SOLDERING

BRAZING
WELDING

Dr LAKSHMI RAVI M.D.S

Asst Professor
Dept of Orthodontics
St.G.D.C
DEFINITIONS
 SOLDERING: It’s defined as the joining of
metals by the fusion of filler metal between
them, at a temperature below the solidus
temperature of the metals being joined and
below 450°C.
 BRAZING: It’s a term used industrially.
Soldering operations at or above 450°C is
generally termed brazing. Most dental
soldering procedures are actually brazing, but
the names are used interchangeably in
dentistry.

 Brazing is defined as joining of metals by the

fusion of a filler metal between them, at a
temperature below the solidus temperature of
metals being joined and above 450°C.
 LIQUIDUS TEMPERATURE: the
temperature at which metals of an alloy
system begin to solidify on cooling or
become totally liquid on cooling.

 SOLIDUS TEMPERATURE: the

temperature at which metals of an alloy
system become completely solidified on
cooling or start to melt on heating.
 WELDING: The joining of two or more metal
parts by applying heat, pressure or both, with
or without a filler metal, to produce localized
union across the interface through fusion or
diffusion.
 CAST JOINING Another type of metal joining
procedure in dentistry. It is the process of
combining two components of a fixed partial
denture by means of casting molten metal into
interlocking region between invested components.
This is preferred for base metal alloys because of
technique sensitivity of brazing or soldering these
alloys.
 Soldering / Brazing : The diff. is between
the liquidus temp. of the filler metal.

 Soldering & Brazing / Welding : Possible

absence of the filler metal & the partial
fusion of the parts joined by welding.
 SOLDERING
HISTORY
 The soldering technique has been known to man for hundreds,
maybe thousand years. However, with the industrial revolution
in Europe as well as North America, the need for higher
temperatures and more user-friendly tools emerged. The old
methods of heating metals with coal fires etc. were no longer
practical.

 It was discovered that when the vapor from heated alcohol was
ignited over a burning wick, it burnt with a very concentrated
flame of high temperature very suitable for different heating
purposes.

 Many different designs emerged using this technique and these

heating tools were generally called blow pipes. The first
known patent is from France and is dated January 7, 1791.
 During the early 1900`s, a great variety of blow lamps
specially designed for different purpose and applications
came on the market.

 After the Second World War, the propane gas emerged as a

cleaner and safer fuel for different heating purposes. The
introduction of propane caused a lot of changes in the blow
lamp industry world-wide.
 The first appliances used had a metal frame work. The
attachment of axillaries to bring about the different type of
tooth movements required soldering of these parts. Welding
in orthodontics became popular after the arrival of spot
welders. It became popular because of the short time
required, the ease of welding and the absence of elaborate
equipments
 Soldering is often used in construction of dental appliances.
Large partial dentures are frequently cast in parts that are
soldered together after carefully fitting them to master cast. In
orthodontics soldering is used for joining wires, bands springs
etc

 The soldering process involves the substrate or the parent

metals to be joined, soldering filler metal (usually called
solder), a flux, and a heat source. All are equally important
and the role of each must be taken in to consideration to solder
metal components successfully.
COMPONENTS OF SOLDERED JOINT
 Parent metal
 Solder/filler metal
 Fluxes and Anti fluxes
 PARENT METAL
 The parent metal is the metal or alloy to be joined.
 This is also known as a substrate metal or base metal.
 Soldering operation is the same for any substrate metal,
 but the ease of soldering is not same for any substrate metal.

The composition of parent metal determines-

 Melting range
 Oxide that forms on the surface during heating
 Wettability of the substrate by the molten solder.
 Soldering should take place below the solids temperature of the
parent metal.
 Composition of alloy determines the oxides that form on its
surface during heating. The flux used should be able to reduce
these oxides, inhibit further oxidation and facilitate its
removal.

 Composition of alloy determines the wettability of the

substrate by the molten solder alloy. The solder chosen must
wet the metal at as low a contact angle as possible to ensure
wetting of the joint area.

 Manufacturer of the alloy should provide guidance and

instruction regarding the flux to be used with that alloy.

 A low temp soldering is preferred rather than the high temp

soldering for Stainless steel wire to prevent carbide
precipitation and to prevent an excessive softening of the wire.
So silver solders are generally preferred.
 FLUX
 In Latin flux means “to flow”.

