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( )
.., .. ,
.. , ..
III
2007
530.1 (075.8)
22.3
- .-., . .. ,
..-.., . ..
. .3. /
(). : , 2007. 272 .
,
, .
,
.
,
(34 ).
, 2007
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2. . .
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4. .
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2.
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3. .
3.
24
1. .
2. .
3. .
4.
38
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3. .
.
5.
45
1. . -.
2. . .
3. .
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4. .
6.
51
1. (, ,
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2. . .
3. . . .
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.
4. (-).
7.
57
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3. .
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70
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2. . - -. . .
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1.
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2. . .
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:
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, , (.
, II ).
,
.
,
-
.
7
,
.
2
1 2s
2
v t
= 0,
(1.1)
v (. ), s = s =
2s
x 2
2s
y 2
2s
z 2
( ).
v
- , ,
,
= x / v ,
. , ,
(1.1) ,
,
(. , II )
s ( x, t ) = A sin(t
s ( x, t ) = A cos(t
(t ) = t x / v + 0 = t
x
+ 0 )
v
(1.2)
x
+ 0 ) .
v
(1.2/)
+ 0
.
,
, .
,
.
y
x
. 1.1
,
.
. ,
,
, (. 1.1).
,
() : = vT .
k ,
k = 2 / . ,
2 ; [k]=-1. (1.2)
s ( x, t ) = A sin(t kx + 0 ) .
(1.3)
(1.2) (1.2/) ,
,
~
(Re s )
~
s = Ae i (t kx +1 ) ,
(1.4)
1 = 0 / 2 . (1.4)
e i = cos + i sin .
v
, (t ) = t kx + 0 = const ,
kx = t + 0
v = dx / dt = / k .
(1.5)
,
, .
,
,
,
.
.
. v
, v ,
,
()
w = w + w =
dW dW 1
+
= v 2 + v 2 2 . (1.6)
dV
2
dV
s
, v = s / t , v = x / t , = s / x = v / v .
,
.
.
(
)
U=
w v1,
(1.7)
v1 .
,
d w dS
dS ,
(. 1.2)
U=
d w
.
dS
(1.8)
dW = wdV = wv1dtdS cos = w v1 dS dt
d w = w v1 dS = U dS , S
w = U dS .
S
dS=dSn dS
dS
v1dt
. 1.2
10
v1
(1.9)
, ,
I = < U > .
,
.
1.2. .
()
, .. ,
:
,
,
() , ,
.
. ,
, ,
, .. .
.
,
,
() ,
, ,
.
,
(. 1.3, , . , II
)
s = s1 + s 2 = A0 cos(t kx ) + A0 cos([ d ]t [k dk ]x ) =
dt xdk
= 2 A0 cos
cos(t kx ) = A cos(t kx ).
2
(1.10)
s
x
. 1.3
11
,
- , , =0 =20, ..
td xdk = const ,
u=
dx d
=
dt dk
(1.11)
, ( ~ A2)
.
,
(1.11) (1.5) d = vk
k = 2 / dk = 2d / 2 :
u=
dv
dv
d d ( vk )
2 dv
.
=
= v+k
= v+
= v
2d
dk
d
dk
dk
2
(1.12)
.. ,
v (, , v):
v f ( , v ) .
1.3. .
,
,
.
: (2t k 2 x + 2 ) (1t k1 x + 1 ) = const , 2 = 1 , k 2 = k1 .
.
(1.13)
(1.14)
(1.13) , ,
A = A2 + A1 (max), A = A2 A1 (min):
2 1 = k (r2 r1 ) + ( 2 1 ) .
123
(1.15)
(1.15) (1.13)
= m +
2 1
.
2
(1.16)
(1.16) 2 = 1
= m .
(1.17)
( A = A2 A1 )
= (2m + 1)
2 1
+
2
2
(1.18)
2 = 1
= (2m + 1)
(1.19)
,
. ,
, ,
,
.
s = s1 + s2 = A0 sin (t kx ) + A0 sin (t + kx + 0 ) =
= 2 A0 cos(kx + 0 / 2 ) sin (t + 0 / 2) = A sin (t + 0 / 2 ) . (1.20)
13
, =0, ,
=20 (. 1.4).
A
2A0 0
x
. 1.4
() ,
, = / 2 .
, , ,
, ,
.
v = s / t = 2 A0 cos(kx + 0 / 2 ) cos(t + 0 / 2 ) ,
, .. ()
= 0 m v T .
, + . = v / v
T = 1 / , ,
v=
v00
v0
=
.
0 m v T 1 m v
v
vT
(1.21)
)
. 1.5
2. , ()
v , (. 1.5, ).
T = 0 / v v . +
, . T = 1 / v 0 = v / v0
v
.
v = v0 1
v
(1.22)
, (1.21) (1.22),
v = v0
v
v .
v
1 m
v
(1.23)
, (1.23)
,
,
v = v0
v cos
v
.
v cos
1m
v
15
(1.23/)
2.
1. . .
2.
. .
3. .
2.1. . .
()
(), .. ,
. H E (. 2.1),
.
. .
.
E ,
. ,
E H ,
, , , ..
,
, ,
, .. , ,
, .
, H ( ),
.
.
()
E . ,
- .
. 2.1
16
2 E 0 0
2 H 0 0
2 E
t 2
2
(2.1)
= 0.
(2.2)
H
t
= 0,
H = 0 /( 0 ) E .
(2.3)
(2.1), (2.2) (1.1), ,
v = 1 / 0 0 = c / = c / n ,
(2.4)
,
c = 1 / 0 0 =(299792,462 0,018) / 3108 /
=1).
()
( =1,
2.1
( )
3104
104103
103102
10210
101
()
(
:
,
)
10,1
0,10,01
10-210-3
10-3510-5
10-3200010-9
(20001500)10-9
(1500780)10-9
(780620)10-9
(620585)10-9
(585550)10-9
*
(550510)10-9
(510480)10-9
(480450)10-9
(450380)10-9
(380315)10-9
()
(315280)10-9
(2801)10-9
10-9610-12
- ( -)
610-12
* .
17
() , , ,
() v ( ).
,
(. 2.1).
() ,
,
(0 ).
.
- ( -)
,
, .. - ,
, .
(.
(4.15), (11.11), II )
w = w + w =
0 E 2
2
0 H 2 ( 2.3), ( 2.4)
=
0 0 EH =
EH
. (2.5)
v
(
) (1.7)
U = w v = E H
(2.6)
.
2.2.
.
n21 = n2 / n1 ,
(2.7)
n1, n2 ,
(2.4). ( 1)
n21 = 2 / 1 .
(2.8)
,
18
. (
0) (
),
( ). ( 1 = 2 =1)
E0 + E = E ,
(2.9)
H 0 + H = H ,
(2.10)
1 (E0 n + En ) = 2 En ,
(2.11)
H 0n + H n = H n .
(2.12)
,
1)
, ;
2) ( )
(. ).
(2.9)(2.12)
, ,
. (2.9)(2.12)
:
1) s-, E ,
H ;
2) -, s- :
E , H .
E ,
s- -
:
sin (i r )
,
sin (i + r )
tg(i r )
Ap = A0 p
,
tg(i + r )
2 cos i sin r
As = A0 s
,
sin (i + r )
2 cos i sin r
Ap = A0 p
,
sin (i + r ) cos(i r )
As = A0 s
19
(2.13)
(2.14)
(2.15)
(2.16)
i
, r
. , (i=r=0):
n 1
n21 1
, Ap = A0 p 21
,
n21 + 1
n21 + 1
2
2
, Ap = A0 p
.
= A0 s
n21 + 1
n21 + 1
As = A0 s
As
(2.13)(2.16) 0
i r,
.
, : E
, H
, .
E s- i
n21 2.2.
s-
-
2.2
(i+r)> /2 i>i
n21>1 i>r
n21<1 i<r
(i+r)< /2 i<i
n21>1 i>r
n21<1 i<r
i,
, . i=i
i+r= /2
tgi = n21 .
(2.17)
(2.13)(2.16) , i=i, =0, .. , .
R = I / I 0 = A / A0 2 ,
(2.18)
Ik .
(2.13)(2.16)
Rs =
sin 2 (i r )
sin (i + r )
Rp =
tg 2 (i r )
tg (i + r )
2
(2.19)
(2.20)
(i=r=0)
20
n 1
Rs = R p = 21 .
n21 + 1
(2.21)
, ,
R=
I s + I p
I0
Rs I 0 s + R p I 0 p
I 0s + I 0 p
(2.22)
Ik s- - .
2
A
A
= n21 .
T=
= 2
1 A0
I0
A0
I
(2.23)
s- - (2.13)(2.16)
Ts =
Tp =
(2.24)
(2.25)
(i=r=0)
Ts = T p =
4n21
(n21 + 1)
(2.26)
n21 = n2 / n1 < 1, :
sin r = sin i / n21 r > i . ,
i i , ,
.. (R=1).
.
2.3.
( . . 1.4 )
, ( ).
21
(1.23).
u
,
.
() S S/,
S u
S. S/
/, S (. 2.2, ).
t/
(. 2.2, ), S
1 t1. t2/= t1/+/ (/
S/)
. S 2
t2.
z S
0
y/
z/ u
0
S/
x1,t1 x2,t2
c
c(t1 - t2 )
x/ 0
x
x
u(t1 - t2 )
)
. 2.2
. . 2.2,
c(t1 t2 ) + u (t1 t2 ) = ,
(2.27)
S. , x2x1=u(t2 t1),
(2.27)
(c + u )(t2 t1 ) = .
(2.28)
, t2 t1,
(. 6, . I ,
(6.6)):
/
t +
ux /
t=
1
22
c2 .
u2
c2
t2 t1 =
(t
t1
(
)+
u x /2 x1/
c2
2
)
.
(2.29)
c2
(2.29) , S/
, .. 2/= 1/ t2/t1/=/.
T/
t2 t1 =
(2.30)
c2
(2.30) (2.28)
=/v T/=1/v/, , v,
u, v/,
:
v=
v/ 1
u
1+
c
u
c.
(2.31)
()
/
v<v/ > , ..
.
,
. 1929
. (18891953)
(Big Bang Theory).
(), . ,
,
.
(2.31)
() u u
v=
v/ 1 +
u
1
c
23
u
c.
(2.31)
3.
1. .
2. .
3. .
3.1.
,
,
, .
, ,
.
, -
(. ). ()
.
.
: ()
;
() ()
.
:
.
, ,
,
.
,
.
:
( ), , .
:
MN,
; (. 3.1).
1
2
N.3.1
24
: ,
N, ,
;
,
n21
(. 3.1):
sin / sin = n21 .
(3.1)
:
n21=n2/n1.
(3.2)
n,
v (. (2.4)):
n=c/v.
(3.3)
n21>1, ,
(n2>n1) < , n21<1 .
= arcsin n21
/ 2 . , < < / 2
,
. , , ,
.
S (. 3.2):
= 1 + 2 .
S
S
1 2
. 3.2
n
v v ()
() :
, . (
) (. spectrum )
.
25
3.2.
(. lens ) ,
( )
.
(. 3.3, 1), (4), (2),
(5), - (3) - (6).
. 3.3
,
( . 3.3, 1, 2, 3).
,
( . 3.3, 4, 5, 6).
,
.
(. 3.4).
P
M
O1
O2
N
. 3.4
, 1, 2
.
0,
O12, .
26
MN,
0 .
, 0,
.
F ,
,
. F.
N,
.
.
N ,
,
.
.
F 0
F 0F.
(. 3.5).
P
M
O1
O2
N
. 3.5
, 1, 2
.
0,
O12, .
MN,
0 .
, 0,
.
F ,
,
. F.
27
N,
.
.
N ,
,
.
.
F 0
F 0F.
, ,
:
1
1
1
,
= (n 1)
F
R
R
1
2
(3.4)
n ; Ri
,
, ,
.
F
, d , f
(. 3.6):
1 1 1
= ,
F d f
(3.5)
F ,
;
d , ;
f , ,
h ,
, h
.
h
2F F
f
. 3.6
28
h ( ) , ,
;
( ) , ,
.
H , h , . .,
.
(), h ,
.. .
,
.
, ,
, ,
().
h:
= H / h.
(3.6)
> 1 => , < 1=> , >0 =>
, <0 => ().
D ,
:
D = 1/ F .
(3.7)
[D]=1/=. D , .
D=1 F=1 .
(3.4)
D>0.
:
1. 1, ,
;
2. 2, ,
.
3. 3, ,
.
(. 3.7):
) 2F>d>F, : (>1), , ;
) d>2F, : (<1), , ;
) F>d>0, : (>1), , .
(. 3.8):
) d>2F, : (<1), , ;
) 2F>d>F, : (<1), , ;
) F>d>0 .
29
2
1
3
2
1
)
d
h
2F F 0
F
H
23
1
d
h
F
2F F 0
H
f
2
1
3
)
1 2
h
0 F
2F F d
. 3.7
1
2
, () ,
:
()
180, .
()
(. 3.9).
1. ,
1 2.
30
2. 1' 2'.
,
, .
1
h
2
13
)
H
2F F f 0 2 F
1
3
hH
2F F f 0 2 F 3
1
. 3.8
A
2A
/
1
/
2
1
. 3.9
3. 1' 2' ,
. ,
.
4. .
' . .
31
(, , ,
..). ,
, .
/
2 1
A
1
B
/
2
2
1/
A/
B/
. 3.10
(.
3.10).
,
.
.
:
.
:
- ;
- ( );
- =1.
, 2- ,
S ,
(. 3.11).
S1 - S1/
S1// . S2. S1//, S2/
.
(
) (
).
,
.
,
(. 3.12, ). ,
32
, F
. (FO)
. 1 , 2 .
S1
S2/
S1//
/
1
S2
. 3.11
.
, .
.
(.
3.12, ).
1
C
1
O
. 3.12
(. 3.13) (. 3.14).
(. 3.13, ): 1
, , 1/
; 2 , ,
. / .
33
// (. 3.13, )
.
2 1/
C 2
/
B/ 1
O
F
2/
A/
. 3.13
,
. .
:
1 1
1 2
+ / = = ,
d d
f R
(3.8)
R ; f=OF ; OB = d
; OB/ = d/ .
:
= A / B / / AB .
(3.9)
AB / A / B / = d / d / = .
( ):
- ;
- ;
- ( < 1).
1
2
1/
A/
O
F
2/
. 3.14
, . d d/
. f
.
34
(. 3.14): 1
1/ ; 2
.
. , ,
/.
1
2
3
n1 n2
. 3.15
, ,
(), , . ,
, . 3.15,
(
): 1
,
, ; 2
, ; 3 ,
; 4 ,
1. ,
, (.
