ksmqK;dj

wOHhk fmd iy;sl m;%

ikaOdrh
^Wiia fm<&

ksmqK;d ug

ridhk oHdj
Ih ksfoaYh
^miq uiq l<&
2012 jIfha;a" bka bhg;a meje;afjk w'fmd'i' ^Wiia fm<& Nd. i|yd

oHd" fi!LH yd Ydl wOHdmk fomd;fka;=j

oHd yd ;dlaIK mSGh
cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh
51

ld,fo

1'0 ye|skau
qK;dj
ksmqK;dlrd
ug
ikaOfm<
drh ridhk oHdj oekqu wfkl=
ld,fo
fuuksm
Ih
ksfoaYh Wiia wOHdmkh
fhduq jk msig fuka u w'fmd'i' Wiia
;a O
lafIa;% ;=< Wmfhda.S lr .kq we;ehs wfmalI
a s; msig wjYH uQ,sl ridhk oHd miqu ie,iSu i|yd ie,iq lr we;'
b.ekaf wkq.ukh lsug W; ^kuq;a wksjdh fkd jk& wkqms<sfj<lg fm<.eiajQ tall 16lska fuu Ih ksfoaYh iuka;
f' tla tla tallh hgf;a b.ekah hq;= Ih ikaOdrh ksmqK;d mdol j ixOdkh lr ;sf'
Wmtall wjidkfha ;o l wl=ka uqKh lr olajd ;sfnk" isoaOdka; yd mlaIK w;r inkaOh biau;= jk m%dfhda.sl mlaIK
Ih ksfoaYfha w;HjYH ixrplhls'
2009 jIfha ykajd ka Ih ksfoaYh miq mr lsf m%;M
s ,h f,i fuu Ih ksfoaYh ilia h' jI 2012 isg bhg
meje;afjk w'fmd'i' ^W'fm<& Nd. i|yd fuh j,x.= f' fuys 2009 jIfha ykajd ka Ih ksfoaYfha my; i|yka fjkial
is lrk ,'

ld,fo ixLHdj 600 isg 468 olajd wvq lsu'

tallh 01 tall follg fjka lsu'

tallh 03 ys Ih wka;.;h wvq lsu yd kej; ilia lsu'

mod:fha jdhq wjia:dj f,i tallh 03 k lsu'

tallh 14 ys jQ legdhk yd wekdhkj, .=Kd;aul Yaf,aIKh tallh 05 g f.k tau" mej;s talodhl ,s.kj,g wu;rj OH-

whkh tl;= lsu yd ie,sis,sla w,h iu`. whka ^III& whk is lrk m%;l
s %h
s dj ms<sn| m%dfhda.sl mlaIKh ykajdu'
tallh 07 g fnkaiSka weis,alrKh ykajdu'
tallh 10 g tiagr .%Skd m%;l
s drlh yd LiAlH4 iu`. m%;l
s %h
s d iy tauhsv LiAlH4 iu`. m%;l
s %h
s dj ykajdu'

tallh 11 ys ksmqK;d ugu 11'1 iy 11'6 hgf;a jQ Ih ikaOdrh bj;a lsu'

tallh 12 ys iuyr Ih fldgia bj;a lr kej; ilia lsu'

tallh 13 ys m%dfhda.sl ls%hdldrl yhla iy iuyr Ih fldgia bj;a lsu'

1

tallh 14 ys f;dard.;a iuyr Ih fldgia fjk;a tallj,g f.khdu yd b;sh Ih ksfoaYfhka bj;a lsu'
ksta
ml
qKlh
;dj15 ys f;dard.;a ludka
ksmqK;d
ikakej;
Odrh ilia lsu'
ld,fo
; ug
iuyrla bj;a lsu iy ksmqK;d ugu 15'5

tallh 16 ka iuyr Ih fldgia bj;al

s u yd ksmqK;d ug ixLHdj 7 isg 4 olajd wvq lsu'

2'0 Ih ksfoaYfha wruqKq

fuu mdGud,dj wjidkfha oS isiqyq "
1' ridhk oHdf uQ,sl ixl,am ms<sn| wjfndaOh ,nd .ekSug iy Ihfha taldnoaO f;aud yd rgd w.hhs'
2'
3'

ridhk oHd;aul oekqu yd ixl,am ridhksl ixisaoa i|yd fhou ms<sn| ;ldkql,
+ yd ml,ams; ka;kh je
hqKq lr .kshs'
iudchg ridhk oHd oekqf we;s jkdlu ykd .ekSug iy ;dlaIKsl" wdl yd iudchSh ixjOkh Wfoid

4'

oHdj fhdod .ekSu ms<sn| wjfndaOhla ,nd .kshs'

iajNdl im;a ms<sn|j;a" iajNdl im;a mfNdackh iy ixrlaIKh yd ne .eg ms<sn|j;a wjfndaOhla we;s
lr .kshs'

ksmqK;dj

ksmqK;d ug

tall iy ld,fo

ud;Dldj

ikaOdrh

ld,fo

ld,fo .Kk

01 tallh

mrudKql jHqyh

29

02 tallh
03 tallh
04 tallh

jHqyh yd nkaOk
ridhksl .Kkh ls
mod:fha jdhq wjia:dj

26
15
18

05 tallh
06 tallh

Yla;s oHdj
s, p yd d f.dkqj,g wh;a uQ,jHj, ridhkh

26
69

07 tallh
08 tallh

ldnksl ridhk oHdf uQ,sl ixl,am

yhsfrdldnk

17
26

09 tallh
10 tallh
11 tallh

we,al,
s a fya,hsv
Tlaiscka wvx.= ldnksl ixfhda.
khsrcka wvx.= ldnksl ixfhda.

12
35
15

12 tallh
13 tallh

pd,l ridhkh
iu;=,s;;dj

27
62

14 tallh
15 tallh

oHq;a ridhkh
ridhk oHdj yd ludka;

26
41

16 tallh

mdil ridhk oHdj

24

ksmqK;dj

fY%aKh
s

12 jk
fY%aKh
s

13 jk
fY%aKh
s

ksmqK;d ug

ikaOdrh

Ih ksfoaYh mdi,a jdrj,g wkqj fnod .ekSug fhda; Wmfoia

jdrh

ksmqK;d yd ksmqK;d ug

m<uq jk jdrh

ksmqK;d ugu 1'1 isg ksmqK;d ugu 4'5 olajd

^ksmqK;d ug 16&

fo jk jdrh

ksmqK;d ugu 5'1 isg ksmqK;d ugu 6'9 olajd

^ksmqK;d ug 13&

;=ka jk jdrh

ksmqK;d ugu 7'1 isg ksmqK;d ugu 10'7 olajd ^ksmqK;d ug 18&

m<uq jk jdrh

ksmqK;d ugu 11'1 isg ksmqK;d ugu 13'4 olajd ^ksmqK;d ug 11&

fo jk jdrh

ksmqK;d ugu 13'5 isg ksmqK;d ugu 15'4 olajd ^ksmqK;d ug 12&

;=ka jk jdrh

ksmqK;d ugu 15'5 isg ksmqK;d ugu 16'4 olajd ^ksmqK;d ug 06&

ld,fo

3'0 Ih ksfoaYh
3'1 12 fY%K
a sh
ksmqK;dj
1'0 mod:fha iajNdjh
ksKh lsu i|yd
bf,lafg%dksl
ieleiau yd Yla;s
yqjudre fhdod .kshs'

ld,fo 29

1 tallh - mrudKql jHqyh

ksmqK;d ug

1'1 mrudKql jHqyh ms<sn|

wdlD;s uiqug ,la lrhs'

ikaOdrh

1'2 O j.j, oHq;a pqnl

lsrK uYkh lrhs'

mrudKqj yd WmmrudKql wxY= ms<sn| uiSu

ro*f.a kHIal wdlD;sh
fnda wdlD;sh
idfmaCI mrudKql ialkaOh yd iuia:dksl
lsrKYS,;dj yekau
a " b yd g lsrKj, .=K
lef;dav lsrKj, .=K mlaId lsu

oHq;a pqnl lsrK

.=K [m%f.h (c), wdhduh ^l&" ixLHd;h ^n &"
Yla;h
s (E)]
c= nl
E = hn
oHq;a pqnl jKdj,sh
oHq;a pqnl jKdj,sfha O mrdij,g wh;a
lsrKj, .=K yd tajdfha Nd;
oDYH mrdifha ixrpl kslaIKh lsu

ld,fo
06

03

ksmqK;dj

ksmqK;d ug
1'3 mrudKqj, bf,lafg%dakl
s
Yla;s ug ms<sn| idlaIH
Yaf,aIKh lrhs'

ikaOdrh

1'4 yqfol,d jdhquh mrudKqj,

yd whkj, N+ wjia:df
bf,lafg%dak kHdi
Yaf,aIKh lrhs'

ld,fo

uQ,jHj, wkqhd; whkSlrK Yla;s p,kh

yhsrcka jKdj,sh
fnda jdoh weiqfrka yhsrcka jKdj,sh meyeos,s
lsu
s, p, d yd f WmYla;s ug
bf,lafg%dkfha ;rx. - wxY=uh iajNdjh
ldCIslj, yev ^s yd p muKs&
Yla;h
s lafjdkaglrKh
lafjdkag wxl y;r yq`ka ykajd oSu
m%Odk lafjdkag wxlh ^n&
Woaos.xY lafjdkag wxlh ^l&
pqnl lafjdkag wxlh ^ml&
neuq lafjdkag wxlh ^ms&
^fok ,o bf,lafg%dakhla i|yd jk fldfjdkag
wxl y;r fYaIs; j oelau mlaIdjg ,la fkd flf'&

