent to Makkah), whereas that with the omission of min agrees with that of other codices. Any reading which does not agree with the rasm of any of the Uthmnic codices are abrogated by the last reading read by Gabriel to the Prophet - then the Prophet to Gabriel - at the year of his death. This includes Ibn Abbs's reading wa kna warahum malikun yakhudhu kulla safnatin s.lih.atin ghas.ban with the addition of s.lih.atin. All of the s.ah.bah agreed that this reading had been abrogated.192
respectively. He could have read both in the singular as he did in Q. 70:32 above, had it been from his own whim rather than from Allah. See Dr. Lab b al-Sad, Difan alQirt al-Mutawtirah f Muwjahat al-T .abar l-Mufassir (A Defence on the Mutawtir Qirt in Countering the Commentator al-T .abar) (Cairo: Dr al-Marif, [1398]/1978), p. 116. It is noteworthy that al-T .abar lived in the period of ikhtiyr ("choice"). It was the period where scholars of the Qurnic text chose their own readings in verses written in ambiguous rasm. The choice was governed by three criteria: the rasm of the mus .h .af, the Arabic language and the isnd. This period of ikhtiyr ended in 322/934 when Ibn Mujhid's choice of the seven variant readings of the text (qirt) of the seven qurr was declared canonical by the authorities in Baghdd, as they were qirt with mutawtir isnds. See A. Jones, "The Qurn - II," in Arabic Literature to the End of the Umayyad Period, eds. A.F.L. Beeston et al. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), pp. 241-242. Al-T .abar chose the readings based on his knowledge of the Arabic language, whereas many other readings were later accepted and included in the seven qirt. Al-T .abar passed away earlier in 310/923. Had he lived and witnessed the canonisation of the seven qirt, he would not have chosen or preferred one among the seven canonised qirt. 191. Al-Zarqn, Manhil al-Irfn, vol. 1, pp. 169-170. 192. Ibid., p. 170. Quoting from Ab Amr al-Dn (d. 444/1052) in his work alMuqn, A.T. Welch mentioned variant readings among the Uthmnic codices. For example, it was written in the standard codex in Madnah (Q. 3:184) and (Q. 40:21), whereas in the mus .h .af sent to Damascus it was written

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With regard to the fifth variant reading which is variation by means of inversion, al-Zarqn states that the example given above which is wa jat sakratu l- h.aqq bi l-mawt (the inversion of ...al-mawt bi l- h.aqq) is also abrogated. A similar abrogated inverted reading is idh ja fat h.u llh wa l-nas.r (the inversion of ... nas.ru llh wa l-fat h.). The valid example given by al-Zarqn for the inverted reading is fayaqtulna wa yuqtalna and fayuqtalna wa yaqtulna. Both reading are mutawtir, and agree with the rasm of the Uthmnic codices, since they contain no vowel signs.193 With regard to the sixth variant reading which is variation by means of substitution, al-Zarqni states that some readings of this genre are acceptable which agree to the rasm of the Uthmnic codices, like fatabayyan and fatathabbat, for both are written with the same rasm, namely, . Other readings such as ka l-s.fi l-manfsh rather than ka l-ihni l-manfsh and famd . il dhikri llh rather than fasaw il dhikri llh, these readings are abrogated and do not agree with the Uthmnic codices.194 With regard to the seventh variant reading which is the variation of languages or dialects, these readings do not change the words and therefore also agree with the rasm of the Uthmnic codex. One example is the verse
(with the additional bi) and (Q. 36:35) and . Similarly, it was written in the standard codex

(Q. 40:26), whereas in the mus .h .af sent to Kfah it was written

(with the ellipsis of hu) and (with the addition of alif). These brought Welch to the following conclusion: "Such variations can best be explained as resulting from carelessness on the part of the scribes or lack of concern for exact uniformity among the authorities." See A.T. Welch, "al-urn", EI2, p. 408. The reading wa bil-zubur wa bil-Kitb was that of Ibn mir and was written in the mus .h .afs of the people of Syria; see al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 4, p. 296. The reading amilat was that of the Kfans, whereas the rest read amilathu, including s .im, as in the Egyptian standard edition of the mus .h .af issued in 1924, and Nfi; see Mus .h .af al-Jamhryah bi-Riwyat al-Imm Qln (Tripoli: Jamiyat al-Dawah al-Islmyah al-lamyah, 1395/1986), p. 442. The reading was that of s was .im, as in the Egyptian standard edition, whereas that of Nfi as in the Mus .h .af al-Jamhryah, p. 469. This finding supports the view that the variant readings were kept in the Uthmnic codices, and that they were not the outcome of the scribes' negligence or "lack of concern for exact uniformity among the authorities" as assumed by Welch. 193. Ibid., pp. 170-171. 194. Ibid., 171.

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hal atka h.adth ms (Q. 20:9) in which the letter y is written instead of alif in atka and ms, namely, and to indicate that both words can be read with imlah, namely, atka and mus.195 The letter y in words such as ms s and mus.t.af is called alif maqs.rah (lit., "a shortened alif") and phonetically written with letter a with an accent aigu on it () according to McGill University transliteration system. (See the table of the transliteration system on p. v above). We have seen how al-Zarqn explained and defended the view of alRz concerning the seven ah.ruf and their inclusion in the Uthmnic codices. He has proved that variation of readings by means of inversion, substitution as well as addition and omission which could not take place in the Uthmnic codices according to al-Qa t.t.n could and did occur. This argument can also be used to justify Ibn Qutaybah's view which, as mentioned earlier, is very similar to that of al-Rz. Al-Zarqn rejects the view of al-T .abar and Sufyn ibn Uyaynah that the seven a h.ruf are the seven dialects of one word with the same meaning. It is like the reading of halumma, aqbil, tal, ajjil, asri, qas.d and nah.w used when we call someone to come to us as mentioned before. All these, alZarqn contends, belong to one variant reading only, namely, the substitution of the words in general which is broader than the substitution with exclusively synonymous words.196 Al-Zarqn also rejects the view that there was only one reading that remained in the Uthmnic codices and the rest were abrogated and excluded from them with the approval of the s.ah.bah. He states that these are false arguments. Even in the time of the Prophet people disagreed on reading the Qurn in variant readings. The Prophet confirmed to them the existence of these variant readings which are a mercy for them and for the Muslim community at large. When he was told to read the Qurn to his people with one reading, he asked for more and said that his community could not bear it. As his community will remain till the Resurrection Day, and so their inability to bear only one reading will also remain. If Muslim nations have problems with the correct pronunciation of some letters of the Qurn and some dialects, how could it be possible that the s.ah.bah who were living in the best generation close this door of mercy and lenience that had been
195. 196.

Ibid. Ibid., p. 175.

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opened by Allah to the Muslims? How could they disagree with the Prophet's guidance in his asking lenience for his community with variant readings? How could they disagree with the Prophet in his confirming the existence of these variant readings (rather than limiting them to one reading) in settling the disagreement among people in his community? How could Uthmn do such things without any action from the s.ah.bah to prevent him from doing these deeds? In addition, how could the ijm (agreement) take place on keeping one h.arf and abandoning the other six a h.ruf when the meaning of ah.ruf itself had not been agreed upon? Had this actually happened, why did not Uthmn allow these six ah.ruf to remain in history, not to be totally forgotten, since they were not abrogated? Why did not history keep them, when the s.ah.bah kept in history the abrogated and isolated readings, even fabricated traditions that reach us today and will reach people in the future?197 We have seen how al-Qat.t.n and al-Zarqn adopted different views about the seven ah.ruf and how these two scholars defended their respective views. Al-Qat.t.n adopted the view of al-T .abar and others that the seven ah.ruf were seven synonyms of a word, and only one reading existed in the Uthmnic codices, as the other six were only optional. On the other hand alZarqn adopted al-Rz's view which is similar to that of Ibn Qutaybah, and contended that the seven ah.ruf which are seven aspects of readings existed in the Uthmnic codices.

B. Ungrammatical Usage in the Qurn Ibn Qutaybah mentions five main grammatical errors (alh.n, sing. la h.n), in the Qurn alleged by his opponents. They are as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
197.

for

(Q. 20:63) for for for for (Q. 5:69) (Q. 4:162) (Q. 21:88) (Q. 63:10)

Ibid., pp. 177-178.

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He cites the statement of ishah on the authority of Ab Muwiyah Muh.ammad ibn H .zim al-Tamm (d. 193/809), from Hishm ibn Urwah ibn al-Zubayr (d. 146/763-4) and from his father from ishah who said that there were three scribes' errors in the Qurn, mentioning the first three errors above.198 He also cites the statement of Uthmn who said: "I see a solecism in it, and the Arabs will correct it with their tongue ( ); so, he did it, but kept the rasm as it was. Moreover, al-Hajjj was reported to have assigned s.im, Njiyah ibn Rumh., and Al ibn As.ma to trace any Qurnic book which did not agree with the Uthmnic recension, to destroy it and to give its owner sixty dirhams as compensation.199 1. Regarding the first alleged solecism, namely, inna hdhni lash.irn, Ibn Qutaybah mentions three views, as follows: a. According to grammarians whom Ibn Qutaybah does not identify, among whom was al-Kis, it is the dialect of the Balh.arth (Ban l-H .rith) ibn Kab tribe who express the dual with alif in all of the three cases. They say, for example, marartu birajuln, qabid.tu dirhamn, and jalastu bayna yadh.200 The example in poetry is as follows:
This report was narrated by Is .h .q ibn Ibrhm ibn Mukhlad, known as Is .h .q ibn Rhawayh (d. 238/853), one of Ibn Qutaybah's teachers. See Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp. 25-26. 199. Ibid, p. 51. This is probably what was meant by Ibn Ab Dd when he said that al-Hajjj ibn Ysuf "has changed in the Uthmnic codex eleven ah .ruf ", such as lam yatasanna became lam yatasannah (Q. 2:259) and biz .ann became bid .ann (Q. 81:24); see Ab Bakr Abd Allh Ibn Ab Dd, Kitb al-Mas . h .if, ed. Arthur Jeffery (Egypt: al-Mat .baah al-Rah .mnyah, 1355/1936), pp. 117-118. Instead of changing the ah .ruf in the Uthmnic codex which seemed to be in the above statement, al-Hajjaj changed the ah .ruf that did not agree with the Uthmnic codex as stated by Ibn Qutaybah above. Al-T .abars and Saqr reject the genuinness of the stories concerning the statements of ishah and Uthmn mentioned above and considered them fabricated ones; see al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 2, p. 139; and Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 26, n. 3. 200. See Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 20; and Ibn Fris, al-S . h .ib, p. 20. According to al-Suyt ., it is also the dialect of the Ban Kinnah, see al-Itqan, vol. 2, pp. 273-274.
198.

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"He was hit with a blow that led him to a barren, dusty place." Here bayna udhunhu is used instead of bayna udhunayh.201 b. It is the error of the scribe and therefore should be read inna hdhayn lash.irn. This is the view of Ab Amr al-Al and s ibn Umar among the qurr who affirm ishah's statement, and s.im ibn Ab alS .abh al-Jah .dar who explicitly supports Uthmn's statement mentioned before. s.im al-Jah.dar, the muqri and mufassir of Bas.rah, in his mus.h.af (codex) followed the Uthmnic recension, but read inna hdhayn, wa l-s.bin, wa l-muqmn, and wa l-s.birn.202 c. Some unidentified qurr read in hdhn sh .irn based on Ubayy ibn Kab's reading in his mus.h.af, in dhn ill sh.irn, as well as that of Abd Allh ibn Masd who read an hdhn sh.irn.203
Ab al-Khat .t .b claimed to have heard the Kinnah tribe using alif invariably for the dual; see Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, ed. Dr. M.F. Sezgin (Egypt: Muh .ammad Sm Amn al-Khnj, n.d.), p. 21. Besides the Balh .arth, al-T .abar mentions also the Khatham and the Zubayd tribes in Yemen, see his work, Jmi, vol. 16, p. 121. According to Ibn Jamah, among the grammarians who state that the Ban al-H .rith use alif invariably in the dual number is al-Kis. Other tribes mentioned by al-Kis are the Khatham, the Zubayd and the Hamadn. Ab Khat .t .b mentioned the Kinnah; others mention the Ban al-Anbar, the Udhrah, the Murd and others; see Dr. Abd alAl Mukarram in his note in Abu Abd Allh ibn Khlawayh, al-Hujjah f l-Qirt alSab, ed. and annot. Dr. Abd al-Al Slim al-Mukarram (Beirut and Cairo: Dr alShurq, 1399/1979), p. 242, n. 6, quoting Ibn Jamaah's marginal notes on the commentary on Ibn al-H .jib's al-Shfiyah (N.p.: Mat .baat Dr al-T .ibah al-mirah, n.d.), vol. 1, p. 277. 201. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 50;and al-Zabd, Tj al-Ars, 10/405. According to Ibn Manz .r, the poem belonged to Hawbar al-H .rith who mentioned udhunayh instead of udhuynh, see Lisn, vol. 10, p. 64, vol. 9, p. 163, and 20, p. 226. Another example from poetry is as follows: in which ab abh and ghayath are used respectively for ab abh and ghayatayh; see Ibn Khlawayh, al-H .ujjah, p. 242; and al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 4, p. 16. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 51. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 52; and Ab Zakariy Yah .y ibn Ziyd al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, ed. A.Y. Najt and M.A. al-Najjr, 3 vols. (Egypt: al-Hayah alMis .riyyah al-mmah lil-Kuttb, 1972-1980), vol. 2, pp. 183-184. The variant reading in hdhn lash .irn and in hdhn sh .irn are also attributed to Ibn Masd, see A.
203. 202.

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Commenting on this reading Ibn Khlawayh states that the qurr unanimously agree in reading inna except Ibn Kathr and H .afs. from s.im, both read in; they read hdhn (with alif) except Ab Amr who read hdhayn (with y). They agree in reading with the light nn in the dual form hdhn, except Ibn Kathr who read it with a stressed nn, namely, hdhnn.204 The argument of those who read inna hdhn is the report of alD .ah.h.k from Ibn Abbs who said that Allah revealed the Qurn in the language of all the tribes of the Arabs, and in this case, in the language of the Balh.arth ibn Kab tribe that uses alif invariably in the dual form. The argument of those who read in is that by reading inna with the light nn, it invalidates its grammatical function, so that hdhayn in the accusative case returns to its original nominative case hadhn. Therefore, there is no solecism in this case. Moreover, another argument is that the word in here does not mean "verily", but rather m (not), and the letter lm means ill (except), so that the reading means ("These two people are none but two magicians"). The example from the Qurn is the verse meaning ("No human soul but has a guardian over it." Q. 86:4).205 Ab al-Abbs al-Mubarrad interprets the meaning of inna in this reading as naam (yes). He says that when a Bedouin came to Ibn al-Zubayr saying: "May Allah curse the camel that carried me to you," he answered inna wa rkibuh, meaning naam wa rkibuh ("yes, and its rider"). As a shhid, he cites the poems of Ubayd Allh ibn Qays as follows:

("My reprovers came early in the morning abusing me and I blamed them; they said, 'Hoariness has come upon you, and you have become old,' and I said 'yes'").206 Jeffery, ed. Materials for the History of the Text of the Qurn: The Old Codices (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1937), pp. 146 and 60. 204. Ibn Khlawayh, al-H .ujjah, p. 242 and Ibn Mujhid, Kitb al-Sabah, p. 419.
205. 206.

Ibn Khlawayh, al-H .ujjah, pp. 242-243 and 368.

Ibid., p. 243. The view that particle inna in the verse inna hdhn means "yes" is rejected by al-T .abars with the following argument: (a) If it was so, hdhn

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The argument of those who read hdhayn is the afore-mentioned statement of Uthmn who considered hdhn to be a solecism and stated that the Arabs would correct it with their tongues. If it were said that Uthmn was more entitled to correct the solecism, it would be said that the solecism is not an error, but rather a deviation from using the Quraysh dialect.207 The argument of those who read hdhnn is that the stress on the letter nn serves as a substitute for the missing alif as an indication that a letter is missing in that word. Therefore, this stress indicates that the word hdhn is made of incomplete letters and to distinguish it from words made of complete letters. In other words, as the word is the combination of and the dual , one of its two alifs is replaced with the stressed nn.208 Ibn Qutaybah states that the word hdhn was written in the Uthmnic codex (Mus.h.af al-Imn) without alif, and in fact, the dual is always written in it without alif, such as qla rajulni ( Q. 5:23), fakharni yaqmni ( Q. 5:107).209 Moreover, it is reported by

would become mubtada and las h .irn its khabar with the emphatic la. This emphatic la in the khabar in the Arabic language should not occur with a simple mubtada, except in an isolated case or necessity. In other words, the mubtada has to be emphasised first, then the emphatic la can be added to its khabar; (b) Quoting Ab Al, translating inna with "yes" in the above verse does not fit in the structure of the sentence. It is not correct to say "yes, these two are surely sorcerers" confirming Prophet Moses's statement in verse 61: "Woe unto you! Do not invent lies against God, lest He afflict you with most grievous suffering: for He who contrives [such] a lie is already undone!" (Q. 20:61, Asad). It is also improper to say "yes ..." after the statement: "So they debated among themselves as to what to do; but they kept their counsel secret") (Q. 20:62, Asad). See al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 4, pp. 15-16. 207. Ibn Khlawayh, al-H .ujjah, pp. 243-244. Ibid., p. 121. 209. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 57. This is also apparent in the mus .h .af of Madnah. See Mus .h .af al-Jamhryah, pp. 111 (Q. 5:25) and 125 (Q. 5:109) which is based on the reading of Nfi, the qri of Madnah. However, in the Egyptian mus .h .af which is based on the reading of s .im, the qri of Kfah, the alif of the dual is written in rajuln and fakharn yaqmn.
208.

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Abd Allh from Amr ibn Abd Allh al-Awd from Wak from al-Amash from Ibrhm who said that people thought that in reading, the letter alif and the letter y were the same, and that inna hdhni and inna hdhayni were identical when reading.210 Al-Farr gives three reasons for reading inna hdhn in the above verse: (a) It is the language of the Ban al-H .rith as mentioned earlier; (b) When the Arabs say muslimn they added in the written word the letter waw after a d.ammah on the letter mm that preceded it. When they say muslimn, they added the letter y after putting a kasrah on the letter mm. However, when they say ithnayn, if they put the letter y, it would not be preceded by a kasrah, but by a fath.ah. Therefore, they keep the letter alif as it is and write ithnn; similar to the case of ithnn is hdhn (c) The letter alif is a support for the word hdh. In the dual number only one letter is added to it, namely, the letter nn, so that it becomes hdhn in all cases. It is like alladh in which the letter y remains after adding the letter nn in the plural, so that it becomes al-ladhn, except for the Ban Kinnah who read it as alladhn.211 Al-Suyt. mentions five views given by Arabic grammarians as well as by himself in justifying the above reading as follows: a. It is the language of the Kinnah and the Ban l-H .rith to always put the letter alif in the dual form as mentioned earlier. b. The word inna means "yes", which is the view of Ab l-Abbs and alMubarrad as mentioned earlier, so that it does not affect the inflection of words which follow it, namely, hdhn remains as it is. c. The whole expression hdhn las.h .irn - which consists of mubtada (subject) and khabar (predicate) - is the khabar of the hidden mubtada, namely, the d.amr al-shan (the pronoun indicating circumstances) which serves as the ism of inna. Therefore, the full expression is . d. The same as above, except that sh.irn is the khabar of the hidden
Ibn Ab Dd Sulaymn al-Sijistn, Kitb al-Mas . h .if, p. 104. This is also the view of al-T .abars who said that the best view is that inna hdhn lash .irn belongs to the language of the Kinnah tribe, or, according to Ab al-H .asan and Ab Al al-Fris, the language of the Ban al-H .rith; see Majma al- Bayn, vol. 4, pp. 1617. 211. See al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 184.
210.

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mubtada, so that the full expression is

e. The letter h in hdhn should be joined with inna instead of dhn, so that it is read . f. According to al-Suyt., the significance of the alif of the dual in hdhn is that it rhymes together with the word that follows it, namely, sh.irn as well as yuridn, so that they all rhyme together. As evidence, he gives similar examples from the Qurn. The use of tanwn (nunation) with the additional alif in the word salsil - so that it becomes salasilan - will make it rhyme with the word that follows it, namely, aghllan and saran (Q. 76:4). Similarly, the nunation of Saba changes it to Sabain to rhyme with binabain and yaqnin. (Q. 27:22).212 Al-Zarqn gives four variant readings of as follows: (a) was the reading of Nfi and others; (b) was the reading of Ibn Kathr; (c) was the reading of H was the reading of .afs.; and (d) Ab Amr. As the Uthmnic codices contained the seven ah.ruf the word hdhn was written without alif or y, so that it could be read with the four variant readings mentioned above.213 2. With regard to the verse "Lo! those who believe, and those who are Jews, and Sabaeans, and Christians..." (Q. 5:69, Pickthall), Ibn Qutaybah gives us the reasons for
Al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, pp. 573-574. However, the variant reading salsilan belongs to Nfi, al-Kis, Ab Bakr from s .im, and Hishm from Ibn mir. The reading of Qunbul, Ibn Kathr and H .amzah is salsila (with waqf, a slight stop) without alif or tanwn. The rest of the qurr also read salsila but with the additional alif. See al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 19, p. 123. Following the variant reading of the qri of Madnah, Nfi, the mus .h .af printed by the Islamic Call Society in Libya in 1986 writes salsilan. On the other hand, the mus .h .af printed in Egypt, which is largely circulated in the Muslim world, writes salsila, following the reading of s .im, the qri of Kfah. See Mus .h .af al-Jamhriyyah, p. 575 (Q. 76:4). For the Egyptian mus .h .af see the text of the Qurn in the translation of Asad, Ali, or Pickthall. A similar example is the reading of Nfi qawrran and of s .im qawarira (Q. 76:15).
213. 212.

See al-Zarqn, Manhil al-Irfn, vol. 1, pp. 373-374 and 393.

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reading al-s.bin without falling into a grammatical error, as follows: The word al-s.bin is marf (in the nominative case),214 because it is radd al mawd.i (a return to the position) of the whole expression inna l-ladhna man, namely, in the nominative case. The assertive particle inna does not affect the meaning of the sentence. Therefore, it is possible to say, for example, .This expression conveys the same meaning as (except for emphasis which Ibn Qutaybah does not mention). Other "sisters" of inna do affect the meaning of the sentence, so that the word after the conjunction must also be affected; for example, . Here the word zaydun has to be put in the accusative case, because laalla affects the meaning of the sentence, namely, the existence of doubt in it, whereas inna does not. Ibn Qutaybah contends further that according to the grammarian al-Kis of the Kfan school, it is possible to say or . This is also the view of the grammarians of the Bas.ran school. They say it is possible to read inna llha wa malikatuhu (instead of malikatahu) yus.allna al l-nabiyyi (Q. 33:56), and cite the following poem of D .bi al-Burjum as a shhid: "Faman yaku ams bi lmadnati rah.luhu, fainn wa qayyrun [instead of qayyran] bih lagharbu.215 According to al-Farr, since the subject al-ladhna is indeclinable, the effect of inna on it is weak, therefore the word al-s.bin which is connected to it is also weak and can be ignored; consequently, it is possible to read als.bin in the nominative case, namely, al-s.bin. However, he disagrees with al-Kis in the possibility of using the expression . Because the word abd is declinable, the effect of inna cannot be weak on it as well as on the word connected to it, namely, zayd; therefore, zaydan
However, ishah, Ubayy and others are reported to have al-s .bina in their codices, see Ibn Ab Dd al-Sijistn, Kitb al-Mas . h .if, p. 232. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp. 52-53. The poem was cited by D .ab ibn al-H .rith al-Burjum in his prison when he was jailed in the time of Uthmn for slandering women of unblemished reputation (qadhf al-muh .s .ant). It means: "Whoever makes Madinah his final destination, [as for me] I and [my riding animal] Qayyr are strangers in it." Qayyr was the name of his horse or his camel. See al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 311, n. 2.
215. 214.

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should be used here. He contends further that the afore-mentioned poem of al-Burjum does not support al-Kis's view in accepting zaydun in the above example. The reason is that qayyr is connected to the pronoun in inn, an indeclinable, and metonymically expressed word, whereas zayd is connected to a declinable word abd. Similarly, it is not possible to read inna llha wa malikatuhu (Q. 33:56) for the same reason. In addition, it is more likely and permissible to say qayyrun (besides the usual reading qayyran) than al-s.bin. The reason is that the word al-ladhna with which it is connected can be read as al-ladhna in the nominative case.216 Another reason for justifying the reading al-s.bin is that, according to al-Kis, the word is following the noun in the term hd, which does not mean "the Jews" as usually interpreted, but "the people who repented and returned to the right way", an interpretation similarly given to the verse inn hudn ilayka ("behold, unto Thee have we turned in repentance!" Q. 7:156, Asad). Since some of the Sabaeans were included among "the people who repented and returned to the right way", the word al-s.bin is placed in the nominative case. Al-Kis probably means that al-s.bin is in the nominative case because this term is connected to people who are following the right path, namely those who are hd as well as man. Again, alFarr rejects this view stating another interpretation that the believers in the beginning of the verse refer to the pretending believers only and not the sincere ones, then the Jews and Christians are mentioned. The verse continues with "... whosoever [among them, i.e., the pretending believers,217 the Jews, the Sabaeans and the Christians] believeth in Allah and the Last Day and doth
216. 217.

Al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 1, pp. 310-311. Similarly, it is said that the believers in the verse: "And [always], O you believers - all of you - turn unto

God in repentance, so that you might attain to a happy state!" (Q. 24:31, Asad) are pretending believers only, namely, the hypocrites; see al-Zarkash, al-Burhn, vol. 2, p. 220. However, al-Qurt .ub does not include hypocrites in the term al-muminn ("the believers") in this verse and states that asking for repentance is incumbent exclusively on believers; see al-Jmi, vol. 5, p. 90, and vol. 12, p. 238. The Prophet was reported to have said in one h .adth on the authority of Ibn Umar as follows: "Verily, I turn unto Him in repentance a hundred times every day" (Reported by al-Bukhr, Ibn H .anbal and al-Bayhaq).

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right - there shall no fear come upon them neither shall they grieve." (Q. 5:69, Pickthall).218 It means that whoever among those people, whether they disbelieve or pretend to believe, will be safe if they become believers. Al-Zamakhshar gives us the reason for reading al-s.bin instead of al-s.bin in the above verse: it is the mubtada (subject) of a hidden khabar (predicate) kadhlik ("like that"). It is like saying ("Lo! those who believe, and those who are Jews, and Christians, all of them will be so-and-so, and the Sabaeans will also be like that"). Al-Zamakhshar rejects the view that al-s.bin should be mat.f to the phrase , because this could occur only after the completion of the sentence, namely, after mentioning the predicate. Therefore, according to him, it is wrong to say, for example, , (but rather, ).219 Al-Suyt. mentions five views reported from Ab al-Baq, including the three views mentioned above. The two remaining views are as follows: a. Inna in the verse in question means "yes", and the words that follow, including al-s.bin, are in the nominative case. As a shhid, the poem of Ubayd Allh ibn Qays mentioned before was cited.220 b. Al-s.bin is a plural treated as a singular number, and its letter nn is the letter of the inflection ( ). There is no further comment from al-Suyt..221 This means that al-s.bina, being treated as a singular noun, its letter ww remains, although the word is in the
See al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 312. An almost identical verse with the word al-s .bina (in the accusative case) put after, rather than before, the word alnas .r (the Christians), and with the addition of "surely their reward is with their Lord" is found in Q. 2:62. Nfi read al-s .bn and al-s .bn without hamzah in the Qurn, whereas other qurr read them with hamzah, namely, al-s .bin and al- s .bin; see Ibn Mujhid, Kitb al-Sabah, p. 158; see also Mus .h .af al-Jamhriyyah, pp. 120 (Q. 5:71) and 10 (Q. 2:61). 219. See al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 373. 220. This poem is also used as a shhid in dealing with the verse inna hdhn lash .irn,as mentioned earlier. 221. Al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 274.
218.

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accusative case; instead, its letter nn is inflected with fath.ah, so that it becomes al-s.bina. It is like the term Firawnu (in the nominative case) and Firawna (in the accusative case).222 3. The verse in question runs as follows:

There are many different views about the Sabaeans. According to Ab Ubaydah, they were people who changed their religion. The root meaning of s .abaa is "to rise, to grow". The expression means "the stars rise from their points of rising", and s .abaat sinnuh means "his tooth is growing"; see Majz alQurn, vol. 1, p. 172. The Sabaean is called S .bi (pl. S .bin) as well as S .bin (pl. S .bn) which is the variant reading of Nfi. The root meaning of s .ab (present: yas .b) is "to lean". According to al-Sudd and Ish .q ibn Rhawayh, they are a sect among the people of the Book. According to Ab al-liyah and al-D .ah .h .k they belonged to a sect among the people of the Book who read the Psalms (al-Zabr), and for this reason, Ab H .anfah and Ish .q ibn Rhawayh allowed the Muslims to eat their slaughtered animals and to marry their women. On the other hand, according to al-Qurt .ub they were people who believed in one God but believed also in the stars' influence, and for this reason, Ab Sad al-Istakhr stated that they were non-belivers. Al-Khall said that they claimed to be the followers of Prophet Noah. According to Mujhid, al-H .asan and Ibn Ab Nujayh, they are people who mix Judaism with Magian. According to Qatdah and al-H .asan, they worship angels, face the Qiblah in their five daily prayers and read the Psalms. According to Ibn Kathr, the right view is that of Mujhid and Wahb ibn Munabbih who said that they were neither Jews, Christians, Magians nor polytheists, but rather people who remained in their nature and did not follow any particular religion. Therefore the polytheists called a person who converted to Islam a Sabaean, namely, a person who was not a follower of any religion on earth at that time. See alS .bn, Mukhtasar, vol. 1, p. 72; and al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 1, pp. 434-435. B. Carra de Vaux divides the Sabaeans into two groups: the followers of Prophet Yah .y (John the Baptist), and the pagan Sabaeans who lived under the Muslim rule. For further details, see B. Carra de Vaux "al-Sabia", SEI, pp. 477-8. See also M. Asad, The Message, p. 14, n. 49.

222.

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"But as for those from among them who are deeply rooted in knowledge, and the believers who believe in that which is revealed unto thee, and that which was revealed before thee and those who are [especially] constant in prayer, and those who pay the poor-due, and the believers in Allah and the Last Day - these it is unto whom We shall grant a mighty reward." (Q. 4:162)

Following the Uthmnic recension it is written wa l-muqmn als.alh (in the accusative case) in the above verse rather than wa l-muqmn al-s.alh (in the nominative case). The latter is grammatically considered the correct one, as it is connected to al-muminn which is also in the nominative case. Ibn Qutaybah mentions five different views among the grammarians concerning wa l-muqmn al-s.alh in the above verse, as follows: a. The expression is mat.f (conjoined) with the pronoun ka in ilayka, so that the verse means ("...,they believe in that which has been revealed unto thee, ... and unto those who were constant in prayer"). This view, however, is rejected by the grammarians of the Bas.ran school. They contend that a noun cannot be connected with a pronoun in the genitive case, unless it is accompanied by the preposition of that pronoun. In this case, the verse should be read wa il l-muqmn al-s.alh. The absence of the preposition il in the Qurnic text wa lmuqmn al-s.alh indicates that there is no such connection as mentioned above.223 b. The expression is mat.f with the pronoun ka in qablika, so that the verse means ("... and in that which was revealed before thee and before those who were constant in prayer"). This view is also rejected by the grammarians of the Bas.ran school on the same argument mentioned above. In this case, the term qabl is not mentioned in al-muqmn al-s.alh.224 c. The expression is mat.f with m unzila ilayka, so that the verse means
223. 224.

See al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 2, p. 139. Ibid.

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("... believe in that which is revealed unto thee ... and believe in those who are constant in prayer"). This is the view of al-Kis. As a shhid it is mentioned in the Qurn ("and trusts the believers", Q. 9:61, Asad) which means d. The expression is in the accusative case because it is a praise ( ), as if it is said ("I praise those who are constant in prayer"), or ("I mean those who are constant in prayer"). According to Sbawayh and others among the grammarians of the Bas.ran school the transition of a noun into the accusative case is a legitimate grammatical device to emphasise its significance, in this case, those who are constant in prayer.225 Asad, Pickthall and Ali follow this view by adding the term "especially" - between parenthesis by Asad and Ali - in translating this expression (al-muqmn al-s.alh). e. The expression is in the accusative case as a break required after using long successive words in the nominative case. Then the expression goes on and returns to the nominative case. This is the view of Ab Ubaydah.226 Al-Suyt. mentions six views, including those mentioned above except the view of Ab Ubaydah. The remaining two views are as follows: a. The expression is mat.f with the word qabl in qablika, so that the verse means ("... and that which was revealed before thee and that which was revealed to those who were constant in prayer"). b. The expression is mat.f with the pronoun hum in minhum, so that the verse means "But as for those from among them who are deeply rooted in knowledge ... and from
This is also the view of al-Farr according to Ibn Qutaybah; see Tawl, pp. 53-4; al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 366; al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 2, p. 139; al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 6, p. 13; and al-Zarqn, Manhil al-Irfn, vol. 1, p. 388. 226. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 53; Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 142. Similar to al-muqmn is al-s .birn in Q. 2:177. Of all the qurr only s .im al-Jah .dar read it as al- s .birn, although in writing, he kept it as al- s .birn for the same reasons mentioned before. For further details, see Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp. 53-54.
225.

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among those who are constant in prayer").227 This view, as mentioned earlier, is rejected by the grammarians of the Bas.ran school, since the Qurnic text does not say wa min al-muqmn al-s.alh. Al-T .abar gives us some views on the verse in question. He says that Qurnic commentators do not agree that al-rsikhn fi l-ilm and almuqmn al-s.alh mentioned in the above verse relate to the same category of people. Those who say so maintain that al-muqmn al-s.alh is in the accusative case for the following reasons: a. It was the scribe's error and should be al-muqmn al-s.alh. This is the view of Abn ibn Uthmn ibn Affn and ishah; it is also the reading of Ibn Masd in his codex.228 b. The expression is s.ifah (the characteristic) of al-rsikhn f l-ilm. It is because of the length of the verse that al-muqmn al-s.alh is changed into the accusative case (i.e., al-muqmn al-s.alh) as a praise. This is the view of some grammarians of the Bas.ran and the Kfan schools. They say that the Arabs occasionally change the irb of the middle s.ifah of something they are praising or blaming, and finally return to the irb of the first s.ifah.229 Other grammarians say that al-muqmn al-s.alh is not the s.ifah of alrsikhn f l-ilm, although the latter are also found among the former. In this case, al-muqmn al-s.alh is in the genitive case (khifd.). Al-T .abar gives us some views in understanding the verse, some of which have already been mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah and al-Suyt. above. Their different understandings of the verse are as follows:
These views are reported by Ab al-Baq. See al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 274; see also al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 2, p. 139. Al-T .abar, Jmi, vol. 6, p. 18. This is also the reading of Ubayy, Anas, s .im al-Jah .dar, Sad ibn Jubayr, and others. See Arthur Jeffery, ed., Materials, pp. 38 and 216. Al-Zamakhshar mentions that this reading is that of Mlik ibn Dnr, s .im al-Jah .dar and s al-Thaqaf, as written in the codex of Abd Allh (ibn Masd); see al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 336. According to al-Qurt .ub, the reading of Ubayy is al-muqmn, as in the Uthmnic recension; see al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 6, p. 13. This is also the reading of Abu Amr in one report, see al-Zarqn, Manhil al-Irfn, vol. 1, p. 388. 229. Al-T .abar, Jmi, vol. 6, p. 18.
228. 227.

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("... and the believers believe in that which is revealed unto thee, and that which was revealed before thee and [believe] in [the injunction of] performing prayer..."). Al-mutn al-zakh is in the nominative case because it is mat.f with almuminn, so that the verse means ("and the believers believe in that which is revealed unto thee ... they are those who pay the poor-due"). b. ("...and the believers believe in that which is revealed unto thee ... and in angels"), so that the almuqmn al-s.alh are the angels who pray to Allah by glorifying Him and asking forgiveness for people on the earth. c. ( "... and believe in those who are constant in prayer, they and those who pay the poordue..."). Those who are constant in prayer in the above view are the angels or the prophets - or the infallible imms according to the Sh's as 230 mentioned by al-T .abars. d. "But as for those from among them who are deeply rooted in knowledge ... and from among those who are constant in prayer" as mentioned by al-Suyt. (b) above. e. ("..., and the believers believe in that which has been revealed unto thee, ... and unto those who were constant in prayer"), as mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah (a) above. The best view according to al-T .abar is the second view (b) above which is that of al-Kis. Therefore, the verse means ("... and the believers of them believe in that which is revealed unto thee O Muhammad from the Book, and that which was revealed among My Books before thee, and in the angels who are constant in prayer."). If we go back to the s.ifah of al-rsikhna fi l-ilm, the verse means ("But as for those from among them who are deeply rooted in knowledge, and the believers in the Books, and the angels, and those who pay the poor-due, and the believers in Allah
230.

a.

See al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 2, p. 140.

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and the Last Day...").231 If we examine the view chosen by al-T .abars for the interpretation of the verse in question, it contains the pillars of faith and of Islam. The belief in Allah, His angels, His messengers - as angels and messengers are those who are constant in prayer232 - His revealed Books, and the Last Day mentioned in the verse, are among the pillars of faith. The five pillars of Islam are represented by establishing the obligatory prayers and paying the zakt mentioned in this verse as well as other verses scattered throughout the Qurn. If we look into the meaning of the verse in question, we find that they are almost identical to those of verses 2-5 of srat al-Baqarah. These verses run as follows:

"This is the Book wherein there is no doubt, a guidance for those who fear Allah (al-muttaqn), who believe in [the existence] of that which is beyond the reach of human perception (al-ghayb), and are constant in prayer, and spend out of what We have provided for them, and who believe in that which is revealed unto thee, and that which was revealed before thee, and are certain of the Hereafter. These are rightly guided by their Lord, and these shall surely prosper (al-muflih .n)." (Q. 2:2-5).

The similarity between the two groups of verses is as follows: Q. 2:2-5 Q. 4:162 a. a. b. c. d. e. f. b. c. d. e. f.

231. 232.

For further details, see al-T .abar, Jmi, vol. 6, pp. 19-20. See al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 274.

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g. h.

g. h.

We have noticed that the meaning of the two groups are almost identical. The expression yuminna bim unzila ilayka wa m unzila min qablika is found in both groups. The term al-khirah (the Hereafter) in Q. 2:4 is itself al-yawm al-khir (the Last Day) in Q. 4:162. As those who are constant in prayer in Q. 2:2-5 are the muttaqn it is highly probable that those who are constant in prayer in Q. 4:162 are the al-rsikhn fi l-ilm and al-muminn. For this reason, I lean to the view of Sbawayh, al-Farr, Khall and the grammarians of the Bas.ran school in general, that al-muqmn al-s.alh is in the accusative case because it indicates praise as mentioned above. There are many ways to emphasise a statement: we highlight it, underline it, or write it in italics. One of many ways to emphasise a statement in the classical Arabic literature as well as in the Qurn is by changing its case, as we have noticed above. 4. With regard to the verse kadhlika nunjj l-muminn ("thus We save believers" Q. 21:88), Ibn Qutaybah says that although it is written in the mus.h.af with one letter nn, all the qurr read it with two nns, namely, nunj, except s.im who read it nujj with one nn.233 The reason for dropping the second nn, in their view, is that this letter nn is hidden in the letter jm, or, as al-T .abar put it, is not clearly pronounced, as is in all (originally an l), so that this letter nn is dropped. The subject is then Allh, and the object is al-muminn which is in the accusative case.234 On the other hand, s.ims reading is acceptable among some grammarians, such as al-Farr, Ab Ubayd, and Thalab. They base their view on the assumption that there is a hidden mas.dar (verbal noun) after the
Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 54; and Ibn Mujhid, Kitb al-Sabah, p. 430. Beside s .im, Ibn mir also reads nujj with one nn; see al-T .abars, Majma alBayn, vol. 4, p. 60. 234. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 55; Ibn Khlawayh, al-H .ujjah, p. 250; and alT .abar, Jmi, vol. 17, p. 65.
233.

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verb which serves as the subject in the verse, namely, al-naj, so that the verse reads nujj l-naju l-muminn which later becomes nujj lmuminn. It is like the expression d.uriba al-d.arbu zaydan which later becomes d.uriba zaydan; the more acceptable expression is man kadhaba kna sharran lahu ("whoever lies it is bad for him") in which the subject alkadhib (lying) is not expressed but understood. As a shhid in poetry they cite the satiric poem of Jarr ridiculing Farazdaq, as follows: ("Even if Qufayrah [Farazdaq's mother] bore a dog's cub, dogs would be cursed of that cub"). La subba ... al-kilb here means la subba al-sabbu ... al-kilb, so that al-kilb remains in the accusative case.235 Ab Ubayd who chooses s.im's reading says that he (Ab Ubayd) does so, because he does not like to disagree with the text of the mus.h.af; moreover, there is also a variant reading similar to this verse, namely, li-yajziya qawman bim knu yaksibn ("so that He may requite people according to what they have earned." Q. 45:14). This verse is read by Ab Jafar al-Madan li-yujz qawman, meaning li-yujz l-jazu qawman.236 The use of the mas.dar of a verb as a subject in the above examples is unacceptable according to al-Zajjj and Ab H .tim, because it only repeats the meaning of the verb. They say that it is not possible to say d.uriba zaydan meaning d.uriba l-d.arbu zaydan, because the verb d.uriba has already indicated the action of beating (al- d.arb), and therefore, the use of al- d.arb is redundant. They reject s.ims reading nujj l-muminn as a solecism, because the noun al-muminn is in the accusative case where no subject is mentioned. Therefore, the proper expression with nujj is al-muminn, like the expression kurrima l-s.lih.n.237 Another view of Ab Ubayd is that the reading nujj is originally nunj, and the second nn is contracted with the letter jm. However, the idea of contraction (idghm) is rejected by al-Nah.h.s who says that because the articulation of the two letters is very different no grammarian allows the contraction of nn with jm. For example, the verse man ja bil-h.asanah
Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp. 55-56; al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 210; and al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 11, p. 335. 236. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 55; and Ibn Khlawayh, al-H .ujjah, p. 250.
237. 235.

Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 55, n. 1.

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(Q. 6:160, 27:89, and 28:84) is never read maj ja bi l-h.asanah. The best explanation for this, according to al-Qurt.ub, is that of Al ibn Sulaymn alAkhfash. He says that due to the combination of two letter nns in nunj the second nn is dropped. It is like wa l tafarraq (Q. 3:103) which is originally wa l tatafarraq.238 Another view worth mentioning is that of Ab Al who says that s.im should have read nunj with two letter nns, but only one nn was clear. People who heard his reading thought that there was a contraction between the letter nn and the letter jm. Therefore, they changed it with one letter nn.239 If we look into the present Qurnic text based on the variant reading of s.im we find that a small lone letter nn is put after the letter nn in n-jy. Its purpose is to help the reader in reading the word, so that he will read it rather than . However, since this lone nn is not joined with the rasm of the word, the rasm is not affected or changed. It is written like this: . Therefore, I lean to the view of Ab Al above. It means that s.im did really read nunj like the other qurr. The only difference is that he did not pronounce the second nn clearly, since it was not written in the Uthmnic recension. 5. According to Ibn Qutaybah most of the qurr read faas.s.addaqa wa akun (without waw) rather than wa akna.240 He states that the reason for reading akun is that according to some grammarians the word akun takes the position of faas.s.addaqa, namely, in the apocopate form (jazm). Without (f) the word has to be in the apocopate form, namely, as.s.addaq. Originally, the expression is law l akhkhartan ... atas.addaq wa akun min
238. 239. 240.

See al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 11, p. 335. See al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 4, p. 60. The text says without , but this must be misprinted, as none , and the expression "without , namely, not . See

of the qurr read it that way. It should be ww" is meant by Ibn Qutaybah the absence of ww in

Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 56, al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 1, pp. 87-88; and vol. 3, p. 160, and Ibn Khlawayh, al-H .ujjah, p. 346.

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al-s.lih.n. As a shhid they give the following example in poetry: ("Give me your camel so that I may leave you and go back to my way," namely, "treat me well and bring back your kindness to me, for this may induce me to make peace with you and bring me back to what I used to be"). Without laall it is read us.lih.kum in the apocopate form, and that is the reason astadrij is also in the apocopate form. However, it is also possible to read wa akna which is the reading of Ab Amr ibn al-Al according to Ibn Qutaybah, and of Ibn Masd and other qurr according to al-Farr.241 Ibn Masd maintains that this reading is correct and not disagreeing with the rasm of the mus.h.af, since the letter waw may be dropped in the text while it remains there in the reading. It is like the letter alif which is dropped in al-Rah.mn ( ) and Sulaymn ( ).242 C. Contradiction and Disagreement in the Verses of the Qurn There are some Qurnic verses in which, to some people, contradiction ( ) seems to occur. In other verses disagreement ( ) seems to occur because of (a) not noticing the existence of relevance, (b) misunderstanding the words, or (c) misunderstanding the expression used in these verses. To prove the absence of such contradiction and disagreement in these verses Ibn Qutaybah explains them one by one, among which are as follows: 1. Contradiction a. ("For on that Day neither man nor invisible being will be asked about his sin." Q. 55:39, Asad) seems to be contradictory with "But by
Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 56; Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 259; and Ibn Mujhid, Kitb al-Sabah, p. 637. Besides Ibn Masd, according to the codex of Ibn Abbs it is read wa akna. The codex of Ubayy ibn Kab reads faatas .addaqa. Ibn Masd's variant reading is . See A. Jeffery, Materials, pp. 171 and 206. 242. See A. Jeffery, Materials, pp. 171 and 206. See also al-Farr, Man lQurn, vol. 1, pp. 87-88 and vol. 3, p. 160.
241.

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thy Sustainer! [On the Day of Judgment] We shall indeed call them to account, one and all, for whatever they have done!" )Q. 15:92-93, Asad). Ibn Qutaybah's commentary is that the Resurrection Day ( ) will last fifty thousand years.243 On that day people will be and then will not be questioned. They will be questioned and put on trial in Allah's court. After the completion of reckoning good and bad deeds they have done on the earth, then what Allah described when He said "When the sky is rent asunder and becomes red like [burning] oil" (Q. 55:37, Asad) will take place. The talking and arguing will cease, the faces of the blessed will turn white and of the damned will turn black (Q. 3:106-7 and 39:6). The two parties will be identified with marks; the leaves containing the record of their deeds will fly from their hands; the blessed will be sent to Heaven and the damned will be sent to Hell (Q. 56:8-9 and 41). This is the moment where neither man nor invisible being (jinni) will be questioned about his sin as mentioned in the above verse.244 b. It is stated in one verse "[And] He will say: 'Contend not before Me, [O you sinners,] for I gave you a forewarning [of this Day of Reckoning].'" (Q. 50:28, Asad), whereas in the other it is stated: "And then, behold, on the Day of Resurrection you all shall place your dispute before your Sustainer." (Q. 39:31, Asad). Ibn Qutaybah's commentary is that
243.

Ibn Qutaybah is referring to the Qurnic verse:

"Whereby the angels and the Spirit ascend unto Him in a Day whereof the span is fifty thousand years." (Q. 70:4). This is the interpretation of Ikrimah, Qatdah and Ibn Abbs as reported by al-T .abar. However, in another report attributed to Ibn Abbs he was asked about the day in which the span is fifty thousand years. He asked the questioner about the day in which the span is one thousand years mentioned in Q. 32:5). When the questioner declined to answer, Ibn Abbs told him that both days were mentioned by Allah in the Qurn, and He Himself knew them best. Ibn Abbs did not want to give any commentary on them. See alT .abar, Jmi, vol. 29, p. 45. 244. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 65. According to Qatdah, the questioning will occur before their mouths were sealed, their hands spoke and their feet testified as mentioned in Q. 36:65. See al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 17, p. 174; and Ibn Kathr, Tafsr, vol. 4, p. 295.

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people will argue against each other where the wronged will complain against the wrong-doers, and when the disputes are settled Allah will tell them not to speak, argue or make any excuse any longer, for their arguments and excuses will be of no avail. Ibn Qutaybah presents one interpretation given by Ikrimah on the verse "That Day on which they will not [be able to] utter a word, nor be allowed to proffer excuses!" (Q. 77:35-36, Asad) and the verse Q. 39:31 above. Ikrimah said that on that Day they will argue with each other, then Allah will seal their mouths, and their hands and legs will talk.245 2. Disagreement a. Not noticing the existence of relevance, as follows: (1) The verse And if you have reason to fear that you might not act equitably towards orphans, continues with then marry from among [other] women such as are lawful to you - [even] two, three, or four" (Q. 4:3, Asad) which seems irrelevant. Ibn Qutaybah's explanation is that if you fear that you might not deal fairly with the orphans that are assigned to you, then fear also that you might not do justice among women if you marry them. Therefore, marry two, three or four wives and not more. Otherwise, you will not be able to do justice among them. The verse continues with: "But if you have reason to fear that you might not be able to treat them with equal fairness, then [only] one - or [from among] those whom you rightfully possess." It means that if you still fear that you would not be able to do justice with two, three or four wives, then marry one wife only, or confine yourself to your im (slave girls) whom your right hand possesses. This is more appropriate, so that you would not become unfair with them. Quoting Ibn Abbs Ibn Qutaybah said that like the orphans, women are also under the protection of men. Since justice is highly required from the guardians of orphans towards these orphans, so it is with the husbands towards
Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 66. See also Q. 36:65. In the Hereafter the wronged will dispute against the wrong-doers, the speakers of truth against the liars and nonbelievers against believers and the weak against the arrogant; see al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 15, p. 254.
245.

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their wives. Therefore, the number of wives is limited to four and not more to avoid injustice.246 (2) One verse reads: "God has laid down that the Kabah, the Inviolable Temple, shall be a symbol for all mankind; and [so, too] the sacred month [of pilgrimage] and the garlanded offerings," then the verse continues with "that these [are symbols] meant to make you aware that God is aware of all that is in the heavens and all that is on earth, and that God has full knowledge of everything." (Q. 5:97, Asad). The second part of the verse seems to be irrelevant to the first part. In order to show the existence of relevance between the two parts of the above verse, Ibn Qutaybah described at first the condition of the Arabs before the advent of Islam. He said that the Arabs in the pre-Islamic era were accustomed to waging war among themselves, shedding blood and taking others' property unjustly, frightening travellers, seeking vengeance and killing an innocent person rather than the killer in revenge. They even killed a close friend or a relative in retaliation for another close friend or relative. An example can be seen with Tawbah ibn al-Mud.arris al-Abas who wrote a poem consoling his mother after killing his own maternal uncle in revenge for his brother's assassination. They might kill three, four or more persons in revenge for one person. An unidentified poet wrote a poem regarding such an event when he said "They accused you of killing one of their men; in revenge, they killed eight men )of yours(; then they continued tending (their camels) fearlessly (of any retaliation from you)." For this reason Allah made the Kabah, the Inviolable Temple and the sacred territory (al-h.arm) around it, so that people who were afraid for themselves could take refuge within this sacred territory. Allah made the sacred month so that when it arrived people and their
Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp. 72-73. This is also the view of Qatdah and Mujhid. This is one interpretation given by al-T .abar. The other interpretation is that of ishah who says that the verse deals with the guardians of orphans who intend to marry them for their wealth and beauty with lower than the minimum dowry. The verse prohibits them from doing so unless they pay the dowry in full, or marry other women. For further details, see al-T .abar, Jmi, vol. 4, pp. 155-160; al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 5, p. 11; and Ibn Kathr, Tafsr, vol. 1, pp. 459-461.
246.

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property became safe again. After they had sacrificed or put the garland around the neck of the animals to be sacrificed they would be free to go and travel in search of their subsistence which would make them prosper and safe from poverty. If Allah had left these Arabs in their state of ignorance and continuous state of hostility, travelling and trade would have stopped and they would have become extinct. Allah did not want this to happen. He did what He did because He knew what was good for them and wanted us to know that Allah is aware of all that is in the heavens and all that is on earth and has full knowledge of everything. b. Misunderstanding the words, as follows: (1) The word kuffr in the following verse is misunderstood by some people as "infidels" rather than "tillers". The verse runs as follows: "Its parable is that of [life-giving] rain: the herbage which it causes to grow delights the tillers of the soil..." (Q. 57:20, Asad). They wondered why the verse specified the infidels alone in rejoicing on seeing the growth of the plants when the believers would not have their faith decrease if they shared the infidels' joy. Ibn Qutaybah states that the word kuffr in the above verse means "the farmers", as the root-meaning of the word kafara from which kuffr is derived means "to cover". The farmer who sows the seeds is called kfir, because he covers them with soil when he plants them. The night is called kfir because it covers everything with its darkness. It is in this sense that the pre-Islamic poet Labd said ...in a night where the clouds covered its stars". In addition, another Qurnic verse mentions the word zurr (farmers) instead of kuffr, as follows: "... [they are] like a seed that brings forth its shoot, and then He strengthens it, so that it grows stout, and [in the end] stands firm upon its stem, delighting the sowers..." (Q. 48:29, Asad).247 (2) The word subtan in the following verse is misunderstood by some people and translated as "sleep" rather than "rest". The verse reads as follows: And [We] made your sleep for rest." (Q. 78:9, Ali). Therefore they wonder how sleep is made for sleep. Ibn Qutaybah explains that subtan in the above verse means "rest", so that the verse means "and We made sleep for rest for your body". Saturday
247.

Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp. 75-76; and al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 17, p. 255.

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is called meaning "the day of rest" on which the children of Israel have rest. The word sabt originally means "stretching" from which it becomes "rest". The expression means "the woman undid the plait of her hair". However, sleep is sometimes called subt because sleep occurs with stretching.248 Another meaning of subt is given by al-Qurt.ub which is "cutting" ( ). The expression means he cut his hair, and if someone sleeps he cuts his relation with people and his work.249 c. Misunderstanding the expression in the verses, as follows: (1) The verse ... and goblets that will [seem to] be crystal" (lit., "and goblets which were crystal"), then the verse continues with Crystal-like, [but] of silver" (Q. 76:15-6, Asad) (lit., "crystal [made] of silver"). To some people the two verses seem to disagree. The first verse mentions goblets made of crystal, then in the second, the crystal is made of silver. Ibn Qutaybah's explanation is that everything in Paradise such as beds and cups are different from what we have in this world. Allah mentions what we know in this world to indicate what we do not know in the next world. Referring to Ibn Abbs's statement, Ibn Qutaybah says that there is nothing in this world similar to that in Paradise except in names. The goblets in this world are made of crystal or of silver. In Paradise these goblets are white as silver and pure as crystal. The verse, then, means according to Ibn Qutaybah "crystal as if it were silver" rather than "crystal-like, [but] of silver" as viewed by Ibn Kathr and translated by Asad above.250 (2) The verse That We may send upon them stones of clay" (Q. 51:33, Pickthall). This verse seems to indicate
248. 249.

Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp. 79-80; and al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 19, p. 171.

Al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 19, p. 172. 250. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 80. Al-Qurt .ub and Ibn Kathr also mention Ibn Abbs's interpretation with the addition that Ibn Abbas makes the exception with the crystal that it is of silver. But he says further that the crystal of Paradise is like silver (in its whiteness) with the purity of crystal. See al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 19, p. 141. Ibn Kathr also quotes Ibn Abbs's statement who says that the goblets are of silver but transparent so that its content can be seen through it; such goblets will not be found in this world. See Ibn Kathr, Tafsr, vol. 4, p. 486.

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that the stones were made of clay. Referring to Ibn Abbs's interpretation, Ibn Qutaybah says that these stones are jurr (baked bricks), for it is as hard as stone.251 D. The Ambiguity of the Verses of the Qurn 1. The meaning of ambiguity The word tashbuh (similarity, resemblance, likeness), which is the mas.dar of the word mutashbih (ambiguous, obscure) as explained by Ibn Qutaybah, is the resemblance of a word with another in its appearance when they differ in meaning. For example, the fruit of Paradise resembles that of the earth, but the taste is different, as mentioned in the following verse: ("It is given to them [namely, the people of Paradise] something resembling it." Q. 2:25). The verb tashbaha ("to resemble one another") in the verse "their hearts are all alike" (Q. 2:118) means "their hearts resemble each other in infidelity and in harshness". The verb ishtabaha ("to resemble one another") in the expression ("the matter is obscure to me") means "it resembles another matter, so that I can hardly make any distinction between the two". The verb shabbaha ("to liken, to make equal or similar") in the expression ("you made me uncertain") if you covered the truth with falsehood ( ). Magicians ( ) are called ("dubious persons"), because they make falsehood seem reality.252 The word mutashbih may also be applied to something ambiguous (mysterious) and subtle, even if it does not make us confused with its resemblance to something else. The letters of the alphabet at the openings of many chapters of the Qurn, known as al-h.urf al-muqat .t.aah (lit., "disjoined letters"), are sometimes called mutashbih since they resemble other letters. These ambiguous letters will be dealt with in chapter four of this study.

Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 81. Al-Qushayr states that the verse said "stones of clay" to distinguish it from the "stones of water" which are hail stones. See al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 17, p. 48. 252. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp. 101-102.

251.

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2. Muh.kamt and Mutashbiht There has never been any dispute among Muslim scholars regarding the existence of muh.kamt (clear verses) as well as mutashbiht (ambiguous verses) in the Qurn. The Qurn itself affirms their existence as follows: He it is Who hath revealed unto thee (Muhammad) the Book, containing verses that are clear in and by themselves [namely, precise in meaning] - they are the essence of the Book - and others allegorical..." (Q. 3:7). But they disagree in regard to the verses which are considered to belong to the mutashbiht and in the possibility of knowing their tawl. The Ashars and the Mutazils believe that the mutashbiht are explained by the muh.kamt, but what is ambiguous (mutashbih) according to the Asharis is clear (muh.kam) according to the Mutazils and vice versa. For example, the Qurnic verse Then whosoever will, let him believe, and whosoever will, let him disbelieve;" (Q. 18:29, Pickthall), and Yet, you cannot will, except by the will of Allah." (Q. 76:30, Dawood). According to the Ashars, the first verse is mutashbih because they do not believe in the infinite free-will, while the second one is muh.kam. The Mutazils hold the opposite view, because they do not believe in finite free-will. Generally speaking, the muh.kamt are verses which decide clearly and elaborately with clear evidence the ruling of something whether it is h.all (lawful, permissible), h.arm (unlawful, prohibited), wad (promise), wad (threat), thawb (reward), iqb (punishment), amr (command), zajr (reproof), khabar (news of the past), mathal (parable), iz.ah (sermon, advice), ibar (deterrent examples), etc. These muh.kamt verses are the mother of the Book, namely, the foundation (origin, source) of the Book, wherein the religion of Islam, the religious obligations (al-farid.), penal laws (al-h.udd), and matters concerning Muslims' religious affairs are found. However, there are different opinions among the ulam on what is precisely meant by muh.kamt and its relation to mutashbiht, among which are as follows: a. The muh.kamt are verses which are to be acted upon (al-maml bih) and abrogate others, while the mutashbiht are verses which are

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abrogated and which are not to be followed. Among the followers of this 253 view are Ibn Abbs, Qatdah, al-Rab, and al-D .ah.h.k ibn Muzh.im. b. The muh.kamt are verses in which h.all and h.arm are explained; the rest are mutashbiht. This is the view of Mujhid.254 c. The muh.kamt are verses which have no more than one tawl, while the mutashbiht are those which are subject to many interpretations. This is the view of Muh.ammad ibn Jafar ibn al-Zubayr.255 Al-Sayyid alMurtad. who supports this view states that the majority of the mutashbiht have many meanings. It is difficult to know which of these interpretations is meant by Allah.256 d. The muh.kamt are verses which deal with stories of nations and messengers sent to them which were elaborately told to the Prophet and then to his followers. The mutashbiht are those which are ambiguous due to the repetition of the stories in different chapters of the Qurn; some stories are related in the same wording with different meanings, but others in different wording but with the same meanings. This is the view of Ibn Zayd who cites the verse: "A-L-R. (This is) a Book, with verses that have been made clear in and by themselves, and then have been distinctly spelled out from One Who is wise and all aware." (Q. 11:1). One example of the mutashbiht given by Ibn Zayd is the story of Prophet Moses mentioned in many chapters in the Qurn with different wording but with the same meanings (ideas). Another example is the use of ("introduce therein" Q. 23:27) which has the same meaning with ("load therein" Q. 11:40), 28:32) which has the same meaning with hand into" Q. 27:12), and 20:20, Asad) has the same idea with
253.

("thrust thy hand" Q. ("put thy ("a snake, moving rapidly", Q. ("a serpent,

Al-T .abar, Jmi, vol. 3, pp. 114-115. 254. Ibid., p. 115. 255. Ibid., pp. 115-116. This is also the view of Ab Al al-Jubb, according to al-T .abars, see Majma al-Bayn, vol. 1, p. 409.
256.

See al-Murtad ., al-Aml. vol. 2, p. 97.

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plainly visible", Q. 7:107, Asad).257 e. The muh.kamt are verses whose meanings and interpretations are known by the ulam, while the mutashbiht are those whose interpretations are known to Allah alone, such as the time of the coming of the Doomsday, and al-h.urf al-muqat.t.aah. This is the view of Jbir ibn 258 Abd Allh ibn Rubb to which al-T .abar leans. 3. The tawl of the mutashbiht One of the big issues in the course of the history of the Qurnic exegesis is whether the al-rsikhn f l-ilm (those who are deeply rooted in knowledge) know the tawl of the mutashbiht or not. One group, such as Ibn H .azm, says that the al-rsikhn f l-ilm do not know the tawl of the mutashbiht. The other group, such as Ibn Qutaybah, believes that they know them. The discrepancy lies in their way of reading and understanding the following verse: " But those in whose hearts is perversity follow the part thereof that which is allegorical seeking (to create) dissension and seeking its interpretation. None knoweth its interpretation save Allah. And those who are deeply rooted in knowledge say: We believe in it; it is all from our Lord; but only the wise take heed." (Q. 3:7) The core issue in the above verse is l yalamu tawlahu ill llh wa al-rsikhn f l-ilm yaqln mann bihi. Those who assert that the alrsikhn f l-ilm do not know the tawl of the mutashbiht, in reading the above verse, make a pause in ill llh, and then start a new sentence with wa al-rsikhn f al-ilm, as translated above. Asad, Ali, Pickthall and Dawood all make a full stop after translating illa llah. Among those who hold this view are: ishah, Urwah ibn al-Zubayr, al-H .asan al-Bas.r, Mlik, al-Kis and al-Farr. But those who assert that the al-rsikhn f lilm know the tawl of the mutashbiht, instead of making that pause, they continue the reading with wa l-rsikhn f l-ilm, which, in so doing, becomes connected with Allh by means of the conjunction wa ("and").
257.

Al-T .abar, Jmi, vol. 3, p. 116; and al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 1, p. Al-T .abar, Jmi, vol. 3, pp. 116-117; and al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol.

409.
258.

1, p. 409.

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Consequently, the meaning of the verse becomes that beside Allah, the alrsikhn f l-ilm also know the tawl of the mutashbiht. Among those who hold this view are Ibn Abbs, al-Rab and Muh.ammad ibn Jafar ibn al-Zayd.259 Ibn al-Anbr accepts both interpretations and includes this verse among the al-ad.dd in his work al-Ad.dd. However, he states that the majority of scholars hold the first view.260 Ibn Qutaybah maintains that the significance of the mutashbiht in the Qurn is that as the Qurn was revealed in the language of the Arabs with its own way of expression and style, such as the use of brevity, elaborateness, emphasis, symbolic expression, the concealment of meanings at one time and then revealing it at another, it can be understood by quickunderstanding people only. Otherwise, every verse would be clear to everybody, disregarding his level of understanding. Consequently, there would be neither rivalry for precedence (tafd.ul) among people, nor diligent study (to understand the Qurn), and ideas would become dead. Similarly, in every branch of knowledge, there are things which are sublime and subtle through which students should pass, so that they will ascend from one level to another, until they reach its highest level. In this way, scholars will possess the merit of insight and good judgment, for which they will be rewarded by Allah.261 Ibn Qutaybah gives many examples from the hadths, the sayings of the s.ah.bah, poetry and Arabic expressions to indicate the existence of difficult expressions which cannot be easily understood, similar to the mutashbiht in the Qurn. One of them is the saying of the Prophet, as follows: "Women who dress and at the same time are naked will not enter Heaven," meaning that women who wear very thin or skimpy clothes which reveal the outline of their bodies are effectively naked. Such women will not enter Heaven.262 Ibn Qutaybah explicitly asserts that he does not belong to "those who claim that the mutashbih in the Qurn is unknown to the al-rsikhn f lilm". His arguments are as follows: a. Allah would not reveal anything in the Qurn except for the benefit of
259.

Al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 1, p. 410. 260. Ibn Al-Anbr, al-Ad .dd, pp. 424-425.
261. 262.

Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 86. For further details and more examples, see Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp. 87-98.

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mankind, and that He would expose what He meant by what He had revealed.263 b. It is impossible to believe that the Prophet himself did not know the tawl of the mutashbiht. Since he knew the mutashbiht, despite the verse "None knoweth its interpretation save Allah" it is possible that his elected s.ah.bah would also have known it. He taught Ali the tafsr. Ibn Abbs, for whom the Prophet had prayed to become expert in the tawl of the Qurn, was reported to have said that he knew everything in the Qurn except four things which he knew later, namely: (filth, Q. 69:36), Q. 9:114), and (compassion, Q. 19:13), (inscription, Q. 18:9).264 (soft of heart,

c. If the al-rsikhn f l-ilm did not know the tawl of the mutashbiht, they would not have any supremacy over seekers of knowledge, or even the ignorant among Muslims, because all of them say, "We believe in it; it is all from our Lord." d. The word yaqln in the verse is a hl (an adverb or a circumstantial phrase) to the verb yalamu. It is like the expression "Nobody comes to you except Abd Allh and Zayd says 'I am happy to visit you.'"), meaning ("Nobody comes to you except Abd Allh and Zayd, saying 'I am happy to visit you.'" As a shhid from poetry Ibn Qutaybah cites the poem of Yazd ibn Mufarrigh al-H .imyar lamenting an unidentified person, or satirising Ubbd ibn Ziyd according to S.A. S .aqr, or regretting the loss of his servant Burd by selling him out of necessity according to al265 T .abars. The poem reads as follows:

"You have cut your tie with Ummah after weary days, and the wind is weeping its grief, and the lightning is illuminating (in) a cloud."

263. 264.

Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 98. Ibid., p. 99. 265. Ibid., p. 101, n. 2; and al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 1, p. 410.

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It means "the lightning illuminating the cloud is also weeping its grief". If the lightning did not share with the wind in its grief, it would not have made any sense ( ) to mention it in the poem.266 Ibn Qutaybah considers the term mushkil as a synonym of mutashbih. He states that since the word mushkil literally means "something which makes a form" (ashkala), namely, "it takes the form of something else", it resembles it.267 He believes that the al-rsikhn f l-ilm know the tawl of the mutashbiht. With this in mind, Ibn Qutaybah calls his book which is being studied here Tawl Mushkil al-Qurn. It is worthy to mention here the arguments of a scholar who held a different view, living in a different time and place, to compare it with those of Ibn Qutaybah. The person was Ibn H .azm, an advocate of the Z .hir school who lived in Andalusia (Muslim Spain) in the fifth/eleventh century, two centuries after Ibn Qutaybah's time. Ibn H .azm insisted that the alrsikhn f l-ilm do not know the tawl of the mutashbiht. His main argument is as follows: a. The word al-rsikhn f lilm in the verse in question is the subject of a new sentence. The conjunction wa ("and") in the verse joins two sentences instead of two nouns, as translated above. b. Allah prohibited people from seeking the tawl of the mutashbiht, for He said in the verse that those who seek and follow its tawl are those in whose hearts is perversity and are creators of fitnah. c. Had the al-rsikhn f l-ilm known the tawl they would have explained it to the people, because they are enjoined by Allah to do so, or they would be cursed by Him. He said: Those who hide the proofs and the guidance which We revealed, after We had made it clear in the Scripture: such are accursed of Allah and accursed of those who have the power to curse." (Q. 2: 159, Pickthall).268 If they explained it to the
Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 101. See also Ibn al-Anbr, al-Ad .dd, p. 424. For further details on this poem, see al-Murtad ., al-Aml, vol. 1, p. 44; and Ab al-Faraj al-As .bahn, Kitb al-Aghn, ed. Rudolph E. Brnnow, 20 vols. (Leiden: E.J. Brill), vol. 17, pp. 53-55. 267. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 102. 268. Many interpretations are given on his verse: (a) It is about the Jewish rabbis
266.

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people, these people would have the same knowledge of it with the explainer, so that it would not become mutashbih any longer. In other words, there would be no more mutashbiht left unexplained. Yet, the Qurn states the existence of the mutashbiht in the Qurn. Since the al-rsikhn f l-ilm would never conceal the tawl of the mutashbiht if they knew it, for fear of Allahs curse, and since no tawl has been given, it means that they do not know it. d. ishah reported that the Prophet, after reading the verse in question, said: "If you see people who follow what is mutashbih [in the Quran], they are those whom Allah called as such [namely, those in whose heart is doubt]. Therefore, beware of them."269 Both Ibn al-Anbr and Ibn Qutaybah regarded al-h.urf almuqat.t .aah as mutashbiht. For the former, they are the only ambiguous contents of the Qurn,270 whereas for the latter their interpretation is known by the al-rsikhn f l-ilm which will be dealt with in due course. Among the arguments given by those who assert that the al-rsikhn f l-ilm do not know the tawl of the mutashbiht are the following: a. Ibn Masd's variant reading of Q. 3:7, as reported by Ibn Dd on the authority of al-Amash, is as follows: ("and those al-rsikhna f l-ilm say: 'We believe in it.'"271 Nobody knows its interpretation except Allah. b. Ubayy ibn Kab's variant reading is ("Its interpretation is with Allah only, and the al-rsikhn f l-ilm
and the Christian priests who concealed the prophecies about Prophet Muh .ammad; (b) It is about the Jews of Madnah who concealed the law of stoning; (c) It is applicable to anyone who conceals the truth or the teachings of Islam. This verse is the reason why Ab Hurayrah narrated the h .adths of the Prophet. See al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 2, pp. 184-185. Another Qurnic verse referred to by Ibn H .azm is as follows: "And (remember) when Allah laid a charge on those who had received the Scripture (He said): Ye are to expound it to mankind and not to hide it...." (Q. 3:187, Pickthall). 269. For further details on Ibn H .azm's view on the mutashbiht, see al-Ih .km, vol. 4, pp. 489-494. 270. Ibid., vol. 1, p. 44 and vol. 4, p. 491. 271. A. Jeffery, Materials, p. 32; and al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 191.

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say 'We believe in it'").272 c. In the codex of Ibn Abbs it is written wa yaqlu l-rsikhna f lilm.273 d. A h.adth reported by al-Bukhr, Muslim and Ab Dd on the authority of ishah that the Prophet, after citing the verse in question (Q. 3:7) warned the Muslims not to seek the tawl of the mutashbiht in the Qurn. e. A h.adth reported by Ibn Mardawayh from Amr ibn Shuayb from his father who reported from his (Amr's) grand-father, that the Prophet said: "The verses of the Qurn were not revealed to contradict one another; therefore, act upon what you know in it, and believe in what is ambiguous in it."274 A similar h.adth was also reported by al-H .kim on the authority of Ibn Masd, and by al-Bayhaq on the authority of Ab Hurayrah. f. It was reported by Ibn Ab H .tim that ishah said: "Their [i.e., alrsikhn f l-ilm's] soundness of instruction is that they believe in its (the Qurn's) mutashbiht without knowing their tawl. g. Al-Drim in his Musnad reported from Sulaymn ibn Yassr that Umar beat S .abgh ibn Isl for his questioning about the tawl of the mutashbiht in the Qurn.275 h. Ibn Abbs's statement that tafsr is divided into four categories: known by everybody, known by the Arabs through their language, known by scholars, and known by Allah alone.276 i. If the seeking of the tawl of the mutashbiht were permitted, Allah would not have denounced it, as mentioned in the beginning of the verse in question (Q. 3:7). j. It would not be eloquent to begin the sentence in the verse in question with yaqln mann bihi; instead, wa hum yaqlnor wa yaqln would

Jeffery, Materials, pp.123-4; and al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 191. 273. Jeffery, Materials, p. 196. See also al-T .abar, Jmi, vol. 3, p. 113; and alS .bn (ed.), Mukhtas .ar, vol. 1, p. 265.
274. 275. 276.

272.

Al-S .bn, Mukhtas .s .ar, vol. 1, p. 265 See Ibn Taymiyyah, Tafsr Srat al-Ikhls ., p. 130.

Al-S .bn, Mukhtas .ar, vol. 1, p. 265; Ibn Taymiyyah, Tafsr Srat al-Ikhls ., p. 136; and Ibn Taymiyyah, Majm Fatw (Muqaddimat al-Tafsr), vol. 13, p. 375.

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be proper.277 Moreover, it would be stylistically deviating from the ostensible meaning of the text to consider the expression yaqln mann bihi as a l for exclusively al-rsikhn f l-ilm with the exclusion of Allh.278 k. If the al-rsikhn f l-ilm knew the tawl of the mutashbiht with a dallah (an indicant, a hint), their faith in the mutashbiht would have been like that in the muh.kamt; therefore, this faith of theirs in the mutashbiht would not have been highly praised. l. The expression kullun min indi rabbin ("it is all from our Lord") in the verse indicates that the al-rsikhn f l-ilm believe in what they know in detail and what they do not. Otherwise, the expression would not have any meaning. Among the arguments given by those who assert that the al-rsikhn f l-ilm know the tawl of the mutashbiht are the following: a. A h.adth stating that the Prophet prayed to Allah for Ibn Abbs that He would teach him the tawl of the Qurn. b. A statement of Ibn Abbs, as reported by Mujhid, that he was one of the al-rsikhn f l-ilm who knew the tawl of the mutashbiht. c. The statement of Ibn Masd that he knew the asbb al-nuzl of the verses of the Qurn. d. The statement of al-H .asan that he would like to know the meanings and the asbb al-nuzl of the verses of the Qurn.
This is also the view of S .bigh ibn Isl who was beaten by Umar when he said that if the ww is ww at .f (ww of conjunction) between the two nouns and not ww istinf (ww of continuation between two sentences or phrases), the verse would have said wa yaqln; see Ibn Taymiyyah, Tafsr Srat al-Ikhls ., p. 130. For further details on S .abgh, see Abbott, Qurnic Commentary, pp. 107-10. At least two Qurnic verses use the same style as the verse (Q. 3:7) in question, and therefore, weaken this argument. One of them is "And thy Lord shall come with angels, rank in rank" Q. 89:22, Pickthall) in which "rank in rank" is attributed to the angels only. The other verse deals with the distribution of the fay (the spoils) of the Ban al-Nad .r among the three groups of people, namely, the muhjirn, the ans .r (Q. 59:8-9), and "...and those who came (into the faith) after them, say: 'Our Lord! Forgive us...'" Q. 59:10, Pickthall).
278. 277.