3). 3 . 3.15, ,
2( ) = 180 o ,
= 90 o + / 2 ;
n2 = sin / sin = sin / sin( 90 o + / 2) .
3.3.
(. 3.15).
, .
// (. 3.16, ).
F2. //,
,
.
,
(. 3.16, ). 1 2,
35
. ( ) 1/
2/, (. 3.16, );
,
1 2
.
. 1 2
////, .
1
2
A
) B
A
) B
F1
F1
1
2
B
F2
F1
F2
F1
2/ 1 1/
2 F2
F1
//
F2
B//
. 3.16
.
F1 (F1<0) F2 (F2>0),
12, ,
.
, .
, , ,
(.3.17).
1, 12,
F1,
.
. ,
2
36
MN F2.
1, . - ,
F,
.
1
F1
2
F1
M
K
1
B
F2/
F 2
2 L
F2
O1 O2 F F2 F1
1
2
l
N
F1
F
. 3.17
, 1 2 ,
F1.
d2= F1 +l (l )
.
: f2=F. (3.5)
:
1
1
1
.
=
+
F F1 l F2
1
1
1
1
1
1
=
+ . ,
=
+
F2 F1 + l F
F2 d 2 f 2
F1<0,
(l=0, l << F1 )
: D=|D1|+D2.
, . . D1=|D1|.
, , F>F2.
- .
.
,
,
:
D=D1+D2+...+Dn.
(3.10)
,
F=1/D.
, , ,
. , 1 . 3.3
2 ..
37
4.
1. . .
.
2. .. ..
3. . .
4.1. . .
,
,
, .
(, , , )
.
,
.
() .
, ,
.
(,
). ,
, .
, (),
.
,
().
,
.
.
,
,
.
( ) , ,
.
, .. / 2 .
,
/ 2 2 :
38
= 2 / .
(4.1)
t <<
. ,
,
l = v = 2 v / ,
(4.2)
v .
~10-14 c, l~10-6 ,
~10-5 c, l~103 .
,
,
, .
,
,
.
,
, , (.
. 3.11), , (.
), ..
< l
< v .
, , ,
,
. ,
,
.
,
= (2m 1), m z
2
(4.3)
= m, m z
(4.4)
.
().
39
V =
I max I min
,
I max + I min
(4.5)
Imax Imin .
V>0,1, .. Imin<0,82Imax.
4.2. 2. .. .
( )
,
(. 4.1, ).
S2/
O1
O
O2
x-d/2
x
x+d/2
S1
S2
S1/
. 4.1
l>>d (d ).
,
(. (4.4)).
:
S12 = l 2 + ( x d / 2)2 , S 22 = l 2 + ( x + d / 2 )2
S 22 S12 = (S 2 + S1 )(S 2 S1 ) = 2 xd .
d<< l, S 2 + S1 2l , S 2 S1 ,
= xd / l .
(4.6)
(4.3),
,
xm =
(2m 1) l , m z .
d
(4.7)
(4.3),
x m = m
l
, m z.
d
40
(4.8)
x = x m x m1 =
l
.
d
(4.9)
(4.9) ,
d (),
,
l>>d. ,
.
, , ,
,
.
,
.
, ,
> .
,
,
(. 4.2).
. 4.2
d 0 ,
= 2d + / 2 ,
(4.10)
/ 2
(
n 1 ),
,
( )
/ 2.
, d=0 = / 2 ,
().
( m=1) (4.4) = .
(4.10)
d = / 4 . ()
d = 3 / 4 .. ,
,
. ,
41
, d = const .
,
.
(
) ,
(R=10100 )
(. 4.3).
//
R-b
, n>1 D
b
O
1/
A
B
. 4.3
. , ,
, , -
.
1/ 1//, , .
r DC R>>b
r 2 = R 2 ( R b) 2 = 2 Rb b 2 2 Rb . 2b r 2 / R
2
= 2b + / 2 = r / R + / 2 . ()
() (4.3) (4.4) m 0
r = (m 1 / 2) R , m=0, 1, 2,
(4.11)
r = mR , m=0, 1, 2,
(4.12)
, , .
4.3. .
,
, ,
.
42
, , ,
, (. 4.4).
n1
1 A
n2 O
1/
//
n1< n2
2/ /
2/
. 4.4
1/ 1// , , ,
:
( OD + DB ) 2 OA + 1 ,
1
(4.13)
( n 2 > n1 )
,
1 / 2 .
(4.13)
v, :
1 =v1/v=c/(vn1), 2 =v2/v=c/(vn2),
n1 OA + 1 =
(n2 l 2 n1l1 ) =
2
2
(s 2 s1 ) = 2 ,
=
(4.14)
n2 ( OD + DB )
li ,
i-, si=nili i-,
.
43
(4.3) (4.4) .
OD = DB ,
(.
4.4):
OD = DB = d / cos ,
OA = OB sin ,
OB = 2dtg ,
2dn
2dn 2d sin sin
2dtg sin =
.
cos
cos
cos
sin = n sin ,
2dn 1 sin 2
=
= 2dn cos = 2d n 2 n 2 sin 2 =
cos
= 2d n 2 sin 2 .
(4.15)
,
( 2/ 2//).
, 1 / 2 .
,
, .
,
R<<1,
. R ,
,
, ..
, , ..
()
.
,
550 ,
.
(, , ..)
,
.
,
,
I1=I2 R1=R2.
()
n = n ,
(4.16)
n (, , ..).
44
5.
1. . -.
2. . .
3. .
() . . .
4. .
5.1. . -
( . difractus )
, ,
. ,
, .
( ) (
). ,
.
( ),
, ,
.
. 5.1
,
,
.
. 5.1 , , ,
.
,
..
, , ,
.
45
,
.
, ,
,
. ,
.
5.2. .
S
( ).
(, , I~A2)
b .
,
/ 2 (. 5.2).
b+ 2/2
b+ /2
. 5.2
/ 2 , .
=12+34++m
(5.1)
m m- ,
S m = S m S m1 .
S m = 2ahm . . 5.3
rm = a (a hm )
2
= b + m b m .
2
2
, :
46
bm
. .. S m = 2ahm ,
2(a + b)
ab
= S m S m1 =
f ( m) .
a+b
m 2 2 / 4 , , hm =
S m
(5.2)
b+ m/2
b
M
a r
am
hm
. 5.3
(5.2) , .
m m ,
,
: 1>2>3>
Am+1 Am1
, (5.1)
2
A A
A
A Am
A A
A = 1 + 1 A2 + 3 + 3 A4 + 5 + ... = 1
,
2 2
2 2
2
2
Am =
(5.3)
+ m, m.
. (5.3) ,
, r1
.
,
.
,
. ,
,
, () .
( < ) ( ),
.
47
,
.
/ 2 ,
5.3. .
() .
-.
( ), ,
,
(
, . 5.4).
I
..
P
. 5.4
.
= a sin .
,
m:
= a sin = m .
2
(5.4)
m , , ,
.
, I
.
,
b . d=a+b
.
,
. ,
(5.4)
48
= d sin = m .
(5.5)
m , ,
.
(5.4) m.
(5.5) m d / ,
( ) ,
,
.
,
.
, ..
, ,
()
.
1
2
/2 /2
. 5.5
d
(. 5.5), 1 2
= 2d sin = k ,
(5.5)
k=1, 2, 3, .
() d
,
(5.5), ()
.
,
. , ,
(5.5)
d
.
49
5.4.
(holos . , grapho )
. . 1948 . (
1971 .).
. ()
1 (. 5.7, ) 2 ( )
( ).
() ,
1 2,
.
( , . 5.7, )
,
).
1,
,
2.
. 5.7
,
: Red . , Green
Blue RGB-.
, , ,
()
.
,
(),
.
,
.
50
6.
1. (, , ,
).
2. . .
3. . . .
. .
.
4. (-).
6.1.
(, , , )
,
() : , ,
,
,
(. ), , ,
,
.
, ,
.
.
,
() ,
, .
,
I = I 0 e x ,
(6.1)
I0 , ,
, > 0
( < 0 , . ),
, ,
.
(..
,
) ,
.
,
..
,
. ,
51
()
-
.
( ) ,
, , (
) .
() A( ) (
. Absorption )
,
.
,
(..
) .
,
, ,
.
(
),
( ).
,
( ),
.
.
:
I ~ 4 ,
(6.2)
.
6.2. .
n
v v
() ()
: ,
. ( )
(. spectrum )
(. . 3.2 ).
n v
. v n,
52
, v n
, .
,
(
).
() n(v)
(. 6.1)
1
v0
. 6.1
,
. ,
n ,
, ( ).
,
() v0,
n(v)
v0i,
. ,
, .
6.3. . . .
. .
(. . 2.1 ).
, ,
, ,
.
P=
I max I min
,
I max + I min
53
(6.3)
Imax Imin
, .
Imax=Imin =1, Imin=0 =1.
(
) .
,
,
(. 6.2).
, ,
tg = n21 = n2 / n1 ,
/2
(6.4)
n1
n2
. 6.2
,
.
, (6.4) .
sin / sin = n21 ,
(. 6.2).
(
) .
, ,
,
. ..
.
,
,
( ).
, .
54
(, , )
.
,
:
( , 1 . 6.3),
( , 2 . 6.3).
. ,
.
( E )
,
(. 6.3).
2
1
. 6.3
, d
= (n n )d
(n n )d ( 0 ).
= (n n )d = u0 , u=1/4
( = / 2 ), u=1/2
( = ). ,
,
, . ,
.
,
()
.
I0,
I
I = I 0 cos 2 ,
55
(6.5)
(
) .
(, , )
.
- d
= [ ]d ,
(6.6)
[ ] ,
, ;
- d
= [ ]d .
(6.7)
[ ]
, .
6.4. (-)
.. (
..) 1934
.. .. ( 1958 .
).
(, , )
-,
.
.
, .
.
() : ,
.
56
7.
1. .
. , .
2. , - .
. .
3. .
7.1. .
. ,
,
(. ),
() .
(, ,
), ,
, .
,
() .
,
(0 ).
:
1)
( );
2)
(
);
3)
);
4)
(
);
5)
( );
6)
(
, ) .
(
(0 )),
( ) ,
().
, ..
,
.
( )
[/(2)]=[/2]
57
Rv,T =
dWv,v + dv
dv
(7.1)
dWv ,v + dv ,
v v+dv.
,
()
RT = Rv,T dv .
(7.2)
()
Av,T =
dW
dv
dWdv
(7.3)
,
, ,
.
,
,
(). Av ,T
= 1.
,
.
D d 0,1D;
.
, .
(),
A
CT
= const < 1
.
7.2. , - .
.
, .
Rv ,T Av ,T
.. (18241887) 1859 .
,
v :
58
Rv,T
Av,T
= rv,T ,
(7.4)
rv ,T . rv,T = R v ,T , ..
.
(7.4) :
1) Rv ,T < R v ,T
2) ( Av ,T = 0 ),
( Rv ,T = 0 ).
. (1835
1893) 1879 , . (18441906)
1884
()
RT
8
= f (T ) = rv,T dv = T 4 ,
(7.5)
b = 2,9 10 .
(7.6)
( ).
(7.5) (7.6) ,
, , .. rv ,T = f (v, T )
r ,T = f ( , T ) .
59
r ,T
T1>T2>T3
T1
T
T2
T3
max
. 7.1
rv,T =
2v 2
c
< >=
2v 2
2
kT ,
(7.7)
c
, < >= kT
v (. II
, ). , (7.7)
v .
(7.7) (7.5)
:
RT
= rv,T dv =
2kT
c
(7.5) R
dv = ,
(7.8)
~ T 4 .
.
v , , rv ,T 1900
.... (18581947)
.
= hv ,
h = 6,63 10 34 . ,
.
(. )
() . 14 1900
60
rv,T =
2v 2
c
< >=
2v 2
c
hv
.
hv
exp 1
kT
(7.9)
14 1900
, (7.9), ,
. (7.9)
() (7.5) (7.7).
7.3.
. Rv ,T RT
.
,
:
1)
(7.5)
T p = 4 RT / ;
(7.10)
( ), R
= T 4
R = T 4 T p = 4 T ;
T
Av,T < 1, , ,
Tp < T ;
2)
(7.6) ,
= b / max ;
(7.11)
(
),
( ,
,
);
3)
(7.4):
,
, r ,T = R ,T ;
T < T , Av,T < 1.
61
8.
1. . .
. , .
2. - .
. ...
3. ..
8.1. . ,
. . ,
() .
() .
.. (18571894) 188687
, 189798 .. (18561940) ( )
,
.
, 1888 ..
(18391896)
:
1) ;
2) ;
3) ( ,
) .
,
:
1) ( )
;
2)
;
3) v, ..
v .
, ,
, ..
, ..
.
.
, ,
62
.
1905 . .
(14 1900 ,
) (
) :
mv 2max
= hv = A +
,
2
(8.1)
= hv , ,
( , )
. , v
.
, ,
(N
) :
mv 2max
N = Nhv = A +
.
2
(8.2)
(8.1) (8.2)
- .
, hv,
,
v = A / h
(8.3)
.
U0
, ..
mv 2max
= eU 0 ,
2
(8.4)
I2
I1
U0
0
. 8.1
63
eU 0 = h(v v ) ,
(8.5)
- (. 8.1).
Ii ,
.
, ,
.
()
,
.
(),
50100 , . ,
,
(
). .
n
K = (n
), 109 1011,
.
.
(
, ),
( ).
),
( )
. ( I )
- .
,
,
(, , , )
).
. , ,
- ().
64
. , ,
: , ,
() ,
( )
.
( ).
(
- )
().
.
( . ).
(
), .
,
-
( , , ,
..), (
, ..).
(, ) (.
II ), .
(. )
: ,
().
,
.
(, ), , ,
( )
(, ).
8.2. - .
. ..
, ,
0 = hv , ( ) ,
.
65
m = 0 / c 2 = hv / c 2 ,
(8.6)
0 = hv = p c , c = v
k = 2 / , h /( 2 ) = h ,
p =
0
c
hv h
= = hk .
c
(8.7)
(8.6) (8.7)
v ( ) ( . )
m , p , 0 . , ( )
, , ,
.
: ?
: , ,
,
. ,
(, ,
, ), (
, ,
, , v
0 , c = v 0 = hv , , .
).
, ,
.
,
.. (18661912) 1901 , 1909
( ),
..
5 10
3,7 10
66
). ,
.
R
( N
), RN , R(1N)
. ()
(, . I
, )
.
, S
t
P=
p
hv
hv
hv
= 2 RN + (1 N ) R = N (1 + R) = N 0 (1 + R) . (8.9)
c
c
St
c
c
(8.9) ()
..