08

WmYla;s ugj, mj;sk Wmu bf,lafg%dak ixLHd

bf,lafg%dak msrSf rgdjg wod< uQ,Ou yd kS;s
yqk
a kS;h
s
m,sf.a nysIaldr uQ,Ouh
wjq*andjq uQ,Ouh
mrudKql l%udxlh 1 isg 38 olajd jk uQ,jHj, jdhq
wjia:df mj;sk yqfol,d mrudKqj, iy tajdfha
whkj, N+ wjia:df bf,lafg%dak kHdih

04

ksmqK;dj

ksmqK;d ug

ikaOdrh

1'5 wdj;s;d j.=fjys

uQ,jHj,g ys ia:dk
ksKh lrkq msKi
s tajdfha
bf,lafg%dak kHdi
Yaf,aIKh lr mrudKql
.=K bf,lafg%dak kHdih
yd ikaO lrhs'

ld,fo

WmYla;s ugj, ia:dhS bf,lafg%dak kHdi

^s 1 , s 2 , p0 , p3 , p6 d5 yd d10 muKs'&
uQ,jHj, wkqhd; whkSlrK Yla;s yd m%:u whkSlrK
Yla;s p,kh meyeos,s lsu
wdj;s;d j.=j f.dvkexu
wdj;s;d j.=f > wdldrh yekau
s, p, d yd f f.dkq
1 isg 18 olajd ldKavj, uQ,jH

08

s yd p
f.dkqj,g wh;a uQ,jH fmkak
q lrk p,k rgd
legdhk iy wekdhk iEoSu
Tlaisydrl yelshdj$Tlaisldrl yelshdj
oHq;a RK;dj ^fmda,sx mudKh&
TlaislrK wjia:dj
whkSlrK Yla;h
s
bf,lafg%dak nkaOq;dj
mrudKql wrh; ksjdrl wdprKh ^.=Kd;aul
idlPdjla muKs&
iyixhqc wrh
jeka v' jd,aia wrh
f,day l wrh
whksl wrh
w

d j

f
a

a b

o s

d K

v
a

f
a

a m

<

2 tallh - jHqyh yd nkaOk

ksmqK;dj
2'0 mod:fha .=K iu`.
jHqyh yd nkaOk
inkaO lr olajhs'

ksmqK;d ug
2'1 mod:fha jHqyh yd .=K
ksKh lrkq msKi
s
nyq-mrudKql moaO;sj,
mj;akd m%d:l wka;l%shd
Yaf,aIKh lrhs'

ikaOdrh

ridhksl nkaOk yg .ekSu

oHq;-a RK;d fjkial weiqfrka nkaOk j.h
;SrKh lsu
m%d:l wka;l%shd
iyixhqc nkaOk

H2,Cl2, O2, N2&

O%eh iyixhqc nkaOk ^kso(-HCl, H2O, NH3 &
ix.; ^odhl iyixhqc& nkaOk (kso(-H3O+, NH4+,
NH3.BF3 )
whksl moaO;s
whksl nkaOkj, iyixhqc ,CIK - legdhkj,
O%elrK n,h yd wekdhkj, O%ejKYS,S;dj&
f,dayl nkaOk

06

wKq yd whkj, jHqy ksKh lsu

ia jHqy
ixhqc;d ljp bf,lafg%dak hq.,a lIK
(VSEPR) jdoh
ia jHqy yd VSEPR jdoh Nd;fhka wKq$whkj,
yev mqfrdal:kh lsu ^uOH mrudKqj jgd mj;sk
Wmu bf,lafg%dak hq.,a .Kk yh olajd muKs'&
cHd;sl yev
fh
;,Sh ;%sfldaKdldr
p;=ia;,Sh

10

2'2 iyixhqc wKqj," O%eh

iyixhqc wKqj, yd ir,
whk ldKavj, yev
Yaf,aIKh lrhs'

ld,fo 26
ld,fo

O
s

e
%

x h

c
q

O
a

^k

o (s

ksmqK;dj

ksmqK;d ug

ikaOdrh

2'3 mod:fha jHqyh yd .=K

ksKh lrkq msKi
s O
moaO;s ;=< mj;sk oa;shsl
wka;l%shd Yaf,aIKh
lrhs'

;%sfldaKdldr msrh
fldaKl
s
;%sfldaKdldr oamsrh
lD;s p;=ia;,Sh fyj;a iS-fida ^ see-saw & yevh
T - yevh
wIaG;,Sh
iup;=ri%dldr msrh
;,Sh iup;=ri%dldr
uqyqlrKh ^ sp, sp2, sp3 muKs" hq.au bf,lafg%dak
iys; ixfhdack yer&
f;dard .;a wKq yd whkj, im%hql;
a ;dj O3, N2O,

CO2, CO32 - , NO -3 , NO -2 iy iudk ir, wKq yd

whk&
wKq yd whkj, mj;sk nkaOk wdldr ^ s iy p
nkaOk&
wdlD;s ieliSu u.ska yev wjfndaO lr .ekSu
O%elrKh yd oaO%ej >QKh
O%ejKYS,;dj ^Polarizability)
oa;shSl wka;ls%hd ^jeka vz jd,aia wka;l%shd&
yhsrcka nkaOk
oaO%ej-oaO%ej wka;l%shd
whk-oaO%ej wka;l%shd
whk-fm%a; oaO%ej wka;l%shd
oaO%ej-fm%a; oaO%ej wka;l%shd
wmlsrK wka;l%shd ^,kavka n,&
^ish,a, u .=Kd;aul j muKla i,ld ne,Su m%udKj;a h'&
9

ld,fo

06

ksmqK;dj

ksmqK;d ug

2'4 mod:j, >k wjia:df

jHqyh tajdfha fN!;sl .=K
yd flfia inkaO f oehs
Yaf,aIKh lrhs'

ikaOdrh

jHj, fN!;sl .=K" >k wjia:f jHqyh yd inkaO

lsu
jdxl
oHq;a ikakdhl;dj
;dm ikakdhl;dj
oDV;dj

O j.j, oe,sia
iumrudKql ^oshuka;"s ksrka&
IumrudKql (SiO2)
ksO%eh wKql oe,si (I2 )
O%eh wKql oe,si ^whsia&
whksl oe,si (NaCl)
f,dayl oe,si

10

ld,fo

04

3 tallh - ridhksl .Kkh ls

ksmqK;dj
3'0 ridhksl .Kkh
ksje/os j is lrhs'

ksmqK;d ug

ikaOdrh

3'1 wKq yd mrudKq inkaO

fN!;sl rdYs fhdod .kska
ridhksl iQ;% f.dv kexu
yd wod< ksh; wdYs%;
.Kkhka is lrhs'

3'2 ;=,s; ridhksl ilrK

wdY%s; .Kkhka is lrhs'

11

wej.dfrda ksh;h
*erf ksh;h
ixhq;h
s
ialkaO Nd.h
mud Nd.h
ujq, Nd.h
wKql iQ;h
% yd wdkqNl iQ;h
%
ixhq;s yd idkaKh m%ldY lrkq ,nk O tall
w;r in|;d
ialkaO$mud
mg dm-3
mg dm-3
ujq,$mud
mol dm-3
mmol dm-3
,shkhlg fldgia
ialkaO yd wdfrdamK ixia;sh
;=,s; kHIal ilrK ,su
ridhksl ilrK ;=,kh lsu
fidaosis l%uh
TlaislrK - TlaisyrK l%uh
TlaislrK wxlh
TlaislrKh" TlaisyrKh yd wO whksl
ilrK
wjlafIamKh inkaO .Kkh lsu
Ba2+ Nd;fhka SO42- djKhl idkaKh
mlaIKd;aul j ksKh lsu'

^ld,fo 15&
ld,fo
06

09

^ld,fo18&

4 tallh - mod:fha jdhq wjia:dj

ksmqK;dj
4'0 mod:fha jdhq
wjia:df yeisu
uYkh lrhs'

ksmqK;d ug

ikaOdrh

4'1 mod:j,g wdfKsl

,dlaIKsl ia;r lsu i|yd
mod:fha m% O dk wjia : d
;= f kys wxY= ieliS we;s
wdldrh fhdod .kshs'

4'2 ;d;a;
a l jdhqj, yeis
rgd ia;r lsu i|yd
mmQK jdhq ms<sn| wdlD;sh
fhdod .kshs'

12

mod:fha m%Odk wjia:d

>k
j
jdhq
wxY= ieleiau yd tajdfha p,k
.=K" .=Kd;aul j ixikaokh lsu
mudj
>k;ajh
yevh
imSvH;dj
mmQK jdhq ye|sk
a u ^P,V,T yd n p,H f,i &
mmQK jdhq ilrKh
fndhs,a kshuh" pd,aia kshuh yd wej.dfrda kshuh
mmQK jdhq ilrKh iu`. fndhs,a kshuh" pd,aia
kshuh yd wej.dfrda kshuh olajk ix.;Ndjh
ujq,sl mudj
jdhqjl ujq,sl mudj mlaIKd;aul j ksKh
lsu
ue.aki
S shj, idfmalI
a mrudKql ialkaOh
mlaIKd;aul j ksKh lsu

ld,fo

01

08

ksmqK;dj

ksmqK;d ug

ikaOdrh

ld,fo

4'3 ;d;a;
a l jdhqj, yeisrSu
ia;r lrkq msKi
s jdhq
ms<sn| wKql pd,l jdoh
fhdod .kshs'

