Nigeria

We Love Coups
Chapter 18

NIGERIA

Political Culture
Patron-Clientelism (PREBENDELISM)
Clientelism exchanging political and economic favors among patrons and clients, corruption becomes problematic
EX: In Nigeria, in exchange for support a president may grant his clients a portion of the oil revenues.

State Control/Underdeveloped Society

Civil society refers to sectors of country that lie outside government control.
In Nigeria state controls all aspects of life (economics, political participation, religious activity, etc.) this reinforces clientelism and limits democracy

Modernity vs. Tradition

Pre-Colonial Era vs. Colonial Era

Religious Conflict Geographic Influence

Political Cleavages
Ethnicity Nigeria has between 250-400 ethnic groups, Huasa-Fulani, Igbo, and
Yoruba dominant. Three groups have very little in common and speak different languages

Religion Islam, Christianity, and native religions. Region follow along ethnic and religious lines Urban vs. Rural Differences most political organizing, interest groups, and
political protest takes place in cities

Social Class deep divisions among social classes. Wealth of elites stems from

access to Nigerias resources. Maintained their power by appealing to religious and ethnic identities. Wealthy elite find it difficult to give up wealth associated with access to state treasury, educated elite would like to see adoption of democratic principles.

Geographic Influences

Northwest dominated by two groups that combined as the Hausa-Fulani people,

area is predominantly Muslim.

Northeast area is home to many smaller groups, such as the Kunari, also
predominantly Muslim. Middle Belt many smaller ethnic groups, mix of Muslims and Christians.

Southwest Yoruba dominate the area. They are about 40% Muslim, 40%
Christian, and 20% native religions.

Southeast area dominated by the Igbo, predominantly Roman Catholic with some
Protestant Christians as well

Southern Zone area along Niger River Delta, people are from various small
minority groups.

Nigerias Major Ethnic Groups

Societal Characteristics & Concerns

Poverty 60% of all Nigerians live below poverty line, with many living
in absolute poverty.

Gap between Rich & Poor similar to Mexico, however in

Nigeria now growth is being made to alleviate this gap.

Health Issues high rates of HIV/AIDS, one in every eleven HIV/AIDS

sufferers live in Nigeria.

Literacy for males is 75.7% and for females 60.6% (World averages
are 83% men, 71% for women)

Public Authority & Political Power

National Question: differing opinions about how political
power should be distributed and how the government should be constructed. In Nigeria differences are more distinct and run deeper than other countries Since independence in 1960, neither its leaders nor its citizens agree on the basics of who should rule and how Questions about whether Nigeria should remain one nation Regional disagreements & hostilities Problems traditionally solved by military force and authoritarianism

Constitutionalism
First constitution written in 1914 Eight constitutions between 1914 and 1995 Current constitution written in 1995 has been heavily amended since its inception Acceptance of constitutionalism as a guiding set of principles has eluded Nigeria
Military and civilian leaders have felt free to disobey and suspend constitutional principles or change constitutions not to their liking

Without constitutionalism the National Question has been much harder to answer

Legitimacy
Nigeria is a relatively young country, achieving independence in 1960, this makes establishing legitimate government more difficult
Fragmentation tendency to fall apart along ethnic, regional, and/or religious lines. Contradictory Influence of the Past British colonial rule of law vs. Military rule/Personalized authority Corruption both military and civilian rule tainted with corruption. Citizens question the payment of taxes that get deposited in personal bank accounts
General Ibrahim Babangida (1985-1993) General Sani Abacha (1993-1998)

Precolonial Era (800-1600) Political Traditions

Trade Connections
& Ocean Access
Sahara Desert Golden Trade of the Moors; Niger River

Influence of Islam Trade with North Africa put Hausa & other groups in
contact with Arab education and Islam, sharia emerges as dominant political principle

Kinship-based Politics village key political entity Complex Political Identities contrast between centralized state and local
governance. (Oyo & Ife centralized states in south vs. small trading-states in north)

Democratic Impulses accountability, representative government, and

democracy practiced by many villages, including Yoruba and Igbo.

