Hetero Cyclic Compounds

Edited by Julio Alvarez-Builla, Juan Jose Vaquero, Barluenga and Jose Modern Heterocyclic Chemistry
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Edited by Julio Alvarez-Builla, Juan Jose Vaquero, and Jos Barluenga
Modern Heterocyclic Chemistry

Volume 4
The Editors Prof. Dr. Julio Alvarez-Builla Universidad de Alcal Facultad de Farmacia Dpto. de Qumica Organca Campus Universitario s.n. Alcal de Henares 28871 Madrid Spain Dr. Juan Jose Vaquero Universidad de Alcal Dpto. de Qumica Organca Ctra. Madrid-Barcelona km 33 Alcal de Henares 28871 Madrid Spain Prof. Dr. Jos Barluenga Universidad de Oviedo Instituto Universitario de Qumica Organometlica Enrique Moles 33071 Oviedo Spain
All books published by Wiley-VCH are carefully produced. Nevertheless, authors, editors, and publisher do not warrant the information contained in these books, including this book, to be free of errors. Readers are advised to keep in mind that statements, data, illustrations, procedural details or other items may inadvertently be inaccurate. Library of Congress Card No.: applied for British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliograe; detailed bibliographic data are available on the Internet at http://dnb.d-nb.de. # 2011 Wiley-VCH Verlag & Co. KGaA, Boschstr. 12, 69469 Weinheim, Germany All rights reserved (including those of translation into other languages). No part of this book may be reproduced in any form by photoprinting, microlm, or any other means nor transmitted or translated into a machine language without written permission from the publishers. Registered names, trademarks, etc. used in this book, even when not specically marked as such, are not to be considered unprotected by law. Typesetting Thomson Digital, Noida, India Printing and Binding betz-druck GmbH, Darmstadt Cover Design Schulz Grak-Design, Fugnheim Printed in the Federal Republic of Germany Printed on acid-free paper Print ISBN: 978-3-527-33201-4 oBook ISBN: 978-3-527-63406-4
Contents
List of Contributors Volume 1 1 Heterocyclic Compounds: An Introduction Julio Alvrez-Builla and Jos Barluenga 1 XV
Three-Membered Heterocycles. Structure and Reactivity S. Shaun Murphree
11
Four-Membered Heterocycles: Structure and Reactivity 163 Grard Rousseau and Sylvie Robin Five-Membered Heterocycles: Pyrrole and Related Systems Jan Bergman and Tomasz Janosik Five-Membered Heterocycles: Indole and Related Systems Jos Barluenga and Carlos Valds 269
377
Five-Membered Heterocycles: Furan 533 Henry N.C. Wong, Xue-Long Hou, Kap-Sun Yeung, and Hui Huang Five-Membered Heterocycles: Benzofuran and Related Systems Jie Wu Volume 2 593
Five-Membered Heterocycles: 1,2-Azoles. Part 1. Pyrazoles Jos Elguero, Artur M.S. Silva, and Augusto C. Tom
635
Five-Membered Heterocycles: 1,2-Azoles. Part 2. Isoxazoles and Isothiazoles 727 Artur M.S. Silva, Augusto C. Tom, Teresa M.V.D. Pinho e Melo, and Jos Elguero
VI
Contents
10
Five-Membered Heterocycles: 1,3-Azoles 809 Julia Revuelta, Fabrizio Machetti, and Stefano Cicchi Five-Membered Heterocycles with Two Heteroatoms: O and S Derivatives 925 David J. Wilkins Five-Membered Heterocycles with Three Heteroatoms: Triazoles Larry Yet Oxadiazoles 1047 Giovanni Romeo and Ugo Chiacchio Volume 3 989
11
12
13
14
Thiadiazoles 1253 Ugo Chiacchio and Giovanni Romeo Five-Membered Heterocycles with Four Heteroatoms: Tetrazoles Ulhas Bhatt Six-Membered Heterocycles: Pyridines 1431 Concepcin Gonzlez-Bello and Luis Castedo Six-Membered Heterocycles: Quinoline and Isoquinoline Ramn Alajarn and Carolina Burgos Six-Membered Rings with One Oxygen: Pyrylium Ion, Related Systems and Benzo-Derivatives 1631 Javier Santamara and Carlos Valds Six-Membered Heterocycles: 1,2-, 1,3-, and 1,4-Diazines and Related Systems 1683 Mara-Paz Cabal Six-Membered Heterocycles: Triazines, Tetrazines and Other Polyaza Systems 1777 Cristina Gmez de la Oliva, Pilar Goya Laza, and Carmen Ochoa de Ocariz Volume 4 1527 1401
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
21.1
Seven-Membered Heterocycles: Azepines, Benzo Derivatives and Related Systems 1865 Juan J. Vaquero, Ana M. Cuadro, and Bernardo Herradn Introduction 1865
Contents
VII
21.2 21.3 21.4 21.5 21.5.1 21.5.1.1 21.5.1.2 21.5.2 21.5.2.1 21.5.2.2 21.5.3 21.5.3.1 21.5.3.2 21.5.4 21.5.5 21.5.5.1 21.5.5.2 21.5.5.3 21.6 21.6.1 21.6.1.1 21.6.1.2 21.6.1.3 21.6.1.4 21.6.1.5 21.6.1.6 21.6.1.7 21.6.1.8 21.6.2 21.6.2.1 21.6.2.2 21.6.2.3 21.7 21.7.1 21.7.1.1 21.7.1.2 21.7.1.3 21.7.1.4 21.7.1.5 21.7.2 21.7.2.1 21.7.2.2 21.8 21.8.1
Relevant Natural and Useful Compounds 1867 Relevant Computational Chemistry, Physicochemical, and Spectroscopic Data 1869 Valence Tautomerism in Seven-Membered Heterocycles 1874 Synthesis 1878 Synthesis of Azepines 1878 From Acyclic Compounds 1878 From Cyclic Compounds 1883 Synthesis of Oxepines 1885 From Acyclic Compounds 1885 From Cyclic Compounds 1890 Synthesis of Thiepines 1896 From Acyclic Compounds 1896 From Cyclic Compounds 1897 Synthesis of Azepanes, Oxepanes, and Thiepanes 1898 Synthesis of Benzo Derivatives 1902 Synthesis of Benzazepines 1902 Synthesis of Benzoxepines 1906 Synthesis of Benzothiepines 1907 Reactivity of Azepines 1911 Reactivity of Azepines and Benzofused Derivatives 1911 Cycloaddition Reactions 1911 Reaction with Metal Carbonyl Complexes 1914 Reactions through Metal Carbonyl Complexes 1916 Pericyclic Reactions 1917 Reactions with Electrophiles 1923 Reactions with Nucleophiles 1927 Reactions with Oxidants 1929 Hydrogenation and Hydrogen Transfer 1932 Reactivity of Partially Reduced Azepine Derivatives 1934 Dihydroazepines 1934 Tetrahydroazepines 1937 Dihydroazepinones 1938 Reactivity of Oxepines 1943 Reactivity of Oxepines and Benzofused Derivatives 1944 Thermal and Photochemical Reactions 1944 Cycloaddition Reactions 1945 Reactions with Electrophiles 1948 Reactions with Nucleophiles 1949 Reactions with Oxidants 1951 Reactivity of Partially Reduced Oxepines 1953 Dihydrooxepines 1953 Tetrahydrooxepines 1955 Reactivity of Thiepines 1958 Reactivity of Thiepines and Benzofused Derivatives 1958
VIII
Contents
21.8.1.1 21.8.1.2 21.8.1.3 21.8.1.4 21.8.1.5 21.8.2 21.8.2.1 21.8.2.2 21.8.2.3
Reactions with Metal Carbonyl Complexes 1958 Cycloaddition Reactions 1959 Thermal and Photochemical Reactions 1962 Reactions with Electrophiles 1965 Reactions with Oxidants 1967 Reactivity of Partially Reduced Thiepine Derivatives Dihydrothiepines 1968 Tetrahydrothiepines 1972 Thiepinones 1975 References 1975
1968
22 22.1 22.2 22.2.1 22.2.2 22.2.3 22.2.4 22.2.4.1 22.2.4.2 22.2.5 22.2.5.1 22.2.5.2 22.2.5.3 22.2.5.4 22.2.6 22.3 22.3.1 22.3.2 22.3.3 22.3.4 22.3.4.1 22.3.4.2 22.3.4.3 22.3.4.4 22.3.5 22.3.5.1 22.3.5.2 22.3.5.3 22.3.5.4 22.3.5.5
Heterocycles Containing a Ring-Junction Nitrogen 1989 Juan J. Vaquero and Julio Alvarez-Builla Introduction 1989 Pyrrolizines 1991 General Structure and Reactivity 1991 Relevant Natural and/or Useful Compounds 1991 Relevant Computational Chemistry and Physicochemical and Spectroscopic Data 1993 Synthesis of Pyrrolizines 1994 By Cyclization Reactions 1995 By [3 2] Approaches 1997 Reactivity of Pyrrolizines 1997 Electrophilic Attack 1997 Cycloaddition Reactions 2000 Reduction Reactions 2000 Ring-Opening Reactions 2001 Derivatives 2001 Indolizines 2003 General Structure and Reactivity 2003 Relevant Natural and/or Useful Compounds 2003 Relevant Physicochemical Data, Computational Chemistry, and NMR Data 2005 Synthesis of Indolizidines 2006 Intramolecular Condensation: Approaches Related to the Chichibabin Synthesis 2006 By a [3 2] Approach: 1,3-Dipolar Cycloaddition 2007 Organometallic Processes 2009 Rearrangement of Acetylenic Derivatives 2009 Reactivity of Indolizidines 2011 Reactions with Electrophilic Reagents 2011 Reactions with Oxidizing Agents 2016 Reactions with Nucleophilic Reagents 2016 Reactions with Bases 2017 Reactions with Reducing Agents 2017
Contents
IX
22.3.5.6 22.3.5.7 22.3.6 22.4 22.4.1 22.4.2 22.4.3 22.4.4 22.4.4.1 22.4.4.2 22.4.4.3 22.4.5 22.4.5.1 22.4.5.2 22.4.5.3 22.4.5.4 22.4.6 22.4.6.1 22.4.6.2 22.4.6.3 22.4.7
Electrocyclic Reactions 2018 Reactions of C-Metallated Indolizines 2019 Derivatives 2020 Quinolizinium Salts 2020 General Structure and Reactivity 2020 Relevant Natural and/or Useful Compounds 2021 Relevant Computational Chemistry, and Physicochemical and Spectroscopic Data 2023 Synthesis of Quinolizinium Salts 2026 By [3 3] Approaches 2026 By [4 2] Approaches 2029 By Cyclization Reactions 2035 Reactivity of Quinolizinium Salts 2038 Reactions with Electrophilic Reagents 2039 Reactions with Nucleophilic Reagents: Ring-Opening Reactions 2040 Reactions with Reducing Reagents 2042 Cycloaddition Reactions 2042 Quinolizinium Derivatives 2043 Alkyl Derivatives 2043 Hydroxy and Amino Derivatives 2045 Halo Derivatives 2048 Benzoquinolizinium Salts and Related Systems 2052 References 2062 Phosphorus Heterocycles 2071 Fran ois Mathey Introduction 2071 Phospholes 2071 History and Nomenclature 2071 Spectral, Structural and Theoretical Studies 2072 Synthesis 2073 Synthesis of Phospholes 2073 Synthesis of Phospholide Ions 2075 Reactivity 2076 Reactions at Phosphorus 2076 Reactions at the Diene 2077 [1,5]-Sigmatropic Shifts 2079 Functionalization Reactions 2082 Ring Openings and Expansions 2082 Phospholes and Phospholides in Coordination Chemistry 2083 Phosphinines 2084 History and Nomenclature 2084 Spectral, Structural and Theoretical Studies 2085
23 23.1 23.2 23.2.1 23.2.2 23.2.3 23.2.3.1 23.2.3.2 23.2.4 23.2.4.1 23.2.4.2 23.2.4.3 23.2.4.4 23.2.4.5 23.2.4.6 23.3 23.3.1 23.3.2
Contents
23.3.3 23.3.4 23.3.4.1 23.3.4.2 23.3.4.3 23.3.4.4 23.4 23.4.1 23.4.2 23.4.3 23.5 23.6 23.6.1 23.6.2
Synthesis 2086 Reactivity 2089 Reactions at Phosphorus 2089 Substitution and Functionalization Reactions 2092 Cycloaddition Reactions 2095 Phosphinines in Coordination Chemistry 2096 Other P Heterocycles 2097 Three-Membered Rings: Phosphiranes and Phosphirenes 2097 Four-Membered Rings: Phosphetanes, Dihydrophosphetes and Phosphetes 2100 Five-Membered Rings: Phospholenes 2102 Applications of Phosphorus Heterocycles 2103 Addendum 2105 Phospholes 2105 Phosphinines 2107 References 2109
The Chemistry of 2-Azetidinones (b-Lactams) 2117 Benito Alcaide, Pedro Almendros, and Amparo Luna 24.1 Monocyclic Derivatives 2117 24.1.1 Introduction 2117 24.1.2 Physicochemical Data 2117 24.1.2.1 Computational Chemistry 2117 24.1.2.2 Experimental Structural Methods 2119 24.1.3 Biologically Relevant Monocyclic b-Lactams 2120 24.1.4 2-Azetidinone Nucleus Synthesis 2121 24.1.4.1 Ketene-Imine Cycloaddition (Staudinger Reaction) 2121 24.1.4.2 Metalloester Enolate-Imine Condensation 2124 24.1.4.3 Isocyanate-Alkene Cyclocondensation 2125 24.1.4.4 Chromium Carbene-Imine Cyclization 2126 24.1.4.5 Cyclization of b-Amino Acids and Derivatives 2126 24.1.4.6 Hydroxamate Cyclization 2127 24.1.4.7 Metal-Catalyzed Insertions of Diazo Compounds 2127 24.1.4.8 Multicomponent Reactions 2129 24.1.4.9 Coupling of Terminal Alkynes and Nitrones (Kinugasa Reaction) 2130 24.1.4.10 Photochemical and Radical Methods 2130 24.1.4.11 Synthesis from Carbo- or Heterocycles 2131 24.1.4.12 Miscellaneous 2133 24.1.5 Reactivity of the 2-Azetidinone Ring 2134 24.1.5.1 Nucleophilic Attack at Carbon 2134 24.1.5.2 Electrophilic Attack at Carbon 2136 24.1.5.3 Electrophilic Attack at Nitrogen 2136 24
Contents
XI
24.1.5.4 24.1.5.5 24.1.5.6 24.1.5.7 24.1.5.8 24.1.5.9 24.2 24.2.1 24.2.2 24.2.2.1 24.2.2.2 24.2.3 24.2.3.1 24.2.3.2 24.2.4 24.2.4.1 24.2.4.2 24.2.4.3 24.2.4.4 24.2.4.5 24.2.4.6
Radical Transformations 2137 Reduction Reactions 2138 Cis/Trans Isomerization 2139 Ring-Opening and Rearrangement Reactions 2140 Reactions of Substituents Attached to Carbon Atoms 2142 Reactions of Substituents Attached to Nitrogen Atom Penicillins and Cephalosporins 2144 Introduction 2144 Physicochemical Data 2146 Computational Chemistry 2146 Experimental Structural Methods 2147 Synthesis of Penicillins and Cephalosporins 2148 Classical Syntheses 2148 Industrial Production of b-Lactam Antibiotics 2150 Reactivity of Penicillins and Cephalosporins 2153 Basicity of b-Lactam Nitrogen 2153 Hydrolysis 2153 Alcoholysis, Thiolysis, and Aminolysis 2155 Destruction of b-Lactam Antibiotics by b-Lactamases 2156 Conversion of Penicillins into Cephalosporins 2158 Reactions for the Transformation of Functional Groups in Side Chains 2159 References 2163
2143
25 25.1 25.1.1 25.1.2 25.2 25.2.1 25.2.2 25.2.3 25.2.4 25.3 25.3.1 25.3.2 25.3.2.1 25.3.2.2
The Chemistry of Benzodiazepines 2175 Carlos Valds and Miguel Bayod Introduction 2175 General Introduction 2175 Structural Classication of Benzodiazepines 2177 Relevant Benzodiazepines 2177 Most Common 1,4-Benzodiazepines 2177 1,4-Benzodiazepines with a Heterocycle Condensed at sides a or d 2179 Other Benzodiazepines with Clinical Application 2181 Naturally Occurring Benzodiazepines 2181 1,4-Benzodiazepines: General Synthetic Methods 2182 1,4-Benzodiazepines Ring Synthesis: Introduction 2182 Ring Synthesis of 1,4-Benzodiazepin-2-ones 2182 Quinazoline N-Oxide Route: Sternbachs Classical Synthesis 2182 2-Aminobenzophenone Route 2184
XII
Contents
25.3.3 25.3.3.1 25.3.3.2 25.3.4 25.4 25.4.1 25.4.2 25.4.3 25.4.4 25.5 25.5.1 25.5.2 25.5.3 25.5.3.1 25.5.3.2 25.6 25.7 25.7.1 25.7.2 25.8 25.8.1 25.8.2
Synthesis of 1,4-Benzodiazepine-2,5-diones 2186 Standard Synthesis: from Anthranilic Acid and a-Amino Acid Derivatives 2186 Ugi 4CC Reaction in the Synthesis of 1,4-Benzodiazepines-2,5-diones 2188 Other 1,4-Benzodiazepines 2192 Modications of the 1,4-Benzodiazepine Ring 2193 Introduction 2193 Reactions of the C2 Carbonyl Group 2194 Functionalization at C3 2196 Substitutions at C5 2197 1,4-Benzodiazepines with a Fused Heterocycle 2198 Benzodiazepines with a Heterocycle Fused at the a Side (N1-C2 Position) 2198 Benzodiazepines with a Heterocycle Fused at the d Side (N4-C5 Position) 2204 Cycloaddition Reactions in the Synthesis of 1,4-Benzodiazepines with Fused Heterocycles 2206 [3 2] Cycloadditions 2206 [2 2] Cycloadditions 2208 Pyrrolo[2,1-c][1,4]Benzodiazepines (PBDs) 2210 1,5-Benzodiazepines 2213 General Methods of Synthesis of 1,5-Benzodiazepines 2214 1,5-Benzodiazepines with a Fused Heterocycle 2217 2,3-Benzodiazepines 2217 2,3-Benzodiazepine Ring Synthesis 2218 2,3-Benzodiazepines with a Fused Heterocycle 2221 References 2222 Porphyrins: Syntheses and Reactions 2231 Venkataramanarao G. Anand, Alagar Srinivasan, and Tavarekere K. Chandrashekar Introduction 2231 General Introduction 2231 System Isomers 2232 Tetrapyrrolic Systems 2232 Pyrrole Inverted Systems 2233 Core-Modied Porphyrins 2233 Expanded Porphyrins 2235 Synthetic Chemistry of Porphyrins and Expanded Porphyrins 2236 Reactivity of Porphyrins 2254 Electrophilic Reactions 2255 Formylation 2255 Reactions of Formyl Porphyrins 2256
26
26.1 26.1.1 26.1.2 26.1.2.1 26.1.2.2 26.1.2.3 26.1.2.4 26.2 26.3 26.3.1 26.3.1.1 26.3.1.2
Contents
XIII
26.3.1.3 26.3.1.4 26.3.1.5 26.3.1.6 26.3.2 26.3.2.1 26.3.2.2 26.3.2.3 26.3.2.4 26.3.2.5
Halogenation 2257 Nitration 2260 Acylation 2262 Cyanation 2262 Nucleophilic Reactions 2262 Reactions of p-Cation Radicals 2262 Substitution Reactions. Reactions with H2(OEP) 2263 Reactions with 5,15-Disubstituted Porphyrins 2265 Reactions with H2TPP 2266 Reactions with Porphine 2268 References 2268 New Materials Derived From Heterocyclic Systems 2275 Javier Santamara and Jos L. Garca-lvarez Introduction 2275 Color and Fluorescent Agents 2275 Heterocyclic Pigments and Industrial Applications 2275 Fluorescence and Fluorescent Heterocycles 2282 Self-Assembling Materials and Molecular Containers 2286 Introduction 2286 Assembly Mediated by Electrostatic and p-Stacking Interactions 2286 Self-Assembly Through Coordination Chemistry 2288 Self-Assembly Through Hydrogen-Bond Chemistry 2293 Capsules and Encapsulation Behavior 2297 Unnatural Enzyme Models 2300 Organic Conductors 2304 Introduction 2304 Conducting Heterocyclic Polymers 2305 Conducting Heterocyclic Molecules in the Bulk 2308 Single Molecule Conductivity 2313 References 2314 Solid Phase and Combinatorial Chemistry in the Heterocyclic Field 2321 Jos M. Villalgordo Introduction 2321 Natural Products 2322 Peptides, Peptoids and Peptidomimetics 2324 Small Synthetic Organic Molecules 2324 Solid Supports 2327 Crosslinked Polystyrene-Derived Matrices 2329 Functionalized Polystyrene Resins 2329 Chloromethylated Polystyrenes 2330 Aminomethylated Polystyrene Resins 2333
27 27.1 27.2 27.2.1 27.2.2 27.3 27.3.1 27.3.2 27.3.3 27.3.4 27.3.5 27.4 27.5 27.5.1 27.5.2 27.5.3 27.5.4
28
28.1 28.1.1 28.1.2 28.1.3 28.2 28.2.1 28.2.2 28.2.3 28.2.4
XIV
Contents
28.2.5 28.2.6 28.2.7 28.2.8 28.2.9 28.3 28.3.1 28.3.1.1 28.3.1.2 28.3.1.3 28.3.1.4 28.3.1.5 28.3.2 28.3.3 28.3.3.1 28.3.3.2 28.3.3.3 28.4 28.4.1 28.4.2 28.4.3 28.4.4 28.4.5 28.4.6 28.4.7
Other Functionalized Polystyrene Resins 2334 Polyacrylamide Resins 2339 TentaGel Resins 2340 Novel Polymeric Supports 2341 CLEAR Resins 2343 Linkers for Solid-Phase Organic Synthesis 2343 Linker Molecules Releasing One Specic Functional Group. Monofunctional Cleavage 2344 Linkers Releasing Carboxylic Acids 2345 Linkers Releasing Amides 2345 Linkers Releasing Amines 2345 Linkers Releasing Alcohols, Diols and Phenols 2345 Linkers Releasing Hydroxamic Acids 2345 Cyclization-Assisted Cleavage 2348 Multidirectional Cleavage Strategies 2352 Direct Cleavage by Nucleophilic Substitution 2352 Direct Cleavage by Electrophiles 2353 Safety-Catch Linkers 2354 Heterocyclic Synthesis on Solid-Phase 2357 Synthesis of b-Lactams 2358 Synthesis of Pyrrolidines 2359 Synthesis of Pyrroles 2362 Synthesis of Furans 2363 Synthesis of Thiophenes 2366 Synthesis of Imidazoles 2369 Synthesis of Thiazoles 2372 References 2375 Index 2381
XV
List of Contributors
Ramn Alajarn Universidad de Alcal Departamento de Qumica Orgnica Alcal de Henares 28871 Madrid Spain Benito Alcaide Universidad Complutense de Madrid Facultad de Qumica Departamento de Qumica Orgnica I 28040 Madrid Spain Pedro Almendros Instituto de Qumica Orgnica General (CSIC) Juan de la Cierva, 3 28006 Madrid Spain Julio Alvrez-Builla Universidad de Alcal Facultad de Farmacia Departamento de Qumica Orgnica Alcal de Henares 28871 Madrid Spain Venkataramanarao G. Anand Regional Research Laboratory (CSIR) Chemical Sciences and Technology Division Photosciences and Photonics Section Trivandrum 695 019 India Jos Barluenga Universidad de Oviedo Instituto Universitario de Qumica Organometlica Enrique Moles Julin Clavera 8 33006 Oviedo Spain Miguel Bayod Asturpharma S.A. Pea Brava 23 Polgono Industrial Silvota 33192 Llanera, Asturias Spain Jan Bergman Karolinska Institute Department of Biosciences and Nutrition Unit of Organic Chemistry Novum Research Park 141 57 Huddinge Sweden
XVI
Ulhas Bhatt Albany Molecular Research, Inc. Albany, NY 12212 USA Carolina Burgos Universidad de Alcal Departamento de Qumica Orgnica Alcal de Henares 28871 Madrid Spain Mara-Paz Cabal Universidad de Oviedo Instituto Universitario de Qumica Organometlica Enrique Moles Julin Clavera 8 33006 Oviedo Spain Luis Castedo Universidad de Santiago de Compostela Facultad de Qumica Departamento de Qumica Orgnica 15782 Santiago de Compostela Spain Tavarekere K. Chandrashekar Regional Research Laboratory (CSIR) Chemical Sciences and Technology Division Photosciences and Photonics Section Trivandrum 695 019 India and Indian Institute of Technology Department of Chemistry Kanpur 208 016 India Ugo Chiacchio Universit di Catania Dipartimento di Scienze Chimiche Viale Andrea Doria 6 95125 Catania Italy
Stefano Cicchi Universit degli Studi di Firenze Dipartimento di Chimica Ugo Schiff via della Lastruccia 13 50019 Sesto Fiorentino-Firenze Italy Ana M. Cuadro Universidad de Alcala Departamento de Qumica Orgnica Alcal de Henares 28871 Madrid Spain Jos Elguero University of Aveiro Instituto de Qumica Mdica (CSIC) Department of Chemistry Juan de la Cierva, 3 28006 Madrid Spain Jos L. Garca-lvarez Universidad de Oviedo Instituto Universitario de Qumica Organometlica Enrique Moles Departamento de Qumica Orgnica e Inorgnica Unidad asociada al CSIC Julian Claveria 8 33006 Oviedo Spain Cristina Gmez de la Oliva Instituto de Qumica Mdica (CSIC) Juan de la Cierva, 3 28006 Madrid Spain Concepcin Gonzlez-Bello Universidad de Santiago de Compostela Facultad de Ciencias Departamento de Qumica Orgnica 27002 Lugo Spain
XVII
Pilar Goya Laza Instituto de Qumica Mdica (CSIC) Juan de la Cierva, 3 28006 Madrid Spain Bernardo Herradn Instituto de Qumica Orgnica (CSIC) Juan de la Cierva, 3 28006 Madrid Spain Xue-Long Hou The Chinese Academy of Sciences Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry Shanghai-Hong Kong Joint Laboratory in Chemical Synthesis and State Key Laboratory of Organometallic Chemistry 354 Feng Lin Road Shanghai 200032 China Hui Huang The Chinese Academy of Sciences Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry Shanghai-Hong Kong Joint Laboratory in Chemical Synthesis 354 Feng Lin Road Shanghai 200032 China Tomasz Janosik Karolinska Institute Department of Biosciences and Nutrition Unit of Organic Chemistry Novum Research Park 141 57 Huddinge Sweden
Amparo Luna Universidad Complutense de Madrid Facultad de Qumica Departamento de Qumica Orgnica I 28040 Madrid Spain Fabrizio Machetti Instituto Chimica dei Composti Organometallica del CNR c/o Dipartimento di Chimica Organica Ugo Schiff Via Madonna del Piano 10 50019 Sesto Fiorentino (Firenze) Italy Franois Mathey Nanyang Technical University School of Physical and Mathematical Sciences Division of Chemistry and Biological Chemistry 21 Nanyang Link 637371 Singapore Singapore S. Shaun Murphree Allegheny College Department of Chemistry 520 N, Main Street Meadville, PA 16335 USA Carmen Ochoa de Ocariz Instituto de Qumica Mdica (CSIC) Juan de la Cierva, 3 28006 Madrid Spain Teresa M.V.D. Pinho e Melo Universidade de Coimbra Departamento de Qumica 3004-535 Coimbra Portugal
XVIII
Julia Revuelta Instituto de Quimica Organica General (CSIC) Grupo de Quimica Organica Biologica C/Juan de la Cierva, 3 28006 Madrid Spain Sylvie Robin Universit de Paris-Sud ICMMO Laboratoire ed Synthse Organique et Mthodologie Universit de Paris-Sud 91405 Orsay France Giovanni Romeo Universit di Messina Dipartimento Farmaco-Chimico Via SS Annunziata 98168 Messina Italy Grard Rousseau Universit de Paris-Sud ICMMO Laboratoire ed Synthse Organique et Mthodologie Universit de Paris-Sud 91405 Orsay France Javier Santamara Universidad de Oviedo Instituto Universitario de Qumica Organometlica Enrique Moles Departamento de Qumica Orgnica e Inorgnica Unidad asociada al CSIC Julian Claveria 8 33006 Oviedo Spain
Artur M.S. Silva University of Aveiro Department of Chemistry 3810-193 Aveiro Portugal Alagar Srinivasan Regional Research Laboratory (CSIR) Chemical Sciences and Technology Division Photosciences and Photonics Section Trivandrum 695 019 India Augusto C. Tom University of Aveiro Department of Chemistry 3810-193 Aveiro Portugal Carlos Valds Universidad de Oviedo Instituto Universitario de Qumica Organometlica Enrique Moles Julin Clavera 8 33006 Oviedo Spain Juan J. Vaquero Universidad de Alcala Departamento de Qumica Orgnica Alcal de Henares 28871 Madrid Spain Jos M. Villalgordo Villalpharma S.L. Polgono Industrial Oeste C/Paraguay, Parcela 7/5-A, Mdulo A-1 30169 Murcia Spain
XIX
David J. Wilkins Key Organics Ltd. Higheld Industrial State Camelford Cornwall PL32 9QZ UK Henry N.C. Wong The Chinese University of Hong Kong Institute of Chinese Medicine, and Central Laboratory of the Institute of Molecular Technology for Drug Discovery and Synthesis Department of Chemistry Center of Novel Functional Molecules Shatin, New Territories Hong Kong SAR, China and The Chinese Academy of Sciences Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry Shanghai-Hong Kong Joint Laboratory in Chemical Synthesis 354 Feng Lin Road Shanghai 200032 China
Jie Wu Fudan University Department of Chemistry 220 Handan Road Shanghai 200433 China Larry Yet 299 Georgetown Ct Albany, NY 12203 USA Kap-Sun Yeung Bristol-Myers Squibb Pharmaceutical Research Institute 5 Research Parkway P.O. Box 5100 Wallingford, CT 06492 USA
j1
1 Heterocyclic Compounds: An Introduction

Julio Alv arez-Builla and Jos e Barluenga
1.1 Heterocyclic Compounds: An Introduction
The IUPAC Gold Book describes heterocyclic compounds as: Cyclic compounds having as ring members atoms of at least two different elements, e.g. quinoline, 1,2-thiazole, bicyclo[3.3.1]tetrasiloxane [1]. Usually they are indicated as counterparts of carbocyclic compounds, which have only ring atoms from the same element. Another classical reference book, the Encyclopaedia Britannica, describes a heterocyclic compound, also called a heterocycle, as: Any of a class of organic compounds whose molecules contain one or more rings of atoms with at least one atom (the heteroatom) being an element other than carbon, most frequently oxygen, nitrogen, or sulfur [2]. Although heterocyclic compounds may be inorganic, most contain within the ring structure at least one atom of carbon, and one or more elements such as sulfur, oxygen, or nitrogen [3]. Since non-carbons are usually considered to have replaced carbon atoms, they are called heteroatoms. The structures may consist of either aromatic or non-aromatic rings. Heterocyclic chemistry is the branch of chemistry dealing with the synthesis, properties, and applications of heterocycles. Heterocyclic derivatives, seen as a group, can be divided into two broad areas: aromatic and non-aromatic. In Figure 1.1, ve-membered rings are shown in the rst row, and the derivative 1 corresponds to the aromatic derivative, furan, while tetrahydrofuran (2), dihydrofuran-2-one (3), and dihydrofuran-2,5-dione (4) are not aromatic, and their reactivity would be not unlike that expected of an ether, an ester, or
Modern Heterocyclic Chemistry, First Edition. Edited by Julio Alvarez-Builla, Juan Jose Vaquero, and Jos Barluenga. 2011 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA. Published 2011 by Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA.
j 1 Heterocyclic Compounds: An Introduction

O 1 O 2 O 3 O O O 4 O
N 5
N H 6
N H 7
N H 8
Figure 1.1 Examples of heterocyclic compounds.
a carboxylic anhydride, respectively. The second row shows six-membered rings, initially in an aromatic form as pyridine (5), while piperidine (6), piperidin-2-one (7), and 1,2,3,4-tetrahydropyridine (8) are not aromatic; their reactivity would not be very different from that expected of an amine, amide, or enamine, respectively. In general, the reactivity of aromatic heterocycles, which is a combination of that expected from an aromatic system combined with the inuence of the heteroatoms involved, is usually more complex, while the reactivity of the non-aromatic systems is not too different from the usual non-cyclic derivatives. Thus, most books on heterocyclic chemistry are mainly devoted to the reactivity of aromatic compounds. Tables 1.11.4 indicate models of the heterocyclic derivatives described in these volumes. Table 1.1 shows simple heterocyclic systems of three or four members. In this case, the literature examples are mainly non-aromatic, as indicated in the table, and the expected reactivity is always related to the ring strain present in all of them, which produces a release of energy when they are opened to give aliphatic products.
Table 1.1 Main three- and four-membered heterocycles.
Ring size N O
Heteroatom S Other
N H Aziridine NH N H Diaziridine
NH
O Oxirane O O Dioxirane
S Thiirane
NH O Oxaziridine
P
Azetidine
O Oxetane
S Thietane
Se
Seletane Phosphetane
1.1 Heterocyclic Compounds: An Introduction

Table 1.2 Main five-membered heterocycles.
j3
Ring size N Benzo
Heteroatom O Benzo S
N H Pyrrole
N N H Pyrazole
N H
Indole
O Furan
O
Benzofuran
S Thiophene
Isoxazole
Isothiazole
N N H Imidazole
N N N H N N H N
N O Oxazole
N N N N O O N N N N O O
N S Thiazole
S N N N N N S N
N N S
Triazoles
Oxadiazoles
N N N N H
Tetrazole
Thiadazoles
Table 1.2 indicates ve-membered heterocyclic systems, such as pyrrole, furan, their benzo derivatives, and thiophene, and a set of heterocycles with more than one heteroatom, as 1,2-azoles, 1,3-azoles, triazoles, oxa- and thiadiazoles, and tetrazole. Table 1.3 shows six-membered rings, namely, pyridine, its benzo derivatives quinoline and isoquinoline, the pyrilium cation, and, as in Table 1.2, other common heterocycles with more than one heteroatom, such as diazines, triazines, and tetrazines. Finally, Table 1.4 shows the simplest seven-membered ring, that is, azepine and its benzo derivative, as well as examples of the nitrogen bridgehead bicyclic systems, pyrrolizine, indolizines, and quinolizinium cation. Other additional chapters have been included with special systems relevant from different points of view: 2-azetidinones or b-lactams, benzodiazepines, and two general chapters on new materials based on heterocyclic systems and solid phase and combinatorial chemistry related to heterocyclic derivatives.

Table 1.3 Main six-membered heterocycles.
Ring size N Benzo O
Quinoline
N
Pyridine
Pyrilium
Isoquinoline
N N N N N N
Diazines Pyridazine Pyrimidine Pyrazine

N N N N N N N N
Triazines
N N NN N N N N N N N N
Tetrazines
Table 1.4 Other simple heterocycles.
Ring size N
Heteroatom Benzo
N H
N H
Azepine
N
+
Benzoazepine
5-5, 5-6, 6-6
Pyrroline
Indolizine
Quinolizinium
1.2 Structure and Reactivity of Aromatic Five-Membered Systems
j5
1.2 Structure and Reactivity of Aromatic Five-Membered Systems
As is indicated in most handbooks of heterocyclic chemistry [3, 4], a pictorial valence bond resonance description is used in most chapters, as a simple way to rationalize the reactivity of the most important aromatic heterocycles. Two examples are described in detail as representative of most of the aromatic rings considered: pyrrole as a model of the p-excessive rings, and pyridine as a model of the p-decient ones. Pyrrole has a structure that is isoelectronic with the cyclopentadienyl anion, but is electrically neutral, having a nitrogen atom with a pair of electrons, which is part of the aromatic sextet, and its resonance hybrid can be represented as a combination of main forms IV (Scheme 1.1), one without charge, and the others with charge separation. As expected, not all forms contribute equally to the structure of the pyrrole, with the order of importance being I > III, IV > II, V, that is, the major contribution is produced by the non-charged form, and, of the charged ones, those in which the nitrogen is using its lone pair of electrons. As a combination of all forms, structure 9 indicates how the heteroatom bears a partial positive charge, while the carbon positions show an increase in electronic density, compared with the typical aromatic system, benzene. Thus, a p-excessive system such as pyrrole would be easily attacked by electrophiles and not by nucleophiles.
N H
I
N H
II
N H
+
N
IV
N H
V
III
N H 9
Scheme 1.1 Resonance hybrids of pyrrole.
Scheme 1.2 indicates how the attack of an electrophile usually proceeds. The major isomer 13 is formed through intermediates 101112, of which the intermediate 10 contributes most to the stabilization of the intermediate. Alternatively, a minor isomer 16 is produced through the less stable intermediates 14 and 15. Alternatively, Scheme 1.3 shows the attack of a nucleophile on pyrrole. Intermediate 17 is not stabilized, and the lone pair of electrons on the heteroatom does not contribute to the progress of the process. The only process that usually can be detected is deprotonation of the NH bond to generate the pyrrolate (18), which can be used to make a bond with a suitable electrophile (i.e., an alkyl halide) to produce the N-substituted pyrrole 19.

+ N H N H 9 E+
+ +
-H+ H 12 E N H E
H 10
N H
H 11 E H +
N H
13
E H N H N H
E -H+ N H 16 Minor isomer
14
15
Scheme 1.2 Electrophilic attack on pyrrole.
_ N H _ Nu N H
9
Nu
17
No stabilization
E+ N
18
NuH
N E
19
Scheme 1.3 Attack on pyrrole by nucleophiles.
This behavior can be extended with small differences to other p-excessive heterocycles, with the limit due to the existence or not of a NH bond at position 1. In the case of rings like thiazole or isoxazole, the lack of the acidic bond makes the process 91819 impossible. Attack by radicals or complex organometallic reagents are more complex and are discussed in every chapter.
1.3 Structure and Reactivity of Aromatic Six-Membered Systems
The structure of pyridine is analogous to that of benzene, with one of the carbons replaced by a nitrogen atom. This produces alterations in the geometry, which is no longer perfectly hexagonal, due to the shorter CN bonds; the existence of an unshared pair of electrons, not related with the aromatic sextet, gives the pyridine basic character, along with a permanent dipole in the ring, due to the electronegative character of the heteroatom compared with carbon. Scheme 1.4 indicates the main canonical forms (IV) that contribute to the resonance hybrid of the structure of pyridine. Obviously, not all of them contribute equally the two Kekul e forms I and II, which are not charged, are the more stable
1.3 Structure and Reactivity of Aromatic Six-Membered Systems
j7
+ N I N II N _ III + + N 20 + + N _ IV + N _ V
Scheme 1.4 Resonance hybrids of pyridine.
forms, followed by those in which nitrogen is negatively charged. Other forms can be envisaged, but their contributions can be neglected. Thus, the combination of the main forms can be represented as structure 20, in which the nitrogen bears a partial negative charge, and positions 2, 4, and 6 are electron decient; usually, positions 2 and 6 are the most decient due to the inductive effect produced by the heteroatom. Positions 3 and 5 can be considered neutral, comparable to benzene carbons. Thus, the more characteristic reactivity of the pyridine ring would be against nucleophiles, which would attack the more electron-decient positions. As expected from the structure of pyridine, Scheme 1.5 describes the attack of a nucleophile on the system. The main process goes through intermediates 212223 to produce the major isomer 24, substituted at position 2. Alternatively, attack can also occur at position 4, through intermediates 252627, yielding the minor isomer 28.
_ Nu _ N _ H Nu 21 N 20 N 25
Scheme 1.5 Nucleophilic attack on pyridine.
_ N H Nu N H 23 Nu
_ -H N 24 Aromatization Nu
22 H Nu
H Nu
Nu H -H N 27
Nu
N _
26
28 Minor isomer
Scheme 1.6 describes an electrophilic attack on pyridine. The initial attack of the electrophile usually takes place on the pyridine nitrogen. When the attacking species can produce a stable bond, the product should be the pyridinium salt 33, but when this product is not stable enough the process goes through intermediates 293031,

that is, by attacking the neutral carbons, to produce the 3-substituted derivative 32. As a general view, the reactivity of pyridine can be taken as a model for other p-decient systems, and can be easily extended to diazines, triazines, or pyrilium derivatives. Other processes, like radical attack or reaction with complex organometallic reagents are described in every chapter.
E+ N 20 E+ N-substitution
+ N
E H 29
E H N 30
+ 31
E H
-H+ N
32
N+ E
33
Scheme 1.6 Electrophilic attack on pyridine.
1.4 Basic Literature on Heterocyclic Compounds
To introduce the recent literature in heterocyclic chemistry, it is necessary to indicate, among the textbooks available [36], two of them: one [3] from Eicher and Hauptmann with a highly structured organization, which is simple and efcient and can be used as the basis of a heterocyclic course. The other [4], from Joule and Mills, combines the condensed format with extensive information about the basic heterocycles considered. As reference books, it is necessary to cite the collection Comprehensive Heterocyclic Chemistry from Katritzky and colleagues [79]; this is associated with the Handbook of Heterocyclic Chemistry [10], which is regularly updated with the Comprehensive edition. Heterocyclic series are also of great interest, becoming readable collections that allow an update of the literature in the eld. Progress in Heterocyclic Chemistry [11] describes mostly the advances in every relevant eld of heterocyclic chemistry in a yearly volume. The series of monographs Advances in Heterocyclic Chemistry [12], which consists of 101 volumes to date, covers in depth very different topics in the eld. Other recent monographs are of interest in various topics on the eld, a good guide called Name Reactions in Heterocyclic Chemistry has been given by Li [13] and the monograph Aromaticity in Heterocyclic Compounds [14] is also a good basic help for heterocyclic chemists, as is the Synthesis of Heterocycles via Multicomponent Reactions [15]. Other recent monographs have centered on synthetic techniques such as palladium chemistry [16], chemistry of heterocyclic carbenes [1719], or synthesis
References
j9
with microwaves [20]. In addition, a recent monograph on general heterocyclic chemistry emphasizes the importance of heterocyclic compounds in the eld of medicinal chemistry and natural products [21].
References
1 IUPAC (2009) IUPAC Compendium of 12 Katritzky, A.R. (ed.) (2010) Advances in
4 5
10
11
Chemical Terminology - the Gold Book heterocyclic compounds: http:// goldbook.iupac.org/H02798.html (accessed on). Encyclopdia Britannica, Encyclopdia Britannica Online. The ofcial website: heterocyclic compound http://www. britannica.com (accessed on). Eicher, T. and Hauptmann, S. (2003) The Chemistry of Heterocycles: Structure, Reactions, Syntheses, and Applications, 2nd edn, Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH, Weinheim. Joule, J.A. and Mills, K. (2000) Heterocyclic Chemistry, 4th edn, Blackwell, Oxford. Sainsbury, M. (2002) Heterocyclic Chemistry, Royal Society of Chemistry, Cambridge. Nylund, K., Johansson, P., Puterova, Z., and Krutosikova, A. (2010) Heterocyclic Compounds: Synthesis, Properties and Applications, Nova Science Publishers, Hauppauge, New York. Katritzky, A.R. and Rees, C.W. (eds) (1984) Comprehensive Heterocyclic Chemistry I, Pergamon Press, Oxford. Katritzky, A.R., Rees, C.W. and Scriven, F.V. (eds) (1996) Comprehensive Heterocyclic Chemistry II, Pergamon Press, Oxford. Katritzky, A.R., Ramsden, C.A., Scriven, E.F.V., and Taylor, R.J.K. (2008) Comprehensive Heterocyclic Chemistry III, Elsevier, Amsterdam. Katritzky, A.R., Ramsden, C.A., Joule, J.A., and Zhdankin, V.V. (2010) Handbook of Heterocyclic Chemistry, 3rd edn, Elsevier, Amsterdam. Gribble, G.W. and Joule, J. (eds) (2009) Progress in Heterocyclic Chemistry, Elsevier, Amsterdam.
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
Heterocyclic Chemistry, Elsevier, Amsterdam. Li, J.J. (2004) Name Reactions in Heterocyclic Chemistry, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey. Krygowski, T.M. and Cyranski, M.K. (2009) Aromaticity in Heterocyclic Compounds (Topics in Heterocyclic Chemistry), Springer, Heidelberg. Orru, R.V.A., Ruijter, E., and Maes, B.U.W. (2010) Synthesis of Heterocycles via Multicomponent Reactions I (Topics in Heterocyclic Chemistry), Springer, Heidelberg. Li, J.J. and Gribble, G.W. (2006) Palladium in Heterocyclic Chemistry: A Guide for the Synthetic Chemist, 2nd edn, Pergamon, Amsterdam. Nolan, S.P. (2006) N-Heterocyclic Carbenes in Synthesis, Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH, Weinheim. hl, O. (2010) Functionalised NKu Heterocyclic Carbene Complexes, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Chichester. McGuinness, D. (2009) Heterocyclic Carbene Complexes: Reaction Chemistry and Catalytic Applications, Lambert Academic Publishing, Koeln. Van der Eycken, E. and Kappe, C.O. (2006) Microwave-Assisted Synthesis of Heterocycles (Topics in Heterocyclic Chemistry), Springer, Heidelberg, http://www. amazon.com/ComprehensiveHeterocyclic-Chemistry-III-15-/dp/ 0080449913/refsr_1_26?sbooks& ieUTF8&qid1280185250&sr1-26. Quin, L.D. and Tyrell, J. (2010) Fundamentals of Heterocyclic Chemistry: Importance in Nature and in the Synthesis of Pharmaceuticals, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.
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2 Three-Membered Heterocycles. Structure and Reactivity

S. Shaun Murphree
2.1 Aziridines
The eld of aziridine chemistry is brimming with activity and, as a consequence, it has been the subject of multiple recent reviews [15]. Of particular note are the efcient and engaging article by Sweeney [6], a brief overview of properties and chemistry [7] and a newer monograph with a more encyclopedic sweep [8]. The present work aims not to be comprehensive, but rather to provide a general landscape and to capture the spirit of best practices available to the synthetic chemist, with an emphasis on preparative utility.
2.1.1 Properties of Aziridines
The smallest and most functionally spartan of the nitrogen heterocycles, aziridine (1), is an isolable liquid at room temperature, but prone to polymerization and other thermal degradation pathways because of its inherent ring strain [9]. It is weakly basic, with a pKa of 7.98 [7], and the basicity trends of variously substituted aziridines have been the subject of a recent theoretical study [10]. From the standpoint of molecular geometry, aziridine describes an almost equilateral triangle, with a CNC bond angle of 60.58 (Figure 2.1) [11]. The N-inversion energy is relatively high, at almost 17 kcal mol1; however, conjugating substituents decrease the barrier significantly [12]. The 1 H-NMR signals of the methylene protons are centered at 1.4 ppm, while the carbons resonate at about 27 ppm. Coupling constants range from 3.8 Hz for trans vicinal 1 H-1 H coupling, to 6.3 Hz for cis vicinal 1 H-1 H coupling, and 168.1 Hz for 1 H-13 C coupling [13]. Aziridine moieties are imbedded in structurally diverse natural products from various sources (Figure 2.2), and the reader is directed to Lowdens excellent recent treatise on this topic [14]. Isolated from Streptomyces griseofuscus [15, 16], azinomycin A (2) and azinomycin B (3, also known as carzinophilin) are among the most intensely studied members of this class [1719]. As potent antitumor agents, their
12
j 2 Three-Membered Heterocycles. Structure and Reactivity
Figure 2.1 Geometry of aziridine.
biological activity springs from an ability to form interstrand purine base crosslinks in duplex DNA [2023]. Central to this behavior is the aziridine ring bound up in the 1-aza-bicyclo[3.1.0]hexane system, a structural feature also found in cellomycin (4), an antibacterial isolated from Streptomyces cellus [24]. A similar 3,6-diaza-bicyclo [3.1.0]hexane system is at the functional heart of mitomycin C (5), a notable representative of the mitosanes extracted from Streptomyces verticillatus [25] and the target of many synthetic studies [26]. For decades, mitomycin C has found place in the arsenal of clinically relevant antibiotic and anti-tumor drugs, and the mitomycins have inspired studies into many promising non-natural analogs [27]. Also equipped with a 2,3-dialkylaziridine residue is the protease inhibitor miraziridine A (6), which is isolated from the marine sponge Theonella aff. mirabilis [28] and which exhibits a linear peptide structure vaguely similar to madurastatin A1 (7), a compound demonstrated in a culture of a pathogenic Actinomadura madurae IFM 0745 strain, which shows activity against Micrococcus luteus [29]. An even more exposed aziridine ring is seen in the azicemicins A (8) and B (9), antibacterials isolated from Amycolatopsis sp. Mj126-NF4 [30, 31]. These naturally occurring aziridine alkaloids have also inspired a genre of semi-synthetic and synthetic analogs of medicinal interest [32].
2.1.2 Synthesis of Aziridines
Generally speaking, there are three major synthetic routes to the aziridines (Scheme 2.1): (a) the addition of monovalent nitrogen species to alkenes; (b) the addition of divalent carbon centers to imines; and (c) the N-alkylative ring closure of amines equipped with b-leaving groups . A fourth route (pathway d) is less frequently encountered, but is nevertheless included here because of its potential synthetic utility. Enantioselective protocols in the rst two categories have been the subject of a review [33], and aziridine synthesis as a whole has been more generally summarized by Sweeney [34].
2.1.2.1 Aziridination of Alkenes Analogous to epoxidation, in which olens react with electrophilic oxygen reagents, the aziridination of alkenes involves the addition of nitrenes (or nitrenoids) to a b-bond. Common nitrene precursors include [N-(p-toluenesulfonyl)imino]phenyliodinane (PhINTs), N-chloro-p-toluenesulfonamide sodium salt (Chloramine-T), and
2.1 Aziridines
O O MeO O O O H N O AcO OH NH N MeO O O O H N O AcO OH O NH N OH
j13
O
2, Azinomycin A
3, Azinomycin B
H 2N O HN
H N
O OH N H2 N Me O N O
O NH 2 O OMe NH
NH H2 N
4, Ficellomycin
5, Mitomycin C
O HO N H
O N H
H N O
OH
O N H
H N O H2 N
O OH NH NH
6, Miraziridine A
O N OH O O N H O N OH NHMe O N H N O OH
H N Me
7, Madurastatin A1
NR OH OH MeO OH OH O H
MeO HO
8, Aicemicin A, R=H 9, Aicemicin B, R=Me

Figure 2.2 Some naturally occurring aziridines.
14

+ N a b N
: : : :
NH
d - X=Y c - "HLG"
LG
Scheme 2.1 General synthetic routes to aziridines.
its N-bromo analogue (Bromamine-T), although use of the more esoteric N-iodo-Npotassio-p-toluenesulfonamide (TsNKI) has also been reported [35]. These precursors can be activated using various transition-metal catalysts (Figure 2.3). Also mirroring epoxidation methodology, a common model reaction is the aziridination of styrene (Scheme 2.2). Some illustrative examples are summarized in Table 2.1. For example, the copper(I) complex of a uorinated tris(pyrazolyl)borate (or homoscorpionate) ligand forms an adduct with ethylene (12a), which catalyzes the aziridination of styrene with great efciency using PhINTs as a nitrene precursor [36]. The more readily available Chloramine-T can be used effectively in the presence of methyl homoscorpionate complex 12b, even with equimolar charges of olen and nitrene precursor [37]. This catalyst motif has been incorporated into a heterogeneous system [38]. Other interesting copper(I) catalysts include those derived from pyridyl-1,5-diazacyclooctanes (e.g., 13) [39] and bispidones (e.g., 14) [40]. A particularly intriguing protocol using copper(I)iodide under aqueous phase-transfer conditions (entry 5) has also been reported [41]. Examples of copper(II) catalysts include the 1,4,7-triazacyclononane complex 15, which requires a rather large excess of olen [42], copper(II) acetylacetonate immobilized in ionic liquids (entry 7), which can be recycled many times without loss of activity [43], and Cu2 exchanged zeolite Y (CuHY) in acetonitrile (entry 8), which allows for respectable conversion using almost equimolar alkene : nitrene ratios [44]. Other transition metals can be used to advantage, as well. For example, the uorinated iron(III) porphyrin catalyst 16a [45], although certainly dearer to synthesize, exhibits marked advantages over its older manganese-based cousin 16b [46]; and even iron(II) triate is effective in promoting high-yielding aziridination reactions [47] (Table 2.1, entry 11). In the realm of precious metals, a novel and structurally interesting disilver(I) complex (17) has been shown to function as a competent catalyst in aziridination, a process that may involve high-valent silver intermediates [48]. Some polymersupported ruthenium porphyrin catalysts have been employed for this transformation; however, conversions tend to be low [51, 52]. The use of a metal catalyst can be circumvented in some cases. In one particularly convenient example, a nitrene precursor is generated in situ from p-toluenesulfo-
2.1 Aziridines
Ph conditions (seeTable2.1) Ph NTs
j15
10
Scheme 2.2 Aziridination of styrene.
11
namide using iodobenzene diacetate. The aziridination is facilitated by substoichiometric quantities of iodine [49] (Table 2.1, entry 13). A conceptually related protocol is carried out using t-butylhypoiodite, prepared in situ from t-butylhypochlorite and sodium iodide [50] (Table 2.1, entry 14).
R N N R H R B N N R Ar R Ar N
N N Cu R H2C CH2
N Cl N M N Ar
12a, R = CF3 12b, R = Me
Ar N N Me N Cu O2CCF3 PF6 13 HO OH Me N NMe Cu Cl 14 i-Pr t-Bu O2CCF3 O2CCF3 17 t-Bu CO2Me t-Bu N Me t-Bu N Ag N N O O N O Ag N t-Bu N N t-Bu 16a, Ar = C 6F5; M = FeIII 16b, Ar = C 6H5; M = MnIII
MeO2C
N Me
i-Pr
N N
Cu N i-Pr 15
Figure 2.3 Representative catalysts for racemic aziridination.
16

Table 2.1 Reaction conditions for styrene aziridination.
Entry
Catalyst (mol.%)a)
Nitrene source
Styrene : nitrene
Solvent
Time (h)
Yield (%)a)
Reference
Copper(I) catalysts 1 12a (5) 2 12b (5) 3 13 (5) 4 14 (3.5) 5 CuI(10) Copper(II) catalysts 6 15 (5) 7 Cu(acac)2 (8)c) 8 CuHY Other metal catalysts 9 16a (5) 10 16b (5) 11 Fe(OTf)2 (5) 12 17 (2) No metal catalyst 13 none 14 none
PhINTs Chloramine-T PhINTs PhINTs Chloramine-T PhINTs PhINTs PhINTs Bromamine-T PhINTs PhINTs PhINTs TsNH2/PhI(OAc)2/ I2/t-BuOK TsNH2/t-BuOCl/ NaI
1 : 1.5 1:1 3.8 : 1 2:1 2:1 20 : 1 5:1 1 : 1.5 5:1 100 : 1 7:1 5:1 1:3 2:1
CH3CN CH3CN CH3CN CH3CN H2Ob) CH3CN CH3CN CH3CN CH3CN CH2Cl2 CH3CN CH3CN DCE CH3CN
16 n.r. 1.5 7 3 16 1 3 12 n.r. 3 6 2 5
99 84 99 80 91 96 95 86 80 80 82 91 88 95
[32] [33] [34] [35] [36] [37] [38] [39] [40] [41] [47] [42] [49] [50]
a) Based on nitrene source. b) Bu4NBr used as PTC. c) Immobilized in bmimBF4.
Progress continues to be made in the asymmetric aziridination of olens using the same general approach (Scheme 2.3), but with chiral catalyst systems (Table 2.2). For example, impressive enantioselectivity has been reported for copper-exchanged zeolite Y (CuHY) modied with the chiral bis(oxazoline) 18a (Figure 2.4) using [N-(p-nitrosulfonyl)imino]phenyliodinane (PhINNs) as the nitrene precursor [53]. Inferior results are obtained when [N-(p-toluenesulfonyl)imino]phenyliodinane (PhINTs) is used [54]. A one-pot homogeneous variant using bis(oxazoline) 18b and commercially available iodobenzene diacetate has also been reported [55]. Evidence suggests that the ultimate stereochemical outcome may be affected by a secondary reaction between the aziridines formed and other components in the reaction mixture [56].
Ph
conditions (see Table 2.2) Ph
NR
10
11
Scheme 2.3 Asymmetric aziridination of styrene.
2.1 Aziridines
Table 2.2 Reaction conditions for asymmetric styrene aziridination.
j17
Entry
Catalyst (mol.%)a) CuHY 18 (7%) 19 (5) 20(0.1)
Nitrene source PhINNs PhINTs TsN3
Styrene : nitrene 1 : 1.3 1:5 1:1
Solvent
Time (h) 16 n.r. 24
Yield (%)a) 82 76 78
ee (%) 91 94 85
Reference
1 2 3
a)
CH3CN CH2Cl2 CH2Cl2
[45] [49] [51]
based on nitrene source.
Another major avenue for enantioselective aziridination is offered through the use of (salen)manganese(III) complexes, such as the Katsuki catalyst (19) [57]. Evidence from the Jacobsen group suggests that the high enantiofacial selectivity observed for aryl alkenes may derive from well-dened bidentate aromatic interactions between substrate and catalyst [58]. Analogous ruthenium-based catalysts (e.g., 20) allow for the use of tosyl azide as a nitrene precursor and are effective even at extremely low catalyst loadings [59]. Metalloporphyrin catalysts continue to show some promise for asymmetric aziridination, although enantioselectivities remain modest [60]. Some very convenient methodology has developed around bromine-catalyzed aziridination reactions using Chloramine-T as the source of electrophilic nitrogen
Me
N O R
Me
X N
O N R N
Mn
O
Ph Ph
18a, R = Ph 18b, R = t-Bu 19, X = OAc
N O
Ru
O Ar Ar
20, X = CO; Ar =
F
Me
Figure 2.4 Chiral catalysts for asymmetric alkene aziridination.
18

( )n
Chloramine-T CH3 CN, rt bromine catalyst (see Table 2.3)
( )n
NTs
21
22
Scheme 2.4 Bromine-catalyzed aziridination.
(Scheme 2.4). For example, when cyclohexene is treated with Chloramine-T trihydrate in the presence of substoichiometric quantities of hydrogen peroxide and hydrobromic acid, the corresponding bicyclic aziridine is produced in good yield (Table 2.3, entry 1). The process involves the in situ generation of hypobromous acid, which in turn gives rise to bromonium intermediates [61]. N-Bromosuccinimide is also a competent catalyst in this regard (entry 2) [62]. Both of these protocols might be seen as modications to an earlier report by Sharpless [63], which describes the use of phenyltrimethylammonium bromide (PTAB) as both bromine source and phasetransfer catalyst (entry 3). The Sharpless protocol is in some ways complementary to prior art. For example, methylcyclohexadiene oxide (23) can be aziridinated in good yield using ChloramineT trihydrate and catalytic amounts of PTAB (Scheme 2.5), a conversion that failed using PhINTs and Cu(acac)2. Interestingly, only the trans aziridino epoxide (i.e., 24) is observed, presumably due to preferential formation of the cis-epoxy bromonium intermediate 25, which has been calculated to lie about 2.4 kcal mol1 lower in energy than the corresponding trans isomer [64].
1.1 TsNClNa3H 2 O PTAB (10 mol%) CH3 CN, 12 h, rt 67%
NTs
O via
Br
23
24
25
Scheme 2.5 Aziridination of epoxyalkenes.
Some progress has been made in using sulfonamides as starting materials for aziridination. Thus, the pyridinesulfonamide 26 is converted into a nitrene precursor (i.e., 28) in situ using commercially available iodosobenzene diacetate as an oxidant, providing aziridine 27 in very good yield (Scheme 2.6). Another notable aspect of this
Table 2.3 Reaction conditions for bromine-catalyzed aziridination.
Entry
Catalyst (loading mol.%) H2O2/HBr (20) NBS (20) PTAB (30)
Chloramine-T type trihydrate anhydrous anhydrous
Olefin : nitrene 1 : 1.3 1 : 1.0 1 : 1.1
Time (h) 5 3 12
Product
Yield (%) 75 82 86
Reference
1 2 3
2 2 1
22b 22b 22a
[53] [54] [55]
2.1 Aziridines
10 (1.2 eq.) 1.0 PhI (OAc)2 N S O2 NH 2 0.03 Cu(tfac)2 CH3 CN, rt 12 h 84% N S O2 N Ph via N SO2
j19
[Cu] N
26
27
28
Scheme 2.6 Chelating sulfonamides.
system is that it obviates the need for external ligands and bases, since the pyridyl nitrogen provides intermolecular chelation. The free aziridine can be accessed by deprotection using magnesium in methanol [65]. A copper-catalyzed aziridination of tosylamides using iodine has also been reported [66]. DuBois and Guthikonda [67] have developed a similar rhodium-based strategy for the aziridination of sulfonamides, which they have applied to various unfunctionalized alkenes. With v-butenyl sulfonamide 29a, an intramolecular process can ensue to provide the bicyclic aziridine in good yield (Scheme 2.7). These and other investigations have shown the process to be stereospecic (Table 2.4, entry 2), whereby alkene geometry is preserved in the product [68]. Moreover, existing chiral centers can impose diastereoselectivity, as shown by the intramolecular aziridination of alkenyl sulfonamide 29c, which proceeds with a 10 : 1 syn : anti ratio [69].
O2 S O2 S
O R1
NH 2
conditions (see Table 2.4) R1
N H
R2
29a, R1 = R 2 = H 29b , R1 = H; R2 = Et 29c, R1 = Me; R2 = octyl

Scheme 2.7 Intramolecular aziridinations.
R2
30
The Padwa group has reported that the analogous intramolecular aziridination of cycloalkenyl carbamates proceeds without the need of a metal catalyst (Scheme 2.8). Thus, cyclohexenyl carbamate 31a underwent clean conversion into the tricyclic heterocycle 32a upon treatment with 2 equivalents of iodosobenzene [70] (Table 2.5,
Table 2.4 Reaction conditions for intramolecular aziridinations.
Entry 1 2 3
Substrate 29a 29b 29c
Catalyst (loading mol.%) Rh2(tfacam)4 (1) Cu(CH3CN)4PF6 (10) Rh2(Ooct)4 (2)
Oxidant PhI(OAc)2 PhIO PhI(OAc)2
Solvent Benzene CH3CN CH2Cl2
Yield (%) 84 80 84
Reference [59] [60] [61]
20

O O O NHR conditions (see Table 2.5) O N
31a, R = H 31b, R = Ts
32
Scheme 2.8 Intramolecular aziridination of carbamates.
Table 2.5 Reaction conditions for the intramolecular aziridination of carbamates.
Entry
Substrate
Conditions
Yield (%) 75 79
Reference
1 2
31a 31b
PhIO (2.0 eq), CH2Cl2, 40 C K2CO3 (7 eq), Rh2(OAc)4 (5 mol %), acetone, 25 C
[71] [72]
entry 1). A similar rhodium-catalyzed variant has been reported for N-tosyloxycarbamates [71] (Table 2.5, entry 2). Electron-decient olens often require different conditions for efcient aziridination than their unactivated counterparts. Along these lines, while certainly not limited to electron-poor alkenes, N-aminophthalimide (34) acts as a versatile nitrogen donor for aziridinations under various oxidizing conditions. The classical protocol involves the mild but environmentally questionable reagent lead tetraacetate [72], under which conditions the active aziridinating agent is believed to be an N-acetoxy species rather than a nitrene [73]. Meanwhile, other innovative methodologies have evolved. For example, using the conventional oxidant of iodosylbenzene diacetate (Table 2.6, entry 1), chalcone (33) is aziridinated in excellent yield (Scheme 2.9) [74].
Table 2.6 Reaction conditions for phthalimide aziridinations.
Entry
Eq 34
Oxidant (loading where appropriate) PhI(OAc)2 (1.5 eq) p-MeOPhI/mCPBA (1.4 eq) 1.80 V (vs. Ag wire)
Additive
Solvent
Time (h)
Yield (%)
Reference
1 2 3
1.4 1.4 1.3
K2CO3 K2CO3 Et3NHOAc
CH2Cl2 CH2Cl2 CH3CN
12 12 4
93 94 83
[65] [66] [67]
2.1 Aziridines
j21
O O + Ph 33 Ph O 34 35
Scheme 2.9 N-Aminophthalimide as nitrogen donor.
NH2
Pth O N Ph
These conditions have also been used to advantage for the aziridination of allylic alcohols [75]. The hypervalent iodine reagent can also be generated in situ by combining equimolar amounts of p-iodoanisole and m-chloroperbenzoic acid (entry 2) with no negative impact on yield [76]. An even more atom-economical approach can be realized using electrochemical conditions (entry 3), a stereospecic process that has been described as a click preparation of aziridines [77], and which may proceed via a nitrene intermediate [7880]. A similarly efcient oxidation has been reported using superoxide ion [81]. Addition of the chiral camphor-derived ligand 36 (Scheme 2.10) can result in an enantioselective process. Thus, the unsaturated oxazolidinone imide 37 is converted into the corresponding aziridine (38) in good yield and impressive enantiomeric excess. By comparison, ( )-tartaric acid gave only 42% ee. The choice of solvent is important, as migration to THF results in no loss of yield but an almost total disappearance of enantioselectivity [82]. Chiral bis(oxazoline) (BOX) ligands allow for a tunable aziridination of chalcones (Scheme 2.11) merely by changing the connecting backbone moiety (Figure 2.5). Thus, use of the cyclohexyl catalyst 41 provides the 2R,3S product (Table 2.7, entry 1) with very good enantioselectivity [83], while the anthracene derivative 42 yields the
Me Me
HO 2 C
CO 2H
36
Me
Me
O O N
O Ph
1.5 eq 34 1.6 eq 36 1.6 eq Pb(OAc) 4 CH2 Cl2, 0C 5 min 83% yield 95% ee
O O N
H N Pth Ph
37
38
Scheme 2.10 Asymmetric N-aminophthalimide-mediated aziridination.
22

O Ph Me
39
Scheme 2.11 Tunable BOX-mediated asymmetric aziridination.
PhI=NTs CuOTf chiral ligand CH2Cl2 (see Table 2.7) Me *
Ts N *
O Ph
40
O N N
O O N N O
Ph
Ph
i-Pr i-Pr
41, S-cHBOX
42, AnBOX
Figure 2.5 cHBOX and AnBOX ligands.
other antipode with even better yield and enantioselectivity (entry 2). The origin of this interesting crossover has been rationalized on the basis of a more crowded steric environment in the latter case [84]. The scope of the organocatalytic asymmetric aziridination of enones has been expanded to substrates other than chalcones by using a hydroquinine-derived catalyst and N-protected hydroxylamine tosylates as nitrogen donors [85]. Cinnamate esters can be aziridinated using axially dissymmetric binaphthyldiimine copper(I) catalysts, such as those derived from salen-type ligand 43 (Scheme 2.12). Thus, trans-t-butyl cinnamate (44) was aziridinated stereospecically and enantioselectively to provide the product in excellent yield [86]. A later report from another set of investigators using essentially identical conditions gave the same high enantioselectivity but signicantly lower yield [87].
Table 2.7 Reaction conditions for tunable BOX-mediated asymmetric aziridination.
Entry
PhINTs (eq)a)
CuOTf (eq)a)
Ligand (loading mol.%)a) 41 (4) 42 (4)
Time (h)
Yield (%)b)
Configuration
ee (%)
Reference
1 2
0.67 0.67
0.03 0.03
5 5
62 86
2R,3S 2S,3R
94 98
[71] [72]
a) Based on olen. b) Based on PhINTs.
2.1 Aziridines
Cl
j23
N Cl Cl N
43
Cl
O Ph Ot-Bu
PhI=NTs 0.05 Cu(MeCN) 4 BF4 43 (5 mol%) CH2 Cl2 -20C, 24 h 91% yield 97% ee Ph
Ts N
O Ot-Bu
44
45
Scheme 2.12 Asymmetric aziridination of cinnamate esters.
Diactivated alkenes can be converted into aziridines by a somewhat different set of conditions. For example, in the presence of calcium oxide, ethyl nosyloxycarbamate (46) functions as a nitrogen source that engages Knoevenagel adducts (e.g., 47) in aziridination (Scheme 2.13), presumably via nitrene intermediates [88]. Modest diastereoselectivities have been achieved by incorporating a menthol-derived chiral auxiliary into the carbamate reagent. Unfunctionalized alkenes give the products of nitrene CH insertions under the same conditions [89].
O O 2N S O2 O N H O OEt CN + CO 2Et 2.0 CaO CH 2Cl 2 r.t., 2 h 93% H N OEt CN CO 2 Et
46
47
48
Scheme 2.13 Aziridination of diactivated alkenes.
2.1.2.2 Aziridination of Imines Another powerful approach to the aziridine moiety is through the aziridination of imines using carbene- or ylide-type species [9092]. One very popular carbene precursor is the commercially available ethyl diazoacetate (49). This species can be induced to react with imines to form aziridines (Scheme 2.14) under various conditions, including indium trichloride in methylene chloride [93], lanthanide triates in protic media [94], boron triuoride in ether [95], a cyclopentadienyl iron(II) dicarbonyl complex [96], a bis(cyclooctadienyl) iridium(II) chloride complex [97] and
24

O conditions N N H 49
Scheme 2.14 Racemic aziridination using ethyl diazoacetate.
Ph N Ph 50 CO2Et
OEt
(see Table 2.8)
Table 2.8 Reaction conditions for racemic aziridinations with ethyl diazoacetate.
Entry
Aldimine components
Catalyst (loading mol.%) SnCl4 (1) None LiClO4 (10)
Solvent
Time (h)
Yield (%)
Reference
1 2 3
PhCHNPh PhCHNPh PhCHO PhNH2
CH2Cl2 bmimPF6 CH3CN
n.r. 5 4.5
>90 93 89
[84] [85] [86]
copper(II) triate in methylene chloride or tetrahydrofuran [98]. These reactions are often very high-yielding, as demonstrated by the tin(IV) chloride mediated reaction of ethyl diazoacetate with N-phenylbenzaldimine (Table 2.8, entry 1), which proceeds with a Z : E selectivity of 15 : 1 [99]. Interestingly, when the same reaction is run using an ionic liquid as solvent (entry 2), the reaction does not require the addition of a catalyst. In this case, the solvent itself is presumed to fulll the role of Lewis acid [100]. An operationally attractive procedure has been reported in which the aldimine is formed in situ using lithium perchlorate as a catalyst (entry 3), providing exclusively the cis isomer [101]. Acive methylene compounds serve as useful carbenoid precursors (in the form of phenyliodonium ylides) by treatment with iodobenzene diacetate and a catalytic amount of base under very mild conditions. Thus, tosylaldimines are converted into the corresponding aziridines in a one-pot procedure without the need for a metal catalyst [102]. Some noteworthy asymmetric protocols have been developed using diazoesters, particularly those employing vaulted biaryl ligands [103]. For example, a catalyst derived from (S)-VAPOL (51) and BH3THF complex promotes an enantioselective aziridination reaction between ethyl diazoacetate and N-diphenylmethyl p-bromobenzaldimine (52) with very good yields, almost exclusive cis selectivity and excellent enantiomeric excess (Scheme 2.15). Curiously, impure commercial samples of BH3THF give the best results [104]. Recent crystallographic evidence in an analogous system suggests an unexpected boroxinate species as the active catalyst, the formation of which should be facilitated by adventitious water in the commercial boron reagent [105].
2.1 Aziridines
Ph Ph
j25
OHHO
51, (S)-VAPOL
O N N H
Ph OEt
+ p-BrPh N
Ph
N
Ph Ph
51 / BH3 (10 mol%) CH2 Cl2 / toluene r.t., 5 h 91% yield 98% ee Z/E > 50:1
p-BrPh
CO 2 Et
49
52
53
O N N
O O + p-BrPh N H
OH CF 3
p-BrPh
BF 3OEt 2 CH2 Cl2 -40C 83% yield 92% de

F3C
CO2 Xc
54
55
56
Scheme 2.15 Chiral aziridination using diazoesters.
An alternative approach to asymmetric induction is to attach a chiral auxiliary to the diazoester itself, as exemplied by the (R)-pantolactone derived ester 54. Using boron triuoride as a Lewis acid catalyst, the triuoromethyl hemiaminal 55 is converted into the corresponding imine and subsequently aziridinated to give products (i.e., 56) in high yield and diastereomeric excess [106]. Other carbon donors for the aziridination of aldimines can be drawn from the ranks of ylide haloanions. For example, the chloroethylthiazole derivative 57 (Scheme 2.16) can be deprotonated with n-butyllithium to give an anion that reacts with N-phenylbenzaldimine (58) to provide the corresponding cis-aziridinyl thiazole 59 in good yield [107]. In an asymmetric variant of this protocol, the anion derived from chloromethyl benzothiazole 60 adds to the chiral aldimine 61 in a highly diastereoselective fashion [108]. In the same vein, Davis has reported the aza-Darzens reaction between the lithium anion of diethyl iodomethylphosphonate (63) and chiral non-racemic arylsulnyl imines (e.g., 64), which proceeds in good yield and excellent diastereomeric excess [109, 110]. An analogous reaction occurs between t-butylsunyl imines and the ylide derived from trimethylsulfonium iodide [111] or ylides derived from substituted allyltetrahydrothiophenium salts, which provide access to chiral non-racemic vinyl aziridines [112].
26

Cl
S N
Me
Ph
nBuLi Ph THF -78C 84% yield Z/E 100:1
Me
N
Ph
N
Ph
H
Me
Me
57
58
59
Ph
S N
Cl
+
Ph
Ph OMe
LDA THF -78C 90% yield > 96% de
OMe
N H
Hetaryl
Ph
60
61
62
Ar
O H
S N
(EtO) 2 P
Ph
S O
Ar
LiHMDS -78C 78% yield 96% de
Ph
O
P(OEt)2
63
64, Ar = mesityl
65
t-Bu
NTs
EtP2 CH2Cl 2 80% yield 98.7% ee
Ts
H N H t-Bu
OTf
Ph
Ph
66
67
68
Scheme 2.16 The ylide/haloanion approach to aziridines.
The chiral sulfur ylide approach has been developed less for aziridine chemistry than for epoxides; nevertheless, some very useful strategies have been pioneered, largely by Dai and Aggarwal [113, 114], and new methodologies continue to appear on the scene. For example, the chiral S-benzyl sulfonium triate 66 can be deprotonated with the commercially available phosphazene base Et2P to give an ylide that aziridinates N-tosyl pivaldimine (67) in good yield and excellent enantioselectivity [115]. Aggarwal and Vasse have applied a catalytic version of the sulfur ylide methodology to the synthesis of the taxol side chain [116] which uses a novel camphorderived ylide scaffold [117]. The cis : trans ratios in these reactions are very substratedependent. A recent computational study of this reaction manifold provides a useful theoretical framework in good agreement with observed experimental results [118]. The catalytic strategy has also been adapted to novel arsonium ylides [119]. The substrate dependent nature of cis : trans ratios is not limited to sulfur ylide chemistry. A particularly striking example is seen in the reaction of the anion from camphorsultam bromoacetamide 69 with various o-substituted benzaldimines 70 (Scheme 2.17). Both the phenyl and the nitrophenyl derivatives give exclusively cis-
2.1 Aziridines
Me N O SO 2 Me + R N LiHMDS PPh 2 O THF -78C Xc O O H PPh 2 N
j27
H (see Table 2.8 for yields) Ar
Br
69
70
71
Scheme 2.17 Camphorsultam as chiral auxiliary in aziridination.
Table 2.9 Yield data for camphorsultam-mediated aziridination.
Entry 1 2 3 4
R H NO2 Me OMe
Yield (%) 71 72 87 65
Cis : trans ratio 100 : 0 100 : 0 50 : 50 0 : 100
aziridines (Table 2.9, entries 1 & 2), whereas the o-anisole imine provides solely the trans isomer (entry 4), and the o-tolyl analog yields an equimolar mixture of diastereomers (entry 3). The mechanistic underpinnings for this selectivity are not well understood, but are believed to derive from a complex mixture of polar, steric and chelation effects [120, 121].
2.1.2.3 Ring Closure of Amines The synthesis of aziridines via the ring closure of 2-aminoalcohols has been known for three-quarters of a century [122], and the method has been adapted for such activating agents as triphenylphosphine dibromide [123], diphosphorus tetraiodide [124], the Mitsunobu reagent [125] and molecular sieves [126, 127]. This time-honored approach is, however, still in currency. For example, the chiral nonracemic aminoalcohol 72 (Scheme 2.18) derived from alanine [128] undergoes double tosylation and ring closure in one pot to provide the corresponding Ntosylaziridine (73) in excellent yield [129]. Similarly, the N-(t-butoxycarbonyl)-N-(2nitrobenzenesulfonyl) aminoalcohol 74, derived from the ring-opening of an epoxide, undergoes a sequence of deprotection, O-mesylation and carbonate-mediated ring closure to give aziridine 76, proceeding with inversion of conguration and no loss in optical activity [130]. This concept of ring closure is, of course, open to any good leaving group. For example, an interesting protocol has been reported in which an N-2-bromoalkylimine (e.g., 78), prepared by the addition of the 2-bromoalkylamine hydrobromide to an aldehyde (e.g., 77), suffers nucleophilic attack by methoxide to give an incipient imide anion that engages in immediate 3-exo-tet ring closure [131]. Cyclization of a 2bromoalkylamine is also at the heart of an aziridination of simple amines, such as ammonia, which engages in a tandem series of conjugate addition and ring closure
28

NH2 OH Ts TsCl Et3N CH3CN 94% N
(S)-72
OH n-Bu Boc N Ns OMs n-Bu
(S)-73
Ns H N K2 CO 3 Ns H 2O/THF n-Bu 80% overall N
1. TFA 2. Ms2O pyr DMAP
(S)-74
(S)-75
(R)-76
p-Tol NaOMe MeOH , 2 h 71% overall N OMe
O p-Tol H
(CH 3 )2CBrCH 2NH2 HBr Et 3N / MgSO 4 CH2 Cl2 0C, 7 h p-Tol
Br
77
78
Me
79
O Me N N
NH3 DMSO 1.5 h 95% yield 84% de
H N Xc O Me
Br Me Ph
80
O Me N N Ph O HN OBn TiCl4 Me Et 3N CH2Cl 2 96% yield Xc
81
H N Me O
Me
82
TsNCl 2 CO 2 Me Cu(acac) 2 MeCN Na2 SO3 Cl CO2Me N H Ts
81
Ts aq NaOH 80% overall N CO 2 Me
83
Scheme 2.18 Aziridines from ring-closing protocols.
84
85
reactions with the chiral a-bromoamide 80 to provide aziridine 81 with good diastereoselectivity [132]. This methodology has also been adapted to a solid-phase protocol using Wang resin derivatives [133]. The same chiral auxiliary can be used to advantage in the synthesis of chiral b-amino acid precursors (e.g., 82), which can be converted into the corresponding
2.1 Aziridines
j29
amino acids by zinc-copper reduction of the NO bond and lithium peroxide hydrolysis of the amide linkage [134]. However, in the presence of a suitable Lewis acid, 82 is converted into aziridine 81 with remarkable efciency [135]. Aziridinyl esters (e.g., 85) are conveniently prepared from methyl acrylate (83) or its derivatives by the copper-catalyzed addition of N,N-dichlorotosyl sulfonamide and subsequent ring closure [136]. Alternatively, these products can be accessed by treating a,b-dibromoesters with simple primary amines [137].
2.1.2.4 Ring Contraction of Other Heterocycles Aziridines can be accessed through the extrusion of elements from larger nitrogenous heterocycles, most notably triazolines. Thus, for example, azanorbornene 86 undergoes 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition with phenyl azide to yield a 2 : 3 mixture of regioisomeric tricyclic triazolines in quantitative combined yield (Scheme 2.19). Photolysis of these compounds in a quartz reaction vessel using a mediumpressure mercury lamp led to efcient formation of the fused tricyclic aziridine 88 [138].
PhN 3
N Bn
N H N Bn 2 +
N N
NPh
H N Bn
CH 2Cl2 20C 5d quant.
PhN
H
h acetone 4h 90%
PhN
H H N Bn
H : 3
86
87a
87b
88
Scheme 2.19 Azide addition and ring contraction.
The rather sluggish initial cycloaddition is accelerated signicantly by tethering the dipole to the dipolarophile, as seen with the v-alkenylaryl azide 89a (Scheme 2.20), which undergoes complete cycloaddition within 3 h in reuxing toluene [139]. Even with very highly functionalized substrates (Table 2.10), the cycloaddition step proceeds with excellent yield and complete diastereoselectivity, the latter presumably the result of a preferred chair-like reactive conformer in which the TMS group adopts a pseudo-equatorial attitude [140]. Subsequent irradiation with a Hanovia lamp afforded the corresponding aziridines 91 in fair yield.
R 2 R3
OH TMS toluene reflux R1
R2
R3
OH TMS h benzene r.t.
R2
R3
OH TMS
R1
N3
N N N
R1
89
90
91
Scheme 2.20 Intramolecular azide addition and ring contraction.
30

Table 2.10 Yield data for intramolecular azide addition and ring contraction.
Entry
Substrate
R1
R2
R3
Yield 90 (%) 90 99
Yield 91 (%) 77 68
Reference
1 2
89a 89b
H CH2OBn
H OBn
H CH2OBn
[118] [119]
Molteni and Del Buttero [141] have reported the direct aziridination of ethyl acrylate (93, Scheme 2.21) using an alkyl azide supported on poly(ethylene glycol) monomethyl ether (92), which they suggest proceeds through the intermediacy of a triazole. In their studies of triic acid mediated aziridination of electron-decient alkenes, however, Johnston and coworkers [142] propose an intriguing concerted mechanism involving a multicentered transition state (i.e., 96).
toluene CO 2 Et 93 70C 16 h 87% N CO 2 Et 94
N3 92
O Me 95
BnN3 TfOH EtCN, 0C
+ Bn + H N2 O N Me 96
Bn 92% NH
O Me
OTf
97
Scheme 2.21 Direct aziridination with alkyl azides.
2.1.3 Reactivity of Aziridines
The reactions of aziridines are legion, but most t into a few broad categories: (i) nucleophilic ring opening, (ii) N-substitution, (iii) aziridinyl anion chemistry and (iv) ring expansion to larger heterocyclic species . Although no longer the most recent, a review of the synthetic applications of chiral aziridines by McCoull and Davis [4] still offers an excellent overview of the diverse eld of aziridine chemistry. A more recent (but more specialized) chapter on aziridinecarboxylate esters is equally worthwhile [143].
2.1.3.1 Nucleophilic Ring Opening Perhaps the most common of aziridine reactions is the ring opening by nucleophiles. This topic has been reviewed recently and fairly comprehensively by Hu [144], and an interesting computational study on CN vs. CC bond cleavage has been published [145]. Some illustrative synthetic examples are given here.
2.1 Aziridines
j31
Ring opening can be used as a means of carboncarbon bond formation when carbon-based nucleophiles are employed [146]. For example, in the presence of catalytic amounts of cuprous iodide, phenyllithium attacks the less substituted site of the N-tosyl aziridine 98 (Scheme 2.22) to give the corresponding protected amine [147]. The analogous addition of Grignards onto meso-aziridines (e.g., 22b)
Ts N Me PhLi CuI (15 mol%) THF 75% NHTs Me
Ph
98
Ph
99
N O O Cu O O Cu N O
NTs
MeMgBr 100 (30 mol%) THF 0C 52% yield 91% ee
NHTs Me
Ph
22b
101
100
Ts N n-hexyl
Ph
n-BuLi CuOTf (10 mol%) Et2O 20 h 93%
Ph
NHTs n-hexyl
102
103
104
O O TsN O O + S S Li THF 4h 90% S S TsN
O O
O O
105
106
107
NTs BF 3OEt2 CH2 Cl 2 0C -> r.t. 2h 92%
NHTs
108
109
Scheme 2.22 Ring opening of aziridines with carbon nucleophiles.
32

can exhibit impressive enantioselectivity under the inuence of the Schiff base/ amino acid copper(II) complex dimer 100, although relatively high catalyst loadings must be used [148]. Acetylide anions are also competent nucleophiles when a copper(I) catalyst is used, as demonstrated by the high-yielding conversion of the 2-alkylaziridine 102 into the homopropargylamine 104, resulting from attack at the less hindered carbon [149]. Wu and Zhu have used the diastereoselective addition of an aryl Grignard onto a chiral aziridine as a key step in their total synthesis of ()-renieramycin M and G and ()-Jorumycin [150]. This exclusive regioselectivity was used to advantage in an approach to 1-deoxymannojirimycin analogs from deoxyglucitol-derived aziridine 105, which engages in a very well-behaved reaction with 1,3-dithiane anion 106 [151]. Similar regiochemical outcomes are observed for cyanide addition using stoichiometric trimethylsilyl cyanide (TMSCN) and tetrabutylammonium uoride (TBAF) in catalytic amounts [152], as well as an enantioselective protocol used to alkylate active methine compounds with unsymmetrical aziridines under mild basic conditions using a cinchona derived phase-transfer catalyst [153]. The regioselectivity of ring opening can be reversed under more cationic conditions, however, as illustrated by the Lewis acid-promoted intramolecular ring-opening reaction of phenypropylaziridine 108, in which the product outcome is doubly supported by the stability of the Friedel-Crafts-like transition state and geometric considerations [154]. The same regiochemistry is observed in the iron(III)-catalyzed attack of electron-rich arenes onto unsymmetrical C-aryl aziridines [155]. Heteroatomic nucleophiles are equally useful in unlocking the synthetic utility of the aziridine ring. For example, 22b reacts smoothly with aniline to provide the corresponding diamine 110 (Scheme 2.23) under various mild conditions (Table 2.11), including bismuth trichloride in acetonitrile [156], indium tribromide in methylene chloride [157], and lithium perchlorate in acetonitrile [120, 158]. Aqueous conditions have been developed using a cyclodextrin catalyst [159], and silica gel allows for a completely solventless system [160].
PhNH2 NTs conditions (see Table 2.11) 110 NHTs
NHPh
22b
Scheme 2.23 Ring opening of aziridines with aniline.

Table 2.11 Yield data for ring opening of aziridines with aniline.
Entry 1 2 3 4 5
Reagent/catalyst BiCl3 InBr3 LiClO4 b-Cyclodextrin Silica gel
Solvent CH3CN CH2Cl2 CH3CN H2O/Me2CO none
Time (h) 1.5 5.5 5.5 24 1
Yield (%) 96 90 90 89 91
Reference [130] [131] [132] [133] [134]
2.1 Aziridines
j33
The asymmetric ring-opening of meso aziridines such as 22b is a useful approach for accessing variously substituted chiral amines, and it has been the subject of some very good reviews [144, 146, 161]. One recently reported protocol involves the use of a titanium binolate catalyst, which can achieve ees of 99% [162]. Still other conditions have been worked out for alkylamines, as exemplied by addition of benzylamine (Scheme 2.24). In what may be one of the biggest catalyst sleepers of the century, the commercially available tris(pentauorophenyl) borane [163] has escaped the niche of specialized polymerization catalysis and now nds application in various other useful synthetic transformations, including the ring opening of aziridines with simple amines (Table 2.12, entry 1). Interestingly, the active catalytic species involves a water-borane complex [164]. Other novel protocols for this reaction include ceric ammonium nitrate (CAN) in acetonitrile [165] and tributyl phosphite in an organic/aqueous medium [166]. Microwave conditions have been developed using resin-bound alkylamines in a protocol suitable for parallel synthesis [167].
NHTs NTs PhCH2NH2 conditions (see Table 2.12) 111 NHBn
22b
Scheme 2.24 Ring opening of aziridines with benzylamine.
Azide is also a popular nitrogen-based nucleophile by virtue of its relatively low basicity, high nucleophilicity and ability to undergo subsequent reduction to the primary amine (i.e., a surrogate for ammonia). To achieve virtually neutral conditions, trimethylsilyl azide can be used as the source of azide (Table 2.13, entry 1), along with catalytic amounts of tributylammonium uoride (TBAF) to liberate the azide in situ [152]. Of course, sodium azide itself can be used as a reactant, with the addition being promoted efciently by cerium trichloride heptahydrate [168], lithium perchlorate [169] or Oxone [170] (Scheme 2.25). Meso aziridines can be enantioselectively desymmetrized using a dimeric salen yttrium catalyst in near quantitative yield and excellent enantioselectivity [161]. Synthetically useful b-aminoalcohols and aminoethers can be obtained by using oxygen-centered nucleophiles in the ring-opening reaction, and several mild and
Table 2.12 Yield data for ring opening of aziridines with benzylamine.
Entry 1 2 3
Reagent/catalyst B(C6F5)3 CAN PBu3
Solvent CH3CN CH3CN H2O/CH3CN
Time (h) 12 3 12
Yield (%) 99 93 99
Reference [136] [137] [138]
34

Table 2.13 Yield data for ring opening of aziridines with azide.
Entry 1 2 3 4
Azide source TMSN3 NaN3 NaN3 NaN3
Additive TBAF (5 mol.%) CeCl37H2O LiClO4 Oxone
Solvent THF CH3CN CH3CN H2O/CH3CN
Time (h) 6 6 6 3
Yield (%) 97 90 90 89
Reference [128] [139] [140] [141]
TsN
conditions (see Table 2.13)

112
NHTs N3
113
Scheme 2.25 Ring opening of aziridines with azide.
efcient methods have been reported to effect this transformation. For example, the alcoholysis of phenylaziridine 11 (Scheme 2.26) is promoted by ceric ammonium nitrate (Table 2.14, entry 1), which is effective for both alcohols [171] and water [165]; boron triuoride etherate (entry 2) or tin(II) triate [172]; montmorillonite KSF clay (entry 3), which serves as a solid-supported mild acid catalyst [174]; phosphomolybdic acid (PMA) on silica gel (entry 4), which gives excellent yields with various aziridines and alcohols [178]; and copper(II) triate (entry 5) [175]. The watertolerant bismuth(III) triate is particularly well suited to catalyze hydrolysis reactions (entry 6) [176]. Note that in all cases the oxygen is attached to the benzylic position. With branched alkylaziridines (e.g., cyclohexylaziridine) the regioselectivity is reversed. Ring opening can also occur under basic conditions in the absence
Ts N Ph 11
OR ROH conditions (see Table 2.14) TsN Ph 114
Scheme 2.26 Ring opening of aziridines with alcohols.