4'4 jdhq Y%Khl yeisu .%y

lsug fvda,agka f.a wdxYsl
mSvk kshuh Nd; lrhs'

ujq, Nd.h
uq`M mSvkh yd wdxYsl mSvkh
fvda,agka f.a wdxYsl mSvk kshuh

03

4'5 ;d;a;
a l jdhq i|yd fhh
yels jk fia mmQK jdhq
ilrKh i|yd is l<
ixfYdaOk Yaf,aIKh lrhs'

imSvH;d idOlh ^mmQK;dj mlaId lsug muKs'&

;d;a;
a l jdhq mmQK jdhq yeisfuka wm.ukh u
wKql wka;l%shd
wKqj, mudj
mmQK jdhq ilrKhg ixfYdaOk
jeka v' jd,aia ilrKh ^.=Kd;aul ia;rhla
muKs'&

02

13

jdhq ms<sn| wKql pd,l jdoh

jdhqjl mSvkh
j. uOHkH uQ, f.h yd uOHkH f.h
wKql pd,l ilrKh ^Tmamq lsu wkjYH hs'&
jdhq irKh flfrys n,mdk idOl
uelaiafj,a-fnda,aiaudka jHdma;h
s ^m%ia;dl j&
WIaK;ajh wkqj jHdma;f
s ha p,kh

04

5 tallh - Yla;s oHdj

ksmqK;dj
5'0 tka;e,ams fjkia
yd tkafg%dms fjkia
uYkh lrka
ridhksl moaO;sj,
ia:dhS;dj yd mhdi
is ug we;s yelshdj
ms<sn| fm/hS lrhs'

ksmqK;d ug

ikaOdrh

5'1 tka;e,ams yd inkaO ixl,am

uid n,hs'

5'2 wdY%s; tka;e,ams mhdi

Yaf,aIKh lrka
mj;k is ug we;s
yelshdj ms<sn| fm/hS
lrhs'

14

^ld,fo 26&
ld,fo

>gkd .=K yd ;a;s .=K

moaO;sh" mirh yd udhsu
ixY=oaO jHj, iu; wjia:d
iu; ;;a;j
a
moaO;shl wjia:dj yd wjia:d YS%;
;dmh yd tka;e,amsh
wjia:d mhdi yd rdihksl m%;l
s %h
s d wdYs%; tka;e,ams
mhdi
;dm mhdi yd m%;l
s sh
% d ;dmh
;dm wjfYdaIl ^Yla;s wjfYdaIl& yd ;dm odhl ^Yla;s
odhl& l%shdj,s
wjia:df Y%S;hla f,i tka;e,amsh
tka;e,ams mhdi yd iu; tka;e,ams mhdi
W;amdok tka;e,amsh
oyk tka;e,amsh
nkaOk >gk tka;e,amsh
WodiSkl
s rK tka;e,amsh
jK tka;e,amsh ^c,SlrKh muKs&
djK tka;e,amsh
O l%shdj,s wdY%s; tka;e,ams rEm igyka yd tka;e,ams
pl%
fyia kshuh
l%shdj,s wdY%s; tka;e,ams mhdi .Kkh lsu
w,hl$Niauhl WodiSklrK tka;e,amsh
mlaIKd;aul j ksKh lsu
fyia kshuh mlaIKd;aul j ;yjqre lsu

04

14

ksmqK;dj

ksmqK;d ug
5'3 fndaka - ydn pl% fhdod
.kska whksl moaO;sj,
ia:dhS;dj ms<sn| fm/hS
lrhs'

5'4 ridhksl mhdij,

iajhxisoaO;dj ms<sn|
fm/hS lrhs'

ikaOdrh

fndak-a ydn pl%h iy whksl ixfhda.j, W;amdok

tka;e,amsh .Kkh lsu
W!jmd;k tka;e,amsh
jdIamSlrK tka;e,amsh
,hk tka;e,amsh
mrudKqlrK tka;e,amsh
whkSlrK tka;e,amsh
bf,lafg%dak ,nd .ekSf tka;e,amsh ^bf,lafg%dak
nkaOq;dj&
oe,si tka;e,amsh

tkafg%dmsh S iy tkafg%dms mhdih DS

.sia Yla;h
s G iy .sia Yla;s mhdih DG
DG, DH iy DS w;r inkaO;dj f,i
DG = DH - TDS
DG weiqka m%;l
s sh
% djl iajhxisoaO;dj ksKh lsu
DG = 0, iu;=,s; u
DG < 0, iajhxisoaO u
DG > 0, iajhxisoaO fkdu

15

ld,fo

04

04

6 tallh - s, p yd d f.dkqj,g wh;a uQ,jHj, ridhkh

^ld,fo 69&
ksmqK;dj
6'0 s, p yd d f.dkqj,g
wh;a uQ,jHj, yd
ixfhda.j, .=K ykd
.ekSu i|yd tajd
uYkh lrhs'

ksmqK;d ug

6'1 s f.dkqjg wh;a

uQ,jHj, ridhksl
.=K uYkh lrhs'

ikaOdrh

s f.dkqjg wh;a f;dard.;a uQ,jHj, m%;l

s sh
% d
c,h iu
jd;h$ O2 iu`.
w, iu`.
N2 iu`.
H2 iu`.
c,h iy w, iu. f,day islrk m%;l
s sh
% d ieie|Su

ld,fo

06

s
6'2 s yd p f.dkqj,g wh;a
ixfhda.j, .=K yd tajdfha
p,k rgd uYkh lrhs'

16

wdj; Tiafia boshg yd ldKav Tiafia my<g s yd p

f.dkqj,g wh;a uQ,jH idok ixfhda. fmkajk p,k
rgd
s f.dkqf uQ,jH idok yhsfrdlaihsv" ldnfkag"
nhsldnfkag" khsrhsg" khsfg" fya,hsv" i,a*hsv"
i,a*hsg iy i,af*agj, djH;d ieie|Su
s f.dkqf khsf%g" nhsldnfkag yd ldnfkagj,
;dm ia:dhS;dj ieie|Su
Tlaihsv" fya,hsv" yhsfrdlaihsv yd yhsrhsvj,
wd,sl$Ndial$WNh.=KS iajNdjh
s yd p f.dkqj, uQ,jH idok ,jKj, djH;d
mlaId lsu
s f.dkqf uQ,jH idok khsfg" nhsldnfkag
yd ldnfkagj, ;dm ia:dhS;dj mlaId lsu

08

ksmqK;dj

ksmqK;d ug
6'3 p f.dkqjg wh;a uQ,jH yd
ixfhda. uYkh lrhs'

ikaOdrh

17

p f.dkqf uQ,jH ^13-18 ldKav&

f;dard.;a uQ,jHj, .=K
weksh
WNh.=Ks ,laIK
weksh laf,darhsj, bf,lafg%dak W!k;dj
ldnka
nyqrEmS wdldr
ldnkaj, Tlaihsv
ldfndksla w,h
khsrcka
Tlafid w,
wefudakh
s d yd wefudakh
s ,jK
Tlaiscka yd i,a*
nyqrEmS wdldr
plS%h fkdjk Tlafid w,
H2O, H2O2
H2S, SO2 , SO3
ye,ck
14 yd 15 ldKavj, laf,darhsv c, fokh
c,Sh udOHfha oS yhsrcka fya,hsvj,
wd,sl;dj
laf,daka yd laf,daf^I& whkj, oaOdlrKh
Tlaisldrl f,i ye,ckj, idfmalI
a m%n,;d
Wp jdhq
fifkdka *afjdrhs

ld,fo

16

ksmqK;dj

ksmqK;d ug

ikaOdrh

6'4 d f.dkqf uQ,jHj, .=K

yd wdj;hlA Tiafia tajdfha
p,kh uYkh lrhs'

6'5 d f.dkqf ixfhda.j,

.=K uYkh lrhs'

i,a*j, nyqrEmS wdldr ms<sfh, lsu

i,a* vfhdlaihs ms<sfh, lsu iy tys .=K mlaId
lsu
laf,daka ms<sfh, lsu iy ye,ckj, .=K mlaId
lsu
fya,hsv ykd .ekSu
d f.dkqf uQ,jHj, my; i|yka .=K s yd p f.dkqj,
uQ,jHj, tu .=K iu. ieie|Su
f,dayuh .=K
p,H TlaislrK wjia:d
oHq;-a RK;d w.h
whkSlrK Yla;h
s
whksl wrh
W;afm%arl l%shdj
jKj;a ixfhda. ksmou ^jK we;s jk wkaou
meyeos,s lsu wjYH ke;'&
jefkah" fl%dah iy uex.kSiaj, Tlaihsvj,
wd,sl$Ndial$WNh.=KS iajNdjh
fl%dah yd uex.kSiaj, Tlafid wekdhk
Tlaisldrl f,i CrO 2-4 , Cr2O72- yd MnO -4 whk

18

ld,fo

05

06

ksmqK;dj

ksmqK;d ug

ikaOdrh

6'6 d f.dkqf ixlSK

ixfhda.j, .=K
Ykh lrhs'

6'7 ir, wldnksl ixfhda. yd

d f.dkqf ixlSK
ixfhda. kdulrKh lrhs'

