Electromagnetism

, . .
2008
... .
: . .
, : . .
. . , 2008.
.
1. ( , , )
. . . ,
, .
: .
, +1 .
E=
F
q
F = k
q1q2
r2
E=k
q
.
r2
W
q
= +1 .
: E =

d
= + + =
dr
x y z
D , D = 0 E
, , 0 .
2. ( )
.
r
r
B , B = B ( r , I )
( ) :
.
H (r ) =
B (r )
, , , 0 const.
0
3.
. . .
4.
, , , . .
... .
1.
1.1.
q , .
,
.

1. (): N ,
.
Q = Ne,
e = 1,6 10
19
1 = 3 10 9 q
2. () , , .
3. : .
(I - )
4. , .
- (+1). , +1 ,
(E) .
+1 , , .
r 12 = r e 12 , 12 , |r|=|12| = 1.
F 12 = k
q1 q2
e12 ,
r2
F 21 = k
q1q 2
e12
r2
1. 1.2.
:
:
k=
1
12
, k = 1. 0 = 8,85 10
.
4 0
[ q ] =
[ F ][ r 2 ] = 2 2 =
1 , -2 = .
: [q] = 1 = 3109 q .
2
2

[q]2
= 2 =
=
= .
[ 0 ] = 2
[r] [F ]
0: F
, 0 =
3 109 3 109
1 1 1
F
=
= 9 1014 = 9 109 , .. = 105 .
100 2
4 0
1 2
1
1
=
= 8,85 10 12 /.
9
4 F 4 9 10
1.2.
q () ,
, +1 .
: ().
Eq = Eq =
[E ] =
1
q
2 = Eq (r )
4 0 r
, .
[F ]
=
= .
=
[ q]
: , .
. ,
2
( ) : (
+1), =||. , .

:
= = 0
=0
= 0,
= 0,
=0
... .
( )
(L) . :
, .
=
(
cos ( ,
) = (
= (
S = S.
dS 2,
En 1 2.
dS , dS (
) , S, dE .
=0
( )
( = )
= 0.
S .
, E .
: () ()
)
:
=
( )
=
=
+ =
=0
2 =
[ ]
=
1
=0
= 0
> .
=
= 0, -
2
E
=0
1. 1.3.
1.3.
, .
- .
=
, +1 . .

( , F W)
=
.
q = const.
, = const .
:
1. .
:
. .
2. .
. const. .
)
, = (
= 0, = , . . .
... .
3. q:
, =
=
. ,
, . . .
4. (q) (q):
( ).
5. q q 1 2.
=
6. q 1 +1 1 .
:
= 1, . .
7. N ( )
= 0.
. (
):
=
.
. q1 N
q2.
, 2 q1 ,
. N , :
1
2
)=
1
2
1
2
,=
i (N-1) , qi, , qi ,
, .

[ ]=
*
1 = 1 1 .
[ ]
1
10
= 1 () =
=
.
3 10
300
1. 1.4.
1.4.
=
( )
E ,
. , . .
=
sin ,

=
. = .
, :
= =
( )
sin .
10
... .
)
= (
. ( ) = =
)=
, ..
= .
= . ,
) = 0
< 0.
, ().
) =
= max
>0
, .
= =
( )
cos
, ,
, .

()

106 . ,
() H2 He.

. ,

, .
1. 1.5.
11
1.5.
( )
( ) . , , () .

1) .
=
cos( ; ) =
+ (
2) .
= =
) +
3) (-) , .
= [ ]=
4) , .
= ( )

1)
(. =
= =
, = + + .
2) .
= =
, .
q () .
/ , , ( ) ,
( ).
> 0 ;
< 0 .
12
... .
3) , ( ).

= [ ] = rot =
, , .
:
rot , . .
1) ( ) .
=
( )
L ( L).
: (
).
=
2) ( S).
= (
, dS ,
.