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e. The s.ah.bah asked the Prophet or the more knowledgeable among themselves, such as Ibn Abbs, the meaning of verses unclear to them. Moreover, they learned from the Prophet not more than ten verses at one time and acted according to their contents. Then they learned about ten other verses until they learned the whole Qurn. f. Allah enjoins the Muslims to ponder the meanings of the Qurnic verses without restriction to the muh.kamt. g. The s.ah.bah and the tabin gave their commentary on all the verses of the Qurn, with the exception of some mutashbiht. However, it does not mean that nobody knows their tawl. The ulam among these people have agreed that the Qurn is understandable and explicable, and the existence of the mutashbiht in it does not necessarily mean that Allah conceals His knowledge of them from people. h. Allah mentions in the Qurn that its verses, without exception, are bayn (explanation), hudan (guidance), shif (healing) and mawiz.ah (advice). These can only be achieved by understanding their meanings. i. It would be unreasonable that Allah would reveal to the Prophet through Gabriel something which neither Gabriel nor the Prophet could understand. Since the purpose of sending His revelation is to be understood, it would be useless to reveal something which is beyond human understanding. j. It is true that some knowledge is kept by Allah Himself, such as the time of the occurrence of the Doomsday, but such things are not revealed in the Qurn, which are not meant to be known by mankind. k. Assuming that some Qurnic verses are mutashbiht the tawl of which is known by Allah alone could be abused as a pretext to avoid complying with many Qurnic verses. l. Allah in the verse in question denounced exclusively those in whose hearts is perversity, due to their ignorance and evil intention, for they do not want to find the truth, but to create dissension (fitnah). To these people the tawl of the mutashbiht would not be known, but rather to the alrsikhn f l-ilm. Al-Farr's position on this issue is clear, namely, al-rsikhn f l-ilm do not know the tawl of the mutashbiht. He states that al-rsikhn is marf by yaqln, and not by yalamu. It is similar to the verse "..., their gaze returning not to them, and their

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hearts as air" (Q. 14:43), where afidatuhum is marf by haw, not by l yartaddu.279 Here "their hearts" is a subject for a new sentence, and is not connected with "their gaze". Abu Ubaydahs position on the above issue is not clear. He does not give us his commentary on Q. 3:7 except that the al-rsikhn f l-ilm are the ulam who are also of sound faith ( ).280 It is possible that his position is like that of al-Farr, or else, he would have said that the al-rsikhn f l-ilm also know the tawl of the mutashbiht. If it is so, then Ibn Qutaybah disagrees not only with al-Farr, but also with Ab Ubaydah, two of his prominent teachers. The complexity of the issue is that there is no indication that the verse in question limits the division of the Qurnic verses into exclusively muh.kamt and mutashbiht. Moreover, the ulam do not agree as to what belongs to the category of mutashbiht as well as their interpretation. However, the effective enquirers (al-muh.aqqiqn) among the mufassirn bring about reconciliation between the two contending views by accepting both of them with the following explanation: The Qurnic verses in their relation to each other can be divided into three categories: absolutely clear ( ), absolutely ambiguous ( ), and partly clear and partly ambiguous ( ). The nature of the ambiguity of the mutashbiht is either in wording (lafz.), such as the word abb (fodder - which is an uncommon word among the Arabs - in Q. 80:31); in meaning (man), such as the attributes of Allah; or in both wording and meaning, such as the injunction on fighting the idolators in Q. 9:5. These mutashbiht in their relation to human level of understanding are divided into three categories: things which are completely unknown by people and beyond human understanding, such as the appearance of the beast as one of the signs of the Doomsday mentioned in Q. 27:82; things which can be known by people, such as uncommon words and some laws; and lastly, things which are known by exclusively the alrsikhn f l-ilm. In other words, they know some mutashbiht and do not know some others which belong to the first category. This type of knowledge is the one which the Prophet had prayed for, his cousin Ibn
279. 280.

Al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 78, and vol. 1, p. 191. Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 86.

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Abbas. When the al-rsikhn f l-ilm said mann ("we believe"), they believed in the mutashbiht regardless whether they knew the tawl of them or not.

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CHAPTER III
IBN QUTAYBAHS TREATISE OF THE PHENOMENA OF FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE In this chapter the phenomena of figurative language in the verses of the Qurn will be dealt with. They will be divided into six categories based on Ibn Qutaybahs treatment. They are: metaphor (majz and istirah), inversion (maqlb), ellipsis (h.adhf) and brevity (ikhtis.r), repetition (takrr) and pleonasm (ziydah), metonymy (kinyah) and allusion (tard.), and the idiomatic expression entitled the disagreement of the word with its literal meaning ( ). A. Metaphor Metaphor is the use of words to indicate something different from their basic meanings. For example, if we speak of somebody who is stubborn, merciless or cruel, we can say he has a heart of stone. Although Ibn Qutaybah put majz and istirah in a separate chapter both are entered here under metaphor, since both are, as we shall see, closely related. He said that many of the majz fall into the category of istirah.281 1. Majz The basic meaning of the term majz is a crossing, a passage. It is derived from the verb jza, yajzu, meaning to pass, to travel (through).282 In classical terminology it means the way of expression. Ab Ubaydah in his Majz al-Qurn used this terminology in this sense rather than its later meaning as figurative speech which is in contrast with h.aqqah (the real meaning).283 Ibn Qutaybah still used this term in this sense when he said that the Arabs had majzt (pl. of majz) in their expression, meaning the ways and sources of expression ( ). Among these majzt he mentioned istirah, tamthl, - simile, known in modern
281. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 134. 282. See Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 5, p. 326. 283. For further details, see Iwad . H .amad al-Qawz, al-Mus .t .alah . al-Nah .w: Nash'atuhu wa Tat .awwuruhu h .att Awkhir al-Qarn al-Thlith al-Hijr (Riyadh: Imdat al-Shun al-Maktabt, Riyadh University, 1401/1981), pp. 15-16.

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terminology as tashbh, which he did not treat in a particular chapter maqlb, takrr, and others.284 On the other hand, he also used it in contrast with h.aqqah, as we shall see later. According to Ibn Taymyah, the division of words into h.aqqah and majz was not found in the statements of the salaf, but in those of scholars in later generations. Neither the s.ah.bah nor the tabin had ever used these technical terms. They were not found in the statements of early Muslim legists, such as Ab H.anfah, Mlik, al-Shfi and al-Awz, as well as philologists, such as al-Khall, Sbawayh, and Ab Umar ibn al-Al. They appeared in the third/ninth century, or probably at the end of the second/eighth century, and became well-known in the fourth/tenth century.285 Ibn Qutaybah wanted to prove that majz as a figure of speech and, in contrast with h.aqqah, did actually occur in the verses of the Qurn. This was to counter the existing view in his time that rejected such a possibility. We know that he was a contemporary of Dd ibn Al ibn Khalaf al-As.bah.n (d. 270/884), the founder of the Z .hir school of law. This school insists on the literal meanings of the Qurn, and as such, was said to have rejected the occurrence of majz in the Qurn. This view of rejecting the occurrence of majz in the Qurn was also held later by some scholars from different schools, such as Ab l-Abbs Ah.mad ibn Ah.mad al-T .abar, better known as Ibn al-Qas.s. (d. 335/947) of the Shfi school, Ibn Khuwayz Mundhdh (d. ca. 400/1010) of the Mlik school, and Ab Muslim Muh.ammad ibn Bah.r al-As.bahn (d. 370/981) of the Mutazil school of theology. Their main argument was that a speaker would only resort to majz if he were unable to express himself properly by using h.aqqah, and such a weakness obviously could not be attributed to Allah.286 On the other hand, Ibn Qutaybah wanted to repudiate what he considered the excessive use of majz which, in his view, led to misinterpreting the verses of the Qurn. Although he did not mention the people who held this view, it is possible he had the Mutazils in mind. He said that some people interpreted black magic (sih.r) as being merely a trick,
284. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 20. 285. For further details, see Ibn Taymyah, Majm Fatw, vol. 7, pp. 87-90 (Kitb al-Imn). 286. Al-Zarkash, al-Burhn, vol. 2, p. 255.

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rejected the existence of the interrogation and the punishment by the two angels (Munkar and Nakr) in the grave, the statement that the shuhad (martyrs) were alive, the sound of demons, and the harm caused by ghouls (desert demons appearing in ever varying shapes). They said that when people were alone in the desert they could easily imagine seeing and hearing something that did not really exist.287 In modern terminology, the definition of majz is as follows: It is a word not used in its proper meaning (context) due to the [existence of] coherence or indication which prevents it from having the basic meaning as the intended one ). The example from poetry is as follows:

A person dearer to me than myself stood to protect me from the sun. He stood to protect me; amazingly, a sun was protecting me from the sun.288

What the poet means by a sun is a man of great personality who is very dear to him. If there is an affinity between the original and the intended meanings in the majz, it is called istirah. Otherwise it is called majz mursal. An example of istirah can be seen in the following Qurnic verse: , to lead you out of the deep darkness into the light.. (Q. 57:9, Asad). The verse is a metaphor for bringing people from ignorance and error into guidance and truth. There is an affinity between darkness and ignorance, and between light and guidance. An example of majz mursal can be seen in the following poem: My
287. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp. 115-120. See also al-Jh .iz ., al-H .ayawn, 7 vols. (Cairo: Mus .t .af l-Bb l-H .alab, 1366/1947), vol. 6, pp. 248-252 in which the author indicated his disbelief in ghouls, and said that stories about them were invented by bedouins in their poetry and laymen who did not make any distinction between what to believe, doubt, and what to disbelieve. Some of them falsely claimed to have seen ghouls; others, killed, accompanied, even married them. 288. See Ab Yaqb Ysuf ibn Ab Bakr al-Sakkk, Mifth . al-Ulm, ed. and annot. Nam Zarzr, 2nd ed. (Beirut: Dr al-Kutub al-Ilmyah, 1407/1987), p. 371. For the definition of majz according to al-Sakkk which is slightly different from what has been mentioned above, see ibid., p. 359.

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country, although it wronged me it is [still] dear to me. What the poet means with his country is its inhabitants. Here, there is no affinity between the country and its inhabitants. After illustrating majz in modern technical terminology, we come to Ibn Qutaybahs view and see what he meant by this term. Stating the occurrence of majz in Arabic expression as well as in the Qurn, Ibn Qutaybah gave the example of the word umm (mother). When the Arabs say that their land is their mother, it is because, like their mother, it was from it they started their lives, to it they would return, and from it they obtained their food and provision. In poetry he cited the poem of Umayyah ibn Ab al-S.alt as follows:
And the land is our refuge and was our mother. In it our grave will be, and in it we are born.289

The example from the Qurn given by Ibn Qutaybah is the verse: his mother will be an abyss (Q. 101:9). As the mother is the sponsor, the sustainer, the shelter, and the nurse to her baby, so is Hell to the unbeliever to which he will be brought.290 Another example is that the Prophets wives are the mothers of the believers (Q. 33:6), meaning that reverence should be due to them as to their own mothers. Ibn Qutaybah rejects the views of an unspecified group of people who say that Allahs statements in the Qurn are metaphors, and not intended in the real sense. There are those among them who say that Allahs order to the angels to prostrate to Adam (Q. 2:34) was only an inspiration, like His inspiration to the bees to choose habitations in the hills and trees (Q. 16:68). They refer to Allahs statement: And it is not given to mortal
289. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 104; Sayf al-Dn al-Ktib, et al., eds. and comment., Sharh . Dwn Umayyah ibn Ab al-S .alt (Beirut: al-Wat .anyah, 1352 A.H.), p. 28; and al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 1, p. 112. Ab Uthmn Amr ibn Bah .r al-Jh .iz . said 437; 290. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 104. According to Ibn Zayd and Ibn Abbs, Hell is called "a mother" because to it the unbeliever will take refuge as a baby does to his mother. See al-T .abar, Jmi, vol. 30, pp. 182-183; and al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 20, p. 167.

instead of

in the above poem, see Kitb al-H .ayawn, vol. 5, p.

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man that God should speak unto him otherwise than through sudden inspiration, or [by voice, as it were,] from behind a veil, or by sending an apostle to reveal, by His leave, whatever He wills [to reveal]: for, verily, He is exalted, wise. (Q. 42:51, Asad). Here they say that He did not really say to the heaven and earth come [into being] both of you willingly or unwillingly!, and they did not really answer we do come in obedience (Q. 41:11). According to them this expression merely means We created them both, and so they exist. In poetry, it is like the poem My camel complained to me against the long journey in which the camel did not actually complain to the poet, but rather the poet spoke about his frequent journeys and of tiring his camel, and that if it were able to speak it would have complained to him.291 Similarly, Allah did not actually say to Hell Art thou filled? and Hell did not actually say [Nay,] is there yet more [for me]? (Q. 50:30), but the statements merely indicate the vastness of Hell. In addition, Hell does not actually call the sinful person who turns away (Q. 70:17), but the expression indicates that Hell would be their future abode as if it called them to it. It is like the fly calling its friend in the following poem:
I have descended the two valleys and another valley where the mute and tender creature [i.e., the fly was buzzing as if it were] calling [its] close friend [to the plant and water].292

Here the fly did not actually call, but buzzed to indicate the existence of plants and water in the valley. Before refuting the above statements, Ibn Qutaybah makes a clear distinction between saying and speaking in regard to the occurrence of majz. He says that majz can occur on the word saying but not on speaking. We can say, for example, the wall says, so it leans ( ); say (it) to me with your head meaning tilt it (
291. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp. 106-107; and Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 303. The camel is said to complain when it is tired of walking, when it extends its neck and moans very often, see Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 14, p. 440. 292. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 108.

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) and the camel says... [or complains] as mentioned earlier in the poem. But we cannot say that the wall speaks, since the word denotes the act of speaking. However, Ibn Qutaybah asserts, exception occurs in one case, namely, when the speaker is an animate being giving advice or moral lessons, so that we can say that it informs, it spoke, and it reminded. The example in poetry is the poem of Ab l-Athiyah as follows:

Silent tombs advised you, hidden tongues reproached you. They spoke about decayed faces and resting images. They showed you your grave in the graveyard, while you are [still] alive, not dead.293

The example from the Qurn is as follows: Have We ever bestowed upon them from on high a divine writ which would speak [with approval] of their worshipping aught beside Us? (Q. 30:35, Asad). Here the verse means Or have We revealed to them any evidence from which they will seek guidance that will guide them?294 Ibn Qutaybah gives us two conditions for a word to become majz: it shall not be accompanied with its mas.dar, and it shall not be emphasised with takrr (repetition). For example, we say the wall will fall down and we do not say the wall will fall down with strong willingness. He does not give us an example for the use of repetition here. The example for the use of mas.dar in the Qurn is as follows: literally means And Allah spoke to Moses with speaking, translated by Asad as: ...: and as God spoke His word unto Moses (Q. 4:164). Here the verb kallama is
293. Ibid., p. 110 and idem, Uyn al-Akhbr, 4 vols. (Cairo: Dr al-Kitb, 1324 A.H.). vol. 2, p. 306. There are various versions of this poem: for example, in one version it is written , and , instead of , and ; see Ab lAthiyah, Dwn Ab l-Athiyah (Beirut: Dr S .dir, Dr Bayrt, 1384/1964), p. 92; in another version, according to Masd's report, it is written and instead of and ; see Anonymous, al-Anwr al-Zhiyah f Dwn Ab lAthiyah (Beirut: Mat .baat al-b al-Yasyn, [1304-1305]/1887), p. 53, n. 1. 294. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 110 and idem, Tafsr, p. 342.

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accompanied with its mas.dar, namely, taklm to indicate that the speaking is real and actually happens, not majz. Moreover, the expression kallama (to speak to) itself, as mentioned earlier, indicates that it is real. The example for the use of takrr in the Qurn is as follows: And Our word unto a thing, when We intend it, is only that We say unto it: Be! and it is. (Q. 16:40, Pickthall). Here the word qawlun is emphasised with takrr (repetition of qawl with naql), and the statement itself is emphasised with the word innam.295 Despite the frequent occurrence of majz in the Qurn, Ibn Qutaybah was extremely cautious with it. He rejects the view that the order of Allah to the angels to prostrate themselves to Adam in Q. 2:34 was an ilhm (inspiration), because, according to him, it involved dialogues of events: Allahs order to the angels and Ibls to prostrate, Iblss refusal to comply, his expulsion from the Garden (Jannah), and his plea for the postponement of punishment to Judgement Day.296 Ibn Qutaybah also rejects the interpretation of qawl in the above verse as a subjection (taskhr) because, he contends, it cannot be applied to something which refuses to comply, and in this case, Ibls.297 With regard to the verse Q. 42:51 Ibn Qutaybah asserts that wah.y includes: things shown by Allah to His prophets in their vision; speaking behind the veil such as His speaking to Prophet Moses; and speaking with a message by sending the Trustful Spirit (al-Rh. al-Amn, i.e. Gabriel). What he means here is that Allah actually spoke to Prophet Moses, not majz. We have seen that Ibn Qutaybah rejects the occurrence of majz in many Qurnic verses such as Q. 41:11 and 50:30 mentioned above. He bases his argument on several Quranic verses and h.adths according to his understanding without applying majz. The Qurnic verses state that Allah would make parts of the bodies of wrong-doers testify against them on the
295. Idem, Tawl, p. 111. 296. For further details on this dialogue and event, see Q. 7:11-8; 15:31-44; 17:61-5; 38:71-85. 297. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 112. Ibn Qutaybah cites an example in which the term means from the poem of al-Ajjj (d. 144/762) dealing with the earth, as follows: "He revealed [i.e., subjected] to it [the earth] to be settled and it became settled." See also ibid., pp. 111-112 and 490. For further details on this poem, see Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 15, pp. 380-1.

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Last Day (Q. 24:24, 36:65 and 41:20-1), that He makes the mountains, birds and everything praise Him (Q. 17:44, 34:10 and 38:18-9), and that Prophet Solomon understood the language of ants (Q. 27:18-9); that Hell would burst with rage (Q. 67:8) and its crackling and roar would be heard by the wrong-doers (Q. 25:11-2). In a h.adth it was reported that when Hell saw those who denied the coming of Doomsday, they heard its crackling and roar, saying qat, qat which means enough, enough (h.asb, h.asb)."298 In other h.adths it was reported that the food informed the Prophet that it had been poisoned, and that a camel complained to him that its master had starved and overworked it. All these, in Ibn Qutaybahs view, are h.aqqah and have no room for majz.299 2. Istirah The term istirah literally means borrowing, loan, or lending. It is borrowing one meaning of a word other than its basic or primary meaning. According to Abd al-Qhir al-Jurjn (d. 470/1078) istirah is a word which in the language has a known basic meaning, is temporarily lent, as it were, to something other than the original object. Therefore metaphor in Arabic is called loan.300 It is lending the meaning of one object to another object, the aim being the attribution of the dominant trait in the first object to the second one. For example, if we want to say that a person is brave, we lend and associate the meaning of the object lion to that person, so that the lion's dominant trait, namely, bravery, can be attributed to him. So, we say (I saw a lion), meaning a brave man. With regard to istirah in its early development, Ibn Qutaybah gave
298. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 113. 299. Ibid., pp. 114-5. Al-T as well as of Ibn .abar mentions the view of Abbs that Allah did actually talk to and order the heaven to raise its sun, moon and stars, and to the earth to bring out its trees and fruit, and to split its rivers, see alT .abar, Jmi, vol. 24, p. 64. The h .adth mentioning the Jewish woman who tried to poison the Prophet was reported by Bukhr, Muslim, Ab Dd, al-Drimi, Ibn Mjah and Ah .mad ibn H .anbal; see Wensinck, al-Mujam, vol. 2, p. 533 (s.v. ); the h .adth mentioning the camel that complained to him was reported by Ab Dd; see ibid., vol. 3, p. 168 (s.v. ). 300. See Abd al-Qhir al-Jurjn, Asrr al-Balghah f Ilm al-Bayn, ed. Ritter (Istanbul: Mat .baat Wizrat al-Marif, 1954), p. 29.

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us his understanding of it. He said that the Arabs used to borrow a word and put it in place of another, if this borrowed word is the cause of, close to, or similar to the word it replaces. For example, they said We kept walking on the pasture [al-sam lit., 'the sky'] until we came to you." Here the pasture is called sam which is the rain that causes the existence of the pasture, and in turn, the rain itself is called sam from which it falls down, and which is the cause of it. The poet Muwiyah ibn Mlik ibn Jafar ibn Kilb calls the rain the sky in his following poem:
When the rain [lit., the sky that causes it to fall] falls on the land of a tribe [so that it becomes fertile], we care for it [namely, we move to that fertile land and care for the plants which grow because of the rain], although they are angry [about our coming].301

Ibn Qutaybah mentions in his Tawl fifty main examples of istirah in the verses of the Qurn. Some of them will be dealt with here as follows: a. ..., and their hearts (as) air. (Q. 14:43, Pickthall). The air is a metaphor for emptiness, namely, their hearts are empty of good things, because they do not pay attention to anything, like an empty place which contains nothing but air.302 b. Is then he who was dead [in spirit] and whom We thereupon gave life, and for whom We set up a light whereby he might see his way among men - [is then he] like one [who is lost] in the darkness deep, out of which he cannot emerge? (Q. 6:122, Asad). Here death, life and light are respectively metaphors for infidelity, guidance and faith.303
301. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 135; idem, Gharb al-H .adth, vol. 1, pp. 439-440; and al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 1, p. 216. 302. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 139. According to Ab Ubaydah the verse means that their hearts become empty of reasoning, for they have no intellect ( ), see Majz al-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 344; Another interpretation is given by Ibn Abbs, that their hearts become empty due to their fright and terror, see al-T .abars, Majma alBayn, vol. 3, p. 321. 303. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 140; al-Farr gives misguidance instead of infidelity as the metaphor for "death" in this verse, see Man l-Qurn, vol. 1, p.

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c.

and lifted from thee the burden that had weighed so heavily on thy back? (Q. 94: - , Asad). The word wizr originally means something a person carries on his back, used here as a metaphor for sin,304 or specifically, the sin in the Jhiliyyah (pre-Islamic) period.305 d. But as for those with faces shining, they shall be within God's grace, therein to abide. (Q. 3:107, Asad). The grace here is a metaphor for Paradise, as it is through Allah's grace that one can enter it.306 This verse, however, is used in our time as an example of majz mursal where the condition (h.l), in this case, Allahs grace, is used as a metaphor for the place (mah.all), namely, Paradise. The term rah.mah can also be a metaphor for rain and sustenance respectively in the following verses: And He it is who sends forth the winds as a glad tiding of His coming grace... (Q. 7:57, Asad), and Whatever grace God opens up to man, none can withhold it...

353. 304. This is the view of Ibn Qutaybah and Ab Ubaydah, see Tawl, p. 140 and Majz al-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 303. This is also the view of Mujhid and Qatdah. According to al-D .ah .h .k, wizr means shirk (polytheism). See al-T .abar, Jmi, vol. 30, p. 150. According to al-Murtad ., sin is called wizr because it is a burden for the sinner. However, anything which can be a burden can be called wizr. Therefore, it is possible that the term wizr in the above verse means the Prophet's sorrow of his people's disbelief when he and his companions were still in a weak position; see al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, p. 508. 305. Ibn Qutaybah, Tafsr, p. 532. This is also the view of Ibn Zayd when he said that wizr means "the Prophet's sin before his prophethood". See al-T .abar, Jmi, vol. 30, p. 150. The word athql (load) is also a metaphor for sin in Q. 29:13; see Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 140 and al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 13, p.331. 306. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 145; al-Zamakhshar gives "the permanent reward", whereas al-T .abars gives "Allah's reward" and "Allah's Paradise" for the meaning of in the above verse, see al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 226 and Majma alBayn, vol. 1, p. 485.

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(Q.35:2, Asad).307 Rah.mah which means grace on the needy can be a metaphor for many different things. In this case, it is said that the term has wujh, homonyms. Ibn al-Jawz (d. 598/1201), al-H.usayn ibn Muh.ammad alDmaghn, and Ab al-Fad.l H.ubaysh ibn Ibrhm Tifls (d. ca. 600/1203) mentioned respectively sixteen, fourteen, and thirteen wujh of rah.mah in various verses of the Qurn. All of them included what have been mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah above, namely: Paradise, rain and sustenance. Others, to mention a few, are: Islam (Q. 2:105), faith (Q. 11:28), prophethood (Q. 38:9), the Qurn (Q. 10:5), and well-being (Q. 39:38).308 e. And, verily, this [revelation] shall indeed become [a source of] eminence for thee and thy people... (Q. 43:44, Asad). The word dhikr (remembrance) is a metaphor for sharaf (eminence) which is something to be remembered.309 Ibn al-Jawz, alDmaghn, and Tifls mentioned respectively twenty, eighteen and seventeen wujh of dhikr, including the term sharaf and its three examples from the Qurn as mentioned above. Among them are: remembering (Q. 3:135), mentioning (Q. 2:200), tawh.d (monotheism) (Q. 20:124), the Qurn (Q. 21:2, 50), the Torah (Q. 16:43 and 21:7) the
307. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl. pp. 145-146; al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 1, p. 431 and vol. 4, p. 400 and al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 7, p. 229 and vol. 14, p. 321. 308. For further details, see Jaml al-Dn Ab al-Faraj Abd al-Rah .mn ibn alJawz, Nuzhat al-Ayn al-Nawz .ir f Ilm al-Wujh wa l-Naz .'ir, ed. Muh .ammad Abd al-Karm Kz .im al-Rd ., 2nd ed. (Beirut: Mu'assasat al-Rislah, 1405/1985), pp. 331-334; idem, Muntakhab Qurrat al-Uyn l-Nawz .ir f l-Wujh wa l-Naz .a'ir f lQurn al-Karm (Summary of Qurrat al-Uyn), ed. Muhammad al-Sayyid al-Saft . w and Dr. Fu'd Abd al-Munim Ah .mad (Alexandria: Munsha'at al-Marif, n.d.), pp. 135-138; al-H .usayn ibn Muh .ammad al-Dmaghn, Qms al-Qurn aw Is .lh . alWujh wa al-Naz .'ir f l-Qurn al-Karm, ed. Abd al-Azz Sayyid al-Ahl (Beirut: Dr al-Ilm lil-Malyn, [1403-4]/1983), pp. 199-202; and Ab al-Fad .l Hubaysh ibn Ibrhm [al-] Tifls, Wujh (Vujh-i) Qurn, ed. Dr. Mahd Muh .aqqiq (Tehran: 1360/[194] ), 4th ed., pp. 112-114. 309. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 147; al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 16, p. 93; and alT .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, p. 49. Other Qurnic verses in which dhikr is a metaphor for sharaf according to Ibn Qutaybah are Q. 21:10 and 23:71.

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Friday prayer (Q. 62:9), and the Preserved Tablet (Q. 21:105).310 f. And neither the heaven nor the earth wept for them, nor were they reprieved. (Q. 44:29). Ibn Qutaybahs commentary on this metaphorical verse is as follows: If the Arabs want to emphasise the awful condition, especially the failing health of a great and noble king they say: The sun was becoming darkened, the moon was becoming eclipsed, and the wind, the lightning, the sky and the earth [all] were weeping for him. The listener will understand this hyperbole, that the disaster was so severe and extensive that the elements of nature almost shared the grief of the people. On the contrary, with regard to Pharaoh and his followers, neither the sun nor the earth wept for them. In poetry, such hyperbole was also employed, as in the following poem:

The sun, weeping for you, is rising without veiling the brightness of the stars and the moon.

As the sun is rising without light, the day appears to be like the night, and the light of the moon and the stars is not diminished by the lightless sun.311 Ibn Qutaybah gives us three interpretations of the above verse as follows: (a) When Allah destroyed Pharaoh and his people by drowning them and destroying their houses and gardens, no one was left to weep for them, mourn or miss them; (b) The expression the heaven and the earth in the verse means the inhabitants of the heaven and the earth, so that the verse means nobody among the inhabitants of the heaven and the earth wept for them. The argument of the upholders of this view is that it occurs in other Qurnic verses where the word inhabitants or people is not mentioned, such as the verse and ask the township (Q. 12:82, Pickthall), which means
310. See Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, pp. 302-6; idem, Qurrah, pp. 117-122; alDmaghn, Qms, pp. 180-3; and Tifls, Wujh, pp. 103-107. 311. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp. 167-168; and Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 14, p. 83. According to al-T .abars and al-Murtad . the poem is the elegy of Jarr on Umar ibn Abd al-Azz, see Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, p. 64; and Aml, vol. 1, pp. 38-39.

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its inhabitants,312 and ... till the war lay down its burdens (Q. 47:4, Pickthall) which means till the people at war lay down their arms. This view, as we have seen earlier, belongs to the category of majz mursal, according to the modern terminology; (c) The interpretation of Ibn Abbs, that every believer has a door in heaven through which his deeds ascend and his sustenance (rizq) descends; when he dies, this door, his traces and places of prayer weep for him. As for the unbeliever, no deed will ascend to heaven for him, no door in heaven will open for him and no trace of his on the earth will weep for him.313 g. Hence, [be patient,] even though they who are bent on denying the truth would all but kill thee with their eyes whenever they hear this reminder, and [though] they say, [As for Muhammad,] behold, most surely he is a madman!. (Q. 68:51, Asad). Pickthall and Ali translate yakdu layuzliqnaka respectively as would fain disconcert thee and would almost trip thee up. Ibn Qutaybahs commentary on this verse is that the disbelievers looked at the Prophet with hostility so stern that they almost made him slip and fall down.314 This kind of hyperbole had been used in classical poetry. Some unidentified grammarians were said to have criticised it as an excess and an exaggeration, but Ibn Qutaybah defended it, saying that it was quite possible and a good way of expressing ones view. He cited many examples from the classical
312. For another example from the Qurn, see Q. 11:84. The Arabs used to mention a place when they mean its content. They say, for example, (I have eaten a good pot). See al-Thalib, Fiqh al-Lughah, pp. 216-217. In the English language we say "the kettle boils" when we mean the water in it. 313. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp. 169-170; al-T .abar, Jmi, vol. 25, pp. 74-75; alT .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, pp. 64-65; see also al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 16, pp. 140-142 and Ibn Kathr, Tafsr, vol. 4, pp. 153-154. 314. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 170. Ibn Abbs's variant reading for is , meaning in order to kill and to destroy you, see al-T .abars, Majma alBayn, vol. 5, p. 341. Therefore, the verse means "they looked at you with a kind of look that if they could kill or destroy you with it, they would have done it". Al-Qurt .ub asserts that is also the variant reading of Ibn Masd, al-Amash, Ab W'il and Mujhid; see al-Jmi, vol. 18, p. 255.

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poetry, one of which is as follows:

When they met in a place their looking at each other [almost] removed the ground,

meaning that their looking at each other was extremely hostile and malicious so that it almost brought them to the ground. 315 Ibn Qutaybah states that there are many Qurnic verses indicating hyperbole (mublaghah f l-was.f) which he includes in the category of the figure of speech called istirah, by using the word kda (almost), either explicitly or by implication. For example, in order to show the graveness of the Christians statement that Allah has a son, He said: Assuredly ye utter a disastrous thing, whereby almost [takdu] the heavens are torn, and the earth is split asunder and the mountains fall in ruins, that ye ascribe unto the Beneficent a son, when it is not meet for (the Majesty of) the Beneficent that He should choose a son. (Q. 19:89-92, Pickthall). Here the word takdu (the present tense of kda) is mentioned. The example in which the word kda exists by implication, is as follows: [Remember what you felt] when they came upon you from above you and from below you, and when [your] eyes became dim and [your] hearts came up to [your] throats, ... (Q. 33:10, Asad). The verse portrays the seriousness of the situation in the battle of the Trench, that "[their] hearts almost reached to [their] throats.316 When the word kda exists only by
315. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 171; idem, Tafsr, p. 482 and idem, Tawl Mukhtalif al-H .adth, ed. M.Z. al-Najjr (Beirut: Dr al-Jayl, 1393-1973), pp. 342-343. See also Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 7, p. 218; and al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 18, p. 256. 316. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 171. Al-Farr says that the verse means "they were so frightened that their lungs swelled and pushed their hearts upward to their throat", see al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 4, p. 340. It is said that this happens when a person is in the state of fear, so that a coward is said to have his lung swollen. However, the expression is only to indicate the disturbance of the heart of a person who is in such extreme terror that his heart almost reaches his throat; see al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 17, p. 145.

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implication in such a case as above, Ibn Qutaybah asserts it can be replaced with kaanna (as if), so that the verse means as if the beats of violently agitated hearts reached the throat.317 In fact, among the fifty examples of the istirah from the Qurn, this hyperbole is the longest treatment given by Ibn Qutaybah to demonstrate its significance. He gives more than twenty examples from classical poetry, such as the poems of Imru al-Qays, al-Nbighah, Antarah, Dh al-Rummah, and others.318 His objective is clear: to show that hyperbole is not a lie, but a figure of speech indicating the greatness, severity or seriousness of a statement or an event. h. ... for there is no living creature which He does not hold by its forelock.... (Q. 11:56, Asad). It means that He subjugates and controls it.319 The origin of this meaning is that if you grasp its forelock you subjugate and control it. From this idea it can be said in the du' (supplication) (my forelock is in your hand), meaning you are my sovereign and conqueror.320 Here the forelock is representing the whole body when we say This is a graceful forelock.321 This example, then, belongs to the category of majz mursal in modern terminology. To sum up, Ibn Qutaybahs understanding of majz and istirah is rudimentary. For example, he puts majz mursal, homonyms, and hyperbole in the category of istirah, since they do not represent their basic meanings. This instance is comprehensible, as Ibn Qutaybah was giving the transitional meanings of the terms from classical to modern terminology. B. Inversion (Maqlb) Ibn Qutaybah mentions us four types of inversion in his Tawl, as follows: ascribing something with its opposite quality ( ), such as calling a foolish person a bright one; designating two contradictory
317. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 172. 318. For further examples of hyperbole in poetry, see ibid., pp. 172-180. 319. Ibid., p. 181; Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 290; al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 9, p. 52; and al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 3, p. 170. 320. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp. 181 and 155. 321. See al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 20, p.123.

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things having one basic meaning with one name ( ), such as calling amm (before) war (behind), as the basic meaning of war is what is absent from our eyes, either before or behind us; advancing what will be clear by retarding, and retarding what will be clear by advancing in the word order ( ), such as the Qurnic verse Then he drew nigh and came down (Q. 53:8) which is clearly understood by inversion, namely, then he came down and drew nigh); and lastly, the inversion of words by mistake ( ), such as the expression adultery is a religious duty for stoning which should be stoning is a religious duty for adultery. Ibn Qutaybahs treatment of them is as follows: 1. Ascribing something with Its Opposite Quality Ibn Qutaybah mentions three motives for ascribing something with its opposite quality, as follows: a. (for pessimism and optimism), such as saying to the sick good health encouraging (countering) pessimism about the sickness and optimism to health. b. (for hyperbole, lit., for exaggeration of description), such as calling the sun jawnah (black) because of its intense light, and the crow awar (one eyed) for its keen sight. It means that even one eye is sharp enough for the crow, as if it does not need the other eye. c. (for sarcasm), such as the answer of Ubayd ibn al-Abras. to Imru al-Qays ibn H.ajar of the Kindah tribe, as follows:
Why do you not ask the troops of the Kindah tribe the day they fled away [and were called]: where, where [are you going]?,

meaning come back!. Ubayd ibn al-Abras.s tribe Ban Asad had killed Imru al-Qayss father. Imru al-Qays threatened the Ban Asad tribe with retaliation, but Ubayd ibn al-Abras. disregarded the threat, ridiculing the Kindahs defeat in the battle and citing the above poem. 322 The example in
322. See al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 177; see also Ab al-Faraj alAs .bahn, al-Aghn, vol. 19, p. 85.

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the Qurn is as follow: And, when they felt Our might, behold them fleeing from it! (But it was said unto them): Flee not, but return to that (existence) which emasculated you and to your dwellings,.. (Q. 21:123).323 2. Designating Two Contradictory Things Having One Basic Meaning with One Name The Arabic language is known as lughat al-ad .dd (the language of opposite meanings), because it has many words which have opposite meanings. Apart from words, some sayings also seem to be contradictory, such as (Whoever has good faith will live long) and (Good faith will lead to destruction), for good faith cannot lead to long life and destruction at the same time. For the Arabs, these two expressions are not contradictory, since they are used to emphasise two different situations. With regard to the words which have contradictory meanings, one of the two meanings is usually more prevalent than the other, although both are derived from one basic meaning. Words of this type are called by Arabic philologists al-ad.dd (words which have opposite meanings). Ibn Qutaybah cites thirteen ad.dd only in his Tawl, three of which are without examples from the Qurn. We shall trace their basic meanings and see how Ibn Qutaybah treats them, as follows: a. (dawn, night, or part of the night) The basic meaning of s.arm is something cut. The verb s.arama and s.aruma mean to cut, to leave, to separate. The word al-s.armn or alas.ramn (lit. the two separating things) means the night and the day, because they are separated from each other; it can also mean the wolf and the crow, because they isolate themselves from people.324
323. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp.185-186 and al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 4, p. 41. Here al-T .abars is quoting Ibn Qutaybah. For another example of sarcasm in the Qurn, see Q. 11:87. 324. Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 12, p. 336; al-Zamakhshar, Ass al-Balghah (Beirut: Dr S ); and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 4, p. .dir - Dr Bayrut, 1965) p. 354 (s.v.

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Ibn Qutaybah gives us the meanings of s.arm, namely, the morning and the night. Day and night are called s.arm, because one of them is departing when the other is approaching. The example from the Qurn in which s.arm means night is as follows: And in the morning it became [burned and black] like [the blackness of] night. (Q. 68:20).325 b. (darkness, twilight, dusk, light; curtain) The verb sadafa in the expression sadafa al-h.ijb means he loosened the curtain. The word sadfah and sudfah mean darkness as well as light. Sudfah also means the door as well as the curtain put on the door to protect it from the rain.326 According to Ibn Qutaybah, the basic meaning of sudfah is a curtain. It means both light and darkness as if the darkness when it comes becomes a curtain for the light, and vice versa.327 c. (a shouter, a crier out) S.rikh applies to a person who asks help as well as the person who responds to give help, as both of them cries out to each other. No
1684 (s.v. ).

325. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp. 186-7; idem, Tafsr, p. 479; Ibn al-Anbr, alAd .dd, p. 8; and Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 12, p. 336. This is also the view of Ibn Abbs, al-Farr, and Ab Amr ibn al-Al; see al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 18, p. 241; and al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, p. 336. Al-Qurt .ub quotes another view of Ibn Abbs, who said that the term in the above verse means "black ashes" in the language of the Khuzaymah tribe. Another view is that of al-Thawr who says that it means "the harvested field"; see al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 18, p. 242; see also Ibn Fris, Maqys, vol. 3, p. 345; and Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 12, p. 336. 326. According to Ab Zayd (darkness), while in that of Qays it means said that means "light". According to Ibn Fris in the language of Ban Tamm means (light). Al-As .ma was reported to have means "the mixture of darkness" (

in the language of Najd means "darkness", while in that of others it

), see Ibn Fris, Maqys, vol. 1, p. 148. For further details, see Ibn Manz.r,
Lisn, vol. 9, pp. 146-8; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 4, p. 1333 (s.v. ). 327. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 178; see also Ibn al-Anbr, al-Ad .dd, p. 9.

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example is given by Ibn Qutaybah, neither from poetry nor from the Qurn.328 Ibn Fris, however, gives us an example from the Qurn, as follows: It is not for me to respond to your cries, nor for you to respond to mine... (Q. 14:22, Asad). Here mus.rikh which is like s.rikh, is translated as the person who responds to the crier for help.329 d. (opinion, belief, doubt, assumption, uncertainty) Z.ann means both yaqn (certainty) and shakk (doubt), because, according to Ibn Qutaybah, z.ann has a part of certainty, as in the following Qurnic verse: I was sure that I should have to meet my reckoning. (Q. 69:20).330 The example from poetry is the poem of Durayd ibn al-immah, as follows:
So I told them: be sure that [the enemy of] two thousand well-equipped warriors [will come to you], the best among them are with armour.331

It means be sure of their coming to you. According to Tifls and al-Dmaghn the term z.ann has four homonyms, namely: (1) yaqn (certainty), as in I was sure that I should have to meet my reckoning. (Q. 69:20) as mentioned above; (2) shakk (doubt), as in We think it no more than an empty guess ... (Q. 45:32, Asad), namely, doubt it; (3) tuhmah (accusation), as in ... and ye imagined various (vain) thoughts about God. (Q. 33:10, Ali), namely, accusing Him of not going to help them; and (4) h.usbn (consideration, thinking), as in he never thought that he would have to return to God. (Q. 84:14, Asad). Ibn al-Jawz mentions three homonyms of z.ann, namely, yaqn, shakk, and kadhib (falsehood). The examples given for the
328. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 187. 329. See Ibn Fris, Maqys, vol. 3, p. 348. 330. See also Q. 2:230 and 249; 18:53, and 21:31. 331. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp. 187-8; idem, Tafsr, p. 406; al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi', vol. 1, p. 375 and vol. 11, pp. 3-4; Ibn Fris, Maqys, vol. 3, p. 462; Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 1, pp. 39-40; and Ibn al-Anbr, al-Ad .dd, p. 14.

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first two are the same as those mentioned above. The example for the last, which, according to Ibn al-Jawz, is the view of al-Farr, is They follow nothing but falsehood; yet, falsehood can never take the place of truth. (Q. 53:28).332 e. and (may be, perhaps) Both as and laalla according to some scholars whom Ibn Qutaybah does not identify indicate certitude as well as doubt. He gives us only one example with laalla in the Qurn as follows: ... and [that] We have appointed thereon broad paths, so that they might find their way. (Q. 21:31, Asad).333 Al-Suyt. gives more details about as and laalla. He said that these words signify hope for something desirable and fear of something undesirable ( ). He mentions the opinion of some scholars about the term as as follows: Ibn Fris: The term is used for something imminent, as in Say thou: It may well be that something of that which [in your ignorance] you so hastily demand has already drawn close unto you. (Q. 27:72, Asad). Al-Kis: Every as in the Qurn signifies khabar (report, news); in this case, it is in singular form; when it is interrogative, it is in plural form, such as in the following verse where the word asaytum is used: [Ask them:] 'Would you, perchance, after having turned away [from Gods commandment, prefer to revert to your old ways, and] spread corruption on earth, and [once again] cut asunder your ties of kinship? (Q. 47:22, Asad). This rhetorical question is an allusion to the moral darkness and chaotic conditions of pre-Islamic Arabia. Ibn Abbs, as reported by Ibn Ab H.tim and al-Bayhaq: Every as in the Qurn is bound to happen. Ibn al-Anbr: Similar to Ibn Abbss view, with the exception of the following verses: (a) Your Sustainer may well show mercy unto you; ... (Q.
332. Tifls, Wujh, p. 198; al-Dmaghn, Qms, pp. 311-312; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, pp. 425-426; and idem, Qurrah, pp. 172-173. For further details on z .ann, see Lane, Lexicon, pt. 5, pp. 1924-1925 (s.v. 333. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 188. ).

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17:8, Asad) where Allah did not bless the Jews of Ban al-Nad.ir, but punished them; and (b) [O wives of the Prophet!] Were he to divorce [any of] you, God might well give him in your stead spouses better than you... (Q. 66:5, Asad), where the Prophets wives were not replaced with others. Some scholars reject this exception on the grounds that blessing and replacement mentioned respectively in the above verses were conditional: that they did not commit such transgression again in the first verse, and that the Prophet divorced his wives in the second. Since none of these conditions was fulfilled, the general rule that the verb as in the Qurn is bound to happen has no exception. Al-Zarkash: Both as and laalla are about something bound to happen with certainty when the expression comes from Allah. When it comes from people, it contains hope and wish, since they are subject to uncertainty and assumption, whereas Allah is not. Since Allah's statements always contain certainty, He can express them directly without using as or laalla, as in ... If you ever abandon your faith, God will in time bring forth [in your stead] people whom He loves and who love Him... (Q. 5:54, Asad) where the word saufa (will) is used. He can also give the impression of uncertainty for those to whom Allah is speaking, as in But God may well bring about good fortune [for the believers] ... (Q. 5:52, Asad).334 Al-Zamakhshar, commenting on the verse ) ... it may well be that your Sustainer will efface from you your bad deeds, ... (Q. 66:8, Asad), said that apart from the fact that it is bound to happen, as (as well as laalla) also gives a moral lesson that the Muslims should put greater weight on their position between fear and hope ( ).335 With regard to laalla, al-Suyut. says that it has many meanings, the most common of which are: (1) expectation, namely, hope for something desirable ( ), as in ... so that you might attain to a happy state. (Q. 2:189, Asad), and fear of something undesirable
334. Al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, pp. 203-205; al-Zarkash, al-Burhn, vol. 4, p. 159; Ibn Fris, al-S .h .ib, p. 157; and Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 134. 335. Al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 2, p. 1503.

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), as in

..., the Last Hour may well ), as in

be near. (Q. 42:17, Asad); (2) motivation (

But speak unto him in a mild manner, so that he might bethink himself or [at least] be filled with apprehension. (Q. 20:44, Asad); here the motive of speaking in a mild manner to Pharaoh is to make him heed or fear Allah; (3) question, as in But what could tell thee but that perchance he might grow (in spiritual understanding)? (Q. 80:3, Ali). Al-Suyt. says further that according to alWqid as reported by al-Baghaw and quoted from al-Zarkash, every laalla in the Qurn signifies motivation, except in (Q. 26:129) where it signifies a simile, namely, which means as if ye will last forever. This exception is an isolated view, according to alZarkash, since no grammarian has ever held this view, although it is mentioned in the S.ah . h . of al-Bukhr. Other scholars say that laalla in this verse signifies plain hope. Supporting al-Wqids view and countering alZarkashs, al-Suyut. relates a view similar to that of al-Wqid, namely, the view of Abd Mlik. It is reported by Ibn Ab H.tim from al-Sudd, that according to Abd Mlik laalla in the Qurn means kay (in order that, so that), except one verse, namely, which means as mentioned above. Moreover, Qatdah says that in one of the variant readings it is read (as if ye will last forever).336 f. (buyer) and (seller) The root-word shar or ishtar is the synonym of ba, meaning to sell or to buy. Ibn Qutaybah states that and , both mean buyer and seller, because the buyer himself is a seller, namely, a trader of money with something, and vice versa. The example from the Qurn is as follows: And they sold him for a paltry price - a mere few silver coins:...(Q. 12:20, Asad). The example from poetry is the poem of Yazd ibn Rabah ibn Mufarrigh al-H.imyar,
336. Al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, pp. 232-233 and al-Zarkash, al-Burhn, vol. 4, pp. 392-394. Ibn Fris said that according to some grammarians of the school of Bas .rah laalla signifies hope; others said that it is motivation, as in Q. 16:15; see Ibn Fris, al-S .h .ib, p. 170.

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known as Ibn Mufarrigh (d. 69/689) as follows:

And I sold [the servant called] Burd, I [regretfully] wish I were vermin [after I had sold him]."337

Ibn al-Jawz and al-Dmaghn mention three homonyms of al-shir (buying, or selling), namely: (1) (buying, purchasing), as in Behold, God has bought of the believers their lives and their possessions,... (Q. 9:111, Asad); (2) (selling), as in Vile is that [false pride] for which they have sold their own selves ... (Q. 2:90, Asad), and (3) (preference, choice), as in [for] it is they who have preferred error to guidance ... (Q. 2:16).338 In selling and buying people exchange something for something else they prefer. In this sense the above verse is translated by Asad, as follows: [for] it is they who have taken error in exchange for guidance. (Q. 2:16, Asad). We notice that Ibn Qutaybah does not treat the term bay here other than as a homonym of shir, which might be better translated as trading as it includes buying, selling and exchanging. g. (behind) According to Ibn al-Anbr the term war belongs to the category of al-ad.dd, as it may mean behind as well as before,339 whereas according to Ibn Qutaybah it has basically one meaning, namely, what is concealed from someone. Ibn Qutaybah says further that this term means behind as well as before, because anything absent from our sight is
337. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 188; idem, al-Shir wa al-Shuar, ed. Ah .mad Shkir, 2 vols. (Cairo: Dr Ih .y' al-Kutub al-Arabyah, 1364 A.H.), vol. 1, p. 321; Ab al-Faraj al-As .bahn, al-Aghn, vol. 17, p. 55; Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 1, pp. 48 and 304; al-Murtad ., Aml, vol. 2, pp. 95-96; al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 3, p. 21; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 373; and idem, Qurrah, p. 150. 338. Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, pp. 373-374; idem, Qurrah, p. 150; and alDmaghn, Qms, p. 263. For further details, see Lane, Lexicon, pt. 4, p. 1544 (s.v. ). 339. Ibn al-Anbr, al-Ad .dd, p. 34.

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war, whether before or behind us. The word al-muwrh (disguise) and al-tawr (concealment) are derived from it. The example from the Qurn is as follows: ... because [I knew that] behind them was a king who is wont to seize every boat by brute force. (Q. 18:79, Asad). The term war in this verse, according to Ibn Qutaybah, means before, which, according to alZarkash, belongs to the Coptic language.340 Ibn al-Jawz and Tifli mention five homonyms of war, whereas al-Dmaghn mentions six, among them being: (1) khalf (behind), as in But they cast this [pledge] behind their backs, ... (Q. 3:187, Asad); (2) amm, quddm (before), as in Hell is before him, ... (Q. 14:16), meaning awaiting for him; (3) siw (other than), as in But those who desire other than that are truly transgressors. (Q. 23:7); (4) bad al-mawt (after death), as in Now, behold, I am afraid of [what] my kinsfolk [will do] after my death, ... (Q. 19:5); and (5) al-duny (the world), as in They will be told: Turn back to the world and seek for light!... (Q. 57:13), meaning you should have sought light while you were on earth, not here in the Hereafter.341
340. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 189; idem, Tafsr, p. 270; Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 412; al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 3, p. 487; al-Zarkash, alBurhn, vol. 4, pp. 288-289; and Ibn Fris, Maqys, vol. 6, p. 104; see also Lane, Lexicon, pt. 8, p. 2933 (s.v. ). According to al-Qurt .ub, some commentators say that in this verse means "behind", but the majority say it means instead of

("before"), as

Ibn Abbs and Ibn Jubayr read

. Al-Mward mentions three

views concerning the use of meaning , as follows: (1) It is possible in any condition and place, because it belongs to al-ad .dd; (2) It is possible only with time, because it can be passed by man, so that it becomes behind it; and (3) It is possible only with bodies which have no direction ( ), such as two stones which are opposite each other, so that they are behind each other; this is the view of Al ibn s. See al-Jmi, vol. 11, pp. 35-36. 341. Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, pp. 608-9; idem, Qurrah, pp. 233-234 (mentions three homonyms only); Tifls, Wujh, p. 307; and al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 486.

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h.

(significant)

Jalal is applied to both small and big, because small is big compared to what is smaller than itself, so that it is both small and big. No example is given by Ibn Qutaybah. i. . (some) and (all) The word bad. and kull may mean some or all, because something in its entirety, as a whole thing, is only some, a part of something else, so that it becomes some and all at the same time. The examples from the Qurn in which bad. means kull and vice versa, are as follows: ... he said: I have now come unto you with wisdom, and to make clear unto you all of that on which you are at variance... (Q. 43:63); here bad. means kull.342 Behold, I found there a woman ruling over them; and she has been given [abundance] of some [good] things,... (Q. 27:23); here kull means bad.. No example is given by Ibn Qutaybah from poetry.343 j. (above) Fawqa means also dna (below) compared to what is above it, as in the following Qurnic verse Behold, God does not disdain to propound a parable of a gnat, or of something [even] less than that.... (Q. 2:26, Asad). The expression (even something above it), means (even something below it), namely, even something less than a gnat as translated above. This is the view of Ibn Qutaybah, Ab Ubaydah and Ibn al-Anbr.344 Al-Farr
342. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp. 189-190; and Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 205. However, according to al-Zajjj and al-T .abar, bad will not mean kull, see al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, p. 54; and al-T .abar, Jmi, vol. 25, p. 55. 343. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 190. According to al-Qayrawn there is an ellipsis of the expression ("she liked") in the above verse rather than interpreting "all" as "some", so that the verse means "she has been given all things she liked"; see Makk ibn Ab T .lib al-Qayrawn, Irb al-Qurn [mistakenly] attributed to alZajjj; re-ed. by Ibrhim al-Abyr, 3 pts. with continuous pagination (Beirut: Dr alKitb al-Lubnn, 1406/1986), pt. 3, p. 783. 344. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 190; Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 1, p.

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mentioned the fly and the spider as examples of things above the gnat. For him, it is possible to interpret fawqa as smaller in this verse, but he prefers to interpret it as larger, as a gnat is extremely small.345 Lane translates in the above verse as a gnat and what exceeds it in smallness or in largeness; what is smaller than it, or what is larger than it, by the latter being meant the fly (Q. 22:72) and the spider (Q. 29:40).346 Both Tifls and al-Dmaghn mention nine homonyms of fawqa whereas Ibn al-Jawz mentions eight - among which are as follows: (1) akbar (greater, bigger), as in Q. 2:26 above in which means something bigger than a gnat; it is similar to the interpretation of Qatdah and Ibn Jurayj who say that means (something greater than a gnat). 347 None of them say that fawqa here means dna as claimed by Ibn Qutaybah, Ab Ubaydah and Ibn alAnbr; (2) akthar (more), as in ...; but if there are more than two females... (Q. 4:11, Asad); (3) afd.al (better), as in The Hand of God is better than their hands. (Q. 48:10), namely, what Allah did for them is better than what they did in the pledge of H.udaybyah; (4) arfau f l-manzilah (higher in position), as in But they who are conscious of God shall be above them on Resurrection Day... (Q. 2:212, Asad), namely, their position will be higher than that of non-believers; and (5) fawqa rusihim (above their heads), according to al-Dmaghn, as in
35; and Ibn al-Anbr. al-Ad .dd, pp. 249-250. 345. See al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 1, pp. 20-21. 346. Lane, Lexicon, pt. 6, p. 2462 (s.v. ). 347. See al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 1, p. 67. Ibn Abbs was reported to have mentioned as something above the gnat. According to Ab Ali al-Fris, fawqa is possible to mean "smaller" if it refers to quality, such as the ("This is small and above small") and it is not possible to say ("This is little and above little"). But ("This is an ant and above the ant") and

("a donkey and above the donkey") to mean respectively smaller than the ant and the donkey, because they are not qualities but nouns. See al-Qayrawn, Irb al-Qurn, pt. 1, pp. 107-108.

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And [did We not say,] when We caused Mount Sinai to quake above the heads of the children of Israel as though it were a [mere] shadow, ... (Q. 7:171).348 k. and (to fear) Khashiya and khfa both mean to fear, but may also mean alima (to know), because fear is a part of knowing, as in ... and we knew that he would bring bitter grief upon them by [his] overweening wickedness and denial of all truth. (Q. 18:80), and And warn hereby those who know that they will be gathered unto their Sustainer (Q. 6:51).349 As a shhid, Lane cites a poem and its translation in which the term khashiya means alima, as follows:
And I know assuredly that he who follows the right direction shall dwell in the Gardens of Paradise with the Prophet Mohammad.350

l.

(hope)

Raj which means hope may also mean khawf (fear), because a person who hopes is in doubt and has a part of fear that what he hopes will not be fulfilled, as in What is amiss with you that you do not fear Allah's majesty, ... (Q.71:13, Asad). The example from poetry is the poem of Ab Dhuayb al-Hudhal, as follows: When the bees sting him he fears not their stings.351
348. For further details, see T .iflis, Wujh, pp. 228-9; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, pp. 473-4; idem, Qurrah, pp. 188-189; and al-Dmaghn, Qms, pp. 364-365. 349. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp. 190-191. For more examples, see Q. 2:182 and 229. See also Ibn Fris, Maqys, vol. 2, pp. 184-185 and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 2, pp. 745 (s.v. ) and 823 (s.v. ). 350. Lane, Lexicon, pt. 2, p. 745 (s.v. ). 351. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 191; idem, Tafsr, p. 271; al-T .abar, Jmi, vol. 5, p. 169; and al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 3, p. 50 and vol. 18, p. 303; see also Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 73; Ibn Fris, Maqys, vol. 2, pp. 494-495; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 2, p. 794 (s.v., ).

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The above verse according to al-Qurt.ub means, what is amiss with you that you do not fear Allahs majesty and His ability to punish you, namely, what is your excuse for not fearing Him? He quotes the interpretation of Ibn Abbs, Sad ibn Jubayr, Ab al-liyah, At. ibn Ab Rabh., as follows: What is amiss with you that you do not look forward to reward from Allah and do not fear punishment from Him? The term is also interpreted as (you do not see) by Ibn Abbs in another report and Mujhid, as well as (you do not care) by Ibn Mujhid in another report and al-D.ah.h.k. This last interpretation is based on the language of H.ijz, as asserted by Qut.rub. Similarly, in the languages of Hudhayl, Khuzah and Mud.ar the expression means (I do not care).352 According to al-Farr, the Arabs use the word raj meaning fear only if it is accompanied with jah.d (denial, negation), as in the examples above, and in the expression meaning I did not fear him).353 Ibn al-Jawz, Tifls, and al-Dmaghn mention respectively two, three, and five homonyms of raj: (1) amal (hope), raj, and t.ama (ambitious desire) according to Ibn al-Jawz, Tifls and al-Dmaghn respectively, as in ... they have the hope of the mercy of God; ... (Q. 2:218, Ali); (2) khawf which is also the language of Hudhayl according to Ibn Abbs, (khashyah, fear, according to Tifls and al-Dmaghn), as in And whoever feared the meeting with his Sustainer... (Q. 18:110); (3) al-t.ama, according to Tifls, as in ... they strive for His mercy (Q. 17:57); (4) al-h.abs (arrest), as in They said (unto Pharaoh): Arrest him and his brother (Q. 7:111 and 26:36); (5) al-nawh. (sides), as in And the angels [will appear] on its sides,... (Q.69:17, Asad); and (6) al-tark (leaving), as in Thou mayest put off for a
352. See al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 18, p. 303. 353. Ibn al-Anbr, al-Ad .dd, pp. 9-10; see also Ubayd ibn Sallm, Lught alQurn, pp. 183-184, n. 5.

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time whichever of them thou pleasest, ... (Q. 33:51, Asad).354 m. (to give up all hope) Yaisa may also mean alima (to know), for knowing and being sure of something make a person abandon all hope for other things, as in Have, then, they who have attained to faith not yet come to know that, had God so willed, He would indeed have guided all mankind aright? (Q. 13:31, Asad). The example from poetry is the poem of Suh.aym ibn Wathl al-Yarb, as follows:
I told them at the mountain path when they captured me: Do you not know that I am the son of the rider of the horse Zahdam?355

We have seen that many words belonging to al-ad.dd treated by Ibn Qutaybah were included later in the category of words having many homonyms. They were treated by writers in the field of (homonyms and synonyms in the Qurn). 3. Advancing what will Be Clear by Retarding, and Retarding what will Be Clear by Advancing.
354. Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 308; idem, Qurrah, p. 123; Tifls, Wujh, pp. 109110; al-Dmaghn, Qms, pp. 197-198; and Ibn Abbs, Gharb al-Qurn, pp. 55 and 65. 355. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 192; idem, Tafsr, pp. 227-228; Ibn Kathr, Tafsr, vol. 2, p. 534; Ibn Fris, Maqys, vol. 6, pp. 153-154; Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 6, p. 260 (s.v. ); al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 3, p. 53; and al-Zarkash, al-Burhn, vol. 1, pp. 109-110. It is said that ya'isa meaning alima is the language of Hawzin tribe, see al-Zarqn, Manhil al-Irfn, vol. 1, p. 390. Ibn Qutaybah does not give us any example for the basic meaning of ya'isa in the Qurn which is in Q. 12:87; see Ibn alJawz, Nuzhah, p. 633; idem, Qurrah, p. 246; and al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 501. There are variant versions in the verse in question: (a) ibn fris Zahdam; the horse Zahdam belonged to Suh .aym ibn Wathl al-Yarb; therefore, in this case, the poem belonged to his son Jbir ibn Suh .aym; (b) ibn qtil Zahdam; Zahdam was a person killed by Wathl; in this variant version the poem belonged to Suh .aym; (c) ibn fris Lzim; Lzim was the horse of Suh .aym; in this variant version, the poem belonged to Jbir ibn Suh .aym; see Ibn al-Kalb, al-Khayl: Nasab al-Khayl f l-Jhilyah wa l-Islm (Leiden: N.p., 1928), p. 17, quoted by Abd al-Salm M. Hrn in Ibn Fris, Maqys, vol. 6, p. 154, n. 1.

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Ibn Qutaybah quotes thirteen Qurnic verses, several examples from poetry and one example of an Arabic expression of the time to illustrate this category of inversion, thus evidencing the existence of such inversion in the Qurn, Arabic poetry and in common use. These examples will be discussed as follows: a. Arabic Expression The expression meaning present the she-camel to the water basin is the inversion of (present the water basin to the she-camel). As a matter of fact, they are presented to each other. b. Arabic Poetry An unidentified poet said: You see the bull in it making the shade enter his head, is the inversion of making his head enter the shade. As the bull's head and the shade become intermingled, they enter one into the other, leading Ibn Qutaybah to observe that though the first expression is not incorrect, the second one is more appropriate.356 Al-Ash said: Until it burned up and the firebrand became (hot) like its dust. It means its dust became (hot) like (the heat of) its firebrand.357 c. Qurnic verses (1) So think not that Allah will fail to keep His promise to His messengers (Q. 14:47, Pickthall) in which inversion is claimed to take place, namely, the inversion of (... He will fail to keep to His messengers His promise). According to Ibn Qutaybah, inversion occurs because the verb akhlafa (to violate) applies equally to the promise as well as to the messengers. We can say I fail to keep the promise, and I fail [to keep

356. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 194. 357. Ibid., p. 197; al-Ash's version of the poem is ("Until it was kindled, then the firebrand was like its dust"); see Maymn ibn Qays al-Ash, Diwn al-Ash (Beirut: Dr S .dir, 1966), p. 18.

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promise with] the messenger.358 (2) Now [as for me, I know that,] verily, these [false deities] are my enemies, [and that none is my helper] save the Sustainer of all the worlds (Q. 26:77, Asad) in which the inversion of (I am their enemy) takes place. This is because, Ibn Qutaybah asserts, whomsoever you treat as an enemy will also treat you as such.359 (3) and then [he] drew nearer, and came close (Q.53:8, Asad) is the inversion of (and then he came close and drew nearer), because Gabriel came close by drawing nearer, and drew nearer by coming close.360 This view is similar to that of al-Farr who states that the meaning of the verse is . However, he states further that it is possible to say, for example, (he came close, so he came nearer), or (he came nearer, so he came close), because both verbs have similar or nearly similar meanings. Therefore, it could be claimed that inversion does not occur in the above verse.361 (4) Nay, but man shall against himself be an eye-witness (Q. 75:14, Asad) is said to be the inversion of meaning nay, but the one who will be an eye-witness against
358. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 193. Al-Farr says that if a transitive verb has two objects, and one of them is a person, the person should be mentioned first, although it can be mentioned second; for further details, see Man l-Qurn, vol. 2, pp. 79-80. Al-Zamakhshar said that wad is mentioned first in the verse to indicate that Allah does not break His promise, let alone breaking away from His messengers; see al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 713. 359. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 193. Al-Farr gives the interpretation of the above verse, namely, "if you worship them, they will be enemies for me [namely, Prophet Abraham] till the Judgement Day". In this case, there is no inversion; see Man l-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 281. 360. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 193. See also al-Qayrawn, Irb al-Qurn, pt. 2, p. 725. 361. Al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 3, p. 95. According to al-Zajjj both words have the same meaning, except that dan means "to be near" (qaruba), whereas tadall means "to become nearer" ( ), see al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, p. 173.

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man will (come) from himself, namely, his limbs. Because his limbs are parts of him, they took his place, namely, himself in the above verse.362 (5) (old age has already reached me Q. 3:40) is claimed to be the inversion of (I have reached old age).363 Ab Ubaydah gives the same interpretation but does not acknowledge inversion has taken place here, but rather that this is the Arabic way of expression.364 Al-Zamakhshar who does not see any inversion here says that the verse means (old age has affected me and weakened me); it is like the expression the high [namely, old] age has reached him.365 According to al-T .abars both expressions are correct, because old age reaches you when it happens, and you reach old age through the passing of time. It is unlike the expression (I have reached the town) which cannot be inverted by saying (the town has reached me), in as much as the town does not reach or come to us.366 (6) Man is created out of haste (Q. 21:37) is the inversion of Haste is made with man. It means that haste is made as part of human nature. This is the view of Ab Ubaydah.367
362. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 193 and idem, Tafsr, p. 500. This interpretation of Ibn Qutaybah is cited by al-T .abars under the name of al-Qutayb, but without mentioning the occurrence of inversion, see Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, p. 396. AlQayrawn mentions two interpretations of this verse, also without mentioning the occurrence of any inversion in it, as follows: (1) ("but man shall be an eye-witness against himself") and (2) ("but man, [there] shall be an eye-witness againnst himself"). The second interpretation is like the expression ("Zayd, there is a boy in his house"). This is the interpretation to which al-Qayrawn leans. See Irb al-Qurn, pt. 2, pp. 536-537. 363. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 195. 364. Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 92. 365. Al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 202. 366. See al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 1, p. 439. 367. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp. 193, 195 and 197-198; and Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 2, pp. 38-39. From here, namely page 198, Ibn Qutaybah deals

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Al-T .abars gives two main views about the meaning of the term insn in the above verse: Adam and man. Those who say that it is Adam, have three views regarding the meaning of the above verse: (a) Adam was created after the creation of other creatures at the end of the day of the year of creation; it was Friday and Adam was created after sunset; (b) Adam was created not through the slow process of creation of babies; (c) when Adam was created his spirit filled most parts of his body; he became physically active and grasped at the fruits of Paradise. Those who say that it is man, have four different interpretations: (a) Man was created with the impatience to rush when dealing with his affairs. This is the view of Qatdah, Ab Muslim, and al-Jubb. The type of expression in this verse is common among the Arabs. For example, they say of a sleeper he was not created but of sleep, and of a criminal, he was not created but of evil. (b) There is inversion in this verse, namely, the haste was created out of man, which is the view of Ab Ubaydah and Qut.rub. This vew, however, is weak according to alT .abars, because in order to put Allahs words into inversion one needs tawl, whereas no tawl is needed here; (c) The term ajal means (clay), so that the verse means that man was created from clay, which is, according to al-T .abars, also the view of Ab Ubaydah and a group of linguists. As a shhid from poetry they cite the following poem: and the date palms grow between water and clay (soil). (d) Man was created in haste, as Allah said (be and it is).368 (7) Praise be to Allah Who hath revealed the Scripture unto His slave, and hath not placed therein any crookedness. (But hath made it) straight... (Q. 18:1-2, Pickthall) is the inversion of ... Who hath revealed the Scripture ... made it straight, and hath not placed therein any crookedness. This is the view of the majority of scholars, such as alwith the inversion by mistake up to page 205 inclusively. He then begins examining this particular inversion we are dealing with again. 368. For further details, see al-T .abarsi, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 4, pp. 47-48; see also al-Murtad ., Aml, vol. 2, pp. 115-119.

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Akhfash, al-Kis, al-Farr, Ab Ubayd, as well as al-T .abar, who based his view on Ibn Abbss interpretation. Qatdah, however, says that there is no inversion in this verse, as the verse means , as translated by Pickthall above.369 (8) ) And his wife was standing (there), and she laughed. But We gave her glad tidings of Isaac, ... (Q. 11:71, Ali) is the inversion of (We gave her glad 370 tidings of Isaac then she laughed). What made Sarah laugh? Al-Farr mentions two views: She laughed because of the glad tidings that she would have a son; this is the interpretation of those who state that there is inversion in the verse above. According to al-Qurt.ub, this is also the view of al-Farr who said that Sarah laughed because she was happy after hearing the good tidings. The other view is that there is no inversion in the above verse. Al-Qurt.ub said further that at the time of Prophet Abraham people who did not touch food presented to them were suspected of being enemies or robbers. Since the angels who appeared like human beings did not touch the food presented by Prophet Abraham, he became afraid. His fear was noticed by the angels who told him not to be afraid. So, his wife Sarah laughed.371 According to Muqtil, Sarah laughed because she saw Abraham who could challenge one hundred men by himself being afraid of three men, his guests. The best view according to al-Nah.h.s, is that when the angels told Abraham not to be afraid, he became happy; Sarah laughed because she was pleased with his happiness.372 According to Qatdah she laughed because she was amazed to see that her guests whom she was serving did not touch the food. According to al-Zajjj she laughed because she was amazed and happy to learn that Lot's people would be punished. She had advised Abraham to take his nephew Lot with him, for
369. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp. 205-6; al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 133; al-T .abar, Jmi, vol. 15, p. 126; al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 10, p. 351; alQayrawn, Irb al-Qurn, pt. 2, p. 713; and al-T .abarsi, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 3, p. 449. 370. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 206; Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 10, p. 460; and alQayrawn, Irb al-Qurn, pt. 2, p. 725. 371. Al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 2, pp. 21-22. 372. Al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 9, p. 67.

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she feared punishment might come to his people.373 (9) But they gave him the lie, and cruelly slaughtered her ... (Q. 91:14, Asad) is the inversion of (But they cruelly slaughtered her and gave him the lie). However, Ibn Qutaybah says that it is also possible that there is no inversion here. This is also the view of al-T .abar and al-Qurt.ub. Al-T .abar said that it is possible to mention the motive before or after the deed, for example (You gave, so you did good) and (You did good, so you gave).374 (10) Thus have their (so-called) partners (of Allah) made the killing of their children to seem fair unto many of the idolaters ... (Q. 6:137, Pickthall). This is the reading of the jumhr of the qurr, of the peoples of Makkah, Madnah, Kfah, and Bas.rah. Ibn Qutaybah said that some reciters, namely, Ibn mir, read the verse as follows: which means that the killing of the idolaters children by what they called partners of Allah has been made to seem fair to the idolaters. The difference between the two readings is as follows: In the first reading it reads (a verb in active voice), (the object of the verb ), (genitive case), and it reads of ), and (the subject of ). In the second reading ), (the object (a verb in passive voice), (nib fil of

(in genitive case, but is the subject of the verbal noun

). In the first reading the so-called partners of Allah made the killing of the idolaters children by their own parents seem to be fair. But in the second reading the so-called partners of Allah are only indirectly the killers, because of the idolaters' belief in their existence, influence, and will. To this second reading Ibn Qutaybah said that is the
373. See al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 3, p. 180. This view of al-Zajjj was chosen by al-S .bn, see M.A. al-S .bn, S .afwat al-Tafsr (Beirut: Dr al-Qurn alKarm, 1402/1981), vol. 2, p. 24. 374. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 206; al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 3, p. 269; al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 20, p. 79; al-T .abar, Jmi, vol. 30, p. 137; and alQayrawn, Irb al-Qurn, pt. 2, p. 725.

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inversion of

.375

Al-Qurt.ub mentions four variant readings for the above verse, follows: (1) the reading of the great majority of qurr mentioned above in which the idolaters killed their own children, and this act was made to seem fair by the so-called partners of Allah to the parents; means , their killing of their (own) children where the pronoun Man never tires of asking for the good [things of life]:... (Q. 41:49, Asad), meaning (of his asking for good [things of life]). The (partners) in the above reading according to alFarr and al-Zajjj are the people who serve the idols. Another view says that they are the tempters, and it has also been said that they are the devils; (2) the variant reading of al-H.asan which is also a possible reading according to al-Qurt.ub. is similar to the expression (Zayd was beaten by Amr) meaning (he was beaten by Amr). As a shhid from poetry is Sbawayhs poem: So that Yazid was made to cry by D .ri because of an argument, and was beaten in such a way that would make people perish.

hum is hidden. The ellipsis of the pronoun is also found in the verse

meaning (D.ri made him cry). As a shhid from the Qurn itself is the variant reading of Ibn mir and s.im from the report of Ab Bakr who read - instead of meaning He was offered praise ... by men (Q. 24:36-7); (3) the variant reading of the people of Shm in which means the idolaters children whom they killed and with whom they shared kinship and inheritance. This reading is also acceptable; (4) the variant reading of Ibn mir and of the people of Shm (Syria) as reported by Ab Ubayd as mentioned above.376
375. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp. 207-208. 376. Al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 7, pp. 91-92; al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 1,

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The reading of Ibn mir is disputable. Among those who reject this reading are: al-Nah.h.s, al-Farr, Ab Ghnim Ah.mad ibn H.amdn, alT .abar and al-Zamakhshar. Al-Nah.h.s said that the grammarians allow the separation between (the annexed, the first of the governed noun of the genitive construction) and (what is annexed to, namely, the (an second of the governed noun of the genitive construction) with

adverb denoting place or time), not with nouns. In Ibn mirs reading is separated from with a noun ( ), and therefore, his reading is not acceptable.377 Al-Mahdw justifies Ibn mirs reading by comparing it with the following line of poetry:
I cast at her [my wife] with a small arrow the way Ab Mazdah cast at the young camel.

Here

as

is separated from its

, namely,

with a

noun which is the object.378 Al-Farr rejects this argument, saying that this is only the view of the grammarians of H.ijz, and nothing similar to it is found in Arabic.379 Ab Ghnim Ah.mad ibn H.amdn al-Nah.w said that Ibn mirs reading is a mistake and should not be followed. The separation between the and the with a z .arf is allowed only for the reason of poetic necessity, because the does not separate, as in the following poem of Ab H.ayyah al-Numayr: -

p. 357; and al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 1, pp. 370-371. 377. Al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 7, p. 92. 378. Ibid. 379. Al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 358.

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It [the house] is [so well designed] like the book written one day by a Jewish scribe who makes some of his writings close to each other, and others well separated.

Here the word yahd is separted from kaff by yawman. Al-Qushayr said that a group of people rejected this view, as this reading was reported mutawtir from the Prophet. Moreover, it was written in the Uthmnic codex (with ) indicating the soundness of Ibn 380 mirs reading. Al-T .abar and al-Zamakhshar who rejected the reading of Ibn mir of the above verse381 were opposed by many ulam, such as Ibn al-Munayyir al-Iskandar, Ab H.ayyn al-Nah.w, Niz .m al-Dn alNisbr, and Ibn al-Jazar. Ibn al-Munayyir asserted that alZamakhshar thought that Ibn mirs variant reading was based on his own ijtihd, whereas, in fact, it was revealed to the Prophet, and the Prophet read it to Gabriel and to people with tawtur, as with the rest of the seven variant readings.382 Niz .m al-Dn al-Nisbr, defending the variant reading of Ibn mir, said:
The right view according to me, in this case, is that the Qurn is a h .ujjah (proof) on others, and not the others being a h .ujjah on it. As the seven variant readings are all mutawtir, how could it be then possible to say that some of them are wrong? If such a variant reading [of Ibn mir] has been reported in the miraculous Qurn then it is necessary to assert that it is right and eloquent.383

Ibn al-Jazar who disagreed with al-Zamakhshar on Ibn mirs reading on the above verse said that the right view was not what al380. Al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 7, p. 93. 381. See al-T .abar, Jmi, vol. 8, p. 33; and al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 1, pp. 437-438. 382. Ibn al-Munayyir, al-Ins .f (in the margin of al-Kashshf), vol. 2, p. 53, quoted by Dr. Labb al-Sad, Dif, pp. 75-76. 383. Niz .m al-Dn al-Nsbr, Ghar'ib al-Qurn wa Raghib al-Furqn, in the margin of al-T .abar, Jmi, vol. 8, p. 31.

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Zamakhshar said, and he asked Allahs protection from reading the Qurn with ray (personal opinion) and al-tashahh (personal wish). He said further that it would be impossible to reject the reading of Ibn mir who was one of the great tbin who took the learning from the s.ah.bah, like Uthmn ibn Affn and Ab al-Dard.384 (11). Let not, then, their worldly goods, or [the happiness which they may derive from] their children excite thy admiration: God but wants to chastise them by these means in this worldly life, and [to cause] their souls to depart while they are [still] denying the truth. (Q. 9:55, Asad). According to Ibn Abbss interpretation on the authority of alKalb referred to by Ibn Qutaybah the above verse means Do not let their riches and their children in the world please you; on the contrary, Allah will punish them because of them [i.e., their riches and children] in the Hereafter. Therefore, the inversion occurred between and , so that the above verse means that the occurrence of punishment will not be in this world, but in the Hereafter.385 This is also the interpretation of al-Farr.386 According to al-Qurt.ub, Ibn Abbss view is also shared by Qatdah. This is also the view of the majority of Arabists according to al-Nah.h.s. However, there is also another view which states that there is no inversion in the above verse. The punishment occurs in this world, namely, in their toil of collecting wealth and in spending it by force in order to conceal their hypocrisy.387 (12). And but for a decree that had already gone forth from thy Lord, and a term already fixed, the judgement would (have) been inevitable (in this world). (Q. 20:129, Pickthall). The inversion here occurs between and as
384. For further details, see Ibn al-Jazar, al-Nashr, vol. 2, pp. 263-264. 385. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 208; and al-Qayrawn, Irb al-Qurn, pt. 2, p. 723. 386. Al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 442. 387. Al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 8, p. 164; al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 3, p. 33; and al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 3, p. 39.