Colonial Era (1860-1960) Political Traditions

Authoritarian Rule in order to achieve goals of economic domination
British strengthened the authority of traditional chiefs, making them accountable only to British. This resulted in a loosening of rulers responsibility to the people

Interventionist State colonialist trained chiefs to operate government

to achieve economic goals. Checks on authority that existed in Britain did not have roots in Nigeria. This set in place expectations that citizens should passively accept actions of rulers.

Individualism in Nigeria led to a tendency of chiefs to think about

personal benefits of governance, rather than good of the community

Colonial Era continued

Christianity British introduction of Christianity created a split between Christian and Muslim dominated areas. Islam dominant in the north, Christianity in the south. Intensification of Ethnic Politics emergence of three dominant
groups: Hausa-Fulani, Igbo, and Yoruba.
British pitted groups against each other by promising rewards to some groups but not others. Anti-colonialism movement emerged during 20th century appealed to ethnic identities to gain followers and supporters of decolonization

1960-1966
Independence: The First Republic Government
British Westminster parliamentary model Federal state Leaders
President (largely symbolic in First Republic): Nnamdi Azikiwe (East)

Prime Minister: Tafawa Balewa (North)

Northern domination led by the Hausa-Fulani tribe

Based on greater population Sought to redistribute nations wealth to benefit northern people
Alienated southern regions

Nigerias Four Regions (1963)

1966-1970
Nigerian Civil War
Causes
Northern domination of First Republic; Alienation of southern regions Disputes over recent population census

January 1966 Coup

Balewa (Prime Minster) and other northern leaders were killed General Aguiyi Ironsi (Igbo[Southeast]) took control of government Sought end of government corruption and northern domination Called for end of federalism and establishment of unitary state Northerners unhappy about Ironsis plans for change

1966-1970
Civil War Continued
July 1966 Coup
General Ironsi was killed General Yakubu Gowon came to power as a consensus head of state
Northerner who had no real ties to the Hausa-Fulani tribe or Islam

Backlash against Igbos

many minority Igbos living in the north (often as migrant workers) were persecuted Persecuted Igbos fled back to their home state in the south

Attempted Biafran Secession

Igbos (Southeast) believed that in Nigeria they would always be dominated by the north Igbos attempted to secede from Nigeria; dubbed their new independent country Biafra

1966-1970
Defeat of Biafra
General Gowon led a North-West Nigerian coalition to defeat Biafra secessionists Attrition and starvation tactics were used to defeat Biafran separatists

1970-1976
Gowons Military Rule
Gowon pledged to return to civilian rule, but failed to accomplish transition Size of armed forces increased Oil revenues increased dramatically Corruption widespread Gowon ousted in 1976 by Brigadier Murtala Muhammed

1976-1979
Transition to Democracy Brigadier Muhammed pledged return to democracy, but was assassinated in 1976 General Olusegun Obasanjo, Muhammeds second-in-command, took power after the assassination Obasanjo peacefully ceded power to an elected civilian government in 1979
He would be back!

1979-1983
Second Republic: Civilian Government of Shagari
Alhali Shehu Shagari elected president in 1979 Shagari, a northerner, mistrusted in the south because he was believed to be a protector of northern interests Economy struggled due to declining world oil prices, an influx of immigrants and government mismanagement Government guilty of flagrant corruption
bribery smuggling improper use of funds generated from government oil revenues

1979-1983
Election fraud in 1983 elections
Fraud during voter registration, on ballots and in polling stations Shagari and his party (National Party of Nigeria) implausibly won governorships of 13 of the then 19 states of the federation Overwhelming majorities in both houses of parliament Shagari won the presidential election with 47% of the vote (unlikely in a multi-candidate race in such a divided country as Nigeria) Shagari ousted by Major General Muhammadu Buhari (1983)

1983-1985
Buhari Regime: Authoritarianism Returns
Loss of popular support Inability to help the economy Refusal to return Nigeria to civilian rule

Ousted by Major General Babangida

1985-1993
The Babangida Years
Called for a return to civilian rule in Nigeria, but engaged in significant political stalling to extend his military control Corruption: misappropriation of $12 billion generated from Nigerias oil industry

1985-1993
Controversial presidential election held (1993)
first post-independence elections held in Nigeria deemed to be fair and open (in terms of voter registration and voting) Election apparently won by Chief Moshood Abiola (wealthy Yoruba businessman), but Babangida annulled the results.