, S.
: , ,
q , :
div = = lim
()
( )
1. 1.5.
13
S, P, ,
S () .
,
: , ( > 0) ,
( < 0).
-
S .
( )
( )
( )
( )
-
1) - ( ) ,
, ( ) - .
2) .
, ,
.
,
=
S ()
= + + ( , y
, z ).
, =
. . ( )
, :
. , =
+
+
+
+
, =
=
= ,
( )
. . .
, ( )
.
14
... .

q () ,
(
(
) =
()
) , L,
( ) ,
( )
L , , L
( ). , ,
L. L ( ),
|
| =
()
, rot , P, .

1. .
=
=[

] =
( ).
2.
:
=
( )
:
=
3.
, , .
~
( )
1. 1.5.
15

( rot )
( )
( )
L
L.
S, -

1) () ( rot )
.
2) , () .
3) rot , L,
rot ( ).
[
] =
( rot ).
, ,
.
= , , cos ^
.
= -
, , . div rot = 0 . rot . , .

rot = [ ] = =
()
, :
(rot ) = lim
(rot ) =
.
(rot ) =
( )
()
=(
, (
= ,
(rot ) =
= rot
rot = (rot ) + (rot ) + (rot ) ,
() ).
. (rot ) =
(rot ) =
(rot ) =
P(x,y,z) 3
2
z
y
, ().
16
... .

( ).
1) .. , :
= rot = 0.
( )
( )
( ).
.
:
1. (
0 1 2,
(L)
(L)
2) :
= (
( )
qi, (
( )
= ( ) div
qi).
div =
( )
( ) div
1.6.
: .
: .

(
). : .
:
=
1. 1.6.
17

( ).
.
q ( ) , ,
:
=
, .
/ ,
. V : ,
, , .
=
() ( ).
=
n 1 3.
= ( ) .
~
. .
[ ](= ) [ ]
=
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[
]=
[ ]
[ ]=
.
[ ]=[

.
.
,
18
... .
1.
, ( = ).
V :
( < 90 cos
> 90 cos
> 0,
< 0,
> 0;
< 0).
= =
=
cos
, . . .
1. 1.6.
19
2. ' /3
,
dS S .
:
1. ,
.
2. , ; , .
, ,
dS:
cos
cos +
cos
cos
n ( ), + .
e )
( + )
cos
cos
, , dS:
( )
(. .
. . .
( )
( )
( )
( )
:
,
. .
20
... .
= , ,
0 / :
= =
( , ).
,
1.7. ( )

.
.
( ) ( ) ,
= =
.
( ) :
E. ,
.
= ( ) :
= , :
=
+ =
, ( ) =
()
() , .
(*), :
=
(1 + ) =
+ ( ).
( D ! Sic!)
> 1, . .
<
1) = ( ) , : , = .
:
2)
+ = , !
, . .
. :
= 1,
, =
> 1, .
1. 1.8.
:
( )
( )
21
( )

.
(
= ( )
. :
1.8.
1. - E D
:
( )
=0
2. E D
- (
) .
1)
( )
( )
=0
+ 2 = 0 ( 0)
1 2 ,
=
() E ( ).
=
2)
( )
.
+ = 0 ( 0)
. n
=
, n .
=
En D E .
22
... .
1.9.
()
(1920 .)
1) E (( ) =
( ).
, =
2) ( ) ( E).
.
.
E :
E
.
3) .
q
10-3 .
. ,
.

:
.
4)
( ), (
).
15
<
< +22,5
5)
1. .
2. .
6) .

. (~ )
1. 1.10.
23
1.10.

(, ).
:
1)
2)
= 0;
( ).
,
=
.
. . ,
, .
, =
. = .
q
:
=
+1 . Q
, ~ , .
, .
: , 1
1 .
[ ]=
1 = 3 10
:
1
= 9 10
300
= 9 10 = 1,5
10 .
~ .
.
(
+1 ). ,
, :
=
( + ) . ( ) , .
24
... .
( ~ )
= ,
( ~ ()).
= ,
~ .
2 () .
( ).
4 .
, -
1. 1.11.
25
1.11.

N
N :
=
1
2
1
2
, , (N1),
, .
1
= [+
2
+ ( )
]=
)=
, ( 3) :
=
,
.
, , , ,
, R.

=4
)=
26
... .
1.12.
q .
) ( =
( ), )
, :
= ( )=
, .
) () q
( ).
( )
.
[ ]==
( )
3 10
=
= 3 10 .
. , , -
,

= ( , , ).