Table 2.14 Yield data for ring opening of aziridines with oxygen-centered nucleophiles.
Entry 1 2 3 4 5 6
R Me Me Et t-Bu CH2CH2Cl H
Catalyst CAN BF3OEt2 KSF PMA/SiO2 Cu(OTf)2 Bi(OTf)3
Solvent MeOH MeOH CH2Cl2 MeCN HOCH2CH2Cl MeCN/H2O
Yield (%) 90 99 86 94 87 88
Reference [142] [143] [144] [145] [175] [176]
2.1 Aziridines
j35
of a Lewis acid catalyst, in which case nucleophilic attack occurs at the less hindered position [177]. It was discovered that the regiochemistry of the hydrolysis of a-aminoaziridine 115 (Scheme 2.27) could be controlled by manipulation of the reaction conditions. Thus, use of a protic acid (such as p-toluenesulfonic acid) led to attack at the terminal carbon, presumably via the highly reactive aziridinium salt, yielding the hydroxydiamine 116. In contrast, if a classic Lewis acid was employed (e.g., boron triuoride etherate) the opposite regiochemistry predominated, providing the secondary alcohol 117. The stereochemical outcome for the latter product was rationalized on the basis of a double inversion from anchimeric assistance by the dibenzylamino substituent [179].
NHBn OH NBn 2 pTsOH CH3 CN/H 2O (78% yield) NBn 2
NBn
1. BF3OEt2, CH 3CN, 2. NaHCO 3, H 2O
OH NHBn NBn 2
116
115
117
Scheme 2.27 Tunable hydrolysis conditions.
The scope is by no means limited to carbon, nitrogen and oxygen-centered nucleophiles. The nucleophilic palette embraces sulfur-based species, such as thiocyanates and thiols, the addition of which is promoted by a heterogeneous recyclable sulfated zirconia catalyst [180] and poly(ethylene glycol) [181]. The regiochemistry tends to follow the conventional course, with benzylic attack dominating for arylaziridines and terminal attack for alkylaziridines. Thiols can also engage in the enantioselective ring-opening of aziridines under the catalysis of a VAPOL phosphoric acid derivative [182]. The aziridine ring can also be cleaved by phenylselenide [183], reductively cleaved under transfer hydrogenation conditions [184], or opened with halides under fairly straightforward conditions, such as tetrabutylammonium uoride in DMF [185], aqueous HCl in acetone [186], magnesium bromide in ether [187], and indium triiodide in acetonitrile [188].
2.1.3.2 N-Elaboration Reactions Aziridines bearing no N-substituent can be elaborated in various ways. For example, cyclohexene imine (118) engages in conjugate addition onto methyl acrylate under solvent-free conditions (Scheme 2.28, route a), although two equivalents of the Michael acceptor is needed [164]. The same aziridine undergoes smooth palladiumcatalyzed allylation with prenyl acetate, whereby the electrophile is captured at the more substituted terminus (route b), although this regiochemistry is substratedependent [189]. N-Arylation is also possible using a palladium/BINAP protocol (route c), in which aryl bromides and arylboronic acids act as suitable reaction partners [190].
36

CO 2Me
N a c
Cl
N
119
NH 118
b
121
120
Scheme 2.28 N-Elaboration of cyclohexene imine (Table 2.15).
Table 2.15 Conditions for N-elaboration of cyclohexene imine.
Entry Route Electrophile 1 a

CO2 Me
Catalytic system None [Pd(g3-C3H5)Cl]2, BINAP
Solvent Neat
Yield (%) Reference 89 [136]
c
AcO
THF
89
[153]
Cl
3 b Pd(dba)3, BINAP, t-BuONa Toluene 95 [154]
Br
Many other protocols exist in which unprotected aziridines function as nucleophiles, including alkylations using epoxides [191] or alkyl bromides [192] as electrophiles. N-Acylation can be effected with acyl chlorides [193] or a combination of carboxylic acid and dicyclohexylcarbodiimide (DCC) [3, 194] (Scheme 2.29).
NHBoc O Me N N Ph O NH Me + HO O Ph NHBoc Me DCC CH2 Cl2 / CH3 CN r.t., 12 h (> 95% yield) Me N O N Ph O O N Me Ph
Me
122
123
124
Scheme 2.29 N-Acylation using DCC.
2.1 Aziridines
j37
2.1.3.3 Azirdinyl Anion Chemistry Aziridinyl anion chemistry is of growing interest, as evidenced by its inclusion in a symposium-in-print [195]. Hodgson et al. have also authored a noteworthy review dedicated to this topic [196], to which the reader is directed, and computational studies on the physical properties of aziridinyl anions are emerging [197]. Protected aziridines can be deprotonated, and the resulting carbanions add to a range of electrophiles. For example, the t-butylsulfonyl (Bus) protected pentylaziridine 125 (Scheme 2.30) is deprotonated at the less substituted carbon (i.e., more stable anion) upon treatment with an excess of lithium 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidide (LTMP) at low temperature (78 C), and the lithiate adds smoothly to 3-pentanone to give the aziridinyl alcohol 126 in good yield [198]. The aziridinyl anion can also exhibit carbene-like character, so that when alkenes are tethered to the substrate (e.g., 127)
SO2t-Bu N
3 eq. LTMP THF -78C
Et 2 C=O 76% Et
HO Et
SO 2t-Bu N
125
SO2 t-Bu N
126
NHSO 2t-Bu 3 eq. LTMP t-BuOMe 0C 99%
127
O Ts N CF3 n-BuLi THF -102C H
128
Ts N
OH O CF 3
95%
129
OMe OMe
130
OMe
C 10H21 O S
Ph CF3
EtMgBr THF -78C
C 10H 21 BrMg
Ph CF 3
MeI CuI r.t. 94%
C 10H 21 Me
Ph CF 3
.. p-Tol
131
Scheme 2.30 Reactions of aziridinyl anions.
132
133
38

and the anion is formed at somewhat higher temperatures, a remarkably highyielding intramolecular cyclopropanation ensues [199]. When an electron-withdrawing group is attached to the aziridine ring, it directs deprotonation and stabilizes the resulting anion. Thus, aziridine 129 is lithiated adjacent to the triuoromethyl group, after which treatment with 2-furaldehyde provides the aziridinyl alcohol 130 in excellent yield [200]. Satoh and coworkers have developed a very useful protocol involving sulnylaziridines (e.g., 131), in which the sulnyl group (having served as a chiral auxiliary in the prior aziridination reaction) is quantitatively removed in the presence of ethyl Grignard to give the corresponding aziridinylmagnesium bromide (i.e., 132). This anion can then be cross-coupled with alkyl iodides in the presence of cuprous iodide to give alkylated products (i.e., 133) with net retention of conguration [201, 202].
2.1.3.4 Ring Expansions Aziridines can serve as handy templates for access to other heterocyclic subunits, and quite a few interesting methodologies have been reported. In the case of vinyl aziridines, near quantitative rearrangement to 3-pyrroline derivatives is promoted by copper(II) hexauoroacetylacetonate in toluene at elevated temperature [203]. Another general approach to ring expansion is through cycloaddition strategies. For example, in the presence of zinc chloride, p-methoxyphenyl protected aziridine 134 (Scheme 2.31) engages in a formal [4 2] cycloaddition with norbornene (135) to provide the tetracyclic piperidine 136. The mechanism proceeds through a Mannich reaction with the initially formed ylide and subsequent intramolecular FriedelCrafts alkylation [204]. Highly substituted pyrroles can be accessed by reacting aziridines with electron-decient allenes, a process that involves a formal [3 2] cycloaddition [205]. Pyrroles are also formed by the platinum(II)-catalyzed electrophilic iodocyclization of propargylic aziridines [206]. The ylide itself can be trapped with olens under thermal conditions [207], as demonstrated by the intramolecular 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition of the terminal aziridine 137 to give the bicyclic pyrrolidine 138 [208]. Harrity and coworkers [209] have developed a [3 3] cycloaddition strategy for access to the piperidine ring system, in which a palladium-trimethylenemethane complex (derived from acetoxy trimethylsilyl methylene compounds such as 139) adds to an aziridine (e.g., 98) to form methylenepiperidines such as 140 in generally good yields. The substituent on nitrogen greatly impacts the efciency of this reaction, with p-tosyl and p-methoxyphenyl-sulfonyl moieties providing the best results. The next broad class of transformations could be characterized as carbonyl insertion reactions (Scheme 2.32), although it encompasses the insertion of carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide through various modes. Thus, in the presence of sodium iodide, Boc anhydride serves as a carbon dioxide surrogate in the conversion of the ( )-pseudoephedrine-derived aziridine 141 into oxazolidinone 143, in which the stereochemistry of the ring substituents is preserved [210, 211]. Hydroxymethylaziridines (e.g., 144) can be bridged with phosgene into labile fused bicyclic oxazolidinone structures (i.e., 145), which undergo in situ nucleophilic attack by chloride to give chloromethyloxazolidinones (e.g., 146) in excellent
2.1 Aziridines
j39
OMe
MeO 1.2 eq ZnCl 2 CH2Cl 2 80% 135 N H 136
CO 2Me H CO 2 Me Ph
+ N Ph 134 CO 2Me CO 2 Me
OMe BnN xylene O O OBn OMe 137 0.10 Pd(OAc)2 0.60 P(Oi-Pr) 3 AcO SiMe 3 0.20 n-BuLi THF 82% 140 OMe 250C 20 min 85% BnN H O O 138 OBn OMe
Ts N Me 98
Ts N
139
Scheme 2.31 Cycloaddition reactions of aziridines.
yield [212]. Also, gaseous carbon dioxide itself can be trapped by aziridines at atmospheric pressure using lithium bromide as a catalyst, as shown by the conversion of arylaziridine 147 into the corresponding oxazolidinone 148. The mechanism proceeds through a series of bromide-induced ring opening, carboxylation of the resulting amide anion, and alkylative ring closure [213]. This transformation has also been shown to proceed under the catalysis of a (salen) chromium(III)/DMAP complex [214]. A novel rhodium-complexed dendrimer (149) is effective in promoting the carbonylative ring expansion of aziridines to b-lactams. The near-quantitative yield exhibited by N-t-butyl-2-phenylaziridine (150) is not unusual, although relatively high pressures [approx. 27 atm (400 psi)] and elevated temperatures (90 C) are required. Nevertheless, the catalyst appears to be easily isolated and recycled without loss of activity [215]. Nitrogen and sulfur can also be introduced via ring expansion strategies. Thus, styrene imine derivative 11 engages in [3 2] cycloaddition with acetonitrile in the presence of boron triuoride etherate at room temperature to give the corresponding imidazoline (152) in good yield (Scheme 2.33) [216]. The iminothiazolidine nucle-
40

Me N Me Ph (Boc) 2O NaI acetone r.t. Ot-Bu MeN Me O Ph MeN Me O O Ph 72%
141
142
143
Me N
Ph Me OH H
Ph 1. NaH, THF, 0C 2. Cl2C=O, -78C Me ClN
O O Me Me Cl
Ph N
O O Me
91%
144
Ts N p-Tol CO 2 (1 atm) LiBr NMP 100C 24 h 76%
145
O O NTs p-Tol
146
147
148
(CO) 2Cl Rh Ph 2P PPh 2 N
(CO) 2 Cl Rh Ph2P PPh 2 N Ph2P Cl(CO) 2 Rh N P Ph2 HN O
O NH
PPh 2 P Ph2 Rh (CO) 2Cl
N H
149
t-Bu N Ph 149 CO (400 psi) benzene 99%
t-Bu
Ph
150
151
Scheme 2.32 Carbonyl insertions into aziridines.
2.2 2H-Azirines
j41
Ts N Ph 11
MeCN
BF3OEt2 CH2 Cl2 r.t. 75%
Me N
Ts N
152
Ph
1.0 PhN=C=S 0.02 Pd(OAc) 2 N 0.10 PPh 3 THF, r.t., 20h 96% N
Ph S
153
154
Scheme 2.33 Insertion of nitrogen and sulfur into aziridines.
us [217] can be derived from aziridines at room temperature using a palladium(II) acetate/triphenylphosphine catalyst system. Thus, phenylisothiocyanate is inserted into the CN bond of vinylaziridine 153 to give the ring-expanded product 154 in excellent yield [218].
2.2 2H-Azirines
Although the level of activity does not match that of the aziridines, research into the chemistry of azirines is healthy and on the increase. Several reviews have appeared in recent years. The reader is directed particularly to two excellent treatises by Palacios and coworkers [219, 220] as well as an earlier work by Rai and Hassner [1].
2.2.1 Properties of Azirines
Also referred to as azacyclopropene (and confoundingly as 1-azirine), 2H-azirine is the unsaturated cousin of the aziridine ring, which might well be described metaphorically as a cyclic imine. The alternative 1H-tautomer lies some 35 kcal mol1 higher in energy, in part because it constitutes an antiaromatic ring system [221223]. It is a weaker base than aziridine, which is analogous to the trend in corresponding open-chain amines and imines [221]. Geometrically, according to calculation at the B3LYP/6-311 G(3df,2p) level of theory, the triangular ring is somewhat scalene, with the CN single bond being the longest side. Consequently, the sp2 carbon vertex is the widest at almost 70 (Figure 2.6) [224]. The 1 H-NMR signals of the methylene protons resonate at 1.26 ppm, while the olenic proton is shifted signicantly downeld to 14.4 ppm. The C3 carbon appears at 164 ppm [225].
42
Figure 2.6 Geometry of 2H-azirine.
Remarkably, the azirine moiety is found in some naturally occurring compounds. For example, azirinomycin (155, Figure 2.7), isolated from Streptomyces aureus [226], exhibits antibiotic properties [227]. Two more biologically active azirines, dysidazirine (156) and antazirine (157), were identied in extracts of the marine sponge Dysidea fragilis [228]. While both enantiomers are found in nature, only the (R)isomers of each are associated with desirable cytotoxic activity, the other antipodes being inactive [229].
N
Me
CO2Me
155 , azirinomycin
N N
Me
( )12
Br CO2 Me Br
( )9
CO2Me
156, dysidazirine
157, antazirine
Figure 2.7 Some naturally occurring 2H-azirines.
2.2.2 Synthesis of Azirines 2.2.2.1 Neber Route This synthetic methodology has a very interesting history. The Neber rearrangement, rst reported in 1926 [230], is the base-mediated conversion of oxime derivatives (originally sulfonates) into a-aminoketones (Scheme 2.34). Ultimately, it represents a useful protocol for the a-amination of ketones, which has recently been used to advantage in the total synthesis of dragmacidin F [231, 232]. While most applications still involve this complete transformation, it became clear early on that the mechanism involved an azirine intermediate that could be isolated under the right conditions [233].
TsO R H N R' R O NH2 R'
N R'
base EtOH R
N R'
R EtO
Scheme 2.34 Neber rearrangement.
2.2 2H-Azirines
j43
Generally speaking, there are two regiochemical possibilities for a-amination proceeding, in turn, through two regioisomeric azirines. House and Berkowitz [234] demonstrated that the regiochemistry of the Neber rearrangement is driven not by oxime geometry (as with the Beckmann rearrangement), but rather by the relative acidities of the a-protons. In other words, the initial tosylate displacement is effected by the more readily formed carbanion. Thus, in Neber precursors with electronwithdrawing groups, the active methylene almost always ends up as the saturated carbon of the azirine. For example, treatment of phosphonatoketoxime 158 (Scheme 2.35) with triethylamine at room temperature afforded in smooth fashion azirine 159 as the exclusive regioisomer [235]. Equally satisfactory results could be obtained using a solid-supported triethylamine analog (i.e., 160) [236].
TsO
Et 3 N benzene r.t., 8 h 79% Et
P(OEt) 2 158
P(OEt) 2 159
O
Et
N
TsO Et
160 (1.1 eq.) benzene 50C, 4 d 88% Et
160
161 O
PPh2
PPh2
O 162
MeHN
t-Bu
KMnO 4 SMe SMe acetone/ H 2O r.t., 20 h 81%

t-Bu
SO2Me SMe 164
163
Scheme 2.35 Azirines from oximes with activating groups.
An unusual set of oxidative conditions has been reported for the thioacetal oxime carbamate 163, which suffers oxidation of only one sulde linkage in the presence of potassium permanganate and then cyclizes to azirine 164, presumably under the inuence of hydroxide liberated during the oxidation [237]. The method is tolerant to other leaving groups on the imino nitrogen. One frequently encountered class of compounds in this regard incorporates the quaternary hydrazonium moiety [238]. For example, the hydrazonium salt 165 (Scheme 2.36) derived from propiophenone is converted into the corresponding azirine 166 in fair yield upon treatment with sodium hydride in DMSO [239], and the similar unsaturated system 167 gives an excellent yield of azirine 168 under identical
44

Me3 N I Ph 165 N Me NaH DMSO r.t., 3 h 63% Ph 166 N Me
Me3 N I Ph
NaH Me 167 O Me DMSO r.t., 7 h 93% Ph
N Me 168 Me
N 1. H 2NNMe 2 2. MeI / NaH
169
170
NMe 3 I NaOi-Pr DMSO 67% HO H H H 172
Me
H H HO 171 H
Scheme 2.36 Azirines from quaternary hydrazonium salts.
conditions [240]. In these cases, the regiochemistry is unambiguous, as there is only one set of a-protons. However, the process can be selective even when two regioisomers are possible. Thus, the naphthylacetone derivative 169 provides azirine 170 through sequential hydrazone formation, exhaustive methylation and deprotonation, whereby the product formation proceeds via the benzylic anion [241]. Even more subtle is the reaction course of the pregnenolone hydrazonium salt 171, which gives a reasonably good yield of azirine 172, corresponding to ring closure via the more substituted aza-enolate species. The latter case provides a striking example of the stability of azirines, as the authors report storage in ethanol for two weeks at room temperature without decomposition [242, 243].
2.2 2H-Azirines
j45
There appears to be no universally applicable approach to chiral nonracemic azirines; however, strides are being made. In one example, the chiral amido oxime derivative 173 (Scheme 2.37) is reported to undergo conversion into azirine 174 with exclusive diastereoselectivity [244]. It is also interesting to note here the ability to isolate the azirine from the type of protic media usually encountered in the Neber rearrangement, which appears promising for adapting such protocols to azirine synthesis. The use of chiral bases has met with marginal success. In one case, modest enantioselectivities (up to 70% ee) were achieved using a chiral phase-transfer agent, which is assumed to form a tight ion pair with hydroxide and thus impose an asymmetric environment around the proton-transfer transition state [245]. A chiral base can also be used with good results, as demonstrated by the preparation of azirine 177 mediated by quinidine (175). Best results are obtained using stoichiometric quantities of organic base. However, a 20 mol.% loading could be used in the presence of potassium carbonate with only a slight decrease in selectivity [246]. This strategy has also been applied to the synthesis of azirines derived from phosphine oxides (e.g., 179) [247].
MsO H 2N
O N H
CO 2 Et Ph
NaOMe EtOH r.t., 2 h 82% H2 N
H N O
Ph CO 2Et
173
TsO OH N N OMe TsO Me Ph N
174 175
toluene OEt r.t. 85% yield 80% ee Bn N CO 2 Et
176
N O
177
N Me 179 PPh 2 O
175
benzene r.t. 96% yield 82% ee
175
PPh 2
178
Scheme 2.37 Asymmetric induction in azirine formation.
2.2.2.2 From Vinyl Azides Smolinsky reported in 1962 that the vapor-phase thermolysis of a-aziridinylstyrene (180, Scheme 2.38) produced substantial quantities of phenylazirine 181 [248, 249]. Subsequently, the method was adapted to be more amenable to the preparative scale, as exemplied by the synthesis of the triuoromethylphenylazirine 184, which was carried out on a 10-gram scale [250]. The vinyl azide in this case was synthesized from the corresponding alkene (i.e., 182) through sequential bromination, azide displace-
46

N3 vapor phase 80% N
Ph
Ph
180
181
N3 N
1. Br 2 / CCl4 2. NaN 3 / DMSO F3 C 3. NaOH / DMSO F3C
toluene (70% yield)
F3 C
182
O H O N3
183
O H O N
184
AcO OAc
toluene 20 h 85%
AcO OAc
185
N3
186
N
Me MeO
w
neat 3 min 90% MeO
Me
187
188
Scheme 2.38 Thermal decomposition of vinyl azides to azirines.
ment and dehydrobromination, a protocol used by Gilchrist and coworkers to access azirinyl esters [251, 252]. More recently, Somfai and coworkers [253] reported a much improved yield of azirine 184 (>95%) by carrying out the thermolysis in methylene chloride at 150 C for 20 min in a sealed tube. Even at atmospheric pressure the process can be quite high yielding and remarkably tolerant to other functionality. Thus, heating the hexopyranose-derived vinyl azide 185 in toluene for 20 h resulted in the smooth formation of azirine 186 [254]. Perhaps the most convenient route is the neat thermolysis of aryl vinyl azides (e.g., 187) in an open container under microwave irradiation, which proceeds in very good to excellent yields within a matter of minutes [255]. The course of the thermolytic reaction is substrate-dependent, and Hassner has generalized that azirines are usually formed when the substituent geminal to the azide is an aryl, alkyl, heteroatomic or ester group, whereas unsubstituted or ketosubstituted substrates tend to form nitriles and other heterocycles upon thermolysis [256]. The same transformation can also be mediated by photolysis. Thus, irradiation of b-phenylethyl vinyl azide 189 (Scheme 2.39) induces loss of nitrogen and concomitant formation of azirine 190 in excellent yield [257]. The obvious advantage of this approach is that the decomposition can be carried out at low temperature, thus
2.2 2H-Azirines
N3
j47
h pentane 93% Ph
Ph
189
N3 N
190
h
N3
CHCl 3 93%
191
192
Scheme 2.39 Photolytic decomposition of vinyl azides to azirines.
affording access to more strained products, including fused bicyclic azirines and bisazirines such as 192. In the latter case, the loss of nitrogen occurs stepwise, and the intermediate vinyl azirine can be isolated [258]. One bottleneck for both the thermolytic and photolytic methodology is access to the requisite vinyl azide substrates [259]. One promising recent contribution to solving this problem is the copper (I)/L-proline mediated coupling of sodium azide with (Z)-1-iodo-1-alkenes [260] which, in turn, can be accessed stereoselectively via the Wittig reaction of aldehydes with iodomethylenetriphenylphosphorane [261]. The mechanism of this reaction has been the matter of some debate. Careful kinetic studies in solution phase point towards a concerted mechanism involving a multi-centered transition state in which the nascent sp2 azirinyl carbon exhibits partial positive character (Figure 2.8). This is supported by Hammett studies in which electron-donating substituents on the aryl ring accelerate the decomposition. Thus, in a solvent of 1-butanol at 80 C, the conversion of the p-methoxy derivative (R4OMe) is about 50% faster than that of the phenyl substrate (RH) and almost three times faster than the m-nitro analog (R3-NO2) [262]. For a-aminoalkenyl azides, then, decomposition to the corresponding aminoazirine is usually spontaneous and rapid even at room temperature. In fact, many protocols simply form the vinyl azide in situ from other precursors. For example, keteneiminium salts (194, Scheme 2.40), available from the treatment of amides
N N + N R +
Figure 2.8 Proposed transition state for thermolysis of aryl vinyl azides.
48

(e.g., 193) with phosgene, add sodium azide to form transient a-aminovinyl azides (e.g., 195) that subsequently lose nitrogen at room temperature to provide azirine products (e.g., 196) [263]. The use of phosgene can be avoided with diphenyl phosphorazidate (DPPA), an aziridinating agent that reacts with amidate anions to give the corresponding azirines directly, as shown by the conversion of N-methyl-Nphenyl amide 197 into the aminoazirine 199 in 94% yield [264]. This methodology is tolerant of various functionalities [265], but some substrates must rst be converted into the thioamide using Lawessons reagent [266, 267]. Other suitable precursors include a-chloroenamines (e.g., 200), which undergo sequential azide displacement and rapid thermal conversion into the azirine (e.g., 202) under very mild conditions [268].
Cl 2 C=O Et3 N CH2 Cl2
Me2 N
Me 2N
194
NaN 3 Et2 O Me2 N
N3
-N2 r.t. Me 2 N
193
O
195
N3 N
196
Me
LDA THF 0C
N3 P(O)(OPh) 2
Me
-N2 r.t. 94%
Me
Ph
Ph
Ph
197
Cl Et 2N NaN 3 Et 2O 20C
N3
198
-N2 r.t. 92% Et 2 N
N
199
Et2 N
200
201
202
Scheme 2.40 Synthesis of azirines with electron-donating groups.
There are also high-yielding methods for preparing azirines appended with electron-withdrawing substituents. Thus, allenic phosphonates (204, Scheme 2.41), which can be accessed from propargyl alcohol derivatives (203), are themselves efcient precursors for phosphonylmethyl vinyl azides (205). Irradiation of the latter results in extremely high-yielding photolysis to the azirine (206) [269]. As an additional entry under the rubric of electron-withdrawing substituents, bromoazirinyl ester 210 is formed in almost quantitative yield from the azidoacrylate derivative 209 under thermal conditions in reuxing hexane [270]. Analogous iodo azirinyl esters can be prepared through similar methodology [271].
2.2.2.3 From Other Heterocycles Synthetically useful yields of azirines can be obtained from the thermolysis of isoxazoles (Scheme 2.42), as demonstrated by the thermal rearrangement of ami-
2.2 2H-Azirines
O (EtO) 2 P OH NaN 3 EtOH O (EtO) 2 P N3 h 3500 MeCN (96%) O (EtO) 2 P
j49
N
204
O
203
205
N3 Br CO 2Me
206
O CO 2Me
CO 2 Me PPh 3
NBS TMSN 3
heptane (99%)
Br CO 2 Me
207
208
209
210
Scheme 2.41 Synthesis of azirines with electron-withdrawing groups.
noisoxazole 211 to azirinyl carboxamide 212 at high temperature under argon. Neat thermolysis is the preferred mode, as the use of solvent was found to give lower yields [272]. Alternatively, iron dichloride promotes the analogous rearrangement of alkoxyisoxazole 213 at room temperature. The 5-alkoxy substituent is crucial, as 5alkyl or 5-aryl substituents lead to enaminoketones under the same conditions [273]. Benzisoxazole derivatives (e.g., 215) exhibit a regiochemically distinct mode of thermal rearrangement. Instead of bonding to the internal a-carbon, the nitrogen instead forms the azirine ring with the adjacent carbon of the substituent, so that aromaticity is preserved [274].
N Ph
NBn2 Ph
260C Ar, neat 10 min 90% Ph
CONBn 2 Ph
211
O
212
OMe FeCl 24H 2O MeCN r.t., 80 min > 95% O2 N
N CO 2 Me
O2 N
213
O NaH DMF r.t., 30 min 90%
214
N Ph
OH
CO 2 Me Ph
CO 2Me
215
Scheme 2.42 Synthesis of azirines from isoxazoles.
216
50

In a similar vein, oxazaphosphole 217 (Scheme 2.43) underwent pyrolysis at 400 C under high vacuum to produce azirine 218, which was trapped at low temperature and characterized by IR spectroscopy. Pyrolysis at higher temperatures (700 C) gave nitrile ylides instead [275]. A somewhat more synthetically friendly procedure was reported for oxazaphospholine 220 (available in four steps from a-bromoketoxime 219), which decomposed at 120 C and atmospheric pressure to provide methylazirine 221 as a distillate in good yield [276].
F3 C N t-Bu
CF3 P(OMe) 3 O 217 O 400C 10 -3 torr t-Bu
CF 3 CF3
218 N Me 221
HO Me
N Br 219
N Me
PPh 3
120C neat 85%
220
Scheme 2.43 Synthesis of azirines from dihydrooxazaphosphole derivatives.
Finally, azirines can be synthesized from suitably equipped aziridine precursors. For example, aziridinyl ester 222 (Scheme 2.44) was smoothly oxidized using t-butyl hypochlorite to give the N-chloro derivative 223 in excellent yield. Subsequent DBUmediated elimination to the azirine 224, however, was considerably less efcient [277]. A convenient workaround to this problem was found by using Swern conditions, which effects the same transformation in 86% overall yield [278]. Davis and coworkers have reported an interesting eliminative pathway by treating Nsulnyl or N-sulfonylaziridines (e.g., 225) with lithium diisopropylamide (LDA) at low temperature [279, 280]. Methyleneaziridines can easily be isomerized to azirines, since the latter lie about 9 kcal mol1 lower in energy [281]. Thus, N-silyl-methyleneaziridine 227 quantitatively isomerizes to azirine 228 via an alumina-mediated Brooks rearrangement at room temperature [282].
2.2.3 Reactivity of Azirines 2.2.3.1 Addition of Nucleophiles Inasmuch as azirines incorporate an unsaturated nitrogen center within a threemembered ring, it would be reasonable to think of their expected chemical behavior as that of an activated imine. Consequently, nucleophilic addition to the sp2 carbon can be a synthetically useful reaction for azirines. For example, azirinyl phosphonate
2.2 2H-Azirines
Ph
H N
j51
t-BuOCl CO 2Me Et2 O 0C, 10 min (97%)
Cl Ph
N
DBU CO 2Me Et 2O r.t., 30 min (39%) Ph
CO 2Me
222
223
1. DMSO / (COCl) 2 2. Et 3N (86% overall)
224
Ts N Ph
CO 2 Me Me
LDA THF -78C 20 min 87% Ph
CO 2 Me Me
225
TBDMS
N
226
N
Me Ph
Al2 O3 100%
TBDMS
Me Ph
227
Scheme 2.44 Synthesis of azirines from aziridines.
228
229 (Scheme 2.45) suffers high-yielding nucleophilic allylation in the presence of excess allyl Grignard [283]. Analogous results can be obtained in excellent yield using allylindium reagents generated in situ from the corresponding iodide and indium metal, as shown in the conversion of azirine 231 into allylaziridine 232. The stereochemistry of the latter reaction depends upon the substituent at the saturated carbon: chelating groups (i.e., keto or hydroxy moieties) led to cis-delivery of the nucleophile, whereas alkyl and aryl groups resulted in trans-addition [284]. When the azirine is sufciently activated, even weak nucleophiles can engage in addition to the ring. Thus, exposure of azirinyl phosphonate 233 to acryloyl chloride results in initial N-acylation followed by subsequent rapid addition of chloride to form chloroaziridine 234 [285]. Aziridines can also be accessed by the stereoselective reduction of azirines with hydride reagents. For example, sodium borohydride reacts smoothly in ethanolic medium with azirine 229 to yield the cis-aziridine 235, resulting from the transaddition of hydride [286]. Alternatively, an asymmetric transfer hydrogenation protocol using the chiral aminoalcohol 236 and a ruthenium catalyst can be used to generate enantiomerically enriched aziridines from achiral azirine precursors. Thus, tolylazirine 237 was converted into (S)-tolylaziridine 238 in good yield and promising enantiomeric excess. The mechanism follows the route elucidated in analogous reactions of ketones, in which hydride addition and proton transfer occur simultaneously [287]. A very clever protocol has been developed by Heimgartner and coworkers, which takes advantage not only of the propensity of the azirine to add nucleophiles but also
52

N Ph P(OEt)2 3.0 H 2C=CHCH 2 MgBr O THF -78C 87% Ph H N P(OEt) 2
229
230
H N Ph Me
N Ph Me
H 2 C=CHCH 2 I In THF r.t., 3 h 98%
231
232
O
N Me P(OEt) 2 O
H 2C=CHCOCl benzene 25C 96%
Cl Me
N P(OEt)2
233
N Ph P(OEt) 2 O
234
H N Ph
NaBH 4 EtOH 0C 91%
P(OEt)2
229
235
O O N H OH p-Tol
[RuCl 2 (p-cymene)] 2 i-PrOH i-PrOK 83% yield 72% ee p-Tol
H N
236
237
238
Scheme 2.45 Reaction of azirines with nucleophiles.
of the residual ring strain in the resulting aziridine ring. Thus, aminoazirines such as 240 (Scheme 2.46) engage carboxylates in nucleophilic addition to form transient aziridine intermediates that spontaneously rearrange to give amino acid derivatives (e.g., 241) [288, 289]. This strategy, dubbed the azirine/oxazolone method, allows quite a bit of exibility in introducing structural variation into peptide backbones, as exemplied by the spiroazirines 243 [290] and 245 [266]. Quite a few synthons have been developed within this manifold, including those for 2-methylaspartate [291], a-methylglutamate [267], as well as for dipeptides [292] such as 2-aminoisobutyric acid/4-hydroxyproline [293] and other 2,2-disubstituted glycines [294, 295]. The methodology has been showcased in the synthesis of Trichovirin I derivatives [296] and has been further expanded into the realm of solid-phase synthesis [297, 298].
2.2 2H-Azirines
O HO OH + Me N Ph N Me MeCN r.t. 93% HO O N H Me Me N O Ph
j53
239
CO 2 H NH BnO O + Me N Ph
240
O N MeCN r.t. 87% NH BnO O N H O N H
241
Me N O Ph
242
N Me N Ph O
243
O Ph
244
PhCO 2H MeCN r.t. 95%
Me N O Ph
245
246
Scheme 2.46 Addition of carboxylic acids to aminoazirines.
Nucleophilic substitution can actually be carried out at the saturated carbon of certain uniquely functionalized azirines. For example, the benzotriazolyl azirine 247 (Scheme 2.47) takes part in an intermolecular SN2 reaction with thiophenolate to give the aziridinyl sulde 248 in fair yield. Carbon-centered nucleophiles, such as Grignard reagents, can also be used [299]. Bromoazirine derivative 250 reacts with o-phenylenediamine (249) in both modes (nucleophilic addition and SN2 displacement) to give the disubstituted quinoxaline 251 in very good yield [300].
Ph
PhSH DMF 0C 1h 60% Ph
SPh
247
NH 2
+
248
N N
CO 2 Me Br
ultrasound DMF 86%
Ph CO 2Me
NH 2
Ph
249
250
251
Scheme 2.47 SN2-Type additions to azirines.
54

2.2.3.2 Cycloadditions Perhaps some of the most fascinating chemistry associated with the azirines springs from their propensity to act as 2p donors in cycloaddition reactions. For example, DielsAlder reactions using azirines as dienophiles [301] can provide synthetically valuable fused azabicyclo[4.1.0]heptane ring systems. In some cases, the reaction proceeds under simple thermal conditions and in very high yield, as illustrated by the quantitative reaction of azirinyl ester 252 (Scheme 2.48) with furan to give the DielsAlder adduct 253 [302]. The method is amenable to other electron-rich dienes, such as bis(siloxy)diene 254 [303], as well as other dienophiles, such as aziridinyl carboxamides [304]. The reaction rate can be dramatically accelerated and the scope extended to alkyl and aryl aziridines (e.g., 258) by the use of Lewis acids [305]. A particularly high-yielding result was obtained in the magnesium bromide-mediated DielsAlder reaction between trimethylsiloxycyclohexadiene (260) and chiral nonracemic azirinyl ester 261, which proceeded with almost exclusive endo- and regioselectivity (but apparently low facial selectivity) [306, 307].
Cl N MeO 2 C furan Et 2O r.t. 7 days 100% O N Cl
Cl
MeO 2C
Cl
252
OTBS + OTBS N CO 2 Bn
253
OTBS r.t. N CO 2 Bn OTBS
toluene 7 days 42%
254
OMe +
255
256
OMe
N Ph
ZnCl 2 toluene 75C 6h 50%
N Ph
257
N + TMSO O O
258
259
MgBr 2 OEt2 CH2 Cl2 100C 30 min 99% yield 97% de TMSO
N CO 2X c
Ph
260
261
262
Scheme 2.48 DielsAlder reactions with azirines.
2.3 Oxiranes
j55
The eld is not limited to [4 2] methodology. For example, arylazirine 264 and fulvene 263 engage in a formal [6 3] cycloaddition catalyzed by yttrium triate and mediated by adventitious water, providing a novel entry into the [2]pyridine system (Scheme 2.49) [308]. The p-nitrophenylazirine 268 was also shown to be an effective 1,3-dipolarophile in the presence of azomethine ylide 267 (generated by the thermolysis of bicyclic oxazolidinone 266), forming a fused tricyclic adduct (269) that was parlayed into an approach to 1-azacephams [309].
N + p-ClPh p-ClPh N
CO 2Me
Y(OTf) 3 THF r.t. 12 h 83%
CO 2Me
263
H N
264
N p-NO 2 Ph
265
H N
O O
CO 2PNB
MeCN 80C
CHO 2H CO2 PNB
268
N p-NO 2Ph
66%
CO2 PNB
266
267
269
Scheme 2.49 Other cycloadditions with azirines.
2.2.3.3 Rearrangements into other Heterocycles Owing to their strain and functionality, azirines are prone to molecular rearrangement. For example, under neutral thermolytic conditions the alkyl aziridinylphosphonate 270 (Scheme 2.50) is converted almost quantitatively into the pyrazine 271. The mechanism is believed to involve the dimerization of unstable nitrile ylides generated from the initial thermal ring-opening of the azirine [310]. Furthermore, Padwa and Stengel have reported some fascinating azirine rearrangements promoted by Grubbs catalyst. Thus, the azirinyl aldehyde 272 is transformed cleanly into the isoxazole 273 at room temperature. Similarly, vinyl azirine 274 undergoes thermal rearrangement to form exclusively the 2,5-disubstituted pyrrole 276, which is complementary to photolytic rearrangement, a process providing only the 2,3product 275 [311, 312]. Finally, Taber has reported on the high-yielding synthesis of indoles (e.g., 278) from arylazirines 277, which are themselves synthesized from the oximes of aryl ketones [313].
2.3 Oxiranes
It may well be said that the eld of oxirane chemistry has escaped the connes of a brief comprehensive overview. Indeed, an encyclopedic summary of just the last
56

O N
Et
80C P(OEt) 2
O
Et (EtO) 2 P
O
N N
P(OEt) 2 Et
toluene 98%
270
N
271
O
Ph
O
[Cl2 (Cy 3P)2 Ru=CHPh] CH2 Cl2 r.t. 2h 90%

N
Ph
272
Ph MeO 2 C
H N h
273
H N
Grubbs CO 2Me CH 2Cl 2 r.t., 3 h (75%)
Ph
CO2Me
275
N
benzene 1.5 h (85%)
Ph
274
276
Me Br
o-xylene
170C 88%
Me Br
N H
277
Scheme 2.50 Some rearrangements of azirines.
278
years activity would occupy volumes. Several signicant reviews have appeared recently [8], many of which pertain to specic areas within epoxide chemistry and will therefore be cited in the appropriate context. The present chapter seeks to assemble a sampling of the diverse applications for organic synthesis.
2.3.1 Properties of Oxiranes
Oxiranes (also known as epoxides and oxacyclopropanes) owe much of their utility, whether as synthetic intermediates or biologically active compounds, to ring strain. For example, oxirane itself (bp 10.5 C) is associated with some 27 kcal mol1 of strain enthalpy. Like most of its congeners, this molecule exhibits the very useful balance of being stable enough for isolation, transportation and so on, while still harboring a remarkable propensity for reaction. Geometrically, oxirane describes an almost equilateral triangle, with a slightly relaxed bond angle at the oxygen center (Figure 2.9). The 1 H-NMR signals of the methylene protons resonate at 2.54 ppm and the carbon atoms appear at 39.7 ppm. The increased s-character of the CH bond leads to an unusually high 13 C-H coupling of 176 Hz [7]. The oxirane ring is found in a host of naturally occurring compounds of biological relevance. Occasionally, the structures can be quite simple, with the oxirane being the
2.3 Oxiranes
j57
Figure 2.9 Geometry of oxirane.
dominant functional group. Such is the case for the newly discovered stilbene oxide derivative 279 (Figure 2.10), which was isolated from the larval G. mellonella infected by the nematode-bacterium complex H. megidis 90/P. luminescens C9. This compound displays broad antimicrobial activity against many troublesome pathogens, including the drug-resistant strain Staphylococcus aureus RN4220 [314]. More commonly, however, the epoxide ring is imbedded within a molecule carrying elaborate functional embellishments. A good example is altromycin B (280), a secondary metabolite of soil Streptomyces which exhibits both antibiotic and anticancer activity [315]. The mode of action has been traced to the inhibition of DNA synthesis caused by the alkylation of guanine through epoxide ring-opening [316]. Another natural product sporting the oxirane and anthraquinone moieties is dynemicin A (281), isolated from Micromonospora chersina, which is cytotoxic at concentrations approaching the parts per trillion range. Here the epoxide ring functions as the trigger for a mouse trap: nucleophilic ring opening of the epoxide results in a conformational relaxation that allows for cyclization of the enediyne array, forming the very reactive arene diradical [317]. Ambuic acid (282), isolated from the rain forest fungi Pestalotiopsis spp. and Monochaetia spp., has shown activity against several plant pathogenic fungi [318]. This polyketide-derived natural product is one representative from a broad range of cyclohexane epoxides found in nature, a class that has been the subject of a quite recent and fairly comprehensive review [319]. The structural and biological diversity even within this classication is impressive. Fumagillin (283), a cyclohexane spiroepoxide produced by Aspergillus fumigatus, is an angiogenic inhibitor that binds to methionine aminopeptidase. Consequently, it is a promising antineoplastic agent and may even inhibit atherosclerosis [320, 321]. Polyketide-derived oxiranyl natural products also extend into macrocyclic species. Amphidinolide B1 (284) is one such cytotoxic 26-membered macrolide, isolated from the marine dinoagellate Amphidinium sp. Y-5 [322324]. Similar cytotoxic activity exhibited by the 16-membered macrolide epothilone A (285), a metabolite of the cellulose-degrading myxobacterium Sorangium cellulosum (Myxococcales), has made it an interesting anti-cancer candidate and subsequently the subject of active investigation from both a synthetic organic and chemical biology standpoint [325, 326]. Also of marine origin is the bromotyrosine-derived dimeric spiroisoxazoline ( )-calaanin (286), which is found in methylene chloride extracts of the Mexican sponge Aplysina gerardogreeni n. sp (Aplysinidae). Members in this class of compounds have demonstrated activity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis [327, 328].
58

HO OMe Me HO
O O
OH HO
O
279
H
MeO 2C HO
O O
Me CO 2 H
O
Me
O Me2 N O O
OH
HN
OMe
H
OH
Me MeO
Me
H O
Me
280 , altromycin B
Me
OH
OH
OH
281 , dynemicin A
Me
OH
OH
O O
CO 2H
O O
OMe CO 2H
282,ambuic acid
OH HO
O S O N
283 , fumagillin
O
OH
OH
OH
O O
OH
284,amphidinolide B1
285,epothilone A
Br
O O O O N H H N O N O O O
Br
286,(+)-calafianin
Figure 2.10 Some naturally occurring oxiranes.
2.3.2 Synthesis of Oxiranes
The synthesis of oxiranes has been the subject of several recent reviews, encompassing biosynthetic routes [329] and asymmetric methodologies [330], including
2.3 Oxiranes
j59
those proceeding through homo- and heterogeneous catalysis [331] and epoxidations under the inuence of chiral auxiliaries [332]. The preparation of vinyl epoxides has also been reviewed recently [333], as have as other topical works mentioned in the appropriate context below.
2.3.2.1 Using Dioxiranes Epoxides can be prepared by the action of dioxiranes on alkenes under mild conditions and low temperature [334]. For unstable epoxides, such as those derived from enol ethers, dioxirane epoxidation is the method of choice. Several reports have exploited this reaction to obtain the previously unisolable acyloxo, alkoxo and silyloxooxiranes. An example of this approach involves the preparation of epoxide 288 from enol lactone 287 (Scheme 2.51) using one of the simplest dioxirane
DMD O O 287 O OTBDMS DMD OH HN CHO 289 DMD O 291 H > 90% O 292 O DMD 95% yield 9:1 anti/syn 294 DMD O O 296 O Tf 2 O i-Pr 2NEt O 79% O O 288
OH
OH C N O 290
H n-Bu
n-Bu 293
CO 2 Me 295
CO 2Me
Scheme 2.51 Dimethyldioxirane (DMD) epoxidation of sensitive substrates.
60

derivatives, dimethyldioxirane (DMD). Similarly, DMD epoxidation of silyl enol ethers afforded the corresponding epoxides in excellent yields. These substrates readily undergo an acid-catalyzed rearrangement to a-trimethylsiloxy carbonyl derivatives [335, 336]. Danishefsky has described the use of DMD for the direct epoxidation of glycals. The 1,2-anhydrosugars produced were employed in the stereospecic construction of b-linked oligosaccharides [337]. Epoxy isonitriles cannot be prepared by the direct epoxidation of vinyl isonitriles. However, the DMD oxidation of a series of vinyl formamides was found to produce epoxy formamides in good yield. These compounds were readily converted into the nigs base. A total synthesis of epoxy isonitriles using triic anhydride and Hu isonitrin B (290) was carried out using this methodology [338]. Adam and coworkers reported the rst benzofuran epoxide synthesis (i.e., 292) using DMD in their study on the mutagenesis of benzofuran dioxetanes [339]. The same oxidant has been used to advantage in accessing other labile products, including 1,2-dialkoxyoxiranes [340] and avone epoxides [341]. Crandall and coworkers have studied the DMD-mediated epoxidation of various allenes 293. The corresponding 1,4-dioxiaspiro[2.2]pentanes 294 were produced in good yields, the mono- and di-substituted allenes giving anti diastereomers with good stereoselectivity. These spirodiepoxides then underwent nucleophilic cleavage under buffered conditions (Bu4NOAc/HOAc) to give highly functionalized a,a0 -dihydroxyketone derivatives [342]. Messeguer and coworkers have employed dimethyldioxirane to prepare the diepoxide 296, a proposed metabolic intermediate of juvenile hormone III [343]. Dioxiranes can also be employed in a catalytic fashion. Practically unrivaled in efciency and ease of use, DMD itself can be generated in situ from acetone in an appropriate buffer. Thus, the dropwise addition of an aqueous solution of Oxone to a stirred mixture of cis-carveol (297, Scheme 2.52), sodium bicarbonate, and acetone at 0 C led to the selective formation of epoxide 298 in 92% yield [344]. This general methodology has been expanded to include a wide variety of oxygen carriers. For example, in the area of natural products, Marples and coworkers have used dioxiranes generated in situ from a range of ketones to effect 5,6-epoxidation of cholesterol or its acetate in high yield [345]. Bortonlini et al. have used sodium dehydrocholate as an organomediator for the sodium perborate (SPB) mediated preparation of acidsensitive epoxides, in which the intermediacy of a steroidal dioxirane has been suggested [346].
HO
acetone Oxone NaHCO 3 92% 297
HO
298
Scheme 2.52 Catalytic epoxidation using DMD.
2.3 Oxiranes
j61
OBn
299
Oxone 91%
O OBn
310
311
O
Ph Ph
Ph
301 or 305
Oxone 98% yield 83% ee
Ph Ph
Ph
312
C 6H 13 C 6H 13
313
O C 6H 13 C6 H 13 O O RO O O R
303
Oxone
via
O O
314
315
O
316
303 or 304
Bu 4NHSO 4 Ph Me Oxone K2 CO 3 H Ph
O H Me
NR O Me
via
O
O O O
Ph
317
318
319
O Ph
Ph
303
Oxone DME / DMM 75% yield 95% ee
320
(+)-321
Scheme 2.53 Epoxidation of alkenes using catalytic dioxiranes.
Denmark has developed a practical phase-transfer protocol for the catalytic epoxidation of alkenes, which uses Oxone as a terminal oxidant. The olens studied (e.g., 310, Scheme 2.53) were epoxidized in 8396% yield. Of the many reaction parameters examined in this biphasic system, the most inuential were found to be the reaction pH, the lipophilicity of the phase-transfer catalyst and the counterion present. In general, optimal conditions feature 10 mol.% of the catalyst 1-dodecyl-1-methyl-4-oxopiperidinium triate (299, Figure 2.11) and a pH 7.58.0 aqueous methylene chloride biphasic solvent system [347], although these systems are tolerant to neutral and basic pH ranges [348]. The dioxirane derived from the bis(ammonium) ketone 300 also exhibits remarkable reactivity, stability, and water solubility, and has been used to advantage on various substrates [349]. The activation barrier for these reactions is drastically reduced by hydrogen bonding in the transition state, whether by solvent or intramolecularity [350].
62

O N
-OTf -
+
O
+
Me N
+
N
9
299
300
R O O O O O R
301 302
O O2N O2N O O O O
O O O O O O N Ar EtO2C N
X H
O O
303
O O
304
O O
305
Cl O
Me Me X O Ph
Me O Cl
X
306
Ph
307
O O SiO2 O Si S O N F O
308
Figure 2.11 Ketone precursors for dioxirane oxidations.
O CF3 C6F13
OMe OH
309
2.3 Oxiranes
j63
The latest twist to this development is the use of chiral ketones in catalytic amounts for the induction of asymmetry during the epoxidation [351]. However, the resultant dioxiranes have two reacting sites, a fact that makes the prediction and execution of asymmetric induction problematic. Yang and coworkers addressed this problem by designing the C2 symmetric, eleven-membered ring ketone 301 as a chiral dioxirane precursor [352]. In this case, both active sites are characterized by the same chiral environment. In fact, a catalytic amount of ketone 301, in the presence of Oxone as a terminal oxidant, was capable of epoxidizing trans-disubstituted and trisubstituted alkenes in excellent yield and modest enantiomeric excess (e.g., 312 ! 313, Scheme 2.53). Electronic and steric embellishments on the ketones (e.g., 302) can lead to mild enhancements [353]. The main conduit of asymmetric induction is assumed to occur via the steric sensors on the aromatic ring. Curiously, enantioselectivity increases with the size of the substituent only to a certain point, then begins to decrease again. Shi and coworkers have successfully developed ketalized D-fructose derivatives (e.g., 303) as chiral dioxirane precursors [354]. Excellent ees were obtained, even for the recalcitrant trans-disubstituted alkenes (e.g., 314 ! 315, 81% yield, 90% ee) [355] and trisubstituted alkenes (e.g., 320 ! 321, 75% yield, 95% ee) [356]. However, this system appears to be highly substrate dependent, owing to a complex interaction of steric and electronic factors [357359]. There are several important features of the key dioxirane intermediate. First, the stereogenic centers are in close proximity to the ultimate reactive site of the dioxirane; second, the carbonyl group is anked by a fused ring on one side and a quaternary center on the other, preventing epimerization; and, nally, only one face of approach is available, since the other is sterically blocked. As for the actual transitions state, the results are consistent with a spiro conguration (316) that is directed by steric interactions. The protocol has been optimized so that the chiral ketone 303 can be used in catalytic quantities with Oxone as the stoichiometric oxidant. The key to preserving the lifetime of the chiral auxiliary is pH control during the reaction; the optimum range was found to be 10.5 or above, which is conveniently maintained with potassium carbonate [360, 361]. The related oxazolidinone ketone catalyst 304, prepared in six steps from D-glucose [362], has the advantage of exhibiting high ees for both cis- and terminal olens [363]. Interestingly, for olens with aromatic substituents, it appears that the transition state shows a preference for positioning the p-system proximal to the oxazolidinone moiety (as in 319), so that aromatic groups can be efciently differentiated during the epoxidation. In studies involving the epoxidation of cis-methylstyrene (317), the electronic character of the oxazolidino N-aryl group was found to inuence the outcome of the reaction, presumably by modulating the interaction between the catalyst and the aromatic substituent of the substrate [364]. Similarly, increasing the steric demand adjacent to the amide carbonyl can improve selectivity [365]. Other catalysts also exhibit a combination of these factors. For example, the tropinone-derived chiral ketone 305 owes its enantioselectivity to the structurally rigid and compact asymmetric ring structure. Incorporation of an electron-withdrawing uoro substituent at the a-position enhanced the catalytic reactivity. Enan-
64

tiomeric excesses tend to be modest, but occasionally are quite good, as seen in the epoxidation of phenylstilbene (312), which takes place in quantitative yield and with 83% ee [366]. The impact of these electronic effects is intriguing, and can be quite dramatic. A particularly noteworthy example is the non-conjugated electronic interactions that result from a remote substituent in the carvone-derived catalyst 306. In the epoxidation of trans-stilbene, the series of small substituents (F, Cl, OH, OEt and H) give ees of 4287%, exhibiting a very high correlation with the respective Hammett r values. These results have been rationalized on the basis of stabilization of the favored transition state (307) by eld effects [367]. Some interesting immobilized dioxirane precursors have also been reported, such as the novel heterogeneous ketone 308 [368] and the uoroketone 309, designed for use in uorous media [369].
2.3.2.2 Using other Oxidants without Metal Catalysts The epoxidation of alkenes without metal catalysis represents a large and diverse group of preparative methods for oxiranes, and here the various systems can be characterized largely by two key components: the oxygen carrier (or catalyst) and the terminal (stoichiometric) oxidant. In this regard, m-chloroperbenzoic acid (mCPBA) is a tried and true reagent [370], and has been adapted to the large-scale practical synthesis of epoxides [371]. Buffered mCPBA systems are useful for epoxidations in which the alkenes and/or resultant epoxides are acid-sensitive. For example, 2,6-ditert-butylpyridine was shown to give superior results in the case of certain allyl acetals (e.g., 322, Scheme 2.54) [372]. Bicarbonate [373] and phosphate [374] buffers are also frequently encountered in this context. Multifunctional alkenes offer some interesting possibilities. For example, enone 324 undergoes ketone-directed epoxidation when treated with mCPBA to give exclusively the syn epoxyketone 326. As for the mechanism, hydrogen bonding effects were discounted on the basis of solvent insensitivity. Intramolecular attack by some oxidized form of the ketone moiety could be operative, although 18 O labeling studies have ruled out a dioxirane intermediate as the active epoxidizing species. Thus, the observed stereoselectivity was rationalized on the basis of intramolecular epoxidation by an a-hydroxy peroxide (i.e., 325) or possibly by a carbonyl oxide intermediate [375]. Whereas aminoalkenes cannot be converted into epoxides by usual methods (competing N-oxidation), protonation by an arenesulfonic acid and subsequent treatment with mCPBA allows for chemoselective epoxidation. Furthermore, when properly disposed, the pendant ammonium functionality can serve as a potent directing group for the oxidant. Thus, under these conditions cyclohexenylamine 327 affords exclusively the syn epoxide 328 [376]. In the case of dual functionality, the two sites may interact in either a constructive or destructive fashion. This was illustrated by a set of stereoselective epoxidations on a series of allylic carbamates that were appended with a carbomethoxy group, a hydroxymethyl group, or an acetoxymethyl group. In all cases, threo epoxides were favored (syn to the carbamate) upon treatment with mCPBA, which reects the strong directing power of the carbamate group. However, the magnitude of the syn : anti ratio was dependent upon the type and conguration of the other
2.3 Oxiranes
C 4H 9 O O OSit-BuPh 2 mCPBA C4 H9 O O O OSit-BuPh 2
j65
buffer 99%
322
18
323
H18O
18
O O O
Ar
mCPBA
O16
324
325
O
326
ArSO3H
NH2
mCPBA
NH2
327
CO 3H CO 2H 330 O OH
328
OH
329
1 M NaOH 100% yield 98% de
331
pH 12.5
OH O OH
O OH
pH8.3
333
O HN O
332
334
O O
O H
335
Scheme 2.54 Epoxidation of alkenes using peracids.
functionality. A relatively low ratio was observed when the two groups compete for face selectivity, whereas cooperative coordination leads to higher selectivity. From the magnitude of the perturbation, the following order of directing ability was proposed: carbamate > methyl ester > homoallylic alcohol acetate [377]. The reaction of allyl alcohol with peroxyformic acid has been examined extensively using molecular modeling calculations [378]. Prompted by the observation that peracid epoxidations can be far more selective in basic aqueous medium than in
66
Figure 2.12 TS for epoxidation of allylic alcohol with performate.
organic solvent [379], Washington and Houk studied transition structures from the epoxidation of allylic alcohol with performate ion at the B3LYP/6-31 G(d,p) level of theory in a CPCM continuum model for water [380]. Their ndings indicate a preferential hydrogen bonding of performate with the substrate hydroxyl group rather than with water, leading to a directed epoxidation via the transition state depicted in Figure 2.12. This reaction is similar to the corresponding cyclopropanation of allylic alcohols in the presence of aqueous sodium hydroxide. To test this model experimentally, the chiral allylic alcohol 329 was treated with monoperoxyphthalic acid (MPPA, 330) in 1 M NaOH to give the syn epoxy alcohol 332 in quantitative yield with 98% syn/anti selectivity. An interesting regiochemical anomaly has been reported by Fringuelli and coworkers [381]. In the epoxidation of geraniol (332) by MPPA, the reaction could be directed to either double bond by simple modication to the experimental conditions. In the presence of cetyl(trimethyl)ammonium hydroxide (CTAOH) at pH 12.5, 2,3epoxygeraniol (334) is formed exclusively; however, at pH 8.3 in the absence of CTAOH, the formation of 6,7-epoxygeraniol (333) is favored. The magnesium salt of this reagent, magnesium bis(monoperoxyphthalate) hexahydrate (MMPP), is touted as a less expensive and more stable surrogate for mCPBA [382]. With an eye towards industrial applications, Johnstone and coworkers have developed 5-hydroperoxycarbonylphthalimide (335) as a new reagent for epoxidation. An easily prepared, shock-stable, crystalline solid, this peroxy acid was designed to exhibit all the desirable properties of more hazardous or expensive reagents (i.e., ease of work-up, low acidity in reaction medium, etc.). Yields, using various substrates, are excellent [383]. Hydrogen peroxide is another frequently used terminal oxidant for epoxidations, and its use with manganese [384] and palladium [385] catalysts has been the subject of recent reviews. Garcia-Bosch and coworkers have demonstrated that metal-catalyzed disproportionation of hydrogen peroxide in some catalytic systems can be suppressed by using a large excess of acetic acid as an additive, presumably facilitating the formation of peracetic acid [386]. Alternatively, Ti(salan) compounds have been
2.3 Oxiranes
j67
applied effectively to hydrogen peroxide epoxidation systems [387, 388], as well as boron triuoride in the absence of metal co-catalysts [389]. Another relatively simple metal-free system for the epoxidation of tri- and cisdisubstituted olens (e.g., 336 ! 337, Scheme 2.55) is formamide-hydrogen peroxide in an aqueous medium. This reagent has the advantage of being pH-independent, which makes it attractive for biochemically mediated transformations. No reaction was observed in the case of trans-disubstituted and terminal olens. With bifunctional alkenes, the more reactive double bond is selectively epoxidized [390].
Me Me
HO
Me
H 2 O2, HCONH 2 95% Me
Me O
HO
Me
336
337
O NaO
H2 O2 NaHCO 3 H2 O 95%
O O NaO
338
R R N C N R H 2O2 H N R
339
N O
H O
340
2 eq. DCC 10 eq. H2 O2 2 eq. KHCO 3
341
O (CH 2)CO 2Me
(CH 2)CO 2Me
342
Scheme 2.55 Epoxidation of alkenes using hydrogen peroxide.
343
Water-soluble alkenes can be epoxidized in remarkably high yields using bicarbonate-activated hydrogen peroxide (BAP). Thus, epoxide 339 was obtained in >95% yield from sodium p-vinylbenzoate (338). Diol formation is a competing side reaction with some substrates [391]. The epoxidation of olens with hydrogen peroxide can also be promoted by the addition of carbodiimides, presumably by the initial formation of a peroxyisourea
68

species (341) [392]. Majetich and Hicks have reported on the epoxidation of isolated olens (e.g., 342) using a combination of 30% aqueous hydrogen peroxide, a carbodiimide (e.g., DCC) and a mildly acidic or basic catalyst. This method works best in hydroxylic solvents and not at all in polar aprotic media. The type and ratios of reagents are substrate dependent, and steric demand about the alkene generally results in decreased yields [393]. The methodology can be adapted to asymmetric epoxidation by using an aspartate-containing tripeptide [394]. Olens containing free hydroxyl groups or carboxylic acid moieties can be oxidized rapidly and efciently at room temperature using an easily prepared acetonitrile complex of hypouorous acid (HOFCH3CN). The reagent does not induce formation of peroxides with free hydroxy groups, and aromatic rings do not interfere with the reaction. Thus, oleic acid (344, Scheme 2.56) was epoxidized in 10 min and in 90% yield [395].
C7H15
(CH2)6COOH
HOFCH3CN
C7H15
(CH2)6COOH
344
OH OH R
345
I H CH2I
I2 Et2O
R
OH
I I
base
H
348a
I R OCH2I H
R H
H I
346
347
349
348b
O2 (1 atm) NHPI HFA 83%
Pr O Pr HO F3C OOH CF3
350
351
352
Scheme 2.56 Epoxidation of alkenes using other non-metal oxidizing agents.
Allenic alcohols 346 are converted in the presence of iodine into a mixture of (Z)and (E)-diiodides (347), which, upon subsequent treatment with base, form the transiodovinyl epoxides 349 with a diastereomeric excess of >99%. This high degree of selectivity is rationalized on the basis of steric interactions between the R group and the iodine atom in the transition state leading to epoxide formation (i.e., 348a vs. 348b) [396]. One of the most attractive oxidants for this chemistry is dioxygen, both from an environmental and cost standpoint. In this vein, a metal-free epoxidation protocol
2.3 Oxiranes
j69
was reported that proceeded via the in situ generation of hydrogen peroxide from O2 through a complex series of steps involving N-hydroxyphthalimide (NHPI). Once formed, the H2O2 is activated by addition onto the somewhat esoteric solvent, triuoroacetone, to give 2-hydroperoxy-hexauoropropan-2-ol (352) as the oxygen transfer reagent. The reaction appears to be general and yields are very good. Regardless of the starting conguration of the alkene, a strong preference for the formation of trans-epoxides was observed (e.g., 350 ! 351) [397].
2.3.2.3 Metal-Catalyzed Epoxidation of Alkenes The topic of metal-based catalysis for alkene epoxidation is expansive, and the reader is directed to two excellent reviews of this chemistry by Adolfsson [398] and Adolfsson and Balan [399], as well as an outstanding treatise on mechanism and kinetics by Oyama [400] and an overview of asymmetric methods by Matsumoto and Katsuki [401]. The development of (salen)metal complexes (Figure 2.13) for the epoxidation of alkenes has been nothing less than revolutionary, providing access to epoxides from simple olens in much the same way Sharpless chemistry paved the way for the epoxidation of functionalized alkenes. An extensive review specically on the chromium- and magnesium-salen catalyzed epoxidation of alkenes has recently appeared [402]. In the absence of other functionality, typical peroxyacid epoxidation of dienes favors reaction on the more substituted double bond. However, the (salen)manganese complex 353 promotes epoxidation of the less substituted double bond (e.g., 362 ! 363, Scheme 2.57), thus providing a complement to conventional methods. This protocol is also useful for substrates that polymerize under peracid conditions [403]. Allylic alcohols are equally suitable substrates, as demonstrated by the epoxidation of 364 using the vanadyl salen oxo-transfer catalyst 354 in supercritical carbon dioxide with tert-butyl hydroperoxide as a terminal oxidant [404]. The lions share of research activity in this area has centered around asymmetric epoxidation using chiral salen catalysts. Thus, the chiral (salen)Mn(III) complex 356, which is readily available on a large scale in high yield from commercially available starting materials [405, 406], is the centerpiece of Jacobsens enantioselective synthesis of the taxol side chain 369 [407], in which the epoxy ester 367 is prepared from cis-ethyl cinnamate with very high enantiomeric excess (Scheme 2.58). Typically under these conditions, cis-double bonds are converted stereospecically into cisepoxides. However, in the case of conjugated dienes, trans-epoxides are the major products. The crossover has been ascribed to a step-wise oxygen transfer mechanism involving an intermediate radical that undergoes bond rotation to give the observed products. This anomalous behavior has been leveraged in a method for the regioselective epoxidation of cis,trans-dienes to give trans,trans-diene monoepoxides (e.g., 370 ! 371) [408]. Cyclic and acyclic trisubstituted alkenes are also epoxidized with high enantioselectivity under the catalysis of 356, as exemplied by the conversion of phenylstilbene 312 into the (S)-epoxide 313 with 92% enantiomeric excess. The sense of enantioselection is opposite that of disubstituted alkenes, and a global mechanistic model has been developed to rationalize the stereochemical outcomes of this class of
70

N M Me O t-Bu O t-Bu Me N
353, M = Mn-Cl 354, R = M = V(O)
N M t-Bu O t-Bu
N O t-Bu t-Bu
355, M = Mn-Cl
H N M R R' O O N
R R'
356, R = R' = t-Bu; M = Mn-Cl 357, R = (i-Pr)3SiO-;R' = t-Bu; M = Mn-Cl 358, R = R' = t-Bu; M = Cr(O)-Cl 359, R = R' = Cl; M = Cr(O)-PF6
Ph
N M R R' O
Ph
N O R' R
360, R = (i-Pr)3SiO-;R' = t-Bu; M = Mn-Cl
Ph
N M t-Bu O t-Bu O t-Bu N
Ph
361, M = Cr-OTf
t-Bu
Figure 2.13 Salen metal catalysts for alkene epoxidation.
epoxidations [409]. Furthermore, a wide range of terminal oxidants have been employed with this catalyst, including hydrogen peroxide [410], dimethyldioxirane [411], periodates [403] and the organic-soluble oxidant tetrabutylammonium monopersulfate [412]. Terminal olens typically give relatively low enantiomeric purities, which might be due to poor enantiofacial selectivity during the oxygen addition or facile rotation of a
2.3 Oxiranes
j71
353
362
O 363
NaIO 4 imidazole 88% 354

t-BuOOH CO 2 (l) 86%
Me Ph
364
OH
Ph
Me OH
365
Scheme 2.57 Alkene epoxidations using achiral salen metal catalysts.
O Ph CO2Et 356 (6 mol%) NaOCl 4-PPNO (56% yield; 97% ee) Ph O CO2Et Ph OH NH2 O Ph OH Ph OH OH NH O
366
367
368
369
C5H11 EtO2C
356
(3 mol%) NaOCl EtO2C O C5H11 (81% yield; 87% ee)
370
371
Ph Ph Ph
356
CH2Cl2 4-PPNO Ph
Ph O Ph (97% yield; 92% ee)
312
(S)-313
Scheme 2.58 Alkene epoxidations using chiral salen metal catalysts.
radical intermediate unencumbered by a-substitution. Either of these impediments should be positively impacted by decreasing thermal energy, and this has been borne out by experimental evidence [413]. Katsuki has reported increased ees by adding NaCl to the aqueous hypochlorite system, thus allowing for sub-zero (18 C) reaction temperatures [414]. The asymmetric induction may be further enhanced by modication of the catalyst. Replacement of the tert-butyl group with the triisopropylsiloxy substituent affords a catalyst (i.e., 357) that is not only sterically more dened but also electronically attenuated, and thus is milder and more selective [415]. The diphenyl variant 360 was equally effective in epoxidizing a series of recalcitrant olens, such as vinylbenzoic acid 372 (Scheme 2.59) in the presence of N-methylmorpholine N-oxide (NMO) as an additive and mCPBA as a terminal oxidant in methylene chloride at 78 C [416]. These conditions were also advantageous for the epoxidation
72

360
HO 2C mCPBA NMO, CH2 Cl2 -78C 97% yield 98% ee HO 2 C
* O
372
373
Et Br
O
Et Me Me Me 360 (5 mol%) 4-PPNO CH2 Cl2 0C 97% ee Br

* O
O *
Me Me
Me
374
375
Scheme 2.59 More alkene epoxidations using chiral salen metal catalysts.
of tetrasubstituted alkenes, as demonstrated by the conversion of chromene derivative 374 into the corresponding epoxide with 97% ee [417]. Changing the metal center from manganese to chromium can have surprising results. For example, one aggravating phenomenon associated with the (salen)Mn complexes is that the epoxidation of trans-olens proceeds typically with low ees. However, the analogous chromium complexes (e.g., 359) catalyze such epoxidations with greater selectivity than for the corresponding cis-olens under the same conditions. Here the mechanism is presumed to involve an electrophilic process, which is supported by the fact that only electron-rich alkenes are effectively epoxidized. In the case of trans-b-methylstyrene (376, Scheme 2.60), enantioselectivities
359
Ph3 PO DMF 60% yield 86% ee Ph
O
Ph
Me
Me
376
O
377
O
357
O O
361
O
(3R,4R)-379
378
(3S,4S)-379
O
C2F5 O
358 (0.1 mol%)

isoquinoline N-oxide 75%
C 2F5 O
380
Scheme 2.60 Salen(Cr)-catalyzed alkene epoxidation.
381
2.3 Oxiranes
j73
N O
Cr
O
Figure 2.14 Stepped conformation of a salen(Cr) catalyst.
of up to 86% are achieved [418]. Gilheany and coworkers [419] have observed high (>90%) enantioselectivities for trans-alkenes using stoichiometric chromium complexes, albeit with modest chemical yields, presumably resulting from the formation of a m-oxo Cr(IV) dimer in situ. A systematic study of the effect of aromatic substituents on enantioselectivities [420] is consistent with an oblique approach of the substrate to a nonplanar (stepped) oxidized catalyst (Figure 2.14). An interesting reversal of chiral induction in chromium(III)-salen complexes using a tartaric derived alicyclic diamine moiety (i.e., 361) has been observed by Mosset, Saalfrank and coworkers [421]. Thus, epoxidation of the chromene 378 using catalyst 361 and an oxidant consisting of mCPBA/NMO afforded epoxide 379 in the (3S,4S) conguration, whereas a classical Jacobsen catalyst (357) provided the corresponding (3R,4R) enantiomer. This approach has been applied to the chiral epoxidation of chromene 380 using the readily available chromium salen catalyst 358 in a synthesis of the novel potassium channel activator BRL55834 [422]. The Katsuki group have focused their attention on (salen)Mn(III) catalysts of a slightly different conguration (e.g., 382386, Figure 2.15), which are characterized as having chiral residues at the aromatic 3,30 -positions. These catalysts have been used to advantage in the epoxidation of conjugated cis-olens [423], including chromenes [424, 425], benzocycloheptenes [426], dihydronaphthalenes [427] and enynes [428]. The proposed mechanism involves a anking attack by the substrate, which is steered by both steric interactions (e.g., the cyclohexyl residue) as well as pp repulsive forces. Generally speaking, the enantiofacial selection of cis-olens in these catalyst systems appears to be inuenced mainly by the chirality on the ethylenediamine bridge, whereas trans-olen epoxidation seems to be directed more by the C3 and C30 substituents [429]. More subtle arguments have been invoked to rationalize the dichotomous behavior of the so-called second-generation Mn-salen catalysts 384 and 385 towards unfunctionalized and nucleophilic olens. For example, higher yields and ees are obtained with the (R,S)-complex (384) for the epoxidation of indene (387, Scheme 2.61). However, N-toluenesulfonyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydropyridine (389) gave better results using the (R,R)-diastereomer (385). An analysis of the transition-state enthalpy and entropy terms indicates that the selectivity in the former reaction is enthalpy driven, while the latter result reects a combination of enthalpy and entropy factors [430]. Other structural modications to salen catalysts can confer operational advantages. For example, hydrogen peroxide is attractive as a terminal oxidant due to its low cost and ready availability, but epoxidations using this reagent tend to be less enantioselective and more prone to radical-induced side reactions. In some cases, these
74

Ph
N N N
Ph
N
Mn+ O O
PF6-
Mn+ O O
PF6-
Me H
Ph Et
Et Ph
Me
H
Me
H Me
Ph Me Ph
Me
H
382
383
Ph
* N * N N
Ph
N
Mn
O O O
Mn
O
Ph Ph
Ph Ph
384 (R,S) 385 (R,R)

Figure 2.15 Salen catalysts with chirality at the 3-position.
386
384 PhIO 57% yield 96% ee
387
388
385 N Ts 389 PhIO 61% yield 94% ee
O N Ts 390
Scheme 2.61 Salen(Mn) catalyzed alkene epoxidation.
disadvantages have been circumvented by using bioinspired models [431]. For example, by tethering an imidazole moiety to a chiral salen-type Mn(III) catalyst, an axial ligand is provided that imitates a peroxidase coordination sphere while still taking advantage of the asymmetric active site of the chiral (salen)Mn(III) species.
2.3 Oxiranes
NH Ph N t-Bu O t-Bu N Mn
+
j75
Ph O R
H N CH3 O
O R
N Mn O O Cl
391
392
Ph O N N Cl n-Bu
Ph N Mn O Et Et t-Bu N t-Bu O Et Et O Et N Mn Cl O O Et Et O t-Bu
393
Figure 2.16 Modified salens and salen analogs.
394
The resulting catalyst (391, Figure 2.16) can be used at 10 mol.% loadings with dilute hydrogen peroxide as an oxidant [432]. In a similar vein, the chiral dicarbonyliminato manganese(III) complex 392 is effective using molecular oxygen as the terminal oxidant [433], and the manganese-picolinamide-salicylidene complex 393 exhibits excellent turnover using sodium hypochlorite [434]. The recently disclosed macrocyclic analogue 394 gives very promising results indeed. At a 5 mol.% loading with two equivalents of sodium hypochlorite as a terminal oxidant, chromene 378 is epoxidized in quantitative yield and 93% ee [435]. No small amount of effort has been directed towards the development of immobilized catalysts, both for ease of catalyst recovery and for application to solid-phase combinatorial synthesis. Toward this end, the catalytic moiety has been tethered to a solid support via either the ethylenediamine portion [436] or the salicylaldehyde subunit [437] to give immobilized catalysts of type 395 and 396, respectively (Figure 2.17). These are the rst gel-type resins to give results rivaling solution-phase counterparts. The backbone of Jacobsens catalyst has also been immobilized on silica gel by radical grafting (e.g., 397) [438] and it has even been prepared in polymeric form (i.e., 398) [439]. Other approaches include the use of peruoroalkyl-substituted catalysts (e.g., 399) in a uorous biphasic system [440] and the conventional Jacobsens catalyst 356 in a medium of the air- and moisture-stable ionic liquid [bmim][PF6] [441]. A somewhat different approach to catalyst separation has been devised by engineering the chiral salen catalyst to have built-in phase-transfer capability, as exemplied by the Mn(III) complex 400 [442]. Thus, enantioselective epoxidation of
76

O N O O N N H N
Mn t-Bu
O O
O O
t-Bu
Cl t-Bu t-Bu
Mn O O Cl t-Bu t-Bu
t-Bu
395
Ph
N
Ph
N
396
TMSO
SiO2
Mn
S O O
Cl t-Bu t-Bu
397
Mn
O O
Mn
C 8F17 O O C8 F17
Cl t-Bu t-Bu
Cl
C 8F 17 C 8F 17
398
n
Ph
N N H2 C
399
Ph
N H2 C N
Mn O O Cl t-Bu t-Bu
400
O N N O
Mn
O O P
Ph Ph
PF6
401
Figure 2.17 Salens designed for biphasic systems.
2.3 Oxiranes
j77
chromene derivatives (e.g., 402) in the presence of 2 mol.% catalyst 400 and pyridine N-oxide (PNO) under phase-transfer conditions (methylene chloride and aqueous sodium hypochlorite) proceeded in excellent yield and very good ees (Scheme 2.62). The catalyst loading could be reduced to about 0.4% with only marginal loss of efciency. Finally, Smith and Liu [443] immobilized a Katsuki-type salen ligand by an ester linkage to Merrields resin to produce catalyst 401. In a test epoxidation of 1,2dihydronaphthalene (404) using sodium hypochlorite as an oxidant and 4-phenylpyridine N-oxide (4-PPNO) as an activator, the immobilized (salen)Mn complex sustained high enantioselectivity (>90%), even after being recycled six times.
H NC O
NC O
NaOCl PNO CH2 Cl2 0C, 7 h > 99% yield > 98% ee NaOCl 4-PPNO CH2 Cl2 0C, 48 h 70% yield 94% ee
400
402
403
H O
401
404
405
Scheme 2.62 Epoxidation with immobilized metal salen catalysts.
No discussion of metal-catalyzed epoxidation could be complete without addressing Sharpless chemistry. Now an imbedded part of the synthetic organic canon, this topic has been very nicely summarized in a recent review article [444]. Two common catalysts in this regard are VO(acac)2 and Ti(Oi-Pr)4, and although their rst applications were reported decades ago, the methodology is still very much in currency. Thus, the vanadium-mediated diastereoselective epoxidation of allylic alcohols, a key step in the synthesis of Cecropia juvenile hormone (i.e., 406 ! 407, Scheme 2.63) described in 1974 [445], was employed in much the same form in 2006 in the epoxidation of the highly functionalized allylic alcohol 408, providing a key intermediate for an approach to the quartromicins [446]. Likewise, the classic tartrate/titanium-mediated asymmetric epoxidation of allylic alcohols (i.e., 410 ! 411), the scope of which was described in detail by Sharpless in 1987 [447], is an almost indispensable tool for the synthetic chemist, as evidenced by its application in the construction of the bicyclic ether core of ( )-sorangicin A (i.e., 412 ! 413) reported by Crimmins and Haley [448]. These protocols continue to provide springboards for further development and innovation. For example, Hussain and Walsh [449] have developed a Sharplessinspired tandem alkylation/epoxidation of prochiral enones to provide chiral nonracemic hydroxyepoxides. Yamamoto and coworkers [450] have developed a chiral
78

VO(acac)2 OH TBHP toluene 0C > 82% yield > 98% de OH
O
406
OTBS Me TBDPSO Me OH
407
O
OTBS VO(acac) 2 TBHP toluene 0C PhNCO Et 3N CH 2Cl 2 TBDPSO 88% overall d.r. 20:1 Me
O O
NHPh
Me
408
Ti(Oi-Pr) 4 (+)-DET TBHP CH 2Cl 2 -20C, 45 min 95% yield 91% ee
O
409
OH
OH
410
411
p-MeOPh
O O
p-MeOPh OH Ti(Oi-Pr) 4 (+)-DET TBHP CH2 Cl2 -20C, 14 h 68% Ph Me

O O
OH
Ph Me
412
Scheme 2.63 Epoxidation under Sharpless conditions.
413
hydroxamic acid (414) derived from binaphthol, which serves as a coordinative chiral auxiliary when combined with VO(acac)2 or VO(i-PrO)3 in the epoxidation of allylic alcohols. In this protocol, triphenylmethyl hydroperoxide (TrOOH) provides markedly increased enantiomeric excess, compared to the more traditional t-butyl hydroperoxide. Thus, the epoxidation of (E)-2,3-diphenyl-2-propenol with 7.5 mol.% VO(i-PrO)3 and 15 mol.% of 414 in toluene (20 C; 24 h) provided the (2S,3S) epoxide 416 in 83% ee. Malkov and coworkers were able to carry out the same transformation in 92% yield and 94% ee using a cyclohexylamine-derived sulfonamide hydroxamic acid catalyst [451]. An alternative organic peroxide source is also at the heart of another modied catalytic Sharpless epoxidation of allylic alcohols, in which the tertiary furyl peroxide 417 serves as the terminal oxidant in the presence of L-diisopropyl tartrate (L-DIPT). Thus, trans-2-methyl-3-phenylprop-2-en-1-ol (364) was converted into epoxide 365 in 87% yield and with 97% ee using a catalyst loading of 20 mol.% [452] (Scheme 2.64).
2.3 Oxiranes
j79
CO2NHCHPh2 OMe Ph
Ph OH
414
VO(Oi-Pr)3 TrOOH Ph
O *
Ph * OH (83% ee)
415 414
416
OOH O Ph
Me OH
417
Ti(Oi-Pr)4 L -DIPT Ph
O *
Me * OH (87% yield; 97% ee)
417
364
365
Scheme 2.64 Modified Sharpless conditions.
Biological models have inspired the adaptation of metalloporphyrin complexes for synthetic processes. For example, chloroperoxidase (CPO) catalyzes the epoxidation of many simple cis-alkenes with high enantioselectivity, although bulkier substrates tend to lead to low conversion and terminal alkenes alkylate the catalyst [453]. A more generally applicable analog can be found in the iron(III) tetrakis(pentauorophenyl) porphyrin 418a (Scheme 2.65), for which considerable mechanistic studies have been carried out [454, 455]. Cyclooctene (419) is smoothly epoxidized by 418a using hydrogen peroxide as the terminal oxidant. Many interesting modications have been made to the porphyrin template, most notably for the purposes of asymmetric induction, which has been the subject of a recent review [456]. Thus, the binaphthyl strapped iron-porphyrin catalyst 424 promotes the enantioselective epoxidation of styrene (10) with iodosylbenzene to give (R)-styrene oxide (421) in excellent yield and enantiomeric excess [457]. Effective non-heme iron catalysts using pentadentate bispidine ligands have also been studied [458]. Some interesting ruthenium porphyrins have also been reported, including a dioxoruthenium(VI) species [459] and the ruthenium(II) catalyst 418b, which functions as a photosensitizer capable of effecting the selective epoxidation of alkenes (e.g., 422) using water as an oxygen source, although the method suffers from the limitation of requiring hexachloroplatinate as an electron acceptor [460]. Metalloporphyrins of all stripes have been appended to solid supports, and the reader is directed to a recent and effective review on the topic for further information [461]. Polyoxometallates (POMs) have been in the research crosshairs lately, as evidenced by a recent review [462]; this interest stems in some portion from their ruggedness and environmental acceptability. As an example, the sandwich-type POM [WZnMnII2(ZnW9O34)2]12 catalyzes the selective epoxidation of chiral allylic alcohols with aqueous hydrogen peroxide under mild conditions. Thus, 4-methylpent-3en-2-ol 425 is converted into the threo epoxide 426 in 88% yield and 84% de (Scheme 2.66). The diastereoselectivity is highly sensitive to the substitution about
80

R1 R2 R1 N R1 R2 R1 R1 R2 R1 R2 R1 N
M
R2 R1 R1
R2
R1 R2 R1
N R1 R2
418a, R1= R2 = F; M = Fe(Cl) 418b, R1= Me; R2 = H; M = Ru(CO) 418a

H2O2 MeCN/ MeOH
(88%)
419 424 (1 mol%)

Ph PhIO CH2Cl2 -5C
420
O Ph
(96% yield; 97%)
10
(R)-421
418b
K 2PtCl6 H2O MeCN 420 nm H N O
(99.7% selectivity)
422
423
H N
N OMe OMe N Fe N N Cl MeO MeO
N H
N H
424
Scheme 2.65 Epoxidations using metalloporphyrins.
2.3 Oxiranes
OH [WZnMn II 2(ZnW 9O 34)2 ]12(0.1 mol%) 30% H 2O2 (2 eq) 20C, 6 h 88% yield 84% de O OH
j81
425
426
Ph HO
Ph Ph
Ph OOH Ph Ph OH
[ZnW(VO) 2(ZnW 9O 34)2 ]12(0.01 mol%) ClCH2 CH2 Cl 89% yield 84% ee
Ph O Ph
OH
427 (1.1 eq)
427
428
429
Scheme 2.66 Epoxidations using polyoxometallates (POMs).
the double bond, with trans-pent-3-en-2-ol giving a 1 : 1 mixture of threo and erythro epoxides under the same conditions. The key intermediate is believed to be a tungsten peroxo complex rather than an oxo-Mn species [463]. Self-assembled POM catalysts can also be immobilized within layered double hydroxides (LDH) using ionexchange techniques [464]. A polyoxometallate is also at the heart of an enantioselective epoxidation of allylic alcohols using C-2 symmetric chiral hydroperoxide 427 derived from 1,1,4,4tetraphenyl-2,3-O-isopropylidene-D-threitol (TADDOL). Thus, in the presence of the oxovanadium(IV) sandwich-type POM [ZnW(VO)2(ZnW9O34)2]12 and stoichiometric amounts of hydroperoxide 427, the stilbenemethanol derivative 428 is converted into the (2R) epoxide 429 in 89% yield and 83% ee. The proposed catalytic cycle invokes a vanadium(V) template derived from the POM, substrate and hydroperoxide a hypothesis supported by the lack of enantioselectivity with unfunctionalized alkenes. The catalytic turnover is remarkably high at about 40 000 TON [465]. Under the rubric of other metal catalysts, methyltrioxorhenium (MTO) represents a fascinating entry. Unlike titanium catalysts (see above), MTO appears not to engage allylic alcohols in tight metal-alcoholate binding, although hydrogen bonding with the substrate can play a role in nonpolar solvents [466]. However, in polar protic media alkenes proximal to a hydroxy group no longer command preferential epoxidation. Thus, treatment of geraniol (410) with MTO affords epoxide 430 as the major product (Scheme 2.67), providing a complementary alternative to conventional methods [467]. For simple allylic alcohols (e.g., 431) formation of the threo epoxide (e.g., 432) predominates presumably the result of 1,3-allylic strain in the hydrogen bonded catalystsubstrate complex. Unfunctionalized alkenes are also efciently epoxidized, as illustrated by the practically quantitative conversion of vinylcyclohexane (433) into epoxide 434 [468]. Compatible oxygen donors include hydrogen peroxide and its urea adduct (UHP) [469]; peruoroalkanol solvents tend to
82

OH MTO UHP O OH
410
OH Me
t -Bu
430
OH MTO H 2 O2 d.r. > 95:5 O Me
t -Bu
431
MTO (0.1 mol%) pyrazole (5 mol%) H 2O2 (2 eq) F3CCH 2 OH > 99%
432
O
433
434
Scheme 2.67 Epoxidations using methyltrioxorhenium (MTO).
give superior results [470]. A polymer-supported version of MTO has also been disclosed [471]. Other noteworthy biphasic and supported metal catalyst systems [472] include hydrotalcite with hydrogen peroxide [473], cobalt-modied hydrotalcite with molecular oxygen [474], manganese dicarboxylate coordination polymers with hydrogen peroxide [475], a binuclear manganese carboxamide array with dioxygen [476], and aqueous sodium tungstate under phase-transfer conditions [477]. A fascinating triphase catalyst for epoxidation of allylic alcohols has been prepared from the combination of phosphotungstic acid and an amphiphilic poly(N-isopropylacrylamide)-derived polymer, which yields a macroporous complex (435, Scheme 2.68). Thus, treatment of allylic alcohol 436 with 0.003 mol.% catalyst 435 and 2 equivalents of hydrogen peroxide in aqueous medium furnished the corresponding epoxide 437 in 96% yield. The catalyst exhibits a very high turnover rate (35 000), is easily recoverable by ltration and is reusable without loss in efcacy [478]. Also in the category of organicinorganic hybrids, titanium-silsesquioxane catalysts have been prepared by the complexation of titanium to incompletely condensed silsesquioxanes [479]. Lipophilic alkenes such as 404 can be epoxidized in a triphasic system using ionic liquids, with epoxidation components being provided via an aqueous phase and the reaction products (e.g., 405) extracted into a pentane layer [480]. Simple alkenes are also converted into epoxides in high efciency using a recyclable immobilized molybdenum catalyst (438) prepared by the reaction of aminated polystyrene and molybdenum hexacarbonyl. For example, cyclohexene (439) is quantitatively epoxidized within 5 h using 1 mol.% of catalyst 438 with t-butyl hydroperoxide (TBHP) as an oxygen donor [481]. Finally, a combination of wet copper(II) sulfate and potassium permanganate in t-butanol (Parish conditions) represents a simple and inexpensive reagent for the
2.3 Oxiranes
H3PW12O40
j83
amphiphilic copolymer
435
Ph OH
O Ph OH
435
436
30% H 2O2 r.t. 96%
437
MnSO4 H 2O2 Me 4N + HCO 3[bmim][BF 4 ] 95%
404
405
H N Mo(CO) 5 N
438 439
TBHP CCl4 100%
438
440
Scheme 2.68 Other immobilized metal epoxidation catalysts.
epoxidation of cyclic alkenes. Thus, stigmasteryl acetate was selectively converted into the 5,6-epoxide in near quantitative yield. The mechanism is believed to involve a series of electron transfers mediated by copper(II) permanganate [482].
2.3.2.4 Epoxidation of Electron-Deficient Alkenes Different conditions usually apply for the epoxidation of electron-poor olens [483], most of which capitalize on the susceptibility of the substrate toward nucleophilic attack. More recent innovations in this regard include the use of basic hydrogen peroxide in an ionic liquid/aqueous biphasic system [484] or aqueous hydrogen peroxide in the presence of natural phosphate [485] or hydrotalcite with ultrasound [486]. Non-aqueous systems commonly employ TBHP, and this oxidant can be effectively catalyzed by a non-nucleophilic base, such as the guanidine derivative 1,5,7-triazabicyclo[4.4.0]dec-5-ene (TBD) [487], or even by potassium uoride adsorbed onto alumina [488]. The methodology is not limited to conventional nucleophilic chemistry: electron-decient alkenes can also be epoxidized under electrochemical conditions using a silver(III)oxo bis(2,20 bipyridine) catalyst [489] as well as with more electrophilic oxidizing agents, such as iodosylbenzene [490]. As with epoxidation protocols in general, vigorous activity has surrounded the asymmetric synthesis of epoxides from electron-decient alkenes, and many chiral catalysts and auxiliaries have been developed for this purpose (Figure 2.18). A common test reaction for comparing yields and enantioselectivities is the epoxidation of chalcone (453, Scheme 2.69); Table 2.16 summarizes some illustrative contribu-
84

N N H Cl OMe R" R' 443, R=R'=H; R"=I 444, R=Bn; R'=t-Bu; R"=OMe N H BzO Br N RO H Br N R' N
HO
441
442
Ph N H Ph OH NMe2 O OMe
445
446
H N H
O N H
8
O O
454
H N H
8
OOH
Me N N N MnII N
Me 2 CF3SO3
N H
447
448
449
Ph O Yb O Ph Oi-Pr HexO HO OH OHex
450
OHex OH OH O O=AsPh3 La O Oi-Pr
HexO HO HO
452 451
Figure 2.18 Chiral catalysts and auxiliaries for electron-deficient alkenes.
tions to this methodology. For example, Cinchona-derived phase-transfer catalysts (e.g., 441444) are effective in aqueous organic systems (entries 13) [491493]. As a further demonstration of chiral pool inspired catalysts, proline-derived aminoalcohols (e.g., 445) promote asymmetric epoxidation of enones through non-covalent catalysis [494, 495]. Oligopeptides also show promise as chiral auxiliaries [496], as
2.3 Oxiranes
j85
O Ph 453 Ph
O Ph
O or Ph
O Ph
(+)-454
(-)-454
Scheme 2.69 Asymmetric epoxidation of chalcone.
Table 2.16 Yield data for the asymmetric epoxidation of chalcone.
Entry 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Catalyst 442 443 444 445 447 450 451 452/Et2Zn
Oxidant NaOCl H2O2/LiOH NaOCl TBHP Urea-H2O2 CHP TBHP TBHP
Solvent Toluene Bu2O Toluene Hexane THF THF Et2O
Yield (%) 98 97 91 90 >99 91 95 95
ee (%) 86 84 60 91 94 97 97 74
Conf. () () () () () () () ()
Ref [424] [425] [426] [494] [428] [429] [430] [432]
illustrated by the novel poly(ethylene glycol)-supported oligo(L-leucine) catalyst 447 used to carry out the Juli aColonna epoxidation of chalcone through a continuously operated chemzyme membrane reactor with urea-hydrogen peroxide as the terminal oxidant [497]. The chiral ytterbium complex formed from Yb(i-PrO)3 and 6,60 -diphenyl-BINOL (450) catalyzed the epoxidation in 91% yield and 97% ee using cumene hydroperoxide as the oxygen source [498]. A similar outcome, but a much more rapid conversion, is achieved using the lanthanoid-BINOL-triphenylarsine complex 451, which provides complete epoxidation in three minutes [499]. This protocol was used as a key step in the synthesis of ( )-decursin from commercially available esculetin [500]. Solidsupported catalysts have also been reported, including the complex formed by treating binaphthyl polymers (e.g., 452) with diethyl zinc [501]. The tridentate aminodiether ligand 446 has been used with lithium cumene hydroperoxide to give fair to good enantioselectivities in the epoxidation of certain enones (e.g., 456, Scheme 2.70), presumably through a tetracoordinate lithium complex [502]. The chiral peroxide 448 was effective in the epoxidation of 2methylene-1-tetralone derivatives, such as 458 [503], as was the immobilized synthetic peptide poly-L-leucine (i-PLL) in the presence of urea-peroxide and DBU in a solvent of isopropyl acetate [504]. As is the case with unfunctionalized alkenes, electron-decient olens are also subject to asymmetric epoxidation using chiral dioxirane reagents [505]. Interestingly, the chiral cationic manganese bis(pyridyl) catalyst 449 provided for very little asymmetric induction, although it was nevertheless quite efcient in promoting the epoxidation of enones such as cyclohexenone
86

O t-Bu Ph
446
CHP/LiCHP 76% yield 71% ee t-Bu
O Ph
456
O t-Bu
457
O
448
KOH MeCN -40C 90% yield 90% ee O
O t-Bu
458
O
459
449
CH3CO 3 H MeCN r.t., 5 min 88% yield < 10% ee O
460
461
Scheme 2.70 Other epoxidations with chiral catalysts and reagents.
(460). When both electron-rich and electron-poor olens are afxed to the same substrate, the former are preferentially oxidized [506]. In the realm of on-board chiral auxiliaries, proline-derived cinnamides (e.g., 462, Scheme 2.71) were epoxidized with lithium t-butyl hydroperoxide with excellent diastereoselectivity, although in moderate yield [507]. Use of a 2,2-dimethyloxazolidine chiral auxiliary (e.g., 464) led to superior yields but somewhat attenuated diastereomeric excess [508]. The nucleophilic epoxidation of c-hydroxy-vinyl sulfoxide derivatives (e.g., 466) proceeds both in high yield and exclusive diastereoselectivity. The latter outcome has been rationalized by invoking a geometrically constrained chair-like transition state [509].
2.3.2.5 Epoxidation of Carbonyl Compounds Just as aziridines can be prepared by the addition of carbenes (or carbene equivalents) across imines, so too can epoxides be synthesized from carbonyl compounds, particularly aldehydes. A recent review has brilliantly captured the synthetic utility of this approach [90]. One prototypical example is the conversion of 4-chlorobenzaldehyde (468) into the corresponding styrene oxide (469) by treatment with diiodomethane and methyllithium at 0 C. The mechanism is believed to proceed through a sequence of lithiumhalogen exchange, carbonyl addition and rapid ring closure of the intermediate iodoalkoxide [510]. The CoreyChaykovsky synthesis [511], by now a standard method, is nevertheless still the subject of current innovation [512]. This reaction, like most other methylenations, relies upon an intermediate sulfur ylide to serve as a methylene transfer reagent. Recent reports have shown that dry mixtures of trimethylsulfonium iodide
2.3 Oxiranes
j87
O N O PhHN Ph TBHP n-BuLi 48% yield > 99% de N
O Ph
O PhHN
462
O O N Ph mCPBA CH2 Cl2 r.t. 24 h > 95% yield 86% de O
p -Tol
463
O O N Ph
464
465
O
t-BuOOK
p-Tol
S O Me
TBDPSO Me
THF 90% yield 100% de
TBDPSO
466
467
Scheme 2.71 Diastereoselective epoxidations with chiral auxiliaries.
and sodium hydride form a shelf-stable source of instant methylide upon treatment with carbonyl compounds in a polar aprotic solvent. Thus, combination of 4methylacetophenone (470, Scheme 2.72) with the instant methylide reagent in dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) resulted in the high-yielding formation of the corresponding epoxide 471 [513]. The CoreyChaykovsky epoxidation has also been adapted for use in an ionic liquid medium, such as (bmim)PF6 [514]. Some methylides are conveniently available through a novel thermal decarboxylation of carboxymethylsulfonium betaines. Thus, treatment of the sulfonium bromide 472 with silver oxide affords the corresponding betaine 473, which exhibits a half-life of 5 h in chloroform at room temperature, but can be stored for months neat at <0 C. At elevated temperatures, however, a rapid decarboxylation provides the methylide 474, which reacts with 2,6-dichlorobenzaldehyde (475) to give the epoxide 476. Unsurprisingly, electron-decient aldehydes give higher yields, with benzaldehyde itself failing to provide any epoxide at all, presumably due to competing thermal decomposition of the ylide 474 [515]. Synthetically useful alkynyl epoxides can be accessed through the treatment of aldehydes with propargyl ylides in the presence of trialkylgallium bases, which lead to (Z)-stereoselectivity [516]. These products are also available through a non-ylide route by treating carbonyls with 1-bromoalkynes and t-butoxide. In this interesting cascade
88

O CH2 I2 Cl MeLi THF 91% Cl O
468
O
469
O
Me3 S+ IMe NaH DMSO 5h 96% Me
470
H 17C 8 Me Br S O OH Ag2O MeOH (quant.)
471
O O H 17C 8 Me S CH2
H17C 8 Me S
472
Cl O
473
Cl
474
473
Cl (CH 2 Cl) 2 60C 85% Cl
475
476
Scheme 2.72 Epoxidation of carbonyls with methylene equivalents.
reaction, the 1-bromoalkyne is believed to function as both electrophilic halogen source and acetylide equivalent [517]. Asymmetric variants of this protocol have been reported using chiral organic suldes (Figure 2.19) that are converted into the corresponding ylides, usually either stoichiometrically in a separate step or catalytically in situ. The conversion of
SMe OMe
477,R=Me 478, R=Et
479
480
CH2OH CO2H H HO OH H CO2H (R,R)-tartaric acid TBDMSO TBDMSO HO SPh SPh HO H H H H OH OH CH2OH D-mannitol O Ph O S O O Ph
481
482
483
484
Figure 2.19 Some chiral sulfur ylide precursors.
2.3 Oxiranes
j89
O PhCH2 Br conditions (see Table 2.17) 485 Ph
O or Ph Ph
O Ph
(S,S )-486
(R,R )-486
Scheme 2.73 Sulfur-mediated asymmetric epoxidation of benzaldehyde.
benzaldehyde (485) into trans-stilbene oxide (486) is a convenient test system for such procedures (Scheme 2.73). The 2,5-dimethylthiolane (477) was used in a one-pot stoichiometric variant of this reaction (Table 2.17, entry 1), providing the (S,S)epoxide in excellent yield and good enantioselectivity [518]; even higher optical purity was obtained simply by using the diethyl analog 478 [519]. One challenge for this general approach is ready access to chiral auxiliaries in optically pure form. The ideal precursors, therefore, should be available in relatively few steps and on large scale from the chiral pool. The bis-sulde 482, obtained from (R,R)-tartaric acid (481), arguably satises these criteria. However, the level of asymmetric induction (Table 2.17, entry 3) falls somewhat short of synthetic utility, most likely because of its conformational exibility [520]. However, the more rigid tricyclic sulde 484, derived from D-mannitol (483), provides excellent enantioselectivity (albeit with moderate yields) while operating in a catalytic one-pot environment [521]. A highly enantioselective synthesis of glycidic amides has been reported using stoichiometric amounts of the chiral sulde 480, which is available in three steps and in high yield from camphor. Thus, optically pure sulfonium bromide 488 was prepared by treatment of sulde 480 with bromoamide 487 (Scheme 2.74). Further exposure to benzaldehyde under basic conditions affords glycidic amide 489 in excellent yield and optical purity [522]. One other major route from carbonyls to epoxides involves the addition of metalstabilized carbenoids to carbonyls. For example, the donoracceptor rhodium carbenoids derived from aryldiazoacetates 490 add across the carbonyl moiety of a,b-unsaturated aldehydes, such as trans-crotonaldehyde (491), to give vinyl epoxides
Table 2.17 Yield data for the sulfur-mediated epoxidation of benzaldehyde.
Entry 1 2 3 4
Precursor 477 478 482 484
Base KOH KOH NaOH NaOH
Solvent t-BuOH/H2O t-BuOH/H2O t-BuOH/H2O MeCN/H2O
Yield (%) 92 97 22 42
de (%) 88 88 48 82
ee (%) 84 93 68 94
Conf. (S,S) (S,S) (R,R) (R,R)
Reference [446] [447] [448] [449]
90

O Br NEt 2
480
Me S OMe Br
O PhCHO NEt2 KOH EtOH -50C 93% yield 97% ee Ph
O NEt 2 O
487
488
489
Scheme 2.74 Enantioselective synthesis of glycidic amides.
(e.g., 492) in good to excellent yield (Scheme 2.75) [523]. Modication of these conditions to include triphenylarsine leads to the formation of intermediate arsonium ylides that function as the active carbon-transfer reagents, resulting in excellent trans-selectivities [524]. Asymmetric protocols are also available. Thus, treatment of benzaldehyde (485) with a slight excess of the tosyl hydrazone sodium salt 497 in the presence of catalytic amounts of rhodium acetate and 20 mol.% of the camphorderived sulde 496 furnishes 1,2-diarylepoxide 498 with 89% ee [525]. However, when the substrate is a heteroaromatic, n-alkyl aliphatic, a,b-unsaturated or acetylenic aldehyde, stoichiometric quantities of the preformed chiral sulfur ylide must be used [526].
N2 + Ph CO 2 Me Me H
Rh 2(OAc) 4 CH2 Cl 2 r.t., 1 h 98% Me
Ph CO 2Me
490
N NTs +
491
492
O Rh2 (OAc)4 Ph3As BnEt 3N + Cl 64% yield 96% de
Na OMe
MeO
493
494
495
S O MeO
N NTs + Na
496
Rh 2(OAc) 4 BnEt 3N + Cl MeCN/H 2O 89% ee
OMe
496
497
485
498
Scheme 2.75 Rhodium-catalyzed epoxidations of carbonyls.
2.3.2.6 Ring-Closing Reactions One of the oldest techniques for preparing epoxides is the base-promoted ring closure of halohydrins, used by Wurtz to synthesize ethylene oxide from b-chloroethanol as early as 1859 [527]. The same procedure is still routinely used
2.3 Oxiranes
j91
with various modications. For example, in their approach to the taxol side chain antipodes, Stewart and coworkers treated the optically pure chlorohydrin 499 (Scheme 2.76) with potassium carbonate in DMF to obtain the cis-epoxide 500 in almost quantitative yield [528]. A sequential process was used as an early-stage key step in the total synthesis of ovalicin, in which the doubly protected cyclic triol 502 undergoes mesylation, deprotection and ring closure to give the spirocyclic epoxide 503 [529]. A similar procedure assembled the epoxide ring late in the total synthesis of the neocarzinostatin chromophore aglycone [530]. The development of biocatalytic methods for preparing chiral non-racemic chlorohydrins from a-chloroketones has opened a potentially useful pathway towards chiral epoxides by this route [531].
OH CO2 Et Cl K2CO3 DMF r.t., 5 h 99%
O CO2 Et (99% yield)
499
O OTMS OTMS OH
500
DIBAL CH 2Cl2
OTMS OTMS
O MsCl K2CO3 O O OH (81% overall)
Et3 N MeOH 3h DMAP CH2 Cl2 81% overall -40C, 1 h
501
502
503
OMs TBSO O TBSO OTES OMe OsO4 pyridine THF 0C 78% MsCl pyridine CH2 Cl2 0C 95% TBSO OTES OMe TBSO O OH
MeO
MeO
504
O TBSO BnMe 3N + HOMeOH/THF 0C 84% HO OTES OMe O
505
MeO
506
Scheme 2.76 Epoxides from ring-closing reactions.
92

Ring closure methodology can be employed as a nice complement to other concerted oxygenations. For example, in their total synthesis of ()-kendomycin, Smith and coworkers carried out a cis-dihydroxylation on the macrocyclic alkene 504 to give the corresponding diol. Mesylation of the secondary alcohol afforded the hydroxy mesylate 505, which suffered ring-closure with inversion under phasetransfer conditions. In this way, a cis-alkene was efciently and controllably converted into the trans-epoxide [338].
2.3.3 Reactivity of Oxiranes 2.3.3.1 Nucleophilic Ring Opening Cleavage of the epoxide ring by various nucleophiles is one of the most frequently encountered behaviors of this system, both biologically and synthetically. In the latter realm, the extreme versatility of this simple reaction lends it considerable preparative power. The nucleophilic palette runs the gamut, and protocols are being developed continually to direct the nucleophilic ring opening in an enantioselective fashion [532]. Unadorned carbon nucleophiles may be used, as exemplied by the one-pot conversion of alkenyl epoxide 507 (Scheme 2.77) to the homologous silyl ether 508 using a system of trimethylaluminium and silyl triate. The methyl group is delivered via backside attack on the less substituted terminus of the epoxide, and the alkoxide so formed is silylated in situ [533]. An ethyl group can be appended in like fashion using triethylaluminium catalyzed by triphenylphosphine [534]. Similar ring openings also can be carried out using indoles with lithium perchlorate [535] or ruthenium trichloride [536], lithium enolates [537], vinyl magnesium bromide [538], aluminum ester enolates [539], and silyl enol ethers catalyzed by titanium tetrachloride [540]. Vinyl epoxides undergo ring opening at the allylic position using diethylzinc catalyzed by triuoroacetic acid [541] and alkyllithium reagents catalyzed by boron triuoride [542]. Alkynyl anions react smoothly with epoxides, as well. For example, Kumar and Naida used this strategy to stitch together the functionalized lithium acetylide derivative 509 and epoxide 510 in their total synthesis of microcarpalide [543]. Other conditions for this reaction include the use of alkynyllithiums with catalytic trimethylaluminium [544] and lithium TMS-acetylide in dimethyl sulfoxide [545]. The addition of vinyl anions per se is not a general reaction; however, there are some interesting vinyl anion equivalents such as trimethylsulfonium iodide, which converts the tetrahydrofuranyl epoxide 512 into the corresponding allyl alcohol (513) [546]. Confoundingly, the counterion can play an enormous role in the overall reaction yields; in many cases, the triuoromethylsulfonyl anion can give superior results [547]. The cyanide anion is a common carbon nucleophile that is also capable of epoxide ring opening. For example, treatment of the terminal epoxide 514 with trimethylsilyl cyanide (TMSCN) in the presence of lithium perchlorate resulted in the delivery of cyanide to the less substituted position in excellent yield [548]. The binaphthyl derived
2.3 Oxiranes
O Me3Al TESOTf Et3N CH2Cl2 OTES Me (93%)
j93
507
OPMB Li + O O O OMOM C7H15
508
OPMB OMOM BF3OEt2 THF -78C O O OH C7H15 (89%)
509
510
511
O ( )4 OH OBn
Me3S+ In-BuLi THF
O HO ( )4 OH OBn (70%)
512
O OTMS TMSCN LiClO4 neat O
513
CN
(97%)
514
515
Bn O Ga(CH3)2 O O
516
TMSCN CH2Cl2
OTMs (70% yield; 95% ee) CN
516
440
517
Scheme 2.77 Epoxide ring opening with carbon nucleophiles.
gallium catalyst 516 represents an asymmetric variant of this process, promoting the addition of cyanide to meso epoxides (e.g., 440) in good yield and excellent enantioselectivity [549]. In the category of nitrogen-based nucleophiles, simple amines add smoothly to epoxides in predictable ways. For example, benzylamine attacks the less hindered carbon of the epoxyether 518 (Scheme 2.78) under the inuence of lithium bistriuoromethanesulfonimide to give the aminoalcohol 519 in 95% yield [550]. When the epoxide ring bears an aromatic substituent, the regiochemistry is often reversed, as shown by the ring-opening of styrene oxide (421) with aniline in the presence of zinc chloride [551]. Amines can also be added using calcium triate in acetonitrile [552], and in water with erbium(III) triate as a catalyst [553], with no catalyst under conventional conditions [554], or with the assistance of ultrasound [555].
94

BnO O PhCH2 NH2 LiNTf 2 CH2 Cl2 r.t., 20 h 95% O Ph PhNH 2 ZnCl 2 MeCN 82C, 12 h 93% Me O NH2 + RuCl 3 H2O Ph3 P SnCl 2 dioxane 180C 98% N H Me Ph Ph BnO OH H N Ph
518
519
H N Ph
OH
421
520
Me
Ph
Me
521
522
OH Cl
523
Cl
NaN 3 SmCl3 6H2 O DMF r.t., 6 h 93%

358 (2 mol%)
N3
524
525
OTMS O N3
526
TMSN 3 r.t. 96% yield 97% ee
527
Scheme 2.78 Epoxide ring opening with nitrogen nucleophiles.
The addition of aromatic amines can be catalyzed by stannic or cupric triate [556, 557]; b-cyclodextrin [558]; zirconium(IV) chloride [559] or bismuth trichloride [560, 561] in acetonitrile; and zinc oxide [562], ytterbium(III) nitrate [563], or a mesoporous silica immobilized cobalt complex [564] under solvent-free conditions. A ruthenium catalyst in the presence of tin chloride also results in an SN1-type substitution behavior with aniline derivatives (e.g., 522), but further provides for subsequent cyclization of the intermediate amino alcohol, thus representing an interesting synthesis of 2-substituted indoles (e.g., 523) [565]. Certain meso-epoxides can be desymmetrized with aromatic amines under catalytic conditions, for example, using a proline-based N,N-dioxide-indium tris(triate) complex [566]. Azide represents a simple, versatile and selective nitrogen nucleophile. In the presence of catalytic quantities of samarium(III) chloride in a medium of N,Ndimethylformamide (DMF), sodium azide attacks the terminal epoxide carbon of
2.3 Oxiranes
j95
epichlorohydrin (524) to give the highly functionalized three-carbon fragment 525 [567]. Azide addition can also be promoted by the use of lithium tetrauoroborate in t-butanol [568] and lithium perchlorate in propionitrile [569]. Attack at the more substituted position is favored by some conditions, including diethylaluminium azide [570] and sodium azide in the presence of ceric ammonium nitrate [571]. Like cyanide, azide can be used to desymmetrize meso-epoxides, as shown by the asymmetric azidolysis of the bicyclic epoxide 526 using TMS-azide and catalytic amounts (2 mol.%) of the salen-chromium complex 358 [572, 573]. Oxygen-centered nucleophiles are also of synthetic importance in this regard, and the reactions of alicyclic epoxy compounds with these nucleophilic species are the subject of a review [574]. Arguably the most readily available oxygen-centered nucleophile for epoxide ring opening is water, but the course of the hydrolysis reaction is dependent upon the reaction environment and structural features of the substrate [575]. Conditions can be exceedingly mild, as shown by the high-yielding hydrolysis of spiroepoxide 528 (Scheme 2.79) using tetrabutylammonium bisulfate [576]; catalytic bismuth triate in wet acetonitrile can also be used to advantage [176]. In fact, many epoxides can be hydrolyzed simply by heating in water without any catalyst at all [577]. The conversion of epoxides into diols in this manner is the basis for an enormously important method for preparing optically pure epoxides from racemic mixtures through hydrolytic kinetic resolution (HKR) [578]. Chiral nonracemic diols are also available from the hydrolytic desymmetrization of meso-epoxides (e.g., 440) using an oligomeric Jacobsen-type catalyst (530) [579]. Alcohols can be added with equal efciency. Thus, phenoxymethyl epoxide 532 suffers nucleophilic attack by methanol in the presence of catalytic amounts of potassium dodecatungstocobaltate to provide hydroxyether 533 in quantitative yield [580]. As with other nucleophiles, when an aromatic group is attached to the epoxide ring, attack often predominates at the benzylic position. For example, treatment of stilbene oxide (421) with methanol under the catalysis of TiO(TFA)2 yields the primary alcohol 534. The electrophilic center is cleanly inverted in the process [581]. This addition can also be carried out using ferric perchlorate [579], molybdenum(VI) dichloride dioxide [582], hydrazine sulfate [583], amberlyst-15 resin [584], copper(II) tetrauoroborate [585], and aminopropylsilica gel (APSG) supported iodine [586]. The hydroperoxide anion functions as a competent nucleophile under the catalysis of silica-supported antimony trichloride [587]. The scope of oxygen nucleophiles extends to carboxylic acids, as illustrated by the titanium-catalyzed addition of pivalic acid to the terminal epoxide 535 [588]. Chromium(III) acetate is a useful catalyst for such additions of carboxylic acids in industrial processes [589]. Finally, nitrates can also be coaxed into serving as oxygen-centered nucleophiles by reagents such as bismuth(III) nitrate [590] and tetranitromethane [591]. Other oxygen-containing heterocycles with varying degrees of structural complexity are conveniently prepared by the intramolecular ring-opening of epoxides [592]. An illustrative example is found with the titanium-promoted cyclization of the highly oxygenated bicyclic epoxide 537 to give the spiroketal 538 with retention of conguration [593]. Similar intramolecular processes have been catalyzed by caesium
96