8.3. .
()
,
.. (18921962) 192223 (
1927 , ,
).
. 8.2
, (
)
0 . , = 0
(
, . 8.2)
= 0 = 2k sin 2 ( / 2 ) ,
67
(8.10)
12
k = h /( me c) = 2,43 10
, me .
,
, .
. (1900 .).
() , ..
:
We0 + W0 = We + W ,
(8.11)
p 0 = p e + p ,
(8.12)
We 0 = me c , W0 = hv0 = h
( h /( 2 ) = h , = 2v ) , W = cp
; 0
() ,
0 ( )
, , .
2
2 2
We = c pe + m c
(8.11)
e 2 + cp0 = c pe2 + m 2c 2 + p
pe2 + m 2c 2 + p .
e + p0 =
pe
p
(8.13)
p0
. 8.3
(. 8.3)
68
pe2 = p2 0 + p2 2 p0 p cos .
(8.14)
(8.14) (8.13)
e + p0 p =
p2 0 + p2 2 p0 p cos + m 2c 2 .
2e p0 2e p 2 p0 p = 2 p0 p cos ,
p e + p0 (1 cos ) = p0 me c .
me c
.
(8.15)
e + p0 (1 cos )
= h0 / c (8.15)
p = p0
p = h / c p 0
= 0
me c 2
e + h0 (1 cos )
(8.16)
(8.16),
, = 0 = 0 (..
2
) h << me c ,
.
( = 2c / ) (8.10),
k = h /(me c) = const ,
(8.17)
(8.10).
,
= 0
0 , ,
.
69
9. - I
1. . -.
2. - (
, , , ).
3. .
.
4. .
.
5. . .
6. .
..
9.1. . -
XX ,
-
, , ,
- .
:
E = h ,
p = 2h .
(9.1)
. ,
. ,
, . -
.
. (, ,
)
. ,
(, ,
- ),
. ,
, ,
, -
.
(
, , )
, .
-
, ,
.
70
, .
- (9.1).
. - ,
,
(
,
), ,
, ,
,
.
- (1924)
2h 2h
=
=
,
p
mv
= .
(9.2)
- ,
.
,
. , -
(..
). -
. -
,
, , ,
, .
-
. 1925 ,
-, :
! , ,
!
1926
. 1929
.
9.2.
-
( , , , )
1923
:
71
, ,
.
.
1927 .
(18811958) (18961971).
.
.
, .
.
,
. ,
1921 ,
, ,
.
d
.
. ,
, d cos = m = 1.65 .
U = 54 .
.
.
..,
(18921975)( ),
(19071991) . . .
..
e
P
. 9.1
(
.. ) .
. 9.1.
72
9.3. .
. 9.2 ,
.
eA
e
2
1
. 9.2
. , , ,
.
, ,
. .
,
(.9.2, 1).
(. 9.2, 2).
! ,
!
, . ,
, . , ,
,
: .
(. 9.3).
.
2
. 9.3
. 9.4
73
1
2
, -
x = 0. , .. x.
x = 0.
- .
- .
.
,
x sin = . , p x = p sin =
sin . ,
- x . p x = 2h / x
p x = 2h = h .
h
A B h
(9.3)
, .
..
x p x h,
y p y h,
z p z h,
E t h.
(9.4)
,
, .
9.4. .
1926
. ,
.
. ,
, ,
. ,
. :
,
, .
74
()
.
-,
. ,
x,
= ae i (t kx ) .
(9.5)
E = h =
E
P
, P = hk k = .
h
h
(9.5) :
i
( px Et )
h
= ae
.
(9.6)
:
i
1
= E E = ih
,
t
h
t
2
1 2 2
2 i 2
2
.
= p p = h
2
2
h
x
x
(9.7)
(9.8)
,
E=p2/2m. ,
, (9.7) (9.8)
h 2 2
2 = ih
.
2m x
t
(9.9)
.
,
U, E
p2/2m=EU. (9.7) (9.8), :
1 h 2 2 1
= ih
U .
2m x 2 t
:
h 2 2
2 + U = ih
.
(9.10)
2m x
t
.
, ,
:
75
h2
2 + U = ih
.
2m
t
(9.11)
.
2
2
x
2
y
2
z
= .
( )
,
, ,
( x, y , z , t ) = ( x, y , z ) e
E
i t
h
.
(9.10)
E
i t
h 2 i h t 2
E i h t
h
e
+ U e
= ih i e
.
2m
h
(9.12)
exp[ i (E / h )t ] ,
(9.13)
h2 2
+ U = E
2m
2 +
2m
h
(E U )
= 0.
(9.14)
(9.11)
, U(r,t) (
).
.
-.
, , ,
.
, . :
.
76
1927 ,
,
.
,
, .
.
- .
, dP dV
2
dP = A dV = A dV ,
(9.15)
A .
( ), dP = A dV = 1 . , A = 1, ..
dP = dV = 1.
(9. 16)
.
(), ,
. -
dP = dV = 2 dV .
E
E
i t
i t
dP / dV = = e h e h
= .
,
, :
dP / dV = = 2 f (t ) .
(9.17)
,
(
, ,
..): - (-!),
, (9.17),
.
,
,
, -
.
77
(9.17),
() :
) ,
;
) ,
;
) , ..
())
);
) .. - 1
( ), (9.16).
,
.
1, 1, N,
, 1 N .
.
2x
1 cos
x
a )dx = 2 ( x a sin 2x ) =
, 2 sin 2
dx = 2 (
2
2 2
a
a
0
0
2
a
2a
2
,
= ( 0) (0 0) =
=1 =
a
2
2
x
2
( x) =
sin( ) .
a
a
2
,
, ,
.
r
r r
r
= i , F = Fi , = i .. ()
i
() :
( ), 1,
2, n, , :
= i i ,
(9.18)
i
i , , ;
2
i = 1.
.
,
(. 9.2), ()
W A = W1 = 1 1 * , (WB = W2 = 2 2 *) ,
= 1 + 2
78
W = * = 1 1 * + 2 2 * +
1 * 2 + 2 * 1
W W1 + W2 (..
, ). ,
.
9.5.
. -
.
.
( , , ),
.
(
, , ..),
f(x).
g(x):
L ( f ( x )) = g ( x ).
( x ,
, ;
).
, a, ..
A f ( x) = f ( x)
A ( f(x)),
) ) f(x)
A , .
,
, .
, ,
,
, . ,
E = ,
,
=0. ,
.
(9.6) :
79
= ae
E p
i t x
h h
= ae i (t kx) ,
(1)
=2=E/=2E/h ,
k=p/=2p/h=2/ .
(1) ; ,
x, t :
E
1 i h t h x
p
= a pe
=
ih
x
ih
ih
= p
x
( p px, .. x).
: ,
p (
, !),
(-i), .
, :
p x = ih
d
,
dx
, y z :
d
d
, p z = ih .
dy
dz
v
r
r r
p
=
i
p
+
j
p
+
k
p z ,
x
y
p y = ih
r
p = ih ,
rd r d vd
+ j +k
( 1, ,
dx
dy
dz
= i
5).
2
p 2 = p x + p y + p z = p x p x + p y p y + p z p z ,
2
2
2
d
d
d
p = ( p x ) + ( p y ) + ( p z ) = h (
+ 2 + 2 ) = h 2 ,
2
dx
dy
dz
d2
d2
d2
=
+
+
.
dx 2 dy 2 dz 2
2
:
2
p
h
E k = T =
=
.
2m
2m
(!):
80
x = x .
-
r
v
r r
r
r = i x + j y + k z = r .
()
(, ),
:
2
2
p
h
= E k + U =
+ U =
+ U ( x, y , z ) ,
2m
2m
r
U = U ( r , t ) = U ( x, y, z , t ) . H
.
?
.
,
.
.
f, (, - ,
..).
: 1, 2, n, f1, f2, , fn. ,
( ) L.
.
f
. , , ,
f
.
f1, f2, , fn .. fn
Wn .
.
, , ,
Wn n .
.
, f
, , ..
( ):
< f >= Wn f n .
n
81
= C n n , C n
(9.18),
C n =
Nn dV .
< f >= Wn f n = Cn f n .
n
(2)
(2):
< f >= Cn
n
RN
* (n )dV
* dV = C * f dV .
RN
f n n = n n ,
* ( Cnn )dV .
n
:
Cn n = ( Cn n ) = .
f
, ,
< f >=
*( )dV
(3)
RN
( , , . ).
,
|m>.
. : <m|
, - ( . bracket), |m>
-, <m| - - .
,
.
,
.
. : , ,
,
,
, .
(,
, ,
..).
82
,
. ,
.
, f
, ,
. ,
b. f b
,
.
,
,
. , n ( n = 1, 2,... )
, .
A ( B n ) = A (bn n ) = bn ( A n ) = bn an n ,
B ( A ) = B (a ) = a ( B ) = a b ,
n
n n
an , bn ,
n .
A ( B n ) = B ( A n ) .
(4)
= C n n , n
(4), :
= AB
AB
=0
= AB
(5)
( ).
,
,
(. (5)).
. ,
x ] = x ( p x ) p x ( x ) = x(ih
[ xp
p x :
) + ih ( x ) = ih 0 ,
x
x
83
(6)
.. x p x
. ,
.
(9.4)
: x p x ( y p y , z p z )
(9.4) ,
,
,
.
, .
.
..
,
.
(. 9.1).
9.1
2
= *
* dV = 1
RN
fn
f
,
f fn
f
fn
dV
*
RN
B :
B = B
84
( )
f
a
b,
B
,
n
9.6. .
.
, ,
, !
.
,
, ,
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,
, .
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,
.
: , ,
, .
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+ ) ( + ). , , ,
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,
.
: ,
() .
,
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.
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,
, .
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,
85
, ,
, , ,
()
.
.
(19021979), 1961 , ,
,
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. , ,
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1 2. ,
1 , 2, ( , ).
,
.
.
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, .
, 1 2.
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(), .
,
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. , 1961
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,
86
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87
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).
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,
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:
(),
, . .
0 ,
( , ,
, ).
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2) , (),
1 ( 2).
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(111+222)0, 11 11+2222.
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1. , ,
1,
11. 2
2,
22
.
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88
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(11+22)00(1)0(2).
-
1111(1)1(2)+2222(1))2(2).
, , ,
, 1 (
), 2 (
). 1(1)2(2) 2(1)1(2), ,
1, 2.
89
,
.
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90
,
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.
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.
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.
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,
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91
),
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.
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7 .
. -, ,
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.
,
,
-, 1787 -:
, . ,
.
92
10. II
( )
1. .
2. .
.
3. . .
4. .
10.1. ()
, .. (),
() U ( x, y, z ) = 0 , (9.14)
2m
E = 0 .
2 2m
+ 2 E = 0 .
h
x 2
(10.1)
= y = e px , y = pe px , y = p 2 e px . (10.1) p 2 e px + k 2 e px = 0 ,
2m
p 2 = k 2 , p = ik , k 2 = 2 E . :
h
( x) = A1e i (t kx ) + A2 e i (t kx ) = A1e ikx + A2 e ikx .
E = h 2 k 2 /( 2m) = p x2 /( 2m) ,
(10.2)
(10.2)
,
, k
.
10.2. .
. .
()
() .
. ,
, .. .
93
,
. (. 10.1)
U ( x)
, x 0;
U ( x) = 0, 0 < x < a;
, x a.
U=
1
U=0
2
0
. 10.1
U=
3
a x
(10.1) 1 = 3 = 0 (
1 3). (10.1)
( x = 0) = 0 ,
A2
A2 sin 2kx
2
2
2
2 1 cos( 2kx)
dx = (
x
) =
dx = A sin (kx)dx = A
2
2
4
k
0
0
0
A
A sin 2ka
) = 1.
a
2
4k
( x = a ) = 0 , A sin kx = 0 . A 0
=(
sin ka = 0 , ka = n , n = 1,2,3...
n
k = .
a
(10.3)
(10.4)
, ,
A2
2
a =1 A =
.
2
a
n
2
2
( x) =
sin kx =
sin x .
a
a
a
94
(10.5)
k =
2m
2mE
E (10.4)
En =
2h 2
2ma
h2
2n2
a2
n2 .
(10.6)
.. , En ,
n , E1
() .
k =
n
a
2a
,
n
.. ()
n
3
(x)
n
3
2
E1
E1
. 10.2
. 10.3
(10.5) n 0 (
n = 0 = 0 , .. ,
(10.3)): n=2 (
) /2, n=3 /3 2/3, . . (,
, . . 10.2 10.3).
E n = E n +1 E n =
E n E n =
95
2h 2
2ma
2n + 1
n2
(2n + 1) ,
, n lim (
n
2n + 1
2 1
)
=
(
+ 2 ) = 0 En En 0 .
lim
n n n
n2
. (1923 .):
, .. n , .
.
0, ( x, y )
(10.7)
U ( x, y ) =
,
(
x
,
y
)
0, ( x, y, z ) G,
(10.7)
U ( x, y , z ) =
, ( x, y, z ) G,
= {( x, y ) : 0 < x > a1 ,0 < y < a2 }
xy (. 10.4, ),
G = {( x, y, z ) : 0 < x < a1 ,0 < y < a2 ,0 < z < a3} (. 10.4, )
.
y
a2
y
a2
0
G
a1 x
a1 x
a3
. 3.5
x, y, z
, :
( x, y ) = 1 ( x)2 ( y ) ,
(10.8)
( x, y, z ) = 1 ( x)2 ( y )3 ( z ) .
(10.8)
(10.8) (10.1), (10.7),
( x, y ) +
2 ( y )
d 2 1 ( x)
dx
2m
+ 1 ( x)
E ( x, y ) = 0
d 2 2 ( y )
dy
1 ( x) 2 ( y ) ,
2m
E1 ( x)2 ( y )
1 d 2 1 ( x)
1 d 22 ( y )
2m
+
=
E,
2
2
2
1 ( x) dx
2 ( y ) dy
h
96
1 d 2 1 ( x)
1 d 2 2 ( y )
1 d 2 3 ( z )
2m
=
E.
+
+
1 ( x) dx 2
2 ( y ) dy 2
3 ( z ) dz 2
h2
, , z. ,
:
1 d 2 1 ( x)
2m
=
E,
2 1
1 ( x) dx 2
h
1 d 2 2 ( y )
2m
=
E ,
2 2
2 ( y ) dy 2
h
2m
1 d 2 3 ( z )
=
E3 ,
3 ( z ) dz 2
h2
E1 , E2 , E3 , E:
E = E1 + E2 ,
E = E1 + E2 + E3 .