S:
=
( )
( )
( )
( )
( , , , )
, (x, y, z, t),
t.
V , .
=
, . . .
1. 1.13. ()
27
:
,
= 0, = 0,
=
.
=
[ ]=
[ ] =
1.13. ()
() +1 .
(+) (1) (2) ( ). +1 (2) (1),

, (, ).
q () +1 :
=
=
121 ( ):
=
( (
) ,
= (
q 121 .
=
+ ,
)+
).
28
... .
1.14.
( ).
1. .
q ( ), 3 ():
=0.
2. .
(..
= 0, ).

1)
2)
3)
4)
().
.
().
.
, > 0, .
> 0, .
1. 1.15. -
29
1.15. -

:
1/ ,
. [ ] =
:
=
. [ ] =
1 = 1 =
-
:
=
:
=
:
(
=
30
... .
1.16. -

.
, ,
() .
:
=
8 1,38 10
300
= 10 ,
3,14 0,9 10
(n = ), =
= 10
1,6 10
( !)
1
10
= 10
( )
, .
1. 1.16. -
31
(+ )
.
:
-
=
=
=
2
,
~ .
: .
- -
,
=
. .
.
,
. . .
-
( ):
1. -
~ ~ ,
2. -
~ .
>
32
... .
2.
.
( , , ) .
: .
( . )
( ).
. :
=0
2.1.
--
( ):
=
sin
2. 2.1.
33

( )

, = .
(+)
(
).
1820 . (, ).
~
1, () ().
.

:
,
1 = 2 10 .
).
2 10
= ,
2 1 1
1 1 2
=
1
4
1
1 () , :
(.
= ;
).
34
... .
: ( ) .
) [
]=
[ ]
[ ][ ]
[ ]
[ ] = [
,
[ ]
][ ]
)
= 4 10
8,85 10
=4
][ ] =
[ ]
=
.
[ ] [ ]
10
1
1
=
=
(3 10 )
4 9 10
( = 3 10 )
, .
--

.
=
sin( )
1) - : ( )
1 () :
2: ,
=
,
sin
3 ():
=
sin
4
=
0
sin
sin
sin
sin
sin
( cos )
sin
=2
(. :
).
2. 2.1.
2)
--
,
[
]=
=[
]=[
( )
].
[ ]
-- .
, .
1) :
--
,
sin( )
35
36
... .
2) ,
, .
][
],
, , = 1 , , = 1 = 1
= 1 c .
2.2.
( =

( )=
(. ( ) =

3 cos
:
( )=
+
+ 1)
2. 2.2.

( )=
= :
2
+
37
sin ,
, , :
=
sin
. . sin
( )
( )
, .
(.
).
= sin ( )
38
... .
(.
0;
(. /.:
sin
cos
= )
[ ]=[
=[
]=
:
.
=
,
=
= = ,
2. 2.3.
39
2.3.
( ),
( )
=0
(...)
( )
( )
()
( )
=
=
( )
cos
( )
2
=
( )
2
=
2
( )
( ).
, .
= = 0,
. .
=+
( )
=0
( )
= rot
( )
( )
( )
rot
( )
.
, :
C.
=
=0
=
=
40
... .

( )
: ( ) c
2
( )
1. (
2.
3.
4.
= (
)
)
L.
2.4. .
, . 1820 . :
.
. ( 1 ,
).
. =
() = ( ) ,
. , ,
, .

( ) .
= + , = + ,
= + .
2. 2.4. .
=
41
( ),
= ( ).
, , S , ..
, .
, ,
, .
, ( ) (
).
1 3,
cos
, =
,
.
cos ,
=
,
, -
( )
( )
(.
= )
cos
=
( )
( )
cos( ; ) = ,
( )
rot
( )
= .
=
, = .
( ) ( = ( ), ).
, ( ) () : .
42
... .
( ) =
(1 + ) =
= 1+
-, - .
q
:
, , , , .
. :
0
=1+
1,
= 10
10
,
. :
=

, . . .
.
:
, , .
2. 2.4. .
43
.
=
:

sin
sin
sin
sin
sin
. . .
.
, , .
=
= 10
( )
= 3,6 10 10
2
.
3
= 10
10
, .
q ,
. , ,.
,
.
, ,
> 0,
> 1,
= 10
, .
:
1.
:
( 0) =
, ,
+
(.),
.
10
, -
44
... .