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translated by Pickthall above. This is also the view of Qatdah.388 Instead of the judgement, the inevitable thing according to Ibn Qutaybah and alT and the destruction .abar respectively is the punishment .389 Another view specifies the inevitable punishment, namely, the death of the leaders of the unbelievers in the battle of Badr. Had it not been decreed by Allah regarding the fixed terms of the rest of the unbelievers and the promise of punishing them in the Hereafter, they would have been killed the way their leaders were (in the battle of Badr).390 (13) And if any [secret] matter pertaining to peace or war comes within their ken, they spread it abroad - whereas, if they would but refer it unto the Apostle and unto those from among the believers who have been entrusted with authority, such of them as are engaged in obtaining intelligence would indeed know [what to do with] it. And but for Gods bounty towards you, and His grace, all but a few of you would certainly have followed Satan. (Q. 4:83, Asad). According to Ibn Qutaybah the inversion in the verse occurs between and , so that the verse becomes ( such of them as are engaged in obtaining intelligence would indeed know [what to do with] it but a few of them [would not know]).391 Al-Qurt.ub mentions three views on this verse: (1) It means they spread it abroad except a few ( ) which are not spread abroad and revealed; this is the view of Ibn Abbs and a group of grammarians, such as al-Kis, al-Akhfash, Ab Ubayd, Ab H.tim, and al-T .abar. (2) Similar to the view of Ibn Qutaybah above, which is also
388. Al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 11, p. 260 and al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 3, p. 33. See also al-Qayrawn, Irb al-Qurn, pt. 2, p. 725. 389. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp. 208-9; and al-T .abars, Jmi, vol. 16, p. 167. 390. See al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 4, p. 35. 391. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 209.

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that of al-H.asan.392 We notice that these two views state the occurrence of inversion. The words are put together after and according to the first and the second view respectively. Al-Farr and alKalb prefer the first view, whereas al-Zajjj prefers the second. (3) It means had it not been for the grace of Allah and His mercy on you by sending you a messenger among yourselves who brought evidence on you, you would have become unbelievers and idolaters, except a few among you. There is no inversion here.393 We have seen that Ibn Qutaybahs treatment of this topic was very brief and limited. Scholars of later generations had more things to say and gave more elaborate explanations. 4. Inversion by Mistake Ibn Qutaybah asserts that inversion by mistake occurs in poetry, because the poets invert and omit words by mistake or by necessity for the sake of rhyme or the correctness of the meter of the verses. As an example is the poem of an unidentified poet as follows:
What you have said is obligatory like adultery is obligatory for stoning

which is the inversion of like stoning is obligatory for adultery ( ).394 Did any of the philologists or Qurnic commentators ever explicitly mention the occurrence of inversion by mistake in the Qurn? As far as we know, none of them. However, by implication, the way some Qurnic verses were explained, this type of inversion seems to occur. Ab Ubaydah, for example, when he illustrated the occurrence of inversion in some
392. According to al-T .abars, this is also the view of the majority of the philologists (ahl al-lughah), see Majma al-Bayn, vol. 2, p. 82. 393. Al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 5, p. 292; see also al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 1, pp. 279-280. Al-T .abars mentions the fourth view which is almost similar to the third, see Majma al-Bayn, vol. 2, p. 82. 394. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 199; al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 99; and al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 15, p. 253.

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Qurnic verses never claimed that this inversion is by mistake, because inversion is itself one of the ways of expression by the Arabs. Ibn Qutaybah in rejecting the occurrence of inversion by mistake in the verses of the Qurn, states that Allah does not make any mistake nor is compelled to. However, he treats briefly four Qurnic verses suspected to belong to this category of inversion, as follows: a. And so, the parable of those who are bent on denying the truth is as that of the beast which hears the shepherds cry, and hears in it nothing but the sound of a voice and a call [lit. him who cries unto what hears nothing but a cry and a call]. Deaf are they, and dumb, and blind: for they do not use their reason. (Q. 2:171, Asad) According to Ab Ubaydah whom Ibn Qutaybah referred to as some philologists ,395 the word yaniqu, the one who calls, namely, the shepherd, should mean yunaqu, the one which is called, namely, the sheep. Therefore, the verse means that the similarity of unbelievers when they are called to Islam is like the deaf sheep which do not hear except a shout and cry when they are called by the sheep-tender, as translated by Asad above.396 What Ab Ubaydah means is that although it is read yaniqu it means yunaqu, and this inversion in meaning is not a mistake, because it is used by the Arabs. They say, for example (this dress is not sufficient for my size, namely, it does not fit me when it is meant my size does not fit the dress They also say (I put my head into the cap), when they mean I put the cap onto my head.397 This interpretation of Ab Ubaydah is also that of Ibn Abbs, Mujhid, Ikrimah, al-Sudd, al-Zajjj, Sbawayh and al-Farr. Al-Farr gives an example in the Arabic expression , meaning, So-andso fears you like the fear of the lion, which means (... like his

395. This is one example of the expresssion "some" which means "one" in the classical Islamic literature. It is said "some scholars say" or "some jurists say" when it sometimes means "one scholar" and "one jurist". 396. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 199; and Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 64. 397. Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 2, pp. 63-64.

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fear of the lion).398 Ibn Qutaybah rejects this interpretation and contends that the verse means the likeness of those who disbelieve and our likeness in their preaching are like the one who calls to someone who does not hear. The expression and our likeness ( ), is omitted in the verse as the mode of expression in the verse gives an indication of its existence.399 This view is similar to that of Ibn Zayd, Qut.rub, and al-T .abar, namely, the disbelievers calling their idols is like calling to the deaf.400 Ibn Qutaybah gives another interpretation of al-Farr, namely, the likeness of preaching of those who disbelieve which means the likeness of preaching to those who disbelieve;401 it is like the expression (If you meet So-and-so greet him the emirs greeting). The expression (the emirs greeting) here means (the way you greet the emir). Therefore, it means the way the emir is greeted, not the way the emir greets.402 b. ...that his treasure-chests alone would surely have been too heavy a burden for a troop of ten men or even more. (Q. 28:76, Asad). There is an inversion here according to Ab Ubaydah, that the verse means a troop of ten men or even more would have too heavy a burden with the treasure-chests ( ).403 The word is the plural of (a treasure-chest or a store) and (a 404 key). Asad, Ali and Arberry use the first meaning as seen above,
398. Al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 2, p. 214; and al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 1, pp. 99-100. 399. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 203; and idem, Tafsr, p. 68. 400. Al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi', vol. 2, pp. 214-215. 401. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 203. 402. Al-Farr mentions both views and says that both are correct; see, Man l-Qurn, vol. 1, pp. 99-100. For further details on the above verse, see al-Murtad ., ml, vol. 1, pp. 154-157. 403. Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 64 and vol. 2, p. 39. 404. See al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 13, pp. 311-312. Lane mentions two Arabic words for the "key", also the plural of with its plural , and with its plural

is

which means "a place in which things are reposited, stowed, laid

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whereas Pickthall uses the second. The size of a troop ( ) according to Ibn Abbs consists of people between three and ten, whereas according to Mujhid, Qatdah and Ab S.lih. it is respectively between ten and fifteen, between ten and forty, and forty people.405 Asad translates it as "ten men or even more" as noticed above, since this term is used here metonymically, pointing to the great weight involved...406 According to Ibn Qutaybah and al-Farr, there is no inversion in this verse, as it means that the treasure-chests, due to their heaviness, made the troop of mighty men who were carrying them bend down.407 Here Ibn Qutaybah disagrees with Ab Ubaydah. c. for, verily, to the love of wealth is he most ardently devoted. (Q. 100:8, Asad) is claimed to be the inversion of (for, verily, his love of wealth is ardent) or, according to alFarr, , meaning (for, verily, he is ardently in love of wealth). Ibn Qutaybah rejects the occurrence of inversion here, because, like Ab Ubaydah and al-Kalb, he translates as (miserly), so that the verse means Verily, for his love of wealth he is miserly ( ).408 Here Ibn Qutaybah leans towards the view of Ab Ubaydah rather than that of al-Farr. d. ... and make us examples to the righteous. (Q. 25:74). There is inversion here according to Mujhid, namely,

up, kept, preserved, or guarded (syn. property (syn.

and

); a hoard, a treasure, or a buried ).

)"; see Lane, Lexicon, pt. 6, p. 2329 (s.v.

405. Al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 4, p. 266. Ibn Qutaybah mentions Qatdah's view only, namely, constitutes between ten and forty people, see Tafsr, p. 335. 406. See Asad, The Message, p. 603, n. 85. 407. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp. 199 and 203; and al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 310. 408. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp. 200 and 204; idem, Tafsr, p. 536; al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 3, pp. 285-286; Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 307; al-T .abar, Jmi, vol. 30, p. 180; al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 20, p. 162; al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, p. 530; and Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 3, p. 234.

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and make those who are righteous examples for us.409 Ibn Qutaybahs interpretation of the above verse in refuting the occurrence of inversion in it is that it means and make us examples in good things by which the righteous will follow. To support his view Ibn Qutaybah cites the following verse: and [as] We raised among them leaders, so long as they bore themselves with patience and had sure faith in Our messages, guided [their people] in accordance with Our behest. (Q. 32:24, Asad). Here aimmah means qdah (leaders), according to Ibn Abbss interpretation.410 However, Ibn Qutaybah also gives Mujhids interpretation as reported by al-T .abar, that the verse in question means make us follow the examples of people before us so that people who come after us will follow our example.411 We have seen how Ibn Qutaybah treated the Qurnic verses in which inversion by mistake seemed to occur. Through his philological explanation he proved the absence of inversion, much less inversion by mistake. Unfortunately, Ibn Qutaybahs treatment of this topic is very brief and lacks detail. More explanation on this topic would have been valuable and helpful. This brevity is probably due to his conviction that there is no inversion by mistake in the Qurn and that no philologist explicitly mentions its occurence in the verses of the Qurn. C. Ellipsis (H.adhf) and Brevity (Ikhtis.r) Ibn Qutaybah in his Tawl mentions nine categories of ellipsis and brevity which occur in the Qurn. They are as follows: (1) the ellipsis of the mud.f whose function is replaced by the mud.f ilayh ( ), for example, And ask the township (Q. 12:82), meaning ask the inhabitants (ahl) of the township; (2) the effect of a verb on two things when it is actually intended for one of
409. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp. 200 and 205; and al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 13, p. 83. 410. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 205, and al-T .abar, Jmi, vol. 19, p. 34. 411. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 205; al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 274; and al-T .abar, Jmi, vol. 19, p. 34.

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them, while the verb of the other is hidden ( ), such as So decide upon your course of action, you and your partners (Q. 10:71), meaning so decide upon your course of action and call (wa ad) your partners; (3) the ellipsis of the main clause of a conditional or an incomplete sentence due to its clarity to the listener ( ), such as And were it not for God's favour upon you and His grace and that God is compassionate, a Dispenser of grace... (Q. 24:20, Asad) with the ellipsis of the main clause He would have punished you ( ) according to Ibn Qutaybah; (4) the ellipsis of one or two words, such as And as for those with faces darkened, [they shall be told:] Did you deny the truth after having attained to faith? (Q. 3:106, Asad), with the ellipsis of the words (it will be said to them) in the Qurnic text; (5) the ellipsis of the main clause of an oath when there is an indication of its presence in the sentence ( ) such as By those angels who drag forth souls with violence, and by those who with joyous release release them; by those who swim swimmingly along; by those who are foremost with foremost speed; by those who conduct the affairs of the universe! (Q. 79:1- , Rodwell) with the ellipsis of the words you will be surely raised ( ) at the end of these verses; (6) the ellipsis of the word l (no, not) while the sense of the sentence indicates its presence ( ), such as God makes [all this] clear unto you, lest you go astray; ... (Q. 4:176, Asad) with the ellipsis of the word la in the text, namely, ; (7) the use of a pronoun for something which has not been mentioned before ( ), such as Lo! We revealed it on the Night of Power! (Q. 97:1, Pickthall) with the ellipsis of the pronoun it (hu) referring to the Qurn which was not mentioned beforehand; (8) the ellipsis of propositions, such as And Moses chose out of his people seventy men (Q. 7:155, Asad) with the ellipsis of

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the word min (among, from, out of) in the text, namely, ; and lastly, (9) the complex ellipsis which is unspecified by Ibn Qutaybah due to its complexity, such as He who desires might and glory [ought to know that] all might and glory belong to God [alone].... (Q. 35:10, Asad) with the ellipsis of the expression (he will know to whom power belongs) according to Ibn Qutaybah, and ought to know that as put by Asad. These categories of ellipsis will be discussed with some selected examples, as follows: 1. The Ellipsis of the Mud.f whose Function is Replaced by the Mud.f Ilayh As mentioned earlier, the omitted mud.f and its function are replaced by the mud.f ilayh in its relation to its verb. Ibn Qutaybah mentions ten Qurnic verses and five verses of poetry which belong to this category of ellipsis. Three Qurnic verses and one verse of poetry will be discussed as follows: a. ... for their hearts are filled to overflowing with love of the [golden] calf... (Q. 2:93, Asad). According to Ibn Qutaybah, as translated by Asad, the verse means the love of the calf with the ellipsis of h.ubb (love).412 This is also the view of al-Farr and Ab Ubaydah.413 b. For the H.ajj are the months well known.... (Q. 2:197, Ali). According to Ibn Qutaybah the verse means the time of pilgrimage (waqt al-h.ajj) with the ellipsis of the word waqt.414 This is also the opinion of al-Farr, who heard al-Kis saying (verily the summer is two months, and verily the t.aylasn is three months), meaning the summer time

412. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 210. Al-Zamakhshar says that the meaning of the verse in question is "love and desire to worship the calf had penetrated into their hearts like the penetration of gum into clothes", see al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 90. 413. Al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 61; Ab Ubaydah, Majz alQurn, vol. 1, p. 47; al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 1, p. 163; and al-Qurt .ub, alJmi, vol. 2, p. 31. 414. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 210.

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and the time for wearing the t.aylasn (a shawl-like garment worn over head and shoulders)...415 Instead of , it is also said 416 (the time for performing the pilgrimage). c. in which case We would indeed have made thee taste double [chastisement] in life and double [chastisement] after death, ... (Q. 17:75, Asad) with the ellipsis of adhb (punishment), rendered as chastisement by Asad. This is the view of Ibn Qutaybah, Ab Ubaydah and al-Zamakhshar.417 This is also the view of Ibn Abbs, Mujhid, and others.418 d. As evidence from poetry is the following poem of Ab Dhuayb:
They brought him [the wines owner] with profit which he had tried [to obtain], so that it became kept [and] permissible [to drink], and drinking it became easy.

The words means (they brought its owner) with the ellipsis of the word s.h.ib (owner).419 2. The Ellipsis of the Verb It is the ellipsis of a verb which belongs to one of two objects. These objects are literally affected by another verb, although in meaning, only one of them is affected by it ( ). Ibn Qutaybah mentions examples from two Quranic verses and four verses of poetry. The Qurnic verses and two verses of poetry will be discussed as
415. Al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 119; al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 2, p. 405; and Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 2, p. 227. 416. What al-Qurt .ub means is that, it is like , see al-Jmi', vol. 2, p. 405. 417. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 210; Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 386; and al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 779. 418. Al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 10, p. 301; see also al-T .abars, Majma alBayn, vol. 3, p. 431. 419. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 211; and Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 2, p. 79 (s.v. ).

, which means

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follows: a. Immortal youths will wait upon them with goblets, and ewers, and cups filled with water from unsullied springs by which their minds will not be clouded and which will not make them drunk; and with fruit of any kind that they may choose, and with the flesh of any fowl that they may desire. And [with them will be their] companions pure, most beautiful of eye. (Q. 56:1722, Asad). According to Ibn Qutaybah the fruit, the flesh of fowls and the companions pure are brought to the inhabitants of Paradise, with the ellipsis of the verbs wa yutna bi (and it will be brought to them) which affects the fruit, the flesh and the companions pure.420 b. The poem heard by al-Farr from Ban Dubayr: I foddered it [the animal] with straw and [watered it] with cold water, with the ellipsis of the verb (I watered it).421
420. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp. 212-3. It is assumed here that Ibn Qutaybah reads also h and , see Tawl, p. 213. Al-Farr, al.r in in dative case, like Qurt .ub, al-T .abars and al-Zamakhshar mention three possible readings of : (genitive), (accusative), and (nominative). (1) is the reading of H .amzah and al-Kis and others, because it is affected by a hidden verb, namely, ("they enjoy") as if it is said ("They enjoy bowls, fruit, flesh and companions pure, most beautiful of eye"). (2) is the reading in Ubayy ibn Kab's and Ibn Masd's codices which is also the reading of al-Ashhub al-Uqayl, al-Nakh, and s ibn Umar al-Thaqaf. The noun is affected by the hidden verb ("and they marry"). (3) which is the reading of the jumhr, as if it is said ("and with them companions pure, most beautiful of eye"). For further details, see al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 3, pp. 123-124, al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 17, pp. 204-205; and al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, pp. 215-6. For a slightly different interpretation, see al-Zamakhshar, alKashshf, vol. 2, pp. 1441-1442. 421. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 213; and al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 3, p. 124. According to al-Qurt .ub, the ellipsis of the verb is due to its being related to the verb foddering, see al-Jmi, vol. 13, p. 357.

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c. The verse of Ubayd ibn al-H.usayn al-Numayr, better known as al-R (the Shepherd), as follows:

When the pretty girls appeared one day and pencilled (their) eyebrows and eyes

with the ellipsis of the verb kah.alna (smeared with kohl). The verse means and they pencilled their eyebrows and smeared their eyes with kohl.422 3. The Ellipsis of the Main Clause of a Conditional or an Incomplete Sentence The main clause of a conditional sentence is omitted for brevity, as the hearer knows it. Ibn Qutaybah gives us four examples of Qurnic verses and three from poetry. Two Qurnic verses and one verse of poetry will be discussed as follows: a. If there were a Qurn with which mountains were moved, or the earth were cloven asunder, or the dead were made to speak, (this would be the one!).... (Q. 13:31, Ali)). We notice the omitted main clause given by Ali is this would be the one. Ibn Qutaybah expresses a similar view when he states that the omitted words are (it would have been this 423 Qurn), which is also the view of al-Zubayr ibn al-Awwm, Mujhid, Qatdah and al-D.ah.h.k.424
422. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 213; al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 3, p. 123; and al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 17, p. 205. Lane translates the above poem as follows: "When the females content with their husbands (or with their beauty) shall go forth (or went forth) one day, and shall lengthen (or lengthened) with black collyrium the eyebrows and the eyes." See Lane, Lexicon, pt. 3, p. 1215 (s.v. ). Al-Numayr was a camel-herdsman (

); see Brockelmann, Tarkh, vol. 1, p, 217; and Nicholson,

A Literary History, p. 245. 423. Ibn Qutaybah. Tawl, p. 214; this view was also mentioned by later commentators, such as al-Qayrawn, Ibn Kathr and al-Zamakhshar; see Irb alQurn, pt. 1, p. 21; Tafsr, vol. 2, pp. 533-4; and al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 691. 424. Al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 9, pp. 318-9. See also al-Qayrawn, Irb alQurn, pt. 1, p. 21

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According to Ab Ubaydah, there are many omitted main clauses in this verse, so that it means that if there were a Qurn with which mountains were moved, they would have moved , or the earth were cloven asunder, it would have been cloven asunder were made to speak, they would have been resurrected , or the dead .425

According to some grammarians the omitted main clause is in the previous verse, namely, (for [in their ignorance] they deny the Most Gracious... Q. 13:30, Asad). Therefore, the verse means that they would still disbelieve Allah even if He sends a Qurn with which the events mentioned above occured. However, this view is not preferred by al-Farr who states that it is possible that the omitted clause is (they would have disbelieved).426 Similarly, according to alZajjj, the omitted clause is (they would not believe), as the omitted clause is revealed in another verse which reads: And even if We were to send down angels unto them, and if the dead were to speak unto them, and [even if] We were to assemble before them, face to face, all the things [that can prove the truth], they would still not believe unless God so willed.... (Q. 6:111, Asad). This is the interpretation adopted by Asad when he rendered the omitted clause as they ... would still refuse to believe in it.427 b. Is, perchance, he who worships [God] throughout the night, prostrating himself or standing [in prayer], ever-mindful of the life to come, and hoping for his Sustainers grace, [equal to one who denies the truth]? Say: Can they who know and they who do not know be deemed equal? (Q. 39:9, Asad). The main clause omitted in the above verse, according to Asad, is equal to one who denies the truth. Ibn Qutaybah does not mention it precisely, but says that it is the opposite of
425. See Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 331. 426. Al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 9, p. 319; and al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 2, pp. 7 ad 63. 427. Al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 9, p. 319; Asad, The Message, p. 465; and alT .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 3, p. 293.

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what is mentioned in the verse. This is self-evident, as the verse continues with the two opposite things, namely, those who know and those who do not know.428 Al-Zajjj states that since those who know are above those who do not know, so those who obey are above those who disobey.429 c. An unidentified poet says the following line:

I [come to] see you, for I do not know whether it is anxiety which is worrying me, and a worried man in olden times was humble and lean.

In this verse, the poet does not mention the main clause, namely, other than anxiety.430 4. The Ellipsis of One or Two Words four verses from poetry as examples. Three Qurnic verses and one verse from poetry will be treated as follows Ibn Qutaybah in this category of ellipsis mentions ten Qurnic verses and: a. And when Abraham and Ishmael were raising the foundations of the Temple, (they prayed): O our Sustainer! Accept Thou this: for, verily, Thou alone art all-hearing, all-knowing! (Q. 2:127, Asad). According to al-Farr, Ibn Qutaybah and al-Qayrawn, the omitted words are (both saying), namely, both Abraham and Ishmael said the prayer, as translated by Asad above.431 In addition, the words (and both are saying) are found in the variant readings of Ubayy and Abd Allh ibn
428. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 215; and al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 4, p. 491. 429. Al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol.15, p.240. For further details, see alZamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 2, pp. 1349-1350. 430. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 215. 431. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 216; al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 78; and al-Qayrawn, Irb al-Qurn, pt. 1, p. 14. It was said that Ishmael was still young at the time, and Abraham alone built the Kabah. This is an isolated view, and therefore, according to al-T .abars, is unacceptable. Both Abraham and Ishmael built the Kabah, although Ishmael merely handed stones to Abraham, according to Ibn Abbs. Moreover, both prayed that their duty be accepted by Allah, indicating that both built it. See al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 1, p. 207; see also al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 104.

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Masd.432 b. for thy Sustainer has ordained that you shall worship none but Him. And do good unto [thy] parents. (Q. 17:23, Asad). According to Ibn Qutaybah and al-Farr, the omitted word is respectively was.s. and aws., both meaning He enjoined.433 The verb was.s. for parents is explicitly used in other verses; for example, Now [among the best of the deeds which] We have enjoined upon man is goodness towards his parents.... (Q. 46:15, Asad), and And [God says:] We have enjoined upon man goodness towards his parents: ... (Q.31:14, Asad). Moreover, instead of it is written in Ibn Masds codex and Ibn Abbss variant reading.434 So, when the prediction of the

c.

second [period of your iniquity] came true, [We raised new enemies against you, and allowed them] to disgrace you utterly, ... (Q. 17:7, Asad). We notice here the ellipsis of the words baathnhum (We sent them) as the word baathn (We sent) has been mentioned in the previous verse which reads: Hence, when he prediction of the first of those two [periods of inquity] came true, We sent [baathn] against you some of Our bondmen... (Q. 17:5).435 d. The poet al-Namir ibn Tawlab said in his poem:
For verily, death will meet the person who 432. Al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 2, p. 126; al-Farr mentions the variant reading of Abd Allh only, see Man l-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 78 and al-T .abars, Majma alBayn, vol. 1, p. 207. 433. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 217 and al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 120. Al-T .abars mentions the ellipsis of both terms wa qad . and wa aws ., in the above verse, see Majma al-Bayn, vol. 3, pp. 408-409. 434. Al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 10, p. 237. 435. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 218; al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 116; al-Qayrawn, Irb al-Qurn, pt. 1, p. 19; al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 10, p. 223; and al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 759.

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fears it wherever [he is or he goes].

In this verse the ellipsis of the word kna or dhahaba occurs after aynam.436 5. The Ellipsis of the Main Clause of an Oath Ibn Qutaybah mentions only two examples of the ellipsis of the main clause of an oath from the Qurnic verses and does not give an example from poetry, as follows: a. By those angels who drag forth souls with violence, and by those who with joyous release release them; by those who swim swimmingly along; by those who are foremost with foremost speed; by those who conduct the affairs of the universe! (Q. 79:1- , Rodwell). We notice, as said by Ibn Qutaybah, the ellipsis of the main clause (you will be surely raised) at the end of these verses. Al-Qurt.ub adds with (and you will be surely accounted for [your actions]). This main clause is easily understood by the listener as stated by al-Farr, and is indicated in the succeeding verse even though we may have become [a heap of] crumbling bones? (Q. 79:11, Asad) with the ellipsis of b. Qf. By the Glorious Qurn (thou art God's Apostle). But they wonder that there has come to them a warner from among themselves. So the unbelievers say: This is a wonderful thing! What! When we die and become dust, (shall we live again?) That is a (sort of) return far (from our understanding). (Q. 50:1-3, Ali).
436. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 217; idem, Adab al-Ktib, p. 235; and idem, Gharb al-H .adth, vol. 1, p. 538. Al-T .abar and al-Qurt .ub mention dhahaba only, see Jmi, vol. 1, p. 154l; and al-Jmi, vol. 1, p. 262. 437. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 224; al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 19, pp. 194-195; and al-Zamakshshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 2, p. 1574. Al-T .abars mentions the ellipsis of either of the two main clauses, namely, ("they will verily be raised") or ("verily, there is an example in them"), see Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, p. 429.

(shall we be raised?).437

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Ibn Qutaybah interprets here the main clause of the oath as (shall we be resurrected?).438 Al-Farr mentions his interpretation and the ellipsis of the main clause of the oath in this verse as follows: Qaf. By the glorious Qurn, you will be surely raised after death ... Shall we be raised when we are dead and have become dust?439 6. The Ellipsis of the Word L Ibn Qutaybah mentions four examples of the ellipsis of from the Qurn and two from poetry. Two examples from the Qurn and one from poetry will be treated as follows: a. Verily, it is God [alone] who upholds the celestial bodies and the earth, lest they deviate [from their orbit]... (Q. 35:41, Asad). We notice here the ellipsis of l, so that the verse means (so that they do not deviate).440 However, according to al-Zajjj, there is no need for the ellipsis of l here, as the meaning of upholding in the verse is preventing, so that the verse means Allah prevents... from deviating.441 and neither speak loudly to him, as you would speak loudly to one another, lest all your [good] deeds come to nought without your perceiving it. (Q. 49:2, Asad). According to Ibn Qutaybah the verse means ([so] that your good deeds will not come to nought).442 This is the view of the grammarians of the Kfan school.
438. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp. 223-224; and al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 17, p. 4. 439. Al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 3, p. 75. Al-T .abars mentions a similar view to that of al-Farr, see Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, pp. 140-141. 440. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 225. Beside the ellipsis of l, both al-Qurt .ub and al-T .abars also mention the ellipsis of (lit, "disliking"), so that the verse means ("disliking them to deviate"), see al-Jmi, vol. 14, p. 356 and Majma alBayn, vol. 4, p. 412; see also al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 2, p. 1181. 441. Al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 14, p. 356. Al-Zamakhshar also mentions this interpretation with the ellipsis of min, so that the verse means ; see alKashshf, vol. 2, p. 1181. 442. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 225 and al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 3, p.

b.

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The grammarians of the Bas.ran school, however, say that the verse means (because it will bring your good deeds to 443 nought.). c. The poet Imr al-Qays says:
So, I said with oath: by Allah I will remain sitting, even if they beat my head and limbs in front of you.

The expression l abrah.u (abrah .u with the ellipsis l) means I shall continue.444 7. The Use of the Pronoun for Something, Which Has Not Been Mentioned Before Ibn Qutaybah mentions eight examples from the Qurn and six from poetry for this type of ellipsis. Three Qurnic verses and two verses of poetry will be dealt with as follows: a. Now if God were to take men [at once] to task for whatever [wrong] they commit [on earth], He would not leave a single living creature upon its surface.... (Q. 35:45, Asad). We notice that the pronoun h refers to the earth,

70. 443. Al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 16, p. 306. As in the previous verse (Q. 35:41), al-T or (namely, ) in .abars also mentions the occurrence of the ellipsis of this verse, see Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, p. 130. Al-Zamakhshar gives two interpretations of the verse , as follows: (a) ("because it brings your good deeds to nought"), and (b) "for bringing your good deeds to nought, namely, for fear of bringing them to nought"). He cites the variant reading of Ibn Masd ("so that your good deeds come to nought"), see al-Kashshf, vol. 2, p. 1385. According to Ibn Abbs the occurrence of the ellipsis of in in Q. 4:176 meaning is the language of the Quraysh, see Gharb al-Qurn, p. 43. 444. For further details, see al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 9, pp. 249-250 and alT .abar, Jmi, vol. 13, p. 28.

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although the earth has not been mentioned before in this verse.445 b. thereby raising clouds of dust. (Q. 100:4, Asad). The pronoun it in bihi [lit. by it, with it, or in it] in this verse, according to Ibn Qutaybah, refers to the valley ) (.446 Al-Qurt.ub and Ibn Kathr simply said that it is referring to the place where the morning raid mentioned in the previous verse (Q. 100:3) occurred.447 448 Al-T .abars mentions both views, whereas al-Zamakhshar mentions two more interpretations of in the verse, namely that the pronoun is referring to the act or the time of raiding.449 c. Then which of the favours of your Lord will ye deny? (Q. 55:13, Ali). The pronoun of the dual refers to both man and demon (jinn). Man has been mentioned earlier in the previous verse, but jinn has not been mentioned yet; it is mentioned later in verse 15.450 Man and jinn are later referred to as (the two dependents, lit., the two burdens, because they burden the earth).451

445. Ibn Qutaybah Tawl, p. 226; al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 14, p. 361, and vol. 15, p. 195; Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 156; al-T .abars, Majma alBayn, vol. 4, pp. 412-413; and al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 2, p. 1182. In fact, the earth has been mentioned earlier in the previous verse (Q. 35:44). The above verse was misquoted by Ibn Qutaybah when he used rather than . However, a similar verse using the term follows: and rather than and is as

"Now, if God were to

take men [immediately] to task for all the evil that they do [on earth], He would not leave a single living creature upon its face." (Q. 16:61, Asad). 446. Ibn Qutaybah Tawl, p. 226. 447. Al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 20, p. 158; and Ibn Kathr, Tafsr, vol. 4, p. 579. 448. See Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, p. 529. 449. See al-Kashshf, vol. 2, p. 1627. 450. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 228; and al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 17, p. 159. Asad translates l as "powers" since the repeated verse "bears not only on the bounties which God bestows on His creation but, more generally, on all manifestations of His creativeness and might...", and refers the dual ("of you both") to "the two categories of human beings, men and women, ..." rather than man and jinn. For further details, see The Message, pp. 824-825, n. 4. 451. See al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 2, p. 1436.

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d. The poet T I wish I could free you .arafah said: from it and become free [myself]. The pronoun (it), according to Ibn Qutaybah, refers to (the waterless desert, the open country).452 e. The poet al-Muthaqqib al-Abd said in his poem:

I do not know when I go to a country whether a good thing [or a bad thing] is intended [to me], which of the two will follow me: whether the good thing which I seek, or the bad thing which awaits [lit. seeks] me.

The pronoun ayyuhum (which of the two) in the above poem refers to the good thing and the bad thing. The latter is mentioned later only, in the second verse, not in the first.453 8. The Ellipsis of the Prepositions This category of ellipsis is called by Ibn Qutaybah [ ] (the ellipsis of the prepositions). H.urf al-s.ift is the Baghdd technical term for the h.urf al-jarr (prepositions), three of which are dealt with here by Ibn Qutaybah. They are, as we shall see from the examples given by Ibn Qutaybah, li, an, and min. Two examples from the Qurn and one from poetry are dealt with as follows: a. But when they have to measure or weigh whatever they owe to others, [they] give less than what is due! (Q. 83:3, Asad). The verse means . as translated by Asad above with the addition of the preposition to and for. 454 This is also the view of al-Akhfash and al-Farr. They say that like the verb wazana and kla we can say or (I
452. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 227. 453. Ibid., p. 228; idem, al-Shir wa al-Shuar, vol. 1, p. 357; al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 231 and vol. 2, pp. 7-8; and al-T .abar, Jmi, vol. 22, p. 98. 454. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 228; and Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 289; see also al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 2, p. 1588.

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advised you), and or (I ordered you [to do] it), with or without the preposition la and bi respectively. Al-Farr was reported to have said that he heard a bedouin woman saying When people left we came to the merchant so that he measured us one or two mudds [of grain], instead of saying (he measured for us). This is the language of the people of H.ijz and the surrounding Qays tribe.455 b. For (every) engagement will be enquired into (on the Day of Reckoning). (Q. 17:34, Ali), with the ellipsis of the preposition an, so that the verse means . 456

c. The poet al-Ajjj said: Under what Allah has chosen for him [among] the trees, with the ellipsis of the preposition min, so that the verse means as translated above with the addition of among.457 9. Complex Ellipsis The complex ellipsis includes what Ibn Qutaybah calls the expression which becomes obscure and difficult to understand due to its brevity and ellipsis ( ). He mentions ten examples from the Qurn, and five from poetry. This type of ellipsis also includes an unspecified category of ellipsis from which he gives four examples from the Qurn, but no example from poetry. For the first type of complex ellipsis two examples from the Qurn and one from poetry will be discussed, and two examples from the Qurn for the second type as follows: a.
455. Al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 3, pp. 245-6; and al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 19, p. 252. Other examples are the people of Hijz say and , whereas others say and ; see al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, p. 451. 456. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 230; Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 27; al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 3, p. 414; and Ibn Kathr, Tafsr, vol. 3, p. 42. 457. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 229; Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 229; and Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 4, p. 265.

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Is, then, he to whom the evil of his own doings is [so] alluring that [in the end] he regards it as good [anything but a follower of Satan]? For, verily, God lets go astray him that wills [to go astray], just as He guides him that wills [to be guided]. Hence, [O believer,] do not waste thyself in sorrowing over them: verily, God has full knowledge of all that they do! (Q. 35:8, Asad) Asad mentions the omitted words anything but a follower of Satan as we notice above. But according to Ibn Qutaybah the omitted words in the verse are , so that the above verse means: Would, then, he to whom the evil of his own doings is [so] alluring that [in the end] he regards it as good, waste thyself in sorrowing over him?"458 Al-Kis has the same view and says that the word man is the subject (mubtada) of an omitted khabar, namely, (you would waste yourself in sorrowing over him). He says further that this is an uncommon Arabic expression known only to a few people. This is also the view of al-Zajjj.459 The clue of this missing clause is do not waste thyself in sorrowing over them mentioned in the second part of the verse. b. Say: They are [lawful] in the life of this world unto all who have attained to faith - to be theirs alone on Resurrection Day.... (Q. 7:32, Asad). According to Ibn Qutaybah and al-Farr, there is an omitted or the believers and shared with non-believers in this world, but on Resurrection Day it is only for the believers.460 This is also the view of Ibn Abbs, al-D.ah.h.k, al-H.asan, Qatdah, al-Sudd, Ibn Jurayj and Ibn Zayd. word in this verse, namely, mushtarikah, meaning shared (with non-believers). Therefore, the verse means that the adornment of Allah is fThe other view is that of Sad ibn Jubayr who says that the

458. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 219. 459. For further details, see al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 14, pp. 324-325. For other interpretations, see al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 2, p. 1170; and al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 4, p. 401. 460. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 222; al-Farr, and Man l-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 377. Instead of , al-Zamakhshar interprets the ellipsis of the clause as "is not only for them, because the idolaters are their partners in it (the world)", see alKashshf, vol. 1, p. 445.

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verse means that the beauty which Allah has brought forth for His creatures in this world, will be on the Day of Resurrection exclusively for those who believed while they were in this world.461 c. The poet al-Shanfar said before he was executed:

So, do not bury me, verily, burying me is forbidden for you, but [leave me to the hyena to which it is said after hunting it]: Hide yourself O Umm mir [i.e. the hyena].

The poet wanted his corpse to be left to the hyena.462 d. Art thou not aware of those who, having been granted their share of the divine writ, now barter it away for error, and want you [too] to lose your way? (Q. 4:44, Asad). The verse means, according to Ibn Qutaybah, barter away guidance for error. The words with guidance is omitted, but mentioned in another verse, namely [for] it is they who have taken error in exchange for guidance; ... (Q.2:16, Asad).463 e. Thereupon God sent forth a raven which scratched the earth, to show him how he might conceal the nakedness of his brothers body.... (Q. 5:31, Asad). Ibn

461. Al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 7, pp. 199-200. See also al-T .abars, Majma alBayn, vol. 2, p. 413. 462. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 221; idem, al-Shir wa l-Shuar', vol. 1, p. 26; Ibn Abd Rabbih, al-Iqd al-Fard, vol. 1, p. 101; and al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn. vol. 1, p. 74. According to Ab al-Faraj al-As .bahn and al-Mufad .d .al, instead of khmir it is abshir in the poem; see al-As .bahn, al-Aghn, vol. 21, p. 136; and C.J. Lyall, ed., The Mufad .d .alyt: An Anthology of Ancient Arabian Odes; compiled by alMufad .d .al son of Muh .ammad [al-D .abb] according to recension and with the commentary of Ab Muh .ammad al-Qsim Muh .ammad al-Anbr, 1st ed. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1921), p. 197. According to al-Jh .iz . the poem belongs to Taabbat .a Sharran, whereas according to al-Murtad, it might belong to Taabbat .a Sharran or alShanfar; see al-Jh .iz ., al-H .ayawn, vol. 6, p. 450 and al-Murtad ., Aml, vol. 2, p. 72. 463. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 230; al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 5, p. 242; and Ibn Kathr, Tafsr, vol. 1, p. 519.

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Qutaybah mentions the full meaning of the verse as follows: Then Allah sent a raven scratching on the ground to hide a dead raven to show him how to hide his brothers naked body.464 According to Ibn Abbs, Ibn Masd and Mujhid, Allah sent two ravens fighting each other until one of them was killed and buried by the other. Another commentary states that the raven scratched on the ground to hide his food for further use, as it is the habit of the ravens to do so.465 We have seen that Ibn Qutaybah divided ellipsis and brevity into categories and gave examples from the Qurn and classical poetry. Although, being a man of letters, he gave many examples from poetry, his treatment of this topic lacks detail. More elaborate treatment is given by commentators of later generations, like al-T .abar and al-Qurt.ub. D. Repetition (Takrr) and Pleonasm (Ziydah) 1. Repetition Like ellipsis, repetition is also one of the characteristics of the Arabic language. It is used to emphasise something. In the Qurn it is used generally for emphasising and elaborating meaning. Ibn Qutaybah mentions two categories of repetition: repetition of words and repetition of meaning. They will be dealt with as follows: a. Repetition of Words Ibn Qutaybah cites seven examples from the Qurn in which repetition of words occurs. Two of them will be discussed hereunder: (1) . Say: O you who deny the truth! I do not worship that which you worship, and neither do you worship that which I worship. And I will not worship that which you have [ever] worshipped, and neither will you [ever] worship that which I worship. Unto you, your moral law, and unto me, mine! (Q. 109:16, Asad). Ibn Qutaybahs commentary on these verses is that the disbelievers seemed to have said to the Prophet: Surrender to some of our idols so that we shall believe in your God. So, Allah revealed to
464. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 231. 465. Al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 6, p. 141.

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him: I do not worship that which you worship, and neither do you worship that which I worship. It means that they would not believe until he did what they had suggested. Time elapsed and they came again to the Prophet, saying: If you worship our idols for a day, a month, or a year, we shall worship your God for a day, a month, or a year. For this, Allah revealed: And I will not worship that which you have [ever] worshipped, and neither will you [ever] worship that which I worship, denouncing their readiness to believe in Allah at one time and associate Him with others at the other.466 The repetition in these verses serves many purposes, among which are: (a) for emphasis; this is the view of al-Farr.467 (b) for rendering in line with the disbelievers statement You worship our idols and we will worship your God, then you worship our idols and we will worship your God, so that we shall go on like this year after year. The repetition in the verses in question is used in accordance with the disbelievers repetition; (c) for indicating the difference of time, namely, I do not worship now what you worship, and you do not worship now what I worship. And in the future I shall not worship what you worship, and in the future you will not worship what I worship. This is the view of alAkhfash and al-Mubarrad; (d) for indicating the difference of idols; in pre-Islamic Arabia when people became bored with worshipping the same idols they replaced them with new ones. Therefore, the verses mean: I do not worship the idols you worship today, and you do not worship what I worship, for you worship the idols you have now; and I shall not worship the idols you worshipped yesterday which you have abandoned, and you will not worship what I worship, for I worship my
466. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 238; and al-Murtad ., Aml, vol. 1, pp. 83-84 in which al-Murtad . is quoting Ibn Qutaybah. The asbb al-nuzl of these verses as reported by Ibn Ish .q from Ibn Abbs is that al-Wald ibn al-Mughrah, al-s . ibn W'il, al-Aswad ibn Abd al-Mut .t .alib and Umayyah ibn Khalaf met the Prophet and said to him: "O Muhammmad, let us worship what you worship, and you worship what we worship, so that we share all together in all of our matters. If what you are bringing is better than what we have, then we will have our share from it by joining you. But if what we have is better than what you have, then you will have your share by joining us." Then Allah revealed: "Say: O disbelievers!...". See al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 20, p. 224. 467. See al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, p. 552; and al-Murtad ., Aml, vol. 1, p. 84.

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God; and (e) for indicating the existence of distinction between the two ways of worship; the particle in and which follows it is , so that they respectively mean your way of worship ( our way of worship ( ).468 ) and

(2) Then which of the favours of your Lord will ye deny? (Q. 55:13, Ali). The above verse is repeated 31 times in Srat al-Rah.mn (chapter 55). The purposes of this repetition according to Ibn Qutaybah is to remind people of Allahs favours to them and to call their attention to His power and mercy to His creatures. The verse is repeated after mentioning the favours of Allah so that they would understand and acknowledge them.469 It is, Ibn Qutaybah states further, like telling a man to whom you have given your favours and assistance continuously and who still denies your favours: Didnt I provide you accommodation when you were outcast? Do you deny this? Did I not pick you up when your leg was injured? Didnt I make you perform the pilgrimage (a lam ah.ijj bika) when you had not performed it? Do you deny this?.470
468. For further details, see al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 20, pp. 225-9; al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, p. 552; al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 2, p. 1638; alMurtad . , Aml, vol. 1, p. 85; and Mah .md ibn H .amzah ibn Nas .r al-Kirmn, Asrr al-Takrr f l-Qurn, ed. Abd al-Qdir At . (Cairo: Dr al-Itis .m, 1398/1978), pp. 226-227. 469. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 239. If the repetition of the above verse serves as reminder to people about Allah's favours, why does it also occur after mentioning something other than favours, even punishment or threat? To this, al-Murtad . gives us his answer as follows: Although the punishment is itself not a favour, but mentioning, describing or giving a warning of it is a great favour. This is because punishment as well as reward is intended only for those who deserve it. See al-Murtad ., Aml, vol. 1, p. 88 and al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, p. 206. Asad, however, renders the translation of l here as "powers" adopting the interpretation of some of the earliest commentators, such as Ibn Zayd; see p. 208, n. 170 above and Asad, The Message, pp. 824-825, n. 4. 470. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 240. Al-Qurt .ub is quoting the interpretation of Ibn Qutaybah, whom he called al-Qutab, on the above verse, see al-Jmi, vol. 17, pp. 159-60. For other examples of repetition, see Q. 102:3-4; 94:5-6; 75:34-35; 82:17-18; 54:15, 17, 22, 32, 40 and 51. Partial repetition of words is also treated by Ibn

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b. Repetition of Meaning According to Ibn Qutaybah the repetition of a meaning or an idea by using different wording is intended to elaborate the meaning and to extend the expression, such as , meaning, I order you to fulfil (your promise) and I forbid you from betraying (it). The order to fulfil ones promise is itself the prohibition from betraying it. He mentions three examples from the Qurn and one from poetry. Two examples will be discussed as follows: (1) In both of them will be [all kinds of] fruit, and date-palms and pomegranates. (Q. 55:68, Asad). Although the date-palms and the pomegranates are fruit, Ibn Qutaybah states, they are specially mentioned to indicate their excellence.471 (2) Or do they, perchance, think that We do not hear their hidden thoughts and their secret confabulations? Yea, indeed, [We do,] and Our heavenly forces are with them, recording [all]. (Q. 43:80, Asad). The meaning of the word sirr (a secret) is repeated in this verse with the word najw (a confidential talk), as najw is itself sirr, a secret. It is also possible, Ibn Qutaybah asserts, that sirr means a personal secret, while najw means what is discussed secretly by people and kept
Qutaybah, namely, when a letter is substituted by another in the repeated word, because the speaker does not like to repeat the same word, such as and , and

, and

and

. However, he does not mention any example

from the Qurn for this partial repetition, and hence, we do not deal with it in this study. 471. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 240; Ab Mans .r Abd al-Mlik al-Thalib, Fiqh al-Lughah wa Asrr al-Arabyah (Egypt: al-Mat .baah al-Adabyah, 1318 A.H.), p. 216; al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, p. 211; and al-Qayrawn, Irb alQurn, pt. 3, pp. 818-819. It is said that the date-palm and the pomegranate were singled out in this verse because at that time they were people's main food and were grown abundantly from Madinah to Makkah and Yaman. Another view is that both are not only fruit; the date-palms are food and fruit, whereas the pomegranates are fruit and medicine; this is the view of Ab H .anfah. See al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 17, p. 186. According to al-Farr, the date-palm and the pomegranate were singled out in this verse to attract the inhabitants of Paradise ( ), see Man l-Qurn, vol. 3, p. 119. For further details, see al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 2, p. 1438.

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for themselves.472 2. Pleonasm Pleonasm is the redundancy of words, namely, the use of more words than are needed to express the meaning; for example, divide something into four quarters and each of the two twins. Here the words four and two are redundant, since things divided into quarters will become four quarters, and the twins are two children. Ibn Qutaybah gives us two categories of pleonasm in his Tawl: general and specified. The general pleonasm is the addition of unspecified words in the statement, while the specific one is the addition of a certain word in it. There are fifteen examples of pleonasm mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah. In this study two Qurnic verses for each category (whenever Ibn Qutaybah mentions more than one) and one verse of poetry (whenever available) will be discussed as follows: a. General Pleonasm Ibn Qutaybah cites seven examples of general pleonasm in the Qurn, two of which are as follows: (1) uttering with their mouths something which was not in their hearts, .... (Q. 3:167, Asad). Ibn Qutaybah asserts that the expression with their mouths is to emphasise that they actually said what is not in their hearts, not just in writing or gesture.473 The purpose of this expression is to emphasise
472. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp. 240-241 and al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, p. 57. It was reported by Muh .ammad ibn Kab al-Quraz that three people were talking together between the Kabah and its curtains. Two of them were Qurayshs, and the other was a Thaqaf, or two Thaqafs and one Quraysh. One of them asked: "Do you think that Allah hears our conversation?" The other answered: "If you speak loudly He will hear it, but if you speak secretly He will not." But another one said: "If He hears you when you speak loudly He will also hear you when you speak secretly." Then the above verse was revealed. See al-T .abar, Jmi, vol. 25, p. 60; and alQurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 16, p. 119. Al-Zamakhshar simply makes the distinction between the two terms by saying that is something a person says to himself or to others in privacy ( , lit. "in a vacant place"), and is something people talk among themselves; see al-Kashshf, vol. 2, p. 1335. 473. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 241; and al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, p.

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hypocrisy by showing the contrast between what is said and what is truly believed by means of mentioning its respective place. (2) whereas he who cannot afford it shall fast for three days during the pilgrimage and for seven days after your return: that is, ten full [days].... (Q. 2:196, Asad). According to Ibn Qutaybah, the expression ten full is for emphasis.474 However, according to al-Zajjj and Ab al-Qsim alBalkh, it is to remove obscurity, since the particle wa (and) could also mean aw (or); in the above expression it becomes clear that it does not mean a fast of either three days on the pilgrimage or seven days after returning home, but both, ten days in all. The example in which means is in the following verse: ... then marry from among [other] women such as are lawful to you - [even] two, three, or four:... (Q. 4:3, Asad).475 (3) The poet al-Shammkh said:
When a banner was hoisted for a glorious cause Arbah took it vigorously.

The words bil-yamn literally mean with the right hand, and since the power is in the right hand, the words here mean vigorously and enthusiastically.476 b. Specific Pleonasm The fifteen additional words given by Ibn Qutaybah are as follows: (1) Additional . This l (no, not) should be dropped in meaning, although added in the text due to the occurrence of rejection (ib) or negation (jah.d) in the statement. For example
57. 474. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 243; see also al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 1, pp. 135-136. 475. See al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 1, p. 291. 476. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 242. See also Ibn Fris, Maqys, vol. 6, p. 158; and al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 8, p. 251, vol. 14, p. 147, vol. 15, p. 75, and vol. 18, p. 275.

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[And God] said: What has kept thee from prostrating thyself when I commanded thee?... (Q. 7:12, Asad). The expression means so that the verse means What prevented you from prostrating thyself...? where l is not translated. However, as Iblis (Satan) did not prostrate himself the word l is added in the verse.477 According to al-Farr, the verse means What prevented you from prostrating, and the word l in all is s.ilah. It is also possible that the second negation is used to emphasise the first, such as the following poem:

Verily, we have not seen like them, a group of black head two-humped camels and elephants.

Both m and in in this verse mean not, but the second is meant for emphasis.478 Al-Qurt.ub mentions three main views about l in the above verse: (1) It is additional, according to Ab Ubaydah479 and some grammarians of both of the Bas.ran and the Kfan schools; (2) It is not additional, as the word manaa has the meaning of saying or appealing, so that the verse means who appealed to you for not falling prostrate or who told you not to fall prostrate; this is the view of al-Farr.480 Moreover, in al-Farrs view, the significance of l here is that it indicates the existence of rejection in the previous verse, namely, Ibliss refusal to fall prostrate. (3) There is an ellipsis in the verse; it means What hindered you from obeying and compelled you not to prostrate?481 Al-Tabaris view is similar to this when he said that the verse means What hindered you from prostrating so that it compelled

477. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 244; and al-Qayrawn, Irb al-Qurn, pt. 1, p. 132. 478. For further details, see al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 374. 479. Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 211. 480. See Ibn al-Anbr, al-Ad .dd, p. 216. 481. Al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 7, p. 170.

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you not to prostrate?482 Al-Zamakhshars interpretation is What hindered you from carrying out the prostration and (from) forcing yourself to (do) it?483 According to al-Sakkk (d. 626/1229) this verse is a metaphor (majz); the particle l is neither additional nor s.ilah, but rather an indication (qarnah) of the existence of metaphor. Therefore, the meaning of this verse according to him is What called you up for not prostrating?484 The example from poetry is Ab al-Najms poem as follows:

I do not blame the [women with] white [hair] for ridiculing when they saw the ugly [person with] white hair [mixed with baldness].

The word is translated as (or according to Ab Ubaydah) with the omission of the additional l. The word l at the end of the verse is additional.485 An additional l also occurs at the beginning of verses starting with oaths, the purpose of which, in Ibn qutaybahs view, is to disprove the disbelievers. For example: Nay! I call to witness the Day of Resurrection! But nay! I call to witness the accusing voice of mans own conscience! (Q. 75:1-2, Asad) and Nay, I call to witness this land. (Q. 90:1, Asad). Therefore, such verses give a sort of expression similar to the following one: Nay, by Allah, it is not as you say. Although it is possible to drop the nay, its presence in the statement makes it stronger. 486 The position of the additional l preceding an oath like the verse l uqsimu mentioned above is a widely controversial issue among Arabic grammarians. According to Ibn Jinn, it is lm al-ibtid (lm used for starting a sentence), so that l uqsimu is originally laan uqsimu, then
482. Al-T .abar, Jmi, vol. 8, p. 97. 483. See al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 439. 484. See al-Sakkk, Mifth . al-Ulm, p. 367. 485. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp. 245-246; and Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 1, pp. 26 and 211. 486. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp. 246-247.

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the personal pronoun an is dropped, and finally it becomes lauqsimu.487 Moreover, it is written (la without alif) in the Uthmnic recension.488 According to al-Kis l is additional, whereas according to al-Farr it is not additional. Rather, it is necessary to indicate a reply to the disbelievers statements, belief, and rejection of faith, such as Paradise, Hell, and the Resurrection, as if it states that what they think is not right. This view is adopted by Ibn Qutaybah as mentioned above.489 (2) Additional . The word al which means verily, indeed, is an intensifying interjection. It is introduced at the beginning of the sentence to alert the listener to what is about to be said. It should not be confused with al consisting of two particles, a (intorregative) and l (negative). The examples of the additional al given by Ibn Qutaybah are as follows: (a) meaning Oh, verily, [even] when they cover themselves with their garments [in order not to see or hear],... (Q. 11:5, Asad).490 (b) meaning Oh, verily, on the Day when it befalls them there will be nothing to avert it from them;... (Q. 11:8, Asad).491 The poem of T .arafah:
Verily, O my rebuker for my attending the battle (that I might be killed) and for enjoying my wealth (that I might become poor), are you my immortaliser? 487. Al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, p. 394. 488. Al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 2, p. 1554. was also the reading of al-H .asan, al-Amash and Ibn Kathr; see al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 20, p. 59. 489. Al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 3, p. 207; Ibn al-Anbr, al-Ad .dd, pp. 215-216; and al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 19, pp. 91-2. See also al-Qayrawn, Irb alQurn, pt. 1, p. 133; al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, pp. 393-395; and alZamakshshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 2, p. 1554. 490. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 247; and al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 3, p. 143. 491. Idem.

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What the poet means is that since his rebuker cannot make him immortal, he is free to go to war and to spend his wealth. 492 (3) Additional . Ibn Qutaybah asserts that this additional bi, meaning by, in, should not be interpreted. Some examples of this additional bi are as follows: (a) Read in the name of thy Sustainer, who has created. (Q. 96:1, Asad), which means, according to Ibn Qutaybah, Ab Ubaydah and al-T Read the name of .abars, thy Sustainer who has created."493 Al-Qurtubi mentions three views on this verse: (1) as mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah above; (2) Read (the Qurn) by opening with the name of your Lord (Sustainer); here the expression is in the accusative case as an adverb ( of your Sustainer, ( ), and (3) Read (the Qurn) in the name ).494

(b) ) A fountain from which the servants of Allah will refresh themselves and make it gush forth abundantly. (Q. 76:6, Dawood), which means, according to Ibn Qutaybah and al-Farr, a fountain which the servants of Allah will drink (from) ...495
492. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp. 247-248 and al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 1, p. 149. For the location of the poem, see W. Ahlwardt (ed.), Kitb al-Iqd alThamn f Dawwn al-Shuar al-Jhilyn (al-Nbighah, Antarah, T .arafah, Zuhayr, Alqamah, Imru al-Qays) (Greifswald, 1870. Reprint of the edition 1870; Osnabrck, Biblio Verlag, 1972), p. 57. 493. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 248; idem, Adab al-Ktib, p. 547; Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 304; al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, p. 513; and alQayrawn, Irb al-Qurn, pt. 2, p. 672. 494. For further details, see al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 20, p. 119. 495. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawil, p. 248; idem, Adab al-Ktib, pp. 547-548; al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 3, p. 215; al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 19, p. 126; and al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, p. 407. For further examples from the Qurn mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah, see Tawl, pp. 248 and 250, (Q. 23:20, 19:25, 68:6, 60:1, and 22:25). It is also possible that instead of omitting bi in the interpretation of the above verse, it is put in place of min, so that the verse means as translated by Dawood above. For further details, see below p. 298.

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(4) Additional

. Ibn Qutaybah mentions one example only of the

additional min (of, from), as follows: meaning ...no sustenance do I ever demand of them... (Q. 51:57).496 (5) Additional . Ibn Qutaybah mentions example only where the additional li (for) occurs in the Qurn, as follows: meaning ... and in their inscription there was guidance and mercy for those who fear their Lord. (Q. 7:154, Pickthall).497 Al-Qurt.ub mentions three views on this li, as follows: (1) it is additional as mentioned above, which is the view of the grammarians of Kfah; (2) it means for the sake of ( ), so that the verse means for those who fear for the sake of their Lord, and this is the view of al-Akhfash; (3) it is added to the noun that precedes its verb which becomes weak and intransitive; it is like the verse if you are able to interpret dreams! (Q. 12:43, Asad).498 (6) Additional . Ibn Qutaybah mentions one example only from the Qurn in which the additional ka (as, same) occurs, as follows: meaning There is nothing like unto Him. (Q. 42: 11, Asad).499 According to Thalab instead of the addition of ka in the above verse, it is the addition of mithl that occurs, the purpose of which

496. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 250. Although al-Qurt .ub gives the same interpretation, he says that the position of the particle min in this verse is ; see alJmi, vol. 17, p. 56. 497. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 250; and al-Qayrawn, Irb al-Qurn, pt. 2, p. 674. 498. For further details, see al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 7, p. 293. The last view is mentioned by al-Zamakhshar, see al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 480. 499. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 250; al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, p. 24; and al-Qayrawn, Irb al-Qurn., pt. 2, p. 673.

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is for emphasis. Therefore, the verse means

.500

(7) Additional . Ibn Qutaybah mentions one example from poetry, and none from the Qurn where the additional al occurs, as the following verse of H.umayd ibn Thawr:
Allah rejected [any claim or statement] except that the Sarh .at 501 tree of Mlik is superior to all kinds of thorny trees.

(8) Additional . Ibn Qutaybah gives us one example only where the additional an (from, against) occurs, as the following Qurnic verse: meaning Let those who disobey His orders beware,... (Q. 24:63, Dawood).502 This is the view of Ab Ubaydah503 and al-Akhfash. However, according to al-Khall and Sbawayh, the preposition an in the verse is not additional, as the verse means disobey after [giving] His order, namely after He has given the order.504
500. For further details, see al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 16, p. 8. 501. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp. 250-1; idem, Adab al-Ktib, p. 549; the translation of the verse is based on Ibn al-Sayyid's commentary. Sarh .ah is the name of a kind of thorny tree, but is used here as a metaphor for a woman. Poets had promised Umar ibn al-Khat .t .b not to celebrate a woman in their poetry, and the poet here uses the name of a tree as a metaphor for his beloved. Here, the preposition is additional, as the verb is a transitive verb which does not require a preposition. It

is said (the thing pleases me), not . See Ibn al-Sayyid, alIqtid .b, p. 458, quoted by al-Sayyid Ah . mad S .aqr in Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 250, n. 6. Lane gives us some details of the Sarh .ah tree. He says that it is "a certain kind of trees, of great size, or seldom eaten by the camels, &c. [sic], but used for their shade: they grow in Nejd, in plain, or soft and in rugged ground, but not in sand nor upon a mountain; and have a yellow fruit; or any tree without thorns". See Lane, Lexicon, pt. 4, p. 1344 (s.v. ). 502. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 251. According to al-Zamakhshar, the pronoun hi in amrihi belongs to Allah, as translated by Pickthall above, or to the Prophet, see alKashshf, vol. 2, p. 964. 503. Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 69. 504. Al-Qurt .ub, al-Ijm, vol. 12, p. 323.

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(9) Additional . Ibn Qutaybah gives two examples from the Qurn and one from poetry in which the additional inna (verily) which is called the heavy inna ( ) occurs, as follows: (a) [But,] behold, as for those who attain to faith and do righteous deeds verily, We do not fail to requite any who persevere in doing good. (Q. 18:30). The second inna is additional.505 Al-Zamakhshar mentions three interpretations of the above verse which indicate that, contrary to Ibn Qutaybahs view, inna in this verse is not additional, as follows: (1) The verse is an which is in modern technical terms called (a parenthetical clause), so that the meaning of the verse is completed with the khabar (predicate) in the succeding verse, namely, theirs shall be gardens of perpetual bliss ... (Q. 18:31, Asad); (2) Instead of being a parenthetical clause, it is also a khabar, the first khabar, whereas the preceding verse is the second. The connection (s.ilah) between the subject those who attain to faith and the first predicate is the expression (who persevere in doing good) which is identical to those who attain to faith. Therefore, the verse means As for those who attain to faith... We do not fail to requite them, for theirs shall be the gardens of perpetual bliss; (3) The preceeding verse is not a khabar, but an explanation of the term ajr (reward).506 (b) Say: Behold, the death from which you are fleeing is bound to overtake you... (Q. 62:8, Asad). Here, the second inna is also additional.507 Al-Zamakhshar mentions two other variant readings: (1) without , which is of Ibn Masd; this is the khabar of the subject, the death ( ), in

505. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 251. 506. See al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 799. Al-T .abars gives slightly different interpretations, also indicating that inna is not additional in this verse; see Majma alBayn, vol. 3, pp. 466-7. 507. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 251.

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the verse; (2)

(without ), which is of Zayd ibn Al. This is a

new sentence, because is the khabar, so that the verse means: Say, the death is the thing from which you are fleeing.Verily, it is bound to overtake you.508 (c). The poet Jarr said:
The caliph has been covered by Allah with a garment of power with which seal-rings [of authority] are enforced. 509

According to al-Farr it is not correct to say, for example, ("Verily, Zayd, verily his brother is departing"); however, it is correct in the Qurnic verses, such as Q. 22:17, because it contains recompense. The verse runs as follows: Verily, as for those who have attained to faith [in this divine writ], and those who follow the Jewish faith, and the Sabians, and the Christians, and the Magians, [on the other hand,] and those who are bent on ascribing divinity to aught but God, [on the other,] verily, God will decide between them on Resurrection Day... (Q. 22:17, Asad). On the contrary, Ab Ish.q allows it and says that it is possible for every mubtada to be emphasised with inna; therefore, according to him, we can say, for example, (Verily, Zayd, he is departing), then we emphasise huwa (he) and say mentioned above.510 , as in the poem

(10) Additional . Ibn Qutaybah gives us two examples of the occurrence of the additional in (not) which is called by Arabic grammarians light in ( ), one from the Qurn and the other from poetry, as follows:
508. See al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 2, p. 1482; see also al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, p. 288; and al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 5, p. 24. 509. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 251; al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 12, p. 23; and Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 12, p. 164. According to Muh .ammad Ibrhm Jumah, instead of , it reads ; see Jumah, Jarr (Cairo: Dr al-Marif, 1965), p. 68. 510. Al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 12, p. 23.

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a.

And yet, We had established them securely in a manner in which We have never established you, [O people of later times]. (Q. 46:26, Asad). Ibn Qutaybah mentions two interpretations on the above verse: (1) by considering in as nonadditional, meaning never as translated by Asad above, and (2) by considering it as additional, and therefore, the verse means: And yet, We had established them securely in a manner in which We have established you,...511 The first view belongs to al-Mubarrad, alFarr512 as well as Ibn Abbs and Qatdah; 513 the second, to alQutab, namely, Ibn Qutaybah, according to al-Qurt.ub.514 Al-Qurt.ub mentions the third view, namely, is conditional ( ) with a hidden

apodosis ( , namely, a clause answering to an if-clause in syntax), so that the above verse means: And yet, We had established them securely in a manner that which if We established you [too], your injustice would increase and your obstinacy would be intensified.515 b. Durayd ibn al-S.immah said:
I have neither seen nor heard like [what I have seen and heard] today: coating with henna she-camels infected with skin disease! 516 511. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp. 251-2; and al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 2, p. 1360. 512. Al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 3, p. 56. 513. See al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, p. 61. 514. See al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 16, p. 208; see also below, p. 290. It seems to me that Ibn Qutaybah was not sure whether in in the above verse is additional or not. In his work Tawl, he mentioned the above verse as an example of the occurrence of the additional , then said ("and some of them said") mentioning the first interpretation (that is additional in the above verse); then, he said again , mentioning the second interpretation (that is original); see Tawl, pp. 251-252. However, in his work Tafsr, Ibn Qutaybah commented on the verse with as an original meaning ("not"), then said ("and it is also said") mentioning the view that in this verse is additional; see Tafsr, p. 408. 515. Al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 16, p. 208. 516. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 251; idem, al-Shir wa l-Shuar, vol. 1, p. 197; al-As .bahn, al-Aghn, vol. 9, p. 11 and vol. 13, p. 136; and al-Jh .iz ., al-Bayn wa l-

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Here, the particle in is additional and therefore is not translated. (11) Additional . Ibn Qutaybah mentions three examples of the occurrence of the additional idh (when, then, and since), two from the Qurn, and one from poetry, as follows: (a) And lo! Thy Sustainer 517 said unto the angels... (Q. 2:30, Asad). The word idh (when) which is translated by Asad as the interjection lo, should be omitted in meaning, and the translation should be And thy Sustainer said unto the angels...518 This view of Ibn Qutaybah which is adopted from that of Ab Ubaydah519 is rejected by many Qurnic commentators. Al-Nah.h.s, for example, says that this view of Ab Ubaydah is wrong, as this particle is an (a noun in the Arabic grammar), a (an adverb denoting time), and therefore cannot be additional. Another commentator, al-Zajjj, says that this is a wrong-doing ( , an offence) from Ab Ubaydah; as Allah mentions the creation of men and other creatures, the verse means He began creating you when (idh) He said...520 The more acceptable explanation on this issue is probably that of al-T .abar. In rejecting Ab Ubaydahs view without mentioning him by name, al-T .abar states that the verse in question is connected with the previous one where Allah reminds people of what He has done for them by bestowing them His bounty and blessings, and yet, they disbelieve Him. Then He reminds them of what He did to their forefather Adam "when He said to the angels ... as mentioned in the
Tabyn, 3 vols. in one binding (Cairo: al-Mat .baah al-Tijryah, 1926-7), vol. 1, p. 86 517. This is one of two interpretations given by al-Zamakhshar; the other interpretation is with the ellipsis of (remember) preceeding ;see al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 67. 518. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 252 and idem, Tafsr, p. 45. 519. Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 36. 520. This is al-Qurt .ub's version of al-Zajjj's interpretation, see al-Jmi, vol. 1, p. 262. Al-T .abars's version is "The beginning of your creation was when He said..."; see Jmi al-Bayn, vol. 1, p. 73.

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above verse.521 However, another view is that the particle idh is connected with the hidden word udhkur (remember), so that the verse means And remember when thy Lord said ...,522; this is the view of Al ibn s 523 towards which al-T .abars leans. (b) And, lo, Luqman spoke thus unto his son, ... (Q. 31:13, Asad). Here again, idh which is translated by Asad as the interjection lo, according to Ibn Qutaybah, is additional.524 Some Qurnic commentators such as al-Qurt.ub say that the particle idh is not additional, as the verse implies the existence of the word udhkur meaning remember, so that the verse means And remember when Luqman... as translated by Pickthall. Instead of the word udhkur, al-Zajjj connects the particle idh with the preceding verse, namely, And verily We gave Luqman wisdom ... (Q. 31:12), and continues with when he said ( ). Al-Nah.h.s rejects this view on the grounds that the conjunction (and) preceding makes the connection suggested by al-Zajjj unlikely to occur.525

(c) Ibn Mayydah said about digging and making a well: He was still saying: take [the bucket] away, take [the bucket] way.526 (12) Additional . Two Qurnic verses are given by Ibn Qutaybah as examples of the occurrence of the additional m (what, which) as follows: (a) [And God] would say: After a little

521. See al-T .abar, Jmi, vol. 1, pp. 153-154; and Ibn Kathr, Tafsr, vol. 1, p. 72. 522. For further details, see al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 1, pp. 261-262; and alQayrawn, Irb al-Qurn, pt. 1, p. 12. 523. See Majma al-Bayn, vol. 1, p. 73. 524. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 252. 525. Al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 14, pp. 62-63. 526. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 252.

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while they will surely be smitten with remorse! (Q. 23:40, Asad). According to Ibn Qutaybah and Ab Ubaydah, m is additional in this verse.527 (b) ... by whichever name you invoke Him, [He is always the One - for] His are all the attributes of perfection... (Q. 17:110, Asad).528

(13) Additional . The additional wa (and) which is called by the grammarians (conjunctive wa) in the Qurn makes the expression seem incomplete. Ibn Qutaybah provides five examples of the additional conjunctive wa from the Qurn, and two from poetry, among which are following: (a) ... till, when they reach it, and its gates will have been opened, and its keepers will say unto them: Peace be upon you!... (Q. 39:73, Asad). According to Ibn Qutaybah, the last wa is additional, and therefore, the expression its keepers will say unto them... makes the sentence complete.529 According to Ab Ubaydah the khabar of the verse is not mentioned, since the Arabs used to omit the khabar of sentences. This implies that wa is not additional here. The grammarians have different views concerning the wa in which does not exist in the previous verse dealing with the companions of Hell (Q. 39:71). Al-Qurt.ub mentions four views as follows: (1) The wa is in conjunction with the elliptical sentence (they became happy) according to al-Mubarrad, and (they entered it) according to al-Zajjj. (2) It is additional according to the grammarians of Kfah, but this view is rejected by those of Bas.rah. (3) It is the (the and of eight)
527. Ibid.; Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 58; and al-Qurt .ub, alJmi, vol. 12, p. 124. According to al-Farr, m in this verse is , see Man lQurn, vol. 2, p. 133. 528. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 252. It is also said that in this verse is further details, see Al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 3, p. 446. 529. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 253. . For

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according to Ab Bakr ibn Iysh; it is the tradition of the Quraysh tribe when they count from one and reach seven they put wa before eight; they say: one ... five, six, seven, and eight ( ). Many examples for this wa are found in the Qurn, such as Q. 69:7, 66:5, 9:112, and 18:22. (4) It indicates that the gates of Paradise will have been opened before its companions come to it as translated by Asad above. It is unlike the gates of hell which will be open only when its companions come to it.530 This last view is mentioned by al-Zamakhshar with a shhid from the Qurn, as follows: gardens of perpetual bliss, with gates wide-open to them. (Q. 38:50, Asad).531 (b) And [He is aware, too, that] they who are bent on denying the truth speak [thus, as it were,] to those who have attained to faith: Follow our way [of life], and we shall indeed take your sins upon ourselves!... (Q. 29:12, Asad). According to Ibn Qutaybah the particle wa is additional, so that the above verse means follow our way so that we shall indeed take your sins upon ourselves.532 This view is adopted from that of al-Farr and alZajjj who say that the above verse means If you follow our way we shall take your sins upon ourselves.533

(c) Imru al-Qays said:

Until your tribesmen increased (in number) and you saw 530. Al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 15, p. 285. According to a h .adth reported by Bukhr and Muslim on the authority of Ibn Sad al-Sad, Paradise has eight gates and will be opened before its companions come to them. See al-T .abars, Majma alBayn, vol. 4, p. 511. 531. See al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 2, p. 68. 532. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 253. 533. Al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 13, p. 330. The expression "our way" in this verse, according to al-T .abars, means "our religion", see Majma al-Bayn, vol. 4, p. 275.

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your sons growing up, you turned the shield to us [i.e., announced hostility]; verily, the wicked one is the weak swindler.534

Here in

is additional. However, according to al-Nah.h.s,

this particle cannot be additional, because it belongs to the .535 We see how al-Nah.h.s insists on rejecting the idea of the existence of the additional in particular, and the additional particles in general, in the verses of the Qurn. (14) Additional . The additional wajh (face, countenance) occurs in the Qurn before the name Allah or the pronoun referred to Him is mentioned. The expression (His countenance) and (the countenance of Allah) respectively means Him and Allah, such as in the following examples given by Ibn Qutaybah: (a) Everything is bound to perish save His [eternal] Self (Q. 28:88, Asad), meaning Him, Allah.536 This is the interpretation of Mujhid,537Ab Ubaydah,538 and al-Farr.539

534. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 254; Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 11, p. 568 (s.v. and al-T .abar, Jami, vol. 4, p. 85. 535. Al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 15, p. 104. 536. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 254, and al-Murtad ., Aml, vol. 3, p. 49. 537. See al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 13, p. 322.

;)

538. See Majz al-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 112. However, Ab Ubaydah was said to have been asked by al-Thawr the meaning of in the above verse, and said that it meant (His glory, dignity, honour). It is like the expression , meaning "Such-and-such has an honour among people". See al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 13, p. 322. In this case, I lean to what he himself wrote in his work Majz al-Qurn rather than what is reported to be his statement to al-Thawr. 539. Al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 314. This is also the interpretation given by al-Dmaghn, Tifls and Ibn al-Jawz; see Qms, p. 483; Wujh, p. 304; and Nuzhah, p. 618 and idem, Qurrah, p. 235. Although Ibn al-Jawz mentions as the meaning of , after giving examples from the Qurnic verses, including the above verse, he mentions see Nuzhah, p. 618. . What he means is that means "Allah" Himself;

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Al-Zamakhshars interpretation of (b)

is

(His Essence).540

means, according to Ibn Qutaybah, We feed you, for the sake of Allah alone... (Q. 76:9).541

(15) Additional . According to Ibn Qutaybah the term ism (name) can be additional. He quotes the view of Ab Ubaydah who states that the expression (by the name of Allah) means (by Allah).542 543 This view is rejected by al-T Al-Akhfash says that the .abar. significance of mentioning ism here is to make it different from the oath .544 Ibn Qutaybah mentions one verse and one poem as examples of the additional ism, as follows: (a) Hallowed be thy Sustainers name, full of majesty and glory! (Q. 55: 78, Asad), meaning Hallowed be thy Sustainer!545 mir among the qurr read instead of , making it the s.ifah of the name (ism) in the verse in question. The name mentioned in the opening of the srah of this verse is alRah.mn (the Most Gracious). The srah itself speaks about the creation. This is to indicate that Allah creates everything by His grace.546 (b) Labd said:

540. See al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 2, p. 1069. 541. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 254. This is also the view of al-Dmaghn, Tifls and Ibn al-Jawz; see Qms, p. 483; Wujh, p. 304; Nuzhah, p. 618 and Qurrah, p. 235 . 542. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 255; and Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 16. 543. Al-T .abar, Tafsr, vol. 1, p. 40. 544. Al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 1, p. 99. 545. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 255. 546. Al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 17, p. 193.

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Until next year, then, peace be upon both of you; and 547 whoever mourns for one year will be excused.

Here the word ism is additional and is not translated. E. Kinyah (Metonymy) and Tard . (Allusion) (metonymy) and (allusion) are parts of the art of expressing (lit., "the science of clarity of (the oneself clearly and eloquently called

speech or expression"). It is one of the three branches of the

rhetorical science, the art of good style), the other two being (lit., "the science of notions") which deals with various kinds of sentences and their proper use, and which deals with "the beautification of literary style", namely, "the embellishment of speech and figurative use of words". In modern terminology both kinyah and tard. deal with something other than what is expressed by the speaker. However, the difference lies in that in the kinyah something is mentioned by using a different term, such as "he opened his mouth" meaning "he spoke". In the tard. something is mentioned which indicates something else unmentioned; for example, an employer asked his employee who was late "what is the time?" when he meant "you are late". 1. Kinyah (Metonymy) Al-Sakkk gives the definition of kinyah as follows:
It is abandoning the use of a clear statement of something by stating something else attached to it, so that [the speaker] shifts from what is mentioned to what is not mentioned; it is like saying "So-and-so has a long suspensory cord to his sword", so that [the speaker] alludes to something else attached to it, namely, the tall stature.548

Since a long suspensory cord to a sword fits only the tall person, the person
547. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 255; and al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 1, pp. 98-99. Al-As .bahn states that the above line of verse was recited by either Labd, Ish .q, or Ibrhm to his two daughters while he was dying; the two daughters wore their mourning dress and attended the court of Ban Jafar ibn Kilb for one year of mourning for their father's death; see al-As .bahn, al-Aghn, vol. 14, pp. 101-102. 548. See al-Sakkk, Miftah . Al-Ulm, p. 402.