, (10.5), (10.6)
1, n1 ( x) =
n x
2
sin 1 ,
a1
a1
2, n 2 ( y ) =
n x
2
sin 2 ,
a2
a2
3, n3 ( z ) =
n x
2
sin 3 .
a3
a3
(10.8) (10.8)
n1 , n2 ( x, y ) =
n1 , n2 , n3 ( x, y, z ) =
n x
8
n x
n x
sin( 1 ) sin( 2 ) sin( 3 ) ,
12 a3
a1
a2
a3
2h 2 n1
n2 2
2
+
(
)
(
) ,
2m a1
a2
2h 2 n1 2 n2 2 n3 2
=
( ) +( ) +( ) .
2m a1
a2
a3
En1 , n2 =
En1 , n2 , n3
4
n x
n x
sin( 1 ) sin( 2 ),
12
a1
a2
(10.9)
(10.9)
.
a = a1 = a2 ( = a3 ) . (10.9)
97
En1 , n2 =
2h 2
2
2
(
n
+
n
), n1 , n2 = 1,2,3... ,
1
2
2
2ma
h
=
(n 2 + n22 + n32 ), n1 , n2 , n3 = 1,2,3... .
2 1
2ma
2 2
En1 , n 2 , n3
,
En1 , n 2 ( En1 , n 2 , n3 ) , n1 , n2 (n3 )
n1 n2 ( n3 ) , () (
ni = 1 ) ,
n1 , n 2 n 2 , n1 ( n1 , n 2 , n3 , n 2 , n1 , n3 , n3 , n 2 , n1 ). ,
, ,
,
. , ,
.
n1 n2 2, n1 = n2 .
n1 n2 n 3
( n1 , n2 , n3 ), ( n2 , n1 , n3 ), ( n3 , n1 , n2 ), ( n3 , n2 , n1 ), ..
(. 10.1).
10.1
3
( n1 , n2 , n3 )
2
ni
i =1
1
2
3
4
5
6
(1,1,1)
(1,1,2), (1,2,1),(2,1,1)
(1,2,2), (2,1,2), (2,2,1)
(1,1,3), (1,3,1), (3,1,1)
(2,2,2)
(1,2,3), (1,3,2), (2,1,3), (2,3,1), (3,1,2), (3,2,1)
3
6
9
11
12
14
:
k 6 = 6 , k 2 = k3 = k 4 = 3 , k5 = 1 ( n1 = n2 = n3 ).
.
0, r < a,
U (r ) =
, r > a,
r . (10.1)
98
2mE
= 0, 0 r < a .
(10.10)
,
(.. ).
(
, ).
. ,
E = mc 2 , .
, ,
.
, v
F .
(, ,
), ( ), ,
, , ()
(),
.
,
, ()
r , , . ,
,
, ,
r .
, ,
1 d 2 d (r ) d 2 (r ) 2 d (r )
(r
)=
+
(r ) =
, (10.10)
2
2 dr
r
dr
dr
dr
r
d 2
dr 2
2 d 2mE
+ 2 = 0.
r dr
h
(10.11)
(0) <
(a) = 0
(
).
(r ) =
U (r )
.
r
(10.12) (10.11),
d 2U
2
2mE
2
U = 0, 0 r a ,
dr
h
U (0) = 0 U ( a ) = 0 .
99
(10.12)
nr
U n (r ) = A sin
, n = 1,2,3...
A
nr
(sin
), n = 1,2,3,... ,
a
r
2h 2 2
En =
n , n = 1,2,3,...
2
2ma
n (r ) =
(10.13)
x , p E ( ):
a
1)
2
2a
nx 2
nx
x =< x >= (
sin
) xdx = x sin 2
dx =
a
a
a
a
0
0
2nx
)
a x (1 cos
2
1a
1a
2nx
a
=
dx = xdx x cos
dx =
a0
a0
a0
a
2
U = x, dU = dx
2nx
2nx =
a
=
sin
dV = cos
dx, V =
2n
a
a
a
a a
1 a 2 1 xa
2nx
2nx
sin
=
sin a dx =
a 2 a 2n
a 0
2n 0
144244
3
= 0 (sin 2n = 0 sin 0 = 0)
2nx
a
a
a
a
a
= 2 2 cos
= 2 2 (1 1) = ;
2 4 n
2
a 0 2 4 n
100
2
nx h 2 d 2 2 nx
E =< E >=
sin
(
(
sin
))dx =
2
a
a
2
m
a
a
dx
0
2nx
2 2 2 a
2 2 2 a 1 cos
2 n h
n h
2 nx
a )dx =
sin
(
=
=
dx
2
3
2
a
a a 2m 0
a m 0
a
2)
2 2 2
a
2nx
2 n 2h 2
(x
sin
) =
=
;
3
2
2
n
a
2a m
2a m
0
n h
a
3)
p =< p >=
(3.43)
2
d
2
nx
nx
sin
(ih (
sin
))dx =
a
a
dx a
a
2 n
nx
nx
ihn a 2nx
cos
= ih sin
dx = 2 sin
dx =
a a 0 14a4
a
a
a 0
42444
3
1
sin 2
2
ihn a
2nx
= 2
cos
= 0.
a 0
a 2n
10.3. .
.
, , ,
( ).
0, x < 0,
U ( x) =
U 0 , x 0,
(
) . (10.1) 1 2 (. 10.5)
:
d 2 1
dx
d 2
2
dx 2
h
2m
h2
212
k = 2mE / h
).
2m
2
E1 = 0,
( E U 0 )2 = 0.
, q = 2m( E + U 0 ) / h
101
(10.14)
(10.15)
212
(q
U
1 U0 2
E
0
. 10.5
(10.14), (10.15) :
d 2 1
2
dx
d 2 2
dx
2m
2
k 2 1 = 0 ,
(10.16)
q 2 2 = 0 .
(10.17)
h
2m
h
(10.16) ( E < U 0 )
e
:
it
(10.17)
U0
2 ( x) = A2 e qx + B1e qx .
2 A2 = 0 . ,
, 1 2
, .. .
1 2:
A1 + B1 = B2 ,
1 (0) = 2 (0),
1 (0) = 2 (0),
ikA1 ikB1 = qB2 .
, Ai
. , B1
Bi
(10.18)
, A1 , B2
, 2
,
.
:
1)
102
j =
2)
hk
2
A1 ;
m
j =
3) 2:
(10.19)
hk
2
1 ;
m
(10.20)
hq
2
2 .
m
(10.21)
j =
(R . reflection)
R=
A1
(10.22)
( D P )
D=
j
j
A1
R + D = 1,
= j + j ).
(10.23)
( j
A1 = 1, (10.18) :
B1 =
2k
k iq
, B2 =
.
k + iq
k + iq
(10.24)
(10.18) k
q ; ,
. A1 = 1 (10.24) (10.22) :
2
k iq
R=
1.
k + iq
A2 = 0 (10.24)
2k qx
e .
(10.25)
k + iq
(10.25) , 2 ( x)
x , ,
2 ( x) =
E < U 0 :
103
dD
2k
2
w2 ( x) =
= ( x) =
exp(2qx) =
dx
k + iq
=
4k 2
exp(
2m(U 0 E ) x) .
h
k 2 + q2
144
42444
3
(10.26)
d 2 1
dx 2
d 2 2
dx
+ k 2 1 = 0 , k 2 =
+ q 2 2 = 0 , q 2 =
2m
2m
h2
E,
( E U 0 ).
2 ( x) = A2 e iqx + B2 e iqx .
(
),
B2 = 0 .
k q
2k
, A2 =
.
k+q
k +q
R=
B1
A1
1 1U0 / E
k q
=
=
.
k+q
1+ 1U0 / E
104
(10.27)
, E > U 0
, ,
.. .
(10.21) (10.27)
D=
R + D = 1.
A2
A1
4kq
(k + q) 2
1U0 / E
(1 + 1 U 0 / E ) 2
( ).
0, x 0,
U ( x) = U 0 , 0 < x < l ,
0, x l.
1, 2, 3, (. 10.6) :
U
U0
E
2
0
1()
3
x
2()
3()
. 10.6
2 1
2mE
2
2
(1) 2 + k 1 = 0, k = 2 ,
h
x
2
2 + q 2 = 0, k 2 = 2m ( E U ),
(2)
0
2
h2
x 2
2
2mE
2
2
3
k
k
0
,
.
+
=
=
(3)
3
h2
x 2
1 , 2 , 3
.
105
1 (0) = 2 (0), 2 (l ) = 3 (l ),
1 (0) = 2 (0), 2 (l ) = 3 (l ).
(10.28)
iqx
iqx
,
(2)2 ( x) = A2 e + B2 e
ikx
ikx
(3)3 ( x) = A3e + B3e .
(10.29)
1 3 .
() A1e
ikx
A3e
ikx
,
ikx
,
1 3- , B1e
, . 3-
, 3 = 0 .
A1 , B1 , B2 , A2 , A3 .
(10.33) (10.29):
1 (0) = A1 + B1 , 2 (0) = A2 + B2 , 1 (0) = 2 (0) ,
A1 + B1 = A2 + B2 ;
(10.30)
(10.31)
(10.33)
(10.30)(10.33):
A1 + B1 = A2 + B2 ,
iql
iql
= A3e ikl ,
A2 e + B2 e
q
A1 B1 = ( A2 B2 ),
k
k
iql
ikl
iql
( A2 e B2 e ) = A3e .
q
(10.34):
106
(10.34)
2 A1 = A2 + B2 +
q
k
q
q
A2 B2 2 A1 = (1 + ) A2 + (1 ) B2 . (10.35)
k
q
k
k
(10.34):
1
k
k
2 A2eiql = (1 + ) A3eikl A2 = A3eikl e iql (1 + ).
2
q
q
(10.36)
(3.39):
k
1
k
2 e iql = (1 ) A3e ikl B2 = (1 ) A3e ikl e iql .
q
2
q
(10.37)
q 1
k 1
q
k
2 A1 = (1 + ) A3eikl e iql (1 + ) + (1 )(1 ) A3eikl eiql =
k 2
q 2
k
q
1
q
k
q
k
= A3e ikl (1 + )(1 + )e iql + (1 )(1 )e iql =
2
k
q
k
q
k + q k + q iql k q q k iql
1
+
= A3eikl
e
e
k
q
k
q
2
(10.38)
(10.38)
e i = cos + i sin ,
sin =
e i = cos i sin
1 i
( e e i )
2i
1
cos = (ei + e i ) ,
2
(10.39)
(10.39) (10.38) :
A3
2kqeikl
=
A1 2kq cos ql i(k + q )2 sin ql
(10.40)
(10.19), (10.20)
(10.21):
j =
hk
2
A3
m
R=
j
j
A1
; D=
(10.23).
(10.40):
107
j
j
A1
2m
1. E > U 0 , q =
A3
= A3 A3 * = e ikl e ikl
D=
A3
A1
( E U 0 ) ,
4k 2 q 2
2 2
2 2
4k q cos ql + (k + q ) sin ql
(10.23)
R = 1 D =
(k 2 q 2 ) 2
2
2 2
2 2
(k + q ) + 4k q ctg ql
: ,
, .
2. E < U 0 , q =
2m
2
( E U 0 ) .
h
1
2m(U 0 E ) ,
(10.36) q = if , f =
h
A3
4kife ikl
=
.
A1 (k + if ) 2 e fl (k if ) 2 e fl
(10.41)
( ):
1
shfl = (e fl e fl ),
2
1
chfl = (e fl + e fl ).
2
(10.41)
A3
2ikfe ikl
,
=
A1 (k 2 f 2 ) shfl + 2ikfchfl
D=
A3
A1
4k 2 f 2
2
(k f ) sh fl + 4k f ch fl
(10.42)
: E < U 0 ,
U 0 , .
(10.42)
108
e 2 fl >> 1 .
, shfl = chfl =
D=
16k 2 f 2
2
2 2
(k + f )
2 fl
= D0
1 fl
e (10.42)
2
2
l 2 m (U 0 E )
e h
,
E < U 0 . (10.43)
(10.43) ,
, . ,
, .
( ,
). ,
.
, ,
.
(. 10.7).
, . ,
, ,
, ,
.
.
E
x1
. 10.7
x2
, i- ,
, (i+1)- .
( )
( ):
2xi
D = Di exp
2m(U ( xi ) E ) =
h
2xi
2m(U ( xi ) E ) ,
= exp
h
109
xi i- , U ( xi ) .
xi 0 ,
2 x2
10.4.
() ,
, ,
, . , ,
, .
. ,
, .
d 2x
k
ma = m 2 = kx , x + x = 0 x + 2 x = 0 .
m
dt
. :
x(t ) = A cos(t + 0 ) .
(10.44)
(10.44) .
, ,
d 2x
W = U = Fx dx = F = ma = m 2 = A 2 sin(t + 0 ) = 2 x =
dt
0
m 2 x 2
=
.
(10.45)
2
x
U(x)
n=3
E3
n=1 E2
E1
n=0
E0
x
0
n=2
-xmax 0 xmax x
. 10.8
. 10.9
110
, (10.45) ,
, ( ,
. 10.8). .
xmax E = U
d 2
m 2 x 2
+
(E
) = 0 .
2
dx 2 h 2
1
424
3
2m
(10.46)
U ( x)
(10.46),
m
x,
h
2E
=
,
h
d 2
d 2
+ ( 2 ) = 0 .
(10.47)
(10.48)
, (10.48)
,
= n = 2n + 1,
(10.49)
(10.47):
En =
n = 0,1,2,3,...
n = 0 E0 =
1
h
h
n =
(2n + 1) = h (n + ),
2
2
2
h
0, .. .
2
. T 0 K (
,
) , ,
().
111
T 0 K , ,
h
0 .
Emin =
2
, (.
10.9, ),
E = h 0 .
(10.50) H n ( ) .
,
0 ( n
, a1 n ).
n
2 ,
(
):
H n ( ) = (1) n e
d (e
()
n = Cn e / 2 H n ( ), = x
m
.
h
d = ,
d H n ( )
d
= 2 n n!,
n2 dx
H n2 ( )d
= Cn2
= (1)
h /( m )
n
H n2 ( )d = 1,
2
H n ( )
d n (e )
d n
d = (
m 1 / 4 n
) (2 n! ) 1 / 2 ,
h
x2
1
exp[
],
0 ( x) =
2
2 x0
x0
1
2
m
) Cn 2 ,
h
Cn = (
112
(10.51)
x0 = [h m ]
1/ 2
, 1 ( x) =
1
2 x0
x2
2x
( ) exp[
],
2
x
2 x0
0
(10.52)
)
. 10.10
2 ( x) =
1
8 x0
x2
4x2
2) exp[
(
].