O
Bu4 NHSO 4 (10 mol%)

H 2O 96%
OH OH
528
O O
529
O O
Cl
t-Bu N N H
Cl
t-Bu
Co
O O
OTs
t-Bu t-Bu
TsO
O O
Co
N N
Cl
O O
Cl
O O
n
530
530 (1.5 mol%)
H 2O MeCN/CH 2 Cl2 98% yield 94% ee K5 [CoW 12O 40]3H2 O
OH OH
440
O
531
OH PhO OMe
PhO
532
O
MeOH r.t., 15 min 100%
533
Ph MeO OH
TiO(TFA) 2 MeOH 96% yield 95% ee
Ph
(R)- 421
534
O O
OH OBn
Ti(iPrO) 4 Me3 CCO2 H CH2Cl 2 12 h, r.t. 92% OH
OH OBn HO Me
535
TBDPSO
O O
536
TBDPSO
Ti(iPrO) 4 O O
OTIPS
537
CH 2Cl 2/ acetone -78C-r.t. > 98%
OH OTIPS
538
Scheme 2.79 Epoxide ring opening with oxygen nucleophiles.
2.3 Oxiranes
j97
carbonate [594] and p-toluenesulfonic acid [595]. In one such intramolecular epoxide ring opening a key step in the diastereoselective synthesis of a-tocopherol anhydrous hydrochloric acid in ether/acetonitrile was chosen to promote the disfavored 6endo-tet ring closure mode [596]. Among sulfur-centered nucleophiles, thiocyanate is frequently encountered. For example, the epoxy ester 540 (Scheme 2.80) is smoothly converted into the thiocyanato adduct 541 using stoichiometric ammonium thiocyanate and a quaternized amino functionalized cross-linked polyacrylamide (539) as a solidliquid phase-transfer catalyst in acetonitrile [597]. Hydroxysulfones can be prepared on water by the action of sodium benzenesulnate on epoxides with no added catalyst [598]. Thiophenol is another useful species that adds under very mild conditions, as shown by the ring-opening of the cyclohexadiene oxide derivative 542 catalyzed by ytterbium triate in toluene, whereby the thiophenol moiety attacks the allylic site of the epoxide ring [599]. In another example, unfunctionalized epoxides (e.g., 544) can be transformed into allylic alcohols 547 through an initial epoxide ring-opening with thiophenol in hexauoroisopropanol (HFIP) and in situ oxidation to the sulfoxide (546), followed by pyrolysis in the presence of potassium carbonate [600]. Thiols can also be added using tributylphosphite [166], lithium perchlorate [601, 602], montmorillonite K-10 clay under solvent-free microwave conditions [603], in water [604], and in ionic liquids without additional catalysts [605]. The addition of Rongalite allows for the use of disulde thiol precursors [606], and the entantioselective cleavage of meso-epoxides with thiophenol can be achieved using a heterobimetallic Ti-Ga-salen catalyst [607].
H N
NMe 3 Cl
n
O O
539
NH4SCN MeCN 1h 91% O O
OH SCN
539
Br O O O
540
541
Br
PhSH Yb(OTf) 3 toluene 89% PhS OH
O O
542
PhSH HFIP OH SPh
543
OH S Ph OH
544
545
546
547
Scheme 2.80 Epoxide ring opening with sulfur nucleophiles.
Finally, halides are interesting nucleophiles inasmuch as they preserve the electrophilic character of the center they substitute. As a representative example of these additions, chloride can be introduced using bis-chlorodibutyltin oxide in
98

chloroethanol, as shown in the conversion of phenylmethyl epoxide 521 (Scheme 2.81) into chlorohydrin 548 [608]. Similarly, the terminal epoxide 549 is converted almost quantitatively into the bromohydrin 550 with lithium bromide in the presence of silica gel in methylene chloride [609]. Bromide-mediated ringopening can also be executed using a combination of N-bromosuccinimide, triphenylphosphine and dimethylformamide [610]. Most nucleophilic of all, iodide readily attacks styrene oxide (421) to give the iodohydrin 551, and the use of b-cyclodextrin directs the addition to the less-substituted carbon, presumably due to steric hindrance caused by guesthost complexation [611]. In the realm of asymmetric synthesis cyclic meso-epoxides can be desymmetrized by chloride attack using silicon tetrachloride catalyzed by PINDOX [612].
Ph
(Bu2 SnCl) 2O ClCH 2CH2 OH 93% Ph
OH Cl
548
521
O O
LiBr SiO2 CH2 Cl2 r.t., 3 h 99%
OH O Br
n-octyl
549
n -octyl
550
O Ph
421
-cyclodextrin
HI H 2O 95% Ph
OH I
551
Scheme 2.81 Epoxide ring opening with halide nucleophiles.
2.3.3.2 Rearrangements Epoxides can be isomerized to allylic alcohols using hindered bases. For example, a-pinene oxide 552 (Scheme 2.82) undergoes eliminative ring opening upon treatment with lithium diethylamide. The transformation proceeds in higher yields in the presence of lithium t-butoxide, which is believed to disrupt aggregation of the anion [613]. Similarly, the optically pure bicyclic epoxide 554 is converted into the methylenecyclohexenol derivative 555 in excellent yield using diethylaluminium 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidide (DATMP) in toluene [614]. Milder bases can be used when activating groups are nearby. Thus, the hydroxyepoxide 556 is smoothly oxidized to the corresponding ketone under Dess-Martin conditions, making the a-protons acidic enough to remove with sodium hydroxide, leading to the enone
2.3 Oxiranes
j99
O LDEA t-BuOLi 552 O DATMP OTBDPS toluene 0C 97% 553 OH
OH
OTBDPS
554 H
555 H OH Dess-Martin CH2 Cl2 r.t., 12 h 1N NaOH 83% H OH 557 O
H 556 R NH
N R 558, R=H 559, R=Me 560
559 (5 mol%) O LDA / DBU THF 81% yield 96% ee
OH
561
O 558 (10 mol%) LDA / DBU THF 45% yield 90% ee
HO
562
563
Scheme 2.82 Base-catalyzed rearrangement of epoxides to allylic alcohols.
product 557 [615]. Finally, the isomerization can occur under essentially neutral conditions using titania-supported gold nanoparticles [616]. The enantioselective isomerization of meso epoxides to allylic alcohols continues to be a promising route for the preparation of these materials in high optical purity. In an extension of their ongoing work in this area with lithium amide bases [617], Andersson and coworkers have designed the optically active (1S,3R,4R)-[N-(trans-2,5dimethyl)pyrrolidinyl]-methyl-2-azabicyclo[2.2.1]heptane (559), which exhibits superior chiral induction in catalytic quantities using lithium diisopropylamide
100

(LDA) as the stoichiometric base. Thus, the challenging substrate cyclopentene oxide (560) was cleanly isomerized to the chiral cyclopentenol 561 in 81% yield and with 96% ee a signicant improvement over the 49% ee obtained with higher loadings of the earlier generation catalyst 558 [618]. Diamines derived from (R)-phenylglycine have also given promising results [619]. The chiral amide approach has also been applied to the catalytic kinetic resolution of racemic epoxides. For example, exposure of the tricyclic epoxide 562 to 10 mol.% 558 and stoichiometric LDA at 0 C led to the recovery of the chiral spiro[4.5]decenol 563 with 90% ee and in 45% isolated yield, compared to the theoretical 50% maximum [620]. Chiral nonracemic aminoepoxides are isomerized stereoselectively to aminoalcohols using the superbasic mixture of nbutyllithium, diisopropylamide and potassium t-butoxide (LIDAKOR) [621]. In addition to b-elimination, the epoxide moiety also undergoes rearrangement to a carbonyl group, and this reactivity can be quite synthetically useful. The course of the rearrangement is highly dependent upon the nature of the substrate. Generally, the regiochemistry is driven by two factors: (i) the stability of the nascent carbocation generated from ring opening and (ii) the migratory aptitude of the adjacent substituents. For example, the simple monoalkyl-substituted epoxide 564 (Scheme 2.83) undergoes regioselective rearrangement in the presence of iron(III)tetraphenylporphyrin to give the corresponding aldehyde (565) via a 1,2-hydride shift onto an incipient secondary cationic center [622], a process also promoted by sodium periodate under ambient conditions [623]. Terminal epoxides react with tetraallyltin in the presence of bismuth(III) triate to give homoallylic alcohols 568. The reaction involves an initial 1,2-shift to form aldehyde 567, which is then attacked by the allyl tin species [624]. A similar but operationally more straightforward protocol is available by combining allyl bromide with indium metal, followed by the addition of epoxide [625].
O Ph Fe(tpp)OTf 94% O H
Ph
564
Cl O Bi(OTf) 3 CH2 Cl2 Cl H O
565
Sn(CH 2CH=CH 2 )4 (one pot) 90% Cl OH
566
567
568
Scheme 2.83 Rearrangement of terminal epoxides to aldehydes.
When trans-stilbene oxide (569, Scheme 2.84) is treated with bismuth triate, aldehyde 570 is formed through a process of benzylic cation formation and subsequent phenyl migration [626]. However, the structurally very similar epoxide 571 provides a ketone upon treatment with Lewis acid, which reects a more facile hydride shift to the cationic center [627]. Certain alkoxymethyl groups can also easily migrate, as seen in the rearrangements of epoxides 573 [628] and 575 [629]. In the latter example, the siloxy migration was an unwanted (albeit efcient) side reaction of
2.3 Oxiranes
O O Ph Ph Bi(OTf) 3 xH 2 O CH 2Cl 2 92% Ph Ph H
j101
569
O Ph Me BiOClO 4 CH 2Cl 2 70% Ph
570
O Me
571
O TBSO OBn
572
TBSO TBSOTf iPr 2 NEt O OBn
573
574
TBDMSO O CO 2Me BF 3OEt 2 78% OTBDMS
TBDMSO
CO2 Me
OTBDMS
575
Ph Yb(OTf) 3 Et CH 2Cl 2 99% Me Ph O OH
576
Me HO
Et
577
578
Scheme 2.84 Rearrangement of internal epoxides to aldehydes ketones.
a desired cationic ring closure; changing to a trimethylsilylethoxymethyl (SEM) protecting group resolved this problem. An analogous rearrangement can occur in epoxyalcohols of type 577, which cleanly produced the hydroxyketone 578 in almost quantitative yield after 3 h upon exposure to 20 mol.% ytterbium triate in methylene chloride [630]. This process can be used to advantage to access cyclic ketones, as well. For example, the cyclopentene oxide derivative 579 (Scheme 2.85) opens up to the more stable benzylic carbocation (i.e., 580), which then provides the cyclopentanone derivative 581 via 1,2-methyl migration in 93% yield [631]. An analogous mechanistic step begins the organoaluminium-promoted cyclization of olenic epoxides (e.g., 583), whereby the initially formed aldehyde (584) undergoes a highly stereoselective Lewis acid-catalyzed intramolecular ene reaction to give the methylenedecalone 585 in the presence of methylaluminium bis(4-bromo-2,6-di-t-butylphenoxide) (MABR). This strategy is proposed as a route for the stereoselective synthesis of various terpenes [632].
102

O pMeOPh BF 3 OEt2 CH 2Cl 2 PNBO PNBO pMeOPh 93% PNBO OBF 3 pMeOPh O
579
tBu Br tBu O
580
tBu O Br
581
Al
Me tBu
582, MABR
O MABR O H
Al
OH H
H H
583
585
584
Scheme 2.85 Rearrangement involving cyclic structures.
The rearrangement sometimes occurs with concomitant ring contraction, as seen in the conversion of cyclohexene oxide derivative 586 (Scheme 2.86) into the cyclopentanealdehyde product 587 [633]. In a similar vein, Kita and coworkers [634] have used a novel acid-promoted rearrangement of cyclic a,b-epoxy acylates (e.g., 588) for the stereoselective synthesis of spirocyclanes (e.g., 589), a technique which is also found in the total synthesis of ()-pseudolaric acid B by Trost et al. [635], and
O BnO 586 OBz
BF 3
BnO
CHO 587 O
BF3 OEt2 O CH2Cl 2 95% 588

Scheme 2.86 Rearrangement with ring contraction.
OBz
589
2.3 Oxiranes
j103
which promises broad application to the preparation of optically active compounds of this type. Ring expansions are also possible. For example, treatment of the cyclopentylepoxide 590 (Scheme 2.87) with boron triuoride etherate induces a cascade reaction involving desilylation of the alcohol and rearrangement to the cyclohexanone derivative 591 [636]. Similarly, cyclohexyl epoxides (e.g., 592) expand to form tropinones (593) [637]. Finally, although the process proceeds through a mechanisH TMSO Me O Me BF 3OEt 2 CH 2Cl 2 -78C 2h 81% O Me Me OH
590 Ph OH O Me
591 O OH Ph Me
SnCl 4 (2.0 eq) CH 2Cl 2 94%
592 O O CO 2 Me CO 2Me CO 2 Me LiI DMSO
593
CO 2Me CO 2 Me
594 I LiI CH2Cl 2 OLi 597 Ph 596 LA Et2 AlCl toluene 599
Scheme 2.87 Rearrangement with ring expansion.
595 O 81% yield 90% de (R)-598 Ph
Ph
O Ph Ph 90% yield 90% ee (S)-598
104

tically distinct pathway, the iodide-mediated rearrangement of the spiroepoxide 594 produces the ring-expanded cyclohexanone 595 [638]. This was used in a very clever way to access both antipodes of phenylcyclopentanone (598) from spiroepoxide 596. The anionic iodide pathway led to smooth conversion into the (R)-isomer, while Lewis acid catalysis provided equally high optical purity of the (S)-enantiomer [639].
2.3.3.3 Radical Chemistry Li has authored an excellent overview of the radical reactions of epoxides, to which the reader is directed [640]. While this eld encompasses some fascinating chemistry, yields and selectivities tend to be rather widely distributed. Exceptions to this generalization are found in specically functionalized epoxides. For example, the vinyl epoxide 600 (Scheme 2.88) suffers radical addition of tributyltin radical to give an a-epoxy radical, which immediately opens to the allylic alkoxy radical 601. This species engages in radical ring closure onto the pendant alkene to give, after hydrolysis, the bicyclic alcohol 604 in 89% yield [641, 642]. Samarium iodide promotes similar reactivity in ketoepoxides such as 605. Thus, single electron transfer from SmI2 to the carbonyl moiety gives the typical radical anion, which then isomerizes to the allylic alkoxy radical 607. Trapping of the samarium stabilized enolate 608 with phenylpropionaldehyde gives the dihydroxyketone 609 in excellent yield [643]. Titanocene-mediated radical cyclization of epoxides has been reviewed very recently [644], and this area is rapidly expanding in synthetic utility. Here a titanocene reagent such as Cp2TiCl engages the epoxide ring itself in single electron transfer, typically cleaving the weakest CO bond and forming the more substituted carboncentered radical, which can take part in further reactivity. For example, the epoxynitrile 610 is smoothly converted into the hydroxymethylcyclohexanone derivative 613 through a cascade of radical ring opening and subsequent cyclization onto the nitrile [645] (the intermolecular version of this methodology is promoted by titanocene [646]). Similarly, the propargylic epoxide 614 undergoes ring cleavage to give the secondary radical (615), which proceeds through 6-exo-dig radical cyclization to provide the methylenetetrahydropyran derivative 617 in high yield [647]. 2.3.3.4 Reduction and Deoxygenation Epoxides can undergo reductive ring opening using various reagents [648, 649]. One extremely mild protocol involves the use of bis(cyclopentadienyl)titanium(III) chloride. Signicantly, the regioselectivity of the epoxide cleavage is often quite high, being determined by the stability of a radical intermediate, and sometimes opposite to what is expected for a classical SN2 epoxide ring opening. For example, treatment of spiroepoxide 618 (Scheme 2.89) with Cp2TiCl leads to an intermediate carbon radical that can be trapped by a H-atom donor (in this case cyclohexadiene) to give the secondary alcohol 620. By comparison, a classical reductive ring opening with lithium triethylborohydride gives only the tertiary alcohol 619 [650]. Iyer [651] and Dragovich [652] have independently reported the regiospecic ring opening of epoxides by way of a palladium-catalyzed transfer hydrogenolysis using ammonium formate as the hydrogen source. Under these conditions, hydride attacks at the less
2.3 Oxiranes
O HO Ph nBu3 SnH AIBN 89%
j105
600
. O
604
Bu 3SnO . Ph
Ph
SnBu 3 Ph
Bu3 SnO
. Ph
601
602
O SmI 2 nPr THF -45C Ph 90% H HO O Ph nPr
603
Ph OH O Ph H
O O Ph
605
O I 2 SmO . Ph n Pr I2SmO Ph nPr O.
609
I2 SmO Ph n Pr
OSmI 2
606
607
[Ti]O CN
608
CN O
Cp2 TiCl (2.2 eq) .
O[Ti]
N.
H3 O+ 88%
HO
610
611
[Ti]O Cp 2TiCl . Ph Me O Ph
612
[Ti]O . 88% O Ph Me HO
613
O Ph Me THF r.t.
Me
614
615
616
617
Scheme 2.88 Some radical reactions of functionalized epoxides.
hindered carbon atom (e.g., 621 ! 622), except in the case of aryl-substituted epoxides, where ring opening occurs exclusively at the benzylic position (e.g., 421 ! 623). Lithium aluminium hydride has been used for the regio- and diastereoselective reductive ring opening of chiral nonracemic epoxides, such as 624 [653] (a key step featured in the enantiospecic synthesis of ( )-hernandulcin [654]), and racemic epoxides can be reduced to an enantiomerically enriched mixture of alcohols by treatment with zirconium tetrachloridesodium borohydride in the presence of L-proline as a chiral auxiliary [655].
106

OH OH LiBEt3 H >95% O Cp 2 TiCl 91%
619
618 OH Ph 622
620
O Ph 621
Pd/C HCO 2NH4 80%
O Ph 421
Pd/C HCO 2NH4 100% Ph 623
OH
OBn O RO 624
OH LAH 76% yield 96% de RO OBn 625
Scheme 2.89 Reductive ring opening of epoxides.
The net reversal of the epoxidation reaction, namely the eliminative deoxygenation of epoxides, has been carried out in various ways. For example, tungsten reagents react with epoxides to form tungsten(IV)-oxo complexes that ultimately lead to the corresponding olens with predominant retention of conguration [656]. Glycidyl acetates 626 (Scheme 2.90) undergo deoxygenation and concomitant deacetylation upon treatment with lithium telluride, which is conveniently prepared in situ from tellurium metal and lithium triethylborohydride [657]. Another extremely mild epoxide deoxygenation protocol involves the use of bis(cyclopentadienyl)titanium (III) chloride, which promotes homolytic cleavage of the epoxide CO bond. The mildness of this reagent is showcased in the deoxygenation of epoxide 628, which gives the highly sensitive methoxydihydrofuran derivative 629 in 66% yield [650]. Electrophilic halogen reagents are also useful in this regard. Thus, the system of iodine and triphenylphosphine in dimethylformamide effected the quantitative deoxygenation of the allyloxymethyl epoxide 630 [658a]. In addition, a novel deoxygenation protocol has been reported for the conversion of epoxyketones into the corresponding enones using thiourea dioxide as a reducing agent under phase transfer conditions [658b]. Essentially neutral conditions are obtained using molybdenum hexacarbonyl in reuxing benzene. The mechanism proceeds through initial loss of carbon monoxide followed by a complexation of the molybdenum center with
2.3 Oxiranes
OAc nHex Te 0 LiEt3 BH THF 0C, 24 h 98% Et OH nHex
j107
O Et
626
627
TrO
O O
OTr OMe
Cp 2TiCl 66%
O TrO OTr OMe
628
Ph3 P I2 DMF 100%
629
630
O Mo(CO)6 benzene O O
631
O
O Mo(CO) 5
95% O
632
633
634
Scheme 2.90 Reductive deoxygenation of epoxides.
the epoxide oxygen to provide an activated species (i.e., 633) that collapses to form the alkene (i.e., 634) [659]. The low-valent titanium catalyst Cp2TiCl, readily available by the in situ reduction of Cp2TiCl2 with activated zinc, has also been used for this type of deoxygenation [660, 661].
2.3.3.5 Oxiranyl Anions Epoxides can be deprotonated on the ring, and the anions thus formed undergo interesting and synthetically useful chemistry, much of which has been summarized in recent review articles [196, 662, 663]. When electron-withdrawing groups are present, these stabilized oxiranyl anions engage in smooth SN2 reaction with various electrophiles. Thus, the sulfonyl epoxide 635 (Scheme 2.91) is deprotonated using n-butyllithium in HMPA/THF at low temperature and treated with triate 636 to give the highly functionalized adduct 637 in 81% yield. This protocol was used for the construction of the ABCDEF-ring systems of yessotoxin and adriatoxin [664]. Similar sulfonyl oxirane strategies have been used in other synthetic applications [665668]. The oxazolinyl group also provides a useful stabilizing moiety for such alkylations (e.g., 638 ! 639) [669]. In certain cases, even non-stabilized oxiranyl anions can be coaxed into wellbehaved conversions. Hodgson and coworkers [670] have reported on a convenient method of deprotonating terminal oxiranes with lithium 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidide (LTMP), followed by trapping of the anion with silyl-based electrophiles, to
108

BnO O pTolSO 2 + TfO H O TESO H O Si(t Bu) 2 nBuLi HMPA THF -100C 81% BnO O pTolSO 2 H O OTES O Si(tBu) 2
635
636
637
OH
O pTol O N
sBuLi TMEDA Et2 O -100C
O Ph2 C=O > 95% N pTol
Ph Ph O
638
O Cl LTMP THF 0C Me 3SiCl (3.3 eq) 63% Cl
639
O
SiMe3
640
641
Bu
Bu n-decyl
sBuLi (2.5 eq) DBB hexane -90C
PhCHO 75% n-decyl
OH Ph
642, DBB
643
644
Scheme 2.91 Reaction of oxiranyl anions with electrophiles.
provide a,b-epoxysilanes in good yield. For example, chloro-epoxide 640 underwent clean conversion into epoxysilane 641 at 0 C. This approach improves upon an earlier method, which employed sparteine derivatives at very low temperature (90 C) [671]. The initial protonlithium exchange can be facilitated by diamines, such as dibutylbispidine (DBB, 642). Thus, dodecene oxide 643 was deprotonated with sec-butyllithium and then treated with benzaldehyde to give the epoxyalcohol 644 in 75% yield [672, 673]. Often, though, when no stabilizing group is present, oxiranyl anions tend to exhibit signicant carbenoid behavior, as indicated by resonance structure 646 (Scheme 2.92). Indeed, a-alkyloxyepoxide 647 can be regioselectively deprotonated (presumably under chelation control) to form an oxiranyl anion that undergoes a-eliminative ring opening and alkyl insertion to give cyclic allylic alcohols 648 in good to excellent yield. The carbenoid nature of the intermediates was supported by the isolation of the tricyclic alcohol 650, the product of intramolecular trapping by an olen [674]. Other examples of such cyclopropanation reactions include the allylic epoxide 651, which is deprotonated by phenyllithium to give a highly strained tricyclic intermediate (652) that hydrolyzes to provide spirocyclic ketone 653 [675]. Lithium tetramethylpiperidide (LMTP) is also effective in the deprotonation, as shown in the conversion of alkenyl epoxide 654 into the fused bicyclic epoxide 655 [676]. As is the case with other carbene species, the carbene-like oxiranyl anions can engage in CH insertion reactions. Hodgson and Lee [677] have devised a clever method for accessing enantiopure bicyclic alcohols from meso-epoxides by such a reaction. For example, treatment of cyclononene oxide (656) with isopropyllithium in the presence of an excess of ()-sparteine leads to an enantioselective a-deprotona-
2.4 Thiiranes
O R1 R2 O R1 MeO .. R2 O Bu xsRLi Bu R OH
j109
645
646 647 648
MeO n BuLi O
MeO O OH
649
MeO PhLi 88% O Me OH MeO
650
O
Me OH
651
652
OH O LTMP tBuOMe r.t.,15 h 82% O
653
654
655
H i PrLi O (-)-sparteine 77% yield 83% ee H OH
656
Scheme 2.92 Carbenoid behavior of oxiranyl anions.
657
tion, followed by intramolecular CH insertion, to give bicyclononanol 657 in 77% yield and 83% enantiomeric excess.
2.4 Thiiranes 2.4.1 Properties of Thiiranes
Thiiranes [678] (also known as episuldes and thiacyclopropanes) can be thought of as row 3 epoxide analogs. For example, thiirane itself (bp 55 C) exhibits a ring strain enthalpy of about 20 kcal mol1, which is about 7 kcal mol1 less than oxirane. This
110
Figure 2.20 Geometry of thiirane.
O HO OH
S H O O H OH O H 660, acanthifolicin O H
OH O O H OH H O
Figure 2.21 Natural occurrence of thiiranes.
increased stability can be attributed to more exible geometry about the sulfur center, which is manifested in the extremely acute CSC bond angle of less than 48 (Figure 2.20). The 1H-NMR signals of the methylene protons resonate at 2.27 ppm and the carbon atoms appear at 18.1 ppm. The proton NMR shows vicinal coupling of about 6 Hz and geminal coupling of less than 1 Hz [6]. Thiiranes are produced in nature. For example, 3,4-epithiobutanenitrile, also known as 4ETN, is found in many cruciferous vegetables and may function as a weak biological alkylating agent [679], and humulene-4,5-episulde is one of the components in the essential oil of hops [680]. Acanthifolicin (660, Figure 2.21) is an antibiotic polyether carboxylic acid isolated from the extracts of the marine sponge Pandaros acanthifolium [681], the activity of which is linked to protein phosphatase inhibition [682]. Synthetic episuldes have also been designed as mechanism-based matrix metalloproteinase inhibitors [683].
2.4.2 Synthesis of Thiiranes 2.4.2.1 From Epoxides Preparatively, the broadest and most useful technique for obtaining episuldes is to launch from an existing epoxide, essentially exchanging an oxygen atom for a sulfur. One common reagent used to effect this transformation is thiourea, which is preferred for its relative stability and ease of handling, and quite a few experimental conditions have been developed for its use. For example, cyclohexene oxide (440, Scheme 2.93) is cleanly converted into the corresponding episulde using thiourea at elevated temperatures in the absence of solvent (Table 2.18, entry 1) [684]. The reaction also proceeds in methylene chloride under the catalysis of silica gel [685], in
2.4 Thiiranes
j111
(NH2)2C=S O conditions (see Table 2.18) 658
440
Scheme 2.93 Conversion of epoxides into episulfides using thiourea.
Table 2.18 Yield data for the conversion of epoxides into episulfides using thiourea.
Entry 1 2 3 4
Activator None SiO2 SiO2-AlCl3 b-Cyclodextrin
Solvent Neat CH2Cl2 MeCN H2O
Temp ( C) 120 r.t. 45 r.t.
Time 25 min 30 min 1.3 h 6h
Yield (%) 92 92 89 82
Ref [577] [578] [579] [580]
acetonitrile with silica-supported aluminium chloride [686] and in water using b-cyclodextrin as a catalyst [687]. Notably, this sulfurization proceeds with inversion of conguration, and the degree of stereospecicity depends upon the reaction conditions. Thus, when (R)-styrene oxide (421, Scheme 2.94) is treated with thiourea without solvent, very little optical purity is lost during the reaction. However, in methylene chloride at 0 C the enantiomeric excess drops to 70% [685].
O Ph (R)-421
(NH 2) 2C=S SiO 2 neat 0C, 5 min 96% yield 90% ee
S Ph (S)-659
Scheme 2.94 Enantiospecific preparation of episulfides from epoxides.
Ammonium thiocyanate is another convenient sulfur donor for these processes, and a very practical method has been described using cyanuric chloride as a coreagent. Thus, when styrene oxide (421, Scheme 2.95) is treated with stoichiometric ammonium thiocyanate and cyanuric chloride in the absence of solvent, the episulde 659 is produced in almost quantitative yield within 15 min. The mechanism involves nucleophilic ring opening of the epoxide to give an alkoxide intermediate (660); reaction with cyanuric chloride activates the oxygen towards displacement by sulfur, yielding a cyanatoepisulfenium species (662), which undergoes hydrolysis and subsequent loss of carbon dioxide to provide the observed
112

O Ph NH4 SCN cyanuric chloride neat r.t., 15 min 98% Cl O Ph N C S N C S: O Ph N N N Cl CN S Ph O S Ph OH S Ph
421
659
660
661
662
663
Scheme 2.95 Activation of epoxides using cyanuric chloride.
product [688]. Magnesium hydrogen sulfate has also proven to be an effective activating agent [689]. The addition of thiocyanate is also catalyzed by poly(allylamine) (PAA) under slightly basic aqueous conditions. For example, phenyloxymethyl epoxide 532 (Scheme 2.96) is converted into the corresponding episulde in excellent yield under these conditions (Table 2.19) [690]. Very good yields have been reported using potassium thiocyanate in a biphasic medium of ionic liquid and water with no additional catalyst [579]. Finally, elemental sulfur can be employed as the donor using diethylphosphite, ammonium acetate and alumina in the absence of solvent under microwave irradiation. The mechanism involves a thiophosphate species [691].
PhO 532
conditions (see Table 2.19) PhO 664
Scheme 2.96 Epoxideepisulfide conversion using other sulfur sources.
Table 2.19 Yield data for epoxideepisulfide conversions.
Entry
S source
Additives
Solvent
Temp ( C) 45 45 mw
Time
Yield (%) 93 89 68
Reference
1 2 3
NH4SCN KSCN S/HP(O)(OEt)2
PAA/NaOH None NH4OAc/Al2O3
H2O [bmim] PF6-H2O neat
70 min 1.3 h 2 min
[583] [579] [584]
2.4 Thiiranes
j113
2.4.2.2 From Alkenes If episuldes were strictly analogous to their cousin epoxides, their preparation would spring predominantly from the direct sulfurization of alkenes. This is, however, not the case. The few direct methods have been nicely summarized in a recent review [692]. Nevertheless, there are some protocols that merit special attention. For example, the sultene 665 (Scheme 2.97), an isolable cycloadduct from uorinethione-S-oxide and trans-cyclooctene, has been shown to exhibit promising sulfur-transfer capabilities. Thus, treatment of norbornene (666) with sultene 665 in the presence of catalytic quantities of triuoroacetic acid furnishes exo-episulde 667 in 83% yield [693]. The dithiophosphate molybdenum complex 668 actually catalyzes the transfer of sulfur from one episulde to another alkene. This allows the use of a more readily available substrate (e.g., 659) as a sulfur donor, as shown in the episuldation of transcyclononene 669 [694]. Thiatriazole 671 also functions as a stoichiometric sulfur transfer reagent for a wide range of alkene substrates (e.g., 672 ! 673) [695]. Dinitrogen sulde has been implicated as the active sulfur-transfer species [696].
O S 665 CF 3CO 2 H (cat) CHCl 3 r.t., 30 min 83% S 667
666 665
EtO P EtO
S S
O Mo 668
S S
OEt P OEt 669
659 (1 eq) 668 (1 mol%) benzene 80C, 30 min > 95%
670
S N N N 671
OPh 671 MeCN r.t., 3.5 h 80%
672
Scheme 2.97 Thiiranes from alkenes.
673
2.4.2.3 From Haloketones One very intriguing method that has received surprisingly little attention is the conversion of a-haloketones into episuldes using the commercially available
114

O,O-diethyl hydrogen phosphodithioate as a sulfur donor under microwave conditions. The procedure appears to be fairly general and high yielding. Thus, bromoacetophenone 674 (Scheme 2.98) provides excellent yield of the corresponding episulde (659) within 3 min. The mechanism is thought to involve a sequence of nucleophilic displacement, phosphorus transfer and cyclization (inset Scheme 2.98). For substrates that yield 1,2-disubstituted episuldes, diastereoselectivity is very high, with trans : cis ratios generally being greater than 10 : 1, as shown in the preparation of diethylepisulde 677 [697].
O Ph Br + HS S P NaBH 4-Al2 O3 neat w (3 min) 94% Ph S
OEt OEt
674
O + Cl HS
675
659
S P
OEt OEt
NaBH 4-Al2 O3 neat w (3 min) 86% Et
S Et
676
675
677
S O R1 X R2 R1 R2 (EtO)2 P O S S P(OEt)2 O S
S P(OEt)2 O R1 S R1 R2 R2 S
Scheme 2.98 Thiiranes from haloketones.
2.4.3 Reactivity of Thiiranes 2.4.3.1 Nucleophilic Ring Opening Like the epoxides, episuldes are prone to ring-opening reactions induced by nucleophiles, whereby the CS bond is cleaved. However, sulfur stabilizes a negative charge better than oxygen and therefore functions as a more active leaving group. The sulde so-formed is also more nucleophilic than the analogous alkoxide. Furthermore, sulfur supports radical centers more readily than oxygen. Taken together, these behaviors contribute to the fact that the ring opening of episuldes is usually attended by some degree of uncontrolled polymerization and other yield-reducing processes. However, many well-behaved conversions are known, and those outlined below are meant to provide a general impression of synthetic possibilities. Acetate is a frequently employed nucleophile. For example, in their protocol for preparing sulfur-containing disaccharides, Santoyo-Gonz alez and coworkers [698] heated a mixture of episulde 678 (Scheme 2.99), sodium acetate and acetic anhydride in acetic acid to obtain diacetate 679 in very good yield. Similarly, the thiiranyl acetal 680 undergoes ring opening in the presence of silver(I) acetate and
2.4 Thiiranes
j115
O MeO OMe
NaOAc Ac 2O AcOH 86% MeO
SAc OAc
OH 678 OEt
OMe
OH 679
OEt Ph 3CCl AgOAc EtO
SH OAc
EtO OTBDMS 680 S MeO 2 C O O
OTBDMS 681
O KOAc HOAc DMF 57% O
S OAc O
682
683 O
MeO 2 C
KOAc (10 eq) HOAc DMF , 18 h 65%
S OAc 685
684
Scheme 2.99 Ring opening of thiiranes with acetate.
triphenylmethyl chloride to provide the acetoxythiol 681, a key intermediate in the asymmetric total synthesis of thietanose [699]. These ring openings can also trigger subsequent cyclizations from the sulfur center. Thus, the thiiranyl acetonide ester 682 suffers attack by acetate to give an intermediate sulde, which engages in intramolecular attack of the ester carbonyl to yield the thiolactone 683 [700]. A similar strategy was used to access the acetoxymethyl thiobutyrolactone derivative 685 [701]. Amines are also competent nucleophiles in these reactions. For example, the benzyloxymethylthiirane (686, Scheme 2.100) is attacked by dibenzylamine at the less substituted position, providing aminothiol 687 in good yield [702]. In like fashion, spiroepisulde 688 undergoes aminolysis by 4-hydroxypiperidine (689) in solventless thermal conditions to give excellent yield of the b-aminoethanethiol 690 [703]. A twist on this protocol has been reported for the synthesis of taurine derivatives from episuldes. Thus, dibenzylthiirane 691 was treated with ammonia in the presence of silver nitrate to give a silver-chelated adduct that was sequentially treated with hydrogen sulde (generated in situ from sodium sulde and hydrochloric acid), sodium hydroxide and performic acid (generated in situ from formic
116

BnO S Bn2 NH benzene EtOH 60C,24 h 82% BnO 687 SH neat + HN OH 80C 4h 92% 690 N OH SH NBn 2
686 S
688 S Bn Bn 691
689
NH3 AgNO 3 MeOH
Na 2S HCl
NaOH
H 2O2 HCO2 H 79%
HO 3S Bn Bn 692
NH2
Scheme 2.100 Ring opening of thiiranes with amines.
acid and hydrogen peroxide), ultimately generating the 1,1-disubstituted taurine 692 in good overall yield [704]. High-yielding processes using other nucleophiles have also been reported. For example, treatment of the terminal episulde 693 (Scheme 2.101) with lithium aluminium hydride in ether resulted in hydride-mediated reductive ring opening to give 2-hexanethiol (694) in good yield. The internal thiirane 695 underwent nucleophilic ring opening with allyl Grignard, forming the hydroxythiol 696. The regiochemistry of the attack can be rationalized by chelation control in this case [705]. Even halides can engage in this process when appropriate activating agents are employed. Thus, thiiranyl acetal 697 was converted into the disulde 698 using methanesulfenyl bromide in a medium of tetramethylurea (TMU) and methylene chloride through a process of electrophilic S-activation followed by nucleophilic ring-opening by bromide [706]. A similar process is promoted by acyl chlorides, as shown in the quantitative conversion of terminal episulde 699 into the chlorothioester 700 upon treatment with acetyl chloride and catalytic tetrabutylammonium bromide (TBAB) [707].
2.4.3.2 Desulfurization Thiiranes can be converted into alkenes through a process of desulfurization, often in very high yields. For example, methyltrioxorhenium (MTO) catalyzes the stereospecic removal of sulfur by triphenylphosphine, as shown in the quantitative conversion of alkenyl sulde 701 (Scheme 2.102) to 1,5-hexadiene (702). Performance is enhanced when the catalyst is pretreated with hydrogen sulde; a ReV species has been implicated as the catalytically relevant species [708]. An extremely efcient copper-mediated desulfurization was used as the key step in the synthesis of C2symmetric dibenzosuberane (DBS) helicene 704, which is of interest as a potential chiroptical switch [709]. Alkyllithium reagents, such as n-butyllithium and phenyllithium, have been known for some time to function as desulfurization agents, as exemplied by the
2.5 Diaziridines
j117
LAH Et2 O 73%
SH
693
694 SH pBrPh Et 2O 0C,24 h 62% O OH 696 SMe Br OEt 6 98 O
S p BrPh O 69 5 OH
MgBr
EtO OEt 6 97
MeSBr TMU CH 2Cl 2 -78C 93% EtO
AcCl TBAB neat 90C,6 h 100% O 7 00
S Cl
6 99
Scheme 2.101 Ring opening of thiiranes with other nucleophiles.
butyllithium-mediated conversion of cyclohexene oxide 658 into the parent alkene 439. The mechanism involves initial ring-opening by attack on sulfur to give an a-thio anion (i.e., 705) that rapidly undergoes elimination of butyl sulde to form the observed product [710]. Tributyltin hydride also effects a reductive desulfurization in the presence of a radical initiator, such as triethylborane at low temperature or AIBN at elevated temperatures. Under these conditions, the thiiranyl alcohol 706 is converted into the corresponding allylic alcohol (707) in excellent yield and without the need for protecting group chemistry [711]. Calculations have shown that triethylphosphite should function as a desulfurizing agent through a concerted process, thus promising high stereospecicity [712].
2.5 Diaziridines 2.5.1 Properties of Diaziridines
Diaziridines can be thought of as the smallest cyclic hydrazine derivatives. At 25.5 kcal mol1, the calculated ring strain for diaziridine itself is slightly less than that of oxirane; and just as the open-chain analog, hydrazine, is more stable toward
118

S MeReO 3 Ph3 P H 2S MeCN r.t., 1 h 100% Et
701 Et
702
Et
Et
Cu S xylene 98%
703 S
704
nBuLi
nBu 67%
658 S
705
439
Ph OH 706
nBu 3 SnH Et 3 B (cat) toluene -78C 90%
Ph OH 707
Scheme 2.102 Desulfurization of thiiranes.
interheteroatom cleavage than hydrogen peroxide so too is diaziridine less prone to undergo NN ring opening than dioxiranes are to suffer OO scission. Calculations have also indicated a proton afnity for diaziridine similar to that of ammonia. Geometrically, the diaziridine ring describes an almost equilateral triangle (Figure 2.22), with the NCN bond angle opening about 2 wider than the other two; consequently, the NN bond is slightly longer than the CN bond [713]. The 1 HNMR signals of the methylene protons resonate at about 2.2 ppm [714].
Figure 2.22 Geometry of diaziridine.
2.5 Diaziridines
j119
H N
Ea = 23 kcal/mol N
H N E = -4.6 kcal/mol
H
Figure 2.23 Cistrans isomerism in diaziridine.
From a physical organic perspective, diaziridine is a fascinating species. As there is about a 23 kcal mol1 barrier to inversion about the nitrogen center (Figure 2.23), diaziridines exist as isolable cis- and trans-isomers, the latter lying about 5 kcal mol1 lower in energy. For N,N-dialkyl derivatives, this barrier is even higher. For the di-tbutyl variant, it has been calculated at 30 kcal mol1 [715]. As a result, trans-N,Ndisubstituted diaziridines have been recognized as novel C2-symmetric compounds, and efforts have been made to elaborate methods for their resolution [716, 717]. Diaziridines have also been investigated as possible high-energy materials (although not particularly promising in this regard) [713], and there is at least one report of diaziridine derivatives exhibiting psychotropic activity, particularly with respect to monoamine oxidase inhibition and antidepressant behavior [718].
2.5.2 Synthesis of Diaziridines
The synthesis of monocyclic diaziridines and their fused derivatives is the subject of a recent review [719]. Some of the more common synthetic routes are outlined below.
2.5.2.1 Oxidative Methods using Hypohalites One of the more common routes for accessing diaziridines is the oxidative ring closure of aminals, which are usually formed in situ from the respective amines and carbonyl compounds. Thus, N,N-dibutyldiaziridine (710, Scheme 2.103) is prepared in good yield by combining n-butylamine and formaldehyde in the presence of aqueous sodium hypochlorite [720]. The method can be applied to diamine substrates, such as propylenediamine (711) to construct fused bicyclic derivatives (e.g., 712) in excellent yield. Furthermore, the diamines can be condensed onto substituted aldehydes (e.g., 714) and ketones (e.g., 716) with equal efciency. The pH of the reaction medium can have an impact on yields and product distributions [721]. The aminals can be formed from other precursors, as demonstrated by the aminoalkylimine 718 (Scheme 2.104), which produces the fused tricyclic diaziridine 719 in the presence of aqueous sodium hypochlorite [722]. The benzimidamide 720 serves as a precursor for diazirines in similar oxidizing environments; however, an intermediate chlorodiaziridine (721) has been identied in the reaction mixture, and it is stable enough to isolate [723]. Similarly, diaziridinimines such as 723 can be prepared in good yield by subjecting tosyl guanidine 722 to sequential treatment by t-butyl hypochlorite and t-butoxide [724].
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O NH2 708 + H 709 O H 2N 711 O H2 N NH 2 + H 714 O H2 N 713 NH 2 + Me 716 Me NaOCl 45C 77% NH2 + H 709 H H NaOCl 45C 80%
nBu
N N 710
nBu
NaOCl 45C 95%
N N 712
NaOCl 45C 97%
N N 715 N N 717
713
Scheme 2.103 Synthesis of diaziridines from carbonyls and amines.
NaOCl N 718 NH Ph 720 NTs t-BuHN 722 NHt-Bu t-BuOCl t-BuOK 85% NH2 H N NH Ph 721 NTs t-BuN N t-Bu 723 NH2 74% N N
719
NaOCl
Cl
Scheme 2.104 Synthesis of diaziridines from imines, imidamides, and guanidines.
2.5.2.2 Via Hydroxylamine Derivatives Another alternative for diaziridine synthesis is presented in the use of O-sulfonated hydroxylamine derivatives, which offers the advantage of a much less oxidizing environment. As an example, the cyclic imino ester 724 (Scheme 2.105) is converted into diaziridine 725 upon treatment with hydroxylamine O-sulfonic acid [725], and
2.5 Diaziridines
j121
Cl
O H2 NOSO 3H OMe
Cl CO 2Me N NH 725 OBn
N 724 OBn BnO BnO O BnO 726 N OSO 2 Me NH 3 MeOH
BnO BnO
O NH BnO N H 727
O Me 716 Me
H2 NOSO 3 H NH3 / H2 O HN NH 728
Scheme 2.105 Synthesis of diaziridines from hydroxylamine derivatives.
the same method is effective in preparing the glycosylidene-derived diaziridine 727, which serves as a precursor for the corresponding diazirine and thus a glycosylidene carbene [726]. An operationally more straightforward variant of the methodology can be used for preparing various 2,2-disubstituted derivatives. Thus, a ketone such as acetone (716) is treated with hydroxylamine O-sulfonic acid in the presence of aqueous ammonia to give the desired diaziridine (728) in one pot [727].
2.5.2.3 Other Methods Although the generality of the methods has not been rmly established, two protocols merit special attention. The rst is the direct electrochemical synthesis of diaziridines from amines and aldehydes in a bicarbonate buffered solution, which is directly analogous to methods described in Section 2.5.2.1 but obviating the need for chemical oxidants. Thus, propylenediamine (711, Scheme 2.106) and formaldehyde
O H 2N 711 O t-BuN 729 NMe NH2 + H 709 H 1.92 A 85% efficiency N N 712
h MeCN
N N
t-BuN NMe
730
Scheme 2.106 Synthesis of diaziridines via electrical and photochemical means.
122

cleanly provided bicyclic diaziridine 712 under these electrochemical conditions. The current efciency reached 85% under optimum conditions [728]. The second method is the photolysis of tetrazolone derivatives (e.g., 729) to give diaziridinones (e.g., 730), which could be obtained in high purity [729].
2.5.3 Reactivity of Diaziridines 2.5.3.1 Diaziridines Like their open-chain analogs, diaziridines are nucleophilic species that engage in well-behaved reaction with various electrophiles. For example, 3,3-dimethyldiaziridine (728, Scheme 2.107) is smoothly N-acylated with 3-phenyoxybenzyl chloroformate (731) in the presence of triethylamine in a medium of methylene chloride to give the carbamate 732 in 63% yield. The remaining nitrogen was further functionalized to produce the diazapyrethroid analog 733, and the diaziridine moiety proved to be remarkably stable to the experimental conditions (particularly zinc in acetic acid) [727]. Diaziridines also engage in conjugate addition onto traditional Michael
O + HN NH Cl O O Et 3N CH2Cl 2 63% HN N O O O
728
731
Cl Cl N N O O O
732
733
Ph NMe NH O + Ph O Ph benzene r.t., 2 h 98% N O
N Me O Ph
734
735
736
N NH
(CO2 H)2 95% N H
NH 2
737
CO (1 atm) Pd(dba) 2 DMF 120C, 24 h 66%
738
Me N n-hexyl N Me O
n-hexyl
NMe NMe
739
740
Scheme 2.107 Some reactions of diaziridines.
2.5 Diaziridines
j123
acceptors, such as DMAD [730] and dibenzoylacetylene [731]. The intermediate diaziridinium species formed by the initial addition suffers ring-opening through scission of the CN bond to give a hydrazone derivative (e.g., 736). In fact, under acidic conditions diaziridines spontaneously decompose to form the component hydrazines and carbonyl compounds, as shown by the recovery of N-isopropylhydrazine (738) in 95% yield upon exposure of the precursor diaziridine 737 to oxalic acid [732, 733]. The cyclic NN bond is not totally inert, however. For example, palladium catalyzes the insertion of carbon monoxide into the NN bond, converting diaziridines (e.g., 739) into the corresponding azalactam derivatives (e.g., 740) [734].
2.5.3.2 Diaziridinones and Diaziridinimines Diaziridinones also exhibit some interesting chemistry. For example, they too have been reported to engage in carbonyl insertion reactions in the presence of a nickel catalyst to give diazetidine-2,4-diones (e.g., 742, Scheme 2.108) in reasonable yields [735]. Usually, however, their reactivity involves the nucleophilic attack of the carbonyl carbon, as illustrated by the reaction of N,N-di-t-butyldiaziridinone (741)
O t-BuN O 742 N t-Bu
O t-BuN N t-Bu 741 O + t-BuN N t-Bu 741
CO (1 atm) Ni(CO) 4 DMF 70C,1 h 75%
NaH N H 743 CN DMF 60C,10 h 85% O
CN
Nt -Bu N t-Bu 744 O
O + t-BuN N t-Bu 741 R
O OH 745
BF3 OEt2
HN t-BuN R 746
NTs 110C t-BuN N t-Bu 747 toluene 5h 58% t-Bu
CN N N H Ts
748
Scheme 2.108 Some reactions of diaziridinones and diaziridinimines.
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with the sodium salt of cyanopyrrole 743, which engages in nucleophilic addition to the carbonyl, followed by ring-opening to provide the acylhydrazine 744 in 85% yield [736]. A similar addition event is the rst step of many in the Lewis acidcatalyzed conversions of diaziridines into oxadiazinones (e.g., 746) by a-hydroxy ketones (e.g., 745) [737]. Finally, the analogous diaziridinimes (e.g., 747) are thermally unstable, rearranging to N-cyanohydrazine derivatives (e.g., 748) at elevated temperatures [724].
2.6 3H-Diazirines 2.6.1 Properties of Diazirines
With a literature age of less than 50 years old [738, 739], diazirines are relative youngsters among their companion three-membered heterocycles, and an interesting lot they are. Although this ring system might intuitively appear quite unstable, the strain energy has been calculated at a remarkably low 21 kcal mol1 [740]. This, combined with very low basicity, is largely responsible for the observed stability (even in vivo) of the diazirine ring at room temperature. The double bond character between the two nitrogens results in a short NN bond distance (1.23 A), which, in turn, signicantly compresses the NCN bond angle (Figure 2.24) [741]. Likewise, the diaziridine moiety is planar and symmetrical. Since molecular nitrogen can be rapidly extruded under thermal or photochemical conditions, neat diazirines should be afforded the respect in handling that all potentially explosive compounds deserve.
2.6.2 Synthesis of Diazirines
The lions share of protocols for the preparation of diazirines proceed through a diaziridine intermediate. For example, 4-aziadamant-1-amine (750, Scheme 2.109) was synthesized by the chromium(VI) mediated oxidation of the corresponding diaziridine (749) [742]. However, diaziridine precursors can serve as suitable substrates for various one-pot procedures. Thus, the camphor-derived iminium salt 751 was converted into the sterically hindered chiral diaziridine 2-azicamphane 752 by
Figure 2.24 Geometry of 3H-diazirine.
2.6 3H-Diazirines
NH 2 CrO3 NH H2 SO4 acetone 26% N N NH 2
j125
(26%)
749
N H
750
NH2 OSO3H Cl NH 2 NH 3 MeOH
I2 Et3N MeOH 48% N N
(48%)
751
O
752
N N
1. H 2 NOSO 3H NH 3, MeOH O O O 2. 10% I 2 TEA,MeOH 49% overall O O O O O
O O O O O O O O
O O O O O O O
753
OH
754
Cl N
H 2N-CN MeSO 3 H
NH2 NH 2
NaOCl
755
Scheme 2.109 Synthesis of diazirines.
756
757
treatment with hydroxylamine O-sulfonic acid in methanolic ammonia, followed by oxidation with iodine in the presence of triethylamine [743]. Ketones can also be used to advantage in this regard, as illustrated by the construction of the diaziridinyl cluster mannoside 754 from ketone 753 [744]. Alkoxy substituted diazirines can be prepared from alcohols. Thus, norboranol 755 was treated with cyanamide and methanesulfonic acid to afford an intermediate isouronium salt (756) that was oxidized with hypochlorite to give the diazirine 757 [745]. Diazirines have also been prepared by the partial hydrolysis of nitriles, followed by hypochlorite oxidation [746]. Since they have desirable end-application properties, 3-triuoromethyldiazirines are of particular interest, and these are prepared in similar fashion. For example, the diazirinyl antiotensin II analogue 759 (Scheme 2.110) was produced in very good yield from the silver(I) oxide mediated oxidation of diaziridine 758 [747]. An equally efcient diazirine synthesis was achieved launching from the O-tosyl oxime 760, which was converted into the diaziridine by treatment with liquid ammonia. After the uoride-mediated desilylation of the alcohol functionality, PDC oxidation afforded
126

CF3 Ag2O FmocHN CO 2t-Bu HN NH Et 2O r.t., 8 h 87% FmocHN CO2 t-Bu N CF 3 N (87%)
758
F3C N F 3C H N NH
759
F3 C N N
OTs
NH3 Et 2O -78C 99% H
HF (aq) MeCN 99%
PDC CH2 Cl2 87%
TBSO
OH
OH
760
O F 3C N OMe
761
F3 C Mg 0 THF 763 80%
762
O
Br
763
OMe
764
NOH TsCl DMAP Et 3N CH2 Cl2 NH3 52% OMe F3C H N NH t-BuOCl Et 3N t-BuOH EtOH 77%
765
F 3C N N
F3 C NH2 OHHCl EtOH pyridine 60C,12 h 96%
OMe
OMe
766
767
768
Scheme 2.110 Synthesis of trifluoromethyldiazirines.
the desired diazirine 762 in remarkably good overall yield. The target was used as the centerpiece for the construction of a vitamin D analog, a testament to the robustness of the diazirinyl moiety toward various experimental conditions [748]. Ultimately, the triuoromethyl group is usually introduced by way of an activated triuoroacetic acid derivative. For example, the aryl Grignard derived from m-bromoanisole (764) smoothly added to N-triuoroacetylpiperidide (763) to give the triuoroacetophenone derivative 765, which was converted into the corresponding oxime (764) in excellent yield using conventional methods. Subsequent O-tosylation and treatment with ammonia afforded the diaziridine 767, which was oxidized to the diazirine 768 using t-butyl hypochlorite [749].
2.6.3 Reactivity of Diazirines
Diazirines with leaving groups at the 3-position can undergo substitution reactions without affecting the azo moiety [750]. As one example, the bromodiazirine 769
2.6 3H-Diazirines
j127
(Scheme 2.111) is converted into the uoro analog 770 upon treatment with anhydrous tetrabutylammonium uoride (TBAF) under solvent-free conditions [751]. It would be fair to state, however, that the spotlight shines on diazirines for their propensity to extrude molecular nitrogen to form reactive carbene intermediates [752, 753]. Thus, the 3-acyldiazirine 771 suffers loss of nitrogen under thermal conditions in the presence of alkenes to yield products of carbeneolen cycloaddition [754].
N N Ph N N Ph
Br
TBAF neat 65%
769
O N MeO Cl N 89% MeO
770
O
Cl
771
NO 2 HN BocHN Me N O N CF 3 EtOH h (365 nm)
772
NO 2 HN BocHN Me O OEt CF 3
773
H N
774
HO
N OH N CF 3
h D 2O >80% HO
H N D OH OD CF3
775
HO h
776
HO N N h cyclohexane 92% HO
gas phase 100%
778
Ph N N Cl
777
h THF 100% Ph Cl O
779
780
Scheme 2.111 Some reactions of diazirines.
781
Photolysis of diazirines also generates carbenes, and this procedure is more signicant in terms of application [755]. Once the carbene intermediates are formed, the reactivity is much the same as for carbenes generated by any other method. For example, when the aryl diazirine 773 is photolyzed in ethanol, the major product (774) results from the insertion of carbene in the OH bond of the solvent [756]. Similar behavior is observed in aqueous media (i.e., 775 ! 776) [757]. Photolysis of
128

2-azi-5-hydroxyadamantane (777) in the gas phase results in the quantitative formation of the intramolecular 1,3 CH insertion product 778. When the same substrate is photolyzed in an organic solvent, then the intermolecular process dominates, as illustrated by the cyclohexane adduct 779 [758]. This behavior is fairly general the carbene derived from arylchlorodiazirine 780 also quantitatively traps THF when generated in that solvent [759]. To summarize, diazirines can be synthesized with a high degree of regioselectivity, launching from various readily available functional groups. The diazirines themselves have a very long half-life at room temperature and under a broad range of conditions. Reaction can be triggered by photolysis in a manner that engages few, if any, other functionalities. It can be assumed that carbene generation is practically quantitative, and these carbenes react quickly with a wide variety of substrates. This particular conuence of behaviors has earned these substrates an important niche, namely within the realm of photoafnity labels (PAL), an application that has been nicely summarized in a recent review [760]. Interestingly, for the same reasons, diazirines have been investigated as materials surface modiers. In their study of the underlying chemistry of these processes, Hayes and coworkers photolyzed the uorenone-modied diazirine 782 in the presence of acetic acid, n-butylamine, and N-butylbutanamide as models of the functional group environment encountered in a medium of nylon 6,6 (and, incidentally, proteins in vivo). In all cases, they observed extremely efcient (>95%) insertion reactions, leading to the products 783, 784, and 785, deriving from OH insertion, amine NH insertion, and amide NH insertion, respectively [761] (Scheme 2.112).
F3 C O h AcOH 12 h Ar O OAc
783
F3 C O Ar O N N h n-BuNH 2 12 h Ar O O F3 C NH
782
784
F3 C
n-Bu
O h Ar = O N H
n-Bu
O Ar O
N O
785
Scheme 2.112 Insertion reactions of a photoaffinity label (PAL).
2.7 Oxaziridines
j129
Figure 2.25 Geometry of oxaziridine.
2.7 Oxaziridines 2.7.1 Properties of Oxaziridines
The oxaziridine moiety incorporates an oxygen, nitrogen and carbon within a cyclic three-atom array (Figure 2.25). The conventional strain energy (CSE) for the parent compound has been calculated at 27.6 kcal mol1, lying between those of cyclopropane and cyclobutane [762]. Each bond in the ring is unique, with lengths ranging from 1.40 A (CO) to 1.50 A (NO). It follows that the bond angles are also nonidentical, with the NCO angle being the widest [763]. These physical characteristics are responsible in part for the fascinating reaction diversity exhibited by this class of compounds. Aside from their synthetic utility, oxaziridines have excited interest due to their potential as antifungal [764], antibiotic [765] and antitumor agents [766, 767].
2.7.2 Synthesis of Oxaziridines
There are reports of oxaziridine preparation from nitrones [768], and a calculational study has been carried out regarding this isomerization [763]. Oxaziridines are also the products of oxidative amination of ketones [769]. However, these methods have not found wide application in synthetic methodology. Instead, almost all preparative protocols launch from the oxidation of imines. Nevertheless, there is considerable diversity even within this one general category. The N-alkoxysulfonyl oxaziridine 787 (Scheme 2.113) was efciently prepared from the precursor imine 786 using the fairly traditional oxidant m-chloroperbenzoic acid (mCPBA) [770]. The sulnylimine 788 was converted into sulfonyloxaziridine 789 in short order and in excellent yield using mCPBA in rst acidic and then basic medium [771]. A trichloroacetonitrilehydrogen peroxide system was found to convert imines such as 790 into oxaziridines in very high yield and exclusive (E)stereochemistry under essentially neutral conditions [772]. Several other near-neutral systems are also available. For example, pyridylimine 792 was oxidized using a buffered monophasic Oxone system [773], and phase-transfer conditions were applied to the mild and quantitative conversion of arylaldimine 794 into the corresponding oxaziridine (795) using tetrabutylammonium Oxone in acetonitrile [774]. The combination of storage-stable urea-hydrogen peroxide adduct (UHP) and maleic anhydride in methanolic solution was also effective in the high-yielding
130

O O S O N CF 3 786 mCPBA CH2Cl 2 r.t. 91% 787 O O S O N O CF 3
N Me
SOTol
mCPBA 1 min r.t.
mCPBA KOH 1 min r.t. 97% Me
SOTol O
788 H2 O2 Cl3 CCN NaHCO 3 CH 2Cl 2 1h 93% i-Pr
789
N Ph
t-Bu
N Ph
t-Bu O
790
791 i-Pr O
N N
KHSO 5 NaHCO 3 MeCN H 2O 85%
N N
792 N t-Bu Bu4 NHSO 5 MeCN r.t., 1 h 100% 794 UHP maleic anhydride MeOH 0C 95% O2 CoCl2 i-PrCHO 3 MS CH2 Cl2 0C 80% Ph Ph
793 N t-Bu O
Cl
Cl 795
N Ph 796
Ph
O 797
Ph
N Ph 798
CO 2 Me
CO 2 Me
799
Scheme 2.113 Synthesis of oxaziridines from imines.
2.7 Oxaziridines
j131
oxaziridination of N-benzylimine 796 [775]. Even molecular oxygen can be used as the terminal oxidant, using a cobalt catalyst (e.g., 798 ! 799), although the catalyst must be preformed for optimum yields [776].
2.7.3 Reactivity of Oxaziridines
Oxaziridines have quickly become very important synthetic reagents [777780]. Furthermore, the related oxaziridium ions, which bear a quaternary nitrogen center, are signicant in their own right, both as stoichiometric reagents [781] and putative intermediates in catalytic cycles [782784]. However, the present chapter is limited to neutral oxaziridines.
2.7.3.1 Nitrogen Transfer Reactions An interesting aspect of oxaziridine chemistry is that either heteroatom can be transferred to other compounds, depending upon the nature of the substrate and the substituents on the oxaziridine [785]. Common oxaziridines used in nitrogen transfer reactions include the spirocyclic derivative of cyclohexanone (800, Figure 2.26), as well as those prepared from electron-decient carbonyls, such as trichloroacetaldehyde (i.e., 801) and diethyl oxomalonate (i.e., 802). An overview of the oxaziridine-mediated electrophilic amination of organic compounds can be found in a review from the not-too-distant past [786]. Aziridination has been reported using oxaziridines as nitrogen donors, although this reaction is not general. For example, certain styrene derivatives (803, Scheme 2.114) are aziridinated in moderate yield under thermal conditions in the presence of oxaziridine 800 [787], but many other substrates give complex mixtures. The structural inuence of this variable behavior has been studied computationally [788]. A more common outcome is the amination of active methylene groups. Thus, treatment of barbituric acid (805) with oxaziridine 800 in a medium of dilute sodium hydroxide led to the production of the 5-aminobarbituric acid (806) in 78% yield [787]. Similarly, deprotonation of phenylacetonitrile 807 with lithium hexamethyldisylazide (LiHMDS), followed by treatment with oxaziridine 802, provided the Boc-protected benzylamine 808 in 46% yield [785]. Oxaziridine 802 also mediates the stereospecic conversion of allylic sulde 809 into the allylic N-Boc-sulmide 810, a process that involves a [2,3]-sigmatropic rearrangement [789]. Nitrogen can also be transferred to amines. For example, phenethylamine (811, Scheme 2.115) is aminated by oxaziridine 802 under very mild conditions, providing the Boc-protected hydrazine derivative 812 in good yield. These compounds were
NH
Cl3 C
EtO2 C NBoc EtO 2 C
NBoc
800
801
802
Figure 2.26 Some common oxaziridines used for nitrogen transfer.
132

NH 800 R 803 O 800 HN O 805 NH O NaOH 78% O NH2 806 NHBoc CN Cl LiHMDS THF 802 46% Cl 807 SHex OH 809 808 SHex CN HN toluene 100C 58% (R=Cl) 49% (R=NO 2) R 804 O NH O
802 CH 2Cl 2 76% yield > 95% ee
BocN
OH 810
Scheme 2.114 Nitrogen transfer to carbon.
then converted into pyrazoles in a one-pot reaction [790]. Hannachi and coworkers [791] have applied this methodology to synthesize orthogonally diprotected L-hydrazino acids (e.g., 814), which are useful in the biological and structural studies of pseudopeptides containing the NNCCO fragment.
Ph 811
NH2
802 CH2Cl 2 75% Ph
H N 812
NHBoc
Me Ph N H 813 CO 2H
Me Bu 4NOH 801 KHSO 81%

4
Ph
N 814
CO 2H
NHBoc
Scheme 2.115 Nitrogen transfer to amines.
2.7 Oxaziridines
Cl NSO2 Ph O N Cl SO2Ph .. N S O2 O N S O O2
j133
Ph
815
816
(+)- 817
(-)- 817
Figure 2.27 Some common oxaziridines used for oxygen transfers.
2.7.3.2 Oxygen Transfer Reactions Some very exciting and synthetically useful methodology is available from the oxaziridine-mediated oxygen transfer onto organic compounds, and in many regards this technology is complementary to other methods. Oxygen-donating oxaziridines are generally of the 3-alkyl or 3-aryl variety (Figure 2.27), although there are examples of a given oxaziridine exhibiting both O-donating and N-donating behavior under different experimental conditions. In isolated cases, oxaziridines can engage in epoxidation reactions, both in an intramolecular sense [792] and as a bimolecular event, as illustrated by the highyielding conversion of 1,1-diphenylethene (818, Scheme 2.116) into the corresponding epoxide (819) [793]. However, this reaction is not general, and it is usually carried out more conveniently using conventional epoxidation conditions. In contrast, oxaziridines are superb reagents for selective a-hydroxylation reactions. For example, in their synthetic approach towards the microbial immunosuppressive agent FR901483, Weinreb and coworkers [794] employed the readily accessible oxaziridine 815 for the diastereoselective a-hydroxylation of the bicyclic lactam 820. Asymmetric hydroxylations are also possible using chiral oxaziridines, such as the camphor derived reagents 816 and 817. As an illustrative example, the sodium enolate of phenylacetophenone (822) was treated with ( )-(10-camphorsulfonyl) oxaziradine (817) to provide the a-hydroxyketone 823 in 80% yield and 94% ee. This reagent was also useful in the diastereoselective preparation of 132-hydroxylated chlorophylls (e.g., 825) [795]. Oxaziridines occupy another synthetic niche in the realm of sulfur chemistry, as they engage in some very specic and selective sulfur oxidation reactions. For example, oxaziridine 815 oxidized the lithium salt of 4-uorothiophenol (826) selectively to the sulnate salt, which could be trapped with active electrophiles such as methyl iodide (Scheme 2.117). This particular strategy was used to access 11Clabeled methyl sulfones [796]. Of particular synthetic utility is the oxaziridinemediated asymmetric oxidation of prochiral suldes to chiral nonracemic sulfoxides, which are receiving increasing attention in their own right. Thus, 4-methylthiotoluene (829) is converted into (S)-methyl tolyl sulfoxide (830) in excellent yield and enantiomeric excess under essentially neutral conditions [797]. 2.7.3.3 Rearrangements Some interesting metal-mediated rearrangements of oxaziridines have been reported, although none appear to be widely general in their scope. For example, the copper(I) catalyst [Cu(CH3CN)4]PF6 induces the conversion of oxaziridine 831
134

Ph Ph 802 neat 50C,50 h 82% Ph Ph O
818
OTIPS
819
OTIPS HO 98% Boc N O
NaHMDS N Boc O THF
815
820
O Ph Ph O NaHMDS THF -78C 30 min (+)-817 80% yield 94% ee Ph
821
Ph OH
822
823
N Mg N
N N
(-)- 817 DBU/THF -25C 26 h 71% yield 94% de O
N Mg N
N N
phytylO 2C MeO 2 C
phytylO 2C
HO MeO 2C
824
Scheme 2.116 Oxygen transfer to carbon.
825
into the dihydro-2H-pyrrole 832 through a fascinating mechanistic sequence involving initial NO bond cleavage by single electron transfer, followed by radical cyclization, phenyl migration and loss of acetaldehyde [798]. When the 3-substituent is secondary (or presumably tertiary), the intermediate radical can collapse with
SH SO2 Li F 827 .. S Me Me 829
Scheme 2.117 Oxygen transfer to sulfur.
11CH
MeLi THF
815
AcOEt H2 O
3I
SO2 11CH3 F 828
F 826
76%
O S Me
816 95% yield > 95% ee Me
(S)-830
2.8 Dioxiranes
j135
concomitant CC bond cleavage to give amide derivatives. Thus, the 3-isopropyl oxaziridine 833 yields amide 834 under the same conditions [799]. Under the inuence of Lewis acids, the oxaziridine ring can be opened by nucleophiles. For example, the 3-methoxyphenyl-oxaziridine 835 suffers nucleophilic attack at the ring carbon by O-benzylhydroxylamine (Scheme 2.118, inset) in the presence of aluminium trichloride, ultimately leading to the liberation of the oxaziridinyl NO fragment, which is subsequently O-protected by the tri(isopropyl)silyl group in situ [800].
Me Ph MeO N MeO O [Cu(CH 3CN) 4]PF 6 THF 74% MeO OMe MeO MeO N Ph
831
Me Me N [Cu(PPh 3) 4Cl] O THF 89% Ph O NH
832
Ph
833
Ph AlCl 3 PhCH 2ONH 2 CH 2Cl 2 25 min Ph TIPSOTf imidazole r.t., 3 h 94% MeO 2 C
834
MeO 2C
N H
OTIPS
MeO
835
Ph
836
MeO 2C
O AlCl 3
MeO
.. H 2N
Ph
Scheme 2.118 Metal-mediated rearrangements of oxaziridines.
2.8 Dioxiranes 2.8.1 Properties of Dioxiranes
Dioxiranes are cyclic peroxides, and in many respects their chemical behavior can be described as activated peroxy species, or what Greer has dubbed unusual peroxides [801]. The strain energy of the parent compound (Figure 2.28) has been
136
Figure 2.28 Geometry of dioxirane.
calculated at 19.6 kcal mol1. However, this gure drops by almost half to 10.6 kcal mol1 in the case of 3,3-dimethyldioxirane (DMD) [802, 803]. Geometrically, the unsubstituted dioxirane ring describes a mildly distorted triangle [804].
2.8.2 Synthesis of Dioxiranes
A survey of the preparative synthetic methods for dioxiranes is a little peculiar, because the eld is dominated by virtually a single technique. There are certainly isolated alternative conditions that lead to the formation of the dioxirane system, such as the photolytic oxidation of diaryl diazoalkanes (e.g., 837 ! 838, Scheme 2.119) [805]; however, to date they have not been widely adopted by the synthetic laboratory.
t-Bu
N2 O2
t-Bu O O
Me Me
Me
Me Me
Me
837 KHSO 5 NaHCO 3 water/acetone <10C, 20 min 716

Scheme 2.119 Preparation of dioxiranes.
838
distill
O O
(0.1 M in acetone)
839
In fact, most procedures involving dioxiranes as reactive intermediates are designed to generate these species in situ, usually as part of a catalytic cycle, and usually by oxidizing a ketone precursor. This not only brings the obvious benet of requiring less than stoichiometric amounts of the ketone precursor (some of which are quite dear), but it also obviates the need to isolate, store and continually titrate mixtures of unstable dioxiranes. Nevertheless, it is sometimes convenient, or even
2.8 Dioxiranes
j137
necessary, to work with isolated dioxirane reagents. Toward this end, dilute solutions of dimethyldioxirane (DMD) are available by treating acetone with Oxone in an aqueous bicarbonate buffer at low temperature, after which the dioxirane is distilled at reduced pressure (Scheme 2.119). The distillate so-obtained contains about a 0.1 M solution of DMD in acetone (towards which the dioxirane is stable [806]), and this is usually titrated before use [807, 808]. The dilution factor can be inconvenient [809], although some practical modications have been disclosed [810, 811], including phase-transfer conditions, which can be applied even to large-scale preparations [812]. Generally, almost all synthetically relevant dioxiranes are prepared by this method; however, the reader is directed to Murrays excellent review of dioxiranes for more detailed information and an historical perspective on the development of dioxirane preparations [813].
2.8.3 Reactivity of Dioxiranes 2.8.3.1 Epoxidation of Alkenes Arguably the most high-prole member of the dioxiranes reactive portfolio, the epoxidation of alkenes is treated in Section 2.3.2.1. The reader is also directed to an outstanding comprehensive review by Adam, Saha-M oller and Zhao [814], as well as a more recent overview by Srivastava [815]. 2.8.3.2 Hydroxylation of Alkanes Another fascinating (and remarkably underutilized) reaction mediated by dioxiranes is the hydroxylation of alkanes, a process that can be quite clean and high-yielding. For example, treatment of 2,3-dimethylbutane (840, Scheme 2.120) with 3-methyl-3triuoromethyldioxirane (841) (TFD) at low temperature results in rapid and almost quantitative conversion to tertiary alcohol 842 [816]. In general, tertiary sites are preferred to secondary, a phenomenon underscored by the oxidation of adamantane (843) with excess TFD, in which only tertiary sites are affected [817]. In a selectivity study, Curci and coworkers [818] found that these bridgehead sites were also preferred to cyclopropane methylene positions, as demonstrated by the smooth conversion of the spiro cyclopropyladamantane 846 into the monohydroxy derivative 847. Secondary sites are not immune to oxidation. In fact, careful kinetic studies have shown that the reactivity exhibits an almost perfect Hammett correlation to the electron density of the CH sigma bond [819], which strongly suggests a concerted insertion mechanism. Computational studies also support this idea, although a diradical mechanism cannot be ruled out [804]. In any event, lability towards oxidation is enhanced by adjacent heteroatoms. For example, ethyl t-butyl ether (848) suffers practically quantitative oxidative degradation to t-butanol (850) and acetaldehyde (851) via an initially formed hemiacetal intermediate (849) [820], which explains the previously reported observation that DMD solutions lose titer in the presence of adventitious ether contaminants [821]. Through a similar mechanism, dioxiranes convert alcohols into ketones, as illustrated by the oxidation of epoxyal-
138

TFD 3 min -20C 98% OH
840
842
OH OH
841
xsTFD HO
OH OH
HO OH
843
844 (73%)
845 (24%)
TFD(1.2 eq) CH2 Cl2 0C 20 min > 95% DMD O acetone r.t. O OH > 97%
HO
846
847
OH + O
848
OH
849
TFD CH2Cl 2 TFP 0C, 20 min 94%
850
O
851
852
853
Scheme 2.120 Dioxirane-mediated hydroxylation.
cohol 852 to the corresponding ketone (853) in excellent yield upon treatment with TFD in methylene chloride and triuoropropanone (TFP) [120]. Interestingly, this oxidation can be carried out in an intramolecular fashion a sort of remote functionalization. For example, when the triuoromethyl ketone 854 (Scheme 2.121) is treated with Oxone in buffered medium, it forms a dioxirane that oxidizes the d-methylene position. The hydroxyketone so formed subsequently cyclizes to the stable hemiacetal 855 [822]. In this intramolecular manifestation, geometric factors override electronic preferences. Thus, the dioxirane generated from ketone 856 also engages the secondary d-position over the adjacent tertiary position, ultimately forming the bicyclic hemiacetal 857 [823].
2.8.3.3 Oxidation of Sulfur Dioxiranes have been applied to the selective oxidation of suldes to sulfoxides [824]. For example, the thiochromanone 858 (Scheme 2.122) is converted into the corresponding sulfoxide (859) upon treatment with a slight excess of DMD at near-0 C temperatures. For best selectivity, the reaction was halted at partial conversion (about 75%); longer reaction times and higher loadings of DMD led to excellent yields of
2.8 Dioxiranes
j139
O CF 3 854
Oxone NaHCO 3 MeCN H2 O r.t. 85% Oxone Na2EDTA CF 3 NaHCO 3 MeCN H2 O 74% H O OH O 855 CF3
OH CF3
H 857
856
Scheme 2.121 Intramolecular dioxirane-mediated hydroxylation.
O S DMD(1.4 eq) CH2 Cl2 acetone 0-5C S (84%) O 859 O S DMD N H 8 60 N H 861 O S Ph O DMD Ar O 863 S Ph O Ar
O 858
Me S
Me
O 8 62
Scheme 2.122 Dioxirane-mediated sulfoxidation.
sulfone derivatives [825]. These oxidations can be quite diastereoselective. Thus, the DMD oxidation of 2,3-dihydro-1,5-benzothiazepinone 860 provided an overwhelming majority of the trans-sulfoxide 861 [826], and the epoxy thiochromanone 862 provided the trans/cis-sulfoxide 863 exclusively [827]. The same diastereomeric bias was observed even with the opposite epoxide stereochemistry, which seems to point
140

toward a pivotal role of the a-substituent. Enantioselective sulfoxidation using chiral ketone precursors appears promising [828], although results are highly variable and substrate-dependent.
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j163
3 Four-Membered Heterocycles: Structure and Reactivity

G erard Rousseau and Sylvie Robin
3.1 Azetidines 3.1.1 Introduction
This chapter deals with azetidines, which are four-membered rings containing one nitrogen atom. The particular case of azetidin-2-ones (b-lactams) is examined in Chapter 24. Different important reviews have already been reported on their preparation and reactivity [13]. Different natural products of terrestrial or marine origins having an azetidine ring have been isolated. We indicate in this chapter only some representative examples. The simple (R) and (S)-azetidine-2-carboxylic acids 1 were found in numerous plants [4, 5]. N-Alkyl derivatives such as nicotianamine (2) [6] (isolated from a culture of Streptomyces) and mugineic acid (3) (isolated from a plant) [7] have also been reported.
HO2C CO2H NH HO2C N N H H 2 CO2H NH2 CO2H HO2C N OH 3 N H CO2H
Some C-alkyl derivatives are known, such as penaresidine-B (4) isolated from various sponges [8] and cis-polyoximic acid (5) isolated from a culture of Streptomyces [9, 10].
HO HO 4 NH HO2C OH Me 5 NH
(CH2)10
164
j 3 Four-Membered Heterocycles: Structure and Reactivity

Thenucleusazetidineisalsopresentinmorecomplexproducts,suchaspolyoxinA(6, isolated from culture broth of Streptomyces cacaoi var. asoensis) [11], gelsemoxonine (7) isolatedfromthecreeper Gelsemiumelegans andvioprolidesA(n 1)andB(n 2) 8 [12], obtained by fermentation of a strain of the myxo bacterium Cystobacter violaceus [13].
O CO2H HN O H 2N O OH NH2 OH O N N H O O O OH OH N N N O H OMe 7 OH H O OH H O
6 S H OH N Me ( )n N NH O O HN HO N O NH Me O N Me 8 O i.Pr O O NH OH O
Me Me Me
Agrochemical applications of azetidine derivatives have been reported [3]. Actions on the central nervous system with various activities (antiepileptic, anticonvulsant, antihypertensive, antidepressant, analgesic, etc.) have been also described [3]. A promising compound appears to be ABT-594 (9), synthesized from ( )-epibatidine (10), present in frogs [14]. Compound 9 proved to be more powerful than morphine as a painkiller [15].
H N H 10 Cl N N NO2 11 O2N NO2
O N H 9 N
Cl
The preparation of 1,3,3-trinitroazetidine (11) has been reported [16]. This compound was evaluated as a substitute for TNT, due to its high thermal stability. However, its cost of preparation and its high volatility limit its utilization as explosive or propellant.
3.1 Azetidines
j165
3.1.2 Physicochemical Data
Azetidines appear to be thermally stable. They are unreactive towards numerous reagents and can be prepared without special precautions. They can be analyzed using gas chromatography or liquid chromatography over silica gel, for example. Their reactivities appear closer to these of higher cyclic amines than aziridines. The strain in azetidines explains their difcult formation by cyclization, which is comparable to these of azepines [17]. Electron diffraction and X-ray crystallographic studies have shown the non-planarity of the ring. For azetidine, the angle between the planes formed by the CCC and CNC bonds is 37 , which is similar to that found for cyclobutane. Inversion of the pyramidal nitrogen is very easy for these heterocycles (DG# % 10 kcal mol1). Azetidines have been studied by NMR spectroscopy. In the absence of substituents the chemical shift of the hydrogens xed on the carbon at the 2position are in the range 2.53.5 ppm and the hydrogens xed on the carbon at the 3-position 1 ppm higher. In general the magnitude of the coupling constants for vicinal hydrogens is in the range 68 Hz for the cis stereoisomers and 24 Hz for the trans stereoisomers. With 3-hydroxyazetidine derivatives, the determination of the stereochemistries could be come very difcult. Structural identication was reported to be possible when the 1 H NMR spectra were recorded out in the presence of known amounts of Eu(Fod)3 [18]. In 13 C NMR, the carbon shifts in 2,4 positions are close to those of carbons in ve- and six-membered cyclic amines. Figure 3.1 shows some representative examples of these chemical shifts. The 15 N chemical shift of azetidine (from NH3) was reported to 25.3 ppm. N-Substituted azetidines showed chemical shifts comparable to other nitrogen heterocycles [19].
Ph N
O 3.58 3.26 N
Me 4.15 4.03 Me Me
H N
3.36 3.46
1H
shift
1.99 Ph N
2.26 O 41.5 50.3 N Me 47.7 97.4
1.98-2.11
iPr N
43.0
Me MeO Me
56.5
13
C shift
Me
32.4
14.8
41.2
Figure 3.1 Representative examples of chemical shifts.
166

3.1.3 Synthesis
This chapter reports the main methods that lead to azetidines with acceptable yields. Some less synthetically useful methods can be found in previous reviews. These preparations can be divided into three groups: formation (i) by cyclization, (ii) from other heterocycles and (iii) by [2 2] cycloadditions.
3.1.3.1 Cyclization Reactions 3.1.3.1.1 Formation of a CN Bond Ring Closure of c-Amino Derivatives Apowerfulandsimplepreparationofazetidinesis theintramoleculardisplacementofaleavinggroup xedonacarbonbya c-aminogroup. Bromo, iodo, tosyloxy, mesyloxy and triyloxy were mainly used as leaving groups, and alkyl,arylandtosylwereusedasprotectinggroupsonthenitrogenatom(Scheme3.1)[3].
R3 R4 X R4 R3 R1 2 R R6 NZ R5
R1 R2
R6 R5 NHZ
base
Scheme 3.1
This approach was reported as the key step in a synthesis of penaresidine B (4) (Scheme 3.2) [20]. It was subsequently reported that diastereoselective cyclizations of the mesylates lead to similar results (Scheme 3.3) [21].
NH2 OH BnO OBn
Scheme 3.2
1. TsCl, pyridin e 2. NaH, DMF 49 %
C12 H25
BnO
Ts N C12H25 H H OBn
NH2 OH Ar Me Ar
MsCl, CH2Cl2, Et3N 40 C, overnight 10-59 %
H Ar
Ms H N Ar Red-Al, benzene N Ar H p H H Ar = Ph, tolyl Ar 3.5 h, reflux Me H Me H 56-76 %
Scheme 3.3
A modication of this method has been investigated. It was shown that utilization of Mitsunobu conditions (X OH in Scheme 3.1) could be very efcient [22]. This cyclization was applied to the preparation of substituted azetidines, without any epimerization of the chiral centers (Scheme 3.4) [23].
3.1 Azetidines
j167
Ts R2
NH OH R1
iPrO
i 2CN=NCO2 Pr
PPh3, THF, 72 h, rt 80-97 %
R2 H
Ts N R1 H
R1 = H, Me, Et, n-Bu, Ph R2 = n-Bu, n-Hex, tBu
ee>96%
Scheme 3.4
Cyclization of protected 1-azidopropan-1-ols was also reported to lead to the formation of azetidines. This cyclization occurred when the azido group was reduced using Raney-nickel (Scheme 3.5) [24]. This method appears more efcient than when using PPh3 as reducing agent [25].
N3 BnO OMs OBn
Scheme 3.5
Raney Ni EtOH, rt, 15 h 75 %
BnO
H N H H
BnO
This cyclization was found to be easy with 3-chloroalkylamines obtained by reaction of 1-aminoalkyl chloromethyl ketones with organocerium reagents. The cyclizations occurred during evaporation of the reaction solvents (Scheme 3.6) [26]. These isolable azetidinium salts were subsequently transformed into azetidines by catalytic hydrogenation. Chloromethyl ketones react with ester enolates in similar fashion (Scheme 3.7) [27].
HO R2 NBn2 Bn + Bn N Cl- Pd, HCO2H R2 OH H N
O R1 NBn2 Cl
1. R2M, CeCl2, -60 C 2. NH4Cl, H2O
R1
Cl 74-84 %
R1 H
R1
reflux, overnight H 2 R OH 90 %
R1 = Me, iBu, Bn,
R2 = Me, Bu, allyl, Bu
Scheme 3.6
Bn dryness 68-82% R1 H R2 Bn N+ ClOH CO2Et
O R1 NBn2 Cl +
H R2
OLi 1. THF, - 78 C OEt 2. NH4Cl, H2O
HO NBn2 R2
Cl CO2Et
R1 = Me, Bn, iBu R2 = H, Bn
Scheme 3.7
Formation of 3-azetidinones from 1-aminoalkyl chloromethyl ketones was also reported to occur by reaction with tributyltin hydride (Scheme 3.8) [28].
168

O Bu3SnH, THF Cl AIBN, 65 C, 12-14h 72-77% Ar1 NC O Ar2 N Ar1 = Ph, 2-ClC6H4, 3-NO2C6H4, 4-ClC6H4, 4-MeOC6H4, 4-MeC6H4 Ar2 = Ph, 4-BrC6H4
Ar1 NC HN
Ar2
Scheme 3.8
Another interesting preparation of 3-azetidinones involves carbenoid insertion into a NH bond. 1-Aminoalkyl a-diazomethyl ketones reacts with rhodium acetate to give optically active 2-substituted 3-azetidinones (Scheme 3.9) [29]. These ketones allowed highly diastereoselective additions of nucleophilic reagents or Wittig reactions (Ph3PCHCO2Me). Utilization of copper acetylacetonate as catalyst has been subsequently reported [30].
O NHZ O Rh2(OAc)4, THF, rt 50-60% N Z R HO Nu N Z R = Me, CH2Ph, iPr, (CH2)4CO2CH2Ph R Z = CO2tBu, CO2CH2Ph Nu H= L-selectride,MeMgBr, BuMgBr, PhMgBr
H N2
NuH 50-95%
Scheme 3.9
Azetidines can be obtained by MgBr2 catalyzed isomerization of aminomethyloxiranes. A mixture of diastereomers was generally obtained (Scheme 3.10). With the trans epoxide substituted by an alkyl group, only one azetidine was detected [31].
MgBr2 (5 mol %) Ph O cis trans 66 % 73 % MgBr2 (5 mol %) Pr O NHBn 1,4-dioxane, reflux, 9h 58 % 1. mCPBA, CHCl3, 0C to rt Me Me NHTs OH 2. NaOH, H2O, 100 C, 5 min 65 % NHBn 1,4-dioxane, reflux, 5h Ph HO (86 (6.5 : : Ph + HO 10 92
NBn
NBn
+ Azeridines : : 4) 1.5)
Pr HO
NBn
Me Me
NTs OH OH
Scheme 3.10
3.1 Azetidines
j169
Utilization of sodium hydroxide to carry out ring opening of oxiranes was reported to be possible, if the epoxide function was b of the amino group (4-exo mode cyclization) (Scheme 3.10) [32].
Ring Closure of 1,3-Functionnalized Propane Derivatives with Amines 1,3-Dielectrophiles react with primary amines to afford azetidines (Scheme 3.11).
RNH2 X X N R
Scheme 3.11
1,3-Dihalopropane derivatives have been used with more or less success, due to the possible formation of side products [3]. However, satisfactory yields were obtained when the halogen atoms were in activated positions (Scheme 3.12) [33].
Br EtO2C Br CO2Et PhCH2NH2 benzene, reflux, 24 h 46 %
Scheme 3.12
EtO2C
N Bn
CO2Et
Better yields were observed with 1,3-triates (Scheme 3.13, reactions carried out a 1 kg scale) [34], 1,3-ditosylates [35] or 1,3-dimesylates (Scheme 3.14) [36].
BnNH2, MeCN
iPr 2NEt2
EtO2C
CO2Et N Bn
TfO TfO
CO2Et CO2Et
1. NaOH, H2O, 50 C, 45 min 2. HCl, H2O, rt 61%
HO2C
CO2H N Bn
70 C, 2h
Scheme 3.13
HO R
OH R
1. MsCl, NEt3, CH2Cl2, 0 C 2. NH2Bn, 45 C, 60 h R 60-85%
N Bn
R = Me, Et, Pr, CH2Ph
(ee > 99%)

Scheme 3.14
(ee > 99%)
3-Hydroxyazetidines have also been prepared by the reaction of epichlorohydrin with primary amines. The intermediate formation of c-chloro-b-hydroxyamines or amino methyl oxiranes is a function of the reaction conditions and the nature of the amines. In some cases these two-step reactions were conducted as one-pot reactions (Scheme 3.15).
170

Cl OH NHR HO NR + RNH2 RHN O
Scheme 3.15
Cl O
For example, the reaction of epichlorohydrin with 1-silylalkylamine leads to the formation of 3-hydroxyazetidines in excellent yields. This method was used in a new preparation of 1-methyl-3-hydroxyazetidine (Scheme 3.16) [37]. N-Substituted azetidinols were also obtained by heating aminomethyloxiranes in the presence of triethylamine (Scheme 3.17) [38].
1. EtOH, reflux, 24 h Cl O R + Me3Si NH2 2. NaOH, H2O 70-83% HO N SiMe3 R R = Et, Pr, iPr, cyclohexyl, SiMe3
Scheme 3.16
Cl O
+ R NH2
iPrOH,
rt, 6-24 h
RHN O
Et3N, MeCN reflux, 12-24h 26-85%
HO
N R
81-95%
R = tBu, iPr, n-Bu, HOCH2CH2-, allyl, PhCH2, Ph2CH

Scheme 3.17
Another approach to azetidines implies the addition of nucleophiles such as cyanide, hydride or organolithium reagents (Scheme 3.18) to b-chloroimines [39]. When the nucleophile is KOtBu, 2-methyleneazetidines are obtained if the work-ups are carried out in the absence of water (Scheme 3.18) [40].
R1 H Cl
2
Me Me
R2Li, Et2O, 0 C to reflux 1-6.5h 60-85 % Me Me
R1 R2 Ar
R1 = Me, Bu, Ph R2 = iPr, tBu
R R1
Ar Me
tBuOK, tBuOH,
0.5-3 days
reflux R1 R
2
Ar = Ph, 4-MeC6H4 R1, R2 = H, Me, (CH2)4-
Cl
Scheme 3.18
87-95 %
3.1 Azetidines
j171
Electrophilic cyclization of N-cinnamyl tosylamides affords azetidines in good yields. These 4-endo mode cyclizations are diastereoselective (Scheme 3.19) [41].
Br+(collidine)2 PF6Ph CH2Cl2, 2h, rt 83% Br 80
Scheme 3.19
Me H Ph NHTs
NTs Me
Ph + Br :
NTs Me 20
4-Exo mode cyclizations of unsaturated amines have also been reported using iodine [42], NBS [43] and selenium reagents (Scheme 3.20) [44].
R1 R
2
I2, MeCN, NaHCO3 2 R 1 h, 0C R3 O 78-96%
R1 N O
N H
I R3
R1 = Me, Ph R2 = H, Cl R3 = Me, CF3, Ph
R1 R2
PhSeCl (Br,I), Na2CO3, MeCN 16 h, rt NHBn R1 2 R
SePh SePh NBn + R1 NBn R2 R1 = H; Me, Et, iPr, tBu, Ph R2 = H, Me, Et
85-95%
Scheme 3.20
5-15%
An interesting method for the preparation of enantiopure azetidines is the intramolecular amination of b-aminoallenes catalyzed by Pd(PPh3)4 (Scheme 3.21). When the protecting group on the nitrogen atom was a tosyl, a mixture of alkenyl azetidine and tetrahydropyridine was obtained (R2X aryl iodide, e.g. PhI). However, with enol triate as alkylating agent, the exclusive formation of azetidines was
Pd(PPh3)4, DMF, K 2CO3 R1 R1 Ts NH
R2 X, 80 C, 0.5-40 h 41-67% Ts
Ph +
Ph N Ts R
1
R1 = H, CO2Me
Me
R1 S O2 NH
Pd(PPh3)4, DMF, K 2CO3
Me
R1 S O2 N R2
R2X, 40 C, 0.75-2 h 22-98%
R1 = iPr, iBu, Bn, MeO2C(CH2)2R2 = Ph, 3-NO2C6H4, Ph
Scheme 3.21
172

observed (3540%) [45]. This is also the case when the protecting group was a mesitylenesulfonyl (Scheme 3.21) [46].
3.1.3.1.2 Formation of a CC Bond Intramolecular reaction of a-aminocarbanions with activated carboncarbon double bonds is an excellent method by which to prepare functionalized azetidines. Mixtures of diastereomers have been obtained from a-aminonitriles. Better diastereoselectivities were observed from a-aminoesters (Scheme 3.22) [47, 48].
CO2Et
base, THF Z
EtO2C R1 N
Z Bn
R1 = Me, Et, Pr, iPr, tBu, Ph
R1 Z = CN
N Bn
LiHMDS, -78 C to 0 C, 2 h 58-87% (de: 20-40%)

t
Z = CO2R (R1 = Me)

Scheme 3.22
BuOK, - 50 C, 1 h
50-76% (de > 95%)
Intramolecular cyclization can also be observed if the carbon b of the amino group bears a leaving group (Scheme 3.23) [49]. This method has been applied to the preparation of cis and trans 3-phenyl-azetidine-2-carboxylic acids [49], azetidine-2carbonitriles, [50] and diethyl azetidine-2-phosphonates (Scheme 3.24) [51].
Ph Ph Ph N Cl CO2tBu
NaN(SiMe3)2 THF, -78 C 69%
Ph N Ph
CO2tBu Ph
Ph N
CO2H H
trans:cis = 82:18
Scheme 3.23
Ph Me
Cl N Me OEt P OEt O
LiN(SiMe3)2 THF, -78 C to 0 C 50%
Ph Me
O OEt P OEt N Me
Scheme 3.24
Anotherdiastereoselectivepreparationofsubstitutedazetidineshasbeenreportedby a photochemically induced cyclization of chiral a-aminoketones (Scheme 3.25) [52, 53].
3.1 Azetidines
j173
R1 Ar O N Me Z
h, MeCN 70-80%
HO Ar N
R1 Z
R1 = H, Me, CH2Ph, Ph, CH2 OSiMe2texyl Z = Tosyl, Boc, Ac Ar = Ph, 3,4-Ac2C6H3
Scheme 3.25
Fused azetidine derivatives have been obtained by irradiation of dihydropyridines (Scheme 3.26) [54a]. This methodology has been applied to the formation of an analog of ABT-594 [54b]. However, this compound appeared less efcient than epibatidine as nicotine agonist.
h (300 nm), acetone N CO2Me OH 3-4 days 20% N CO2Me H OH N H H O C l N
Scheme 3.26
Irradiation of 3-allyl or 3-benzyl-2-acyl perhydrobenzoxazine furnishes azetidin-3ol derivatives in moderate chemical yields (5060%). However, the diastereoselectivity of these cyclizations are good (up to 96%). The menthol part was then removed in low overall yields to give enantiopure azetidin-3-ol derivatives (Scheme 3.27) [55].
Me Me O O Me N h, MeCN rt Me Me O HO Me N R1 + Me H Me O R1 minor Ts R2 N Me N H R1 = H, Me, Ph, 4-MeOC6H 4, 2-furyl R2 = CH=CH2, CPh=CHEt Ph, 3,4-(MeO)2C6H3
R1 R2 6-60%
R2
2 OH R
major 4 steps 15-25%
OBn R1
Scheme 3.27
Electroreduction by intramolecular coupling of chiral aiminoesters in the presence of chlorotrimethylsilane affords cis-2,4-disubstituted azetidin-3-ones in good yields (Scheme 3.28) [56].
3.1.3.2 Ring Transformations 3.1.3.2.1 Ring Expansions of Aziridines Reactions of N-arenesulfonylaziridines with dimethyloxosulfonium methylide afford azetidines. These ring expansions are stereoselective. The cis-aziridines yield trans-azetidines, and reciprocally, via a
174

CO2Me 1. e-, Pt cathode (300 C) 0.3 M Bu4NClO4, THF ClSiMe3, NEt3 2. BzCl, NEt3 34-60%
Scheme 3.28
Ar N R
Me3SiO Ar
OMe N Bz R
R = Me, iPr, iBu, Bn Ar = 2-MeOC6H4, 3-MeOC6H4, 4-MeOC6H4, 4-FC6H4, 4-NH2C6H4, 1-naphthyl, 2-naphthyl
ee: 90-99%
SN2-type reaction, followed by an intramolecular nucleophilic substitution [57]. This reaction has also been reported using dimethylsulfonium methoxycarbonyl methylide (Scheme 3.29) [58].
H R1 N SO2R3 R1 CO2Me H N SO2R3
Me3 SO2R3 N R2 H
S+(O)CH
I- ,
NaH
H R2
DMSO, 18-20 h, rt 21-80% 21-46% Me2S(O)CHCO2Et DMF, 50 C, 1-2 h then rt overnight
R H
R1, R2 = Ph,Me R3 = Ph, 4-MeC6H4, 4-ClC6H4 R1, R2 = H, Ph,Me
R2 H
Scheme 3.29
1-Substituted 3-azabicyclo[1.1.0]butanes are easily prepared using the method rst developed by Funke [59]. These compounds react with numerous electrophiles to afford azetidines (Scheme 3.30). More recent reports give improved conditions for the preparation of the bicycloaziridines, and their reactions with electrophilic reagents [6062].
R N R N E Nu
Br Br R
NH2.HBr
base
E-Nu
R = H, alkyl, Ph E = H, CO2Et, Ts, Tf, Ms... Nu = F, OH, X, SAc...
Scheme 3.30
3.1.3.2.2 Ring Contractions 5 ! 4 Ring contractions appear rather rare. The reaction of a thiazolidine with Raney-nickel has been reported to lead to yield an azetidine (Scheme 3.31) [63]. Two interesting examples of 6 ! 4 ring contractions have been also reported. They used the transformation of cyclic carbamates. Heating tetrahydro-3-benzyl-5,5-
3.1 Azetidines
j175
Raney-Ni Ph Ph Ph S N CO2Me CO2Me Ph CH2Cl2, MeOH rt, 48 h 83% Ph
Ph
Ph CO2Me N CO2Me Ph
Scheme 3.31
dimethyl-1,3-oxazin-2-one at 250 C in the presence of LiCl affords the corresponding azetidine [64]. 1,2,2,4-Tetrasubstituted azetidines have been prepared using this method. Reaction of a carbamate with a palladium(0) salt led to a comparable decarboxylation. This reaction has not been studied further (Scheme 3.32) [65].
O Bz N Me O Me Pd(PPh3)4, EtOH rt, 41 h then 60 C, 29 h 39% Me Me LiCl 250 C, 30h 85% Me Me N Bz
O Ts N O
Me
Me N Bz
Scheme 3.32
3.1.3.2.3 From b-Lactams Reductions Reductions of b-lactams into azetidines have been reported with common reducing agents such as LiAlH4, LiAlH4-AlCl3, ClAlH2, Cl2AlH, AlH3, BH3 and DIBAL-H [6669]. With optically active lactams, these reactions occur in general without loss of enantiomeric purity. However, these reagents were not compatible with the presence of ester groups. In this case, diphenylsilane in the presence of a rhodium salt (Scheme 3.33) could be efcient [70].
R1 CO2R2 N R3 Ph2SiH2, THF RhH(CO)(PPh3)3 15 h, rt 34-94% R1 R1 2 H , THF, Pd(OH) CO2R2 CO2R 2 2 N N R2 = Me, tBu H R3 HCl, 15h, 50 C, 2.7 atm R3 = 4-MeOC6H4CH2 55-95% R1 = Me,CH2Ph,CH2CHMe2, (CH2)2CO2tBu, (CH2)3NHZ, (CH2)3NHBoc
Scheme 3.33
176

Reduction of azetidine-2,4-dione by AlH3 into azetidine has also been reported [71], while the reduction of 2-azetidinethiones is possible using Raneynickel (Scheme 3.34) [72].
Me Me S N Ph Raney-Ni, EtOH reflux, 2 h 54% Me Me N Ph
Scheme 3.34
Olefinations Stabilized ylides react with 2-azetidinones to afford 2-methyleneazetidines. This olenation does not take place with unstabilized ylides or when a substituent is present at the 3-position [73]. In such a case, methylenation is possible using dimethyltitanocene (Scheme 3.35) [74, 75].
Z CO2Bn N Z R TBDMSO Me N Z = CO2Me, CN, CO2tBu Boc R = H, Me
CO2Bn O N Boc
R toluene, reflux, 12-48 h 20-98%
Ph3P
TBDMSO Me O
Scheme 3.35
OAc N Boc
Cp2TiMe 2 toluene, 70C, 1-3 h 81%
OAc Boc
3.1.3.3 Cycloadditions [2 2] Cycloadditions of imines or imino compounds with ethylenic derivatives can afford azetidines. However, the yields were generally low [3] until, relatively recently, improved conditions were found. Imines react with allylsilanes catalyzed by Lewis acids to give azetidines in good yields (Scheme 3.36) [76]. Mixtures of diastereomers were obtained. N-Tosylimines have also been reported to react with a-allenic esters and a-allenic ketones in the presence of DABCO (Scheme 3.36) [77]. The reaction of a-imino esters with 1-methoxyallenylsilanes has been achieved by means of copper tetrauoroborate. In the presence of (R)-Tol.BINAP, optically active azetidines with high enantiomeric excesses were obtained (Scheme 3.37) [78]. 1-Aryl-4-phenyl-1-azadienes undergo [2 2] cycloadditions, after more than 40 days, with allenic esters at room temperature. Attempts to decrease the reaction time by heating gave rise to the exclusive formation of [4 2] adducts (Scheme 3.38) [79].
3.1 Azetidines
TiCl 4 or BF3.Et2O, CH2Cl2 Ph N Z + SiR3 - 78 C (1 h) then 0 C (12-24 h) Ph 8-86% DABCO CO2Et benzene, MS 4 , 1 h 42-93% N Z SiR3
j177
R = Me, iPr Z = Me, iPr, CO2Et, CO2tBu, COPh,
Ar
Ts
Ar
N Ts
CO2Et Ar = Ph, 4-MeC6H4, 4-EtC6H4, 4-FC6H4, 3-FC6H4, 4-BrC6H4, 4-CF3C6H4, 3-NO2C6H4, 2,3Cl2C6H3, 4-MeC6H4,1-naphthyl, 3-pyridyl
Scheme 3.36
10 mol%, Cu+(MeCN)4 BF4(R)-Tol.BINAP, THF OMe EtO2C R MS 4, -78 C, 9-24 h 60-92%
EtO2C
Ts
OMe N Ts
R = SiMe3, SiiPr3, t OSiR3 SiMe2Ph, Si BuMe2, GeEt3
ee: 58-97%
Scheme 3.37
benzene, rt 45-65 days 17-28% Ph N Ar + R
R Ph N Ar CO2Et R = H, Me, Et Ar = Ph, 4-MeC6H4, 4-ClC6H4, 4-MeOC6H4, CO2Et CH2R
CO2Et benzene, reflux 78-97%
Ph
N Ar
Scheme 3.38
The cycloaddition of benzyne with N-aryl imines occurs in good yields (Scheme 3.39) [80]. This is also the case for the [2 2] cycloadditions of alkoxy imines with phenyl ketene [81].
3.1.4 Reactivity and Useful Reactions 3.1.4.1 Reactions at the Nitrogen Atom 3.1.4.1.1 Reaction with Carboxylic Acid Derivatives Reactions of carboxylic acid chlorides with azetidine derivatives lead to N-acyl derivatives in high yields. These reactions were carried out in the presence of bases such as K2CO3 [82], NEt3 or pyridine [3]. Recently, a solid-phase approach has been described for the preparation
178

HO O H 2N bis(2-ethoxy)ethyl ether AmONO, 40-80 C, 0.5 h 58-67% O Ar N Ar Ph Ar = Ph, 4-MeOC6H4, 2,3-Cl2C6H3 N Ar Ar = Ph, , 4-MeC H 4-ClC H , 6 4, 6 4 4-MeOC6H4, 4-EtOC6H4, 3-NO2C6H4 Ar
Ar
Ar
Ar
OEt
O + Ph Cl
EtOAc, NEt3 reflux, 2 h 20-48%
Scheme 3.39
of malondiamides. 2-Methoxyethylamine was xed on a Bal-resin, and successive reactions with 2,2-dimethylmalonyl dichloride and azetidine lead to the malonamide. Cleavage with triuoroacetic acid gives rise to the mixed malonamide in high yield (Scheme 3.40) [83].
1. Me2C(COCl)2 ,6h 2. azetidine, CH2Cl2, DIPEA 3. CF3CO2H, CH2Cl2 89%
O Me Me O N N OMe
OMe Bal SP N H
Scheme 3.40
N-Acetylazetidines can also be obtained by reaction with carboxylic anhydrides in the presence of DMAP (Scheme 3.41) [84], by reaction with ester in the presence of Horse Liver esterase [85], or by reaction with acid activated by reagents such as 1-[(3dimethylamino)propyl]-3-ethylcarbodiimide (DMAP) [86] or 1H-1,2,3-benzotriazol1-ol (HBTU) derivatives (Scheme 3.41) [8789].
H N BnO (EtCO)2O, CH2Cl2 DMAP, E t3N, rt 100% BnO
t
OBn
CO2Et N OBn
CO2tBu NH + HO2C
CO2tBu NHBoc
HBTU, MeCN, N-ethylmorpholine 64%
BuO2C N
CO2tBu NHBoc
Scheme 3.41
3.1.4.1.2 Reaction with Aldehydes and Ketones Aldehydes react in the presence of NaBH3CN in acetic acid to furnish N-alkylazetidines (Scheme 3.42) [90]. Formic acid was sometimes preferred as the reducing agent [91].
3.1 Azetidines
j179
CO2tBu OAc
CO2tBu NH + OHC
CO2tBu N Boc
CO2tBu OAc
NaBH3CN, THF, MeOH 4 C, 10 h 93%
CO2tBu N
CO2tBu N Boc
Scheme 3.42
These N-alkyl azetidines have been also obtained from the corresponding N-acyl compounds by carbonyl reduction after transformation into thioamides (Scheme 3.43) [88].
tBuO 2C tBuO 2C
tBuO
2C
O N Boc
CO2 tBu NHBoc
Lawesson's reagent benzene, reflux, 3h 95%
tBuO
2C
S N Boc
CO2tBu NHBoc
t THF, Raney-Ni (W2) BuO2C rt, 4 h
BuO2C N Boc
CO2tBu NHBoc
51%
Scheme 3.43
The reaction of (S)-azetidine 2-carboxylic acid with pivaldehyde gives a bicyclic compound. When this reaction is catalyzed by CF3COOH, a racemic product is obtained [92]. With trimethylsilyl-triuoromethanesulfonate as catalyst, though, racemization was not observed and enantiomerically pure product was obtained (Scheme 3.44) [93].
1. TMS, NEt3 2. tBuCHO, CH2Cl2 Me3SiSO2CF3 90%
Scheme 3.44
CO2H NH
H O N O
t
Bu
96% ee
The reaction of azetidines with ketones affords the corresponding enamines. Kinetic studies have shown that these amines are more reactive than pyrrolidine [94].
3.1.4.1.3 N-Alkylations N-Aryl azetidines can be obtained by the arylation of Nunsubstituted azetidines with aryl bromide, catalyzed by palladium salts (Scheme 3.45) [36a]. Another interesting method used the SNAr substitution of the uorine on uoroaryl. These reactions were carried out under sonication of the reaction mixture (Scheme 3.46) [95].
180

+ ArBr Pd2(dba)3, NaOtBu toluene, 70 C 32-96%
Scheme 3.45
R NH R
R N Ar R
R = Me, Et Ar = Ph, 2-MeC6H4, 2-MeOC6H4, 2-BrC6H4, 1-naphthyl, 4-CF3C6H4, 3-(BrCH2)C6H4,
R NH + F CHO
DMSO, K2CO3, ))) 100 C, 3-5 h 24-81%
R N CHO R = H, Me
Scheme 3.46
An original preparation of (phosphorothioyl)oxycarbonyl azetidine has been reported by reaction of azetidines with diphenylphosphinothioic chloride [Ph2P(S) Cl] in the presence of K2CO3. This reaction was greatly improved when carried out under carbon dioxide in the presence of crown ether (Scheme 3.47) [96].
Ph2P(S)Cl, MeCN CO2Me NH CO2Me
Scheme 3.47
K2CO3, CO2 (10kg/cm 2) 18-crown-6, 48 h, rt 85%
MeCO2 N
O O
S PPh2
CO2Me
3.1.4.2 Oxidizing Reactions Oxidations of azetidin-3-ols into azetidin-3-ones with common CrO3, Swern or DessMartin reagents have been reported to occur in high yields. No cleavage or degradation of the four-membered ring was noticed [3, 97]. Microbial oxidations of azetidines lead to the formation of azetidin-3-ols (Scheme 3.48) [98, 99]. Oxidations a of the nitrogen-atom (formation of b-lactams) have been performed with a RuO2-NaIO4 mixture (Scheme 3.48) [100] and
N CO2R H
Sphingomonas sp. (HXN-200) 89-98% RuO2, NaIO4 EtOAc, H2O, rt 73% O
HO H
t N CO2R R = Ph, Bu
CO2Me
CO2Me
NBoc
Scheme 3.48
NBoc
3.1 Azetidines
j181
KMnO4 [101]. Transformations of azetidin-2-carboxylic acids and esters into of b-lactams using oxygen have been also reported [102].
3.1.4.3 Reactions with Nucleophiles and Bases N-Chloroazetidines can react with DBU to furnish stable azetines (Scheme 3.49) [103]. Azetines were also obtained when the leaving group was in the 3-position. The reaction of 3-mesylazetidines with potassium tbutylate leads to the formation of azetines that can be transformed by ash-thermolysis into 1-aza-1,3-dienes. By smooth heating, these later give rise to bicyclic compounds (Scheme 3.50) [104].
1. tBuOCl 2. DBU, Et2O-DMF 67-84%
R O
Ph NH
R O N
Ph R = H, Me
Scheme 3.49
MsO N R
DMSO or tBuOH, 40-50 C 62-93% if R = ( )n O R = aryl, alkyl
tBuOK,
350-450 C N O R 100% N
O R
100 C, 1 h 46-80%
Scheme 3.50
N O
( )n
R = Me, Ph, (CH2)3CH=CH2, (CH2)2CH=CH2, 4-MeC6H4
The reaction of 3,3-dichloroazetidines with NaOMe or NaH also leads to azetines. The presence of an aryl substituent at the 2-position seems to increase their reactivities; subsequent reactions lead, nally, to aziridines (Scheme 3.51) [105].
MeO Cl Cl N MeONa Ar NaOMe,MeOH, reflux, 20 h Cl R or NaH, DMSO, 80 C, 3 h N Ar R 83-94% H2O 46-75% N R N R O
OMe Ar R = iPr, cyclohexyl Ar = Ph, 4-FC6H4, 4-MeOC6H4 Ar
Scheme 3.51
182

Instead of elimination, substitution occurs when 3-arylsulfonate-azetidines are reacted with benzylamine (Scheme 3.52) [106]. These substitutions, which occur with retention of congurations (due to the participation of the ring nitrogen) were also reported with sodium cyanide [107].
BnNH2, THF, reflu x 41-50% Me MsO N Ph Ph NaCN, DMF 65 C, 6 h 81% Me NC N Ph Ph
PhO2SO
N SO2Ph
BnHN
N SO2Ph
Scheme 3.52
3.1.4.4 Reactions of C-Metallated Azetidines Lithiation of methyl azetidine-2-carboxylate in a of the ester function has been carried out with LiHMDS as base [108]. Metallation of the azetidine ring of a methyl azetidin2-ylidenecarboxylate with KHMDS is also effective. Subsequent addition of electrophiles yields 3-substituted azetidines (Scheme 3.53) [109].
KHMDS, THF, -78 C then electrophile 68-75% E F3C CO2Me N CO2tBu E = Me, PhCH(OH), 3,5-F2C6H3CH2
F3C
CO2Me N CO2tBu
Scheme 3.53
Organozinc compounds, formed by the reaction of 3-iodoazetidine with zinc, couple with aryl chlorides in the presence of palladium salts or with allyl bromide in the presence of CuCN to give 3-substituted azetidines in satisfactory yields (Scheme 3.54) [110].
Zn, THF, rt, 0.75 h then DMA, RCl, Pd2(dba)3 I N Boc P(2-furyl)3, 2 h, 80 C 46-63%
Scheme 3.54
N Boc
R = Ph, 4-CNC6H4, 1-pyridyl, 2-pyridyl, 3-pyridyl, 5-pyrimidyl, allyl
3.1.4.5 Ring Expansions Ring expansions of azetidines into ve-, six- and eight-membered heterocycles have been reported. Pyrrolidin-2-ones have been isolated during the preparation
3.1 Azetidines
j183
of azetidin-2-carbonyl chlorides (Scheme 3.55) [111] or 2-(azetidin-3-yl)acetyl chloride [112].