Results of the Election of 1993

Abiola arrested and sent to prison (where he eventually died) Protests against Babangida were held Government ordered the arrest of human rights and pro-democracy activists, opposition newspapers were closed, and opposition politicians sent into exile

Babangida resigned after persuasion from leading Nigerians (1993) Babangida replaced by civilian government of Chief Ernest Shonekan

1993-1998
The Abacha Regime: Brutal Authoritarianism
Seized power from ineffective civilian government of Shonekan (1993).

1993-1998
The Abacha Regime: Ogoniland Crisis Background
Ogoni: ethnic group living in southern Nigeria in the oil-rich Niger Delta Ogoniland residents believed Shell Oil Petroleum Company was destroying the Niger Deltas rich environment while not adequately compensating local Ogoni people with profits made from the lucrative oil trade

Ogoni Protests
Ogonis formed Office of the Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People (MOSOP) led by Nigerian writer Ken Saro-Wiwa Demonstrations against Shell began in 1990

Abachas Reaction
Ordered the military to crush the protests By 1993 1,000 Ogonis had been killed Saro-Wiwa and other leading dissidents were charged with murdering four pro-government Ogoni chiefs, found guilty and executed.

1993-1998
International reaction to the Ogoniland Crisis
Members of British lead Commonwealth voted to suspend Nigeria from the association South African president Nelson Mandela called for international sanctions to be imposed on Nigeria Mandela called Abachas government an illegitimate, barbaric, arrogant dictatorship (1995 BBC interview)

1993-1998
The Abacha Regime: Corruption and Dictatorship
Stole an estimated $4.3 billion from the government Dismantled all election institutions Terminated all state and national assemblies Closed independent newspapers and other news media Banned political demonstrations and activity Silenced Nigerian writer Wole Soyinka, who eventually fled Nigeria

1998-1999
Abubakars Transition to Civilian Government
Abubakar assumed control of Nigeria after the sudden death of Abacha in 1998 (heart attack) Negotiated with prominent opposition leaders for the release of Abiola, but the Yoruba businessman died before his liberation Established a timetable for the re-establishment of a democratically elected, civilian government for Nigeria Abolished decree that allowed government to detain people without trial

Elections held in 1999

won by Olusegun Obasanjo Abubakar turned over power to Obasanjo

Nigerian Dalmatian

Organization of the Fourth Republic

Federal republic
Current government based on 1999 modifications of the 1979 constitution Comprised of 36 states and 774 local governments Federal Character: Federal system adopted as a way to balance various ethnic, religious, regional and linguistic differences (social cleavages). English official language of Nigeria

US-style presidential system with strong executive

President is both Head of State & Head of Government Strong executive: the President President theoretically checked by system of checks and balances: a bicameral legislature and an independent judiciary

The Executive
President
Idea of a strong, directlyelected President intended to be a unifying factor in Nigeria President Obasanjo (1999-2007 ): sought to remove the military from politics. Shortly after the 1999 election, he retired over 90 senior military officials (ones he viewed as likely candidates to lead coups)

The Executive
Presidential Elections Presidential candidate basic criteria
Citizen by birth; at least 40years-old Member of a political party and is sponsored by a political party Has attainted at least School Certificate level (or equivalent) of education

Presidential election basics

Elected by popular election Election criteria established to bolster legitimacy given ethnic, religious & regional cleavages in Nigeria

Presidential Election Winner Guidelines

Election with one candidate only
Candidate has a majority of YES votes over NO votes cast at the election; and Candidate has not less than 1/4 of the votes cast at the election in each of at least 2/3 of all the States in the Federation and the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja

Election with two candidates

Candidate has the majority of votes cast at the election; and Candidate has not less than 1/4 of the votes cast at the election in each of at least 2/3 of all the States in the Federation and the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja

Election with more than two candidates

Has the highest number of votes cast at the election Candidate has not less than 1/4 of the votes cast at the election in each of at least 2/3 of all the States in the Federation and the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja

Nigerias 35 States & Federal District of Abuja

Presidential Powers
Head of State Head of Government Commander-in-Chief of the Military Chief diplomat in foreign policy Nominates Federal Executive Council (cabinet )
Ministers must be confirmed by Senate President serves as Chairman of Federal Executive Council

Not a member of National Assembly, but may attend any session to deliver an address on major issues or make a statement on important policy Appoints judges on Supreme Court