2
x
2 x0
0
113
(10.53)
n 0 5
. 10.10. [ xmax ;+ xmax ] ,
.
n , E=f(n), , ,
A=f(n). . 10.10 (10.51)(10.53)
, .
x n
n . n n
. , n
1 .
[ xmax ;+ xmax ] n , ..
.
2
n , n=10, n (x)
( ),
. (1923 .). n = 10
..
(. . 10.11).
2
|10()|
|0 |
-2xmax -xmax
-xmax
+xmax +2xmaxx
+xmax x
. 10.11
, ,
,
(, ) .
U(x)
(10.45) .
, .. .
.
. ,
:
114
3
En = h (n1 + n 2 + n3) = h (n + ),
2
,
, = 0 , ,
.
, , ,
. .
,
,
, 10-43
,
. ,
, , ,
.
:
1. ,
, , ..
(), .
2. , , ..
,
,
.
2
3.
. ,
(
), .. ,
.
4. ( )
. ,
.
115
11. - .
1. ,
.
2. .
3. - : , , .
4. .
11.1. ,
( , 10-9,
. , ..,
10-9 ) .
1959 .
- (There`s plenty of
room at the bottom).
(1982 .) - (1980- .)
, .
:
,
, , ,
, ,
, ,
,
,
, .., ,
.
( )
),
:
, ,
?
,
,
(
, ..).
.
,
, ,
, , ,
, ,
116
.
,
.
.
,
. ,
,
,
.
"".
, 60 .
, ,
- ,
,
. "Atom Craft
project" "Aono project". , ,
, 10
.
"".
40
, ,
( ).
,
.
2000
(top priority).
,
12
.
Pentium. ,
,
. , INTEL
1 . .
-
.
: " ",
.. , "
", .. .
117
,
,
( ). ,
2000 .
,
.
,
,
.
2006
.
11.2.
.
, .
.
- .
.
,
. -
, , .
(
, , ,
)
, -
( )
.
,
.
, ,
,
.
,
.
118
-
,
, .
.
,
. ,
,
,
.
,
.
.
,
.
.
,
(-) 0,1-0,2 ,
.
,
, ,
.
.
.
-
, .
(, , ) ,
.
, -.
,
.
119
, ,
(
)
.
( ) ,
.
,
.
.
- .
,
.
, ,
,
, .
,
, .
.
,
, .
, ,
.
. ,
(~ 0,25 ).
, ,
. ,
.
,
.
, , ,
.
.
.
.
120
,
.
(
)
, .
.
. (
).
.
.
, .
,
.
,
. : ,
, , .
, ,
.
.
,
,
-
.
.
,
.
.
.
, ,
.
,
, ,
.
.
,
121
. .
.
.
: ,
.
.
,
.
.
.
, ,
.
,
, ,
.
,
,
. ,
, ,
.
,
.
- . ,
.
.
. ,
, ,
, - .
.
, ,
,
,
.
.
,
.
.
122
, ,
- .
-.
. ,
6
.
,
.
,
.
-
- ,
.
,
, . 4.
.
5.
.
:
- ;
- ;
- ( );
- ;
- ;
- .
,
.
(). ()
.
U ( x) = U 0 eEx ,
U 0 .
.
() 1982 .
IBM .
.. ,
123
,
1986 .
z
y
z
. 11.1
z~10 , x~10-3 , y~10-3
-3
( )
(. 11.1),
U~0,11 ,
,
: IT~110 (IT=Ne).
IT (
. D
,
).
:
.
,
.
~ 0,1 .
,
( )
.
, .
0,2 .
.
,
,
. .. , .. ,
(
( ),
, , .
35 ()
IBM.
124
, - ,
().
,
(
).
.
.
,
,
.
.
, ,
.
.
.
,
.
.
,
,
, , .
,
.
.
.
.
,
.
- .
.
.
.
(
).
125
.
.
. :
- ,
;
-
;
- ,
.
-
,
- ()
( ).
(<10-9 ...).
, . 11.2.
, .
, .
( )
, , .
, ,
, .
600,
850.
.
(
10141015 )
,
.
(-),
: (
), (-),
().
.
,
, ,
,
.
126
. 11.2. :
1 , 2
, 3 , 4
, 5 , 6
, 7 , 8
, 9 ,
10 , 11
.
( ) (
).
(
) ,
,
, .
,
.
0,110 ...
.
,
, .
,
35:
Ga ( CH3 )3 + AsH3 GaAs + 3CH4 ,
In ( C2H5 )3 + PH3 In P + 3C2H6 .
127
, :
(1x)Ga ( CH3 )3 + x Al ( CH3 )3 +AsH3 Ga1-xAlxAs + 3CH4.
,
.
- ,
,
.
, .
11.3. - :
, ,
, (,
, . .). , 3D
,
. ,
. , ,
.
,
- (, )
, () ( 2 D ),
(1D ) ( 0 D ) ( ) .
- ()
.
.
, -
.
,
- , .
(
, ).
(), .
(), ,
,
. , N
.
, ,
( ..) N .
128
(
),
.
U1 = U 2 = U ,
b V0 .
.
.
( 1 = 2 )
, 1 ,
1( S , a ) = E1(0) V12 .
( )
( ) (. 11.3, )
, ( +)
.
,
U(x)
-20
2s
2
1
1
1s
d2
-20 3
-40
-40
-60
d1
-60
0
1
-80
-80
0
0 2 4 6
)
. 11.3
, , ,
b ,
n=1, 2, 3, (1s, 2s, 3s, )
(1, 2, 3, ) .
129
, ( ,
).
b ,
n .
(. 11.3, ).
,
. , ,
,
,
.
N
N . N
, N > 7
, .
N
,
E1 , E2 ,... ,
( ,
).
U(x)
0
(k)
x -2/ -/
2/
. 11.4
A = a + b (. 11.4)
,
( a U ) ( b V0 ).
r .
, .
130
h2 d 2
(
+ U ( x) qE x ) ( E , x ) = E ( E , x )
2m dx 2
U (x) .
:
1.
, n
- (. 5.7, ),
.
,
. 0
En E 0 .
(. 5.9).
r
, E .
E n
r
0
.
, E
1, .
2.
(
), .
, .
.
,
.
r
3.
.
(
).
4. ( E > (U
qE a
) )
2
a 3
1 qE h
En = qE + (2n )
2 4
2 2m
2/3
131
5.
- I = f (U ) ,
(
) (. 11.5), , .
, -
.
(510 ), ,
. A , B ,
. ,
.
, ,
. ,
, ,
,
25 ,
.
r
k F :
F =
2
(
kF
, .
: ,
1/2;
, ).
.
I
U(x)
A:
E
B:
A
0
C
C:
U
. 11.5
-
n
F = (
8 1 / 3
)
3n
132
( 3D -),
2 1 / 2
)
( 2 D -),
3n
4
( 1D -).
F = ( )
n
n , ,
F = (
,
.
, ,
- ( ).
,
,
,
, .
,
) ,
(x, y)
, , ,
.
, (),
(,
),
m0
*
mn m p , .
- ,
, z,
, ( 3D-)
(x, y)
*
m :
E = En +
p x2
2m
p 2y
2m
= En +
h 2 (k x2 + k y2 )
2m
(11.1)
p x , p y , k x , k y
. ,
En ,
En .
n
(. 11.6).
133
(11.1)
(x, y)
(
).
,
, ,
, .
, , z,
, y, ,
n1 n2 : E = E n1, n 2 .
, (),
, 1D :
E = En1, n 2 +
h 2 k x2
2m
U(z)
n=3
1
n=2
n=1
ky
(py)
k
(px)
. 11.6
,
() 0 (0D).
:
E = En1, n 2, n3 .
(
). ,
InAs In1 x Ga x As GaAs
, ,
, ,
.
134
. ,
( E )
.
,
,
. , ,
,
. -
()
( ), .
- (, , ) ,
( ,
),
3D.
)
,
.
, ,
,
-
.
11.4.
(2000 ) -
- . .. (. -).
.
, ,
. ,
,
.. , .
.
-
,
,
.
135
,
. ,
?
, , ,
,
, ,
. ,
,
. , ,
.
,
, ""
. , ,
,
,
,
.
,
,
.
, . ?
,
, .
. ,
.
, , ,
. , , ,
.
.
, ,
,
.
, ,
, ,
. ,
, .
,
, .
, .
,
, ,
, . ,
. , ,
136
.
,
.
,
.
,
. , ,
,
, .
"" ,
, ,
,
(). , ,
.
,
, , ,
, ,
.
, ,
, ,
. , , ,
, .
,
.
, ,
. ,
--n
, ,
.
?
.
; , .
,
, , ..
,
.
.
2- :
137
()
. 11.7
( ).
: (12 , 100 )
(40 /2).
. (, .)
(
).
, (
); ;
. , . (140% ).
GaAs.
:
( 12 0.1 ),
(40 /2);
, .
(
), ,
. ,
.
, ,
.
.
200% .
GaAs,
AlAs GaAs
.
1,3 1,5 , ,
InP.
, ,
, ,
. ,
, 99% .
, , ,
.
138
, , ,
.
: 6263 p-n
,
. ,
, , " ,
22=4, ",
, - ,
. , -, -, , ,
( 63 ,
).
,
. ,
,
66 ,
. GaAs/GaAsP,
, , , ,
,
. , 67
GaAs/GaAlAs 68
4/2. 70
, ,
, ,
"", .
, IEEE Transaction
on Electron Devices 1994 ,
, , ,
.
, , , ,
, - ,
, , , .
1970- , -
1/2.
.
.
. ,
.
,
, ,
139
, , .
- 10 ,
, . 1970
, . ,
, ,
.
,
. ,
, , ,
. , , , , ,
.
, . ,
" "
, .
, , ""
-
, .
- .
,
, ,
, " ", ?
, 1980- , ,
-
. :
, ,
..
: "
-
". , ,
, , :
", - , ". ,
. , - , ,
, - ,
?
. ,
. , ,
, 1982- ""
, ,
,
.
140
,
45 /2.
- 1020 .
. 80
89- . ? , , ,
, ,
.
, ,
, (
),
. , , , ,
.
. 1993-
. ,
, .
: " . ,
.
, , ".
, ,
13
/2, 34 , .
: ;
!
,
,
. , ,
.
, ,
. ,
.
,
" ", , , ,
.
- .
,
.
,
, .
141
. 11.8
,
,
- , , .. ,
. ()
. ,
, , ,
, , ,
, .
.
90-
? ?
.
1975 - ,
. 80- ,
, , , ,
. ,
.
,
- .
, : "
". , ,
, .
, 20 .
- , -, ,
. . ?
142
, ? , ,
- .
, , , ,
.
,
, ,
,
. ,
, . , ,
,
.
,
. ,
, ,
, .
, , , ,
. , ,
.
, ,
. ,
.
, ,
, .
,
, . ,
,
,
.
.
,
, , , ,
. .
:
, . , .
, , :
10
,
(100 1 2).
,
, ,
.
143
Volmer-Weber
Stranski-Krastanow
. 11.9
,
,
, ,
.
, ,
, ,
,
. , ,
, - ,
.
:
1)
;
2) ,
;
3)
.
,
( ).
,
,
. ,
. -,
,
. , ,
,
- . , ? , ,
. , -.
, ,
,
, .
-
,
. .
144
?
. ,
. , .
, .
, ,
, . ,
. , , ,
, , .
,
.
, , , ,
. - ,
,
.
. 11.10. ,
,
"",
. GaAs , InAs -
. InAs , ,
InAs,
InAs, , ,
.
.
, , , InAs
, .
, , -
- , .
, , .
,
. : ,
, ..
.
145
12. .
..
1. . .
-. .
. .
2. .
. ..
.
.
...
12.1. . .
-. .
.
XX ,
. ,
.
1900 , ,
( -)
. ,
,
. ,
. , , .
,
.
...
,
, ,
,
.
,
.
,
, .
r
, , ,
r
F = eE
,
, (2.39):
r r 1
Eds =
0 V
dV ,
= e / VR .
146
e
er 3
E 4r =
V =
0 VR R 0 R 3
2
F = ( e )E =
e2
4 0 R
E=
e
4 0 R
r,
r = kr
, , ,
:
k
r = 0,
m
r = A cos 0 t .
m&r& = kr &r& +
:
k e
1
=
.
r R 4 0 Rm
0 =
R ,
0 1015 -1.
R10-10 . (1903 .)
.
.
,
.
.
,
. ,
.
1885 . , ,
,
. ,
= R
1
,
2
n
(n = 3, 4, 5,K) .
. 1906 . .
. ., ., .
.
:
= R
12
1
,
n2
147
(n = 2, 3, 4,K)
1
, (n = 4, 5, 6, K)
2
2
3
n
1
1
: = R
, (n = 5, 6, 7, K)
2
2
4
n
:
= R
. :
1
1
,
2
2
n
m
= R
(12.1)
,
.
.:
. ,
15- , ,
.
: .. - 5
=51,610-19 =810-13 , - ,
r0,
(. 12.1)
r0
. 12.1
2e
Ze
4 0 r0
14
= 8 10 13 Z Au = 79 r0 5 10 ;
10 1 ().
, ,
, ;
, .
: , ..
(- )?
, ,
, .
,
. (
). , ,
1913 .
,
,
.
(1913 .):
1. ,
, ,
me vr = nh .
(12.2)
-10
149
n .
,
.
2. ( ) ,
,
.
( )
, .
E = En Em = h .
m n .
,
.
.
(+) (),
.
v (rn).
(II )
:
2
2
ke
v
2 = me ,
rn
rn
m vr = nh.
e n
(12.3)
,
:
rn =
h2
2
ke me
(n = 1, 2, 3,K).
n2
(12.4)
(n=1) r0.
rn =
h2
2
ke me
0.5 10 10 ,
.
,
.
:
150
me v 2 ke 2
,
E =
2
r
2
2
me v = ke .
r
r2
,
ke 2 ke 2
ke 2
=
E=
.
2r
r
r
(12.4),
(12.5)
k 2e 4 me 1
.
E=
2h 2 n 2
,
(12.6)
n- m-, .
1
k 2e 4 me 1
h = En Em =
.
2h 2 n 2 m 2
(12.7)
k 2e 4 me 1
1
1
1
=
R
=
2h 3 m 2 n 2
m2 n2
(12.8)
,
, R =
k 2 e 4 me
2h 3
1016 c 1 .
, , ,
!
, (12.8) ,
.
. ,
. 12.2
.
,
.
, , (N = 2)
(N = 1) .
.
,
.
1
1
12 n 2
= R
151
n > 2
:
1
1
, .
22 n2
= R
n=1
n=2
n=3
n=4
0
n=5
5
10 A
. 12.2
.
.