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who has it would be tall. However, if the above statement is meant in its real meaning, then it is h.aqqah ("real") rather than kinyah. Since both kinyah and majz indicate allegorical meanings, what then is the difference between the two? To this question, al-Sakkk gives the following answer: (a) The statement in the kinyah could be real rather than metaphorical, whereas in the majz it can only be metaphorical. The expression "So-and-so has a long suspensory cord to his sword" could be real without meaning "he is tall", whereas the statement "we have taken care of the rain" or "a lion is in the bath-room" cannot be taken for real; here the rain and the lion are metaphors for the plants and the brave man respectively; (b) Kinyah is based on the shift from the dominant trait of something to the thing itself ( ); in the above example, instead of saying "So-and-so is tall" it is said that he has a long suspensory cord to his sword, a dominant trait for a tall person, as a person who has a long sword belt is usually tall. On the contrary, majz is based on the shift from the dominant trait of something to something else which shares this trait ( ); in the above example, the lion is mentioned, but its dominant trait, the bravery in a person, is meant, namely a brave man.549 Although Ibn Qutaybah does not mention any definition of metonymy, he states that metonymy is divided into many categories without giving any specification. However, he mentions two categories of metonymy which he deals with in his Tawl, namely, the (agnomen, allusive name) and the substitution (So-and-so or Such a one) for an unidentified person. a. Kunyah Kunyah belongs to the category of kinyah, because by using it the real name of a person is not revealed. Kunyah is the name consisting of Ab (father of) or Umm (mother of) followed by a name - usually of a son or a daughter - or a word - describing some prominent characteristic of the bearer. This latter type of kunyah had been used earlier than the former. A man or a woman does not necessarily have a son or a daughter in order to be named with a kunyah. If a son or a daughter was born later he or

549. Ibid., p. 403. Sometimes what is thought to be h .aqqah is in fact kinyah. A friend said jokingly that in order to see a dentist a man had to go abroad, because in his homeland he was not able to open his mouth; he had to keep his mouth shut.

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she does not have to adopt the name from the kunyah.550 This kunyah, according to Ibn Qutaybah, serves two purposes: to support the identity of a person which distinguishes him from other persons who have the same personal name, and to glorify him with this kunyah which indicates his old age, experience, and maturity.551 A question may arise: If the purpose of the kunyah is glorification, why did Allah mention Ab Lahab in the Qurn with his kunyah, not with his personal name, Abd al-Uzz 552 when he was the enemy of Prophet Muhammad? And Allah mentioned the Prophet whom He loved with his personal name, not with his kunyah, Ab al-Qsim? Ibn Qutaybah's answer is that there are among the Arabs those who make the personal name of a person also his kunyah. For example, several people reported to Ibn Qutaybah on the authority of al-As.ma that Ab Amr ibn alAl and Ab Sufyn ibn al-Al were personal names as well as kunyahs.553 Moreover, a man may have both a personal name and a kunyah, but his kunyah is so well-known that he becomes known by it, and his personal name becomes replaced by it. For example, the
550. The kunyah had become more commonly used since the second/eighth century. With some exceptions, such as Anas ibn M lik, it became impolite to address someone directly with his name in this time, unless he was socially inferior to the speaker. The honoric title (laqab), such as Fakhr al-Dn ("Glory of the Faith") and Al al-Dn ("Loftiness of the Faith") was intrduced, and the nisbah (lit., "kinship", "affilication" or "affinity") developed. Besides the old tribal and genealogical nisbahs, such as al-Qurash (from the Quraysh tribe), there appeared other types of nisbahs, such as the bearer's place of birth or residence (e.g., al-Rz, "from the town of Rayy"), of his religious rite (e.g., al-Mlik, "the adherent of the Mlik rite") and of his profession (e.g., al-Bqilln "the green-grocer"). The patronymic - namely, the name derived from that of a parent, consisting of Ibn ("son of") or Bint ("daughter of") followed by the name of one of the parents, usually the father, or ancestors - based on profession also developed, such as the name Ibn al-Kht .ib ("son or descendant of the preacher"). An example of a complete name is Imd al-Dn (laqab) Ab al-Fid' (kunyah), Isml (name) Ibn al-Athr (patronymic) is simply called Ibn al-Athr. Since more than one well-known person bears this name, his laqab or kunyah is added to it and becomes Imd al-Dn Ibn al-Athr and Ab al-Fid Ibn al-Athr. See A.F.L. Beeston, "Arabic Nomenclature," Arabic Literature, pp. 19-20. Al-Sakkk includes the patronymic in the category of kunyah; see Miftah . al-Ulm, p. 402. 551. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 256. 552. Ibid.; al-Uzz is the name of an idol in pre-Islamic Arabia, see idem, alMarif, ed. Tharwat Ukshah (Egypt: Dr al-Marif, [1969]), p. 75. 553. Idem, Tawl, pp. 257-8; and idem, al-Marif, p. 330.

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personal name of Ab Sufyn, Ab T .lib, Ab Dharr and Ab Hurayrah are respectively Sakhr ibn H.arb, Abd Manf, Jundub ibn al-Sakan, and Abd Allh ibn Amr.554 With regard to the kunyah Ab Lahab (lit. "Father of the Flame") Ibn Qutaybah contends that if it is true that the personal name of Ab Lahab is Abd al-Uzz (lit. "the servant of al-Uzz"), this name is not used by Allh because it indicates idolatry and falsehood, as all people are His servants. Moreover, this kunyah has become the name with which he is well-known. It is true that he has no son called Lahab (the flame). But to be called with this kunyah it is not necessary for him to have a son bearing that name. Otherwise, it would also be incorrect to name a person with the name of an animal, such as Kalb (a dog), Qird (a monkey), Ghurb (a crow) and Dhubb (a fly).555 Besides the above-mentioned reason, Al-Zamakhshar adds another reason for using Ab Lahab as a kunyah. Since he is among those who will be sent to the flaming hell, his condition is like his kunyah with which he deserves to be mentioned. Calling him Ab Lahab is like calling an evil person (sharr) Ab al-Sharr (lit., "the Father of Evil").556 Another view states that Ab Lahab was popularly nicknamed with this kunyah, even before the advent of Islam, due to his beauty, particularly
554. See idem, al-Marif, pp. 331, 70, 146. Ab Hurayrah's personal name could also be Abd al-Rah .mn, Abd Amr, Umayr ibn mir and others, see ibid, p. 158. Ibn Qutaybah states further that the kunyah which consists of Ab and the name of the first son is sometimes considered a unit by the Arabs. They write, for example, Al ibn Ab T .lib and Muwiyah ibn Ab Sufyn, rather than respectively ibn Ab T .lib and ibn Ab Sufyn in genitive case, see idem, Tawl, p. 257. See also alZamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 2, p. 1641. 555. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 260. We are told that it was the Arabs' tradition to name their children with the names of animals and things, such as the leopard, the wolf, the lion, and the stone. When a child was born he was named with something their parents saw or heard and with which they were optimistic, such as the stone which is the symbol of solidness, patience and eternity; see al-Thalib, Fiqh alLughah, p. 248. At present we have Fahd (a cheetah, a panther, a lynx) who is the king of Saudi Arabia, and Asad (a lion) who is the president of Syria. In the West we have, for example, names such as: Leo (a lion), Deborah (a bee), Arthur (a bear) and Ursula (a she-bear). 556. Al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 2, p. 1641.

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his glowing countenance. This, however, is rejected by al-Qurt.ub for the reasons mentioned above. Moreover, al-Qurt.ub contends, contrary to Ibn Qutaybah's view, the personal name is nobler than the kunyah, and Allah wanted to put down Ab Lahab by calling him with his kunyah which He never did with His prophets.557 b. Fuln The word (So-and-so, Such a one) is considered metonymy by Ibn Qutaybah, as it can be applied to any person as well as a particular one. He gives an example from the Qurn as follows: "Oh, woe is me! Would that I had not taken So-and-so for a friend!" (Q. 25:28, Asad). Ibn Qutaybah says that a group of people whom he has not identified and who call themselves Muslims are said to insist that the word fuln indicates a particular person, and not kinyah for any person. They say that only hypocrites and people who are afraid of revealing the identity of that particular person insist on the use of kinyah for this word fuln.558 Another unidentified group of people who seem to be among the Bt.ins say that the name of the person in the verse was mentioned, namely, Umar, but was replaced with fuln. They say that the preceding verse says: "And a Day on which the evildoer will bite his hands [in despair], exclaiming: 'Oh, would that I had followed the path shown to me by the apostle.'" (Q. 25:27, Asad), and the evildoer here, according to them, was Ab Bakr. He regretted taking fuln, meaning Umar in their view, for a friend (Q. 25:28) instead of the Prophet, and that Umar had led him astray from the Reminder when Al came to him as the Reminder. This is their interpretation of the verse succeeding the one in question, namely "Indeed, he led me astray from the remembrance [of God] after it had come unto me!..." (Q. 25:29, Asad).559 Ibn Qutaybah answers with the following questions: "How can Al be a reminder? Has anybody said that Ab Bakr did not become a Muslim,
557. See Asad, The Message, p. 983, n. 1; and al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 20, pp. 236-237. 558. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp. 260-261. 559. Ibid., p. 261.

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and that he did not choose to follow the way together with the messenger of Allah?" Then he continues with the asbb al-nuzl of the above verse according to Ibn Abbs, as follows: Uqbah ibn Ab Muayt. invited the nobles of Makkah, including the Prophet, for a meal. The Prophet refused to eat until Uqbah pronounced the testimony of truth ( ). When he did, Ubayy ibn Khalaf came and asked him: "Have you become a Sabaean?" Uqbah answered: "No, but a man among the Quraysh is with us, and I do not want him to leave without eating." Ubayy said: "I will not be pleased until you spit on his face." He did, and the above verses were revealed.560 Ibn Qutaybah insists on the generic application of the term fuln as well as the definite article al ("the") in al-z.lim (the evildoer) in the verses mentioned above. He contends that each of these can be applied to a person or a group of people. Should the word al-z.lim in the verse be specified with names, such as Korah, Hmn and Uqbah ibn Ab Muayt., who would later regret taking Pharaoh, Namrd and Ubayy ibn Khalaf for friends, there would have been no room left for other evildoers who came later after the revelation of these verses. This is not the way the Arabs and other people express themselves.561 This is also the view of Mujhid and Ab Raj who said that the term al-z.lim is general and applicable to any evildoer, whereas the term fuln is for Satan.562 Ibn Qutaybah cites the Arabic expression as evidence that fuln means a group of people, as follows: "Nobody comes to you except So-and-so son of So-and-so," meaning, according to Ibn Qutaybah, the well-known nobles. In poetry he cites the poem of Ab alNajm al-Ijl (d. 130/747), as follows: "Restrain Soand-so from So-and-so in the commotion," meaning, while people were
560. Ibid., pp. 261-262. Uqbah was killed by Al at the battle of Badr, and Ubayy ibn Khalaf was killed by the Prophet at the battle of Uh .ud, see al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 4, p. 166; al-Qurt .ub and al-Suyt . were not sure of the name of the person meant here, either Ummayyah ibn Khalaf or his brother Ubayy; see alJmi, vol. 13, p. 25 and al-Itqn, vol. 4, p. 88. 561. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp. 262-3. See also al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 2, p. 974. 562. Al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 13, p. 26.

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the midst of evil and commotion, those who wanted to stop it told people to restrain each other. The word (an evildoer) in the Qurn is applied to a group of evildoers ( ), and the word (an unbeliever) is applied to a group of unbelievers ( following verse: will cry: 'Would that I were dust'" (Q. 78:40).563 ), such as the "... and the unbeliever

2. Tard. (Allusion) Tard., as stated by Lane, is

the speaking obliquely, indirectly, obscurely, ambiguously, equivocally, ... as when thou asked a man, 'Hast thou seen such a one?' and he, having seen him, and disliking to lie, answers, 'Verily, such a one is seen'; or the making a phrase, or the like, to convey an allusion, or an indication not expressly mentioned therein; as when you say 'How foul is niggardliness!' alluding to such a one's being a niggard.564

Ibn Qutaybah states that the Arabs often use tard. in their discourse to convey its meaning in a euphemistic way, namely in a gentler and better way than the obvious one. He shows us the significance of tard. that asking for a woman's hand in marriage during her iddah (the legally prescribed period of waiting during which a woman may not remarry after being widowed or divorced) is permissible if it is said through tard. only, as it is forbidden through clear statements. Allah says in the Qurn as follows: "But you will incur no sin if you give a hint of [an intended] marriage-offer to [any of] these women, or if you conceive such an intention without making it obvious:..." (Q. 2:235, Asad). For example, a man says to a woman: "By Allah, verily, you are beautiful, may Allah bless you with a suitable husband; indeed women are among my needs."565
563. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 263. 564. See Lane, Lexicon, pt. 5, p. 2004 (s.v. ). 565. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 263-264; and al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 160. Ibn Abbs provides the example of tard . in the above case as follows: "I want to marry a woman who has such-and-such characteristics" by mentioning those

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Ibn Qutaybah mentions seven Qurnic verses in which allusion occurs. Four of them are illustrated as follows: (a) Said [Moses]: 'Take me not to task for my having forgotten [myself], ...'" (Q. 18:73, Asad). Ibn Qutaybah cites the report of al-Minhl from Sad ibn Jubayr from Ibn Abbs that Moses did not forget to keep his promise to keep silent, but he gave only an allusion that he forgot it. What is meant by Ibn Abbs according to Ibn Qutaybah is that Moses did not forget to keep his promise. Therefore, he did not say "I forgot it," or he would have lied, but he said: "Take me not to task for my having forgotten [myself]" which instilled an allusion that he had forgotten it. To prove that Moses did not lie by using the allusion Ibn Qutaybah cites the well-known expression ("Verily, instilling allusions is an alternative to lying.")566 However, there is also another view stating that Moses did really forget and therefore he apologised, and the verse in question indicates that forgetting does not necessitate blame.567 (b) "He answered: 'Nay, it was this one, the biggest of them, that did it: but ask them [yourselves] provided they can speak.'" (Q. 21:63, Asad). We notice a kind of circumspection in this statement. He did not confess openly but through insinuation. According to Ibn Qutaybah, what Prophet Abraham meant is that if their idols could speak, then it was their chief that had destroyed them; so, he told people to ask them. He made speaking a condition for the action, namely, if they could speak then their chief could have done it, and since they could not, their chief could not have done it, and

that are obviously hers; see al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 1, p. 338. 566. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 267; and al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 155. Ubayy ibn Kab was said to have held the same view with that of Ibn Abbs; see al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 3, p. 484. The expression "instilling allusions is an alternative to lying" is also the saying of the Prophet. Umar said that by using allusion the Muslims can avoid lying. In fact, the use of allusion as an alternative to lying is a proverb among the Arabs. See Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 7, p. 183 567. Al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 11, p. 20; and al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 809.

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therefore, Abraham was not lying.568 It is, as mentioned by al-T .abars, 569 like saying "So-and-so is right if there is no sky above us." (c) ".... And behold, either we [who believe in Him] or you [who deny His oneness] are on the right path, or have clearly gone astray!" (Q. 34:24, Asad). The above verse means, according to Ibn Qutaybah, that we (the Muslims) are on the right path or have clearly gone astray, and you (who

568. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 268; idem, Mukhtalif al-H .adth, p. 35; and alFarr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 2, pp. 206-207. This statement of Prophet Abraham is, in fact, a confession on his part that it was he and not the chief idol who had destroyed the idols; see al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 11, p. 300. This is one of the three lies he is alleged to have told. The other two are his statement after looking at the stars that he was sick (Q. 37:88-89) and his telling the Pharaoh that his wife Sarah was his sister because he feared for himself and his wife. A h .adth mentioning these three lies was reported by al-Bukhr, Muslim, al-Drim, al-Tirmidh, Ab Dd and Ah .mad; see A.J. Wensinck and J.P. Mensing, cont. J. Bergman, Al-Mujam al-Mufahras li-Alfz . alH .adth al-Nabaw (H .adth Concordance), 8 vols. (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1936-88), vol. 7, p. 550 (s.v. ). It was also reported by al-Bayhaq; see Ab Bakr Ah .mad alBayhaq, Kitb al-Sunan al-Kubr, appended with al-Maridn ("Ibn al-Turkmn")'s work al-Jawhar al-Naq, and an index of h .adths, ed. Dr. Ysuf al-Murishl, 10 vols. (Beirut: Dr al-Marifah, n.d.), vol. 7, p. 366. According to Ibn Qutaybah, these statements of Prophet Abraham are merely allusions. His statement ("verily, I am sick") means ("verily, I shall be sick"). It is similar to the verse ("verily, you will die"), see Q.

(lit. "verily you are dead") which means

39:30. His statement that his wife Sarah was his sister was not a lie, because human beings as children of Adam are brothers and sisters. Moreover, Allah said that the believers are brothers and sisters (Q. 49:10). Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp. 267-268; and idem, Mukhtalif al-H .adth, p. 35. 569. See al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 4, p. 54. Al-Zamakhshar mentions four interpretations on the above verse, as follows: (1) It is like the answer of a calligrapher to an illiterate or semi-illiterate person who asks him "Did you write this?" with "You did it." (2) They should not deny the act of the big idol, since whoever is worshipped and called a god has the right to be able to do such an act and more. (3) It is reported that Prophet Abraham said: "The largest of them has done it, because he was angry at being worshipped together with the small ones." (4) The variant reading of Muh , meaning ("perhaps the .ammad ibn al-Sumayfi executor was the big one among them"). See al-KashsXhf, vol. 2, p. 887.

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deny His Oneness) are also on the right path or have clearly gone astray, but Allah knows that His messenger is on the right path, and those who disagree with him have clearly gone astray. It is like telling a person who disagrees with us: "One of us must be a liar," when we mean him, but we say it euphemistically. This is the view of al-Farr quoted by Ibn Qutaybah.570 (d) "If thou art in doubt of what We have revealed to thee, ask those who have read the divine writ [revealed] before thee...." (Q. 10:94). Ibn Qutaybah provides us with two interpretations of the above verse as follows: (1) The address is to the Prophet, but it is intended for others among the doubters.The Arabs sometimes address a person with something when they mean somebody else. This is what later commentators call iltift (sudden transition, such as turning the address from one person or group of people to another). Such iltift occurs in many Qurnic verses, such as the following verse: "O Prophet! Remain conscious of God, and defer not to the deniers of the truth and the hypocrites: for God is truly all-knowing, wise." (Q. 33:1, Asad). The instruction and advice are directed to the Prophet but are intended for the believers. This is apparent as the verse continues with "And follow [but] that which comes unto thee through revelation from thy Sustainer: for God is truly aware of all that you do [O men]." (Q. 33:2, Asad). Similarly, the address in the above verse is to the Prophet but is intended for the believers. The evidence is the use of the plural form in ("of what ye do")

570. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 269; and al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 4, p. 389. According to al-Farr and Ab Ubaydah the word aw (or) means wa (and), so that the verse means "We [who believe in Him] are on the right path, and you [who deny His oneness] have clearly gone astray." For further details, see al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 14, pp. 298-9; al-T .abar, Jmi, vol. 22, p. 65; and al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 362.

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instead of

("of what thou dost") in the singular form.571

(2) In the time of the Prophet there were people who believed, disbelieved, and in doubt. In the verse in question Allah was addressing these doubters, saying that
If you O man are in doubt of the guidance We have revealed to you through Muhammad, upon whom be Allah's blessing and peace, ask leading personalities among the people of the Book and scholars before you, like Abd Allh ibn Sallm, Salmn al-Fris, Tamm alDr, and people like them. The stubborn persons among them would not resist and would bear witness of his [Muhammad's] truthfulness. They would inform you about his prophethood and 572 Allah's mentioning him in the [previous] Books.

The evidence that the word "thee" in the verse "...of what We revealed to thee" (Q. 10:94) above is intended for any person in general and any doubter in particular, is that in another verse it is mentioned that a divine writ has been revealed to men in general (through the Prophet), as follows: "[O men!] We have now bestowed upon you from on high a divine writ containing all that you ought to bear in mind: ..." (Q. 21:10, Asad). Sometimes the singular number is used for plural, such as the following verse: "[then,] O man - thou [that] hast, verily, been toiling towards thy Sustainer in painful toil - then shalt thou meet Him!" (Q. 84:6, Asad).573 The evidence from poetry in which a particular person is intended for people in general, is the following poem of an unidentified poet:
571. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp. 269-270. The use of generic "you" is common in English. While talking about Lake Tempe near my home town (Sengkang, South Sulawesi), Mrs. Messie Stock who taught me English at Cokroaminoto University (Solo, Indonesia), asked me: "Can you swim in that lake?" When I answered: "No, I can't," she said: "I mean, can people swim there?" Then I realised that "you" here meant "people in general". 572. Ibid., pp. 272-3. 573. Ibid., p. 273. This is the view of Qatdah. However, according to Muqtil the man referred to in the above verse is al-Aswad ibn Abd al-Asad. Another view says that it was Ubayy ibn Khalaf. Yet, another view says that it refers to all disbelievers; see al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 19, p. 271.

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If you are taking a friend, never take a Drim young man for friend.

Here the poet is not addressing a particular person, but he means that whoever wants to take a friend should not take him from Drim.574 Although Ibn Qutaybah considers the second interpretation possible and good, he prefers the first one. The reason is that the verse in question continues the discourse until verse 99 as follows "... dost thou, then, think that thou couldst compel people to believe," (Q. 10:99, Asad). This verse in his view is definitely directed to the Prophet - instead of the doubters - although it is intended for the believers.575 Al-Farr's commentary on the verse in question is that Allah knew that the Prophet was not in doubt, and Allah did not ask him to question those who had read the divine writ before him. It is like saying to your servant who does not doubt your authority over him: "If you are my servant, listen and obey."576 Al-Tabarsi mentions four different views of the interpretation of the above verse, as follows: (1) Al-Zajjj, al-H.asan and Ibn Abbs: the verse is directed to the Prophet but intended for people in general; (2) alFarr as mentioned above; (3) the verse is directed to other than the Prophet; it means "if you listeners are in doubt of what We sent to you through Our Messenger...", and (4) It is reported by al-Zajjj that it is possible that the particle (if) means (not), so that the verse means "you are not in doubt of what We have sent to you, so ask those who read the divine writ before you, so that your faith will increase".577 We have seen that Ibn Qutaybah's treatment of the kinyah and tard. is rudimentary and brief. He confines himself to the types of kinyah called kunyah and fuln, as well as the generic application of the definite article al. Moreover, he does not include Umm or Ibn among the kunyah. In the field
574. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 273. 575. Ibid., p. 274. This is also the view of al-T .abar, see Jmi, vol. 11, pp. 115116. 576. Al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 479. For further details, see alT .abar, Jmi, vol. 11, pp. 115-116. 577. Al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 3, p. 133.

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of tard. Ibn Qutaybah mainly discussed the euphemistic and circumspective expressions in the Qurnic verses. F. The Disagreement of the Word with Its Literal Meaning Ibn Qutaybah mentions twenty-six categories of idiomatic expression which can be condensed into ten categories in the chapter entitled in his work Tawl. They are as follows: imprecation, repetition of words indicating sanction, rhetorical questions, imperatives, specifications, number, iltift, juncture, tempora, and morphology. They will be discussed as follows: 1. Imprecation The imprecation referred to here by Ibn Qutaybah is something which is not meant to occur . He cites three examples from the Qurn, namely, conjecturers (Q. 51:10),578 hath made him reject God?" (Q. 80:17, Ali),579 and
578. The conjecturers meant in this verse according to al-Farr and Ibn Zayd are those who made conjectures in belying the Prophet that he was a magician, a poet, a soothsayer, and a tale-teller; see Man l-Qurn, vol. 3, p. 83; and al-T .abar, Jmi, vol. 26, p. 119. 579. According to Mujhid the expression in the Qurn is meant to be the disbelievers among the people. The verse was revealed, as reported by al-D .ah .h . k from Ibn Abbs, in the case of Utbah ibn Ab Lahab who became apostate after converting to Islam. The Prophet's imprecation against him took place when he was attacked by a lion on his business journey to Syria. His father mourned him, saying "Whatever Muh .ammad has ever said happens." See al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 19, pp. 217-218. A third view is attributed to al-D .ah .h .k, that the person referred to in the verse was Umayyah ibn Khalaf, see al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, p. 438. The verse has two interpretations: (a) it is taajjub (wonder) of man's unbelief (ungratefulness), as translated by Pickthall and Arberry respectively as "how ungrateful!" and "how unthankful he is!"; Ibn Jurayj says that it means "how strong is his disbelief"; this is also al-Zamakhshari's interpretation; (b) it is istifhm tawbkh (now called istifhm tawbkh, a rhetorical question indicating reproach) as reported by Ab S .lih from Ibn Abbs, as translated by A. Yusuf Ali above. See al-Qurt .ub, alJmi, vol. 19, pp. 217-8; al-T .abar, Jmi, vol. 30, p. 35; al-Farr, Man l-Qurn,

Woe to the Woe to man! What

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God's curse be on them: how they are deluded away from the truth."(Q. 9:30, Ali). 580 The literal meanings of the above verses are respectively as follows: "May the conjecturers be killed!", "may man be killed!" and "may Allah fight them, how perverted they are!"581 The use of the past tense in Arabic may indicate imprecation as we have seen in the above verses and in the du, such as the expression like ("may Allah reward you", used to express thanks to somebody), and ("may Allah bless him" used after mentioning the name of a deceased person). However, Ibn Qutaybah's view that the imprecations in the above verses are not meant to occur is rejected by Ibn Fris. He contends that nobody should suggest what Allah said as a du was not meant to occur. On the contrary, these imprecations are intended by Allah to occur and they actually occurred. Whoever is cursed by Allah will never escape. Ibn Fris mentions as an example in the case of Ab Lahab. He was cursed in the Qurn as follows: "Perish the hands of the 582 Father of Flame! Perish he!" (Q. 111:1, Ali). Imprecation is also used to express wonder, and as such, according to Ibn Qutaybah, it is also not meant to occur. When someone is right in his reasoning, knowledge, or contention, it is said (lit.,
vol. 3, p. 237; al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, p. 438; and al-Zamakhshar, alKashshf, vol. 2, p. 1579. 580. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 275. According to Ibn Abbs the expression meaning Gods curse be on them is the language of H .imyar, see Gharb alQurn, p. 71. 581. According to Ibn Abbs the word qutila as in the above verses is meant luina (curse be!). This is also the view of the majority of grammarians and commentators, such as al-Farr, al-Zamakhshar and Ibn al-Anbr who say that those who are cursed by Allah are similar to dead and perished people. See al-Qurt .ub, alJmi, vol. 17, p. 33; al-Kashshf, vol. 2, p. 1409; and al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 3, p. 23 and vol. 5, p. 153. 582. Ibn Fris, al- S .h .ib, p. 169. Ab Lahab did actually perish a week after the battle of Badr. The term indicates the occurrence of the imprecation; see alZamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 2, p. 1640. This is supported by Ibn Masd's variant reading with the emphasis ; see al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, p. 558.

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"May Allah fight him, what a good thing he has said!"), (lit., May Allah disgrace him, how knowledgable he is!"), and (lit., "His achievement is due to Allah, what a good argument he has given!").583 2. Repetition Among the words which disagree with their literal meanings are the repeated ones which change their meanings to be jaz (recompense, reward, punishment) for the first (original) meaning, such as "The recompense of an injury is an injury equal thereto (in degree)..." (Q. 42:40, Ali). "And they schemed and Allah schemed (against them): and Allah is the best of schemers." (Q. 3:54), in which Allah's scheme means His punishment by destroying them according to Ab Ubaydah,584 or His requital for their 585 scheme, according to al-T .abars, And one who attacketh you, attack him in the like manner as he attacked you...." (Q. 2:194, Pickthall). Here the first attack is a hostile act and a wrongdoing, whereas the second one is not, but a retaliatory measure.586 3. Rhetorical Question The significance of rhetorical questions is divided by Ibn Qutaybah into three categories: (a) affirmation ( ), such as Now, what is this in thy hand, O Moses?" (Q. 20:17, Asad); Allah already knew what was in Moses's hand when He asked him this question, but He wanted to remind him that what he had in his hand was only a staff

583. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 276. Even today the Arabs in Palestine and Lebanon still use the expression ("may Allah make him disgraceful") or ("may Allah make his face ugly") in praising a smart person or blaming a tricky one. 584. See Majz al-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 95. 585. See Majma al-Bayn, vol. 1, p. 448. 586. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 277; and al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 1, p. 288.

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which later turned into a serpent;587 (b) wonder (

), such as

"About what do they [most often] ask one another? About the awesome tiding [of resurrection]," (Q. 78:1-2, Asad),588 and (c) reproach ( ), such as "Of all the creatures in the world, will ye approach males, and leave those whom God has created to be your mates?" (Q. 26:165-6, Ali).589 Al Zarkash in his work al-Burhn gives us more information about the (asking a question) in the Qurn. He divides the into two types: one means (lit., "news"), and the other means meaning into (lit., "composition"). He divides the (affirmation). He calls the former , negative question) and the latter (negation) and (in modern

(in modern terminology,

terminology, , affirmative question) which has been dealt with briefly by Ibn Qutaybah above. Al-Zarkash goes further and divides the latter into twelve divisions with examples from the Qurn.590 With regard to the meaning , al-Zarkash divides it into eighteen divisions including wonder and reproach briefly dealt with by Ibn Qutaybah above.591 4. Imperative Ibn Qutaybah divides the significance of imperative into four categories: (a) threat ( ), such as "Do what
587. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 279; and al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 4, p. 8. Al-Zarkash places this type of question in the above verse into the category of (intimacy), whereas Ibn Fris places it as (giving understanding), namely, that there was something important about Moses's staff which he did not know. See alZarkash. al-Burhn, vol. 2, p. 343. 588. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 279; al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 2, p. 1569; and al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, p. 421. 589. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp. 279-80. 590. Al-Zarkash, al-Burhn, vol. 2, pp. 328-38. 591. Ibid., pp. 338-44.

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you will ..." (Q. 41:40, Asad); (b) admonition (

), such as

".... And let two persons of [known] probity from among your own community witness [what you have decided]; ..." (Q. 65:2, Asad), (c) exemption ( ), such as "And when the prayer is ended, then disperse freely on earth..." (Q. 62:10, Asad), and (d) religious duty ( ) such as "... and be constant in prayer, and spend in charity, ..." (Q. 2:43, Asad).592 5. Specification Ibn Qutaybah mentions eight Qurnic verses as examples of general statement meant to be particular ( ) in time and person, among which are as follows: a. "..., and I am the first of those who surrender (unto Him)." (Q. 6:163, Pickthall), meaning that the Prophet was the first person who surrendered himself unto Allah in his time. b. ("..., and I am the first of (true) believers." (Q. 7:143, Pickthall), meaning that Prophet Moses was the first believer in his time. c. d. "Poets are followed by erring men" (Q.26:224), meaning some of them only;593 "those who have been warned by other people, 'Behold, a host has gathered against you; so beware of them!'..." (Q. 3:173, Asad). According to one tradition Nuaym ibn Masd al-Ashja said to the companions of the Prophet: "People have gathered against you," meaning Ab Sufyn, Uyaynah ibn H.is.n and Mlik ibn Awf. Therefore, the first (the people) is meant to be a particular person, Nuaym ibn Masd, while the second is intended to be a group of people, namely, Ab

592. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp. 280-1. See also Ab Ubaydah, Majz alQurn, vol. 2, p. 197; and al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, pp. 15 and 288. 593. According to al-Farr the verse was revealed about Ibn al-Zibar and poets like him who ridiculed the Prophet with their satiric poems; see Man lQurn, vol. 2, p. 285.

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Sufyn, Uyaynah and Mlik mentioned above.594 e. "I created the jinn and humankind only that they might worship Me." (Q. 51:56, Pickthall), meaning that only some of the jinn and human-kind, namely, the believers among them are created to worship Him. Others are created for Hell. To support his view, Ibn Qutaybah cites the following verse: "We have made for hell many of the jinn and humankind..." (Q. 7:179). He gives the basic meaning of , namely, "We create" in the above verse, so that it means We created for hell... 595 This is also the view of al-Qushayr who said that children and insane people are excluded from the injunction of worshipping Allah as well as those who are created for Hell. Moreover, in the variant reading of Abd Allh ibn Ubayy it is written I created the jinn and human-kind among the believers only that they might worship Me." This view is supported by al-Zajjj who cites the verse: "... they were bidden to worship only One God." (Q. 9:31, Pickthall).596 However, according to Ibn Abbs, the meaning of the verse in question is that the jinn and the humankind are created to confirm the bondage willingly or
594. Al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 247; and al-Zamakhshar, alKashshf, vol. 1, pp. 250-251. There are many interpretations on the above verse, among which are as follows: (a) The opinion of Mujhid, Muqtil, Ikrimah and alKalb that the person who informed the s .ah .bah was Nuaym ibn Masd al-Ashja as mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah above; (b) The opinion of al-Sudd that when the Prophet and his companions were preparing to go out and fight Ab Sufyn and his allies, the hypocrites came to them to stop them; (c) Ab Mashar said that they were a group of people from the Hudhayl tribe among the people of Tihmah who came to Madinah and informed the Prophet's companions about Ab Sufyn and his followers. See alQurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 4, pp. 279-280. 595. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp. 281-282. Al-Farr's commentary on this verse is that Allah did not create the people among the two groups, the jinn and the human beings, except to believe in the oneness of God; see Man l-Qurn, vol. 3, p. 89. Al-Zamakhshar's commentary is that Allah wants the people to worship Him based on their free will and not by force, because they are created with the ability to choose, and some of them choose not to worship Him; see al-Kashshf, vol. 2, p. 1414. 596. For further details, see al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 17, p. 55.

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unwillingly.597 6. Number In this category Ibn Qutaybah shows us the application of number (singular, dual, or plural) to nouns, adjectives and verbs in the verses of the Qurn, so that their literal (ostensible) meanings are in disagreement with their real meanings, as follows: a. Noun We can divide this section into two: 1) the plural noun meaning (a) singular, (b) dual, (c) dual and plural, and (d) singular, dual, and plural; and 2) the singular noun meaning plural. They will be discussed as follows: (1) The use of the plural which is meant: (a) singular, such as "Verily, [O Prophet,] as for those who call thee from without thy private apartments - most of them do not use their reason." (Q. 49:4, Asad), as there was only one person who called the Prophet from behind his private apartments, saying: "O Muh.ammad, my praise is good, and my abuse is disgracing" ( ); 598 That person, according to al-D.ah.h.k, was al-Aqra ibn H.bis.599 There is also another view that there was another person who called the Prophet besides al-Aqra, namely, Uyaynah ibn H.is.n.600 However, according to Mujhid, the people who called the Prophet were the Ban Tamm tribe who entered the mosque and wanted him to come out of his apartment.601 This view is supported by Ibn Masd's variant reading ("and the majority of them were Ban Tamm, who did not use their reason.").602 It is
597. See al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, p. 161. 598. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 283. 599. See al-Zarkash, al-Burhn, vol. 2, p. 221. 600. See al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 2, p. 1387. 601. See Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 219; and al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, p. 131. For further details, see al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 16, pp. 309-310 and al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 3, p. 70. 602. Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 219. According to Ibn Ab

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possible that one or two persons of the Tamm tribe called the Prophet on their behalf. (b) dual, such as "[Say, O Prophet:] 'Would that you two turn unto God in repentance, for the hearts of both of you have swerved [from what is right]...'" (Q. 66:4, Asad). Here the expression is meant to be ("the two hearts of both of you").603 (c) dual and plural, such as "and if he has brothers and sisters, then his mother shall have one-sixth..." (Q.4:11, Asad). The term (brothers) includes (two brothers).604
Dd al-Sijistn this was the reading of Mujhid, whereas Ubayy read , see Ibn Ab Dd al-Sijistn Kitb al-Mas.h .if, pp. 304 and 106. 603. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 283; idem, Gharb al-H .adth, vol. 1, p. 232; alThalib, Fiqh al-Lughah, p. 219; and al-Qayrawn, Irb al-Qurn., pt. 3, p. 787. Al-T instead of the dual .abars mentions four views regarding the use of the plural in in this verse, as follows: (1) The dual is plural in meaning, namely, more than one, so that the plural form is used here for the dual; it is the same as the verse , ("... and We bore witnesses to their judgement" Q. 21:78, Asad) in which ( their) is referring to two, namely, David and Solomon; (2) Most members of the human body consist of pairs, such as hands, legs and eyes; if the these pairs are mentioned in two persons (dual), such as their (dual) hands and their (dual) eyes, it is said respectively and in which hands and eyes are used in the plural instead of the dual. Although

(the heart) is not a pair in human body, it is

; (3) Since

annexed to and grammatically treated like the pair, so that it is said

is already in the dual, it is not necessary to put another dual before it; therefore is said in plural, because, the plural is simpler. Moreover, unlike the dual, the plural and the singular forms have a similar irb. However, the Arabs also say qalbhum, and even mix the dual and the plural, as in the following poem: ("Their two backs are like the backs of two shields"). Here is used in plural, although it is for the dual. See al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, pp. 312-3. 604. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 283; idem, Gharb al-H .adth, vol. 1, p. 232; Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 118; al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 5, pp. 72-3; al-

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(d) singular, dual, and plural, such as "And let a group of the believers witness their chastisement." (Q. 24:2, Asad). Here the term (a group, a band, a troop, a party) means one, two, and more persons.605 (2). The use of the singular intended for the plural, such as "Exclaimed [Lot]: 'Behold, these are my guests: so put me not to shame.'" (Q. 15:68, Asad). The term (my guest) is used to mean (my guests). Another example is

"..., and then We bring you forth as infants ..." (Q. 22:5, Asad). The term (an infant) is used instead of 606 (infants). As an example from poetry Ibn Qutaybah cites the poem
Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 274; and al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 2, p. 15. For more examples, see al-Qayrawn, Irb al-Qurn, pt. 3, pp. 787-90. 605. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 282. Ibn Fris, al-S .h .ib, p. 212. The term according to Ibn Abbs is for one to one thousand people according to one report, whereas according to another, from four to forty. However, there are different views concerning the minimum number of people for the term in the verse in question, as follows: (1) One person, according to Mujhid and al-H .asan. It is because, according to Mujhid, the term in "From within every group in their midst, some shall refrain from going forth to war, ... " (Q. 9:122, Asad) means one person. (Here is translated by Asad, Pickthall and Ali as "some", "a party" and "a contingent" respectively). Moreover, the term (two groups) in

"Hence, if two groups of

believers fall to fighting, ..." (Q. 49:9) means two fighting people, as the verse was revealed about them. (2) Two persons, according to Ikrimah and At .. This is also the established view of Mlik who says that it is the same as that of bearing witness, where the minimum of two witnesses are required. (3) Three persons, according to al-Zuhr, probably because it is the minimum number in Arabic plural. (4) Four persons, according to Ibn Zayd who says that the case is like that of adultery where four witnesses are required. This is also the view of Mlik in another report, al-Layth, alShfi and Ibn Zayd. See al-Q urt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 12, p. 166; al-Zamakhshar, alKashshf, vol. 2, p. 936; and al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 4, p. 124. 606. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 284; idem, Tafsr, p. 316; al-Thalib, Fiqh al-

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of al-Abbs ibn Mirds al-Sulam, as follows:

Then we said: 'Surrender, verily, we are your brothers; the hearts have been healed from the old feuds.'

The term brothers).607

(your brother) is intended to mean

(your

b. Adjective (quality, attribute) This section can be divided into two: (1) the adjective in the singular for a plural object, and (2) the adjective in the plural for a singular object, as follows: (1) The use of an adjective in the singular for a plural object, such as .... And if you are in a state requiring total ablution, purify yourselves." (Q. 5:6, Asad). The term junub (unclean) is in the singular but is used for the plural "you".608 Another example is the verse ...; and furthermore the angels are
Lughah, p. 220; al-Qayrawn, Irb al-Qurn, pt. 2, p. 765; and Ibn Fris, al-S .h .ib, p. 211. For more examples, see Q. 63:4 and 4:69; and al-Zarkash, al-Burhn, vol. 2, p. 233. 607. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 285. See also Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 14, p. 21; Ab Ubaydah, Majz, vol. 1, p. 79 and 131, vol. 2, pp. 44 and 195; and al-T .abars, Majma, vol. 1, p. 365. However, it is also possible that the expression here means "Verily, we are your brothers" (in plural) based on Sbawayh's view that the term (brother), like (father), can also be formed in plural with ( ) and

( ) beside their respective broken plural

and

. See al-Qurt.ub, al-Jmi,

vol. 2, p. 138. 608. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 285. However, according to Ab Ubaydah, the term junub is invariably used disregarding gender and number; therefore, ( , , or ) junub is used; see Majz al-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 155. See also al-Munjid f l). However, some Lughah wa l-Alm (Beirut: Dr al-Mashriq, 1969), p. 103 (s.v. Arabs also say and (for the dual), and

(for the masculine plural),

(for the feminine plural); see Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 1, p. 279.

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his helpers." (Q. 66:4, Pickthall). The term z.ahr (lit. "a state of being helpful") is an adjective and in the singular, and the noun "angels" is in the plural. In poetry, Ibn Qutaybah cites the poem of an unidentified poet, as follows: Verily, the reprovers are not consultant to me." The term amr (lit., "a person who is consulted") here is in the singular.609 (2) The use of an adjective in the plural for a singular object, such as the poem of an unidentified poet, as follows: The Winter has come and my dress is worn out." The term the plural of (shabby, threadbare, worn), but is intended for the singular, as it is describing a single object, namely, the dress.610

c. Verb We can divide this section into four, as follows: (1) a verb that refers to two different things and is intended for one of them only; (2) a verb that refers to one of two different things but is intended for both of them; (3) an imperative verb in dual but is intended for one, two, or more persons; and (4) a verb with a plural pronoun intended for one person indicating respect. They are as follows: (1) A verb that refers to two different things but is intended for one of them only, for example: "But when they reached the junction between the two [seas], they forgot all about their fish, ..." (Q. 18:61, Asad). It was Ysha ibn Nn only who had forgotten the fish, for he said to Prophet Moses

609. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 285; al-T .abar, Jmi, vol. 19, p. 34, al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 13, p. 83; and Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 2, pp. 45 and 261. For the meaning of amr, see al-Munjid, p. 17 (s.v. ). 610. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 286; Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 11, p. 315; al-T .abar, Jmi, vol. 14, p. 14, vol. 19, p. 47; and al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 427.

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"..., I forgot about the fish..." (Q. 18:63, Asad).611 Another example is as follows: "O ye assembly of the jinn and humankind! Came there not unto you messengers of your own...?" (Q. 6:130, Pickthall). Here it means that messengers came from humankind only.612 (2) A verb that refers to one of two different things but is intended for both of them is the same as the one in the following verse: "... - the while it is God and His Apostle whose pleasure they should seek above all else,.." (Q. 9:62, Asad). Here the verb ("to please Him") is used for ("to please them both").613 Another example is as follows:
611. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 287; al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 2, pp. 154 and 180; and Ibn Fris, al-S . h .ib, pp. 217 and 224. It is possible that both forgot the fish; Yusha forgot to carry it, or to tell Moses that it had escaped, whereas Moses forgot to tell Yusha to carry it. It is also possible that the term here means "both postponed"; in the du it is said , meaning "may Allah postpone your instant of death"; because both of them left the fish, both postponed it; see al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 11, pp. 12-3; and al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 3, p. 480. 612. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 287. There are different views concerning messengers to the jinn, among which are as follows: (1) al-D .ah .h .k: Allah sent messengers to the jinn just as He sent them to mankind; (2) al-Kalbi: The messengers are sent to mankind only, except Prophet Muhammad who was sent to mankind and the jinn; (3) Ibn Abbs: Messengers among the jinn are those who convey the revelation they heard to their people; (4) Mujhid: Messengers are from mankind, and warners are among the jinn; this is the explanation of Ibn Abbs's view. See alQurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 7, p. 86; al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 2, p. 367; and alZamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 2, p. 426. Al-D .ah .h .ks view is isolated; other views complement each other and confirm Ibn Qutaybah's view. For another example, see Q. 55:20 where pearl and coral stones are said to come from both salt and fresh waters, when it is meant from salt water only. (However, it is said recently that pearls are being successfully cultivated in fresh water). 613. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 288; and al-Thalib, Fiqh al-Lughah, p. 219. According to al-Qayrawn and al-T ): .abars the verse means ( ; al-T .abars explains further that the first is dropped for easing

), brevity (

), predominance (

), and because it is indicated by the

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"Yet, [it does happen that] when people become aware of [an occasion for] worldly gain or a passing delight, they rush headlong towards it..." (Q. 62:11, Asad). Here the verse means ("they rush headlong towards both of them").614 As an example from poetry Ibn Qutaybah cites the poem of Amr ibn Imru al-Qays al-Ans.r addressing Mlik ibn al-Ajln, as follows:
We are content with what we have and you with what you have, and the opinion is different.

Instead of used for both

in the plural form, the term (we) and (you).615

in the singular form is

(3) An imperative verb in the dual but is intended for one, two, or more
sentence itself. See al-Qayrawn, Irb al-Qurn, pt. 2, p. 610; and al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 3, p. 45 and vol. 1, pp. 89 and 100. 614. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 288; Ibn Fris, al-S . h .ib, p. 218; al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 3, p. 157; and al-Qayrawn, Irb al-Qurn., pt. 2, p. 611. According to Ab Ubaydah the verse means: ("Yet, [it does happen that] when people become aware of [an occasion for] wordly gain, they rush headlong towards it, or a passing delight..."), see Majz al-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 258. Al-T .abars mentions two views regarding this verse: (1) The pronoun is used here exclusively for easing, brevity, and predominance, as the verse means: ("Yet, [it does happen that] when people become aware of [an occasion for] worldly gain, they rush headlong towards it, or a passing delight, they rush headlong towards it"), similiar to Ab Ubaydah's view above; (2) The pronoun is used exclusively for the (worldly gain) because the is more important for them than the (the passing delight), in this case, the beating of the drum, which only ; this is the view of al-Farr mentioned above. See

indicates the presence of the

Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, p. 289; vol. 1, pp. 89 and 100. 615. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 289; see also al-Qayrawn, Irb al-Qurn, pt. 2, p. 611; al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 1, pp. 89 and 100; al-Farr, Man lQurn, vol. 1, pp. 434 and 445; and al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 8, p. 127. Again, the verse means ("we ... are content, and you ... are content"), see al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 3, p. 45.

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persons is the same as that in the following verse: "[Whereupon God will command:] 'Cast, cast into hell every [such] stubborn enemy of the truth.'" (Q. 50:24, Asad). Here the verb is in the dual form but it is intended for one person only, namely, Mlik, the angel who is in charge of Hell.616 It may also be intended for more persons, namely, the zabniyah (the infernal attendants of Hell),617 or the two angels mentioned in the previous verse Q. 50:21, one is a driver ( ) who drives people to do what Allah has ordered them to, and the other is a witness ( ) who registers what people do; this is the view of Mujhid, Uthmn618 and al-Zajjj.619 Ab Uthmn al-Mzin and al-Mubarrad, both of the grammarian school of Bas.rah, state that the verb is in the dual to indicate repetition, namely, as translated by Asad above.620 Ibn Qutaybah states that according to al-Farr it is common among the Arabs to use imperative verbs in the dual when they are addressing one person or more, such as the expression "Woe unto you! Move her away and drive her away both of you."621 One of the examples from poetry given by Ibn Qutaybah is the poem of Suwayd ibn Karr al-Ukal, as follows:
If you drive me away O Ibn Affn, I shall go away, but if you leave me alone, I shall protect my honour from those who hurt me. 616. See al-Zarkash, al-Burhn, vol. 2, p. 239; and al-T .abars, Majma alBayn, vol. 5, p. 147; apparently, this is also the view of al-Khall and al-Akhfash when they say that alqiy is the dual intended for the singular, see al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 17, p. 16. 617. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 291. This is the view of al-Farr according to alZarkash, see al-Burhn, vol. 2, p. 239. 618. See al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 17, pp. 14 and 16. 619. See al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, p. 147. 620. See al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 2, p. 1403; al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 17, p. 16; and al-Zarkash, al-Burhn, vol. 2, p. 240. 621. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 291; and al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 3, p. 78. This is also the view of al-Khall and al-Akhfash, see al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 17, p. 16; see also Ibn Fris, al-S .h .ib, pp. 218-219.

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Here ("you both drive me away") and (you both leave me alone) are in the dual form when the poet meant Ibn Affn only.622 Al-Farr says that the number of people needed to form a company ( ) is three people.623 In this case, the conversation occurs between one of them and the other two by using verbs in the dual form. Poets use them most when they say ("O my two companions") and ("O my two friends").624 (4) A verb with a plural pronoun intended for one person indicating respect is like the king's statement when he said: "We did this" instead of "I did this". There are many examples in the Qurn, among which are as follows: ..., he prays: 'Oh my Sustainer! Let me return, let me return [to life].'" (Q. 23:99, Asad). Here (namely, ) in the plural is used instead of (namely, ) in the singular to indicate respect.625 Another example

622. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 291; al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol, 3, p. 78; Ibn Fris, al-S . h .ib, pp. 218-219; and Ibn Kathr, Tafsr, vol. 4, p. 241. According to alT .abar, the verse was cited by Ab Tharwn; see Jmi, vol. 26, p. 103. 623. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 292; al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 3, p. 78; and al-T .abar, Jmi, vol. 26, p. 103. There is a tradition where the Prophet said: "A person travelling alone is a satan, two travellers are two satans, while three travellers make a travelling party." (Reported by Mlik, Ab Dd, al-Tirmidh and Ah . mad ibn H .anbal); see Wensinck, al-Mujam, vol. 3, pp. 125 and 130 (s.v. ). 624. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 292; al-T .abar, Jmi, vol. 26, pp. 103-104; alQurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 17, p. 16; and al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 2, p. 1403. 625. This is al-Farr's interpretation, see Man l-Qurn, vol. 2, pp. 241-2. Another interpretation, however, is that the expression is (an appeal for help) addressed to Allah, and is addressed to the angels. There is, then, an here, or the expression is directed to both Allah and the angels; see al-Zarkash, al-Burhn, vol. 2, p. 235. This is the view of Ibn Jurayj. The third interpretation is that irjin means the repetition of the word, namely, similar to meaning mentioned above, which is the view of al-Mzin and al-Mubarrad. See al-Qurt .ub, alJmi, vol. 12, p. 149. See also al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 4, p. 117. The term is originally . The letter y is dropped for the sake of the rhyme. Such

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is

"We explain it to thee in the best ("We

possible way, ..." (Q. 12:3, Asad) in which the expression explain") refers to Allah alone.626

7. Sudden Transition (Iltift) Ibn Qutaybah deals with three categories of what is later called . They are as follows: a. It is addressing a person who is present (namely, the second person), then suddenly the address is changed into the wording of a third person ( ); b. It is addressing the third person by using the wording of the second person ( ); and c. It is addressing a person with something, then suddenly the address is shifted to another person ( ); this includes: addressing two persons then suddenly the address is directed to one of them only, and addressing somebody, but the address is intended for somebody else.627 They are dealt with as follows: a. With regard to addressing a person who is present (the second person), then suddenly the address is changed into the wording of a third person, Ibn Qutaybah gives three examples from the Qurn, one of which is as follows: ".... And [behold what happens] when you go to sea in ships: [they go to sea in ships,] and they sailed on in them in a favourable wind, and they rejoiced thereat..." (Q. 10:22, Asad). Here the words ("they sail on in them") and ("they rejoiced thereat") is a sudden transition from ("you sail on in them") and ("you rejoiced thereat") respectively.628 We notice that in translating the above verse Asad says "they go to sea in ships" between brackets to indicate the occurrence of the
omissions occur several times in the Qurn, such as the omission of in in Q. in

3:50, 26:108, 110, 126, 144, 163, and 179, 43:63 and 71:3, and the omission of in Q. 21:25 and 94, and 29:56.

626. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 293. For other examples, see Q. 54:49, 10:83, 11:14, and 44:36. 627. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp. 290-1. 628. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 289; al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 3, p. 101; and al-Qayrawn, Irb al-Qurn, pt. 3, p. 923.

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shift from the direct address and the second person plural "you" to the third person plural "they". The purpose of this shift, as he stated it, is "to bring out the allegorical character of the subsequent narrative and to turn it into a lesson of general validity".629 Ibn Qutaybah does not explain the purpose of the iltift in this verse, but al-Zarkash mentions three views concerning its purpose, as follows: (1) it is to indicate wonder about people's deeds and disbeliefs; (2) it is to single out the rebellious among the people; before the iltift the address was to people in general, believers as well as non-believers; then the iltift is used to indicate that the reproof is exclusively for those who rebel wrongfully after being delivered from danger, as mentioned in the above verse and that which follows it (Q. 10:23); (3) it is to indicate the two conditions of people: when they were on board a ship they felt confined and feared perishing and changing wind; in this case they were addressed the way people who are present are addressed (in the second person); but when the danger passed with a favourable wind, they were happy, and their presence was no longer required in referring to them; therefore, the iltift is used, the address was given in the third person, and it was said "and they sailed on in them".630 b. With regard to addressing the third person by using the wording of the second, Ibn Qutaybah does not give us any example from the Qurn, but one from poetry by Ab l-Kabr al-Hudhal, as follows:
O woe unto myself, the wealth of Khlid and the whiteness of his [lit. your] face are for the dust coloured soil [in which he is buried].

Here, after mentioning Khlid as a third person, the poet spoke to him in the second person, when he said "the whiteness of your face".631 Al-Zarkash mentions many examples from the Qurn, one of which is as follows: As it is, some assert, 'The Most Gracious has taken unto Himself a son'! Indeed, [by this assertion] you have brought forth something monstrous." (Q.19:88-89,
629. Asad, The Message, p. 293, n. 34. 630. Al-Zarkash, al-Burhn, vol. 3, p. 318. Al-Zarkash mentions also the mublaghah (hyperbole) as the objective of the iltift in the verse in question, see ibid., p. 329. The remaining examples from the Qurn given by Ibn Qutaybah are Q. 30:39 and 49:7, and the remaining ones given by al-Zarkash are Q. 43:70-71, and 21:92-93. 631. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 290.

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Asad). Instead of ("they brought forth") it is used ("you brought forth") to indicate that whoever makes a statement like theirs he is to be reproached and rejected. Here Allah is addressing them directly as if they were present.632 c. With regard to addressing a person with something, then suddenly the address is shifted to another person Ibn Qutaybah gives us two examples, as follows: "And if they do not respond to your call" which was addressed to the Prophet, and then suddenly shifted to unbelievers, as the verse continues with "then know that [this Qurn] has been bestowed from on high out of God's wisdom alone, and that there is no deity save Him." This is evident as the verse continues addressing the unbelievers thus "Will you, then, surrender yourselves unto Him?" (Q. 11:14, Asad).633 The other example is "Verily, [O Muhammad,] We have sent thee as a witness [to the truth], and as a herald of glad tidings and a warner." (Q. 48:8, Asad). This verse was addressed to the Prophet; then the address was suddenly shifted from him to people in the following verse: "so that you [O men] might believe in God and His Apostle, and might honour Him, and revere Him, and extol His limitless glory from morn to evening." Q. 48:9, Asad).634
632. Al-Zarkash, al-Burhn, vol. 3, pp. 322-323 and 330. According to alT "say to them O Muh .abars, there is an ellipsis of .ammad", then the verse continues with "Indeed, [by this assertion] you have brought forth something monstrous.", see Majma al-Bayn, vol. 3, p. 531. For other examples of this category of iltift from the Qurn, see al-Burhn, vol. 3, pp. 323-325. 633. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 290. Al-Qurt .ub mentions three interpretations of the pronouns in the words and , as follows: (1) both are for all the people; (2) both are for the idolaters; (3) in it is for the Prophet and the believers, but in it is for the idolaters, see al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 9, p. 13. Al-T .abars also mentions three interpretations as follows: (1) both are for the Muslims; (2) both are for the unbelievers; (3) in it is for the Prophet, whereas in here is no commentary; see Majma al-Bayn, vol. 3, p. 147. Al-Zamakhshar has the same interpretation as alT above, see al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 606. .abars regarding the term 634. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 290. The above reading is that of the majority of

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With regard to addressing two persons and suddenly the address is directed to one of them only, Ibn Qutaybah gives us two examples. They are: He replied: 'Who, now, is this Sustainer of you two, O Moses?'" (Q. 20:49, Asad). Here Pharaoh spoke at first to both Moses and Aaron, but later spoke to Moses alone, saying "O Moses".635 Another example is the following verse: And thereupon We said: 'O Adam! Verily, this is a foe unto thee and thy wife: so let him not drive the two of you out of this garden and render thee unhappy.'" (Q. 20:117, Asad). We notice here that at the beginning the address was directed to Adam only, then to him and his wife, then again to him only.636 With regard to addressing somebody, but the address is intended for somebody else, Ibn Qutaybah mentions the following example: "... , and when He brings you into being out of dust." (Q. 53:32, Asad). Here Allah means Adam himself, not his descendants.637 Al-Zarkash in his work al-Burhn examines the iltift in more detail.
qurr', except Ibn Kathr, Ibn Muh .ays .in and Ibn Amr who read it with y, namely, The first reading is chosen by Ab Htim, the second by Ab Ubayd. According to al-D .ah .h .k the pronoun "him" in honour him") and ("you might

("you might revere him") refers to the Prophet, whereas

("you might glorify Him") refers to Allah. See al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 16, p. 266. The argument of those who read the above verse with is that at the end of the verse that follows, it reads "He will bestow on him" (Q. 48:10), instead of "on you", see al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, p. 112. 635. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 290. Al-T .abars mentions two views on the above verse: (1) It means ("Who, now, is this Sustainer of you and the Sustainer of him, O Moses?"), and (2) It means ("Who, now, is this Sustainer of both of you, O Moses and Aaron?"). See Majma al-Bayn, vol. 4, p. 13. 636. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 290. 637. Ibid., p. 291. However, there is also another interpretation that all human beings are referred to here, since they are all created from dust as they eat food which comes from it; see Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, p. 180.

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He mentions its definition, advantages, and divisions. He says that the iltift is the change from one style to another as a means to alert and attract the listener, to renew his energy, and to protect his mind from boredom and discontent caused by listening to an incessant single style .638 Al-Zarkash divides the advantages of the iltift into general and particular. The general advantage is that it gives an opportunity to use various styles and to shift from one style to another which alert the listener and attract his interest, to broaden the flow of the speech, and to facilitate the use of poetic measure and rhyme . The particular advantages are: to honour the position of the person who is spoken to (the second person), to direct attention to the significance of the statement, to complete the meaning intended by the speaker and to indicate hyperbole, specification, significance and reproach.639 Al-Zarkash divides the iltift into seven divisions: from the first person (the speaker) to the second (the person spoken to), from the first person to the third, from the second person to the first, from the second person to the third, from the third person to the first, from the third person to the second, and the formation of a verb for the object after the expression or the speech has been given by its subject .640 Al-Zarkash also includes the shift of the speech from one subject to another in what he calls "close to the iltift" . The purpose of this shift is to stop the discussion of a particular subject with an ignorant and fanatical opponent, and to bring him to a new and different subject, so that he will keep his attention on the new subject and forget the previous one. This is because the more we enter into the discussion with him on that particular subject; the more he will reject our view. Then the former subject is introduced slowly within the new subject. Al-Zarkash includes in this category of expression close to the iltift: the shift from addressing one to two persons, from one to three persons, from two to one person, from two to
638. Al-Zarkash, al-Burhn, vol. 3, p. 314. 639. Ibid., pp. 325-30. 640. Ibid., pp. 315-25.

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three persons, from three to one person, and from three to two persons. He also includes what are called tempora and morphology which will be dealt with later.641 Ibn Qutaybah's treatment of this subject, the iltift, is very brief and rudimentary. He does not even use the term iltift in his work Tawl, since this technical term seems to have been unknown in his time. Commentators like al-T .abar, al-Qurt.ub, al-T .abars, and al-Zamakhshar did not mention it, and often give different interpretations rather than using it. 8. Juncture Juncture is the joining of two different statements of two different persons, so that they appear to be the statement of one person or one group of persons. Among the examples given by Ibn Qutaybah are the following Quranc verses: a. "Said she: 'Verily, whenever kings enter a country they corrupt it, and turn the noblest of its people into the most abject.'" (Q. 27.34, Asad). This statement of Queen Bilqs of Sheba is followed by Allah's statement "And this is the way they [always] behave." (Q. 27:34).642 This is the view of Ibn Abbs. However, another view says that the latter statement also belonged to Queen Bilqs who had witnessed and heard the habits of kings in the past.643 b. "They will say: 'Oh, woe unto us! Who has roused us from our sleep [of death]?'" which will be the statement of righteous Muslims when they are resurrected. The verse continues with the angels' following statement: "[Whereupon they will be told:] 'This is what the Most Gracious has promised! And His message bearers spoke the truth!.'" (Q. 36:52, Asad).644 This is the view of Ibn Abbs and al-Farr adopted by Ibn Qutaybah.
641. Ibid., pp. 333-7. 642. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 294; al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 292; and Ibn Kathr, Tafsr, vol. 3, p. 375. 643. See al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 2, p. 1036; al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 13, p. 195; and al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 4, pp. 220-221. 644. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 294.

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However, it is also possible that the statement of the angels is shared by the believers, or it is exclusively the statement of the muttaqn according to alH.asan. Another view suggests that the statement refers to the unbelievers who, after asking each other who raised them from their sleep, will finally believe in the Resurrection Day, when this belief was now of no avail.645 9. Tempora Ibn Qutaybah mentions the use of a verb in the past-tense when it is meant for the present or the future. He cites seven examples, among which are as follows: a. "You are indeed the best community that has ever been brought forth for [the good of] mankind: ..." (Q. 3:110, Asad). The word (lit. "you were") means "you are" and "you will be". The use of the verb "to be" in the past-tense indicating the present and the future is found profusely in the Qurn, such as: "They exclaimed: 'How can we talk to one who [as yet] is [ , lit., "was" ] a little boy in the cradle?'" (Q. 19:29, Asad).646 There are several views concerning the use of the verb (in this case

) in the above verse. Some say that it is used for emphasis. The other view is that kna indicates the past, namely, the believers were the best community in the sight of Allah as mentioned in the Preserved Tablet ( ) which is the interpretation of al-Farr and al-Zajj; according to al-H.asan they were the best community mentioned in the previous Scriptures. Kna is also interpreted as s.ra (has become) and wujida (to be found) or khuliqa (to be created), so that the verse in question means "You have become indeed the best community that has ever been brought forth for [the good of] mankind, because you enjoin...", and "you have been found (or created) to be the best community...".647
645. See al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 2, p. 1193; al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 15, p. 42; and Ibn Kathr, Tafsr, vol. 3, p. 582. For further examples, see Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp. 294-295 and Q. 7:109-10 and 12:51-52. 646. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 295. 647. See al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 1, p. 486 and al-Zamakhshar, alKashshf, vol. 2, p. 1193.

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b. "And lo! God said: 'O Jesus, son of Mary! Didst thou say unto men, Worship me and my mother as deities beside God"?'..." (Q. 5:116, Asad). The verb is in the past tense but is meant in the future when Allah speaks to Jesus on the Last Day. The evidence that the occurrence of the dialogue will be in the future is the verse that which follows reads: "[And on Judgment Day] God will say: 'Today, their truthfulness shall benefit all who have been true to their word: theirs shall be gardens through which running waters flow,...'" (Q. 5:119, Asad). The day referred to in this verse is the Last Day, the Judgement Day.648 This is the view of Qatdah, Ibn Jurayj, and the majority of the commentators, and is supported by alQurt.ub and al-T .abars. Another view is that the dialogue had taken place, namely, when Jesus ascended to Heaven, which is the view of al-Sudd and Qut.rub.649 c. "God's judgment is [bound to] come: do not therefore, call for its speedy advent! ..." (Q. 16:1, Asad). The verb (lit. "it came") which is in the past-tense proclaims the future, namely, "it will come to pass", translated by Asad as "is bound to come" as mentioned above.650 Various interpretations of ("Allah's judgment") are given, among which are as follows: (1) the Judgment Day which is the view of Ibn Abbs; (2) Allah's punishment to the idolaters which is the view of al-H.asan and Ibn Jurayj as stated by al-T .abars, whereas according to alQurt.ub it is the view of al-Zajjj; (3) Allah's injunctions and laws which is the view of al-D.ah.h.k according to al-T .abars, whereas according to al-Qurt.ub, it is also the view of al-H.asan and Ibn Jurayj.651 d.
648. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 295. 649. See al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 6, pp. 374-5; and al-T .abars, Majma alBayn, vol. 2, p. 268. 650. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 295; and idem, Tafsr, p. 241. 651. See al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 3, p. 348; and al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 10, pp. 65-6.

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"And [remember:] it is God who sends forth the winds, so that they raise a cloud, whereupon We drive it towards dead land and thereby give life to the earth after it had been lifeless: even thus shall resurrection be!" (Q. 35:9, Asad). We notice here that the verb ("He sent forth"), ("then We drove it") and ("thereby We gave life to it") are in the past-tense, but they mean the present and the future.652 Ibn Qutaybah does not mention the opposite of the above tempora, namely, the use of the present or the future-tense for the past-tense, such as: "And follow [instead] that which the evil ones used to practice during Solomon's reign..." (Q. 2:102, Asad), in which in the present or future is meant to be in the past.653 The other example is: ".... Say: 'Why, then, did you slay God's prophets aforetime, if you were [truly] believers?'" (Q. 2:91, Asad), in which the verb ("you slay") in the present or future-tense is meant to be above.654 ("you slew") as translated

652. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 296. 653. The verb tatl in this verse means "to relate" and "to follow" according to At .' and Ibn Abbs respectively. The commentators also have different interpretations of . It means "against the laws and prophethood of Solomon" according to Ibn al-Arab; it means "during Solomon's reign" according to al-Zajjj, as translated by Asad above; another view mentiond by al-Qurt .ub says that it means "stories, characters and accounts of Solomon's reign". What the evil ones used to relate, to follow (or to practice, according to Asad) in this verse was sorcery. The above verse means "the evil ones (men or jinn) practiced sorcery during Solomon's reign", or "the evil ones related bad things about Solomon's reign, claiming that Solomon was not a prophet, and his magic power was merely the product of sorcery rather than a miracle from Allah". See al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 2, pp. 41-3. The first interpretation was followed by Asad, the second by Pickthall and Ali. 654. See al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 1, pp. 60-1; al-Thalib, Fiqh alLughah, p. 221; and al-Zarkash, al-Burhn, vol. 3, pp. 373-4. Al-T .abars adds further comment on this verse. He says that (imperfect verb) is also used to indicate habit, such as saying of a criminal "he steals and kills" (which corresponds to the English present simple tense indicating habitual actions); it is also a reproach for the crimes he did in the past and not what he will commit in the future. However, the crime committed by their ancestors in the verse in question is ascribed to them, namely the

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10. Morphology Ibn Qutaybah briefly mentions four categories of words which morphologically disagree with their literal meanings. They are as follows: a. A passive participle in the form of an active participle , such as: (1) Said [Noah]: 'Today there is no protection [for anyone] from God's judgment, save [for] those who have earned [His] mercy!'...." (Q. 11:43, Asad). The word (lit. "protector") which is an active participle, means ("protected") in a passive participle in the above verse, namely, "nobody is protected from His judgment" ( ).655 This is one interpretation. The second interpretation is that means ("no protector"), so that the verse means "there is no protector from Allah's punishment except He [Allah] Who has mercy" since it is on that day of reckoning that the unbelievers deserve punishment.656 The third interpretation is mentioned by al-T .abars, namely, "there is no protector except to whom Allah has mercy," meaning that whom Allah has mercy for will be protected.657 (2) "He is created from a gushing fluid." (Q. 86:6, Pickthall). The verb (gushing) is an active participle meaning (gushed) in passive participle.658 (3) The following verse of Walat alJarm:
When I saw the horses following each other in groups, I realised that it was a hard impudent day.

The word

(lit., immoral actor) is an active participle meaning a (acted upon immorally), so that the verse means "a

passive participle

killing of prophets, for one of the following reasons: their remaining and following the same ways and religion of their ancestors suggested their participation in the crime; or they were content with their ancestors' actions, and by so doing, they belong to them. See Majma al-Bayn, vol. 1, p. 161. 655. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 297; and al-Thalib, Fiqh al-Lughah, p. 221. 656. See al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 9, pp. 39-40. 657. See Majma al-Bayn, vol. 3, p. 163. 658. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 297; al-Thalib, Fiqh al-Lughah, p. 221; and alQurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 20, p. 4.

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hard day in which immorality was committed" ( b. The verb pattern which means (doer), such as: (1)

).659

The originator is He of the heavens and the earth:..." (Q. 2:117, Asad and 6:101). The word bad means mubdi ("originator", "creator");660 (2) "a painful punishment" (Q. 2:10, 104, and 178). 661 The word (painful) means (causes pain); (3) The verse of Amr ibn Madkarib who was longing for his sister Rayh.nah who was taken captive by al-S.immah ibn Bakr as follows:
Is it from [listening to] the inviter who makes us listen [to what he said] about Rayh .anah that makes me anxiously sleepless while my companions are peacefully sleeping?

Here the word c. The verb pattern (all-preserving), (all-knowing), these are the (hearer),

means

(who makes people listen). However, this means "all-hearing".662 , such as (all-seeing), (powerful), (all-hearing), (preserving),

is an isolated meaning, since

which means the active participle (all-powerful), (glorious), and (emphatic form) of (seer), (knower),

(originator of creation). All (possessor of glory), and

659. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp. 296-297; Ibn Abd Rabbih, al-Iqd al-Fard, vol. 5, p. 231; and Ab al-Faraj al-As .bahn, al-Aghn, vol. 15, p. 77. According to alMufad .d .al, the poem belongs to al-H .rith ibn Walat al-Jarm; see Lyall, ed., The Mufad .d .alyt, pp. 330-331. 660. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 297; and al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 2, p. 86. 661. The expression is found in over fifty places in the Qurn, such as: Q. 3:77, 91, and 177; 5:36, 37, and 94; 6:70; and 7:73. 662. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 297; idem, al-Shir wa l-Shuar, vol. 1, p. 332; Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 8, p. 164 (s.v. ); Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 282; al-T .abar, al-Jmi, vol. 1, p. 95; Ab al-Faraj al-As .bahn, al-Aghn, vol. 14, p. 33; and Ibn Fris, Maqys, vol. 1, pp. 126-127.

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(originator of creation) respectively.663 d. Active participle in the form of passive participle which is very rare, such as: "... Verily, His promise is ever sure of fulfilment..." (Q. 19:61, Asad) in which the word (lit., "is being brought") means (lit. "is coming").664 Ibn Qutaybah's material of disagreement of a word with its literal meaning is very brief. It lacks organisation and details. He divides it into twenty-six categories with examples, which I divide systematically into ten categories. More details are available in literature of later times, such as alBurhn of al-Zarkash, Jmi of al-T .abars and al-Jmi of al-Qurt.ub. Moreover, he does not mention the other views which are contrary to his. The lack of details and systematic division, as well as different views is apparent in Ibn Qutaybah's treatise of the phenomena of figurative language.
663. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp. 297-298 and idem, Adab al-Ktib, pp. 586-7. Ibn Qutaybah does not cite any example from the Qurn due to the vast number of times it appears, such as: h .afz . in Q. 6:104, 11:57, 86, 34:21 and 50:32; qadr in Q.2:20, 106, 109, 148, 259, and 284; sam and alm in Q. 2:181, 224, 227, 244, and 256; bas .r in Q. 2:96, 110 233, 227, and 265; and majd in Q. 11:73 and 85:21. With regard to bdiu l-khalq we do not find it in the Qurn; what we find is badaa lkhalq (Q. 29:20), yabdau l-khalq (Q. 10:4, 34, 27:64, 30:11 and 27), and yubdiu ... l-khalq (Q. 29:19). 664. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 298; and al-Thalib, Fiqh al-Lughah, p. 222. The object in this verse is also the subject , because, al-T .abars states, in Arabic whatever you come to also comes to you, and vice versa. For example, it is said ("I have come to fifty years") can also be said ("Fifty years have come to me"). See Majma al-Bayn, vol. 3, p. 521. The other example is "... a hidden barrier". (Q. 17:45). The word (hidden) means (hiding) of what is behind it. This is the first interpretation. See al-Thalib, Fiqh al-Lughah, p. 222. The second interpretation, however, says that here is in its original meaning, namely, hidden from our eyes. See al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 10, p. 271.

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CHAPTER IV
IBN QUTAYBAH'S TREATISE OF AMBIGUOUS LETTERS, WORDS, AND PARTICLES IN THE VERSES OF THE QURN This chapter examines letters assumed to be absurd and stylistically spoiling, words which have many different meanings, meanings of particles, and the substitution of particles in the verses of the Qurn as follows: A. Letters Assumed to Be Absurd and Stylistically Spoiling The main concern of Ibn Qutaybah on this subject is the letters of the alphabet at the beginning of twenty-nine srahs in the Qurn, technically called by the exegetes al-h.urf al-muqat.t.aah (the disconnected letters) and fawtih . al-suwar (the openings of the chapters). The term alphabet itself is derived from the first and the second letters of the Greek alphabet, namely, alpha(,),and beta (,),corresponding to letter A and B respectively in the Latin alphabet. The Arabic alphabet is called h.urf almujam (lit., "the letters of the dictionary"), al-h.urf al-hijyah (lit., "letters put in successive order"), and al-h .urf al-abjadyah (lit., "the letters put in the abjd order"), which is the classical Arabic alphabetical order. They and their numerical values are as follows: (1) (2), (3), (4), (5), (6), (7), (70), (700), (80), (800), (8), (9), (10), (20), (30), (40), (50), (300), (400), (500), (60), (600), (90), (100), (200), (900), and

(1000). They are combined together for

easy memorisation as follows: . This classical order is closer to the Greek alphabetical order than the modern one which is as follows: . There are fourteen letters of the Arabic alphabet which occur in fourteen different combinations. These letters are: , , , , , , , , , , , , , and . They are always pronounced singly, such as: nn for N, t.-h for T .-H, and alif-lm-mm, for A-L-M. Their combinations and the srahs in which they are located are as follows: (2, 3, 29, 30,

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31, and 32); 44, 45, and 46); (26, and 28);

(10, 11, 12, 14, and 15); (42); (20), and (19); (68); (36).

(13); (50);

(7); (38),

(40, 41, 43, (27);

Ibn Qutaybah mentions four different views concerning these letters. He states that each of these views has its own merit, which are as follows: These letters are the names of the srahs to which they belong; they are Allah's oaths; they are letters taken from Allah's attributes, and they are letters taken from the attributes of the Qurn. According to the first view, the letter or combined letters at the beginning of a certain srah is the name of that srah itself. Srat al-Arf (srah 7), for example, is also called Srat . However, whenever the same letters occur at the beginning of more than one surah, the usual name of that surah is added to it, for example, (srah 2), (srah 3), and (srah 41).665 This is the view of Zayd ibn Aslam (d. 136/754).666 With regard to the second view, Ibn Qutaybah says that it means that Allah's oath includes all the letters of the alphabet by mentioning some of them. It is like someone saying that he has learned the ABC, meaning all the letters of the alphabet, or that he had read al-h.amdu lillh, meaning the whole introductory srah of the Qurn.667 The reason for Allah's oaths with these letters is to indicate their nobility and merit ( ) "because they are the foundation of His Scriptures revealed in various languages, the bases of His beautiful names and exalted attributes, and the origins of the languages of nations by which they know each other, remember and believe in His Oneness..."668 The Qurnic verse , for example, according to this view, means "By the letters of the alphabet, it is the book where there is no doubt in it..." (Q. 2:1)669 With regard to the third view, the use of letters of the alphabet to indicate Allah's attributes is praised by Ibn Qutaybah as an art of

1. Ibn Qutaybahs Tawl, pp. 299-300 and al-Zarqn, Manhil al-Irfn, vol. 1, p. 228. 666. Al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 1, p. 156. 667. Ibid. 668. Ibn Qutaybah., Tawl, p. 301; and al-Zarqn, Manhil al-Irfn, vol. 1, p. 229. 669. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 301.