CO2H N R CO2Me
Scheme 3.55
Cl (COCl)2 46-68% MeO2C N H O R = Bn, cyclohexyl
Imidazolidines can also be obtained by Beckmann rearrangement of 3-(mesyloxyimino)- or 3-(tosyloxyimino)azetidines (Scheme 3.56) [113].
OR1
Al2O3 (neutral or basic) benzene, rt 60-91%
HN
O N CO2R2
R1 = SO2Me, SO2Ph R2 = Et, Bn, CH2CCl3
N CO2R2
Scheme 3.56
Heating of 2-(phenylselenyl)methyl azetidines [114], 2-(methanesulfonyl)methylazetidines [115] or 2-(chloromethyl)azetidines (Scheme 3.57) [115] affords pyrrolidines in excellent yields. These rearrangements appeared highly diastereoselective. Ring expansions are also possible by treatment of azetidinium salts with bases [116], or by reaction of azetidines with cyclic olens in the presence of Lewis acids [117].
Ph Me N Me Ph Me Cl N Me de: 72 R Ph R = H, Ph, Me, Bn Ph
Cl Ph
CHCl3, reflux 94%
Ph N Me R
1. MeOTf, CH2Cl2 Ph 2. KHMDS, -78 C, THF 39-94%
N Me
Scheme 3.57
Photochemical rearrangement of 3-benzoylazetidines leads to pyrroles (Scheme 3.58) [118]. Preparation of pyrroles is also possible by the reaction of 3phenoxy (or 3-isopropylidene) 2-thioacetal-azetidines of cis-stereochemistry with AlEt2Cl (Scheme 3.58) [119]. When the substituents at the 3-position were phenyl or
184

Ph O Ph 95% AlEt2Cl (1 equiv.) SR N R3 R1 N R2
2
h (pyrex filter) EtOH, rt, 3 h
Ph N tBu Ph
N tBu R1 SR2
CH2Cl2, rt or reflux 38-72% AlEt2Cl (1 or 2 equiv.)
R1 N R3
SPh
R1 = PhO, isopropylidene R2 = Ph, (CH2)2 R3 = Bn, 4-MeOC6H4
R1 CH2Cl2, rt, 12-24h or CH Cl , reflux, 10 min SPh 2 2 SPh 31-72% N R2
SPh Et R1 = Ph, Me R2 = 4-MeOC6H4
Scheme 3.58
methyl groups, the reactions yield pyrrolidines. With cyclic acetals or thioacetals, bicyclic pyrrolidines are obtained [119]. Another interesting preparation of pyrrolidinones is by the cobalt carbonyl catalyzed carbonylation of azetidines. The regioselectivity of the CO insertion depends on the substituent xed to the nitrogen atom (Scheme 3.59) [120].
Co2(CO)8 CO (3-4 atm.) N Me Ph benzene, 24 h, 85-90 C 90% N Me
Ph O
Co2(CO)8 CO (3-4 atm.) R benzene, 24 h, 85-90 C 83-91%

Scheme 3.59
N tBu
N tBu
R = Me, CH2OH, CH2OMe, CH2OCOMe, CO2Me
2-Hydroxymethylazetidines react with m-chloroperbenzoic acid (mCPBA) to furnish the corresponding N-oxides with high diastereoselectivity. Upon heating, these N-oxides rearrange quantitatively into the 1,2-oxazinan-6-ol (Scheme 3.60) [121]. Piperidines, formed by [4 2] cycloadditions, have been isolated by reaction of azetidines with methylene-cycloalkanes (Scheme 3.61) [117]. [4 2] Cycloadditions have also been reported in the reaction of azetidines with nitriles (Scheme 3.61) [122].
3.1 Azetidines
j185
OH N Bn CH2OH
mCPBA,
CH2Cl2
CH2OH CH2Cl2, reflux N+ H Bn O 100%
63%
O N
Bn
Scheme 3.60
Ph Ph + BF3.Et2O, CH2Cl2, -78 C ( )n 68-70% BF3.Et2O, CH2Cl2 N Ts Ar + R C N rt, 0.4-3 h 42-72% N Ts Ar N N ( )n n = 0, 1, 2
N Ts
R Ts
Ar = Ph, 2,3-MeO2C6H3, 4-MeOC6H4, 3-BrC6H4
Scheme 3.61
Piperidines are also obtained by the reaction of 1,3-butadienyl-azetidines with a palladium(0) salt. The 1,3-butadienyl entity appears necessary for the rearrangement (Scheme 3.62) [123].
Pd(PPh3)4 DMSO, 25 C, 10-12 h 80-91% R1 N Ts R2 R1 = Ph, C11 H23 R2 = H, Me
R1 N
R2 Ts
Scheme 3.62
The reaction of 2-alkenyl-azetidines with cobalt carbonyl leads to azepinones instead of piperidinones, as in the case of 2-unsaturated substituents (Scheme 3.63, cf. Scheme 3.59) [120]. Azocanes can be obtained by thermal rearrangement of 1,2-divinylazetidines (Scheme 3.64) [69].
Co2(CO)8, CO (3-4 atm.) 80 C, benzene 52-82% N R1 O Me Me R1 = H, CH2CH2COMe, CH2CH2CN
Me N
Me
R1
Scheme 3.63
186

Me Me R1 = CO2Me, H, Ph R2 OR
1
Me N R1 O R2
100-140 C 54-82% N R2 O R
1
N H
R2 = OMe, Me
Scheme 3.64
3.1.4.6 Cleavage of the Azetidine Ring 3.1.4.6.1 Fragmentation Reactions Flash thermolysis at 900 C of azetidine gives ethylene and N-methylenemethanamine [124]. However, heating under less drastic conditions leads to cleavage of only one of the NC bonds (Scheme 3.65) [125] to afford unsaturated amines.
R1 N R2 GC column, 120 C
t
R2 R1 N H
tBu
R1, R2 = alkyl
Bu
E:Z ~ 50:50
Scheme 3.65
3.1.4.6.2 Reaction with Nucleophilic Reagents Azetidin-2-carboxylic acid derivatives react with thiophenol (pH 8) to afford a mixture of 3-amino-2-phenyl- and 2amino-3-phenylthiopropanoic acids [126]. Similarly, 3-hydroxyazetidines can be cleaved with phenols. These reactions are highly stereospecic if a substituent was present in the 2-position (Scheme 3.66) [127].
HO N R2 R1 HO H H N H R2 R1 = tBu, Bn, cyclohexyl R1 R2 = H, Me Ar = Ph, 4-BrC6H4
ArOH, 130 C 8-80%
ArO
Scheme 3.66
The opening of azetidinium salts with nucleophiles such as NaN3, butylamine or AcONa has also been examined. The regiochemistry of the cleavage appears to be a function of the substituents xed on the azetidine ring (Scheme 3.67) [128].
3.1.4.6.3 Reaction with Electrophilic Reagents The reaction of N-alkylazetidines with N2O5 gives 1,3-nitroamine-nitrates (Scheme 3.68) [129]. 3.1.4.7 Enzymatic Resolutions of Azetidines Racemic methyl azetidin-2-carboxylate has been resolved using Candida antartica as lipase in tbutanol saturated with ammonia. Excellent enantiomeric excesses were obtained for the remaining ester and the amide formed (Scheme 3.69) [130].
3.1 Azetidines
j187
Ph N+ Me CO2Et
NaN3, DMF rt, overnight 100%
Ph N3 Bn N CO2Et Me : Me Me +
Bn Me
Ph N N3 7 CO2Et
Bn
93 Ph Me N+ Me Me CO2Et BnNH2, CH2Cl2 100% N
Ph Me
O NHBn NHBn
Scheme 3.67
N2O5, CH2Cl2 N R 0.5-1 h, -5-0 C O NO 2 41-95%

Scheme 3.68
R NO2
R = Bu, CN, (CH2)2CO2Et, CO2Et
CO2Me N R R = Bn R = allyl
Candida antartica lipase

tBuOH,
CO2Me N R ee > 99% ee > 99% ee > 99% +
CONH2 N R ee = 80% ee = 97% ee = 84%
sat. NH3, 35 C, 3 h conversion: 56% conversion: 50% conversion: 54%
R = 4-MeOC6H4CH2
Scheme 3.69
An azetidine with high enantiomeric excess has also been obtained by resolution of a meso-2,4-diol derivative. For a conversion of around 55%, a compound of high enantiomeric purity could be obtained (Scheme 3.70) [131] using porcine pancreas lipase (PPL) immobilized on Celite. Under these conditions, resolution of the racemic trans-2,4-diol gave a mixture of mono- and diacetate of lower enantiomeric excesses.
vinyl acetate PPL-Celite HO N Bn OH 95% AcO N Bn OH
ee 96.2%
Scheme 3.70
188

O oxetane O O 2-oxetanone
Figure 3.2 Four-membered oxygenated heterocycles.
3.2 Oxetanes 3.2.1 Introduction
Oxetanes are four-membered oxygenated cycles. Their carbonyl-substituted analogues are named oxetanones and, in particular, the 2-oxetanone family is commonly referred as b-lactones (Figure 3.2). The search for effective enantioselective methods of preparation is now the most common challenge. Nonetheless, new syntheses are still a topical question due to the frequent presence of these four-membered cyclic ethers in biologically active substances. These compounds have aroused much interest by their large range of reactivities. The ring strain common in both the oxetane and the oxetanone cycles causes signicant susceptibility to thermal cleavage. The basicity of the ring oxygen makes the oxetanes sensitive to electrophile reagents and/or consequently to nucleophilic attacks at carbon. Oxetanes can be subject to polymerization. The 2oxetanones mainly undergo nucleophilic addition at the carbonyl carbon, with or without electrophilic catalysis.
Microwave, electron diffraction and X-ray diffraction methods have permitted a precise determination of bond lengths and angles in several oxetanes [132]. Table 3.1 reports the bond lengths and angles of oxetane and 2-oxetanone. Notably, the CO bond is longer than in other types of compounds: (Csp3O 1.41 A). The oxetane ring may be either coplanar or puckered, depending on the substituents present. A rocking motion allows the substituents to attain a less
Table 3.1 Bond lengths and angles of oxetane and 2-oxetanone.
Bond C4O1 C3C4 C2O1C4 C2C3C4
Oxetane (A) 1.449 1.549 91.8 84.55
2-Oxetanone (A) 1.45 1.53 89 83
O
4 3 2
O
4 3 2
3.2 Oxetanes
Table 3.2 Chemical shifts of various compounds in deuteriochloroform.
j189
HA
HB 4.73 4.85 4.57
HC 2.72 2.24 2.98
HD 2.72 2.63 3.50
HE 4.73 4.37
HF (ppm) 4.73 4.49
FOB D E A C
Oxetane 2-Me-oxetane 4-Me-oxetanone
4.73 1.35(Me) 1.53(Me)
hindered conformation but is opposed by the resulting increase in bond angle deformation. The 2-oxetanone having a carbonyl group in place of a methylene group is strictly planar.
3.2.2.1 NMR Data The proton NMR spectroscopy of oxetanes is largely understood [132]. Table 3.2 gives the chemical shifts of various compounds in deuterochloroform. A substituent can have special effects on the proton chemical shifts due to their proximity in the small ring. This could be also induced by changes in the puckering of the ring. Table 3.3 gives some representative 13C chemical shifts relative to TMS in deuterochloroform [133]. 17 O NMR spectra of oxetanes and 2-oxetanones referenced to water show values of 13 ppm for the oxetane ether O and 347 ppm (CO) and 241 ppm (ether O) for the two oxygens in 2-oxetanone [133]. 3.2.2.2 Infrared Spectroscopy A strong absorption band at about 980 cm1 is characteristic of oxetane [132]. The farIR spectrum of oxetane has been obtained at 205 K. The band of ring puckering transition was assigned at 52.92 cm1. 2-Oxetanones present an intense absorption at 18401820 cm1 due to carbonyl stretching. 3.2.3 Natural or Bioactive Compounds
The oxetane ring appears in some biologically active compounds. We report in this chapter some representative examples. Taxol 12, isolated from Taxus brevifolia and its derivative the taxotere, is an important drug in cancer chemotherapy [134].
Table 3.3 Representative
13
C chemical shifts relative to TMS in deuterochloroform. C2 C3 23.1 29.0 C4 72.8 66.6 Me 24.1
O
4 3 2
Oxetane 2-Me-oxetane
72.8 78.3
190

Montanin D (13) has antifeedant activity. This substance has been extracted from the plant Teucrium tomentosum [135].
()-Tetrahydrolipstatin (14) is a triglyceride mimic, an analogue of lisptatin isolated from Streptomyces toxytricimi. It is a potent and irreversible inhibitor of pancreatic lipase, used as an antiobesity agent under the name Xenical [136]. The antibiotic oxetanocin A (15) is a fermentation product of Bacillus megaterium. It is also known as an anti-HIV compound [137]. Curromycin A (16) is an antibiotic produced by a genetically modied strain of Streptomyces hygroscopicus [138].
Anisatin 17 and neoanisatin 18 are convulsant principles isolated from the fruits of the toxic plant Illicium anisatum L [139]. Salinosporamide A (19) is a bioactive product of a marine microorganism [140].
3.2 Oxetanes
j191
3.2.4 Synthesis of Oxetanes and Oxetan-2-ones chi Cyclizations 3.2.4.1 [2 2] PaternoBu The [2 2] photocycloaddition of carbonyl compounds with alkenes, the Paterno chi reaction, is a useful method in organic synthesis. The challenge in this area is Bu the regio and stereocontrol of the reaction. Bach et al. have reported signicant facial diastereoselectivities in the reaction with silyl enol ethers carrying a chiral substituent. The carbonyl compound is directed to the less shielded face. With large and polar substituents at the stereogenic center, the facial selectivity leads to diastereomerically pure oxetanes (Scheme 3.71) [141].
H O Ph
Scheme 3.71
tBu
R OTMS
h, PhH 30C Ph 57-76%
O
t
R Bu OTMS
R= iPr, Ph, tBu
Photocycloaddition of chiral N-acyl enamines with benzaldehyde produces the cisdiastereomers predominantly, with facial diastereomeric excess from 30 to 62% (Scheme 3.72) [142].
R* N O
O Ph
h, MeCN 30C 74% Ph
O N R* Ac Ph
O N R* Ac
R*=
Ph
Scheme 3.72
A N-benzylenecarbamate has been irradiated in the presence of various aldehydes. The cis-diastereoselectivity is always predominant [143]. This method has been applied to the synthesis of diastereomerically pure 1,2-amino alcohols. A diastereoselectivity of 62% has been observed in the reaction of benzaldehyde with an atropisomeric enamide (axial chirality) (Scheme 3.73) [144].
O N PhCHO Ph MeCN 30C h 63%

Scheme 3.73
O N O 81 : Ph O 19
O N
192

A high facial diastereoselectivity in the photocyclization of a chiral aromatic aldehyde and an enamide has been induced by intermolecular hydrogen bonding. The simple diastereoselectivity led solely to cis-isomers and the facial diastereoselectivity was 95 : 5, when the reaction was carried out at low temperature in toluene (Scheme 3.74) [145]. The same reaction with enantiomerically pure aldehyde produced the oxetane with 95% of enantiomeric excess [146]. Bach et al. have studied chi reaction with 2,3-dihydropyrrole and a-alkylated enecarbamate as the PaternoBu well [147, 148].
O H H O N O O N O H h -10C, toluene 56% O N H H O N O O O O N H H O N O O O
rac.
Scheme 3.74
95
Griesbeck et al. have worked on the photocycloadditions of oxazole with carbonyl compounds [149]. The 4-unsubstituted 5-methyloxazole gave the cycloadducts with aromatic or aliphatic aldehydes, in high yield and excellent exo-diastereoselectivities (98 : 2) (Scheme 3.75). The cycloadducts are precursor of a-amino b-hydroxycarboxylic acid esters [150]. The [2 2] cycloaddition of methyl pyruvate with 4-alkylated 5-methoxyoxazoles led to the exo-adducts with high diastereoselectivity. When the reaction was run with phenylglyoxylate, oxetanes were formed with moderate chi diastereoselectivity (79 : 21) [151]. The same authors also studied the PaternoBu reaction of enols with carbonyl compounds [152]. Hydrogen bonding effect has been explored in the reaction of allylic alcohols [153155].
N O
H O
H O h, PhH 15C 86% O O
N O
d.r.> 98 : 2 O O O O R
N O
R O O
O h, PhH 15C 60-74%
N O
R = Me, Et, Pr iPr, iBu
d.r.> 98 : 2
Scheme 3.75
3.2 Oxetanes
j193
Abe et al. have described the formation of 2-siloxy-2-alkoxyoxetanes, which can easily lead to aldol-type adducts, by photoreaction of cyclic ketene silyl acetals with 2naphthaldehyde (Scheme 3.76) [156].
OTBDMS O 2-Napht H O Me TBDMSO O O 2-Napht H
h, CH2Cl2 0C 75%
Me
Scheme 3.76
Reaction of aromatic aldehydes with silyl O,S-ketene acetals produced 3-siloxyoxetanes with high regioselectivity due to a S-directed approach (Scheme 3.77) [157]. The same group has also studied the reactivity of furan derivatives in the chi reaction [158, 159]. PaternoBu
Me O Ph H Me OTBDMS SMe h 0C, MeCN 30% O Ph H Me Me OTBDMS SMe
Scheme 3.77
3.2.4.2 Catalyzed [2 2] Cyclizations [2 2] Cycloaddition can also be performed in a catalytic manner. Oxetanes have been prepared by zirconium(IV) chloride promoted cycloaddition of allylsilane to aldehydes (Scheme 3.78). Previous work was limited to activated carbonyl compounds such as a-ketoesters or a-diketones [160].
O R H ZrCl4 CH2Cl2, -30C 28-80%
Scheme 3.78
SitBuPh2
O SitBuPh2
R= Ph(CH2)2, n-C5H11 , cyclohexyl BnOCH2, (iPr)3SiOCH2
Akiyama and Kirino have developed a stereoselective construction of oxetanes by titanium(IV) chloride promoted [2 2] cycloaddition of allylsilane to a-ketoesters. Best results were obtained with bulky substituents on the silicon and toluene as solvent. The diastereoselectivity was up to 96% (Scheme 3.79) [161].
194

O Ph O
Scheme 3.79
OEt
SitBuPh2
TiCl 4 toluene, 0C 95%-de>96%
Ph EtO2C
O SitBuPh2
Polyuorinated oxetanes have been prepared by the reaction between hexauoroacetone and uorinated ethylenic compounds. The reaction is catalyzed by aluminium chlorouoride as Lewis acid. Hydrouoroethylenes HXCCF2 (X H, F, Cl, Br) led to only one regioisomer (Scheme 3.80) [162].
F3C F3C H Br
O F3C CF3
F H
F Br
AlClxFy 100C, 18h 30%
O F F
Scheme 3.80
3.2.4.3 Ring Contraction of Butanolides Ring contractions of c-lactones into oxetanes have been studied and are used in the synthesis of oxetin or oxetanocin analogues (Scheme 3.81) [163, 164].
OBn OBn OBn -isomer OBn
O MeO
NaOH 1N MeOH 72% HO2C
Me O Ph O O OTf O
K2CO3 MeOH/MeCN -78 to -10C 89% Ph
O O
O CO2Me
Scheme 3.81
Suzuki and Tomooka have found a new anionic ring contraction reaction. They obtained oxetanes by treating cyclic acetal systems with an excess of alkyl lithium (Scheme 3.82) [165]. The four-membered rings are obtained with high diastereoisomeric excesses.
O O O Ph H
Scheme 3.82
RLi, THF -78C to rt 17% dr>95%
R Ph
O HO
H OH R= tBu, nBu, sBu, Me, C C TBS
3.2 Oxetanes
j195
b-Lactones have been obtained by contraction of butanolides via an intramolecular nucleophilic displacement of an activated group by the carboxylate anion. De Angelis et al. have produced the total inversion of conguration of the (S)-b-hydroxyc-butyrolactone via a b-lactone intermediate. This last product was also presented as a versatile chiral synthon (Scheme 3.83) [166].
MsO O
Scheme 3.83
H2O, rt O Amberlite IR 120(H+)
HO MsO
CO2H
NaHCO3
HO O O
1. NaOH 3N 2. HCl 97%
HO O O
H2O, 50C 50%(2 steps)
3.2.4.4 Oxirane Ring Opening by Carbanionic Attacks Mordini et al. have synthesized oxetanes by the isomerization of oxiranes using an equimolar mixture of butyllithium/diisopropylamine/potassium tert-butoxide (LIDAKOR) [167]. The reaction occurred when Y is a phenyl or a propargyl group, and the substituted oxetanes were produced in anti-(2,3)-congurations (Scheme 3.84) [168].
R
iPr 2NLi, tBuOK
O R
HO
-78 to -50C 50-55%
Y O R OH 98 (trans major) : 2
R= H, C5H11 , CH2OSi tBu Y= phenyl, C CH , CH CH2
Scheme 3.84
3.2.4.5 Williamson Reactions The intramolecular Williamson reaction has often been used for the preparation of cyclic ethers like oxetanes (Scheme 3.85). This SN2 displacement of a leaving group (halogen, mesylate, tosylate, etc.) by the alkoxides moiety can be performed with considerable variation in the choice of base (DBU, KOH, tBuOK, NaHMDS, etc.) [132, 133]. No recent work has been published about this reaction in particular.
HO
Scheme 3.85
Base
X= Halogene, OMs, OTs
3.2.4.6 Isomerization of Oxiranyl Hydroxyls Since an epoxy oxygen atom can serve as a good leaving group, the isomerization of oxiranyl hydroxyls has been used for oxetane preparation in total syntheses (Scheme 3.86). This reaction can be performed under acidic (BF3Et2O) or basic
196

O OH acid or base HO O O acid or base
OH
OH
Scheme 3.86
(KOH) conditions [132, 133]. No new studies of this ring opening reaction have been published recently.
3.2.4.7 Oxirane Ring Expansions Oxetanes can be obtained by treating oxiranes with dimethyloxosulfonium methylide (Scheme 3.87) [132, 133]. This well-known reaction has not receive renewed interest in recent years.
O + Me3S O ItBuOK
Scheme 3.87
3.2.4.8 Electrophilic Cyclizations This reaction, which can be performed with mild experimental conditions, is often used in total synthesis. Few methodological studies have been done. Rousseau et al. have published the preparation of oxetanes via a 4-endo cyclization process on allylic alcohols [169, 170] and via a 4-exo cyclization process on homoallylic alcohols [171], using the electrophilic reagent bis(sym-collidine)bromine(I) hexauorophosphate (HBB) or hexauoroantimonate. This reaction was also used to prepare b-lactones starting from a,b-unsaturated acids (Scheme 3.88) [169].
Ph OH Me Me HBB CH2Cl2, rt 78% Ph O Br Br HBB SiMe3 CH2Cl2, rt 80% O H Me Me
OH
H SiMe3
Bu Bu
Scheme 3.88
CO2H
HBB CH2Cl2, rt 60%
Bu Bu
O Br
3.2 Oxetanes
j197
3.2.4.9 [2 2] Cycloaddition of Ketene and Carbonyl Compounds The [2 2] cycloaddition of ketenes with carbonyl compounds is an expedient way to substituted b-lactones. Silylketenes are reactant of choice due to their better stability. The most common reagent as Lewis acid is BF3Et2O, but the goal in this area is now the use of chiral Lewis acid catalysts. Asymmetric [2 2] cycloadditions of ketene with aliphatic aldehydes have been catalyzed by chiral aluminium Lewis acids to afford optically active 4-substituted oxetan-2-ones in moderate enantiomeric excesses (Scheme 3.89) [172].
R2 O Al Me O O O R1 H R2 toluene, -78C 45-91% ee: 17-56% O O R1 R1= Me, Et, Pr, iPr, Bu, Ph R2= H, Me, SiPh3
Scheme 3.89
Romo and Yang have developed Ti-TADDOL catalysts such as 20, which provide good reactivity and moderate enantioselectivity (980% ee) in the asymmetric [2 2] cycloadditions of silylketenes and aldehydes [173].
The same group has also employed chelation controlled [2 2] cycloadditions of trimethylsilyl ketene to chiral a and b-benzyloxyaldehydes to provide a highly diastereoselective route to functionalized b-lactones. The Lewis acid MgBr2.Et2O gave the highest selectivities and yields (Scheme 3.90) [174].
BnO SiMe3
O H
1. MgBr2.Et2O CH2Cl2 2. KF.2H 2O CH3CN, -43C 94%
BnO
BnO
98: 2
Scheme 3.90
198

Yamamoto et al. have disclosed a highly diastereoselective cyclization under the inuence of bulky methyl aluminium bis(4-bromo-2,6-di-tert-butylphenoxide) (MABR) as Lewis acid (Scheme 3.91) [175]. No trace of the trans isomer could be detected.
Br
O
Al Me
Br Me3Si Et O O
H SiMe3 H
O Et CH2Cl2, -78C, 2h 82%
Scheme 3.91
Bis(oxazoline)-Cu(II) complexes have been used by Evans et al. to catalyze the enantioselective cycloaddition between silylketenes and chelating carbonyl substrates. b-Lactones have been produced in excellent yields and selectivities (Scheme 3.92) [176].
2+ O CMe3 MeO2C Et O 2SbF6O
O Me3C OMe O
Me Me N Cu N
H SiMe3 Et
CH2Cl2, -50 to -40C then KF, C H3CN 92% ee: 99%
Scheme 3.92
3.2.4.10 Acyl HalideAldehyde Cyclocondensations The acyl halidealdehyde cyclocondensation can be classied between the [2 2] cycloaddition of ketenes to carbonyl compounds and the catalyzed aldol-lactonization reaction. Actually, the reaction can progress via in situ ketene formation or via an ammonium enolate (Scheme 3.93). This aldol-addition reaction equivalent has induced much interest, especially in its catalyzed asymmetric version. The use of tertiary amines as both base to effect dehydrochlorination and nucleophile to promote the reaction of ketenes and aldehydes has been demonstrated. Romo and Tennyson have taken their inspiration from the Wynberg procedure [177] for the synthesis of optically active dichlorinated b-lactones via an in situ generated ketene. Di-chlorinated aldehydes were reacted with acetyl chloride in the
3.2 Oxetanes
j199
O O X Me R1
3N
R2 R2
catalyst
R13N
O R13N
O H R2 R2 O
Scheme 3.93
presence of Hunigs base and 2 mol% of quinidine A (21). Dichlorinated b-lactones were obtained with 9398% enantiomeric excesses (Scheme 3.94) [178].
O R Cl Cl Cl H O R Cl Cl O R= Me, iPr, C 6H13, Bn
iPr
2NEt,
toluene, rt
2 mol% of 21 40-85% ee: 93-98% MeO HO H N N 21 H
Scheme 3.94
Romo et al. have also investigated an intramolecular aldol-lactonization reaction. Chiral bicyclic b-lactones have been obtained with high enantiomeric excess from non-activated aldehydes in the presence of 10 mol% of catalyst 21 (Scheme 3.95) [179].
3 equiv. CO2H CHO Cl N Me I 4 equiv. iPr2Et CH3CN, 25C 10 mol % of 21 54% ee: 92%
Scheme 3.95
O O
200

In a rst stage, Nelson et al. have presented an Al(III)-catalyzed acyl halidealdehyde cyclocondensation reaction. A catalytic quantity of Al(SbF6)3 in concert with di (isopropyl)ethylamine constituted the most successful reaction promoter [180].They continued with asymmetric cyclocondensations catalyzed by chiral Al(III) triamine derivatives 22 or 23 [181, 182]. This methodology can be applied to a large range of aldehydes and to substituted ketenes. 3,4-Disubstituted b-lactones are accessible with excellent optical purity (Scheme 3.96).
O Br
O R1 H R2
10-20 mol % of 22 or 23 BTF, -25 C

iPr
O R1
O R2
R1=H, Me, Et, iPr, nPr R2= (CH2)2Ph, (CH2)2OBn, C CSiMe3
56-96% ee: 54-93% Bn N N Al R N
2NEt
Pr
iPr
CF3 F3C
i
Pr N
N Al Me 23 N
Pr SO2CF3
F3CO2S
SO2CF3 F3C
O2S
R= Me, Cl 22
Scheme 3.96
In attempting to expand the scope of Wynbergs original ketenealdehyde cycloadditions, Nelson et al. have developed a cinchona alkaloidLewis acid catalyzed acid chloridealdehyde cyclocondensation. The TMSQ/LiClO4 catalyst system allows the reaction with a-branched aldehydes or with methyl ketene. The 3,4-disubstituted b-lactones are obtained in excellent enantiomeric excess (Scheme 3.97) [183].
O Cl
R1
O R2
10 mol %TMSQ CH2Cl2/Et2O -25C LiClO4, iPr2NEt 71-85% ee: 92-99%
O R1
O R2
R1= H, Me R2= C6H11 , tBu, (CH2)2Ph, C6H4Cl TMSQ= O-trimethylsilylquinidine
Scheme 3.97
3.2.4.11 CH Insertions Intramolecular CH insertion in the catalytic decomposition of diazomalonic esters has often been used in the preparation of b- and c-lactones. However, this reaction depends on the substitution pattern of insertion centers and the conformational bias
3.2 Oxetanes
j201
of metallocarbenes, leading to a mixture of both b- and c-lactones [184, 185]. Balaji and Chanda have shown that steric effects may play a major role in the CH insertion of inactivated a-diazo-a-aroyl esters, catalyzed by rhodium(II) carboxylates. The reaction of a-diazo-a-benzoyl esters catalyzed by various rhodium carboxylates yielded b-lactones as the only products (Scheme 3.98) [186].
O Ph N2
O O
O Rh2(OAc)4 CH2Cl2, reflux 55% Ph H O
O H
Scheme 3.98
CH insertion reactions catalyzed with immobilized dirhodium(II) salt having mixed chiral ligands have been reported by Doyle et al. They observed that the enantioselectivity was slightly increased with the most selective azetidinone-ligated homogeneous catalyst 25 (Scheme 3.99) [187].
O O N2
10 mol% of 24 or 25 CH2Cl2 71-83% ee: 33-42%
O Ph
Me Me
O N O
CO2Me Rh2 N O 24
3
O Rh2 N CO2Me 25
4
Scheme 3.99
3.2.4.12 Carbonylative Ring Expansion Reactions Alper et al. have described the carbonylation of epoxides with a new catalyst, PPNCo(CO)4 [PPNbis(triphenylphosphine)iminium], used in conjunction with BF3Et2O. Carbonylations occurred selectively at the unsubstituted CO bond of the epoxide rings. These reactions tolerate various functional groups such as alkenyls, halides, hydroxyls and alkyl ethers. The b-lactones are obtained in good yields without polymeric by-products (Scheme 3.100) [188].
202

CO + R O PPNCo(CO)4 BF3.Et2O DME, 80 57-86% R O O R= H, Me, CH2OiPr, Ph CH2Cl, CH2OH, nBu nHex, (CH2)4CH=CH2, (CH2)2CH=CH2
Scheme 3.100
Coates et al. have developed three catalyst for the carbonylation of substituted epoxides: [(salph)Al(THF)2][Co(CO)4] (26) [189], [Cp2Ti(THF)2][Co(CO)4] (27) [190] and [(TPP)Cr(THF)2][Co(CO)4] [28, with THF in the axial positions (not shown)] [191]. Catalyst 28 is the most active and selective with a wide range of epoxides.
[Co(CO)4]L + N Al O O L N 26 + O Ti O [Co(CO)4]-
Bu
tBu
Bu
tBu
L= THF
27
Ph N + Cr N N Ph 28
Ph [Co(CO)4]-
Ph
3.2.4.13 b-Hydroxy Acid Cyclizations The cyclization of b-hydroxy acids is largely used in the synthesis of molecules possessing a b-lactone moiety. This reaction can be executed following an addition elimination process or a nucleophilic substitution process [132, 133]. In the additionelimination way, Adams method (pyridine/ArSO2Cl; Ar Ph, 4-MePh, 4-NO2Ph) [192] is the most commonly used, but different reactants can also activate the carboxylic acid, such as Et3N/BOPCl [bis-(2-oxo-3-oxazolidinyl)phosphonic chloride], DCC/HOBt, EDC/HOBt, etc. The intramolecular nucleophilic substitution can be pursued by the Mitsunobu reaction (PPh3/DEAD or DMAD) [193]. 3.2.5 Reactivity 3.2.5.1 b-Lactones The reactivity of b-lactones has been already [194]. It can be broken down into four areas:
. .
nucleophilic attack with ring opening; Lewis acid promoted rearrangement;
3.2 Oxetanes
. .
j203
decarboxylation; enolate formation and reaction toward electrophiles.
3.2.5.1.1 Nucleophilic Attacks It has already been demonstrated that the ring opening of b-lactones can occur through two different pathways. Attack via an additionelimination process at the carbonyl residue affords access to b-hydroxy adducts. A nucleophilic substitution reaction at the C4 atom can produce b-substituted carboxylic acid derivatives (Scheme 3.101).
O HO Nu R O SN2 Nu2 3 1
O
4
A.E. R Nu-
O Nu
OH R
Scheme 3.101
Organomagnesium and organolithium reagents attack b-lactones at the carbonyl, leading to oxygenacyl cleavage. Organocuprates induce the oxygen alkenyl cleavage. Ring opening of b-lactone by hetero-nucleophiles has been much studied. Goodman et al. [195], inspired by Vederas results [196], have synthesized lanthiomine derivatives by ring opening of a protected serine b-lactone by the thiolate anion of methyl Boc-(S)-cysteinate derivatives (Scheme 3.102).
O CbzHN H O O HS BocHN O O Cs2CO3 DMF, rt 92% HO BocHN S O
O CbzHN
Scheme 3.102
Palomo et al. [197] have obtained dipeptides by coupling an a-dichloro b-lactone with (S)-leucine or (S)-phenylalanine and subsequent dechlorination (Scheme 3.103).
NHBoc O R 1. H2N CO2Me CH2Cl2, rt 2. H2, Pd/C Et3N, EtOH 85-87% BocHN OH O H N R R= CH2CH(CH3)2, CH2Ph
Cl
Cl
CO2Me
Scheme 3.103
Ring opening of b-lactones by hydrazone anions, followed by dehydroamination cyclizations of the b-ketohydrazone intermediates in the presence of amberlyst-15 acid resin, yields dihydropyrones (Scheme 3.104) [198].
204

O O R1 THF then Am-15 65C N R2 O N R
3
N R2
Li
R OH R1 68-81%
R2 O R1
R3
R1= CH2Ph, (CH2)2Ph, (CH2)8CH=CH2 C CSiMe3 , CHOBn R2= H,Et R3= H,Me
Scheme 3.104
Nelson et al. [199] have demonstrated that primary and secondary amines promote a ring opening by additionelimination to deliver b-hydroxyamides (Scheme 3.105). Sodium azide reacts in an SN2 manner to produce b-azido acids, and sulfonamide anions give rise to b-amino acids.
O O Ph N H O HO N3 OH Ph
PhCH2NH2 Et3N, CH2Cl2 88% Ph
NaN3 DMSO, 50C 95%
Scheme 3.105
Acylation of aromatic compounds with chiral b-trichloromethyl b-propiolactone in the presence of Lewis acid has been investigated by Fujisawa et al. [200]. The FriedelCrafts products retain completely the stereochemical integrity of the starting b-lactone. This method has been applied to the synthesis of a precursor of enalapril, an angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor (Scheme 3.106).
O PhH, 5C, 9h Ph H CCl3 90% O Lewis acid
OH CCl3 Ph
EtO2C N H N O CO2H
Enalapril
Lewis acids= AlCl 3, AlBr3, FeCl3, TiCl4, EtAlCl2, Et2AlCl

Scheme 3.106
The utility of b-lactones as intermediates for asymmetric synthesis has been limited by the difculty for their preparation in enantiomerically pure form. Nelson and Spencer [201] have examined enzymatic resolution for the preparation of enantiomerically enriched b-lactones (Scheme 3.107). This method allows the preparation of 4-substituted b-propiolactones with high enantiomeric excesses simultaneously with enantiomerically enriched b-hydroxy esters.
3.2 Oxetanes
j205
O C6H11
PS lipase
iPr 2O,
O C6H11 BnO
OH C6H11
BnOH 35C
44%; 99%ee
48%; 92%ee
Scheme 3.107
3.2.5.1.2 Lewis Acid Promoted Rearrangements Ring expansion of b-lactones to afford c-lactones can be performed with various Lewis acids, p.TsOH, ZnCl2, BF3.OEt or Ti(O-iPr)4. The best catalyst appears to be MgBr2 (Scheme 3.108) [202].
O O Ph
O Ph
MgBr2 Et2O 64%
Scheme 3.108
This dyotropic rearrangement involves simultaneous positional interchange of two adjacent atoms having an anti-coplanar stereochemistry relationship. Inversion of stereochemistry at C4 atom is always observed [203]. Black et al. have prepared spiro [204] and cis-fused c-lactones (Scheme 3.109) [205] via such b-lactones rearrangements. b-Elimination can occur in place of rearrangement when the C4 atom is tertiary [206].
O O H H O Ph MgBr2 Et2O, 6h 76% HMe Me O OMe O O O Ph
MgBr2 Me Me Et 2O, 25C OMe 85%
Scheme 3.109
3.2.5.1.3 Decarboxylations The thermal decomposition of b-lactones into alkenes takes place between 80 and 160 C. The reaction is a stereospecic cis-elimination: cis-disubstituted b-lactones lead to a (Z)-olens whereas trans-disubstituted b-lactones lead to (E)-olens. These reactions can be regarded as alternative to Wittig reactions. Dolbier et al. have used this method to synthesize 1,1-diuoroalkenes via a,a-diuoro-b-lactones (Scheme 3.110) [207, 208].
206

O Me O F F 100C 85% Cl Me F F
Cl
Scheme 3.110
Adam et al. [209] have obtained allyl amines and suldes by conjugate addition of amine and thiol nucleophiles to a-methylene b-lactones and subsequent decarboxylation (Scheme 3.111).
Nu O R O Nu
-
O R O 92% 97%
Nu -CO2 R 51% 86% R= Me, iPr
Nu= pyrrolidine PhSH

Scheme 3.111
With the same strategy the conjugate addition of ester and ketone enolates to a-methylene b-lactones followed by decarboxylation leads to c,dunsaturated esters with complete stereoselectivity (Scheme 3.112) [210].
O O O 1. THF, -78C 2. aq NH4Cl

t tBuO
O O 180C O -CO2 87%
O
tBuO
BuO Me Me
42%
LiO
BuO O
O
t
BuO
cis/trans : 16/84
Scheme 3.112
3.2.5.1.4 Enolate Formation and Reaction Towards Electrophiles The enolate of b-lactones can be generated by treatment with lithium diisopropylamide and trapped with various electrophiles such as alkyl-, allyl- or propargyl halides, aldehydes,
3.2 Oxetanes
j207
dimethyl maleate, etc. Diastereoselective reactions take place when oxetan-2-ones are b-substituted, leading to the trans-disubstituted products (Scheme 3.113) [194].
O O R1
Scheme 3.113
iPr 2NLi
O XR2 O R1 R2 R1,R2= Alkyl
As the alkylation of b-lactones unsubstituted at the a-position leads to low yields, a desilylationalkylation method has been introduced by Mead et al. [211]. Kocienski et al. have used this modied procedure, in the synthesis of the hypocholesterolemic agent 1233A, to introduce a hydroxymethyl group a to the carbonyl, via the tetrabutylammonium enolate of a b-lactone (Scheme 3.114) [212].
O SiMe3 OtBu Me Me O 1.TBAF, C O2 -78C 2. BH3.THF 0C 42% Me OtBu Me Me O O OH
O Me
Scheme 3.114
3.2.5.1.5 Polymerization of b-Lactones Polymerization of b-lactones has aroused interest as biodegradable polymer products can be applied in biomedical applications [213215]. Pohl et al. [216] have synthesized chiral polyesters by protic acidcatalyzed polymerization of b-lactones. A stereogenic site repeated in each molecular unit can change the polymer properties, in comparison with the racemic polymers (Scheme 3.115).
TFA MeOH toluene 35C 97% O
O O
O
n
Scheme 3.115
3.2.5.1.6 Miscellaneous Methyl ketene dimer has been used to prepare b-ketoesters or b-ketoamides by nucleophilic attack on the carbonyl function by lithium amides or amines (Scheme 3.116) [217].
208

Me O Me
Scheme 3.116
H N
OMe Me Me
O Me OMe N Me
10 mmol % pyridone 72%
3.2.5.2 Oxetanes 3.2.5.2.1 Nucleophilic Attacks Two positions (C2 and C4) in the oxetane are amenable to nucleophilic attack. Bach et al. [218] have studied intramolecular ring opening reactions of 2-phenyl-3-oxetanols. They have obtained tetrahydropyrans, thiotetrahydropyrans or piperidines by anionic attack at the C4 carbon atom of a heteroatom attached at the C3 position via an alkyl or aryl chain (Scheme 3.117).
O Ph HO OH 54% O Ph OTMS SAc MeLi DME reflux S Ph HO OH 37% O Ph OTMS NHTs MeMgBr DME reflux Ts N Ph HO OH 41%
Scheme 3.117
O Ph OTMS
OPiv
MeLi DME reflux
+ Ph
O OTMS 13% S
OTMS
Ph TMSO OH 55% Ts N
Ph TMSO OH 12%
A second ring-opening reaction proceeds by attack at the C2 position upon activation by acid reagents. Boc-protected 3-oxetanols have been transformed into cyclic carbonates as a mixture of diastereomers (Scheme 3.118) [218].
O Ph O
iPr
OtBu
TFA, CH2Cl2 -20 to 25C 62%
Ph O O O
OH
iPr
Ph O O O
OH
iPr
Ph O O O
OtBu
iPr
Ph O O O
OtBu
iPr
Scheme 3.118
3.2 Oxetanes
j209
Howell and Hashemzadeh [219] have carried out reductive cleavage of 3,3dimethyl-2-methylene-4-phenyl oxetane with lithium and 4,40 -di-tert-butylbiphenyl (DTBB). The resulting dianion reacts with aldehydes and ketones to give aldol adducts (Scheme 3.119).
Ph O
Li DTBB -78C
Li Ph
OLi
Electrophile
O Ph Rdt E
Electrophile
Product O
H2O
Ph O
100%
O O CH3
Scheme 3.119
Ph HO O H Ph
48%
43%
The ring opening of oxetanes by samarium diiodide and acyl chloride has been investigated, but the regioselectivity was not always satisfactory. In general, a mixture of iodo products was obtained. In the particular case of 2-phenyloxetane, only the deiodinated product was isolated (Scheme 3.120) [220].
Ph
SmI2, AcCl THP, rt 82% Ph O
O O
Ph 5 I :
O O 4
I Ph
SmI2, BzCl THP, rt 89% Ph
O O Ph
Scheme 3.120
Kellogg et al. [221] have studied the acid catalyzed ring opening reactions of optically pure 2-aryl-3,3-dimethyloxetanes. The aqueous or alcoholic sulfuric acid catalyzed ring opening reaction occurs at the benzylic position with partial inversion of conguration (Scheme 3.121).
210

H3C CH3 O Cl (S) 0,1N H2SO4 1 day, reflux 94% H3C CH3 HO OH Cl
(R) 64%ee
H3C CH3 O (R)

Scheme 3.121
1% H2SO4 in MeOH 12h, reflux 87%
H3C CH3 HO OCH3
(S) 70%ee
Lewis acid catalyzed nucleophilic ring opening with alkyl lithiums or lithium thiolates occurs at the less hindered carbon with preservation of the stereochemical integrity. Benzyl alcohols are obtained in enantiomerically pure form, with good yields (Scheme 3.122) [221]. Grignard reagents or amines with or without acid catalyst were not successful in the ring opening.
H3C CH3 O Cl (R) H3C CH3 OH (S)
nBuLi, BF3.Et2O THF, -78 C 5-10mn
H3C CH3 O (R)

Scheme 3.122
nC4H9SH, nBuLi BF3.Et2O THF, -78 C 75%
nH9C4
H3C CH3 S OH (R)
Bach et al. [222] have shown that substituted oxetane rings could be opened at the more hindered carbon with LiAlH4. To induce this regioselectivity they attached a hydroxyl group at the arene C2 substituent (Scheme 3.123).
O
tBu
O
iPr
OTMS
LiAlH4 THF, 0C 85%
OH
i
Pr OH
OH
Scheme 3.123
3.2 Oxetanes
j211
3.2.5.2.2 Ring Expansions Nozaki and Noyori rst reported in 1966 the asymmetric ring expansion of oxetanes to tetrahydrofurans using chiral copper catalyst (Scheme 3.124) [223].
Ph Me N O O Ph O OMe N2
H O N MePh
Cu H
CO2Me
60C 85%
Ph
cis/trans : 1/2
Scheme 3.124
Katzuki has established that this copper-catalyzed reaction proceeds with good stereoselectivity in the presence of bipyridine ligands [224]. Reaction of 2-aryl substituted oxetanes with tert-butyl diazoacetate in the presence of a chiral Cu complex furnishes 2,3-disubstituted furan derivatives with high enantiomeric excesses (Scheme 3.125).
N Ar O O N2 OtBu
N Ar Ar CO2tBu O CO2tBu Ar = Ph, pClPh, pMePh, PhCH=CH TBSO O
OTBS
CuOTf, CH2Cl2, rt Rdt= 35% Rdt= 30%
(R)-2-Phenyloxetane (89%ee) (S)-2-Phenyloxetane (85%ee)
89 (92%ee) 25 (11%ee)
11 (16%ee) 75 (93%ee)
Scheme 3.125
This enantiospecic ring expansion method has been applied to formal syntheses of the natural products ()-avenaciolide (29) and ()-isoavenaciolide (30).
H O nC8H17 O O H O O O H H nC8H17 O O
(-)-Avenaciolide 29
(-)-Isoavenaciolide 30
212

Fu et al. [225] have explored this reaction with a Cu(I) bisazaferrocene catalyst. Both trans- and cis-disubstituted tetrahydrofurans with good enantiomeric excesses are obtained when (R,R) or (S,S) catalysts 31 are used respectively (Scheme 3.126).
O Ar OCMeCy2 N2 O Ar OCMeCy2 N2 Me Me Me N Me Me Me
Scheme 3.126
1% CuOTf 1,1% (R,R)-31 AcOEt, rt 29-81% 1% CuOTf 1,1% (S,S)-31 AcOEt, rt 20-74% Me Me
CO2CMeCy2 Ar 69-98% ee
CO2CMeCy2 Ar 82-95% ee
Fe
Me Me
N Fe
Ar = Ph,4-(F3C)C6H4, 4-(MeO)C6H4, 1-naphthyl, nC7H5C C C
(R,R)-31
An unusual ring expansion of 2-methyleneoxetane has been observed by Howell et al. [226] in the presence of lithium and 4,40 -di-tert-butylbiphenyl (Scheme 3.127). The resulting lactone was postulated to arise from a coupling between a radical enolate derived from 2-methyleneoxetane and the acetaldehyde enolate, a decomposition product of THF.
tBu
tBu
O Ph
Scheme 3.127
Li THF, -78 C 84%
Ph
Hara et al. [227] have focused on the stereoselective synthesis of uorinated cyclic ethers, since their derivatives seemed to be involved in biochemical mechanisms. They have reported the ring expansion of oxetanes using 4-iodotoluene diuoride. Fluorinated furans were obtained in good yield and as a single stereoisomer from 2,4substituted oxetanes (Scheme 3.128).
3.2 Oxetanes
j213
H15C7
I Me
pTol-IF
H15C7
O F Me O F Me
Et3N-5HF CH2Cl2, rt 88%

pTol-IF 2
H15C7
I Me
H15C7
Et3N-5HF CH2Cl2, rt 86%
Scheme 3.128
3.2.5.2.3 2-Methylene Oxetanes Ring Openings Howell et al. [228] have worked on 2-methyleneoxetane derivatives. This ring system contains several potential reactive features: the ring strain, an exocyclic double bond, electron-rich enol ether and a latent enolate leaving group. They demonstrated that 2-methyleneoxetanes underwent regioselective ring opening at the C2 position when treated with trimethylaluminium and either phenyl- or butyllithium. The homopropargylic alcohol was then isolated as a single product in good yield. The reaction in the presence of LDA, the additive was not necessary (Scheme 3.129).
O Ph Me
Me3Al PhLi or BuLi THF, -78Cto rt R1 R O
Ph Me
OAlMe3 H
excess base
Ph Me
OAlMe3 Li
H+ 60-70%
OH Ph Me H
R2 R3
1) iPr2NLi THF, 0C 2) electrophile 48-88%
R1
R OH R4
R2 R3
R, R1 = H, Me, (CH2)5 R2, R3 = H, Me, Ph, CH2CH=CH2, (CH2)3OSitBuPh2 R4 = H, Me, Si(Me)3 E = Me3SiCl, CH3I
Scheme 3.129
The same group then achieved nucleophilic ring opening of 2-methyleneoxetanes at C4 [229]. Stabilized carbanionic nucleophiles and heteroatom nucleophiles provided C4 ring opening, leading to b-functionalized ketones (Scheme 3.130).
3.2.5.2.4 Thermolysis and Photolysis Thermolysis of oxetane derivatives can lead to multiple products from unsymmetrically substituted rings. The lack of regioselectivity has been attributed to similar bond dissociation energies for the carboncarbon and carbonoxygen bonds (Scheme 3.131) [132, 133]. chi Photolytic fragmentation of oxetane is the formal reverse of the PaternoBu reaction. This reaction has attracted some interest as it appears to be involved in the
214

O Ph Me Conditions PhCH2Li, BuLi, PhCH3, TMEDA, 0C MgCl , THF, reflu x PhOH, NaH, DMF, 100 C NaI, DMF/H2O, 100C
Scheme 3.130
O Nu Ph Me Rdt 81% 86% 70% 40% I Nu PhCH2 CH2 PhO
O
Scheme 3.131
photoenzymatic repair of the (64) photoproducts of DNA dipyrimidine sites by the enzyme photolyase [230].
3.2.5.2.5 Polymerizations Kakuchi et al. [231] have prepared a fused 15-crown-4 polymer, a novel ladder polymer, by a two-step polymerization of an oxetanyl oxirane. This polymer showed metal cation binding properties (Scheme 3.132).
O O
t
O BuOK O
O BF3.Et2O CH2Cl2, 0C 60-90% O
THF or toluene or neat O 72-98%

Scheme 3.132
3.3 Thietanes 3.3.1 Introduction
Thietanes have received much less attention than azetidines and oxetanes. Some reviews have, though, been published on their chemistry [232234]. The ring strain of thietane (80 kJ mol 1) is comparable to that of thiirane (three-membered ring). This
3.3 Thietanes
j215
explains their difcult formation by ring closure and, conversely, their easy cleavage by electrophilic and nucleophilic reagents.
Conformations of 3-substituted thietanes 1-oxide have been studied [235]. Ab initio SCF calculations (G-31G level) of thietanes examined the change of CC bond lengths and angular deformations [236] compared to sulfur heterocycles of higher ring sizes. Calculations on the reaction of thietane with NH3 explained the greater reactivity of this compound compared to oxetane [237]. Calculations concerning the ring closure of HS(CH2)3S- to thietane were also reported [238]. Details concerning the NMR spectroscopy of thietane derivatives have been reported in previous reviews [232, 233]. The a-protons of thietane appear at d 3.21 ppm (4.09 for thietane 1,1-dioxide). The 13 C NMR chemical shifts have been reported to be at 25 ppm for the a-carbons and 27 ppm for the b-carbon. The a-carbon shifts in thietanes appear in general at higher eld than those of the b-carbon [233]. The 33 S NMR spectra of thietane, thietane 1-oxide and thietane 1,1-dioxide have been recorded [239]. In mass spectra, the main fragmentation includes retro [2 2] cycloaddition for thietanes, thiolactones and iminothietanes, and loss of, respectively, SO and SO2 for thietane 1-oxides and thietane 1,1-dioxides [232].
3.3.3 Natural and Bioactive Compounds
Mono and dialkyl thietanes 3235 have been detected in anal gland secretions of small mammals (ferrets, polecats, stoats, minks, weasels, kiores, voles, etc.).
R S R 32 R = Me, Et, Pr, iPr 33 R = Me, Et 34 S R Me S Me 35 S Me Me
L-a-Aspartyl-N-(2,2,4,4-tetramethyl-3-thietanyl)-D-alaninamide (36), a sweetener that is 2000 more efcient than sugar, has been developed by Pzer under the name Alitame [240] and commercialized in different countries.
O Me Me S Me Me O H N OH NH2
N H H Me O 36
216

3.3.4 Synthesis of Thietanes 3.3.4.1 Synthesis by Formation of a SC Bond 3.3.4.1.1 Formation from 3-Halo Thiol Derivatives The reaction of S-benzyl-Nphthaloylcysteinyl chloride with two equivalents of AlCl3 affords the corresponding thiolactone (Scheme 3.133) [241]. Similar result was obtained for the free thiol function.
O N O
Scheme 3.133
O Cl S
AlCl3, benzene 65 C, 3 h 55 %
O N O
O S
Bn
Intramolecular reaction of thiolate, generated by base cleavage of thioacetate, on a secondary bromide leads to a bridged thietane [242] (Scheme 3.134). This approach to thietanes has been little studied.
S SAc Br
Scheme 3.134
Br
KOH, EtOH, rt 40 %
Br H
3.3.4.1.2 Formation from 3-Hydroxy Thiol Derivatives Cyclization of 4-thio-4methylbutanol into 2,2-dimethylthietane occurs in high yield when diethoxytriphenylphosphorane is used as reagent (Scheme 3.135) [243].
R Ph3P S OH - EtOH Ph3P S O R - Ph3PO 40-90%
HS R R
OH
Ph3P(OEt)2 toluene
S R R
EtO R R
R = H, Me
Scheme 3.135
Sulfur analogues of thromboxane A2 are obtained when the alcohol function is activated as mesylate [244] (Scheme 3.136). Nucleoside derivatives have also been obtained by a similar procedure [245]. Flash vacuum pyrolysis (500750 C) of (2-mercaptophenyl)methanol derivatives leads to the formation of thietanes, generally in good yields. For example, heating at
3.3 Thietanes
OMs CO2Me MeO2C S O OSiPh3 NaN(SiMe3)3 benzene, 60 C, 1h then HMPA, 70 C, 20 min 36% NaHCO3, MeOH 30 C, 1h 81% S OMe H H OMs S O
j217
CO2Me
OSiPh3
AcS MsO
OMe H H OMs
Scheme 3.136
750 C of (3,6-dimercapto-1,2-phenylene)dimethanol furnishes 4,9-dithiatricyclo [6.2.0.02,5]deca-1,5,7-triene, which appears to be stable under 90 C (Scheme 3.137) [246].
SH CH2OH CH2OH SH
Scheme 3.137
S F.V.P. (750 C ) 47% S
Such thermal formation of thietanes was shown to be possible when benzotriazoles [247] or acids [248] were present as reaction groups instead of alcohol functions (Scheme 3.138).
N N SH
F.V.P. (750 C ) 58 % S O S + N S O S N 30% O N
CO2H F.V.P. (550 C ) N SH N S
41%
Scheme 3.138
218

Thietan-2-ones are formed by the reaction of 3-mercaptocarboxylic acids with DCC [249], ibutyl chloroformate [250], methyl chloroformate [251], Ac2O [252], diethyl cyanophosphonate [253] or 1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)carbodiimide hydrochloride (EDAC) (Scheme 3.139) [254].
O EDAC = 1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)carbodiimide
SH
EDAC, CH2Cl2 CO2H rt, 1 h 86%

Scheme 3.139
An original preparation of thietan-2-one has also been reported: the reaction of 3iodopropanoyl chloride with an ammonium tetrathiomolybdate salt (Scheme 3.140) [255].
(PhCH2NEt3)2MoS4, CHCl3 I O
Scheme 3.140
Cl
40 h, 0 C 30% S
3.3.4.1.3 Formation from Other 3-Functionalized Thiol Derivatives a-Bromomethyl thioesters react with cobalt oximes to give the corresponding organocobalt compounds that, under photolysis, afford thietanes. This method appears synthetically useful only for the structure reported in Scheme 3.141 [256].
NOH O Me Ms StBu Br 1. CoCl2, Me
Me Me Ms
NaOMe, MeOH NOH
O StBu [Co]
h (pyrex) benzene 56% H O
O S Me Ms
2. Pyridine, Zn, 0 C then rt, 5 h
Ms = 2,4,6-trimethylbenzene
[Co] =
Me Me
HO N
Me Me
Co N py N O HO H
Scheme 3.141
3.3 Thietanes
j219
Reaction of ethyl 2-mercaptoacetate with LDA followed by addition of a dichlorodiimine gives a 2,3-diiminothietane derivative (Scheme 3.142) [257]. When the R groups xed at the nitrogen atoms were phenyl or 4-methoxyphenyl, the 2,3diiminothietanes were not isolated, due to their ring opening in the reaction mixture.
LDA, TMEDA, THF, -40 C O EtO SH then RN Cl Cl (R = Tol), THF, -78 C NR 30%
Scheme 3.142
NR S NR CO2Et
1,4-Addition of O,O-diethyl hydrogen dithiophosphate on the carboncarbon double bond of chalcones affords a compound that then, under microwave irradiation in the presence of nucleophiles, gives thietanes (Scheme 3.143) [258]. This reaction was previously reported to occur by heating in the presence of a NaHNaBH4 mixture [259].
Al2O3 R2 microwaves 600 W 3-4 min 8-92%
R1 O
R2
S OEt + HS P OEt
R1 S O S P EtO OEt
Nu R2 S H R1
Nu = NaCN, MeSNa, EtSNa R1, R2 = Ph, 4-ClC6H4
Scheme 3.143
5-Substituted 2-thiooxoimidazolidin-4-ones react with sodium tert-butylate to yield bicyclothietenes (Scheme 3.144) [260].
Ar1N S N H
O S Ar
2
tBuONa, tBuOH
P OEt O
OEt
reflux, 4 h 70-83%
Ar1N S N H
S Ar
2
Ar1 = Ph, 4-MeOC6H4 Ar2 = Ph, 4-ClC6H4
Scheme 3.144
Thietanes are rarely formed by electrophile-induced cyclizations of unsaturated suldes [261]. A thietane is obtained in mixture with other products by reaction of a c-unsaturated thiol with bromine (Scheme 3.145). Utilization of the corresponding disulde allowed exclusive formation of the expected thietane [262].
220

Me Me SH NHCO2Me Br2, CH2Cl2 S MeO2CHN 35% Me S MeO2CHN
Scheme 3.145
Br + O Me
O NH S 28% Me S MeO2CHN Br + Me Br S 20% NHCO2Me
Me S NHCO2Me
Br2, CH2Cl2 75%
The dianion of 1-(prop-2-ynyl)benzene reacts with phenyl thioisocyanate to give a thioimidate that, by reaction with potassium tbutylate, leads to the formation of a thietane (Scheme 3.146) [263].
Ph Ph 1. 2 eq. nBuLi, THF 2. N C S 3. tBuOH R R1 N Ph SH 1. tBuOK, DMSO 2. MeI N R1 S or N R1 Ph S Me
65% (R1 = Me, tBu)
77% (R1 = Ph)
Scheme 3.146
An efcient preparation of thietanes in two steps occurs by reaction of 1,3-diols with dibenzoxazol-2-yl disulde and tributylphosphine, followed by treatment of the resulting 2-(3-hydroxyalkylthio)benzoxazoles with KH (Scheme 3.147) [264]. The thio-Mitsunobu reaction applied to thioamides gives rise to the formation of a-iminothietanes (Scheme 3.147) [265].
N HO R3 R2 R1 OH O
S
2
N O
OH H R 1 R2 R3
KH, THF rt, 4 h 32-72%
R3 H S
R1 = H, Me, Et R2 R2 = H, Me, Bu R1 R3 = H, Me, Ph
Ph3P (or Bu3Ph), THF, rt 38-72% HO NHMe N S
diethyl azodicarboxylate PPh3, THF, rt 70%
MeN N
Scheme 3.147
3.3 Thietanes
j221
The formation of thietanes is also possible by electroreduction in the presence of Ni(II) salem as catalyst (Scheme 3.148) [266].
Electrolyse DMF, E t4NClO4, 0.1 M Ph Et SCO2Me

Scheme 3.148
Ph N S Et Ni O O Ni(II) Salem N
graphite cathode Ni(II) Salem 82%
3.3.4.2 Synthesis by Formation of a CC Bond Under phase transfer catalysis conditions, 1-bromomethylsulfonyl-2-phenylethane affords, in the presence of sodium hydroxide, 2-phenylthietane-1,1-dioxide, via intramolecular cyclization of the benzyl anion. The RambergB acklund product is not observed (Scheme 3.149) [267].
NaOH, CH2Cl2
Br
O O S
Ph
10 mol % Bu4N+Br-, rt 83%
Ph
O O
Scheme 3.149
Thietanols can be formed by uoride-mediated cyclization of (Z)-a-silyl vinylsuldes (Scheme 3.150) [268].
R1
O R3
THF, B u4N+Freflux, 2-4 h 30-86%
R1
S R3 OH
R1 = Et, iPr, Ph R2 = Me, Ph R3 = Me, Me , OBzl Me N(Bzl)2
SiMe2R2
Scheme 3.150
3.3.4.3 Synthesis by Formation of Two SC Bonds The oldest method for the preparation of thietanes involves the reaction of 1,3dihalides with sodium sulde. Numerous conditions have been studied [232, 233]. Excellent results have been reported for phase transfer conditions (Scheme 3.151) [269]. A spiro thietane is formed upon reaction of a 1,3-dibromo derivative with Na2S in DMF [270].
222

Na2S, CH2Cl2, H2O R1 R2 R3 Br Br O O X X hexadecylEt3N+Clrt, 2-3.5 h 57-94% Me Me Na2S.9H2O, DMF 100 C, 6 h 97% O O Me Me S R3 R2 R1 X = Cl, Br R1 = H, OH, Me R2, R3 = H, ,Me
Scheme 3.151
Derivatives of 1,3-diol benzoates (Scheme 3.152) [271], mesylates [272] and tosylates (Scheme 3.152) [273] were also efcient in these preparations.
O Me Ph O O O Ph S OTs EtO S- K+ , acetone reflux, 2 d 80% Ph S HO2C NH O 81% Ph S NH2 Ph Ph Na2S . 9H2O, DMSO 90 C, 6 h 65% Me Ph S
O N O
OTs
Scheme 3.152
1,3-Diols protected as carbonates can also lead to thietanes by reaction with KSCN at high temperature. This method has been reported for the preparation of (S)-2propylthietane, which is a natural product (Section 3.3.3) (Scheme 3.153) [274]. This procedure was used more recently in the case of a 1,2,3-propane triol derivative [275].
OH Pr OH ee: 80% OH OH OH 1. (EtO)2CO, NaH, reflux, 3 h 2. KSCN, 200 C 63%
H Pr
ee: 80% Me OH
1. (EtO)2CO, KOH, EtOH, 120 C, 2 h Me 2. KSCN, 180 C 38% S
Scheme 3.153
3.3 Thietanes
j223
Reactions of b-halo epoxides with different sulfur reagents give rise to 3-thietanols in good yields. The rst sulfur reagent used was H2S in the presence of sodium ethoxide (Scheme 3.154) [276], or Ba(OH)2 [277].
Ph S OH
O Ph Cl
EtONa, H2S, 0 C, 12 h 62%
Scheme 3.154
Reactions of Li2S [278] and benzyltriethylammonium tetrathiomolybdate [279], ammonium thiocarbamates (Scheme 3.155) [280] and thioacetate [281] with b-halooxiranes are very efcient.
O R1 S R3 R1= H, Ph, Me R2 OH R2= H, Me R3= H, Ph Y = Cl, Br
R1 Y
O
3 R2 R
+ N S- NH2EtPh, MeOH, rt, 5 h 1. Et 2. DMSO, PhNHEt, 50 C, 0-5 C, 2 h
Ph
33-84%
Scheme 3.155
Thiols react with epichlorohydrin to give the corresponding addition products, which are then transformed into thietanes when reacted with sodium methoxide (Scheme 3.156) [282].
Cl , EtOH, NaHCO3 rt, 16 h 67% N S OH
NaOMe, MeOH Cl rt, 3 d 41% S N O
SH
Scheme 3.156
The formation of thietanes by reaction of c-hydroxyoxiranes with potassium thiocyanate has been also reported (Scheme 3.157) [283]. Thietanes can also be formed by radical addition of dimethyl disulde on 1,3dienes, by heating in the presence of iodine (Scheme 3.158) [284]. Electrophilic addition of SCl2 [285], a mixture of POCl3 (or POBr3)/thiobismorpholine [286] or SO2 (Scheme 3.159) [287] with norbornadiene produces thietane
224

NH2 N HO O O
Scheme 3.157
NH2 KSCN, dioxane 18-crown-6, Et3N 40% S N O N OH N N
N N
MeSSMe, CS2 R1 R2 I2, 53 C, 24 h 30-40%

Scheme 3.158
R1 MeS S
R2 SMe
R1, R2 = long-chain alkyl
derivatives. The reaction of SCl2 with d-diketones leads to thietanes in good yields (Scheme 3.159) [288].
SO2, 36 h, rt 100% O R O Me O O Me O S O O S OR O O Me Me R = H, Me, iPr, Ph
SCl2, EtOAc 2 h, 0 C then rt, 10 h Me 75-80% Me
Me Me
Scheme 3.159
3.3.4.4 Synthesis from Other Sulfur Heterocycles 3.3.4.4.1 Formation from Thiirane Derivatives The reaction of 2-(chloromethyl) thiirane with sodium acetate gives the corresponding thietane in 82% yield [289]. Similar ring expansions were reported using ammonium thiocyanate (Scheme 3.160)
S NH4SCN Cl benzene, H2O, rt S N C O + 51% Li R3 SLi
1 2 Cl R R
S 30%
OH
R1 S R2
R3
Cl
-30 C 10-73%
S R3
THF, -90 to -60 C 0.5-2 h
1 R1 R = H, Me, Pr, allyl R2 = Me, Et, Pr, CH2OEt, R2 CHEtBu, allyl R3 = H, Me
Scheme 3.160
3.3 Thietanes
j225
[290], sulfonamides [291] and phenates [291], or from (thiiran-2-yl)methanol under the conditions of the Mitsunobu reaction [292]. Addition of allyl lithium compounds with thiiranes gives rise to thietanes in good yields (Scheme 3.160) [293]. An optically active thiirane has been transformed into a thietane, without epimerization of the chiral centers, in two steps by reaction with silver acetate followed by cyclization of the resultant 3-mercaptoacetal by camphor sulfonic acid (CSA) (Scheme 3.161) [294].
TrCl, AgOAc, toluene reflux, 10 min 92% AcO SH OEt CSA, benzene reflux, 2.5 h AcO 34% OTBDMS
OEt OEt OTBDMS
OEt
OEt OTBDMS
Scheme 3.161
Iminothiiranes react with isocyanates to afford 2,4-diiminothietanes (Scheme 3.162) [295]. This rearrangement of thiiranes into thietanes has also been reported during the reaction of diphenyl diazomethane with acyl isothiocyanate [296].
R1 N S N R R O
Scheme 3.162
Ph Ph
S N
SO2Ar
R1 N C, Et2O, 0 C 33-52%
Ph Ph SO2 Ar
R1 = Ph, 4-MeC6H4, 4-MeOC6H4, tBu Ar = 4-MeC6H4, 4-ClC6H4
Ph2CN2, Et2O, rt Ph N C S Ph
N S
O Ph Ph
CHCl3, reflux 37-73%
Ph Ph S Ph Ph N O
R = CCl3, CO2Me, Ph, tBu EtO, R
3.3.4.4.2 Formation from Thiolanes and Derivatives 3-Chlorotetrahydro-2methylthiophene reacts with water to give the 2-substituted thietane (Scheme 3.163) [297]. This reaction is reversible, since under acidic conditions (HCl) the tetrahydrothiophene was reformed.
S
Me EtOH-H2O, (1-1), rt Cl 75%
Me OH
Scheme 3.163
226

4-Diazodihydrothiophen-3(2H)-one derivatives undergo ring contraction to thietan-2-ones upon heating in isooctane [298], irradiation in an alcohol [299] or in the presence of rhodium diacetate (Scheme 3.164) [300].
Ph O
Rh2(OAc)4, tBuOH R1 N2 130 C, 90 min 22-90% Ph S R1 O R1 = H, CO2tBu
Scheme 3.164
Flash-thermolysis of benzothiophen-2(3H)-one (Scheme 3.165; X 2H) [299] or benzothiophen-2,3-dione (Scheme 3.165: X O) [301] gives rise to the corresponding thietanes in excellent yields.
O X = 2H, O S
X S O
FVP (600-750 C) 94-100% S
- 40 C (X = O)
O
Scheme 3.165
Treatment of a 4-thiofuranose derivatives with diethylaminosulfur triuoride (DAST) leads to the formation of the ring contraction product (Scheme 3.166) [302]. Rearrangement of thiazolotriazoliums, formed by electrophilic addition of bromine on 3-methallylthiotriazoles in basic conditions, affords thietanes (Scheme 3.167) [303]. The same rearrangement was observed with benzimidazole, benzothiazole and imidazole derivatives.
S OAc OH diethylaminosulfur trifluoride 63% H BnO H S H OBn
BnO BnO
OAc F
Scheme 3.166
Me N N Me N Ph S Br2, NaClO4 acetone, rt Me N N+ S
Br ClO4KOH, DMF, rt Me
Me N N N Ph
N Ph
Scheme 3.167
3.3 Thietanes
j227
Monodesulfurization of 1,2-dithiolanone with triphenylphosphine or tris(diethylamino)phosphine gives the thietanone in medium yields (Scheme 3.168) [304]. An attempt to use this method for the preparation of optically active thietanes was unsuccessful [305].
Me Cl S S O
(Et2N)3P, benzene 44%
Cl S
Me O
Scheme 3.168
Reaction of benzyne with a thiophen-2,4-dithione gives a 2-thioacetal thietane in good yield (Scheme 3.169) [306].
Me S Me Me nBu4N+F+ SiMe3 OTf CHCl3, rt, 2 h 78%
Me S S
Me Me S S S
Me Me
Scheme 3.169
3.3.4.4.3 Formation for Thiopyranes and Higher Ring Size Thio Heterocycles Irradiation at low temperature of a 1,3-oxathian-6-one has been reported to lead to an unstable thianone, which leads to the formation of a dimer at room temperature (Scheme 3.170) [301].
O O S
Scheme 3.170
h Ph 77 K S
CO2 is extruded during the ash-thermolysis of 1,3-oxathian-2-ones, affording thietanes that have been isolated in good yields (Scheme 3.171) [307].
S O
Scheme 3.171
F.V.P. (550 C ) 71%
228

Ultraviolet irradiation of 1-aza-8-thiacylo[4.2.1]non-2,4-diene-8,8-dioxide yields an unusual tricyclic compound (Scheme 3.172) [308].
h (350 nm) acetone, MeCN (2:1) 28%
NH S O O
S O O
Scheme 3.172
3.3.4.5 Synthesis by [2 2] Cycloaddition Photochemical cycloadditions of thiones with unsaturated compounds have received considerable attention. Aromatic, aliphatic and a,b-unsaturated thioketones react as well with electron-poor rather than electron-rich olens [232234]. The more recent result concerns the reaction of silyl thioketones, which can be seen as an equivalent of thioaldehydes, with olens. Irradiation of phenyl triphenylsilyl thioketone in acrylonitrile, methyl acrylate and cis- or trans-1,2-dichloroethene give the silylthietanes with high regio- and stereoselectivity (Scheme 3.173) [309]. Lower yields and selectivities are observed during the reaction with vinyl ether. Subsequent protiodesilylation reactions take place with predominant inversion of conguration at the carbon bearing the silicon group. The intramolecular cyclization of thiones was reported to be very efcient (Scheme 3.173) [310].
Ph Ph3Si
EWG S
in excess
GWE S
h, - 70 C 58-60% 2-5 h R1 R2 h, benzene 43-69%
Ph SiPh3
EWG = CN, CO2Me
de: 84% S R2 R1 R1 = H, allyl R2 = H, Me
S
Scheme 3.173
Photochemical additions of olens on the thiocarbonyl function of thioxo-3,4dihydroisoquinolinones (Scheme 3.174) [311], benzooxazole-2-thione [312] and 5thioxopyrrolidinones (Scheme 3.174) [313] have been reported. [2 2] Cycloadditions of thiopivalophenones were also reported by reaction with benzyne (Scheme 3.175) [314].
3.3 Thietanes
j229
Me Me N S
X Me
, h R2 R4 MeCN, rt, 0.3-8 h 88-91%

1
R1
R3
Me Me N
X Me
R1, R2 = Me, Ph R3, R4 =H, Me X = O, S
R S R2 3 R R4 Ph Ph S N O R1
S N O R1
R2
, h Ph benzene, rt 65-89%
Ph
R2
R1 = Me, Cl, OMe R2 = Me, H
(one diastereomer)
Scheme 3.174
Bu
Ar
S +
SiMe3 I+ Ph
CF3SO2O-
nBu4N+F-, MeCN or CH2Cl2 rt, 1 h 12-58%
tBu
Ar = H, OMe, OPh
Ar
Scheme 3.175
Intramolecular cyclizations of unsaturated N-ethanethioylacetamide derivatives have also furnish tricyclic thietanes (Scheme 3.176) [315]. Cycloaddition of 2,4dioxopenta-3-thione with allyltributyltin occurs at room temperature [316].
H R Me O SnBu3 Me S CHCl3, rt, 48 h 46% Me Me O S N X R = H, Me X = O, S
R Me
S N O
h (pyrex) benzene, 15 C, 1-6 h 33-67%
O Me
O Me
PhthNSCl, rt pyridine, CH2Cl2
O Me
O S
Phth = phthaloyl SnBu3
Scheme 3.176
Thietene-1,1-dioxides, which are precursors of thietanes, can be obtained by reaction of enamines with methanesulfonyl chloride in the presence of triethylamine (Scheme 3.177) [317]. Cycloadditions of acrylates with alkyl(chlorosulfonyl)acetate was reported to lead to 2-carboxylate thietanes [318].
230

MeSO2Cl NEt3, Et2O
Scheme 3.177
Pr
O2 S Pr
1. MeI, acetone 2. THF, CaSO 4, Ag2O 36%
O2 S Pr
1. H2, Pd/C, EtOH 2. NaBH4, (CH2OMe)2 91%
S Pr
3.3.4.6 Synthesis by Miscellaneous Methods Isomerization of cyclobutane-1,3-dithiones into thietanones occurs in the presence of strong bases [319]. Utilization of tetrabutylammonium uoride, allows a transformation under milder conditions (Scheme 3.178) [320]. The same product is obtained by reaction of the cyclobutane-1,3-dione with P4S10 at reux in pyridine [321].
Me Me S Me Me
Scheme 3.178
nBu4NF, THF 0 C, 5 min 85%
Me Me
Me S
Me S
Isoxazolidine-3-thiones react with ZnI2 in chloroform to give 2-iminothietanes (Scheme 3.179) [322].
ZnI2, Me3SiI, CH2Cl2 50 C, 3-6 days 29-83%
Me Me Ar O
S N Ph
Ar Me
S Me
Ph
Ar = Ph, 2-ClC6H4, 3-ClC6H4, 4-ClC6H4,
Scheme 3.179
An interesting preparation of thietan-1-oxides involves the reaction of tbutyl sulde with peroxydodecanoic acid (Scheme 3.180). Mixtures of diastereomers were obtained [323].
C6H13
C6H13 OH St.Bu
C11 H24CO3H pentane, 0 C, 15 min 98% Me
xylene OH reflux 5 min
C6H13 OH S H O 22-44% Me
O S C6H13 de = 2:1 OH
S O H
Me
Scheme 3.180
3.3 Thietanes
j231
3.3.5 Reactivity and Useful Reactions 3.3.5.1 Reactions with Electrophilic Reagents Thietanes react with ethyl diazoacetate [324] or diethyl diazomalonate [325] in the presence of rhodium acetate to give ring expansion products. When the carbenes are generated from diaziridines, ring-opening compounds are obtained (Scheme 3.181) [326].
EtOOC EtOOC R Ar Cl S N N N2 R S Cl + Cl 18-35% Ar H S S COOEt COOEt R = C6H13, Ph, 4-ClC6H4
Rh2(OAc)4, benzene, reflux, 16 h S 56-65%
h (350 nm), hexane, 25 C, 24 h or benzene, reflux, 18 h
Ar H
S S 16-38%
R = Ph, 4-ClC6H4, 4-MeC6H4 Cl
Scheme 3.181
The reaction of 2- or 3-substituted thietanes with cobalt or ruthenium carbonyl [Co2(CO)8 or Ru3(CO)12] produces dihydrothiophenones in good yields [327]. More recently, it has been shown that platinum salts can catalyze this CO insertion (Scheme 3.182) [328]. However, these reactions were not observed with 2,4-disubstituted thietanes.
(dppe)MePt-Co(CO)4 R CO, THF, 100 C, 2-5 h or 30 C, 24 h 89-99% R S O R = H, Me
Scheme 3.182
Thietanes undergo ring opening by reaction with chloro reagents [232]. However, mono- or di-chlorinations and brominations of thietane-1,1-dioxides occur easily on C3 by irradiation [329]. 2-Iodination has also been reported by reaction with butyllithium, followed by addition of triethylaluminium and iodine (Scheme 3.183) [330].
3.3.5.2 Reactions with Oxidizing Agents Oxidations of thietanes to thietanes-1-oxides and thietane-1,1-dioxides have been reported with the reagents generally used in the case of dialkyl suldes: KMnO4,
232

h, (sun lamp) X2, CCl4, reflux O S O 62-94% O X S X2, h CCl4, reflux O 82-94% X S X X = Cl, Br O O
1. nBuLi, THF, 0 C, 30 mi n 2. AlEt3, 0 C, 30 min O 3. I2, 0 C, 30 min 67% O
I O
Scheme 3.183
mCPBA, NaIO4, H2O2 in CH3COOH or in presence of WO3-H2O, CrO3 [232, 233]. Other reagents have been tested with success, such as cat. OsO4-4-methylmorpholine N-oxide [331], 2-(phenylsulfonyl)-3-phenyl-oxaziridine [332], monoperphthalic acid [333], tpentyl hydroperoxide in the presence of MoCl5 [334], oxone (Scheme 3.184) [309b] or 1-butyl-4-aza-1-azoniabicyclo[2.2.2]octane dichromate [335].
Ph
Me S
OH oxone, MeOH, H2O rt, 5 h 90%
Ph
Me S
OH
Scheme 3.184
The diastereoselectivity of the formation of thietane-1-oxides from thietanes has been examined using mCPBA [336]. Better selectivities have been reported using H2O2 in the presence of TiCl3 (Scheme 3.185) [337].
Me Me Z 1. TiCl3, H2O-MeOH S Me Me 2. H2O2, H2O, MeOH 77-80% Me Me Z O Me Me + Me Me Z : O Me Me Z = OH, NHAc
minor (8-20%)
Scheme 3.185
major (80-92%)
The potassium enolate of a thietan-2-one reacts with MoO5 to give the corresponding a-hydroxythietanone (Scheme 3.186) [253].
Me O S H 1. KH, THF, - 20 C Me 2. MoO5.pyridine.DMPU, - 20 C, 4 h Me 61% Me O S OH Me Me
Scheme 3.186
3.3 Thietanes
j233
3.3.5.3 Reactions with Nucleophilic Reagents Thietane-1,1-dioxides have been reduced to thietanes by reaction with LiAlH4 (Scheme 3.187) [317]. Reduction of thietane-1-oxides and sulmides have been reported with a mixture MeSiCl2-Zn [338].
LiAlH4, Et2O 60% S
Pr O
Pr
Scheme 3.187
2-Thietanones react with stabilized phosphoranes to give the corresponding (E)and (Z)-2-alkylidenethietanes (Scheme 3.188) [339]. 3-Thietanones are easily transformed into the corresponding N-hydroxyimines; subsequent reaction with NaBH4 led to 3-aminothietanes (Scheme 3.188) [340].
EWG
Z NH O Me S Me
Ph3P
Z NH Me EWG S Me
benzene, reflux 47-90%
Z = CO2CH2Ph EWG = CO2Et, CN COMe
R1 R2 O R3 S R4
NH2OH.HCl KH2PO4, MeOH HO 12 h, 120 C 90-95%
R1 R2 N R3 S R4
NaBH4 (MeOCH2CH2)2O 4 h, 110 C
R1 H2N R3
R2 S R4
R1, R2, R3, R4 = Me, Et, Pr, Bu, Hex, Cycloalkyl, Aryl
Scheme 3.188
Additions of nucleophiles or 3-chlorothieten-1,1-dioxide affords products without cleavage of the thietane ring. By reaction of sodium ethanoate the corresponding 3acetal was obtained, while with sodium dimethyl malonate, the 3-alkylidenethietane was formed (Scheme 3.189) [329b].
NaOEt, EtOH CH2(CO2Me)2 reflux, 3 h 83%
Scheme 3.189
MeO2C MeO2C
O O
NaOR, ROH Cl S O O reflux, 2 h 66-72% RO RO S O O R = allyl, Et, Pr
3.3.5.4 Reactions with Bases Thietanes are readily opened by reaction with sodium hydroxide to give linear sulfurs or polymerization products, depending on their structure [341]. With 3-hydroxythietane-1-oxides, ketones were obtained (Scheme 3.190).
234

NaOH, H2O R HO S (O)n 18 C, 2-20 min 96-100% R O (O)n S Me R = H, Ph n = 1, 2
Scheme 3.190
Thiiranes have been formed by pyrolysis of lithium salts of hydrazones formed from thietan-3-ones (Scheme 3.191) [342].
R1 R2 N S R4 R3
Scheme 3.191
BuLi, THF, - 78 C to rt then concentration and heating (130-150 C) 50-75% R1 S R2 R3 R4 R1, R2, R3, R4 = H, Me, Me2C
TsHN
Thietanes react with lithium diphenylphosphine to give the opened products in modest yields (Scheme 3.192) [275].
HPPH2, BuLi Me R S TMEDA, hexane, THF 20-30% Me R SH PPh2 R = SCH2Ph, PPH2
Scheme 3.192
Reaction of 2-phenylthietane with 4,40 -di-t-butylbiphenyllithium (DTBB-Li) has been reported to produce a dianion, which can react with electrophiles (Scheme 3.193) [343]. This reaction was not observed when starting with 2methylthietane. With CO2 as electrophile, dihydro-3-phenylthiophen-2(3H)-one was formed.
1. Li, 4,4'-ditbutylbiphenyl, THF, - 78 C 2. Electrophile (-78 C) then rt 50-86%
Scheme 3.193
E Ph
Ph
E = D, tBuCHOH, Et2COH, (CH 2)4COH SLi
Thietane-1-oxides undergo Pummerer rearrangements, when treated with Lewis acids in the presence of amino bases. This method has been used for the preparation of thietane nucleosides (Scheme 3.194) [264, 267, 344].
3.3.5.5 Reactions with Metal Complexes and Salts Thietane is transformed into crown thio ethers (12S3, 16S4, 18S6, etc.) by the reaction of Re2(CO)9(thietane), Os4(CO)11(thietane) and W(CO)5(thietane). Yields of 40%
3.3 Thietanes
j235
O O S thymine, Et3N, CH2Cl2 TMSOTf, ZnI2, rt, 30 h 70% OBz OBz

Scheme 3.194
Me S N
NH O
OBz OBz
were reported for the formation of the 12S3 crown ether (Scheme 3.195) [345]. This transformation is possible with 2- and 3-methylthietanes and 3,3-dimethylthietanes. Starting from (R)-2-methylthietane, the corresponding optically active crown ether has been obtained [346].
Re2(CO)9 (SCH2CH2CH2 ) TMSOTf, ZnI2 40%
S S
12S3
Scheme 3.195
Mannosyl iodide reacts with thietane in the presence of MgO to give mainly the thio b-anomer (Scheme 3.196) [347].
OAc OBn O I MgO, CH2Cl2 reflux, 6h 89% OAc OBn O S : 1-30
Scheme 3.196
BnO BnO
BnO BnO
3.3.5.6 Electrocyclic Reactions Retro [2 2] cycloadditions of thietanes occur at high temperature to generate ethylenic compounds and thioaldehydes. This fragmentation is also possible by irradiation at low temperature. With thietan-3-one, the formation of ketene has been detected [2]. These retrocycloadditions were observed for substituted thietanes. For example, enol ethers are formed during irradiation of 3-alkoxythietanes (Scheme 3.197) [348]. These reactions also lead to the formation of thioketones or thioaldehydes. Irradiations of thietan-2-ones in methanol lead, by Norrish I rearrangements, to ve-membered heterocycles (Scheme 3.198) [349]. Dithiolactones give rise to the same kind of rearrangements [350].
236

EtO Me S N NMe S Me Me O
Scheme 3.197
h, MeCN 78%
EtO
Me S N NMe Me Me O
Me Me
S Me Me
h, MeOH
S O + O OMe 20%
OMe 30%
Scheme 3.198
2-Iminothietanes can be formed by cycloadditions of keteneimines with diphenyl thioketone in methylene chloride. Upon smooth heating, these compounds (R2 H) are transformed into unsaturated thioamides (Scheme 3.199) [351].
R2 S Ph Ph R1
R2 R1
NR3 +
Ph Ph
CH2Cl2, rt 30-50%
NR3
R1, R2 = Ph, Me R3 = Me, Ph, 2,6-Me2C6H3, 2,4,6-Me3C6H2
Scheme 3.199
Benzothiete undergoes, by heating or irradiation, an isomerization into methylenecyclohexadienethione. This compound can be trapped by various dienophiles (Scheme 3.200) [299]. In the absence of dienophile, a dimer of methylenecyclohexadienethione is formed. Reaction of this compound with C60 [352], imines and diazenes [353] has also been reported.
FVP (1200 C) or h S S
toluene, reflux, 3 h 75% R2 S 65-76% R1 S
toluene, reflux, 3 h R1
Scheme 3.200
R2
cyclohexenone methyl acrylate N-phenylmaleimide dimethyl acetylenedicarboxylate
3.3 Thietanes
j237
3.3.5.7 Cleavage and Other Reactions Thietane reacts with benzyl bromide in acetonitrile to give the ring cleavage product (Scheme 3.201) [354].
R
CH2Br Br S R = H, 2-NO2, 3-NO2, 2-Me, 4-Me, 4-MeO, R 4-Br, 2-CN, 2-Cl, 4-Cl, 3-F, 4-SMe
MeCN, rt, 16-120 h S

Scheme 3.201
47-85%
Mercaptothiolic acids have been formed by the reaction of thietan-2-ones with H2S [355]. These acids can be transformed into 1,2-dithiolan-3-ones by reaction with FeCl3 [253, 356] or HIO3 (Scheme 3.202) [357].
O 1. H2S, CCl4, -30 to -40 C HIO3 on alumina HS CHCl3, hexane, rt, 40 min O 2. Et3N, H2S, 0 C, 7 h COSH (CH2)7 S S (CH2)7 (CH2)7 S t t 87% OSiMe OSiMe2 Bu 2 Bu t OSiMe2 Bu
Scheme 3.202
2,3-Diiminothietanes react with the dianion of ethyl mercaptoacetate to give bisthioles, while reaction with dimethyl acetylenedicarboxylate leads to thiopyran derivatives (Scheme 3.203) [358].
O SH EtO LDA, THF TMEDA, -40 C 58% MeO2C CO2Et CO2Me MeO2C MeO2C S NR
S RN
CO2Et NHR
RN
S NR
toluene, 80 C 64%
NHR CO2Et
R =Ph, 4-MeC6H4, 4-MeOC6H4

Scheme 3.203
Intramolecular induced ring opening of 2-iminothietanes, in which the imino group bears a phenol function, occurs by simple heating (Scheme 3.204) [359]. Enzymatic resolution of 3-methylthietan-2-one has been studied in the presence of lipases. Best results were reported using Pseudomonas cepacia lipase (E > 100) (Scheme 3.205) [360].
238