2.
3.
cos ).
(
.
= 10
10
cos
.
,
0,
Fe:
= 10
, , ., .
=1+
= 5000,
= ( )
1,
= 80 ; :
10 ,
= 0,3 ; :
= 53000 .

1)
( )= ( )
( )
( )
2) ( ) ( )
: , ; .
,
. .
.
2. 2.4. .
45
3) : .
=
4) ,
. - .
.
q =
( ).
,
.
:
1) (

) .
2) .
:
=
1 :
~
= 1+
=1+
=
=
. ,
.
46
... .
1) :
:
Experimental Design:
( ) (
, ).
2) (
):
.
.
() .
.
1 2 , .
:
, , () .
=
, = 1,05 10
=
, .
=2
= 0,927 10
, .
=2
3) - ( )
. ()
, .
=
..
2. 2.4. .
cos
47
, . .
, ,
.
.
( ).
(-):
, ( ). : , .
, cos
( ).

( + 1)
48
... .
3.
3.1.
q ()
( ) .
=
, : , .
:
I
II
( I II) ,
.
,
( I II)
, .
= = = ,
1 1 .
q .
-- ~ . =
=
~ ,
, , ( ). , . (. =
)
[ ] = = , , 1
= 1 .
.
=
( )
3. 3.1.
49
q , .
=
( =
1 ,
)
1) .
2) ( ),
( ). .
2 0,
. .
, (
+ + 2
= = 0.
= 0,
3)
( )
=0
]=
=
[ ]
[]
=
=
=
=
50
... .
(.
( )
).
= 0 ( )
0 ( )
=
- 0
=0,
( )
. : ( ) ,
. ,
( )
= ,
( ) =
) +
=
,
, ( = / ).
, -
3. 3.2. RL-
3.2. RL-
( )
1 2 (
= 0.
= ):
= =
, ( )
= /
-.
= 0,
ln
21
=0
= 0.
=+ =
+
, ( ).
51
52
... .
).

-:
= 0 = 0.
= /
= 0.
:
.

= 0 = 0,
= , -
= .
, :
=
, -.
!
=
3. 3.3. /
3.3. /
53
( ).

1 2
=
. .
= (
)=
, , - ( ).
:
=
(
=
.
= ):
2

1)
. 2)
.
1)
= ,
=
/
,
,
54
... .
2)
).

121

:
=
( )
121, 1.
121 ( ).
.
3.4.
q .
=
= 1.

.

=
(1) (2)
3. 3.5.
55
3.5.

( )
( , , , )
( )
, , , ,
, , , .
( )
( )
, :
= + / ,
),
/ = 0, (
=
( ).

= ,
( ).

?
= ,
:
= .
, , , : , [ ] = 0.
56
... .
(
=
0.
):
(
, .
),
, :
= +
( ),
= .
, :
0 = + 0 .
=
:
= ,
= ,
= .
. .
, =
,
= +
.
(. ).

= ,
:
=
= = =
.
= .
,
.
3. 3.5.

1
=
=0
= +
( )
+ . . .
( )
+ .
( )
( )
+ . . .
( )
( )
+ .
( )
57
=
( )
( )
=
=
( )
( )
=0
( )
( )
( )

, , , , , :
1 3 , ,
3 3 , ,
8
2 1
4 1
. :
1)
2)
3)

( = 0 = 0, ):
1)
2)
=0

=
=0
3)
4)
, [ :
--:
= = =
(), = =
, = 0, ..
= 0.
58
... .
=
= 1,
= 1,
1
=
, ,
=
= 3 10 ,
.
, :
=
= 0
, (1) (3)
.
, , , .
3.6.
1) : .
, , :
3. 3.6.
2)
cos
( , =
cos
(max
59
max ), -
3) ,
=
=
= 1,
4) :
=
. ,
,
=
= const.
1
2
+
2
+
1
2
1
2
1
2
.
=
( 1 1 )
. . .
= ,
-, .
, , :
= = (. ) =
=
cos
= / =
( 1) = .
cos
. cos
( ) ( ) .
, . .
=
60
... .
4.
q , : ( ) ( ).
:
= , ,
, .
( ) (),
, ,
=
> 1,
, ,
> 0, :
= 1.
4. 3.6.
61
: , ,
.
( ): ,
:
=
sin
sin
:
1)
<
>
, .
2) >
< ,
( ).
= ,
>