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abbreviating words with letters commonly practised among the Arabs.670 One of the many examples given by him is the combined letters . According to the interpretation attributed to Ibn Abbs, each of these letters respectively stands for an attribute of Allah, namely, stands for (Efficient), and for for (Guiding), for (Wise), for , , (All-knowing), , and which (Gentle) (truthful).671 (Allah's sign), (Allah's glory); (Allah's magnificence), stands for

Other examples given by Ibn Qutaybah are: stands respectively for (Allah's beauty), and and according to Ibn Abbs for (I, Allah, know),

(Exalted), two attributes of Allah.672 It is also reported that is the abbreviation of Allah, Jibril, and stands stands for (I, Allah, see), and

Muhammad. Another interpretation attributed to him is that the

stands for (I, Allah, decide). This interpretation is chosen by alZajjj who said that every letter should have a meaning.673 The fourth view is that of al-Kalb who says that the combination of letters in means that the Qurn is an efficient, guiding, wise, knowing, ).674 . Instead of H.akm, the letter y stands for ("His Hand is above their hands") is also attributed to al-Kalb.675 However, al-Qurt .ub states that according to alKalb, these letters are of Allah's names by which He made His oath.676 Some exegetes whom Ibn Qutaybah does not identify say that , and truthful book ( , and letter respectively means ("O man"), ("O human

670. Ibid., p. 302. 671. Ibid. For further details and other interpretations, see al-T .abar, Jmi, vol. 16, pp. 32-35. 672 Ibid., p. 309. 673 Al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 1, p. 155. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 299. Al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 3, p. 502 676 Al-Qurt .ub al-Jmi, vol. 1, p. 156.
674 675

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being"), and

(the inkwell).677 According to Ibn Abbs as reported by

Ikrimah, which is read t.h and means is the language of H.abashah (Abyssinia, Ethiopia), whereas in another report by Sad ibn Jubayr, also from Ibn Abbs, it is in the Nabatean language. Similarly, which is read y-sn meaning "O human being" is the language of T .ayy according to Ibn Abbs (or H.abashah as reported by Ibn Mardawayh). The letter which is read nn is a Persian word meaning ("I do 678 whatever I want") according to al-D.ah.h.k as reported by al-Kirmn. Another group of scholars claim that the interpretation of al-h.urf almuqat.t .aah is known to Allah alone. mir al-Shab, Sufyn al-Thawr, and a group of traditionists are reported to have said that these letters "...are Allah's secret in the Qurn, and Allah has a secret in each of His Books. They are included among ambiguous things ( ) known to Allah alone, which is not to be talked about, but to be believed and read as they are revealed".679 It is also reported that Ab Bakr and Al held the same view, and Ab l-Layth al-Samarqand reports that Umar, Uthmn, and Ibn Masd say that the al-h.urf al-muqat.t.aah are among the hidden things upon which no commentary should be given. Ab H .tim says that these letters are found in the opening of some srahs, but what Allah means by them is not for us to know. Another scholar, Ab Bakr al-Anbr, says that there are letters in the Qurn the meaning of which are hidden from the whole world as a test from Allah; whoever believes in them will be rewarded and be pleased, and those who disbelieve and doubt them will become sinful and be far away (from Allah's guidance).680 According to the contemporary scholar Dr. Mus.t.af Zayd, the most acceptable view on this subject is that these letters are a symbol of challenge; with them Allah challenged the Arab idolaters to produce a chapter similar to that of the Qurn by using the same letters of the alphabet used in the Qurn, if they kept rejecting the Qurn as a revelation from Him. These fourteen letters are half and representing the whole twenty-eight
677. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 309; Ibn Abbs, Gharb al-Qurn, p. 61. 678. See al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, pp. 114, 117 and 118, and Ibn Abbs, Gharb al-Qurn, p. 61. 679. Al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 1, p. 154. 680. Ibid.

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letters of the alphabet. They are found at the beginning of the srahs which speak about the Qurn, either at the beginning or in the middle of the respective srahs.681 We have seen that Ibn Qutaybah does not mention the view of scholars who consider these al-h.urf al-muqat.t .aah to be mysterious and inexplicable. This is most probably due to his conviction that the tawl of the mutashbiht are known by the al-rsikhn f l-ilm, as mentioned earlier in the second chapter of this study. The Orientalists have many different theories about these mysterious letters. Noldeke's theory which he later abandoned is that they are the names of the owners of the sheets of the Qurn. He states that stands for alZubayr, stands for al-Mughrah, stands for T .alh.ah ibn Ubayd Allh, and as well as letter stands for Abd al-Rah.mn.682 Another Orientalist, Morris Seale, suggests that they are mnemonic devices as a guide to the contents of the srah. For example, in srat alShuar (Poets, Q. 26) and srat al-Qas.as. (Story, Q. 28), the first verse in these two chapters is the combination of letters . These letters stand for T.r Sin (Mount Sinai) and Ms (Moses), the two main subjects of these srahs. In srat Maryam (Mary, Q. 19) the first verse is the combination of letters . These five letters, as suggested by Seale, are introductory letters to the contents of this chapter: the priest Zacharia (Zakary), the temple, the birth of John (Yah.y), Jesus son of Mary (s ibn Maryam) and Abraham as a man of truth ). Each letter stands for these five contents. stands for (a priest in the Hebrew sense rather than in Arabic stands for stands for (a temple, ; stands sense of a soothsayer), referring to Zakary; although the word mih.rb is used in this srah);

for ; and stands for who was Abraham. Seale admits that this 683 is only a conjecture. James A. Bellamy had another theory. He proposed that these letters "were originally abbreviations of the basmalah, some of which became
681. For further details, see Dr. Mus .t .af Zayd, Dirst f l-Tafsr, pp. 49-50. 682. See Theodor Noldeke and Friedrich Schwally, Geschichte des Qorans i-ii (Hildesheim: Georg Olms, 1961), vol. 2, p. 72. 683. See Morris Seale, Qurn and Bible (London: Croom Helm Ltd., 1978), pp 34-35.

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corrupt early in the course of transmission". He assumes that since only the readers of Kfah who regarded , , and as yt (Qurnic verses) with the exclusion of other groups of letters, whereas the non-Kfan readers did not call any of them an yah (a verse), but rather introductions to the srahs684, they are, like the basmalah, not part of the Qurn. Then to suit his theory, traditions mentioning these mysterious letters are rejected, and the occurrence of corruption in the Qurn is assumed.685 In my view, when the non-Kfan readers did not call these letters yt, but fawtih. suwar, it is because they are not sufficient to make a word to constitute an yah, as the minimum requirement for an yah is one word. The point of the discussion is whether the possibility of a word, let alone a letter, can constitute an yah. Here Ibn al-Munayyar and Ab Amr al-Dn said that there is no word which is itself an yah in the Qurn except (Q. 55:64), and that al-Zamakhshar says that knowing the yt is based on tawqf (revelation), and there is no room for qiys (analogy) in it.686 Moreover, when al-Suyt. said that they agreed on as an yah, but disagreed on ,687 it does not mean that the latter is not a part of the Qurn, but rather it is not sufficient to be counted as one yah. Bellamy's theory is not plausible, either. He incorrectly developed the interpretation of Sad ibn Jubayr that these mysterious letters are Allah's names, such as , and , the combination of which makes (alRah.mn , one of the names of Allah and His attributes.688 Since only four out of the nineteen letters of the basmalah do not belong to Allah's names, he builds his theory that these mysterious letters were originally abbreviations of the basmalah, as mentioned earlier. Montgomery Watt, after explaining and evaluating various theories of some Orientalists, such as Hirschfeld, Edward Goossens, Nldeke and Alan Jones, admitted to the mysterious nature of these letters. He concluded: "We
684. See al-Zarkash, al-Burhn, vol. 1, pp. 268 and 171; and al-Suyt ., alItqn, vol. 1, p. 195. 685. James A. Bellamy, "The Mysterious Letters of the Koran: Old Abbreviations of the Basmalah", JAOS xciii (1973), pp. 277-278. 686. See al-Zarkash, al-Burhn, vol. 1, pp. 267-268. 687. See al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 1, p. 195. 688. See al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 1, pp. 32-33. This is also the interpretation of Ikrimah, see Noldeke, Geschichte, vol. 2, p. 73.

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end where we began; the letters are mysterious, and have so far baffled interpretation."689 B. Words which Have Many Different Meanings This subject is usually treated as one of the branches of the sciences of tafsr called al-wujh wa l-naz.ir f l-Qurn, usually translated as "homonyms and synonyms in the Qurn". Wujh (sing. wajh, "face", "meaning", "aspect") are words which agree in wording but differ in meaning ( ); for example, the word s.alh in the verse "and are constant in prayer" (Q. 2:3) has a different meaning from s.alh in the following verse: "Said they: 'O Shuayb! Does thy [habit of] praying compel thee to demand of us that we give up all that our forefathers were wont to worship,..." (Q. 11:87). In the first verse s.alh means the established and obligatory prayer, whereas in the second, Shuayb's s.alh means his religion.690 Naz.ir (sing. naz.r, similar, equivalent, matching) are al-alfz. almushtarikah, namely, words which indicate many different things equally, such as the word ayn which equally means "eye", "spring" (the place where water comes out from the ground), "the sun itself", and "letter ". They also include al-alfz. al-mutawat.iah (Latin: denoteta; sing. denotatum), namely, words that indicate many different things with one shared meaning, such as the word insn (man) which is applied to Zayd, Umar, etc. Synonymous words (al-alfz. al-mutardifah) are also included in the naz.ir, such as the words khamr, rh., and aqqr, which all mean one thing, the intoxicant
689. See W. Montgomery Watt, Bell's Introduction to the Qurn (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1970), pp. 61-65. For further studies on Western scholars' points of view on this subject, see A. Jeffery, "The Mystic Letters of the Koran", MW xiv (1924), pp. 247-260; Alan Jones, "The Mysterious Letters of the Qurn", SI 16 (1962), pp. 5-11; and R. Marston Speight, "The Opening Verses of the Chapters of the Qurn", MW 59/3-4 (1969), pp. 205-209. Among Muslim writers on this subject are al-Zarqn, Manhil al-Irfn, vol. 1, pp. 225-236; Dr. Hshim Amir Ali, "The Mysterious Letters of the Qurn", IC 36 (Jan. 1962), pp. iii-iv; and Al Nas . h . alT .hir, "Abbreviations in the Holy Qurn", IR (Dec. 1950), pp. 8-12. 690. Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, pp. 394-5; idem, Qurrah, p. 161; and Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 461.

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made from raisins. Wujh refers to a word with many different meanings, whereas naz.ir refers to a word with the same concept but different wordings.691 This branch of science is very important in studying the Qurn. Ab l-Dard and Muqtil ibn Sulaymn were reported to have said that a man would not become a true faqh until he knew the wujh in the Qurn.692 AlZarkash ranked it number four among the forty-seven branches of Qurnic science in his work al-Burhn, whereas al-Suyt. placed it at number thritynine of the eighty branches in his work al-Itqn. Among the scholars of this branch of science were: Muh.ammad ibn al-Sib al-Kalb (d. 146/763), Muqtil ibn Sulaymn al-Balkh (d. 150/767), Ab al-Abbs Muh.ammad ibn Yazd ibn al-Mubarrad (d. 285/898), Ab Bakr Muh.ammad al-Naqqsh (d. 351/962), Ab al-Fad.l Bakr ibn Muh.ammad al-Bukhr (d. 514/1120-1121), Ah.mad ibn Fris (d. 395/1005), Ab Abd Allh al-H.usayn al-Dmaghn (d. 478/1085-1086), Ab lH.asan Al al-Zaghwn (d. 527/1133), Ibn al-Jawz (d. 597/1201) and Ab l-Fad.l Hubaysh [al-]Tifls (from Tiflis or Tbilisi, the capital of the present Republic of Georgia; d. 600/1204 or 629/1232). Ibn Qutaybah mentions forty-four words which have many different meanings or wujh in his Tawl. These words and their meanings are as follows: 1. (decree) The basic or primary meaning of qad. is "finishing something entirely, either by word or by deed".693 Ibn Qutaybah mentions four meanings of the verb qad. which is derived from the mas.dar (verbal noun) qad., as follows: a. (to decree, to ordain) which is the basic meaning of qad., as in "... thus, He withholds [from life] those upon whom He has decreed death,..." (Q. 39:42).694

691. For further details, see Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, pp. 46-48 (al-Rd .i's introduction) and pp. 83-84. 692. Al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 122. 693. See Lane, Lexicon, pt. 8, p. 2989 (supplement) 694. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 441; and Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 15, p. 187.

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b.

to order, to command), as in "For thy Sustainer has ordered that you shall worship none but Him." (Q. 17:23).695 This is the view of Ibn Abbs, al-H.asan, and Qatdah, 696 according to al-T According to Yah.y ibn Sallm, who .abars. mentions ten meanings of , this term in the above verse means (entrust, direct, recommend, charge, enjoin).697 This is also the view of the Mujhid, based on the variant readings of Ubayy ibn Kab, Ibn Masd and al-D.ah.h.k.698 c. (to inform), as in "And We made [this] known to the children of Israel through revelation: 'Twice, indeed, will you spread corruption on earth and will indeed become grossly overbearing." (Q. 17:4). This view of Ibn Qutaybah is also that of Ab Ubaydah, al-Farr, al-T .abars, Ibn Kathr, al-Suyt., and Yahy ibn Sallm, who uses the term , the synonym of .699 Ibn Qutaybah and al-Rghib al-As.bahn maintain that since Allah informed the children of Israel that they would commit corruption in the future, its occurrence was a decree from Him.700 d. (to make, to do), as in " And He [it is Who] 701 made them completely seven heavens." (Q. 41:12). Then the meaning
695. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 441; ibid., Tafsr, p. 253; Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 374; al-Rghib al-As .bahn, al-Mufradt, p. 406; al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 764; and Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 506. 696. Al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 3, p. 409. 697. Yah .y ibn Sall m, al-Tas .rf: Tafsr al-Qurn mim shtabahat Asmuh wa Tas .arrafat Manh, presented and edited by Hind Shalab (Tunis: alSharikah al-Tnsiyyah lil-Tawz ,1979), p. 340. 698. Ibn Kathr, Tafsr, vol. 3, p. 37. 699. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 441; Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 370; al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 116; al-Rghib al-As .bahn, al-Mufradt, p. 406; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 506; al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 3, p. 399; Ibn Kathr, Tafsr, vol. 3, p. 27; al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 129; idem, Mutarak, vol. 3, p. 173 and Yah .y ibn Sallm, al-Tas .rf, p. 340. 700. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 441 and al-Rghib al-As .bahn, al-Mufradt, p. 406. 701. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 441; al-Rghib al-As .bahn, al-Mufradt, p. 406; and al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, p. 7. Yah .y ibn Sallm and Ibn al-Jawz use

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eveloped and became "to accomplish, to complete, to fulfil". The dead person is called he has completed his appointed time", and he has fulfilled (redeemed) his pledge (by death)." (Q. 33:23).702 2. a. (guidance) Ibn Qutaybah mentions five meanings of hud, as follows: (to guide), which is the basic meaning of hud , as in

"... he said [to himself]: 'It may well be that my Sustainer will [thus] guide me onto the right path!'" (Q. 28:22),703 namely, the road to Madyan.704 b. (to guide by means of explanation), as in
the term khalq (creation) for the meaning of qad . in the above verse, see al-Tas .rf, p. 343 and Nuzhah, pp. 508-509. According to al-Farr, the term qad . in the above verse means "He created and controlled them (khalaqahunna wa h .akamahunna), see Man l-Qurn, vol. 3, p. 13. As another example, Ibn Qutaybah cites Q. 41:12, and as a shhid, he cites the poem of Ab Dhuayb where qad . means "to make", as follows " With both of them two coats of mail made by David or [i.e., and] the perfect expert (blacksmith) Tubba." See Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp. 441-442 and idem, Gharb al-H .adth, vol. 2, pp. 17-18; see also [al-Mufad .d .al al-D .abb], al-Mufad .d .alyt, p. 881. This poem is also cited by Ibn Fris as a shhid to indicate that the term qad . in the verse in question means "He decided their creation" ( ); see Maqyis vol. 5, p. 99. Tubba was the title of the kings of Yemen, like the Pharaohs of Egypt, and the Caesars of the Roman empire. Tubba did not make the coats of mail by himself, but by his blacksmiths who were experts in this profession. See also Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 15, p. 186; and al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 1, p. 87. Al-Suyt . cites Q. 80:23 as an example of qad . meaning "to do", see alItqn, vol. 2, p. 129. 702. According to Ibn Qutaybah qad . nah .bahu means qutila (he was killed), since the verse in question deals with martyrs; see Tawl, p. 183; and idem, Tafsr, p. 349. For further details, see al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 14, pp. 158-160. 703. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 443; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 628; al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 474; Tifls, Wujh, p. 297; and al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 124. According to Yah .y ibn Sallm, this is the meaning given by Qatdah, see al-Tas .rf, p. 100. 704. Al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 304; Ikrimah says that Moses was to choose one of four roads before him; when he made his choice and chose the correct one, he said the verse mentioned above; al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 4, p. 247.

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"And as for [the tribe of] Thamd, We offered them guidance [by means of explanation], but they chose blindness in preference to the guidance:..." (Q. 41:17).705 According to Qatdah fahadaynhum means "We have explained to them the way to virtue as well as evil," whereas according to Ibn Abbs, al-Sudd and Ibn Zayd it means "We have explained to them the truth."706 c. (to guide by means of calling), as in ".... Thou art a warner only; and for every folk a guide." (Q. 13:7, Pickthall).707 The guide meant in this verse is Allah according to Ibn Abbs, Sad ibn Jubayr, al-D.ah.h.k and Mujhid, whereas according to Qatdah, al-Zajjj, Ibn Zayd and Ibn Abbs in another report, it is a prophet sent to his people. Another view says that a guide here means any person who calls people to the truth.708 d. (to guide by means of inspiration), as in "He replied: Our Sustainer is He Who gives unto everything [that exists] its true nature and form, and thereupon guides it." (Q. 20:50), namely, by means of inspiration.709 Muh.ammad Asad translates khalqahu as "its true nature and form", and Ibn Qutaybah, giving his commentary on it, said that it means "its form from the females (of its species)", namely, every creature is created and formed inside its mother's womb according to her species. The inspiration meant in this verse according to Ibn Qutaybah, Ibn Abbs, al-Sudd and alFarr, is the sexual instinct among creatures towards their own species.710 However, Ibn Qutaybah also mentions another interpretation, namely, "the inspiration to look for pasture and to avoid danger (
705. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 443; Tifls, Wujh, p. 297; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 626; and idem, Qurrah, p. 241. 706. See al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, pp. 8-9. 707. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, 443; al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 473; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 627; idem, Qurrah, p. 242; Tifls, Wujh, p. 298; al-Zarkash, al-Burhn, vol. 1, p. 103; and al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 123. 708. See Al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 3, p. 278. 709. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 444; al-Dmaghn, Qms, pp. 475-476; Ibn alJawz, Nuzhah, p. 629; and idem, Qurrah, p. 244. 710. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 444; idem, Tafsr, p. 279; al-T .abars, Majma alBayn, vol. 4, p. 13; and al-Farr, see Man l-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 181.

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)". This is similar to the view of Tifls and al-Suyt. when they said that had in the above verse means "the inspiration to look for food".711 The third interpretation is that of Mujhid, At., Muqtil, and Yah.y ibn Sallm which is a combination of the two previous interpretations.712 In the following verse and Who determines the nature [of all that exists], and thereupon guides it [towards its fulfilment]" (Q. 87:3) the guidance in this verse according to Ibn Qutaybah is the inspiration to approach the females, namely, the sexual instinct. This is also the view of Muqtil, Yah.y ibn Sallm, al-Kalb, al-Farr and Tifls.713 In my view, the meaning of had in this type of Quranc verse is the natural instinct given to every creature to preserve its life and species in particular, and to fulfil its nature in general, because it includes both views mentioned above. e. (to guide by means of doing), as in ... and that Allah does not bless with His guidance the artful schemes of those who betray their trust." (Q. 12:52). It means that Allah will not make the artful schemes of the betrayers work. Another interpretation is that it means Allah will not make it proper for them.714 Ibn al-Jawz mentions twenty-four meanings of had in his work Nuzhah, but mentions fourteen only in his work Qurrah. Yah.y ibn Sallm, al-Zarkash, al-Suyt., and Tifls mention seventeen meanings, whereas al-Dmaghn and Ibn Qutaybah mention respectively sixteen and four meanings. Ibn Qutaybah deals with this word very briefly: less than one-fifth of the total number of its meanings.715
711. Tifls, Wujh, p. 299 and al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 123. 712 . See al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 4, p. 13; and Yah .y ibn Sall m, al-Tas .rf, p. 103. 713. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 444; Yah .y ibn Sall m, al-Tas .rf, p. 103; alT .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, p. 474; al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 3, p. 256; Tifls, Wujh, p. 299; and Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 629. 714. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 444. This is also the view of al-Dmaghn, Tifls, Ibn al-Jawz, al-Zarkash, and al-Suyt .; see Qms, p. 475; Wujh, p. 299; Nuzhah, p. 629; al-Burhn, vol. 1, p. 104; and al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 123. 715. Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, pp. 625-30; idem, Qurrah, pp. 241-244; Yah .y ibn Sallm, al-Tas .rf, pp. 96-123; al-Zarkash, al-Burhn, vol. 1, pp. 102-104; al-Suyt .,

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3. a.

(nation, people, community) Ibn Qutaybah gives us five meanings of ummah as follows: (a category of people, a community), which is the basic meaning of the term ummah, as in

"All mankind were once a single community; [then they began to differ] whereupon Allah raised up the prophets..." (Q.2:213). According to Ab Ubaydah and Ibn al-Jawz, ummah here means millah (religion); al-T .abars says ummah wh.idah means al millah wh.idah (belonging to one religion), whereas al-Zamakhshar does not interpret ummah, probably retaining its basic meaning as mentioned above. A question arises: what religion did people embrace in the above verse? It was the true religion (Islam), according to Ibn Abbs in one report, Qatdah, Mujhid, Ikrmah and al-D.ah.h .k; this is the interpretation chosen by Tifls and Ibn Kathr. This view is supported with Abd Allh ibn Masd's - or, according to Ibn Kathr, Ubayy ibn Kab's - variant reading kna l-nsu ummatan wh.idatan fakhtalaf with the addition of fakhtalaf ("then they disagreed"). The other interpretation is that the community in the above verse followed disbelief; this is the interpretation of Ibn Abbs in another report and also that of al-H.asan. This is also the view of Ibn Qutaybah and al-Rghib al-As.bahn when they say that ummah wh.idah means s.infan wh.idan f l-d.all ("a kind of people in error").716 b. (a period of time), as in "... and he [suddenly] remembered [Joseph] after a (long) period of time..." (Q. 12:45).717 This period was said to have been seven years.718 This is the interpretation of
al-Itqn, vol. 2, pp. 122-124; idem, Mutarak, vol. 3, pp. 307-8; Tifls, Wujh, pp. 295-300; al-Dmaghn, Qms, pp. 473-476; and Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp. 443-444. 716. See Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 72; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 143; al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 1, pp. 306-307; al-Zamakhshar, alKashshf, vol. 1, p. 134; Tifls, Wujh, p. 29; al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 3, pp. 30-33; Ibn Kathr, Tafsr, vol. 1, p. 257; Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 445; and al-Rghib alAs .bahn, al-Mufradt, p. 23. 717. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 445; Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 1, pp. 99 and 313; al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 47; Ibn Fris, Maqys, vol. 1, p. 28; al-Zamakshshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 660; and Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 144. 718 Ibn Qutaybah, Tafsr, pp. 202 and 218.

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Ibn Abbs, al-H.asan, Mujhid, and Qatdah.719 This period of time can mean "years", as in ) : And if We defer their suffering until a reckoned period of time..." (Q. 11:8). It means reckoned years.720 According to Ibn Abbs, the term ummah meaning years in the above verse is the language of Azdshanah, one of the four branches of Azd, an ancient Arab tribe living in Yemen.721 Tifls shares Ibn Qutaybah's view on the two verses above.722 Ibn alJawz, however, says that the word ummah in the above verses means "a period of time" which is contrary to the view of al-Dmaghn who says that it means in both verses "years."723 However, a variant reading attributed to Ibn Abbs, Ikrmah and al-D.ah.h.k is bada amahin and bada amhin, meaning "after forgetting" ( ).724 According to Ibn Abbs, the term ummah meaning nisyn (forgetting) in the above verse is the language of Tamm and Qays (ibn) Ayln.725 c. (leader, chief, head and commander), as in Verily, Abraham was a leader, obedient to Allah,..." (Q. 16:120). This is the view of Ibn Qutaybah and Ab Ubaydah as well as Qatdah according to Yah.y ibn Sallm.726 This is also the language of the Quraysh, according to Ibn Abbs.727 It means people followed his examples. Prophet Abraham was referred to as ummah because he and the people who followed him constituted a community, so that he was the
719. See al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 3, 238. 720. Ibn Qutaybh, Tawl, p. 445. 721 Ibn Abbs, Gharb al-Qurn, p. 49. 722 Tifls, Wujh, p. 29 723 Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 144; idem, Qurrah, p. 56; and al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 43. 724. See al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 9, p. 201; Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 313; and al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 660. See also Ibn Fris, Maqys, vol. 1, p. 136; Ibn Qutaybah, Tafsr, p. 218; al-Rghib al-As .bahn, alMufradt, p. 23; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 1, p. 103.. 725 Ibn Abbs, Gharb al-Qurn, p. 51 726. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 445; Tifls, Wujh, p. 30; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 144; idem, Qurrah, p. 56; al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 43; and Yah .y ibn Sallm, alTas .rf, p. 152. According to Ibn Abbs the term ummah meaning imm in this verse is the language of the Quraysh, see Gharb al Qurn, p. 53. 727 Ibn Abbs, Gharb al Qurn, p. 53.

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founder of that ummah. It is also said that he was called an ummah because he possessed the good qualities of an ummah. He was an ummah himself, as he represented an ummah.728 He was the only believer when other people disbelieved; therefore he was an ummah, and this is the view of Mujhid. Another view is that he was an ummah because he was an example and a teacher to the people.729 According to Ibn Masd and Ibn Umar the term ummah means respectively "the person who teaches good things" ( ) and "the person who teaches people their religion" ( ).730 d. Despite the difference of interpretations, they all complement each other and serve to broaden the meaning of the verse. e. (a group of ulam), as in "And that there might grow out of you a group of ulam who teach all that is good..." (Q. 3:104). They are, according to al-Rghib al-As.bahn, a group of selected people with knowledge and good work who become examples for others.731 There are two different views concerning meaning of the particle min in this verse: (1) lil-tabd. (a partition min), namely, "some", so that the verse means that some of the Muslims should establish a group of ulam to teach people virtuous deeds, as this duty is fard. kifyah, a duty that should be carried out by a group of Muslims only, in this case, the ulam. This is the view of Ibn Qutaybah and al-Qurt.ub;732 (2) lil-tabyn (an explanatory min), so that the verse means "an ummah inviting unto all that is good might grow out
728. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 445 and al-Rghib al-As .bahn, al-Mufradt, p. 23. Here Ibn al-Jawz is quoting Ibn Qutaybah, see Nuzhah, p. 144. Al-Qurt .ub says that the ummah is the person who combines good things in himself (

), see al-Jmi, vol. 10, p. 197.

729. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 445; idem, Tafsr, p. 249; al-Zamakhshar, alKashshf, vol. 1, p. 755; al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 3, p. 391; and al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 114. 730 Ibn Kathr, Tafsr, vol. 2, p. 612. 731. See al-Rghib al-As .bahn, al-Mufradt, p. 23. 732. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 446; idem, Tafsr, p. 108; and al-Qurt .ub, alJmi, vol. 4, p. 165. Al-Dmaghn, Ibn al-Jawz, and Tifls mention neither this verse nor any other in which the word ummah means a group of ulam.

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of you". In other words, "be an ummah that invite unto all that is good".733 f. (the religion), as in "... Behold, we found our forefathers following one religion, and, verily, it is but in their footsteps that we follow!" (Q. 43:23).734 Ab Ubaydah interprets as ("following one religion and 735 uprightness"). Al-Farr and al-Zamakhshar give also the variant reading immah beside ummah. According to al-Farr, ummah is the reading of the qurr except Mujhid, as well as Umar ibn Abd alAzz who read immah.736 Al-Zamakhshar states that both ummah and immah come from the root amma ("to intend"). Ummah means "the intended way", while immah means "the condition of the person who has the intention". Al-Zamakhshar also gives us another interpretation of the term al ummah, namely, ("in good living and good condition").737 The expression fuln l ummata lahu means "So-and-so has no religion."738 As a shhid from poetry Ibn Qutaybah cites the poem of al-Nbighah in which ummah means religion, as follows: *
I have sworn so that I would not leave any doubt in your mind; will the person who has a religion verily commit a sin 739 while he [at the same time] is obeying [his religion]?

According to Ibn Fris, instead of ummah, it should be read immah to mean "a religion" in this poem, for ummah here means "a dominating tradition."740 A similar expression is wa hal yastaw dh ummah wa kafr, meaning "And are one who has religion and one who is an infidel equal?"741 Originally, ummah was said of a group of people belonging to one
733. Al-Zamakshshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 224; and al-T .abars, Majma alBayn, vol. 1, p. 483. 734. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 446; idem, Tafsr, p. 397; and Ibn Kathr, Tafsr, vol. 4, p. 136. 735 Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 2, 203 736 Al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 3, p. 30. 737 Al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 2, p. 1324. 738. Lane, Lexicon, pt. 1, p. 90. 739. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 446 and al-Rghib al-As .bahn, al-Mufradt, p. 23. 740 Ibn Fris, Maqys, vol. 1, p. 28. 741 Lane, Lexicon, pt. p. 90.

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religion, then later on was meant the religion itself, as in And verily, this religion of yours is one religion ... (Q. 23:52).742 This is also the interpretation of al-H.asan, Ibn Jurayj, Yah.y ibn Sallm and Ibn Kathr.743 We have seen that Ibn Qutaybah mentions five meanings of ummah. Ibn al-Jawz also mentions five, while Yah.y ibn Sallm, al-Dmaghn and Tifls mention nine, but they do not include "a group of ulam" as one of its wujh. 4. (covenant) Ibn Qutaybah mentions six meanings of ahd, as follows: a. (assurance of security, safety, peace, protection) as in "...observe, then, your security with them until the end of the term agreed with them..." (Q. 9:4).744 According to Tifls the meaning of ahd in this verse is amnah (loyalty),745 whereas according 746 to al-Suyt . it means mthq (agreement, covenant). b. (oath, promise) as in "and fulfil your oath with Allah when you make the oath," as the verse continues with "... and do not break [your] oaths after having [freely] confirmed them..." (Q. 16:91).747 c. (injunction, instruction, advice), as in "Did I not enjoin you, O you children of Adam, that you

742. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 446; al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 43; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 143; idem, Qurrah, p. 56; and al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 12, p. 129. 743. See Yah .y ibn Sallm, al-Tas .rf, p. 151; and al-T .abars, Majma alBayn, vol. 4. 109. See also Ibn Kathr, Tafsr, vol. 3, p. 257 and vol. 4, p. 136. 744. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 447; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 447; and Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 3, p. 312. 745. Tifls, Wujh, p. 209 746. Al-Suyt . Mutarak, vol. 2, p. 628. 747. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 447; al-Rghib al-As .bahn, al-Mufradt, p. 350; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 448; Tifls, Wujh, p. 209; and al-Dmaghn, Qms, pp. 336-337. Ibn Abbs says that the term ahd includes a promise; see al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 3, p. 382.

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should not worship Satan..." (Q. 36:60).748 d. (protection of honour), as in the h.adth "Verily, the protection of honour is a part of faith."749 e. (time) as in the expression ("That happened in the time of So-and-so").750 f. (agreement, covenant), as in "... He said: 'Behold, I shall make thee a leader of men.' Abraham asked: 'And [wilt Thou make leaders] of my offspring as well?' [Allah] answered: 'My covenant does not embrace the evildoers.'" (Q. 2:124). It means that wrong doers among his descendants will be excluded from Allah's covenant751 or, according to Mujhid and Ibn al-Jawz, will be excluded from the leadership and prophethood respectively.752 Ibn al-Jawz mentions seven meanings of the term ahd in his work Nuzhah, whereas Ibn Qutaybah, al-Dmaghn, and al-Tifls mentions six meanings in their respective works. Two meanings given by Ibn Qutaybah, namely, al-h.ifz. and al-zamn, both without any example from the Qurn, are not included by any of the writers mentioned above. 5. (pact, covenant; blood relationship, nearness with respect to kindred) Ibn Qutaybah mentions three meanings of ill, as follows: a. (ilh, Allah), as in "They respect
748. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 447; al-Rghib al-As .bahn, al-Mufradt, p. 350; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 447; Tifls, Wujh, p. 209; and al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 15, p. 47. Al-T .abars's interpretation of the said verse is as follows: "Have I not commanded you (

) through the tongues of prophets and messengers in the

revealed books not to worship Satan...?"; see Majma al-Bayn, vol. 4, 430. 749. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 337. No Qurnic verse was given as an example by Ibn Qutaybah. For the h .adth, see Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 3, p. 312. 750. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 447. Again, no Qurnic verse was given by Ibn Qutaybah as an example here. 751. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 448 and al-Tifls, Wujh, p. 209. 752. See al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 1, p. 201 and Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 448. For further details on the meanings of of ahd see Lane, Lexicon, pt. 1, pp. 2182-2183 (s.v. ).

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neither Allah nor protective obligation with regard to a believer..." (Q. 9:10). Instead of "tie" and "pact" as translated respectively by Asad and Pickthall, the term ill here means Allah, according to Ibn Qutaybah, based on Mujhid's interpretation. Ibn Qutaybah says that the word "ill" in "Jibrl" - which can be read "Jibra Ill" - means "Allah".753 Al-Rghib al-As.bahn, however, rejects the idea that ill or iyl is the name of Allah.754 Lane mentions "lordship" (rubbyah) as one of the meanings of the term ill.755 According to Ibn Abbs the term ill in the above verse is qarbah (kinship, relationship) in the language of the Quraysh.756 Speaking of the term jabr as being among the ad.dd, al-Anbr says that the term means a king (malik) as well as a servant (abd), and the word "Jabrail" means "Abd Allh" (the servant of Allah); jabr means "servant", and il or ill means al-rubbiyyah (the lordship). He says that "Jibra Ill" is the reading of Ibn Yamar. On the other hand, the term ill in the verse in question means Allah according to "some commentators". When the Muslims who were fighting Musaylimah read to Ab Bakr some verses of what Musaylimah claimed to be a revealed book, Ab Bakr said, "Verily, this is not a word which comes from God (Allah)" ( ).757 In other versions Ab Bakr said: "It is indeed a statement which does not come from lordship (God)" ( ),758 and "This would not have come from Allah" ( ).759 According to Ibn Jinn the word Allh in the Nabatean language is ill.760 b. (kinship, relationship), as in the poem of H.assn ibn Thbit, as follows: * "By thy life! Verily,

753. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 449; Sufyn al-Thawr, Tafsr al-Qurn alKarm, ed. and annot. Imtiyz Al Arsh, 1st ed. (Rampur: Hindustan Printing Works, 1385/1965), p. 81; and Ibn Fris, Maqys, vol. 1, p. 21. 754. See al-Rghib al-As .bahn, al-Mufradt, p. 20.
755 756

Lane, Lexicon, pt. 1, p. 75. Ibn Abbs, Gharb al-Qurn, p. 47. 757 Ibn al-Anbr, al-Ad .dd, pp. 394-395. 758 Ibn Qutaybah, Gharb al-H .adth, vol. 2, p. 532 759 Ibn Fris, Maqys, vol. 1, p. 21. 760 Al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 109.

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thy kinship with the Quraysh tribe is like the kinship of the young camel with the young of the ostrich." This meaning of the term ill is a good one (wajh h.asan) for that term in the above verse.761 Ibn al-Anbr also mentions the other meanings of ill in the above verse, namely, kinship (qarbah), and treaty (h.ilf), whereas dhimmah in the above verse means covenant (ahd).762 c. (covenant, treaty, pact), as in the above verse which is the view of Ab Ubaydah.763 Both Ibn Qutaybah and Ibn al-Anbr mention the three meanings of the term ill in the Qurn in their respective works; the former in his dealing with the term ill itself, while the latter when dealing with the term jabr as having two opposite meanings. However, the latter gives us more details of it. Al-Zamakhshar also dealt with the term. However, al-Dmaghn, Ibn al-Jawz, al-Tifls and al-Qurtub did not include this term in their works.764 6. (obedience) The basic meaning of qunt is "obedience", then the meaning developed into "standing in prayer". The most common meaning of qunt in Arabic language is the du (supplication) to Allah while standing. However, the term is also applicable to any other act of obedience, even the nyah (intention) of doing it.765 This is also the view of Ibn Qutaybah who confirms that the basic meaning of qunt is "obedience to Allah"; other meanings, such as "prayer", "standing in prayer", and "supplication" are derived from it.766 According to al-Tabars, the term also means "the continuance of doing a particluar thing" ( ).767 Ibn Qutaybah mentions five meanings of qunt, as follows:
761. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 449 and Ibn Fris, Maqys, vol. 1, p. 21. 762 Ibn al-Anbr, al-Ad .dd, p. 395. 763. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 450; Ab Ubaydah, Majz, vol. 1, p. 253; and Ibn al-Anbr, al-Ad .dd, p. 395. Al-Rghib al-As .bahn mentions "pact" as well as "kinship" as the meaning of ill in the above Qurnic verse; see al-Mufradt, p. 20. 764. See al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 530. 765. See Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 2, pp. 73-74 766. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 452; idem, Gharb al-H .adth, vol. 1, p. 171; and Ibn Fris, Maqys, vol. 5, p. 31. 767. See al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 1, p. 342.

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a.

(standing). The prayer is called qunt because it is performed while standing. When the Prophet was asked: "What is the most excellent characteristic of the act of prayer?", he answered: "the long continuance of the standing (in prayer)".768 The example from the Qurn is "Or [dost thou deem thyself equal to] one who stands [in prayer] throughout the night, prostrating himself or standing, ever-mindful of the life to come, and hoping for his Sustainer's grace?" (Q. 39:9).769 According to some commentators, this verse also indicates that the qunt means not only standing in the prayer, but also the khush (submissiveness) in it.770 Ibn Qutaybah also cites a h.adth stating that the similarity of the mujhid (the person who strives in the path of Allah) is like a person who performs prayer while fasting (

).771 The h.adth was reported by Muslim and Ah.mad on the authority of Ab Hurayrah. b. (supplication), since it is cited while one is standing in prayer before or after bowing (ruku). No example from the Qurn is given. c. (restraint from talking while standing in prayer), except from reciting the verses of the Qurn. Zayd ibn Arqam was reported to have said: "We used to talk while we were [standing] in prayer until it was revealed ... and stand before Allah [in prayer] restraining from talking'." (Q. 2:238).772 This is also the view of
768. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 451; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 484; Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 2, p. 73; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 7, p. 2566. According to al-Rghib alAs .bahn the term qunt in this h .adth means "keeping oneself busy with worship and avoiding any other activity" ( ), see al-Mufradt, p. 413. The h .adth was reported by Muslim, al-Nas, Ibn Mjah, al-Tirmidh and Ah .mad on the authority of Jbir ibn Abd Allh; see Wensinck, al-Mujam, vol. 5, p. 473 (s.v. ); it was also reported by al-Bayhaq, see al-Sunan al-Kubr, vol. 3, p. 8. 769. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 451; idem, Tafsr, p. 382; and al-Tifls, Wujh, p. 241. 770. Ibn Kathr, Tafsr, vol. 4, p. 51. 771. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 451. 772. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 452; Ab al-H .usayn Sad Hibat Allh alRwand, Fiqh al-Qurn, ed. al-Sayyid Ah .mad al-H .usayn, 2 vols. (Qumm: al-

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Mujhid when he says that qnitn in this verse means being at a standstill and refraining hands and sight from wandering.773 However, it is also possible that qnitn in this verse means "obeying"; this is also the 774 view of al-Dmaghn, Ibn al-Jawz and al-Suyt .. d. (the affirmation of one's serfdom), as in "For, unto Him belongs every being that is in the heavens and on earth; all things affirm their serfdom to Him." (Q. 30:26).775 e. (obedience), as in "... And the obedient men and the obedient women..." (Q. 33:35, Lane).776 Al-T .abars mentions two meanings of and in the said verse, i.e., "the men who keep on doing good deeds", and "the women who keep on doing good deeds," and "the men who supplicate" and "the women who supplicate."777 These five meanings of qunt are also mentioned by alSuyt..778 7. a. (recompense) Ibn Qutaybah mentions four meanings of dn, as follows: (recompense), as in "Lord of the Day of

Mat .baah al-Ilmiyyah, 1397 A.H.), vol. 1, p. 100; Tifls, Wujh, p. 241; and Ibn Fris, Maqys, vol. 5, p. 31; Lane translated the above verse as follows: "And stand ye unto God, in the divinely-appointed act of prayer, refraining from talking"; see Lexicon, pt. 7, p. 2566. 773 Al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 163. 774 Al- Dmaghn, Qms, p. 391; Ibn al-Jawz , Nuzhah, p. 483; and alSuyt ., Asbb al-Nuzl (Cairo: Dr al-Tah .rr lil-T .ab wa l-Nashr, 1382 A.H.), p. 33. 775. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 452; idem, Tafsr, p. 340; Yah .y ibn Sallm, alTas .rf, p. 147; al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 391; and al-Tifls, Wujh, p. 241. According to Ibn Abbs and Ab Ubaydah the term in the said verse means (obedient); see al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 4, p. 302; and Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 121. 776. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 452; Yah .y ibn Sall m, al-Tas .rf, p. 147. Ibn alJawz, Nuzhah, p. 484; Tifls, Wujh, p. 242; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 7, p. 2566. 777. Al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 4, p. 358. 778. Al-Suyt . Mutarak, vol. 3, p. 173.

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Recompense [and of Punishment (al-qas.as.)]. (Q. 1:4)779 The Arabs say meaning "you will be rewarded (compensated) according to your deed" or "people will do to you as you do to them".780 b. (supreme authority and power), as the Arabs say "I conquered the people, I subdue them, so they submitted." Therefore, the verse and , respectively means "and the supreme authority belongs to Allah" (Q. 2:193), and "the whole supreme authority belongs to Allah" (Q. 8 39).781 Ibn Kathr and al-Zamakhshar, however, mention "the religion of Islam" as the meaning of dn in the above verse, whereas al-T .abars gives "obedience".782 c. (obedience), as in "... and [they] do not follow the religion of truth" (Q. 9:29) which means, according to Ibn Qutaybah, Ab Ubaydah, Tifls and Ibn al-Jawz, "[they] do not obey [Allah] with true obedience" ( [ ] ) 783 d. (reckoning), as in "... that is the right reckoning." (Q. 9:36) 784 It means that the four sacred months Muh.arram, Rajab, Dh l-Qadah and Dh l-H.ijjah during which

779. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 453; Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 23; al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 9; al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 1, p. 24; Tifls, Wujh, p. 101; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 298; and idem, Qurrah, p. 115 780. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 453; and Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 13, p. 169 (s.v. ). 781. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 453. 782. Ibn Kathr, Tafsr, vol. 1, p. 234; al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 513 and al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 1, p. 286. 783. See Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp. 453-454; Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 255; Tifls, Wujh, p. 101; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 298; and idem, Qurrah, p. 116. Al-Zamakhshsar, however, mentions "the religion of Islam which is the truth" as the meaning of dn al-h .aqq in the above verse, see al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 537. 784. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 454 and Tifls, Wujh, p. 101. According to Ibn al-Jawz, dn here means "number" (adad); see Nuzhah, p. 298; and idem, Qurrah, p. 115. Both Ibn al-Jawz and al-Dmaghn mention al-h .isb as one of the meanings of the dn, with different examples; the former with Q. 24:25, and the latter with Q. 83:11; see Nuzhah, p. 297; idem, Qurrah, p. 115; and Qms, p. 178.

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warfare was prohibited in pre-Islamic Arabia - in one year is the right reckoning. However, al-Zamakhshar's interpretation of the term dn is "religion", so the above verse means that the sacredness of the four months is the upright religion, the religion of Abraham and Ishmael.785 With regard to the term dna in the following h .adth, Lane mentions three various interpretations, as follows: "The intelligent is he who (1) abases, and enslaves himself, (2) who reckons himself, or (3) who overcomes himself, and works for that which shall be after death."786 Ibn Qutaybah mentions four meanings of dn, whereas al-Dmaghn as well as al-Suyt., Tifls and Ibn al-Jawz mention five, six and ten respectively. With the exception of Ibn Qutaybah, they mention the term dn in the Qurn which means "religion" - (millah) according to alDmaghn and Ibn al-Jawz, dn al-islm biaynih (the religion of Islam itself) according to al-Tifls - among which is as follows: "... and to establish worship and to pay the poor-due. That is the true religion." (Q. 98:5). 787 Ibn Qutaybah does not deal with dn which means religion here probably because it is easy to identify, such as in the verse "Lo! religion with Allah (is) Islam" (Q. 3: 19). 8. (master, client, kinsfolk) Ibn Qutaybah mentions six meanings of mawl as follows: a. (al-mutiq, manumitter of slaves). No example is given by Ibn Qutaybah. b. (al-mutaq, client, freed slave). No example is given by Ibn Qutaybah, but Tifls and al-Dmaghn give us the following example: ....And if you know not who their fathers were, [call them] your brethren in faith and your
785. See al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 541. 786 See Lane, Lexicon, pt. 3, p. 943. 787. Beside millah, al-Dmaghn mentions also as another meaning of dn; Qms, pp. 178-179; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 298; idem, Qurrah, p. 116; Tifls, Wujh, p. 102; al-Suyt ., Mutarak, vol. 2, p. 102; al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 1625; and al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, p. 523. Al-Qurt .ub mentions t .ah and millah as the meaning of dn on the said verse, see al-Jmi, vol. 4, p. 43.

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clients." (Q. 33:5).788 c. ( man's paternal relative, kinsman), as in "Now, behold, I am afraid of [what] my kinsfolk [will do] after I am gone,..." (Q.19:5, Asad).789 Ab Ubaydah and Ibn al-Anbr interpret mawl in this verse as "paternal cousins" ( ), whereas alTifls inteprets it as "inheritors" ( d. ).790 (guardian, patron, protector), whether a relative or not.The example of the relative mawl is the Prophet's following statement: Any woman who marries without the consent of her guardian her marriage is void." 791 The example of the non-relative mawl is as follows This, because God is the Protector of all who have attained to faith, whereas they who deny the truth have no protector." (Q. 47:11, Asad).792 According to al-Dmaghn and al-Dmaghn the term mawl in this verse means rabb (Master, Lord).793 The example of the mawl who is
788. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 455; Tifls, Wujh, p. 278; and al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 498. Ab Ubaydah's and al-Tabarsi's interpretation of mawlkum in the said verse is "your paternal cousins" and "associate (allies)"; Majz al-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 134; and Majma al-Bayn, vol. 4, p. 337. 789. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 455; al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 498; and Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 15, p. 408. This is the meaning of mawl in this verse in the language of the Quraysh, according to Ibn Abbs, see Gharb al-Qurn, p. 43; and Ab Ubayd al-Qsim ibn Sallm, Lught al-Qabil al-Wridah f l-Qurn alKarm: Riwyah an al-S .ah .b l-Jall Ibn Abbs Rad .iya llh anh. Edited, commented, and annotated by Dr. Abd al-H .amd al-Sayyid T .alab (Kuwayt: Mat .bt Jmiat al-Kuwayt, 1985), p. 82. 790. Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 1; Ibn al-Anbr, al-Ad .dd, p. 47; and al-Tifls, Wujh, p. 278. 791. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 455; and Ibn al-Anbr, al-Ad .dd, p. 46. The h .adth was reported by al-Drim and Ab Dd, al-Tirmidh, Ibn Mjah and Ah .mad ibn H ); it was also reported by .anbal; see Wensinck, al-Mujam, vol. 1, p. 190 (s.v. al-Bayhaq, see al-Sunan al-Kubr, vol. 7, p. 138. 792. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 455; Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 215; al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 2, p. 1365; and al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, p. 100. 793 Al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 497; and al-Dmaghn, Wujh, p. 278.

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either a relative or not, is as follows: "The Day when no guardian shall be of the least avail to his friend,..." (Q. 44:41), namely, according to Ibn Qutaybah's interpretation, the day when the help of a guardian, whether he is a relative or not, is of no avail.794 e. (ally), as in the poem of al-Nbighah al-Jad when he said: "(They are) mawl of alliance, not of kinship," namely, they are allies and not kinsfolk or, according to Ibn Manz .r, paternal cousins.795 f. (have a higher claim, more entitled to), as in "The Prophet has a higher claim on the believers than [they have on] their own selves,..." (Q. 33:6, Asad). It means that the Prophet is more entitled to be obeyed by the believers than they are by their own selves.796 According to al-Farr, the above verse was revealed to disprove the practice of Muslims in making brotherhood among themselves, so that they can inherit from each other, like natural brothers, instead of giving the inheritance to their relatives and families. Therefore, it was revealed that the Prophet is closer to them than themselves, and yet, they cannot inherit from him, let alone inherit from their adopted brothers.797 In another report it is said that when the Prophet ordered people to join him in the campaign of Tabk, a group of people said that they would first ask their parents' permission; then the above verse was revealed.798 The term mawl, as we have seen, belongs to the category of ad.dd. It means "the person who frees a slave" as well as "the freed slave". It has many other meanings in the Qurn. Ibn Qutaybah and Tifls mention six meanings of mawl, while Ibn al-Anbr and alSuyt. mentions nine and eight meanings respectively. Al-Dmaghn, in
794. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 455; al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 2, p. 1343; and al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, p. 67. However, according to al-Dmaghn and al-Tifls, mawl in this verse means "a relative among the disbelievers", see Qms, p. 497, and Wujh, p. 278. 795. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 456; Ibn al-Anbr, al-Ad .dd, p. 49; and Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 15, p. 409. 796. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp. 455-456. 797 Al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 335. 798 Al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 4, p. 338.

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dealing with the term wal gives us five meanings of each wal and mawl, while Ibn al-Jawz does not mention this term in his works Nuzhah and Qurrah .799 9. (straying) The basic meaning of d.all is "straying" which is the opposite of "guidance".800 Ibn Qutaybah cites three meanings of d.all, as follows: a. (confusion and abandoning the truth or losing or straying from the right way),801 as in "And found thee lost on thy way, and guided thee?" (Q. 93:7, Asad).802 Ibn al-Jawz mentions two different meanings of the term d.all in the above verse: "forgetting", which is the view of Thalab, and "straying", upon which five interpretations are given: (a) the Prophet's straying from the characteristics of prophethood ), which is the view of al-H.asan and al-D.ah.h.k; (b) his straying at the mountain paths of Makkah when he was a small boy, and Allah brought him back to his grand-father Abd al-Mut .t.alib, which is the view of Ibn Abbs; (c) his straying when the the halter (nose rope) of his camel which was carrying Khadjah's goods to Syria was taken one day by Iblis and led astray, then Jibrl came to rescue and led it back to the caravan, which is the view of Sad ibn al-Musayyab; (d) his being among straying people, and Allah guided him, which is the view of Ibn al-Sib, al-Farr, and al-Kis; and (e) his being undistinguished and unknown, and Allah guided people to him, so that they knew him well, and this is the view of Abd 803 al-Azz ibn Yah.y and Muh .ammad ibn Al al-Tirmidh. b. (forgetfulness), as in "And if two men are not
799. For further details of the term mawl, see al-Tifls, Wujh, p. 278; alDmaghn, Qms, pp. 496-498; Ibn al-Anbr, al-Ad .dd, pp. 46-50; and al-Suyt ., Mutarak, vol. 2, p. 265. 800 Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 11, p. 390. 801. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 457; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 409 and idem, Qurrah, p. 164. 802. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 457 and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 5, p. 1796. 803 Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 409; and idem, Qurrah, pp. 196-197. See also alZamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 2, p. 1616; and al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, p. 506.

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available, then a man and two women from among such as are acceptable to you as witnesses, so that if one of them should forget, the other could remind her." (Q. 2:282). This interpretation is according to that of Ibn Qutaybah, Yah.y ibn Sallm, Ab Ubaydah and al-Farr.804 c. (annihilation and voidness), as in "And they say: 'What! After we have been annihilated and become united with the earth, shall we indeed be [restored to life] in a new act of creation?'" (Q. 32:10).805 Similar interpretations are also given by Ab Ubaydah, al-Farr, Ibn Kathr, al-Zamakhshar and al806 T .abars. As we have seen Ibn Qutaybah mentions three meanings only of d.all. Tifls, al-Dmaghn and Ibn al-Jawz mention respectively seven, eight and ten meanings, among which are jahl (ignorance) and khusrn (loss).807 10. a. (leader) Four meanings of imm are cited by Ibn Qutaybah, as follows: (the person whose example you follow), which is the basic meaning of imm, as in "He said: 'Behold, I shall make thee a leader of men.'" (Q. 2:124, Asad).808
804. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 457; Yah .y ibn Sallm, al-Tas .rf, p. 347; Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 82; al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 184; al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 182; al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 1, p. 398; Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 11, p. 393; al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 293; al-Tifls, Wujh, p. 183; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 409; and idem, Qurrah, p. 166. See also Ibn Kathr, Tafsr, vol. 1, p. 343; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 5, p. 1797. 805. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 45; and Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 408. Ibn al-Jawz mentions also Q. 18:104 as an example, while al-Dmaghn mentions Q. 47:1 and 8, and Q. 18:104; see Qurrah, p. 166; and Qms, p. 293. 806. See Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 131; al-Farr, Man lQurn, vol. 2, p. 331; Ibn Kathr, Tafsr, vol. 3, p. 466; al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 2, p. 1112; and al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 4, p. 328; see also Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 11, p. 392. 807. The example of d .all meaning jahl but nisyn according to Ibn Qutaybah is Q. 26:20. The example of d .all meaning khusrn is Q. 36:24 and 40:25; see Tifls, Wujh, pp. 181-182; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, pp. 407-409; idem, Qurrah, pp. 165-166; and al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 292. 808. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 459; al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 102; and al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 1, p. 201. See also Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 126,

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b.

(the book recording the deeds of mankind in this world), as in

"On the day We shall summon all men with their record [namely, the book containing the records of their deeds], ..." (Q. 17:71, Pickthall).809 Al-T .abars mentions five interpretations of the term imm in the said verse: (1) of Ibn Abbs according to one report, al-H.asan and Ab al-liyah, as mentioned above; (2) of Ibn Zayd and al-D.ah.h.k, the revealed book, i.e., it will be called "O people of the Qurn, O people of the Torah..." (3) of Mujhid and Qatdah, the prophet of people, i.e., it will be proclaimed "Bring forth the followers of Abraham, the followers of Moses, and of Muh.ammad;" they will come forward and will take their books in their right hands; then it will be summoned: "Bring forward the followers of Satan and misguiding leaders"; this is another interpretation of Ibn Abbs as reported by Sad ibn Jubayr; (4) of al-Jubb and Ab Ubaydah, the ulam and leaders followed by people;810 and (5) of Muh.ammad ibn Kab, who mistook imm for ummaht ("mothers") as plural for umm ("a mother").811 c. (The Preserved Tablet), as in "... for all things do We take account in a clear Preserved Tablet." (Q. 36:12).812 d. (the way), as in "... and behold, both these [sinful communities] are on a clear way" (Q. 15:79) which is the interpretation of Yah.y ibn Sallm, Ibn Abbs, Mujhid, al-H.asan, Qatdah, al-Farr, Ibn Qutaybah and al-Zamakhshar.813 However, the
and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 1, p. 91. 809. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 459 and Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 126. According to Ibn Kathr this is the view of Ab al-liyah, al-H .asan and al-D .ah .h .k, see Tafsr, vol. 3, p. 574. 810. Ab Ubaydah, however, also mentions another interpretation, namely "the book", as mentioned earlier; see Majz al-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 386. Lane also mentions the four interpretations above; see Lane, Lexicon, pt. 1, p. 91. 811. See Majma al-Bayn, vol. 3, p. 430; see also al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 778. 812. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 459; Yah .y ibn Sallm, al-Tas .rf, p. 148; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 1, p. 91. Al-Zamakhshar and al-T .abars simply interpret imm as lawh . (tablet), whereas Ab Ubaydah interprets it as kitb (a book); see al-Kashshf, vol. 2, p. 1184; Majma al-Bayn, vol. 4, p. 418; and Majz al-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 158. 813. See Yah .y ibn Sallm, al-Tas .rf, p. 149; al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn,

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term imm in this verse also means kitb (record) in the Quraysh language according to Ibn Abbs.814 Ab Ubaydah's interpretation of the term imm in this verse is that it is anything we follow and through which we are guided.815 11. a. (prayer) Ibn Qutaybah mentions three meanings for s.alh, as follows: (supplication, prayer) as in "..., and pray for them: behold, thy prayer will be [a source of] comfort to them...." (Q. 9:103, Asad).816 b. (blessing and forgiveness), as in "Verily, Allah and His angels bless and forgive the Prophet [namely, the angels ask Allah blessings and forgiveness on him] ..." (Q. 818 33:56).817 Instead of al-maghfirah, al-Suyt . mentions al-istighfr. . Both al-Dmaghn and Ibn al-Jawz mention the meaning of s.alh as al-maghfirah wa l-istighfr, namely, forgiveness from Allah, and asking forgiveness from His angels and men. 819 Al-Zamakhshar
vol. 3, p. 343; al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 91; Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 459; Ibn Kathr, Tafsr vol. 2, p. 576; and al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 724. See also al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 45; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 126 and idem, Qurrah, p. 50. 814 Ibn Abbs, Gharb al-Qurn, p. 52; and Ab Ubayd ibn Sallm, Lught alQabil, p. 158, n.1. 815 Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 354. For more details on the meanings of imm, see Ibn Manz .r, vol. 12, pp. 24-26; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 1, p. 91. 816. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 460; idem, Tafsr, p. 192; idem, Mukhtalif alH .adth, p. 237; idem, Gharb al-H .adth, vol. 1, p, 167; Ab Ubaydah, Majz alQurn, vol. 1, p. 268; Al-T .abar, Jmi, vol. 1, p. 80; al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 562; al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 3, p. 67; Tifls, Wujh, p. 173; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 395; idem, Qurrah, pp. 160-161; al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 125; Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 14, pp. 464-465; and al-Rghib al-As .bahn, alMufradt, p. 285. According to Yah .y ibn Sallm, the meaning of verse is (asking forgiveness), see al-Tas .rf, p. . in the above

817. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 460; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 4, pp. 1720-1721. 818 Al- Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, 125 819 Al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 28; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, pp. 394-395; and idem, Qurrah, p. 161.

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mentions al-rah .mah wa l-rafah (mercy) as the meaning of al-s.alh in the above verse.820 According to Tifls, the expression means ("they greet him").821 S.alh from Allah is His mercy to the Prophet, whereas from the angels is du and istighfr for him.822 c. (religion), as in ( : ) "Said they: O Shuayb! Does thy religion compel thee to demand of us that we give up all that our forefathers were wont to worship,...?" (Q. 11:87).823 This is the interpretation of al-H.asan, At. and Ab Muslim. However, s.alh in the said verse can also mean the established prayer itself, and this is the view of Ibn Abbs.824 Prophet Shuayb was said to perform prayers very often. While praying, his people winked at each other and laughed. They asked him sarcastically whether his prayers were the motive for asking them to abandon their idols which had been worshipped by their ancestors.825 Ibn Qutaybah does not give us the other meanings of s.alh, such as the five daily prayers (Q. 2:3), the congregational Friday prayer (Q. 62:9), the reading in the prayer (Q. 17:110), and the funeral prayer (Q. 9:84), probably because they are easily identified in their respective verses. 12. (writing, the act of writing)
According to Ibn al-Jawz, the basic meaning of kitb is jam (collecting), since the writer (al-ktib) collects letters when he writes.826 Ibn Qutaybah mentions us

five meanings of kitb as follows:

Al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 2, p. 1635. Tifls, Wujh, p. 173. 822 Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 14, p. 465. For further details, see Lane, Lexicon, pt. 4, pp. 1720-1721. If s .alh here means istighfr, in other verses of the Qurn, the term istighfr means s .alh (prayer), as in Q. 3:17, 8:33, and 51:18, see Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 90; and idem, Qurrah, p. 30; see also al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 341. 823. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 461; idem, Tafsr, p. 208; Tifls, Wujh, p. 173; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 395; idem, Qurrah, p. 161; and al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 125. Ibn Qutaybah mentions also the other meaning of s .alh in the above verse, namely, "reading" which is the view of al-Amash; see Tawl, p. 461; al-T .abar, Jmi, vol. 12, p. 62; and al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 9, p. 87. 824. See al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 3, p. 188.
820 821

825. Al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 626. 826 Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 525 and idem, Qurrah, p. 205.

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a.

(what was written by Allah in the Preserved Tablet). This is, according to Ibn Qutaybah, the basic meaning of the term kitb, but no example is given.827 The example of the term kitb meaning al-Lawh . al-Mah .fz. mentioned by Tifls is as follows:

The Prophet is clolser to the Believers than in their own selves, and his wives are their mothers. Blood relations among each other have closer personal tie , in the Decree of God [i.e., al-Lawh . al-Mah .fz .], than (the brotherhood of) Believers and Muhajirs: nevertheless you do what is just to your closest friends: such is the writing in the decree (of God) [i.e., al-Lawh . al-Mah .fz .]. (A. 33:6, Ali)

Al-Dmaghn mentions other verses, namely,

No misfortune can happen on earth in your souls but is recorded in a decree [i.e., al-Lawh . al-Mah .fz .] before We bring it into ixistence: that is truly easy for God. (Q. 57:22, Ali)

We already know how much of therm the erth takes away; Wit Us a Recording guarding (the full account) [i.e., al-Lawh . al-Mah .fz .]. (Q. 50:4)828

b.

(divine decree), as in "Allah has divinely decreed: I verily shall prevail, I and My messengers!..." (Q. 58:21).829 Beside qad. al-T .abars also mentions the other meaning of

827. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 462. Tifls, Wujh, p. 247; and al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 400. 829. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 462; Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 2, p.255; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, pp. 514-515; and idem, Qurrah, p. 206.
828

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kitb, namely "what was written by Allah in the Preserved Tablet".830 AlZamakhshar gives the last meaning only.831 c. (divine prescript) as in "O you who believe! Retribution is prescribed for you in cases of killing..."(Q. 2:178).832Al-T .abars also mentions the second interpretation, namely, "it has been prescribed in the Preserved Tablet as an injuction for you".833 d. (make), as in "[As for the true believers], it is they in whose hearts He has made faith ..." (Q. 58:22).834 Both al-Zamakhshar and al-T .abars mention athbata and thabbata, both meaning "to affirm" for the meaning of kataba in the above verse.835 e. (command), as in "O my people! Enter the holy land which Allah has ordained for you..." (Q. 5:21). This is the interpretation of Ibn Abbs, Ab Ubaydah and Ibn Kathr.836 Instead of "hath ordained for you" or "has promised you" as translated by Pickthall and Asad respectively, Ibn Qutaybah says that kataballhu lakum means "Allah has ordered you to enter" which is the interpretation of Qatdah and al-Sudd.838 Ibn Qutaybah also gives another meaning of kataba in this verse, namely, "make" so that the verse means "enter the land which has been made for the descendants of Abraham"
830. Al- T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 2, p. 255. 831. Al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 2, p. 1462. 832. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 462; Tifls, Wujh, p. 247; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 515; idem, Qurrah, p. 206; and Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 1, p. 699. . 833. Al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 1, p. 265. 834. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 462; Ibn Kathr, Tafsr, vol. 4, p. 352; Ibn alJawz, Nuzhah, p. 514; idem, Qurrah, p. 206; and Tifls, Wujh, p. 248. Other examples given by Ibn Qutaybah are Q. 3:53 and Q. 7:156 835.Al-Zamakhshar, al- Kashshf, vol. 2, p. 1462 and al-T .abars, Majma alBayn, vol. 5, p. 255. 836. See al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 2, p. 178; Ab Ubaydah, Majz alQurn, vol. 160; and Ibn Kathr, Tafsr, vol. 2, p. 38. 837. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 463; see also Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 514; idem, Qurrah, p. 206; and Tifls, Wujh, p. 248. 838. See al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 2, p. 178.
837

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.839 This interpretation is similar to that of Ibn Abbs above. The third interpretation, however, says that the term kataba in this verse means "it has been ordained in the Preserved Tablet that it is for you .840 However, according to al-Rghib alAs.bann, the holy land was given to them on the condition that they entered therein.841 Ibn Qutaybah and Tifls mention five, while Yah.y ibn Sallm gives four meanings of the term kitb. Ibn al-Jawz cites eleven meanings, whereas al-Dmaghn lists ten meanings of this term. This great number is the result of their including the term kitb to mean "what is written", so that it includes the Qurn, as well as the Torah and the Bible. 13. a. (reason, motive, means) and (rope) Sabab, as mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah, has four meanings as follows: (rope) which is its basic meaning.842

b.The connection or motive by which one achieves or reaches something, as in ("So-and-so is the motive for my coming to you") meaning "So-and-so has brought me to you , and the expression ("There is no relationship between you and me, neither blood relationship nor spiritual one"). In other words, "there is nothing that can bring us together" (namely, "we have nothing to do with each other"). Originally, sabab signifies "a dry rope let down (or made to descend) from above", "a rope of which one end is attached to a roof or a ceiling or the like", or "a strong and long rope by means of which one ascends (such as palm trees) or descends (such as the access to water)".843 From this meaning, another meaning appears, as follows: c. (way, means), because by following it one will reach one's goal, as in "And so he chose the right means [in whatever he did]." (Q. 18:85, Asad).844
839. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawil, p. 463. 840. See al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 2, p. 178. 841. See al-Rghib al-As .bahn, al-Mufradt, p. 424. 842. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 464; and Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 1, p. 458. 843. See Lane, Lexicon, pt. 4, p. 1825. 844. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 464; al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 3, p. 490;

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d. as in

(the door, the gate), because through it one reaches a certain place, "And Pharaoh said: O Haman! Build me a lofty tower that I may reach the doors, the doors of the heavens, and that [thus] I may have a look at the God of Moses: for, behold, I am indeed certain that he is a liar." (Q. 40:36-37).845 However, Al-T .abars, cites three interpretations of the term asbb in the said verse: "the roads from one heaven to another" according to alSudd, "the doors of the roads of heavens" according to Qatdah, an AlT , .abars, and "the stopping places in the heavens" according to Ibn Abbs.846 Lane gives usthe meanings of asbb here as "the places of ascent", "the tracks", "the regions" and "the gates" of heavens.847 As a shhid Ibn Qutaybah cites the poem of Zuhayr as follows: *
Whoever fears the door of fate of death he will get it, even if he should get to the doors of heaven with a ladder.

It means that whoever fears death will meet it soon.848 Ibn Qutaybah, having in his mind of the basic meaning of h.abl as "a
al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 813; and Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 413. Al-Dmaghn suggests "the stopping places of the roads" , whereas Tifls states that it is "the roads and the stopping places of the land" (

) for the meaning of sabab in the above verse; see Qms, p. 225, and
Wujh, p. 126. 845. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 464; al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 225; Tifls, Wujh, p. 126; al-Suyt ., Mutarak, vol. 3, p. 247 ("places of ascent and roads" rather than "doors" in p. 113); "their roads and doors", according to al-Zamakhshar, see alKashshf, vol. 2, p. 1280; "their places of ascent" (marqh) or "their regions" , see Ibn Manz.r, Lisn, vol. 1, p. 458. Al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 4, p. 524. 847 Lane, Lexicon, pt. 4, p. 1285. 848. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 464; instead of wa law nla it is written wa in yurq in Zuhayr's Dwn, see Zuhayr ibn Ab Sulm, Dwn (Beirut: Dr Bayrt lilT .ibah wa l-Nashr, 1406/1986), p. 87. For the meanings of sabab see al-Suyt ., Mutarak, vol. 3, p. 257.
846

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means to reach an end", mentions two meanings of it, as follows: a. (Allah's covenant and His Book), as in "And hold fast, all of you together, unto Allah's covenant and His Book [namely, the Qurn which is the link for the Muslims to reach Him and Paradise], and do not draw apart from one another...." (Q. 3:103).849 However, al-Zamakhshar mentions "the covenant" only,850 whereas according to Ibn Masd the term h .abl Allh in the verse means "the 851 Qurn" which is also the view of Mujhid and Qatdah;852 it is said that it is also the view of al-Sudd, while according to Ibn Abbs and Ab Zayd it means "the religion of Allah", namely, Islam.853 b. peace, security, safety, protection), as in ("Overshadowed by ignominy are they wherever they may be, save [when they bind themselves again] with protection from Allah and peace from men." (Q. 3:112).854 As a shhid from poetry, Ibn Qutaybah cites the poem of al-Ash as follows: *
And when the (assurance of) safety from a tribe permits them [namely, the camels or the caravan] to pass [the territory belonging to that tribe], they also took permission from other tribes [and brought it] to you [to pass their territories safely].855

In the past, the caravan's route may have crossed the territories of several
849. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 464 and Tifls, Wujh, p. 67. 850. Al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 223. 851. Al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 116. 852. Al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 4, p. 159. 853. Al- T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 1, p. 482. 854. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp. 464-465; and Tifls, Wujh, p. 67. H .abl min Allh according to al-Dmaghn means "the religion of Islam", see Qms, p. 116. According Ibn Abbs, Mujhid, al-H .asan, Qatdah and Ab Ubaydah h .abl in this verse means ahd (covenant); see al-S .bn, Mukhtas .ar, vol. 1, p. 311; al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 1, p. 488; and Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 101. According to al-Zamakhshar the term h .abl in the said verse means dhimmah (covenant of protection); see al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 227. 855. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 465; al-Ash, Dwn, p. 151; Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 101; Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 11, p. 135; and al-Qurt .ub, alJmi, vol. 4, p. 158.

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tribes. It was necessary for them to obtain from each an assurance of safe conduct which often involved payment of money.856 14. a. (wrongdoing) Ibn Qutaybah mentions four meanings for z.ulm as follows: (Putting something not in its proper place), namely, wrong doing. This is the basic meaning of z.ulm. The Arabic expression (lit., "a wronged piece of land") means "a piece of land dug in

the wrong place", and the expression means "keep on the track, and do not deviate from it".857 No example from the Qurn is given here by Ibn Qutaybah, either in his work Tawl or in his work Tafsr.858 b. (polytheism, idolatory), as in "Those who believe and who have not obscured their belief by polytheism, theirs is safety; and they are rightly guided." (Q. 6:82).859 This is the interpretation of Ibn Abbs, Sad ibn alMusayyab, Qatdah, Mujhid and the majority of commentators. When the above verse was revealed the Prophet's companions felt uneasy and asked the Prophet: "Which of us has never obscured his belief by wrongdoing?" The Prophet said: "It is not what you think it means. Have you ever heard of what the pious servant (meaning Luqman) said: ) 'O my dear son! Do not ascribe partners unto Allah. For, behold, to ascribe partners (unto Him) is a tremendous wrong doing.'" (Q. 31:13).860 Al-Zamakhshar, however, insists on interpreting z.ulm in this verse as
856. See al-Murs .if, Raghbat al-mil ([Cairo]: al-Nahd .ah, 1348/[1929]), vol. 4, p. 52, with the commentary of Mah .md Muh .ammad Shkir, quoted by al-Sayyid A. S .aqr in Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 465, n. 2; see also Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 11, p. 135. 857. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 467; idem, Tafsr, pp. 28-9; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 426; and Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 12, p. 373. 858. Ibn al-Jawz, however, gives many examples, among which are: Q. 2:35, 3:57, and 4:10; see Nuzhah, p. 427; and idem, Qurrah, p. 173. 859. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 467; Yah .y ibn Sall m, al-Tas .rf, p. 215; alDmaghn, Qms, p. 308; Tifls, Wujh, p. 195; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 427; idem, Qurrah, p. 173; and al-Rghib al-As .bahn, al-Mufradt, p. 316. 860. See al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 2, p. 327.

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mas.iyah (disobedience), and rejects kufr (disbelief), because of the keyword labs (obscurity); in his view, kufr cannot make faith obscure, but mas.iyah can.861 c. (reduction, loss, detriment, imperfection, blemish). The expression means "I reduce your right." The example from the

Qurn is as follows: "Each of the two gardens yielded its produce, and made not aught thereof to suffer loss..." (Q. 18:33).862 d. (denial, disbelief), as in "whereas those whose weight is light in the balance - it is they who will have squandered their own selves by their wilful denial of Our messages." (Q. 7:9).863 We have seen that Ibn Qutaybah mentions four meanings for z.ulm. Yah.y ibn Sallm, Ibn al-Jawz, Tifls, and al-Dmaghn mention respectively five, six, seven, and nine meanings, among which is al-sariqah (stealing). This meaning was not mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah in his Tawl. One of the examples in the Qurn is the following: [The brother] replied: 'Its requital? He in whose camel-pack [the cup] is found - he shall be [enslaved as] a requital thereof! Thus do we [ourselves] requite the thieves.'" (Q. 12:75).864 It had been among the laws of Prophet Abraham to hand over the thief to the victim of the theft, and that was the rule that Prophet Joseph wanted
Al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 413 862. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp. 467-468; Yah .y ibn Sall m, al-Tas .rf, p. 216; Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 402; Ibn Kathr, Tafsr, vol. 3, p. 87; alZamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 800; al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 3, p. 468; al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 309; al-Rghib al-As .bahn, al-Mufradt, p. 316; Lane,
861

Lexicon, pt. 5, p. 1920 (s.v. ); Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 427; and idem, Qurrah, p. 174. Other examples given by Ibn Qutaybah are Q. 2:57, 19:60 and 36:54. 863. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 468; idem, Tafsr, p. 165; Tifls, Wujh, p. 196; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 428; idem, Qurrah, p. 174; and al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 2, p. 399. Al-Zamakhshar interprets yaz ("they .limn in this verse as wrongly deny it"), see al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 439. 864. Al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 310; Tifls, Wujh, pp. 196-197; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 428; and idem, Qurrah, p. 174.

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to be applied.865 15. (test, trial, affliction) Ibn Qutaybah states that the basic meaning of bal is "a test", either for good or for bad things. It has two meanings: bal meaning a test and blessing. The root of the term meaning a test is bal yabl balwan (in Ibn Qutaybah's example, , and the noun is bal). For good things it is said abl yubl iblan balan as well as .866 (instead of , ), , and are used for good things, whereas for bad things and for bad things it is said bal yabl

According to al-Sharf al-Murtad.,however,

(bilan) are commonly used. In other words, although is used for both good and bad things, it is more frequently used for good things, whereas for bad things (bilan) is more frequently used among the Arabs.867 The examples given by Ibn Qutaybah from the verses of the Qurn are as follows: a. (trial, test) as in For, behold, all this way indeed a trial, clear in itself" (Q. 37:106), namely, the injunction to sacrifice his (Prophet Abraham's) son is a test for him.868 The test can be for either good or bad things. Allah says: ... and We try you with evil and with good for ordeal" (Q. 21:35, Pickthall), namely, We test you with evil to see your patience, and with good to see your gratitude.869 They are, according to Ibn Abbs, poverty and richness, sorrow and happiness, and comfort and hardship; or, according to Ibn Zayd, what you like, dislike and fail to do, so that you
Ibn Kathr, Tafsr, vol. 2, p.; 503. 866. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp. 469-470. This explanation of Ibn Qutaybah is quoted by Ibn al-Jawz, see Nuzhah, p. 189 and idem, Qurrah, p. 71. 867 Al-Murtad ., Aml, vol. 4, p. 24.
865

868. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 469; idem, Tafsr, p. 373; al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 77; and Tifls, Wujh, p. 49. 869. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 469; Al-T .abar, Jmi, vol. 1, p. 217; and Tifls, Wujh, p. 49. The above verse, however, is treated by Ibn Qutaybah as an example for the term bal meaning "a test", see Tawl, p. 469. The other example given by Tifls is Q. 7:168. Al-Suyt . uses the term makrh instead of al-sharr for the meaning of fitnah in the above verse, see Mutarak, vol. 1, p. 261.