Me Me Me N R S toluene, reflux OH 100% O N Me Me HS Me R R = H, M
Scheme 3.204
S Me
Pseudomonas cepacia lipase cyclohexane, buffer (pH 7.4) 37 C, 24 h conversion: 52%
O HO
R
SH
S Me
R
Me ee>99%
ee>95%
Scheme 3.205
3.4 Other Four-Membered Heterocycles 3.4.1 Selenetanes 3.4.1.1 Introduction The chemistry of four-membered heterocyclic compounds containing one selenium atom has been until recently very little studied. These compounds appear to be stable enough to be synthesized and their reactivity examined, even if they have a relatively low thermal stability. CNDO/2 calculations have been performed to determine the conformation of the parent compound [361]. Experiment values were measured by 1 H NMR in the case of 3,3-dimethylselenetane complexed by palladium(II) halides [362] IR and Raman spectra of this compound have been studied and the different vibrations assigned [363]. 1 H and 13 C NMR spectra of some selenetanes have been reported. Chemical shifts of protons and carbons appear comparable to those reported for thietanes. The 13 C-77 Se coupling has been used recently as a criterion of formation of selenetanes, even if the natural abundance of 77 Se is only 7% [364]. The X-ray structure of a selenetane has been reported [365]. In mass spectra, the parent ion corresponds to the retro [2 2] cycloaddition. All ions containing a Se atom are characteristic due to the particular isotopic abundance of selenium [366]. No natural product containing a selenetane ring has yet been reported. Derivative 37 has been tested as an antiviral compound [367].
3.4 Other Four-Membered Heterocycles

t
j239
BuCH2 Ph
N N
N O
Se
37
3.4.1.2 Synthesis of Selenetanes Although much less studied than thietanes, preparations of these compounds have often been made by similar methods. 3.4.1.2.1 Synthesis by Formation of Two SeC Bonds The rst attempt to prepare selenetanes was by the reaction of 1,3-dibromopropane with Na2Se [368]. The selenetane was not characterized due its easy polymerization. This method was reinvestigated and applied to the preparation of various selenetanes (Scheme 3.206) [369]. The parent compound was obtained in low yield (5%). This approach was recently used in the preparation of nucleosides (Scheme 3.206) [364]. Heating cyclic carbonates at high temperature (170220 C) in the presence of KSeCN gives selenetanes in satisfactory yields (Scheme 3.207) [370].
K 2Se,EtOH, benzene reflux 40-75% OMe OMe Se, NaBH4, EtOH 60 C 83 %
R1 R2 MsO MsO
Br Br O
R1 R2
Se
R1, R2 = -(CH2)5-, 2Me, 2CH2Br
Se
OMe OMe
Se Se
OMe OMe
91
Scheme 3.206
RO (CH2)n RO (CH ) 2n
Scheme 3.207
O O
KSeCN 170-220 C 35-50%
RO (CH2)n RO (CH )
Se
R = C1-C8 n = 0-8
2n
Reaction of an excess of NaSeH with 2-hydroxy-1,3-dibromopropane gives the corresponding di-selenoate. This then leads to the formation of 3-hydroxyselenetane by reaction with NaBH4 or a mixture Hg(CN)2Na2S (Scheme 3.208) [371]. The reaction of 2-hydroxy-1,3-dibromopropane with NaSeH under phase transfer conditions has been reported to give 3-hydroxyselenetane in 56% yield [372].
240

Br Br NaSeH, EtOH rt, 1 h HO SeNa SeNa Hg(CN)2, rt HO Se Hg Se Na2S, H2S EtOH, 12 h, rt HO Se + 56% HO Se Se NaBH4, EtOH HO Se + 45% HO Se Se
HO
Scheme 3.208
3-Hydroxyseletanes have also been prepared by the reaction of 2-chlorooxiranes with Li2Se, prepared in situ (Scheme 3.209) [372]. Utilization of H2Se in the presence of SnCl4 gives similar results [373]. The oxirane ring opening has been applied to the preparation of a taxol derivative [374] and nucleosides [375]. Opening of oxiranes with the formation of selenetanes is also possible if the leaving group is in the c position (Scheme 3.209) [376]. 3-Hydroxyselenetane was also obtained by electrochemical opening of epichlorohydrin in the presence of selenium. The best results were obtained when the graphite electrode was doped with selenium [377].
O R MsO O OMe O Cl LiEt3BH, Se, THF, 0 C 55-75% NaBH4, Se, EtOH 60 C, 2h HO 33%
Scheme 3.209
R HO Se O OMe
Se
R = H, Et, Ph
O + Se OMe OH 56%
Electrophilic addition of SeBr4 to norbornadiene leads to the formation of a 1,1dibromoselenetane (Scheme 3.210) [378].
Br Se Br Br
SeBr4 Et2O, 0 C
Scheme 3.210
Br
3.4.1.2.2 Synthesis by Formation of One SeC Bond 3,3-Dimethylselenetane-1,1dioxide can be obtained by heating sodium 3-chloro-2,2-dimethylseleninoate (Scheme 3.211) [369].
j241
Me Me
Cl SeO2Na
EtOH 85 C
Me Me
Se
O O
Scheme 3.211
2-Selenoalkenylbenzoimidazole derivatives lead to the formation of selenetanes by the sequence indicated in Scheme 3.212 [302].
1. I2, CHCl3 2. R2X 3. NaClO4, CH2Cl2 40-90% R2 N+ ClO4 KOH, CH 2Cl2 N R1 Se I 85-95% R2 N O N R1 Se
N Se N
R1 = H, Me R2 = Me, CH2Ph
Scheme 3.212
Another interesting preparation of selenetanes uses the reaction of c-seleno alcohols with KH; good yields were generally obtained (Scheme 3.213) [379].
R3 R 2 Se O OH R1 Ph H N O O + R1 R2 R3 Ph Se
KH, THF, rt, 30 mi n 30-84%
R1 = H, Et, CH2Ph R2, R3 = H, Me, Et
Scheme 3.213
3.4.1.2.3 Formation by Ring Regression A selenetane has been prepared in low yield by reaction of a diseleno compound with hexamethylphosphotriamine (Scheme 3.214) [380]. The 1,3-oxaselenetane derivative was obtained in 72% yield when the reaction was carried out in the presence of triphenylphosphine.
Ph Me
Se Se O Me
Ph Me Me
P(NMe2)3 toluene,reflux, 10 h 18%
Ph Se
O Me Me Me 1 Ph Ph + Me Me : 2 Se O Ph Me Me
Scheme 3.214
An attempt to prepare benzoselenete by photolysis of 3-diazobenzoselenophenone has been reported. A dimer was isolated, the formation of which was postulated to occur by dimerization of the unstable benzoselenete. Calculations show that benzoselenete is 49.5 kcal mol1 less stable than benzothiete (Scheme 3.215) [381].
242

N2 O Se -20 to -60 C, 1 h CO2Me h, MeOH CO2Me Se 26% MeO2C
Scheme 3.215
Se
Se
3.4.1.2.4 Formation by Cycloaddition Stable benzoselenetes, characterized by X-ray crystallography, have been obtained by cycloaddition of sterically hindered seleno ketones with benzyne (Scheme 3.216) [365].
Me Me Se + Me Me
OSO2CF3 SiMe3
nBu4N+FTHF, rt 70% Me Me
Se Me Me
Scheme 3.216
(CO)5W Se
Ph
in excess OR2 - 20 C, several hours 8-45%
R1
H (OC)5W Se RO
2
Ph
R1 = H, Me R2= Me, Et, 4-MeC6H4
R1
Scheme 3.217
Benzoselenoaldehyde stabilized as a tungsten complex reacts with enol ethers at low temperature to give stable selenetanes (Scheme 3.217) [382].
3.4.1.3 Reactivity The reaction of 3,3-dimethylselenetane with electrophiles such as MeI, Br2, I2, SO2Cl2 gives ring cleavage products [383]. Additions of nucleophiles to the reaction mixture allow subsequent reactions. With ozone or hydrogen peroxide, insertions of an oxygen atom in the four-membered cycle are observed (Scheme 3.218). Seleno crown ethers have been formed by the reaction of 3,3-dimethylselenetane with a rhenium carbonyl complex (Scheme 3.219) [384]. Oxidation of 3-hydroxyselenetane with the Dess-Martin reagent gives selenetan-3one in quantitative yield [372]. However, this ketone was reported to be highly instable. In the presence of sodium hydroxymethanesulfonate (Rongalite), 3-phenyl-
j243
Me Me Me Me Me Me
Se
MeI 69% 1. Br2 2. ethylene H2O2 20% Me
Me Me I Se
Se
Br
Me Me
Se
Br
O Se Me
Se
Me
Scheme 3.218
Me Re2(CO)9.NCMe Me Me Se hexane, reflux, 2 h Re2(CO)9 (SeCH2CH2CH2) 115 C, 17 h 21%

Scheme 3.219
Me
Se
Me Se Me Me Se
Me Se Me Me
115 C, 8 h 14%
3-hydroxyselenetane leads to the formation 2-phenylallylic alcohol [372]. The reactivity of tungsten-stabilized selenetanes with KSCN and KSeCN has been examined. In the rst case a 1,3-selenazinone-2-thione is obtained (Scheme 3.220) [385], while in the second case a 1,2-diselenolane is formed [382b].
Ph KSCN (OC)5W Se OEt SiO2, H2O, rt
EtO
N Se Ph
W(CO)5
Ph KSeCN (OC)5W Se MeO Me

Scheme 3.220
- 40 C
H Ph (OC)5W Se Se OMe Me
244

3.4.2 Telluretanes
The chemistry of telluretanes is almost unknown, even though the rst attempt to obtain the parent compound was reported in 1945 [386]. Reaction of 1,3-dibromopropane with Na2Te gave, apparently, the unstable tellurane and only a polymer was isolated during work-up of the reaction. A similar report was made on the reaction of a tellurate [387]. The reaction of epichlorohydrin derivatives with Na2Te was also fruitless [372]. However, a telluretane derivative has been reported by reaction of norbornadiene with TeBr4 (Scheme 3.221) [378].
Br Te Br Br + Br Br Te Br Br
TeBr4 Et2O, 0 C
Br
Scheme 3.221
3.4.3 Phosphetanes
Four-membered phosphorus compounds have been known since 1957. Phosphorus (III) heterocycles have in general a low stability and are stabilized as P(V) derivatives (oxides, sulfurs, boranes, etc.). Chiral phosphetane derivatives have been studied as ligands in catalytic reactions (hydrosilylation, hydrogenation). Their synthesis and chemistry have been reviewed [388390]. Chapter 23 of this book is devoted to phosphorous heterocycles.
3.4.4 Arsetanes
Arsetanes, also called arsacyclobutanes, have been known since 1977 [391]. Structural data on arsetene have been explored by PM3 semi-empirical studies [392]. These few compounds studied appear moderately stable at room temperature under inert atmosphere. The rst reported preparation of arsetanes involves reaction of (3-chloropropyl) iodo-arsines with sodium (Scheme 3.222) [391]. This method was subsequently modied, and it was reported that the ring closure of (3-chloropropyl)arsines could be carried out using potassium tert-butylate starting from iron(II) complexes of arsines [393]. 1-Phenylarsetane has been also prepared, by the reaction of dilithium phenyl arsenide with 1,3-dichloropropane [393]. An arsetene has been obtained by reaction of a methylenearsorane derivative complexed by iron with dimethyl fumarate. This arsetene has been characterized by
j245
R As I
Cl
Na, THF 25-42%
R As
MeI 90%
R As+ Me
I-
R = Me, Ph
Me Ph
Fe+ As Ph Ph Me
Cl
PF6-
BuOK, THF 12h, 20 C 85%
Me Ph
Fe+ As Ph Ph Me
Scheme 3.222
spectroscopic analysis and by X-ray diffraction [394]. Similar cycloaddition, leading to an arsetane, has been reported from fumaronitrile (Scheme 3.223) [395].
NC Cp*(CO)2Fe As Ph NMe2
CN Et2O, 1 h, rt 85%
H CN Cp*(CO)2Fe As CN H
Ph NMe2
Scheme 3.223
An original preparation of an arsetene involves metal exchange between titanium and arsenium, starting from a titanium cyclobutane derivative (Scheme 3.224) [396].
Ph Ph TiCp2 + Cl2AsPh Ph Ph As Ph
hexane, rt instantaneous 50%
Scheme 3.224
3.4.5 Siletanes 3.4.5.1 Introduction Siletanes, also called silacyclobutanes, have been known since 1954 [397]. As this family of compounds has been reviewed [398], the present chapter focuses on new aspects of their preparation and reactivity. Siletanes have been studied by numerous theoretical methods. The geometry of 1,1-dimethylsiletane has been reported using gas electron diffraction [399]. Ab initio calculations shows that the barrier to inversion of 1-methylsiletane is comparable to that of methylcyclobutane [400]. NMR (1 H, 13 C and 32 Si), IR and UV spectra of substituted siletanes have been
246

reported [398]. In mass spectra, the main fragmentation corresponds to [2 2] retrocycloadditions [398].
3.4.5.2 Preparation of Siletanes 3.4.5.2.1 Preparation from Chlorosilanes Cyclization of 1-chloro-(3-chloropropyl) silanes by the Wurtz reaction using magnesium is an efcient method to obtain siletanes (Scheme 3.225) [398]. Utilization of other metals (Li, Na, Na-K alloy) and electrochemical conditions extend this method [401].
R1 R
1
R2 Si Cl R3 Cl
Mg, Et2O
R1 R1
Si R3
R2
Scheme 3.225
Dichlorosilanes react similarly with 1,3-dimetallic species to form polycyclic silacyclobutanes (Scheme 3.226) [402].
Li
Li
Cl2SiR2 Et2O, rt 44-71%
R R Si R = sBu, CH2SiMe3
Scheme 3.226
3.4.5.2.2 Other Intramolecular Cyclizations 1,2-Bissilylalkanes lead, with alkenes, in the presence of palladium(II) catalyst to the formation of 1,2-bis(organosilyl)alkanes by the addition of a SiSi bond across CC double bonds. With 1,2-bissilylalkenes, intramolecular additions have been observed that give rise to silacycloalkanes. When the substituent xed on one of the silicon atoms is a 3-butenyl chain, siletanes of low stability were formed by 4-exo cyclizations (Scheme 3.227) [403].
Me Me Si Si Ph Me Ph Ph
Me Pd(OAc)2, toluene, 35 C 76% CN Ph Si Si Me Me Ph Ph (cis-trans: 16-84)
Scheme 3.227
j247
Substitutions of silicon by sterically overcrowded substituents allow the preparation of stable silylenes. When one of the substituents is a silicon aryl substituted group, simple heating leads to rearrangement of these compounds into siletanes (Scheme 3.228) [404].
Me Me Me Si Si Si Si
Scheme 3.228
Me Si Me Me SiH SiMe3 Si SiMe3 Ar =

i
Pr
i Pr
Me or Me Me
CNAr
THF, 60 C 65-78%
Pr
Si = CH(SiMe3)2
Intramolecular insertion of carbenes into CH bonds is also possible by irradiation of a-silyl-a-diazoacetates (Scheme 3.229) [405]. If one of the substituents of the silyl group is an allyl group, a bicyclic silacyclobutane is observed [406].
t t Bu Bu Si X
Me CO2Et N2 h pentane 15-39%
Me Si
tBu
X CO2Et h MeO2C
X = Cl, N3, NCO, NCS
iPr
iPr
Si N2
Scheme 3.229
CO2Me
toluene 68%
i Pr Si iPr
3.4.5.2.3 [2 2] Cycloadditions Reaction of trichlorovinylsilane with t-butyl lithium produces, by 1,2 elimination of LiCl, reactive silenes (SiC bond). In the presence of enol ethers, elimination does not take place, and the lithio intermediate undergoes an addition on the CC double bond, leading by 1,4 cyclization to siletanes (Scheme 3.230) [407].
tBuLi,
THF
Cl3Si
pentane, -78 C then rt
Cl3Si Li
tBu
OR
Cl3Si RO
tBu
Li
RO 39-75%
t
Si Bu
Cl Cl
R = Et, Pr, Bu, iBu, tBu

Scheme 3.230
248

3.4.5.2.4 Preparation from Other Heterocyclic Compounds Siliranes (silacyclopropanes) react with diazomethane to give siletanes in good yields [408]. These compounds give rise to similar ring expansions by reaction with isocyanate (Scheme 3.231) [409]. For monosubstituted silacyclopropanes a good regioselectivity in the formation of siletane is observed [409b].
benzene rt, 15 min 96-99% Me Me Si NR
tBu t
tBu
tBu
Si Me Me
R N
Bu
R = 4-MeC6H4,tBu
Scheme 3.231
Sterically hindered 1,2-disiletanes lead to the formation of silenes by heating at 60100 C. When the reaction is carried out in the presence of styrene, a siletane is formed in excellent yield (Scheme 3.232) [410].
Me3Si SiMe3 Me3Si Si Si SiMe3 SiMe3 Me3Si Si Ph
Ph hexane, 60 C, 24h 89%
Scheme 3.232
Irradiation of 1,2-disilolane in the presence of isobutene furnishes a stable tricyclic siletane if one of the substituents xed on the silicon atoms is a phenyl (Scheme 3.233) [411]. Irradiation of a sterically hindered 9-silaanthracene in benzene leads to the formation of a bicyclo[2.2.0] compound of low stability (Scheme 3.233) [412]. On standing at room temperature, the starting anthracene derivative is reformed.
h, isobutene hexane, 17 min, rt Me Ph Me Me Me Me 20% Si Ph Si Me Si Me
Ph
Si Si Me Ph
Si H
Si
Me Me
Si
6%
Si Si
Si
h (300-350 nm) D6-benzene, 1 h, rt
Si Si
Si
Si = CH(SiMe3)2
Scheme 3.233
j249
3.4.5.3 Reactivity Pyrolysis or photolysis of siletanes leads to the formation of silenes [413]. Polymerization of silacyclobutanes has also been studied intensively, and compounds with alternating silicon and trimethylene groups have been obtained [414]. Polymers in which the siletane unit was introduced have also been reported [415]. The presence of siletane cycles instead of trialkylsilanes in functionalized compounds increases their reactivity, allowing much easier reactions. For example, reaction of silyl ketene acetals with carbonyl compounds occurs without any catalyst if a siletane is present (Scheme 3.234) [416]. This increase in reactivity has also been reported for crosscoupling reactions of vinyl- and arylsilanes [417].
tBu
O Me R
2
1. CHCl3 20 C H 2. HF, THF 80-95% MeO
Si O
OH R2 Me
MeO
Scheme 3.234
R2 = Ph, cinnamyl, npentyl, cyclohexyl
Silacyclobutanes are opened by the action of nucleophilic and electrophilic reagents, sometimes with polymerization [398, 414]. This cleavage can be controlled [418, 419]. For example, in the presence of platinum salts and 1 equivalent of triethylsilane, opening of a benzosiletane occurs cleanly (Scheme 3.235). In the presence of a catalytic amount of triethylsilane, cyclic oligomers or polymers are obtained [418].
SiEt3
Si Me
Pt(II) HSiEt3
Me Si H
Scheme 3.235
Insertion of a functionalized chain in one of the CH bonds in the 3-position of 1,1dimethylsiletane is realized by reaction with diazoacetates in the presence of rhodium diacetate (Scheme 3.236) [420].
H N2 Me Me Si CO2R Me Me Si CO2R R = tBu, Et CH2Cl2, Rh2(OAc)4, rt 90-97%
Scheme 3.236
250

Reactions of siletanes with carbenoids of type CHX2Li lead to the formation of silacyclopentane derivatives (Scheme 3.237) [421]. Ring expansions are also observed by reaction of 1-(1-iodoalkyl)siletanes with MeLi, tBuOK or AgOAc and by reaction of 1-oxiranylsiletanes with MeLi (Scheme 3.237) [422]. The insertion of sulfur in 1,1dimethysiletane is very efcient in the presence of KF and crown ethers, giving rise to 1,2-thiasilolanes [423].
R R
Si
Me
Me CH2X 2, i Pr2Li, THF -78 C, 30 min, then rt 40-97% Si R R minor
Me X Si R R major
X = Cl, Br, I R = Me, Ph X
Si
Ph R I
AgOAc, CH3CO2H 25 C, 1 h 60-80% MeLi, THF -78 C, 2 h, then MeOH at -78 C 75% Si Ph Me Si Ph OAc
R = i Pr, C6F13
Si
Ph O
Me Me
Me Me OH
Scheme 3.237
Insertion of the carbonyl function of aldehydes in the cycle of siletanes is possible in the presence of tBuOK [424]. With 1,1-diphenyl-3-methylenesiletane, tBuOK is not necessary and the reaction occurs by simple heating. It was subsequently reported that this reaction is also possible with aryl ketones (Scheme 3.238) [425].
Si
Ph Ph R1
O R2
ClCH2CH2Cl 80 C 60-80%
R1 R2 O Si Ph Ph
R1 = Ph, nC6H13 PhCH=CH R2 = H, Me
Scheme 3.238
Insertions of SO2, SO3 and phosphorus ylides similarly lead to six-membered heterocycles [398]. With acid chlorides and acetylenic compounds, these insertions occur only in the presence of palladium(II) catalysts (Scheme 3.239) [426, 427]. Insertion of the carbonyl function of CF3COOH into the CSi bond of 2iminosiletanes, instead of the expected hydrolysis, has been reported (Scheme 3.240) [409b]. In the presence of an aqueous solution of CuSO4, ring opening of these
j251
Si
R1 R1 R2
O Cl
PdCl2(PhCN)2 toluene, NEt3, 80 C, 4 h 73-94% PdCl2(PPh3)2 O Si 1 R R1
R2
R1 = Me, Ph R2 = Ph, 4-MeC6H4, 4-MeOC6H4 4-FC6H4, cyclohexyl, C6H13 2-furanyl R4 R1 R1 = CO2Me, Ph R2 = CO2Me, H R3 = Me, Ph R4 = H, Me
R4
Si
R3 R3
R2
R1
benzene reflux, 2 h
R4
R1 Si R2 R3 R3 6-86%
Si R2 R3 R3 7-60%
Scheme 3.239
tBu tBu
Si
OH CF3 NR
Bu O Bu Si
t
OH
CF3CO2H, H2O 0 C, 30 min

tBu
Me Me
tBu tBu
Me
Me 12%
60% OH
Me
Si
tBu
NR
CuSO4, H2O overnight, rt 66%
Si
Me 95-169 C 0.5-8 days 89-100%
Me
tBu tBu
Me NHR Me
Si
R = tBu, 4-MeC6H4
Me
Scheme 3.240
substrates is observed. Heating of these 2-iminosiletanes leads to isomerization of the CN double bond, to give the corresponding enamines [409b]. The silicon atom of silacyclobutanes has reactivity comparable to that of other silanes, and is not reported in this chapter. An interesting example concerning the reactivity of such compounds has been reported. Reactions of 1(c-haloalkoxy)-1methylsilacyclobutanes with magnesium leads to the formation of 1-(v-hydroxyalkoxy)-1-methylsilacyclobutanes in good yields, by intramolecular Grignard reagent attack on the silicon atom, followed by alcoholate elimination (Scheme 3.241) [428].
Si
Me
(CH2)n O X
Mg, THF 72-92%
Si
Me (CH2)n
OH
n = 3-6 X = Cl, Br
Scheme 3.241
252

3.4.6 Germetanes 3.4.6.1 Introduction The chemistry of germetanes has been less examined than that of siletanes, since the rst report in 1966 [429]. Only limited spectra data are available concerning these compounds. In the IR spectrum, a vibration at 1120 cm1 seems characteristic of this heterocycle [429]. These compounds appear to be stable at room temperature, and the mechanism of thermal decomposition of 1,1-dimethylgermetane has been examined. The formation of cyclopropane, propene and 1,2-digermacyclobutane was observed [430]. The structure of 1,1,3,3-tetramethylgermetane has been studied by gas electron diffraction and ab initio molecular orbital calculations (HF/631G and MP2/631G ) [431]. An ab initio study has been made on the mechanism of formation of germetane by cycloaddition of alkylidenegermylene and ethylene [432]. 3.4.6.2 Preparations The rst method reported for the preparation of germetanes consists in the cyclization of chloro-(3-chloropropyl)germanes with sodium or sodium/potassium alloy (Scheme 3.242) [429].
Na, xylene, reflux, 5 h or Na-K, toluene, reflux, 5 h 67-75%
Ge R1 Cl
R1
Cl R2
R2
Ge
R1 R1
R1 = Et, Bu R2 = H, Me
Scheme 3.242
In more recent studies, the reaction of 1,1-dichlorogermanes with 1,3-dimetallo compounds has been preferred [433]. This method has been applied to the preparation of benzo- [434] and tricyclic germetane derivatives (Scheme 3.243) [435].
Cl Br
1. Mg, THF 2. Me2GeCl2 56% Me Me Ge Ge Me Me
1. nBuLi, THF 2. Me2GeCl2 79%
+ dimer 10%
Scheme 3.243
j253
Intermolecular hydrogermanylation has been reported to afford 1,1-dimethylgermetane [436]. Heating of dihydrogermylprop-2-en-1-ols was reported to give 2hydroxygermetanes in low yields, by intramolecular cyclization (Scheme 3.244) [437].
Me Ge Me H Cl Cl cat. H2PtCl6 88% Me Me OH Ph H Ge R R = H, Me
Ge
H Ph Ge H OH
Scheme 3.244
heating or irradiation 10-12%
Highly strained germetanes have been obtained by rearrangement of germanylenes [438] and ethylenidene germanes (Scheme 3.245) [439].
SiMe3 Me3Si SiMe3 SiMe3 Ge Mes SiMe3
Mes Tbt
C6D6, reflux, 13.5 h Ge
81% Me3Si Me Me3Si Me Me Tbt = Me3Si SiMe3
Mes =
SiMe3 SiMe3 SiMe3
Scheme 3.245
3.4.6.3 Reactivity Germatanes react with electrophilic or nucleophilic reagents to give ring cleavage products. Ring cleavages were reported with halogens, LiAlH4, acids, bases [429], hydrosilanes (Scheme 3.246) [440], phenylphosphinidene [441] and alcohols [442].
Ge
Bu Bu
R3SiH cat. H2PtCl6 60-80%
R3Si
GeBu2H (CH2)3
R3 = Ph2Me, Et3, B Bu2Me, MeCl
Scheme 3.246
254

Heating at 160 C of 1,1-dimethylgermetane leads to formation of a polymer [436], while irradiation of 1,1-diphenylgermane in cyclohexane gives rise to the 1,3digermanocyclobutane derivative (Scheme 3.247) [442].
Ph Ph h, cyclohexane, 8 h, rt 91% Ph Ph Ph Ph
Ge
Ge Ge
Scheme 3.247
When heated (250 C) in the presence of sulfur, an insertion in one GeC bond of a sulfur atom occurs (Scheme 3.248). The same insertion is observed on heating at 260 C in the presence of selenium [443]. Comparable insertion was reported with dichlorocarbene, generated from the Seyferth reagent [444]. Reactions with SO2 and SO3 led, as with siletanes, to the formation of six-membered heterocycles [445].
(Se) S Bu Ge Bu R
Ge
Bu Bu
S8 (Se) 250 C 90% (50%)
R = H, Me
Scheme 3.248
3.4.7 Bismetanes and Stibetanes
These four-membered ring compounds are still unknown.
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j269
4 Five-Membered Heterocycles: Pyrrole and Related Systems

Jan Bergman and Tomasz Janosik
4.1 Introduction
The history of pyrrole 1 dates back to 1834, when Runge observed the presence of a compound that caused red coloration of a wood splinter moistened with mineral acid, in a fraction obtained through distillation of coal tar. He named the substance pyrrole [1] a name maintained by Anderson, who later isolated a pure sample by distillation of bone oil [2]. Several years later, the correct structure was established by Baeyer and Emmerling [3]. The biological relevance and intriguing reactivity patterns of pyrrole derivatives have triggered intense interest in their chemistry, which has been exhaustively treated in several excellent monographs covering the advances of most essential aspects of the topic [46]. A general review with a practical perspective is included in Science of Synthesis [7]. Annual coverage detailing more recent achievements in synthetic pyrrole chemistry is provided in Progress in Heterocyclic Chemistry [8], whereas more comprehensive accounts on structure [9], ring synthesis [10], reactivity [11] and applications [12] are available in the second edition of Comprehensive Heterocyclic Chemistry. Since the scope of this chapter does not permit in-depth coverage of all aspects of pyrrole chemistry, and will be mainly restricted to 1H-pyrroles, which will hereinafter simply be referred to as pyrroles, readers may also want to consult the above mentioned reference works. Additional useful accounts highlighting special topics in pyrrole chemistry are cited in appropriate sections of this chapter.
4.1.1 Nomenclature
The IUPAC numbering convention for pyrrole (1H-pyrrole) is shown in structure 1, including the commonly used designation of the 2(5)-positions as a, and the 3(4)positions as b. The two remaining conceivable tautomeric forms 1a and 1b are known as 2H-pyrroles and 3H-pyrroles, respectively. Trivial names are relatively rare in the
270
j 4 Five-Membered Heterocycles: Pyrrole and Related Systems

pyrrole series, but are still used for some derivatives of natural origin. The general IUPAC rules are now generally applied to most pyrrole derivatives. Carbon containing substituents, such as carboxylic acid, nitrile, aldehyde, but also sulfonic acid, as well as derivatives thereof, should be incorporated into names as sufxes, although prexes, for instance cyano-, may sometimes be encountered. Nomenclature that applies to special classes of pyrrole derivatives, such as partially saturated systems, will be evident from appropriate sections of the text.
4 5 3( ) 3
N1 H 1
2( )
N 1a
N 1b
4.2 General Reactivity 4.2.1 Relevant Physicochemical Data, Computational Chemistry, and NMR Data
Pyrrole is a colorless liquid [mp 23 C, bp 130 C (760 Torr)] that darkens in contact with air. It has limited water solubility, but is miscible with many common organic solvents. Although some simple pyrroles are oils, many derivatives with higher molecular weights are solids. Pyrrole displays weakly acidic properties (pKa 17.25 in aqueous medium [13], 17.51 in aqueous hydroxide solution [14] and 23.05 in DMSO [15]). The dipole moment (m) of pyrrole is 1.74 0.02 D, with the negative pole directed towards the ring carbon atoms [16]. The planar C2v symmetric molecular structure of pyrrole has been determined based on microwave spectra [16]; Table 4.1 provides selected bond lengths and angles. Although it has for some time been possible to calculate quite accurate structural parameters for the structure of pyrrole [9], the increasing level of renement of modern theoretical methods has enabled even better estimations. Some represen
Table 4.1 Selected experimental and calculated bond lengths (A) and angles ( ) of pyrrole (1).
NC2 (A) Experimental MM3 B3P86 B3LYP/ 6-311G(2df,p) 1.370 1.380 1.368 1.370
C2C3 (A) 1.382 1.382 1.374 1.373
C3C4 (A) 1.417 1.417 1.419 1.421
C2NC5 ( ) 109.8 110.1 109.9 109.8
NC2C3 ( ) 107.7 107.1 107.6 107.7
C2C3 C4 ( ) 107.4 107.8 107.4 107.4
Reference
[16] [18] [19] [20]
4.2 General Reactivity
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tative values are included in Table 4.1. Computational methods involving complex pyrrole containing molecules are now commonplace, facilitating for instance studies of ligandreceptor interactions. The fundamental physicochemical properties of pyrroles, including the advances in spectroscopic and theoretical methods, have been compiled in several reviews [6, 9, 17]. As a p-excessive ve-membered aromatic heterocycle with six p-electrons, pyrrole displays many features that are usually associated with such systems, such as high resonance energy, and a tendency to participate in substitution reactions. Both experimental and theoretical aspects of the aromaticity of pyrroles have been studied over the years, sometimes arousing controversy; this topic has been reviewed and discussed in considerable detail. The generally accepted relative aromaticity scale for the common ve-membered heterocycles featuring one heteroatom versus benzene is: benzene > thiophene > selenophene > pyrrole > tellurophene > furan [21, 22]. Since detailed spectroscopic data, occasionally including complete assignments, are now included in virtually every research paper devoted to pyrroles, there is an immense wealth of information available on the subject [6, 9]. The chemical shifts of the protons attached to the carbon atoms of 1H-pyrroles reect the aromatic character of this ring system, typically appearing in the range 5.57.8 ppm. Concentration and solvent dependence accounts for the considerable range of measured values for the proton attached to the nitrogen atom, which is often observed as a broad, sometimes even barely discernible peak. Likewise, much information on 13 C NMR spectroscopy on pyrroles has been collected and evaluated in detail. The 13 C resonances of 1H-pyrroles lie in the aromatic region, and the shifts depend on the electronic effects transferred from the substituents. Alkyl- [9] or aryl [23] substituents at the nitrogen atom usually have only limited inuence on the ring carbon chemical shifts regardless of their properties, whereas the presence of electron-withdrawing groups can cause relatively large downeld shifts of the resonances; the magnitude of this effect increases with the electron-withdrawing power of the N-substituent [24]. The tetrahedral carbon of 2Hpyrroles usually resonates at 7898 ppm, in contrast to its counterpart in 3H-pyrroles, which appears in the range 4970 ppm. The resonances originating from the CN carbon in 2H- and 3H-pyrroles appear at 161185 and 173191 ppm, respectively [9]. The continuous development of two dimensional NMR experiments, such as gradient enhanced 15N-HMBC, allows practical measurement of 15 N chemical shifts and 1 H 15 N couplings in pyrrole derivatives. The 15 N chemical shifts of pyrroles fall in the approximate d range between 186 and 236 ppm, and may vary considerably due to inuence from the solvent; this should be kept in mind when data recorded in different media are compared [25].
4.2.2 Fundamental Reactivity Patterns
The propensity of pyrrole to react by electrophilic substitution imparts a dominant effect on its general reactivity patterns. Pyrrole itself, as well as simple nondeactivated derivatives thereof, is susceptible to undergo reactions with electrophiles
272

predominantly at C2 (a-position). Certain substituted pyrroles will, however, react with electrophiles selectively at C3, provided that an electron-withdrawing group is present at the nitrogen or at C2, or when both a-positions are blocked. Consequently, electrophilic substitution is a very useful tool for elaboration of pyrrole derivatives. An inspection of the Wheland intermediates resulting from attack on a suitable electrophile (E ) at C2 (2) or C3 (3) gives an explanation to the preferred C2 substitution pathway observed for simple pyrroles, as the intermediate 2 is stabilized to a higher degree by more extensive delocalization of the positive charge (Scheme 4.1). Computational data on the differences in the total energy of pyrrole and the possible cationic s-complexes formed upon its protonation, performed using for example the ab initio RHF/6-31G(d) and the DFT B3LYP/6-31G(d) methods [26], are in coherence with the experimental observations.
H E N H 2 H N H E H N H E H N H 3 N H E H E
Scheme 4.1
The electron rich nature of most pyrroles is further manifested by their reluctance to participate in nucleophilic substitution reactions. The intrinsically low reactivity of pyrroles towards nucleophilic regents may, however, be enhanced upon protonation, or introduction of strongly electron-withdrawing substituents. Synthetically useful reactions of pyrroles may also be performed with radical reagents, leading to selective substitution at C2 under special conditions (Section 4.5.7). Pyrrole reacts readily with strong bases giving the pyrrolyl anion 4 (Scheme 4.2). This ambident nucleophile is also of considerable synthetic importance, as it allows introduction of substituents in particular at the nitrogen atom, but also at the carbon atoms. In contrast, pyrroles possessing appropriate N-blocking substituents are usually metallated at C2, providing access to a wide variety of 2-substituted
-H+
Z+
RLi
N H 1
N 4 R1
N Z R2 Z N R2 R1
N Z X N Z
Li
E+
N Z Li
E
E
+
RLi
N Z
N Z
Scheme 4.2
4.3 Relevant Natural and/or Useful Compounds
j273
derivatives upon quenching with suitable electrophiles. Metallation of pyrroles at C3 is conveniently accomplished by halogenmetal exchange using 3-halopyrroles incorporating a bulky N-protecting group, which effectively blocks access to C2. Owing to its aromatic character, pyrrole itself does not participate in DielsAlder reactions, instead giving a-substitution products. However, this reactivity path may be precluded by introduction of an electron-withdrawing group on the nitrogen atom, thereby transforming the pyrrole nucleus into a useful diene component in Diels Alder reactions. Examples of reactions where pyrroles act as dienophiles are quite rare, but have nevertheless found some applications. Taken together, these fundamental reactions, combined with reductions, oxidations, classical functional group interconversions, pyrrole ring syntheses, as well as modern developments, such as transition metal catalyzed couplings, constitute a powerful arsenal of tools for the preparation and elaboration of a wide array of pyrrole derivatives. Additional aspects on the reactivity of the pyrrole nucleus are discussed in appropriate sections of this chapter.
The pyrrole nucleus is an essential component of several naturally occurring macrocyclic complexes of various metals of utmost importance for living systems by virtue of its ability to participate in coordination of metals. One molecule belonging to this class, chlorophyll-a (5), is a crucial prerequisite for sustaining life on our planet by its ability to participate in the conversion of carbon dioxide into carbohydrates with concomitant liberation of molecular oxygen by photosynthesis. The total synthesis of chlorophyll-a (5) conducted by Woodward constitutes one of the most prominent achievements in organic chemistry [27]. This, and several related pigments, is biosynthesized from the common building block porphobilinogen (6) [2830]. Likewise, the amino acid L-proline is ubiquitous in biologically important peptides and proteins, as well as other natural products. In addition, numerous naturally occurring compounds incorporating derivatives of proline have been identied [31]. Detailed mechanisms for some of the intricate biosynthetic pathways responsible for pyrrole ring formation and incorporation of pyrrole units in natural products have been formulated [32].
Et Me N Mg N Me 5 N Me N CO2Me O O Me Me Me O H2N Me CO2H CO2H
N H 6
274

There are many other pyrrole based molecules of natural and of synthetic origin that exhibit various biological activities. The cytotoxic pyrrole alkaloid roseophilin (7) [33] is an excellent example of such a compound, and has also attracted considerable attention as a challenging target for total synthesis [34]. An increasing group of naturally occurring pyrrole derivatives feature the tetramic acid motif as the main structural element [35, 36], as illustrated by the plasmodial pigment fuligorubin A (8) isolated from the slime mold Fuligo septica [37]. The eld of monopyrrolic natural products, including tetramic acid derivatives, has been comprehensively reviewed [38]; an account detailing recent synthetic strategies towards antitumor pyrroles bearing oxygenated aryl groups is also available [39]. Distamycin (9), an antiviral and antimitotic natural product isolated from a Streptomyces sp. [40], has served as a model compound for fruitful studies towards synthetic pyrrole containing polyamides for recognition [4144] and sequence specic alkylation [45] of DNA. The development of ketorololac (10), a drug with potent anti-inammatory and analgesic properties [46, 47], demonstrates the importance of synthetic pyrroles in medicinal chemistry.
OMe Cl O NH 7
HN N O N Me
i-Pr
O Me N
HO
N HO2C
O 8
CHO
Me
H N
O H N O 9 N N H Me
NH2 NH2
Ph O N 10
CO2H
Pyrrole polymers constitute yet an additional group of derivatives that have captured considerable interest, for instance as new materials for electrocatalysis [48], or conducting polymer nanocomposites [49]. Accounts concerning syntheses (e.g., by electropolymerization [50]), properties and applications of polypyrroles are also available [51, 52].
4.4 Pyrrole Ring Synthesis
Numerous different approaches for the construction of pyrrole derivatives from acyclic materials have arisen from over one century of intense research activity in this particular eld. Nevertheless, new developments, as well as further extensions of known methods still continue to attract the attention of synthetic chemists, providing
j275
additional effective routes to previously known pyrroles, as well as novel, and more exotic, derivatives. This section focuses particularly on general processes of practical importance. Selected syntheses of more specialized derivatives, such as oxypyrroles, aminopyrroles, pyrrolines and pyrrolidines, are incorporated in the sections devoted to these systems. A review detailing many recent advances in pyrrole ring synthesis since 1995 is available [52], whereas a more specialized account provides a survey of routes to pyrroles bearing two aryl or heteroaryl groups on adjacent positions [53].
4.4.1 PaalKnorr Synthesis and Related Methods (4 1 Strategy)
The PaalKnorr pyrrole synthesis [54, 55] deserves particular recognition as one the most valuable of all pyrrole ring forming reactions, as it relies on the condensation of 1,4-dicarbonyl compounds with primary amines or their equivalents, both of which are quite common and readily available materials. In an illustrative example, the 2,5dioxohexanoate derivatives 11 are efciently converted into the corresponding pyrroles 12 upon treatment with appropriate amines in the presence of acetic acid (Scheme 4.3) [56].
R1NH2, AcOH, MeOH 50-60 C 65-96%
MeO2C
O O
11
R2
MeO2C
N R1
12
R2
Scheme 4.3
The versatility of the PaalKnorr reaction is neatly demonstrated by the conversion of cyclododecane-1,4-dione into a pyrrole containing cyclophane [57], or transformation of the c-ketoaldehyde 13 into the bicyclic system 14 in a key step of a synthesis of the bacterial tripyrrole pigment metacycloprodigiosin (Scheme 4.4) [58]. Modern applications emerge continuously, and allow for instance synthesis of 1-aminopyrrole derivatives by using monoprotected hydrazines [59] or N-aminophthalimide [60] as the amine components. A variant employing amine hydrobromides in reuxing pyridine is available [61], and an efcient synthesis of cyclopenta[b]pyrroles from suitable diketones with hexamethyldisilazane (HMDS) as the ammonia equivalent in
Et OHC
(NH4)2CO3, H2O, DMF 115 C 58%
Et
N H 14
13
Scheme 4.4
276

the presence of Al2O3 has also been described [62]. Other useful extensions involve montmorillonite KSF clay [63], titanium isopropoxide [64] or iodine [65] as the catalysts. The PaalKnorr synthesis has recently been performed under microwave irradiation [6668], and has also been adapted to the solid phase employing immobilized 1,4-diketones [69]. A solution phase combinatorial approach has also been presented, involving construction of the 1,4-diketones from methyl esters by reaction with an excess of vinylmagnesium bromide in the presence of CuCN, followed by oxidation of the alkene unit in the resulting homoallylic ketones using O2/PdCl2/CuCl in aqueous DMF [70]. The mechanism of the PaalKnorr condensation has been scrutinized in detail, here exemplied by the conversion of the substituted 2,5-hexanediones 15 into the 2,5-dimethylpyrrole derivatives 16, which appears to involve the intermediacy of the aminals 17, which undergo cyclization to the diols 18, followed by elimination of two equivalents of water (Scheme 4.5). These conclusions were supported by meticulous kinetic studies [71], as well as probing of the inuence of the stereochemistry of the starting 1,4-dicarbonyl compounds [71, 72]. The reversibility of this series of events has recently been demonstrated by conversion of various pyrroles into the corresponding 1,4-dicarbonyl compounds by heating at pH 3, which allows exchange of the N-substituent [73].
R1 Me R2 Me
NH3
R1 Me
R2 HO
R1 Me N H 18 R1 R2 N H 16 Me
R2 OH Me
O O 15
Me O HO NH2 17
R1
-H2O
R2 N H OH Me
-H2O
Me
Me
Scheme 4.5
This versatile method may also be utilized for the synthesis of 2H-pyrroles, as demonstrated by conversion of the 1,4-diketone 19 into the product 20 (Scheme 4.6). The series of events leading to this outcome involves the intermediacy of the
Me Me Me N 21 Me
50%
Me Me
NH4OAc, AcOH 60 C, 14 h
Me Me
Me Me Me N 20 Me
O O 19
Scheme 4.6
j277
3H-pyrrole 21, which undergoes rearrangement to the 2H-pyrrole 20 due to the acidic reaction conditions in combination with heating. Nonetheless, this approach can in certain cases enable isolation of the 3H-tautomers [74]. A review detailing the early advances in the chemistry of 2H- and 3H-pyrroles is available [75]. A useful extension of the PaalKnorr reaction is based on the cyclization of 2,5dimethoxytetrahydrofuran (22) with primary amines, providing facile access to Nsubstituted pyrroles (e.g., 23) (Scheme 4.7) [76, 77]. This process is further facilitated by using phosphorus pentoxide as the catalyst [78], or by heating in acetic acid under microwave conditions [79]. It has also been demonstrated that cyclizations involving 22 and amine components incorporating sensitive substituents proceeds in acceptable yields when carried out in a medium containing acetic acid and pyridine via a path featuring acidbase catalysis [80]. Application of arylsulfonamides as the amine synthons constitutes a useful route to 1-(arylsulfonyl)pyrroles [81]. Likewise, heating of 2,5-dimethoxytetrahydrofuran-3-carbaldehyde with ethyl carbamate [82] or p-toluenesulfonamide [83] under acidic conditions gives the corresponding Nsubstituted pyrrole-3-carboxaldehydes. Treatment of the related four-carbon precursor 2,5-dimethoxy-2,5-dihydrofuran with amines in 10% aqueous HCl gives the corresponding N-substituted 3-pyrroline-2-ones in good yield [84]. Initial hydrolysis of 22 in water to 2,5-dihydroxytetrahydrofuran, followed by reaction with primary amines in an acetate buffer, constitutes an additional modication that permits a broader range of N-substituents because of the less acidic conditions [85].
PhNH2, AcOH reflux 75%
MeO
O 22
OMe
N Ph 23
Scheme 4.7
Relatively mild conditions have also been employed in some related syntheses, wherein exposure of 1,4-dichloro-1,4-dimethoxybutane (24) to amino acids [86], or primary amides [87], led for example to the pyrrole 25, or 1-acylpyrroles, respectively (Scheme 4.8).
OMe Cl 24
Scheme 4.8
EtCO2CH2NH2HCl CH2Cl2, Amberlyst A-21 0 C to rt 92%
Cl OMe
N CO2Et 25
The PaalKnorr condensation has also been incorporated as the key step in multicomponent approaches to pyrroles. A one-pot procedure, involving initial formation of the highly substituted 1,4-dicarbonyl compounds 26 from acylsilanes and a series
278

of a,b-unsaturated ketones in the presence of the thiazolium salt 27 as the catalyst, is completed by ring closure using primary amines to the target pyrroles 28 (Scheme 4.9), featuring for example multiple aryl substituents [88]. A similar approach includes palladium-catalyzed coupling of aryl halides with propargylic alcohols, giving a,b-unsaturated ketones, which thereafter undergo thiazolium salt catalyzed Stetter reactions with aldehydes to provide the requisite 1,4-diketone precursors [89].
R2COSiMe3 O R3 R4 R5
27 (20 mol%) DBU, THF, i-PrOH
R2 R3
O R5
R1NH2 p-TsOH 4 ms 54-82%
R4 R5 N R1 28
R3 R
2
HO Me 27
S N Br Et
R4 26
Scheme 4.9
4.4.2 Other Cyclizations of Four-Carbon Precursors (5 0 and 4 1 Strategies)
Apart from the classical and modern variants of the PaalKnorr reaction outlined above, several related approaches involving cyclization of four-carbon precursors are available. Generation of the c-nitroketones 29 bearing an additional ester functionality geminal to the nitro group by Michael addition of ethyl nitroacetate to suitable enones, and subsequent cyclization thereof with formamidinesulnic acid and triethylamine, gives the pyrrole-2-carboxylates 30 (Scheme 4.10), via the intermediacy of the oximes or imines 31 (XNOH or NH) [90].
R1 EtO2C O2N O 29
Scheme 4.10
NH R2 H2N
Et3N, i-PrOH
SO2H EtO2C
R1 X O 31 R2
45-89%
R1 EtO2C N H 30 R2
In contrast, reductive cyclization of the precursors 32, available by conjugate addition of 2-nitropropane to a,b-unsaturated ketones, gives the pyrrolidines 33, which may thereafter be converted into the corresponding 2H-pyrroles 34 upon dehydrogenation with 2,3-dichloro-5,6-dicyano-1,4-benzoquinone (DDQ) (Scheme 4.11) [91]. Suitable four-carbon precursors may also be prepared from the a-aminoaldehydes or -ketones 35, which are readily available from N-Boc-a-amino acids by conversion
j279
N 34 R2
R1 Me Me O2N O 32
Scheme 4.11
R2
Raney Ni (cat.) H2 (1 atm.) EtOH, rt, 12-16 h
R1 Me Me N H 33 R2
DDQ (2.2 equiv.) 1,4-dioxane, rt, 12-24 h 55-81%
R1 Me Me
into Weinreb amides, followed by reduction with LiAlH4 or treatment with Grignard reagents, respectively. Thus exposure of 35 to lithium enolates of ketones, followed by cyclization of the resulting aldol adducts 36, produced the set of pyrroles 37 (Scheme 4.12), including several fused derivatives, in low to moderate yields [92]. Reductive cyclization of similar aldol intermediates available from a-(N,N-dibenzyl) amino aldehydes or ketones has been utilized in a related, more high-yielding approach to N-benzylpyrroles [93]. Acid-induced cyclodehydration of Boc-protected c-amino-a,b-enals or -enones derived from N-Boc-a-aminoaldehydes via Wittig reactions provides a route to various 1-(tert-butoxycarbonyl)pyrrole derivatives [94].
O BocHN R1 35
Scheme 4.12
R2
R3CH2COR4 LDA, THF, -78 C
BocHN
R2 OH O R
1
R3 R4
HCl, CH2Cl2
R2 R1 N Boc 37
R 36
R4
An approach based on a microwave assisted domino process involving primary amines and the alkynoates 38, which are derived from two equivalents of methyl propiolate and suitable aldehydes (R1CHO), results in the pyrroles 39 (Scheme 4.13). The series of events leading to this outcome were suggested to involve rearrangement of 1,3-oxazolidine intermediates as the key feature [95]. A set of structurally related substrates has also been converted into pyrroles bearing multiple substituents by initial silver-catalyzed isomerization of the propargyl moiety to an allene, followed by condensation of the resulting intermediates with primary amines, and nal goldcatalyzed 5-exo-dig cyclizations [96].
R2 MeO2C N R1 39
MeO2C
O R2 38
CO2Me
R1NH2, SiO2 900 W, 8 min 38-74%
CO2Me
Scheme 4.13
280

It has been known for some time that pyrroles may be obtained from the reactions of azaallylic anions with suitable a-haloketones [97]. A new application of azaallylic anions in pyrrole synthesis has been realized by conversion of the a-haloimines 40 into the intermediates 41, which in turn are cyclized to the 1-pyrrolines 42, eventually giving the pyrroles 43 (Scheme 4.14), including the 3-chloro derivative (R2Ph, R3Cl) [98].
R1 R2 Cl
1. LDA, HMPA THF, -78 C 2. ICH2CH2N3 -78 C to rt 77-96%
R3
R3 Cl
R1 R2 N3
SnCl2 MeOH 76-97%
R3 N 42
Cl R2
NaOMe, MeOH reflux 78-98%
R3 N H 43 R2
40 R1 = i-Pr or t-Bu
Scheme 4.14
41
Several approaches based on cyclization of propargylamines and homologues thereof have emerged in recent years. Base induced cyclization of the benzotriazol-1yl (Bt) substituted precursors 44, which are readily available from 1-propargylbenzotriazole, gives the corresponding pyrroles 45, presumably via allene intermediates (Scheme 4.15) [99]. Rhodium-catalyzed hydroformylation of 1,3-disubstituted propargylamines affording 2,4-disubstituted pyrroles has also been accomplished [100].
Bt 44
Scheme 4.15
Ar NHTs
NaOH, EtOH 90 C 45-60%
N H 45
Ar
Homopropargylamines, which are available, for instance, by addition of propargylic Grignard reagents to Schiff bases, are also useful precursors, as exemplied by the silver(I) mediated conversion of 46 into the pyrroles 47 (Scheme 4.16) [101]. A synthetic route to pyrroles involving cyclization of homopropargylamines generated in situ by ring opening of ethynylepoxides with amines has also been described [102].
TMS R2 46
Scheme 4.16
AgOAc, CH2Cl2 78-99%
NHR1
N R1 47
R2
Annulation of the homopropargylic sulfonamides 48 (RPh, 2-furyl, 2-thienyl), which are prepared by alkylation of the benzophenone imine of methyl glycinate with propargyl bromide, followed by sequential hydrolysis, tosylation and Sonogashira
j281
coupling at the terminal acetylene unit, has been reported to give the substituted 4iodo-2,3-dihydropyrrole derivatives 49 via a 5-endo-dig process, eventually leading to the b-iodopyrroles 50 (Scheme 4.17) [103, 104], whereas cyclization of related alkenyl derivatives provides access to b-iodopyrrolidine derivatives [105].
R I R N Ts 49 CO2Me I R N H 50 CO2Me
I2, K2CO3 (3 equiv. each) MeCN, 0-20 C
DBU (2.1 equiv.) DMF, rt 85-90%
MeO2C 48
NHTs
7 4-7 8 %
Scheme 4.17
Azadienes 51 may also serve as starting materials for construction of pyrroles, as C-alkylation thereof provides the intermediates 52, which undergo annulation to the pyrroles 53 upon heating in toluene or ethanol. A subsequent hydrolysis step completes this synthesis, resulting in the 3-acetylpyrrole derivatives 54 in excellent overall yields (Scheme 4.18) [106, 107]. An approach to, for instance, 1,2,3,5-tetrasubstituted pyrroles, utilizing thermally induced cyclization of iminoalkyne intermediates derived from various substituted 4-pentynones and suitable amines, has also been reported [108, 109].
X NHR1 R2 R3 52 NH
HCl, H2O PhMe or EtOH,
R2 NHR1 R3 NH 51
Scheme 4.18
1. BuLi, THF 2. Br
R3 R2
Me
N R1
53 X = NH 54 X = O
4.4.3 Knorr Synthesis and Related Routes (3 2 Strategy)
The Knorr pyrrole synthesis [110], which relies on the condensation of an a-aminoketone with a carbonyl compound possessing acidic a-hydrogens (each contributing with a two-carbon fragment to the pyrrole ring) is also of considerable synthetic importance. Since a-aminoketones are rather reactive and difcult to handle, the practical procedures often involve generation thereof in situ from a suitable synthetic equivalent, as illustrated by the classical example below (Scheme 4.19), in which addition of one equivalent of sodium nitrite to two equivalents of ethyl acetoacetate (55) generates an oxime, which, upon reduction with zinc dust [110, 111] or
282

O Me 55
Scheme 4.19
O OEt
1. NaNO2 (0.5 equiv), AcOH, 5 C 2. Zn, AcOH, reflux
Me EtO2C N H 56
CO2Et Me
dithionite [112], undergoes condensation with the remaining equivalent of 55 to furnish the pyrrole 56 in excellent yield (Scheme 4.19). It has also been demonstrated that this reaction may follow a different path if a b-diketone is used as one of the reactants, as treatment of diethyl oximinomalonate (57) with 2,4-pentanedione (58) under reductive conditions will afford ethyl 3,5dimethylpyrrole-2-carboxylate (59) [113]. Since this process involves the intermediacy of diethyl aminomalonate (60), the reductive conditions can be avoided by using this very reagent. The mechanism is considered to feature an initial formation of the aminal 61, followed by elimination of water to form the enamine 62, which will cyclize on the ketone carbonyl carbon to provide 63, eventually leading to the nal product 59 (Scheme 4.20) [114, 115]. The use of unsymmetrical 1,3-diketones instead of 2,4-pentanedione usually gives mixtures of regioisomeric pyrroles, unless relatively bulky groups (i-Pr, t-Bu, Ph) are present at the terminal carbon [116]. Many substituted pyrrole-2-carboxylate derivatives obtained using these procedures may be readily converted into further derivatives by decarboxylation (Section 4.6.2).
NOH EtO2C 57 CO2Et
H3CCOCH2COCH3 58 Zn, AcOH 60%
Me Me N H 59 CO2Et
-CO2, -EtOH
Zn
Me NH2 EtO2C 60 CO2Et

58
Me
-H2O
O CO2Et Me N CO2Et HO H 61
O CO2Et N H 62 CO2Et Me
Me N H 63
Me
OH CO2Et
CO2Et
Scheme 4.20
A modern modication of the Knorr pyrrole synthesis involves elaboration of Weinreb amides, for instance 64, derived from phenylalanine, giving the protected a-aminoketone 65, which can subsequently be deprotected and condensed with 2,4pentanedione to provide the pyrrole 66 (Scheme 4.21) [117]. Reaction of similar Weinreb amides lacking the Boc group with enamines gives N-methoxy-N-methyla-enaminocarboxamides, which take part in related conversions into a-enaminoketones, and ensuing annulations to pyrroles [118].
j283
O Ph BocHN 64
Scheme 4.21
N Me
OMe
MeMgBr Et2O 74%
O Ph BocHN 65
1. HCl (g), CH2Cl2 2. MeCOCH2COMe NaOAc, AcOH, 80 C Me 58%
Me Bn N H 66
COMe Me
In a related approach involving an initial CN bond formation between two C2fragments, addition of the a-aminoketones 67 to dimethyl acetylenedicarboxylate (DMAD) yields the intermediates 68, which nally undergo cyclization to give pyrroles 69 (Scheme 4.22) [119]. A related procedure involving initial reactions of a-amino acid esters with DMAD, and cyclization of the intermediate enamines with sodium methoxide in methanol rendering 3-hydroxypyrroles 69 (R1OH), has also been reported [120].
R2 O 67 NH2HCl
DMAD, NaOAc MeOH or PhH reflux
R1
MeO2C R2 O N H 68 CO2Me
R1 R2 N H 69
CO2Me CO2Me
Scheme 4.22
A series of 2-substituted 3-nitropyrroles (70) has been prepared by displacement of a methylthio group of the nitroalkene 71, followed by treatment of the resulting products 72 with aminoacetaldehyde dimethylacetal to furnish the intermediate enamines 73, which underwent a nal ring closure in acidic medium (Scheme 4.23) [121]. Intermediates similar to 73 featuring a triuoroacetyl group instead of the nitro functionality have previously been prepared from b-(triuoroacetylvinyl) ethers and aminoacetaldehyde dimethylacetal, and were cyclized to the corresponding 3-triuoroacetylpyrroles in aqueous TFA [122].
NO2
SMe
RMgX, CuI, TMSCl Et2O, THF, -78 C 65-71%
NO2 R 72
H2NCH2CH(OMe)2 SMe EtOH, reflux
O2N MeO R N H 73
OMe
HCl Et2O 0-5 C 51-69%
O2 N R N H 70
SMe 71
Scheme 4.23
284

4.4.4 Hantzsch Synthesis and Related Approaches (2 2 1 or 3 2 Strategy)
A conceptually related process involving two C2-fragments and an amine component is the Hantzsch pyrrole synthesis (Scheme 4.24) [123]. In a typical procedure, a mixture consisting of an a-halo carbonyl compound (74) and ethyl acetoacetate (75) is treated with ammonia. This initially gives the enamine 76 derived from the b-ketoester, which will subsequently undergo cyclization with 74 to provide pyrrole 77 [124]. Application of b-aminoacrylonitriles as the enamine counterparts has been used to prepare 5-(triuoromethyl)pyrrole-3-carbonitrile derivatives [125]. A solid phase variant utilizing an immobilized enamino component has also been developed [126].
OEt
NH3, H2O
Br OHC 74
Scheme 4.24
O Et O 75
Br OHC 74 Et
O H2N
OEt
45%
Et N H 77
CO2Et Me
Me
Me 76
It has also been demonstrated that titanium mediated annulation of substrate 78, which is available in two steps from the appropriate 1,3-dicarbonyl compound, gives a good yield of 2,3,5-triphenylpyrrole (79) (Scheme 4.25). Similar precursors have also been cyclized in the presence of a preformed titaniumgraphite reagent [127].
Ph O Ph 78
Scheme 4.25
TiCl3, Zn, THF reflux, 3 h 78%
Ph Ph N H 79 Ph
HN
O Ph
4.4.5 Syntheses Involving Glycine Esters (3 2 Strategy)
Several useful routes to pyrroles are based on the reactions of glycine esters or related compounds with suitable C3-synthons. For example, condensation of ethyl glycinate hydrochloride (80) with the 1,3-diketone 81 provides access to the pyrrole 82 [128] via the enaminoketone intermediate 83 (Scheme 4.26). Such intermediates may also be isolated in a stepwise approach involving milder conditions [129], whereas cyclization of related condensation products generated from 3-ethoxyacrolein derivatives and N-substituted glycine esters gives 2,4-disubstituted pyrroles [130].
j285
CO2Et NH2HCl 80
Scheme 4.26
O O
Ph
DMF, reflux
EtO2C
O HN 83
Ph
74%
Ph EtO2C N H 82 Ph
Ph 81
Ph
Likewise, it has been demonstrated that p-toluenesulfonylglycine esters 84 undergo addition to a,b-unsaturated ketones 85 to render pyrrolidines 86, which will eventually furnish pyrroles 87 by sequential elimination of water and p-toluenesulnate, via the suggested 3-pyrroline intermediates 88 (Scheme 4.27) [131, 132].
CO2R4 R1 R2 85
DBU THF
TsHN O R3
84
R2 R1
R3 N Ts 86
OH CO2R4
POCl3 pyridine
R2 R1 N Ts 88
R3
R DBU PhMe reflux R1 CO2R4 11-70% overall
R3 N H 87 CO2R4
Scheme 4.27
Glycine derivatives may also give pyrroles upon treatment with various iminium salts. For example, the reaction of ethyl glycinate hydrochloride (80) with the vinamidinium perchlorates 89 provides 3-arylpyrrole-2-carboxylates (90) in good yields [133]. A related reaction involving the salt 91, which is readily available from 3-acetylthiophene, leads to the thienylpyrrole 92 (Scheme 4.28) [134]. Similar chemistry has also been employed for the preparation of 5-arylpyrrole-2-carboxylates [135] and of various 3,4-disubstituted pyrrole-2-carboxylates [136].
HClO4 Me2N N H 90
Scheme 4.28
Ar CO2Et
Cl CO2Et NH2HCl 80 S
91 NaH, DMF 75%
PF6 NMe2 S N H 92 CO2Et
89
Ar
NMe2
NaOEt, EtOH 75-87%
4.4.6 Van Leusen Method (3 2 Strategy)
Since its introduction, the van Leusen pyrrole synthesis has enjoyed considerable popularity, as it provides convenient access to 3,4-disubstituted pyrroles from the
286

readily available building blocks p-toluenesulfonylmethyl isocyanide (TosMIC) (93) and electron decient alkenes. Treatment of the anion of TosMIC with the a,b-unsaturated ketones 94 initially gives the intermediate Michael adducts 95. After cyclization to 96, followed by tautomerization to 97, p-toluenesulnate is eliminated giving the 3H-pyrroles 98, which eventually tautomerize to the nal products 99 (Scheme 4.29) [137]. Application of methyl 3-arylacrylates in this approach gives methyl 4-arylpyrrole-3-carboxylates, which may be further converted into the corresponding 3-arylpyrroles by saponication and decarboxylation [138]. A variant involving aryl- or heteroarylalkenes, TosMIC and sodium tert-butoxide in DMSO allows direct access to 3-aryl- or heteroarylpyrroles, respectively, in moderate yields [139]. When acrylonitriles are used as the alkene reactants, pyrrole-3-carbonitriles are produced [137], whereas application of nitroalkenes [140, 141] or tert-butyl (E)-4,4,4-triuorobutenoate [142] gives the corresponding b-nitropyrrole- or b-(triuoromethyl)pyrrole derivatives, respectively. Extensions involving substituted TosMIC derivatives offer direct routes to 2,3,4-trisubstituted pyrrole derivatives [143], including 2-stannylpyrroles [144]. The closely related reagent benzotriazol-1-ylmethyl isocyanide (BetMIC) has also been evaluated in similar reactions, and may in some cases give better yields [145].
O Ts 93 NC
NaH Et2O, DMSO
R2 R1 N Ts N
R1 Ts C
R2
R1
O 94 R2
95 R1 O R2 Ts R1
96 O
R1 N H 99
R2
7-70%
R2 H
N 98
N 97
Scheme 4.29
In a further extension of this valuable method, reaction of the 1-isocyano-1-tosyl alkenes 100 with nitromethane in the presence of potassium tert-butoxide enables efcient preparation of the 3-nitropyrroles 101 (Scheme 4.30) [146]. Similar transformations involving suitable substituted ketones instead of nitromethane yield
R NC Ts 100
Scheme 4.30
CH3NO2, t-BuOK, DME 86-94%
R N H 101
NO2
j287
various 3,4-disubstituted pyrroles, even such lacking electron-withdrawing substituents [147]. It is also noteworthy that alkenes generated from aldehydes and alkyl isocyanoacetates in the presence of DBU may react with an additional equivalent of the isocyanoacetate component, affording 2-substituted alkyl pyrrole-2,4-dicarboxylates in a convenient one-pot operation [148]. The reactions of TosMIC (93) or the methyl derivative 102 with dienes, for instance 103 [141] or 104 [149], furnish the corresponding substituted 3-vinylpyrroles, 105 and 106, respectively (Scheme 4.31). Treatment of 1,4-disubstituted 2,3-dinitrobutadienes with TosMIC under similar conditions gives 3-alkynylpyrrole derivatives [150].
O2N N H 105
Scheme 4.31
Ph Ph
NO2 103
73%
R Ts NC
SO2Ph 104
NaH, THF, DMSO, rt 64%
PhO2S
t-BuOK, THF, -80 C
93 R = H 102 R = Me
N H 106
Me
4.4.7 BartonZard Synthesis (3 2 Strategy)
The equally versatile BartonZard synthesis features an initial conjugate addition of isocyanoacetate esters 107 to nitroolens 108 in the presence of a base (e.g., DBU), generating the adducts 109, which thereafter undergo cyclization to afford 110. An ensuing isomerization of 110 to 111, followed by elimination of nitrite, provides the 3H-pyrroles 112, which nally tautomerize to the target pyrrole-2-carboxylate derivatives 113 (Scheme 4.32). Sensitive nitroolens are preferably formed in situ from the corresponding b-nitroacetoxyalkanes [151, 152]. Application of benzyl
RO2C 107
NC
R1
R2 NO2 108
DBU
R1 RO2C
R2 NO2 N 109 C RO2C
R1
R2 N 110
NO2
R1 RO2C N H 113
R2 RO2C
R1 N 112
R2 RO2C
R1
R2 N 111
NO2
Scheme 4.32
288

isocyanoacetate in this approach allows efcient preparation of benzyl pyrrole-2carboxylates [153, 154]. Alternatively, the nitroolen components may be replaced by a,b-unsaturated sulfone derivatives [155157] or by acetate precursors bearing a vicinal nitro group [158]. A variant of this reaction involving polymer supported reagents has also been developed [159]. Synthesis of the fused pyrrole derivatives 114 and 115 from 9-nitrophenanthrene (116) constitutes an interesting application of the BartonZard approach (Scheme 4.33) [160, 161]. Other condensed nitroaromatics, such as 3-nitrobenzothiophene, also give fused pyrrole derivatives under these conditions [162]. In cases where relatively unreactive nitroaromatics are involved, the use of a strong phosphazene base may give improved yields [163].
RCO2CH2NC DBU, THF, rt
NO2 116
CO2R N H 114 R = Et (86%) 115 R = t-Bu (65%)
Scheme 4.33
4.4.8 Trofimov Synthesis (3 2 Strategy)
Various pyrroles have been prepared over the years using the Tromov synthesis, which relies on cyclization of ketoximes with acetylenes in a strong basic medium [164, 165]. For example, exposure of oxime 117 to acetylene in the presence of KOH in DMSO at elevated pressure and temperature gives the fused pyrrole 118 in excellent yield (Scheme 4.34) [166]. However, the formation of mixtures of Nvinylated products and the corresponding parent pyrroles is a common outcome of this reaction. The N-vinylation may be suppressed by addition of water (about 5%) to the reaction mixture, whereas optimal conditions for synthesis of N-vinylpyrroles require the use of a large excess of KOH [165]. A recent application of this method provided access to 2,6-bis(pyrrol-2-yl)pyridines [167]. Several pyrroles incorporating sulfur containing moieties have been prepared using the Tromov reaction [168].
H H N 118
12 atm., 80-90 C KOH, DMSO
NOH 117
Scheme 4.34
quant.
j289
4.4.9 Cycloaddition Reactions and Related Approaches (3 2 Strategy)
1,3-Dipolar cycloadditions between mesoionic compounds and suitable dipolarophiles, for example alkynes, constitute another useful approach to pyrroles [169, 170]. nchnones 119, which are readily available from Thus the alkyl- or aryl-substituted mu a-amino acids, participate in cycloadditions with acetylene derivatives (e.g., diesters) to provide pyrroles 120, often in excellent yields, through expulsion of carbon dioxide nchnones may also be from the intermediate adducts 121 (Scheme 4.35). Mu generated in situ from N-acyl-a-amino acids and acetic anhydride. Preferably, one of the reactants should be symmetrically substituted, thus avoiding formation of mixtures containing isomeric pyrroles [171, 172]. Nevertheless, regiospecic reactions involving polyuoro-2-alkynoic acid esters have been reported [173]. The use of nchnones provides access to N-acylpyrroles as mixtures of isomers [174], N-acylmu whereas 2-arylthio- or alkylthio-substituted 5-amino-1,3-thiazolium salts give 2arylthio- or 2-alkylthiopyrrole derivatives, respectively, upon reaction with dimethyl acetylenedicarboxylate (DMAD) via extrusion of isothiocyanates [175]. Modern, nchnones feature generation multi-component variants that presumably involve mu of the dipoles from imines, acid chlorides, and carbon monoxide via palladium catalysis [176], or by annulation of products derived from Ugi four-component reactions involving carboxylic acids, primary amines, aldehydes and 1-isocyanocy nchnones has also clohexene [177]. A solid phase version using polymer bound mu been described. [178] Various aspects concerning the regioselectivity of 1,3-dipolar nchnones have been discussed in detail; the outcome cycloadditions involving mu appears to be inuenced by the electronic nature and location of the substituents on the dipole [179], as well as steric factors [180]. In connection with investigations of nchnone with a carbohydrate derived regioselective cycloadditions of a certain mu nitroolen, it was concluded that predictions using frontier molecular orbital theory in combination with semi-empirical studies are not applicable for such processes, and that this particular example proceeded through a concerted, although somewhat asynchronous, transition state, as implied by results from ab initio MO calculations [181].
R1 N R2 R2 O R4 N R1 120 R2
O R2
O N R1 119 R2
R3
R4
R3 O
-CO2
R4 R3
R2
121
Scheme 4.35
Pyrroles may also be made by cycloaddition of dimethyl 1,2,4,5-tetrazine-3,6dicarboxylate (122) with electron rich alkenes, followed by ring contraction of the resulting 1,2-diazines [182, 183]. In a representative procedure, 122 reacts with
290

1,1-dimethoxyethylene to give intermediate 123, which is subsequently reduced to the pyrrole 124 (Scheme 4.36) [184]. The alkene components may also be replaced with acetylene derivatives [185]. Advances in ring contraction methodology for the construction of pyrroles have been discussed in detail in a specialized review [186].
CO2Me N N N N MeO OMe
1,4 dioxane 25 C 94%
MeO
CO2Me N N CO2Me 123
Zn, AcOH 25 C 68%
MeO MeO2C N H 124 CO2Me
CO2Me 122
Scheme 4.36
Generation of dipoles from aziridines, and reaction thereof with suitable acetylenes, offers a route to pyrroles [187] that might be otherwise difcult to access. This method has been employed for the synthesis of the 3,4-disilylpyrrole 125 by dipolar cycloaddition of 2-cyano-1-trimethylsilylaziridine (126) with bis(trimethylsilyl)acetylene, followed by N-desilylation of the intermediate product 127 in methanol (Scheme 4.37) [188]. Azomethine ylides generated by desilylation of suitable immonium salts have been demonstrated to add to alkynes, giving pyrroles, or to alkenes to render 2-pyrrolines, which could in turn be further converted into the corresponding pyrroles by treatment with DDQ [189]. Based on a previously reported procedure [190], an approach to pyrroles has been devised that relies on reactions involving alkynes and imines in the presence of Ti(i-OPr)4, i-PrMgCl and carbon monoxide at atmospheric pressure, via azatitanacyclopentene derivatives as intermediates [191].
TMS TMS TMS TMS
MeOH
CN TMSCl, Et3N N H
hexanes
CN N TMS 126
xylenes 140 C 85%
TMS
95%
TMS N H 125
N TMS 127
Scheme 4.37
An elegant route to pyrroles from isocyanides and electron decient acetylenes has also become available. In an illustrative example, pyrrole 128 was obtained upon reaction of ethyl isocyanoacetate with alkyne 129 in the presence of dppp [192]. The regioselectivity may be reversed by changing the catalyst to Cu2O, giving instead the product 130 (Scheme 4.38) [193]. A related synthesis of pyrroles involving addition of metallated isocyanides to acetylenes, featuring an intramolecular cycloaddition of an alkene unit with the isocyanide moiety in the initially formed intermediates as the key step, has also appeared [194].

EtO2C EtO2C N H 128 Me dppp (cat.) 1,4-dioxane 100 C, 2 h 60% CN Me CO2Et CO2Et 129 Cu2O (cat.) 1,10-phenanthroline (cat.) 1,4-dioxane, 100 C, 2 h 64%
j291
Me CO2Et N H 130
EtO2C
Scheme 4.38
4.4.10 Multi-Component Reactions (2 2 1 Strategy)
Multi-component processes, which are carried out in a one pot operation, have become increasingly popular tools for pyrrole synthesis in recent years. Some of these approaches employ well-known principles for pyrrole ring formation, for example nchnones the PaalKnorr reaction [88], or dipolar cycloaddition of alkynes to mu [176, 177] (see above). Samarium-catalyzed three-component coupling of amines, aldehydes and nitroalkanes has been demonstrated to furnish modest to moderate yields of the pyrroles 131 (Scheme 4.39). Two aldehyde units are incorporated in the nal products. The aldehydes may also be replaced by a,b-unsaturated aldehydes or ketones in a similar pyrrole ring forming reaction that does, however, not require the use of a catalyst [195]. Likewise, reactions between amines, a,b-unsaturated aldehydes or ketones and nitroethane in the presence of silica [196], or alternatively amines, aldehydes or ketones and nitroalkenes mediated by Al2O3 [197] under microwave irradiation, also produce useful yields of various pyrroles. The latter set of components may also be converted into pyrroles by heating in molten tetrabutylammonium bromide [198].
R1NH2
R2
CHO
R3
NO2
SmCl3 (cat.) THF, 60 C 8-65%
R2 N R1 131
R2 R3
(2.4 equiv.)
(4 equiv.)
Scheme 4.39
4.4.11 Miscellaneous Transition Metal Catalyzed Methods (3 2 and 5 0 Strategies)
Transition metal catalyzed/mediated transformations of acyclic precursors to pyrroles have also attracted considerable attention. Although conceptually and mechanistically very interesting, some of these developments still appear to suffer from lack of practical synthetic applicability, involving rather complex starting materials and catalysts. Nevertheless, such procedures are now acknowledged as valuable tools for the preparation of exotic pyrroles having unusual substituents, substitution
292

patterns or oxidation states, which are not easily available via the classical procedures. For example, the rhodium-catalyzed reaction of 3-uoropentane-2,4-dione (132) with ethyl isocyanoacetate furnished the uoropyrrole 133 (Scheme 4.40), whereas the use of unsymmetrical 1,3-diketones gave, in most cases, mixtures of regioisomeric pyrroles [199].
Me F Me 132
O O
CNCH2CO2Et Rh4(CO)12 (cat.) PhMe, 80 C
Me F Me
CO2Et NHCHO O
-CO
Me F Me
CO2Et NH2 O
40%
F Me N H 133
Me CO2Et
Scheme 4.40
Metallation of N-allylbenzotriazole 134, followed by treatment with imines provided the intermediates 135, which were thereafter converted into the 1,2diarylpyrroles (136) by palladium-catalyzed annulation (Scheme 4.41) [200]. This approach resembles a previous route featuring lithiation of 1-(3-morpholinoprop-2enyl)benzotriazole, wherein the nal cyclization could be effected under acidic conditions [201].
1. BuLi, THF, -78 C
2. Ar2CH=NAr1, -78 C
Ar2 Bt N H 135
Ar1
Pd(OAc)2 (cat.), CuCl2 PPh3, K2CO3, THF, reflux 21-79%
Bt 134
Scheme 4.41
52-85%
N Ar1 136
Ar2
Copper assisted cycloisomerization of the alkynylimines 137 gave useful yields of 1,2-disubstituted pyrroles 138. This reaction tolerates substituents with rather sensitive moieties, such as TBS-ethers [202]. In a similar process, starting from related alkynylimines 139 possessing an additional arylthio- or alkylthio-substituent geminal to R2, 2-alkyl-3-thio-substituted pyrroles 140 were produced in good yields via 1,2migration of the thio group in intermediate thioallenylimines (Scheme 4.42) [203].
CuI (30 mol%), Et3N/DMA (1:7) 110 C (for X = H) or CuI (cat.), DMA, (for X = SR3)
R2 X N R1 137 X = H 139 X = SR3

Scheme 4.42
X R2 N 1 R 138 X = H 140 X = SR3
50-93%
4.5 Reactivity
j293
The (Z)-(2-en-4-ynyl)amines 141 undergo Pd(II) [204, 205] or Cu(II)-catalyzed cycloisomerization to the pyrroles 142 (Scheme 4.43). The copper-catalyzed reactions require higher temperatures. Interestingly, the less stable of the substrates 141 (R4H, Ph, CH2OTHP) underwent spontaneous cycloisomerization to the target heterocycles [205].
R3 R2 NH 141
Scheme 4.43
R4
Pd(II) (cat.) DMA, 25-50 C
R3 R2 N R1 142
R4 R5
R1
R5
4.5 Reactivity 4.5.1 Reactions with Electrophilic Reagents 4.5.1.1 General Aspects of Reactivity and Regioselectivity in Electrophilic Substitution As indicated in Section 4.2.2, pyrrole is prone to undergo electrophilic substitution predominantly at the a-position (C2). Introduction of substituents alters both regioselectivity and reactivity by changing the electronic properties of the pyrrole nucleus by inductive effects, and sometimes also by steric interactions with the incoming electrophile. The transmission of electronic substituent effects in pyrroles appears to occur through the carbon atoms rather than via the ring nitrogen [206]. For example, it has been demonstrated that 2-methylpyrrole (R2Me; Figure 4.1) undergoes triuoroacetylation at C5 some 23.8 times faster than pyrrole itself [207], whereas the reactivity of 1-methylpyrrole (R1Me; Figure 4.1) towards triuoroacetic anhydride in 1,2-dichloroethane at 75 C is only 1.9 times higher than that of the
R3 N H R2 N R1 N H Z3 N SO2Ph N H Z2 N H N TIPS
Figure 4.1 Transmission of electronic substituent effects in pyrroles.
294

R3 R2 N H Z3 R2 N H R2(Z2) N H R4(Z4) R2 N H Z5 R3 N H Z4
Figure 4.2 General trends of regioselectivity of electrophilic substitution of disubstituted pyrroles.
parent heterocycle [208]. Pyrroles having an electron releasing group at C3 (R3) display enhanced reactivity both at C2 and C4, but the C2 position is still the most active because of the inuence of the ring nitrogen. The introduction of a bulky N-substituent, for instance triisopropylsilyl (TIPS) [209] or trityl [210], gives access to C3 substituted or C3, C4 disubstituted products by blocking the intrinsic a-reactivity by steric interference. Substitution with high selectivity at C3 may also often be obtained with pyrroles having powerful electron-withdrawing substituents at the nitrogen, for example the phenylsulfonyl group [211]. Such electron decient substrates are also considerably less reactive towards electrophiles than non-deactivated pyrroles. The presence of a strong meta directing, electron-withdrawing groups (Z2) at C2 [212] or at C3 (Z3) will direct substitution to C4 or C5, respectively. The general effects of various directing groups in monosubstituted pyrroles are summarized in Figure 4.1 (Ralkyl, Zelectron-withdrawing substituent). Additional examples, as well as special cases that deviate from the common pathways are discussed in appropriate sections below. Prediction of the regioselectivity of electrophilic substitution of disubstituted pyrroles is more complicated, as the outcome is dependent on the combined inuence of the substituents. There are also cases when the effects of sterically demanding substituents must be taken into account. Detailed studies of the reactivity of such systems have been conducted [213, 214]; Figure 4.2 depicts the general trends.
4.5.1.2 Protonation In acid solution, pyrrole (1) undergoes reversible protonation, predominantly at C2, giving the thermodynamically favored 2H-pyrrolium cation 143, which is stabilized by mesomeric delocalization of the charge (Scheme 4.44). The pKa of 3.80 has been determined for protonation in dilute sulfuric acid solution [215]. It has also been demonstrated that protonation of pyrrole with the mild acids C4H9 and NH4 in the gas phase occurs at C2, as well as at C3, giving the isomeric 3H-pyrrolium cation 144, and that the afnity for protonation is higher at C2 [216]. The virtually nonexistent N-basicity of pyrrole may be rationalized in terms of the absence of
H N H 143
Scheme 4.44
H+
H+
H N H 144
N H 1
4.5 Reactivity
j295
mesomeric charge delocalization in the putative 1H-pyrrolyl cation, and the unavailability of the electron pair on the pyrrole ring nitrogen due to its contribution to the aromatic p-electron sextet. This is supported by the fact that the dipole moment of pyrrole is directed into the ring, as opposed to its tetrahydro derivative pyrrolidine, which displays a dipole moment direction towards the nitrogen atom [4]. Based on observations during protonation studies involving various substituted pyrrole derivatives [215, 217], it is clear that the basicity is markedly increased by introduction of alkyl groups by stabilizing the corresponding cations. The presence of tert-butyl groups even allows isolation of stable 2H-pyrrolium salts, for example 145, which was obtained in quantitative yield as a crystalline solid from pyrrole 146 (Scheme 4.45) [218].
HBF4, Et2O
t-Bu
N H 146
t-Bu
t-Bu
H N H 145 t-Bu
BF4
Scheme 4.45
Although the 3H-pyrrolium cation 144 is the less stabilized, and thus also the less abundant of the two C-protonated species, it is nevertheless very important, as it plays a major role in the acid-catalyzed oligomerization and polymerization of pyrrole because of its higher reactivity. The electrophilic cation 144 undergoes attack by pyrrole (1), thereby forming the unstable dimeric enamine 147 (Scheme 4.46). Protonation thereof generates a new electrophilic intermediate 148, which reacts with an additional equivalent of pyrrole (1), rendering the isolable trimer 149 (ratio trans : cis of 2 : 1) [219], which may subsequently participate in further reactions, eventually giving polymeric products [220], for example fully aromatic polypyrrole [221], unless careful control of the conditions is maintained, and, therefore, the reaction allowing isolation of 149 is performed at 0 C in 20% aqueous HCl [219]. The propensity of non-deactivated pyrroles to undergo polymerization makes such substrates unsuitable for reactions that involve strongly acidic conditions.
H
1 H+ 1
N H 144
Scheme 4.46
N H 147
N H
N H 148
N H
N H
H N 149
N H
4.5.1.3 Halogenation Many electron rich halogenated pyrroles are rather unstable compounds that decompose readily upon exposure to air. Hence, in the early days, the availability
296

of such pyrrole derivatives was severely limited, although syntheses of several relatively stable iodinated pyrroles, for example 2,3,4,5-tetraiodopyrrole [222], as well as some other bromo- or iodopyrroles featuring additional electron-withdrawing substituents were described [223, 224]. An early study on the bromination of methyl pyrrole-2-carboxylate and pyrrole-2-carboxaldehyde under various conditions clearly demonstrated that formation of mixtures containing several halogenation products is a common course of many of these reactions, thus illustrating yet another complicating factor [225]. The labile 1-chloropyrrole, generated in 6572% yield by chlorination of pyrrole with NaOCl, was shown to rearrange readily to give mixtures containing several species, such as 2-choro- and 3-chloropyrrole, when subjected to acidic conditions or heated in methanol [226]. Previous ndings indicated that both 2-chloro- and 2-bromopyrrole undergo rapid degradation, 2-chloropyrrole being somewhat more stable. Introduction of 1-alkyl substituents increases the stability of these compounds, whereas the presence of C-alkyl groups appears to lead to even faster decomposition. Since hydrogen chloride, which is formed during degradation of 2-chloropyrrole, also catalyzes the decomposition, the process is probably autocatalytic. Stabilization can be effected to some extent by storage in the presence of a suitable base [227]. Consequently, practical halogenations of pyrroles are generally performed under mild conditions that avoid generation of acidic by-products. Bromination of some 1-alkylpyrroles with one or two equivalents of N-bromosuccinimide (NBS) in THF provides the corresponding 2-bromo- or 2,5-dibromopyrrole derivatives, respectively. Chlorination with N-chlorosuccinimide (NCS) in THF gives similar results, albeit with lower selectivity [228]. Interestingly, treatment of 1-methylpyrrole with NBS at 78 C to 10 C in THF employing PBr3 as the catalyst selectively gives 3-bromo-1-methylpyrrole, whereas the use of one equivalent of triethylamine as the additive allows regiospecic synthesis of 2-bromo-1-methylpyrrole [229]. Notably, however, treatment of 1-alkylpyrroles with NCS in chloroform with or without NaHCO3 leads instead to introduction of the N-succinimide moiety at C2 [230]. Application of N-halosuccinimides in DMF provides convenient access to a series of 2,5-disubstituted or 2,4,5-trisubstituted 3-chloro-, 3-bromo- and 3-iodopyrrole derivatives [231]. The selective rearrangement of 1-benzyl-2,5-dibromopyrrole (150) with p-toluenesulfonic acid into the product 151 (Scheme 4.47) is also worth mentioning in this context [232]. In general, 3,4-dihalopyrroles, even such lacking additional electron-withdrawing groups, are stable compounds, which have been studied in detail [233].
Br
p-TsOH, MeCN, PhH
Br N Bn 151
Br
N Bn 150
Br
51%
Scheme 4.47
4.5 Reactivity
j297
As implied above, the introduction of electron-withdrawing groups increases the stability of halogenated pyrroles. Halogenation of a series of substituted 3-acetylpyrroles with CuBr2 in acetonitrile gave the corresponding 3-acetyl-4-bromopyrrole derivatives in moderate to high yields [234]. Similar bromination of rather densely substituted pyrrole-3-carboxylates 152 furnished the 4-bromo derivatives 153, which could in turn be converted into the 3,4-dibromopyrroles 154 with concomitant decarboxylation (Scheme 4.48) [235]. 1-Methyl-2-(trichloroacetyl)pyrrole undergoes regioselective bromination upon treatment with NBS in chloroform at 10 C, rendering 4-bromo-1-methyl-2-(trichloroacetyl)pyrrole in 79% yield [236].
CO2H R5 N R1 152 R2
CuBr2 MeCN, 0 C 85-95%
Br R5 N R1 153
CO2H CuBr2 R2
Br R5 N R1 154
Br R2
MeCN, rt 10-95%
Scheme 4.48
Stable and synthetically useful simple halogenated pyrroles have become readily available by introduction of the Boc protecting group (Scheme 4.49, cf. Section 4.5.1.6). Efcient preparation of 2-bromo-1-(tert-butoxycarbonyl)pyrrole 155, as well as the related 2,5-dibromo derivative, has been accomplished by bromination of pyrrole with 1,3-dibromo-5,5-dimethylhydantoin 156, followed by installation of the Boc-group on the intermediate 2-bromopyrrole 157 (Scheme 4.49) [237, 238]. On the other hand, 2,5-dibromo-1-(tert-butoxycarbonyl)pyrrole has also been obtained in 61% yield by exposure of 158 to NBS [239]. An alternative route to 155 encompasses conversion of 1-(tert-butoxycarbonyl)pyrrole (158) into the 2-stannyl derivative 159, which thereafter undergoes a stannylbromo exchange reaction. 2-Bromo-1-(phenylsulfonyl)pyrrole may also be prepared in a similar manner [240]. The closely related 2-bromo-1-
O N H 1 Me Me
Br N N Br 156
AIBN (cat.) THF, -78 C
N H 157
1. LiTMP, THF -70 C 2. Me3SnCl
Br
Boc2O Et3N, DMAP (cat.) THF, -78 C to rt 82-89%
Br N Boc 155
NBS, THF, -70 C 97%
N Boc 158
Scheme 4.49
SnMe3 N Boc 159
298

(p-toluenesulfonyl)pyrrole is readily available in two steps from pyrrole via bromination with 1,3-dibromo-5,5-dimethylhydantoin, followed by N-tosylation [241]. The presence of a bulky, removable N-substituent on the pyrrole nucleus enables introduction of halogen atoms at C3 and C4 even in the absence of stabilizing/ blocking groups at C2 and/or C5. Initial studies on the bromination of the sterically hindered 1-(triisopropylsilyl)pyrrole (160) with two equivalents of NBS gave 3,4dibromo-1-(triisopropylsilyl)pyrrole (161), along with the 2,3-dibromo derivative 162 in a 1 : 1 ratio. The use of only one equivalent of NBS afforded predominantly the 3brominated derivative 163, together with minor amounts of the 2-bromo isomer (ratio 97 : 3) [209, 242]. Improved conditions, featuring a portion-wise addition of NBS at 78 C, allow selective preparation of 163 in 78% yield [243]. It was also later emphasized that careful temperature control is essential to suppress the formation of side products [244]. Consequently, useful and high-yielding procedures for the synthesis of 163 are available [244, 245]. Investigation of the synthetic potential of 160 also revealed that attempted chlorination with NCS gives complex mixtures of products and unchanged starting material, whereas iodination with elemental iodine in the presence of mercuric acetate provides 164 in 61% yield [244]. Blocking of the normal a-substitution pathway by a bulky N-substituent has also been employed in the monobromination of 1-tritylpyrrole with pyridinium bromide perbromide, which proceeds cleanly to afford 3-bromo-1-tritylpyrrole (165) in 75% yield [210]. Treatment of the pyrrole 166 with NBS gives the 3-bromo derivative 167 via ipso-bromination. Similarly, ipso-iodination of 166 to provide 168 can be achieved employing iodine in the presence of silver triuoroacetate [246, 247]. In addition, 3,4-dibromo-1-(ptoluenesulfonyl)pyrrole (169) has been prepared in 43% yield by treatment of 1-(p-toluenesulfonyl)pyrrole with bromine in reuxing acetic acid [248].
X N TIPS Br N R Br Br Br N TIPS 162 Br TMS N CPh3 165 TMS N TIPS 166 X TMS N TIPS 167 X = Br 168 X = I
160 X = H 161 R = TIPS 163 X = Br 169 R = Ts 164 X = I
Direct uorination of pyrroles is a process of rather limited applicability, as the strongly oxidizing properties of most common uorinating agents exert a highly destructive inuence on the pyrrole nucleus. Nonetheless, XeF2 has been employed successfully to convert pyrroles possessing an electron-withdrawing group into the corresponding a-uoro derivatives in low to moderate yields [249, 250]. Other miscellaneous approaches include uoro-decarboxylation of pyrrole-2-carboxylates with 1-chloromethyl-4-uoro-1,4-diazoniabicyclo[2.2.2]octane bis(tetrauoroborate) in modest yields [251], or photolysis of a pyrrole-b-diazonium tetrauoroborate [252]. Halogenation on an a-methyl group of certain polysubstituted pyrroles with sulfuryl chloride in ether [253] or bromine in acetic acid [254] gives the corresponding a-(chloromethyl)- or a-(bromomethyl)pyrrole derivatives, respectively. Such halogenation processes have been suggested to occur via an initial electrophilic attack of the
4.5 Reactivity
j299
pyrrole ring, followed by a rearrangement rendering the nal a-(halomethyl)pyrrole products [255, 256].
4.5.1.4 Nitration Because of the sensitivity of simple pyrroles towards strongly acidic media, nitration must be conducted under relatively mild conditions, or involve deactivated substrates. Nitration of pyrrole itself with nitric acid in acetic anhydride normally gives mixtures of 2-nitropyrrole and 3-nitropyrrole in a ratio of approximately 4 : 1 over a wide temperature range. The reactivities at C2 and C3 are 1.3 105 and 3 104 times higher than for benzene, respectively [257]. A similar reactivity pattern was observed in the case of 1-alkyl- and 1-aryl-pyrroles, with C2/C3 nitration ratios ranging between 3.15 : 1 for 1-methylpyrrole and 0.25 : 1 for 1-(tert-butyl)pyrrole, depending on the electronic and steric properties of the N-substituent. The high reactivity of pyrrole is further manifested in the easy formation of di-, tri-, and even tetranitropyrrole derivatives [258]. Introduction of a deactivating acyl group either on the nitrogen atom or at C2 also proved to be insufcient for selective nitration [259]. Selective and efcient (80% yield) conversion of pyrrole into 2-nitropyrrole has more recently been accomplished using (NH4)2Ce(NO3)54H2O in acetic anhydride [260]. Other practical procedures are based on pyrroles having strategically located, strongly deactivating or bulky N-substituents. For example, 2-(trichloroacetyl)pyrrole (Section 4.5.1.6) may be nitrated with 90% HNO3 at 50 C to provide the corresponding 4-nitro derivative as the major product in 77% yield [212]. In addition, b-acylated pyrroles are cleanly converted into the corresponding 4-acyl-2-nitropyrroles upon treatment with nitric acid in acetic anhydride at 15 C [259]. Likewise, an extensive series of 1,5-dialkyl-4-nitropyrrole-2-carboxylates has been prepared involving nitration of suitable precursors at C4 [261]. Nitration of 1-(phenylsulfonyl)pyrrole (170) with nitric acid in acetic anhydride provides a selective route to 3-nitropyrrole 171 [211, 262]. The parent 3-nitropyrrole (172) can thereafter be obtained after removal of the phenylsulfonyl group with base [262]. In addition, the readily available 1-(triisopropylsilyl)pyrrole (160) can serve as an excellent precursor to 3-nitropyrrole (172), as demonstrated by nitration of 160 with cupric nitrate trihydrate in acetic anhydride to give 173 (77% yield), which may subsequently be efciently desilylated [244].
X N SO2Ph N H NO2 X N TIPS 160 X = H 173 X = NO2
170 X = H 172 171 X = NO2
4.5.1.5 Reactions with Sulfur-Containing Electrophiles Sulfonation of pyrrole with the sulfur trioxidepyridine complex has long been recognized to give pyridinium pyrrole-2-sulfonate (174) [263, 264]. A more recent reinvestigation of this reaction provided, however, strong evidence that substitution
300

seems instead to occur at C3, leading to the isomeric pyridinium pyrrole-3-sulfonate (175), the formation of which was veried by detailed NMR studies of the corresponding sodium salt 176, and preparation of several pyrrole-3-sulfonamides [265]. This intriguing preference for selective C3 substitution has yet to be rationalized in detail. When the pyrrole nucleus is already deactivated, sulfonation using acidic reagents is feasible, as illustrated by the transformation of the pyrrole 177 into the sulfonyl chloride 178 in 81% yield using chlorosulfonic acid [266]. Likewise, sulfonation of 1-(arylsulfonyl)pyrroles with chlorosulfonic acid in acetonitrile gives practical access to the corresponding pyrrole-3-sulfonyl chlorides in moderate yields [267]. Similar regioselectivity was observed upon treatment of 1(phenylsulfonyl)pyrrole with dimethylsulfamoyl chloride in the presence of bismuth (III) triuoromethanesulfonate, providing N,N-dimethyl-1-(phenylsulfonyl)pyrrole3-sulfonamide in 49% yield. As noted in connection with studies of the latter reaction, one has to consider the possibility that the 3-substituted products may arise by a rearrangement of the conceivable 2-substituted products (see below), and further studies are required to gain deeper insight into the mechanistic pathways of such transformations [268].
SO3X N H SO3X N H EtO2C N H X Me
174 X+ = C5H6N+
175 X+ = C5H6N+ 176 X+ = Na+
177 X = H 178 X = SO2Cl
The reaction of pyrrole and 1-methylpyrrole with alkyl- or aryl-sulnyl chlorides at 0 C offers a route to the 2-sulnylpyrroles 179 (R1H or Me) in moderate to good yields, provided that the products are protected from the inuence of the liberated hydrogen chloride. Without that precaution, rearrangement of the kinetic products 179 affords the corresponding C3 substituted isomers 180 as the major products. This outcome could be ascribed to an initial protonation of 179 to generate the intermediate 181, which may thereafter undergo a sigmatropic rearrangement, followed by loss of a proton to give 180. Crossover experiments also indicated the possibility of an intermolecular process involving dissociation of the complex 181. Clean conversion of 179 into 180 can be effected by treatment with p-toluenesulfonic acid [269] or TFA [270]. Introduction of the phenylsulnyl group at C2 may also be accomplished using N-(phenylsulnyl)succinimide [269].
SOR2 N R1 179 SOR2 N R1 180 N R1 181 H SOR2 X
4.5 Reactivity
j301
Several different approaches are available for the synthesis of (alkylthio)- or (arylthio)pyrroles. Treatment of pyrrole with the N-chlorosuccinimidedimethyl sulde adduct 182 (formed in situ) afforded the salt 183, which could then subsequently be converted, by thermal decomposition, into 2-(methylthio)pyrrole 184 in 58% overall yield [271]. Reaction of 1-alkylpyrroles with 1-(methylthio) morpholine in the presence of acid, or, even better, excess pyridine, gives access to 2,3,4,5-tetra(methylthio)pyrroles [272]. Exposure of 2-thiocyanatopyrrole (see below) to phenyl- [273] or alkylmagnesium bromides [274] provides useful routes to 2-(phenylthio)pyrrole or the corresponding 2-(alkylthio)pyrroles, respectively. Notably, the alkylthio unit serves as a protecting group for the a-position of pyrrole in a new approach to dipyrromethanes [274]. A synthesis of densely substituted 3,30 -dipyrrolyl suldes possessing electron-withdrawing groups by treatment of suitable pyrroles having a vacant b-position with sulfur dichloride has also been reported [275].
O Cl N SMe2 Cl SMe2
O 182
N H 183
N H 184
SMe
In analogy to the behavior of the sulfoxides 179 (see above), the 2-(alkylthio) pyrroles 185 undergo rearrangement to furnish the isomeric C3 substituted derivatives 186 exclusively in good yields upon heating in a 1 : 1 mixture of TFA and 1,2dichloroethane (Scheme 4.50) [276]. This behavior contrasts with the propensity of unprotected or N-methylated 2-(alkylthio)pyrroles and 3-(alkylthio)pyrroles to undergo acid induced equilibration under mild conditions [277]. The events leading to the conversion of 185 into 186 have been suggested to involve an initial protonation to provide the intermediate 187, subsequent rearrangement via the episulfonium salt 188 to the C3-substituted intermediate 189, and a nal deprotonation. This mechanistic rationale was supported by crossover experiments, as no crossover products could be detected [276].
H N Ts 185
Scheme 4.50
SR
H+
N Ts 187
H SR
SR N Ts 188 N Ts 189
SR
SR
-H+
N Ts 186
Thiocyanation of pyrroles with cupric thiocyanate [278, 279], thiocyanogen chloride [276] or, more conveniently, ammonium thiocyanate in the presence of iodine in methanol [280] or CAN [281], provides access to 2-thiocyanatopyrroles.
302