19

ld,fo

wd,sl fmdgEish mzuex.fka djKhla Nd; lr

Tlaif,a whk djKhl idkaKh ksKh lsu'
wd,sl fmdgEish mzuex.fka djKhla Nd; lr
f*ria whk djKhl idkaKh ksKh lsu'
my; i|yka talodhl ,s.k iu. Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni
yd Cu idok ixlSK ixfhda. yd tajdfha jK
H2O, OH-, NH3, ClixlSK ixfhda.j, jKh flfrys n,mdk idOl
uOH f,day mrudKqj
TlaislrK wjia:dj
,s.k moaO;sh
by; uQ,jHj, yhsfrdlaihsv
Cu^II&" Ni^II& yd Co(II& ,jK yhsfrdlaf,dala
w,h iy wefudakh
s d iu olajk m%;l
s sh
% d kslaIKh
lsu
TlaislrK wxl +2" +4" +6 iy +7 g wod< uex.kSia
whkj, jK kslaIKh lsu
Fe(III& whk iu ie,sis,sla w,fha m%;l
s sh
% dj
^jKdj,s;sh - oDYH l%uh&
IUPAC kdulrKh
f;dard .efkk ixfhda.
ir, wldnksl ixfhda.
ir, wekdhk iu. jk ixlSK legdhk
ir, legdhk iu. jk ixlSK wekdhk

10

03

ksmqK;dj

ksmqK;d ug
6'8 .=Kd;aul Yaf,aIKh u.ska
legdhk ykd .kshs'

ikaOdrh

ld,fo

mykais mlaIdj u.ska ykd.; yels legdhk Li+ ,

Na+ , K+, Ca2+, Ba2+, Sr2+, Cu2+
wjlafIamKh u.ska Y%Khl wvx.= legdhk Yaf,aIK
ldKav myg fjka lsf ls%hd ms<sfj<
^lsish ldKavhlg wh;a legdhk fjka lsu wjYH
ke;'&
legdhk ldKavj,g fjkal
s u yd inkaO uQ,Ou

10

NH +4 whk ykd .ekSu

myka is mlaIdfjka $wjfCIamK l%ufhka f;dard .;a
legdhk i|yd mlaId lsu
6'9 wekdhk .=Kd;aul j ykd
.kshs'

wjlafIamK l%ufhka y\qkd .; yels wekdhk

fya,hsv" PO34- " SO 24- " SO32 fjk;a l%u u.ska ykd .; yels wekdhk
2-

20

23

23

S , CO , NO , NO , S2 O
f;dard .;a wekdhk i|yd mlaId lsu

05

7 tallh - ldnksl ridhk oHf uQ,sl ixl,am

ksmqK;dj
7'0 ldnksl ixfhda.j,
O;ajh uid n,hs'

ksmqK;d ug

ikaOdrh

^ld,fo 17&
ld,fo

7'1

ridhk oHdf fYaI

fCIa;h
% la f,i ldnksl
ridhkfha jeo.;alu
uYkh lrhs'

ldnksl ridhkh ye|sk

a u
ldnksl ixfhda. Yd, ixLHdjla meje;Sug fya;=
ffoksl ;fha oS ldnksl ixfhda.j, jeo.;alu

02

7'2

l%shdld ldKav weiqfrka

ldnksl ixfhda.j,
O;ajh uYkh lrhs'

04

7'3

we,s*el ldnksl
ixfhda. kdulrKh lrhs'

ldnksl ixfhda.j, O;ajh

we,s*el^wpl%Sh& yhsfrdldnk yd wefrdauel
yhsfrdldnk ^fnkaik
S a yd wdfoaY;
s fnkaik
S a muKs'&
we,al,
s a fya,hsv yd we,a fya,hsv
we,afldfyd, yd *Sfkda,
B;r
we,ayhsv yd lSfgdak
ldfndlais,sla w,
w, laf,darhsv
tiagr
we,s*el wek yd we,a wek
weuhsv
weuhsfkd w,
iq,n ldnksl ixfhda.j, jHjydl k
my; i|yka jHqyuh iSudj,g we;=<;a ixfhda.
kdulrKh i|yd wod< IUPAC kS;s
m%Odk ldnka oduhg we;=<;a ldnka mrudKq ixLHdj
yh fkdblauh hq;= h'
m%Odk oduhg inkaaO h hq;f
a ;a ix;Dma;" YdLkh
fkd jQ yd wdfoaYl fkdue;s YdLd odu muKs'

21

06

ksmqK;dj

ksmqK;d ug

ikaOdrh

7'4

tl u wKql iQ;h
% iys;
wKqj, mrudKq ilia
meje;sh yels O wdldr
uYkh lrhs'

22

wix;Dma; ixfhda.hl wka;.; oa;aj yd ;%s;j

a
nkaOkj, uq`M tl;=j tllg fkdje h hq;= h'
oa;aj yd ;%s;j
a nkaOk wdfoaYs; ldKav f,i fkd.;
hq;= w;r m%Odk odufhys fldgila h hq;= h'
m%Odk ldnka oduhg inkaO we;s wdfoaYs; ldKav
ixLHdj fol fkdblauh hq;= h'
wdfoaYs; ldKav jYfhka meje;sh hq;f
a ;a my; i|yka
ldKav muKs'
-F, -Cl, -Br, -I, -CH3,-CH2CH3, -OH, -NH2, -CN,
-CHO, >C=O
m%Odk l%shdld ldKavh jYfhka meje;sh hq;f
a ;a
my; i|yka ldKav muKs'
-OH, -CHO, >C=O, -COOH, -COOR,-NH2,
-CONH2
m%Odk l%shdld ldKavh tla jrlg jvd fkdfhosh
hq;= h'
iudjhl;dj
jHqy iudjhl
odu iudjhl
ia:dk iudjhl
l%shdld ldKav iudjhl
;%sudk iudjhl;dj
mdr;%sudk iudjhl ^diastereomers& ^cHd;sl
iudjhl u.ska ksrEms; tAjd muKs'&
m%;r
s Em wjhj ^enatiomers& ^tla lhs/,a
uOHia:dkhla iys; m%ldY iudjhl muKs'&

ld,fo

05

8 tallh - yhsfv%dldnk

8'0

ksmqK;dj

ksmqK;d ug

yhsfrdldnkj,
jHqyh yd .=K w;r
inkaO;d uYkh
lrhs'

8'1 we,s*el yhsfrdldnkj,

jHqyh" fN!;sl .=K yd
nkaOk iajNdjh
uYkh lrhs'

ikaOdrh

8'2 fnkaiSkj
a , nkaOk
iajNdjh uYkh lrhs'

8'3 we,aflak" we,alk

S iy
we,alhskj, jHqyh weiqfrka
tajdfha m%;l
s sh
% d uYkfha
yd ixikaokfha fhfohs'

^ld,fo 26&

23

m%fNao
we,aflak
we,alk
S
we,alhsk
ioDYH fY%aKs
fN!;sl .=K
wka;-wKql n,
jdxl yd ;dmdxl
ldnksl ixfhda.j, oS ldnka mrudKqj, uqyqlrKh
(sp3, sp2, yd sp)
we,aflak" we,alk
S iy we,alhskj, cHd;sl yev
fnkaiSkj
a , jHqyh
ldnka mrudKqj, uqyqlrKh
bf,lafg%dak ia:dk.; u
im%hql;
a ;dj ms<sn| ixl,amh
fnkaiSkj
a , ia:dhS;dj
we,aflakj, m%;l
s sh
% d
iq,n m%;l
s drl flfrys we,aflakj, n,
m%;l
s sh
% dld;ajh
uql;
a LKavl iu m%;l
s sh
% d
laf,daka iy fn%daka iu. wdfoaY m%;l
s sh
% d
fuf;aka laf,dakslrKfha hka;K
% h
nkaOk iu LKavkh
m%;l
s sh
% d w;rueos f,i uql;
a LKavl

ld,fo
04

04

10

ksmqK;dj

ksmqK;d ug

ikaOdrh

24

we,alk
S j, m%;l
s sh
% d
we,alk
S j, ,dlaIKsl m%;l
s sh
% d f,i bf,lafg%d*s,sl
wdl,kh
ir, we,alk
S j,g yhsrcka fya,hsv wdl,kh yd
tys hka;K
% h
m%;l
s sh
% d w;rueos f,i ldfndlegdhk
m%d:l" oa;shsl yd ;D;Shsl ldfndlegdhkj,
idfmalI
a ia:dhS;dj
fmfrdlaihsv yuqf yhsrcka fn%dauhsj,
widukH yeisu ^hka;K
% h wjYH fkd f'&
ir, we,alk
S j,g fn%daka wdl,kh
t;Skj
a ,g fn%daka wdl,kfha hka;K
% h
i,a*shqla w,fha wdl,kh yd wdl,k M,fha
c, fokh
isis,a laIdrSh KMnO4 iu. m%;l
s sh
% dj ^fh
mlaIdj&
W;afm%ars; yhsrcka wdl,kh
we,alhskj, m%;l
s sh
% d
we,alhskj, ,dlaIKsl m%;l
s h
s% d f,i bf,lafg%d*s,l
s
wdl,kh
fn%daka wdl,kh
yhsrcka fya,hs wdl,kh
ulshqla whk yd i,a*shqla w,h yuqf c,h
wdl,kh

ld,fo

ksmqK;dj

ksmqK;d ug

ikaOdrh

ld,fo

8'4 fnkaiSkj
a , ,dlaIKsl
m%;l
s sh
% d weiqfrka
tys ia:dhS;dj
Yaf,aIKh lrhs'