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will become patient of what you dislike and thankful of what you like . b. (blessing), as in And [remember the time] when We saved you from Pharaoh's people, who afflicted you with cruel suffering, slaughtering your sons and sparing [only] your women: That was a tremendous blessing from your Sustainer." (Q. 2:49).870 Al-Zamakhshar and al-T .abars interpret bal for both good and bad things: the good thing was that the children of Israel were delivered from Pharaoh's folk, and the bad thing was that the Pharaoh's folk afflicted them with dread torment as mentioned in the above verse.871 16. (punishment, a conduct that leads to punishment) and (dirt, filth) Al-rijz, according to Ibn Qutaybah, Tifls, and Ibn al-Jawz has three meanings in the Qurn, as follows: a. (punishment), as in .... If thou remove this punishment from us, we will truly believe in thee,..." (Q. 7:134).872 According to Ibn Abbs, the word meaning (punishment) 873 is the language of the Hudhayl (or T .ayy). b. (the trick of Satan), since it leads to punishment, as in "... and free you from the trick of Satan..." (Q. 8:11).874 According to Ibn Abbs, in this verse means

870. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 370; al-T .abar, Jmi, vol. 1, p. 217; al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 69; al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 77; and Tifls, Wujh, p. 49. This meaning is also advanced by Al-Suyt . on the authority of Ibn Abbs in the above verse, see al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 6 and idem, Mutarak, vol. 1, p. 620. 871 Al-Zamakhshar , al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 75; and al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 1, pp. 105-106. 872. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 471; al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 2, p. 469; al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 191; Tifls, Wujh, p. 110; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 313; idem, Qurrah, p. 124; al-Suyt ., Mutarak, vol. 2, p. 137; and Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 5, p. 352. 873 Ibn Abbs, Gharb al-Qurn, p. 38 and ibid., n. 1; see also Ab Ubayd ibn Sallm, Lught al-Qabil, p. 47 and ibid., n. 1. 874. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 471; idem, Tafsr, p. 177; al-Suyt ., Mutarak,

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(the scare of Satan) in the language of the Quraysh .875 c. (idols), since they also lead to Allah's punishment, as in And idols shun" (Q. 74:5).876 This is the interpretation of Ibn Abbs, Mujhid, Qatdah, and al-Zuhr. Al-H.asan's interpretation is "avoid disobedience", whereas al-Kis makes a distinction between alrijz meaning "punishment" and al-rujz meaning "idols".877 However, Ibn Qutaybah states that since the term rujz also means "punishment", the verse means "avoid idolatory because it leads to punishment". This interpretation is similar to that of al-Zamakhshar.878 Al-rijs means al-natn (decay).879 This basic meaning developed into kufr (disbelief) and nifq (hypocrisy), as in "But as for those in whose hearts is disease, each new message but adds another [element of] disbelief to the disbelief which they already harbour, and they die while [still] refusing to
vol. 2, p. 173; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 314; and idem, Qurrah, p. 124; alZamakhshar, al-T (Satan's temptation) instead .abars and Tifls give here of as the meaning of , see al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 504, Majma alBayn, vol. 2, p. 526, and Wujh, p. 110. Ibn Kathr mentions "temptation" ( "evil idea" (
875

) and

) as the meaning of rijz in the verse in queston; see Tafsr, vol. 2,

(pl. of ) only, see al-Tas .rf, p. 321.

p. 304. Yah .y ibn Sallm mentions

Ibn Abbs, Gharb al-Qurn, p. 46; and Ab Ubayd ibn Sallm, Lught al-Qabil, p. 112, n. 1. 876. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 471, Yah .y ibn Sallm, al-Tas .rf, p. 321; and Tifls, Wujh, p. 110. Al-Dmaghn and Ibn al-Jawz use here the term al-s .anam (the idol, the image) instead of al-awthn, see Qms, 191, Nuzhah, p. 314; and idem, Qurrah, p. 124; al-Suyt . puts it in plural, namely al-as .nm (the idols), see Mutarak, vol. 2, p. 137, as well as in singular, see Mutarak, vol. 3, p. 563. 877. See al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 3, pp. 200-201. Another interpretation is that of al-Jubb, namely, "avoid bad deeds and blameworthy character", whereas an unidentified commentator who is probably of s .f leaning says that the verse means "take out the love of the world from your heart because it is the head of every sin". See al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, p. 385. 878. See Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 471; idem, Tafsr, p. 495; and al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 2, p. 1546. 879. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 471; and Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 6, pp. 94-96.

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acknowledge the truth." (Q. 9:125, Asad).880 17. (test, trial, ordeal) Ibn Qutaybah mentions eight meanings of the term fitnah, as follows: a. (test), as in the Arabic expression (I tested the gold in fire). The example in the Qurn is as follows: "Yea, indeed, We did test those who lived before them;..." (Q. 29:3, Asad).881 b. (persecution), as in Now there is among men many a one who says [of himself and of others like him], 'We do believe in God' - but whenever he is made to suffer in Allah's cause, he thinks that persecution at the hands of man is as [much to be feared, or even more than] Allah's chastisement;.." (Q. 29:10, Asad).882 c. (persecution by fire), as in Verily, as for those who persecute by fire believing men and believing women, and thereafter do not repent, hell's suffering awaits them: yea, suffering through fire awaits them!" (Q. 85:10).883 This is the interpretation of Ibn Abbs, Qatdah and al880. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 471; Tifls, Wujh, p. 110; and al-Suyt ., Mutarak, vol. 2, p. 137. See also al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 3, p. 84; and alZamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 572. According to Ibn Kathr the meaning of rijs in the above verse is "doubt"; see Ibn Kathr, Tafsr, vol. 2, p. 417. 881. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 472; Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 13, p. 320; Ibn alJawz, Nuzhah, pp. 478-479; idem, Qurrah, p. 193; al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 127; and idem, Mutarak, vol. 3, p. 169. Yah .y ibn Sallm and al-Dmaghn and Tifls call it al-ibtil (trial) instead of al-ikhtibr, see al-Tas .rf, p. 180, Qms, p. 348 and Wujh, p. 216. Both al-Zamakhshar and al-T .abars use the term al-imtih .n (test) for the interpretation of the term fitnah in the above verse. 882. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 472; al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 348; Tifls, Wujh, p. 217; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 479; idem, Qurrah, p. 193; al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 127; and idem, Mutarak, vol. 3, p. 169. Yah .y ibn Sall m uses the term (punishment), whereas Ab Ubaydah and al-T .abars use the term and (pl. of (offense) ) as the meaning of fitnah in the above verse. See al-Tas .rf, p. 18, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 114 and Majma al-Bayn, vol. 4, p. 274. 883. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 472; al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 2, p. 1595;

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D.ah.h.k.884 According to Ibn Kathr, this is also the interpretation of Mujhid.885 d. (turning someone away from the truth and making someone make an error), as in "... and beware of them, lest they tempt thee away from aught that God has bestowed from on high upon thee...." (Q. 5:49, Asad).886 Both Ab Ubaydah and al-Zamakhshar give the interpretation of in the above verse as (to deviate you from it and 887 make you commit error). e. (polytheism, idolatry), as in " for polytheism is worse than slaughter." (Q. 2:191).888 This is the interpretation of Ibn Abbs, Qatdah, Mujhid,889 as well as Sad ibn Jubayr, Ikrimah, al-H.asan, al-D.ah.h.k and al-Rab ibn Anas.890 Ab Ubaydah and Lane interpret fitnah here as kufr (disbelief).891 f. (disbelief and sin), as in
al-Dmaghn, Qms, 348; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 479; idem, Qurrah, p. 193; and Tifls, Wujh, p. 217. Al-Suyt . mentions a different example, namely, (It is) the day when they will be tormented at the Fire, ..." (Q. 51:13, Pickthall); see al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 127; and idem, Mutarak, vol. 3, p. 169. This example is also given by Yah .y ibn Sall m, see al-Tas .rf, p. 181 884. See al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, p. 468 and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 6, p. 2335. 885. Ibn Kathr, Tafsr, vol. 4, p. 529. 886. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 473; others mention al-s .add only, see Tifls, Wujh, p. 217; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 479; idem, Qurrah, p. 194; al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 349; al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 126; and idem, Mutarak, vol. 3, p. 169. 887. Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 168; and al-Zamakhshar, alKashshf, vol. 1, p. 363. 888. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 473; others use the term al-shirk rather than alishrk; see Yah .y ibn Sallm, al-Tas .rf, p. 179; and al-Dmaghn, Qms, pp. 347348; Tifls, Wujh, p. 216; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 478; idem, Qurrah, pp. 192-193; al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 126; and idem, Mutarak, vol. 3, p. 169. 889. See al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 1, p. 287. 890. See Ibn Kathr, Tafsr, vol. 1, p. 233. 891. Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 68; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 6, p. 2336. For further details on this verse, see al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 132.

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".... so let those who would go against His bidding beware, lest disbelief and sin or painful punishment befall them." (Q. 24:63).892 g. (sin), as in ".... Surely, it is into sin that they (thus) have fallen...." (Q. 9:49). This is also Ab Ubaydah's interpretation.893 h. (warning, deterring example), as in ".... O our Sustainer, make us not a deterring example for evildoing folk." (Q. 10:85).894 The verse means "do not make the wrongdoing folk believe that they are right and we the believers are wrong when they see us in misery and misfortune, while they are in happiness and prosperity."895 This is the view of Mujhid who says that the verse means "do not destroy us with our enemies' hands, and do not punish us with Your punishment, or our enemies would say 'if they were on the right way,

892. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 473. Al-Zamakhshar and al-T .abars respectively interpret fitnah here as mih .nah (severe trial, affliction) and "an affliction (balyah) which appears in their hearts, such as hypocrisy"; however, T .abars gives also another interpretation, namely, "punishment in this world". See al-Kashshf, vol. 2, p. 964; and Majma al-Bayn, vol. 4, p. 158. According to Ibn al-Jawz and al-Suyt . the term fitnah in this verse means uqbah (punishment), see Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 480 and idem, Qurrah, p. 195; and al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 127; and idem, Mutarak, vol. 3, p. 169. Al-Suyt . does not include kufr as one of the fifteen meanings of fitnah in his al-Itqn. Al-Dmaghn, Tifls and Ibn al-Jawz cite Q. 3:7 as the example from the Qurn in which fitnah means kufr, but according to al-Suyt .it means al-id .ll (misleading), see al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 348; Tifls, Wujh, p. 216; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 478; idem, Qurrah, p. 193; and al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 126. 893. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 473; Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 261; Tifls, Wujh, p. 216; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 480; idem, Qurrah, p. 194; alSuyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 127 (in idem, Mutarak, vol. 3, p. 169 it is written al-d .allah which is a misprint and should be al-ithm); al-Dmaghn suggests kufr, whereas alT as the meaning of fitnah in this verse, see, Qms, p. .abars suggests 348 and Majma al-Bayn, vol. 3, p. 37. 894. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp. 473-474; Tifls, Wujh, p. 218; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 480; idem, Qurrah, p. 194; al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 127; and idem, Mutarak, vol. 3, p. 169. According to al-Dmaghn, the term fitnah in this verse means fitnah itself, namely, temptation. 895. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 474.

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then why did we [who are on the wrong way] subjugate them'".896 A similar view is also given by al-Farr, al-Zamakhshar, al-T .abars, and
897 Ibn Manz .r.

We have seen that Ibn Qutaybah mentions eight meanings only of fitnah, whereas Ibn al-Jawz and al-Suyt. mention fifteen, Tifls mention fourteen, and both Yah.y ibn Sallm and al-Dmaghn mention eleven meanings. Many other meanings, such as (assassination) in Q. 4:101, (madness, insanity) in Q. 68:6, and (error) in Q. 5:41, are dealt with by all of them with the exception of Ibn Qutaybah. The term fitnah in the verse Q. 6:23 which means (excuse) according to Qatdah898 are dealt with by all of them. However, Ibn Qutaybah puts the verse into the category of verses with the term fitnah meaning . Nevertheless, he says that the term here means (the answer) to the question asked as a test mentioned in the preceding verse.899 18. a. (duty, decree, order) (the injunction of doing something), as in "... [seeing that] We have already made known what We have enjoined upon them with regard to their wives..." (Q. 33:50).900
Al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 8, p. 370. 897 Al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 3, p. 150; al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 595; al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 3, p. 128; and Ibn Manz .r Lisn, vol. 13, p. 317. 898. Al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 6, p. 402.
896

899. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 473; Yah .y ibn Sallm, al-Tas .rf, pp. 179-182; al-Dmaghn, Qms, pp. 348-9; Tifls, Wujh, pp. 216-218; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, pp. 479-480; Qurrah, pp. 193-194; al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, pp. 126-127; and idem, Mutarak, vol. 3, p. 169. 900. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 475; Yah .y ibn Sall m, al-Tas .rf, p. 188; alZamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 2, p. 1139; Tifls, Wujh, p. 220; al-Dmaghn. Qms, p. 355. Ibn al-Jawz uses the term al-ilzam (duty, obligation) as the meaning of al-fard . in the above verse, see Nuzhah, p. 468. Ibn Qutaybah includes in this category of meaning the following verse: .... It is an injunction from Allah..." (Q. 4:11, Pickthall), whereas according to al-Dmaghn and Tifls, the term fard .ah here means fard .ah itself, namely, religious duty. See Tawl, p. 475; Qms, 356; and Wujh, p. 221.

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(explanation), as in A srah [is this] which We have bestowed from on high, and which We have distinctly explained..." (Q. 24:1).901 This is the interpretation of Mujhid and Qatdah according to Ibn Kathr.902 However, according to Ibn Qutaybah, it is also possible that the term farad.a in this verse means "to enjoin" as translated by Pickthall.903 There are two variant readings in this verse: farad.nh and farrad .nh. The former means "We have enjoined the execution of what has been prescribed", and the latter means "We have distinctly explained in detail and define what has been prescribed in general, and what is h.all (permitted) and what is h.arm (prohibited)".904 c. (sending down, revelation), as in b. "Verily, He Who has sent down to thee the Qurn will surely bring thee home again..." (Q. 28:85).905 d. (permission), as in There is no reproach for the Prophet in that which Allah permits for him..." (Q. 33:38).906
901. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 475; Yah .y ibn Sall m, al-Tas .rf, p. 188; alDmaghn, Qms, p. 355; Tifls, Wujh, p. 220; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 468; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 6, p. 2373. 902 Ibn Kathr, Tafsr, vol. 3, p. 271 903. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 475; al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 12, p. 158; alFarr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 244; and al-Rghib al-As .bahn, al-Mufradt, p. 376. 904. See Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 63; al-T .abars, Majma alBayn, vol. 4, p. 124; Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 7, p. 302 and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 6, pp. 2373-2374. 905. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp. 475-476; Yah .y ibn Sall m, al-Tas .rf, p. 189; Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 112; al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 356; Tifls, Wujh, p. 221; and Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 468. The term farad .a in the verse could also mean the injunction to follow the contents of the Qurn, see Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 476; al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 2, p. 1068; al-T .abars, Majma alBayn, vol. 4, p. 269; and al-Rghib al-As .bahn, al-Mufradt, p. 376. 906. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 476; Yah .y ibn Sall m, al-Tas .rf, p. 188; alDmaghn, Qms, p. 355; Tifls, Wujh, p. 220; and Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 468. Al-T .abars's interpretation on this verse is that Allah allowed or enjoined the Prophet to marry the divorced wife of his adopted son; see Majma al-Bayn, vol. 4, p. 361. A similar view is that of al-Zamakhshar, see al-Kashshf, vol. 2, p. 1133.

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19.

(disloyalty, treachery, betrayal)

Ibn Qutaybah mentions three meanings of khiynah, as follows: a. entrusting a person with something, but he does not fulfil the trust . Ibn Qutaybah does not give us an example from the Qurn, but from poetry, the poem of al-Namir ibn Tawlab as follows: *
Verily, after (the loyalty and disloyalty of) Wahb tribe, Ban Rabah are like the house keeper; he was (entrusted) to keep it, then he betrayed it.

Here Ibn Qutaybah makes a distinction between khin (a traitor) and sriq (a thief); the former is a person who takes something which is entrusted to him, whereas the latter takes what is not entrusted to him.907 The example from the Qurn is given by Tifls and al-Dmaghn, as follows: ".... Hence, do no contend with those who are treacherous." (Q. 4:105).908 b. (violation of treaty), as in "And if thou fearest violation of treaty from people [with whom thou hast made a treaty], cast it back at them in an equitable manner..." (Q. 8:58).909 c. (disobedience of Muslims), as in "O you who believe! Do not disobey Allah and His messenger, nor knowingly betray your trusts..." (Q. 8:27).910 The disobedience meant in this verse is neglecting Allah's injunctions and the Prophet's practice (sunnah) and laws (shari) according to Ibn Abbs, or any religious matter according to al-H.asan.911
907. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 477; and idem, Adab al-Ktib, p. 35. 908. Tifls, Wujh, p. 94; al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 166; and Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 282. 909. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp. 477-478; Yah .y ibn Sall m, al-Tas .rf, p. 178; al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 414; al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 2, p. 553; Tifls, Wujh, pp. 93-4; al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 167; and Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 282. 910. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 478; Yah .y ibn Sall m, al-Tas .rf, p. 177; Tifls, Wujh, p. 93; al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 166; and Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, pp. 281-282. 911 Al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 2, p. 536.

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20.

(submission)

There are three meanings of islm mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah, as follows: a. , entering into peace, (al-s.ulh ., according to al-Dmaghn), as in ,... and do not say unto anyone who offers you peace: 'Thou art not a believer,...'" (Q. 4:94).912 Al-Zamakhshar mentions a variant reading salama beside salma; both have three meanings: istislm (surrender), islm (becoming Muslim), and taslm (greeting with Islamic greeting). He also mentions the variant reading mumanan (believed, saved) beside muminan (a believer). In a military detachment to Fadak, its inhabitants fled except Mirds ibn Nhik who had confidence with his being a Muslim and came down from the mountain, joined the takbr with the invaders, pronounced the shahdah before them and greeted them with al-salmu alaykum. Usmah ibn Zayd, not believing Mirds's testament, killed him and seized his sheep. The Prophet who heard the incident was very upset and asked Usmah: "Did you kill him because you wanted to take his property?" and read the above verse to him. When Usmah asked him to ask Allah's forgiveness for him, he kept asking "How with l ilha ill llh?", meaning "how should I ask forgiveness for you after you have killed a person who has pronounced the shahdah (became a Muslim)?" Upon hearing this, Usmah wished he had become Muslim just at that moment, so that the sin he had just committed would be forgiven. Finally the Prophet prayed forgiveness for him and told him to free a slave.913After the incident and hearing the above verse, Usmah promised not to kill a Muslim, and apologized to Al in his caliphate for not taking part in fighting against the dissenters.914 These reports indicate that salma or salama includes its three meanings istislm, islm, and taslm in the verse in question, although Ibn Qutaybah mentions one only as mentioned above. b. , following and submitting with the tongue only, not with the heart (al-iqrr bi l-lisn, according to al-Dmaghn), as in

912. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 479; al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 245; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 136; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 4, p. 1414. 913 Al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 313. 914 Al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 2, p. 95.

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"The Bedouin say: We have believed. Say (unto them O Muhammad): You have not [yet] believed, but rather say: We have [outwardly] surrendered, for the faith hath not yet entered your hearts..." (Q. 49:14).915 A group of people among the Ban Asad tribe who wanted to get charity came to the Prophet and claimed to have become Muslims. But Allah wanted them to know that the Prophet already knew that mn had not yet entered into their hearts. So, the above verse was revealed to him. This was reported by Sad ibn Jubayr and Ibn Zayd.916 c. , following and submission with the tongue and with the heart; (al-ikhls., sincerity, according to al-Dmaghn), as ....He [namely, Abraham] said: I have surrendered [outwardly and inwardly] to the Sustainer of the Worlds." (Q. 2:131).917 21. (belief, faith) Ibn Qutaybah mentions four meanings of mn, as follows: a. , belief, confirmation, attestation, as in the statement of Prophet Jacob's children to him about the death of their brother Joseph, as follows: ".... But [we know that] thou wouldst not believe us even though we speak the truth." (Q. 12:17). This is also the interpretation given by Ab Ubaydah, Ibn Kathr, al-Zamakhshar, and al-Tabars.918 This interpretation, as we shall see, deals with its general context, and not faith in religion. b. (believing with the tongue only, not with the heart), as in "That is because they believed [with their tongues] then disbelieved [with their hearts]..." (Q. 63:3).919 This is called hypocrisy, and this is one interpretation. The apostates claimed to
915. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 479; and al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 245. Al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, p. 138. For further details, see Ibn Kathr, Tafsr, vol. 4, pp. 234-235. 917. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 479; and al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 244. 918. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 481; Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 303; Ibn Kathr, Tafsr, vol. 2, p. 488; al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 645; and al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 3, p. 218. It is also the interpretation given by Tifls, al-Dmaghn and Ibn Fris, see Wujh, p. 41; Qms, p. 47; and Maqys, vol. 1, p. 135. 919. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 481; Yah .y ibn Sall m, al-Tas .rf, p. 108; Tifls, Wujh, p. 41; and al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 47.
916

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be believers when they were among believers, but among disbelievers they disbelieved. Another interpretation, however, says that the term man means that they really believed, but later disbelieved and became apostates.920 c. (believing with the tongue and with the heart), as in "(And) lo! those who believe (outwwardly and inwardly) and do good works are the best of all creatures." (Q. 98:7).921 d. , believing some and disbelieving others , believing while ascribing partners to Allah, according to alDmaghn), as in "And most of them do not even believe in Allah without [also] ascribing partners (unto Him),..." (Q. 12:106). Ibn Qutaybah gives his commentary on this verse. He says that if we ask the idolators among the Arabs, "Who created you?," they would say "Allah.922 This interpretation is that of Ibn Abbs, Mujhid, A t., Ikrimah, al-Shab, Qatdah, al-D.ah.h .k, and Abd al-Rah.mn ibn Zayd ibn Aslam.923 22. a. (damage, harm, hurt, injury, misfortune, loss, or diasdvantage) Ibn Qutaybah mentions six meanings of d.urr or d.arr, as follows: (the opposite of benefit), namely, harm, as in "Said he: 'Do [you really think that] they hear you when you invoke them, or benefit you or do you harm?'" (Q. 26:72-73, Asad).924 b. (misfortune and affliction), as in
920. See al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 2, p. 1486; and al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, p. 291. 921. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 481; and Yah .y ibn Sall m, al-Tas .rf, pp. 108109. 922. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp. 481-482, and al-Dmaghn, Qms, pp. 47-48. 923 For further details, see Ibn Kathr, Tafsr, vol. 2, pp. 512-513; al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 680; and al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 3, p. 268. 924. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 483; idem, Adab al-Ktib, p. 338; al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 290; and Tifls, Wujh, pp. 180-1. Ibn al-Jawz makes the distinction between d .urr and d .arr; the former is used for misfortune, the latter for the opposite of benefit as in the above example; see Nuzhah, p. 403.

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"And if Allah should touch thee with misfortune, there is none who can remove it but He;..." (Q. 6:17, Asad).925 c. (want of rain, drought), as in "And if We cause mankind the taste of mercy [namely, rain] after some adversity [namely, drought] wich had afflicted them..." (Q. 10:21, Pickthall).926 d. (terror, fright, alarm, shock), as in "And whenever terror befalls you at sea, all those [powers] that you are wont to invoke forsake you, [and nothing remains for you] save Him:..." (Q. 17:67).927 e. (illness, disease) as in "And [remember] Job, when he cried unto his Sustainer, 'Affliction [namely, disease] has befallen me: but Thou art the most merciful of the merciful.'" (Q. 21:83, Asad).928 Here the term d.urr is interpreted by Ibn Qutaybah as "disease". f. (defect, blemish, decrease, loss damage; lack, shortage), as in "Those who reject God, hinder (men) from the path of God, and resist the apostle, after guidance has been clearly shown to them, will not injure [namely, defect, according to Ibn Qutaybah's interpretation] God in the least, ..." (Q. 47:32, Ali).929
925. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 483; al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 289; and Tifls, Wujh, p. 179. It includes sickness according to al-Zamakhshar and al-T .abars, see alKashshf, vol. 1, p. 397; and Majma al-Bayn, vol. 2, p. 281. 926. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 483. Al-Dmaghn cites Q. 6:42 as an example, see Qms, p. 289; and Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 404. Like in the previous verse, alT .abars and Ibn Kathr interprets d .arr in this verse as shiddah and bal, including drought; see al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 3, p. 101. Ibn Kathr, Tafsr. vol. 2, p. 427. Pickthall translates it as "adversity". 927. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 483; al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 289; Tifls, Wujh, p. 180; al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 3, p. 427; and Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 404. 928. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 483; al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 289; Tifls, Wujh, p. 180; and Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 404. 929. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 483; al-Dmaghn and Tifls mention Q. 3:144 and 4:113 as examples, see Qms, p. 289; Tifls, Wujh, p. 180; and Ibn al-Jawz,

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We notice that Tiflisi does not give (want of rain, drought) as one of the meanings of the term d.urr or d.arr, whereas Ibn Qutaybah does not mention (hunger, starvation) as the meaning of the term in the following verse: And when they presented themselves before him, they said: 'O thou great one! Hardship has visited us and our folk,...'" (Q. 12:88, Asad) which is starvation as mentioned by al-Dmaghn and Ibn al-Jawz.930 Al-Zamakhshar and al931 T .abars also include "starvation" as the meaning of d.urr in this verse. 23. (narrowness, confinement; hardship, difficulty; restriction; oppression, distress, anguish, prohibition) Ibn Qutaybah mentions three meanings of h.araj, as follows: a. (narrowness, annoyance, hardship). This is the basic meaning of h.araj according to Ab Ubaydah and Ibn al-Athr,932 as in "... it is He who has elected you [to carry His message], and has laid no hardship on you in [anything that pertains to] religion,..." (Q.22:78, Asad).933 According to Ibn Abbs, the word meaning is the language of Qays (ibn) Ayln.934
b.

(doubt), as in "A divine writ has been bestowed from on high upon thee - and let there be no doubt about this in thy heart - ..." (Q. 7:2, Asad). This is also the interpretation of Ibn Abbs, Mujhid, Qatdah, al-Sudd, and alFarr.935Ibn Kathr mentions Mujhid, Qatdah and al-Sudd who

Nuzhah, p. 405. 930. Al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 290; and Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, pp. 404-405. 931 Al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 674; and al-T .abars Majma alBayn, vol. 3, p. 260. 932. See Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 69; and Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 2, p. 233. 933. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 484; al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 124; Tifls, Wujh, p. 71; and Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 239. 934 Ibn Abbs, Gharb al-Qurn, p. 57; and Ab Ubayd ibn Sallm, Lught alQabil, p. 90. 935. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 484; al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol.2, p. 395; al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 370; al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 437; al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 123; Tifls, Wujh, p. 71; and Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 239.

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936 interpret h .araj as shakk. According to Ibn Abbs, the word meaning is in th language of the Quraysh.937 Ab Ubaydah, 938 however, interprets h .araj in this verse as d .q.

c.

(sin, offence, misdeed, crime), as in offence attaches to the blind..." (Q. 24:61).939 (breath of life, soul; spirit)

"No

24. a.

Ibn Qutaybah gives seven meanings of rh. in the Qurn, as follows: (soul of the bodies) taken away by Allah at the moment of death.940 No example from the Qurn is given by Ibn Qutaybah; others mention the following verses: "And they will ask thee about [the nature of] soul..." (Q. 17:85).941 This is the interpretation of Ibn Abbs. But Ibn Qutaybah mentions the above verse as one of the examples of the term rh. meaning a huge angel which is Ali's interpretation. Other interpretations include: Gabriel, according to al-H.asan and Qatdah, Prophet s (Jesus), and the Qurn.942 Asads interpretation of rh. in the above verse is "divine inspiration". He contends that "the preceding as well as the subsequent verses relate explicitly to the Qurn and hence, to the phenomenon of divine revelation".943 b. (Gabriel), as in "And lo! it is a revelation of the Lord of the Worlds, which the True Spirit [namely, Gabriel] hath brought down upon thy heart, ..." (Q. 26:192-193,
Ibn Kathr, Tafsr, vol. 2, p. 209. Ibn Abbs, Gharb al-Qurn, p. 45; and Ab Ubayd ibn Sallm, Lught alQabil, pp. 98 and 101. 938 Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 210. 939. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 484; al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 4, p. 155; al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 124; Tifls, Wujh, p. 72; and Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 239. 940. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 485; and Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 2, p. 462.
936 937

941. Al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 213; Tifls, Wujh, p. 117; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 322; idem, Qurrah, p. 132; and al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 128. 942. See Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 486; al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 1, pp. 782-783; and al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 3, p. 437. See also Ibn Kathr, Tafsr, vol. 3, p. 65. 943. See M. Asad, The Message, p. 432, n. 101.

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Pickthall).944 c. (a huge angel), so huge that as he stands alone he makes one line by himself, while other angels make another, mentioned in the Qurn as follows: "On the day when the angels and the Spirit stand arrayed, they speak not, saving him who the Beneficent alloweth and who speaketh right." (Q. 78:38). The Spirit here means, according to Ibn Qutaybah, the huge angel.945 Al-Qurt.ub mentions eight interpretations of the term al-rh. in the above verse, as follows: (1) a huge angel, who in the Hereafter will stand alone and make one line by himself, and another for the other angels; this is the view of Ibn Abbs and Ibn Masd quoted by Ibn Qutaybah above (and of At., according to al-T.abars); (2) Gabriel, according to al-Shab, al-D.ah.h .k, and Sad ibn Jubayr; (3) soldiers of Allah, neither human beings nor angels, but have human forms and eat food; this is the view of Ab S.lih. and Mujhid (as well as Qatdah according to alT .abars); (4) the nobles among angels, according to Muqtil ibn H.ayyn; (5) (guards of angels); (6) human beings, according to al-H.asan and Qatdah; they interpret al-rh. as dhaw alrh. (those who have spirits); according to al-T .abars, this is the view of al-H.asan only; al-T .abar states that Qatdah said: ("This is among what has been concealed by Ibn Abbs"), and this is the interpretation chosen by M. Asad; (7) the spirits (souls) of the children of Adam before they return to their bodies, according to At.iyyah (or Ibn Abbs, according to al-T .abar), and (8) the Qurn according to Zayd ibn Aslam.946 Al-Suyt. mentions (an
944. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 486; al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 284; Ibn Kathr, Tafsr, vol. 3, p. 360; al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 4, p. 304; Tifls, Wujh, p. 116; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 323; idem, Qurrah, p. 132; Ibn Fris, Maqys, vol. 2, p. 454; al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 128; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 3, p. 1180; alDmaghn cites Q. 2:253 which is also mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah, see Qms, p. 212; and Tawl, p. 486. 945. Ibn Qutaybah cites also Q. 17:85 as an example, see Tawl, p. 486; Ibn Kathr, Tafsr, vol. 4, pp. 496-497; Tifls, Wujh, p. 116; al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 212; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 323; and idem, Qurrah, p. 132. 946 Al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 19, pp. 186-187; see also al-T .abar, Jmi, vol. 30,

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947 army of angels) as the interpretation of rh . in the above verse.

d.

(blowing, breathing), as in the following poem of Dh l-Rummah: *

And I said to him: 'Lift it [the fire] up to you to keep it alive with your gentle blowing...'948

The example from the Qurn is as follows: And remember her who guarded her chastity, whereupon We breathed into her of Our blowing and caused her, together with her son, to become a symbol [of Our grace] unto all people." (Q. 21:91). Ibn Qutaybah states that the Messiah is called "the Spirit of Allah" because he was created through Gabriel by Allah's breath. The Messiah is also so called because he existed by His word "be" and he existed.949 Another interpretation is that rh. here means the spirit of s.950 e. (the word of Allah), namely, revelation, is also called rh., because it gives life to the ignorant and infidels who are like dead people, as in "... By His Own will does He bestow His word upon whomever He wills of His servants,..." (Q. 40:15).951 The meaning of the term rh . here according to al-Zamakhshar, Tifls and al-Dmaghn is wahy (revelation).952 According to al-Farr, the rh. here means (prophethood), whereas al-Tabars mentions three
pp. 15-16; al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, p. 427; al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 2, p. 1573; and M. Asad, The Message, p. 924. 947 Al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 128. 948. See Carlile H. Macartney, ed., Dwn Shir Dh l-Rummah (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1919), p. 176; Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 2, p. 460; and alRghib al-As .bahn, al-Mufradt, p. 205. 949. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 487; Tifls, Wujh, p. 117; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 323; idem, Qurrah, p. 133. 950 Al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 2, p. 892; and al-T .abars, Majma alBayn, vol. 4, p. 62. 951. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 487. 952 Al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 2, p. 1274, Tifls, Wujh, p. 116; and alDmaghn, Qms, p. 212. Ibn al-Jawz cites Q. 16:2 as the example of rh . meaning wah .y; see Nuzhah, p. 323; and idem, Qurrah, p. 132.

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meanings: the Qurn and all the revealed books sent to messengers, the revelation, and Jibrl (Gabriel).953 f. (blessing), as in ... [As for the true believers,] it is they in whose hearts He has inscribed faith, and whom He has strengthened with blessing from Him, ..." (Q. 58:22).954 Al-Tabars mentions four meanings of rh. in this verse: the light of faith, the light of reasoning, the Qurn, and Gabriel.955 g. (life and eternity where there will be no death), as in "Perpetual life [awaits him in the life to come], and inner fulfilment, and a garden of bliss." (Q. 56:89). This is the interpretation of Abu Ubaydah and al-Farr quoted by Ibn Qutaybah.956 This is one of the three interpretations given by al-Zamakhshar, the other two being istirh.ah (rest) and rah.mah (blessing).957 Al-T .abars mentions two different interpretations, the rest from the burden of life which is the interpretation of Ibn Abbs and Mujhid, and the air (alhaw).958 There are two more interpretations of rh. which are not mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah: firstly, (the command), as in "The Messiah, Jesus son of Mary, was only a messenger of Allah, and His word which He conveyed unto Mary, and a command from Him...." (Q. 4:171);959 Other interpretations are given by al-T .abars, among which are: Gabriel, a mercy from Allah, and a spirit created, fashioned, then sent by Allah to Mary which is the interpretation of

953. Al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 3, p. 6; and al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 4, p. 517. 954. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 487; al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 212; Tifls, Wujh, p. 116; Ibn al-Jawz, Qurrah, p. 133; and al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 128. 955. See al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, p. 255. 956. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 488; Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 253; al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 3, p. 131; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, pp. 323-324; idem, Qurrah, p. 133; and al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 128.
957. Al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 2, p. 1337. 958. Al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, p. 228.

959. Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 323; idem, Qurrah, p. 133; al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 127; and idem, al-Mutarak, vol.2, p. 122.

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Ubayy ibn Kab reported by Ab al-liyah;960 secondly, the Qurn, as in And thus have We revealed to thee (Muh.ammad) the Qurn by Our command ..." (Q. 42:52).961 With regard to the second verse, rh.an min amrin is the Qurn itself according to al-D.ah.h.k whose view is adopted by al-Suyt., whereas Ibn Qutaybah gives (the word of Allah) as its interpretation.962 However, there are many other interpretations, namely, Ibn Abbs, (prophethood) according to (blessing) according to al-H.asan and Qatdah, (revelation) according to al-Sudd, (scripture) according to al-Kalb, and Jibrl according to al-Rab.963 25. (inspiration, revelation) Ibn Qutaybah interprets the basic meaning of wah.y, as follows: "everything suggested by means of speaking, writing, sign, or message ."964 Ibn Manz ), .r includes inspiration ( secret talk ( ) among the meanings of wah.y.965 However, according to al-Qurt.ub, the term wah .y among the Arabs means "writing", "inscription" as in the following poem of Dh al-Rummah:
Except the four black women who were similar to the remnant of inscription in the midst of leaves,

and in the following poem of Antarah:

[It is] similar to an inscription on leaves in the time of Kisra (Khosrau),

Al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 2, p. 145. 961. Al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 127.
960

962. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 487. 963. Al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 16, p. 54. According to al-T .abars, Qatdah's and al-Sudd's interpretation of rh . in this verse is respectively the Qurn and the Holy Spirit (Gabriel), see Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, p. 37. 964. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 489; 965 Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 15, p. 379.

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so that he gave them as a gift to a non-eloquent ajam (non-Arab).966

Ibn Qutaybah mentions six meanings of this term in the Qurn, as folows: a. (sending a message), namely, revelation through Gabriel, as in "Behold, We have sent thee a message as We sent to Noah and the prophets after him,..." (Q. 4:163).967 b. (sign, gesture, signal), as in Thereupon he came out of the sanctuary unto his people and signified to them [by gestures]: 'Extol His limitless glory by day and by night!'" (Q. 19:11, Asad).968 This is the view of Qatdah, al-Kalb and Ibn Munabbih. The other view is that of Mujhid and Ikrimah, that the term awh. in this verse means respectively, "wrote on the ground", and "wrote in a scroll."969 This latter view is rejected by Ibn Qutaybah. His argument is that in another verse mentioning the same story, the term ramz (sign, gesture) is given, as follows: [Zachariah] prayed: 'O my Sustainer! Appoint a sign for me!' Said [the angel]: 'Thy sign shall be that for three days thou wilt not speak unto men other than by gestures...'" (Q. 3:41, Asad). The sign here means, Ibn Qutaybah contends, moving the two lips, eyebrows or eyes, and not writing.970 c. (inspiration) as in "And [remember the time] when I inspired the white-garbed ones: 'Believe in Me and in My Apostle! 'They answered:
Al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 11, pp. 85-86. 967. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 489; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 621; and idem, Qurrah, p. 237. 968. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 489; Ibn Kathr, Tafsr, vol. 3, p. 119; Ibn alJawz, Nuzhah, p. 622; idem, Qurrah, p. 237; al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 3, p. 505; Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 15, p. 380; and Tifls, Wujh, pp. 305-306. This is the view of Qatdah, al-Kalb and Ibn Munabbih. The other view is that of Mujhid and Ikrimah, that the term awh . in this verse means respectively, "wrote on the ground", and "wrote in a scroll", see al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 11, p. 85. 969 Al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 11, p. 85. 970 Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 489.
966

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'We believe; and bear Thou witness that we have surrendered [unto Thee].'" (Q. 5:111, Asad).971 According to al-Rghib al-As.bahn, wah.y in this verse means revelation to the white garbed ones through Prophet s (Jesus).972 Both Ab Ubaydah and al-Zamakhshar intepret wah.y in this verse as amr (command).973 d. (information given during sleep), namely, true vision, as in And it was not (vouchsafed) to any mortal that Allah should speak to him unless (it be) by true vision..." (Q. 42:51).974 e. (information through the whispering of the devil), as in "And, verily, the devils tempt their minions with wicked suggestions to dispute with you..." (Q. 6:121).975 This is the interpretation of Ibn Abbs.976 f. (order, command), as in "as they Sustainer will have ordered her to do." (Q. 99:5). This is the interpretation given by Mujhid adopted by Ibn Qutaybah. 977 Here Ibn Qutaybah cites the poem of al-Ajjj in which the term wah.y, means "order", as follows: He ordered it (the earth) to settle, and so it settled."978 However, according to Ibn Abbs's interpretation, awh. lah here means
971. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 489; al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 325; Ibn Kathr, Tafsr, vol. 2, p. 119; al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 2, p. 263; Tifls, Wujh, p. 306; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 622; and idem, Qurrah, p. 237. 972 Al-Rghib al-As .bahn, al-Mufradt, p. 516. Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 182; and al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 390. 974. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 489; al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 3, p. 26; Tifls, Wujh, p. 306; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 622; and idem, Qurrah, p. 238. 975. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 490; al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 423; Tifls, Wujh, p. 306; al-Rghib al-As .bahn, al-Mufradt, p. 515; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 622; and idem, Qurrah, p. 238. 976 Al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 2, p. 385.
973

977.Ibn Kathir, Tafsr, vol. 4, p. 577. 978 Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 490; Tifls, Wujh, p. 306; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 622; and idem, Qurrah, p. 238. It is noteworthy that Ibn al-Jawz and Tifls, give us respectively seven and ten meanings of the term wah . y.

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"Allah gave permission to the earth to tell what had been done on it", and this intepretation is adopted by al-Farr.979 26. Ibn a. (joy, gladness, happiness) There are three meanings of the term farah. in the Qurn given by Qutaybah, as follows: (joy, happiness, delight, pleasure), as in

"... when ye are in the ships and they sail with them a fair breeze they are glad therein..." (Q. 10:22, Pickthall).980 b. (contentment, satisfaction), as in "Every sect is content with that [religion] which it has." (Q. 23:53 and 30:32, Lane).981 c. (exultation, wantonness, pride, arrogance, vanity, cockiness and liveliness, high spirits, exuberance, wildness, insolence, impertinence, excessive joy), as in "When [they perceived his arrogance,] his people said unto him: 'Exult not [in thy wealth], for, verily, God does not love those who exult [in things vain]!'" (Q. 28:76, Asad).982 This is, according to Ibn Kathr, the interpretation of Mujhid.983 Here Tifls and al-Dmaghn mention the three meanings of the term in conformity with those mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah. 27. a. (opening, conquest, victory) Three meanings of fath. are mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah, as follows: (opening something closed), as in

979. See al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, p. 526; and al-Farr, Man lQurn, vol. 3, p. 283. 980. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 491; Yah .y ibn Sall m, al-Tas .rf, p. 244; Tifls, Wujh, p. 220; and al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 353. 981. Ibn Qutaybah Tawl, p. 491; Yah .y ibn Sallm, al-Tas .rf, p. 243; alT .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 4, p. 109; Tifls, Wujh, pp. 219-220; al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 353; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 6, p. 2361. 982. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 491; Ibn Kathr, Tafsr, vol. 3, p. 410; al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 4, p. 266; Tifls, Wujh, p. 219; al-Dmaghn, Qms, pp. 352-353; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 6, p. 2361. 983 Ibn Kathr, Tafsr, vol. 3, p. 410.

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"... till, when they reach it, they shall find its gates wide-open;..." (Q. 39:73, Asad).984 Al-Zamakhshar mentions two interpretations regarding the position of wa in the above verse: (1) It means "when they came to Heaven they came to it with its doors (or gates) open ( ); (2) It means when they came to it its door had been opened. Unlike the doors of Hell which will be opened only when those who are to enter it arrive, the doors of Heaven will have been opened before the arrival of its companions, as mentioned in the Qurn "Gardens of Eden, whereof the gates are opened for them." (Q. 38:5 , Pickthall).985 b. (victory), as in "...thus, if victory 986 comes to you from Allah..." (Q. 4:141). c. (judgement) which is an opening to what is ambiguous, as in "Say: Our Sustainer will bring us all together, then He will judge between us with truth." (Q. 34:26).987 According to Ab Ubaydah, Ibn Kathr and al-T .abars, yaftah. in the above verse means yah .kum (decide), which is similar to yaqd. (judge).988 Another meaning which is not mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah is al-irsl (the sending down), as in "Whatever grace Allah sends down to man, none can withhold it;..." (Q.
984. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 492; Yah .y ibn Sallm, al-Tas .rf, p. 250; Ibn Kathr, Tafsr, vol. 1, p. 580; Tifls, Wujh, p. 215; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 462; and idem, Qurrah, p. 186. 985 Al-Zamakhshar al-Kashshf, vol. 2, p. 1268. 986. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 492; Yah .y ibn Sall m, al-Tas .rf, p. 250; Tifls, Wujh, p. 215; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 463; idem, Qurrah, p. 186; and al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 347. "Conquest and victory over the enemies ( ) " is the meaning of the above verse according to al-T .abars's interpretation, see Majma alBayn, vol. 2, p. 127. 987. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 492; Yah .y ibn Sall m, al-Tas .rf, p. 249; Tifls, Wujh. p. 215; al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 347; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 462; and idem, Qurrah, p. 186. 988 Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 149; Ibn Kathr, Tafsr, vol. 3, p. 546; and al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 4, p. 390.

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35:2).989 28. (noble; eminent; generous; beneficent; kind; honourable) There are four meanings of karm in the Qurn given by Ibn Qutaybah, as follows: a. ( distinguished, honoured, eminent) as in Asad),990 b. "... and shall cause you to enter an abode of glory." (Q. 4:31, 991 "a good place", according to al-T .abars's interpretation.

(forgiving), as in "..., verily, my Sustainer is self-sufficient, forgiving." (Q. 27:40).992 Al-T .abars's interpretation of karm in the above verse is "He is kind to His servants, grateful, ungrateful, disobedient as well as obedient among them."993 c. (bountiful), as in "... and a bountiful provision." (Q. 8:4 and 74; 22:50; 24:26; 34:4, Pickthall).994 d. (nice, fine, good) as in "... but speak to them a gracious word." (Q. 17:23, Pickthall).995 Another meaning of karm mentioned by Tifls and al-Dmaghn is respectively (a person who makes himself noble) and (a person who thinks he is noble) as in Q. 44:49.996 29. (likeness, similarity, example; lesson; similar case) Three meanings of mathal in the Qurn are mentioned by Ibn
Tifls, Wujh, p. 215; and al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 347. 990. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 494; Tifls and al-Dmaghn mention h .asan (good) as the translation of the term karm in the above verse, see Wujh, p. 250; and Qms, p. 403. 991. See Majma al-Bayn, vol. 2, p. 38. This is also the interpretation rendered by Ibn al-Jawz, see Nuzhah, p. 522. 992. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 494, and Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 522. 993 Al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 4, p. 224.
989

994. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 494 and Tifls, Wujh, p. 250. Here Ibn al-Jawz is quoting Ibn Qutaybah, see Nuzhah, p. 522; 995. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 495; Ibn Kathr, Tafsr, vol. 3, p. 37; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 522; and Tifls, Wujh, p. 250. 996 Tifls, Wujh, p. 250, and al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 403.

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Qutaybah, as follows: a. (similarity, likeness) as in "The likeness of those who choose other patrons than Allah is as the likeness of the spider when she takes unto herself a house, and lo! the frailest of all houses is the spider's house, if they but knew." (Q. 29:41, Pickthall).997 b. (example, lesson, advice) as in ("and so We made them a thing of the past, and an example to those who would come after them." (Q. 43:56, Asad).998 c. (image and description) as in "The image and the description of the Garden which those who keep their duty (to Allah) are promised: Therein are rivers of water unpolluted, ..." (Q. 47:15).999 Ibn Kathr mentions which is the synonym of (description) as 1000 the meaning of mathal in the above verse. Al-Farr states that the variant reading of Ibn Abbs and Al is , meaning .1001 30. (beating, striking, hitting)1002 Three meanings of d.arb in the Qurn are mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah, as follows: a. (beating with hands) as in "Now when you meet [in battle] those who disbelieve, smite their necks
997. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 496; al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 4, p. 284; and Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 11, p. 610. Ibn al-Jawz and Tifls cite Q. 14:24 as the example of the term mathal meaning shabah. See Qurrah, p. 216; and Wujh, p. 264. 998. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 496; Yah .y ibn Sall m, al-Tas .rf, p. 254; alT .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, p. 52; Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 11, p. 612; alDmaghn, Qms, p. 428; Ibn al-Jawz, Qurrah, p. 216; and Tifls, Wujh, p. 265. This is the interpretation of Mujhid; see Ibn Kathir, Tafsr, vol. 4, p. 141. 999. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 496; al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 3, p. 296; Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 11, p. 611; al-Dmaghn, Qms, pp. 428-9; and Ibn al-Jawz, Qurrah, p. 217. 1000. Ibn Kathr, Tafsr, vol. 4, p. 189. 1001. Al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 3, p. 60. 1002. According to Ibn al-Jawz the basic meaning of d .arb is striking with something like a whip, see Qurrah, p. 163.

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..." (Q. 47:4).1003 b. (travel), as in "... while others travel in the land..." (Q. 73:20, Pickthall).1004 c. (explanation and description), as in "Allah describes a parable..." (Q. 16:75 and 112).1005 According to Ibn al-Jawz, Tifls and al-Dmaghn the term d.arb in the above verse means was.f only, whereas al-T .abars mentions tabyn 1006 only. The fourth meaning of this term, according to al-Dmaghn and Tifls, is bayn, as in Q. 14:45 and Q. 25:39.1007 31. (one of a pair, a pair, a couple; mate, partner; husband, wife) Ibn Qutaybah mentions three meanings of zawj in the Qurn, as follows: a. (a pair or one of the pair), as in "and that it is He who creates the two pairs [namely, spouses] - the male and the female". (Q. 53:45). Here zawj means one of the pair.1008 b. (kind, species, class), as in "Limitless in His glory is He who has created all species in whatever the earth produces..." (Q. 36:36).1009 c. (companion, mate, fellow), as in
1003. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 397; Tifls, Wujh, p. 179; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, pp. 401-402; and idem, Qurrah, p. 164. Al-Dmaghn cites Q. 8:12 as an example see Qms, p. 288; see also Lane, Lexicon, pt. 5, p. 1778. 1004. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 497; al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, p. 382; al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 288; Tifls, Wujh, p. 178; Ibn Fris, Maqys, vol. 3, p. 398; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 401; and idem, Qurrah, p. 163. 1005. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 497. 1006 Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 402; idem, Qurrah, p. 164; Tifls, Wujh, p. 179; alDmaghn, Qms, p. 288; and al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 3, p. 375. Al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 288; and Tifls, Wujh, p. 179. For other meanings of d .arb, see al-Suyt ., Mutarak, vol. 2, p. 619.
1007

1008. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp. 498 and 340; and Tifls, Wujh, p. 123. According to Ibn al-Jawz and al-Dmaghn the meaning of azwj in Q. 4:12 and Q. 2:25 is "wives". See Qurrah, p. 140; and Qms, p. 219. 1009. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 498; idem, Tafsr, p. 365; idem, Mukhtalif alH .adth, p. 16; al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 2, p. 1190; al-T .abars, Majma alBayn, vol. 4, p. 424; Tifls, Wujh, p. 123; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 337; idem, Qurrah, p. 140; and al-Dmaghn, Qms, pp. 219-220.

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"[And God will thus command:] 'Assemble all those who were bent on evildoing, together with others of their ilk and [with] that they were wont to worship.'" (Q. 37:22, Asad). The meaning of azwj here is "companions". Ibn Qutaybah does not explain what kind of companions they are, but al-Dmaghn, Tifls and Ibn al-Jawz say that they are (their companions among the devils, namely, evil 1010 people). According to Mujhid, Umar and al-Sudd, the term azwj means "people like them who had committed similar sins", whereas according to Qatdah and Ab al-liyah, it means "the followers of people who had committed similar sins". However, these two slightly different interpretations are also given by Ibn Abbs, and both mean the same thing, namely "people committing the same sin will be assembled together", so that the adulterers will be assembled together, and alcohol drinkers will also be assembled together, and so on.1011 Al-H.asan interprets the term in the above verse as "the wives of idolaters who are also unbelievers and idolaters"; they will be assembled together with their husbands.1012 According to Qut.rub, Ibn Qutaybah, al-T .abar and al-Qurt.ub, the term zawj is applicable to one pair as well as one of a pair. There is no disagreement in accepting that it is applicable to one of a pair. It is explicitly said in the Qurn "Eight pairs: Of the sheep twain, and of the goats twain.... And of the camels twain and of the oxen twain..." (Q. 6:143144, Pickthall). The expression "eight pairs" means "eight individuals of (four) pairs": sheep, goats, camels and oxen. In Arabic expression it is said meaning "So-and-so has two mates of pigeons, namely, a male and a female); means "I have two individuals of a pair of slippers". This is also the argument of Ibn al-Anbr who rejects the opinion that the term zawj is also applicable to a pair instead of exclusively one of a pair. However, according to al-T .abar and al-Qurt.ub it is possible to say either ("both are two spouses") or
1010. For another example, see Q. 81:7. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 498; idem, Tafsr, p. 370; al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 220; Tifls, Wujh, p. 123; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 336; and idem, Qurrah, pp. 139-140. 1011. See al-T .abar, Jmi, vol. 23:31.
1012. Al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 4, p. 441.

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("both are a pair"). It is, al-Qurt.ub contends, like saying

("both

are the same", in dual form) and ("both are the same", in singular form).1013 According to al-Zamakhshar, one of a pair is called zawj on the condiutuion that it is accompanied with the other ionber of the pair. It is like calling zujjah (a glass) kas (a cup, as drinking glass) if it contains alcohol.1014 Like Ibn al-Anbr, al-Sijistn and Ibn al-Fris also say thgat zawj means one of a pair and not two.1015 In modern Arabic, zawj means one of a pair as well as a pair, a spouse (a husband or a wife) as well as a couple, a mate, a partner, while zawjah means a wife. 32. (seeing, viewing) Ibn Qutaybah mentions three meanings of ruyah in the Qurn, as follows: a. (seeing with eyes), as in "And [so], on the Day of Resurrection thou wilt see all who invented lies about God [with] their faces darkened [by grief and ignominy]...." (Q. 39:60, Asad).1016 b. (knowledge), as in Are, then, they who are bent on denying the truth not aware that the heavens and the earth were [once] one single entity, which We then parted asunder? ..." (Q. 21:30).1017 c. (notification, information), as in "Hast thou not been informed of those who have received the Scripture...?" (Q. 3:23 and 4:44 and 51).1018
1013. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp. 339-340; idem, Tafsr, p. 162; idem, Adab alKtib, p. 641; Ibn al-Anbr, al-Ad .dd, p. 373 (no. 281); al-T .abar, Jmi, vol. 8, p. 48; al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 7, p. 113; and Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 2, p. 291. 1014. Al- Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 430. 1015. Lane, Lexicon, pt. 3, pp. 1266-1267, and Ibn Fris, Maqys, vol. 2, p. 35. 1016. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 499; Tifls, Wujh, p. 108; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 319; idem, Qurrah, p. 128; and al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 188. 1017. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 499; al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 4, p. 45; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 320; idem, Qurrah, pp. 128-129; Tifls, Wujh, p. 108; and al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 188. 1018. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 499; and idem, Tafsr, p. 128.

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According to Tifls and al-Dmaghn, the meaning of

is

(have not you seen what they have done), while according to alZamakhshar and al-Zamakhshar the expression means (has not it come to your knowledge about).1019 Ibn al-Jawz, who cites six meanings of ruyah, mentions the three other meanings, as follows: (1) (consideration), as in "Have, then, they [who deny the truth] never considered the birds, enabled [by God] to fly in mid-air, ..." (Q. 16:79, Asad); (2) (hearing), as in "Now, whenever thou hear such as indulge in [blasphemous] talk about Our messages, ..." (Q. 6:68); and (3) (wonder, astonishment, amazement, surprise), as in "Hast thou not been surprised at those who consider themselves pure?..." (Q. 4:49), and "Hast thou not been surprised at those who claim that they believe in that which is revealed unto thee..." (Q. 4:60).1020 The term taajjub is usually translated as "wonder", "astonishment" or "amazement". However, I have chosen surprise" in translating this term in the above verses, since this word "can also suggest a certain amount of moral condemnation."1021 This "certain amount of condemnation" is also found in the above verses. The first verse was revealed in the cases of the Arabs in the early period of Islam, the Jews and the Christians: The Arabs liked to praise and flatter each other. They claimed to be pure and said that the sins they committed in the day time would be forgiven at night, and vice versa, and therefore were sinless like babies (alD.ah.h.k's and al-Sudd's interpretation). The Jews considered themselves "God's chosen people" (see Q. 5:18) and therefore were
Tifls, Wujh, p. 108; al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 189, al-Zamakhshar alKashshf, vol. 1, p. 293; and al-Zamakhshar, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 2, p. 53. Among the examples of meaning "have not you been informed" given by al-Dmaghn, Tifls and Ibn al-Jawz are Q. 2:258 and Q. 105:1, see al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 189; Tifls, Wujh, pp. 108-109; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, pp. 320-321; and idem, Qurrah, p. 130. 1020. Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 320 and idem, Qurrah, p. 129. 1021 S.I. Hayakawa, Choose the Right Word: A Modern Guide to Synonyms (New York: Harper & Row, 1968), p. 610.
1019

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destined for His grace, whereas the Christians believed in "Jesus's vicarious atonement" for the sins of man. The second verse deals with those who reject the laws of God in general and the hypocrites in particular.1022 33. (forgetfulness, oblivion) Two meanings of nisyn in the Qurn are mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah, as follows: a. (the opposite to remembering), as in "... behold, I forgot about the fish..." (Q. 18:63, Asad).1023 b. (omission, neglect, abandonment, leaving), as in "And verily We made a covenant of old with Adam, but he neglected it, and We found no firmness of purpose in him." (Q. 20:115).1024 This is the interpretation of Ibn Abbs according to alT .abars. Ibn Zayd's interpretation is that Adam overlooked the covenant and unintentionally made the mistake by eating the prohibited fruit.1025 (bolt of lightning, thunderbolt, thunder) and (strike of lightning, the act of stunning or being stunned, unconsciousness) Ibn Qutaybah mentions three meanings of s.iqah and s.aaq in the Qurn, as follows: a. (death) as in "And [on that Day,] the trumpet [of judgment] will be sounded, and all [creatures] that are in the heavens and all that are on earth will die,..." (Q. 39:68).1026
For further details, see al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 5, pp. 246-247 and 263-264; and al-S .bn, Mukhtas .ar, vol. 1, pp. 402-403 and 408-409; see also Asad, The Message, p. 113, n. 66. 1023. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 500; Tifls, Wujh, p. 285; al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 455; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 580; and idem, Qurrah, p. 226. 1024. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 500; idem, Tafsr, p. 283; al-Farr, Man lQurn, vol. 2, p. 193; Tifls, Wujh, p. 285; al-Dmaghn. Qms, pp. 454-455; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, pp. 379-380; idem, Qurrah, p. 226; and Ibn Fris, Maqys, vol. 5, pp. 422-423. Al-Zamakhshar also mentions "forget" as the other meaning of nasiya in this verse, see al-Kashshf, vol. 2, p. 868. 1025. See al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 4, p. 32.
1022

34.

1026. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 501; Ibn Kathr, Tafsr, vol. 4, p. 69; al-Rghib al-As .bahn, al-Mufradt, p. 281; al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 4, p. 508; Ibn al-

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b.

(punishment), as in "But if they turn away, say: 'I warn you of [the coming of] a thunderbolt of punishment like the thunderbolt [that fell upon the tribes] of d and Thamd.'" (Q. 41:13, Asad).1027 c. (fire from the cloud), as in "...; and He [it is Who] lets loose the thunderbolts and strikes with them whom He wills." (Q. 13:13, Asad).1028 Another meaning of the term which is not mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah is (unconsciousness), as in "...; 1029 and Moses fell down in a swoon...." (Q. 7:143). This is the interpretation of Ibn Abbs, al-H.asan and Ibn Zayd. Moses was unconscious and later became conscious again, as the verse continues with "And when he 1030 came to himself..." (Q. 7:143).

Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 391; idem, Qurrah, p. 160; and Tiflisi, Wujh, p. 169. AlDmaghn, mentions the meaning as (death at the appointed time without being punishment), see Qms, p. 281, whereas Ibn Fris renders the meaning of s .aiqa in the above verse as "death caused by lightning", see Maqys, vol. 3, pp. 285-286. Lane mentions several meanings, namely, "shall die", "shall fall down dead" or "in a swoon", or "shall lose their reason"; see Lexicon, pt. 4, p. 1690. According to Ibn Abbs, the word meaning death is the language of Ghassn, see Ibn Abbs, Gharb al-Qurn, p. 38, and in the language of Oman, see Ab Ubayd ibn Sallm, Lught al-Qabil, P. 46. 1027. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 501; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 392; idem, Qurrah, p. 160; Tifls, Wujh, p. 169; al-Rghib al-As .bahn, al-Mufradt, p. 281; and alDmaghn, Qms, p. 280. Al-Zamakhshar and al-T .abars interpret s .iqah respectively as "a severe punishment like a thunderbolt" and "a punishment like that inflicted on d and Thamd", see al-Kashshf, vol. 2, p. 1293, and Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, p. 7. 1028. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 501; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 392; idem, Qurrah, p. 160; Tifls, Wujh, p. 170; al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 281; and al-Rghib alAs .bahn, al-Mufradt, p. 281. 1029. Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 392; idem, Qurrah, p. 160; and al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 475. Al-Dmaghn uses Q. 2:55-56 as the example of the term s .iqah meaning "death from punishment other than the appointed time, and the person concerned returns to the world", namely, "unconsciousness", see Qms, p. 280. 1030. See al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 2, p. 475.

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35.

(taking, accepting, receiving, seizing)

According to Ibn Qutaybah, the basic meaning of akhdh from which other meanings are metaphorically derived is "to take with hand".1031 He does not include it as one of the meanings of the term in the Qurn, and therefore, he does not give us any example from it. However, Tifls mentions an example from the Qurn in which the term akhdh means the taking itself, namely, "And whenever thy Sustainer takes their offspring from the loins of the children of Adam,..." (Q. 7:172).1032 Ibn Qutaybah mentions three metaphorical meanings of akhdh in the Qurn as follows: a. (acceptance), as in "If such-and-such teaching] is vouchsafed unto you, accept it;..." (Q. 5:41, Asad).1033 b. (arrest and taking a prisoner, detaining), as in "They said: 'O thou great one! Behold, he has a father, a very old man: detain, therefore, one of us in his stead...." (Q. 12:7 , Asad).1034 c. (act of punishment, torture), as in "And such is thy Sustainers punishing grasp [i.e., punishment] whenever He takes to task any community that is given to evildoing: verily, His punishing grasp [i.e., punishment] is grievous, severe!." (Q. 11:102, Asad).1035 Al-Dmaghn, Ibn al-Jawz and Tifls mention one more meaning of akhdh in the Qurn, namely,
1031. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 502. 1032. Tifls, Wujh, p. 12. Both al-Zamakhshar and mention akhraja ("take out") as the meaning of akhadha in this verse, see al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 489; and Majma al-Bayn, vol. 2, p. 497. 1033. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 502; al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 20; Tifls, Wujh, p. 10; and Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 133. 1034. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 502 and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 1, p. 28. According to al-Dmaghn, Ibn al-Jawz and Tifls, the meaning of the term in this verse is "arrest" only, not "taking a prisoner", see Qms, p. 21, Nuzhah, p. 133, and Wujh, p. 11. Ibn Kathr mentions the meaning of khudh in the above verse as baddil (exchange), see Tafsr, vol. 2, p. 504. 1035. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 503; al-Dmaghn, Ibn al-Jawz and Tifls use the meaning adhb (punishment, torture) instead of tadhb for the term akhdh in the above verse, see Qms, p. 21, Nuzhah, p. 134; and Wujh, p. 11.

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(killing), as in "... and each of those communities schemed to kill the messenger sent unto them,..." (Q. 40:5).1036 In the Arabic expression the term akhdh means "manners", "a way of life" or "disposition". Therefore, the above expression means "The sons of So-and-so and those who took to their way of life - and adopt their manners or disposition - went away."1037 36. (strength, might, force, power, authority) There are two meanings of sult.n in the Qurn given by Ibn Qutaybah, as follows: a. (power and force), as in ".... Yet I had no power at all over you: I but called you - and you responded unto me...." (Q. 14:22, Asad).1038 b. (argument, evident, proof), as in And verily We sent Moses with Our revelations and a clear proof..." (Q. 40:23).1039 37. (might, strength and distress) There are three meanings of bas and bas mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah, as follows: a. (misfortune, hardship, affliction), as in "And, indeed, We sent Our messages unto people before thy time, [O Prophet,] and visited them with misfortune and hardship..." (Q. 6:42, Asad).1040
1036. Al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 21; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 134; and Tifls, Wujh, p. 11. See also al-T .abars, Maj ma al-Bayn, vol. 4, p. 514 and Ibn Kathr, Tafsr, vol. 4, p. 77. 1037 Lane, Lexicon, pt. 1, p. 30. 1038. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 504; idem, Tafsr, p. 33; and Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 345. Tifls and al-Dmaghn mention mulk only as the meaning of the term, see Wujh, pp. 133-134 and Qms, p. 243, 1039. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 504; idem, Tafsr, p. 33; Ibn Kathr, Tafsr, vol. 4, p. 83; al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 2, p. 1276; al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 4, p. 519; Tifls, Wujh, p. 133; al-Dmaghn, Qms, pp. 242-243.; and Ibn alJawz, Nuzhah, p. 345. 1040. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 505; and Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 185. Tifls

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b.

(severe punishment), as in "And, then, when they [clearly] beheld Our punishment, they said: We have come to believe in the One God, ..." (Q. 40:84, Asad).1041 c. (the strength in fighting), as in ".... Allah may well curb the strength in fighting of those who disbelieve ..." (Q. 4:84).1042 38. (creation, making) Ibn Qutaybah mentions four meanings of khalq from the Qurn, as follows: a. (the act of measuring, determining the measure, proportion, or the like, of a thing) which is, according to Ibn Qutaybah, the basic meaning of khalq, is derived from the Arabic expression ("assessor of skin"), namely, the woman who assesses and measures a piece of leather before cutting it to be made into something such as a waterskin or a haversack. Ibn Qutaybah does not mention any example from the Qurn, but from Zuhayr's poem praising a person who carries out what he has determined to do as follows: *
And thou indeed cuttest [namely, execute] what thou hast measured [namely, planned]; but some of the people measure [namely, plan to do something] then will not cut [namely, execute it].

suggests (drought and hardship) as the meaning of in the above verse. Al-Dmaghn mentions different verses, namely Q. 7:94 and 2:14, in which , according to him, means (poverty and hardship); see Qms, 62. 1041. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 505; and Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 184. Ibn Kathr, Tifls and al-Dmaghn mention adhb as the meaning of the term in the above verse, see Tafsr, vol. 4, p. 97; Wujh, p. 42 ; and Qms, p. 62. Lane mentions both "punishment" and "severe punishment" as the meaning of the term bas; see Lexicon, pt. 1, p. 146. 1042. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 505; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 1, p. 146. Ibn alJawz mentions al-shiddah f l-qitl, whereas Tifls and al-Dmaghn simply suggest al-qitl (the fighting) as the meaning of the term in the above verse; see Wujh, p. 42; and Qms, p. 62.

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(Lane's translation).1043

b. (fabricating lies). The Arabic expression means "So-and-so related to us legends, fabricated lies."1044 Lane's translation and explanation of the above expression is as follows: "Such a one related to us fictitious tales or stories, such as are deemed pretty, or such as are told by night (for entertainment).1045 The example from the Qurn is as follows: This is but a fable [namely, fabricated lies] of the men of old." (Q. 26:137).1046 This variant reading, khalq al-awwaln ("the fables of the men of old"), was that of Ibn Kathr, al-Kis, Ab Jafar and Ab Amr ibn al-Al. Another variant reading, khuluq al-awwaln ("the tradition and religion of the men of old"), was that of the qurr of Madinah in general except Ab Jafar, and of Kfah of later generations in general. Commenting on this reading Ibn Abbs said that the people of d told their prophet Hd that they did what they did according to their ancestors' tradition and religion.1047 This reading was chosen by al-Farr and Ibn Kathr.1048 c. (shaping), as in "... and how thou didst shape of clay as it were the likeness of a bird by My permission...." (Q. 5:110, Pickthall).1049
1043. See Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 507; Lane, Lexicon, pt. 2, pp. 799-800; Ibn Fris, Maqys, vol. 2, pp. 213-214; al-Rghib al-As .bahn, al-Mufradt, p. 157; and Zuhayr, Dwn, p. 29 in which it is written instead of . What the poet means, according to Ibn Manz .r, is as follows: "If you consider doing something you execute and accomplish it, while others consider but they do not execute it, because they do not have a firm decision, while you are firm in your decision." See Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 10, p. 87. 1044. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 506 and Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 10. p. 88. Lane, Lexicon, pt. 2, p. 800. 1046. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 506; al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 4, p. 198; Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 10, p. 88; Tifls, Wujh, p. 91; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 284; idem, Qurrah, p. 107; and al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 163. 1047. Al-T .abar, Jmi, vol. 19. p. 60, and al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 13, pp. 125-126. See also al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 2, p. 1004. 1048. See al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 281; and Ibn Kathr, Tafsr, vol. 3, p. 355. 1049. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 506; Ibn Kathr, Tafsr, vol. 2, p. 119; al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 2, p. 262; Tifls, Wujh, p. 91; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 284; idem, Qurrah, p. 108; and al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 163.
1045

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d.

(creating and beginning something), as in

"It is He who has created you [all] out of one living entity, and out of it brought into being its mate, ..." (Q. 7:189, Asad).1050 e. (ordinance, decree, religion), as in ".... There is no altering Allah's ordinance ..." (Q. 30:30).1051 It means that Allah's decree pertaining to tawh.d (the Oneness of Allah), justice, and sincerity in worship have to be observed firmly by people. This is the interpretation of al-D.ah.h.k, Mujhid, Qatdah, Sad ibn Jubayr, Ibrhm al-Nakh and Ibn Zayd.1052 However, Ikrimah renders another interpretation on the authority of Ibn Abbs and Umar, that the verse means that there is no change in Allah's creation, and therefore, it is prohibited to castrate the livestock.1053 39. a. (throwing or casting of stones, stoning) Ibn Qutaybah mentions five meanings of rajm as follows: (throwing), which is the basic meaning of rajm,1054 as in And indeed, We have adorned the skies nearest to the earth with lamps [namely, stars], and We have made them missiles for casting at the devils..." (Q. 67:5).1055 This is one interpretation. Another interpretation is that the stars are made as a means
1050. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 507; and Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 10, p. 85. Ibn al-Jawz uses the term al-jd (making, bringing into being) here, see Nuzhah, p. 284; and Qurrah, p. 107. Quoting Q. 32:4 and 23:12, al-Dmaghn and Tifls give the example in the Qurn in which al-khalq means al-khalq f l-duny (creation in the world); see Qms, p. 164; and Wujh, p. 90. 1051. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 507; al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 2, p. 1094; Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 10, p. 85; Tifls, Wujh, p. 90; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 285; and idem, Qurrah, p. 108. 1052. See al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 14, p. 31; al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 4, p. 303; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 2, p. 801. 1053. See al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 14, p. 31. There are two h .adths in which the Prophet prohibited castrating domestic animals: one on the authority of Ibn Abbs, and the other, on the authority of Ibn Umar. For further details, see ibid., vol. 5, pp. 390-1. 1054. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 508; and Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 12, p. 227. 1055. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 508; Tifls, Wujh, p. 111; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 318; idem, Qurrah, p. 127; and al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 197.

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of guessing and "missiles thrown at the unseen" by the devils of mankind, namely, astrologers, using stars as guides to the unknown.1056 b. (killing), as in "Said [the others]: 'Truly, we augur evil from you. If you desist not, we will surely kill you...'" (Q. 36:18).1057 Ibn Qutaybah states that it is reported that Qbl (Cain) killed his brother Hbl (Abel) by throwing (rajm) stones at him. Since he was the first man killed, the act of killing is metaphorically called rajm, although without using stones.1058 This is the interpretation of Qatdah, while that of Mujhid is ("I shall surely abuse you").1059 c. (abuse, scold, vilification), as in "He answered: 'Dost thou dislike my gods, O Abraham? Indeed, if thou desist not, I shall surely abuse thee..." (Q. 19:46).1060 This is the interpretation of al-Sudd, Ibn Jurayj, and al-Farr, whereas "stoning" as the meaning of rajm here is the interpretation of al-H.asan and al-Jubb.1061 d. (guess, assumption), as in "[And in times to come] some will say, '[They were] three, the fourth of them being their dog,' while others will say, 'Five, with their dog as the sixth of them - idly guessing at something of which they can have no knowledge - ..." (Q. 18:22, Asad).1062 This is the
1056. See al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 2, p. 1508; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 3, p. 1048. 1057. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 508; Tifls, Wujh, p. 111; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 318; idem, Qurrah, p. 127; and al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 196. 1058 Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 508. 1059. See al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 4, p. 419; and Ibn Kathr, Tafsr, vol. 3, p. 575. 1060. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 508; Tifls, Wujh, p. 111; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 318; idem, Qurrah, p. 128; al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 197; al-Rghib alAs .bahn, al-Mufradt, p. 190; Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 12, p. 227; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 3, p. 1047. Both interpretations are also mentioned by Ibn Fris, see Maqys, vol. 2, p. 494. 1061. See al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 3, p. 517; al-Farr, Man lQurn, vol. 2, p. 169; and Ibn Kathr, Tafsr, vol. 3, p. 130. 1062. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 508; al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 796; Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 12, p. 227; Tifls, Wujh, p. 112; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p.

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interpretation of Qatdah and Ab Ubaydah.1063 According ti Ibn Abbs the term meaning is the language of Hudhayl.1064 e. (curse, banishment). Satan is called rajm (outcast) because he is repelled with shooting stars (meteors) from ascending to heaven. No example from the Qurn is given by Ibn Qutaybah. Others give the following verse: "Now whenever thou happen to read this Qurn, seek refuge with Allah from Satan, the accursed [namely, cast at with curse]." (Q. 16:98, Asad).1065 40. (quick movement, effort) Ibn Qutaybah mentions four meanings of say in the Qurn, as follows: a. (walking quickly), or (running) as in "And [then and there] a man came running from the farthermost end of the city,..." (Q. 28:20, Asad).1066 b. (walking), as in "And when (his son) was old enough to walk with him, (Abraham) said: O my dear son, I have seen in a dream that I must sacrifice thee...." (Q. 37:102, Pickthall).1067 He was at an age where he could assist his father Abraham in his daily affairs according to Mujhid and Ab Ubaydah, which is approximately thirteen years old. According to Ibn
319; idem, Qurrah, p. 128; al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 197; al-Rghib al-As .bahn, alMufradt, p. 190; al-Suyt ., Mutarak, vol. 2, p. 134 and vol. 13, p. 563; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 3, p. 1048. According to Ibn Abbs the term meaning is the language of Hudhayl, see Gharb al-Qurn, p. 54. 1063. See al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 3, p. 460; and Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 398. 1064 Ibn Abbs, Gharb al-Qurn, p. 54. 1065. Tifls, Wujh, p. 111; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 318; idem, Qurrah, p. 128; al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 197; al-Rghib al-As .bahn, al-Mufradt, p. 190; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 3, p. 1049. 1066. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 509; idem, Tafsr, p. 330; al-T .abars, Majma alBayn, vol. 4, p. 246; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 349; idem, Qurrah, p. 143; Tifls, Wujh, p. 130; al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 238; and al-Suyt ., Mutarak, vol. 3, p. 228. 1067. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 509; Yah .y ibn Sallm, al-Tas .rf, p. 309; Tifls, Wujh. p. 130; al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 237; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 4, p. 1366.

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Kathr, this is the interpretation of Ibn Abbs, Ikrimah, Sad ibn Jubayr, At. and Zayd ibn Aslam. This interpretation is also mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah. Another interpretation is that it was the age where he worked for Allah and worshipped Him, according to al-H.asan, al-Kalb, Ibn Zayd and Muqtil.1068 c. (action, work, effort), as in "Verily, your effort is dispersed (towards divergent ends)." (Q. 92:4).1069 d. (striving, labouring) as in whereas for those who strive against Our messages, seeking to defeat their purpose, there is grievous suffering in store as an outcome of [their] vileness." (Q. 34:5, Asad).1070 Despite the difference of meanings, Ibn Qutaybah states that the basic meaning of the term say is walking quickly . This is also the view of Ibn al-Jawz.1071 41. a. (protected women) Ibn Qutaybah mentions three meanings of muh.s.ant as follows: (married women), for they are protected by their husbands, as in "And [forbidden to you are] all married women other than those whom you rightfully possess
1068. See al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 4, p. 452; Ibn Kathr, Tafsr, vol. 4, pp. 16-17; Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 171; and Ibn Qutaybah, Tafsr, p. 373 1069. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 510; Yah .y ibn Sallm, al-Tas .rf, p. 310; Ibn Kathr, Tafsr, vol. 4, p. 553; al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, p. 501; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 350; idem, Qurrah, p. 143; Tifls, Wujh, p. 130; and al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 237. 1070. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 510, and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 4, p. 1366. Tifls and al-Rghib al-As .bahn use the word jahd (exertion, effort) instead of jidd for the meaning of say in the above verse, whereas al-T .abars uses both words; see Wujh, p. 130, al-Mufradt, p. 233; and Majma al-Bayn, vol. 4, p. 377. Yah .y ibn Sall m and al-Dmaghn keep the meaning amal for the term say in the above verse, while Ab Ubaydah mentions "disbelieving", see al-Tas .rf, p. 310; Qms, p. 237; and Majz al-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 142. 1071. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 510; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 349; and idem, Qurrah, p. 143.

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[through wedlock]..." (Q. 4:24, Asad).1072 Al-Farr and al-T .abar mention both dhawt al-azwj and al-af'if (chaste women) for the meaning of al-muh.s.ant in this verse. 1073 This is also the view of Thalab who says that every affah (a chaste woman) is a muh.s.anah (a protected woman) and a muh.s.inah (a self-protecting woman), whereas every married woman is a muh.s.anah only.1074 b. (free women, not slaves), although they are unmarried. Unlike slaves, free women can protect as well as be protected. The example in the Qurn is as follows:

"And as for those of you who, owing to circumstances, are not in a position to marry free believing women, [let them marry] believing maidens from among those whom you rightfully possess..." (Q. 4.25, Asad).1075 c. (chaste women), as in "And as for those who accuse chaste women [of adultery]..." (Q. 24:4, Asad).1076 42. a. (possession, pleasure, object of delight) Ibn Qutaybah gives us four meanings of mat as follows: (period of time, limited or appointed time, term), as in ;... and on earth you shall have your abode and a period of time till the end (of the appointed time)." (Q. 2:36). Pickthall, Asad and Ali respectively translate mat here as "provision",
1072. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 511; al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 282; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, pp. 553-554; idem, Qurrah, p. 218; and Tifls, Wujh, p. 266. For al-Dmaghn, the meaning of the term in the above verse is al-h .arir (free women), see Qms, p. 135. 1073. See Man l-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 260; and Jmi, vol. 5, pp. 2-7. 1074. See Ibn Fris, Maqys, vol. 2, p. 69. 1075. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 511; idem, Mukhtalif al-H .adth, p. 193; Ibn Kathr, Tafsr, vol. 1, p. 486; al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 2, p. 34; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 553; idem, Qurrah, p. 218; Tifls, Wujh, p. 266; and al-Dmaghn, Qms, pp. 134-135. 1076. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 511; al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 4, p. 126; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 553; idem, Qurrah, p. 217; and al-Suyt ., Mutarak, vol. 2, p. 288. Instead of Q. 24:4 above, al-Dmaghn and Tifls cite the verse (chaste not debauched) in Q. 4:25, see Qms, p. 135; and Wujh, p. 266.