1) (o, e) ( ) o
, K.
68
2) (, ).
3) (Surface Science).
, ( ).
62
... .
4.1.
: .
q ( =
( max min ).
) -
:
=
()
=(
) +
= / =2 /
1) (1) (2) ( , = ( )
cos ( ) = 0
= + , (1) (2).
2) =
( ),
), ()
, .
1. = , = 2 , .
=
+2
cos = 1,
=
2. = /2 ,
=
+2
= 0,1,2
= , .
max min:
=
cos
1 < cos < 1
cos = 1,
=(
+ )
=(
+ ) ,
= 0,1,2
4. 4.1.
63

= ,
=
( = 1,
= )
:
= =
,
< ,
<
=
,
>
= /
: ,
.
) =
+ +
) (
= 2
) =
) = 2 .
= 0,1,2
() .

1) ~ / , , , .
2) = ( ), ( ), , .
64
... .

, ( =
) ,
() .

q =
.
, , ,
. < , ,
.
:
= 2
= ,
),
(. )
1
2
=
=
( )
: ( ),
.
:
q
(, ).
.
.
.
:
- ;
- .
=
. 0,
( 0).
. max ( ), max
( ), max (
).
4. 4.1.
65
( ) ,
.
, :
< ,
<
<
( ) / .
<
( ).
< ( ),
, .
>
- :
= 0,5 = 5 10 (10
= 50 .
= 0,01 .
66
... .

( 50 ) ,
.
= (
sin
/2
.
sin
( 1 sin
=
1 sin
= 2 tg
sin
sin
1 sin
sin
cos
=2
2 =
=2
1 sin
1 sin
sin
cos
sin
=2
=2
cos
=2
1
cos
sin
MAX MIN
2
cos
cos
=2
= (2
+ 1)
,
2
4. 4.1.
67
= 1,5
=2
0,
cos
: 2
=2
sin
sin
1 1,5
<
= 0,5 = 5000 ( = 10
5000
= 0,5 % ,
),
= 6 10 = 0,06 = 60 .
2 20
60 , .

<
= 1,5
=2
= 45
sin
cos
cos
sin 2
= 0,05
= 2 tg
sin
(2 tg
=
cos
sin 2
sin
= 0,8 <
= 0,05
= 0,05
(< 50 ).
68
... .

q
( ).
sin
(2
+ 1) 2 ,
-

).
.
, ,
.
, .
4. 4.1.
69

(
() .
),
1 1 .

1
2
1 3.

>
, -
, .
( )
m- :
=
:
= 2 cos
= 2 +
(cos = 1, ,
= 1 ).
=
+ ( ) =
2 ,
, :
= 2 ,
= 0,1,2,3 , min .
=2
1)
+ 1 , ..
70
... .
1. 1, 2, 3 ( )
.
=
sin
sin
) )
N- .
.

( 2) .
. ~

sin
sin
,
4
4. 4.1.
71
2. , , , , , .
.
.
. .
.
, :

: :
= 1:
:
=
= 1: :
2
.
cos
2
.
cos
max min ( ):
, .
sin
cos
= 2 ~10 .
:
(), :
()
, .

.
1887 ( ).
. 1895 ( 0,8 ). 1910 .
72
... .
4.2.
q ( ) ( ).
, , , .
. ( ), . , , .

-
:
.
.
:
.

q
/2.
4. 4.2.
73
:
1)
.)
/2.
2)
- )
+
2
3)
= 0,5 ,
( )
0,1 .
= 1 ,
4) m-
, .
:
,
5)
+
2
+
2
+ +
+
2
, ,
.
74
... .