25

Nd.sl yhsrckSlrKh we;=`M j yhsrckaj,

W;afm%a; wdl,kh
nkaOk iajNdjh weiqka meyeos,s lrk ,o w.%ia:
we,alhskj, wd,sl iajNdjh
w.%ia: we,alhskj, m%;l
s sh
% d
Na fyda NaNH2 iu.
wefudaakh
S CuCl iu.
wefudakh
S AgNO3 iu.
we,alk
S j, iy we,alhskj, m%;l
s sh
% d kslaIKh
lsu
wdl,k m%;slh
%s dj,g jvd wdfoaY m%;l
s sh
% d flfrys olajk
keUqre;dj
fnkaiSkj
a , ,dlaIKsl m%;l
s sh
% d f,i bf,lafg%d*s,sl
wdfoaY m%;l
s sh
% d
khsgf
s rdlrKh yd tys hka;K
% h
we,al,
s alrKh yd tys hka;K
% h
weis,alrKh yd tys hka;K
% h
FeX3 yuqf ye,ckSlrKh yd tys hka;K
% h
^X = Cl, Br)
TlaislrKhg olajk m%;f
s rdaOh
we,al,
s a fnkaiSka TlaislrKh
we,alk
S j,g idfmalI
a j yhsrckSlrKh lsrSf
wmyiq;dj
W;afm%ars; yhsrcka wdl,kh

07

ksmqK;dj

ksmqK;d ug
8'5 tal wdfoaYs; fnkaiSkj
a ,
wdfoaYs; ldKavfha
osYdNsuqL lsrSf yelshdj
Yaf,aIKh lrhs'

ikaOdrh

26

f;d" merd fhduqldrl ldKav

-OH, -NH2, -NHR, -R, -Cl, -Br, -OCH3
fugd fhduqldrl ldKav
-COOH, -CHO, -COR, -NO2

ld,fo
01

9 tallh - we,al,
s a fya,hsv
ksmqK;dj
9'0 we,al,
s a fya,hsvj,
jHqyh yd .=K w;r
inkaO;d uYkh
lrhs'

ksmqK;d ug
9'1 we,al,
s a fya,hsvj, jHqyh"
_
C X nkaOkfha O%eh
iajNdjh iy m%;l
s sh
% d
uYkh lrhs'

^ld,fo 12&
ikaOdrh

27

m%fNao
m%d:l
oa;Shsl
;D;Shsl
C _ X nkaOkfha O%eh iajNdjh (X= F, Cl, Br, I)
we,al,
s a fya,hsvj, kshql,
a sfhd*s,sl wdfoaY m%;l
s sh
% d
kshql,
a sfhd*hs,hla f,i yhsfrdlais,a whkh
;r.ld m%;l
s sh
% djla f,i bj;a u
kshql,
a sfhd*hs,hla f,i ihkhs whkh
kshql,
a sfhda*hs,hla f,i w.%ia: we,alhskj,ska
jHq;m
a kak jQ weis,hs ^we,alk
s hs& whkh
kshql,
a sfhda*hs,hla f,i we,afldlaihs whkh
we,al,
s a fya,hsv kshql,
a sfhd*s,sl wdfoaY m%;l
s sh
% dj,g
iyNd.s jk ;;a;j
a hgf;a oS laf,dafrdfnkaiSka yd
ks,a laf,darhs m%;l
s sh
% dYS,S fkdu
we,al,
s a fya,hsvj, ue.aki
S sh iu. m%;l
s sh
% dj ^.%Skd
m%;l
s drlh ms<sfh, lsu&
ksc,Sh ;;a;j
a hl wjYH;dj
f,day-ldnka nkaOkfha iajNdjh
fm%dafgdak odhlhska iu. m%;l
s sh
% d
w,
we,afldfyd,
wek

ld,fo

11

ksmqK;dj

ksmqK;d ug

9'2 nkaOk we;s u yd nkaOk

|Su is jk ld,h weiqfrka
we,al,
s a fya,hsvj,
kshql,
a sfhd*s,sl wdfoaY
m%;l
s sh
% d Yaf,aIKh lrhs'

ikaOdrh

28

;ks mshjr m%;l

s sh
% dj
^nkaOk iEoSf yd |Sf mshjr tla jr u is f'
m%;l
s sh
% d w;rueos we;s fkd f'&
oa;aj mshjr m%;l
s sh
% d
^nkaOk |Su m<uq j is f' m%;l
s sh
% d w;rueoshla
f,i ldfndlegdhkhla we;s f' fo jk mshjf oS
ldfndlegdhkh iu. kshql,
a sfhd*hs,h nkaOkhla
idohs'&
^fuu hka;K
% i|yd idlaIH iy by; l%shdj,s fol
mok lr .kska lrkq ,nk m%;l
s h
s% d j.SlrKh wjYH
ke;'&

ld,fo

01

10 tallh - Tlaiscka wvx.= ldnksl ixfhda.

ksmqK;dj
10'0Tlaiscka wvx.= ldnksl
ixfhda.j, jHqyh
yd .=K w;r inkaO;d
uYkh lrhs'

ksmqK;d ug
10'1 we,afldfyd,j, jHqyh"
tys ldnka-Tlaiscka
nkaOkfha O%eh iajNdjh"
Tlaiscka-yhsvsrcka
nkaOkfha O%eh iajNdjh
iy m%;slh
s% d uYkh lrhs'

ikaOdrh

29

^ld,fo 35&
ld,fo

m%fNao
m%d:l
oa;shsl
;D;shsl
fN!;sl .=K
;dmdxlh
c,fha yd iq,n ldnksl djlj, djH;dj
O _ H nkaOkh |Sfuka is jk m%;l
s sh
% d
Na iu. m%;l
s sh
% d
^Tlaiscka iu. neKq yhsrckaj, wd,sl iajNdjh&
ldfndlais,sla w, iu. m%;l
s sh
% dj
^tiagr ,nd oSu i|yd we,afldfyd,aj, weis,alrKh&
C _ O nkaOkh |Sfuka is jk kshql,
a sfhd*ss,sl wdfoaY
m%;l
s sh
% d
m%;l
s sh
% d
HBr iu.
HI iu.
PCl3 iu.
PCl5 iu.
ZnCl2 yd idka HCl w,h iu. m%;l
s sh
% dj
^lia mlaIdj&
^C _ O nkaOkh |Sfuka we;s jk
ldfndlegdhkj, idfmalI
a ia:dhS;dj weiqfrka
flfrk meyeos,s lsu - fnkais,a we,afldfyd,j,
m%;l
s sh
% d wjYH fkd f'&

08

ksmqK;dj

ksmqK;d ug

ikaOdrh

10'2 ldnka-Tlaiscka nkaOkh

yd Tlaiscka-yhsrcka
nkaOkh weiqfrka
*Sfkda,aj, .=K yd
m%;l
s sh
% dj, iajNdjh ms<n
s |j
uid n,hs'

10'3 *Sfkda,j
a , -OH ldKavh Bg
inkaO fnkaiSka j,fhys
m%;l
s sh
% ;dj flfrys
we;s lrk n,mEu uYkh
lrhs'
30

idka H2SO4 iu. bj;a f m%;l

s sh
% d ^we,alk
S ,nd
oSu i|yd c,kh&
TlaislrKh
H +/KMnO4 iu.
H +/K2Cr2O7 iu.
H +/CrO3
iu.
msksh laf,dafrdfl%daf iu. ^m%d:l
we,afldfyd," we,ayhsv njg iy oa;Shsl
we,afldfyd," lSfgdak njg&
we,afldfyd,j, .=K mlaId lsu
ir, u *Sfkda,h jk yhsfrdlais fnkaiSkj
a , jHqyh
we,afldfyd,aj,g idfmalI
a j *Sfkda,j, by<
wd,sl;dj
*Sfkda,j, m%;l
s sh
% d
fidah f,dayh iu.
fidah yhsfrdlaihs iu.
we,afldfyd, kshql,
a sfhd*s,sl wdfoaY m%;l
s sh
% dj,g
iyNd.s jk ;;a;j
a hgf;a" *Sfkda, m%;l
s sh
% d fkdoelau
*Sfkda,j, .=K mlaId lsu
bf,lafg%d*s,sl wdfoaY m%;l
s sh
% d
fn%dakSlrKh
khsfrdlrKh

ld,fo

04

02

ksmqK;dj

ksmqK;d ug
10'4

ikaOdrh

we,ayhs iy lSfgdakj,
m%;l
s h
s% d u.ska fmkak
q lrk
>C=O nkaOkfha O%eh
iajNdjh iy wix;Dma;
iajNdjh uYkh lrhs'

31

we,ayhsv yd lSfgdakj, ,dlaIKsl m%;l

s sh
% d f,i
kshql,
a sfhd*s,sl wdl,k m%;l
s sh
% d
HCN iu. m%;l
s sh
% dj iy tys hka;K
% h
.%Skd m%;l
s drlh iu. m%;l
s sh
% dj iy tys hka;K
% h
2"4-vhskhsfrd*Skhs,a yhsriSka (2,4-DNP fyj;a
f% m%;l
s drlh) iu.
^kshql,
a sfhd*s,sl wdl,khlg miq j is jk
c,khla f,i myokak' ia;rd;aul hka;K
% h
wjYH ke;'&
m%;l
s sh
% d
NaBH4 iu.
LiAlH4 iu.
^ia;rd;aul hka;K
% h iy w;rueos M, wjYH ke;'&
Zn (Hg)/idka HCl iu. m%;l
s h
s% dj ^ldnkhs,a ldKavh
fu;s,Ska ldKavhla njg laf,ukaika TlaisyrKh&
we,ayhsv Tlail
s rKh
wefudakh
S AgNO3 ^fgd,kaia m%;l
s drlh & u.ska
f*a,sx djKh u.ska
H +/KMnO4 u.ska
H +/K2Cr2O7 fyda H +/CrO3 fyda u.ska
^lSfgdak m%;l
s sh
% dYS,S fkdu iu. ii|kak'&
we,ayhsv iy lSfgdak i|yd mlaId