 Purpose of flux is to remove any oxide coating on the

substrate metal surface when the filler metal is fluid and
ready to flow into place.

 They protect the alloy surface from oxidation during

soldering and dissolve metallic oxides as they are formed.

 The resulting solution of oxides or other extraneous matter

in flux constitutes “slag”.
 CLASSIFICATION OF FLUX
1.According to their primary purpose / activity

 Surface protection type: - This type of flux covers the

metal surface and prevents access to oxygen, so that no
oxides can form.

 Reducing agent type: - This type reduces any oxides

present and exposes clean metal.

 Solvent type: - This type dissolves any oxides and drives

them away.

The composition of most commercial fluxes is formulated to

accomplish two or more of these purposes.
2.According to their composition
 Borax fluxes
 Fluoride fluxes

3. According to the pH of the flux

 Acidic fluxes – SiO2
 Basic fluxes – CaO, lime CaCO3 LIMESTONE
 Neutral – Fluorspar (Ca.F2),Borax (Na2B4O2)
 BORAX FLUXES
 Borax from Persian burah
 Also called sodium borate, or sodium tetraborate, or disodium
 Tetraborate.
 They are based on boric or borate compounds such as boric acid/boric
 anhydrate and borax.
 It is usually a white powder consisting of soft colorless crystals that dissolve
easily in water.

Borax has a wide variety of uses:-

9. It is a component of many detergents, cosmetics, and enamel glazes.
10. It is also used to make buffer solutions in biochemistry
11. as a fire retardant
12. as an insecticide
13. as a flux in metallurgy
14. They act as protective fluxes and reducing fluxes for low stability.
oxides such as copper oxide. And are used for noble metal alloys.
BORAX
They are available in

 Liquid form: Solution of borax/boric acid in water.

Indicated for soldering of orthodontic appliances and
bridges in which minimum amount of flux is
required.

 Paste form: Formed by mixing borax with

petroleum jelly. Required when fluxes are needed in
large quantity.

 Powder form: Contains a mixture of borax, basic

acid, silica flour and finely divided charcoal.
Charcoals reducing agent and silica holds molten
flux in surface of hot metal. This is usually used for
casting operation.
 FLUORIDE FLUXES
Composition:-
 Potassium fluoride – 50-60%
 Boric acid – 25-35%
 Borax glass - 6-8%
 Potassium carbonate – 8-10%

As the choice of flux is dictated by the type of

alloys to be soldered, the fluoride flux is used
with alloys containing base metals even if a
gold/silver solder is used. Some fluoride
containing fluxes involve toxic fluorides when
heated, so inhalation of fumes should be
avoided.
 POTASSIUM FLUORIDE
 The chemical compound with the formula KF. After hydrogen
fluoride, KF is the primary source of the fluoride ion for
applications in manufacturing and in chemistry. It is an alkali
metal halide and occurs naturally as the rare mineral
carobbiite(potassium-67.30% + fluorine-32.70%)

 is a colorless cubic mineral. It is found at Monte Somma,

Somma-Vesuvius Complex, Province of Naples, Campania,
Italy. It was discovered in 1956.

 Aqueous solutions of KF will etch glass due to the formation of

soluble fluorosilicates.
SUPER FLUX

 A combination of high melting salts is used as

fluxes to combine the good characteristics of each
ingredient and create superior flux.
 A formula for efficient flux is
Borax glass – 55 parts
Boric acid – 35 parts
Silica - 10 parts

 The ingredients may be fused together and then

crushed to fine powder.
 APPLICATION OF FLUX
 Painted on to the substrate metal at the junction of pieces to be joined.

 Fused on to the surface of the filler metal strip.

 Whatever be the technique used the most important thing to consider

is the amount of flux used.

 Too little flux tends to burn off and will be ineffective.

 Excess flux remains trapped within filler metal and cause a weakened
joint.

 Flux combined with metal oxides forms a glass during soldering process that is
difficult to remove completely.

 A two step method for removing residual flux

 Blast joint immediately after removal from investment with alumina
abrasive particles followed by boiling in water for about 5 minutes.
 ANTI FLUX

 Materials used to restrict flow of solder are known as anti flux.