4.5.1.6 Acylation Several useful procedures for N-acylation of pyrroles are available, for example by acyl transfer from 1-acetylimidazole, which offers an efcient route to 1-acetylpyrrole [282]. Alternative attractive methods for N-acylation rely on the use of acetic anhydride [283], or acyl chlorides in the presence of and triethylamine and DMAP as the catalyst [284]. Exposure of pyrroles to di(tert-butyl)dicarbonate in the presence of DMAP in acetonitrile solution gives access to many useful 1-(tert-butoxycarbonyl) pyrroles in high yields [285]. Formylation of pyrrole is most conveniently accomplished using the Vilsmeier Haack reaction. Both pyrrole (1) [286, 287], 1-methylpyrrole (190) [287], as well as several C-methyl derivatives thereof [288], provide excellent yields of the corresponding pyrrole-2-carboxaldehydes 191 and 192 via the intermediates 193 and 194, respectively, upon treatment with the reagent 195 [289], which is readily generated in situ from POCl3 and DMF (Scheme 4.51). The presence of N-alkyl groups larger than methyl leads to mixtures of products formylated at C2 and C3, while sterically demanding N-substituents favor substitution at C3 over C2. Thus, for instance, for 1-tert-butylpyrrole the ratio of products is 14 : 1 in favor of 1-(tert-butyl)pyrrole-3carboxaldehyde. The reactivity differences in the 1-arylpyrrole series are less pronounced (with prevalence for the C2 products), and are inuenced by both steric and electronic effects. Formylation of 1-acetyl-, 1-benzoylpyrrole and ethyl pyrrole-2carboxylate leads exclusively to substitution at C2 [290]. Interestingly, FriedelCrafts acylation of intermediates such as 193 and 194, followed by hydrolysis, provides a one-pot procedure to 4-acylpyrrole-2-carboxaldehydes due to the strong metadirecting properties of the iminium substituent [291]. Salts related to 193 have also been exploited in reactions with bromine or SO2Cl2, eventually yielding various pyrrole-2-carboxaldehyde derivatives halogenated at C4, or C4 and C5 [292]. VilsmeierHaack-type reagents generated from pyrophosphoryl chloride lead to increased preference for substitution at C3 due to more pronounced steric interaction with N-substituents [293]. Likewise, treatment of 1-(triisopropylsilyl)pyrrole with iminium salts gives substitution at C3 [294]. When extended to lactams, the VilsmeierHaack reaction allows preparation of imines such as 196 [295], whereas the use of N,N-dimethylamides, for instance DMA, provides an effective route to 2acylpyrroles [296]. In addition, exposure of pyrroles to VilsmeierHaack reagents generated from aroylamides gives good yields of 2-aroylpyrroles [297]. An approach to 3,4-dialkylpyrrole-2,5-dicarboxaldehydes relying on treatment of 3,4-dialkylpyrrrole2-carboxylic acids with triethyl orthoformate in TFA has also been described [298].
N H 196
N H N
POCl3
92%
N R 1R=H 190 R =Me
Me N 195 Me
Cl X
NMe2 N X R 193 R = H 194 R = Me
OH
CHO N R 191 R = H 192 R = Me
Scheme 4.51
4.5 Reactivity
j303
Pyrroles are readily acylated at C2, as exemplied by the selective conversion of pyrrole itself into 2-(trichloroacetyl)pyrrole 197 (Scheme 4.52). This material provides easy access to pyrrole-2-carboxylic acid (198) upon alkaline hydrolysis [299]. Likewise, treatment of pyrrole with TFAA in the presence of N,N-dimethylaniline gave the corresponding triuoroacetyl derivative, which could also be efciently converted into 198 [300]. Alcoholysis of 2-(trichloroacetyl)pyrroles enables preparation of the corresponding esters, for example, methyl pyrrole-2-carboxylate (199). This reaction is, however, synthetically useful only with primary alcohols [301]. Acetylation with acetic anhydride is not practical, as it has been reported to give 2-acetylpyrrole in 39% yield, and minor amounts (8%) of the C3 acetylated isomer [302]. In contrast, acylation of pyrrole with cyanoacetic acid in acetic anhydride allows smooth introduction of a cyanoacetyl functionality, giving 200. Alkylpyrroles are also cyanoacetylated at C2, unless both C2 and C5 are substituted, leading instead to 3-(cyanoacetyl)pyrrole derivatives in good yields [303]. Both pyrrole itself, as well as 1-methylpyrrole, are also effectively acylated at C2 using N-acylbenzotriazoles in the presence of TiCl4 [304].
Cl3CCOCl, CHCl3
+ CCl3 then H
NaOH (2 N), 72%
N H 1
78%
N H 197
N H 198
CO2H
NCCH2CO2H Ac2O 92%
NaOMe, MeOH 88%
N H 200
CN O
N H 199
CO2Me
Scheme 4.52
Studies on the acid mediated rearrangements of acylpyrroles under anhydrous conditions revealed that 2-acylpyrroles possessing an N-methyl group (201) undergo conversion into the corresponding 3-acylpyrroles (202). In contrast, the parent 2acylpyrroles (203) give equilibrium mixtures containing 203 and 204 under similar conditions (Scheme 4.53). Experiments aimed at explaining this discrepancy failed to
R2
H (R = Me)
+ 1
O R2 N R1 O
H (R = H)
+ 1
R2
N Me 202
N H 204
201 R1 = Me 203 R1 = H
Scheme 4.53
304

give conclusive results, although it seems likely that a 1,2-acyl shift of a C2-protonated intermediate is involved [305]. Pyrroles acylated at C2 are valuable precursors for elaboration to more complex derivatives. As a result of the deactivating and meta directing properties of the trichloroacetyl group, 2-(trichloroacetyl)pyrrole 197 undergoes electrophilic substitution at C4 with various reagents, producing the substituted methyl pyrrole-2carboxylates 205 (ECl, Br, I, COMe) in good overall yields after subsequent methanolysis [212]. The scope and limitations of FriedelCrafts acylation reactions of ethyl pyrrole-2-carboxylate (206) using acyl chlorides have been evaluated in detail, leading to the conclusion that selective C4 acylation or aroylation is best achieved employing AlCl3 as the catalyst, as the use of weaker Lewis acids, such as zinc chloride or boron triuoride etherate, affords mixtures of C4 and C5 substituted products. This approach allows efcient syntheses of potentially useful pyrroles, for instance 207 [306]. Chlorination of 199 with two equivalents of SO2Cl2 in chloroform gives the corresponding 4,5-dichloro derivative, which may be subsequently iodinated at C3 using iodine in the presence of silver triuoroacetate to provide methyl 4,5-dichloro3-iodopyrrole-2-carboxylate, a useful partner for regioselective Suzuki reactions (Section 4.5.11) [307]. Pyrrole-2-carbonitrile, which is readily available by treatment of pyrrole with chlorosulfonyl isocyanate followed by warming in DMF [308], displays similar reactivity, affording 4-substituted pyrrole-2-carbonitriles [308, 309]. Likewise, ethyl pyrrole-2-thiolcarboxylate (208) (readily prepared by the action of ethyl chlorothiolformate on pyrrolyl magnesium halides) also takes part in electrophilic substitution reactions, providing good yields of 2,4-disubstituted pyrroles, for example 209. These products can thereafter be converted into the corresponding 3-substituted pyrroles by treatment with Raney nickel [310] or to 3-alkylpyrroles by WolffKishner reduction with concomitant decarboxylation [311]. A detailed study describing the applicability of b-acylpyrroles as useful substrates for FriedelCrafts reactions leading to 2,4-diacylpyrroles is also available [312].
E N H 205 CO2Me N H 206 Cl O R4 N H 207 CO2Et SEt O 208 R4 = H 209 R4 = COMe N H
CO2Et
In an interesting application of FriedelCrafts chemistry, treatment of 206 with succinic anhydride in the presence of AlCl3 gave the 2,4-disubstituted pyrrole 210. Reduction of the ketone functionality of 210 afforded 211, which was eventually subjected to an acid induced intramolecular acylation, leading to the fused system 212 in 60% overall yield (Scheme 4.54) [313]. The synthetic potential in acylation reactions of pyrrole derivatives possessing removable, strongly electron withdrawing, or bulky N-substituents, is nicely demonstrated by the selective and efcient conversion of 1-(phenylsulfonyl)pyrrole 170 (Section 4.5.1.4) into the corresponding C3 acylated products 213 (Scheme 4.55)
4.5 Reactivity
j305
O O N H 206 HO2C N H 211

Scheme 4.54
TFAA, TFA 60 % from 206
O
AlCl3
CO2Et
HO2C N H 210
CO2Et
Et3SiH, TFA
CO2Et
N H 212
CO2Et
O
RCOCl or (RCO)2O AlCl3, ClCH2CH2Cl
O R
NaOH H2O/1,4-dioxane
R N H 214
N SO2Ph 170
Scheme 4.55
N SO2Ph 213
upon treatment with acyl chlorides or carboxylic acid anhydrides in the presence of AlCl3. An ensuing base-induced cleavage of the N-phenylsulfonyl group provides excellent overall yields of pyrroles 214 (Ralkyl or aryl) [211, 262, 314, 315]. However, there are cases when mixtures of C2 and C3 acylated products have been encountered in connection with related reactions involving relatively electron rich aroyl chlorides [316, 317]. Even though similar selectivity problems were noted during the reaction of 170 with 1-naphthoyl chloride in the presence of AlCl3, selective C3 substitution was achieved by using nitromethane as the co-solvent [318]. Acylation at C3 may also be conveniently performed employing 1-(triisopropylsilyl) pyrrole as the substrate [244]. 1-(Triisopropylsilyl)pyrrole may be selectively acylated at C3 upon reaction with 1-acylbenzotriazoles assisted by TiCl4 in reuxing CH2Cl2 [304]. In contrast, when BF3OEt2 instead of AlCl3 is used as the catalyst during acylation of 170, a dramatic change in regioselectivity is induced, as exclusive formation of the 2-substituted products 215 takes place (Scheme 4.56), providing an alternative route to the parent 2-acylpyrroles after removal of the protecting group under basic conditions. Although attempts to rationalize these differences in regioselectivity in terms of kinetic, steric or electronic factors have been made, no clear conclusions could be drawn [315]. A new contribution to this eld allows selective a-acylation of 1(p-toluenesulfonyl)pyrroles with carboxylic acids and TFAA, presumably involving mixed anhydrides as the acylating agents [319]. FriedelCrafts acylation of 3-alkyl-1(phenylsulfonyl)pyrroles with acetic anhydride also proceeds with pronounced
306

N SO2Ph 170
RCOCl or (RCO)2O BF3OEt2, ClCH2CH2Cl
R O N SO2Ph 215
Scheme 4.56
selectivity, provided that the alkyl group at C3 is not too bulky, giving 2-substitution with AlCl3, and 5-substitution with BF3OEt2 [320].
4.5.1.7 Reactions with Aldehydes, Ketones, Nitriles and Iminium Ions The reactions of pyrroles with aldehydes and ketones have been studied extensively, as some of these transformations constitute powerful tools for the construction of the important porphyrin skeleton. Treatment of pyrrole with aldehydes in the presence of acid initially generates the intermediate carbinols 216 (Scheme 4.57), which readily lose water to provide the highly electrophilic 2-alkylidenepyrrolium (azafulvenium) ions 217 (Section 4.5.10).
RCHO, H+
R N H 216 OH
H+ -H2O
R N H 217
N H 1
Scheme 4.57
Such condensation reactions eventually lead to the formation of porphyrins (Scheme 4.58) [321, 322], along with other oligomeric or polymeric products [323], for instance so-called N-confused porphyrins, which are porphyrin isomers featuring a pyrrole unit linked through its a and b0 positions [324327]. A widely used older procedure for the preparation of meso-tetraarylporphyrins 218 involves heating of pyrrole with an appropriate benzaldehyde in propionic acid (Scheme 4.58) [328]. This process involves the intermediacy of the porphyrinogens
R NH R N HN N R
R H R
O2 , H + , (for 219)
RCHO, H+
N H 1
R H
NH HN NH HN R H 219 R = Ph 220 R = alkyl
O 2 , h , H +; or DDQ (for 220)
R 218 R = Ph 221 R = alkyl
Scheme 4.58
4.5 Reactivity
j307
219, which subsequently spontaneously undergo a rate limiting air oxidation step leading to 218 [329]. More recently it has been demonstrated that pyrrole and benzaldehydes react reversibly at ambient temperature in the presence of an acid catalyst to provide porphyrinogens, which may subsequently be irreversibly converted into the corresponding porphyrins by addition of an oxidant. Consequently, the method of choice relies on initial reaction of pyrrole with an appropriate benzaldehyde in anhydrous CH2Cl2 in the presence of BF3OEt2 or TFA at room temperature, followed by treatment of the resulting mixture with p-chloranil at reux [330]. Reactions involving aliphatic aldehydes generate relatively stable mesotetraalkylporphyrinogens (220), the conversion of which into the corresponding meso-tetraalkylporphyrins (221) requires an additional forced oxidation step [331, 332]. Likewise, condensation of pyrrole and acetone in the presence of acid gives a good yield of a cyclic tetramer [333, 334]. In contrast, the reactions between pyrrole and ortho esters under acidic conditions give rise to tris(pyrrol-2-yl)alkanes [335, 336]. Moreover, condensation reactions between suitable pyrrole fragments and pyrrole-2carboxaldehyde derivatives constitute a common strategy to numerous dipyrrins and dipyrrinones [337]. Under carefully controlled conditions, the reaction of pyrrole with formaldehyde may give bis(pyrrol-2-yl)methane (dipyrromethane) (222), which is a useful precursor for the synthesis of 5,15-disubstituted porphyrins, for example 223 (Scheme 4.59) [335]. Exposure of aldehydes to excess pyrrole, in the presence of
CH2O, K2CO3, H2O 5 C, 7 d
N H 1
HO N H 224
OH
1, HCl (0.15 equiv.) < 5 C, 30 min 61%
HN NH HN 225
84-92%
(CH2O)n, AcOH, MeOH rt, 20 h 41%
1. 4-(HO)C6H4CHO, BF3OEt2 CH2Cl2, MeOH, rt, 20 h 2. chloranil, Zn(OAc)22H2O 18% reflux, 1 h

1
N H
222
N H
1. 224, BF3MeOH CH2Cl2, rt, 30 min 31% 2. chloranil, reflux, 30 min
HO
N Zn N 223
N N
15
NH OH N
N HN
226
Scheme 4.59
308

TFA or BF3OEt2 as catalysts, constitutes an effective protocol (yields up to 86%) for the preparation of meso-substituted dipyrromethanes [338]. Alternatively, such systems are also effectively generated in 5 min from pyrrole and aldehydes (ratio 25 : 1) in the presence of TFA (0.1 equiv.) [339], or in water solution with catalytic amounts of HCl [340]. Treatment of pyrrole with formalin under basic conditions permits isolation of the dialcohol 224, which can subsequently react with two equivalents of pyrrole to provide trimer 225, which is an excellent precursor to the parent macrocycle 226 [341]. In a related process, the 2-acylpyrroles 227 (RCF3, CO2Et) have been exposed to paraformaldehyde in the presence of HCl under anhydrous conditions, leading to efcient and selective chloromethylation to render the disubstituted pyrroles 228 (Scheme 4.60) [342].
Cl R (CH2O)n, CH2Cl2, HCl (g) N Me 227
Scheme 4.60
R N Me 228 O
88-93%
Application of a nitrile as the electrophilic reagent has been utilized in a concise one-pot synthesis of the monarch buttery pheromone danaidone (229), wherein N-alkylation of 3-methylpyrrole (230) with acrylonitrile in the presence of DBU gave the intermediate 231, which subsequently underwent intramolecular cyclization, followed by hydrolysis of the intermediate imine (Scheme 4.61) [343].
Me N H 230
Scheme 4.61
CN
DBU, rt
Me N CN 231
1. HCl (g), ZnCl2 2. H2O (pH 9), 80 C 30% overall
Me N 229 O
Pyrroles also react readily with iminium ions, generated in situ from formaldehyde and dialkylamines in acetic acid, to provide 2-(dialkylaminomethyl)pyrroles, which are useful synthetic intermediates (Section 4.5.10), or with the Vilsmeier Haack reagent, affording pyrrole-2-carboxaldehydes (Section 4.5.1.6). Likewise, pyrrole (1) may be converted in high yield into 2-(dimethylaminomethyl)pyrrole 232 via the Mannich reaction (Scheme 4.62) [344]. It has also been found that pyrrole adds upon heating (neat) to 1-pyrroline 233, leading to 2-(pyrrolidin-2-yl)pyrrole (234) [345].
4.5 Reactivity
1. H2C NMe2 2. NaOH, H2O 77%
j309
N H 232
NMe2
N H 1
N 233
N H 234
H N
Scheme 4.62
4.5.1.8 Conjugate Addition to a,b-Unsaturated Carbonyl Compounds Pyrroles are useful nucleophiles in conjugate addition reactions (Scheme 4.63). For instance, pyrrole has been alkenylated efciently by treatment with (E)-4-(phenylsulnyl)-3-buten-2-one to furnish the alkenyl derivative 235. This reaction probably proceeds via a sequence featuring a Michael addition, followed by elimination of phenylsulfenic acid [346]. Addition of pyrrole to 1-acyl-2-bromoacetylenes in the presence of silica gives rise to modest yields of di(pyrrol-2-yl)ethenes, for example 236, as the major products [347]. When the silica is replaced by alumina under solvent free conditions, pyrroles ethynylated at C2 are produced in useful yields [348]. Addition of pyrrole to methyl acrylate occurs in the presence of BF3OEt2, providing the diester 237 [349]. Other Lewis acids, such as InCl3, can also catalyze such processes efciently, as illustrated by the synthesis of 238 [350]. Silica supported zinc chloride has been demonstrated to promote conjugate addition of pyrrole to methyl a-acetamidoacrylate under microwave irradiation to give the amino acid derivative 239 in considerably better yield than under conventional thermal conditions [351]. Michael addition of pyrroles to a series of electron decient alkenes under microwave irradiation has also been performed without solvent in the presence of silica gel only,
O HN O S 236
BF3OEt2
COMe Br
SiO2, rt 31%
Me N H 235 O
PhOS N H 1
85%
98%
NH
COMe
InCl3 (10 mol%) CH2Cl2, rt
CO2Me
27%
SiO2/ZnCl2 270 W, 100 C 70%
Me N H 238 O
MeO2C
N H 237
CO2Me
CO2Me NHAc
NHAc MeO2C N H 239
Scheme 4.63
310

whereas reactions involving some more sluggish substrates required the use of catalytic amounts of BiCl3 [352]. A further development includes the efcient addition of pyrroles to electron decient alkenes in water catalyzed by aluminium dodecyl sulfate trihydrate [353]. An interesting modern contribution to this eld is the asymmetric FriedelCraftstype alkylation of pyrroles with a,b-unsaturated carbonyl compounds, which has, for example, been achieved employing organocatalysis by chiral imidazolinones, as illustrated by the conversion of 1-methylpyrrole (190) into the product 240 (Scheme 4.64) [354]. A study of additions of pyrroles to a set of a,b-unsaturated 2-acylimidazoles demonstrated that such reactions can also proceed with high yields and enantioselectivity using a bis(oxazolinyl)pyridine scandium(III) triate complex as the catalyst [355].
241 (20 mol%) THF, H2O, -30 C 87%
O N Me Ph 240 (93% ee) CHO Bn
N Me 190
Ph
CHO
Me
N Me H 241
TFA Me
Scheme 4.64
4.5.2 Reactions with Oxidants
Powerful oxidants usually have a severely destructive effect on pyrroles, often leading to extensive decomposition or rather complex product mixtures [356]. Consequently, most useful transformations involving pyrroles and oxidizing agents require careful matching of substrates and reagents. A reaction belonging to this category is the oxidation of a-methylpyrroles to the corresponding carboxaldehydes, which can be effected by using Pb(OAc)4/PbO2 as the oxidant system [357]. Certain 2-methylpyrroles have also been successfully oxidized employing Pb(OAc)4 [358]. The oxidation of pyrrole a-methyl groups with ceric ammonium nitrate (CAN) provides a reliable and selective route to the corresponding carboxaldehydes, as exemplied by the conversion 242 into the aldehyde 243 (Scheme 4.65) [359]. An extension of this approach allows, for example, preparation of the 2-(methoxymethyl)pyrrole derivative
Me EtO2C N H 243
CO2Et
CAN,THF AcOH, H2O 95%
Me EtO2C N H 242
CO2Et
Ce(OTf)4 MeOH, H+
Me EtO2C N H 244
CO2Et OMe
CHO
Me
60%
Scheme 4.65
4.5 Reactivity
j311
244 using ceric triate in methanol [360]. Substituted pyrrolecarboxaldehyde derivatives have also been accessed by oxidation of the corresponding a-methylpyrroles with IBX in DMSO [96]. An alternative route to pyrrole-2-carboxaldehydes involves oxidative cleavage of 2-(polyhydroxyalkyl)pyrroles with CAN [361]. In cases where the pyrrole nucleus is strongly deactivated, oxidation of an aldehyde functionality at C2 to the corresponding carboxylic acid may be achieved using the strong oxidant KMnO4 [362]. A useful oxidative coupling reaction has been elaborated, providing access to quarter-, penta- and sexipyrrole derivatives. For instance, coupling of the 2,20 bipyrrole 245 with K3FeCN6 afforded the system 246 (Scheme 4.66), which could thereafter be converted into its reduced form by treatment with NaBH (OAc)3 [363].
Et Et N NH 246 N HN
Et EtO2C
Et Et N H 245 N H
Et Et
K3FeCN6, NaHCO3 CH2Cl2, H2O, rt 49%
Et Et Et CO2Et
Et Et EtO2C
Scheme 4.66
Treatment of the 1-(p-toluenesulfonyl)pyrroles 247 with phenyliodine bis(triuoroacetate) (PIFA) and BF3OEt2 in the presence of TMSCN gives the pyrrole-2carbonitrile derivatives 248 (Scheme 4.67). This cyanation reaction was suggested to involve initial formation of a pyrrole radical cations, which thereafter react with cyanide ions by a one-electron oxidation, giving the nal products after deprotonation [364]. Similar radical cation intermediates are presumably involved in the PIFA/TMSBr (bromotrimethylsilane) mediated oxidative coupling of electron rich pyrroles to bipyrroles [365].
R N Ts 247
Scheme 4.67
TMSCN, PIFA BF3OEt2, CH2Cl2 72-97%
R N Ts 248 CN
The action of benzoyl peroxide on 1-alkyl- or 1-arylpyrroles leads to mixtures of the corresponding 2-hydroxy- and 2,5-dihydroxypyrrole-O-benzoates, whereas pyrrole itself gives only intractable mixtures under the same conditions [366]. Careful oxidation of pyrrole with hydrogen peroxide gives a modest yield of 3-pyrrolin-2one (Section 4.6.3).
312

4.5.3 Reactions with Nucleophiles
Owing to their electron rich properties, most pyrroles are relatively unreactive towards nucleophilic reagents, with the exception of some derivatives or intermediates having strongly electron-withdrawing substituents, or carrying a positive charge resulting from, for instance, protonation (Section 4.5.1.2). Treatment of the nitropyrroles 249 with ethylene oxide provides a route to the pyrrolo[2,1-b]oxazoles 250 via intramolecular displacement of the nitro group in the intermediates 251 (Scheme 4.68) [367]. Intramolecular displacement of methanesulnate- or bromide ions at C2 in electron decient pyrroles by sodium enolates constitutes an alternative approach to [1,2-a]-fused pyrrole derivatives [271].
O R O N H 249
Scheme 4.68
NO2
i-PrOH, H2O 110-130 C
R O N 251
NO2 OH
R O N 250 O
The rather electron decient molecule 1-methyl-2,5-dinitropyrrole (252) reacts with piperidine in DMSO to produce the substitution product 253 (Scheme 4.69). A similar reaction occurs more readily with methoxide [368], and the rate is further enhanced by the presence of an additional electron-withdrawing substituent (NO2, CN) at the adjacent C3 position [369]. Likewise, exposure of 1-methyl-2,3-dinitropyrrole to sodium methoxide in methanol furnishes 2-methoxy-1-methyl-3-nitropyrrole in 93% yield [370]. The treatment of 1-alkyl-2-nitropyrroles with Grignard reagents gives mixtures of C3- and C5 alkylated products [371], whereas treatment of the anion of chloromethyl phenyl sulfone affords the corresponding 5-substituted 1-alkyl-2-nitropyrrole derivatives via vicarious nucleophilic substitution [372]. It has also been established that the bromine atom in 2-acetyl-5-bromo-1-methyl-4-nitropyrrole may be displaced with various nucleophiles, such as azide, cyanide, alkoxides, thiophenols or amines [373].
piperidine, DMSO, rt
O2N
N Me 252
NO2
O2N
N Me 253
Scheme 4.69
4.5 Reactivity
j313
An unusual example of nucleophilic attack has been observed upon heating pyrrole with sodium hydrogen sulte, affording the pyrrolidine derivative 254 (Scheme 4.70). This transformation presumably involves the intermediacy of a C3 protonated pyrrole [374].
NaHSO3, H2O, 100 C
N H 1
Scheme 4.70
NaO3S
N H 254
SO3Na
4.5.4 Reactions with Bases 4.5.4.1 N-Metallated Pyrroles As a consequence of its weakly acidic properties [1315], pyrrole will react readily with virtually any strong base to generate a reactive ambident pyrrolyl anion, which can either undergo reaction with electrophiles at the nitrogen atom or at C2/C3. The reaction site is dependent on the properties of the metalnitrogen bond, and on the solvating power of the solvent used. In general, N-substitution is favored by increasing ionic character of the metalnitrogen bond, and by stronger solvating power (polarity) of the solvent [375, 376]. Treatment of pyrrole (1) with potassium metal gives the salt 255 [377], which can thereafter be converted into a wide variety of N-substituted derivatives, for instance the useful 1-(arylsulfonyl)pyrroles 256 (Scheme 4.71) [378]. Such procedures have now in most cases been supplanted by modern methods, and the pyrrole anion is now usually generated by treatment of pyrrole with commercially available alkyl lithiums [377, 379]. N-Alkylation of 255 formed by deprotonation of pyrrole by KOH in DMSO offers a high-yielding route to 1-alkylpyrroles [380], although several more convenient and effective procedures rely on phase transfer conditions using 18-crown-6 as the catalyst, in combination with KOH in anhydrous benzene [381], or with potassium tert-butoxide in diethyl ether [382]. Phase transfer alkylation of pyrrole by alkyl halides with aqueous NaOH in CH2Cl2 in the presence of tetrabutylammonium bromide constitutes a useful alternative [383]. Interestingly, 2,5-dialkylpyrrolyl anions generated in the superbase system KOHDMSO will instead react at C3 with carbon disulde, providing a route
K, THF
ArSO2Cl
N H 1
Scheme 4.71
N K 255
N SO2Ar 256
314

to pyrrole-3-carbodithioates [384]. The pyrrolyl anion is also easily converted into the corresponding 1-silylated pyrroles by treatment with triisopropylsilyl chloride (TIPSCl) [244] or tert-butyldimethylsilyl chloride (TBSCl) [385], as well as with other trialkylsilyl chlorides [386]. The high reactivity of the pyrrolyl anion is neatly demonstrated by the reaction of pyrrolylsodium with hexauorobenzene, which gives hexa(pyrrol-1-yl)benzene via a SNAr mechanism [387]. Pyrrolylthallium(I), prepared from pyrrole and thallium(I) ethoxide, can also be utilized for N-alkylation of pyrroles [388], but should perhaps be avoided because of its toxicity. Pyrrolylmagnesium halides, which are easily prepared by the action of alkylmagnesium halides on pyrrole, display more complex reactivity patterns towards most alkylating agents, rendering mixtures of C2 and C3 substituted products, as well as diand tri-alkylpyrroles [383, 389]. In contrast, acylation of pyrrolylmagnesium halides is more selective, giving 2-acylpyrroles as the prevailing products [390]. Excellent selectivity for C2 acylation of pyrrolylmagnesium chloride 257 under mild conditions can be achieved by treatment with readily available 2-pyridylthiol esters, which gives high yields of the corresponding 2-acylpyrroles 258 (Scheme 4.72), probably as a result of coordination of the pyridine nitrogen atom to the magnesium [391]. The reaction of 257 with alkyl bromoacetates is an efcient way for selective synthesis of the alkyl (pyrrol-2-yl)acetates 259, which is in this case mediated by coordination between the metal and the carbonyl oxygen of the alkylating agent [392]. A series of (pyrrole-2-yl)acetone derivatives have been prepared by employing a new heteroarylation reaction involving the pyrrolyl anion and suitable enolates in the presence of a Cu(II) oxidant [393]. Transmetallation of pyrrolylsodium with ZnCl2 gives pyrrolylzinc chloride, which undergoes peruoroalkylation at C2 upon exposure to peruoroalkyl iodides in the presence of PdCl2(PPh3)2 (10 mol.%) and PPh3 [394].
O N S R
PhMe, -78 C 80-95%
R N H 258
Scheme 4.72
N MgCl 257
R1CHBrCO2R2, THF
N H 259
CO2R2 R1
4.5.4.2 C-Metallated Pyrroles Pyrroles possessing suitable N-blocking substituents undergo C-metallation upon treatment with sufciently strong bases. Initial studies early established that 1-methylpyrrole (190) is slowly metallated at C2 using BuLi in ether to give 2lithio-1-methylpyrrole (260) (Scheme 4.73) [379], but the yield of the lithiopyrrole is improved signicantly if N,N,N0 ,N0 -tetramethylethylenediamine (TMEDA) is used as the additive [395]. It was later demonstrated that quantitative and selective generation of 260 is easily achieved using 2.5 equivalents of BuLi in hexane at ambient temperature in the presence of TMEDA [396], while a larger excess (4.5 equivalents) of BuLi and elevated temperatures promotes increasing formation of 2,5- and 2,4dilithio- derivatives [396, 397]. Generation of 260 may also be carried out using BuLi at
4.5 Reactivity
t-BuLi, THF 1. R3B, THF, rt 2. I2, -78 C 70-98%
j315
N Me 190
N Me 260
Li
N Me 261
MgBr2 or ZnCl2
N Me
MX
Br
N N Me 264
262 MX = MgBr 263 MX = ZnCl

Scheme 4.73
PdCl2(dppb) (cat.) THF, reflux 71% from 262
ambient temperature in THFhexane (2 : 1). This lithiopyrrole will subsequently react readily with a wide variety of electrophiles [398], and may for example also be converted into the 2-alkyl-1-methylpyrroles 261 by treatment with trialkylboranes, followed by addition of iodine or NCS [399, 400]. Quenching of 2-lithio-1-methyl-5-noctylpyrrole with N-uorodibenzenesulfonamide has been used to prepare the labile 2-uoro-1-methyl-5-n-octylpyrrole [401]. Transmetallation of 260 formed from 1methylpyrrole and t-BuLi with MgBr2 or ZnCl2 gives the corresponding metallated pyrroles 262 and 263, which can subsequently participate in palladium-catalyzed cross-coupling reactions leading to 2-arylpyrroles, or to the 2-pyridylpyrrole 264 [402]. A procedure for selective C2 metallation and functionalization of 1-vinylpyrrole employing the base system BuLi/t-BuOK catalyzed by i-Pr2NH, followed by addition of LiBr and suitable electrophiles, has also been described [403]. Selective C2 mercuration of pyrroles is effected by exposure of 1-acetyl- or 1(phenylsulfonyl)pyrrole to mercuric chloride. The corresponding diorganomercury compounds, which are useful for the synthesis of pyrrole containing transition metal complexes, can thereafter be obtained after treatment with sodium iodide [404]. For N-H pyrroles, mercuration with mercury(II) acetate leads to N-mercuration, while various N-substituted pyrroles are mercurated at C2 or C3. Such C-mercurated pyrroles undergo Heck-type reactions with alkenes [405]. The development of directed metallation techniques has allowed facile access to a multitude of 2-substututed pyrroles that were previously difcult to prepare. The ideal N-protecting and directing group should be easily installed and cleaved, and induce high regioselectivity during metallation. The tert-butoxycarbonyl (Boc) group fulls all these requirements, and has consequently proven to be extremely useful. For example, 1-(tert-butoxycarbonyl)pyrrole (158) [285] is efciently lithiated at C2 by LiTMP, and subsequent quenching with aldehydes or acid chlorides gives the corresponding pyrrol-2-yl methanols 265 (Scheme 4.74) and 2-acylpyrroles, respectively. The Boc group may be removed by treatment with sodium methoxide in methanol [406], under thermal conditions [407] or using acid, which may, however, not always be compatible with electron rich substrates. Similar metallation of 158
316

R N Boc 265
Scheme 4.74
1. LiTMP, THF, -80 C 2. RCHO 47-75% 1. LiTMP, THF, -78 C 2. B(OMe)3, then H+
OH
N Boc 158
40%
B(OH)2 N Boc 266
followed by quenching with trimethyl borate and subsequent hydrolysis provides a route to the useful boronic acid 266 [239]. An excellent recent review covers the advances in pyrrole protection strategies [408]. An alternative route permits introduction of two a-substituents by halogenmetal exchange on 2,5-dibromo-1-(tert-butoxycarbonyl)pyrrole (267) (Section 4.5.1.3), eventually producing the corresponding 2,5-disubstituted pyrroles, for instance 268 (Scheme 4.75) [237, 239]. Moreover, mono-lithiation of 267 offers access to 2bromopyrroles having an additional substituent at C5 (e.g., 269) [239].
1. BuLi (2 equiv.) THF, -70 C 2. Me3SnCl (2 equiv.) -75 C to rt 50%
Me3Sn
SnMe3 N Boc 268
Br
N Boc 267
1. BuLi, Et2O, -70 C 2. (MeO)3B Br Br -75 C to rt 80%
B(OMe)2 N Boc 269
Scheme 4.75
Pyrroles that are N-protected with the N-tert-butylcarbamoyl group are also very useful substrates for C2 lithiation; the directing group can subsequently be removed by LiOH in MeOHTHF [409]. Generation of the dilithio species 270, followed by quenching with suitable electrophiles, and nal acidic work up which cleaves the carbamate, constitutes a one-pot protocol for preparation of C2 functionalized pyrroles 271 (Scheme 4.76) [410].
1. BuLi, THF, -70 C to rt 2. CO2 3. t-BuLi, THF, -70 to -25 C
N H 1
Scheme 4.76
N LiO O 270
Li
1. E+, -70 C to rt 2. H+, H2O 50-95%
N H 271
Lithiation of 1-(p-toluenesulfonyl)pyrrole (272) also occurs at C2 with high selectivity, and subsequent quenching with PhSSO2Ph gives the sulde 273 (Scheme 4.77) [276]. Similar techniques can also be utilized in synthesis of other chalcogen containing systems, as illustrated by the conversion of 272 into the
4.5 Reactivity
1. BuLi, THF, -15 C 2. PhSSO2Ph, -78 to -40 C 70% 1. t-BuLi, THF, -23 C 2. Te, -23 C to rt 3. K3Fe(CN)6
j317
N Ts 273
SPh
N Ts 272
63%
N Ts
Te Te 274
Ts N
Scheme 4.77
ditelluride 274 [411]. Magnesium can be introduced at C2 in 1-(phenylsulfonyl) pyrrole by the action of 3 equivalents of i-PrMgBr in the presence of 5 mol.% i-PrNH; ensuing treatment with electrophiles gives the corresponding 2-substituted pyrroles in moderate yields [412]. The N-protected pyrroles discussed above are neatly complemented by 1-[2-(trimethylsilyl)ethoxymethyl]pyrrole (1-SEM-pyrrole) (275), which is available by deprotonation of pyrrole with NaH in DMF, followed by treatment with SEMCl [413]. Lithiation is also in this case directed to C2, rendering the lithiopyrrole 276, treatment of which with appropriate electrophiles affords the 2-substituted N-protected pyrroles 277 in moderate to good yields (Scheme 4.78). The electron releasing SEM group may thereafter be conveniently cleaved using tetrabutylammonium uoride (TBAF) under conditions that tolerate sensitive functionalities [414]. Even structurally rather complex and sterically congested electrophiles may be used in this approach, providing useful yields of unusual 2-substituted pyrroles [415]. Notably, lithiation of 1-(N,Ndimethylamino)pyrrole also occurs at C2, and this electron releasing directing group can subsequently be removed by treatment with Cr2(OAc)42H2O [416].
BuLi, DME, -5-0 C
N SEM 275
N O
Li
E+, DME, -5 C
E N SEM 277
SiMe3 276
Scheme 4.78
Metallation of pyrroles at C3 has enabled convenient preparation of derivatives that were prepared previously by cumbersome means [417]. Selective C3 metallation is achieved conveniently by halogenmetal exchange on 3-bromo-1-(triisopropylsilyl) pyrrole (163) by virtue of the steric bulk of the TIPS group (Scheme 4.79) [245]. Subsequent treatment of the so-obtained 3-lithiopyrrole 278 with suitable electrophiles, followed by desilylation with TBAF gives the corresponding 3-substitued pyrroles 279 via the 1-TIPS derivatives 280 [242]. Intermediate 278 may also be generated by lithiation of 3-iodo-1-(triisopropylsilyl)pyrrole (164), and converted into, for example, the boronic acid 281 or the stannyl derivative 282, which are useful substrates in palladium-catalyzed coupling reactions (Section 4.5.11) [418]. Similar
318

X
1. t-BuLi, THF, -78 C
Li
E+
E N TIPS 280
TBAF THF
N TIPS 163 X = Br 164 X = I
1. B(OMe)3 2. H2O, MeOH 43%
N TIPS 278
Bu3SnCl 90%
B(OH)2 N TIPS 281

Scheme 4.79
SnBu3 N TIPS 282 N H 279
techniques have been employed for the synthesis of 3-uoro-1-TIPS-pyrrole in 50% yield by quenching of 3-lithio-1-TIPS-pyrrole by N-uorobenzenesulfonimide [419]. Conversely, lithiations involving pyrroles having a trimethyl or triethylsilyl groups at the nitrogen are more difcult to control in terms of regioselectivity, and are under certain conditions further complicated by migration of the silyl groups [420]. Treatment of dimethoxyethyl protected 4-iodopyrrole-2-carbonitrile with i-PrMgCl and subsequent quenching with electrophiles provides a route to 4-substituted pyrrole-2-carbonitriles in good yields [421].
4.5.5 Reactions with Radical Reagents
Synthetically useful reactions of pyrroles with radical reagents were not been studied in much detail until it was demonstrated that effective and regioselective synthesis of 2-alkylpyrrole derivatives can be accomplished by radical substitution. The pyrrole-2acetic acid derivatives 283 are readily available by treatment of the pyrroles 1 or 190 (Scheme 4.80) with radicals generated from a-carbonyl-, a,a0 -dicarbonyl- and a-cyano-alkyl iodides [422]. Alternative procedures for the synthesis of pyrrole-2acetic acid derivatives involve generation of radicals from various iodoacetates induced by stannanes [423] or under conditions avoiding stannanes, by irradiation
ICH2CO2Me H2O2, FeSO47H2O, DMSO, rt
N R 1R=H 190 R = Me
Scheme 4.80
CO2Me N R 283a R = H (59%) 283b R = Me (87%)
4.5 Reactivity
j319
in the presence of Na2S2O3 as the I2 reductant, Bu4NI to aid in solubility, and propylene oxide [423, 424] or epoxydecane as the HI trap [425]. Pyrroles possessing electron-withdrawing groups at C2 undergo related alkylation reactions at C5 with a-acetyl or a-acetonyl radicals generated by exposure of suitable xanthate based precursors to dilauroyl peroxide [426]. Similar intramolecular processes provide routes to fused pyrroles, as illustrated by the manganese(III) acetate generated in situ induced conversion of the 2-aroylpyrrole 284 into the fused system 285 (Scheme 4.81), a useful precursor to the analgesic molecule ketorolac (10) [427]. In addition, [1,2-a]-fused pyrroles are also available via intramolecular radical cyclization of 1-(bromoalkyl)pyrroles induced by Bu3SnH in the presence of AIBN [428, 429], annulation of 1-(iodoalkyl)pyrroles with the H2O2/Fe(II) system (vide supra) [430], or employing electroreduction with a Ni(II) complex as the electron-transfer catalyst [431]. Intramolecular cyclization of acyl radicals onto pyrroles leading to [1,2-a]-fused pyrrole derivatives in modest yields has also been reported [432].
Ph O N 284
Scheme 4.81
Mn(OAc)24H2O, AgNO3 (cat.) Na2S2O8, NaOAc, Ac2O, AcOH, 80 C
Ph O N 285
CO2Et CO2Et
CH(CO2Et)2
95%
It has been known for some time that 2-(peruoroalkyl)pyrroles are formed in low yields upon heating of pyrroles in the presence of peruoroalkyl iodides under forcing conditions [433]. Application of the H2O2/Fe(II) protocol offers a practical procedure for the preparation of, for example, the peruoroalkylpyrroles 286 from pyrrole-2-carboxaldehyde (191) and peruoroalkyl iodides via a homolytic substitution process (Scheme 4.82) [434]. In contrast, peruoroalkylation of pyrroles at C2 using bis(peruoroalkanoyl) peroxides follows a different mechanistic path, which appears to proceed via coupling of peruoroalkyl radicals with pyrrole cation radicals [435].
I(CF2)nCF3 H2O2, FeSO47H2O, DMSO, rt
OHC
N H 191
OHC
(CF2)nCF3 N H 286a n = 2 (64%) 286b n = 3 (55%)
Scheme 4.82
Addition of the 3-pyridyl radical generated from N-nitroso-N-(3-pyridyl)-isobutyramide to ethyl pyrrole-1-carboxylate gives 287 in 23% yield [436]. More efcient radical C2 arylations of pyrroles having an electron-withdrawing substituent at the nitrogen atom have been afforded using anilines in the presence of amyl nitrite in
320

warm acetic acid [437]. Intramolecular radical arylations involving pyrroles are useful tools for the construction of more complex systems, such as the tricyclic derivative 288, which was derived from the precursor 289 by exposure thereof to tributyltin hydride in the presence of AIBN in reuxing toluene [438, 439]. Related cyclization reactions may also produce spiropyrrolidinyloxindoles, depending on the properties of the pyrrole protecting group [440].
Boc N I N N CO2Et 287 N Me 288 O O N Boc
N Me 289
A radical displacement reaction at C2 of 1-phenylsulfonyl-2-(p-toluenesulfonyl) pyrrole with stannyl radicals generated by the reagent combination Bu3SnH/AIBN in reuxing benzene, resulting in the corresponding 2-stannylpyrrole derivative, has also been described [441].
4.5.6 Reactions with Reducing Agents
It has long been established that reduction of pyrroles 290 with zinc in hydrochloric acid gives 2,5-dihydropyrroles (3-pyrrolines) 291 (Scheme 4.83) [442, 443], although it was later found that the material obtained from the reduction of pyrrole itself is frequently contaminated with pyrrolidine, which is difcult to separate from the desired product [444]. The synthetic utility is further compromised by the fact that the formation of both cis and trans products occurs upon reduction of 2,5-dimethylpyrrole [445]. Nevertheless, this procedure seems to be useful in certain applications, and a modied version thereof has been applied successfully for the reduction of some 1,2-disubstituted pyrroles to give the corresponding 3-pyrroline derivatives en route to the antibiotic ()-anisomycin [446]. Treatment of pyrrole-2-carboxamide with phosphonium iodide in fuming hydroiodic acid affords 3,4-dehydroprolinamide as the major product, provided that careful control of the reaction conditions is maintained [447]. A similar reduction using the combination H3PO2/HI in acetic acid has been used for the conversion of pyrrole-2-carboxylic acid into 3,4-dehydroproline in 74% yield on a large scale [448]. Reduction of C2 or C3 substituted
R1
N H 290
R2
Zn, HCl (aq.)
R1
N H 291
R2
Scheme 4.83
4.5 Reactivity
j321
1-phenylsulfonylpyrroles with NaCNBH3 in TFA leads to the corresponding 3-pyrrolines in good yields, offering a convenient complement to the procedures discussed above [449]. Catalytic hydrogenation of pyrroles leads to pyrrolidines, and can be performed under various conditions, often proceeding exclusively with cis-stereoselectivity. Useful catalysts for this application are 5% Rh on Al2O3 [450452], PtO2 or 10% Pd/C in 6 N aqueous HCl [453] or alternatively Pd/C in the presence of catalytic amounts of H2SO4 [454]. Moreover, catalytic hydrogenation of pyrroles at atmospheric pressure offers a convenient procedure for the synthesis of cis-2,5-disubstituted pyrrolidines, as illustrated by the conversion of pyrrole 292 into pyrrolidine 293 (Scheme 4.84) [455].
Me
N Boc 292
CO2Me
H2, 5% Pt/C, MeOH 88%
Me
CO2Me N H Boc
293
Scheme 4.84
Birch reduction of pyrroles has not been explored until recently, but has already attracted considerable attention as a tool for preparation of interesting 3-pyrrolines and 2,3-dihydropyrroles (2-pyrrolines). Initial studies demonstrated that pyrroles possessing electron-withdrawing groups, for instance 294, undergo efcient conversion into 3-pyrrolines 295 upon Birch reduction and subsequent alkylation (Scheme 4.85) [456, 457]. Diastereoselectivity at C2 may be induced in alkylation [458] or protonation [459], by using for example pyrrole-2-carboxylates or pyrrole-2-carboxamides, respectively, containing chiral moieties as substrates. A variant featuring a reductive aldol reaction has also been developed [460]. It was later established that such reductions may also be conveniently performed by employing lithium in THF in the presence of bis(methoxyethylamine) and naphthalene [461, 462], or 4,40 -di-tert-butylbiphenyl (296, see below) [463], thus supplanting the classical Birch conditions. Further extensions of this methodology allow reductive acylation [462], and aldol reactions with excellent anti-selectivity [464, 465].
N N Boc O
1. Na (3 equiv.), NH3 THF, -78 C 2. RX 71-86%
R N N Boc O
294
Scheme 4.85
295
322

A recent contribution to this eld concerns the enantioselective partial reduction of pyrroles involving chiral protonation using ()-ephedrine. Thus, diester 297 underwent conversion into a 1 : 1 mixture of the cis- and trans-diastereomers 298a and 298b, the latter of which was found to be formed with an enantiomeric excess of 74%. A simple recrystallization of 298b provided material with >94% ee (Scheme 4.86) [466].
t-Bu
1. Li, 296 (cat.), THF, -78 C 2. BrCH2CH2Br 3. (-)-ephedrine 84%
MeO2C
MeO2C
CO2Me N Boc 297
CO2Me N H H Boc 298a
MeO2C
CO2Me N H Boc 298b (74% ee) H
t-Bu 296
Scheme 4.86
Pyrroles bearing amide or ester functionalities at the b-position also undergo Birch reduction, and ensuing alkylation provides the corresponding 4,4-disubstituted 2pyrrolines [467]. The 3,4-disubstituted pyrrole 299 (Adocadamantyloxycarbonyl) is converted into cis-pyrrolidines 300 under similar conditions (Scheme 4.87). Sequential alkylation with two different electrophiles gives access to unsymmetrically substituted derivatives [468].
EtO2C CO2Et N Adoc 299
Scheme 4.87
1. Li (6 equiv.), NH3, THF, (MeOCH2CH2)2NH, -78 C 2. RI 70-82%
EtO2C
CO2Et
N Adoc 300
4.5.7 Cycloaddition Reactions
Cycloaddition reactions involving pyrroles constitute a powerful tool for crafting rather complex heterocyclic structures from simple precursors. It was early recognized that some pyrroles, for example 1-methylpyrrole, give mainly C2 substituted products resulting from Michael-type addition to maleic anhydride [469]. Interestingly, the reaction of 1-methylpyrrole with dimethyl acetylenedicarboxylate (DMAD)
4.5 Reactivity
j323
gives a product for which an indolic structure was proposed [470] the true identity was later elucidated by Acheson [471]. Further studies of these reactions suggested that Michael additions are favored in the presence of a proton source, whereas under neutral conditions and at elevated temperatures DielsAlder additions will take place. The adducts, however, being rather unstable, undergo retro DielsAlder reactions to the starting materials, yield further pyrrole derivatives via extrusion of acetylene derivatives, or react further with DMAD to give more complex indolic products [472]. Based on the results of ab initio calculations on the reaction of 1-methylpyrrole with DMAD, which support the preferential formation of DielsAlder products instead of Michael adducts, a step-wise mechanism involving a zwitterionic intermediate was suggested, rather than a concerted pericyclic process [473]. Even though elimination of acetylene from intermediate DielsAlder adducts of the deactivated methyl pyrrole-1-carboxylate with DMAD has also been observed [474, 475], stable addition products could nevertheless be isolated in very low yields from the reactions of 1-benzylpyrrole [476] or methyl pyrrole-1-carboxylate [477] with acetylenedicarboxylic acid. A different decomposition path is in operation during reactions of 1-aminopyrroles with DMAD, which give substituted benzene derivatives as the nal products [478]. Conditions for practical DielsAlder reactions involving deactivated pyrroles soon became available, permitting the synthesis of adduct 301 in a moderate yield upon heating of the pyrrole 302 in neat DMAD (Scheme 4.88) [479], whereas the same reaction performed in CH2Cl2 in the presence of ve equivalents of AlCl3 at 40 C is much faster and gives the adduct in 93% yield [480]. The use of high pressure (15 kbar) also leads to high yields of 301, but, even under these conditions, pyrrole itself undergoes mainly C2-substitution [481].
DMAD,
MeO2C N
N CO2Me 302
Scheme 4.88
42%
CO2Me CO2Me
301
Deactivated pyrroles also give good yields of DielsAlder adducts with alkenes at elevated pressure, as demonstrated by the synthesis of the endo-adduct 303 from 1-acetylpyrrole (304) and N-methylmaleimide (Scheme 4.89). In some cases,
Me N O CH2Cl2, 30 C
1.2 GPa 77%
O N Ac 304
Ac N
H H O N O 303 Me
Scheme 4.89
324

mixtures of exo- and endo-adducts are produced, and it has been proposed that the endo-isomers are in some cases formed under kinetic control and isomerize to the exo-products [482]. Mixtures of exo- and endo-adducts have also been encountered during high pressure reactions of methyl 3-methylthio- or 3-phenylthiopyrrole-1carboxylate with N-phenylmaleimide or methyl acrylate [483]. However, it appears that 1-acylpyrroles do not participate in DielsAlder reactions with alkenes at atmospheric pressure [484]. An intramolecular cycloaddition reaction involving the precursor 305 (Ns2nitrophenylsulfonyl), incorporating a deactivated pyrrole as the diene component has been used in an elegant synthesis of the tricyclic system 306 (Scheme 4.90). This study was extended to the efcient construction of several conformationally strained analogues, featuring stereoselective generation of multiple stereogenic centers [485].
CO2Et N Ns N i-Pr 305
Scheme 4.90
PhMe, 65 C 100%
Ns N
i-Pr O
CO2Et 306
DielsAlder reactions involving pyrroles and acetylenes are the key feature of several total syntheses of the powerful analgesic natural product epibatidine (307) (Scheme 4.91). The common 4p-component 1-(tert-butoxycarbonyl)pyrrole (158) undergoes efcient conversion into the bicyclic system 308 upon heating with the electron decient dienophile (p-toluenesulfonyl)acetylene [486]. A similar reaction involving 158 and methyl pyrrole-1-carboxylate has previously been demonstrated to give excellent results [487, 488]. The intermediate 308 proved to be a useful precursor for the synthesis of epibatidine (307) [489, 490]. Other related approaches to 307 employ DielsAlder reactions of methyl pyrrole-1-carboxylate with (p-toluenesulfonyl)acetylene [491], or a (6-chloro-3-pyridyl)acetylene derivative [492]. Likewise, heating of the pyrrole 158 with the dienophile methyl 3-bromopropiolate gives the adduct 309, which is also a useful vehicle for further manipulations that eventually lead to 307 [493, 494].
R1 N Boc 158
R2
Boc N
Cl R2 R1 H N H 307 N
308 R1 = Ts, R2 = H (86%) 309 R1 = CO2Me, R2 = Br (60%)
Scheme 4.91
4.5 Reactivity
j325
Allenes may also participate in DielsAlder reactions with electron decient pyrroles, and high selectivity can be attained, depending on the choice of starting materials and conditions. For example, 1-(tert-butoxycarbonyl)pyrrole (158) gives exclusively the endo-isomer 310 with diethyl allene-1,3-dicarboxylate 311 (Scheme 4.92). Under similar conditions, 1-methyl- or 1-benzylpyrrole give only C2 substitution products [495]. Variants involving endo-selective DielsAlder addition of 158 to an optically active allene-1,3-dicarboxylate [496], or 1-(benzenesulfonyl)1,2-propadiene to provide 312 [497], have also been disclosed.
Boc N H CO2Et CO2Et 310
Scheme 4.92
EtO2C 311 CO2Et

AlCl3, CH2Cl2, -78 C 73%
N Boc 158
SO2Ph
45%
Boc N H 312 SO2Ph
The reactions of 1-methylpyrrole or 1-benzylpyrrole with benzyne give rather unstable adducts that could only be isolated in low yields as the methiodide or the picrate, respectively, as they readily react further with benzyne, nally rendering carbazole derivatives [498, 499], or rearrange to 2-naphthylamines [500]. In contrast, 1-(tert-butoxycarbonyl)pyrrole (158) reacts with benzyne, to afford a stable adduct (313) in moderate yield (Scheme 4.93) [501], as do 1-alkyl-2,3,4,5-tetramethylpyrroles [502, 503]. Tetrauorobenzyne also adds readily to for, example, 1-methylpyrrole to form a stable adduct [504], whereas the reaction of the benzyne generated from 1-bromo-2,5-diuorobenzene with 1-(trimethylsilyl)pyrrole (314) gives 315 with concomitant desilylation [505]. Related addition products have also been obtained upon addition of tetrachlorobenzyne to 1-alkylpyrroles [506].
R N
X
1.
N R
2. H2O
158 R = Boc 314 R = TMS

Scheme 4.93
X 313 R = Boc, X = H (35-41%) 315 R = H, X = F (49%)
Although the photooxygenation of pyrroles was discussed already in 1912 [507], evidence for the mechanism was not available until almost 70 years later, when it was demonstrated that addition of singlet oxygen to 1-methylpyrrole (190) provides the unstable endoperoxide 316, which undergoes a subsequent rearrangement or reacts
326

with water to furnish, among other products, the oxypyrrole 317 (Scheme 4.94). The intermediacy of 316 was suggested on the basis of low-temperature NMR measurements [508].
Me N O O 316
1O
H2O
N Me 190
Scheme 4.94
N Me 317
OH
Owing to their aromatic character, the applicability of pyrroles as the 2p reactants in normal electron demand DielsAlder reactions has been quite limited, requiring harsh conditions and giving only moderate yields of products as mixtures of regioisomers [509]. Recently, however, it was demonstrated that pyrroles possessing the strong electron-withdrawing triuoromethylsulfonyl (Tf) group plus an acetyl group can indeed act as dienophiles at elevated pressure, as illustrated by the conversion of 318 into 319 (Scheme 4.95) [510, 511].
O Me N Tf 318
Scheme 4.95
Me Me
ZnCl2 (10 mol%), CH2Cl2 16 kbar, 50 C 80%
Me
Me Me
N H Tf 319
Pyrroles may also play the role of dipolarophiles in cycloaddition reactions. Thus for instance, the reactions of certain 1-alkylpyrroles with nitrileimines have been demonstrated to give pyrrolo-fused pyrazoles [512, 513], whereas intramolecular cyclization of nitrile oxide functionalities onto pyrroles involved unstable pyrrolofused isoxazole adducts that underwent ring opening of the isoxazole ring [514]. It has also been established that a series of osmium pyrrole complexes, for example 320 [Os (II)[Os(NH3)5](OTf)2], participate as dipoles in cycloadditions with alkenes, for instance providing the endo-adduct 321 in good yield along with minor amounts of the exo-isomer (Scheme 4.96) [515, 516]. Inverse electron demand DielsAlder reactions have been used successfully for the synthesis of the pyrrolo[2,3-d]pyrimidines 322 from the 2-amino-4-cyanopyrroles 323 and the 1,3,5-triazine 324 (Scheme 4.97). This process is remarkable, as it proceeds readily even at ambient temperature [517]. Based on a theoretical study of the reaction between 2-aminopyrrole and 1,3,5-triazine, it appears that these transformations involve an initial nucleophilic attack of the aminopyrrole on the triazine to form a zwitterionic intermediate, which is in equilibrium with a neutral species, eventually
4.5 Reactivity
j327
Os(II) N TMS 320

Scheme 4.96
1. i-PrNEt2, TMSOTf, CH3CN 2. N-phenylmaleimide
TMS N Os(II)
H H O N Ph
O 321
CN H2N N R 323 N EtO2C
CO2Et N N 324 CO2Et

DMSO 84-96%
EtO2C NC N R
N N CO2Et
322
Scheme 4.97
undergoing a rate determining cyclization step [518]. The related reaction between 1methylpyrrole and 4,5-dicyanopyridazine gave only a low yield of 5,6-dicyano-1methylindole [519]. An intramolecular inverse electron demand DielsAlder reaction involving pyrrole as the dienophile component has been employed for conversion of the pyrroletethered 1,2,4-triazine 325 into the tricyclic system 326 in good yield (Scheme 4.98) [520]. Likewise, 1-acyl- or 1-benzoylpyrroles have been used as 2pcomponents in cycloadditions to masked o-benzoquinones [521].
CO2Et CO2Et N N
N N N 325
Scheme 4.98
diglyme, reflux
83%
CO2Et CO2Et
326
Since the initial reports that 1-alkyl- and 1-aryl-2(3)-vinylpyrroles may serve as diene components in DielsAlder reactions leading to indoles with interesting substitution patterns [522, 523], several studies exploiting this strategy have emerged. Heating of 1-triisopropylsilyl-(E)-2-(2-phenylsulnylvinyl)pyrrole with suitable acetylenecarboxylic acid derivatives furnished TIPS protected 4-acylindoles in good yields [524]. A more practical approach involves the readily available 3-vinylpyrrole 327, which gives the adduct 328 upon reaction with N-phenylmaleimide and
328

subsequent isomerization (Scheme 4.99). Similar reactions yielding isomeric adducts were performed using 1-(phenylsulfonyl)-2-vinylpyrrole [525]. Other related indole syntheses encompass the use of silyl enol ethers of 2-acylpyrroles [526, 527], or a diene generated by S-alkylation of 1-methyl-3-thioacetylpyrrole [528] as the 4pcomponents. It is also noteworthy that some sterically hindered N-substituted 2-vinylpyrroles give mainly Michael-type addition at C5, as the required cisoid conformation is disrupted by steric interaction between the group at the pyrrole nitrogen and the substituted vinyl moiety [529].
Ph N
O N SO2Ph 327
Scheme 4.99
O
PhMe, 76%
O N PhO2S N O 328 Ph
4.5.8 Reactions with Carbenes and Carbenoids
Although it was established early on that pyrroles readily undergo substitution reactions with carbenes [530] the synthetic utility of this reaction appears to be severely limited, as simple pyrroles, for example 1-methylpyrrole, give mixtures of C2 and C3 substituted products [531533]. Interestingly, in this context, the reactivity rate of pyrrole versus naphthalene towards thermally generated (ethoxycarbonyl) carbene at 150 C is 23 times higher [534]. A useful ring expansion reaction occurs when 2,5-dimethylpyrrole (329) is exposed to dichlorocarbene under neutral aprotic conditions, rendering the pyridine 330. Under basic protic conditions, very little of 330 is formed, along with even lower amounts the 2H-pyrrole 331 [535]. A similar mixture of products, although in considerably higher total yield, is obtained under basic conditions in the presence of a phase transfer catalyst [536]. The pyridine product may result from a rearrangement of the dichlorocyclopropane intermediate 332, in analogy with observations during studies on similar reactions of 2-tert-butyl-5methylpyrrole [537].
H Cl Me N H 329 Me Me N 330 Me Me N 331 CHCl2 Me Me N H 332 Cl Cl Me
Addition of carbenes to pyrroles possessing electron-withdrawing groups at the nitrogen atom is recognized to lead to cyclopropanation, as illustrated by the transformation of pyrrole 302 into the bicyclic system 333, with co-formation of the
4.5 Reactivity
j329
product 334 (Scheme 4.100) [538, 539]. An analogous outcome giving cyclopropanated products can be observed upon CuCl-catalyzed decomposition of diazomethane in the presence of 302 [539, 540]. Similar conditions involving CuOTf 1 /2C6H6 as the catalyst allow cyclopropanation of 1-acylpyrroles with methyl diazoacetate in up to 44% yield [541].
N2CH2CO2Et CuBr, 85 C
H N H MeO2C
H CO2Et
H EtO2C
H CO2Et
N CO2Me 302
Scheme 4.100
N H H MeO2C 334 (5%)
333 (17%)
Further studies also indicated that 333 undergoes rearrangement to the dihydropyridine derivative 335 by heating at 285 C. This is also true for the diazomethane adduct 336, which is completely converted into 337 within 30 min under the same conditions (Scheme 4.101) [539]. Based on detailed mechanistic studies, these transformations were suggested to proceed through the intermediate acyclic azatrienes 338/339, which give the dihydropyridines 335/337 after nal 6p-electrocyclization [539, 542].
H N H MeO2C H R N R CO2Me 338 R = CO2Et 339 R = H N MeO2C R H
333 R = CO2Et 336 R = H

Scheme 4.101
335 R = CO2Et 337 R = H
Stabilized vinyl carbenes also add readily to deactivated pyrroles, for example 340, providing the expected cyclopropanated intermediates 341, which, however, can not be isolated, as an ensuing Cope rearrangement leads directly to the tropane skeleton 342 (Scheme 4.102) [543, 544]. In analogy with previous ndings (see above), pyrrole
340 N TMS(CH2)2O2C MeO2C N2

Scheme 4.102
Rh2(O2CC6H11)4
hexane, Ar reflux
62%
H N H TMS(CH2)2O2C 341 CO2Me
CO2(CH2)2TMS N CO2Me
342
330

itself gives instead a mixture of C2 and C3 substitution products under similar conditions [543].
4.5.9 Photochemical Reactions
The photochemistry of pyrroles has been studied relatively scantily, and only few synthetically useful procedures have appeared over the years. Interestingly, during the irradiation of pyrrole-2-carbonitrile (343) in methanol solution the isomeric pyrrole-3-carbonitrile 344 was isolated in 55% yield as the major product (Scheme 4.103) [545]. This intriguing isomerization has been suggested to encompass initial generation of the unstable Dewar pyrrole 345, and a subsequent rearrangement involving the aziridine nitrogen to form intermediate 346 [546]. The N-ethoxycarbonyl derivative of the parent ring system of 345 has, interestingly, been generated and trapped as an adduct with 1,3-diphenylisobenzofuran [547], although the formation and reactions of tetrakis(triuoromethyl) derivatives thereof had been reported previously [548, 549].
CN N H 343
Scheme 4.103
CN N H 344
CN
h , MeOH 55%
N H 345
CN
N H 346
The photo-induced reaction of pyrroles with aldehydes or ketones provides a route to C3 substituted pyrroles, as illustrated by the conversion of 190 into 347 (Scheme 4.104). Based on NMR studies of the reaction mixture, the oxetane 348 was proposed as a conceivable intermediate [550]. Similar reactions of 1-benzoylpyrrole with 3- or 4-benzoylpyridine led to the isolation of low yields of related bis-adducts [551].
Me OH Me
Me2CO, h
H Me N H Me 348 O
Me
N Me 190
40%
N Me 347
Scheme 4.104
Light-induced cyclizations of suitable pyrrole containing precursors offer useful routes to more complex fused pyrroles. Thus the heterocyclic stilbene analog 349 undergoes conversion into the system 350 upon irradiation in the presence of Pd/C
4.5 Reactivity
h , 4-NO2C6H4CO2H Et3N, Pd/C, CH3CN
j331
Me
N 349
Me
85%
Me
N 350
Me
Scheme 4.105
as the dehydrogenating catalyst (Scheme 4.105) [552]. Photochemical annulation reactions of related precursors may also be performed in the presence of iodine with access to air, or alternatively by employing iodine and excess propylene oxide under an argon atmosphere [553].
4.5.10 Pyrryl-C-X Compounds: Synthesis and Reactions
Pyrrolyl-C-X compounds constitute an important class of derivatives, as pyrroles possessing aminomethyl- or hydroxymethyl substituents are excellent substrates in reactions with nucleophilic reagents. Conversion of the readily available 2-(dimethylamino)pyrrole 232 into the methoiodide 351, followed by treatment with NaCN provides convenient access to (pyrrol-2-yl)acetonitrile (352, Scheme 4.106) [554], whereas a similar displacement with the anion of diethyl phosphite gives the useful diethyl (pyrrol-2-yl)methylphosphonate in 91% yield [555]. This type of eliminationaddition processes with N-substituted pyrroles has been implied to involve the intermediacy of azafulvenium ions [287] (Section 4.5.1.7), or in the case of pyrrole itself the azafulvene 353 [556, 557], both of which are prone to attack by nucleophiles at the exo-cyclic carbon. Likewise, 2,5-bis(dimethylaminomethyl)pyrrole may, for example, be converted into the corresponding 2,5-bis(phenylthiomethylene)pyrrole via an intermediate quaternization with iodomethane in good overall yield [558]. However, products that presumably resulted from nucleophilic attack at C5 of 1-methylazafulvenium ions have also been observed [555, 559].
N H 232
NMe2 MeI
91%
N H 351
NMe3 I
NaCN, H2O 52%
CN N H 352
N 353
Scheme 4.106
Pyrroles containing acetoxymethyl groups at C2 are particularly useful for the construction of di(pyrrol-2-yl)methanes [560562]. The reaction of the 2-(acetoxymethyl)pyrrole derivative 354 with 355 leading to the molecule 356 (Scheme 4.107) serves as an excellent illustration of the applicability of such approaches [561]. Related transformations may also be carried out using 2-(hydroxymethyl)pyrroles [341, 563], as well as 3-(hydroxymethyl)pyrroles, which display similar behavior, and may for instance be converted into the corresponding 3-(cyanomethyl)pyrroles upon
332

Me CO2Me OAc N H 354
Scheme 4.107
Me N H 355
Cl
Me
p-TsOH (cat.) MeOH 82%
CO2Me
t-BuO2C
t-BuO2C
CO2t-Bu
N H
HN
Me Cl
t-BuO2C 356
treatment with NaCN [564]. Introduction of the strong electron-withdrawing (triuoromethyl)sulfonyl group at the nitrogen of 2-(hydroxymethyl)pyrroles blocks the pathway involving azafulvenium ions, thus enabling Mitsunobu-type reactions at the hydroxymethyl moiety [565]. Di(pyrrol-2-yl)methanes have also been prepared under non-acidic conditions, as demonstrated by the reaction of a magnesium derivative of 357 with the 2-(chloromethyl)pyrrole 358 to afford the product 359 (Scheme 4.108). The compound 358 is readily available from pyrrole-2-carboxaldehyde by N-protection, followed by reduction, yielding a 2-(hydroxymethyl)pyrrole, and treatment thereof with methanesulnigs base [566]. 2-(Haloalkyl)pyrroles may also fonyl chloride in the presence of Hu be used in displacement reactions with, for example, azide ions [567], pyridine or alkoxide ions [568], giving additional useful synthetic intermediates.
1. MeMgI, THF, -10 C 2. Cl N 358 SO2Me 50%
S S 357
S S N H 359 N SO2Me
N H
Scheme 4.108
Pyrroles bearing an (benzotriazol-1-yl)methyl (Bt) substituent at C2, for example 360, may also serve as versatile substrates for conversion into more exotic derivatives, employing a route featuring initial metallation and alkylation to give 361, followed by nucleophilic displacement of the benzotriazol-1-yl moiety to furnish the nal product 362 (Scheme 4.109) [102]. Similar reactions involving a,b-unsaturated aldehydes or
Ph Bt N Bn 360
Scheme 4.109
1. BuLi, THF, -78 C 2. MeI 98%
Ph Bt N Bn 361 Me
NaSPh DMF, 150 C 79%
Ph SPh N Bn 362 Me
4.5 Reactivity
j333
ketones instead of alkyl halides as the electrophiles, eventually leading to indole derivatives, have also been reported [569]. Reduction of 3-acyl-1-(p-toluenesulfonyl)pyrroles with 0.5 equivalents of NaBH4 in reuxing dioxane containing 1 equivalent of i-PrOH gives the corresponding intermediate 1-(pyrrol-3-yl)methanol derivatives, which undergo dehydration in hot DMSO, rendering 3-vinylpyrroles [570]. C-Vinylpyrroles are useful in various applications, for example cycloaddition reactions (Section 4.5.7), and comprehensive reviews highlighting the preparation [571] and synthetic uses of these compounds have appeared quite recently [572].
4.5.11 Transition Metal Catalyzed Coupling Reactions
The availability of stable halopyrroles, stannylpyrroles and pyrroleboronic acids has opened new possibilities for functionalization of the pyrrole nucleus by transition metal catalyzed reactions, enabling the synthesis of derivatives otherwise difcult to access [573]. A few reactions involving transition metal catalyzed CH activation in pyrroles have also emerged. There are only a few examples of N-arylation of pyrrole itself using aryl bromides, performed in the presence of t-BuONa and catalytic amounts of Pd(OAc)2 and diphenylphosphinoferrocene (DPPF) and a suitable base [574], or employing the combination Pd(dba)2/P(t-Bu)3/Cs2CO3 [575]. Pyrrole has also been N-arylated with an aryl iodide using CuI/trans-1,2-cyclohexanediamine in the presence of K3PO4 as the catalytic system [576]. 2-Acetylpyrrole, as well as pyrrole-2-carboxaldehydes possessing an additional electron-withdrawing substituent at C4, undergoes efcient N-arylation with arylboronic acids at ambient temperature using stoichiometric amounts of Cu(OAc)2 [577]. Treatment of pyrroles with vinyl triates in the presence of the system Pd2(dba)3/Xphos/K3PO4 constitutes a new route to 1-vinylpyrroles [578]. It has also been reported that N-alkynylation of electron decient pyrroles can be achieved using alkynyl bromides in the presence of catalytic amounts of CuSO45H2O and 1,10-phenanthroline [579]. The readily available N-protected 2-bromopyrrole 155 is an excellent partner for Suzuki couplings, offering a convenient route to the 2-arylpyrroles 363 (Scheme 4.110) [580, 581]. An alternative approach is based on coupling of the pyrrole-2-boronic acid 266 with aryl bromides or iodides [582]. Suzuki reactions have also been performed using 1-(phenylsulfonyl)pyrrole-2-boronic acid [583], 2-bromo1-(p-toluenesulfonyl)pyrrole [241] and 2-iodo-1-(phenylsulfonyl)pyrrole [412]. In
ArB(OH)2 Pd(PPh3)4 (cat.), Na2CO3 PhMe, MeOH (5:1), 80 C 90-99%
Br N Boc 155
Ar N Boc 363
ArX, Pd(PPh3)4 (cat.) Na2CO3, H2O, DME, reflux 15-98%
B(OH)2 N Boc 266
Scheme 4.110
334

addition, it has been demonstrated that electron decient di- or tribrominated pyrroles undergo selective Suzuki reactions at the a-position with phenylboronic acid derivatives [584]. Heck reactions at the a-position of iodinated pyrroles involving vinylbenzene derivatives [585, 586], as well as Pd(0)-catalyzed couplings with alkynes [587], have also been reported. Suzuki coupling of the triate 364 with the boronic acid 266 has been employed as the nal step in an elegant synthesis of undecylprodigiosin (365) (Scheme 4.111) [588], as well as during preparation of a series of analogues thereof [589].
OMe TfO N H
266, Pd(PPh3)4 (cat.), K2CO3 1,4-dioxane, 90 C, 6 h
OMe N H N H N C11H23 365
73%
C11H23 364
Scheme 4.111
A new arylation reaction of pyrrolylsodium (366) (Section 4.5.4.1) has been developed. In a representative set of conditions, exposure of 366 to various aryl chlorides or bromides and ZnCl2 in the presence of Pd(OAc)2 and 2-(di-tert-butylphosphino)biphenyl (367), afforded 2-arylpyrroles 368 in high yields (Scheme 4.112). The products 368 may also be subjected to further arylation under similar conditions at the remaining free a-position, providing access to various 2,5-diarylpyrroles [590]. It has also been known for some time that palladium mediated arylation of 1-acylpyrroles with arenes occurs at the a-position. However, this requires stoichiometric amounts of the palladium source [591]. A recent interesting contribution involving CH activation features regioselective palladium-catalyzed oxidative alkenylation of N-protected pyrroles at C2 or C3 using alkenes under aerobic conditions. The regioselectivity is highly dependent on the steric and electronic properties of the Nsubstituent of the substrate. For instance, the use of 1-(tert-butoxycarbonyl)pyrrole gives C2 alkenylated products, whereas implementation of 1-TIPS-pyrrole leads to functionalization at C3 [592].
ZnCl2, ArX Pd(OAc)2 (cat.), L (cat.) THF,
(t-Bu)2P N H 368 Ar 367
N Na 366
Scheme 4.112
4.5 Reactivity
j335
Cross-coupling techniques may also be applied to the preparation of various 3-substituted pyrroles. The pyrrole-3-boronic acid 281, which is derived from 1-triisopropylsilyl-3-iodopyrrole, takes part in Suzuki couplings with both electron rich and electron decient aryl halides (XBr or I) to provide useful yields of the 3-arylpyrroles 369 (Scheme 4.113). Stille reactions of 1-triisopropylsilyl-3-(tributylstannyl)pyrrole with suitable aryl halides constitute an alternative route to pyrroles of type 369, whereas palladium-catalyzed coupling of 1-triisopropylsilyl-3-iodopyrrole with terminal acetylenes gives high yields of the corresponding 3-ethynylpyrroles. The TIPS group in all products may be removed efciently by treatment with Bu4NF [418]. In connection with studies on Suzuki couplings involving ethyl 4bromopyrrole-2-carboxylate, a competing dehalogenation of the halopyrrole was observed. This side reaction was, however, suppressed by using the corresponding N-Boc-protected derivative, leading to good yields of ethyl 4-arylpyrrole-2-carboxylates with a concomitant removal of the Boc-group during the process [593]. Other useful developments in this area encompass palladium-catalyzed coupling of 1-(ptoluenesulfonyl)-4-(tributylstannyl)pyrrole-2-carboxaldehyde with aryl- and heteroaryl halides giving the corresponding 4-arylpyrrole-2-carboxaldehydes [594], and synthesis of 3-vinylpyrroles by Stille reactions between various 3-iodopyrroles and vinyltributyltin [595]. In addition, Suzuki couplings involving the triate derived from 1-benzylpyrrolidine-3-one are accompanied by concomitant dehydrogenation, giving access to 3-aryl-1-benzyl-pyrroles [596]. Finally, both 2-iodo-1-(phenylsulfonyl) pyrrole and its 3-iodo isomer are efciently cyanated using CuCN in the presence of catalytic amounts of Pd2(dba)3 and dppf [597].
B(OH)2 N TIPS 281
Scheme 4.113
Ar N TIPS 369
ArX, Pd(PPh3)4 (cat.), Na2CO3 PhH, H2O, MeOH, reflux 59-96%
In an interesting approach towards unsymmetrically 3,4-disubstituted pyrroles, the 3,4-disilylated pyrrole derivative 125 was N-protected, followed by an ipsoiodination to provide the key intermediate 370, which was in turn subjected to various cross-couplings, providing, for example, the products 371 via the Sonogashira reaction (Scheme 4.114) [246, 247], or the corresponding aryl derivatives
R TMS N H 125
Scheme 4.114
TMS 1. Boc O, DMAP, CH Cl 2 2 2

88%
TMS N Boc 370
2. I2, CF3CO2Ag, THF, -78 C
PdCl2(PPh3)2, CuI Et2NH, rt 83-92%
TMS N Boc 371
336

employing Suzuki conditions. A second ipso-iodination and subsequent palladiumcatalyzed coupling reactions give access to further derivatives [247]. Moreover, phosphine-free Suzuki reactions involving methyl 4,5-dichloro-3-iodopyrrole-2-carboxylate occur selectively at C3, giving access to 3-arylpyrrole-2-carboxylates after nal removal of the chlorine atoms by catalytic hydrogenation [307].
4.6 Pyrrole Derivatives 4.6.1 Alkyl Derivatives
N-Alkylation of pyrroles is a well documented process that is conveniently accomplished by treatment of pyrrolyl anions with suitable alkylating agents under various conditions (Section 4.5.4.1). Direct C-alkylation is often not particularly practical, as it has been demonstrated that treatment of pyrrolyl anions with allyl-, crotyl- and benzyl-halides gives mixtures of N- and C- monoalkylated products, along with disubstituted derivatives [375]. The methods of choice for the synthesis of alkylpyrroles rely on pyrrole ring formation from acyclic precursors (Section 4.4), or reduction of readily available 2- or 3-acylpyrroles (Section 4.5.1.6). Reduction of 2-benzoylpyrrole (372) with NaBH4 in boiling 2-propanol gives a high yield of 2-benzylpyrrole (373) (Scheme 4.115) [598]. An alternative procedure employs a tert-butylamineborane complex in the presence of AlCl3 as the reducing system, enabling for example effective transformation of the N-protected 2-acylpyrrole 374 into the corresponding 2-alkylpyrrole 375. This approach is also useful for the reduction of 1-phenylsulfonylpyrrole-2-carboxaldehyde to the corresponding 2-methylpyrrole derivative [599].
t-BuNH2BH3, AlCl3 CH2Cl2, rt 87%
N H 373
Bn
NaBH4, i-PrOH reflux 99%
N R1
R2 O
n-Pr N SO2Ph 375
372 R1 = H, R2 = Ph 374 R1 = SO2Ph, R2 = Et
Scheme 4.115
These reductions are neatly complemented by the possibility of crafting a secondary alkyl substituent, as illustrated by the conversion of the 3-acylpyrrole 376 into the 3-alkylpyrrole 377, which proceeds via the unstable tertiary alcohol 378 (Scheme 4.116) [598]. A somewhat related approach involving addition of organometallic reagents to 2-acylpyrroles, followed by reduction with lithium in liquid ammonia, has also been described [600].
4.6 Pyrrole Derivatives
j337
O C15H31 N SO2Ph 376

Scheme 4.116
MeMgBr, Et2O
Me
OH C15H31
1. NaOH, MeOH, H2O reflux 2. NaBH4, i-PrOH reflux 27% from 376
Me C15H31 N H 377
N SO2Ph 378
4.6.2 Pyrrole Carboxylic Acids and Carboxylates
Many pyrrole carboxylic acids are readily available compounds, which are quite prone to decarboxylation. This particular characteristic is very attractive from a synthetic point of view, extending the scope of those pyrrole ring syntheses that give pyrrole carboxylates (Section 4.4). Pyrrole-2-carboxylates are useful substrates for further functionalization by means of electrophilic substitution, as the substituent is strongly meta directing, thereby allowing selective synthesis of 2,4-disubstituted pyrroles (Section 4.5.1.6). It is also worth mentioning that amides derived, for instance, from pyrrole-2,5-dicarboxylic acids have recently attracted interest as anion receptors and membrane transport agents for HCl [601]. Decarboxylation of pyrrole-3-carboxylic acids may, for example, be effected by heating [602], whereas ethyl pyrrole-3-carboxylates can be hydrolyzed and decarboxylated in one pot by heating with aqueous NaOH at 175 C in a sealed vessel [124]. Based on kinetic studies, the mechanism of the decarboxylation of pyrrole-2carboxylic acid 198 in acidic media has been suggested to proceed through the intermediate 379, which eventually releases carbon dioxide (Scheme 4.117) [603]. A striking feature during saponication of pyrrolecarboxylates is the relatively high rate constant for pyrrole-2-carboxylates compared to that of the C3 substituted isomers. This behavior has been ascribed to the possibility of intramolecular hydrogen bonding in the intermediate resulting from the attack of a hydroxide ion on the carbonyl carbon in the C2 isomers [604, 605].
O N H 198
Scheme 4.117
CO2H
H+, H2O, 50 C
N H
-CO2
N H 1
379
338

4.6.3 Oxy Derivatives
1-Hydroxypyrrole derivatives are available by several routes, for example employing hydroxylamine in the PaalKnorr pyrrole synthesis [606], by thermolysis of 1-(tertbutyl)-3-pyrrolin-1-oxide to 1-hydroxy-3-pyrroline [607] or via treatment of suitable monooximes derived from 1,2-dicarbonyl compounds with sodium hydride, followed by vinyltriphenylphosphonium bromide, which gives 2,3-disubstituted 1hydroxypyrroles [608]. Deuterium exchange studies with D2O in CDCl3 performed on 1-hydroxy-2,3-diphenylpyrrole (380) indicated incorporation of deuterium at C4 and C5 along with the expected deuterium exchange at the oxygen, suggesting contributions from the tautomeric forms 381 and 382 (Scheme 4.118) [608].
Ph Ph N O 381 Ph Ph N OH 380 Ph Ph N O 382
Scheme 4.118
Oxidation of pyrrole employing hydrogen peroxide gives a modest yield of the tautomeric 2-oxypyrroles 383 and 384, the former being the prevalent component as judged from NMR data (ratio 383 : 384 9 : 1 in acetone-d6) (Scheme 4.119) [609]. Puried samples of 383 remain rather stable for several weeks upon storage at 10 C, whereas the isomer 384 undergoes much faster isomerization [610]. After initial N-protection of 383, access to a useful synthetic intermediate is gained by trapping of the corresponding 2-hydroxypyrrole tautomer as the silyl ether 385, which reacts with aldehydes, rendering for example the 5-substituted pyrroline-2-one 386 [611, 612]. The oxypyrrole 385 has also been efciently prepared on multikilogram scale via cyclization of racemic 4-amino-3-hydroxybutyric acid with HMDS
H2O2, BaCO3, H2O reflux
N H 1
30%
N H 383
66%
N H 384
1. Boc2O, DMAP, CH3CN 2. TBSOTf, 2,6-lutidine, CH 2Cl2
OHC
O O
1. BF3OEt2, Et2O, -85 C 2. TMSCl, pyridine, -30 C
H O N Boc 386 O
OTMS O
TBSO
N Boc 385
63%
Scheme 4.119
j339
in the presence of pyridine to 4-(trimethylsiloxy)pyrrolidine-2-one, which underwent subsequent Boc-protection, desilylation and elimination to yield 1-(tert-butoxycarbonyl)-3-pyrroline-2-one. This material could then be efciently converted into 385 using TBSOTf in the presence of triethylamine [613]. It is also noteworthy that electrolytic uorination of 2-cyano-1-methylpyrrole with Et3N3HF in acetonitrile, followed by treatment with water, gives 5,5-diuoro-1-methyl-3-pyrrolin-2-one, a useful starting material for the construction of some gem-diuorinated heterocycles [614]. The reaction of ethyl N-ethoxycarbonyl glycinate with ethyl fumarate in the presence of sodium in benzene solution, followed by decarboxylation, provides convenient access to the 3-oxypyrrole derivative 387 [615]. This material may for instance be further converted into the substituted 3-methoxypyrrole 388 by ketalization and dehydrogenation over Pd/C with concomitant cleavage of the carbamate functionality (Scheme 4.120) [616]. 3-Alkoxypyrroles have also been prepared by cyclization of alkyl 4-bromo-3-alkoxy-2-butenoates with suitable amines to 4-alkoxy-3pyrrolin-2-ones, and subsequent treatment thereof with diisobutylaluminium hydride [617].
O CO2Et N CO2Et 387
Scheme 4.120
1. (MeO)2SO2, HCl (cat.) MeOH 2. Pd/C,
MeO N H 388 CO2Et
Cyclization of the precursors 389, which are readily available from glycine esters and diethyl ethoxymethylenemalonate, provides a route to the stable 3-hydroxypyrrole derivatives 390 (Scheme 4.121). The C4 substituent may be selectively removed by alkaline hydrolysis, followed by decarboxylation [618].
EtO2C CO2Et CO2Et
NaOR2, R2OH 24-86%
CO2R2 N R1
OH N R1 390 CO2R2
389
Scheme 4.121
In an approach based on intramolecular Wittig olenation, alkylation of, for example, N-acetylacetamide (391) with the reagents 392 (X Br or Cl) afforded the precursor 393, which was in turn cyclized to the 3-oxypyrrole derivative 394 under thermal conditions (Scheme 4.122) [619]. Apart from the examples mentioned above, 3-oxypyrroles are also available by for instance ash vacuum pyrolysis of N,N-disubstituted aminomethylene derivatives of
340

O Me N H 391 O Me O 392 O X PPh3
NaH, DMF 58%
O N Me
Me O
mesitylene 56%
O N Ac 394 Me
PPh3 393
Scheme 4.122
Meldrums acid [620]. A representative member of this class, 1-phenyl-1H-pyrrol-3 (2H)-one, exists as mixtures of the tautomeric forms 395 or 396 depending on the medium. In general, polar solvents favor the enol form 396, whereas in the solid state the keto tautomer 395 alone was detected (Scheme 4.123) [621]. The enol form was also detected as the prevalent species in DMSO solution in the case of the parent 3hydroxypyrrole [622]. In addition, preference for the enol tautomers has been observed in connection with studies of derivatives containing an ester functionality at the adjacent C4 position [623]. Regiospecic O-alkylation of 3-hydroxypyrroles can be accomplished in polar aprotic solvents such as dimethylimidazolidinone (DMI), using the hard alkylating agent methyl p-toluenesulfonate to give, for example, pyrrole 397. In contrast, the use of soft alkylating agents, such as iodomethane in relatively nonpolar solvents, leads to increased amounts of C-alkylated products [624].
O N Ph 395
Scheme 4.123
OH N Ph 396
NaH, 4-MeC6H4SO3Me DMI 80%
OMe N Ph 397
Derivatives of tetramic acid (398) constitute a relatively large class of oxygenated pyrroles, which has been studied in considerable detail [35, 625]. The parent compound 398 is a relatively weak acid, (pKa6.4 in water), which exists in the keto from in the solid state, whereas in aqueous solution a minor contribution from the enol 399 may be discerned [626]. The enolization behavior of 3-acetyltetramic acids is more complex; studies involving for instance the 3-acetyl-5-isopropyl derivative revealed a considerable contribution from the exo-enol tautomer 400 [627].
Me O
4 2
HO O N H 399 O i-Pr
O N H 400
OH O
N H 398
j341
The most practical and widely used approach to tetramic acid derivatives has been developed by Lacey, and involves Dieckmann cyclization of N-acyl-a-amino esters. For example, the precursor 401, which is available by treatment of ethyl glycinate with diketene, gives 3-acetyltetramic acid 402 upon treatment with sodium methoxide (Scheme 4.124) [628]. Application of these conditions to substrates derived from optically active amino acids may cause racemization, which can, however, be avoided by conducting the cyclization in the presence of TBAF in THF, or potassium tertbutoxide in tert-butanol during short periods of time. These modied routes also involve generation of the acyclic precursors from b-ketothioesters and amino acids [629]. Suitable precursors to tetramic acids may also be prepared by treatment of hippuric acid [630] or aceturic acid [631] derivatives with anions of active methylene compounds. The Dieckmann cyclization strategy has also been utilized in a solid phase approach starting from amino acid derivatives attached to the resin by an ester linkage [632]. A recent contribution to this eld encompasses preparation of 5substituted teramic acid derivatives by cyclocondensation of amidines with DMAD, followed by alkaline hydrolysis of the intermediate 5-amino-4-pyrrolin-3-ones [633].
O Me OH O N H 402
O N H 401 CO2Et
NaOMe, PhH reflux 3 h 76%
Scheme 4.124
The methyl tetramate 403, as well as several similar compounds, is available by treatment of methyl 4-bromo-3-methoxy-2-butenoate 404 with methylamine [634], and may be converted into the corresponding 3-alkoxypyrroles, for instance 405, by treatment with diisobutylaluminium hydride (Scheme 4.125) [617]. Furthermore, the representative tetramate 403 undergoes metallation at C5 upon exposure to butyllithium, and the resulting lithio derivative gives access to various C5 substituted products after subsequent treatment with suitable electrophiles [635]. It has also been established that methyl tetramates of type 403 having an isopropyl moiety [636] or two substituents [637] at C5 may be acylated at C3 via lithiation, followed by introduction of aldehydes, and oxidation of the intermediate alcohols. The active methylene unit of tetramates may also participate in condensation reactions with aldehydes in the presence of sodium hydroxide in aqueous DMSO [588].
MeO Br CO2Me
MeNH2 49%
MeO N Me 403 O
DIBAL, THF 0 C to rt 45%
MeO N Me 405
404
Scheme 4.125
342

4.6.4 Aminopyrroles
Simple aminopyrroles are highly electron rich and thus often labile species, but the stability may be improved considerably by the presence of electron-withdrawing substituents. A series of 1-aminopyrroles, including 406, has been prepared by Namination of the corresponding NH-pyrroles with anhydrous ethereal NH2Cl in the presence of NaH [638]. Recently, a more convenient N-amination protocol for pyrroles has been realized under phase transfer conditions using in situ generated chloramine as the electrophilic aminating agent [639]. Interestingly, 1-(N,N-dimethylamino)pyrrole (407) can be easily prepared by heating 2,5-dimethoxytetrahydrofuran and N,N-dimethylhydrazine in acetic acid, and is cleanly lithiated at C2 [416].
EtO2C CF3 CO2Et N NH2 406 N NMe2 407
The parent 2-aminopyrrole (408) was generated from the (pyrrole-2-yl)phthalimide 409 [640], which is in turn available by treatment of 1-trimethylsilylpyrrole with chlorophthalimide followed by aqueous workup (Scheme 4.126) [230, 641]. The aminopyrrole 408, as well as 1-alkyl- and 1-aryl derivatives thereof, have to be kept in acid solution. A fast proton exchange at C5 in this series was observed in glacial acetic acid [640], and further NMR studies indicated that the conjugate acids of the 2aminopyrroles exist as protonated imines under these conditions [641]. It has also been demonstrated that 2-aminopyrroles incorporating an electron-withdrawing substituent at the adjacent b-carbon can undergo protonation at either the exocyclic nitrogen atom or C5, depending on the conditions, but react at the exocyclic nitrogen only with acylating agents, thus behaving like typical aromatic amines rather than enamines [642].
O N H N O 409
1. NaBH4, i-PrOH 2. AcOH, 80 C 3. NaOH
O N H 408 NH2 O
Scheme 4.126
A useful approach featuring a pyrrole ring synthesis involves treatment of the readily available aminoacetaldehyde dimethyl acetals 410 with malononitrile under acidic conditions to provide facile access to the 2-aminopyrrole-3-carbonitriles 411 in moderate yields (Scheme 4.127). Similar products may also be prepared from ethyl 3cyanopyrrole-2-carboxylates using a route based on the Curtius rearrangement [643]. 2-Aminopyrroles have also been obtained by base induced condensation reactions

1. R1CHO, PhH, reflux OMe 2. NaBH4, EtOH NCCH2CN p-TsOHH2O (2 equiv.) OMe CH2Cl2
j343
CN NH2
H2N
R1
OMe
N H
OMe 410
N R1 411
Scheme 4.127
between acetylaminoacetone and substituted acetonitriles [644], or from N-acetyla-aminoketones and malononitrile [645]. Yet another contribution to aminopyrrole chemistry is represented by a procedure for palladium-catalyzed amination of 2-acetyl-5-bromo-1-methylpyrrole (412), which can be performed using various primary and secondary amines, giving for example the 2-aminopyrrole derivative 413 (Scheme 4.128) [646]. An effective amidation of methyl 4-bromo-1-methylpyrrole-2-carboxylate with tert-butyl carbamate in the presence of the combination CuI/K3PO4/N,N0 -dimethylethylenediamine has also been reported [236].
Pd2(dba)3 (2 mol%) BINAP (4 mol%), t-BuONa PhMe, 80 C 85%
Me O N Me 412
Scheme 4.128
Br
HN
N CO2Et
Me O N Me 413
N CO Et 2
3-Aminopyrroles featuring electron-withdrawing moieties have attracted some interest as building blocks for pyrrolo[2,3-d]pyrimidines [647, 648]. Consequently, several synthetic approaches to such derivatives have been described. The a-cyanoaldehydes 414, which are derived from suitable aldehydes by base induced condensation with 3,3-dimethoxypropionitrile, followed by hydrolysis of the acetal and catalytic hydrogenation, serve as excellent substrates for the generation of enamine intermediates 415 by treatment with diethyl aminomalonate (Scheme 4.129). A nal cyclization step afforded the 3-aminopyrrole derivatives 416 in moderate to good overall yields [648]. A route based on cyclization of similar enamine intermediates has been used for the synthesis of methyl 3-amino-4-arylpyrrole-2-carboxylates [649].
MeO
1. RCHO, NaOMe OMe 2. 6 N HCl 3. H2, Pd/C
CHO CN R 414
H2NCH(CO2Et)2 NaOAc
NHCH(CO2Et)2 CN R 415
NaOMe, MeOH
R NH2 N H 416 CO2Me
CN
Scheme 4.129
344

A different substitution pattern is displayed in the pyrroles 417, which were prepared by tosylation of the cyanoacetyl compounds 418 rendering the precursors 419 (Scheme 4.130). These intermediates were in turn converted into the target heterocycles by reaction with diethyl aminomalonate hydrochloride in the presence of ethoxide [650]. Treatment of benzyl 4-oxoproline-2-carboxylate derivatives protected at the nitrogen by the 9-(9-phenyluorenyl) group with primary or secondary amines in the presence of catalytic amounts of p-TsOH provides an efcient route to 4-aminopyrrole-2-carboxylates [651].
CN R O 418
Scheme 4.130
Ts2O, Et3N CH2Cl2
CN R OTs 419
(EtO2C)2CHNH2HCl NaOEt, EtOH 30-61% overall
NH2 R N H 417 CO2Et
3-Amino-1-tritylpyrrole (420) has been prepared from the corresponding pyrrole-3carboxylic acid in several steps using a route involving the Curtius rearrangement, and was demonstrated to exist exclusively as the 3-imino tautomer 421 in CDCl3 solution [210]. A series of 1-arylpyrroles, as well as 1-methylpyrrole, has recently been shown to undergo amination, providing the interesting derivatives 422 in good yields using N-(p-toluenesulfonyl)imino-phenyliodinane (PhINTs) in the presence of a ruthenium(II) porphyrin catalyst [652].
NH2 N CPh3 420 NH N CPh3 421 TsHN N R 422 NHTs
4.6.5 Dihydro- and Tetrahydro-Derivatives
The scope of this chapter only allows inclusion of selected examples of procedures involving dihydro- and tetrahydro derivatives, but it is important to emphasize that many signicant compounds belong to these thoroughly studied systems, for instance the amino acid L-proline. Both 2- and 3-pyrrolines (2,3-dihydro- and 2,5dihydropyrroles), as well as pyrrolidines (tetrahydropyrroles), are available by reduction of pyrrole derivatives (Section 4.5.6). The reverse transformation, that is, conversion of pyrrolidines into pyrroles, may be accomplished for instance by dehydrogenation with MnO2 in reuxing THF [653]. In more recent years, several useful ring syntheses of partially, or completely saturated pyrrole derivatives have emerged, for example 2,5-disubstituted pyrrolidines [654]. Several practical approaches rely on the cyclization of suitable diol
j345
derivatives, for instance 423, which gives the trans-pyrrolidine 424 upon treatment with benzylamine (Scheme 4.131) [655]. Base induced annulation of mesylates derived from suitable chiral c-aminoalcohols constitutes an alternative procedure for the stereoselective preparation of cis- or trans-2,5-disubstituted pyrrolidines [656].
OMs H11C5 OMs 423
Scheme 4.131
C4H9
BnNH2, rt 77%
H11C5
N Bn 424
C4H9
Reductive amination of 1,4-diketones with ammonium acetate [657] or amines in the presence of NaCNBH3 provides routes to pyrrolidines as mixtures of cis- and trans-isomers, the former being favored by increasing size of the amine reactant [658]. A related one-pot approach giving the 1-(2-naphthyl)methyleneor 1-(3,4-dimethoxybenzyl)pyrrolidines 425 involves reductive cyclization of the four-carbon precursors 426, which are in turn available by conjugate addition of the a-(alkylideneamino)nitriles 427 to the a,b-unsaturated ketones 428 (Scheme 4.132) [659].
R4 O
NaCNBH3 36-84%
CN R2 N 427 R1
R
1. DBU, THF 2.
R3 R2 N
R4 R5
O R5 R4 428
R3
R2 R5 N NC R1 426
R1 425
Scheme 4.132
Pyrrolidines containing sensitive substituents have been prepared under mild conditions using a tandem cationic aza-Cope rearrangementMannich process. Thus, treatment of the substituted 3-butenamines 429 with appropriate aldehydes in benzene or toluene affords moderate to excellent yields of the substituted 3-acetylpyrrolidines 430 (Scheme 4.133) [660].
O Me R5 N R1 430
RO
N Me H HBF4
R1
R5CHO 24-110 C 54-97%
OR Me R5 N R1 R5 N R1
OR Me
429 R = H or Me
Scheme 4.133
346

A general approach to pyrrolidines involves 1,3-dipolar cycloadditions of alkenes and azomethine ylides, which are for instance available by desilylation of a-silyl iminium salts [661]. This strategy has been exploited in construction of the system 431, which resulted from a reaction of the ylide 432 with N-methylmaleimide (Scheme 4.134) [662]. The various routes to enantiopure pyrrolidine derivatives based on cycloaddition reactions involving azomethine ylides have been recently summarized in a review [663].
Me N
82%
S S N Me
X TMS
CsF MeCN
S S N Me 432
O H S S
Me N
O H
N Me
431
Scheme 4.134
The pyrrolidines 433 incorporating an exocyclic double bond have been synthesized by cycloaddition of the N-tosylimines 434 with a palladium complex derived from the precursor 435 (Scheme 4.135). Similar syntheses of various pyrrolidine derivatives may also be performed starting from aliphatic N-tosylimines (readily generated from the corresponding aldehydes by treatment with chloramine-T and elemental selenium), nitrimines or other electron decient imines [664].
Ts
Pd(PPh3)4 THF, 95-98%
Ar
N 434
AcO 435
TMS
Ar
N Ts 433
Scheme 4.135
Based on a previous approach for palladium-catalyzed cyclization of 3-alkynylamines yielding 1-pyrrolines [665], the precursors 436, derived from a propargylglycine derivative via Sonogashira coupling, were deprotected under acidic conditions, followed by silver-catalyzed cyclization, providing a route to the 1-pyrrolines 437 (Scheme 4.136) [666]. Palladium-catalyzed ring closure of related precursors may instead give 2-pyrrolines, whereas the application of 4-alkynylamines in similar
MeO2C BocHN 436
Scheme 4.136
1. HCl, EtOAc 2. NH3, 1,4-dioxane, H2O 3. AgOTf (cat.), CH3CN 54-80%
Ar
N 437
CO2Me
Ar
j347
processes gives pyrrolidines incorporating an exocyclic double bond [667]. Densely substituted 1-pyrrolines may also be accessed by 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition reactions between acrylamide derivatives and nitrile ylides generated from imidoyl chlorides [668]. Preparative routes and transformations involving 1-pyrrolines have been reviewed [669]. A traditional approach to 1-pyrrolines relies on addition of Grignard reagents to c-halonitriles, which gives rise to the 2-substituted systems [670, 671]. It was later demonstrated that application of hydrocarbon/ether solvent mixtures for such reactions constitutes a practical modication [672]. Addition of but-3-enylmagnesium bromide to benzonitriles 438, followed by treatment with NBS, leads to formation of 1-pyrrolines 439 (Scheme 4.137) [673], whereas chlorination using NCS gives the related 5-(chloromethyl)-1-pyrroline derivatives [674].
1. MgBr THF, reflux, 5 h 2. NBS, 0 C to rt 39-71%
Ar CN 438
Ar
Br N 439
Scheme 4.137
Ring closing metathesis (RCM) of the enamides 440 (R1Ts, Bz, CO2Et) has been employed for the preparation of the 2-pyrrolines 441 using the catalyst 442 (Scheme 4.138). In some cases, better yields were obtained using a related, Ruimidazoline RCM catalyst [675].
R3 R
2
N R1 440
442 (cat.) CH2Cl2 59-84%
R2
N R1 441
PCy3 Ph Cl Ru Cl PCy3 442
Scheme 4.138
Likewise, RCM methodology is also applicable for the construction of 3-pyrrolines, as illustrated by the synthesis of 443 from the diene 444 (Scheme 4.139) [676]. In a
Me
N Bn 444
445 (4 mol%) PhH 85%
Me i-Pr N Bn 443 N (F3C)2MeCO Mo (F3C)2MeCO 445 i-Pr C(Me)2Ph
Scheme 4.139
348

related RCM approach to 3-pyrrolines, a suitable set of N-SES protected dienes were constructed from 2-(trimethylsilylethane)sulfonamide, aldehydes and methyl acrylate in an aza-BaylisHillman reaction [677]. On the other hand, the cyclization of diallylamines using the second generation Grubbs catalyst (10 mol.%) in combination with RuCl3H2O (2 mol.%) gives rise to pyrroles in moderate yields [678]. An alternative route to 3-pyrrolines relies on triphenylphosphine-catalyzed [3 2] cycloaddition reactions of methyl 2,3-butadienoate with N-tosyl aldimines [679]. As a typical secondary amine, pyrrolidine displays pronounced basic character, and reacts readily as an N-nucleophile, affording, for example, amides. A well known application of pyrrolidines is its condensation with carbonyl groups to give enamines, which may subsequently be alkylated or acylated, providing an excellent and versatile route to a-substituted carbonyl compounds after a nal hydrolysis step [680]. Reactions at the carbon atoms of simple pyrrolidines have been less studied. Nevertheless, several synthetically useful transformations have been described. It has for example been established that deprotonation and subsequent silylation of N-Bocpyrrolidine (446) gives the intermediate 447 (Scheme 4.140) [681]. This material was subjected to a second lithiation/silylation cycle to provide the pyrrolidine derivative 448. After removal of the Boc-group, followed by N-benzylation, the resulting pyrrolidine 449 was converted into the azamethine ylide 450, which was trapped with ethyl propiolate to furnish adduct 451 [682]. An enantioselective cycloaddition between 450 and a chiral alkene has also been described [683]. Deprotonation of methyl 3-pyrroline-1-carboxylate with LDA at C2, and subsequent quenching with suitable electrophiles, provides an example of the functionalization of 3pyrrolines [684].
1. sec-BuLi, TMEDA Et2O, -78 C 2. TMSCl 90% 1. sec-BuLi, TMEDA Et2O, -45 C 2. TMSCl 70%
N Boc 446
TMS N Boc 447
TMS
TMS N Boc 448