.
(1961 .)
.. :
, ( :
..).
(. 12.3) ~ 1
... (1913 .).
U
0,5
Hg
. 12.3
Ukc
, 0,5 .
152
Ukc
IA. -
(), . 12.4.
, ,
( ). N
,
0,5 .
Mi
.
M3
M2
M1
N
. 12.4
, , ,
E1 = E2 E1,
E2 = E3 E1 .. ,
,
= E1 / h 235 . ,
..
, ,
()
(
),
(.. ),
( )
(. . ), ..
153
12.2. .
. ..
. .
..
,
.
+ Z e ( Z = 1 ( ), 2, 3,).
Ze 2
U (r ) =
.
4 0 r
h2
H = (
+ U ) = E .
2m
(12.9)
h2
1 2
Ze 2
r +
L
= E .
(12.10)
2m
2mr 2
4 0 r
= r +
1
r
1 2
(r
)
2 r
r
r
1
1
2
=
(sin ) + 2
sin
sin 2
, r =
2 ,
, ,
)
L2 = h 2 , .
(12.10)
:
En =
Z 2 me 4
32 2 02h 2 n 2
, n = 1, 2,... ,
(12.11)
. (. (12.6)).
12.1
n
m
l
n lm
1
Z
( )3 / 2 exp( )
a
1
Z
( ) 3 / 2 (2 ) exp( )
2
4 2 a
1
154
1s
2s
2p
1
Z
( ) 3 / 2 exp( ) cos
2
4 2 a
2p
2
1
+1
1 Z 3/ 2
( ) exp( ) sin exp(i )
2
8 a
2p
2
1
-1
1 Z 3/ 2
( ) exp( ) sin exp(i )
2
8 a
nlm ( , , ) = xn, l ( )Yl , m (, )
2
: n, l, m.
n, l, m
(. 12.1).
n=1, 2, (. (12.11))
(
,
,
= 0 ), . ,
(
2
- ), .
.
n ,
n. n (.
12.2):
12.2
(n=)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
, l l
l=0, 1, 2, , (n1). , En
n2.
nlm ( , , ) ,
,
2
H , L (6.13),
l:
L = h l (l + 1) ,
(12.12)
. (12.2),
, (12.1), L=0. l
155
.
n,
l,
l
(. 12.3)
12.3
0
s
1
p
2
d
3
f
4
g
, , 1s1 2p5
. ,
2
(, , )
90 % .
, s ( l=0
m=0) ,
.
||2
z
1s
(m=0)
1s
||2
||2
2s
(m=0)
r
156
3s
(m=0)
2p
(m=0)
||2
2p
(m=0)
2p (m=0)
||
3p r
(m=1)
3p
(m=1) r
3d (m=1)
. 12.5
2
(. 12.5).
3d-
,
. 2l+1 m=0, 1, 2,
m.
z
Lz = mh .
(12.13)
z
(. 12.6). (12.13)
, (12.12)
. (12.12) (12.13), ,
hl
h l (l + 1) , .
,
.
z .
.
. :
. 12.6
157
1) ( ):
;
2) :
( ).
. 12.4.
12.4
1
2
3
4
5
s
2
2
2
2
2
6
6
6
6
10
10
10
14
14
18
K
L
M
N
O
2
8
18
32
50
2
8
18
18
18
,
.
( ) ..
:
1.
n l
(n+l), : 3d (n=3, l=2, n+l=5) 4s
(n=4, l=0, n+l=4), 4s , 3d.
2. (n+l)
n, , 3d (n+l=5, n=3, l=2),
4 (n+l=5, n=4, l=1), 5s (n+l=5, n=5, l=0).
,
, L Lz
,
.
,
l, (. . 12.7).
158
0
-0,37
-0,54 -0,84
-1,51
-3,4
s
l=0
5
4
3
2
p
1
d
2
f
3
g
4
h
5
m=3
m=2 (ns 2p, nd 2p, n=3, 4, ...)
2s
h=En- E1
m=1 (np
-13,5 1
E1
1s
. 12.7
En
, - ()
n.
l
. , ,
.
=EnEm.
, .
,
. , ,
. ,
, :
l = 1.
(12.14)
.
, , 2s
1s, .
1s, .
.
,
,
.
( ).
(
159
.) (
) ( ).
,
, .
-
. ,
.
.
. . 1925
,
Ls, (. spin
).
-
.
,
, , , ..
s:
Ls = h s ( s + 1) ,
(12.15)
s=1/2, ( )
,
s=+1/2 s=1/2 ( n, l, m).
z Lsz
Lsz = ms h .
(12.16)
ms .
ms = s = 1 / 2 .
(12.17)
,
:
n (n=1, 2, 3...);
l (l = 0, 1, 2, ...n1);
m (m = l,... 1, 0, 1 ... +l);
ms (ms = +1/2, 1/2).
1s
.
( ) =21 .
.
,
.
160
13.
1. , .
2. . .
.
3. .
.
13.1. ,
,
, .
()
,
,
( ) .
,
,
. , ,
(, ,
) , .
() I
, ..
. ,
, .
, ()
U ( )
, . 13.1. r0,
, .
U
r0
. 13.1
( )
().
1916 .
, ,
, .
161
.
. ,
( ) .
(, ..).
.
,
.
,
. .
.
,
( ).
.
, ,
(), (N), () ..
() ,
N ..
13.2. . .
,
, , .
,
.
, , ,
.
: : = 1 : m / M : m / M >> >> ,
m , .
(
),
( )
162
(
).
,
. ,
()
() , ()
v dv < v < v + dv
( 9, . III )
Et h .
,
v
vvi
v+vi . vi
. ,
.
.
, .
13.3. .
.
()
10 610-12 . : 10-710-14 ( 103
10-4 ). , ,
, .
2 , 2
.
,
( ),
.
( , , -)
().
.
,
.
,
. ,
-9
163
.
,
( )
( ). 10-1610-15
.
,
,
().
. -
.
. (18871915) 1913 ():
1
1
v = R( Z ) 2 2 2 ,
n
m
(13.1)
v ;
R=
me e 4
32 2 02 h 3
= 2,07 1016 -1 ; Z
; , m=1, 2, 3,
, K, L, M, ; n=m+1, m+2,
m+3,
. (12.?????).
, ,
, ,
Ze, . ,
, - =1, n=1, m=2, 3,
.
,
, , .
.
.
164
14. I
1. .
. .
, - -.
2. .
. -. .
3.
() .
14.1. .
. .
. , - -
(
, 9, I )
(),
, ..,
. ,
, ,
0,5, .. .
, ? ,
:
( ), , 10000,
,
. ,
(), ,
() , ..
,
, ,
,
(, ).
( ),
, ,
.
, ..
, .
-
(
, , , , ..)
,
165
. ,
,
( )
exp(i ) : (..., x j ,..., xk ,...) = (..., xk ,..., x j ,...) exp(i ) .
(..., x j ,..., xk ,...) = (..., x j ,..., xk ,...) exp(2i ) ,
exp(2i ) = 1 , exp(i ) = 1 = 1 ,
,
.
, .
-
.
. ,
, , , ..
()
, ()
. , ,
, .. , ,
, , ..
: , ,
,
.
,
, :
, , ,
,
().
().
( 0 )
, , , .
,
1, 2.
1 2, ,
.
, , .
(
, )
(x, y, z)
(px, py, pz). N , N
-.
-
166
d = dxdydz dp x dp y dp z = dV dV p ,
123 14243
dV
(14.1)
dV p
dV , dVp
, (9.????)
d = (2h )3 ,
(14.2)
h .
,
,
, , .
x
dx
. 14.1
( )
m. :
p2/(2m) (p ), mgx.
= p2/(2m)+ mgx.
(. 14.1),
dpdx.
( )
. N-
.
,
( -).
, ,
167
,
.
().
,
,
. ,
. ,
,
. ,
,
.
: , ,
, (
), , .
N g(E)
E, .
-.
,
.
. , ()
,
.
,
(
) kT EF (k ).
TF EF/k.
:
1)
, ,
; ,
;
2) :
, ,
;
3) :
, ,
.
,
,
.
168
,
-
.
, (
- ),
( ). , ,
- a
( ; + ), ( ),
+
f (a)da = 1 .
(
)
i T
f ( Ei ) =
e
Ei
kT
(14.3)
( )
-
; : = 0 (14.3)
, = 1
, = +1
.
14.2. .
. -.
, ,
. , ,
, .., , ,
,
.
.
, .., ..
.., ...
.
: , , -, ,
169
.
-,
(14.3)
f (E) =
e
E
kT
(14.4)
E
()
n = f ( E )dN ( E ) ,
(14.5)
dN(E) [E;
E+dE] , f(E)
.
(
),
2
[; +d] 4p dp .
V=1 3 ,
2
4p Vdp . ,
,
,
(14.2). ,
4p 2Vdp = 4p 2 dp (2h )3 ,
[; +d]
4p 2 dp
dN ( p ) =
(2h )3
(14.6)
[E; E+dE]
p =
2mE dp =
4 2 2mEVm
1/ 2
dN ( E ) =
(2h )3
1 2m
dE
2 E
E 1 / 2
dE
m 3 / 2 E 1 / 2 dE
2
=
.
2 2h 3
170
(14.7)
m3 / 2
n=
2 2 h 3 0
E dE
e
E
kT
(14.8)
(14.8) .
(14.8) .
> 0 , ,
,
. , 0 .
/ T < 0 , ..
, ,
.
0 0 . 0
= 0 .
(14.8), ,
, ,
, , .
(14.8)
, 0
,
. -,
-
. -.
,
, ,
, . ,
He 2,19 . :
() -.
-.
,
, ,
.
-.
-. (14.8)
m3 / 2 E 3 / 2 dE
E = Ef ( E )dN ( E ) =
.
2 2 h 3 0 Ek T
0
e 1
171
(14.9)
( (9.18), 9, I
) ,
P = 2 E /(3V ) ( V=1 3),
P=
2m3 / 2 E 3 / 2 dE
E
0 k T
2 3
3 h
(14.10)
kT
<< 1,
e
E >>
(14.11)
(14.10) ,
.
exp[ /( k T )] << 1 . E/(kT)=
3 / 2 x
dx =
3
3 / 2 ,
4
P=
2m3 / 2 (k T )5 / 2 x 3 / 2e k T e x dx
3 2h 3
kT x
1 e1
42e4
3
2m
3/ 2
(k T )
3 2 h 3
5/ 2
3/ 2
5/ 2
m (k T )
kT
e k T x 3 / 2 e x dx =
e
. (14.12)
3/ 2 3
2 2 h
0 4243
1
=3 / 4
(14.8) (14.12)
.
. -, (14.8)
E/(kT)=
xe x dx =
172
3 / 2
m3 / 2
n=
2 2 h 3 0
E dE
e
E
kT
m3 / 2 (k T )3 / 2
=
2 2 h 3 0
x1 / 2 dx
kT x
e1
2e3 1
0
3/ 2
(k T )
2 2 h 3
3/ 2
1/ 2 kT
e x dx
kT x
1 e1
2e3
m3 / 2 (k T )3 / 2 k T 1 / 2 x
=
e x e dx =
2 2 h 3
0 424
1
3
= /2
m3 / 2 (k T )3 / 2 k T
=
e .
3/ 2 3
2 2 h
(14.13)
(14.13) (14.12),
P = nk T
(14.14)
PV =
m
RT .
M
(14.15)
, (14.11) (
)
.
.
-
.
: , -, ,
, .
-,
(14.3)
f (E) =
e
E
kT
173
+1
(14.16)
,
[E; E+dE]
( V=1 3)
(14.7)
2m 3 / 2 E 1 / 2 dE
.
dN ( E ) =
2 2 h 3
(14.18)
2 ,
(g(E)=2 ).
-
(. 14.2).
f(E)
1
1/2
~kT
T>0K
T=0K
E0=
. 14.2
:
1)
/(k T ) >> 1 ( exp[ /(k T )] 0 )
=0
1
1; ,
E
exp
+1
k
T
(E<< ), f(E) 1;
f (E) =
2) E = f ( E ) =
1
1
= .
exp[0] + 1 2
, .
=0 ,
.
174
, 0
. f(E)=1/2 ,
E0=
1/2.
3) f(E)
E>> >>kT
f (E) =
E
1
exp
k T
E
exp
+1
k
T
).
=0 >0
kT.
14.3.
()
(
7, . III )
:
,
.
.
( (14.6))
,
4v 2 dv 8v 2 dv
dN (v) = 2
=
,
c3
c3
(14.19)
p = h / = hv / c ,
, 2
.
(14.19).
, < >= 2 1 / 2 k T = k T .
... (18421919) .. (1877
1946) 1900
175
(7.7). , (7.7)
v ( ) .
(7.7) (7.5)
(7.8),
(7.5) R
~ T 4 .
(. . 7.1).
.
v
rv ,T = C v 3 A exp[ Av / T ],
(14.20)
.
v , , rv ,T 1900
.... (18581947)
.
E = hv ,
h = 6,63 10 34 . ,
.
() . 14 1900
(7.9). 14
1900 ,
(7.9), ,
. (7.9)
() (7.5) (7.7).
E=hv.
,
< n( E ) >=
e
E
kT
=
1
hv
kT
(14.21)
= 0
(. (14.4)).
V=1 3
(14.19). ,
[v; v+dv]
176
8hv 3dv
dE (v) = hv dN (v) < n( E ) >=
hv
c 3 e k T 1
(14.22)
( (14.22) . (7.9)).
,
x3
4
x
dx =
15
0 e 1
hv
x
,
=
k
T
8h v 3dv
=
U = dE (v) = 3 hv
=
c 0 kT
k T
0
dv
dx
=
e
1
h
8h k T x 3dx 8 5 k 4 4
= 3
=
T = T 4 ,
x
3 3
c h 1
0 e2
31 15c h
(14.23)
= 4 / 15
8 5 k 4
(.
=
15c 3h 3
(7.5)).
177
15. II
1. . .
- .
.
2. . .
. , .
.
15.1. . .
- .
( 11.2,
11, . I 7.2, 7, . II )
1819 .. (17851838) ..
(17911820) ,
( )
( )
3R, R=8,31 /()
CV=3R25 /().
(15.1)
(15.1) .
(1864 .),
CV=3nR,
(15.2)
n .
. , 1 NA ,
() 3NA
(
).
E=3NA< >, < > .
,
kT/2.
, .. < >=kT. E=3NAkT=RT,
CV = (dE / dT )V
(15.3)
(15.1).
(15.2) , ..
.
( ), (
). 3 , ..
3kT/2. Z,
1 :
178
,
E=3NA kT+ 3ZNAkT/2=3RNA(1+Z/2).