ld,fo
08

ksmqK;dj

ksmqK;d ug

ikaOdrh

ld,fo

10'5 iajhx ix.Kk m%;l

s sh
% d
u.ska fmkak
q lrk mos
we,ayhsv yd lSfgdakj,
we,a*d ia:dkfhys
m%;l
s sh
% ;dj ykd .kshs'

fidah yhsfrdlaihs yuqf weisge,ayhsj, yd

weisfgdakj
a , iajhx ix.Kk m%;l
s sh
% d ^m%;l
s sh
% d hka;K
% h
wjYH ke;'&

04

10'6 Tlaiscka wvx.= fjk;a

ldnksl ixfhda. iu.
ldfndlais,sla w,j,
jHqyh iy .=K ixikaokh
lrhs'

fN!;sl .=K inkaOfhka yhsrcka nkaOkj,

jeo.;alu
jdxl$;dmdxl
c,fha yd iq,n ldnksl djlj, djH;dj oawjhl jHqy meje;Su
-COOH ldKavfha m%;l
s sh
% d rgd iu. we,ayhsv yd
lSfgdakj, >C=O ldKavfha iy we,afldfyd, iy
*Sfkda,j, -OH ldKavfha m%;l
s sh
% d rgd ieie|Su
O-H nkaOkh |Sfuka is jk m%;l
s sh
% d
ldfndlais,sla w,j, Tlaiscka iu. neKq
yhsrckaj, wd,sl iajNdjh
ixhq.aul Niauj, idfmalI
a ia:dhS;dj mok lr
.kska ldfndlais,sla w,j," we,afldfyd,j, iy
*Sfkda,j, wd,sl .=K ieie|Su
m%;l
s sh
% d
Na iu.
NaOH iu.
NaHCO3 iu.

06

32

ksmqK;dj

ksmqK;d ug

ikaOdrh

10'7 w, jHq;m
a kakj,
,dlaIKsl m%;l
s sh
% d
uYkh lrhs'

33

ld,fo

C-O nkaOkh |Sfuka is jk m%;l

s sh
% d
PCl3 fyda PCl5 iu.
we,afldfyd, iu.
ldfndlais,sla w, LiAlH4 u.ska Tlaiy
s rKh
ldfndlais,sla w,j, iuyr .=K mlaId lsu

w, laf,darhsv
c,Sh fidah yhssfrdlaihs iu. m%;l
s sh
% dj iy
tys hka;K
% h
m%;l
s sh
% d
c,h iu.
m%d:l wek iu.
we,afldfyd, iu.
*Sfkda, iu.
wefudakh
s d iu.
tiagr
;kql Lksc w, iu. m%;l
s sh
% dj
c,Sh fidah yhsfrdlaihs iu.
.S%kd m%;l
s drlh iu`.
LiAlH4 iu`.
weuhsv
c,Sh fidah yhsfrdlaihs iu. m%;l
s sh
% dj
LiAlH4 u.ska TlaisyrKh

03

13 jk fYa%Ksh
11 tallh - khsrcka wvx.= ldnksl ixfhda.
ksmqK;dj
11'0

khsgr
s cka wvx.=
ldnksl ixfhda.j,
jHqyh yd .=K w;r
inkaO;d
uYkh lrhs'

ksmqK;d ug
11'1

,dlaIKsl m%;l
s sh
% d iy
.=K weiqka wek iy
weks,Ska ms<sn|
Yaf,aIKfha fhfohs'

ikaOdrh

11'2

11'3

fjk;a ldnksl ixfhda.

iu. wekj,
Ndial;dj ii|hs'
vhefidakh
s ,jKj,
m%;l
s h
s% d uYkh lrhs'

34

^ld,fo 15&
ld,fo

m%fNao
we,s*el yd wefrdauel wek
m%d:l wek
oa;Shsl wek
;D;Shsl wek
wefrdauel wekhla f,i weks,Ska
weks,Ska yd fn%daka w;r m%;l
s %h
s dj
m%d:l wekj, m%;l
s sh
% d
we,al,
s a fya,hsv iu.
we,ayhsv iy lSfgdak iu.
w, laf,darhs iu.
khsria w,h iu.
we,afldfyd,aj,g idfmalaI j wekj, Ndial;dj
m%d:l we,s*el wekj, yd weks,Skj
a , Ndial;dj
ieie|Su
weuhsvj,g idfmalI
a j wekj, Ndial;dj
mrudKqjlska fyda fjk;a ldKavhlska fyda vhefidakh
s
ldKavh m%;i
s a:dmkh jk m%;l
s sh
% d
c,h iu.
CuCN iu.
yhsfmdf*diamria w,h iu`. CuBr iu.
CuCl iu.
KI iu.
vhefidakh
s whkh bf,lafg%d*hs,hla f,i yeisfrk
m%;l
s sh
% d
*Sfkda, iu. wE m%;l
s sh
% d
2-kemaf;da,a iu. wE m%;l
s sh
% d

06

05

04

12 tallh - pd,l ridhkh

ksmqK;dj
12'0

ridhksl
m%;l
s %shdjl
YS>%;dj ksKh
lsug yd m%;l
s sh
% d
YS>%;dj iqiq mrsos
md,kh lsug
pd,l ridhk
oHd uQ,Ou
fhdod .kshs'

ksmqK;d ug
12'1 ridhksl m%;l
s sh
% d
iS>%;dj flfrys n,mdk
idOl ksKh lrhs'

12'2 m%;l
s sh
% l idkaK W;
m yiqrejka m%;l
s sh
% d
YS>%;dj md,kh lrhs'

ikaOdrh

35

^ld,fo 27&
ld,fo

ridhksl m%;l
s sh
% d YS>%;dj flfrys n,mdk idOl
WIaK;ajh
idkaKh ^mSvkh&
fN!;sl iajNdjh ^m%;l
s sh
% lj, mDIAG j.M,h&
W;afm%arl
iucd;Sh
Iucd;Sh
m%;l
s sh
% d YS>%;dj
idkaKh weiqfrka YS>%;dj
aA + bB cC + dD
C
A m%;l
s sh
% lhg idfmalI
a j m%;l
s sh
% df YS>%;dj = - A
t
C D
D M,hg idfmalI
a j m%;l
s sh
% df YS>%;dj =

t
YS>%;dj flfrys idkaKfha n,mEu
YS>;
% d kshuh" ixrplj,g idfmalI
a j fm<" m%;l
s h
s% df
fm< ^iuia; fm<&
YS>%;d ksh;h
wdrNl YS>%;dj
idudkH YS>%;dj
iuia; fm< weiqfrka m%;l
s sh
% d j.SlrKh ^Y=kH
fm<" m<uq fm< yd fo jk fm< muKs'&
m<uq fm< m%;l
s sh
% d i|yd wOj ld,h yd tys
m%ia;dl ksrEmKh ^ilrKh wjYH fkd f'&

05

14

ksmqK;dj

ksmqK;d ug

ikaOdrh

12'3 ridhksl m%;l

s sh
% d YS>%;dj
flfrys O idOlj,
n,mEu .%y lsug
wKql pd,l jdoh fhdod
.kshs'

12'4

ridhksl m%;l
s sh
% djl
YS>%;dj .%y lsrSug
m%;l
s sh
% d hka;K
% fhdod
.kshs'

36

ld,fo

m%;l
s sh
% d fm< yd YS>%;d ksh;h ksKh lsf l%u
wdrNl YS>%;d l%uh
ue.aki
S sh iy w, w;r m%;l
s sh
% dj flfrys
w, idkaKfha n,mEu mlaIKd;aul j ksKh lsu
fidah ;fhdai,af*a iy khsla w,h w;r
m%;l
s sh
% dj flfrys m%;l
s %h
s l idkaKfha n,mEu
mlaIKd;aul j ksKh lsu
whka^III& whk iy fmdgEish whvhs w;r m%;l
s sh
% dj
flfrys m%;l
s %h
s l idkaKfha n,mEu mlaIKd;aul j
ksKh lsu
;ks mshjr m%;l
s %h
s dj i|yd Yla;s igyk
ils%hk Yla;h
s
m%;l
s sh
% djla is u i|yd imqrd ,sh hq;= wjYH;d
wKq .eu
W; osYdk;shlska hql;
a u
il%shk Yla;h
s blaujd ;su
by; wjYH;d imqrd,Su flfrys WIaK;ajfha"
idkaKfha" W;afm%arlj, yd fN!;sl iajNdjfha
n,mEu ^wdySkh
s ia ilrKh wjYH fkd f'&
uQ,sl m%;l
s sh
% d
nyq mshjr m%;l
s %h
s d
Yla;s igyka
ixl%uK wjia:dj iy w;rue M,
YS>%;dj ksKh flfrk mshjr yd iuia; m%;l
s sh
% df
YS>%;dj flfrys tys n,mEu

04

04

13 tallh - iu;=,s;;dj
ksmqK;dj

13'0

.;sl iu;=,s;;df
mj;sk ixjD;
moaO;sj, ufyaCI
.=K ksKh lsu
i|yd iu;=,s;;dj
ms<sn| ixl,amh yd
uQ,Ou Nd; lrhs'

ksmqK;d ug

13'1

iu;=,s;;dj ms<sn|
ixl,amh weiqrska
moaO;sj, ufyaCI
.=K m%udKd;aul j ksKh
lrhs'

ikaOdrh

37

moaO;s ^ixjD;" jD;" tal,s;&

wkjr; wjia:df mj;sk moaO;s
.;sl l%shdj,s yd m%;j
s ;H;dj
ufyaCI .=K
iu;=,s;;df mj;sk moaO;s
ridhksl
l,dm
whksl
bf,lafg%dav
iu;=,s;;d kshuh
iu;=,s;;d ksh;
ridhksl iu;=,s;;dj
Kp iy KC
iu;=,s;;d ,laIHh
f,a-peg,sh uQ,Ouh
3+
Fe / SCN- moaO;sh weiqfrka .;sl iu;=,s;
moaO;shl ,dlaIKsl mlaIKd;aul j wOHhkh
lsu
c,fhys yd hqgfkda,ays t;fkdhsla w,fha
jHdma;h
s i|yd jHdma;s ix.=Klh mlaIKd;aul
j ksKh lsu
NO2/ N2O4 iu;=,s; moaO;sh flfrys WIaK;ajfha
n,mEu mlaIKd;aul j wOHhkh lsu