: , , ,
.
+
2
0,
.
:
=
+
2
, ,
.
: (
)
(
),
,
, ,
.
:
. , . , .
4. 4.2.
75

(
) . : ,
[] .

, .
( ) /2.
()

( )
( ).
. .

.
=
sin
sin
sin
sin
76
... .

= sin
= 1,2,3 .
= sin
= 1,2,3 .
=
= (2
=2
+ 1)
min
max
!)
!)

2 . .

2
+ 1 ,
(2
+ 1) = 3
=1
()
=
:
:
< 1 .
<1
4. 4.2.
77

=
:
2
2
,
>
>
( )
>1
( ).
)
>
>
~1 5
.
)
>
( )
<1
78
... .

N , , .
: , , ,
.
( = 0,1,2 ),
= 0,1,2 ),
, .
, min .
:
= =
= 1,2,3, , ( 1), ( + 1), ( + 2), , (2 1), (2 + 1)
,
.
4. 4.2.
79
/ = 4 ( ) ,
, .
=
). , = 8.
1 2 :
. .
.

0<
sin
. .
0<
2
= 1,2,3, , ( 1), ( + 1)
<2
<
, ..
( 1) .

.
=
2 ,
:
=
==
80
... .

, ..
max .
, ( ).
,
, :
sin
sin ~ .
:
. .
: , ,
: ,
).
( -
= 1,
= .
sin
cos
cos
=
= 0,4 =
( , . .)
(R Resolution)
=
,
.
max ( sin ) c min

sin
sin
,
.
)=
20% ):
.
,
4. 4.3.
81
>
:
.
<
>
>
>
= 4600 = 0,46
: :
sin
>
sin
1
=
:
<
= 4602
82
... .
4.3.
q

.
.

:
( )
sin
cos
cos
sin
sin
= sin
(1, 2) =

.
=
cos
=
cos ,
,
= cos
.
4. 4.3.
83

q
.
(ordinary)
(extraordinary),
.

,
.

.

,

.
) ( ) .
:
>
.
:
= =
<
84
... .
)
(
- 1:
=
):
>
2:
- :
=
<
. .
>
, .
(
2.
<
) : e- - -
+, .
)
+ ; ( ) ,
2.
, 10
, 9
, 20
, 35
, 54
, 17
, 64, 67
, 55

, 34
, 42, 45
, 22, 44
, 83
, 66
, 42
, 11
, 13
, 39
, 10
, 9
, 60, 80
, 78
, 72
, 75
, 72
, 74
, 11
, 20
, 22, 45
, 33, 35
--, 32, 34
, 82
-, 29
, 4
, 82
, 29
, 61
, 61
, 61
, 61
, 4
, 72
, 9
, 48
, 49
, 32
, 12
, 59
, 62
, 63
-, 71
, 4
, 43
, 30
, 69
, 57
, 68
, 69
, 33
, 35
, 36
, p, 9
, I
B, 37
, 70
, 45
, 44
, 27
, 5
, 83
, 17
- , 65

, 25
, 19
, 83
-, 31
, 9
, 57
, 63
, 60
, 46
-, 46
, 46
, 83
, 43
, 55
, 24
, 41
, 41
, 26, 31
, 18
N ( ), 8
, 36
, 61
, 83
, 82
, 17
, 18
, 17
, 17
, 17
, 46
, 26
, 23
, 8
, 7
p , 10
I B, 38
(q)
(q), 8
, 6
, 28
, 42
-, 72
, 5
, 23
, 64, 67
, 53

, 38
/
RL-, 53
, 80
() ,
4
, 14
, 39
, 48
, 60
, 4
, 58
, 18
, 7
, 83
B H, 42
, 22
, 36
, 5
, 31
, 49
, 18
, 24
, 22, 45
, 6
D, 21
B, 39
-, 13
, 15
, 50
, 55
, 28
, 11
, 26
, 5
, 55
, 31
, 44
, 22
- -, 31
, 24
, 6
, 42
, 7
RL-, 51
, 9