(15.4)
(15.3) (Z=1)
CV=4,5R, 1,5 ,
(15.2).
.
, .
. (1907 .), . (1912 .).
(. 15.1,
, ).
CV
3R
. 15.1
T, K
, - ,
.
..
()
= h , ,
. , .
, ,
, .
, ,
: = ck , = sk ,
k , , s .
()
2
(
), 3 (
() ,
).
0 , .
(14.22) h = h /( 2 ) ,
s, v = 2v ,
179
E
3h
=
V 2 2 s 3
max
3 d
h
kT
(15.5)
(15.5) (14.22), .
(14.23),
E=
2 k 4
10h 3 s
4
.
T
3
(15.6)
(15.3)
CV = dE / dT =
2 2 k 4
3 3
5h s
T3.
(15.7)
(15.3)
, CV~T3,
(. 15.1).
,
, , :
1/ 3
6 2 N A s 3 h 3
= (h max ) / k =
3
Vk
(15.8)
(15.5)
= k Tx / h , d = k Tdx / h , x max = h max /(k T ) ,
h /( k T ) = x
= (h max ) / k
E=
3Vh
2 2 s 3
max
3 d
h
e k T
kT
=
2 2 s 3 h
1
3Vh
3
xmax 3
T
N A k 9k
x dx
4
=
=
T
9
RT
2 3 3
x
N A 6 s h
0 e 1
= 3RT D(T / ) .
4 xmax
x 3 dx
ex 1
/T
x 3 dx
ex 1 =
0
(15.9)
(15.9)
, (15.8),
T
D(T / ) = 3
180
/T
x 3 dx
ex 1 = ,
0
(15.10)
(
),
.
, h << ( k T ) T >> ,
x
h /(k T ) = x << 1 e 1 (1 + x) 1 = x
T
D(T / ) = 3
/T
T 1
x dx
= 1,
=
3
x
3 T
0
.. (15.3) (15.9) CV = (dE / dT )V = 3R ,
3
.
, h >> ( k T )
4
x3
T << , x
dx =
15
1
e
(15.7) ~T3, .
T = -
.
().
, .
,
. , -
.
.
,
, .. ,
..
(,
) (1927.)
. (18681951) ,
.
2
3 k n
1
=
T = V v 2 ,
2 me
3
(15.11)
ne 2
=
,
me
(15.12)
181
k ,
, n , me
, , CV , v
, .
. ()
2
2 k n
3 me
T ,
(15.13)
ne 2
=
.
2 me
(15.14)
, (15.12) (15.14) ,
.
-
( )
. . (18261899) 1853 .
,
T
( (7.11), . II
):
/ = L T .
(15.15)
8
L=const , L = 3( k / e) = 2.23 10
2/22=()/2,
L = 2 (k / e) 2 / 3 = 2.44 10 8
2/22=()/2,
() .
15.2. . .
. , .
, () , ..
. ,
,
. ,
.
,
( )
.
()
( NA=6,0221023 1),
182
(
).
:
H = E [
1
e2
h2
h2
i ) + (
k ) +
+
(
2
m
2
m
2
4
r
i 4
k 4
i j
e4
4
ij
1
424
3
1
424
3 14
42404
3
(i j )
r
r
r
r
r r r
r r r
+ Vz ( R1,..., RN ) + U (r1,...rn , R1,..., RN )] (r1,...rn , R1 ,..., RN ) =
14
4244
3 14442444
3
r
r r r
= (r1 ,...rn , R1 ,..., R N ) .
(15.16)
. >>
, ,
V << V ,
. ,
.
( ):
,
( ).
,
, ..
,
(V0 ).
, V0 = 0 , (15.16)
, , .
. , ,
():
, ,
, .
(15.16)
r
(15.17)
Wi (r i ) .
i
(15.16) ,
,
(
):
183
U i ( r i ) .
(15.18)
, (15.17) (15.18) :
h2
r
r
(
+
W
(
r
)
+
U
(
r
i
i i
i i ) = E
2
m
e
i
H = Hi = E
i
() , H = H i ,
i
= i , E = Ei , ,
i
i ( j )
i
(, j ),
i ,
Hn n
H11
+ ... +
= E1 + ... + En .
1
n
(15.19)
(15.19)
H11
= Ei
1
Hi i = Ei i , Hi , i , Ei
,
..
2
h
r
H = (
+ V (r )) = E .
2me
(15.20)
(15.20)
r
r
V (r ) . , .. V (r )
, .
: , ,
, (
r
) V (r )
r
(15.20), : V ( r )
b V0 :
184
V
V0
( )
h 2 d 2
+ V ( x) = E . (15.21)
2m dx 2
a a+b
. 15.2
(15.22)
, .
, .. .
,
() .
(
)
( ).
r
RT ,
r r + RT , ..
r 2
r r 2
(r ) = (r + RT ) .
(
r
r r
U ( r ) = U ( r + RT ) ),
, ( r ) = ( r + RT ) , C
).
rr
r r
r
(r + RT ) = e ik RT (r )
r
r ikrrr
k ( r ) = k ( r )e .
= 1 (
(15.23)
(15.23) . ( ). :
,
r
k (r ) ,
.
, (15.22)
(15.23).
( ) = ( )e ikx ,
( x) = ( ( x)e ikx + ( x)ike ikx ) / =
= ( x)eikx + ( x)ikeik x + ( x)ikeikx k 2 ( x)eikx .
(15.22) e
185
ikx
h2
( + 2ikx k 2 ) + V ( x) = E .
2m
(. (15.21)):
+ 2ik (k 2
2mE
h
) = 0,
(15.24)
+ 2ik (k 2 2 ) = 0,
=
2mE
h
(. (15.21)):
+ 2ik (k 2
2mE
h2
2mV0
+ 2ik (k 2 + 2 ) = 0,
=
2mE
h2
h2
) = 0,
(15.25)
(V0 E ) .
(15.24) (15.26)
+ 2ik (k 2 (i ) 2 ) = 0 .
(15.26)
(15.24) (15.26)
1 = Ae i ( k + ) x + Be i ( k ) x ,
2 = e i ( k + i ) x + De i ( k i ) x .
(15.27)
(15.28)
, , , D
():
1 = 2
1 = 2
x = n(a + b),
x = a + n(a + b).
(15.29)
2 2
cos k (a + b)
sh( b) sin(a) ch( b) cos(a ) = 0 (15.30)
2
186
e x e x
e x + e x
( shx =
, chx =
).
2
2
(15.30) = f ( E ) , = f ( E )
k = f ( , ) = f ( E ) ,
. (15.30)
, ,
. ( b 0 ) (V0 ) ,
, bV0 . ,
2 >> 2 , ( 2 ~ V0 , 2 ~ E ) b 2 , b 0 .
b 0 chb 1, shb b .
,
e x e x (1 + x) (1 x)
shx =
= x,
2
2
chx =
e +e
2
(1 + x) + (1 x)
= 1.
2
(15.31)
(15.31) (15.30)
2 2
b sin(a ) + cos(a) = cos ka ( b 0 )
2
(15.32)
+ cos(a ) = cos(ka) .
2
a
123
Q
Q = lim
b0
0
2 ab
2
,
,
.
1. Q 0 , ..
cosa = cos ka ,
(15.32)
ka = a k = =
2mE
h2
h 2k 2
E (k ) =
, .. ,
2m
187
2. Q
, , ,
E=
h 2 2 n 2
2ma
(15.33)
a 0 , a = n , n = 1,2,... ,
2mE
h2
2n2
a2
,... (..
).
2 ,
.
,
,
. () .
Q>>1
( , ), a
n (. (15.29)), ..
a = n + , << n .
(15.34)
(15.34) (15.32)
sin a
,
a
f ( x) = f ( x0 ) + f ( x0 )( x x0 ) :
x0 = n, x = n + x = ,
cos a
n
(n)
=0
Q(1) n
Q
+ (1) n = cos ka x (1) n , + 1 = (1) n cos ka
n
n
[(1)
Q
cos ka 1 .
(15.37)
(15.37) (15.34):
1 (1) n cos ka
a = n + [(1) cos ka 1] = n[1 +
],
Q
Q
Q
,
188
2 2
2 2
a = n [1 +
1
Q2
{
cos 2 ka
Q2
]=
Q
Q
Q2
14
4244
3
0
2 2(1) n cos ka
].
= n [1 +
Q
Q
2 2
(15.38)
= 2mE / h (15.38)
:
2
E=
h 2 2 n 2
2 2(1) n cos ka
[1 +
]=
Q
Q
2ma 2
h 2 2 n 2 h 2 2 n 2 (1) n h 2 2 n 2 cos ka
=
+
=
ma 2Q
ma 2Q
2ma 2
= E(0n )
Cn
{
= 2 E n0 / Q
+ (1) n Cn cos ka .
144244
3
=
(15.39)
( 1) n E n0 2 cos ka
Q
E0n n- ;
(.
(15.39)), ,
.
n- , ..
, E=f(k).
,
,
.
( <0,1 ),
.
()
(),
(),
().
( ).
() ,
, ,
.
,
189
, .. ,
, .
. ( I ) ,
( ),
, , .. Eg=0 (gap
. , ).
,
=0 , ,
g 3 .
,
6
8
-1
~10 10 ~10-10
10-8 -1.
=f(T) :
Eg
= 0 e kT ,
, (
= 0 (1 + t ) , = 1 273,15 -1).
(
) (
) Ec ( )
(. 15.3, ) Ev ( ) (. 15.3, ).
d
v
)
GaAs, GaSb, InP,
InSb, PbS, PbTe, .
)
Si, Ge, GaP, AlAs,
AlSb, AlP, SiC, .
. 15.3
,
, g 2 3 .
,
; .
,
,
.
190
16. ,
1. .
.
2. . pn. p-n-.
, pn-
. , .
3. .
.
.
4. , .
16.1. .
() ()
, 1 %.
, ,
.
()
()
: (
) (). ni
pi. , Si, Ge.
.., .. 4
,
.
(
) ( As (V), P (V))
Si.
100
. ,
, ,
, n-.
.
,
.
,
Ed Ec. Ed~0,01 , ,
kT~0,025 Tk=300 (.
16.1). , ,
191
nn,
pn; n- nn>pn ( ).
nn
d
v
pn
. 16.1
( ) ( B (III)),
, ,
, , .
, ..
.
, ,
.
E
Ea
Ev
n
Eg
pp
. 16.2
,
Ea,
Ev, (. 16.2).
() (Ea~0,01 ) ,
(),
.
pp, pp>np
() p- (
).
192
. 1963
GaAs InP. .
, () (. .
16.3), m*1 m*2 ,
m*1<m*2, , () 1 > 2 .
,
*
(, ) m .
( ),
m* = d 2 E / dp 2
(
2
2
//
E = mv / 2 = p /( 2m) , E p = (2 p /(2m) ) p = 1 / m )
,
m0 .
.
1
*
m1
g
m*2
v
m*1 < m*2 1> 2
. 16.3
,
m*1<m0,
, m*2>m0.
1 > 2 .
() E=U/l, U
, l ( !),
j1 = ne < v >= e 1 n E (. 16.4).
>
. 0
j2 = e 2 n E0 .
. 16.4 , - ()
N N- (
193
S-). N- S-
R = U / I < 0 ,
.
, ,
, .
j1
j2
2
0
. 16.4
16.2. . pn. . p-n-.
pn-. ,
-
( 16.5, ). n , p . -
+
+
+
+
+
+
. 16.5
(. 16.5, )
, ,
, , .
.
,
194
.
.
pn- ,
,
.
(. 16.6, ) n- p-
,
0 ( ) pn-
( nn p-,
np, pp n-, pn).
,
,
. U,
. U
(
).
(. 16.6, )
: ,
(
). P-n- , ,
, , .
p-n-.
0
-
+
+
+
+
+
+
0
p
+ +
+
+
+
+
+
+
)
. 16.6
Pn- (
, n- p-) (
). (p- n-)
(n1- n2- p1- p2-).
() () ,
() (
). -
195
I
U
I
I 2 1
0 U U
1
. 16.7
0 U
2 I
. 16.8
2 >1
I Eg1 Eg2
U
Eg2
Eg1 I
0 U
Eg2 >Eg1
. 16.9
. 16.8 n-
.
, ,
.
. 16.9 n-
() g. ,
,
( )
.
196
. 16.5, , -
,
. ,
, .
. ,
= 0 S / . (. 16.6,
)
, ,
.
, ..
()
(, ).
(, . 16.10, )
,
, ..
(. 16.10, ).
U0
0
t, c U
R U
t, c
t, c
t, c
. 16.10
, -
(
).
(
)
(. 16.10, ).
n-, .
,
.
(, ) ,
n- ().
(, )
.
, ( ,
197
) n-
, . n ,
.
, , ,
.
,
. n-
>n, -
<. .
( ) p-n. . 16.11, n- p-,
( . 16.1 16.2). . 16.11,
. 16.11, . ,
n-p- , ,
. . 16.11
. 16.5, . . 16.5, .
16.11,
() q k .
(. 16.12, )
(.16.12, ).
n-
g
F
p-
p-
qk
E F
d n-
Ea
Ev
v
d
v
qk
n-
qk
n-
F F
Ev
Ev
. 16.11
E
p- Ea
Ea
p- Ea
Ev
)
. 16.12
. 16.12, . 16.6,
, . 16.12, . 16.6, .
198
0
An
F
d
g
n-
v = F
0
g
)
F
d
An qk
0
A
v = F
n-
v
. 16.13
n- () >n.
1025 3 10181019 3
n-,
, ,
-
104 , .
, ,
. . 16.13,
n-
>n. . 16.13,
. :
q k ,
q .
(+ , )
. 16.12, .
-
<.
, , ,
- (
) .
( ), .. . ,
~Ec ( ~EF)
.
199
p-n-
. 1948
(., ., .),
1956 .
(),
( 6, . II )
() ,
,
. p-n-
, .
,
, , ,
,
.
16.3. .
,
, , , .
. 1 1 .
(0,380,78 ),
(0,781000 ) (0,0010,38 ) .
,
: (620780 ), (585
620 ), (550585 ), (510550 ), (480510 ),
(450480 ), (380450 ).
.
- (315380 ), -
(280315 ) - (1280 ), () :
- (780 1,5 ), - (1,520 ) - (20
1 ).
3 :
1)
,
(,
);
2)
,
();
200
3)
,
( ,
).
(, ,
), ,
,
.
:
7)
( );
8)
(
);
9)
);
10)
(
);
11)
( );
12)
(
, ) .
,
,
pn-,
( ).
. 16.14
, .
1 : )
, E g ,
; )
,
.
, 1
.