 It is applied on the surface of specific area where the solder
should flow into.
 It is applied before applying flux or solder.

 E.g.: Graphite in the form of lead pencil. Disadvantage of

graphite is that it can burn off on prolonged heating at high
temperature.

 In such cases whiting (CaCO3 in alcohol and water suspension)

is used.
 FILLER METAL/SOLDER
Qualities of an ideal solder
 Ease of flow at relatively low temperature.

 Sufficient fluidity to freely flow when melted.

 Ability to wet substrate metal.

 Strength compatible with that of the structure being joined.

 Resistance to tarnish and corrosion.

 Acceptable colour to give an inconspicuous joint.

 Resistance to pitting during heating.

 FLOW TEMPERATURE
 The temperature at which the filler metal wets and flows on
the substrate metal and produces a bond. It is usually higher
than the liquidus temperature.

 ISO 9333 requires that the flow temperature of the filler

metal should be lower than the solidus temperature of the
substrate metals. A rule of thumb is that flow temperature of
the filler metal should be 56°C (100°F) lower than the
solidus temperature of the substrate metal.

 If the flow point of the filler metal is close to or above the

solidus of either substrate alloying can take place. An alloy
formed through diffusion can have properties different from
filler metal and substrate metal.
CLASSIFICATION OF SOLDERS

l. Soft solders
 Hard solders

II. Precious metal solders

 Non precious metal solders
SOFT SOLDERS

They are lead- tin eutectic alloy with a low melting

point. Sometimes called as plumbers solder. They
have low fusion range of about 260°C or less. Soft
solders lack corrosion resistance, so they are
impractical for dental use.

HARD SOLDERS
Hard solders have higher meting temperature &
possess greater hardness and strength. Heating is
done with gas torch or special devices. Two types of
hard solders are used in dentistry
 Gold solders
 Has good tarnish and corrosion resistance
 Extensively used for crown and bridge applications.

 Composition
 Gold – 45-81 wt %
 Silver - 8-30 wt %
 Copper -7-20 wt %

with small amounts of Tin, Zinc and Phosphorus to modify

fusion temperature and flow qualities. They are high fusing
with a fusion temperature range of 750- 900° C.
 Silver solders
 Used in orthodontic appliances
 They are low fusing –fusion temp-600-750°C
 Used with stainless steel or other base metal alloys
 Resistance to tarnish and corrosion is not as good as gold
solders
 But have strength comparable to gold solders
 Composition
 Silver -10-80 %
 Copper -15-30%
 Zinc -4-35%
 with small amounts of cadmium, tin and phosphorus.
 The formation of silver-copper eutectic is responsible for
the low melting range of silver solder.
SILVER SOLDER
 HEAT SOURCE
 The most common instrument used as heat source is gas- air
or gas- oxygen torch.
 The type of torch depends on the type of fuel.

 The fuels used are :-

 Hydrogen-low heat content, so heating is slow.

 Natural gas- heat content is four times that of hydrogen.

 Acetylene - high flame temperature, but variation in
temperature from one part of the flame to the other part is
more than 100°C. So positioning of the torch is critical. It is
chemically unstable gas, decompose to carbon and
hydrogen. carbon can get incorporated in to nickel and
palladium alloys.

 Propane - is the best choice. Have highest heat content&

good flame temperature.

 Butane - has similar flame temperature and heat content.

Both are readily available. Uniform in quality, virtually
water free and burn clean.
 FLAME
The flame can be divided in to four zones

3. Cold mixing zone (unburned gas)

4. Partial combustion zone (oxidizing)
5. Reducing zone
6. Oxidizing zone (burned gas).

 The portion of the flame that is used to heat the soldering assembly
should be the neutral or slightly reducing part, because this produces the
most efficient burning process and most heat.