, 9
, 21
, 27
, 23
, 23
, 48
, 25
, 25
, 25

1. .
1.1. ............................................................................................................. 4
.......................................................................................................................................... 4
................................................................................................................................................ 4
1.2. ........................................................................................................... 5
........................................................................................................................... 5
......................................................... 6
.................................................................................................................................................. 6
............................................................................................................................................................ 6
............................................................................................................................................. 6
1.3. ........................................................................................................... 7
............................................................................................................ 7
................................................................................................................. 8
1.4. .................................................................................................................................. 9
....................................................................... 9
, ................................................................................................. 9

.......................................................................................10
...........................................................................................10
...........................................................................................10
1.5. .....................................................................................................11
............................................................................................................11
......................................................................................................11
................................................................................................................................12
: , , ......................................................12
................................................................................................................................................12
-..................................................................................................................13
- .................................................................................................13
...............................................................................................................................14
.........................................................................................................................................14
.........................................................................................................................................15
...........................................................................................................................15
............................................................................................15
...........................................................................................................................16
1.6. ............................................................................................................16
...........................................................................................................................16
...............................................................................................................................17
..................................................................................................................17
1.7. ( ) ..........................................................................20
.................................................................................................................................................20
: .................................................................................................................................21
1.8. ...................................................................................21
1.9. .........................................................................................................................................22
1.10. ..........................................................................................23
.......................................................................................................................23
..................................................................................................................................24
....................................................................................................................24
..........................................................................................................................24
1.11. .....................................................................................................................25
.....................................................................................................25
.................................................................................................................25
1.12. ..................................................................................................................26
.................................................................................26
1.13. () ....................................................................................................................27
1.14. ......................................................................................................................................28
....................................................................28
1.15. - .....................................................................29
....................................................................................................................................................29
- ...................................................................................................................................29
1.16. -......................................................................30
.....................................................................................................................................30
.................................................................................................31
- ................................................................................................31
- - ...............................................................31
- ............................................................................31
2. .
32
.....................................................................................................................32
.....................................................................................................................32
2.1. ............................................................................................................32
-- .........................................................................................................................32
..............................................................................................................................................33
(+) ......................................................................................................................33
-- ..........................................................................................................................34
...............................................................................................................................................35
2.2. .................................................................................................................36
,

...................................................37
...............................................................................................38
...................................................................38
2.3. ........................................................................................................39
() ...................................................................................................................39
................................................................................................................................39
..........................................................................40
2.4. . ............................................................................................40

.............................................................................................41
.............................................................................................................................................42
...........................................................................................................................................43
.........................................................................................................................................44
.........................................................................................................................44
....................................................................................................................................45
,
.............................................................46
3.
48
3.1. ........................................................................................................................48
.....................................................................................................................................................49

..................................................................................................49
...........................................................................................................................49
.................................................................................................................50
3.2. RL- ........................................................................................51
................................................................................................................................51
..................................................................................................................................51
3.3. /
- .............................................................53
..............................................................................................53
3.4. ..........................................................................................................................................54
3.5. ..................................................................................................................................55
....................................................................................................................55
.....................................................................................................................55
.....................................................................................................................55
3.6. ..............................................................................................................58
4.
60
..................................................................................................................61
....................................................................................................................................61
4.1.
...............................................................................................................................62
..........................................................................................................63
...........................................................................................63
..................................................................................63
................................................................63
..........................................................................................64
...........................................................................................................................64
...............................................................................................................64
..........................................................................................66
max min ..........................................................66
............................................67
...........................................................................................................................67
...............................................................................................................67
..............................................................................................................................68
..............................................................................................................................69
( ) .......................................................69
.......................................................................................70
4.2.
......................................................................................................................................72
...................................................................................................................................72
- .......................................................................................................................72
..............................................................................................................................................72
: ................................................................................................................................73
.....................................................................................................................................................73
.....................................................................................74
............................................................................................................................75
............................................................................................................................78
4.3. ......................................................................................................................................82
( ) ...............................................................82
..............................................................................................................................................82
........................................................................................................................83

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, . .

, , . div rot = 0 . rot . , .

rot = (rot ) + (rot ) + (rot ) ,

(+) (1) (2) ( ). +1 (2) (1),

1 < cos < 1

= 1,2,3, , ( 1), ( + 1), ( + 2), , (2 1), (2 + 1)

max ( sin ) c min

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