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"livelihood" and "means of livelihood", while according to Ibn Qutaybah it means "a period of time".1077 However, Ibn Qutaybah interprets "enjoyment" (mutah) as the meaning of mat in his Tafsr. He also interprets the meaning of in this verse as ("till the oppointed time") which is commonly understood as "till the time of death".1078 AlZamakhshar interprets mat as "enjoyment of life" , while that of al-T , and h.n as "the time of death", "the .abars is "enjoyment" end of the appointed time", or "the day of Resurrection".1079 Ibn Qutaybah's understanding of the verse is that Allah gave Adam temporary life (or enjoyment) on this earth, which would end with death. This life is in contrast with life in Heaven which is permanent and will not end with death. b. (tools, utensils), as in "...and, likewise, from that [metal] which they smelt in the fire in order to make ornaments or utensils, [there rises] scum...." (Q. 13:17, Asad).1080 c. (benefit, avail), as in "[On the other hand] you will incur no sin if you [freely] enter houses not intended for living in but serving a purpose useful to you:..." (Q. 24:29).1081
1077. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 512. Al-Dmaghn and Ibn al-Jawz give albalgh (reaching the end) as the meaning of mat in this verse, although Ibn al-Jawz also mentions Ibn Qutaybah's interpretation; see Qms, p. 427, and Nuzhah, pp. 558559. 1078. See Tafsr Gharb al-Qurn, p. 46. This is also the meaning given by alQurt .ub, see al-Jmi, vol. 1, p. 321. 1079. See al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 70; Majma al-Bayn, vol. 1, p. 87; and Tifls, Wujh, p. 263. 1080. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 512; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, 553; al-Rghib alAs .bahn, al-Mufradt, p. 461; and al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 3, p. 287. AlDmaghn and Tifls specify the "useful substances", namely, minerals, such as gold, iron, and brass as the meaning of mat in the above verse, see Qms, p. 428 and Wujh, p. 264. 1081. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 512; al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 249; al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 2, p. 947; al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 427; Tifls, Wujh, p. 263; Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 8, p. 332; Ibn Fris, Maqys, vol. 5, p. 293, and Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 559. Al-T .abars's inter-pretation of mat here is istimt

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d.

(the benefit, provision or maintenance a divorced woman gets from her husband after divorce other than the dowry).1082 Ibn Qutaybah does not give us an example for this meaning. Others give us the following verse: "And the divorced women, too, shall have [a right to] maintenance in a goodly manner: this is a duty for all who are conscious of God." (Q. 2:241, Asad).1083 (counting, reckoning, calculation)

43.

Ibn Qutaybah mentions three meanings of h.isb in the Qurn, as follows: a. (plenty, abundance). The expression means "I gave him what is sufficient for him" . The example from the Qurn is as follows: [All this will be] a reward from thy Sustainer, an abundant gift." (Q. 78:36).1084 b. (repayment, recompense, punishment), as in

(enjoyment), see Majma al-Bayn, vol. 4, p. 136. 1082. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 512; and al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 1, p. 345. 1083. See al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 428; al-Rghib al-As .bahn, al-Mufradt, p. 461; Tifls, Wujh, p. 263; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 559; and al-Zamakhshar, alKashshf, vol. 1, pp. 163-164. 1084. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 512; Tifls, Wujh, p. 72; and al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 128. Ibn Kathr, Al-Rghib al-As .bahn and Ibn al-Jawz interpret al-kf (sufficient) for the meaning of h .isb in the above verse, see Tafsr, vol. 4, p. 496; alMufradt, pp. 116-117; Nuzhah, p. 251; and Qurrah, p. 95. Ibn Manz .r interprets the meaning of as "an abundant and sufficient gift"; the expression means "something sufficient"; in the language of the Hudhayl tribe the expression means "a large group ( ) of people came to me". See Lisn, vol. 1, p. 313, s.v. . Besides "sufficient" Ab Ubaydah and al-Zamakhshar mention another meaning of h .isb in the above verse, namely, "recompense" and "based on the reckoning of their deeds" ( ) respectively; see Majz al-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 283; and al-Kashshf, vol. 2, p. 1572. Qatdah's interpretation of h .isb here is "abundant", whereas that of Mujhid is "recompense", see al-T .abar, Jmi, vol. 30, p. 14.

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Their recompense rests with none but my Sustainer: if you could but understand [this]! (Q. 26:113Asad).1085 c. (reckoning, accounting), as in "He will in time be called to account with an easy accounting." (Q. 84:8, Asad).1086 44. (order, command, decree, authority, affair) Ibn Qutaybah mentions nine meanings of amr, as follows: a. (divine decree), as in "His verily is all creation and divine decree..." (Q. 7:54).1087 b. (religion) as in "But they (mankind) have broken their religion among them into sects, ..." (Q. 23:53, Pickthall).1088 c. (word, speech, remark, statement, report, account), as in ".... When (the people of the city) disputed their statements among themselves, ..." (Q. 18:21).1089
1085. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 512; Tifls, Wujh, p. 72; al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 128; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 251; and Qurrah, p. 94. 1086. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 513; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 251; and idem, Qurrah, p. 94. Tifls and al-Dmaghn give different meanings of h .isban in the above verse, namely, (easy number) and (easy presentation) respectively, see Wujh, p. 72; and Qms, p. 129. 1087. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 514; Yah .y ibn Sall m, al-Tas .rf, p. 233; Tifls, Wujh, p. 31; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 174; idem, Qurrah, p. 63; and alDmaghn, Qms, p. 40. Al-Zamakhshar and al-T .abars also give the similar meaning; see al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 450; and Majma al-Bayn, vol. 2, p. 428. 1088. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 514; Yah .y ibn Sallm, al-Tas .rf, p. 231; alZamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 2, p. 926; al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 4, p. 109; Tifls, Wujh, pp. 30-31; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 173; idem, Qurrah, p. 62; and alDmaghn, Qms, pp. 38-39. 1089. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 514; Yah .y ibn Sall m, al-Tas .rf, p. 231; Tifls, Wujh, p. 33; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 173; idem, Qurrah, p. 62; and alDmaghn, Qms, p. 39. They disputed among themselves concerning the resurrection, whether it will be the soul only or body and soul; another interpretation is that they disputed among themselves concerning the length of time the people of the cave had spent in their cave and what to do with them. See al-Zamakhshar, alKashshf, vol. 1, p. 794, and al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 3, p. 490.

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d.

(punishment), as in "And when punishment will be decided, Satan will say..." (Q. 14:22).1090 e. (resurrection), as in "The commandment of Allah [namely, the resurrection] is [bound] to come: do not therefore, call for its speedy advent!..." (Q. 16:1). 1091 This is Ibn Abbs's interpretation. Other interpretations are: Allah's punishment on disbelievers among the idolaters, according to al-H.asan and Ibn Jurayj, and Allah's laws and injunctions, according to al-D.ah.h.k.1092 f. (resurrection or death), as in "... and you were hesitant, and you were doubtful; and your wishful thinking beguiled you until Allah's command [namely, resurrection or death] came to pass; ..." (Q. 57:14).1093 g. (inspiration, revelation), as in "Through all of them descends His inspiration,..." (Q. 65:12).1094 h. (offence, sin, crime, misdeed), as in "And thus they had to taste the evil outcome of their own

1090. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 514; Yah .y ibn Sall m, al-Tas .rf, p. 232; Tifls, Wujh, p. 31; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 173; idem, Qurrah, p. 63; and alDmaghn, Qms, p. 39. According to Ibn Abbs and al-H .asan qud .iya l-amr means "the matter has been decided and the companions of Heaven and Hell enter their respective place". See al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 3, p. 311. 1091. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 514; Yah .y ibn Sall m, al-Tas .rf, p. 233; Tifls, Wujh, p. 31; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 174; idem, Qurrah, p. 63; al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 40; and al-Rghib al-As .bahn, al-Mufradt, p. 25. 1092. See al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 3, p. 348 and Ibn Kathr, Tafsr, vol. 4, p. 581. 1093. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp. 514-515; Ibn Kathr, Tifls and Ibn al-Jawz give exclusively death for the meaning of amr in the above verse, see Tafsr, vol. 4, p. 331; Wujh, p. 31; Qurrah, p. 64; and Nuzhah, p. 174. Other interpretations of amr Allh in this verse are: "the punishment of disbelievers in Hell", and "Allah's assisting His religion and Prophet" and "conquering the disbelievers"; see al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, p. 237. 1094. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 515; Yah .y ibn Sall m, al-Tas .rf, p. 233; Tifls, Wujh, p. 31; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 174; idem, Qurrah, p. 64; and alDmaghn, Qms, p. 40.

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offence, and the consequence of their offence was loss." (Q. 65:9).1095 i. ( everything), as in "....Behold, all things tend towards Allah" (Q. 42:53).1096 We have seen that Ibn Qutaybah mentions nine meanings of the term amr. They are only about half of the meanings given by Yah.y ibn Sallm, Tifls, al-Dmaghn and Ibn al-Jawz who mention respectively thirteen, fourteen, sixteen, and nineteen meanings. This indicates Ibn Qutaybah's brief account in dealing with the term in particular, and al-wujh wa l-naz.ir in the Qurn in general. Among the meanings of amr not mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah in his Tawl, are the following: a. (the execution of the infidels of Makkah in the battle of Badr), as in "..., (it was) that Allah might conclude a thing [namely, the killing of the infidels of Makkah in the battle of Badr] that must be done..." (Q. 8:44).1097 b. (the conquest of Makkah), as in "... then wait till Allah makes manifest His will [namely, the conquest of Makkah]..." (Q. 9:24).1098 This is the interpretation of Ibn Abbs and Mujhid, whereas according to al-H.asan it is the punishment which will be inflicted upon disbelievers.1099
1095. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 515; Yah .y ibn Sall m, al-Tas .rf, p. 234; Tifls, Wujh, pp. 31-32; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 175; idem, Qurrah, p. 64; and alDmaghn, Qms, p. 40. Al-T .abars mentions kufr as the meaning of amr in this verse, see Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, p. 309. 1096. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 515; and Tifls, Wujh, p. 31. Ibn al-Jawz and al-Dmaghn mention the meaning of amr as shan (affair, case), see Qurrah, p. 64, and Qms, p. 41, whereas in Nuzhah Ibn al-Jawz mentions (affair and condition), see Nuzhah, p. 175. 1097. Yah .y ibn Sallm, al-Tas .rf, p. 232; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 174; idem, Qurrah, p. 63; al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 39; and Tifls, Wujh, p. 32. It is said that the term amr in verse 42 indicates the victory of Muslims in the battle of Badr, whereas in verse 44 it indicates the continuation of victory; however, it is also said that the repetition of amr is for emphasis; see al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 2, p. 547. 1098. Yah .y ibn Sallm, al-Tas .rf, p. 232; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 174; idem, Qurrah, p. 63; al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 40; and Tifls, Wujh, p. 32. 1099. See al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 534, and al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 3, p. 16.

311

c.

(the execution of Ban Qurayz .ah and the expulsion

of Ban al-Nad.r tribes) as in ".... Forgive and be indulgent (toward them) until Allah manifests His will [namely, the execution of Ban Qurayz .ah and the expulsion of Ban al1100 Nad.r]..." (Q. 2:109). d. (victory), as in ".... They said: 'Have we any part in (achieving) victory?' Say (O Muhammad): 'The victory belongs wholly to Allah....'" (Q. 3:154).1101 e. (consultation, suggestion), as in "The great ones among Pharaoh's people said: 'Verily, this is indeed a sorcerer of great knowledge who wants to drive you out of your land!' [Said Pharaoh:] 'What, then, do you advise?'" (Q. 7:1 9-110, Asad).1102 f. (caution, precaution), as in ".... and should misfortune befall thee, they will say [to themselves], 'We have already taken our precautions beforehand!'..." (Q. 9:50, Asad).1103 g. (drowning), as in "(Noah) said: Today there is no protection from Allah's commandment [namely, drowning]..." (Q. 11:43).1104
1100. Yah .y ibn Sall m, al-Tas .rf, pp. 2322-2323; al-Zamakhshar, alKashshf, vol. 1, p. 97; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 174; idem, Qurrah, p. 63; alDmaghn, Qms, p. 39; and Tifls, Wujh, p. 32. This interpretation is that of Ibn Abbs; see al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 1, p. 185. 1101. Al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 242; al-T .abars, Majma alBayn, vol. 1, p. 523; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 175; idem, Qurrah, p. 64; al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 41; and Tifls, Wujh, p. 32. 1102. Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 175; and idem, Qurrah, p. 65. The expression could be expressed by the nobles among themselves, by them to the Pharaoh, or by him to them; see al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 2, p. 461. 439. Al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 546; al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 3, p. 37; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 175, and idem, Qurrah, p. 65. 1104. Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 175; idem, Qurrah, p. 65; and al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 41. Al-T .abars does not interpret amr here as "drowning" but as "punishment"; see Majma al-Bayn, vol. 3, p. 164.

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h.

(order, command), as in "Behold, Allah commands you to deliver all that you have been entrusted with unto those who are entitled thereto,..." (Q. 4:58).1105 i. (plenty, greatness in number), as in "And when We decide to destroy a community We increase the number of its people who have lost themselves entirely in the pursuit of pleasures,..." (Q.17:16)1106 There are four variant readings of amarn. (1) amarn which is the common reading; (2) marn which is the reading of Al, Qatdah, and Ab al-liyah according to al-T .abars, and that of Ibn Abbs according to al-Qurt.ub; (3) amirn which is the reading of al-H.asan and Yah.y ibn Yamar according to al-T .abars; and (4) ammarn which is the reading of Ibn Abbs, Ab Uthmn al-Nahd, and Ab Jafar Muh.ammad ibn Al according to al-T .abars, whereas according to al-Qurt.ub it is that of Ab al-liyah, Mujhid and alH.asan beside Ab Uthmn al-Nahd. The first three readings mean "we increased their number", the last means "we made them rulers".1107 We have seen that Ibn Qutaybah examined al-wujh wa l-naz.ir in the Qurn very briefly. We have also seen that scholars in later generations treated this field of study very extensively, so that sometimes they included the commentaries of the mufassirn and gave the specific meanings rather than the wujh of the terms they were dealing with. It is true that the interpretations of these early mufassirn were compiled and became a science by itself. We also have seen that despite the differences and variety of interpretations of a certain verse or word, many of them are reconciliable and run together, and this contributes to further understanding of the Qurnic texts. C. Meanings of Particles Ibn Qutaybah deals with thirty-three particles in his Tawl in a chapter entitled ("The Interpretation of
1105. Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 176; idem, Qurrah, p. 65; and al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 40. 1106. Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 176; idem, Qurrah, p. 65; and al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 41. 1107. See al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 3, p. 405; and al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 10, pp. 232-233.

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Particles and Uninflected Verbs Similar to Them"). The term (lit. "letters of meanings") for the particles means meaningful letters, which are the opposite of the (alphabetical letters) which have no meaning. These particles are as follows: 1. (how many a) The particle kaayyin means kam (how many a), as in And how many a community has turned with disdain from the commandment of its Sustainer and His apostles..." (Q. 65:8, Asad). 1108 The term kaayyin can be read as kin which is more eloquent in Ibn Qutaybah's view. The example of the latter is in the following poem of Zuhayr: *
How many a silent person whom you admire; his [only] merit or demerit (lies) in [his] speaking.1109

2.

(how)

Kayfa has two meanings: a. (in what condition), as in the expression (how are you) meaning "in what condition are you"? It is here an interrogative particle. b. (wonder, surprise), as in "How can you refuse to acknowledge God, seeing that you were lifeless and He gave you life,..." (Q. 2:28, Asad).1110 According to al1108. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 519; idem, Tafsr, p. 471; Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 117; al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, p. 309; Ibn Fris, alS . h .ib, p. 161; al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, pp. 223-224; and al-Thalib, Fiqh alLughah, p. 243. 1109. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 519. Al-Qurt .ub mentions four variant readings of kaayyin based on dialects: (1) which is the reading of Ibn Kathr; it is originally with the transformation of letter y into alif; (2) which is the drop of the alif in which is the reading of Ibn Muh .ays .in; (3) which is also the reading of Ibn Muh .ays .in; (4) which is the original reading. Apart from these four variant readings, al-Qurt . .ub also mentions another but unidentified reading, namely, See al-Jmi, vol. 4, pp. 228-229. 1110. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 520. This is also the view of al-Zarkash, see alBurhn, vol. 4, pp. 331-332.

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Zamakhshar, it implies inkr (rejection, reproach) and taajjub, whereas according to al-Farr it means taajjub and tawbkh (reproof, reproach).1111 Ibn Fris gives more details about kayfa. He mentions three meanings of it, two of which are mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah above. The other meaning is "in whatever condition", as in the expression meaning "I shall surely welcome you in whatever condition you have been ." However, he mentions three other meanings, as follows: a. (negation), as in "How would God bestow His guidance upon people who have resolved to deny the truth after having attained to faith,..." (Q. 3:86, Asad). It means that Allah will never guide such people. b. (reproach), as in "And how could you deny the truth when it is unto you that God's messages are being conveyed, ..." (Q. 3:101, Asad). c. (emphasis), as in "How, then, [will the sinners fare on Judgment Day,] when We shall bring forward a witness from within every community,..." (Q. 4:41). The particle kayfa here emphasises the content of the previous verse, namely, "Verily, Allah does not wrong [anyone] by as much as an atom's weight;..." (Q. 4:40). It means, Allah would never wrong anybody, not even as much as the weight of an atom (dharrah) in this world, let alone in the Hereafter when He brings of every community a witness...."1112 Al-Zarkash gives two more meanings of kayfa other than those mentioned above, namely: a. (to give warning), as in Behold, then, what all their scheming came to in the end: (Q. 27:51, Asad). b. (to allert, to call attention) and (to give a lesson, a deterrent
1111. See al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 65; and Man al-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 23. According to al-Suyt ., quoting al-Rghib al-As .bahn, the particle kayfa in the above verse means tawbkh (reproach), see al-Itqn, vol. 2, pp. 224-225; and idem, Mutarak, vol. 2, p. 196. Al-T .abars mentions both tawbikh and taajjub with his explanation, see Majma al-Bayn, vol. 1, p. 70. 1112. Ibn Fris, al-S .h .ib, pp. 159-160.

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example) as in Behold how We bestow [on earth] more bounty on some of them than on others; as the verse continues with but [remember] the life to come will be far higher in degree and far greater in merit and bounty. (Q. 17:21, Asad).1113 3. , and (except, other than; equal, even) Ibn Qutaybah mentions two meanings of the word saw and siw as follows: a. (other than), as in the following Dh al-Rummah's poem: *
And water, [namely, a watering place] avoided by rain [namely, did not receive water from rain, but from a spring], so that there was nothing in it [namely, the watering place] other than green hatching doves.1114

The poet was speaking about a dry watering place, as it received its water solely from a spring. The supply of water was so minimal that green doves were able to build their nests and hatch their young in it. b. (middle), as in [Pharaoh said to Moses:] 'But we can surely produce magic to match thine! So make a tryst between us and thee, which we shall not fail to keep - neither we nor thou - in a central place, [namely, equally distant for both sides]." (Q. 20:58).1115
449. See al-Zarkashi, al-Burhn, vol. 4, p. 331. 1114. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 521. C. Macartney (ed.), Dwn, p. 248. Ibn Qutaybah does not give an example from the Qurn, because, as stated by al-Suyt ., there is no saw in the Qurn meaning "except", see al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 199. 1115. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 521; Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 20; al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 2, p. 857; and al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 4, p. 14. This is one of the four interpretations of maknan suwan given by A.Y. Ali. The other three are: (1) "a place equaly convenient to both sides"; (2) "an open level plain, where the people can collect with ease"; and (3) "a place where both sides shall have even chances", namely, "a fair place" as Palmer translates it. Although he states that all these four interpretatiosns are possible meanings, he adopts the last which he considers more comprehensive and includes the others. See A.Y. Ali, The Holy Qurn, p. 801, n. 2582. According to Ibn Fris maknan suwan means "a place where people know how to reach it and get out of it "; see Maqys, vol. 3, p. 112. Maknan suwan is the reading of Ibn mir, sim and H .amzah, whereas Ibn Kathr, Nfi, Ab Amr and

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4.

(when)

According to al-Farr and Ibn Qutaybah the particle ayyn is a combination of two words, (which, what), and (time), so that the expression means "at what time? The first two letters in , namely, are dropped and the particle becomes , which in turn, combined with and finally becomes . The example from the Qurn is as follows: They are dead, not living, and they do not [even] know when they will be raised from the dead!" (Q. 16:21, Asad).1116 Al-Suyt. mentions several views about the origin of the term ayyn, as follows: (1) The same as above, namely, from and ; however, instead of dropping the first two letters of the second letter y in together and become becomes originates from the word ; next, the letter in the pattern of , the first letter alif of and are dropped; the two words are combined is changed into , so that it ("which time"); (3) It .1117 , namely,

; (2) It originates from the two words

Al-Suyt. mentions further details about the use of the particle ayyn. An unidentified grammarian says that it can be used for the past, whereas others, like Ibn Mlik and Ab H.ayyn, say that it is used exclusively for the future. It is used for questioning about a great event according to alSakkk, while the common view among the Arabic grammarians is that, like the word mat, it can be used for any event.1118 5. (now, at present) According to al-Farr, quoted by Ibn Qutaybah, the origin of is . The first letter (alif) was dropped, the second letter (ww) was turned into
al-Kis read it as maknan siwan; see Ibn Mujhid, al-Sabah, p. 418. 1116. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 522; al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 2, pp. 9899; al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 732; and al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 3, p. 355. See also al-Thalib, Fiqh al-Lughah, p. 242; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 1, p. 135. 1117. Al-Suyt ., al -tqn, vol. 2, p. 182. 1118. Ibid, pp. 181-182 and idem, Mutarak, vol. 1, p. 619.

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alif which was combined with the remaining alif, and the word became in accusative case, namely, (na). The definite article was added to it, and it became (al-na). The example given by Ibn Qutaybah is as follows: [But God said:] Now? [thou repent, when it is too late?] When ever before this thou hast been rebelling [against Us], and hast been among those who spread corruption?" (Q. 10:91, Asad).1119 This was said by Allah to Pharaoh who was repenting while he was drowning. Al-Suyt. gives us more details about the meaning of al-n. He says that although the term means the present, it can also be used metaphorically for other than the present. A group of philologists specify the meaning of this term to indicate the boundary between the past and the future, although it could also mean what is close to either of the two (past or future), namely, what has just happened (the present perfect tense) as well as what is going to happen. Jaml al-Dn ibn Mlik (d. 672/1274) the author of the poems on grammar known as the Alfyah ("The One Thousand Liner") states that the term al-n is to indicate the whole present time, such as the time of doing or saying something, or some of this present time. The example of the past with some present time is the following Qurnic verse: Now hath Allah lightened your burden ... (Q. 8:66, Pickthall); it is like saying , meaning "I have eaten just now". The example of the future with some present time is as follows: "... and anyone who now [or ever] tries to listen will [likewise] find a flame lying in wait for him!" (Q. 72:9, Asad). Moreover, the use of al-n here is in general sense, not restricted to the present.1120 6. (how, wherefrom) Ibn Qutaybah mentions two meanings of ann, as follows:
1119. Al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 468; and Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp. 523-524. Here Ibn Qutaybah is quoting al-Farr extensively. 1120. Al-Suyt . also says that there is a discrepancy on the function of the definite article al in the term al-n; some say that it is to indicate the present, others say it is only additional. See al-Itqn vol. 2, p. 161. It is noteworthy that al-n was originally a noun, according to the grammarians of Bas .rah, whereas according to those of Kfah, it was originally a verb. See Muh .ammad al-T .antaw, Nashat al-Nah .w, p. 163.

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a.

(how) as in "He said: How could Allah bring this [township] back to life after its death?" (Q. 2:259).1121 b. (wherefrom, whence), as in "... where can He have a child from... " (Q. 6:101).1122 Three different interpretations were given by the commentators concerning the meaning of ann in the following verse: ... go, then, unto your tilth as you may desire, ..." (Q. 2:223). It means: Jawz;1123 according to Mujhid, al-Farr Ibn Qutaybah, and Ibn alaccording to Qatdah and al-Rab; and ("when")

according to al-Dak which is rejected by the philologists, as stated by al1124 T .abars, because the term ann never means "when". 7. a. (alas, ah, wellady) Ibn Qutaybah mentions three meanings of waykaanna, as follows: (do you not see), which is the opinion of al-Kis, as in "Do you not see how Allah enlarged the provision for whom He will.... Do you not see how the disbelievers never prosper?" (Q. 28:82).1125
1121. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 525; Ibn Fris, al-S . h .ib, p. 142; al-Thalib, Fiqh al-Lughah, p. 242; al-Zarkash, al-Burhn, vol. 4, p. 249; al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 54; al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 175; and idem, Mutarak, vol. 1, p. 611. Yah .y ibn Sallm, al-Tas .rf, p. 198. Instead of "how", Ibn al-Jawz suggests mat ("when") as the meaning of ann in the above verse, see Qurrah, p. 38. 1122. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 525; and al-Zarkash, al-Burhn, vol. 4, p. 429. As examples, Ab Ubaydah and al-Suyt . use the verse Q. 3:37, while al-Dmaghn uses Q. 5:75; see Majz al-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 91; al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 175; and Qms, p. 54. According to Ibn Fris and al-T .abars, besides "wherefrom" and "whence", "how" is also the meaning of ann in the above verse, see al-S .h .ib, p. 142; and Majma alBayn, vol. 2, p. 343. 1123. See al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 1, p. 321; al-Farr, Man lQurn, vol. 1, p. 144; Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 525; Ibn al-Jawz, Qurrah, p. 39; and al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 175. 1124. See al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 1, p. 321; al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 175; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 1, p. 120. 1125. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 526, and Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 112. An unidentified shaykh from Bas .rah said to al-Farr that he had heard a woman

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b.

(does he not know) which, according to Ibn Qutaybah, is the interpretation of Qatdah and a shhid for al-Kiss interpretation, so that the above-mentioned verse means, "Does he not know that Allah enlarged the provision for whom He will....? Does he not know that the disbelievers never prosper?"1126 c. (a mercy for you), which is, according to some unidentified linguists, the language of H.imyar. Ibn Qutaybah does not cite any example for this meaning.1127 Al-Suyt. adds details about the term waykaanna and its origin, and states four views: that of al-Kis, al-Akhfash, al-Khall, and Ibn alAnbr. The term, according to al-Kis, is used for regret and wonder . It is originally from . The word is a second person is a verbal is pronoun in the genitive form. According to al-Akhfash, noun (ism fil) meaning "I wonder", originally means, according to al-Akhfash Al-Khall's view is that, simply stated,

is the second person pronoun;

with the ellipsis of li. Therefore, the verse mentioned above "I wonder because Allah ..." stands alone, and is a

separate word indicating investigation , not similarity , namely, it does not mean "as if" in this sense. Ibn al-Anbr's view is that the term has three meanings: (do you not see), (woe unto you), and that indicating wonder is joined with due to its frequent use; it is ("O similar to the joining of words in son of my mother").1128
asking her husband the following question: you?"), and her husband answered:

which is derived from

("Where is your son, woe unto meaning ("Don't you

see him behind the house?"), see al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 312. 1126. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 526. According to Qatdah, reported by alT and , as .abar, there are two meanings of waykaanna, namely, mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah above, see al-T .abar, Jmi, vol. 20, p. 77. 1127. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 527. 1128. Al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 258; and idem, Mutarak, vol. 3, p. 449. For further details on the term waykaanna see al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 2, pp. 312313; al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 2, pp. 1067-8; al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn,

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8.

(as if, as though)

The particle kaanna is a combination of the particle ka ("as", "like") and anna ("that"). It is used for a simile, such as the expression ("He drank a drink like honey") is similar to ("He drank a drink as if it were honey"). It functions the same as ka if it were without tashdd, and with the ellipsis of any pronoun attached to it, such as kaannahu becomes kaan in the following poem of Ab Muh.ammad Abd Allh ibn Barr (d. 582/1187) to al-Mufad.d.al al-Nukr, describing a horse: *
He is very strong; his tail is raised while galloping, and his neck is like a long palm stump.1129

9.

(not)

The particle lta, as stated by Sbawayh, to some extent, is similar to laysa ("not to exist", "not to be"). Unlike laysa, lta is indeclinable, as in ..., and they called [unto Us] when it was no longer the time for escape." (Q. 38:3).1130 According to some unidentified grammarians of the Baghdd school in is separated from (meaning "no"), and is connected with so that was originally . This is additional to as well as to other words, such as , which becomes of Ab Wajzah, as follows: *
[They are] the compassionates when there is no compassionate, and the feeders in the time when there is no feeder.1131 vol. 4, p. 268; al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 13, pp. 318-319; and Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 15, pp. 418-419. 1129. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 528, and Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 13, p. 33 (s.v. ). Ibn Qutaybah does not mention examples from the Qurn which are Q. 27:42 and 10:12. For further details, see al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, pp. 217-218; and Ibn Fris, alS . h .ib, pp. 161-162. 1130. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 529; and al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 397. According to Ibn Abbs, the word meaning agrees with that in the Coptic language, see Ibn Abbs, Gharb al-Qurn, p. 63, or Nabatean language, see Ab Ubayd ibn Sallm, Lught al-Qabil, p. 240 and n. 3. 1131. Ibid., p. 530.

. As a shhid, they cite the poem

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According to Ibn Qutaybah, lta is the combination of l with the additional h, so that l becomes lh, and later becomes lta. It is like the word thumma) which becomes (thummah) and (thummata). He cites the view of Ibn al-Arb who says that mentioned above was originally in the poem with the additional h, then it was

started with . However, if we join the two words, the h becomes ta; 1132 instead of saying al-t.ifnah h .na m we say al-t.ifnata h.na ma. This view of Ibn Qutaybah, despite his belonging to the Baghdd school, is in line with that of Ab Ubaydah, as well as the Kf and the Bas.r grammarians.1133 10. (whatever, whatsoever) The particle mahm functions as m in recompense, such as "And they said [unto Moses:] 'Whatever sign thou mayest produce before us in order to cast a spell upon us thereby, we shall not believe thee!'" (Q. 7:132).1134 Ibn Qutaybah states the view of al-Khall and Sbawayh on the particle mahm as follows: According to al-Khall, the origin of mahm is m added with an ineffectual m ; the alif of the first m is replaced with h, so that rendered becomes . He asserts that this ineffectual can also be m can also be added to mat, such as the expression ; it can also be added to ayy, such as "... by whichever name you invoke Him, [He is always the One] His are the most beautiful names..." (Q. 17:110), meaning as ("unto whichever ye cry"). Sbawayh asserts that it is possible that mahm was originally mah with an additional m; it is the same as m added to idh.1135
1132. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 531. The purpose of this additional t is to balance the meter of the poem. 1133. Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 176; and Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 15, p. 468, s.v. . For further details, see al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 2, p. 1223; and al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, pp. 230-231. 1134. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 532. 1135. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 532; and al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 250. The term mah is an expression indicating reproach and prevention from talking or acting on

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11.

(what) and

(who)

In this section Ibn Qutaybah examines m and its meanings, including man. He does not treat man independently. He states that originally m and man have the same meaning, then man was used for human beings, and m for others. He cites three examples of the meanings of m as follows: a. (who, whom) as in "And Him Who hath created male and female." (Q. 92:3, Pickthall). This is the opinion of Ab Ubaydah.1136 b. (who, which), as in the above verse.1137 This interpretation of m with al-ladh in the above verse is from al-H.asan and al-Kalb.1138 This interpretation is advocated by Abu Amr ibn al-Al who contends that the people of Makkah, when they heard thunder, used to say to it meaning "Glorified be Whom you have 1139 glorified"). c. turns its succeeding verb into mas.dar; it is what modern grammarians
the part of the listener; see Ibn Fris, al-S . h .ib, p. 174. For more details on mahm see al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 1, 470; and al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 2, p. 467. 1136. Similarly, m means man in Q. 91:5 and 6; see Ab Ubaydah, Majz alQurn, vol. 2, pp. 30-31; Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 533; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 567; idem, Qurrah, p. 221; and Ibn Fris, al-S . h .ib, p. 171. 1137. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 533; and Tifls, Wujh, p. 261. Instead of Q. 92:3 above, Ibn al-Jawz mentions Q. 2:159 as an example; see Nuzhah, p. 567; and Qurrah, p. 221. 1138. See al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, p. 5-11. Moreover, the reading of Ibn Masd says al-ladh instead of m, see al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 2, p. 1612. 1139. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 533; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 567; and alQurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 30, p. 140. Al-Thalib mentions a variant expression of the people of Makkah when they heard the thunder, namely, Subh .na m sabbah .at lahu lrad ("Glory to Whom the thunder has glorified"). Instead of al-ladh, he interprets man as the meaning of m in the above expression; see Fiqh al-Lughah, p. 244. On hearing the thunder the Prophet used to say Subh .na man yusabbih .u al-radu bih .amdih ("Glory to Whom the thunder is glorifying with its praising"), whereas Al and Ibn Abbs said respectively Subh .na man sabbah .ta lahu and Subh .na l-ladh sabbah .ta lahu which have the same meaning; see al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 686; and alT .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 3, p. 283.

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call m mas.daryah. This is the view of al-Farr, who interprets the above verse as "And His creation of male and female."1140 The meanings of m were extensively discussed by grammarians in the past. Ibn al-Anbr, for example, mentioned three meanings: (1) alladh, such as the expression meaning ("Abd Allh who stood up"); (2) lam (not), such as meaning ("Abd Allh did not stand up"); and (3) mazdah (additional), such as (Q. 2:26) in which m is additional. Tifls and Ibn al-Jawz mentioned six and seven meanings respectively, whereas Ibn Fris and al-Suyt. both mentioned eight meanings.1142 Despite the discrepancy which occasionally occurred in the interpretation of the particle m in the verses of the Qurn, these various interpretations are generally reconciliable, and even complement each other. For example, in the verse (Q. 80:17),
1141 1143 according to Tifls's interpretation, m means "what" ; this is the interpretation which is adopted by A.Y. Ali when he translates the above verse as follows: "Woe to man! What hath made him reject God?"1144 On the other hand, al-Zamakhshar and al-Suyt. asserts that m in this verse indicates wonder;1145 this is the interpretation followed

1140. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 533; and al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 3, p. 270. Al-T .abar mentions the two meanings of m in the above verse, namely, man and m mas .daryah, see Jmi, vol. 30, p. 140. Pickthall follows the first, while A.Y. Ali follows the second in their respective translations. Asad follows the second, but says in the footnote that literally it means the first. 1141. Ibn al-Anbr, al-Ad .dd, pp. 195-197. However, according to alZamakhshar, the function of ma in the above verse is for emphasis, as it means h .aqqan ("truly") and al-bttah ("definitely"), see al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 61. 1142. For further details, see Ibn al-Anbr, al-Ad .dd, pp. 195-197; Tifls, Wujh, pp. 260-262; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, pp. 565-567; idem, Qurrah, pp. 220-221; Ibn Fris, al-S .h .ib, pp. 171-2; and al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, pp. 242-244. 1143. Tifls, Wujh, p. 261. 1144. A.Y. Ali, The Holy Qurn, p. 1688. 1145. See al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 2, p. 1579; al-Zarkash, al-Burhn, vol. 4, p. 404; and al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 243.

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by M.M. Pickthall when he translates the verse as follows: "Man is (self-) destroyed: how ungrateful!"1146 Both interpretations are mentioned by al1147 Farr and al-T The third interpretation is that of Ibn al-Jawz .abars. who maintains that m indicates wonder in the interrogative form ,1148 namely, in modern terminology, a rhetorical question 12. . (almost, nearly, to be near to, to be on the point of)

The term kda, like karaba and awshaka, belongs to the category of verbs called by the grammarians afl al-muqrabah, namely, verbs which indicate being on the verge of doing something.1149 According to Ibn Qutaybah, the term kda means "to be on the point of (doing something) but did not do it" . It is not followed by an; therefore, it is not right to say , but rather , as in ".... So they sacrificed her [namely, the cow], though almost they did not." (Q. 2:71, Pickthall).1150 However, kda followed by an occurs in poetry,1151 as in the following poem of Rubah: "It had nearly come to 1152 nought from length of wear." (Lane's translation) Another view is that kda indicates the occurrence of something , such as the following poem of Dh al-Rummah:
1146. M.M. Pickthall, The Glorious Qurn, p. 686. 1147. See al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 3, p. 237; and al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, p. 438. 1148. Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 566; and idem, Qurrah, p. 221. 1149. See H. Moch. Anwar, Tarjamah Matan Alfiyah [Ibn Mlik] (N.p.: Pt. Almaarif, 1981), p. 94. 1150. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 534; and al-Murtad ., al-Aml, vol. 2, p. 11. Lane translates in the above verse as "and they were not near to doing (it)"; see Lexicon, pt. 7, p. 2636. 1151. According to al-Qurt .ub, kda can be followed by an in Arabic language except in the Qurn, see al-Jmi, vol. 1, p. 222. 1152. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 534; idem, Adab al-Ktib, p. 446; Lane, Lexicon, pt. 2, p. 2636; and Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 3, p. 342. According to al-Qurt .ub, kda without an in the above poem would be better, because an indicates the future, see alJmi, vol. 1, p. 222. Ibn Mlik asserts that kda should not be followed by an, although it does occur rarely, see Anwar, Matan Alfiyyah, pp. 94-95.

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*
And if Luqman the sage happened to take a glance at Mayy unveiled, he would be surprised.

Here kda yabraqu ("he would be on the point of being surprised") means labariqa ("he would be surprised).1153 According to this view the term kda here is, as stated by al-Murtad., additional and has no function, and therefore is not translated. Similarly, the verse (Q. 24:40) means ("he does not see it"). The term yakad here is not only additional, but is also said to function as emphasis. However, another view says that yakad in the above verse is not additional.1154 Al-Suyt. gives us more details on kda. He asserts that the term indicates that something nearly happened. If it is followed by a negation, then it negates that it nearly happened. On the other hand, the affirmation of itindicates the affirmation that it had nearly happened.1155 Al-Suyt. notes that it is commonly said that kda with negation indicates the occurrence of the action, whereas kda with affirmation indicates the negation of such an occurrence. For example, (he almost did not do) means (he did), as in Q. 2:71 mentioned above. This is (Zayd almost did) means also Ibn Fris's view.1156 The expression

(he did not do), as in "And they almost beguile thee (Muhammad)..." (Q. 17:73).1157 Al-Suyt. rejects the view that the present tense of kda with negation indicates that the action does occur, as in "... he cannot

1153. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp. 534-535. See also Macartney, ed., Shir Dh lRummah, p. 392. 1154. See al-Murtad ., al-Aml, vol. 2, p. 11. 1155. Al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 215; and Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 3, p. 382, s.v. 1156. See Ibn Fris, Maqys, vol. 5, p. 145. 1157. See al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 779 and al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 3, p. 431. Al-Suyt . quotes the view of Ibn Abbs who says that every kda, akdu, or yakdu in the Qurn means the action does not take place. See alItqn, vol. 2, pp. 215-216.

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nearly see it" (Q. 24:40, Rodwell),1158 since he does not see anything. He contends that instead of "he almost does not see it" the meaning of the verse is "he does not almost see it (or, he is not near to seeing it)", namely, the negation of almost (or the nearness to) seeing it, let alone seeing it.1159 The same with Q. 2:71 above where the people of Moses slaughtered the cow; before that, they had not almost done it, namely, they had been far from slaughtering it.1160 Al-Suyt. also states that kda sometimes means arda (to want), as in "... I want to keep it hidden..." (Q. 20:15). This view is also mentioned by al-Murtad. and Ibn al-Anbr.1161 On the other hand, arda sometimes means kda, as in ... a wall upon the 1162 point of falling into ruin..." (Q. 18:77). 13. (nay, rather; even; but; however, yet) Bal is a particle of digression and emendation; it denotes digression from that which precedes. Ibn Qutaybah mentions two ways of using bal, as follow: a. to correct a wrong statement, such as "I saw Zayd, nay,
1158. I am choosing Rodwell's translation of the verse in question, as it agrees with al-Suyt .'s interpretation; see J.M. Rodwell, The Koran (London: J.M. Dent & Son Ltd, 1976), p. 447. Asad and Ali translate it as "he can hardly see it", whereas Dawood and Pickthall translate it as "he can scarcely see it" and "he scarce can see it" respectively. 1159. This is also the view of Ab Ubaydah and al-Zamakhshar; see Majz alQurn, vol. 2, p. 67, and al-Kashshf, vol. 2, p. 955. Al-Farr and al-T .abars mention two views: the first is similar to that of Ab Ubaydah and al-Zamakhshar above; the second is that the verse in question means "he sees it tardily" according to al-Farr, and "with difficulty" according to al-T .abars; see al-Man l-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 255, and Majma al-Bayn, vol. 4, p. 146. It is like the expression he hardly (scarcely, or tardily) rose" when one has risen after difficulty; see Lane, Lexicon, pt. 7, p. 2636. 1160. Al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 215. 1161. Al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 216; al-Murtad ., al-Aml, vol. 2, p. 12; and Ibn al-Anbr, al-Ad .dd, p. 97. See also Lane, Lexicon, pt. 7, p. 2636. 1162. See al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 216. For further details on kda, see alMurtad ., al-Aml, vol. 2, pp. 11-14; Lane, Lexicon, pt. 7, p. 2636; and Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 3, pp. 382-385 (s.v. and ).

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rather Amr." b.to shift from one object of discourse to another, as in "Sd. Consider this Qurn, endowed with all that one ought to remember! But nay - they who are bent on denying the truth are lost in [false] pride, and [hence] deeply in the wrong." (Q. 38:1-2, Asad).1163 According to al-Thalib the meaning of bal in the above verse is inna ("verily").1164
14.

(an interrogative particle introducing direct and indirect questions) Ibn Qutaybah mentions the function and meanings of hal, as follows: a. It is used to ask questions,1165 as in "Say: 'Can any of those beings to whom you ascribe a share in God's divinity create [life] in the first instance, and then bring it forth anew?'" (Q. 10:34, Asad).1166 Ibn Qutaybah states that there is (affirmation) and (reproach) in this verse. The taqrr is the affirmation that none of the partners ascribed to Allah by infidels can produce creation and reproduce it, except Allah Himself. The tawbkh is reproaching the infidels for believing and ascribing partners to Allah. b. (already) in some Qurnic verses, according to the Qurnic commentators, such as Ab Ubaydah, al-Kis, Sbawayh, al-Farr, alZamakhshar, al-T .abars and al-Zarkash, as in There has already been an immensely long span of time when man was not yet a thing to be thought of." (Q. 76:1).1167
1163. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 536. See also al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, pp. 185-

186. 1164. Al-Thalib, Fiqh al-Lughah, p. 242. See also Ibn Fris, al-S . h .ib, pp. 145-146; and al-Suyt ., Mutarak, vol. 1, pp. 637-638. For further details on bal see Lane, Lexicon, pt. 1, pp. 242-244. 1165. It is, as stated by Ibn al-Anbr, a question of what is unknown to the questioner in order to know and remove doubt, for example, "( Did Abd Allah stand up?" See al-Ad .dd, p. 191. 1166. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 538; Tifls, Wujh, pp. 302; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 623; idem, Qurrah, p. 239; and al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 477. 1167. See Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 538; idem, Tafsr, p. 502; Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 279; al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 19, pp. 118-119; al-Farr,

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c.

(not), according to the linguists, as in

Wait they [namely, they did not wait], indeed for nothing [namely, anything] less than the angels should come to them..." (Q. 6:158).1168 Tifls and al-Dmaghn mention four meanings of hal, whereas Ibn al-Jawz mentions seven meanings as above. The rest are as follows: a. (an expression indicating a polite offer, such as, "shall I...?", "would you like ...", etc), 1169 as in to you a bargain... (Q. 61:10, Asad).1170 b. (negative question, such as "is it not", etc), as in Shall I point out

"Is not in all of this, to anyone endowed with reason, a solemn affirmation [of the existence and oneness of Allah]?." (Q. 89:5). c. (command), as in "[And] He adds: 'Would you like to look [and see him]?'" (Q. 37:54, Asad), meaning "look [at him]!" d. (request), as in "On the day when We will ask Hell: 'Art thou filled?' - and it will answer: '[Give

Man l-Qurn, vol. 3, p. 213; al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 4, p. 1558; alT .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, p. 406; al-Zarkash, al-Burhn, vol. 4, p. 433; Ibn alAnbr, al-Ad .dd, pp. 191-192; Tifls, Wujh, pp. 301-302; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 624; idem, Qurrah, p. 239; al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 476; and al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 253. 1168. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp. 538-539; al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 2, p. 387; al-Zarkash, al-Burhn, vol. 4, p. 433; Tifls, Wujh, p. 301; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, 624; idem, Qurrah, p. 240; al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 476; al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 254; and Ibn al-Anbr, al-Ad .dd, p. 193. 1169. This is one of the meanings of al. Its other meanings are: (1) interjection to emphasise the statement, such as "behold", "verily", as in Behold, they are indeed the foolish..." (Q. 2:13); (2) interjection indicating alertness, such as "oh", as in ("Oh, you who are waking up, stand up!"); and (3) interjection indicating strong demand, as in and stop doing transgression?", see al-Munjid, p. 15 (s.v. ). 1170. Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah. p. 625; idem, Qurrah. p. 240; al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 476; and Tifls, Wujh, p. 302. "Hey, will you repent

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me] more'" (Q. 50:30).1171 15. and (if only, were it not that, were it not for; why not, why was there not) Ibn Qutaybah mentions three meanings of law l as follows: a. (why not). It is a word indicating incitement to do, or reproof for not doing something, if it is not followed by a main clause (jawb), as in the Arabic expression (If only I did such-and-such), and in the Qurnic verse "If only, when Our disaster came on them, they had been humble!" (Q. 6:43, Pickthall).1172 Similarly, law m sometimes also means hall, as in "Why dost thou not bring before us angels ..." (Q. 15:7, Asad), meaning "If only you would bring angels before us..."1173 b. (if not, were it not that), indicating something has not taken place due to the occurrence of something else, if law l is followed by a main clause, as in "And had he not been of those who glorify (Allah), he would have indeed remained in its belly till the Day all shall be raised from the dead." (Q. 37:143-1444).1174
1171. Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 625; and idem, Qurrah, p. 241. Al-T .abars mentions three interpretations of the above verse, as follows: (1) It indicates the vastness of Hell, that if it were asked whether it is already full, if it could talk, it would answer that it is not yet full and is still vast enough for more people to enter; (2) Allah creates a means with which Hell will answer when it is asked by Allah; and (3) The question is addressed to the keepers of Hell; they answer that it is already full, to indicate Allah's promise to fill it. See Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, pp. 147-148. 1172. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 540; al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 2, p. 301; al-Thalib, Fiqh al-Lughah, p. 243; Ibn Fris, al-S . h .ib, p. 163; Yah .y ibn Sall m, al-Tas .rf, p. 141; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 532; and idem, Qurrah, p. 209. According to Ibn Abbs, the word meaning is the language of the Quraysh, as in Q. 24:13, see Ibn Abbs, Gharb al-Qurn, p. 58, and Ab Ubayd ibn Sallm, Lught al-Qabil, p. 206. 1173. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 541; idem, Tafsr, p. 235; Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 346; al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 716; and Ibn Fris, alS . h .ib, p. 163. According to al-Thalib, m in law m is either additional or s .ilah, see Fiqh al-Lughah, p. 243. 1174. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 541; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 533; idem, Qurrah,

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c.

(not), according to some commentators, as in "For, there has never yet been any community that has ever believed and profited by its belief except the people of Jonah" (Q. 10:98).1175

16.

(not, not yet; when, as; since, whereas)

Ibn Qutaybah mentions three meanings of lamm as follows: a. (not, not yet), as in ... Nay, they have not yet tasted the suffering which I do impose!" (Q. 38:8, Asad).1176 b. (but, except), as in ".... Yet, all this would have been nothing but a [brief] enjoyment of life in this world..." (Q. 43:35, Asad).1177 c. (when, at the time when, at the time of) if it is followed by a main clause, as in .... And when thy Sustainer's

p. 209; and al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, pp. 239-240. Ibn Fris mentions two meanings of law l in the above verse, hall and lam, see al-S .h .ib, p. 164. 1175. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 541; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 533; and Ibn Fris, al-S .h .ib, p. 164. The jumhr of the commentators, however, do not agree with this interpretation. They say that law l in the above verse indicates reproach for disbelieving before the coming of punishment. This is supported by Ubayy's variant reading fahall instead of falaw l in the above verse; see al-S .uyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 240. Al-Zamakhshar mentions hall as the interpretation of law l, whereas al-T .abars mentions both lam and hall; see al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 598; and Majma al-Bayn, vol. 3, p. 134. 1176. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 542; al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 2, p. 1226; and al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 234. Instead of the above verse, Yah .y ibn Sallm, Tifls and al-Dmaghn give other examples, among which is Q. 62:3. AlThalib and Ibn Fris assert that lamm means lam only if it indicates the future, as in the above example; see Fiqh al-Lughah, p. 243; and al-S . h .ib, p. 164. 1177. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 542; al-Qayrawn, Irb al-Qurn, pt. 2, p. 756; Yah .y ibn Sallm, al-Tas .rf, p. 143; al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 422; and al-Suyt ., alItqn, vol. 2, p. 235. Ibn Qutaybah mentions a variant reading of lamm, which is lam. The word lam is the combination of la (which acts as emphasis) and m which is s .ilah that can be dropped. The above verse, then, based on this reading means "Verily, all of them are a provision of the life of the world." We notice here that in is light inna (meaning "verily"). See Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 542; see also Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, p. 46; and al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 2, p. 1326.

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judgment came to pass, ..." (Q. 11:101, Asad).1178 17. (or) ("I saw Ibn Qutaybah mentions four meanings of aw as follows: a. (to indicate doubt), such as the expression Abd Allah or Muh.ammad").1179 b. (to choose between two things), namely, or, as in

"...[he] shall redeem himself by fasting, or alms, or [any other] act of worship...." (Q. 2:196, Asad).1180 c. (the conjunction "and"), as in "and then giving forth a reminder, [promising] freedom from blame or [offering] a warning!" (Q. 77:5-6, Asad).1181 Al-Farr rejects the
1178. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 542; Yah .y ibn Sallm, al-Tas .rf, p. 143; alDmaghn, Qms, p. 422; and Tifls, Wujh, p. 257. Al-Thalib and Ibn Fris assert that lamm can mean h .na only if it indicates the past, see Fiqh al-Lughah, p. 243 and al-S .h .ib, p. 165. Al-Suyt . states that apart from the occurrence in the past, there should also be two clauses, the validity of one depends on the other, as in "... but when He brought you safe to land, ye turned away, ..." (Q. 17:67), see al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 234. 1179. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 543. Ibn Qutaybah does not mention any example from the Qurn, such as "They will answer: We have spent there a day, or part of a day;.." (Q. 23:113, Asad). See al-Suyt ., Mutarak, vol. 1, p. 612. Ibn Fris explains the distinction between the expression ("Is Zayd with you or Bakr?"), and Is Zayd with you or [rather] Amr?". In the first expression the questioner is in doubt whether one of the two persons is with us; the answer will be yes or no. In the second expression the questioner knows that one of the two persons is with us, but he wonders whether it is Zayd or Amr; the answer will be one of the two, Zayd or Amr. See al-S .h .ib, p. 127. 1180. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 543; Ibn Fris, al-S . h .ib, p. 127; Yah .y ibn Sallm, al-Tas .rf, p. 259; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 1209; idem, Qurrah, p. 41; alDmaghn cites Q. 5:89 as an example, see Qms, p. 56. 1181. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 543; al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 3, p. 222; al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, p. 415; Tifls, Wujh, pp. 38-39; al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 56; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, pp. 109-10; idem, Qurrah, p. 42; Yah .y ibn Sallm, al-Tas .rf, p. 258; and al-Thalib, Fiqh al-Lughah, p. 241, citing Q. 76:24 as an example.

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occurrence of aw meaning wa in Arabic language other than in the Qurn as in the above example. Giving the example of the verse ... And behold, either we [who believe in Him] or you [who deny His oneness] are on the right path, or have clearly gone astray!" (Q. 34:24, Asad), al-Farr says that the commentators' interpretation of this verse is "we are on the right path, and you have clearly gone astray". In the expression ("if you like take one or two dirhams"), it never means "take one and two", namely, three. Therefore, the meaning of the above verse is "we are on the right path, or have clearly gone astray, and you, too, are on the right path, or have clearly gone astray", whereas Allah knows that His messenger is on the right path, and the others have clearly gone astray. It is the same as saying "one of us is a liar" when we accuse somebody of lying, but not openly.1182 d. ("nay, rather", "nay, but"), as in "And [then] We sent him [once again] a hundred thousand [souls], nay, rather more." (Q. 37:147).1183 This interpretation, however, is rejected by Ibn Qutaybah who claims that bal is used to correct a wrong statement. He maintains that instead of bal, the particle aw in the above verse means wa. As evidence, he quotes Jarir's poem as follows: *
How did you make the [two] tribes Thalabah the knights 1182. See al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 362. 1183. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp. 543-544; Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 175; al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 239;Yah .y ibn Sall m, al-Tas .rf, p. 258; Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 14, p. 54; al-Thalib, Fiqh al-Lughah, p. 241; Tifls, Wujh, vol. 2, p. 241; and al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 56; Ibn al-Jawz cites the view of Ab Zakariyy who says that the function of aw in this verse is to indicate obscurity ( ), see Nuzhah, p. 110. It means that the exact number is known by Allah, but He made it secret when He added aw yazdn (or more), see Qurrah, p. 42. Ibn Fris mentions three interpretations of aw in the above verse: wa, bal, and ibh .ah (permission), namely, if someone says that the number is one hundred thousand, he is right, and if the other says even more than that, he is also right, see al-S . h .ib, p. 127. Al-T .abars mentions four meanings, namely, al-ibhm, al-takhyr, wa, and bal. For further details, see Majma al-Bayn, vol. 4, p. 459. According to Ibn Abbs the meaning of aw in the above verses is bal in the language of Kindah tribe, see Gharb alQurn, p. 62 and Ab Ubayd ibn Sall m, Lught al-Qabail, p. 238.

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1184 and Riyah . equal to T .uhayyah and Khishb tribes?

This is a clear evidence for those who claim that Ibn Qutaybah does not belong to either the grammarian school of Bas.rah or Kfah, but of Baghdd, the mixture of the two schools. The former school says that aw cannot be interpreted as wa or bal, but the latter allows it, whereas Ibn Qutaybah says that it can be interpreted as wa, but not as bal.1185 The argument of the grammarians of Bas.rah is as follows: (1) If aw can be interpreted as bal in this poem, then this can also be applied to other poems or expressions. For example, the expression ("I beat Zayd or Amr") can never mean ("I beat Zayd, nay, rather Amr"); (2) Bal is used to correct a mistake or a forgotten thing. Allah never forgets or makes mistakes. When He uses it, it means to correct the previous statement which is not His, as in And [yet] some say: 'The Most Gracious has taken unto Himself a son!' Limitless is He in His glory! Nay, [those whom they regard as God's 'offspring' are but His] honoured servants." (Q. 21:26, Asad).1186 Defending the school of Kfah in general and al-Farr in particular who holds this view, Ibn Fris asserts that this view had been adopted by people before al-Farr. Moreover, it is wrong to assume that bal can only be used after a mistake or forgetting, as the Arabs cite the following poem of al-Ajjj: ("Nay, but he did not agitate sorrows and distress which has appeared"). Here, bal neither corrects a mistake nor has the sense of aw. With regard to the verse "And yet, after all this, your hearts hardened and became like rocks, or even harder,..." (Q. 2:74, Asad), or .... And so, the advent of the Last Hour will but manifest itself [in a single moment,] like the twinkling of an eye, or closer still..." (Q. 16:77, Asad), Ibn Fris gives his commentary as follows: In these verses the Speaker, namely, Allah,
1184. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp. 543-544 and idem, Tafsr, p. 375. It is also the view of Ab Ubaydah, that the particle aw in this poem means wa, see Majz alQurn, vol. 2, p. 148. 1185. See Muh .ammad al-T .ant .w, Nashat al-Nah .w, p. 163. 1186. See Ibn Fris, al-S .h .ib, p. 128.

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knows whether their hearts were hardened like rocks or harder, or whether the advent of the Last Hour will manifest itself in a twinkling of an eye or closer, but He wants to keep them secret, and therefore puts aw. Another interpretation, however, is that in Q. 2:74 some of their hearts are as hard as rocks, and others are harder than rocks.1187 There are other meanings of which are not mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah. For example, (unless) mentioned by Ibn Fris, as in the expression ("I will surely force you, or [namely, unless] you give me my right").1188 Al-Thalib mentions two other meanings, namely, (till, up to), and (until). The example of the former is in Imru al-Qays's following poem which he cited while he was coming to the Caesar for help against the Ban Asad tribe that had killed his father: *
So, I said to him: 'Do not let your eyes weep; verily, we are trying (to get our) right or [namely, until] we die; in that case, we shall be excused.'1189

The example of the latter is the following poem: with beating and stabbing or [namely, until] he dies the quickest (death)".1190 This poem was probably a description of a fight where a person kept attacking his enemy fiercely and did not stop fighting until he was killed. 18. ("or", introducing the second member of an alternative question) Two meanings of am are mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah, as follows: a. (or), as in "Can you ever feel secure that He Who is in heaven will not cause the earth to swallow you up when, lo and behold, it
1187. See ibid., pp. 128-129. For more details, see al-Zarkash, al-Burhn, vol. 4, pp. 209-214. 1188. See ibid., pp. 127-128. 1189. According to Ibn Fris, aw in this poem means ill an, so that it means "unless we die", instead of "till we die". See ibid., p. 128. 1190. See Fiqh al-Lughah, p. 241. For more details on aw, see al-Suyt ., alItqn, vol. 2, pp. 175-178; idem, Mutarak, vol. 1, pp. 612-614; Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 54-55; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 1, pp. 122-123.

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begins to quake? Or can you ever feel secure that He Who is in heaven will not let loose against you a deadly stormwind, ...?" (Q. 67:16-17, Asad).1191 b. (alif as an interrogative particle), as in "Do they, perchance, envy other people for what Allah has granted them out of his bounty?..." (Q. 4:54, Asad). This is also the view of Ab Ubaydah.1192 Ibn Qutaybah maintains that there are many verses in the Qurn where the particle am serves as alif istifhm, especially when the am does not constitute an alternative question, as in "Alif Lam Mim. (This is) the revelation of the Book in which there is no doubt, from the Lord of the worlds. Or do they say, 'He has forged it'?" (Q. 32:13, Ali). Ibn Qutaybah asserts that since the particle am here is not preceded by another question, then it serves as alif istifhm. Otherwise, it means aw.1193 Ali translates am as an interrogative particle aw above. There are other meanings of am which are not mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah, among which are as follows: a. , as in "Nay, rather they say: '(he is), a poet' ..." (Q. 52:30).1194 b. , as in "And they assert, '[Muh.ammad] has invented it."

1191. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 546; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 105; and idem, Qurrah, p. 37. Al-Dmaghn cites this verse saying that am in this verse means istifhm (question), see Qms, p. 37. 1192. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 546; Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 130; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, pp. 105-106; and idem, Qurrah, p. 38. This is the view of Sbawayh, according to al-Thalib, citing Q. 2:108 as an example, see Fiqh alLughah, p.241. Al-T .abars inteprets am in this verse as bal, see Majma al-Bayn, vol. 2, p. 61. 1193. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp. 546-547. According to Ab Ubaydah, however, am in this verse is synonymous with the conjunctions wa and bal; see Majz al-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 130. 1194. Al-Thalib, Fiqh al-Lughah, pp. 240-241; Ab Ubaydah, Majz alQurn, vol. 2, p. 233; and al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, p. 167. Ibn Fris refers to the view of al-Farr who says that the Arabs put bal in the sense of am and vice versa if the sentence starts with a question, see Fiqh al-Lughah, pp. 125-126; alDmaghn and Ibn al-Jawz cites Q. 13:33 as an example, see Qms, p. 37; Nuzhah, p. 106; and Qurrah, p. 38.

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(Q. 10:38).1195 c. additional , as in I am surely better than this contemptible man who can hardly make his meaning clear." (Q. 43:52).1196 19. (not) Ibn Qutaybah mentions one meaning only of l, namely lam, with one example from the Qurn, and two from poetry. The example from the Qurn is as follows: " for [as long as he was alive] he did not accept the truth, nor did he pray [for enlightenment]." (Q. 75:31, Asad). One example from poetry is the poem of Ab Khirsh alHudhal as follows:
If you forgive, Oh God, forgive generously; (for) is there any servant of Yours who does not commit sin?1197

Ibn al-Jawz mentions three meanings of l, one of which is lam as mentioned above. The other two are l indicating negation ( in modern terminology), and l indicating prohibition ( Their respective examples are as follows: And God will not speak to them on the Day of Resurrection, nor will He cleanse them [of their sins]; ..." (Q. 2:174, Asad), and "... and do not forget thine own [rightful] share in this world, ..." (Q. 28:77).1198 Ibn al-Anbr includes the term l among the ad.dd (words which have opposite meanings). Beside negation, l could also mean affirmation, if the sentence is affirmative, and l in it is additional, such as in the verse: "Allah said: 'What has kept thee from
1195. This is the view of Ab Ubydah, see Majz al-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 278. 1196. This is the view of Ab Zayd, see Ibn Fris, al-S . h .ib, p. 126, whereas according to Ab Ubaydah, it means bal, see Majz al-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 204. For further details on the particle am, see al-Zarkash, al-Burhn, vol. 4, pp. 180-186; alSuyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, pp. 163-165; and idem, Mutarak, vol. 1, pp. 598-603. 1197. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 548; al-Thalib, Fiqh al-Lughah, p. 243; and Ibn Fris, al-S .h .ib, p. 165. 1198. See Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, pp. 631-632; and idem, Qurrah, p. 245

in modern terminology).

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prostrating [lit., 'from not prostrating'] thyself when I commanded thee?' ..."(Q. 7:12), meaning What prevented you from prostrating." In this case, l is s.ilah according to al-Farr and al-Zamakhshar,1199 whereas according to Ab Ubaydah, Ibn al-Anbr, Ibn Kathr and alQayrawn it is additional (zidah).1200 This is also the view of Qut.rub who says that like m, l occurs additionally in the Qurn.1201 There are also different views on the position of l in the beginning of many verses of the Qurn, such as "Nay, I swear by the Day of Resurrection" (Q. 75:1, Pickthall). Al-Kis, for example, says that l in this case is additional. This is also the view of Ab Ubaydah. On the other hand, according to al-Farr, it is not additional, but a negation of the infidels' allegation that Allah has a son, a companion and a spouse.1202 Many Qurnic verses refer to the unbelievers' allegation that Allah has a son (Q. 2:116, 10:68, 18:4, 19: , 19:91 and 21:26). Two verses deny the allegation that Allah has a son and a consort (Q. 6:101 and 72:3). 20. (nearer) Ibn Qutaybah gives us one meaning of awl, namely, intimidation and
1199. See al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 374; and al-Zamakhshar, alKashshf, vol. 1, p. 439. 1200. See Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 211; Ibn al-Anbr, alAd .dd, p. 211; Ibn Kathr, Tafsr, vol. 2, p. 211; and al-Qayrawn, Irb al-Qurn, pt. 1, p. 132; see also al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 229; and al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 7, p. 170. 1201. Ibn Fris, al-S .h .ib, p. 166. 1202. Ibn al-Anbr, al-Ad .dd, pp. 215-216; Ibn Fris, al-S . h .ib, p. 166; Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 277; al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 3, p. 207; and al-Qayrawn, Irb al-Qurn., pt. 1, p. 133. As a unit, the Qurn mentions the allegation of the infidels in one srah, and rejects the allegation in the other. For example, "And yet, they [who deny the truth] say: 'O thou unto whom this reminder has [allegedly] been bestowed from on high: verily, thou art mad!'" (Q. 15:6, Asad), is rejected with Thou art not, by thy Sustainer's grace, a madman!" (Q. 68:2, Asad). See alSuyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 229. However, al-Farr states that it is also correct to read , see Man l-Qurn, vol. 3, p. 207. In this case, la is what is called by Ibn Jinn (lm used for starting a sentence), see al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, p. 394. For more details on , see al-Zarkash, al-Burhn, vol. 4, pp. 351-361.

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threats , as in [And yet, O man, thine end comes hourly] nearer unto thee and nearer - and ever nearer unto thee and nearer." (Q. 75:34-5, Asad), meaning, "Threat be upon you again and again with your end."1203 The term awl in the expression awl lahu means, according to alAsma, "his ruin is approaching" . This is also the view of Thalab and al-Nah.h.s. Thalab says that the Arabic expression awl laka means that the ruin is near as if it is said to him ("You are approaching the ruin), as the origin of awl is al-walyu, meaning "nearness". Al-Nah.h.s says that awl laka means ("you almost became ruined"), as if it is said, "the ruin is near to you".1204 21. (surely, certainly, definitely, of course) According to al-Farr l jarama meant the same as l budda (definitely, inevitably) and l mah.lah (positively, absolutely, by all means); then, through its frequent expression, it meant an oath, and eventually it also meant h.aqqan (truly, certainly). The expression means "truly, I shall certainly come to you". The basic meaning of jarama, according to al-Farr, is kasaba (to earn, obtain, acquire, gain), as in the following poem of Ab Asm ibn al-D.arbah or Atyah ibn Aff: *
And verily thou [Karz al-Uqayl] didst thrust Ab Uyaynah [of the Fazrah tribe] with a thrust [of thy spear] that caused Fazrah [tribe] after it, to be angry [against thee]. (Lane's translation). 1205 1203. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 549; al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 179; and idem, Mutarak, vol. 1, p. 616. Ab Ubaydah says that the meaning of awl is ( threat), see Majz al-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 278. 1204. For further details, see al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 179; and idem, Mutarak, vol. 1, pp. 616-617. 1205. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 550; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 2, p. 412. Instead of an yaghd .ab it is also written an taghd .ab, see idem, Adab al-Ktib, p. 63. However, both are translated as al-ghad .ab, since it is the object (mafl) of the verb jaramat. According to Sbawayh, Khall, Ab Ubaydah and Ibn Fris in his work al-S .h .ib, the term jaramat means ah .aqqat, so that the verse means "... it was right that the Fazrah tribe would be angry ...", while according to al-Farr, Ibn Qutaybah and Ibn Fris in his other work, Mayqs, it means kasabat, namely, the killing caused the Fazrah tribe to

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The expression means ("their provider"). Sin, Ibn Qutaybah contends, is called jurm, because it is acquisition and perpetration.1206 There are five Qurnic verses with the expression l jarama, but Ibn Qutaybah does not cite any of them. They are Q. 11:22, 16:23, 62 and 109, and 40:43. Al-Suyt. gives four interpretations of the meaning of l jarama as follows: (1) L is the negation of what is mentioned before, jarama means "true", so that the expression means "nay, it is true that..." (2) L is additional, jarama means kasaba, so that the expression mentioned above means may their deed provide for them remorse" (3) L and jarama are two words combined to mean "truly"; and (4) L jarama means l budda.1207 22. (light "in") Ibn Qutaybah cites three meanings of the light in, as follows: a. (not), as in "Nothing was [needed] but one single blast [of Our punishment] - and lo! they became as still and silent as ashes." (Q. 36:29, Asad).1208
be angry (

). See Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 358; Ibn Fris,

al-S .h .ib, p. 150; idem, Maqys, vol. 1, p. 446; al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 9; and Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 550. However, both meanings are correct, according to Ibn al-Sayyid, although he leans to al-Farrs view, when he gives the meaning of the second part of the poem as , as translated above. Instead of t .aantu it should be read t .aanta (you have stabbed), as the poet in the preceding line addressed the assassin, y Karzu ("O Kurz"). For further details, see Ibn al-Sayyid, alIqt .idb (Beirut: N.p., 1901), p. 313, quoted in Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp. 550-551, nn. 3 and 4. 1206. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 551. Al-Farr said that he heard the Arabs saying meaning a provider for his family", and meaning he went out to provide for them". See Man l-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 299. The word commonly used for "crime" is jarmah. 1207. See al-Burhn, vol. 4, pp. 362-363, and al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 231. 1208. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 552; al-Zarkash, al-Burhn, vol. 4, p. 217; alDmaghn, Qms, p. 53; Tifls, Wujh, p. 36; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, pp. 129-130; and idem, Qurrah, p. 52. Yah .y ibn Sall m cites also many other examples, such as Q. 67: 9 and 20, see al-Tas .rf, pp. 195-196. See also al-Suyt ., Mutarak, vol. 1, pp. 603604 with different examples.

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b.

(verily), as in ".... Verily, our Sustainer's promise has been fulfilled." (Q.17:108, Asad).1209 c. (since, as, because), as in "..., and give up all outstanding gains from usury, since ye are truly believers." (Q. 2:278).1210 This meaning is based on the views of unspecified Qurnic commentators by Ibn Qutaybah. He asserts that philologists do not put idh as the meaning of in in the above or similar verses; therefore, the meaning of the above verse is "whoever becomes a true believer will stop practising usury."1211 There are three other meanings of in which are not treated by Ibn Qutaybah in this section, as follows: a. (the conditional "if"), as in "[And We said:] 'If you persevere in doing good, you will but be doing good to yourselves; and if you do evil, it will be [done] to yourselves....'" (Q. 17:7, Asad), and Say [O Muh.ammad, to mankind): 'If ye love Allah, follow me;...'" (Q. 3:31, Pickthall).1212 b. (in as additional), as in "And yet, We had established them securely in a manner in which We have never established you, [O people of later times;]..." (Q. 46:26, Asad).1213
1209. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 552; al-Zarkash, al-Burhn, vol. 4, p. 220; alDmaghn, Qms, p. 53; Tifls, Wujh, p. 36; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 130; and idem, Qurrah, p. 52. This is the view of Qut .rub, according to al-Suyt ., citing Q. 87:9 as an example; see Mutarak, vol. 1, pp. 605-606. According to al-Farr, in can mean qad if it is accompanied with the particle la or al, as in the above example, and in the expressions such as and meaning , see Ibn al-Anbr, al-Ad .dd, pp. 189-190. Al-T .abars's interpretation of in in the verse in question is innahu, see Majma al-Bayn, vol. 3, p. 446. 1210. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 552; idem, Garb al-H .adth, vol. 1, pp. 211-212; al-Zarkash, al-Burhn, vol. 2, p. 219; al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 52; Tifls, Wujh, pp. 35-36; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, pp. 130-131; and idem, Qurrah, p. 53. See also al-Suyt ., Mutarak, vol. 1, p. 605 with the example from Q. 3:139 and 48:27. 1211. See Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp. 332-333. 1212. See Tifls, Wujh, p. 36; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 129; idem, Qurrah, p. 52; and al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, pp. 167-168. 1213. Al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 169; and idem, Mutarak, vol. 1, p. 605. The particle m in this verse means "not". According to Ibn al-Anbr it is not correct to

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c.

("verily", "surely"), as in "... saying [to one another]: 'These two are surely sorcerers..." (Q. 20:63, Asad), based on the variant reading of H.afs. and Ibn Kathr.1214 (ha! hey! look! there!)

23.

According to Ibn Qutaybah the particle h is synonymous with the imperative khudh ("take!") and tanwal ("take!", "accept!"), such as in the imperative expression "Take [it], man!"). The example in the Qurn is as follows: "... Take, read my book!" (Q. 69:19, Pickthall). The origin of hum is hkum where the letter kf is substituted with the letter hamzah.1215 Another view, as stated by Ibn Manz .r, is that ha is h .arf tanbh ("the letter of alertness"), namely, an interjection at the beginning of the sentence used to attract the listener's attention similar to the English "hey". For example, (lit., "Hey, this is your brother") and (lit., "Hey, indeed, this is your brother").1216 According to Ibn Zayd and Ibn At.yah h means tal ("come!"), while according to Muqtil it means halumma ("come on!").1217 According to Ibn Qutaybah, the dual of hum is hum.1218 This is also the view of Ibn al-Sikkt and al-Kis who say that the Arabs say for the singular, for the dual, and for the plural; for

interpret

as

in which m means al-ladh (which), and

and in means qad in the above verse, but rather as

in which m means al-ladh, and in means m (not). For further details, see alAd .dd, pp. 189-190, and al-Zarkash, al-Burhn, vol. 4, pp. 215-222. This is also the view of al-Farr, see Man l-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 56. 1214. Al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 169; and idem, Mutarak, vol. 1, p. 604. For further details on in, see Lane, Lexicon, pt. 1, pp. 106-108. 1215. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 554. 1216. See Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 15, p. 475. 1217. See al-Suyt ., Mutarak, vol. 3, p. 306; and al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 18, p. 269. 1218. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 554.

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the feminine gender, they say 24.

, and

. 1219

According to Ibn Qutaybah, hti is synonymous with the imperative "give me", as in ".... Say: Give me your proof (of what you are claiming) if what you say is true!" (Q. 2:111). He quotes al-Farr who said that he had never heard of , the dual number for , but the singular and plural only, namely, and meaning imperative, such as 25. and (for singular feminine), and (for plural feminine). Negation is expressed by ("I shall not give you"), but the Arabs do not say it ("I have given"), nor in the negative ("do not give!").1220

for the past tense, such as

(lit., "be elevated!", "come up! come! )

The original meaning of tal, according to al-Farr, as quoted by Ibn Qutaybah, is ("come up to us!"), but through popular usage the term became synonymous with person on an elevated place ("come!"), so much so that it can be said to a ("come up!"), when we actually mean ), for the

"come down!". It can be used for the singular feminine gender (

dual ( ), the plural masculine ( ), and the plural feminine ( ). Although it cannot be used for the negative imperative, it can be used in the past and the present tenses, such as ("I came"), and ("To what thing shall I come?"). The example from the Qurn is as follows:
1219. Al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 18, p. 269. According to Ibn Manz .r, Ibn alSikkt's view is hiy and hunna instead of respectively huma and humna for the feminine dual and plural; see Lisn, vol. 15, p. 482. It is said that hum indicates activity and pleasure. When a Bedouin called the Prophet loudly, he answered with a long hum; see al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 18, p. 269. For further details on ha see alSuyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 253 and Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 15, p. 482, s.v. . Ibn Fris's dealing with h is similar to that of Ibn Qutaybah, almost verbatim, see, al-S . h .ib, p. 175. 1220. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 555; however, according to Ibn Manz .r, it is also said htiy for the dual masculine as well as feminine of the term ht, see Lisn, vol. 2, p. 107. Ibn Fris's reliance on Ibn Qutaybah's Tawl is also apparent in dealing with the term ht, see al-S .h .ib, pp. 175-176.