 Improperly adjusted torch or improperly positioned flame can lead to

oxidation of the substrate or filler metal and result in a poorly soldered
joint.
 If unburned portion of flame is used carbon may be introduced to the
substrate or filler.
 To prevent oxide formation the flame should not be removed once it has
been applied to the joint area until soldering process has been
completed.
 OVEN (FURNACE) SOLDERING
A furnace with enough wattage to provide heat
required to raise the temperature of the filler
metal to its flow point.
Advantages:
 Uniform temperature
 Close monitoring is possible
 Temperature is known
 Application of vacuum control oxidation
 INFRARED SOLDERING
 The unit uses light from a 1000 watt Tungsten
filament
 quartz- iodine bulb which is mounted at the primary
focal point of a gold plated elliptical reflector.
 The material to be soldered is placed at the
reflectors secondary focal point at which the
reflected infrared energy of Tungsten light source is
focused.
 This is used for high temperature soldering.
TECHNIQUES OF SOLDERING

 Investment soldering
 Free hand soldering
 INVESTMENT SOLDERING
 Used when very accurate alignment of parts to be
joined is needed.
 The parts are placed on the master cast with a gap of
at least 1mm.
 The parts are fastened with sticky wax before
placing soldering investment.
 Anti flux is applied to confine the flow of solder.
 The investment is preheated to eliminate moisture.
 Flux can be applied before or after heat treatment.
 Soldering is carried out with reducing flame at 750-
870°C.
 The investment is cooled 5 min before quenching.
 Flux will cool to a glass which is removed by
pickling.
 FREE HAND SOLDERING

 Free hand soldering is used for soldering

orthodontic appliances.
 Orthodontic torches can be placed on a bench
so that both hands can be used to hold the
parts in position.
 SOLDER JIONT GAP
 If the gap is too great the strength will be
controlled by the strength of the filler.
 If the gap is narrow the strength will be
limited by the flux inclusions& porosities by
the incomplete flow of the filler, metal.
 STEPS IN SOLDERING
 Cleaning and preparing the surfaces to be joined
 Assembling the parts to be joined
 Preparation and fluxing of the gap surfaces between
the gaps
 Maintaining the proper position of the parts during
procedure.
 Control of proper temperature
 Control of time to ensure adequate flow of the
solder& complete filling of the solder joint
 ORTHODONTIC SOLDERING
 In orthodontic applications low temperature soldering is
used to prevent carbide precipitation and to prevent
excessive softening of the wire.

 Low fusing silver solders are used with a soldering

temperature range of 620-655°C.

 Fluoride fluxes are used for orthodontic stainless steel and

other base metal alloys.

 Free hand soldering technique is employed with a needle

like non luminous gas air flame is used.
 The work should be held 3mm beyond the tip of the blue
cone in the reducing zone of the flame.

 Soldering should be observed in a shadow, against a black

back ground, so that the temperature can be judged by the
color of the work. The color should never exceed a dull red.

 Flux must cover all the areas to be joined before heat is

applied.

 As soon as the flux fuses solder is added and heating is

continued until metal flows around the joint. The work is
then removed from the heat and quenched in water.
 SOLDERING APPLICATIONS IN
ORTHODONTICS
 Wire to wire

 Tubes can be soldered to the bridge of the Adams clasp.

 Attachment of springs to arch wire. When soldering an

auxiliary spring to arch wire, the solder must be a gold one
with a melting point below 800°C.

 Soldering lingual arch or palatal arch: to hold the arch during

soldering position it on the model and place a blob of wet
pumice over the middle portion of the model. Water is
immediately soaked on to the cast leaving dried pumice which
is firm enough to secure the arch during soldering.(F.G.
Thompson, JCO 1969 April)
 SOLDERING FAILURES
Are due to:
 Failure to clean the parts to be joined

 Improper fluxing

 Poor flow of solder

 Over heating of the solder can lead to pitted joint of low strength

 Besides porosities and brittleness from oxides, gases, or foreign matter

resulting from the soldering procedures as factors for increasing the
incidences of failure of soldered joints.

 Creep, corrosion, stress corrosion cracking, corrosion-fatigue, and

corrosion-erosion.

 Gas embitterment can also be generated by gases formed from

electrochemical processes. Hydrogen embitterment from corrosion is a
very well-known phenomenon that occurs with some material-solution
combinations and at temperatures comparable to physiologic conditions.
CORROSION OF SOLDERED JOINTS
 A consideration of the composition of silver solders reveals that any
material containing up to about 20 percent zinc and 20 to 30 percent
copper with additions in some cases of low cadmium and tin cannot
remain inactive to physiologic solutions.