2
: ) Ea; ) Ed
Ea ( ); )
Ed ; ) ,
, ( ,
,
, ),
.
201
d
) ) ) ) ) )
)
1
. 16.14
3 (), ,
,
.
.
,
.
( ),
, .
:
1)
( );
...
v
. 16.15
2)
( , , ),
202
(. 16.15).
, , ;
3)
, .
( )
,
( )
.
( ),
j = I S ( S
( ),
.
, .. .
,
, .
.
16.4. ,
1>2
(. 16.16)
( (1821 .) (17701831))
(16.1)
= T ,
, ,
.
T1
T1
n
p
T2
T
T1 >T2
. 16.16
203
T2
(.
16.17) (1834 .) .. (17851845).
T1
Q1
n
Q2
T1
p
I
T2
T2
Q2
T1 >T > T2
. 16.17
Q1, 1
. ,
,
Q2 2<.
Q = It ,
(16.2)
= , , I , t
.
,
(. 16.17).
(
, ), ,
, .
204
17.
1.
(LASER Light Amplification by Stimulated
Emission of Radiation). : , ,
(, , ..).
2. .
17.1.
(LASER Light Amplification by Stimulated
Emission of Radiation). : , ,
(, , ..)
(
)
(6.1).
(6.1),
. ?
,
, , ..
,
,
.
() (). ,
,
.
,
.
: ,
( )
.
, : LASER
Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation
.
().
..
(1907 ..) . 1951
.
,
(
205
, )
(. 16.15).
()
( , , ).
.
( ) ,
( )
. ,
, .
,
,
. ,
() ,
(..
,
).
.
()
(-, . ).
.
, ..
. ,
<0 ,
( =0 ,
).
.
- : 1233+ (1960.),
( Nd3+, Nd3+
6% ), CaF2
, Dy, Sm .,
( GaAs (1962.), GaSb, );
- : (1960.);
- : SeOCl2
(1966.).
1973 200
, :
, , .
206
1 3,3 .
24 1954
.. (1916 ..) .. (1922 ..)
(
.). -
, : Microwave
Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiaton (MASER), :
.
1961
(1927 ..). 1960
(1926..), (1903..)
.
,
.
,
, , ..
. ,
>1000 .
.
GaAs
.. 1962 .
(
)
.. (1930 ..)
2000 .
.
.
() Al2O3 0,05%
Cr2O3.
Cr3+, ,
1,621019 3.
,
.
(. 17.1).
207
3
2
1
hv
=694,3
hv
hv
. 17.1
( )
. 17.2
,
(. 17.2). -
3 2 (. 17.1).
1 3
2 ( ,
, ). 2 ,
3 (~2103 ~108 ). 2
1 (
)
1 =694,3 2 =692,9 .
1 =694,3 .
,
( , ).
( )
. ,
( ).
:
208
,
, ,
.
(. 17.2). ,
, , ( )
.
( ),
(), , ,
,
.
, ( )
.
.
:
~103 ~106 ,
~3106105 .
,
,
,
. -
,
.
(. 17.3)
130 (1 ..) 13 (0,1
..).
, ()
, .
,
. 1 2
.
, ( 2% 1%).
~12
. 632,8
() 1150 3390 .
-.
. 17.4 He Ne.
209
.
1 2 .
1 3, 3 4 ,
5 ,
1 . 5
,
1 1 3 .
2 3
1 ( ). ,
, 3 2
, 3 2,
.
.
1 3 ,
1 2 .
1
. 17.3
He
Ne
hv
hv
He
hv =632,8
=1150
5
0
=3390
Ne
. 17.4
1, 2, 3
,
. 5
210
- 5.
5,
1 5. 1
5 ,
5. 1 3
632,8 .
1
( ) 7 .
()
.
- .
, ( )
( ) ,
.
(
, ).
, , ()
j=I/S, S .
j,
(, ) .
j .
, ,
. ()
, (
) (
).
() ,
(,
) .
.
, ,
.
,
, () ( , ,
) .. DROM,
, , ..
, , ,
211
, , ,
.
,
, .
,
.
.
.
,
, .
17.2.
(
13, 14 .I )
() (, . mesos
)
.
, , , .
. ,
,
,
. 15
+55. ()
108 1013 .
.
1888 ,
.. 1968 .
-
( ) ,
, .
.
, ,
.
(),
, .
,
,
a = p n ,
212
(17.1)
p n ,
. a .
a >0
, a <0 .
3 : (. 17.5, ),
(. 17.5, ) (. 17.5, ).
, .
(nema . )
,
, .
)
)
. 17.5
,
,
( ) ,
.
,
: , -,
, ,
( ,
), ,
. ,
.
a <0
. a <0
.
, ,
.
,
.
- (twist . )
a >0 (.
17.6, ) (17.6, ).
213
a >0
(. 17.6, ),
, ..
/2.
U
)
)
. 17.6
, .
. 17.5, .
.
,
.
:
;
.
,
(,
).
214
18.
1. . ,
. . - .
2. . - -. -.
.
3. ,
.
4. ( ).
18.1. . ,
. . -
,
,
.
(1911., . 12) ,
,
;
( ),
.
( )
( ) ( ).
, ,
.
( 99,95%).
10151014 . ,
=1,60218921019 : Q=Ze.
Z .
...
( . protos )
20 XX . .
(
),
( ). mp=1,6726141027
=938,28 1836me1 ..., ...
=1,671027 , m= 9,111031 .
s=1/2 (,
).
. 660
.
, ( SI),
2, ,
215
W0 = m2.
, 1 ( 1 /2) 1
/2=106/(3108 /)21,781030 .
m= 9,111031 =0,511 .
1932 ( 1935 )
-
. (18911974) ,
n. .
. , (. )
,
.
( ) , ,
, .
,
.
194345 . , () .
- 1932
. . (1904..) .
(nucleus .
), .. .
. (1901..)
. .
mn=1,67495431027 =939,57 1838,6me1 ...
, ( ~103 ,
),
, n p + e + ~e .
e (
~e ) , ,
( ),
.
. (19001958) 1930 .
( ) -:
-
-.
,
( ) 1/212 . , ,
s=1/2 (, ).
,
,
.
(. ).
216
,
, ,
, .
.
.
( )
.
N. , (
) Z,
N=AZ.
(18.1)
,
( 1 )
, ,
(v2/c2~0,1).
R = R0 A1 / 3 , R0 (1,3 1,7) 10 15 .
(18.2)
Z X ,
..,
, Z .
Z, .
.
,
.
. , :
1
1 H ; 1 H =1 D ; 1 H = 1T .
, ,
, 1/2=12,35 .
, Z , ,
50
24 Cr .
5
6
, 2 He 3 Cr .
50
23V
, m ,
.
m .
2
, W1 = m c .
, ,
)2
W2 = Zm p + ( A Z ) mn c ,
2
( , ) . W2 W1 = W = mc > 0 ,
217
,
,
.
m = Zm p + ( A Z )mn m .
(18.3)
-,
/ Q/m.
,
:
2
F = QvB = v / R .
.
Wc/
.
: ,
. .
,
, .
.
.
, 1,1 /,
7,1 /. =5060
8,7 /.
.
. (=235 =238)
7,5 /.
()
. , ,
,
24 . =240 (Wc/=7,5 /)
=120 (Wc/=8,5 /)
Wc=(8,57,5)240 =240 . ,
C+O2 CO2+5 5 ,
67 , .
,
?
. ,
.
~1015 . 0,51015
.
218
, .. ,
.
.
, .
.
. ,
. , ..
(
). -
(. (18.2)).
. (1935 .)
. (19071981, 1949 .)
200300me, -:
0,31015 ,
Et h /(2 ) , E = m c 2 -.
,
(), ,
, , ,
.
. (18941952) . 1939 .
:
~1017 /3.
.
,
.
.
194050 .
. (19061972) .
(19071973). :
(),
).
. .
219
( ).
.
195053 .
()
: ()
,
.
, ,
.
18.2. . - -. -.
( Z )
.
(
) (
).
1896
. (18521908),
(
1903.). ,
, . 1899 .
(18711937) , ,
, . , ,
. -, , , .
1900
.
, .
., .
(18591906) (18671934)
: -
, -
, - ,
( 1903.).
1934 (19001958) (1897
1956) ( . .)
. ,
. 1932
220
. 1932 ..
.
1940 .. ..
:
-. 1982 .
151
71 Lu .
, 1984 . .
14
6 C .
.
N(t).
, , dN,
t t+dt,
N(t), t dt:
dN = N (t )dt , ,
, .
N
N0
t
dN
= dt ,
N (t )
0
N (t ) = N 0 e t ,
(18.4)
N0 t=0.
, t N,
N0 ,
t (. (18.4)):
N = N 0 N (t ) = N 0 1 e t .
(18.5)
1/2 ,
(
3107 51015 ). (18.4) N(t)=N0/2 t=1/2,
e
T1 / 2
= 1 / 2 ,
T1 / 2 = ln 2 / 0,693 / .
(18.6)
- , :
221
,
R -
ln = A + B ln R ,
(18.6/)
,
.
, : 1 =1 /,
, 1 =3,71010 . (18.4) :
a = dN / dt = N 0 e t = N .
(18.7)
(18.6) 1/2,
) (18.7) :
a = N = N ln 2 / T1 / 2 .
(18.8)
.
, .
,
232
90Th ,
235
92 U
238
92 U
207
82 Pb
208
92 Pb
237
93 Np .
208
82 Pb
209
83 Pb
.
-
238
234
4
92 U 90Th + 2 He + Q
(Q ).
- X Y- - ( ):
A
A 4
4
Z X Z 2Y + 2 He + ( hv ) .
(18.9)
+-,
- -
.
- ,
,
222
( ).
,
.
- :
- (2 2
) - . ,
- , ,
, . -
, 1036 -
() .
-, . (19011954) 1934 .
. . -
- ,
. - (-, )
,
:
A
A
Z X Z +1Y
+ e + v~e -, (18.10)
A
A
Z X Z 1Y
+ e + + ve +-, (18.11)
.
-
-: ,
:
p + 10e n + ve -. (18.12)
, .
-
n p + e + v~e ,
14
14
6 C 7 N
+ e + v~e ,
11
11
+
6 C 5 B + e
+ ve .
e (
~e ) , ,
( ),
.
. (19001958) 1930 .
223
( ) -:
-
-.
- 102
1018 .
- (-)
,
-
, . 10 5 . - - ,
- ().
(1958
.)
.. (1929.., 1961 .).
2 2 1
,
, (..
). ,
2 1,
v ( hv) -
2.
-, .. 1
2,
2,
. -
, 2
1.
, .
,
, .
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,
.
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, , ,
, .
, (
).
224
() - (..
) .
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.
.
, . ,
,
,
.
.
,
.
, ,
i=dn/dl.
(18.13)
,
S=dW/dl.
(18.14)
R
.
( -
) - ( )
. . , -
4 2,5 ,
.
- . 2
- 3,5 .
- . ,
, , - -
. -
(18.13)
i=4600 /(/v)2,
.
.
225
,
.
1
1H
1 H -, 2,23
, .
, ,
:
I = I 0e x ,
-.
(18.15)
, - , ,
, , ,
,
. - ,
0
: 1 e+ +1e .
- (18.15)
,
: = + + . . ,
,
- . -
,
.
.
D
.
W, , m:
D = W / m.
(18.16)
SI () : 1 =1 /.
t:
P = D/t.
(18.17)
SI () /=/.
. -
=1, =3,
0,5 =10, - =20.
226
D :
H = DK.
(18.18)
SI () . 1 =1
1 (=1).
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. Q
,
( ) m:
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SI () /.
: 1 =2,58104 /. 1 1 3
2 109 .
- 6 .
m=70 (18.16)
W=Dm=70 6 =420 .
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1 .
0,1
, 2 .
35
12 . 1050
12 .
,
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5 .
2 .
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227
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.
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. .,
228
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: ,
.
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)
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, .
. ( 1938 .)
193438 .
.
:
,
.
1942 . .
,
,
.
1954 .. (19031960).
, :
.
235
1
92 U + 0 n
235
1
139
95
92 U + 0 n 54 Xe + 38 Sr
-
+ 201n + Q ,
-
139
139
139
139
57 La ,
56 Ba
55 Cs
54 Xe
230
(18.20)
235
1
139
94
92 U + 0 n 56 Ba + 36 Kr
+301n + Q .
. ,
. ,
,
X1 X2 (
200 ),
. , ,
. . . 1938 . .
, ,
, , =139.
.
.. . .
1939 .
. .
. . .,
,
. .
.,
. . .
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,
200 ,
, . 16 1939
, .
.. 8 1939 . ,
.
, 1 1939
.
.
. .,
.. ,
. ,
=90150, 80
. ,
2:3. ,
1014 , ( 0,75%)
0,05 1 . 2,5
.
235
92 U
(0,71%).
238
92 U
238
92 U
(99,29%)
231
235
1 . 92 U
,
, .
235
92 U
238
92 U
200 ,
.
0,1 14 .
238
92 U .
238
239
92 U 92 U
.
235
: 92 U
, .
,
235
92 U . ,
.
235
, ( 92 U
239
94 P ) m.
235
92 U m= 50 ,
239
R= 8,5 , 94 P m=11 .
, ..
.
.
, ,
235
239
, 92 U , 94 P .
.
,
235
1 92 U , 2104 .
(6 1945 ) (9 1945 ).
200000 .
,
.
235
92 U
.
232
( 1 H
235
92 U
12
6C
).
200 ,
238
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. ,
235
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, ,
, .
238
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, ,
.
, ..
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,
.
,
.
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, K>1 ,
, .
.
.
, ()
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, , .
,
1013 ,
,
,
.
. W,
1013 .
W = bQ1Q2 / r .
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b=9109 2/2 W=2,31015=1,4 .
233
. ,
, (3/2)kT, k=1,381023 /:
T=2W/(3k)108 , .
(
, .. (19031960) 1953
., 1949 .
). ,
, (
),
. :
2
2
3
1
1 D + 1 D 1T + 0 p + 4 MeV ,
(18.21)
2
3
4
1
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(18.22)
6
1
4
3
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(18.22) 14 ,
238
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3 , , 105106
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.
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m0 =
(E
c2 p2 / c2 .
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0=m0c2 (. ),
, ().
, .
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~ v~ .. ,
v
e
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0
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235
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e
1
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. ( ),
- (
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236
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108
264,1/134,97
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108
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974/497,67
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,
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v
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,
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237
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e
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5)10-31 /3, .
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2007
(University of Copenhagens Dark Cosmology
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.
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, .
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, .
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,
.
247
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. ().
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w+
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mc2
mc2
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)
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- .
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249
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.
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251
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