Vice President
Assists the President Nominated by President as his running mate in election campaign and automatically becomes vice president if running mate wins presidential election Assumes the office of the President if the President vacates the office prior to end of term (death, resignation, impeachment)

Federal Executive Council (Cabinet)

Nominated by President Approved by Senate Constitution requires President to appoint ministers from all 36 states (federal character concept)

The Legislature
Bicameral Senate (upper house)
Each of the 36 states elects 3 senators

House (lower house)

360 seats determined by population of states

Both serve 4 year terms

The Federal Judiciary

Judiciary traditionally independent and citizens could bring cases against the government and expect a judicial decision based on the merit of the case (rule of law) Military governments slowly eroded the independence of the judiciary (1983-1998)
Disallowed judicial review of military decrees Intimidation of judges and court officials Creation of military courts that challenged civil decisions Military dictatorships stacked civil courts with military stooges

The Federal Judiciary

Courts since 1999: Gaining independence Since the return to civilian rule in 1999, courts are operating more independently
Nigerias Supreme Court has re-emerged as a major player in political development Judges appointed by President Federal courts more powerful than state and local courts

The State Judiciaries

State Judiciary overview
Subordinate to federal courts and must abide by decisions handed down from federal courts
Supreme Court Federal Court of Appeals

State courts based on English Common Law tradition Sharia law in northern states with large Muslim population
With advent of Fourth Republic democracy, 12 of Nigerias states established a parallel court system based on sharia law (divine law based on the Quran and the teachings of Mohammad)

Applies only to Muslims Christians in north overwhelmingly oppose Sharia law Some sharia law crimes have harsh punishments (incredibly controversial)
Amputation for stealing Death by stoning for adultery

Policy Making: Prebendalism

Patterns of political behavior that rest on the justification that official state offices should be competed for and then utilized for the personal benefits of officeholders as well as their support or clients. Thus, prebendal politics is sustained by the existence of patron-client networks.
Nigerias military leaders have often put personal and ethnic ambitions over national interests (although military leaders claimed to represent national interests) Oil wealth lavished on friends (corruption!) Establishment of loyalty pyramids where money and support were organized. The top of the pyramids led by what Nigerians call big men. Big Men often sit in the National Assembly

Obasanjos reforms: Obasanjo has tried to limit the influence of prebendalism as he attempts to establish a law-based society, but his reform initiatives have been frustrated by the Big Men in the National Assembly.

Export Economy
Colonialism paved the way for what would become an export economy
Wood, palm oil, peanuts and cotton

Led to a decrease in food farming

This plus rapid urbanization poses troubles for a booming population

45% of pop. Is under 15 (kids are valuable resource in labor intensive ag. Economy)
High infant mortality and no social security system

1975-2000 pop. Growth has been 2.9% annually

Economic growth only 2.4% annually

Power of Oil
Reserves discovered in 1950s Slowly lures young workers away from agricultural work to oil fields Nigerias GDP became more closely tied to and dependent on oil Reduction in crude production and drop in oil prices during early to mid 1980s put Nigeria in a recession that it still has not recovered from Recent conflict in Middle East has helped Nigeria b/c oil prices have risen

Internal Oil Conflict

Reserves are located along Niger Delta in East (Biafra/Igbo) Has led to degradation of the regions resources
Yet majority of wealth is redistributed to the more powerful North Oil producing region is least developed in Nigeria Has led to peaceful and violent protests by Biafra people for independence and greater share of wealth Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delata (MEND)
By 2006 claimed responsibility for taking at least 18 foreign hostages as a protest of their treatment

Political Socialization
Family
Polygamy not uncommon
Muslims theoretically limited to 4 wives Mainstream Christians preach 1 wife Indigenous people vary

Kinship is important b/c of large families, and politicians may be able to count on literally 100s of supporters that are actual kin

Education
South heavily invested in education to make up for unequal treatment in North Problem: Educated Southerners go to North in search of work and are turned away
Leads to further conflict among regions

Political Socialization
The Media
Only about 1/3 of Nigeria is literate About 30% of population reported getting their news from newspapers about once a week
A large word of mouth circulation among those who cant read

Most get their news from radio

Radio and TV are state controlled Only a small percent have access to satellite and internet