 Weak corrosion-prone micro structural phases composed mainly of

copper and zinc has been shown to occur within the solder itself. It is
known that corrosion occurs when an electrolyte comes into contact with
a soldered joint.

 The silver solders react readily to chemical attack.

 The breakdown reaction between silver-soldered stainless steel joints is

an electrochemical process with no initial evidence of gross macroscopic
corrosion.

 After a time, many silver-soldered joints exhibit a change in appearance

such as darkening to resemble a tarnished, corroded surface.
 BIOCOMPATIBILITY
 Besides the deterioration of the soldered joint, concern must be given to
the toxicological importance of the released corroded agents.

 For Cadmium-containing solders, because of Cadmium's toxicity, a

continual appraisal must be made regarding Cadmium's fate biologically.
The release of Cadmium from dental alloys has been the subject of several
reports.

 Even in the case of such nontoxic elements as Zinc, Copper, Tin, and
Silver, the introduction of higher concentrations of these elements via
soluble corrosion products can alter their behaviour

 Causing biologic imbalances with further biologic consequences.

 It is believed that possible allergies to nontoxic metals released from
dental alloys may be formed.

 Metabolic and bacteriologic participation can also occur in response to

corroded metallic agents. Furthermore, the penetration and staining of
hard dental tissues due to the release of metallic ions from solders or any
biomaterial are definitely to be avoided.

 Laboratory tests indicate that silver-soldered stainless steel joints

degrade in a saliva substitute and other prepared solutions.

 Corrosion products containing oxides, hydroxides, and chlorides of zinc,

copper, tin, and cadmium can be easily identified. Silver is also attacked
Besides the oral physiologic fluids, additional chemical agents contained
in mouth rinses and in toothpastes for oral antiseptic, need careful
appraisal for resistance to the degradation and corrosion of dental
materials.

 Many commercial mouth rinses contain active chlorides and additional

components. The chlorides are notorious for their depassivation
tendencies of metallic materials.
 NEWER SILVER SOLDERS
For joining stainless steel, additional alloys with improved corrosion resistance

classifications of silver soldering alloys (referred to here as brazing alloys),

including BAg-18 and BAg-21 (American Welding Society), can be used very
effectively.

These silver soldering alloys have silver contents at about the same level as the
solder products presently employed, but they have slightly higher copper
contents, with additions of up to about 10 percent tin for wetting stainless steels
and up to about 3 percent nickel for immunity to crevice corrosion.

The important fact is that both cadmium and zinc are removed from these alloys.
The soldering (brazing) temperature range is between 700 and 900°C, in some
instances about 200°C higher than the presently employed products.

Because of the non-free-flowing characteristics of these proposed soldering

alloys for dental applications, familiarization with their properties and handling
characteristics is advisable.
 WELDING
 Welding is the process by which the surfaces of
metals are joined by mixing, with or without the use
of heat.

 Cold welding is done by hammering or pressure.

An example of cold welding is the gold foil filling.

 Hot welding uses heat of sufficient intensity to melt

the metals being joined. The heat source is usually
an oxyacetylene flame or high amperage electricity.
 TYPES OF WELDING

 SPOT WELDING
 PRESSURE WELDING
 LASER WELDING
 PLASMA WELDING
LASER WELDING
PLASMA WELDING
PRESSURE WELDING
SPOT WELDER
 THEORY
 Orthodontic spot welders employ the electrode
technique and are used instead of soldering in cases
where the heating cycle must be very short, in order to
prevent changes in the physical properties of the
components being joined.
 Orthodontic welding is achieved by passing a large
amount of current for a very short duration through an
area of high resistance. Heat is generated of a
magnitude great enough to cause melting at the
interface in contact.
 Copper electrode - Low resistence
 As sufficient heat is generated at the weldmate
interface, the stainless steel components soften, flow
and fuse together under the influence of mechanical
pressure, forming a weld nugget
In spot welding the following three properties
of the metal are favorable:
 A comparatively low melting point
(approximately 1370° C.),
 high electric resistance,
 And low conductivity of heat.