^ld,fo 62&
ld,fo

14

ksmqK;dj

ksmqK;d ug

ikaOdrh

13'2 tal ixrpl moaO;sj,

j-jdIam iu;=,s;;dj
p,kh jk wkaou
uYkh lrhs'

13'3

oajhx.S j moaO;sj,
j-jdIam iu;=,s;;dj
p,kh jk wkaou
uYkh lrhs'

38

ixY=oaO j moaO;s
jh yd jdIamh w;r iu;=,s;;dj
wKql p,s;h weiqka j-jdIam moaO;shl
iu;=,s;;dj ia;r lsu
WIaK;ajh wkqj c,fha yd fjk;a jj, jdIam
mSvkh p,kh jk wkaou
jdIam mSvkh yd ;dmdxlh
jHhl wj ,CIHh
;s%l ,CIHh

j-j moaO;s
imQKfhka Y% jk j-j moaO;s
wdxYsl f,i Y% jk j-j moaO;s
imQKfhka wY% j-j moaO;s
rW!,a kshuh
mmQK j moaO;s
mmQK fkdjk j moaO;s
tisfhdafg%dmsl fkdjk imQKfhka Y% jk moaO;s
i|yd l,dm igyka
jdIam mSvk - ixhq;s l,dm igyka
WIaK;aj- ixhq;s l,dm igyka
Nd.sl wdijkh

ld,fo

05

10

ksmqK;dj

ksmqK;d ug

13'4 w,am f,i djH whksl

ixfhda. yd inkaO
iu;=,s; moaO;sj, .=K
m%udKkh lrhs'

ikaOdrh

AgCl(s) Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

13'5 n, f,i >gkh jk

w," Niau" wd,sl ,jK
iy Ndial ,jK
inkaO iu;=,s; moaO;sj,
.=K m%udKkh lrhs'

whksl .=K;
s h (Ksp)

39

ld,fo

06

wjfCIamKh
djH;dj
fmd whk wdprKh
legdhk .=Kd;aul Yaf,aIKfha Nd;
Ca(OH)2 j, djH;d .+K;
s h mlaIKd;aul j ksKh
lsu
w," Niau iy ,jK
ixhq.aul w, iy Niau
nyq Ndial w,
>gk ksh;" Kw , Ka , Kb
pH w.h
w, ^tal Ndial" oa Ndial&" Niau ^tal wd,sl&
yd ,jK djKj, pH w.h .Kkh lsu
oYl ms<sn| jdoh
w, - Niau wkqudmk
wkqudmk jl%
iul;d ,CIH ksKh lsu ^oDYH l%uh - oYl Nd;h
muKs&
pKIn w.h u; mok j wkqudmk i|yd W; oYl
f;au

22

ksmqK;dj

ksmqK;d ug

ikaOdrh

13'6

wjYH;djg i,k mos

iajdrlaIl djK ms<f
s h,
lrhs'

40

ld,fo

imhk ,o u,a j.hlska oYlhla ms<sfh, lsu iy

tys pH mrdih mlaIKd;aul j ksKh lsu
pH w.h mlaId lsfuka ,jK djKj,
wd,sl$Ndial$WodiSk iajNdjh mlaIKd;aul j
ksKh lsu
pH oYl Nd; lrka fok ,o djKhl o< pH
w.h ksKh lsu

iajdrlaIl djK ^.=Kd;aul j yd m%udKd;aul j&

fykavika ilrKh jHq;m
a kak lsu yd tys Nd;
^tal Ndial moaO;s muKs' j. ilrK iys; .Kkh
lsrS wjYH ke;'&
iajdrlaIl moaO;shl pH w.h

05

14 tallh - oHq;a ridhkh

ksmqK;dj
14'0 oHq;a ridhksl
moaO;sj, m%dfhda.sl
jeo.;alu uYkh
lrhs'

ksmqK;d ug
14'1

c,Sh djKhl djHj,

iajNdjh iy tajdfha
idkaK ms<sn| wjfndaO
lr .ekSug ikakdhl;dj
fhdod .kshs'

14'2 iu;=,s; bf,lafg%dav yd

tajdg wod< bf,lafg%dav
m%;l
s sh
% d uYkh lrhs'

ikaOdrh

ikakhk;dj
ikakdhl;dj
ikakdhl;dj flfrys n,mdk idOl
djHfha iajNdjh ( m%n, yd n, oHq;a foHj,
yd oHq;a wfoHj, c,Sh djK" ,Sk oHq;a
foH
idkaKh
WIaK;ajh

iu;=,s;;df mj;akd m%;j

s ;H bf,lafg%dav yd
bf,lafg%dav m%;l
s sh
% d
f,day-f,day whk
f,day-wdjH ,jK
jdhq bf,lafg%dav ^O2, H2, Cl2)
frfvdlaia ^TlaislrK - TlaisyrK& bf,lafg%dav
kso( Pt(s)/Fe2+(aq),Fe3+(aq)

41

^ld,fo 26&
ld,fo
04

02

ksmqK;dj

ksmqK;d ug
14'3 oHq;a ridhksl fldaIj,
.=K ksKh lrhs'

ikaOdrh

14'4

O fldaI j. ms<sn|
uYkfha fhfohs'

42

j ikah
,jK fia;j
=
fjkalrKh ^separator&
j ikahla fkdue;s fldaI
bf,lafg%dav Njh ^E&

ld,fo

06

iu; bf,lafg%dav Njh ( Eq )

oHq;a ridhksl fY%aKh
s
fY%aKf
s ha msysgk ia:dkhg wkqrEm j uQ,jHhg ys
.=K
fY%aKf
s ha f,day msysgk ia:dkh" iajNdjfha mj;sk
wdldrhg yd ksii
a drKh lrkq ,nk wdldrhg olajk
inkaO;dj
fldaI m%;l
s sh
% d
fldaIhl oHq;.
a dul n,h
E cell= ERHS(cathode ) - ELHS(anode ) ^k'kaia ilrKh wjYH
ke;'&
O fldaIj, oHq;.
a dul n,h uekSu
m%d:l fldaI
veksfh,a fldaIh
f,la,dka fldaIh
bkaOk fldaI ^H2/O2 bkaOk fldaIh muKs&
oa;Shsl fldaI
f, welshqf,agrh

04

ksmqK;dj

ksmqK;d ug

14'5

oHq;a fok
l%h
s dj,sfha imqrd,sh hq;=
wjYH;d ykd f.k
merf ksh;h fhod
.kska wod< .Kkhka
is lrhs'

ikaOdrh

14'6

Ldokh md,kh l<

yels l%u uid n,hs'

43

oHq;a fokfha uQ,Ou

c,fha oHq;a fokh
fldm bf,lafg%dav fhdod c,Sh CuSO4 djKhl oHq;a
fokh
ma,ek bf,lafg%dav fhdod c,Sh CuSO4 djKhl
oHq;a fokh
ldnka bf,lafg%dav fhdod c,Sh NaCl djKhl oHq;a
fokh
,Sk NaCl djKhla oHq;a fokh lsu ^uQ,Ouh
muKs&
merf kshuj, Nd;
c,h oHq;a fokh u.ska yhsrcka iy Tlaiscka
jdhq ms<sfh, lsu
Cu yd Ag oHq;a f,daydf,amkh
oaf,day Ldokh
lef;dah wdrlaIKh
wluKH lsu
oHq;a ridhksl ls%hdj,shla f,i u,neu
mlaIKd;aul j wOHhkh lsu'

ld,fo

06

04

15 tallh - ridhk oHdj yd ludka;

ksmqK;dj
15'0 iuyr uQ,jH yd
ixfhda. iajNdjfha
mj;sk wdldr"
ldl j
ksiaidrKh$ksmou
iy Nd; uYkh
lrhs'

ksmqK;d ug
15'1

s f.dkqf uQ,jH yd
ixfhda. iajNdjfha
mj;sk wdldr" ldl
j ksiaidrKh$ksmou
iy Nd; uYkh
lrhs'

15'2 p f.dkqf uQ,jH iy

ixfhda. ldl j
ksiaidrKh$ksmou iy
Nd; uYkh lrhs'

ikaOdrh

Na ksiaidrKh ^vjqka fldaI l%uh& iy Nd;

ksmou
Kq
NaOH
inka
Na2CO3 ^fid,af l%uh&
ms,siaiQ yqk"q rxck l=vq iy CaC2 ( wuq jHhla
f,i CaCO3 Nd; lsu&

ksmou iy Nd;
wefudakh
s d ^fyan l%uh&
hqhd
khsla w,h ^Tiaj,a l%uh&
f*diaf*a fmdfydr
i,a*shqla w,h ^iamY l%uh&

15'3 d f.dkqf uQ,jH

iajNdjfha mj;sk wdldr"
ksiaidrKh iy Nd;
uYkh lrhs'