1. TFA, CH2Cl2 80% 2. BnCl, K2CO3 CH3CN
Bn N CO2Et 451
Scheme 4.140
CO2Et
75%
Ag(I)F, CH2Cl2
N Bn 450
TMS
N Bn 449
TMS
In an interesting example of enantioselective functionalization at C2, N-Bocpyrrolidine 446 was treated with sec-BuLi in the presence of ()-sparteine (452) to produce the chiral lithio derivative 453, which upon quenching with suitable electrophiles gave the 2-substituted derivatives 454 (Scheme 4.141) [685, 686]. Two
4.7 Addendum
sec-BuLi, 452 Et2O, -78 C
j349
N Boc 446
Scheme 4.141
N t-BuO O 453
Li
E+ 12-99%
H E N Boc N
H N H 452 H
454 (ee up to 96%)
sequential lithiations of 446, each followed by quenching with dimethyl sulfate, furnished the corresponding trans-2,5-dimethylpyrrolidine derivative [686]. The species 453 may also be used for enantioselective ring opening of epoxides, provided that one equivalent of BF3OEt2 is added directly after the electrophile [687]. Transmetallation of 453 with CuCN2LiCl generates a corresponding cuprate with retention of conguration, and subsequent reactions thereof with, for example, vinyl iodides or triates give vinylated products with excellent enantioselectivity [688]. Pyrrolidine derivatives may also be functionalized via conversion into N-acyliminium ions, as illustrated by the conversion of the pyrrolidine 455 into the product 456 (cis : trans ratio 7 : 3) employing SnCl4 and TMSCN, via the intermediate 457 (Scheme 4.142) [689].
OBn SnCl4, CH2Cl2 N CO2Me 455
Scheme 4.142
MeO
OBn N CO2Me 457
TMSCN 86%
NC
OBn N CO2Me 456
4.7 Addendum
Even a rather supercial glance at the most recent literature of organic chemistry clearly reects the tremendous amount of effort currently invested in research activities focusing on pyrrole based molecules. This addendum highlights some selected new developments reported during the production process of this book, as well as some related relevant studies. As usual, an annual summary of the most important recent advances in Progress in Heterocyclic Chemistry provides an excellent source of information [690]. In addition, the new edition of Comprehensive Heterocyclic Chemistry has appeared, covering various aspects of pyrrole chemistry explored during the last decade [691694]. Several specialized reviews have also emerged, discussing for example some synthetic aspects of pyrroles bearing multiple substituents [695], or asymmetric synthesis of pyrrolidines by [3 2] cycloadditions of azomethine ylides [696]. Because much novel pyrrole chemistry is directed towards synthesis and applications of macrocycles, topics such as carbaporphyrins and related porphyrinoids [697], acyclic oligopyrroles [698], expanded porphyrins [699],
350

and their transition metal complexes [700], and nonlinear optical properties of porphyrins [701], as well as synthetic work towards porphyrins involving the BartonZard reaction [702], have received treatment. In addition, the pyrrole alkaloids lamellarins and their relatives have been discussed in detail [703]. Mechanistic aspects of the PaalKnorr synthesis have been addressed in a density functional theory study [704], supporting the previously suggested pathway [71] that involves a cyclization of a hemiaminal intermediate in the rate-limiting step (Section 4.4.1). Although the extensive arsenal of well-established routes for pyrrole ring synthesis gives access to a wide variety of products, there is a continuous stream of new approaches that attempt to target pyrroles with rare substitution patterns, or serve as complementary methods for construction of known groups of useful derivatives. Numerous routes rely on reactions of substrates containing all the necessary carbon atoms. It has been shown that PtCl4 catalyzes cyclization of homopropargyl azides in the presence of a bulky pyridine as the base, affording for instance 2,5substituted pyrroles, or tetrahydroindole derivatives [705]. The recent surge in goldor silver-catalyzed organic transformations has also exerted some impact on heterocyclic chemistry, as illustrated by the conversion precursor 458 into the pyrrole 459 by exposure to benzyl amine in the presence of silver triuoromethanesulfonate (Scheme 4.143). Such transformations can also be performed using the catalytic system AuCl/AgOTf/PPh3 [706]. Moreover, palladium-catalyzed reactions between N-protected c-aminoalkenes and functionalized aryl bromides in the presence of a phosphine ligand and a base have furnished a set of multiply substituted pyrrolidines [707]. A series of potentially useful pyrroles has also been prepared by CuI-catalyzed cyclization of 1,4-dihalo-1,3-dienes with tert-butyl carbamate [708].
BocHN
O CO2Me 458
Scheme 4.143
BnNH2, AgOTf (5 mol%) ClCH2CH2Cl, 50 C, 18 h 78%
BocHN N Bn 459
CO2Me
Azidodienes are readily available by condensation of azidoacetic acid esters with a,b-unsaturated aldehydes, and contain all the atoms necessary for a construction of a pyrrole ring. This fact was exploited in the conversion of precursor 460 into the pyrrole-2-carboxylate 461 in good yield upon treatment with catalytic amounts of zinc iodide, providing a representative illustration of this route (Scheme 4.144). The
Cl CO2Me N3 460
Scheme 4.144
ZnI2 (5 mol%), CH2Cl2 25 C, 15 h 80%
Cl N H 461 CO2Me
4.7 Addendum
j351
procedure could be applied for the preparation of various pyrrole-2-carboxylates bearing aryl, heteroaryl, and alkyl groups [709]. Likewise, pyrrole derivatives have also been constructed by initial reactions of 1,3-dicarbonyl anions with a-azidoketones, and ensuing annulation of the resulting intermediates employing the Staudinger aza-Wittig reaction [710]. Precursors for similar reductive cyclizations may also be assembled from 1,3-bis-silyl enol ethers and 1-azido-2,2-dimethoxyethane in the presence of TMSOTf [711]. The elaboration of new [3 2] strategies, as well as the development of new aspects of the classical methods, continues, as illustrated by a new variation of the BartonZard pyrrole synthesis (Section 4.4.7), which has been applied for construction of pyrrolic Weinreb amides en route to pyrrole-2-carboxaldehydes and pyrroline-3-ones. For example, the isocyanide 462, which is available in four steps from Boc-glycine, was converted upon reaction with the b-nitroacetate 463 into the Weinreb amide 464 (Scheme 4.145) [712]. The use of ketene S,S- or S,N-acetals in BartonZard reactions provides a route to substituted pyrroles bearing methylthio- or amino groups at C3. Such systems could also be prepared employing the related van Leusen method (Section 4.4.6) for the pyrrole ring formation [713]. A practical one-pot route to 4substituted pyrrole-3-carboxylates on a multi-kilogram scale has been presented, featuring a HornerWadsworthEmmons reaction of aliphatic or aromatic aldehydes with trimethyl phosphonoacetate, followed by a van Leusen pyrrole synthesis involving TosMIC [714].
Et N H Me
CN O
Me N OMe 462
Et O2N 463
Me OAc
DBU, THF 0 C to rt 95%
Me N OMe
O 464
Scheme 4.145
It has been demonstrated that the vinyl azides 465 may serve as an excellent starting point for pyrrole synthesis, as heating of such substrates with acetylacetone in toluene produced pyrroles 466 (Scheme 4.146). Interestingly, a related coppercatalyzed reaction involving instead ethyl acetoacetate proceeded with different regioselectivity, to provide the ethyl pyrrole-3-carboxylates 467, thereby widening the scope of this strategy [715].
EtO2C Ar N H 466
COMe Me
MeCOCH2COMe PhMe, 100 C 81-96%
N3 Ar CO2Et 465
MeCOCH2CO2Et Cu(NTf2)2 (5 mol%) H2O (5 equiv.) CH3CN, 40 C 54-86%
EtO2C Me N H 467
Ar CO2Et
Scheme 4.146
352

Palladium-catalyzed pyrrole ring synthesis from the halogenated aminoester 468 with various acetylenes has been examined. For instance, reaction between 468 and diphenylacetylene in the presence of Pd(OAc)2 affords pyrrole 469 with concomitant loss of the acyl group (Scheme 4.147). However, some similar cyclizations gave products where the acyl group was untouched. The use of certain unsymmetrical alkynes (e.g., 1-phenyl-2-trimethylsilylacetylene) can give rise to regioselective formation of pyrroles [716].
MeO2C H N I 468
Scheme 4.147
Ph Ac
Ph
Ph Ph N H 469 CO2Me
Pd(OAc)2 (5 mol%) LiCl, K2CO3, DMF, 65 C 77%
Pyrrolidines (Section 4.6.5) may be produced efciently by cycloaddition reactions involving azomethine ylides [696]. An organocatalytic application of this approach has now became available, utilizing the catalyst 470, which could for instance mediate the efcient and enantioselective [3 2] cycloaddition of components 471 and 472, affording the pyrrolidine 473 (Scheme 4.148) [717]. It should also be mentioned that application of a-(alkylideneamino)nitriles in reactions with nitroalkenes provides a useful pyrrole synthesis, which relies on elimination of HCN and HNO2 as the driving force for aromatization. This pathway involves a stepwise annulation mechanism rather than a cycloaddition [718]. In addition, a series of 4-hydroxypyrrole-2,3-dicarboxylates have been prepared by reactions of a-amino acids with acetylenedicarboxylates in the presence of cyclohexyl isocyanide or N,N0 -dicyclohexylcarbodiimide as the coupling reagents [719].
470 (20 mol%) H2O (4 equiv.) THF, 4 C 88% (99% ee)
CO2Et Ph N 471
Scheme 4.148
OHC Ph N H
n-Bu CO2Et CO2Et N H Ph Ph OH 470
CO2Et
n-Bu 472
CHO
473
The largely neglected PilotyRobinson [720722] pyrrole synthesis has been adapted to microwave conditions [723], providing a route to 3,4-dialkylpyrroles, in particular 3,4-diethylpyrrole, a building block for construction of octaethylporpyrins [724, 725]. Thus, the intermediate azine 474 was generated by exposure of butyraldehyde to hydrazine hydrate in diethyl ether. Subsequent heating of 474 in the presence of benzoyl chloride in pyridine in a microwave apparatus gave the N-substituted product 475 (Scheme 4.149), which could subsequently be hydrolyzed to the desired 3,4-diethylpyrrole [723].
4.7 Addendum
PhCOCl pyridine 180 C, 30 min (microwave) 55%
j353
Et N Ph 475
Et
Et
CHO
H2NNH2H2O Et2O, 0 C to rt
Et N N 474
Et
Scheme 4.149
Several new direct pyrrole syntheses based on multicomponent reactions (Section 4.4.10) have emerged recently, featuring for instance imines, diazoacetonitrile, and alkynes as the reactants in the presence of a rhodium(II) catalyst. The sequence of events leading to pyrroles presumably involves initial decomposition of the diazo compound, formation of an intermediate azomethine ylide upon reaction with the imine, and nally cycloaddition with the alkyne [726]. Similar sets of starting compounds, namely, imines, acid chlorides, and alkynes, may also be converted into pyrroles in the presence of either isocyanides [727] or phosphines [728]. The latter approaches have been suggested to proceed via cycloaddition reactions between mesoionic intermediates with the alkyne components [727, 728]. Intermediate nchnones can also be generated by a palladium-catalyzed reaction between mu certain a-amidoethers with carbon monoxide, eventually affording pyrroles via cycloadditions with suitable alkynes [729]. Additional efforts resulted in conversion of 1,3-dicarbonyl compounds, arylglyoxals, and ammonium acetate into 2-alkyl-5aryl-4-hydroxypyrroles in water as the reaction medium [730], and preparation of 4,5dimethylpyrrole-2,3-dicarboxylates by cyclizations of butane-2,3-dione with ylides derived from acetylenedicarboxylates and ammonium acetate in the presence of triphenylphosphine [731]. Some useful developments for modication of existing pyrrole rings have also appeared, such as an efcient procedure for CuI-catalyzed arylation of pyrroles with aromatic or heteroaromatic halides in the presence of simple N-hydroxyimides [732]. Moreover, a protocol for assembly of various 2,20 -bipyrrole-5,50 -dicarboxaldehydes by homocoupling of 5-iodopyrrole-2-carboxaldehyde precursors employed palladium on carbon and activated zinc dust as the catalyst [733]. Classical cross-coupling techniques have also found new applications, further demonstrating their extraordinary synthetic potential in pyrrole chemistry. For example, tetramic acid triates have been demonstrated to participate in Suzuki couplings at C4, giving access to 3,4diarylpyrrolin-2-ones [734], whereas Suzuki reactions have been employed in regioselective conversion of 1-methyltetrabromopyrrole into its 5-aryl-2,3,4-tribromo- or 2,5-diaryl-3,4-dibromo- derivatives [735], or transformations involving 1-phenylsulfonyl-3,4-dibromopyrrole [736]. A reaction sequence featuring an initial iridiumcatalyzed borylation of 1-tert-butoxycarbonyl-2-trimethylsilylpyrrole at C4, followed by Suzuki coupling, as well as an intramolecular palladium-catalyzed CH bond functionalization at C5, has been implemented in an elegant synthesis of the alkaloid rhazinicine [737]. Efcient conditions for generation of pyrrole-3-boronate esters by
354

palladium-catalyzed reactions of pinacol borane with 3-bromopyrroles, and their subsequent Suzuki reactions in the presence of a monophosphine based catalyst, have also been established [738]. A series of 2,20 -bipyrroles has been obtained by regioselective oxidative coupling of pyrroles in the presence of phenyliodine(III) bis(triuoroacetate) (PIFA) and bromotrimethylsilane (TMSBr), whereas for instance N-benzylpyrrole gave a 2,30 -coupled product in good yield under different conditions where BF3OEt2 was used instead of TMSBr [739]. Intermolecular radical alkylation of some 3-substituted pyrroles with xanthates mediated by dilauroyl peroxide occurs at C2 in moderate to good yields with high regioselectivity, as shown by preparation of the product 476 from 3-phenylpyrrole 477 (Scheme 4.150) [740].
Ph N H 477
Scheme 4.150
EtO2C
dilauroyl peroxide ClCH2CH2Cl, reflux 62%
S2COEt N H
Ph CO2Et
476
Catalytic hydrogenation of 2- or 3-nitropyrroles in the presence of carboxylic acid anhydrides has resulted in a new useful route to the corresponding series of pyrrolylamides or pyrrolylimides [741]. Alternatively, similar chemistry may also be accomplished using tin or indium as the reducing agents [742], while application of 1,4-diketones instead of anhydrides has provided efcient access to 1,20 - and 1,30 bipyrroles [743]. Finally, it should also be mentioned that determination of the second-order rate constants of the reactions of a series of pyrroles with benzhydrylium ions in acetonitrile provided the basis for a nucleophilicity scale, where 1-triisopropylsilylpyrrole was the least nucleophilic member and 3-ethyl-2,4-dimethylpyrrole was the strongest nucleophile, comparable to enamines in its reactivity [744]. A systematic reinvestigation of an acylation, where a solution of 1-(p-toluenesulfonyl)pyrrole and AlCl3 as the Lewis acid in 1,2-dichloroethane as the solvent was quenched with an acyl halide, led to the conclusion that this process may involve the initial formation of pyrrolic organoaluminium species, which thereafter react with the highly reactive electrophile at C3 via a reactant-like transition state [745]. This is in contrast with earlier ndings, which gave no evidence of complex formation of the closely related 1(phenylsulfonyl)pyrrole with AlCl3 in CH2Cl2 [315]. On the other hand, reactions featuring weaker Lewis acids such as EtAlCl2 or Et2AlCl, or less than equimolar amounts of AlCl3, gave considerable amounts of products substituted at C2, proceeding via a normal FriedelCrafts mechanism, where the pyrrole undergoes acylation by a complex generated from the Lewis acid and an acyl chloride [745]. Clearly, these very useful, but mechanistically complex, reactions are not yet completely understood, and further studies are necessary to provide a complete picture accounting for the observed outcomes.
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j377
5 Five-Membered Heterocycles: Indole and Related Systems

Jos e Barluenga and Carlos Vald es
5.1 Introduction 5.1.1 General Introduction
Indole (1H-indole) (1) is the benzopyrrole with the ring fusion through the 2 and 3 positions of pyrrole. It is one of the most abundant heterocycles found in natural products and biologically active molecules. In fact, it can be regarded as the most important of all the privileged structures in medicinal chemistry [1]. For this reason, research in the different areas of indole chemistry has been, and continuous to be, extraordinarily intense. Many excellent reviews, covering advances in specic topics in the chemistry of indoles, are available and will be referred to throughout this chapter. The present chapter covers the developments in indole chemistry that appeared in the literature until mid-2006 (some subsequent developments are given in the Addendum). For further information the monographs cited in References [2, 3] are recommended.
N H 1
Indole 1H-Indole
The discovery and structure elucidation of indole dates from 1866, when Adolf von Baeyer synthesized indole by zinc-dust pyrolysis of oxindole (2), which had been obtained by reduction of isatin (3), a product of the oxidation of the natural blue pigment Indigo (4) [4]. Consequently, the name Indole derives from that of Indigo.
378
j 5 Five-Membered Heterocycles: Indole and Related Systems

O N H oxindole
2
N H isatin
3
O N H
4
H N Indigo O
5.1.2 System Isomers and Nomenclature
The tautomers of 1H-indole are 2H-indole and 3H-indole (Figure 5.1). Both systems are highly unstable, although 3H-indole has been characterized spectroscopically, and its derivatives have been isolated [5]. High level quantum chemical DFT calculations predict an energy difference of 5.20 and 24.1 kcal mol1 between 1Hindole and 3H-indole, and 1H-indole and 2H-indole respectively [6]. The other isomeric benzopyrroles are isoindole and indolizine. Indoline is the name for 2,3-dihydro-1H-indole.
Parent compound
5 6 4 3a 3 2 7 7a 5 6
Radical
4 3a 3 2 7 7a
Parent compound
5 6 4 3a 3 5 6
Radical
4 3a 3
N1 H
N2
7 7a 1 7 7a 1
N Isoindoyl (2-isoindoyl shown)
Indole
4 3a 3 2 6 7 7a
Indoyl (1-indoyl shown)

5 6 4 3a 3 2 7 6
Isoindole
8 1
8 7 2 6 5
1 2
7a
N
5 4 3
N
4 3
2H-Indole
4 3a 3 2 6 7 7a
2H-Indoyl (2H-indol-2-yl shown)

5 6 4 3a 3 2
Indolizine
Indolizinyl (2- shown)
7a
3H-Indole
3H-Indoyl (3H-indol-2-yl shown)
N H Indoline (2,3-dihydro-1H-indole)
Figure 5.1 Indole, tautomers and isomers with conventional numbering.
5.2 General Properties
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5.2 General Properties 5.2.1 Physicochemical Data
Indole is a crystalline solid (mp 5454 C, bp 253254 C) with a fecal smell. The main commercial source of indole comes from the 220260 C fraction of coal-tar distillation. It is soluble in organic solvents such as diethyl ether, ethanol and benzene, and also in hot water. The crystal structure of indole [7] and of several simple derivatives is available [8]. In addition, state of the art quantum chemical DFTcalculations provide very accurate results regarding structural [9], electronic [10] and chemical properties of indole and indole derivatives (Figure 5.2) [11]. DFT calculations of the magnetic properties, to estimate the aromaticity of the indole ring, reveal a stabilization due to the p-molecular orbital delocalization of 10 electrons between the two aromatic rings [12]. The 1 H NMR spectra of indole feature all the resonances for the hydrogens in the aromatic region, and corroborate the aromaticity of the ring (Figure 5.3). The upeld shifts observed for H3 and C3 in the 1 H and 13 C NMR spectra indicate the higher electron density around C3. Substitution on the indole ring may cause important variations in the chemical shifts of H2 and H3, which can be rationalized in terms of resonance and inductive effects (Table 5.1).
5.2.2 General Reactivity
Indole is a p-excessive aromatic heterocycle with ten p-electrons. The lone pair of the nitrogen atom (which features sp2 hybridization) completes the ten p-electrons delocalized across the ring. As in pyrrole, the p-excessive nature of the aromatic ring governs its reactivity and chemical properties. Indole is a weak base (pKa 2,4 for the conjugated acid), as protonation of the nitrogen atom would disrupt the aromaticity of the ve-membered ring. In contrast, as a p-excessive aromatic heterocycle, electrophilic aromatic substitution is one of the most characteristic reactions. Unlike pyrrole, addition of electrophiles takes place preferentially at C3. A simple explanation for this can be deduced by analysis of the Wheland intermediates resulting from the attack of a nucleophile at C2 and C3 (Scheme 5.1).
1.38 1.41 1.39 1.40 1.44 1.37
1.43
109 1.38
N 1.39 1.38
Figure 5.2 Indole structural parameters at the B3LYP/6-311 G(2p,d) level of theory.
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7.12 7.64 H H 6.52 H N H 7.81 H 7.05 121.9 119.7 111.1 N H 127.7 120.6 102.2 124.3
7.18 H H 7.27
Figure 5.3
1
135.7
H and 13 C NMR chemical shifts in CDCl3 (d, ppm) for indole.
The intermediate of the attack at C3 is stabilized by delocalization of the positive charge. However, no delocalization is possible in the intermediate derived from attack at C2 without disrupting the aromaticity of the six-membered ring. Frontier Molecular Orbital theory considerations provide an alternative theoretical explanation for this reactivity trend. Indole features a relative high-energy HOMO, with the highest value at C3 (Figure 5.4). Moreover, the condensed Fukui function for electrophilic attack fq [17], takes values of 0.08, 0.05 and 0.15 for N, C2 and C3, respectively, pointing to the higher reactivity of C3 towards soft electrophiles [12].
Table 5.1 Chemical shifts for H-1 and H-2 in substituted indoles (CDCl3).
Substituent None 1-Me 2-Me 3-Me 1-CO2Me [13] 2-CO2Me [14] 3-CO2Me [15] 2-Cl [16] 3-Cl
d H2 (ppm) 7.05 6.90 6.85 7.55 7.93 7.44
d H3 (ppm) 6.52 6.43 6.20 6.57 7.15 6.41
E E+ N H N H
H H
E N H
H H
E -H+ N H
H E+ N H N H H E -H+ N H E
Scheme 5.1 Possible regioisomers in the electrophilic attack on the indole ring.
5.2 General Properties
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Figure 5.4 Graphical representation of indole frontier orbitals.
Typical electrophilic aromatic substitution reactions that allow for the introduction of functionalized side-chains at C3 are FriedelCrafts acylations, VilsmeierHaack reaction, Mannich type alkylations and halogenations (Scheme 5.2).
Ac Ac2O, LA N H CHO DMF, POCl 3 N H

Scheme 5.2 Some typical electrophilic substitution reactions of indole.
NR2 CH2=O, R2NH N H Cl NCS N H
N H
Electrophilic substitution at C2 can be achieved in 3-substituted indoles, although the reaction usually starts with electrophilic attack at C3, followed by rearrangement or reversal of the reaction to produce the substitution at C2 (Scheme 5.3).
R E N H 1,2-migration N H R E N H
Scheme 5.3
E+
R H N H E
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The indole NH is weakly acidic and, thus, can be deprotonated by strong bases (pKa 16.7 in water) to provide the indolyl anion. Therefore, substitution at the nitrogen can be achieved through base-promoted processes, such as alkylations, acylations and, more recently, transition metal catalyzed arylations (Scheme 5.4).
R-X Base N H N Ar-X Metal cat. RCOX
N R
N COR
N Ar
Scheme 5.4
The most reliable method to carry out the substitution at C2 is the heteroatom assisted metallation at C2 of N-acyl or N-sulfonylindoles, followed by reaction with an electrophile (Scheme 5.5).
H N SO2Ph
Scheme 5.5
H H BuLi N S O O Ph Li R-CHO
H OH N R SO2Ph
Metal catalyzed cross-coupling reactions represent nowadays one of the main ways to modify the substituents in both rings of indole. All kinds of Pd catalyzed processes (Stille, Suzuki and BuchwaldHartwig) can be achieved successfully from properly substituted indole species (Scheme 5.6).
X N H(R) M N H(R)
Scheme 5.6
M-R'
Pd cat
R' N H(R) R' N H(R)
X-R'
Pd cat
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The indole nucleus is present in the essential amino acid tryptophan (5), in many metabolites derived from tryptophan and also in natural molecules with high structural complexity. Amongthenaturallyoccurringmoleculesthatfeaturetheindoleringintheirstructure, two worth noting: (i) the family of tryptamines [18], such as serotonin 6, a very important neurotransmitter with numerous functions in the human body, and melatonin 7, a hormone that participates in the regulation of the circadian rhythms (sleepwake); (ii) the auxins, a group of plant growth substances, such as the natural auxin indole 3-acetic acid (8) and the synthetic auxin indole-3-butyric acid (9) (Figure 5.5) . The indole structure is also present in structurally complex indole alkaloids with biological activity. To name a few: the hallucinogen D-lysergic acid diethyl amide (LSD) (10); the strichnous family of alkaloids (e.g., strychnine, 11); the family of marine indole alkaloids isolated from blue-algae such as Fischer-indole I (12) [19], the bisindole alkaloids vinblastine (13) and vincristine (14), which are extremely potent cytotoxic agents, used in the therapy of leukemia and lymphoma tumor types [20, 21]; and reserpine 15, a pentacyclic alkaloid that is a central nervous system depressant employed in the treatment of hypertension and psychiatric disorders (Figure 5.6) [22].
CO2H NH2 N H 5 L-Tryptophan
HO N H
NH2
MeO N H melatonin 7
NHAc
serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine) 6 CO2H N H Indole-3-acetic acid 8
CO2H
N H Indole-3-butyric acid 9
Figure 5.5 Some important simple indole natural products.
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O Et N Et N Me Me N H N H N H D-Lysergic acid diethyl amide (LSD) 10 OH OMe N OAc N H H N H MeO2C H O OMe O OMe OMe O Strychnine 11 O N H C N Me Cl
H Me Me
12 Fischer-indole I
N H MeO2C
CO2Me N H OH MeO R 13 R = CH3, vinblastine 14 R = CHO, vincristine
15 (-)-Reserpine
Figure 5.6 Some important indole alkaloids.
In contrast, several synthetic drugs currently in use contain the indole nucleus, for instance Sumatriptan, a synthetic tryptamine used in the treatment of migraine [23], and the non-steroidal anti-inammatory drugs Indomethacin and Etodolac (Figure 5.7).
5.4 Indole Synthesis 5.4.1 Introduction
Indole is one of the most important heterocycles, as a result of its abundance in natural products and pharmaceuticals. For this reason, the synthesis of the indole
CO2H N O Indomethacin CH3 N H O Cl Et CH2CO2H
H3CO MeHN S O2 NH2 N H Sumatryptan
Et
Etodolac
Figure 5.7 Indole-containing drugs currently in use.
5.4 Indole Synthesis
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ring has attracted great attention in synthetic organic chemistry, and, in turn, an extraordinary large number of different approaches to the synthesis of the indole ring have been devised over the years [24]. Despite the ample repertoire of methods available to build the indole ring, it continues to be an area of active research due to the enormous interest in the indole structure. Moreover, while most classic approaches to the indole ring usually rely on a nal cyclization through a condensation reaction, the development of new methodologies for transition catalyzed CC and CN bond-forming reactions has led to a new family of methods in which the cyclization step is a metal-catalyzed process. In this area, the Pd-catalyzed reactions have a prominent position. This subject has been reviewed and monographs dealing with this particular subject are available [25, 26]. In addition, the rise of combinatorial approaches to drug discovery has motivated the development of new methodologies, and the adaptation of solution phase chemistries into solid phase synthesis. Specic reviews on this topic are also available [27]. The variety of different approaches to the indole ring is enormous, and an exhaustive coverage would largely exceed the aim of this book. For this reason, this chapter is restricted to the classical methods that still nd application in the preparation of indoles and the more recent advances in the area, with particular attention to transition metal catalyzed processes. From a retrosynthetical point of view, the indole ring can be constructed by two main strategies: formation of the pyrrole ring onto a properly substituted benzene precursor and formation of the benzene ring by annelation of a substituted pyrrole. By far, the strategies that start from a substituted benzene have been more extensively used (Scheme 5.7).
Y X N H N H Y X
Scheme 5.7
5.4.2 Synthesis of the Indole Ring from a Benzene Ring
In an attempt to organize the many methods, they have been classied according to the formation of the last bond in the cyclization process (Scheme 5.8). Of particular importance in the construction of the indole ring are methods involving a sigmatropic rearrangement: the Fischer indole synthesis and related process, which will be covered in a specic section.
5.4.2.1 Indole Synthesis Involving a Sigmatropic Rearrangement Indole ring syntheses that include a sigmatropic rearrangement are particularly appealing strategies since no o-substitution is required in the starting aniline (Scheme 5.9). The CC bond is formed during the rearrangement. The most prominent member of this family of methods is the Fischer indole synthesis.
386

N
C7a-N disconnection
3 2 7 7a
N H
C3-C3a disconnection
3a
N H
sigmatropic rearrangemet
N H
N H
C2-N disconnection
N
C2-C3 disconnection
Scheme 5.8 General strategies for the construction of the five-membered ring of indole.
Scheme 5.9
5.4.2.1.1 Fischer Synthesis The Fischer indole synthesis [28], which was rst discovered in 1883, is still considered as the most popular, and one of the most general and efcient approaches to the indole ring. It consists of the acid-catalyzed cyclization of aryl hydrazones 18 with loss of ammonia. The aryl hydrazones are easily obtained by condensation of a ketone (17) with an aryl hydrazine (16) (Scheme 5.10).
R2 O R 17
Scheme 5.10 Fischer indole synthesis.
1
R2 R1
+ NHNH2 16
H or LA
R2 N H 19 R1 + NH3
N N H 18
The mechanism accepted for the overall reaction was already formulated by Robinson and Robinson back in 1924. It involves a [3,3] sigmatropic rearrangement of the ene-hydrazine tautomer 20 of the arylhydrazone 18, with cleavage of the NN bond and formation of a CC bond. Aromatization of 21 to give the intermediate 22, followed by cyclization and NH3 elimination provides the indole 19 (Scheme 5.11). The Claisen-like sigmatropic rearrangement is strongly accelerated by an acid catalyst. Both protic and Lewis acids are effective catalyst for the Fischer indolizidation.
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R2 R
1
H+
R2 R1
R2
R1 NH
N N H 18 R2 R1
N NH H2 20 H R2 R1 N NH3 H 23
NH2 21 R2 N H 19 R1 + NH3 + H+
NH2 NH2 22
Scheme 5.11 Accepted mechanism for the Fischer indole synthesis.
Sulfuric and hydrochloric aqueous, alcoholic or acetic acid solutions have been used to promote the Fischer cyclization, as well as p-toluenesulfonic acid and phosphorous trichloride. Among the Lewis acids, ZnCl2 is the most frequently used catalyst. Very recently, solid supports such as montmorillonite AK10/ZnCl2 have been used to promote the indolizidation, in combination with microwave heating. This technique allows for the preparation of indoles unavailable through the standard conditions [29]. The nature of the substituents on the aromatic ring exerts a remarkable inuence on the rate of the overall reaction: electron-donating substituents accelerate the reaction, while electron-releasing substituents slow the cyclization. For further information, detailed reviews covering all these topics are available [3]. The regioselectivity in the indole synthesis is an issue of major importance when unsymmetrical ketones or m-substituted aromatic rings are involved in the cyclization. For instance, the cyclization of hydrazones of type 24, derived from methyl alkyl ketones, can deliver regioisomeric indoles 25 and 26 (Scheme 5.12).
R3 R1 N N 2 R 24 25
R3 + N R2
R1 N R2 26
R3
Scheme 5.12
Usually, under standard conditions, the major (or unique) product obtained is indole 25, the one derived from the more highly substituted ene-hydrazine 27, which is considered the thermodynamically controlled product. Therefore, for indole 25 to be the major isomer, the [3,3] rearrangement must be the rate-determining step of the whole sequence (Scheme 5.13).
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R3 N H N H R2 27 Thermodynamic ene-hydrazine R3 N H H
rate-determining step
R3 N H H
R1
R3 N R2 25
N R2
R1 N R2 N
R3
H N R2
R3 N H H
R1 N R2 26
R3
N R2
28 Kinetic ene-hydrazine
Scheme 5.13 The problem of the regioselectivity in the Fischer indole synthesis.
Nevertheless, it has been possible to obtain selectively 3-unsubstituted indoles such as 31 by reacting hydrazine 29 with the unsymmetrical methylketone 30 under kinetic conditions by employing very strong acids such as Eatons acid (P2O5/MeSO3) (Scheme 5.14) [30].
RO N NH2 + O CO2CH3 P2O5/MeSO3H CH2Cl2 35 C 29 RO N 31 81% 100: 1 isomer ratio CO2CH3 Cl
Cl 29 30
Scheme 5.14 Fischer indole synthesis under kinetically controlled conditions.
Mechanistic studies have suggested that under kinetic conditions the reaction proceeds through the doubly protonated intermediate 32. The activation barrier for the [3,3] rearrangement in this case must be lower (since no aromaticity is lost during the rearrangement) and therefore, the formation of the ene-hydrazine intermediate (and not the rearrangement) becomes rate determining (Scheme 5.15) [31]. In some instances the cyclization can be carried out thermally, in the absence of acid catalyst, although it requires much harsher conditions and a protic solvent as a proton source. In contrast, preformed N-triuoroacetyl enehydrazines 33 undergo cyclization without the need acid catalyst or very high temperatures to provide 2,3disubstituted indole 34 [32] (Scheme 5.16).
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R3
rapid equilibrium
R3
rate-determining step
R3 N H H
N R2
H H 32 R3 N H H
N R2
H H
N R2
H fast [3,3] H H H N R2
R1 N R2
R3
Scheme 5.15
COCF3
THF 65 C, 4h 69 %
33
Scheme 5.16
34
The Fischer indolizidation is a very general process that proceeds with yields ranging from moderate to quantitative, depending on the substrate. Moreover, a large array of functional groups are tolerated by the reaction conditions, including the relatively sensitive, amide, ester or hydroxy. Schemes 5.175.20 depict some representative recent examples of the application of the Fischer indole synthesis.
NHAc HCl/AcOH N H NH2 + O Ph reflux 95% N H Ph
NHAc
Scheme 5.17 [33].
An interesting variation of the Fischer indolizidation gives rise directly to tryptamines 36, a particularly important type of indole, due to their biological activity. This so-called Grandberg indole synthesis employs 4-halobutenals 35 as carbonyl components. The nitrogen atom, which is usually liberated as ammonia in the Fischer indolizidation, is incorporated to the molecule, likely through the pathway represented in Scheme 5.20 [36].
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i
Pr + NHNH2HCl
O CO2Et
NaOAc/AcOH
Pr N H N CO2Et
H2SO4/EtOH
Pr
CH2CO2Et N H 75%
Scheme 5.18 [34].
OH + N O
NHNH2HCl conc.HCl/AcOH 135 C, 5h 65%
HN
Scheme 5.19 [35].
NHNH2
+ Cl H 35
EtOH, H2O reflux 36 N H
NH2HCl
cyclization then aromatization N H N Cl
N H
Cl
[3,3] then aromatization N N H H
N NH2 H
Scheme 5.20 Grandberg indole synthesis.
Several examples of the Fischer indole synthesis in the solid phase have been described [37]. A very elegant traceless synthesis has been reported that employs a solid supported hydrazine (37) [38], which participates in the Fischer indolizidation upon treatment with a ketone in the presence of TFA. Interestingly, during the cyclization step, indole 38 is released from the resin in a traceless manner (Scheme 5.21).
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R
R1 N H H N R O R
2
H H N N R2 R R1 N H R2
1
R R2
H H N NH R1
37
TFA/CH2Cl2
NH2
R + 38
Scheme 5.21 A traceless solid-phase Fischer indole synthesis.
A library of structurally diverse indomethacine analogs (45) have been prepared by a resin-capture-release strategy, a technique that combines solid-supported and solution chemistry. Aryl hydrazine 39 is captured by an aldehyde functionalized resin (40), and the unprotected NH is acylated, to build an array of solid supported protected acylhydrazines (42). Treatment with triuoroacetic acid (46) releases the hydrazine 43, which then reacts with a ketone, to provide hydrazone 44, which suffers the indolizidation to deliver the corresponding indole 45 (Scheme 5.22) [39].
O + HN H N 2 40 39
R1
capture
N 41 R2COCl
H N
R1
selective acylation R2 N 42 R1
R1
R3 N 45 O R4 R2 TFA/CH2Cl2 H2O (traces) O N
O N R4 44 N
R2 R
1
R3 O R4
O H2N N
R2 R1
R3
43
Scheme 5.22 Solid-supported synthesis of indomethacine analogs.
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Cyclic enol-ethers and enol-lactones 47 have been used as synthetic equivalents of aldehydes and ketones, giving rise directly to functionalized indoles 48 (Scheme 5.23) [40].
R1 N H NH2 + R2 ( )n X O 47 OH N H 90% 4% H2SO4aq/DMAc 100 C
R1
( )n X OH N H 48 CO2H CH3 R2
X = CH2, C=O
OH N H 72%
N H 75%
Scheme 5.23 Fischer indole synthesis with enol ethers and enol lactones.
5.4.2.1.2 JappKlingemann Reaction The condensation of carbonyls (or synthetic equivalents) with aryl hydrazines is not the only route to the aryl hydrazones required for the Fischer indolizidation. The coupling of aryldiazonium salts (49) with the enolates of ketones 50 the JappKlingemann reaction [41] represents an alternative that has been employed extensively. Hydrazone 52 is formed after a deacylation step of the intermediate diazo compound 51 (Scheme 5.24).
Z R H COR 50
N2-Ar 49
B:
Z R N N Ar COR 51
H2O
Z R
H N N Ar 52
+ R-CO2H
Scheme 5.24 General scheme of the JappKlingemann reaction.
b-Ketoesters are the usual substrates for the JappKlingemann reaction. For instance, ketoester 53 reacts with benzenediazonium chloride in an alkaline solution to form hydrazone 54. Indolizidation of hydrazone 54 under standard Fischer conditions affords 2,3-disubstituted indole 55, which can be decarboxylated to give 3-substituted indole 56 (Scheme 5.25) [42]. When cyclic b-ketoesters (e.g., 57) are used, deacylation by ring opening occurs under the basic conditions of the reaction, to provide the carboxylic acid 58. Fischer indolization of 58 gives rise to 2,3-disubstituted indoles 59 [43] (Scheme 5.26).
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O CO2Et NaNO2, HCl 0 C NH2 53 CO2Et 6M KOH, EtOH 0 C to rt, 2h N H N CO2Et CH2CO2H N H 56 CO2Et
54 CH2CO2Et H2SO4, EtOH reflux, 12 h 55

Scheme 5.25
N H
CO2Et
i) NaOH, EtOH, reflux ii) 1M HCl, EtOH, reflux
O CO2Et HO2C NH2 NaNO2, HCl 0 C 57 KOH, H2O HO2C N H 58 HO2C (CH2)3CO2H N 59 H CO2Et N (CH2)4CO2H CO2Et
AcOH/H2SO4 120 C
Scheme 5.26
5.4.2.1.3 Hydroamination-Based Fischer Indole Synthesis Recently, an interesting variation to the traditional Fischer approach has been introduced that uses alkyne hydroamination as an alternative way to access the intermediate arylhydrazone. Scheme 5.27 presents a one pot approach to the indole framework based on intermolecular titanium amide-catalyzed hydroamination reactions of alkynes 61 with 1,1-disubstituted hydrazines 60. Subsequent addition of 35 equiv ZnCl2 is necessary to convert the generated hydrazone 62 into the corresponding indole 63 [44]. The Grandberg strategy has been combined with the hydroamination to prepare tryptamine analogs 66 (Scheme 5.28) [45]. The Ti-catalyzed hydroamination of terminal chloroalkynes 64 gives rise directly the hydrochloric salt of aminoindoles 65.
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R1 NH2 + R1 61 NMe2 N Ti N Me2 N R2 catalyst 100 C 62 N R3 N 63 56-95% R1, R2 = H, Ar, Alkyl R2 ZnCl2 N R3 R1 R2 N R3
60
Me2N Catalyst: Me2N
Scheme 5.27 Hydroamination-based Fischer indole synthesis.
R3 NH2 + 64 t-Bu X= Cl ( )n X R
2
R3
+ ( )n NH3 Cl
N R1
65
N R1
Me
NaOH
R3
( )n NH2 N R1 Me
66
49-89%
NMe2 O Ti NMe2 t-Bu 2
Scheme 5.28 Hydroamination-based Grandberg indole synthesis.
This one pot process involves a titanium-catalyzed Markovnikov hydroamination to furnish the corresponding hydrazone, which can follow the same reaction pathway as that proposed in the original Grandberg route. Another interesting modication of the hydroamination makes use of inexpensive TiCl4 as precatalyst for the hydroamination reaction, and it also serves as Lewis acid for the cyclization process. This methodology allows for the preparation of 1,2,3trisubstituted indoles 70 from unsymmetrical alkynes 68 (Scheme 5.29) [46]. The aryl hydrazones required for the Fischer cyclization have also been prepared through a novel rhodium-catalyzed hydroaminomethylation of olens [47]. Thus, reaction of aliphatic olens 71 with synthesis gas (CO : H2, 1 : 1) and aryl hydrazines 72 in the presence of rhodium phosphine catalysts leads to the corresponding hydrazones 73, which can be subsequently transformed into indole 74 by treatment with ZnCl2 in a one pot process (Scheme 5.30) [48]. As an alternative method, the BuchwaldHartwig amination has been applied for the synthesis of the arylhydrazines required for the Fischer synthesis [49]. Thus,
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Ar N R2 70 55-76% R1
Ar NH2 + R1 Ar TiCl4, Bu-NH2

t
R1 N R2 69 N
N R2 67
105 C 68
R1 = H, Alkyl R2 = Me, Ph
Scheme 5.29
R1 71
H2N
N R2
CO, H2 (10 bar) R3 Ru(CO) acac 2 Ligand 65 C, 15 h 72

CF3 P P CF3 CF3 2 CF3 2
R3 R1 73 N N R2
ZnCl2 R3 N R2 R1
Ligand:
74
75-85%
Scheme 5.30
Pd-catalyzed cross-coupling of aryl bromides 76 with benzophenone hydrazone (75) furnishes N-arylbenzophenone hydrazone 77, which is hydrolyzed to the arylhydrazine 78 by treatment with acid. If the hydrolysis is carried out in the presence of a carbonyl compound, indole 79 is formed in a one pot process, without isolation of any of the intermediates (Scheme 5.31).
5.4.2.1.4 Gassman Synthesis A [2,3] sigmatropic shift of anilinosulfonium ylide 80 is the key step in the Gassman synthesis [50]. The sulfur substituted indoles 81 so-obtained can be easily reduced with Raney Ni (Scheme 5.32). In the original Gassman procedure the indole is formed directly from the corresponding aniline 82 in a one potthree step procedure that involves the formation of chloramine 83, which then reacts with a a-thioketone to form the anilinosulfonium salt 84. Low temperature rearrangement of 84 yields the 3-thioindole 85 (Scheme 5.33). The anilinosulfonium salt 86 can be accessed also by a modied procedure that avoids the use of tBuOCl and provides slightly better yields. This strategy has been employed in the synthesis of oxyindoles 87 (Scheme 5.34) [51].
396

R + Br 76 R Pd(OAc)2/BINAP NaOtBu Toluene 100 C Ph HN N Ph 77 Tos-OH O R1 R2 R2 N H R1
N Ph 75
NH2 Ph
79
Tos-OH H2O
NH-NH2 + 78 Ph
O Ph
Scheme 5.31
O S NEt3 81 N H
SMe Raney Ni EtOH, 25 C N H
N H
O S
SMe O NH
SMe O NH2
N H 80
Scheme 5.32
CO2Et
tBuOCl CH2Cl2 -70 C
CO2Et
O S - 70 C EtO2C N H 84 S
NH2 82
NHCl 83 H3CO2C N H SMe
NEt3 - 70 C
85
51-70%
Scheme 5.33
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NH2 O S CO2Et (COCl)2 CH2Cl2 -78 C SMe N H 87

Scheme 5.34
O OEt S
Cl S
CO2Et
- 78 C
N H
i) NEt3 ii) 2N HCl 82%
86
5.4.2.1.5 Bartoli Synthesis In the Bartoli synthesis, 7-substituted indoles 89 are obtained from 2-substituted nitrobenzene 88 upon treatment with 3 equivalents of vinylmagnesium chloride (Scheme 5.35) [52]. The availability of the starting materials and its simplicity make this reaction one of the most efcient methods for the preparation of 7-substituted indoles. The necessity of an ortho-substituent on the aromatic ring is the main limitation. Nevertheless, Br is a very suitable substituent that can enforce the sigmatropic rearrangement as requested by the mechanism (see below), and can be easily removed or transformed thereafter.
MgCl (3 eq.) NO2 R 88
Scheme 5.35
THF -40 C 50-70%
R 89
N H
Scheme 5.36 depicts the mechanism proposed for the Bartoli reaction. The reaction starts with the addition of the rst equivalent of vinyl Grignard to an oxygen
OMgCl MgCl R 88 H [3,3] R 91 N MgCl O N R NO2 R N O O MgCl H N R 92 R 90 OMgCl H OMgCl N H MgCl 89 N O MgCl
O MgCl
MgCl CH2=CH2 R
Scheme 5.36
398

atom of the nitro group of 88, with subsequent elimination of acetaldehyde enolate, to generate nitrosobenzene derivative 90. Then, the second equivalent attacks the oxygen atom of the nitroso functionality. The intermediate 91 generated suffers a Claisen-like [3,3]-sigmatropic rearrangement, with cleavage of the NO bond, followed by heterocyclization to form the ve-membered ring. A third equivalent of the Grignard is required to abstract a proton on 92 before the nal elimination takes place. Slightly modied Bartoli protocols [53], including a solid phase version [54], have been implemented more recently. Other examples of [3,3] sigmatropic rearrangement-based indoles synthesis have been described [55, 56].
5.4.2.2 Cyclization by Formation of the NC2 Bond The construction of the indole ring with formation of the NC2 bond includes the most popular approaches other than the Fischer synthesis.
An important class of methods for indole ring synthesis involves a cyclization of an aminoketone (93) with formation of the C2N bond (Scheme 5.37). Usually, the precursor that suffers the intramolecular condensation has to be preformed in a preliminary step, and must contain a carbonyl or masked carbonyl (imine, enamine, enolether) functionality.
R O NH2 93
Scheme 5.37
Many different approaches have been investigated to generate the cyclization precursor. Among them, those that rely on the reductive cyclization of o-substituted nitroaryls are noteworthy.
5.4.2.2.1 Reissert Indole Synthesis The Reissert indole synthesis is a very reliable method for the preparation of benzene-substituted indole-2-carboxylates [57]. In the rst step, condensation of o-nitrotoluene (94) with ethyl oxalate under basic media affords the potassium salt of o-nitrophenylpyruvate 95 (Scheme 5.38). The key step in the Reissert synthesis is the reductive cyclization of this intermediate, which generates the aminoketone 96 that undergoes cyclization to provide the indole-2carboxylate (97). The reductive cyclization has been effected under different catalytic hydrogenation conditions (Pt/AcOH, Pd-C/EtOH [58]) and also with various low oxidation state metal salts (SnCl2-TiCl3) [59].
j399
CH3 + NO2 94 H2, Pt AcOH
(CO2Et)2
KOEt, EtOH
CO2Et OK NO2 95
CO2Et O NH2 96 97 N H
CO2Et
Scheme 5.38 Classic Reissert indole synthesis.
Many variations on the classic Reissert synthesis are known, which differ in the way the intermediate o-aminobenzyl ketones or aldehydes, ready for the cyclization, are obtained [60]. Nucleophilic substitution on nitroarenes has been applied extensively in several approaches, a theme that has been reviewed [61]. Silylenol ethers 99 activated with uoride anion [tris(dimethylamino)sulfonium diuorotrimethylsiliconate (TASF)] behave as strong C-nucleophiles and add to nitroarenes 98 in the ortho position to the nitro group. Subsequent aromatization of the intermediate generated with DDQ leads to o-(2-nitroaryl)alkyl ketones 100. Finally, reductive cyclization under standard conditions provides the indole 101 (Scheme 5.39) [62].
O
Cl Cl 98 NO2 +
OSiMe3
i) TASF ii) DDQ
NO2 Cl
99 Cl
Cl 100
H2, Pt(C)-S 54 % Cl 101

Scheme 5.39
N H
The vicarious nucleophilic substitution (VNS) of hydrogen [63] in nitroarenes 102 with a-chloroalkyl ketones 103 gives rise to nitroaryl ketones 104, which are converted into indoles 105 under classical Reissert conditions (Scheme 5.40). A similar valuable approach to indoles consists of the reductive cyclization of (o-nitroaryl)acetonitriles 108 (Scheme 5.41). The cyanomethyl group is efciently introduced in nitroarenes 106 by VNS of hydrogen with chloroacetonitrile 107 or aryloxyacetonitrile. Catalytic hydrogenation transforms the cyano group into an
400

NO2 + 102 H2, Pd-C 90-100 % 105
Scheme 5.40
NO2 O Cl 103 Ph tBuOK, DMF 44% 104 O Ph
N H
Ph
RO + NO2 106
Scheme 5.41
OAr CN 107
tBuOK, DMF
RO
CN NO2 108
H2, Pd-C 83%
RO N H 109
imine and the nitro group to an amine, giving rise to 108, which cyclizes spontaneously to the indole 109 [64]. Carbocyclic-fused indoles have been prepared by several other alternative routes that involve the cyclization of a a-(o-nitrophenyl) ketone (Scheme 5.42). For instance, the intermediate nitroketones 112 can be obtained by arylation of cyclic silylenolether 111 with (o-nitrophenyl)phenyliodonium uoride 110 [65]. This methodology was employed in the total synthesis of ()-tabersonine [66]. In a different approach, an Ullman-type cross-coupling of o-halonitroarenes 113 with a-haloenones 114 has been also employed to obtain the o-nitroarylketones 115 [67]. In both cases, reductive cyclization affords the expected indole ring.
R ( )n O NO2 112 R ( )n Pd(0) Cu powder NO2 115 O N H TiCl3
I+ PhF NO2 110 X NO2 113

Scheme 5.42
R TMSO ( )n 111 Y O ( )n 114
R ( )n
Pd-C
j401
In Shibasakis total synthesis of strychnine [68] an advanced intermediate is also an a-(o-nitrophenyl)ketone (118), which is prepared by Stille cross-coupling of o-nitrostannylbenzene (116) with a vinyl iodide (117) (Scheme 5.43).
R2 SnMe3 NO2 116 H + O R1 117 R N (-)-Strychnine N H 119
Scheme 5.43
I R2
Pd(0), AsPh3 CuI DMF NO2 118
R1 O
H OPG2
OPG1
A remarkable innovation has been uncovered by Buchwald applying the Pdcatalyzed arylation of ketone enolates [69] to transform o-bromonitrobenzene derivatives 120 into o-nitroketones 122 (Scheme 5.44). Subsequent reductive cyclization provides the corresponding indoles 123 [70]. The reaction is very general and has been utilized successfully in the synthesis of indoles bearing both electron-withdrawing and electron-donating substituents on the benzene ring and a wide variety of ketones 121. Moreover, additional substitution can be introduced if the intermediate
R2 X R1 120 NO2 O + H3C R2 121 Pd2(dba)3/L K3PO4 R1 NaH, E+ X = Br, Cl R1 = CO2Et, OMe, Me, CF3 R2 = Ar, Alkyl E = MeI, Br-CH2CO2Et R1 R2 O E NO2 124 TiCl3 NH4OAc EtOH, rt R1 N H 125 90-55%
Scheme 5.44
O TiCl3 NH4OAc NO2 EtOH, rt R1 123 79-45% N H R2
122
E R2
402

nitroketone 122 is deprotonated and alkylated before the reductive cyclization step to furnish substituted nitroketones 124. Therefore, this important development allows for the preparation of very highly substituted indoles 125.
5.4.2.2.2 LeimgruberBatcho Synthesis The LeimgruberBatcho synthesis is a very convenient method to prepare indoles with substitution only in the benzene ring [71]. The two-step procedure starts with the three-components reaction of an o-methylnitroaryl (126) with dimethylformamide dimethylacetal in the presence of pyrrolidine, to provide o-nitro-b-pyrrolidinostyrene 127 (Scheme 5.45). Reductive cyclization on 127 furnishes indoles 128, usually in very high yields.
R NO2 126 R NO2 127 R N H
Me2NCH(OMe)2 pyrrolidine 110 C
Ra(Ni) 97-57%
128
R = -CH3, -OCH3, OBn, F, Cl, -CH(OCH3), -CO2R, CN

Scheme 5.45
Strong points of this approach are the compatibility with many functional groups, and the ready availability of the starting materials, which make this method a very interesting entry to polysubstituted indoles [7274]. Enhanced conditions for a Lewis acid catalyzed version of the reaction using microwave acceleration have been described recently [75]. This modication has been applied to the synthesis of a wide variety of substituted nitroenamines, including several examples of heteroaromatics such as 129, which expand the scope of the LeimbrugerBatcho synthesis (Scheme 5.46).
Me2NCH(OMe)2 DMF CuI MW(20x7min) 92%
Pd-C N NO2 129 NMe2 80% N HN
N NO2
Scheme 5.46
5.4.2.2.3 Reductive cyclizations o-Nitrostyrenes The reductive cyclization o,b-dinitrostyrenes is another two step synthesis of indoles closely related with the LeimbrugerBatcho approach. The formation of the o,b-dinitrostyrenes 131 is usually achieved by Henry condensation [76, 77] of nitromethane with o-nitrobenzaldehydes 130, or by nitration of benzaldehydes [78]. The reduction step has been carried out with several classes of reducing agents, including different metal/acid combinations [79] and catalytic hydrogenation conditions (Scheme 5.47) [80]. This
j403
CHO + CH3NO2 H3CO 130 Fe/AcOH EtOH reflux 85%

Scheme 5.47
i) KOH, DMF, EtOH ii) Ac2O, NaOAc, reflux 73% H3CO NO2 OCH3 131
NO2
NO2 OCH3
H3CO OCH3
N H
methodology has been applied as starting point in the synthesis of several natural products containing the indole skeleton [8184]. A versatile methodology, related with the methods described above, is the palladium-catalyzed reductive N-heteroannulation of o-nitrostyrenes 132 [85, 86]. The reaction is carried out under CO pressure and in the presence of a Pd/ligand catalytic system (Scheme 5.48) [87].
R2 R1 132 NO2 Pd cat, Ligand pressure CO R2 R1 N H R3
R3
Scheme 5.48
The required precursors, the o-nitrostyrenes, are readily available from o-bromonitrobenzenes, through metal-catalyzed reactions, such as Stille couplings [88] or Heck reactions [89]. Examples of both approaches are represented in Scheme 5.49.
CO2Me Br NO2 CO2CH3 SnBu3 PdCl2(PPh3)2 PPh3 66% O Br NO2 Pd(OAc)2 P(o-Tol)3 NEt3 76%
Scheme 5.49
Pd(OAc)2, PPh3 CO (4 atm) CH3CN, 70 C 90% O
CO2CH3
NO2
N H
+ NO2 20% NO2
Pd(OAc)2, Dppp CO (4 atm) DMF, 70 C
N H 78%
404

5.4.2.2.4 Sugasawa Synthesis Another synthesis of the indole ring from anilines is based on the o-chloroacetylation of aniline, the so-called Sugasawa reaction (Scheme 5.50) [90, 91]. Treatment of an aniline (133) with chloroacetonitrile in the presence of BCl3 and another Lewis acid furnishes o-chloroacetylaniline 134, through the intermediate 135. Chloroacetylaniline 134 can be cyclized to the indole 136 by reduction with NaBH4. The Sugasawa synthesis has been used very efciently for the preparation of NH unprotected indoles with substitution in the benzene ring [92, 93].
O Cl NH2 136 NaBH4
X + ClCH2CN 133 NH2 Cl X N H2 135

Scheme 5.50
BCl3, TiCl4
X N H
134
N BCl2
5.4.2.2.5 Indoles from 5-Aminodihydronaphthalenes: Plieninger Indole Synthesis The oxidative cleavage of 5-aminodihydronapthalenes 137 provides the amino carbonyl 138 required for the NC2 condensation reaction to form 7-substituted indoles 139 (Scheme 5.51) [94].
O R
2
O R2 N R 139 R1
R1
O R2 NHR R1 NHR 137
138
Scheme 5.51
The key intermediate in this synthesis, the 2-aminodihydronaphthalene 141, is best obtained by [4 2] cycloaddition reaction of a p-benzoquinone mono- or diimine, such as 140 with electron-rich dienes [95]. The great potential of this approach is exemplied by the synthesis of the polysubstituted indole 142, en route to the total synthesis of the antitumor agent ( )-yatakemycin (Scheme 5.52) [96].
j405
a) NHBoc H3CO BnO NHTs Pb(OAc)4 96% H3CO BnO NTs 140 BocHN H3CO BnO TsN OH
Scheme 5.52
NBoc
OMe H3CO
NHBoc OCH3
b) NEt3 57%
BnO NHTs 141 CO2Me
O3, Me2S 71%
CO2Me
HCl-EtOH 96%
BocHN H3CO OBn 142 N Ts
5.4.2.2.6 Cyclizations of Nitrenes Another type of cyclization with formation of the NC2 bond involves the insertion of nitrenes in a vinylic CH bond to form indoles (Scheme 5.53). Obviously, the key in this type of methodology is the generation of the unstable nitrene species.
R N H N H R
Scheme 5.53
The intermediate nitrenes can be formed by thermolysis of b-substituted-oazidostyrenes 143, which undergo insertion to form the indole [97, 98]. Scheme 5.54 shows, as an example, the synthesis of 2-nitroindole 144, which is not easily available through other procedures [99].
i) CH3NO2, KOH, EtOH, 0 C ii) Ac2O, Py, 0 C 81% 143
Scheme 5.54
CHO N3
NO2 N3 xilenes, 140 C 54% 144 N H
NO2
Nitrenes have also been generated from o-nitrostyrenes or o-nitrostilbenes by deoxygenation of the nitro group with triethyl phosphite [100, 101]. In a more recent modication of this approach, the nitrene is generated by treatment of the nitroarene 145 with phenylmagnesium chloride under very mild conditions (Scheme 5.55) [102].
406

R NO2 i) ArCHO piperidine 80-110 C 145 R NO2 Ar PhMgCl THF, -40 C 76-60% R N H Ar
R = Br, CO2Et, NO2 Ar = Ph, p-MeO-Ph, 3-Py

Scheme 5.55
Scheme 5.56 shows the mechanism proposed for this novel nitrene generation reaction.
OAr2 N Ar1 N MgCl - Ar2OMgCl
Ar -NO2
Ar2-MgCl
Ar
N OAr2
OMgCl - Ar2OMgCl
Ar
O Ar2-MgCl
Ar
Scheme 5.56
5.4.2.2.7 Synthesis from o-Allylanilines or o-Vinylanilines Palladium-catalyzed intramolecular CN bond formation is one of the most powerful methods for the synthesis of the indole ring. The rst contributions in this area were due to Hegedus, who described the cyclization of o-allylanilines 146 using stoichiometric amounts of Pd(II) in a Wacker-type process (Scheme 5.57) [103]. The reaction tolerates functional groups as well as substitution in the allyl moiety.
R NH2 146
Scheme 5.57
i) PdCl2(MeCN)2, THF ii) NEt3 74-88% N H
Me
During the reaction the Pd(II) species is reduced to Pd(0). To avoid the use of stoichiometric Pd, benzoquinone is used in the catalytic process as reoxidant. This methodology has been applied in the synthesis of 3-hydroxyindoles 147 (Scheme 5.58) [104].
OTBDMS R1 NH R3
Scheme 5.58
OTBDMS 10-20 % PdCl2(CH3CN)2 benzoquinone, THF, LiCl 84-47% R1 N R3 R2
R2
147
j407
5.4.2.2.8 Synthesis from o-Alkynylanilines or o-Alkynylanilides Intramolecular hydroamination of o-alkynylanilines 148, through a 5-endo-dig cyclization, is one of the most popular modern methods for the construction of the indole ring (Scheme 5.59). The required alkynylanilines are usually synthesized by a Pdcatalyzed Sonogashira cross-coupling of an o-iodoaniline with a terminal acetylene [105]. The cyclization reaction has been studied extensively and applied in numerous synthetic efforts. Several metal-based catalytic systems are able to promote the cyclization. Among them, Pd and Cu have been the most studied. Detailed accounts of this methodology have been published [106]. Typically, the cyclization is carried out in the presence of a Pd(II) catalyst, such as PdCl2 (Scheme 5.60) [107].
R' R' NHR 148 X + NHR H
R'
N R
Scheme 5.59
R2 cat. PdCl2, MeCN NHR

1
reflux 52-83%
N R1
R2
R1 = H, -COR; R2 = Alkyl, Ar
Scheme 5.60
The mechanism of the reaction is postulated to proceed via an intramolecular aminopalladation of the alkynylaniline 148, which produces the a s-indolylpalladium species 149, followed by protonolysis of the CPd bond, which releases the indole 150 and recovers the Pd(II) catalyst (Scheme 5.61). The one pot synthesis of 2-substituted indoles from o-haloaniline derivatives 151 and terminal acetylenes 152 can be achieved by employing a combination of Pd(II) and Cu(I) catalyst (Scheme 5.62). In this process, the Sonogashira coupling to form alkynylaniline 153 and the intramolecular hydroamination occur consecutively and are promoted by the same catalytic system [108, 109]. Indoles are also prepared in one pot fashion from o-chloroalkynylbenzene 154 derivatives and primary amines 155 (Scheme 5.63) [110]. In a rst step, a Pd-catalyzed aryl amination takes place to furnish the o-alkynylaniline 156, which then cyclizes to give the indole 157, in a process promoted by the same Pd catalyst. An interesting variation of this methodology is the aminopalladation/reductive elimination domino reaction that provides 2,3-disubstituted indoles 160 from o-alkynyl triuoroacetanilides 158 and organic halides 159 (Scheme 5.64) [111].
408

PdCl H N H R2 + H-Cl N H R2
149
150 PdCl2
Cl2Pd
R R NH2 148
NH2
Scheme 5.61
X + 151 NHSO2Me 152 R
Pd(PPh3)2Cl2, CuI, Et3N 100-110 C 3-5 h 31-71% R R N SO2Me
X = Br, I R= Ar, Alkyl
NHSO2Me 153
Scheme 5.62
R1 + R -NH2 154 Cl 155

2
Pd(0), Ligand KOtBu, toluene 100 C 99-74% N 2 157 R
R1
R1
NHR2 156
Scheme 5.63
j409
R1
R2
+ R2-X NHCOCF3
158
Scheme 5.64
Pd(0)
159
R1 N COCF3 160
A plausible mechanism for this Pd(0)-catalyzed domino reaction involves: (i) oxidative addition of the halide to the Pd(0) species to form Pd complex 161; (ii) coordination of the Pd(II) species 161 to the triple bond of 158 to form the (g2-alkyne) organopalladium complex 162; (iii) intramolecular nucleophilic attack of the nitrogen across the triple bond to form the s-indolylpalladium intermediate 163; and (iv) reductive elimination that regenerates the Pd(0) catalyst and releases the 2,3disubstituted indole 160 (Scheme 5.65).
R2 R1 N 160 COCF3
Pd(0)
reductive elimination
R2-X oxidative addition
[Pd-R ] R N COCF3
1
[R2PdX] 161 R1
163
[R2Pd]
R1
NHCOCF3 158
NHCOCF3 162
Scheme 5.65
The reaction has been carried out employing aryl halides [112], alkenyl triates, alkynyl bromides [113], and allylic carbonates [114] to provide the corresponding 2,3disubstituted indoles. Moreover, if the process is carried out under CO atmosphere, a three-component reaction takes place with incorporation of the carbon monoxide molecule, to yield 3-acyl-substituted indoles (Scheme 5.66) [115].
410

R1 + NHCOCF3 Pd cat. R2 X Base N H R2 R1
R2 = Aryl, alkenyl, alkynyl; X = I, Br, OTf OTHP + NHCOCF3 R1 + NHCOCF3 R2 X + CO Pd(PPh3)4 K2CO3 MeCN, 45 C 10h N H i) Pd(PPh3)4, THF, 60 C, 3h ii) K2CO3, 80 C, 1.5 h 77% O R2 R1 N H OTHP
H3COCO
Ph
R2 = Aryl, alkenyl, X = I, Br, OTf

Scheme 5.66
This domino chemistry has been also carried out with a solid support and applied to the preparation of a combinatorial library of indoles 164 with three points of diversity (Scheme 5.67) [116]. A very impressive extension of this approach is the recently described Pt-catalyzed carboamination of o-alkynylanilides 165 [117]. A representative example is presented in Scheme 5.68. During the reaction, the acyl group migrates from the N-atom to C3 to form acylated indole 166. Therefore, this methodology constitutes a very attractive method for the preparation of 2,3-disubstituted indoles. The indolization of o-alkynylanilines has been performed with alternative promoters other than the classic transition metal catalysts. For instance, K and Cs bases promote successfully the cyclization (Scheme 5.69) [118]. This simple procedure appears to be very general regarding the substituents in the alkyne and the aromatic system, and has been adapted to solid-supported synthesis. Moreover, a similar strategy has been applied to the preparation of oxindoles. Iodinating reagents, such as bis(pyridine)iodonium(I) tetrauoroborate (IPy2BF4) [119], can also promote the cyclization of o-alkynylanilines 167 (Scheme 5.70). Interestingly, the reaction affords 3-iodoindoles 168, offering the opportunity of further transformation by substitution of the iodine substituent by well known cross-coupling protocols. Moreover, the reaction has also been carried out on a solid support.
j411
I HO2C NH2
Cl Cs2CO3, DMF 50 C, 24 h O O R1
I NH2
R1 (CF3CO)2O, Py O O
R1 Pd(PPh3)2Cl2, CuI Et2NH, DMF, 2h O O NH2
CH2Cl2, 2h
NHCOCF3
R2 R2OTf, Pd(PPh3)4 K2CO3, DMF, 24 h O O

Scheme 5.67
N H
R1
i) R3X, NaH, DMF, 4h ii) TFA, CH2Cl2, 2h HO O 164
R2 N R3 R1
R1 R2 165 N COCH3
PtCl2 anisole, 80 C
R1 R2 166
1
COCH3 N
R = OMe, R2 = H: 89% R1 = H, R2 = OMe: 99%

Scheme 5.68
Bu F3C NH2 NO2

Scheme 5.69
KOtBu NMP, rt 77%
F3C N H Bu
NO2
Ph IPy2BF4, HBF4 NHTos 167

Scheme 5.70
I CH2Cl2, -60 C 87% 168 N Tos Ph
412

5.4.2.2.9 Synthesis from o-Alkynyl isocyanides or o-Alkynyl Isocyanates N-Cyanoindoles 171 are prepared by a very elegant Pd-catalyzed three-component coupling reaction of o-alkynylphenylisocyanide 169, allyl carbonate 170 and trimethylsilyl azide (Scheme 5.71) [120].
R1 + NC OCO2CH3 170 + TMS-N3 R2 N CN R1
R2
2.5 % Pd2(dba)3CHCl3 10 % (2-furyl)3P octane, 100
169
171
R1 = TMS, Alkyl R2 = Alkyl, MeO, 4-MeO, CN, CO2Et, Br, NO2, TMS-C C
Scheme 5.71
77-45%
The catalytic cycle proposed for this remarkable cascade process (Scheme 5.72) starts with the reaction of the Pd(0) species with allyl carbonate 170 and TMSN3 to give the p-allylpalladium azide complex 172. Insertion of the isocyanide in the PdN3 bond would give a new p-allylpalladium complex (173). Elimination of N2, with 1,2migration of the p-allylpalladium moiety from C to N, would provide p-allylpalladium carbodiimide complex 174. This rearrangement can beenvisionedas a p-allylpalladium
171
N CN
R OCO2Me 170 Pd(0) + TMSN3 CO2 + TMSOMe Pd N3 172 NC R
Pd N CN R
176
R Pd
R N C
175
N C N
N C N 174
Pd
N N2
Pd
173
Scheme 5.72
j413
mimic of the Curtius rearrangement. Complex 174 can be in equilibrium with the p-allylpalladium cyanamide complex 175. Insertion of the alkyne in the PdN bond of p-allylpalladium 175 would provide the 2-indolyl-p-allylpalladium complex 176, which upon reductive elimination yields the cyanoindole 171 and the Pd(0) catalyst. A related reaction can be applied to prepare N-methoxycarbonylindoles 178 from oalkynylisocyanates 177 and allyl carbonate 170. In this case a Pd0-CuI bimetallic catalyst is required (Scheme 5.73) [121].
R1 + NCO 177 R1 = Aryl, Cyclopentyl

Scheme 5.73
OCO2CH3
1% Pd(PPh3)4 4 %CuI THF, 100 C 86-62%
170
R1 N CO2Me 178
5.4.2.2.10 Synthesis from o-Haloanilines and Acetylenes: The Larock Indole Synthesis The Pd-catalyzed synthesis of indoles from o-iodoanilines 179 and internal alkynes 180 is known as the Larock indole synthesis, and stands as one of the more powerful methods for the preparation of 2,3-disubstituted indoles 181 (Scheme 5.74) [122]. When unsymmetrical alkynes are used, the annulation reaction is regioselective, with the bulkiest substituent being placed at C2 in the indole. In particular, silylated alkynes afford exclusively the C2 silylated indole.
I NHR 179
RS + RL 180
Pd(OAc)2, PPh3 BuN4Cl, K2CO3, DMF 100 C, 51 - 98% 181
RS N R RL
R = H, Me, Ts RS, RL = Alkyl, Ar, Alkenyl, CH2OH, TMS

Scheme 5.74
It is postulated that the mechanism of the annulation involves (Scheme 5.75): (i) oxidative addition of the aryl iodide 179 to the Pd(0) species to form arylpalladium complex 182; (ii) coordination of the alkyne 180 to the arylpalladium complex to form complex 183; (iii) insertion of the alkyne in the PdCAr bond, and coordination of the nitrogen with ligand displacement to generate palladacycle intermediate 184; and (iv) reductive elimination to form the indole and regenerate the Pd(0). The regioselectivity of the reaction is determined by the insertion of the alkyne in the PdC bond.
414

RS N R RL PdL2 179 R L L Pd RL 184 base - HI RL 183
Scheme 5.75
I NHR
HNR
I Pd RS HNR L 182 -I RL 180 RS RS
L Pd
The bulkier substituent is situated next to the Pd, to avoid steric interactions with the aromatic ring. Larocks heteroannulation has been applied as the key step in the preparation of several indole alkaloids and heterocycles. For instance, 7-methoxytryptophan 185, an early intermediate in the preparation of some indole alkaloids, has been efciently synthesized with this methodology (Scheme 5.76) [123]. Moreover, recently, the scope
EtO + NH2 OCH3 TES N EtO N OEt Pd(OAc)2, K2CO3 LiCl, DMF, 100 C 75% N OCH3 H N N TES OEt
aq. HCl THF rt, 92% CO2Et NH2 N OCH3 H 185

Scheme 5.76
j415
of the reaction has been extended to o-bromo- and o-chloroanilines, by using an appropriate supporting ligand for the Pd, which enhances its reactivity towards oxidative addition [124]. A different Pd-catalyzed tandem process, which shares some mechanistic features with Larocks indolization, has led to indoles from o-(2,2-dibromovinyl)anilines 186 [125]. In this case, the tandem process takes advantage of the different reactivity of the two CBr bonds towards oxidative addition. Thus, in a rst step, Suzuki coupling with substitution of the more reactive trans-bromine atom gives the bromovinyl aniline 187, which undergoes Pd-catalyzed intramolecular CN bond formation to provide the indole 188 with high yields (Scheme 5.77).
OBn H3CO Br NH2 186 Suzuki coupling H3CO Br NH2 187
Scheme 5.77
Br + Ph-B(OH)2
OBn Pd(OAc)2, Ligand K3PO4, Toluene, 100 C 72% H3CO N H Ph
188
OBn Ph
Alkenyl amination
5.4.2.3 Ring Synthesis by Formation of the C3C3a Bond
5.4.2.3.1 Electrophilic Cyclizations of the Aromatic Ring: The Bischler Synthesis This section includes those indole syntheses in which the key step is a cyclization by electrophilic attack of the aromatic ring to a nucleophilic center in a 5-exo-trig type of cyclization (Scheme 5.78).
O N
Scheme 5.78
N H
Cyclization of a-(N-arylaminoketones), known as the Bischler synthesis, and discovered over 100 years ago [126], is the most characteristic representative of this
416

approach. In the original protocol, arylaminoketone 190 is obtained from N-methylaniline and a-haloketones 189. Acid-catalyzed 5-exo-trig cyclization then leads to indole 191 (Scheme 5.79).
+ NHCH3 O Br 189 ZnCl2 N CH3 191
Scheme 5.79
O CO2Et N CH3 190
CO2Et
CO2Et
Notable among the most relevant modications of this procedure are the use of an acetal as a masked aldehyde functionality and the acylation or sulfonation [127] of the nitrogen, which allows a much more controlled cyclization. The Nordlander synthesis [128] exemplies such variations (Scheme 5.80).
R i) BrCH2CH(OEt)2 NH2 ii) (CF3CO)2O NEt3 CF3CO2H (CF3CO)2O 93% R N COCF3 R EtO OEt
N COCF3
Scheme 5.80
In another modication of the Bischler synthesis, the intermediate a-(N-arylaminoketones) 194 are prepared by the NH insertion reaction of anilines 192 with rhodium carbenoids [129], generated from diazocarbonyl compounds 193 [130]. The nal cyclization is carried out using the acidic ion-exchange resin Amberlyst 15, which provides better results than the usual Lewis acid catalysts (Scheme 5.81). A further renement of the reaction by the same authors allows for the preparation of NH indoles [131]. Hydroamination of propargylic alcohols with anilines represents another transition metal catalyzed alternative to the classic Bischler synthesis [132]. In a one pot process, the hydroxyimine 196, which comes from the ruthenium-catalyzed hydroamination of the propargylic alcohol 195, undergoes hydrogen migration to the Bischler intermediate 197, followed by cyclization to provide a mixture of regioisomeric 2,3-substituted indoles (Scheme 5.82).
j417
O N2 X NHCH3 192 R, R'= alkyl X= Br, Cl, OMe, NO2

Scheme 5.81
R CO2R' 193 R Amberlyst 15 X N CH3 31-88% CO2R'
O X
cat Rh2(OAc)4 Tol reflux
N CO2R' CH3 194
R + NH2 195
OH
R 0.36 mol% Ru3(CO)12 NH4PF6 or ArNH2HCl N H + N H R
140 C, air, without solvent 71-95%
6 :1 - 16: 1
HO N 196
Scheme 5.82
O N H 197
Ph-NH2/H+
O N H
5.4.2.3.2 Carbometallation of N-(2-Lithioallyl)anilines The intramolecular carbometallation of lithiated double bonds has been used to prepare several types of functionalized indoles [133]. For instance, N-bromoallyl-o-uoroanilines 198 are converted into indoles by treatment with 3 equivalents of tBuLi. Cyclization of the benzyne intermediate 199 generated gives rise to C(4)-lithiated 3-methyleneindoline derivative 200. Quenching of the lithiated species 200 with selected electrophiles allows functionalization at this position to provide methyleneindoline 201, which isomerizes on workup or on silica gel chromatography to the corresponding indole derivatives 202 (Scheme 5.83) [134]. Interestingly, 3-methyleneindolines such as 201 are known to participate in Alderene reactions with activated enophiles to furnish 3,4-disubstituted indoles 203 (Scheme 5.84) [135]. Taking advantage of this reaction, addition of an enophile to the reaction mixture provides 3,4-disubstituted indoles in a one-pot sequence. Schemes 5.85 and 5.86 show, as representative examples, the one-pot synthesis of a tryptamine analog 204 and a substituted carbazole 205, respectively.
418

E N 198 tBuLi Li F Li F Br tBuLi (3 eq) THF, -110 rt E
+
E SiO2
-78 C
rt 201
N R
N R 202 50 - 75%
E+
Li R N 199 Li
N R 200
E: Bu3SnCl, PhCHO, Me2CO, ClCO2Et, Me3SiCl, PhCH=NPh

Scheme 5.83
E + N R X Y
X N R
YH
201
203 H H O NMe2I EtO2C CO2Et
X=Y: EtO2C-N N-CO2Et

Scheme 5.84
5.4.2.3.3 Palladium-Catalyzed Heck Reactions The intramolecular Heck reactions of o-halo-N-allylanilines 206 and o-halo-N-vinylanilines 207 are very effective methods for the construction of the indole ring (Scheme 5.87). The Pd-catalyzed cyclization of N-allyl-o-haloanilines, such as 208 [136138], is a very reliable method for the preparation of indoles. The intramolecular Heck reaction
NMe2 H3CO N 204
Scheme 5.85
H3CO
Cl N Br
i) tBuLi, THF, -110 C to rt ii) H2O, -78 to 20 C iii) CH2=NMe2I, 67 C 55%
j419
F N Br
i) tBuLi, THF ii) PhS-SPh
SPh CH2=NMe2I N
SPh
NMe2
N 205 58%
Scheme 5.86
X N 206
Scheme 5.87
Pd 5-exo-trig N
Pd 5-endo-trig
X N 207
is usually achieved under Pd ligandless conditions and in the presence of a base (Scheme 5.88) [139, 140].
O2N Br N H Pd(OAc)2 Et3N, DMF Bu4NBr, 25 C 96% O2N N R
OBn 208
Scheme 5.88
OBn
The formation of the indole can be explained by the accepted mechanism of the Heck reaction. Oxidative addition of the aryl halide to form arylpalladium complex 209, followed by cyclization by olen insertion, gives rise to the Pd(II) substituted indoline 210. b-Elimination regenerates the Pd(0) species and produces a 3-methylenindoline 211, which isomerizes spontaneously to indole 212 (Scheme 5.89).
X N R PdX Pd(0) PdX N R 209 N R 210
- Pd(0) - HX 211
Scheme 5.89
N R 212
N R
420

Nevertheless, it is possible to isolate the intermediate indoline under certain reaction conditions, which include the use of silver carbonate as base [141]. Many examples have appeared in the literature of the application of this methodology in the synthesis of complex molecules [142], including adaptation to solidphase synthesis [143]. Scheme 5.90 shows a solid-phase synthesis of trisubstituted indoles 213 that allows for the introduction of several points of diversity in the indole scaffold [144].
OH Br O
H2N
Rink amide resin
H N (iPr)2EtNH, DMF I I N H
H N
Br H N
R1 NH2 i) Pd(PPh3)2Cl2 Bu4NCl, NEt3, DMF ii) TFA, CH2Cl2 R1 213 66-88% N
O (iPr)2EtNH, DMF R2-CH2Br I N R2
CONH2
R2
Scheme 5.90
The Heck reaction of o-haloenamines has attracted comparatively less attention than the previously discussed reaction with N-allylanilines. The instability of the enamines when compared with the allylamines, as well as the more difcult 5-endotrig cyclization when compared with the 5-exo-trig, may account for this difference. The rst examples of this approach were carried out with acylenamines 214, easily prepared through different procedures, which undergo Pd-catalyzed cyclization to provide 2,3-disubstituted indoles 215 (Scheme 5.91) [145]. Direct annulation of o-iodoanilines with ketones is a very convenient variation of this route [146]. The reaction has been extended recently to the more easily available chloroanilines 216 [147]. In a rst step, condensation of the amine with the ketone forms the enamine 217, which then undergoes Pd-catalyzed cyclization (Scheme 5.92). The use of a very active catalytic system is crucial. Enamine 217 required for the cyclization has also been prepared by acetylene hydroamination. Thus, the indole ring has been formed from acetylenes 219 and ochloroaniline (218), in a one pot process that requires two different metal catalysts: a Ti catalyst for the hydroamination, and a Pd catalyst for the Heck reaction (Scheme 5.93) [148]. In a related process, indoles have been synthesized from o-haloanilines 220 and alkenyl bromides 221. Notably, in this process the same Pd catalyst promotes two
j421
R1
COR2
MeOH/DMSO O R
1
X NH2 X = Br, I
O R
2
X N H 214
COR2 R
1
COR2 Pd(OAc)2, (o-Tol) 3P NEt3, DMF, 120 C 43-88% 215 N H R1
MeOH/DMSO O R1 R2 Pd cat. LiCl, THF
Scheme 5.91
Cl NH R2
R + O
[Pd(tBu3P)2], K3PO4 HOAc, MgSO4, DMA 90-140 C 2-21 h
R1
R4 N R2 98-50% R3
R3
216
R1
Cl N R2 217
R4 R3
Scheme 5.92
Cl NH2 218
Scheme 5.93
Ar + R 219
TiCl 4 tBuNH2
Cl N H 217
Ar R
Pd(OAc)2 Ligand KOtBu
Ar N H R
different reactions: the alkenyl amination, which forms the intermediate enamine 222, and the subsequent Heck reaction to form the indole (Scheme 5.94) [149].
5.4.2.4 Ring Synthesis by Formation of the C2C3 Bond
422

R
1
X + Br
R R 221
Pd2(dba)3, XPHOS NaOtBu, Toluene 100-110 C
R1
R4 N R2 72-55% R3
NH R2 X = Br, Cl 220 Pd catalyzed amination
X N R2 222
R4 R3
Pd catalyzed Heck-reaction
iPr
XPHOS:
iPr
iPr PCy2
Scheme 5.94
5.4.2.4.1 Madelung Synthesis The construction of the indole ring by cyclocondensation of 2-methylanilides (223) is known as the Madelung indole synthesis (Scheme 5.95). In its original formulation the reaction used bases such as NaNH2 and KOtBu, and required extremely harsh reaction conditions with temperatures over 250 C (check out the procedure published in Organic Synthesis Collective) [150]. The replacement of these bases by alkyllithiums or LDA allows the reaction to take place under much milder reaction conditions (Scheme 5.96) [151, 152].
R(Z) O N 223
Scheme 5.95
R(Z) N R'
R'
X N H
O R
3 eq. n-BuLi -20 rt
CH2Li OLi N R
N H
R = Ph, X = 5-Cl 94% R = t Bu, X = H 87% R= Cy, X = 5-OMe 40%

Scheme 5.96
j423
Introduction of electron-withdrawing substituents at the ortho-methyl group makes the benzylic proton of derivatives 224 more acidic and thus facilitates the overall process [153]. This approach is illustrated by the solid-phase synthesis of a library of 2,3-disubstutited-indoles 225 (Scheme 5.97) [154].
O H i) Trimethylorthoformate ii) NaBH3CN, CH2Cl2 NH Z RCOCl
Z NH2
Z O N 224 Z = CN, CO2tBu, CONH2

Scheme 5.97
Z KOtBu R DMF N R 95: 5 TFA: EtSiH
Z N H 225 R
In another variation of the Madelung synthesis, phosphonium salts 227 led to the corresponding indoles through a Wittig-like intramolecular reaction in the presence of base [155] or under thermal conditions [156]. The required phosphonium salts can be easily obtained from o-nitrobenzyl bromide (226) in a sequence that includes substitution with triphenylphosphine, reduction of the nitro group and acylation [157]. This procedure has been applied to the preparation of 2-alkyl, 2-alkenyl and 2-arylindoles 228 (Scheme 5.98). A solid-phase version of this procedure using a polymer-bound triphenylphosphine has also been developed [158].
i) PPh3 ii) Zn, AcOH iii) RCOCl PPh3+BrO N H 227 R KOtBu PPh3 O N H R 228 N H R
Br NO2 226
64 - 93%
Scheme 5.98
2,3-Disubstituted indoles 231 have been prepared by a very original strategy from oaminoketones 229 through an intramolecular HornerWadsworthEmmons reaction. The key step in this synthesis is the generation of the intermediate phosphonate 230, required for the olenation reaction, which was prepared by insertion in a NH bond of an in situ generated Rh carbenoid (Scheme 5.99). The whole sequence can be conducted in a one-pot process [159].
424

Ph O NH2 229 N2 CO2Et PO(OEt)2 EtO2C Ph O NH H DBU Toluene 231 86% Ph N H CO2Et
Rh2(OAc)4 Toluene
PO(OEt)2
230
Scheme 5.99
rstner Synthesis The intramolecular reductive cyclization of 5.4.2.4.2 Fu oxo-amides 232 promoted by low-valent titanium (an intramolecular McMurry rstner indole synthesis [161] (Scheme 5.100). coupling) [160] is known as the Fu
R3 O N H R2 O TiCl 3, Zn TMSCl, MeCN reflux 67-92% N H R3 R2
232
Scheme 5.100
This coupling reaction is a very powerful method for the preparation of 2,3disubstituted indoles in particular of 2-arylindoles and has been applied in the total synthesis of several indole alkaloids and biologically active molecules [162]. Scheme 5.101 shows a particular example of this methodology, applied to the preparation of an endothelin receptor antagonist [163]. The oxo-amide 235 required for the cyclization reaction is easily prepared from o-nitrobenzaldehyde (233). Addition of an aryl Grignard followed by oxidation of the resulting alcohol installs the ketone functionality to obtain 234. Then, catalytic hydrogenation of the nitro group followed by acylation provides the amido functionality of 235, which is transformed into indole 236 under the standard low-valent-titanium reduction.
5.4.2.4.3 Radical Cyclizations A wide range of 2,3-disubstituted indoles can be prepared by the tin-promoted radical cyclizations of 2-alkenylphenylisonitriles [164] and 2-alkenylthioanilides 237 devised by Fukuyama [165] (Scheme 5.102). The cyclizations are carried out in the presence of tributyltin hydride and a radical initiator. In a rst step, the tin radical adds to the thioamide 237 to form a sp3 radical 238 or an imidoyl radical 239, which cyclizes to yield the indole after a tautomeric equilibrium (Scheme 5.103). The tin-promoted cyclizations are compatible with a wide range of functional groups. Moreover, the required 2-alkenylthioamides are easily available through various procedures. All this factors make this approach a very useful method for the preparation of 2,3-disubstituted indoles. For instance, this reaction has been applied by Fukuyama to build both indole rings present in the alkaloid ( )-vinblastine, a
j425
i) H O NO2 233
O O MgBr THF, -78 C
i) H2, Pd-C, O EtOAc 234 NO2 ii) MeO2CCOCl CH2Cl2, Py, rt 77% O O
ii) PDC, CH2Cl2 83%
O NH O 235
Scheme 5.101
TiCl3, Zn DME, reflux 85% N H 236
CO2Me
CO2Me
R' X Y S 237
Scheme 5.102
NH R
R' Bu3SnH Et3B Toluene, rt 94-70%
N H
H R' NH S 237 R SnBu3 N H 238 - HSSnBu3 R' R SSnBu3 N H
R SSnBu3 R
R' N 239
Scheme 5.103
R' R
N H
426

CSCl2, Na2CO3 i) NaBH4, MeOH CHO ii) DHP, CSA, CH 2Cl2 MsO 241 NCS MsO 242 OTPH CO2Me MsO N H CO2Bn NCS OTHP N THF, H 2O
MsO
240
Benzyl Methyl Malonate NaH, THF, 0 C MsO S 243 NH
OTHP
Bu3SnH AIBN Toluene, 110 C
CO2Me CO2Bn 244
N H many steps N H MeO2C MeO N (+)-vinblastine OH OAc N H Me CO2Me
Scheme 5.104
potent agent for cancer therapy (Scheme 5.104) [166]. In this example, the 2alkenylthioamide is prepared in several steps from quinoline 240. Ring opening of quinoline 240 promoted by thiophosgene produces 241. Reduction the of the aldehyde functionality, followed by protection of the hydroxyl group with dihydropyran, leads to the isothiocyanide 242, which is transformed into the thioamide 243 by addition of a nucleophile. Finally, radical cyclization under standard conditions gives rise to the highly functionalized indole 244.
5.4.2.4.4 Palladium-Catalyzed Cyclizations The Pd-catalyzed cyclization of 2-(1-alkynyl)-N-alkylideneanilines 245 gives rise to 3-alkenylindoles 246 [167] (Scheme 5.105). According to the authors proposal, the reaction most probably proceeds through the regioselective insertion of a Pd hydride in the triple bond of 245, to form vinylpalladium intermediate 247. From this intermediate, both an oxidative
R1 1% Pd(OAc)2 nBu3P N 245

Scheme 5.105
R1
Ar
Dioxane, 100 C 70-55% 246
N CO2Me
R3
j427
addition/reductive elimination sequence (path a) and carbopalladation of the imine followed by b-elimination (path b) can explain the formation of the indole (Scheme 5.106).
R1 H Pd H H-Pd-OAc N R 245 H 247 N R path b path a N OAc H-Pd-OAc R1 H R
R1
PdOAc
R1 H R H-Pd-OAc
N N PdOAc
Scheme 5.106
5.4.2.5 Cyclizations with Formation of the NC7a Bond

NH
5.4.2.5.1 Nenitzescu Indole Synthesis The preparation of 5-hydroxyindole 250 derivatives from 1,4-benzoquinone (248) and a b-enaminoester 249 is known as the Nenitzescu reaction and was rst reported in 1929 (Scheme 5.107) [168].
O + O 248
Scheme 5.107
R' RHN 249 CO2R
HO
CO2R N H 250 R'
Although the mechanism of the reaction remains somewhat obscure, it is presumed that it involves an internal oxidationreduction process within the following steps: Michael-type addition of the enamine 249 to the quinone 248, oxidation of the hydroquinone 251 into a substituted benzoquinone 252, condensation to form the quinoimmonium cation 253 and reduction to form 5-hydroxyindole 250 (Scheme 5.108).
428

O + RHN O 248 249 R' CO2R HO CO2R N H R'
250
[H] CO2Et R OH 251

Scheme 5.108
HO
[O]
CO2Et R O 252 NHR - H2O
CO2R N R R
NHR
253
The Nenitzescu synthesis has been widely used for the preparation of 5-hydroxyindole derivatives with additional substituents in both rings [169]. An example of its implementation to solid-phase synthesis is given in Scheme 5.109 [170].
O NH2 R3 O R1 O
O N H
R-NH2 TMOF N H
NHR
CH2Cl2, -15 C
R3 HO R1
NH
R3 HO 20 % TFA/DCM 86 - 21% R1
R2
NH2
CH3NO2, rt
R2
N R
N R
Scheme 5.109
The scope of the Nenitzescu reaction has been recently extended to substrates different than the classical b-enaminocarbonyls. Pyrimidine-2,4,6-triamines react with p-benzoquinones to provide hydroxypyrimido[4,5-b]indoles with moderate yields [171]. Benzylimines of simple ketones (254), which are in tautomeric equilibrium with the corresponding enamines 255, are also good substrates for the indolization. This new reaction has been applied to simple cyclic imines, and also to more complex systems such as 256 to prepare new hydroxyindolomorphinans 257 with potent biological activity (Scheme 5.110) [172].
j429
O N 254 Bn 255 N H Bn CH3NO2 60%
HO N Bn
NR2 OH
NR2 OH
O CH3NO2
NR2 OH OH R1O O 257 N Bn
R1O
O 256
NBn
R1O
NHBn
Scheme 5.110
5.4.2.5.2 Synthesis by Nitrene Insertion: The Hemetsberger Synthesis The indole ring can be built by insertion of a nitrene placed on the side-chain (260). In this approach, commonly known as the Hemetsberger indole synthesis, cyclization is achieved by thermolysis of the corresponding azides 259 [173]. Although the reaction may be understood as a nitrene insertion into a CH bond, an azirine intermediate 261 has been isolated at lower temperatures [174], which provides the indole 262 after a subsequent rearrangement (Scheme 5.111).
R H O N3CH2CO2Et NaOEt 258 CO2Et N H 261
Scheme 5.111
R N3 259
CO2Et
- N2
R H 260 N
CO2Et
R N H 262 CO2Et
The vinylazides are best obtained by condensation of azidoacetate with aryl aldehydes 258. Thus, this methodology is particularly useful for the preparation of 2-carboxyindoles 262 from aromatic aldehydes [175]. This protocol has been employed successfully in the preparation of polycyclic indole derivatives. For instance, application of the Hemetsberger sequence to the formylbenzoxazine 263 gives oxazinindole 264 in moderate overall yield (Scheme 5.112) [176].
430

EtO2C OHC Cl 263
Scheme 5.112
O N Bn
i) N3CH2CO2Et NaOEt, - 18 C CO2Et ii) xylene reflux 34%
NH O CO2Et
Cl
N Bn 264
5.4.2.5.3 Intramolecular BuchwaldHartwig Amination The Pd-catalyzed cross-coupling of aryl halides with amines is nowadays one of the most powerful methods for the formation of CarylN bonds [177]. The intramolecular version of the reaction leads to indolines, which can be converted into indoles by treatment with Pd/C. Scheme 5.113 shows the cyclization of the in situ generated 1-(o-bromophenyl)-2ethylamine 265 to furnish the corresponding indole 267 after the oxidation step of the intermediate indoline 266 [178]. Further optimization of the reaction showed that modication of the ligand and the base provides better yields under milder conditions [179]. Moreover, a similar copper-catalyzed cyclization has also been reported [180, 181].
Bu Br Br
Bn-NH2 Pd2(dba)3 P(o-Tol) 3 NaOtBu Bu
Bu NHR 266
Bu N Bn
Br 265
Pd/C, HCO2NH4 MeOH, reflux 267 54%

Scheme 5.113
N H
Intramolecular N-arylation of enamines has also been applied in the synthesis of indoles. Enamine 270 (in tautomeric equilibrium with the imine 269), which is ready for cyclization, is obtained by Ti-catalyzed hydroamination of the o-chloro-substituted alkynylbenzene 268. Then, the Pd-catalyzed CN bond-forming reaction furnishes N,2-disubstitutedindoles 271 withgoodyieldsinaone-potprocess (Scheme5.114)[182]. Indoles have been prepared by two consecutive Pd-catalyzed amination reactions on the enoltriate 272 in a closely related strategy that features two reactive positions towards Pd-catalyzed amination (Scheme 5.115) [183]. First, amination of the more reactive enoltriate occurs, to produce the enamine 273, which then undergoes intramolecular aryl amination to give indole 274.
j431
R2 Cl NHR3
R2 + R NH2 R
1 3
5 mol % [Cp2TiMe2] 110 C, 24 h R

1
R2 Cl 269 NR3 R
1
Cl 268 5 mol % Pd2(dba)3 10 mol % Ligand KOtBu 1,4-dioxane, 100 C, 12h
270
R1
271
N R3
R2
65-80 % (one pot)

Scheme 5.114
Br 272
OTf
Bn-NH2
Pd2(dba)3, Ligand CsCO3, Tol, 100 C 70% 274 N Bn
Br
NHBn
273
Scheme 5.115
5.4.3 Synthesis of the Indole Ring by Annelation of Pyrroles
Construction of the indole ring by annelation of pyrroles has been much less exploited. Nevertheless, several efcient methods have been disclosed during the last two decades. Most of the existing methods lie in one of the retrosynthetic schemes represented in Scheme 5.116.
5.4.3.1 Synthesis by Electrophilic Cyclization The most popular type of methods for synthesis of the indole ring from pyrroles involves an electrophilic cyclization, with formation of either the C7C7a or C3aC4 bond (Scheme 5.117). In both cases, annelation takes place by an intramolecular electrophilic attack of the pyrrole to a carbonyl function. To facilitate aromatization, a leaving group is usually present in the carbon chain. The different methods described in the literature differ in the way to synthesize the intermediate carbonyl pyrrole ready for the cyclization.
432

N
5 4 3a 3 2
[4+2] cycloadditions
6 7
7a
N H
N
Scheme 5.116
N P
N P
N P
Scheme 5.117
5.4.3.1.1 Natsume Synthesis In the Natsume approach, the intermediate for cyclization is prepared by addition of a organometallic bearing a masked carbonyl functionality (276) to a pyrrolyl ketone (275). Acid-catalyzed cyclization on the resulting functionalized pyrrole 277, with concomitant aromatization, provides indole 278. This method is a very powerful strategy for the preparation of alkylsubstituted indoles in the benzene portion. Scheme 5.118 shows the preparation of
O O O Cy N Ts 276 86% MgX O O N Cy OH Ts 277 MgX 276 97% O O 280 N Ts H2SO4 i-PrOH reflux 69% N Ts
Cy 278
275 O O N Ts 279
Scheme 5.118
O Cy
Cy OH H2SO4 i-PrOH reflux 82%
Cy
N Ts 281
j433
both a 7-substituted (278) and a 4-substituted indole (281) by application of the same methodology but starting from 2-acyl (275) and 3-acyl (279) substituted pyrrole, respectively [184]. Modications of this strategy have been applied to the preparation of several natural indole alkaloids, characterized by complex alkyl-substitution in the benzene ring, such as herbindoles and trikentrins (Scheme 5.119) [185].
COOEt i) LDA, THF, - 65 C ii) O N SO2Ph - 78 C, 48 h OH SO2Ph OsO4, NaIO4 THF-H2O
EtO2C
OH
i) MnO2, CH2Cl2 ii) LiCl, HMPA-H 2O 130 C iii) LiCH2SO2Ph THF, -75
OH SO2Ph
N SO2Ph
N SO2Ph
SO2Ph p-TsOH, PhSH, Tol reflux, 5h Mg, NH4Cl MeOH N SO2Ph N H (+)-Herbindole A
O N SO2Ph
Scheme 5.119
5.4.3.1.2 Katritzky Synthesis In the method by Katritzky, the carbonyl substituted pyrrole 283 ready for the cyclization, is generated by a Michael-type addition of the carbanion generated from a benzotriazole (Bt)-substituted pyrrole (282) with a a,b-unsaturated ketone (Scheme 5.120) [186]. The benzotriazolyl functionality acts as both an anion-stabilizing group and leaving group in the overall transformation. Both approaches, cyclization by formation of the C3aC4 bond (Scheme 5.120) or the C7C7a bond (Scheme 5.121), have been conducted [187]. 5.4.3.2 Palladium-Catalyzed Cyclizations The six-membered ring of the indole skeleton has also been constructed by Pdcatalyzed intramolecular Heck reactions. In the example shown in Scheme 5.122, a 6-exo-trig cyclization of a bromo-substituted pyrrole (284), bearing a double bond in an appropriate position, provides an advanced intermediate for the synthesis of the antitumor antibiotic duocarmycin SA [188]. The intramolecular Heck reaction has also been employed to build the benzene ring of the indole system with formation of the C5C6 bond [189].
434

Bt i) BuLi, THF N SO2Ph 282 -78 C Bt Li N SO2Ph R2 O Bt R1 O R2 + N SO2Ph R1 283 O R2 10% H2SO4 isopropanol reflux N PhO2S R2 R1 Bt = N N N
R1
N SO2Ph
Scheme 5.120
t-Bu Bt N
O i) n-BuLi ii) Ph O Ph Ph Ph Bt N
t-Bu
Ph TsOH/THF reflux 3h Ph N 65%
t-Bu
Scheme 5.121
OBn N Br N H CO2Me Pd(OAc)2 (o-Tol) 3P, Et 3N MeCN, 100 C 83% BzC
OBn N N H CO2Me
BzC
O 284
OH N N Mom CO2Me
BzC
Duocarmycin SA
OH
Scheme 5.122
j435
5.4.3.3 Electrocyclizations Electrocyclization of 2,3-dialkenyl-4-nitropyrroles 285 gives rise to 3-nitroindoles 286 compounds that are difcult to prepare selectively through other routes. After the thermal 6p-electrocyclization, aromatization of the intermediate dihydroindoles occurs to provide the indole directly (Scheme 5.123) [190].
NO2 Me Ph 285 N CH3 Ph-NO2, reflux (211 C) 85% Ph
NO2 N CH3
NO2 N CH3
Ph - 2H
NO2 N CH3
Ph
286
Scheme 5.123
5.4.3.4 [4 2] Cycloadditions The cycloaddition of 2- and 3-vinyl pyrroles should allow for the preparation highly functionalized indoles in the benzene ring [191]. In a particularly interesting approach, 4,5-g2-Os(II)pentaammine-3-vinylpyrrole complexes 287 readily undergo DielsAlder reactions with activated dienophiles such as N-phenylmaleimide to generate the 5,6,7,7a-tetrahydroindole nucleus. The tetrahydroindole complexes 288 can be decomplexed and oxidized with DDQ to generate highly functionalized indoles 289 (Scheme 5.124) [192]. In contrast, the cyclic pyrrolo-2,3-quinodimethanes 290 undergo DielsAlder cycloaddition with alkynes. After CO2 loss, indoles with high substitution in the benzene ring (291) are obtained (Scheme 5.125) [193]. 5.4.3.5 Indoles from 3-Alkynylpyrrole-2-Carboxaldehydes Benzannulation of readily available 3-alkynylpyrrole-2-carboxaldehydes 292 with alkenes, promoted by iodonium ions, yields indoles 293 with a high level of substitution and functionalization in the benzene ring (Scheme 5.126) [194]. The mechanism proposed for this unusual transformation is represented in Scheme 5.127. Interaction of the iodonium ion with the triple bond of 292 would promote the formation of intermediate 294. Nucleophilic attack of the alkene to the electrophilic carbon of 294; subsequent intramolecular cyclization would then provide 296. The simple loss of a proton to give a conjugated double bond then yields 297. Finally, aromatization by elimination of HI gives the indoles 293. This
436

R1 [Os ] N 287
2+
R2
Ph N
R1 [Os2+] N
R2 O N O 288 Ph
R1
R2 O
DDQ 120 C N 289 O N
Ph
60%
Scheme 5.124
R1 O O 290 EtO2C TMS 291 79%

Scheme 5.125
EtO2C CO2Et N CO2i-Bu + TMS TMS Ph-Cl reflux O O N CO2i-Bu
N CO2i-Bu
proposal is supported by detailed mechanistic and spectroscopic studies, which allowed the isolation of analogues of the cationic intermediates 294 and 296 [195].
5.5 Reactivity of Indole 5.5.1 Reactions with Electrophiles
The chemistry of indole is dominated by the strong electrophilic character of the p-electron excessive heterocycle. Electrophilic aromatic substitution takes place at C3, and is one of the most efcient methods for the introduction of substituents on
5.5 Reactivity of Indole
j437
R1 i) IPy2BF4 / HBF4 CH2Cl2, 0 C N Tos 292 O Ph Ph N Tos N Tos O Ph O ii) R2 R3 N Tos
R1 R2 R3
293 O R1 N N Tos n-C6H13 43%
72%
42%
Scheme 5.126
R1 I+BF4R3 R2 N Tos
R1 R2 R3
N Tos 292 I+BF4BF4 I R1
293 HI R1 O I H R2 R3 297 HBF4
N Tos
N Tos
BF4 N Tos
I O
I R
1
R1 O BF4 R2
R3 N
R2
H I O
R2 R
3
N Tos
R1 BF4
R3 295
Tos
294
Scheme 5.127
296
438

the indole ring at that position. The regioselectivity of the electrophilic aromatic substitution is easily explained by the different stability of the intermediate indolium cations generated. The positive charge at C2, generated by electrophilic attack at C3, can be delocalized between C2 and the N atom without compromising the aromaticity of the benzene ring. In contrast, electrophilic attack at C2 generates an indolium cation with the positive charge at C3, which cannot be delocalized without breaking the aromaticity of the benzene ring. Electrophilic aromatic substitution on the benzene ring occurs only on indoles strongly deactivated on the ve-membered ring. The method of choice to introduce electrophiles at the C2 position of indoles consists in a stepwise procedure, involving N-protection, lithiation at C2, reaction with the electrophile and N deprotection.
5.5.1.1 Protonation Indole and substituted indoles are weak bases, with pKa values ranging from -2.4 for protonated indole to 0.3 for the protonated electron-richer 2-methylindole [196]. As expected, C3 is the main site for protonation of indole, to produce the 3-H-indolium cation. Although the N-protonated indole (1-H-indolium cation) is not detected, even spectroscopically, it is believed that N-protonation occurs rapidly and equilibrates into the more stable C3 protonated species. Under weak acidic media indole undergoes dimerization and oligomerization by attack of a molecule of non-protonated indole to the strong electrophilic C2 position of the 3-H-indolium cation (Scheme 5.128).
H N H H H H N H H H N H
H+ N H
H N H - H+
N H N H
Scheme 5.128
NH
5.5.1.2 FriedelCrafts Alkylations of Indole Indolyl compounds can be regioselectively alkylated at C3 through different Friedel Crafts (FC) type of reactions (Scheme 5.129). Alkyl halides, epoxides and aziridines, carbonyl compounds and imines, a,b-unsaturated compounds, alkenes and alkynes, and allylic acetates or carbonates have all been employed as electrophiles. The amount of literature regarding this topic is enormous. These types of reaction usually proceed smoothly in the presence of a Lewis or protic acid as catalyst. Thus, the most recent advances have focused mainly on developing catalytic systems
j439
R N H X R N H N H X N H Pdcat R R R' R' R X R' N H R R X R-X R R R' N H XH R' XH R'
N H
Scheme 5.129
to perform the electrophilic aromatic substitution reaction in a milder, regio- and stereoselective manner [197].
5.5.1.2.1 Michael Additions The reactions of indoles with a,b-unsaturated compounds, such as a,b-unsaturated ketones, nitriles and nitroolens, usually require activation of the electrophile by an acid, and proceed with either protic [198] or Lewis acids [199] and clays [200] to provide the corresponding 3-substituted indoles (Scheme 5.130).
O + N H O AcOH, Ac2O 25 90 C BF3, EtOH - 20 C montmorillonite clay, 40 C
Scheme 5.130
N H 75% 86% 75%
440

These transformations have attracted much attention in recent years, and several different new Lewis acids have been developed, including bismuth(III) salts [201], cerium salts [202], Pd salts [203] and iodine [204]. For instance, the use of lanthanidebased Lewis acids allows for the alkylation of indoles at the 3-position with various Michael acceptors and under mild conditions (Scheme 5.131) [205].
R1 R2 EWG
+ N H
R1 R2
EWG
Yb(OTf)3 2.5 % mol CH3CN, rt
N H O
O 85% N H Ph Ph NO2 85%

Scheme 5.131
NO2
N H
Michael additions have been carried out in water at room temperature using a scandium salt of an anionic surfactant Sc(DS)3 (scandium dodecyl sulfate) (Scheme 5.132) [206].
O MeO N H
Scheme 5.132
Sc(SD)3 10 % mol H2O, rt 63% N H
Indium salts are amongst the most general and effective Lewis acids to promote the Michael addition, which can be performed with relatively hindered enones and 2substituted indoles [207, 208]. The same catalyst promotes the reaction with nitroalkenes, under aqueous conditions, with excellent yields in most instances (Scheme 5.133) [209]. Gold(III) salts are also excellent catalysts for this reaction [210]. Interestingly, when the Michael addition is carried out with 3-substituted indoles, substitution occurs at C2 although with relatively lower yields (Scheme 5.134).
j441
CN + N H Ph CN
Ph InCl3 10 % mol CH2Cl2, rt /8% InBr3 10 % mol CH2Cl2, rt /3% N H N H Ph
CN CN
Ph
+ N H
Ph O
Ph
R3 N R1
Scheme 5.133
R4 NO2
R3
R4 NO2 R2
InBr3, THF/H2O rt 99-45%
N R1
O Ph Ph
N H
OCH3 EtOH
O NaAuCl4, 2H2O
N H 85%
OCH3
O N H N H 58%
Scheme 5.134
In the reaction of indoles with b-substituted-a,b-unsaturated compounds one or two new stereogenic centers can be created. Control of the enantioselectivity of such processes has aroused much interest in recent years (Scheme 5.135). Few examples have appeared of the catalytic asymmetric Michael reaction of indoles. To achieve good enantioselectivities the use of bidentate chelating Michael acceptors is required, to keep xed the chiral environment provided by the ligand (Scheme 5.136). Good to excellent enantioselectivities have been achieved in reactions of alkylidene malonates 298 [211], b,c-unsaturated a-ketoesters 299 [212], acyl
442

R3 R2 N R1
Scheme 5.135
R2 EWG * * N R1
R3 EWG
O R X 298 299 300 301 X = CO2R', Y = OR' X = H, Y = CO2R' X = H, Y = P(O)OMe2 X = H, Y = C(Me)2OH N 302 X = H, Y = N Me Y R
LA* Y R
LA*
O Y
monodentate Michael acceptor: poor enantioselectivity LA* O R bidentate Michael acceptor: good enantioselectivity Y
Scheme 5.136
phosphonates 300 [213], a0 -hydroxyenones 301 [214] and a,b-unsaturated-2-acylimidazoles 302 [215, 216], using appropriate chelating C2 symmetric chiral ligands combined with Cu or lanthanide Lewis acids. Scheme 5.137 shows the asymmetric FriedelCrafts alkylation of indoles with a0 -hydroxyenone 301, yielding 3-substituted indole 303 with very high ee.
O R MeO N 301 cat. CH2Cl2, rt, 2h OH MeO N 303 steps cat.
O Cu tBu TfO OTf N N O
OH
96% yield 97% ee
R MeO
tBu
X = H, R, OMe
Scheme 5.137
In a totally different and extremely elegant approach, the asymmetric Michael addition of indoles to a,b-unsaturated aldehydes has been achieved using a chiral imidazolidinone (304) as an asymmetric organocatalyst [217]. The imidazolidinone
j443
plays a double catalytic role: to activate the aldehyde 305 by the formation of the highly reactive iminium species 306, and to create a chiral environment that differentiates both enantiotopic faces of the Michael acceptor (Scheme 5.138).
X + Y N R O cat: Ph Me N N H 304 305 H O cat: 20 % mol CH2Cl2, iPrOH Y N R Yield: 82-94% ee: 89-97% Me TFA O Me N N Ph X Me O
Me Me
Me
Me Me
306
Scheme 5.138
Thiourea-based organocatalyst 307 promotes the asymmetric FriedelCrafts alkylation of indoles with nitroalkenes with high yields and enantiomeric excesses. The stereochemical course of the reaction is controlled by the asymmetric platform provided by the chiral thiourea organocatalyst, which forms hydrogen bonds simultaneously with both reactants (Scheme 5.139) [218].
Ph MeO N H + Ph cat: 10 % mol CH2Cl2, -20 C MeO N R Yield: 86% ee: 89% cat: F3C CF3 S N H 307 N H OH H N H O N N S H O H N H O CF3 CF3 NO2
NO2
Ph
Scheme 5.139
444

5.5.1.2.2 Reactions with Unactivated Olefins The intramolecular cyclization of alkenylindoles 308 can be promoted by PtCl2 to give tetrahydrocarbazole derivatives 309 [219]. The cyclization proceeds through nucleophilic attack of the indole on the Pt(II) complexed olen in intermediate 310, followed by protonolysis of the CPt bond in 311 (Scheme 5.140). The same authors have recently reported an extension of this methodology to the use of Pd(II) and Cu(II) catalysts [220].
PtCl2 N R Dioxane 5 % mol HCl 309 N R
R = Me 91% R = H 87%
308
PtCl2 - HCl N R
PtCl H
310
311
N R
Scheme 5.140
5.5.1.2.3 Reactions with Carbonyl Compounds FriedelCrafts alkylation of indoles with aldehydes and ketones takes place under Brnsted [221] or Lewis acid catalysis. The initially formed indole-3-yl-carbinols 312 are usually not isolated and evolve to produce the azafulvenium salts 313. Finally, addition of a second molecule of indole to the azafulvenium salt gives rise to bis(indoylmethanes) 314 (Scheme 5.141).
3 HO R R2
R3
R2 R1
N H
R1 +
O R
2
R3
H+ or LA N H 312
R1 313
N H
N H
R1
R3 R2 N H
N R1 R1 H 314
Scheme 5.141
j445
Several different types of protic and Lewis acid catalysts have been employed for this transformation. For instance, reaction of indole with aldehydes or ketones such as 315 and 317, in the presence of LiClO4, affords the bis(indoylmethanes) 316 and 318, respectively, in excellent yields (Scheme 5.142) [222].
H3CO N H CHO 5 M LiClO in Et O 4 2 rt, 3h 315 93% N H H OCH3
MeO MeO
316
N H
N H 5 M LiClO4 in Et2O rt, 8h 89% N H 318 N H
317
Scheme 5.142
When the reaction is carried out with 2-oxoesters such as glyoxalate 319, the indoylcarbinol 320 does not undergo elimination and can be isolated (Scheme 5.143) [223].
HO
+ O H 319
Scheme 5.143
Pd(CH3CH)2Cl2 CO2Et CH2ClCH2Cl rt 96%

N H 320
CO2Et
N H
The enantioselective version of this reaction has been successfully carried out both with copper-based chiral Lewis acids 321 [224] and with Cinchona alkaloid organic catalysts 322 (Scheme 5.144) [225]. The organocatalyzed reaction, although not well understood yet, is remarkable, as the appropriate choice of alkaloid (chinchonidine, CD or Chinchonine, CN) provides either enantiomer in quantitative yield and with very high ee.
5.5.1.2.4 Reactions with Imines and Imminium Ions: Mannich Reaction Under typical Mannich conditions indole undergoes alkylation at C3. This reaction leads to the synthesis of gramines 323, which are important intermediates for the
446

R3 R2 + O F3C CO2Et cat.
O N
R3 cat
HO
CO2Et CF3 R2
N R1
N R1
cat.
O N Cu tBu TfO OTf
HO
98
N CD: C8, R; C9, S CN: C8, S; C9, R
tBu
321 Yield: 94 - 61% ee: 94 - 83%

Scheme 5.144
322
Yield: 99 - 96% ee: 95 - 83%
preparation of substituted indoles (Section 5.6.1). When the reactions are conducted in water at low temperatures, the kinetically controlled N-alkylation product 324 is obtained [226]. The resulting N-aminal indoles are relatively stable but convert into the thermodynamically more stable C3-substituted aminomethyl indoles upon heating at neutral pH or acid treatment at room temperature (Scheme 5.145).
R1R2NH CH2O H2O N 324 NR1R2 H2O, or AcOH, rt NR1R2 N H
N H R1R2NH CH2O AcOH
323
Scheme 5.145
Gramines can undergo a second Mannich reaction, yielding 1,3-disubstituted indoles 325. This reaction has been applied to the parallel synthesis of an indolebased library (Scheme 5.146) [227]. Indole reacts with imines under acidic conditions to give substituted gramines. For instance the reaction of glyoxylimine 326 with indoles employing Yb(OTf)3 as Lewis acid leads to gramine derivatives 327 (Scheme 5.147) [228, 229].