VARIABLES AND THEIR APPLICATION

Welding of stainless steel depends on the

proper use of each of the following three
variables:
 1. The current flowing through the circuit.
 2. The time during which the current is
allowed to flow.
 3. The mechanical pressure applied at the
welding head.
The improper application of these variables can result in either
over- or under welding

UNDER WELDING
 - Insufficient current
 - The current passed for an insufficient amount of time
 - Pressure applied inadequate in approximation.

OVER WELDING
 - Yield weak a joint as under welding.
 - Progressive corrosion.
 This occurs when chromium is precipitated at the grain
boundaries of each crystal. This process is known as weld
decay.

 A satisfactory welded joint is one which is strong, has not

undergone oxidation (blackening), and has not been over
compressed during fusion.
 CLINICAL APPLICATION
 The use of the spot welder in orthodontics is so common that it
is almost a reflex.

 1.The welding surfaces should be clean of all debris materials

and oxides.

 2.The surface of each electrode must be smooth, flat, and

perpendicular to its long axis. When the electrodes are
together, they should be in total contact. If not, they should be
filed until total contact is achieved. Sparking and localized
over welding will result if interface contact is not uniform.

 3.Adjust the welder to settings recommended by the

manufacturer.
 4. Select the proper electrode for the thickness or shape of the
material to be welded. A broad electrode should be used for
thin material and a narrow one for thick material. This will
allow sufficient heat to reach the weld area, but not over weld
or oxidize the weldmates.

 If too narrow an electrode is used in welding a bracket (thick)

to a band (thin), localized over welding will occur in the thin
material and under welding in the thick material

 Proper electrode selection— a broad electrode for thin

material in conjunction with a narrow electrode for the thicker
material— will result in an even distribution of the weld
nugget
 5.Insert the weldmates between the electrodes, close them
together, and depress the weld button.

 If sparking is observed, localized over welding has occurred.

The electrodes should be checked for size and/or contact. If
black areas are seen at the points where the electrodes
contacted the weldmates, over welding has occurred.

 (JCO-Volume, 1976 Feb Orthodontic welding-Robert E.

Binder. DMD)
 A CHECKLIST FOR SUCCESSFUL
WELDING
 Mount the electrodes correctly in the welder and
adjust with parallel, precision filing to eliminate
gaps.
 Weld together only wires of the same material.
 Place the thinner wire in the groove of the lower
electrode.
 Use 1540 Newtons of pressure.
 Set the voltage according to the operating
instructions.
 Use a single electrical impulse.
 CONCLUSION
 The choice of solder material has extreme importance in determining the
properties of the soldered joints. In orthodontics, silver solders are popular
because of their lower fusion temperatures and easy-handling
characteristics. It is also rationalized that both fixed and removable
orthodontic appliances are not meant to be permanent; therefore, solders
with properties inferior to some of the higher-fusing solders can be
tolerated.

 Soldering is still a useful and needed procedure for the joining of metallic
parts. The choice of whether free-hand or investment, torch or oven, or pre
or post ceramic soldering techniques are used, as well as variations in gap
distance and high- or low-fusing soldering alloys, is in many instances up
to the discretion of the orthodontist and technician.

 The breakage of soldered components is one of the pitfalls associated with

this joining procedure. Even though following guidelines should
theoretically prevent them from occurring, solder failures are not rare.
 Spot welding is suitable only when the thickness of the band or flange
more or less corresponds to that of the sheet to which it is to be welded,
and should not be used to join auxiliary springs and arch wires. One kind
of electrode is ample for spot welding in the construction of orthodontic
appliances.

 Although welding is one of the technical procedures most commonly

used by orthodontists, the process is usually poorly understood and not
employed efficiently.

 In the final analysis, however, the combination of techniques which offer

optimum mechanical, physical, and chemical properties or offer the
desired property with the most favorable must be selected.
 REFERENCE
 Phillip’s science of dental materials- Anusavice
 dental materials –A programmed review of selected topics-
W.J.O’Brien
 Dental Materials – Craig.
 removable appliances – PC Adams
 American journal of orthodontics 1937 may
 American journal of orthodontics 1982 February
 journal of clinical orthodontics 1969 April
 journal of clinical orthodontics 1969 November
 journal of clinical orthodontics1976 February
 journal of clinical orthodontics 1987 September
 journal of clinical orthodontics 1991 January
 journal of clinical orthodontics 2000 may