^ld,fo 41&
ld,fo

08

06

hlv ksiaidrKh
02

44

ksmqK;dj

ksmqK;d ug
15'4 nyqwjhl jH tosfkod
;fha oS M,odhS j
Nd; lrhs'

ikaOdrh

15'5 Ydl jH u; mok jQ

iuyr ridhksl
ludka; uYkh lrhs'

45

wdl,k iy ix>kk nyqwjhjl iy nyqwjhlrK

l%shdj,sh
iajNdl rnj, (NR) jHqyh" .=K yd Nd;h
iajNdl rn j,alkhsia lsu
iajNdl rn Y%K ilia lsu (Compounding of
natural rubber)
lD;s%u nyqwjhjlj, jHqyh" .=K yd Nd;
fmd,st;s,Ska (PE)
fmd,sjhskhs,a laf,darhs (PVC)
fmd,siaghska (PS))
fmd,stauhsv
fmd,stiagr
fg*af,daka
fla,hs
hQhd f*daue,ayhs
ldnka ixfhda.j, m%Njhla f,i Ydl jH ms<n
s | jrKh
Ydl u; mok jQ ludka; iuyrla ^wdydr ludka;hg
wu;r j&
lvodis - fi,shqf,daia Nd;h
i.kaO f;,a - jdIamYS,S ixfhda. Nd;h
inka - f;,a yd fo Nd;h
T!IO - T!Ih ixfhda. Nd;h
t;fkda,a - msIagh yd iSkj
s , Nd;h

ld,fo

10

10

ksmqK;dj

ksmqK;d ug

ikaOdrh

15'6 Lksc im;a u; mok

jQ iuyr ridhksl
ludka; uYkh lrhs'

46

ld,fo

Ydlj,ska ixfhda. ksiaidrKh lsu

yqud, wdijkh - i.kaO f;,a
djl ksiaidrKh - T!Ih ixfhda.
^fYaIs; ixfhda.j, jHqy iQ;% ms<sn| j mlaId
fkd flf&
jKf,aL Ys,amh Nd; lr ixfhda. Y%Khla
Yaf,aIKh lsu iy fjka lr .ekSu - wfYdaIK yd
fNaok (partition) jKf,aL Ys,m
a ms<n
s | uQ,l
s uQ,Ou
i.kaO f;,a inkaO j jdhq jKf,aL Ys,amfha Nd;h
lvodis jKf,aL Ys,m
a h Nd; lr Ydl jKl Y%Khla
fjka lsu'
isfuka;s ksIamdokh yd inkaO ridhkh
rEghs,a $b,aukhs u`.ska Ti yd TiO2 ksiaidrKh
fndr f;,a iy mefrda,sh ksIamdokh$|Su

05

16 tallh - mdil ridhk oHdj

ksmqK;dj
16'0 ridhk oHd oekqu
mDfha mirh
wjfndaO lr
.ekSu i|yd fhdod
.kshs'

ksmqK;d ug

16'1

mDfha jh mj;ajd
.ekSu msKi
s mir
f.da,fha ixhq;h
s yd tys
inkaO;dj uYkh
lrhs'

16'2 udkj ls%hdldrl

fya;f
= jka jdhqf.da,fha
is jk fjkial
uYkh lrhs'

ikaOdrh

47

^ld,fo 24&
ld,fo

mir f.da,fha ixrpl yd tajdfha jeo.;alu

jdhqf.da,h
c,f.da,h
Ys,df.da,h
mDh u; jh mj;ajd .ekSu Wfoid ffcj N+ ridhksl
ls%hdj,sj, ldhNdrh
Tlaiscka pl%h
ldnka pl%h
khsrcka pl%h
c, pl%h

06

COx " NOx , SOx " CXHy iy wxY=uh mod: fya;f

= jka
is jk jdhq IK iy fi!LH n,mE
y;d.dr wdprKh
jdhq IKh fya;f
= jka u;= j we;s .eg wjfndaO lr
.ekSu
mDf.da,h WKqiq u
w, jeiai
m%ldY ridhksl OQuh
fidaka hk CIh u
jeis c,fha wd,sl;dj uYkh lsu

06

ksmqK;dj

ksmqK;d ug

16'3 c,f.da,h iy mdkSh c,h

wm;% u ms<n
s | uYkh
lrhs'

ikaOdrh

16'4 mi wm;%u iy >k

wmjH ms<sn| uYkh
lrhs'

48

c, Il m%Nj
c,fha .=Kd;aulNdjh
fN!;sl mdrd;s ^WIaK;ajh" pH, ikakdhl;dj"
wd,;dj&
d; Tlaiscka
ffch Tlaiscka b,au (BOD)
d; whksl ixfhda.
c,h msmy lsf ls%hdj,s
wjidokh (Sedimentation)
le.eiSu (Coagulation)
imsKv
a kh (Flocculation)
IcyrK ls%hdj,s
laf,daka Nd;h
fidaka Nd;h
UV lsrK Nd;h
kal,
a l%uh u.ska d; Tlaiscka ugu ksKh lsu
iajNdl fhojq yd mfiys ire nj
mdxY= Il m%Nj
.Dyia: wmjH
lDIs ridhk
mfiys nerf,day tla/ia u
e - wmjH ^m.Kl" bf,lafg%dksl WmlrK" cx.u
rl:k" neg" ix.Dys; m%;s ma; ,s myka -CFL
wdh&
wmjH l<ukdrlKh
3R moaO;s
fldfmdaia iEu
j jdhqj ksmou
NIalrKh

ld,fo

08

04

tl;=j
ksmqK;dj

ksmqK;d ug

468
ikaOdrh

ld,fo

4'0 bf.kq-b.eka l%fudamdh

j;auka wOHdmkfha f.da,Sh m%jK;dj we;af;a b.ekau wNsnjd bf.kqu biau;= jk YsIH flaka Sh l%shdldrl Tiafia
iyfhda.s;d bf.kqu os .ekafjk ksmqK;dmdol Ihud,d ykajd oSu hs' mqoa.," iudc iy udkisl yelshd ixjOkh flfrk
ls%hdldrlj, isiqka ksr; lru fu u.ska wfmalI
a d flf' fuys oS my; i|yka oE wjOdrKh h hq;= h'
yels ieu wjia:djl u 5E wdlD;sfha ls%hdldrl fhdod .kska ikaOdrh wdjrKh lsu'
iajhx fm,Uula iys; j ls%hdldrlj, fhfuka yels ;dla iDcq w;aoelS ,nd .ekSug isiqkg
a wjia:dj ie,iSu'
wjYH ;ekays oS YajikSh m%Njj,ska oekqu iy f;dr;=re Wlyd .ekSug isiqka fhduq lsu'

5'0 mdi,a m%;sm;a;s iy jevigyka

wod< bf.kq M, idlaId;a lr .ekSu i|yd iqiq bf.kq-b.eka ls%hdj,shla wkq.ukh lsf ksoyi .=reNj;d i;= h'
Ih ksfoaYfha ikaOdrh hgf;a u ;o l wl=ka uqKh lr we;s m%dfhda.l
s ls%hdldrl o wod< wjia:djkays oS u is lsu
wfmaCIs; h'
isiq YlH;d jOkh i|yd m.Kl wdYs%; bf.kq uDldx. jeks bf.kq-b.eka wdOdrl" w;sfl lshe jH iy Ih
ndysr ls%hdldrl wdh fhdod .; hq;= h'
mka;s ldur bf.kqu > lsug iy isiqkf
a .a iqfYaI olaI;d Tma kxjkq jia my; oelafjk wkaof Ih iu.d
lsh
% dldrl ykajd u wfmaCIs; h'
ridhk oHdjg wod< j O wx. wdjrKh jk m mdif,a i;s yd iud. msysg
q u'

49

ridhk oHdj inkaO O lafIa;j

% ,g fhduq lsula jYfhka" ridhk oHd;aul jeo.;a lula we;s lafIa;% pdldj,
u'
ksmfhu
qK;djyd ta ms<sn| jd;dksilia
mqK;dlsug
ikaOdrh
ld,fo
iqiq f;aud i|yd wod< jD;a;l
s hska fyda fYaI{hska fyda im;a mqoa.,hska fyda fhdod .kska wdrd; foaYk meje;au
mdi,a m%ldYk t<s oelau'
oHd k" jdo" ;r. iy m%oYk ixOdkh lsu'
ridhk oHdf Wkak;sh i|yd lghq;= lrk ndysr ixOdk iu. in|;d mj;ajd .ekSu'
ridhkd.dr WmlrK" m.Kl yd wksl;
= a im;a yd WmlrK wdosh;a" mdi,ska yd bka neyeka ,nd ug lghq;= lsu" mdi,a
l<ukdlrKfha j.lSuls'
ridhk oHdjg wod< jev igyka ixjOkh lsu i|yd iqiq .=re Nj;=kf
a .ka iy isiqka f.ka ie ,;a lgqjla msysgj
q d
.ekSu fhda.H h'
mdi," isiqkg
a mrudoYS u b;d jeo.;a h'
m%;m
s ;a;u
s h b,lal imqrd .ekSu i|yd mdi, u.ska O ls%hdldrl we;=<;a jdIsl jevigykla ilia l< hq;= h'
fuys ksYa; jirla ;=< l< yels ls%hdldrl ksKh lsu Wfoid mdif,ys m%uqL;d ykd .ekSu;a" ld,h iy im;aj,
iSud i,ld n,ka m%dfhda.sl;dj ms<sn| ie,els,su;a u;a" b;d wjYH h'

6'0 ;lafiarej yd we.hSu

fuu Nd.fha m%Yak m;%j, wdlD;sh yd iajNdjh ms<sn| wjYH ia;r Nd. fomd;fka;j
= u.ska iemfhkq we;'

50