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"..., say: Come:! Let us summon our sons and your sons,..." (Q. 3:61, Asad).1221 26. (come!, come on!, onward!, up!, get up!) Halumma means (come!, come up!). The people of H.ijz do not make it dual or plural, as it is invariably used for the singular, the dual, the plural, masculine and feminine. The Ban Tamm people of Najd, however, make dual and plural of it, and say for singular feminine, for dual, for plural masculine, and and for plural feminine. .1222 can be followed by la, for example,

There are two Qurnic verses mentioning this term, neither of which is given by Ibn Qutaybah as an example. They are "Say: 'Bring forward your witnesses...'"(Q. 6:150, Asad) and "..., as well as those who say to their brethren, 'come hither to us...'"(Q. 33:18, Asad). It is used here invariably, namely, in the language of H.ijz, although it indicates plural in both verses. Philologists have different views about the origin of halumma. AlKhall asserts that its origin is the combination of for calling attention ( ), and (imperative verb from meaning "to collect", "to settle"). The alif of is dropped, and it becomes . Al-Farr, on the other hand, asserts that it is the combination of the words hal and umma. It is like allhumma which is originally from ("O Allah, lead us well").1223 Ibn Fris states that, according to some philologists whom he does not identify, this term is originally from meaning "shall I lead (the way)?";
1221. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 556; Ibn Fris, al-S . h .ib, pp. 147-148; alQurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 7, p. 130; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 5, pp. 2143-2144 1222. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 557; Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 208; al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 7, p. 129 and vol. 14, p. 151; Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 12, p. 617; al-T .abar, Jmi, vol. 8, p. 59; and al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 432 and vol. 2, p. 1124. 1223. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 557; al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 254; Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 12, pp. 617-618; and al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 7, p. 129. According to al-Suyt ., the well-known origin of allhumma is y Allhu in which y is dropped and replaced with mma (stressed mim) after Allh, see al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 163.

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it was originally an expression given by a person who is going to bring the meal. This expression develops and later becomes an invitation to a meal. However, in Ibn Fris's view, the term is ambiguous.1224 27. (not at all!, on the contrary!, by no means! certainly not!, never!, no!) The term kall indicates prevention ( ) and rebuke ( ).1225 Ibn Qutaybah cites six Qurnic verses as examples, two of which are as follows: a. "thinking that his wealth will make him live for ever. Nay, but [in the life to come such as] he shall indeed be abandoned to crushing torment!" (Q. 104:3-4, Asad). Here, Ibn Qutaybah asserts, kall means "his wealth will not make him live for ever". Therefore, it rejects the previous statement in the verse preceding it. b. " and then, behold, it will be for Us to make its meaning clear. Nay, but [most of] you love this fleeting life." (Q. 75:19-20, Asad). Kall here means "stop hurrying" . 1226 In other words, kall in this verse reproves the earlier statement indicating that the Prophet moved his tongue in haste in repeating the revelation, namely, "Move not thy tongue in haste, [repeating the words of the revelation:]" (Q. 75:16, Asad).
1224. See Ibn Fris, Maqys, vol. 6, p. 60. 1225. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 558. This is the view of Sbawayh and others, such as al-Akhfash and al-Zajjj, see Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 15, p. 231 (s.v.. ). According to them there is no other meaning of kall in the Qurn, so that a group of them say that whenever kall is mentioned in a srah in the Qurn, it indicates that it belongs to the Meccan srahs. This is because it signifies warning and threat, most of which were revealed in Mecca (Makkah) since wickedness mostly occurred in that city. Sbawayh and the majority of the philologists also believe that kall is a simple word, whereas according to Thalab, it consists of ka (meaning "like") and l (meaning "not"); the l is doubled with tashdd to emphasise the new meaning and to repel the assumption that the basic meanings of the two words still remain. See al-Suyt ., alItqn, vol. 2, p. 221. 1226. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 558; and Al-Zamakhshar, Al-Kashshf, vol. 2, p. 1556.

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Ibn al-Jawz cites two meanings of kall, as follows: (a) (not) which is found in fourteen verses of the Qurn, among which is Q. 104:4 mentioned above; (b) (truly, verily) which is found in nineteen verses of the Qurn, among which is Q. 75:20 mentioned above.1227 28. (slowly, gently, leisurely) The term ruwaydan means (slowly, gently, leisurely). Ibn

Qutaybah cites only one example from the Qurn, namely Let, then, the deniers of the truth have their will: let them have their will (amhilhum) for a little while." (Q. 86:17, Asad). However, he says that here ruwaydan means qallan (for a little while).1228 If the term is not preceded by amhilhum in the above verse, then it means mahlan. It is always in the diminutive form (tas.ghr), and in imperative mood, except in the following poem where it is neither in diminutive form nor in imperative mood: "She is like a drunk walking slowly."1229
1227. See Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah pp. 511-513. Among those who interpreted kall as synonymous to h .aqqan was al-Kis, whereas according to Ab H .tim the term means al ("know!"); see al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, pp. 221-222; and al-Qurt .ub, alJmi, vol. 11, pp. 147-148. Al-Kis makes a distinction between l and kall, as follows: L indicates a simple negation, whereas kall indicates negating something, but at the same time affirms something else. For example, somebody said to you, "You have eaten something," and you said, "L" (similar to the Indonesian "tidak"), it means you denied the occurrence of the action of eating anything. But if another person said to you, "You have eaten a date," and you said, "Kall" (similar to the Indonesian "bukan"), because you denied eating a date, but affirmed eating something else, such as honey; see Ibn Manz ). .r, Lisn, vol. 15, p. 231, (s.v. 1228. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 559; al-Zamkahshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 2, p. 1596; and al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, p. 472. This is the interpretation of ruwaydan in this verse according to Qatdah, whereas according to Ibn Abbs it means qarban (shortly); see al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 20, p. 12. 1229. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 559. Ibn Qutaybah as well as Ibn Fris misquoted the poem when they mentioned which is incorrect; see ibid. and Ibn Fris, al-S as quoted .h .ib, p. 153 and Maqys, vol. 2, p. 458. The correct word is by Ibn Manz .r as well as al-Qurt .ub, and as translated above. For further details on ruwaydan, see Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 3, p. 189 (s.v. vol. 20, p. 12.

); see also al-Qurt.ub, al-Jmi,

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29.

(a particle indicating alertness)

The term al is used and added to the sentence to indicate alertness. The expression means "Understand (ifham) that people are going out." The example in the Qurn is as follows: "Oh, verily, on the Day when it befalls them there will be nothing to avert it from them; ..." (Q. 11:8, Asad).1230 Al-Suyt. mentions three functions of al, one of which is to alert the listener ( ), as mentioned above. The other two are to incite ( ), and to offer ( ), as in the following respective examples: "Would you, perchance, fail to fight against people who have broken their solemn pledges, ..." (Q. 9:13, Asad), and "... do you not desire that God should forgive you your sins,..?" (Q. 24:22, Asad).1231 30. (affliction, distress, woe) Al-wayl, as stated by Ibn Qutaybah, is a word that combines all bad things ( ). He quotes al-As.ma's view who says that the term indicates taqbh (the act of denouncing something as ugly or disgraceful), such as .... But woe unto you for all your [attempts at] defining [God]." (Q. 21:18, Asad). The expression means "woe and moaning to him". It is also used to express tah.assur (regret) and tafajju (agony, affliction, grief), as in "And they could only cry: 'Oh, woe unto us! Verily, we were wrongdoers!'" (Q. 21:14, Asad).1232 There are many different views about the meaning of wayl, among which are the following: al-Khall: the severity of evil (shiddat al-sharr); alAs.ma: agony (tafajju); Ab Zayd: disaster; Sbawayh: a person who is in disaster; Ibn Arafah: sadness; this view is similar to that of al-Farr who
1230. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 560; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 1, p. 76. 1231. Al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 159; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 1, p. 75. 1232. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 561; al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, pp. 258-259; and idem, Mutarak, vol. 3, p. 449. Al-T .abars interprets al-wayl in both verses as "disaster"; see Majma al-Bayn, vol. 4, pp. 41 and 42.

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says that the origin of wayl is way, meaning sadness.1233 31. (by your life) The expression laamruk (by your life) and laamr Allh (by the everlasting existence of Allah, by the Eternal God) are oaths.1234 Ibn Qutaybah does not mention the only example from the Qurn which is as follows: "Verily, by thy life (O Prophet), in their wild intoxication, they wander in distraction, to and fro." (Q. 15:72, Ali). Ibn Abbs was reported to have said that Allah never swears with the life of a person except with that of Prophet Muh.ammad.1235 32. (yes, yea) According to Ibn Qutaybah iy means bal (yes, indeed, certainly, surely). It is used before an oath1236, as in "And some people ask thee, 'Is all this true?' Say: 'Yea, by my Sustainer! It is most certainly true, ...'" (Q. 10:53, Asad).1237 Sometimes we
1233. For further details, see Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 11, pp. 737-740 (s.v. and al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 2, p. 8. (s.v. ). );

1234. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 5621; and Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 4, pp. 601-602 1235. See al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 3, p. 342. Al-Zamakhshar cites two interpretations: the first is as mentioned above, and the second is that the expression laamruk in the above verse was said by the angels to Prophet Lot; see al-Kashshf, vol. 1, pp. 723-724. The angels' expression was most probably a du, meaning "may Allah prolong your life span", since it is inconceivable that they would swear other than by Allah. Asad, using the second interpretation given by al-Zamakhshar, translates the verse in question as follows: "[But the angels spoke thus:] 'As thou livest, [O Prophet Lot, they will not listen to thee:] behold, in their delirium [of lust] they are but blindly stumbling to and fro!'"; see M. Asad, The Message, p. 390. 1236. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 562. According to Ibn al-H .jib, the term should also be preceded by a question, since iy means "yes"; see al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 180; see also idem, Mutarak, vol. 3, p. 449. 1237. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 562. Instead of bal, as asserted by Ibn Qutaybah, according to Ibn Fris, al-Qurt .ub, and al-Suyt ., the meaning of iy is naam (yes). See al-S .h .ib, p. 129; al-Jmi, vol. 8, p. 351; and al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 180. Although both mean "yes", they are used differently. Bal is used in two places: (a) to reject a negative statement, as in They who are bent on denying the truth claim that they will never be raised from the dead! Say: 'Yea, by

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hear people join "yes".1238 33.

with the

that follows it and say

meaning

(on, at, upon, from) Ladun means inda (on, at, upon, from), as in "...[for by] now thou hast heard enough excuses from me." (Q. 18:76,

Asad). The letter in can be dropped, as in the following poem of Ghayln ibn H.rith al-Rub in describing the camel he was driving: * It takes two elbows long upon its rope from its two jaws
to its upper chest [namely, it has a long neck].1239

Ibn Qutaybah also mentions lad which is similar to ladun, meaning

my Sustainer! Most surely will you be raised from the dead, ...'" (Q. 64:7, Asad); (b) to invalidate the negation in the interrogative sentence; the question is either real (h .aqq), reproach (tawbkh), or establishment (taqrr). It is like doch in German and si in French. Their respective examples are as follows: "Is not Zayd standing? Yes, he is"; "Does man think that We cannot [resurrect him and] bring his bones together again? Yea, indeed, ..." (Q. 75:3-4, Asad); and ".... 'Am I not your Sustainer?' - to which they answer: 'Yea, indeed, ...'" (Q. 7:172, Asad). Should they say naam instead of bal in the last example, they would have become disbelievers, because naam in this case would mean "Yes, You are not our Sustainer." This is the view of Ibn Abbs and others. See al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, pp. 186-187. Since Q. 10:53 quoted above is the only verse in which iy is used, and since this verse does not belong to any of the above categories, the word iy in the above verse, in its strict sense, in my view, should mean naam instead of bal. Why, then, did not Ibn Qutaybah mention naam as the only meaning of iy instead of bal, or at least, include it? Probably because, as we have seen, naam is also used to confirm a negative statement so that it means "no", whereas bal always means "yes", whether in confirming an affirmative statement or in negating a negative statement. Moreover, iy meaning bal is mentioned before an oath only as a ilah of it to emphasise the truth of the statement, in this case, that Allah would punish the idolaters in the Hereafter for their wrong-doings as mentioned in the previous verse (Q. 10:52). This may indicate Ibn Qutaybah's deep understanding of the subject, and this is one of his contributions in the Qurnic exegesis. 1238. See al-Zamakhshar, al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 588. 1239. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 563; Ibn Fris, al-S .h .ib, p. 169; and Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 13, p. 383. According to al-Zamakhshar, ladunn can also be read ladun and ladn, see al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 810.

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inda, as in the door." (Q. 12:25, Asad).1240

"... - and [lo!] they met her lord at

So far, we have seen how Ibn Qutaybah dealt with the thirty-three particles and uninflected verbs in his work Tawl. Most of them were mentioned very briefly. For example, the term laamruk, was covered in less than two lines, iy in two, kayfa and ayyna in four, awl and al in five, l, al-wayl and h in six lines. We have also seen that other scholars, such as Ibn al-Jawz, Ibn al-Anbr, al-Qurt.ub and al-Suyt. gave much more details regarding these terms than Ibn Qutaybah. However, despite his brevity, we note that some of his contributions highlight his deep understanding of this subject. Ibn al-Jawz in his work Nuzhah, for example, mentions Ibn Qutaybah by name and quotes his interpretations of several terms and particles more than forty times. D. The Substitution of Particles in the Verses of the Qurn According to Ibn Qutaybah there are particles in the verses of the Qurn that substitute each other. Besides Tawl, this topic is also discussed by him in his work Adab al-Ktib, although in some cases he does not give examples from the Qurn in it. However, I shall also include in this study some examples which have not been quoted by him but have been quoted by other scholars. These particles were not treated by later scholars as substituting or being in the sense of (synonymous with) each other, but as having many wujh. These particles are: and . They are dealt with as follows: 1. (to; toward; up to; as far as; till, until) a. Il in the sense of maa (with),1241 as in
1240. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 563. For further details on ladun, lad and inda, see al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, pp. 206-207. 1241. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 571; see also al-Zarkash, al-Burhn, vol. 4, p. 233. Instead of , Ibn Qutaybah in his Adab al-Ktib uses , see Adab al-Ktib, p. 544. Apparently, there is no difference between the two expressions, although the latter is used by later writers. However, out of fifteen cases in his Tawl, Ibn Qutaybah only once used , whereas in his Adab al-Ktib he used both fifteen times.

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"And when Jesus became aware of their refusal to acknowledge the truth, he asked: 'Who will be my helpers in God's cause?'..." (Q. 3:52, Asad). The verse means, according to Ibn Qutaybah, "... who will be my helpers with Allah ( ).1242 The example from the Arabs' expression is the proverb which means "a small group of camels (from three to nine heads) with another small group makes a larger group of camels (ibil).1243 b. Il in the sense of f, as in the expression meaning .1244 The example given by al-Suyt. is the following verse: .... [God] will surely gather you all together on the Day of Resurrection..." (Q. 4:87, Asad).1245 There are two more particles substituted by mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah in his work Adab al-Ktib but without any example from the Qurn, as follows: (a) Il in the sense of min, as in the following poem of
1242. Asad and Pickthall translate respectively as "in God's cause" and "in the cause of Allah"; see Asad, The Message, p. 75 and Pickthall, The Glorious Qurn, p. 55. These translations are probably based on the interpretation of al-H .rr .asan al-Bas ; see al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 4, p. 97. Ibn Qutaybah's interpretation is based on what he thinks is Ab Ubaydah's interpretation; see Adab al-Ktib, p. 544. But Ab Ubaydah states that means who says that means , so that, instead of maa, the term il here means f; see Majz al-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 94. It is possible that Ibn Qutaybah means al-Farr rather than Ab Ubaydah, as alFarr accepts the interpretation of il as maa in the above verse as a good one (

); see Man l-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 218. Moreover, this is also the interpretation of
the grammarians of Kfah to which al-Farr is said to belong or to lean; see al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 162. In addition, this interpretation has been adopted by al-Thalib, al-Qayrawn, al-Dmaghn, Tifls, Ibn al-Jawz and Ibn Fris; see Fiqh al-Lughah, p. 241; Irb al-Qurn, pt. 1, p. 806; Qms, pp. 36-37; Wujh, pp. 26-27; Nuzhah, p. 103; Qurrah, p. 40; and al-S . h .ib, p. 132. 1243. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 571; idem, Adab al-Ktib, p. 544; al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 218; and Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 3, p. 169 (s.v. ). 1244. Ibn Qutaybah, Adab al-Ktib, pp. 536-537. 1245. Al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 162. According to Tifls, al-Dmaghn, and Ibn al-Jawz, the particle il here means li (for); see Wujh, p. 27; Qms, p. 37; Nuzhah, p. 103; and Qurrah, p. 40.

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Han ibn Ah.mar al-Kinn: He was given drink, so there is no drink from me, Ibn Ah.mar." (b) Il in the semse of inda, as in the expression ("it is more delicious to me than such and such") in which ilayya ("to me") is in the sense of ind ("for me").1246 2. (in, at, on; with; through, by means of) a. Bi in the sense of an, as in ".... Ask, then, about Him, [the] One who is [truly] aware." (Q. 25:59, Asad). Here bihi is in the sense of anhu.1247 The example from poetry is the following poem of Alqamah ibn Abadah: * And if ye ask me regarding [the diseases of] women,
verily, I ppossess knowledge of the diseases of women, [I am] a physician.

Here bi l-nis is in the sense of an al-nis'.1248 b. Bi in the sense of li (for), as in We created them not save with truth [namely, for the truth]." (Q. 44:39, Pickthall).1249 The creation of the heavens and the earth bil-h.aqq (lit. "with truth") is mentioned in Q. 6:73, 14:19, 16:3, 29:44, 39:5, 45:22 and 64:3. In other verses it is stated that Allah did not create the heavens, the earth and all that is between them, namely, the entire universe, except bil-h.aqq (Q. 15:85, 30:8 and 46:3). On the other hand, Allah says that He has not created heaven and earth and all that is between them bt.ilan (lit. "in
1246. Ibn Qutaybah, Adab al-Ktib, p. 540. 1247. Idem, Tawl, p. 568; idem, Adab al-Ktib, p. 538; al-Qayrawn, Irb alQurn, pt. 2, p. 142; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 210; idem, Qurrah, p. 176; and alSuyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 183. According to al-Qurt .ub, this is the view of al-Zajjj and an unidentified group of grammarians. See al-Jmi, vol. 13, p. 63. 1248. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 568; idem, Adab al-Ktib, p. 538; Ibn Fris, Maqys, vol. 3, p. 407; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, pp. 208-209; and [al-Mufad .d .al alD .abb], al-Mufd .d .alyt, p. 392. Instead of bas .r in the poem, al-Qurt .ub uses khabr (an expert), see al-Jmi, vol. 13, p. 63. 1249. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 578; al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 3, p. 42; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, pp. 209-210; and idem, Qurrah, p. 82. This is the interpretation of al-Kalb and al-H .asan adopted by Ibn Qutaybah. Another interpretation, however, is that of Muqtil, who says that 147. means . See al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 16, p.

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vain") (Q. 38:27). Moreover, those who are endowed with insight and keep remembering Allah will say after reflecting the creation of the heavens and the earth: "Our Lord! Thou createdst not this in vain (bt.ilan)." (Q. 3:191, Pickthall). Here the term bt.ilan, meaning "without meaning and purpose" (as translated by Asad) is the opposite of bil-h.aqq, which means, "with a definite purpose and meaning". Bil-h.aqq also means lil-h.aqq, "for a definite purpose and meaning" if we assume that bi is in the sense of li in the above verses as stated by Ibn Qutaybah. c. Bi in the sense of min, as in A fountain from which the servants of God shall drink." (Q. 76:6, Lane). According to Ibn Qutaybah, the expression yashrabu bih in this verse is in the sense of yashrabu minh. It is similar to the expression which means ("I drank such and such water").1250 From

1250. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 575; idem, Adab al-Ktib, p. 543; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 1, p. 143; here al-Qurt .ub is quoting Ibn Qutaybah with the expression qlahu l-Qutab, see al-Jmi, vol. 19, p. 126; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 209; idem, Qurrah, p. 82; and al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 184. Besides Ibn Qutaybah's interpretation, al-Qurt .ub and al-T .abars also mention the view of al-Farr who says that the expression yashrabu bih and yashrabuh have the same meaning; it is like the expression ("Verily he speaks with a good speech") and ("he speaks a good speech"). It is said that bi in this verse is additional; see alJmi, vol. 19, p. 126; Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, p. 407; and al-Farr, Man lQurn, vol. 3, p. 215. This view is also mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah, see Gharb alH .adth, vol. 2, pp. 105-106. See also Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 1, p. 487. In rejecting the above views Ibn Taymiyyah contends that if bi is additional in this verse, the verse would mean that the drinker may drink the drink without quenching his thirst. On the other hand, if it is said that bi is in the sense of min, there would not be any indication that the drinker is quenching his thirst. Therefore, according to Ibn Taymiyyah, it is said that the bi in yashrabu bih indicates that the quenching of the drinker's thirst occurs with this special drink. See Ibn Taymiyyah, Majm Fatw ibn Taymiyyah, ed. Abd al-Rah . mn ibn Muh .ammad al-H .anbal (Riyadh: N.p., 1382 A.H.), 1st ed., vol. 20, p. 474. This is also the view of the effective investigators (al-muh .aqqiqn) according to al-Zarkash. He states that the meaning of the preposition bi in the verse in question is to indicate inclusion (tad .mn) of the meaning of yarw (he quenches the thirst) in the verb yashrabu (he drinks). As the verb yashrabu is itself a transitive verb, it does not need the preposition bi except for a purpose. This purpose is to include the quenching of the thirst in its meaning. Therefore, the verb yashrabu bi includes both literal and

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poetry he quotes the poem of Ab Dhuayb al-Hudhal describing the clouds as follows: *
They [namely, the clouds] drank from the water of the sea, then rose up from the green depth of the sea passing quickly and noisily.1251

d. Bi meaning fi, as in the following poem of al-Ash: meaning "what is (the benefit of) the old man's crying over the ruins" in which bil-at.ll means f l-at.ll.1252 The examples given by Ibn al-Jawz and al-Suyt. respectively are as follows: ".... In Thy hand is all good...." (Q. 3:26, Asad), and "for indeed God did succour you at Badr,..." (Q. 3:123, Asad).1253 e. Bi meaning al, as in the poem of Amr ibn Qamiah when he says ("On your affection to my people..."), in which bi means al, and m is additional.1254 The examples from the Qurn given by Ibn al-Jawz and al-Suyt. respectively are as follows:
metaphorical meanings; see al-Zarkash, al-Burhn, vol. 3, p. 338. Besides the above interpretations al-Qayrawn also mentions another interpretation, namely, the preposition bi indicates the location of the fountain, and the term aynan means m ayn (water of a fountain), so that the verse in question means "Water of a fountain where the servants of God shall drink"; see Irb al-Qurn, pt. 2, p. 672. 1251. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 575; idem, Adab al-Ktib, p. 543; and al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 5, p. 407; see also Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 1, p. 487. Ibn alSayyid says that there are two views concerning the meaning of the word mat in this poem, min (from) and wasat . (amidst), see al-Iqtid .b. p. 447, quoted by A. S .aqr in Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 575, n. 3. Nrah Shamln, in her work on the life and poems of Ab Dhuayb, chooses the first view, whereas Ibn Fris chooses the second; see Shamln, Ab Dhuayb al-Hudhal: H .aytuh wa Shiruh (Riyadh: Imdah Shun alMaktabt, Riyadh University, 1400/1980), p. 104 and Ibn Fris, Maqys, vol. 5, p. 296. It is said, however, that mat in the language of the al-Hudhayl tribe means f (in, at); see al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 19, p. 126, n. 1; and al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 3, p. 215, n. 3. 1252. Ibn Qutaybah, Adab al-Ktib, p. 543. It is written il biman f which is a misprint, and should be bi instead of il as has been corrected here. 1253. See Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 210; idem, Qurrah, p. 82; and al-Suyt ., alItqn, vol. 2, p. 183. 1254. Ibn Qutaybah, Adab al-Ktib, p. 547.

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"On that day those who disbelieved and disobeyed the messenger will wish that the ground would become levelled on them" (Q. 4:42) and "... who, if thou trust him with a treasure,..." (Q. 3:75) in which biqint.r means al qint.r.1255 f. Bi meaning min ajl (for the sake of, because of), as in the poem of Labd when he said: "acts of conquering were scattering for the sake of blood revenge."1256 The examples from the Qurn given by Ibn al-Jawz and al-Suyt. are respectively as follows: "..., and those who, because of him (Satan) become polytheists." (Q. 16:100) in which bihi means min ajlihi; and Each one of them We seized for his crime: ..." Q. 29:40, Ali), in which bidhanbihi means min ajli dhanbihi.1257 3. (on, upon, at, by, in; to, toward, for) "Who, when they take by measure from men, take fully" (Q. 83:2, Lane), in which al l-ns means min al-ns.1258 The example from poetry is the poem of S.akhr al-Ghayy, as follows: *
[I am going to tell you about an essay (maqlah) you cannot deny], whenever you deny it you will know that blood will spill from its sides [namely, an essay that will kindle war and spill blood].1259

a. Al in the sense of (meaning) min (from), as in

1255. See Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 210; idem, Qurrah, p. 83; and al-Suyt ., alItqn, vol. 2, p. 183. 1256. Ibn Qutaybah, Adab al-Ktib, p. 547. 1257. Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 211; idem, Qurrah, p. 83; and al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 183. For further details on bi and its meanings, see al-Suyt ., Mutarak, vol. 1, pp. 634-637. 1258. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 573; idem, Adab al-Ktib, p. 545; Lane, Lexicon, pt. 5, p. 2145; al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 3, p. 246; al-Zarkash, al-Burhn, vol. 4, p. 283; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 442; and idem, Qurrah, p. 178. According to Ibn Manz .r the particle al in the above verse means min as well as an; see Lisn, vol. 15, p. 89. Al-Dmaghn gives Q. 16:9 as an example: it reads It is from Allah the direction of the right path."; see Qms, p. 332. 1259. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, pp. 573 and 380, and idem, Adab al-Ktib, pp. 545-

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b.Al meaning inda (at, near, by, with, on; upon), as in And (further), they have a charge of crime against me, so that I fear they may slay me." (Q. 26:14, Ali), in which alayya dhanb means ind dhanb.1260 c. Al meaning f, as in the expression ("It was so in the time of So-and-so"), in which al ahd means f ahd, and in And they followed what the devils related (or recited) in the time of (or during) the reigh of Solomon..." (Q. 2:102, Lane). Here al mulki means f mulki.1261 d.Al meaning bi, as in the expression meaning ("Mount thou in the name of God." Lane).1262 Al-Dmaghn cites the following verse as an example: "....So put your trust (in Allah) if ye are indeed believers." (Q.5 :23, Pickthall), in which al Allh means bi Allh.1263
546. Al-Qurt .ub also cites this poem, but he says that than , see al-Jmi, vol. 6, p. 359. means , rather

1260. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 578, and Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 83. The criminal charge meant in this verse is the accidental killing of an Egyptian by Prophet Moses. See al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 13, p. 92. 1261. Ibn Qutaybah, Adab al-Ktib, p. 542; idem, Gharb al-H .adth, vol. 3, pp. 703-704 (with an example from poetry); al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 187; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, pp. 442-443; and idem, Qurrah, p. 178. Al-Suyt goes further and says that the interpretation ("in the kingdom of Solomon") means

, namely, "in the time of his reign" as translated by Asad above; see al-Itqn, vol. 2,
pp. 201-202. This meaning agrees with that given by al-Zajjj who says that means ("at the time of Solomon's reign"); see al-Qurt .ub, alJmi, vol. 2, p. 42. Al-T .abars mentions two interpretations: "against the kingdom of Solomon" as translated by Pickthall, and "in the time of Solomon's reign" mentioned above; see Majma al-Bayn, vol. 1, p. 174. 1262. Ibn Qutaybah, Adab al-Ktib, p. 544; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 5, p. 2145. 1263. See al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 333. Al-Suyt . cites a different example, namely, "Hence, place thy trust in the Living

One who dies not,..." (Q. 25:58, Asad), and calls the substituted particle particle bi used for seeking help); see al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 202.

(the

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e. Al meaning maa, as in the poem of al-Shammkh as follows:

And two special kinds of garments and seventy dirhams; with that, a goat's skin thong tanned with pods of acacia nilotica (a species of sant tree).1264

Al-Suyt. cites the following example "...; and giveth his wealth, (accompanied) with his love, ..." (Q. 2:177), in which 1265 al h.ubbihi means maa h Al-Qurt.ub .ubbihi as translated above. suggests two meanings for h.ubbihi in the above verse: "his love for his wealth", and "his love for the persons mentioned later: his kinsfolk, orphans, etc".1266 Pickthall and Ali, however, translate al h.ubbihi respectively as "for love of Him" and "out of love for Him", namely, Allah.1267 Ibn Qutaybah mentions two more examples of substitutions of particles with al in his work Adab al-Ktib, without giving any example from the Qurn, as follows: (a). Al in the sense of an, as in the expression meaning ("I have been pleased with you"), and meaning I shot [the arrow] from the bow").1268 (b) Al in the sense of li, as in the poem of al-R (Ubayd ibn al-H.usayn alNumayr), ("She took care of him for months and he devoted himself to her"), in which khal alayh means khal lah.1269 4. (off, away, from; out of, about; for) a. An in the sense of bi (in, at, on, with), as in the expression

1264. Ibn Qutaybah, Adab al-Ktib, p. 545. 1265. See al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 201; see also al-Zarkash, al-Burhn, vol. 4, p. 285. 1266. See al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 2, p. 242. 1267. Pickthall, The Glorious Qurn, p. 27; and Ali, The Holy Qurn, p. 69 1268. Ibn Qutaybah, Adab al-Ktib, p. 537; and Ibn Manz .r, Lisn, vol. 15, p. 88. Lane translates the expression as ("I shot with the bow") rather than ("from the bow"); see Lexicon, pt. 5, p. 2145. 1269. Ibn Qutaybah, Adab al-Ktib, p. 540. For further details on al see Lane, Lexicon, pt. 5, pp. 2144-2145.

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meaning

("I shot with the bow"),1270 and as in And neither does he speak out of his own desire. (Q. 53:3,

Asad). b. An in the sense of min, as in the expression (have taken this from you), and in

meaning

And it is He who accepteth the repentance from His servants..." (Q. 42:25, Asad).1271 c. An in the sense of al, as in the following poem of Dh al-Is.ba alAdwn: *
To God be attributed the excellence of the son of thy paternal uncle, thou hast not become possessed of superiority, on grounds of pretension to respect (or honour), above me [ ], nor art thou my governor that thou shouldst rule me. (Lane's translation).1272

The only example from the Qurn given by Ibn al-Jawz and Al-Suyt. is the following verse: ".... And yet, he who acts niggardly [in God's cause] is but niggardly towards his own self..." (Q. 47:38, Asad).1273 Here an nafsih means al nafsih. d. An in the sense of bada (after), as in the expression meaning ("I shall do that after a while").1274 An
, but

1270. However, according to Ibn Manz .r, it is correctt to say not ; see Lisn, vol. 15, p. 88.

1271. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 577; al-Zarkash, al-Burhn, vol. 4, p. 287; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 439; idem, Qurrah, p. 176; al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 183; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 5, p. 2164. 1272. Ibn Qutaybah, Adab al-Ktib, p. 541; C.J. Lyall, ed., The Mufad .d .aliyyt, p. 160; and Ibn Fris, Mayqs, vol. 2, p. 179. According to Ibn Fris, the word lh is the name of Allah; with the addition of the definite article al, it makes the word Allh; see Maqys, vol. 5, p. 227. Lane translated lh as lillhi darru, as translated above; see Lexicon, pt. 5, p. 2164. 1273. See Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 439; idem, Qurrah, p. 176; al-Zarkash, alBurhn, vol. 4, p. 287; al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 203; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 5, p. 2164. 1274. Ibn Qutaybah, Adab al-Ktib, p. 542.

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example from the Qurn is given by al-Zarkash and al-Suyt. as follows: .... distorting the meaning of the [revealed] words after [knowing] their context..." (Q. 5:13). This interpretation is apparent if we compare it with another similar verse using min badi mawd.iihi instead of an mawd.iihi, namely, Q. 5:41.1275 Al-Qurt.ub's commentary on this second verse is that the Jews distorted the meaning of the context of the Torah dealing with the stoning of the adulterer after the Prophet had explained to them what Allah meant by this penal law and after they had understood it. Through their interpretation they wanted to change the ruling of stoning for forty lashes.1276 Asad and Pickthall render the same translation of an mawd.iihi and min badi mawd.iihi in the above verses respectively as "out of their context" and "from their context". Ali translates the former as "from their (right) places" and the latter as "from their (right) time".1277 Ibn Qutaybah mentions other substitutions of particles with an, but without any example from the Qurn, as follows: (a) an in the sense of min ajl (for the sake of, because of), as in the following poem of Labd: for a watering place because of which the fields become diminished."1278 (b)an meaning fawqa (above, on), as in the following poem: *
If you threwest colocynths upon our helmets they would roll along from what is gilded thereof, they being near together. (Lanes translation).1279

5.

(in; at; on; near; by; within; during) meaning ("The signet-ring cannnot be inserted into [namely, fit
1275. See al-Zarkash, al-Burhn, vol. 4, p. 287; and al-Suyt . al-Itqn, vol. 2, p.

a. F in the sense of al as in the expression

203. 1276. See al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 6, pp. 181-182. 1277. See Asad, The Message, pp. 144 and 151; Pickthall, The Glorious Qurn, pp. 103 and 107; and Ali, The Holy Qurn, pp. 245 and 254. 1278. Ibn Qutaybah, Adab al-Ktib, pp. 542-543. 1279. Idem, Gharb al-H .adth, vol. 1, p. 358; and Lane Lexicon, pt 4, p.475 (s.v. ).

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on] my finger"), and in "And I will assuredly crucify you upon the trunks of palm-trees" (Q. 20:71, Lane) in which f judh al-nakhl means al judh al-nakhl.1280 b. F in the sense of il , as in And they put their hands to their mouths" (Q. 14:9) in which f afwhihim means al afwhihim.1281 c. F in the sense of bi, as in the following poem of al-Ash: And if he is requested [to give] the parchments [namely, the books of the prophets] he will respond." Here f l-mahriq means bilmahriq. 1282 The example from the Qurn cited by al-Dmaghn and Ibn al-Jawz is as follows: Are they waiting until Allah comes to them with the shadows of the clouds...?" (Q. 2:210) in which f z.ulal means bi-z.ulal.1283 This is one
1280. Idem, Tawl, p. 567; idem, Adab al-Ktib, p. 536; Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 1, p. 14 and vol. 2, p. 23; al-Zarkash, al-Burhn, vol. 4, p. 303; alT .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 4, p. 21; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 476; idem, Qurrah, pp. 190-191; al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 367; al-Thalib, Fiqh al-Lughah, p. 244; alSuyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 211; Tifls, Wujh, p. 230; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 6, p. 2467. Ibn Fris mentions the reason for the use of f in the above verse. He says it is because the trunks for the crucified persons are like graves for the buried ones; see al-S . h .ib, p. 158. According to al-Farr means that the crucifixion is done by putting the persons to be crucified on lengthwise on the tree trunks, whereas means that they are lifted and put on the trunks; see Man l-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 186. Another view is that of al-Mubarrad and al-Qayrawn that the particle f is used to indicate that the trunks surrounded (contained) him; see al-Mubarrad, al-Kmil, vol. 2, p. 823; and Irb al-Qurn, pt. 3, p. 806. 1281. Ibn Qutaybah, Adab al-Ktib, p. 539; Lane, Lexicon, pt. 6, p. 2467; alZarkash, al-Burhn, vol. 4, p. 303; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 476; idem, Qurrah, p. 191; and al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 212. Al-Dmaghn and Tifls cite Q. 4:97 as an example, see Qms, p. 367; and Wujh, p. 230. This idiomatic phrase, according to Asad, indicates "one's inability to refute a reasonable proposition by cogent, logical counter arguments". For further details, see Asad, The Message, p. 372, n. 10. 1282. Ibn Qutaybah, Adab al-Ktib, pp. 539-540 in which tunshida is written is probably nshida as cited above. See also al-Ash, Dwn al-Ash, p. 55 in which yunshadu is written rather than tunshida or nshida. 1283. Al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 368; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 477; and idem, Qurrah, pp. 191-192.

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interpretation. The other interpretation is that there is no substitution of particles in this verse, so that the verse means: "Are they waiting until Allah reveals Himself unto them in the shadows of the clouds?" This is the interpretation adopted by Asad, Pickthall and Ali,1284 which appears to be the more appropriate one. d. F meaning min, as in the following poem of Imru al-Qays:
Can anyone [i.e., the former inhabitant of the consumed (effaced) ruins] be happy whose most recent time [in happiness] was thirty months in [i.e., from] the last three years [i.e., the impossibility of happiness after seperation]?

Here f thalthati ah.wl means min thalthati ah.wl.1285 The example from the Qurn is as follows: "One day We shall raise from all peoples a witness against them from amongst themselves..." (Q. 16:89, Ali)1286 in which f kulli ummah means min kulli ummah. e. F meaning maa, as in the expression meaning ("So-and-so is intelligent as well as gentle").1287 The example from the Qurn is as follows: ".... [And thou shalt go] with nine [of My] messages unto Pharaoh and his people..." (Q. 27:12, Asad).1288 Asad's interpretation of yt as "messages" is based on
1284. See al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 3, pp. 25-26; Asad, The Message, p. 45; Pickthall, The Glorious Qurn, p. 31; and Ali, The Holy Qurn, p. 82. 1285. Ibn Qutaybah, Adab al-Ktib, p. 546. Translation rendered by Tengku Jusoh, Tengku Ghani. A Critical Examination of five Poems by Imru al-Qays (Kuala Lumpur: Penerbitan Pustaka Antara, 1990), pp. 15 and 62. This is also the view of alAs .ma according to al-Qurt .ub, see al-Jmi, vol. 13, pp. 162-163. However, according to Muh .ammad Ab al-Fad .l Ibrhm, f is in the sense of maa in this poem, so that the verse means "thirty months apart from three years"; see M.A. Ibrhm, ed., Dwn Umru al-Qays, 2nd ed. (Cairo: Dr al-Marif, 1384/1964), p. 27. 1286. Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 476; idem, Qurrah, p. 191; al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 367; Tifls, Wujh, pp. 230-231; al-Zarkash, al-Burhn, vol. 4, p. 3093, and al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 212. 1287. Ibn Qutaybah, Adab al-Ktib, p. 546. 1288. Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 476; idem, Qurrah, p. 190; al-Dmaghn, Qms, pp. 366-367; al-T .abars, Majma al-Bayn, vol. 4, p. 213; al-Zarkash, alBurhn, vol. 4, p. 302, and al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 211. Tifls does not quote this verse, but quotes many others, see Wujh, p. 230.

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the opinion of some unidentified commentators who "see in it a reference to nine specific commandments or ethical principles...".1289 Others render yt as "signs", the miracles performed by Prophet Moses. Therefore, the verse means, according to this view, that the radiant hand, as mentioned in the previous verse, is one in addition to nine other miracles. However, according to other commentators f means min ("among") rather than maa in this verse, so that the two miracles mentioned earlier, namely, the radiant hand and the staff, are included in the nine miracles. This is the view of al-Nah.h.s, al-Mahdw, al-Qushayr, and Ibn Kathr, and on which Pickthall and Ali render their translations.1290 Al-Zarkash mentions other meanings of f, among which are as follows: a. (at, with), as in Pharaoh said: Did we not bring thee up among us when thou wert a child? And didst thou not spend among us years of thy [later] life? (Q. 26:18, Asad). Here means . (after), as in and his weaning is after two years (Q. 31:14), namely, the baby stops his total dependance on his mothers milk after two years. Here f mayn means bada mayn. c. ( about, from), as in Amd whoever is blind in these [namely, Allahs blessings in this mentioned mentioned earlier], he will also become blind about [His blessings in] the Hereafter, [because of his disbelief in them]... (Q. 17:72).1291 However, translators like Ali and Pickthall, translate in the b.
1289. For further details, see Asad, The Message, p. 434, n. 119. 1290. See al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 13, pp. 162-3; Ibn Kathr, Tafsr, vol. 3, p. 370; Pickthall, The Glorious Qurn, p. 393; and Ali, The Holy Qurn, p. 980. With regard to those nine signs or miracles, they are, according to Ibn Abbs in one of his interpretations and Mujhid, as follows: the rod (Q. 7:107), the radiant hand (Q. 7:108), the years of drought or shortage of water (Q. 7:130), shortage of crops (Q. 7:130), epidemics among men and beasts, locusts, lice, frogs, and the water turning to blood (Q. 7:133). Another interpretation attributed to Ibn Abbs, is that he includes the split of the sea as substitute for shortage of crops which is probably included by him in the category of drought and shortage of water, as done by al-H .asan al-Bas .r; see al-S .bn, Mukhtas .ar, vol. 2, p. 403. The first interpretation was adopted by Ali, see The Holy Qurn, p. 378, n. 1091. 1291 For further details, see al-Zarkash, al-Burhn, vol. 4, pp. 302-304.

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above verse in its original sense in their respective translations, as follows: But those who are blind in this world, will be blind in the Hereafter, and for whoever is blind [of heart] in this [world] will be blind in the life to come [as well]1292 6. (for) meaning ("So-and-so fell upon his mouth"), and in "... and neither speak loudly to him, as you would speak loudly to one another, ..." (Q. 49:2, Asad) in which lahu means alayh.1293 b. Li in the sense of il , as in the expression ("I guided him to it").1294 The example from the Qurn is as follows: as thy Sustainer will have inspired her to do." (Q. 99:5, Asad) in which awh. lah means awh. ilayh.1295 c. Li meaning min ajli, as in the expression meaning ("I did that for you") ("I did that for your sake").1296 Ibn al-Jawz a. Li in the sense of al, as in the expression

mentions lm al-sabab in the following verse: (Saying): We feed you, for the sake of Allah only." (Q. 76:9, Pickthall) which is probably one example from the Qurn.1297 Another probable example from the Qurn is as follows:
See Ali, The Holy Quran, p. 715; and Asad, The Message, p. 430 1293. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 569; idem, Adab al-Ktib, p. 540; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, pp. 537-8; and idem, Qurrah, p. 211. Al-Suyt . cites Q. 13:25 as an example from the Qurn, see al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 225. 1294. Ibn Qutaybah, Adab al-Ktib, p. 544; here it is written misprinted, and should be which is . Cf. idem, Tawl, p. 522 in which it is written
1292

.
1295. Idem, Tawl, p. 572; idem, Adab al-Ktib, p. 540; al-Zamakhshar, alKashshf, vol. 2, p. 1616; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 538; idem, Qurrah, p. 212; alZarkash, al-Burhn, vol. 4, p. 341; al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 225; and idem, Mutarak, vol. 1, p. 552. Another example cited by Ibn Qutaybah is Q. 7:43 in which means ; see Adab al-Ktib, p. 544. 1296. Ibn Qutaybah, Adab al-Ktib, p. 547. 1297. See Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 539; and idem, Qurrah, pp. 212-213.

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"He will say: Ah, would that I had provided beforehand for my life [to come]." (Q. 89:24, Asad) in which lih.ayt means min ajli h.ayt f lkhirah ("for the sake of my life in the Hereafter") according to one interpretation; however, according to another, such as that of al-Zarkash, it means f h.ayt ("in my life").1298 There are two more substitutions mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah solely in his work Adab al-Ktib and without any example from the Qurn, most probably because they occur only in Arabic literature and poetry, as follows: (a) Li meaning maa, as in the following poem of Mutammim ibn Nuwayrah al-Yarb:
When we separated it was as if Mlik and I did not stay the night together in spite of the length of the meeting.

(b) Li meaning bada (after), as in the poem of al-R, as follows:

Until they [namely, the sheep], after completing five distant [pastures], reached a frontier seized with severe wind successively.

Here litimmi khimsin means bada tammi khimsin. 1299 The example from the Quran is given by al-Zarkash as follows: Establish [your] prayer after the suns decline (Q. 17:78).1300 7. (from) a. Min in the sense of al, as in And [We] delivered him from the people who denied Our revelations..." (Q.21:77, Pickthall) in which min al-qawm means al l-qawm.1301 b. Min in the sense of an, as in the expression meaning
1298. See al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 225; and al-Zarkash, al-Burhn, vol. 4, p. 341. 1299. Ibn Qutaybah, Adab al-Ktib, pp. 546-547. 1300. See al-Zarkash, al-Burhn, vol. 4, p. 342. In fact, there are many other meanings of li mentioned by al-Zarkash. For further details, see ibid., pp. 339-350. 1301. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 577; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, p. 577; idem, Qurrah, p. 224; al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 443; al-Thalb, Fiqh al-Lughah, p. 244; Tifls, Wujh, p. 276; Ibn Fris, al-S .h .ib, p. 172; and al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 248.

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("So and so related to me from so and so").1302 Although no example is given by Ibn Qutaybah from the Qurn, al-Zakrkash and alSuyt. cite the following verse as an example: ".... We were indeed heedless of this [promise of resurrection]!..." (Q. 21:97, Asad) in which min hdh means an hdh .1303 c. Min in the sense of bi, as in For him are angels ranged before him and behind him, who guard him by Allah's command" (Q. 13:11, Pickthall) in which min amr Allh means bi-amr Allh.1304 There are four views concerning the person who is guarded in this verse: every human being, the Prophet, and every prophet. They are all protected till Allah's decree is imposed on them. The other view is that the protectors in the verse are not guardian angels, and the protected person is every ruler who is surrounded by his bodyguards but cannot protect him from Allah's decree. This is the view of Ibn Abbs and Ikrimah as quoted by al-Qurt.ub.1305 d. Min in the sense of f, as in ".... Show me what it is that they have created on earth..." (Q. 35:40, Asad) in which min al-ard. means f l-ard..1306 We have seen that in this section Ibn Qutaybah discussed the substitution of particles with others very briefly and incompletely. For example, in his work Tawl he mentions only one particle that is substituted by f, namely, al whereas in his Adab al-Ktib he mentioned five particles that are substituted by f, including al and il. However, he does not give
1302. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 578 and idem, Adab al-Ktib, p. 538. 1303. Al-Zarkash, al-Burhn, vol. 4, p. 420; and al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 248. Ibn al-Jawz cites Q. 12:87 and 50:19; see Nuzhah, p. 577; and Qurrah, p. 225. 1304. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 574; al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 60; Ab Ubaydah, Majz al-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 324; al-Zarkash, al-Burhn, vol. 4, p. 420; Ibn al-Jawz, Nuzhah, pp. 576-577; idem, Qurrah, p. 224; al-Dmaghn, Qms, p. 442; Tifls, Wujh, p. 275; and al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 248, citing Q. 42:45 as an example. 1305. For further details on this verse, see al-Qurt .ub, al-Jmi, vol. 9, pp. 291293. See also Asad, The Message, p. 60, n. 25. 1306. Ibn Qutaybah, Tawl, p. 577; al-Farr, Man l-Qurn, vol. 2, p. 370; Ibn al-Jawz, Qurrah, p. 224; and al-Suyt ., al-Itqn, vol. 2, p. 248, citing Q. 62:9 as an example. For more details on the meanings of min, see al-Zarkash, al-Burhn, vol. 4, pp. 415-426.

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any example from the Qurn for the other three particles, as others did in their works. This number is still small compared to that of al-Dmaghn, who mentions eight, and Ibn al-Jawz as well as al-Suyt. who mentioned ten particles in their works.

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CONCLUSION The Sunn scholar Ibn Qutaybah received his knowledge of various Islamic sciences from scholars known for their attachment to the Sunnah. He learned Sunn theology from Ish.q ibn Rhawayh, Sunn tradition from Ab H .tim al-Sijistn and philology from al-Abbs ibn al-Faraj alRiysh who had transmitted the works of Ab Ubaydah and al-As.ma who were teachers of Ibn Qutaybah of the second degree in philology. When al-Mutawakkil was appointed as a caliph in 232/846 and changed the ideology of the state from that of the Mutazilah to the Sunn orthodoxy, Ibn Qutaybah found himself favoured by the new government. He was made qd. of Dnawar by the newly appointed vizier Abd Allh ibn Yah.y ibn Khqn in 236/851. Ibn Qutaybah was undisputedly the greatest man of letters in the Arabic language chronologically after al-Jh.iz ., and his contribution in the field of Qurnic exegesis cannot be underestimated. In the introduction of his work Tawl he stated that the book was a collection of interpretations of difficult passages of the Qurn with explanations based on Arabic expression. Yet this statement does not necessarily imply that he merely acted a transmitter of the sciences of the Qurn from the previous generation to his generation without giving his own interpretation. Some interpretations were taken from scholars whom he mentioned by name; others were adopted by him without attributing any source. Yet, we can trace these interpretations back to some of his teachers, such Ab Ubaydah and al-Farr. However, there were many other philological interpretations which seemed to be purely his own, and were cited by many authors of later generations, such as Ibn al-Jawz, al-Qurt.ub and others. One of the interpretations attributed to Ibn Qutaybah alone was his view on the seven ah.ruf. According to Ibn Qutaybah, these seven letters were seven aspects of variant readings, as follows: (1) The variant irb of a word or the vowelisation of its letters without changing its s.rah, such as the variant reading yujz and al-kafru for respectively nujz and alkafra in the verse wa hal nujz ill l-kafra (Q. 34:17); the first reading belonged to Ibn Kathr, Nfi Ab Amr and Ibn mir, whereas the second belonged to H .amzah, al-Kis and H .afs.; (2) The variant irb of a word and the vowelisation of its letters which changed its meaning only and not its s.rah, such as rabbun bada for rabban bid (Q. 34: 19);

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the latter was the reading of Nfi, s.im, Ibn mir, H .amzah and alKis; (3) The variant letters of a word which does not change its irb, but changes its meaning without changing its rasm, such as nunshiruh for nunshizuh (Q. 2:259); the former reading belonged to Ibn Kathr, Nfi and Ab Amr, whereas the latter belonged to s.im, Ibn mir, H .amzah and al-Kis; (4) the variant words which change the s.rah but not the meaning, such as Ibn Masds reading zuqyah for s.ayh .ah (Q. 36:29); (5) the variant words which change the s.rah and meaning, such as Als reading wa t.alin for wa t.alh .in (Q. 56:29); (6) The variant reading by means of inversion, such as Ab Bakrs reading wa jat sakrat al-h.aqq bi-al-mawt for wa jat sakrat al-mawt bi-al-h.aqq; and finally, (7) The variant reading based on addition and omission, such as the reading of H .amzah and al-Kis amilat for amilathu which was the reading of Ibn Kathr, Nfi, Ab Bakr, Umar, Ibn mir and H .afs.. This view of Ibn Qutaybah on the seven ah.ruf was quoted by many authors, among them alZarqn in his work Manhil al-Irfn. Al-Zarqn also quoted the statement of Ibn H .ajar that the view of al-Rz on the seven ah.ruf was adopted from that of Ibn Qutaybah after revising it. Ibn Qutaybah believes that the al-rsikhn f l-ilm know the tawl of the mutashbiht in the Qurn. He contends that difficult expressions which cannot be easily understood similar to the mutashbiht in the Qurn are also found in the H .adth, the saying of s.ah.bah, poetry as well as Arabic expression. He cites an example from the Prophets statement concerning women who dress and at the same time are naked, meaning that they wear thin or skimpy clothing which reveal the outlines of their bodies. Ibn Qutaybah contends further that Allah would not mention something in the Qurn except for the benefit of mankind, and that Allah would let them know what He meant by it. The argument for and against those who hold views similar or different from that of Ibn Qutaybah brought a third and a conciliatory view: some mutashbiht are known by al-rsikhn f l-ilm, others by Allah alone, such as the beast which will appears as one of the signs of Doomsday (Q. 27:82). The term majz as the opposite of h.aqqah was unknown in the first/seventh and the second/eight century. It appeared in the third/ninth century or probably at the end of the second/eight century. The term majz in Ab Ubaydahs work Majz al-Qurn was still used in its basic meaning: the way of expression. The term majz as opposite of h.aqqah

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appeared in al-Jh.iz .s statements in his work al-Bayn wa l-Tabyn, and later was used more obviously in Ibn Qutaybahs work Tawl. Ibn Qutaybah stated that the use of majz was common, not only in the Qurn, but also in poetry and common expression. As an example, he cited the word mother. The Qurnic verse faummuhu hwiyah (his mother will be an abyss) (Q. 10:19) means that the unbeliever will be sent to Hell like a baby to his mother. Similarly, the Prophets wives, described as mothers of the believers (Q. 33:6), means that they are like their mothers in the reverence accorded them. In poetry Ibn Qutaybah cited the following poem of Umayyah ibn Ab al-S .alt: And the land is our refuge and was our mother. In it our grave will be, and in it we shall be buried. Ibn Qutaybah was extremely cautious with the use of majz. When he warned people against excessive use of it in the Qurn which might lead to misinterpreting its verses he might have had the Mutazils in mind. He also might have been influenced by his teacher of the second degree, Ah.mad ibn H .anbal, who refused to interpret many Qurnic verses dealing with Allah as majz, such as His throne (Arsh) which was interpreted by the Mutazils as a metaphor for His sovereignty. Ibn Qutaybah made a distinction between saying and speaking and said that the former could be majz but not the latter, unless there was a strong indication of being majz, such as an animate being giving advice or moral lessons. He gave two conditions for a word to become majz: it shall not be accompanied with its mas.dar, and it shall not be emphasized with takrr (repetition). For example, we can say the wall will fall down, but we do not say the wall will fall down with strong willingness, because it is majz. The verse wa kallama Allhu Ms taklman (Q. 4:164) and innam qawlun li-shayin idh aradnhu an naqla lahu kun fayakn (Q. 16:40) are not majz, but h.aqqah, as the term kallama is accompanied with its mas.dar, namely, taklman in the former verse, and the term qawl is emphasized with the repetition of it with the word naqlu in the latter. Ibn Qutaybahs treatment of istirah was rudimentary. He included not only metaphor, but also majz mursal, wujh (homonyms) and hyperbole ( ) in the category of istirah. In the verse wa afidatuhum haw and their hearts (as) air (Q. 14:43), the word haw (air) is a metaphor for emptiness of their hearts. In the verse: But as for those with faces shining, they shall be within Gods grace, therein to abide (Q. 3:107, Asad), Allahs grace which is a h.l (a condition) is a majz mursal for a place, Paradise. As Ibn Qutaybah also mentioned other

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meanings of rah .mah in the Qurn, such as rain in Q. 7:57 and sustenance in Q. 35:2, this term was later dealt with as having many wujh by later writers, such as al-Dmaghn, Ibn al-Jawz and [al-]Tifls in their respective works Qms, Nuzhah and Wujh. These works dealt with alwujh wa l-naz.ir (homonyms and synonyms) in the Qurn. The verse yakdu layuzliqnaka biabs.rihim (Q. 68:51) meaning they would all but kill thee (Asad), would fain disconcert thee (Ali), or would almost trip thee up (Pickthall) indicates hyperbole, that the disbelievers looked at the Prophet with such hostility and sternness that they almost made him slip and fall down. It is commonly known that the Arabic language is called the language of opposite meanings (lughat al-ad.dd). For this, Ibn Qutaybah includes a special chapter in his Tawl entitled al-Maqlb (lit., the inverted one), translated in this study as inversion. Inversion occurs by ascribing something with its opposite quality, such as calling a foolish person a bright one with an intention either to encourage him or to insult him. Ibn Qutaybah also examines in this chapter thirteen words which have contradictory meanings, one of which is usually more prevalent than the other, although they are derived from one basic meaning. The word war for example, its basic meaning is something absent from our sight, whether before or behind us, but the more prevalent meaning is behind; however, it can also mean before, such as in the verse: because [I know that] behind them was a king who is wont to seize every boat by brute force (Q. 18:79); the term war here, according to Ibn Qutaybah, means amm (before). The later author Ibn al-Anbr included all these terms except yaisa in his work Kitb al-Ad.dd. Other authors, such as al-Dmaghn, Ibn al-Jawz, Tifls, and Ibn Fris, included some of these terms in their works. Some Qurnic verses seem to be unclear because of the ellipsis (h.adhf) of some words and the brevity (ikhtis.r) of the Qurnic verses. Ibn Qutaybah deals with ellipsis and brevity of expression systematically in his Tawl to clarify the meanings of these verses. Some verses utilize the ellipsis of one or two words, a noun, a verb, a preposition, the particle l (no, not), the main clause of an oath, of a conditional or incomplete sentence. They are examined with examples from the Qurn and some lines of poetry are included as shawhid to support his view. Takrr (repetition) and ziydah (pleonasm) are also among the characteristics of the Arabic language dealt with by Ibn Qutaybah in his

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Tawl. They are used to emphasize something. Takrr can be in meaning, either (a) by mentioning its synonyms, such as Or do they, perchance, think that We do not hear their hidden thoughts (sirr) and their secret confabulations (najwhum), (Q. 43:80) (b) by mentioning its kind, such as In both of them will be [all kinds of] fruit, and date palms and pomegranates. (Q. 55:68, Asad), or (c) by negating its opposite, such as the expression I order you to fulfill your promise and I forbid you from betraying it. Ibn Qutaybah divides ziydah into two types: (a) general pleonasm, namely the addition of unspecified words, such as the expression with their mouths I the verse uttering with their mouths something which is not in their hearts (Q. 3:167, Asad), and (b) specific pleonasm, namely the addition of specified words, such as nouns, particles and prepositions. They are fifteen in number. Not knowing them could make it difficult for us to understand the meanings of the verses of the Qurn, such as the verse: Everything is bound to perish save His [eternal] Self (Q. 28:88, Asad), in which the term wajh (face, countenance) in wajhahu (lit., His Countenance) is additional according to Mujhid, Ab Ubaydah dan al Farr, and translated as Self and Essence by Asad as cited above and al-Zamakhshar respectively. In the field of tard. Ibn Qutaybah mainly deals with the euphemistic and circumspective expressions in the Qurn. For example, and behold, either we [who believe in Him] or you [who deny His Oneness] are one the right path, or have clearly gone astray! (Q. 34:24, Asad). T his is a euphemistic and polite way of saying we are on the right path, and you have clearly gone astray. For the circumspective statement Ibn Qutaybah gives the following example: He [Abraham] answered: Nay, it was this one, the biggest of them, that did it: but ask them [yourselves] provided they can speak. (Q. 21:63, Asad). Here Prophet Abraham confessed to destroying the idols through insinuation. Apart from majz and mutashbiht Ibn Qutaybah in his Tawl also deals with various types of idiomatic expressions entitlted Mukhlafat z.hir al-lafz. Manh (lit., the disagreement of the literal meaning of the word with its [intended] meaning). It includes, to mention a few, (a) the imperative mood intended to threaten (tah.dd), such as: Do what you will (Q. 41:40, Asad) and exemption (ibh.ah), such as: And when the prayer is ended, then disperse freely on earth (Q. 62:10), Asad; (b) specification in which a general statement is intended to be particular in time and person, such as: and I am the first of those who surrender to

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Him (Q. 6:163, Pickthall), meaning the Prophet in his time; (c) number, such as a noun put in a singular number but is meant to be in the plural, as in the verse: and then We bring you forth as infants (Q. 22:5, Asad), in which the word t.iflan (lit., an infant) is meant to be at.flan (infants); (d) what is called by later philologists iltift (sudden transition), such as Allah addressing the Prophet with and if they do not respond to your call, suddenly the address is shifted to unbelievers, with then know that [this Qurn] has been bestowed from on high out of Gods wisdom alone, Will you, then surrender yourselves unto Him? (Q. 11:14, Asad); (e) juncture, namely, the joining of two different statements of two different persons (or groups of persons), such as the verse: They will say: Oh, woe unto us! Who has roused us from our sleep [of death]? which was the statement of righteous Muslims when they were resurrected. This statement was joined with that of the angels, [Whereupon they will be told:] This is what the Most Gracious has promised! And His message bearers spoke the truth! (Q. 36:52, Asad). This is the view of Ibn Abbs and al-Farr adopted by Ibn Qutaybah; and (f) tempora, such as the use of a verb in the past tense when they are meant for the present or the future, for example, Gods judgment is [bound to] come (Q. 16:1, Asad), in which the verb at (lit., it came) is meant to be it will come. As we know Ibn Qutaybah believes that the al-rsikhn f l-ilm know the tawl of the mutashbiht. Therefore, he does not belong to those who believe that the al-ah.ruf al-muqat.t.aah (the disconnected letters) at the beginning of twenty-nine srahs in the Qurn to be mysterious and inexplicable. He mentions four interpretations of them: They are: (a) the names of the srahs to which they belong; (b) Allahs oaths; (c) letters taken from Allahs attributes; and (d) letters taken from the attributes of the Qurn. One of the important branches of the sciences of exegesis dealt by Ibn Qutaybah is the homonyms and synonyms in the Qurn ( al-wujh wa l-naz.ir f l-Qurn) which he calls words which agree in wording but differ in meaning ( ). For example, the term fitnah which basically means a test, means shirk (polytheism, idolatry) in the verse: for polytheism is worse than slaughter. (Q. 2:191), whereas it means ithm (sin) in the following verse: Surely, it is into sin that they (thus) have fallen. (Q. 9:49). With this branch of science many Qurnic verses become clear, as the textual meaning is given rather than the literal

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meaning. This branch of science is so important that al-Zarkash put it in number four of the forty-seven branches of the Qurnic science in his work al-Burhn, whereas al-Suyt. put it number thirtynine of the eighty branches in his book al-Itqn. It was in this branch of science that Ibn alJawz in his work Nuzhah quoted Ibn Qutaybah by name about fifty times, mainly from his Tawl in which he dealt with forty-four words and their meanings. As a philologist Ibn Qutaybah in his Tawl also deals with thirtythree particles with their various meanings with examples from the Qurn and occasionally from poetry as shawhid. For example, the particle ann has two meanings: (a) kayfa (how), as in He said: How could Allah brings this [township] back to life after its death? (Q. 2:259); (b) min ayna (wherefrom), as in where can He have a child from (Q. 6:101). One of the problems in understanding a language is the use of prepositions. Different prepositions make different meanings, such as the word look added with prepositions and it becomes look for, look at, and look on. The substitution of these prepositions would change its meaning and could confuse people. Such substitution was dealt with by Ibn Qutaybah in his Tawl as well as his Adab al-Ktib. He mentions seven particles substituted with other particles without any change of meaning with examples from the Qurn. They are: il (to; toward; up to; as far as; till, until), bi (in, at, on; with; through, by means of), al (on, upon, at, by, in; to, toward, for), an (off, away, from; out of, about; for), f. (in; at; on; near; by; within; during), li (for), and min (from). One example cited by Ibn Qutaybah is the verse He will surely gather you all together on the Day of Resurrection (Q. 4:87) in which the prepositions il substitutes the preposition f. Therefore, the expression il yawm al-qiymah in the above verse means on the Day of Resurrection rather than till the Day of Resurrection. We have seen that Ibn Qutaybah in his works in general and his work Tawl Mushkil al-Qurn in particular has rendered an enormous contribution to Qurnic exegesis. This contribution was either by transmitting the knowledge of his teachers in this field of study or by his being an ajam (non-Arab), he has proved in effect his profound knowledge of Arabic philology which is of inestimable value in the study of Qurnic exegesis.

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Denffer, Ahmad von. Ulm al-Qurn: An Introduction to the Sciences of the Qurn. Leicester: The Islamic Foundation, 1403/1983. Gaidner, W.H.T. Al-Ghazzalis Mishkat al-Anwar ("The Niche for Lights"). A translation with introduction. Lahore: Sh. Muhammad Ashraf, 1952. Hayakawa, Samuel I. Choose the Right Words: A Modern Guide to Synonyms. New York: Harper & Row, 1968. Ibn Khaldun. The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History. Translated from the Arabic by Franz Rosenthal. 3 vols. New York: Pantheon Books Inc., 1958. Jeffery, Arthur. Materials for the History of the Text of the Quran: The Old Codices. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1937. Lane, Edward William. Arabic-English Lexicon. Book I, 8 pts. with continuos pagination. New York: Frederick Ungar Publishing Co., 1956. Lecomte, Grard. Ibn Qutayba (Mort en 276/889): lhomme, son oevre, ses ides. Damascus: Catholic Printing Press, 1965. Muir, Sir William. The Caliphate: Its Rise, Decline, and Fall. N.p.: Religious, Tract Society, 1891. Nicholson, Reynold A. A Literary History of the Arabs. Cambridge: the University Press, 1956. Noldeke, Theodor, and Schwally, Friedrich. Geschichte des Qoran i-ii. Hildesheim: Georg Olms, 1961. Pickthall, Muhammad Marmaduke, transl. The Glorious Quran. New York: Muslim World League, 1977. Rodwell, J.M., trans. The Koran. London: J.M. Dent & Sons Ltd., 1978. Seale, Morris. Quran and Bible. London: Croom Helm Ltd., 1978. Tengku Jusof, Tengku Ghani. A Critical Examination of five Poems by Imru al-Qays. Kuala Lumpur: Penerbitan Pustaka Antara, 1990. Wansbrough, John. Quranic Studies. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1977. Watt, W. Montgomery. Bells Introduction to the Quran. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1990. Williams, John Alden. Islam. New York: George Braziller, 1961. Young , M.J.L .et al., eds. The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature: Religion, learning and science in the Abbasid period. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990.

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C. Articles Abdul, Musa O.A. "The Historical Development of Tafsr." IC 50 (1976), vol. 1 no. 1, 141-153. Ali, Dr. Hashim Amir. "The Mysterious Letters of the Qurn." IC 36 (Jan. 1962), iii-iv. Bellamy, J.A. "The Mysterious Letters of the Koran: Old Abbreviations of the Basmalah." JAOS xciii (1973), 267-285. Blachre, R. "Al Farr." EI2, II, 806-808 Gibb, H.A.R. "Abu Ubayda Ma mar b. al-Muthann." EI2, I, 158. Goldfeld, Isaiah, "Muqtil Ibn Sulaymn", Arabic and Islamic Studies, ed. Jacob Mansour, vol. 2. Rumat-Gan: Bar-Ilan University Press, 1978, 1-18. Jeffery, Arthur. "The Mystic Letters of the Qurn." MW xiv (1924), 247260. Jones, A. "The Mystical Letters of the Qurn." SI xvi (1962), 5-11. Jullandri, R. "Qurnic Exegesis and Classical Tafsr." IQ xii (1968), 71109. Lecomte, G. "Ibn utayba." EI2, 844-949. Speight, M. "The Opening Verses of the Chapters of the Qurn."MW 59/3-4 (1969). Vaux, B. Carra de. "Al-S.bia." SEI, 477-478. Wansbrough, John. "Majz al-Qurn: Periphrastic Exegesis." BSOAS xxxiii/2 (1970), 247-266. Weir, T.H. "Ibn Arab." SEI, 146-147. Welch, A.T. and Pearson, J.D. "Al-Kuran." EI2 5 (1981), 400-432.

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APPENDICES
1. AUTHORITIES AND TRANSMITTERS OF THE QURAN Place Authority Transmitters --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Madnah Nfi (d. 169/785-786) Warsh (d. 197/813) Qln (d. 220/835) al-Bazz (d. 250/864) Qunbul (d. 291/904) Hishm (d. 242/856-857) Ibn Dhakwn (d. 245/859) al-D.r (d. 246/860) al-Ss (d. 261/875) H .afs. (d. 190/806) Ibn Ayysh (d. 194/810) Khalaf (d. 229/844) Khalld (d. 220/835) al-D.r (d. 240/854-5) Abul-Harith (d. 46/860)

Makkah (Mecca) Damascus

Ibn Kathr (d. 120/738)

Ibn mir (d. 118/736)

Bas.rah

Ab Amr (d. 154/771)

Kfah

s.im (d. 128/746)

Kfah

H.amzah (d. 158/775)

Kfah

al-Kis

[d. ca. 189/805]

Adopted from: A. Jones, "The Quran - II," Arabic Literature to the End of the Umayyad Period, eds. A.F.L. Beeston, T.M. Johnstone et al. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), p. 244.

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2. GLOSSARY
h d, a h .adth reported by one chain of transmitters alif al-istifhm, alif as an interrogative particle. alif al-was.l, (lit., alif of connection), the letter alif which can be omitted, either in pronunciation, spelling, or both, such as l l-amr read ulil amr, in modern terminology it is called hamzat al-was.l, conjuctive hamzah. amr, command, commanding, imperative amthl (sing. mathal), parables ard., prosody asbb al-nuzl, the reasons for revelation; the occasions and circumstances which led to the revelation of the verses of the Qurn as.h.b al-kalm, the adherents of scholastic theology as.h.b al-ray, the adherents of personal opinion as.l, basic meaning, the primary signification a t.f, conjunction bt.in, inward meaning bayn, explanation dallah, an indicant, a hint, sense, meaning d.amr, pronoun d.amr al-shan, a pronoun indicating circumstances, e.g., It is late dwn, collection of poetical work, collection of poetry by a single author or from a single tribe. fad.il, particular virtue, "excellences" farid. (sing., fard.ah), religious obligations fas.h.ah,. eloquence fatw (pl. fataw). legal opinion fiqh, Islamic jurisprudence fuqah (sing., faqh), Muslim jurists gharb, rare, uncommon word or expression h.adhf, ellipsis h.adth, news, a story, and finally a technical term for the tradition of what the Prophet said, did or approved

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h.all, lawful, permissible h.arm, unlawful, prohibited h.udd (sing., h.add), penal law al-h.urf al-muqat .t.aah, ambiguous letters found in the opening of some srahs of the Qurn ibh.ah, examption ibrah (pl., ibar), deterrent example ibtid (of) inception, e.g., lm al-ibtid (letter l of inception) iddah, the legally prescribed period of waiting during which a woman may not remarry after being divorced or widowed idghm, contraction, such as contracting letter n with letter m in min bad and read mim bad id.mr, making implicit ih.tijj, protest ijtihd, independent judgment, especially in a legal question based upon the interpretation of the Qurn and the Sunnah ijtihd bi l-ray, speculative thinking ikhtis.r, brevity ilm al-tas.rf, etymology iltift, apostrophe, shifting from one object or pronoun to another, turning the address from one person or group of people to another imlah, inclining closed vowels to open, such as pronouncing hk as hk imm, leader, particularly at prayers. insh, composition iqb, punishment irb, adding vowels, the inflectional terminations of nouns and verbs; desinential (grammatical) inflection ishmm, giving the flavour of one sound to another such as the pronunciation of the vowel u with a trace of i and vice versa, similar to the German ; e.g., reading rudda as rdda and h.imr as h.mr; in the Australian accent "a nice day" is pronounced almost like "a noise die". isnd, chains of authorities on which a h.adth (a tradition or a historical writing) is based; chains of transmitters through whom a h.adth has been handed down

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isriliyyt legends from Jewish people; Jewish traditions used to amplify Qurnic allusions istirah, metaphor istifhm, asking a question istifhm inkr, a negative question istifhm taqrr, an affirmative question is t.ilh., conventional term, technical term (terminology) istit.rd, digression itird., parenthesis ilm al-ard., Arabic prosody ilm al-tas.rf,- etymology iz.ah, sermon, advice iz.hr, pronouncing clearly jadal, dialectic jawb al-shart., a clause answering to an if-clause in syntax jazm, apocopating kfir, unbeliever kalm, theology, especially the scholastic one khabar, predicate; news of the past khalaf, successors; (esp. Muslim scholars of) later generations (approx. after the third/ninth century) khlafa lafz.uh rasmah, irregular orthography kinyah, metonymy kunyah, "allusive" name consisting of Ab ("father of") or Umm ("mother of") followed either by a name or describing some prominent characteristic of its bearer kuttb, Qurnic school lah.n, solecism, ungrammatical expression laqab, (earlier) name alluding to a personal characteristic; (later) honorific title lughat al-Arab, the Arabs way of expression mabn, indeclinable madhhab (pl., madhhib), a school of law among Sunn Muslims md., preterite maghz, military expedition, accounts of early battles of Islam, early

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Muslim expeditions in which the Prophet took part majz a way, road, or path; figurative (literary) expression majz mursal, a loose trope (e.g,. "hand" used as meaning "a benefit" or "a favour"). malh.im, apocalyptic h.adths; tales of eschatological nature related by storytellers manskh, abrogated marf, in the nominative case mas.dar, verbal noun mas.m, immune from error, infallible mawiz. (sing., mawiz.ah), exhortations, advice mathal (pl. amthl), parable mawl (pl., mawl),- protector; client, freed slave; non-Arab Muslim maws.l, relative pronoun mubtada, inchoative, subject mud.f, annexed mud.f ilayh, what is annexed to, complements of a prefixed noun mud.ri, imperfect verb mufassir, commentator, interpreter, Qurnic exegete muh.aqqiq, an effective investigator (researcher) muh.kam, parts of the Qurn which had a clear meaning mujtahid, a legist who exercises ijtihd mulh.idn, (sing. mulh.id) heretics, unbelievers mus.h.af, Qurnic codex Mus.h.af al-Imm: the Master Copy, the standard copy of the Qurn, namely, the copy of Uthmn mut.baqah, antithesis mutakallim, scholastic theologian mutashbih (pl., mutashbiht), ambiguous obscure; ambiguous verse in the Qurn mutawtir, a tradition narrated by many reliable authorities that the possibilities of its being fabricated by collusion is out of question. This is the reliable tradition among Muslims. Mutazilah, theological school which created the speculative dogmatics of

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Islam nah.w, grammar, syntax nafy, negation nsikh, abrogating nas.rniyyt, legends from Christians naz.ar, insight, reason nisbah, derivative form (ending in -i) of a name or other noun Qadars, a group of teachers of the Abbs period who championed free will against the theory of predestination; they later merged with the Mutazils qd., a judge, a judge of a court qd. l-qud .t, (lit., judge of judges), chief judge qri (pl., qurr), reader, reciter of the Qurn qas.as., narrative, tale, story qas.s.s., storytellers, relaters of qis.as. qirah, recitation of the Qurn; variant reading of the Qurn qirah munkarah, a rejected reading, a reading which was temporarily permitted in the early period of Islam only to people who were not able to memorize or articulate the Qurn properly qis.s.ah (pl., qis.as.) story, narrative tale, in particular; in plural, the narrative of the Qurn qurr (sing., qri), readers, reciters of the Qurn rsikh (pl., rasikhn) f l-ilm, a person who is conversant with knowledge, firmly grounded in knowledge (A.Y. Ali), deeply rooted in knowledge (M. Asad) or of sound instruction (M. Pickthall) ray, personal opinion rith, lamentation, elegiac poetry s.ah.bah (sing., s.ah.b), companions of the Prophet saj, rhymed prose salaf, (lit. predecessors), the first three generations of the s.ah.abah, tbin, and tbi l-tbin s.alh., prayer sanad, (see isnd) shakl, consonantal outline, consonantal skeleton, such as for (bashar), (nasr) and (yusr).

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sharah, Islamic law shawhid (sing., shhid), quotations serving as textual evidence shif, healing s.ilah, a syndetic relative clause; the connection of a verb with the object complement, whether immediate or by means of a preposition; the complement of a maws.l (conjunct) s.uh.uf (sing., s.ah.fah), leaves; pages; sheets, scrolls, particularly those of the Qurn sunnah, way, path; customary practice, particularly that of the Prophet; usage sanctioned by tradition; the sayings and doings of the Prophet which have been established as legally binding Sunn, Muslim who believes that the sunnah cannot be over-ridden by any human authority srah, chapter of the Qurn s.rah, form, representation, picture tbin (sing., tbi), people succeeding the generation of the s.ah.bah tbi l-tbin, (lit., "followers of the followers"), the generation after that of the tbin tadabbur, reflection tad.mn, insertion tafkhm, emphatic pronunciation of a consonant, such as the English pronunciation of c, p and t in "capital", "people" and "time" (rather than in "logic", "open" and "meter". tafsr, commentary, interpretation; Qurnic exegesis takhff, the easing in reading by dropping a vowel, such as reading bushran for bushuran; in English it is like pronouncing "transptation" for "transportation". takrr, repetition tamthl, analogy, comparison, likening tanwn, nunation, making clear the an, in or un ending of a word, e.g., rajul with tanwn becomes rajulan, rajulin, and rajulun taqrr, affirmation targhb, encouragement of good tarhb, discouragement of evil tar d., allusion tarqq, softening the pronunciation of a word (opposite of tafkhm), e.g.,

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letter t in "better" tashbh, simile; the error of asserting that Allah resembles created things in any way, anthropomorphism tas.rf, the conjugation of a verb tawtur, (see mutwatir) tawbkh, reproach, reprimand, rebuke tawqf, the subject of divine revelation thawb, reward tubba (pl., tabbiah), the title of the pre-Islamic Himyarite kings of the Yemen ulam (sing., lim), scholars, men of learning, savants, the theologians and teachers of Islam wad, promise wad, threat ww al-qasam, adjurative particle wud., ablution wujh al-qirah, variant readings; variae lectiones zabniyah, infernal attendants of Hell zajr, prohibition z.lim, transgressor zawj, a pair or one of a pair zindq, a heretic, a dualist, particularly a Manichee.