2004 Part 1

1. Meiosis reduces chromosome number and rearranges genetic

information.

a. Explain how the reduction and rearrangement are accomplished in

meiosis.

b. Several human disorders occur as a result of defects in the meiotic

process. Identify ONE such chromosomal abnormality; what effects
does it have on the phenotype of people with the disorder?

c. Production of offspring by parthenogenesis or cloning bypasses the

typical meiotic process. Describe either parthenogenesis or cloning
and compare the genomes of the offspring with those of the parents.

1. Meiosis is a type of cell division in which the chromosomes are not

completely reproduced. Instead of full cell division, the chromosome
number is halved so that these cells can be used in sexual
reproduction.
2. The joining of two sex cells will produce a cell with the full number of
chromosomes. That cell will then continue to divide in order to
create a new organism.
3. Meiosis is divided up into several stages. The broadest of which are
Meiosis I and Meiosis II. The basics of meiosis are very similar to
regular mitosis, but four cells are produced instead of the two by
normal cell division.
4. In Meiosis I, the homologous pairs in a diploid cell separate,
producing two haploid cells. Haploid cells are cells with a single set
of chromosomes. Diploid (di) cells, have two sets of an organism’s
chromosomes.
5. For example, a regular human cell—a muscle cell, a skin cell, etc—
contains 46 chromosomes with a pair of every chromosome. Haploid
cells in humans, sex cells, have 23 chromosomes with a single
chromosome instead of a pair.
6. This is followed by prophase I, where homologous chromosomes
pair and crossing over occurs. This step is unique to meiosis and
allows for various combinations of traits. The paired and replicated
chromosomes are called bivalents or tetrads which have two
chromosomes.
7. Crossing over is the process by which two chromosomes pair up
and exchange sections of their DNA. During this process, matching
regions on matching chromosomes break and then reconnect to the
other chromosomes. The result of this process is an exchange of
genes. This allows for variations of the same trait.
8. During metaphase I, homologous pairs of chromosomes move
together along the metaphase plate. Microtubules emerge from both
centrioles and attach the homologous pairs which then line up along
an equatorial plan that bisects the spindle.
9. Anaphase I involves the separating of the homologous
chromosomes by the microtubules from metaphase I. This forms two
haploid sets of the organism’s chromosomes which can be used in
two sex cells. The cell elongates in preparation for division down the
center.
10. The final step of Meiosis I is telophase I which is the last meiotic
division. This step effectively ends when the chromosomes arrive at
the poles. Each daughter cell now has half the number of
chromosomes but each chromosome consists of a pair of
chromatids. The microtubules disappear, a new nuclear membrane
surrounds each haploid set, the chromosomes uncoil back into
chromation, and cytokinesis occurs.
11. Cytokinesis is the pinching of the cell membrane in animal cell
division. Due to this process, the two sets of chromosomes are
separated and the organelles equally divide themselves along with
the cytoplasm. In plant cells, this process involves the creation of an
additional cell wall.
12. Upon completion of meiosis I, meiosis II begins where the two new
haploid cells divide again. The division that occurs in this process is
almost identical to mitosis. The end result is four fully functioning
haploid cells, or sex cells.
13. In prophase II, the nucleoli disappear along with the nuclear
envelope while the chromatids shorten and thicken. The centrioles
move to the polar regions of the cell and arrange spindle fibers for
the second meiotic division.
14. Metaphase II is identical to metaphase I. The chromosomes move
together along the metaphase plate while attached by the
microtubules that emerge from the centrioles. The chromosomes
then line up along the new equatorial metaphase plate which is
perpendicular to the previous plate.
15. During anaphase II, the centromeres are cleaved and the
microtubules pull the sister chromatids apart. As they move toward
the opposing poles to prepare for cytokinesis, the sister chromatids
become sister chromosomes.
16. Meiosis II ends with telophase II which is marked by the uncoiling
and lengthening of the chromosomes and the disappearance of the
spindle. Cytokinesis occurs again creating four daughter cells, each
with a haploid set of chromosomes. Thus ends meiosis.
17. Occasionally, meiosis is not successful and results in mismatched
chromosomes. The chromosomes may be paired unequally
sometime during the division and results in chromosomal disorders.
 These include disorders like Down’s syndrome, Klinefelter
syndrome, Turner syndrome, and XYY syndrome.
18. Down’s syndrome is also known as trisomy 21. From the name, one
can tell what the actual disorder is. Instead of the required two, there
are three (tri) chromosome 21’s. This is the smallest human
chromosome .
19. Trisomy 21 is caused by a meiotic nondisjunction event. In
nondisjunction, a gamete is produced with an extra copy of
chromosome 21 causing the gamete to contain 47 chromosomes.
Most cases of trisomy 21 result from nondisjunction in the materal
gamete.
20. In rare cases, some cells in the body have 46 chromosomes while
others have trisomy 21. this is called mosaic Down syndrome. It
occurs due to a nondisjunction event during an early cell division in
the embryo instead of the nondisjunction in a sex cell.
21. Down syndrome is estimated to occur at somewhere between 1 in
800 to 1 in 1000 births. Maternal age greatly influences the changes
of conceiving a baby with Down syndrome. For women 20 to 24 the
probability is 1 in 1562. This rockets to 1 in 19 for women over 45.
22. Parthenogenesis, is an asexual form of reproduction found in
females where growth and development of embryos or seeds occurs
without fertilization by a male. The offspring produced by
parthenogenesis are always female. While this process occurs
naturally in some species, it has also been induced artificially in
other species.
23. In this process, females produce eggs that develop without
fertilization and develop without a Y chromosome thus producing
only females. Parthenogenesis occurs naturally in aphids, daphnia,
rotifers, some other invertebrates, and in many plants. Some
vertebrates like komodo dragons and hammerhead-sharks also
complete this process naturally.
24. Only in the XY sex-determination system will all offspring be female.
In the less common ZW sex-determination system, both
chromosomes passed on will be those associated with males. The
process involves the inheritance and subsequent duplication of only
a single sex chromosome.
25. When parthenogenesis occurs naturally, the offspring is capable of
sexual reproduction. This process of asexual reproduction has
existed since the beginning of life on Earth which implies that is
successful.
26. As with all types of asexual reproduction, there are costs and
benefits. The cons comprise of low genetic diversity and
susceptibility to adverse mutations that might occur. The main pro is
that of reproduction without the need for a male. A vital characteristic
in perhaps a dying species.
This came up on google
and I thought it was
kinda funny