Violence against reporters not in line with the state is not rare

Religion
Hugely important in shaping political views in Nigeria 80% of population says they are involved in Religious associations

Political Participation
Patron-Clientelism Voting Behavior Attitudes toward Government Protests and Social Movements

Prebendalism
Personalized system of rule Personal offices treated like fiefdoms Large patronage networks based on personal loyalty Local government officials gain support of villagers by dispensing favors, in turn they receive favors for supporting their patron bosses Most favors exchanged by political elites Corruption and informal influence rampant Does however represent established form of political participation

Voting Behavior
Nigerians have voted in elections since 1959 Voting patterns difficult to determine because of fraud, postponement, and election cancellation Political parties are numerous and fluid Babangidas annulment of 1993 election hurt political participation during the 1990s Local, state, & national elections have continued however since the late 1990s About 2/3 of eligible voters participated in the 2003 election

Attitudes toward Government

Citizens do not Trust Nigerian Government
Corruption Military Rule Lack of Civil Society No commitment toward Democracy

Babangida & Abacha (Corrupt - Military Authoritarianism)

Protests & Social Movements

Environmentalists (Ken Saro-Wiwa)
Targeted the international oil companies, especially in the Niger River Delta In 2002 group of Ijaw women occupied ChevronTexacos Nigerian headquarters for 10 days

Ethnic groups Womens Movement

President Obasanjo made it part of his 2003 campaign to include more women in cabinet and bureaucratic offices Nigerian legislature has very low female representation
6.4% in House of Representatives 3.7% in Senate

X. Political Participation
Patron-Clientelism Voting Behavior Attitudes toward Government Protests and Social Movements

Prebendalism
Personalized system of rule Personal offices treated like fiefdoms Large patronage networks based on personal loyalty Local government officials gain support of villagers by dispensing favors, in turn they receive favors for supporting their patron bosses Most favors exchanged by political elites Corruption and informal influence rampant Does however represent established form of political participation

Voting Behavior
Nigerians have voted in elections since 1959 Voting patterns difficult to determine because of fraud, postponement, and election cancellation Political parties are numerous and fluid Babangidas annulment of 1993 election hurt political participation during the 1990s Local, state, & national elections have continued however since the late 1990s About 2/3 of eligible voters participated in the 2003 election

Attitudes toward Government

Citizens do not Trust Nigerian Government
Corruption Military Rule Lack of Civil Society No commitment toward Democracy

Babangida & Abacha (Corrupt - Military Authoritarianism)

Protests & Social Movements

Environmentalists (Ken Saro-Wiwa)
Targeted the international oil companies, especially in the Niger River Delta In 2002 group of Ijaw women occupied ChevronTexacos Nigerian headquarters for 10 days

Ethnic groups Womens Movement

President Obasanjo made it part of his 2003 campaign to include more women in cabinet and bureaucratic offices Nigerian legislature has very low female representation
6.4% in House of Representatives 3.7% in Senate

XXIII. Federal Character

Federalism seen as a positive characteristic for Nigerian political structure Federalism promises power-sharing Allows citizens more contact points with government

Federal Character
Recognition of all ethnic, religious, & regional groups Nigerian Constitutional Provisions
Senators represent diverse states Representatives elected from diverse districts President must receive 25% of the votes in 2/3 of the districts

Negatives of Federalism
Federalism bloats bureaucracy Promotes corruption within bureaucracy
Jobs created to satisfy demands of various ethnic groups

Legislative branch suffers from gridlock

Competition over government resources

Federalism II
Southerners argue that federalism will only exist when central government devolves some authority to the state & local governments
Nigerians of the Niger Delta believe they should control their own resources Redistribution of the regions oil wealth should be prohibited Southerners suggest that police duties should also be the responsibility of local and state governments

This True Federalism Movement not supported by Northerners

North has few resources and very little revenue to share Northerners benefit more from redistribution of wealth programs

XXIV. Reforms
Economic Reforms of the late 1990s
Further privatization of state-owned industry Limitations on economic controls of the central government
Money taken by General Abacha returned by foreign banks and placed in the state treasury

Scheme for alleviating poverty in Nigeria

Increase in public wages
Hope of decreasing instances of corruption

Increase in financial reserves as a result of stabilized oil prices