O EtO N H R1R2NH CH2O dioxane/HOAc rt, 18 h O EtO N H NR1R2 R3R4NH CH2O dioxane/HOAc rt, 48 h R1R2NH: pyrrolidine, 77% 4-methylpiperidine, 93% diethylamine, 78% morpholine 57% O EtO
j447
NR1R2 N
325
NR3R4
Scheme 5.146
BnHN Bn N H Ph + N CO2Et 326

Scheme 5.147
CO2Et Ph
Yb(OTf)3, 5 %mol CH2Cl2 68% N H
327
Asymmetric versions of this reaction have been carried out employing Cu-based chiral catalysts [230] and also organic catalysts. Scheme 5.148 presents the Friedel Crafts alkylation of indoles with N-tosylimines, such as 328, promoted by the quininebased organic catalyst 329 [231].
TsHN + 328 NTs 329 (5 mol%) THF, 50 C * N H Yield, 86% ee, 94% Ph
N H
N H
H N S N
H N
CF3
CF3 329
Scheme 5.148
5.5.1.2.5 Epoxide and Aziridine Ring Opening Epoxides and aziridines are versatile alkylating agents for indole. The ring opening of these strained heterocycles by indole proceeds with Lewis acid, bases and solid acids, giving rise to triptophols and tryptamine derivatives respectively (Scheme 5.149). Moreover, the ready availability of enantioenriched cis and trans epoxides makes this approach a very valuable entry
448

R1 + X R2 R1 LA N H XH R2 + N H R2 XH R1
N H
Scheme 5.149
into enantiomerically pure indoles. The regiochemistry and stereochemistry of the ring opening are the main issues that have to be addressed during the reaction. The alkylation of indole with enantiomerically pure styrene oxide is catalyzed by most of the common Lewis acids, with InBr3 being the most efcient in terms of regioselectivity, enantioselectivity and yield (Scheme 5.150) [232, 233]. Other catalysts such as Sc(OTf)3 and SnCl4 [234] also promote the ring opening without racemization.
Ph
+ O
OH
N H
Ph
InBr3 CH2Cl2
N H
Yield: /0% ee: 99%

Scheme 5.150
Enantioenriched chiral triptophols 330 can also be prepared by kinetic resolution of racemic epoxides, or by desymmetrization of meso epoxides, employing Cr(Salen) Cl complex 331 as chiral catalyst (Scheme 5.151) [235].
Ph R N H + Ph O 331 Ph TBME, rt R N H OH Ph 330
Yield: 95-98% ee: 90-98% N Cr O Cl O tBu

Scheme 5.151
tBu
tBu tBu
331
j449
The ring opening of aziridines with indoles provides tryptamine derivatives. Lewis acids based on Zn [236], Sc, Yb, and indium [237], and SiO2 promote efciently the FC reaction. Scheme 5.152 shows the alkylation of methyl indole-2-carboxylate with chiral aziridine 332 to produce the enantiomerically pure substituted indole 333. The alkylation occurs cleanly simply by adsorbing both reagents in SiO2 and heating the mixture at 70 C [238].
O O O N 332 O SiO2, 70 C 48 h 68% N H 333 NHTs CO2Me
N H
CO2Me + Ts
Scheme 5.152
5.5.1.2.6 Indole as Nucleophile in Palladium-Catalyzed Allylic Alkylations Indoles are also competent nucleophiles for Pd-catalyzed allylic substitutions (TsujiTrost reaction) [239]. The reaction between allyl carbonate 334 and indole leads regioselectively to the C3-allylated indole 335 or the N-allylated indole 336, depending on the reaction conditions applied (Scheme 5.153) [240].
OCO2CH3 Ph N H 334 Me N H : : Me
Ph + 336 1 50 N
[PdCl(-allyl)]2 PPh3 base, solvent CH2Cl2 BSA, Li2CO3 DMF, Cs2CO3
Ph
335
10 1
Scheme 5.153
The intramolecular variant of this reaction provides a new entry into polycyclic fused indoles. Remarkably, use of the appropriate chiral ligand allows for the asymmetric allylic alkylation (AAA) reaction [241] to take place with very high ee, giving rise to tetrahydro-b-carbolines 338 (Scheme 5.154) [242]. Moreover, when the pedant group is attached at C3, such as in 339, the allylic alkylation takes place at C2, also with very high regio- and enantioselectivity, to produce tetrahydro-c-carbolines 340.
5.5.1.3 Nitration Indoles are highly sensitive to acids, and for this reason the nitration of the indole ring requires carefully designed experimental conditions. Although C3 is the
450

OCO2CH3 N Bn N H 338 Yield: 98% ee: 97% Bn N Pd(0)/L* N H 339 O L*:
Scheme 5.154
N Bn N H
Pd(0)/L* Li2CIO3, CH2Cl2 rt
337
Bn N Li2CIO3, CH2Cl2 rt * N H 340 Yield: 90% ee: 93%
OCO2CH3 R N H R N H
PPh2 Ph2P
preferred position for electrophilic attack on indole, nitration under strong acid conditions proceeds through the 3-H-indolium cation, and nitration occurs mainly at C5, owing to the directing inuence of the iminium substituent. Indole itself can be nitrated at C3 with moderate yield with benzoyl nitrate [243], and 2-arylindoles can be successfully nitrated at C3 by treatment with 2-cyano-2-propyl nitrate under phase transfer catalysis conditions [244]. More interestingly, N-protected indoles can be successfully nitrated at C3 by treatment with in situ generated acetyl nitrate at very low temperature (Scheme 5.155) [245].
NO2 N R X Ac2O/HNO3 -70 C 41-86% N R X
R = Me, Bn, CO2R, SO2Ph X = H, Me

Scheme 5.155
In contrast, 2-nitroindoles 342 can be synthesized by a lithiation-nitration protocol on N-protected indoles 341 at very low temperature (Scheme 5.156) [246], and by treatment of N-protected-2-bromoindoles 343 with silver nitrite (Scheme 5.157) [247].
j451
R t-BuLi N Boc -78 C
R N Boc Li N2O4 -120 C to rt 74-78% 342
R N Boc NO2
341
R = H, Me
Scheme 5.156
343
N CO2Et
Br
AgNO2 Acetone: H2O 65 C dark, 48 h 63%
NO2 N CO2Et
Scheme 5.157
5.5.1.4 Acylation Indoles can be acylated at C3 by the VilsmeierHaack reaction [248], by FriedelCrafts acylations [249] and also by reactions of indole Grignard reagents [250] or indole zinc chloride salts with acid chlorides (Scheme 5.158) [251].
CHO DMF, POCl 3 N H N H RCOCl Lewis Acid COR N H COR N H
RCOCl N M
Scheme 5.158
The VilsmeierHaack reaction is the classical method for the preparation of 3formylindole and other 3-acylindoles, starting from tertiary amides. This reaction provides good yields for the acylation of indoles but is limited to formamide and alkylcarboxamides (Scheme 5.159). FriedelCrafts acylation is a very convenient process for electron-withdrawingsubstituted indoles and for N-protected indoles. However, the reaction of NH indoles requires a ne tuning of the catalyst and the reaction conditions to avoid
452

H Cl NMe2 H NMe2
N H
DMF, POCl3
N H
N H
Cl-
Cl H NMe2
NaOH CHO N H
Scheme 5.159
N-acylation and polymerization reactions [252]. The use of an excess of dialkylaluminium chlorides as Lewis acids represents a very general method for the Friedel Crafts acylation of indoles [253]. The excess dialkylaluminum reagent is required to quench the HCl liberated in the acylation process, thereby avoiding side reactions, such as dimerization and polymerization, that might be originated by the presence of the acid (Scheme 5.160).
RCOCl N H Y Et2AlCl 0 C 89% 80% 89% 71% 91%
COR N H Y
X = H; Y = Me; R = Me X = H; Y = Me; R = CH=CH-CH3 X = MeO; Y = H; R = Me X = MeO; Y = H; R = CH=CH-CH3 X = MeO2C-; Y = H; R = Me

Scheme 5.160
The use of N-acylbenzotriazoles 344 represents an alternative to acid chlorides, eliminating the complications associated with the release of HCl [254]. This procedure permits the acylation of both N-H and N-alkylindoles (Scheme 5.161).
5.5.1.5 Halogenation The indole ring can be easily halogenated at C3 by employing bromine and iodine in DMF (the presence of potassium hydroxide is required for the iodination reaction), providing nearly quantitative yields of the corresponding 3-haloindoles [255], while 3-chloroindoles are best prepared with N-chlorosuccinimide (NCS) (Scheme 5.162) [256, 257]. Many other reagents have been described to promote these transformations [258, 259].
j453
N X
+ ArCOBt 344
TiCl4 CH2Cl2 25 C, 2h
COAr N X Yield: 92-64%
X = H, Me
Bt = N
N N
Scheme 5.161
Br Br2, DMF N H H3CO N H 45 min, rt 96% I2, DMF, KOH 45 min, rt 97% H3CO N H N H I
O tBuO N H NCS, MeOH 0 C to rt 10 h 42%

Scheme 5.162
O tBuO
Cl N H
Halogens are best introduced at C2 by the metallationhalogenation sequence discussed in Section 5.5.2.2.
5.5.2 Reactions with Bases 5.5.2.1 N-Metallation of Indoles Indole is a weak acid (pKa 16.7 and 20.9 in water [260] and DMSO [261], respectively) and therefore undergoes deprotonation by strong bases to provide a reactive anion. Most of the reactions involving substitution at nitrogen alkylation, acylation, and sulfonation are carried out through the indolyl anion. The usual methods for the N-alkylation of indole involve the use of alkali metal hydroxides [262], alkali metal hydrides [263] or NaNH2 in polar aprotic solvents (Scheme 5.163). Alternatives include the use of potassium hydroxide in acetone under phase transfer catalysis conditions [264], caesium carbonate in either DMPU [265] or in the presence of a crown ether [266].
454

N H
Scheme 5.163
PhCH2Br KOH, DMSO 95%
N Bn
Both N-acylation and N-sulfonation of indoles are synthetically relevant transformations, not only for the interest in N-acyl and N-sulfonyl indoles themselves, but also because the protection of the indole NH in a synthetic sequence almost always involves an acylation orsulfonation step [267].The use of acid chlorides andanhydrides in the presence bases make up the most common reaction conditions. In particular, the Boc group has been introduced using di-tert-butyl dicarbonate, phenyl-tert-butyl carbonate and BocN3 [268]. Scheme 5.164 depicts some representative reactions for the NH acylation of indole with different acylating agents [269271].
PhCOCl NaOH, DME 83% O R O Cl N CO2R N COPh
NaH, THF, rt 80-100% N H i) NaOH (NBu)4HSO4 CH2Cl2 ii) PhSO2Cl, CH2Cl2 0 C to rt, 4h 89%
N SO2Ph
i) DMAP, THF ii) Boc2O, rt , 14 h 98%

Scheme 5.164
N Boc
Direct acylation of indoles with aromatic carboxylic acids can be achieved using DCC as coupling agent (Scheme 5.165) [272].
5.5.2.2 C-Metallation of Indoles N-Substituted indoles undergo direct lithiation at C2, and in certain cases at C3 upon treatment with organolithium reagents [273]. In fact, lithiation followed by reaction with an electrophile is the most common strategy to introduce substituents at C2.
j455
F N H +
HO2C OCH3
F DCC, DMAP CH2Cl2, rt 89% N O OCH3
Scheme 5.165
Both N-acyl and N-sulfonyl indoles can be selectively lithiated at C2 by treatment with organolithium reagents. The presence of the coordinating group at N1 assists the lithiation at C2 and governs the regioselectivity of the process. Recent applications of this strategy are found in Gribbles syntheses of 2-nitroindole 345 [274] and 2iodoindole 346 [275] from, respectively, N-Boc-indole and N-phenylsulfonylindole (Scheme 5.166) and in the preparation of the important synthetic intermediates 2-indolylborates 347 (Scheme 5.167) [276].
t-BuLi N Boc -78 C N Boc
Li
N2O4 -120 to 0 C 345 N Boc
NO2
LDA, THF N SO2Ph -78 C, 2h
-78 C to rt N 14 h SO2Ph
Li
I2, THF
346
I N SO2Ph
80%
Scheme 5.166
N Boc
+ B(O-iPr)3
i) LDA, THF, 0-5 C ii) 2 N HCl 99 - 77%
N OH Boc 347
OH
Scheme 5.167
Substitution at C2 on NH indoles can be achieved by employing Katritzks elegant indole C2 lithiation protocol [277]. In this sequential process the dilithiated intermediate 348 is formed, which provides the C2 substituted indole 349 after reaction with an electrophile and aqueous workup (Scheme 5.168). A typical example of the application of this methodology is Bergmans synthesis of 2-bromoindole 350 (Scheme 5.169) [278]. The nature of the N-substituent can direct the position of the lithiation in N-alkyl indoles. While indoles substituted with non-bulky alkyl groups are lithiated at C2, the
456

i) n-BuLi ii) CO2 N H iii) t-BuLi N O 348
Scheme 5.168
Li O Li
E N H 349
i) n-BuLi ii) CO2 N H iii) t-BuLi iv) BrCl2CCl2Br 350 N H
Br
Scheme 5.169
presence of a bulky non-coordinating group drives the lithiation at C3. For instance, N-methyl-2-stannylindole 352 is selectively synthesized from N-methylindole (351) by deprotonation at C2 with BuLi, followed by reaction with tributylstannyl chloride (Scheme 5.170).
BuLi N CH3 THF, 0 C N CH3 Li SnBu3Cl N CH3 352
SnBu3
351
Scheme 5.170
In contrast, indole 353, bearing the very bulky triisopropylsilyl N-substituent, is lithiated selectively at C3 upon treatment with t-BuLi (Scheme 5.171) [279].
Li i) t-BuLi, TMDA N Si(i-Pr)3 hexanes 0 C, 3h N Si(i-Pr)3 E N Si(i-Pr)3 E
353
Scheme 5.171
The directing effect of the N-protecting group has been also applied to effect regioselective ortho-metallation at the C7 position [280]. For this purpose, it is necessary to protect the C2 position with a removable group, such as TMS. Then, treatment of N-CONEt2 protected indole 354 with t-BuLi/THF at 78 C followed by quench with TMSCl gives rise to the indole silylated at C2 355. Treatment of 355 with s-BuLi/TMEDA/THF at 78 C produces the regioselective metallation at C7, which
j457
provides the corresponding C7 functionalized indole 356 upon reaction with an electrophile (Scheme 5.172). Interestingly, the whole process can be conducted in a one pot fashion.
i) t-BuLi, THF - 78 C N O 354 NEt2 ii) TMSCl N O 355 i) s-BuLi, TMEDA, THF - 78 C ii) E+ E N O 356
TMS NEt2
TMS NEt2
E= D, Me, Et, CHO, Br, -B(OR) 2, SnBu3

Scheme 5.172
5.5.3 Transition Metal Catalyzed Reactions
The most reliable synthetic methods to create CC and CX bonds from C-sp2 are currently transition metal catalyzed reactions. The well-developed Pd-catalyzed Heck and cross-coupling reactions are doubtless the most prominent methods, and have been applied successfully to the incorporation of new substituents in the indole ring. Moreover, alternative methodologies that make use of different transition metals are also noteworthy, and are discussed in this section.
5.5.3.1 General Considerations on Palladium-Catalyzed Cross-Coupling Reactions Indolyl halides or triates behave as regular aryl halides in Pd-catalyzed crosscoupling reactions. Thus, 2- and 3-halo or triate substituted indoles have been employed to synthesize numerous indole derivatives. The process starts with the oxidative addition of indolyl halide 357 to the Pd(0) catalyst to form indolyl-Pd(II) complex 358. The nature of the coupling partner, alkene, alkyne, stannane, boronate, organozinc, amine, determines the subsequent steps of the cross-coupling process. In a prototypical cross-coupling reaction, transmetallation of the organometallic partner followed by reductive elimination produces the cross-coupling product 360 and releases the Pd(0) catalyst (Scheme 5.173). 5.5.3.2 Reactions with Alkenes and Alkynes: Heck Reactions The reaction of indolyl halides or pseudohalides with alkenes under standard Heck conditions gives rise to vinylindoles [281]. For instance, N-protected-4-bromoindole 361 can be transformed into 4-alkenylsubstituted indoles 362 under standard Heck conditions (Scheme 5.174) [282]. The higher reactivity of iodide than bromide towards oxidative addition to Pd, allows for the sequential substitution of 3-iodo-4-bromoindole 363 through two consecutive Heck reactions. In the rst step substitution of the more reactive iodine occurs to yield 364. A second Heck reaction with substitution of the bromine leads to 365 (Scheme 5.175). This strategy was employed by Hegedus in the synthesis of ergot alkaloids [283].
458

R-M MX
transmetallation PdXLn 359 PdRLn
358 oxidative addition
N R
N R
reductive elimination
N R 357
Scheme 5.173
Pd(0)Ln 360
N R
R Br + R Pd(OAc)2 P(o-Tol) 3 Et3N, 100 C 60% N 362 Tos
361
N Tos
R = CO2Me (86%), C(Me) 2OH (97%), Ph (74%)

Scheme 5.174
In a similar manner to other Pd-catalyzed cross-couplings, the reaction is general regarding the position of the leaving halogen. For instance, 3-substituted 2-iodoindole 366 reacts with methyl acrylate to furnish 2-alkenylindole 367 (Scheme 5.176) [284]. The intramolecular Heck reaction is particularly appealing, as it leads to polycyclic indole derivatives that might be difcult to synthesize through other strategies [285]. For instance, N-allylindoles 368 undergo cyclization to give 3H-pyrroloquinoline 369 under typical Heck reaction conditions (Scheme 5.177) [286], and carbolines 371 are easily prepared from 3-iodoindoles 370 (Scheme 5.178) [287].
5.5.3.3 Sonogashira Reaction Indolyl halides or triates react under typical Sonogashira [288] conditions with terminal alkynes to give rise to the corresponding alkynes (Scheme 5.179) [289]. The alkynylation can be employed to prepare 2-alkynylindoles 372, 3-alkynylindoles 373, and also to introduce the alkyne in the benzene ring [290] from the corresponding indolyl halides or triates.
j459
CO2Me Br I N Tos 363 OH 8 % Pd(OAc)2 P(o-Tol) 3 Et3N, MeCN 100 C 83%

Scheme 5.175
Br + CO2Me NHCOMe 5 % Pd(OAc)2 Et3N, MeCN 100 C 60% 364 OH CO2Me NHCOMe N Tos 365 N Tos
NHCOMe
OTHP CO2CH3 N H 366

Scheme 5.176
OTHP 5 % Pd(OAc)2 P(o-Tol)3 Et3N, MeCN 100 C 83%
N H 367
CO2CH3
OMe
Ph N Ph
Pd(OAc)2 P(o-Tol) 3 NEt3, MeCN, 100 C 96% MeO
OMe
Ph N Ph
MeO Br 368
Scheme 5.177
369
I N O 370
Scheme 5.178
NH O
Pd(OAc)2 Bu4NCl, NaHCO3 DMA, 90 C 77% N O 371
NH O
460

CO2Et I + Bu CO2Et PdCl2(PPh3)2 CuI, NEt3, r.t 89% N H 372
Ph I N H CO2Et + Ph
N H
Bu
PdCl2(PPh3)2 CuI, NEt3, 60 C 89% N H 373
CO2Et
Scheme 5.179
5.5.3.4 Cross-Coupling Reactions with Organometallic Reagents Typical Pd-catalyzed cross-couplings consist of the reaction of an organic halide with an organometallic reagent. The most popular methods involve the use of organotin (Stille reaction), organoboron (SuzukiMiyaura reaction) [291] and organozinc (Negishi reaction) [292] compounds. Two different strategies are possible to conduct a cross-coupling reaction involving an indole derivative: (i) couple an indolyl halide or triate with an organometallic reagent and (ii) react an indolylmetal derivative with an organic halide. Regardless of the strategy chosen, in most of the cases, cross-coupling reactions involving indolyl species can be performed efciently under the typical conditions developed for cross-couplings with benzenoid systems. 5.5.3.4.1 SuzukiMiyaura Cross-Coupling The Pd-catalyzed reaction of a boronic acid and an aryl or alkenyl halide or sulfonate is one of the most popular CC bondforming reactions involving aromatic species, and has been extensively applied to the functionalization of indoles on every position of the ring. Indolyl halides and triates have been employed in the coupling reaction. For instance, the reactions of 2-indolyl triates with aryl boronic acids afford the corresponding aryl substituted indoles in high yields (Scheme 5.180) [293].
Pd(PPh3)4 Toluene/EtOH aqNaHCO3 90-60%
N SO2Ph 374
Scheme 5.180
OTf +
Ar-B(OH)2 375
376
Ar N SO2Ph
The Suzuki coupling has been also applied to the preparation of vinylindoles. One example is the reaction of vinylboronate 378 with 3-iodoindole 377, which leads to 3-vinylindole 379 (Scheme 5.181) [294].
j461
Ts I N Ts 377
Scheme 5.181
Bn + O B
Ts Pd(PPh3)4 NaOH, 70 C 71% 379 N Ts
N Bn
378
Thiophen-3-triuoroborates 381 have been employed in a coupling reaction with 7bromoindole 380, giving rise to the corresponding thiophene-substituted indole 382 (Scheme 5.182) [295].
S N H + BF3K 381
PdCl2(dppf)CH2Cl2 Et3N, EtOH, reflux 77% S 382
N H
Br
380
Scheme 5.182
Indoylboronic acids are also appropriate coupling partners in cross-coupling reactions [296]. The sometimes difcult purication of indolylboronic acids recommends its utilization as crude products. An example of this methodology is represented in the synthesis of 386 (Scheme 5.183), a precursor of a tyrosine kinase
Boc N N i) B(OiPr)3, LDA N Boc H N ii) 2N HCl 384 Boc N N 385 N Boc 386 O N Boc Boc N N B(OH)2
383 O Br
NH
Pd(OAc)2, PPh3 Cy2NH, THF 88%

Scheme 5.183
462

inhibitor. The indolylboronic acid 384 required is prepared by metallation of indole 383, followed by reaction with triisopropylborate. The coupling reaction with the corresponding bromide 385 then affords 386 [297]. Remarkably, the sequence can be conducted on a multi-kilogram scale. 7-Arylsubstituted indoles can be synthesized from the corresponding boronates 387, which can be prepared by the synthetic sequence discussed in Scheme 5.167. Subsequent Suzuki reaction leads to the 7-aryl substituted indoles 388 (Scheme 5.184) [298].
tBuLi, TMSCl N THF, -78 C, 2h CONEt2
N CONEt2
TMS
sBuLi, TMEDA B(OR)3 THF, -78 C, 2h
Ar-X TMS N Pd(PPh3)4, DMF CONEt2 K3PO4, 80 C, 15-20 h. (RO)2B 387

Scheme 5.184
Ar
TMS N CONEt2 388
5.5.3.4.2 Stille Cross-Coupling The Pd-catalyzed coupling of organostannanes with halides or pseudohalides is generally known as the Stille reaction. This coupling reaction has been widely employed in the modication of indoles. Both indolyl triates (Scheme 5.185) [299, 300] and halides have been employed in the coupling reaction.
CO2Et OTf + Bu3Sn CO2Et Pd(PPh3)2 LiCl dioxane, reflux 24 h N Ts
N Ts
Scheme 5.185
88%
The Stille coupling has been employed in many syntheses of biologically active indole alkaloids [301]. In the example represented in Scheme 5.186, 2-vinylindole 391 (an intermediate in the synthesis of the natural alkaloid tabersonine) was prepared from 2-iodoindole 389 and vinylstannane 390 [302]. Interestingly, when the Stille cross coupling conditions are applied under a CO atmosphere, the corresponding a,b-unsaturated ketones are isolated (Scheme 5.187) [303].
j463
OAc OAc N Boc 389

Scheme 5.186
Bu3Sn
CO2Me
BnPd(PPh3)2Cl AsPh3, CuI HMPA, DMF 85 C 65% N CO2Me Boc 391
390
CO2Me
I
CO2Me Bu3SnR + CO PdCl2(dppf) DMF, 80 C 392 R=

R=H N H
N H
COR
Bu
78%
85%
Scheme 5.187
Indolylstannanes [304] have also been widely utilized for the functionalization of indoles, mostly at C2 [305] and C3 [306]. Scheme 5.188 presents the synthesis of 2arylindoles by coupling of N-protected-2-indolylstannane 393 with aryl halides under typical Stille conditions. A variation of this reaction has also been adapted to a solidphase synthesis [307].
Pd(PPh3)2 DMF, 110 C 80-98%
N SEM 393
SnBu3
+ ArX
Ar N SEM
SEM: -CH2OCH2CH2TMS
Scheme 5.188
5.5.3.5 CN Bond-Forming Reactions Application of the BuchwaldHartwig arylation to NH indoles allows for the preparation of N-arylindoles from NH indoles and aryl halides [308310]. The reaction is very general regarding the structure of both coupling partners, the indole and the aryl halide. Aryl bromides, chlorides, and triates can be employed successfully upon selection of the proper combination of ligand and base. Scheme 5.189 gives an example of a coupling reaction between indole 394 and m-bromoacetophenone (395). The reaction proceeds in the presence of potentially sensitive functional groups to give arylated indole 396 in quantitative yield. In a similar procedure,
464

CO2CH3 N H 394
PtBu2
O Pd2(dba)3, Ligand Br 395 K3PO4, Toluene 100 C 95% 396 N
CO2Et
Ligand:
Pri
Scheme 5.189
treatment with vinyl halides allows for the preparation of the corresponding Nvinylindoles [311]. On the other hand, BuchwaldHartwig amination can be applied to incorporate an amino group into the indole structure. Thus, coupling of haloindoles with amines provides the corresponding aminoindoles. The coupling reaction can even be conducted with NH-containing indoles such as 397 to give amino substituted indole 398, provided that an excess of base is employed (Scheme 5.190) [312].
H N Cl 397
Scheme 5.190
N H
+ O
Pd2(dba)3, Ligand LiHDMS (2.2 eq) THF, 65 C 24 h 66% N O 398
N H
5.5.3.6 Transition Metal Catalyzed CH Activation Modication of the indole ring via substitution of a CH bond by a CC bond is a very desirable reaction, as it does not require the previous presence of a reactive functionalization such as Chalogen, Ctriate, or Cmetal bond in the indole ring. Nevertheless, this challenging transformation has been comparatively much less studied than the cross-coupling reactions, and at the present suffers from some limitations, such as lack of selectivity and generality. Many examples exist of intramolecular Pd(II)-catalyzed oxidative cyclizations of indoles with a proper pedant aryl or alkenyl group [313]. For instance, the oxidative cyclization of bisindolylmaleimides 399 gives rise to indolo[2,3-a]pyrrolo[3,4-c]carbazoles 400 [314], a substructure that is present in a large number of natural products (Scheme 5.191). One approach for the direct substitution of the CH bond is the reaction with metal salts that usually starts with the electrophilic metallation of the indole (Scheme 5.192).
j465
An interesting recent example is the Pd-catalyzed oxidative annulation of alkenyl indoles 401 (Scheme 5.193), which gives rise to tricyclic derivatives 402 [315].
H N O H N O
Pd(OAc)2
N H 399
Scheme 5.191
N H
HOAc, 110 C 75%
N H
N H 400
H Metal salt N P
Scheme 5.192
[M] R-X N P
R N P
R N 401
Scheme 5.193
10 mol % Pd (OAc)2 Ethyl nicotinate, O2 t-Amyl-OH, AcOH N 402 R
The mechanism proposed for this annulation includes (i) electrophilic palladation of the indole to form indolyl palladium complex 403; (ii) intramolecular olen insertion to give palladated complex 404; and (iii) b-hydrogen elimination, which gives rise to the annulated indole 402 and releases a Pd(0) species. To obtain a catalytic reaction, reoxidation of the Pd(0) to Pd(II) is necessary. In this example, a pyridine derivative (ethyl nicotinate) in an oxygen atmosphere is responsible for reoxidation of the Pd catalyst (Scheme 5.194). Some examples of the intermolecular oxidative coupling of indoles with olens and alkynes have been also described [316, 317]. The intermolecular oxidative Heck reaction of indoles with alkenes allows for the selective alkenylation at C2 or C3, depending on the solvent and reaction conditions chosen [318]. Thus, when the reaction is carried out using a mixture of DMF and DMSO as solvent, and Cu(OAc)2 as oxidant, the expected C3 oxidative alkenylation is produced, giving rise to the C3alkenylindole 405 (Scheme 5.195). However, if the reaction is performed under acidic conditions (dioxane : AcOH), employing tert-butyl benzoyl peroxide as oxidant, the
466

R N 401 palladation R Pd L 404 402 N R
-Hydrogen elimination
olefin insertion N H PdL
N 403
Scheme 5.194
CO2nBu + Pd(OAc)2, Cu(OAc)2 CO2nBu DMF/DMSO (9:1) 70 C, 18 h 75% N H 405
N H
N H
Pd(OAc)2, tBuOOBz CO2nBu dioxane/AcOH (3:1) 70 C, 18 h 51% 406 N R1
CO2nBu
Scheme 5.195
regioselectivity of the alkenylation is switched to the 2 position to give alkenylindole 406 as the major product. An explanation of this switch in the regioselectivity can be found in the mechanisms proposed for each process as represented in Scheme 5.196. The reaction starts with the electrophilic palladation at the electron-richer C3 position, to provide cationic indole complex 407. At this point, aromatization by loss of a proton leads to indolyl palladium complex 408 (left-hand cycle), which then follows the path of a typical Heck reaction. The catalytic cycle is completed by oxidation of the Pd(0) species liberated. When the reaction is carried out under acidic media, the deprotonation of complex 407 is disfavored (right-hand cycle). Instead, 1,2-Pd migration takes place to give the new cationic complex 409, which then follows the reaction path of a Heck reaction to produce alkenylation at C2.
j467
H
405
Pd(0)
[O] PdX2 N H PdX 2
[O]
406 Pd(0)
R PdX
N H XPd
N H
H PdX N H
H N H H N H PdX H - H+ PdX
PdX - H+ R 408
Scheme 5.196
407
1,2-migration of Pd
N H
409
In a similar way, indoles add regioselectively to alkynoates 410 in the presence of Pd(OAc)2 and acetic acid [319]. Indole itself gives rise to 3-alkenylindoles 411, while 3methylindole provides 2-alkenylindoles 412, also with good yields (Scheme 5.197).
Ph + Ph 410 CO2Et Pd(OAc)2 (5 mol %) AcOH, r.t. 48 h 78% 411 N H CO2Et
N H
N H
Ph
CO2Et
Pd(OAc)2 (5 mol %) AcOH, r.t. 48 h 69% N H Ph
CO2Et
412
Scheme 5.197
The mechanism proposed for the reaction involves (i) electrophilic palladation of the indole to form indolyl palladium complex; (ii) complexation of the alkyne followed by regioselective carbopalladation of the triple bond to provide vinyl palladium complex; and (iii) protonolysis of the CPd bond by action of the AcOH, affording alkenylated indole 411 and liberating the Pd(II) species (Scheme 5.198) . Direct Pd-catalyzed CH substitution has also been accomplished by reaction of indolyl anions 413 with organopalladium complexes 414, generated in situ from Pd(0) complexes and aryl halides (Scheme 5.199). Arylation of NH-indoles can be carried out selectively either at C2 [320, 321] or C3 [322], depending on the reaction
468

CO2Et PdOAc + Ph Ph N H CO2Et N H -HOAc PdOAc Pd(OAc)2
N H
Ph
CO2Et PdOAc AcOH
Ph
CO2Et H + Pd(OAc)2
N H
N H 411
Scheme 5.198
I N H +
Pd(OAc)2, PPh3 MgO Dioxane/DMF, 1:2 150 C 84% N H 415
+ Ph-Pd-I(PPh3)2 N MgOH 413

Scheme 5.199
414
conditions (Scheme 5.200). Thus, reaction with MgO as base gives rise exclusively the C2 arylated product 415, while the use of larger bases such as Mg(HMDS)2 provides the C3 arylated indole 417 with very high regioselectivity. A rationale for this reactivity trend has been found after detailed mechanistic investigations (Scheme 5.201). Electrophilic palladation of the indolylmagnesium salt with the arylpalladium complex 414 gives rise to the cationic indolinylarylpalladium complex 418. Aromatization by deprotonation gives indolylaryl palladium complex 419, and reductive elimination produces the C3 arylated indole 417. In contrast, palladium migration on complex 418 leads to the C2 palladated indole 420, which will evolve through 2-indolylaryl palladium complex to furnish the C2 arylated indole 415. The driving force for the migration step has been related to stabilization of the carbonpalladium bond by the adjacent nitrogen atom on 420. However, bulky ligands on the magnesium destabilize the C2 palladated indole 420 and, therefore, the migration does not occur and so the arylation takes place at C3 (Scheme 5.201).
j469
I N H +
Pd(OAc)2, PPh3 Mg(HMDS)2 Dioxane/DMF, 1:2 125 C 77% N H 417 26 :1 (C3: C2)
N Mg 416
Scheme 5.200
+ Ph-Pd-I(PPh3)2 N TMS TMS
414
In contrast, when the steric interactions are minimized with small bases, such as MgO, the migration step is favored and the arylation occurs at C2. In agreement with this hypothesis, bulkier ligands on the Pd also drive the reaction to the C3 arylation product. Regioselective indole C2 arylation has also been conducted employing Rh(III) complexes as catalysts. The coupling process is achieved in the presence of a catalyst that is assembled in situ from a rhodium species, a phosphine ligand and CsOPiv as base (Scheme 5.202) [323]. The proposed catalytic cycle involves (i) oxidative addition of the aryl halide, to form Rh(III) complex 422, (ii) complexation of the indole to form complex 423, followed by
N MgX + Ar-Pd -XLn 414

II
electrophilic palladation
(L)nPd-Ar H N MgX
(L)nPd-Ar base 419 N MgX
reductive elimination 417 N H
Ar
418
C3-arylation migration
H N MgX 420
Scheme 5.201
H Pd-Ar(L)n
base
Pd-Ar(L)n N MgX
reductive elimination N H
Ar
415
C2-arylation
470

R + Ph-I [Rh(coe)2Cl2 ]2 [p-(CF3)C6H4 ]3P R Ph N H CsOPiv Dioxane, 120 C R=H 82% R = NHTos 65% N 421 H
coe: cis-cyclooctene PivO: O t-Bu O
Scheme 5.202
pivalate promoted CH bond metallation to give indolyl rhodium complex 424 and (iii) reductive elimination to release the C2 arylated indole 421 (Scheme 5.203).
L Rh
Ph PivO N H
OPiv H PivOH
NH L 423
Ph PivO
L Rh L 422
OPiv 424
N H L
Ph Rh OPiv L
Ph-I CsOPiv
RhL2(OPiv) N 421 H
Ph
Scheme 5.203
5.5.4 Radical Reactions
Intermolecular radical aromatic substitution on indole can be effected at C2 with electrophilic carbon-centered radicals. For instance, indole reacts with radicals generated from iodoacetates or bromomalonates 425 to give the alkylated indole 426 (Scheme 5.204) [324, 325]. The reactions proceed with high regioselectivity, although a large excess of indole is required to avoid polysubstitution reactions.
j471
N H 5 eq.
Scheme 5.204
MeO2C
CO2Me
propylene oxide Na2S2O3 Bu4N+BrMTBE, h 65% N H 426
CO2Me CO2Me Me
Br Me 425
A more efcient procedure for the oxidative radical alkylation of indoles employs a-acetyl or a-acetonyl radicals generated from the corresponding xantenes 427. In this way, radical alkylation can be accomplished to prepare 2-indolyl acetate 428 inpreparativelyusefulyieldswithouttheneedofexcessindole(Scheme5.205)[326,327].
O + OEt EtO S 427 DLP: dilauryol peroxide

Scheme 5.205
O DLP dichloroethane reflux 60% N H 428
OEt
N H
While the intermolecular reactions of indoles with radicals have found limited application, there are many examples of intramolecular radical additions to the indole ring that have been employed as an entry into more complex heterocyclic structures [328331]. For instance, spirocyclic dearomatized indole derivatives 430, 432, and 434 are formed via 5-exo-trig cyclizations from aryl, vinyl and alkyl radical precursors 429, 431, and 433, respectively (Scheme 5.206) [332]. In these examples the reaction proceeds by attack of the intermediate radical 435 to the C2 position of the indole ring (Scheme 5.207). The additional stability of the benzylic radical 436 might account for the preference of the C2 attack instead of C3 attack. Nevertheless, it has been observed that the nature of the pedant group may inuence the course of the cyclization, and, in some cases, the addition of the radical at C3 is the main or unique reaction pathway [333, 334]. This is the case of the tandem radical sequence that has been applied to the preparation of functionalized indolenine 441 from amidoindole 437 (Scheme 5.208) [335]. Reaction of indole amide 437 with the tributylstannyl radical produces the aryl radical 438 by bromine atom abstraction. The aryl radical undergoes [1,5]-hydrogen atom abstraction, which generates the amido radical 439. Intramolecular addition of the radical to the C3 position of the indole produces indolyl radical 440, which leads to the indolenine 441 after hydrogen atom abstraction of the tributylstannyl hydride. The same authors have further extended the radical sequence to the preparation of tetracyclic structures [336].
472

O N Me 429
O N Me 431
O N Me 433 NBn PhSe Bu3SnH, AIBN Benzene, reflux 49% N Me O 434
Bu3SnH, AIBN Benzene, reflux Br 89% N H 430 O NMe
NMe
Bu3SnH, AIBN Benzene, reflux Br 32% 432 N H O NBn
NBn
NMe
Scheme 5.206
Bu3SnH 5-exo-trig N 435

Scheme 5.207
H H N
N 436 Bu3Sn
On the other hand, indolyl radicals can be generated from the corresponding haloindoles by treatment with tributyltin hydride in the presence of a radical initiator. The indolyl radical can be trapped in an intermolecular [337] or in an intramolecular sense by reaction with a suitable radical acceptor. Scheme 5.209 shows the generation of 2-indolyl radical 443 from a 2-bromoindole (442) and the subsequent intramolecular cyclization to provide the tricyclic indole 444 [338]. Indolyl radicals such as 446, generated from bromoindole 445, which cannot undergo a direct intramolecular annulation, evolve through a [1,5]-hydrogen atom abstraction reaction to generate transient radical 447. Then, intramolecular radical addition to the indole ring leads to the tetracyclic radical 448, and nally to indoline 449 as a single diastereoisomer (Scheme 5.210) [339]. The reaction proceeds with moderate yield, as a 42% yield of dehalogenated indole 450 is also recovered. A 3-indolyl radical can be also generated by oxidation of the corresponding anion. This strategy has been applied to devise an extremely potent coupling between unprotected indoles and ketone enolates [340]. Thus, simultaneous deprotonation of
j473
O N N Me N CN 437 Bu3Sn O R N Me N CN O R N Me N CN 439

Scheme 5.208
Ph
Bu3SnH, AIBN Br tBu-benzene 170 C 53%
CN N Me four diastereoisomers 441 Bu3SnH Ph R N Me 440 CN
438 [1,5]-H abstraction
N 442
Br
Bu3SnH Toluene reflux N 443 N 444 79%
Scheme 5.209
indole and the ketone 451 gives indole anion 452 and ketone enolate 453. Oxidation with a Cu(II) salt provides 3-indolyl radical 454 and ketone radical 455, which upon radical coupling lead to substituted indole 456 (Scheme 5.211). Importantly, the application of this methodology to ketones bearing stereogenic centers leads to the corresponding coupling products as single diastereoisomers. This strategy has been applied in the crucial step of a highly convergent total synthesis of various indole alkaloids such as Fischer-indoles I and G and welwitindolinone A [341]. Scheme 5.212 shows the coupling of ketone 457 with indole to give enantiomerically pure substituted indole 458.
474

O N Br Bu3SnH, AIBN Toluene, reflux, 36 h N 449 54% Bu3Sn O Bu3SnH O H N 447 O H N 448 N O N H + N 450 42% O N H
N 445
N H
N H
N 446
Scheme 5.210
R2 O X 2 eq. N H + R2 R 451
1
O R1
LiHMDS (3 eq) Cu(II)-2-ethylhexanoate THF, - 78 C
X 456
N H
LiHMDS
radical coupling O X 454 N + R 455

2
O X 452
Scheme 5.211
+ R
2
Cu(II) oxidation
R1
453
O Me Cl Me H 457
N H LiHMDS Cu(II)2-ethylhexanoate THF, -78 C, 30 min 55%
H Me N H 458
Cl Me O N H C N
Me
Cl
H Me Me
(-)-Fischer-indole G
Scheme 5.212
j475
5.5.5 Oxidation Reactions
Indoles are highly sensitive to oxidation and, thus, undergo aerial autooxidation to produce 3-hydroperoxo-3H-indoles, which are rarely isolated but decompose to produce complex mixtures of degradation and polymerization derivatives. The transformation of N-tosylindole into indoxyl 459 has been described with oxodiperoxomolybdenum(IV) [342, 343], and by catalytic oxidation with dichlororuthenium(IV)meso-tetrakis(2,6-dichlorophenyl)porphyrin complex [RuIV(2,6-Cl2tpp)Cl2]. The latter process requires the presence of 2,6-dichloropyridine N-oxide as stoichiometric oxidant (Scheme 5.213) [344].
O [RuIV(2,6-Cl2tpp)Cl2] N Ts Cl O Cl CH2Cl2, 40 C
Scheme 5.213
N Ts 459 95%
Indoles can be converted into oxindoles through several different oxidative strategies. A general reaction is the treatment of indoles with conc. HCl in dimethyl sulfoxide, which provides cleanly the corresponding oxindoles 460 [345]. The reaction is likely to proceed through C3 protonation of indole to give indolenium intermediate 461, followed by electrophilic addition of the DMSO to give intermediate 462 followed by elimination of dimethylsulfane (Scheme 5.214).
R N H HCl R N H O R -CO2H (82%) -CH2CH2NH2 (61%) -CH2(NH2)CO2H (54%)
conc. HCl DMSO 20 C, 0.5-4h 460
H R N H 461
Scheme 5.214
H R O S N H 462
O SMe2 H
476

Oxidation of indoles to oxindoles 460 can also be produced by treatment of the indole with a halogenating agent, followed by hydrolysis. Thus, the intermediate indolenium cation 463 formed gives 2-hydroxy-3-halodihydroindole 464, which suffers dehydrohalogenation to give oxindole 460 (Scheme 5.215) [346]. A closely related procedure allows for the substitution of indoles at C2. This oxidativecoupling procedure involves reaction of the indole with a suitable electrophile [X ]. Addition of a nucleophile [Nu] to the transient indolenium cation 463 formed gives 465, and aromatization by elimination of HX furnishes the functionalized indole 466.
X OH R N H X N H Nu N H N H R R OH -HX N H 460 X O
[X+]
464
463
R Nu -HX N H Nu
H 466
465
Scheme 5.215
Halogenating agents, such as tBuOCl, NCS or NBS are the electrophiles of choice. The oxidative-coupling strategy has been performed with various carbon nucleophiles, such as allyl boranes and stannanes, enol ethers, enamines, acetylide and even indole. Scheme 5.216 presents the synthesis of C2 substituted tryptophan 469 by nucleophilic addition of a silylenol ether (467) to the indolenium cation generated from protected tryptophan 468 [347].
CO2Me NBn2 N H i) tBuOCl, NEt3, THF - 78 C, 30 min OTBS 467 OEt N H 469 77%
Scheme 5.216
CO2Me NBn2 CO2Et
BF3Et2O, 12h rt
468
Heteronucleophiles such as alcohols [348], anilines, phenols and thiophenols [349] are also appropriate reagents for the oxidative coupling, providing the corresponding C2 functionalized indoles. For instance, 2-aminoindole 471 can be prepared from indole 470 by employing this sequence (Scheme 5.217).
j477
NH Ph
CO2CH3 N H
NCS 1,4-dimethylpiperazine CH2Cl2, 0 C, 2h
Cl N H
CO2CH3
PhNH2 CCl3CO2H r.t., 2h
CO2CH3 N H
470
471 58%
Scheme 5.217
Moreover, the versatility and functional group compatibility of this oxidativecoupling procedure has been shown in the coupling of a tryptophan derived peptide 472 with the imidazole ring of the histidine-containing peptide 473, which represents the key step in the synthesis of the right-hand ring of the natural octapeptide celogentin (474) (Scheme 5.218) [350].
PhthN
BnO2C O N
NH CbzHN N HN O CO2tBu 473 N H NHPbf NCS 1,4-dimethylpiperazine CH2Cl2, rt 58%
+ 472 N H
HN
PhthN
BnO2C O N CbzHN N 474 N HN O N H NH NHPbf
N H
CO2tBu
Scheme 5.218
A very valuable synthetic transformation is the oxidation of indoles with dimethyldioxirane, which produces the corresponding epoxides 475 [351]. Although the epoxides are unstable in most cases, their generation in the presence of a nucleophile gives rise to 3-hydroxyindoline derivatives 476 (Scheme 5.219). The application of this strategy to protected tryptophan 477 led to pyrrolo[2,3-b] indole 478, an early key intermediate in Danishefskys total synthesis of himastatin (Scheme 5.220) [352]. In contrast, aqueous workup of the preformed epoxide leads to 3-hydroxyoxindoles 479 (Scheme 5.221) [353].
478

R' N R
Scheme 5.219
O O CH2Cl2 - 78 C
R' N R
HO R' Nu N R 476 Nu
475
CO2tBu NHTr N H 477
O O HOAc CH2Cl2 - 78 C MeOH, CH2Cl2
HO N H H 478 55%
CO2tBu NH
Scheme 5.220
CO2Me N CO2Me
Scheme 5.221
O O acetone r.t. 63%
HO N H
CO2Me O
479
5.5.6 Reduction of the Heterocyclic Ring
Indoles are reduced to indolines by several methods, including catalytic hydrogenation, dissolving metals and metal hydrides. Some detailed reviews on this subject are available [354].
5.5.6.1 Catalytic Hydrogenation Catalytic hydrogenation of the heterocyclic ring has been achieved employing various heterogeneous catalysts, but usually requires harsh conditions and sometimes is not very selective. In the presence of strong acids, relatively milder conditions can be used, as the reaction proceeds through the C3 protonated indole [355]. For instance, N-Boc-2,3-disubstituted indoles 480 are hydrogenated to the corresponding cis-2,3disubstituted indolines 481 over a rhodium-alumina catalyst in a EtOH/AcOH mixture (Scheme 5.222) [356]. The catalytic asymmetric hydrogenation of N-acylindoles 482 has been performed employing as catalyst a rhodium complex bearing the chiral diphosphine ligand 484. In this way, optically active substituted indolines 483 can be obtained in high yield and enantiomeric excesses (Scheme 5.223) [357].
j479
MeO MeO 480

Scheme 5.222
Me N Boc CO2Me Rh-Al2O3 H2, 200 psi EtOH, AcOH 84%
MeO MeO 481
Me N Boc CO2Me
482
N Ac
CO2Me
[Rh(nbd)2]SbF6 484 H2, 5 MPa iPr-OH, Cs2CO3 84% N Ac
CO2Me
483
Ph2P Chiral ligand Fe Me

Scheme 5.223
Me
Yield: 95% ee: 95%
Fe PPh2
484
5.5.6.2 Metal-Promoted Reductions The reduction of indoles with dissolving metals may give partial reduction of both the benzene and the heterocyclic ring, depending on the particular substrate and reaction conditions applied. In certain examples, high chemo- and stereoselectivity can be achieved. For instance, N-phenylindoles 485 are converted into the corresponding indolines 486 upon treatment with Na/NH3 in THF (Scheme 5.224) [358].
H Na/NH3/THF 83%
HN N Ph 485
Scheme 5.224
HN
N H Ph 486
On the other hand, 2-acylindoles can be reduced to the indolines through several protocols involving metalacid combinations, such as Mg/MeOH [359] and Sn/ HCl [360].
5.5.6.3 Metal Hydride Complexes A very general method for the reduction of indoles to indolines 488 consists of treatment with a hydride reagent under acidic conditions (Scheme 5.225). The
480

H+ N H
Scheme 5.225
H N H
[H-] 488 N H
487
reaction proceeds via initial protonation at C3 to generate indolenium ion 487 which is subsequently reduced by the hydride donor [361]. Hence, the best results have been obtained with hydride sources that are stable to acid, such as NaBH3CN in AcOH [362], BH3/THF in TFA [363] and triethylsilane in TFA [364]. Representative examples are given in Scheme 5.226.
NaBH3CN, AcOH N H 79% N H
BH3-THF/TFA N NH 0 C, 2 min 86% N NH
NPh N MeO MeO

Scheme 5.226
NPh N Et3SiH/TFA MeO MeO N H
N H
80%
5.5.7 Pericyclic Reactions Involving the Heterocyclic Ring 5.5.7.1 Cycloaddition Reactions The C2C3 double bond of indole can participate in different types of cycloaddition processes as a 2p or 4p component. As a 2p component it can behave as a dienophile in [4 2] cycloadditions, and as dipolarophile in dipolar [3 2] cycloadditions. On the other hand, 3-vinylindoles 489 and 2-vinylindoles 490 take part as dienes in [4 2] cycloadditions. Moreover, orthoquinodimethane indole derivatives 491 are highly reactive dienes in DielsAlder reactions, and methylene indolines 492 and oxindoles can react as 2p components in [4 2] and dipolar cycloadditions (Scheme 5.227).
j481
a b c N H N H
489
N H
490
N H
491
N H
492
N H
Scheme 5.227
Owing to the high electron density of the C2C3 double bond, indole derivatives have been mostly employed as electron-rich dienophiles in inverse-electron-demand DielsAlder reactions [365]. In particular, the use of aromatic heterodienes such as 1,2,4,5-tetrazines, 1,2,4-triazines and pyridazines represents a versatile route into more complex polycyclic structures [366]. Scheme 5.228 shows the synthesis of a 3,9b-dihydro-5H-pyridazino[4,5-b]indole 494 by cycloaddition of 3-methylindole with the 1,2,4,5-tetrazine 493. The nal compound 494 is obtained after loss of N2 and hydrogen transposition of the initially formed cycloadduct 495 [367].
CO2Me + N N N N CO2Me 493 dioxane N H 494 MeO2C N
NH CO2Me
N H
[4+2]
CO2Me
NN NN
MeO2C -N2 N H
N CO2Me
N H 495
Scheme 5.228
CO2Me
482

The application of [4 2] cycloaddition methodology in an intramolecular version leads to polycyclic skeletons in very short synthetic sequences [368], and has been employed in several approaches to complex indole alkaloids. For instance, transannular cycloaddition of the pyridazinoindolophane 496 gives polycyclic adduct 497, which provides the nal dihydrocarbazole 498 after loss of N2 via a retro-DielsAlder reaction [369]. This particular sequence is the key step in a total synthesis of strychnine (Scheme 5.229) [370].
N N N 217 C N,N-diethylaniline 48 h, 90% N H 497 - N2 N
N 496
N H 498
Scheme 5.229
Another example of an intramolecular inverse-electron-demand DielsAlder reaction is the cycloaddition of 499, a molecule that features a substituted indole and an aza-o-xylylene, a very reactive heterodiene moiety [371]. Cycloaddition gives rise to 500, which features the heptacyclic ring system present in the natural alkaloid communesin B (Scheme 5.230).
N N N 499 N CO2Et 160 C 70% N 500 N CO2Et
N N N
Scheme 5.230
N N N
CO2Me
j483
Indoles substituted with electron-withdrawing groups in positions 1 and 3, such as 501, can react with electron-rich dienes like Danishefskys diene 502, in normal electron-demand cycloadditions [372]. Very high temperatures are required unless activation by Lewis acids or high pressure are employed (Scheme 5.231) [373, 374].
O NEt2 O N Ts 501
Scheme 5.231
OCH3 + OTMS 502 i) 12 kbar, 45 C ii) MeOH, H+ 60%
H3CO Et2NOCOC N Ts
503
The intramolecular [4 2] cycloaddition of 504, which features an amidofuran moiety tethered onto an indole, can be regarded also as an example of a normal electron-demand cycloaddition [375]. In this process, the cycloadduct 505 undergoes spontaneous rearrangement onto tetracycle 506 [376]. The reactions proceed at very high temperatures and only substrates substituted with an electron-withdrawing group at the indole nitrogen undergo the cycloaddition (Scheme 5.232).
O N N Ac O O benzene sealed tube 240 C 506
504
N Ac
N O N Ac
505
Scheme 5.232
N O Ac
The electron-rich C2C3 bond of indole can also participate as dipolarophile in 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition reactions. Nitrones [377], azomethine ylides [378], azides [379] and carbonyl ylides are among the dipoles successfully employed, in most cases in an intramolecular fashion. In the example presented below, the carbonyl ylide, generated by cyclization of a rhodium carbenoid generated from diazoimide 507, reacts with the tethered indole giving rise to 508, which presents the
484

Et O N O N Me 507 O N2 CO2Et Rh(OAc)2 benzene, 50 C, 3h 90% O N O N Me 508 Et O CO2Me
O N O Et
N O Me CO2Me
Scheme 5.233
pentacyclic skeleton of Aspidosperma alkaloids (Scheme 5.233) [380]. The carbonyl ylideindole cycloaddition can be also conducted in an intermolecular fashion [381]. The power of intramolecular cycloadditions across the C2C3 double bond has been shown in a remarkable application of cycloaddition cascades employed by Boger et al. in the total synthesis of ()-vindoline (Scheme 5.234) [382]. The reaction is initiated by the [4 2] cycloaddition of the tethered enol ether with the 1,3,4oxadiazole on 509, to give a cycloadduct. Loss of N2 by a retro-dipolar cycloaddition then generates the intermediate carbonyl ylide 510. Intramolecular [1,3] dipolar
O N O MeO N N Et OBn Triisopropylbenzene 230 C, 20 h 95% N MeO N Me O Et O
N Me CO2Me 509 [4+2] O N N O N
OBn CO2Me 511
[3+2] O retro-[3+2] Et OBn - N2 MeO N O N Me 510 Et OBn
MeO
N Me
Scheme 5.234
j485
cycloaddition across the indole C2C3 double bond provides the polycycle 511 with total control of the stereochemistry on the six new stereogenic centers generated along the cascade process. Among the very few intermolecular 1,3-dipolar cycloadditions of indoles known, nchnones noteworthy is the reaction of 2- and 3-nitroindoles with the mesoionic mu 512 [383]. The reaction gives rise to pyrrolo[3,4-b]indoles 514 in a highly regioselective manner, and is thought to proceed through a 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition to form the unstable cycloadduct 513, which gives the nal compounds after loss of CO2 and NO2 (Scheme 5.235).
Me
O O
Me NO2 N CO2Et
+
Bn N
THF
85%
N N CO2Et 514
Bn Ph + regioisomer
Ph 512
9
O Bn NO N NO2 CO2Et
: - CO2 - NO2
513
Scheme 5.235
Many examples have been described of [4 2] cycloadditions of 2- and 3vinylindoles as 4p-electron components. Vinylindoles can be seen as electron-rich dienes, and therefore will react preferentially with electron-poor dienophiles in normal electron-demand cycloadditions. Thus, intermolecular reactions involve typical dienophiles such as methyl acetylenedicarboxylate [384], N-phenylmaleimide [385], and benzoquinones [386]. When asymmetric dienophiles are employed, the regiochemistry can be predicted by employing frontier molecular orbital theory principles. For instance, the regiochemistry of the reactions of 3-vinylindole 515 with ethyl acrylate [387], and the cycloaddition of 2-vinylindole 516 with methyl propiolate can be both explained assuming the directing interaction of the HOMO of the vinylindole with the LUMO of the dienophile (Scheme 5.236) [388, 389]. The intramolecular version of the [4 2] cycloaddition leads to complex structures in a convergent manner. In a classical example, the 2-vinylindole 518 generated in situ from indoline 517 undergoes cycloaddition with the enaminic double bond to give 519, a very advanced intermediate in the total synthesis of pseudotabersonine (Scheme 5.237) [390, 391]. Intramolecular DielsAlder reactions of 3-vinylindoles usually involve a dienophile tethered through the nitrogen atom. For instance, the intramolecular
486

OEt CO2Et N Boc THF, rt, 12 kbar Toluene, reflux N Boc 70%, 70: 30, endo: exo 61%, 27: 73, endo: exo
CO2Me SPh N Cbz 516
Scheme 5.236
OEt CO2Et
515
CO2Me MeAlCl2 Toluene 57% N Cbz
H N MeCN, Et3N N OH CHO Bn 517

Scheme 5.237
N 80 C, 3h 50%
N H H
N Bn 518
CHO
N Bn 519
CHO
cycloaddition of the nitrovinylindole with a terminal alkyne 520 provides the tetracyclic structure 521 after loss of HNO2 (Scheme 5.238) [392].
NO2 NO2 N O
N O 520
Scheme 5.238
sulfolane 95%
- HNO2 N O 521
The oxime-substituted indole 522 behaves as an 1-aza-1,3-butadiene in an intramolecular hetero-DielsAlder reaction with a tethered alkyne, to give tetracycle 523, which features the skeleton of Canthine alkaloids (Scheme 5.239) [393].
j487
OMe N toluene 180 C, 7 days 66% O 523 N N
N O 522
Scheme 5.239
Indole-2,3-quinodimethanes are highly reactive dienes in [4 2] cycloadditions and represent a very valuable entry into the carbazole ring structure [394]. They can be generated in situ by uoride or iodide ion induced 1,4-elimination of silylated indolyl ammonium salts [395], by double elimination on N-protected-2,3-bis(dibromomethyl)indoles [396], by thermal fragmentation of 2-substituted 3-aminomethylindoles [397] and by [1,5]-H shift on 3-cyanomethyl-2-vinylindoles [398]. Moreover, the anionic indole-2,3-dienolate can be formed by deprotonation of 1,2-dimethylindole3-carboxaldehyde [399]. For instance, disubstituted indole-o-quinodimethane 525 is generated by thermal decomposition of gramine 524 in the presence of the dienophile; it then reacts to give the tetracyclic adduct 526 in very high yield (Scheme 5.240).
Me N
O O
Ph
NMe2 CO2Et
Ph
Ph
N O
N H 524
Scheme 5.240
Toluene, reflux 96%
N H 525
CO2Et
N H
CO2Et
526
Alternatively, reactive indole-2,3-quinodimethane intermediates 528 can be generated from o-allenylanilines 527, and trapped with dienophiles to obtain directly the corresponding carbazole derivatives 529 in moderate yields (Scheme 5.241) [400].
AcO NH Boc 527
Scheme 5.241
CO2Me MeO2C CO2Me N 528 Boc N Boc 529 CO2Me
K2CO3, DMF, rt 0 C, 2h 48%
488

5.5.7.2 Electrocyclizations The C2C3 double bond of indole can participate in electrocyclic reactions. Although the 6p-electron electrocyclization of 2,3-divinylindoles is known, the participation of allene intermediates is more efcient. Thus, a versatile route to carbazoles is based on an allene-mediated electrocyclic reaction of a 6p-electron system involving the indole 2,3-bond [401]. This strategy has been applied in the preparation of numerous alkaloids containing the carbazole moiety. Scheme 5.242 depicts the preparation of oxygenated carbazole 532 from propargyl ether containing indole 530. Treatment with KOtBu produces the acetyleneallene isomerization to give intermediate 531, which suffers electrocyclization leading to the carbazole.
OMe tBuOK N OMOM SO2 Ph 530 tBuOH, THF, 90 C 85%
OMe Me OMOM N SO2 Ph 532
OMe
OMe OMOM N SO2 Ph
N OMOM SO2 Ph 531

Scheme 5.242
5.5.7.3 Sigmatropic Rearrangements The indole C2C3 bond can participate in [3,3] sigmatropic rearrangements, and this strategy has been employed in many synthetic efforts to introduce additional substitution at C2 or C3 [402404]. The Claisen rearrangement of 2-allyloxiindoles leads to oxindoles with creation of a quaternary center. For example, allyloxyindole 534, generated in situ by olenation of 2-allyloxiindoxyl 533, suffers the [3,3]-rearrangement to provide oxindole 535 (Scheme 5.243) [405]. The required 2-allyloxiindoles can be also generated by oxidative coupling of indoles with allyl alcohols (Section 5.5.5) [406]. Another type of [3,3]-rearrangement with functionalization at C3 is found in the conversion of 1-vinylaminoindole 536 into tricyclic compound 538 under thermolysis conditions [407]. The formation of 538 can be explained by [3,3]-rearrangement to form imine 537, which generates the pyrrolo[2,3-b]indole by intramolecular
j489
O N 533 Ac O
NC (EtO)2P(O)CH2CN KOtBu, DMF - 78 C rt quant. 535 N H O
NC
NC
N Ac
Scheme 5.243
N Ac 534
cyclization (Scheme 5.244). On the other hand, the incorporation of a substituent at C2 by a Claisen rearrangement has been also described [408].
MeO2C N N 536 MeO2C H N N 537
Scheme 5.244
Ph2O CO2Me 180-200 C 91% N H 538
Me
Synthetic applications of indole photochemical reactions are very limited, and therefore this technique has been scarcely employed. Ultraviolet light irradiation promotes the [2 2] cycloaddition of N-protected indoles with alkenes and alkynes [409, 410]. For instance, N-acylindoles 539 undergo [2 2] photocycloaddition with monosubstituted alkenes to form the cyclobutane ring regioselectively regardless of the nature of the substituent on the alkene [411]. The reaction is
490

postulated to proceed through the biradical intermediate 540, which is formed by bonding the 2-position of the indole with the less substituted position of the alkene (Scheme 5.245).
OHC Hg Lamp benzene, 10h 78% N H COPh 1 OAc + OHC OAc
CHO N COPh +
OAc
539
N H COPh 0.7
CHO N COPh 540

Scheme 5.245
OAc
Several examples have been reported of the intramolecular version of the [2 2] photocycloaddition [412]. Interestingly, the intramolecular reaction with the double bond tethered through the N atom leads to the opposite regiochemistry in the [2 2] cycloadduct [413]. The [4 2] cycloaddition reaction of indoles with electron-rich dienes, which does not proceed thermally, can be promoted photochemically by electron-transfer catalysis. Nevertheless, at present, these procedures are far from being synthetically practical [414]. Another synthetically useful photochemical transformation is the photocyclization of indole-containing stilbenes 541 and related systems to give polycycles 543 featuring the carbazole moiety. The reaction occurs through a 6p-electron conrotatory electrocyclization to give 542, followed by oxidation to furnish directly the aromatic system. Thus, the photocyclization is usually carried out in the presence of an oxidant, such as iodine or Pd/C (Scheme 5.246) [415].
N R 541
Scheme 5.246
Ar X
h N R 542 X
[O] Ar N R 543 Ar X
The main application of this methodology is in the preparation of [2,3-a]pyrrolo [3,4-c]carbazoles, a substructure that is present in several naturally occurring
5.6 Chemistry of Indole Derivatives
j491
alkaloids with potent biological activities [416], such as rebeccamycin [417] and staurosporin [418]. In a recent example, naphtho[2,3-a]carbazole 545 is obtained by photooxidation of 2-naphthylindolyl maleimide 544 in nearly quantitative yield (Scheme 5.247) [419, 420].
H N H N
O Osram Hg-HP lamp.
N H 544
Scheme 5.247
Acetone, 35 C 97%
N H
545
5.5.9 Reactions with Carbenes and Carbenoids
The reaction of indole with carbenes or carbenoids does not lead to cyclopropanation but, instead, insertion in the C3H double bond occurs, to give the corresponding substitution product [421]. In the example shown in Scheme 5.248, the rhodium carbenoid generated from the cyclic diazo compound 546 reacts with indole to give the C3-substituted indole 547 [422]. This chemistry has been applied in the preparation of natural indolocarbazole alkaloids.
H N OH N H 547
O O N H + N2 O 546
Scheme 5.248
NH
Rh(OAc)4 benzene, 80 C 65%
5.6 Chemistry of Indole Derivatives 5.6.1 Alkylindoles
Deprotonation of the alkyl chain of indoles is usually difcult. Nevertheless, NH-2alkylindoles 548 can be lithiated at the a-position through a one pot sequence that
492

involves formation of the lithium carbonate 549, by NH deprotonation with BuLi and quench with CO2, followed by treatment with t-BuLi to obtain dianion 550. Subsequent reaction with an electrophile yields the 2-(substituted a1kyl)indole 551 after thermally induced loss of CO2 (Scheme 5.249) [423].
R N H N H 551
R E
548
R n-BuLi THF, -70 C E R N Li R N CO2 Li 549 t-BuLi THF, -20 C Li R N CO2 Li 550 E N CO2H
CO2
E = CH3I, n-BuI, (CH2)4CO, t-BuNCO, CO2

Scheme 5.249
Alternatively, NH-2,3-dialkylindoles 552 can be directly deprotonated by treatment with an excess of base that consists of a combination of BuLi and KOt-Bu. Treatment with an electrophile provides the 2-substituted indole 553, indicating that the lithiation is produced exclusively at the C2 side-chain (Scheme 5.250).
R2 R1 N H 552 R2 R1 N H 553 CH3
3 BuLi; 2 KOt-Bu -78 C to rt Et2O
CH3I - 78 C
R1 = R2 = H, 86% R1-R2 = (CH2)2, 50%

Scheme 5.250
Bromination of the side-chain of N-protected indoles such as 554 can be carried out by treatment with NBS in the presence of a radical initiator. Interestingly, while the reaction under radical conditions provides the indole brominated on the side-chain 555, the same reaction in the absence of the radical initiator gives rise to the C2brominated indole 556 (Scheme 5.251) [424].
j493
MeO
CH3 N PG
NBS, AIBN CCl4, 1h
MeO N PG
Br
555
PG: SO2Ph, 83% PG: Boc, 92% CH3 N PG Br
554
MeO NBS, CCl4 , 3h
556 PG: SO2Ph, 86% PG: Boc, 95%
Scheme 5.251
Among functionalized alkylindoles, the chemistry of gramines 557 is noteworthy. The elimination of the dimethylamino group can be promoted either by quaternization or by treatment with bases, generating the highly reactive electrophile 558, which undergoes the addition of a nucleophile. The overall reaction is the substitution of the dimethylamino group by the nucleophile (Scheme 5.252). This strategy has been employed for the introduction of different types of carbon [425], nitrogen [426] and sulfur nucleophiles [427].
NMe3I MeI NMe2 N H Nu N H base N NMe2 558 N N H Nu
557
Scheme 5.252
Scheme 5.253 presents the use of gramine 557 as electrophile in a typical acetylacetate alkylation, leading to substituted indole 559 [428]. This chemistry has been applied in an original method for the preparation of vinylindoles, in a substitution/Wittig olenation tandem sequence. Thus, treatment of gramine with an aromatic aldehyde in the presence of an excess of PBu3, affords directly the vinylindole 561, through the in situ generated ylide 560 (Scheme 5.254) [429].
494

NMe2 O CO2Et PBu3, CH3CN 557 N H 85 C 85% 559 N H O CO2Et
Scheme 5.253
Ar NMe2 Ar-CHO PBu3, CH3CN 80 C, 24 h 87-63% 561 N H
557 PBu3
N H
Ar-CHO Wittig PBu3 PBu3
N PBu3 560
N H
N
Scheme 5.254
5.6.2 Oxiderivatives
Oxindole and indoxyl are the stable tautomeric forms of 2-hydroxy- and 3-hydroxyindole respectively (Figure 5.8). The aromatic 2-hydroxyindole is unstable and undetectable. In contrast, 3-hydroxyindole contributes in the tautomeric equilibrium, and in some 2-substituted-indoxyls is the thermodynamically controlled product.
O N H oxindole O N H indoxyl N H isatin O O
Figure 5.8 Structures of oxi-derivatives of indole.
j495
O
O H N
H N
N O O
MeN
O gelsemine
N H
(-)-Spyrotryptostatin B
Figure 5.9 Some important oxindole alkaloids.
5.6.2.1 Oxindole The substructure of oxindole is present in numerous naturally occurring alkaloids and pharmaceutically active compounds. Substituted oxindoles and, in particular, spirocyclic oxindoles featuring a quaternary center at C3 are attractive targets in organic synthesis due to their usefulness as drug candidates and as intermediates in alkaloid synthesis. Figure 5.9 shows some natural oxindole-containing alkaloids such as the well-known hexacyclic cage-like alkaloid gelsemine [430] and the highly potent cytotoxic agent spyrotryprostatin B [431]. Numerous methodologies for the preparation of oxindoles are available, and detailed coverage would largely exceed the aim of this chapter. Oxindoles can be prepared from indole or indole derivatives, by derivatization of isatin (Figure 5.8), and by cyclization processes. 5.6.2.1.1 Synthesis of Oxindoles from Indoles Indoles can be transformed into oxindoles under the oxidation protocols discussed in Section 5.5.5. Additionally, NBoc-indoles can be cleanly converted into N-Boc-oxindoles 562 by a two-step sequence that involves formation of a 2-indolylborate [432] and oxidation with oxone (Scheme 5.255) [433]. Moreover, as discussed in Section 5.5.7.3, oxindoles can be prepared by Claisen rearrangement of 2-allyloxiindoles.
Oxone NaOH, NaHCO3 THF, acetone, H2O NaHSO3 R= 5-Me, 89% 4-Cl, 70% 7-Me, 63% 5-Br, 62% H, 78%
i) LDA, B(OiPr)3 THF N Boc ii) 2N HCl
N Boc
B(OH)2
N H 562
Scheme 5.255
5.6.2.1.2 Synthesis of Oxindoles from Isatins Isatin (Figure 5.8) features two carbonyl groups, a ketone and an amide carbonyl. The higher reactivity of the C3 ketone carbonyl can be exploited to introduce functionalization and prepare 3substituted oxindoles. Thus, reductions [434], aldol reactions [435], additions of
496

nucleophiles [436] and Wittig olenations [437] lead to the corresponding substituted oxindoles. Notably, the rhodium-catalyzed asymmetric addition of arylboronic acids to isatin 563 gives rise to enantiomerically enriched 3-substituted-3-hydroxyoxindoles 564 (Scheme 5.256) [438].
O O N PMB + Ar-B(OH)2 [RhCl(C2H4)2]2 (R)-MeO-mop KOH, THF, H 2O 50 C, 24 h 564 HO Ar
Cl
Cl
563
O N PMB
PMB: p-methoxybenzyl Ar: Ph, p-MeO-Ph, p-F-Ph, 3-Naph,
yield, 92-96% ee, 90-82%
(R)-MeO-mop:
OMe PPh2
Scheme 5.256
5.6.2.1.3 Synthesis of Oxindoles by Cyclization Reactions Cyclization strategies are usually reminiscent of the methods employed for the synthesis of indoles, such as the Fischer synthesis [439], cyclization of o-aminophenylacetic acid derivatives [440], intramolecular FriedelCrafts alkylations [441], radical cyclizations [442], intramolecular Heck reactions [443], intramolecular BuchwaldHartwig amidations [444] and intramolecular a-arylation of amide enolates [445]. Extensive coverage of the methods of synthesis of oxindoles is beyond the scope of this chapter, and the reader is referred to the original papers. Nevertheless, some relevant modern alternatives to the general approaches depicted in Figure 5.10 is briey presented. Cyclization of o-aminophenylacetic acid derivatives is one common approach to the synthesis of oxindoles. Several different strategies can be applied to prepare the intermediate amino acid [446]. The [3,3]-sigmatropic rearrangement of the enolate 568, generated from N,O-diacylated phenyl hydroxylamine 567, is the key step in a three-step synthesis of oxindoles from N-acylhydroxylamines 565 and carboxylic acids 566 [447]. The N-protected amino acid 569 generated in the rearrangement is condensed to give the spirocyclic oxindole 570 (Scheme 5.257). Samarium iodide reductive coupling of isocyanates with a tethered a,b-unsaturated ketone (571) gives rise to oxindoles 572 (Scheme 5.258) [448]. In this original approach, the oxindole is built by formation of the C2C3 bond, and has been employed in the preparation of advanced intermediates towards the synthesis of welwitindolinone alkaloids. Intramolecular FriedelCrafts alkylation of a-chloroacetanilides is one of the most classical methods for the synthesis of oxindoles. A variant of this reaction has been recently disclosed by Buchwald, avoiding the harsh reaction conditions required in
j497
R' OH O NH2 o-aminophenylacetic acid O X NHR R' N R O N R FC alkylation O R' X
R'
Pd or Cu catalyzed amidation
Pd catalyzed -arylation X N R O
Heck reaction or radical cyclization
X N R O
Figure 5.10 General approaches to the synthesis of oxindoles through cyclization reactions.
MeO2C
OH +
CO2H
MeO2C DCC, DMAP 85%
O O
565
566
567
KHMDS/THF -78 C rt 82%
MeO2C
MeO2C
NH
CO2H
568 MeO2C NaOAc, Ac2O 65 C 88%

Scheme 5.257
569 O
570
498

O O Cl CO, Et N 2 3 NH2 THF NCO 571
Scheme 5.258
O SmI , tBuOH, LiCl 2 THF, -78 C 88% (two steps) N H 572
the FC alkylation. Thus, treatment of a-chloroacetanilides 573 with a Pd(0)-based catalytic system leads to the oxindoles 574 in excellent yields, under milder conditions and with high functional group tolerance (Scheme 5.259) [449]. Interestingly, the overall process results in a Pd-catalyzed aromatic CH activation. Nevertheless, at present there is no unambiguous mechanistic proposal.
MeO MeO 573
Scheme 5.259
Cl N Bn O
Pd(OAc)2, JohnPhos NEt3, Tol, 80 C 94%
MeO MeO 574 N Bn O
5.6.2.1.4 Oxindole Reactivity The chemistry of oxindole resembles a typical vemembered ring lactam. Deprotonation at the b-carbon occurs readily, as the resulting anion is stabilized by the aromatic character of the oxindole enolate. Thus, the oxindole anion can react with electrophiles in alkylation, acylation and condensation reactions. On the other hand, oxindoles can be transformed into the corresponding indolyltriates 575 (Scheme 5.260) [450], which can be further employed in metal-catalyzed cross-coupling reactions (Section 5.5.3.6).
N SO2Ph
Scheme 5.260
Tf2O, DIPEA CH2Cl2, 0 C 70% 575
OSO2CF3 N SO2Ph
5.6.2.2 N-Hydroxyindoles The structure of N-hydroxyindole is also present in a considerable number of biologically molecules. Moreover, several N-hydroxylated analogues of biologically inactive indoles have shown biological activity [451]. The most common approach to the preparation of N-hydroxyindoles is the reductive cyclization of o-nitrobenzylketones 576 or aldehydes in the presence of a metal reducing agent [452]. A fairly general and chemoselective protocol is the
j499
reaction with the Pb/TEAF system (TEAF: triethylammonium formate), which provides N-hydroxyindoles 577 in very high yields (Scheme 5.261) [453].
Pb, TEAF EtO2C

576 O NO2
MeOH, 55 C 97%
EtO2C
577
N OH
EtO2C
O NH OH
Scheme 5.261
In a closely related reaction, structurally diverse substituted N-hydroxyindoles 580 can be prepared in a tandem process from nitroaromatic a,b-unsaturated ketoesters 578 [454]. The initially formed nitrone 579 is trapped by a hetero- or carbonucleophile to provide substituted N-hydroxyindoles 580 (Scheme 5.262).
NuNu X CO2Et O NO2 578
Scheme 5.262
SnCl2
N O 579
CO2Et
N OH 580
CO2Et
For instance, the reaction in the presence of silylenol ethers gives rise to the corresponding C-alkylated derivatives 581 (Scheme 5.263).
CO2Et O NO2
SnCl22H2O DME, 4 MS, 40 C OTMS 61% N OH 581
O CO2Et
Scheme 5.263
500

5.6.3 Aminoindoles
Although most amino-substituted heterocycles exist mainly in the amino tautomer, 2-aminoindole exists predominantly as the 3H-tautomer, which is stabilized by the amidine resonance form (Scheme 5.264).
NH2 NH2 NH2
N H
Scheme 5.264
Regarding the synthesis, the most reliable modern method to introduce an amino group in the heterocyclic indole ring is Pd- or Cu-catalyzed amination (Section 5.5.3.5). N-Amination of indole can be accomplished with different NH2 type of reagents such as monochloramine (NH2Cl) [455] or hydroxylamine o-sulfonic acid [456] under basic media (Scheme 5.265).
HOSO2ONH2 N H
Scheme 5.265
t-BuOK, NMP rt, 180 min 90%
N NH2
On the other hand, N-aminoindoles 583 can be prepared by the Pd-catalyzed intramolecular cyclization of o-chloroarylacetaldehyde hydrazones 582 (Scheme 5.266) [457].
Cl Pd(dba)2, Pt-Bu3 Cl 582
Scheme 5.266
Cl N NaOtBu o-xilene, 120 C 583
NMe2
N NMe2
5.6.4 Indole Carboxylic Acids
Decarboxylation of indole-3-carboxylic acid, and also indoyl-2-acetic acid, takes place under reux of water (Scheme 5.267). The reaction proceeds through the protonated 3H-indolium cation 584 [458].
5.7 Addendum
j501
CO2H H N H
Scheme 5.267
+
O O
H N H
N H 584
Decarboxylation of indole-2-carboxylic acid requires much harsher conditions, such as heating in the presence of either mineral acids or copper powder [459]. The latter is a valuable synthetic transformation that has been employed to prepare 2unsubstituted indoles 586 from the more readily available 2-indole carboxylates 585. Scheme 5.268 gives an example of the application of this sequence [460, 461].
OBn CHO
N3CH2CO2Et
OBn NaOEt, EtOH -15 C 75%

N3
i) Toluene CO2Me reflux ii) LiOH THF, H2O 91%
Br OBn
Br OBn
Br
585
N H
CO2H
Cu powder quinoline 237 C 71%

N H
Br 586
Scheme 5.268
5.7 Addendum
During the production of this book, and since the initial elaboration of this chapter, remarkable advances have occurred in the eld of indole chemistry, which indicate the high interest in this particular type of heterocyclic structure. This addendum is not intended to be a comprehensive revision of the most recent literature, and collects only some important advances that have not been mentioned above. First of all, several reviews covering synthesis and different aspects of indole reactivity have appeared recently [462].
5.7.1 Ring Synthesis 5.7.1.1 Fischer Indole Synthesis The direct synthesis of N-Cbz indoles from the corresponding N-Aryl-N-Cbz hydrazide has been disclosed [463].
502

An improved methodology for the sequence hydrohydrazination of alkynes/ Fischer indolization has been described employing inexpensive and environmentally friendly Zn salts as catalysts [464].
5.7.1.1.1 Cyclizations by Formation of the NC2 Bond The synthesis of indoles by cyclization of nitrenes, generated from aryl azides, has been carried out employing rhodium catalysts [465]. The aryl amination/hydroamination sequence on o-chloroalkynyl benzenes has been implemented for the preparation of indoles with sterically demanding Nsubstituents [466]. Similar routes have been employed for the synthesis of 2aminoindoles [467] and 4-alkoxyindoles [468]. A multicomponent domino process for the preparation of 2-aminomethyl indoles, involving the cyclization of an oalkynylaniline, has been reported [469]. A new approach for the synthesis of indoles is the cycloisomerization of 2propargylanilines (591). This reaction has been effected employing Pt-based and Brnsted acid catalysts, and leads to functionalized indole skeletons 592 (Scheme 5.269). The mechanism proposed for the acid-catalyzed reaction involves a 5-exo-dig cyclization followed by an aza-Cope rearrangement [470].
MeO Conds.
N 591 R N R 592
OMe
PtCl2 (5 %mol), 80 C SiO2 (5 eq), rt MeO

H+
92% 90% H OMe N R
OMe
OMe
N R
N R
Scheme 5.269 Synthesis of ndoles by cycloisomerization of propargylanilines.
A 5-exo-dig cyclization is also the rst step for the cycloisomerization of o-alkynylN,N-dialkylanilines 593 that leads to annulated indoles 594 (Scheme 5.270) [471].
Me F3 C N 593 W(CO)6 68% 594 F3C N
Scheme 5.270 Cycloisomerization of o-alkynyl-N,N-dialkylanilines.
5.7 Addendum
j503
The reaction involves activation of the alkyne by the action of the metal catalyst, followed by 5-exo-dig cyclization to produce a metal-containing ammonium ylide (595). Then, a [1,2]-Stevens rearrangement, followed by a [1,2]-alkyl migration, renders the fused indole structure (Scheme 5.271).
[M] R [M] N R N 595 [M] R N R [M] R
Stevens rearrangement
1,2-alkyl migration -[M]
Scheme 5.271 Mechanism proposed for the cycloisomerization of o-alkynyl-N,N-dialkylanilines.
Indoles have been synthesized from o-iodobenzoic acids and alkynes in a sequential process that involves a Curtius rearrangement followed by a Pd-catalyzed Larocktype indolization [472]. Quite similarly, o-alkynylamides have been employed to synthesize indoles through a Hoffmann-rearrangement/alkyne hydroamination sequence [473]. The Pd-catalyzed synthesis of indoles from o-amino-gem-dihalostyrenes has been studied in detail, and represents a very powerful methodology for the synthesis of substituted indoles [474]. A new approach to tryptamines from readily available N-Boc anilines 596 and NBoc-3-pyrrolidinone 597 has been developed (Scheme 5.272). The process, which
NBoc R OH NHBoc tBuOK THF, 70 C NBoc R N H NH2 TFA CH 2Cl2 R 598 NH2 NBoc tBuOK TBSCl LDA R N H O O
NBoc R NHBoc 2 t BuLi 596 R Li NBoc Li O 597
LaCl3 2LiCl
Scheme 5.272 Stepwise synthesis of triptamines.
504

consists of various steps, as represented in the scheme, allows for the synthesis of a large variety of tryptamines 598 substituted in the benzene ring [475].
5.7.1.1.2 Cyclizations by Formation of the C2C3 Bond The synthesis of cyclicketone fused indoles has been achieved by a Pt-catalyzed cycloisomerization of N-(2alkynylphenyl)lactams [476]. A structural variety of 2-substituted indoles 601 can be prepared from o-amino-2chloroacetophenones 599 and Grignard reagents [477]. The reaction involves a [1,2]migration of the R group from the intermediate magnesium alcoholate 600 (Scheme 5.273).
O R O
Cl NH2 599
R-MgX THF -10 to 22 C 91-55%
Cl
MgX
N H
NH 2 600 601
R: Alkyl, aryl, alkynyl

Scheme 5.273
N-fused indoles have been synthesized through a catalytic carbenoid CH insertion approach. In this novel reaction, a niobium carbenoid (603) is generated from a CF3 group of the o-triuoromethylaniline derivative 602 (Scheme 5.274). Then, an intramolecular CH insertion leads to a mixture of indole 605 and indoline 604. Subsequent oxidation leads to the N-fused indoles 605 with good yields.
X ( )n
NbCl5 (30 %) NaAlH 4, 4 eq
X ( )n
O2 RuZr-P (8%) 605
X ( )n
602
CF3
dioxane, ref lux n: 1-5 X: CH 2, O, S, NMe
604
56-85%
( )n N C F 603
Scheme 5.274
Nb
N F H
5.7.1.1.3 Cyclizations by Formation of the C3C4 Bond A very versatile new methodology for indole ring synthesis is the Pd-catalyzed oxidative cyclization of
5.7 Addendum
j505
R N H 606
Scheme 5.275
R1 COR
2
Pd(OAc) 2 (10% mol) Cu(OAc)2 (3 eq) K2CO 3, DMF
COR 2 R 607 N H R1
N-arylenaminones 606 (Scheme 5.275) [478]. This methodology, which leads to 3-acyl substituted indoles 607, is clearly advantageous when compared with strategies based on intramolecular Heck reactions, which require o-haloanilines as starting materials. The mechanism proposed for this reaction (Scheme 5.276) starts with the electrophilic palladation of the enaminone 606, to give acylpalladium intermediate 608, followed by formation of palladacycle 609 by a s-bond metathesis or a baseassisted deprotonation. Reductive elimination furnishes the indole 607 and releases a Pd(0) species that is reoxidized to the active Pd(II) by the stoichiometric Cu(II) salt. More recently, a similar reaction, but employing CuI as a catalyst [479], and a metalfree version of this transformation, mediated by phenyl-iodide diacetate, have been reported [480].
R1 N H 606 R COR 2 PdX2 Base Base HX N H 608 XPd
COR R1
X Pd R 609 N H COR R1 R H Pd COR H or R
Base X Pd COR
N R1 H -bond metathesis
N R1 H deprotonation
COR 2 R 607
Scheme 5.276
N H
R 1 + Pd(0)
Moreover, this type of cyclization has been adapted to a domino process in which indoles are prepared directly from electrophilic alkynes and anilines in a Pd(II)catalyzed process [481].
506

The same type of products obtained from the cyclization of enaminones has been obtained by a metal-free cascade reaction between N-arylamides and ethyl diazoacetate [482]. Some other Heck based cyclizations have been reported recently: a Pd-catalyzed SuzukiHeck sequence [483], a Pd-catalyzed aryl amination-Heck sequence [484], and a Cu-catalyzed cyclization of 2-iodoenaminones [485]. Acetanilides have been employed in a rhodium-catalyzed oxidative indole synthesis (Scheme 5.277). In this impressive reaction, 2,3-disubstituted indoles 612 are built from acetanilides 610 and internal alkynes 611 [486]. As in the oxidative cyclization of enaminones described above, the reaction does not need an ortho substituent to enable the cyclization.
Cp*RhCl2 (2.5% mol) AgSbF6 (10% mol) Cu(OAc) 2H 2 O (2.1 eq) Ph 611 t- AmOH (0.2 M) 120 C, 1h 82%
MeO + NHAc 610

Scheme 5.277
MeO N Ac Ph
612
5.7.1.1.4 Cyclizations with Formation of the NC7a Bond A Pd-catalyzed NC7a bond-forming reaction is the last step in the Pd-catalyzed cascade synthesis of indoles from 1,2-dihalobenzene 613 derivatives and imines 614 (Scheme 5.278). This synthesis consists of two independent reactions catalyzed by the same Pd catalyst: the imine a-arylation and the intramolecular CN bond-forming reaction. It is worth noting the high modularity of this synthesis of indoles, which are prepared from three fragments: the aromatic system and the carbonyl compound and the amine employed in the preparation of the imine [487].
R4
X + Y 613 C-C
R1 R
2
R3 Pd2(dba)3 XPhos NaO tBu dioxane, R4 N R1 615 C-N R2
R3 614 R
3
R4 Y
R2 NR
1
R3 R
4
R2 NHR1
X = I, Br, Cl; Y = Br, Cl

Scheme 5.278
5.7 Addendum
j507
This methodology has been extended to employ o-chlorononauorosulfonates (ochlorononaates) 616 (Scheme 5.279). The reaction is totally regioselective, with the CC bond being formed between imine a-carbon and the C-atom that supports the nonaate. This is an important improvement, because o-chlorononaates are readily prepared from phenols, and moreover is particularly adequate for the preparation of 6-substituted and 4,6-disubstituted indoles, which are not easily prepared by other conventional methods [488].
R' ONf
+ R
R3 R N
R'
2
R3 N R1 R2
Pd 2(dba) 3, XPhos
LiOtBu dioxane, R
Cl 616
R1 614
615
Nf: O2 SCF 2CF2CF2 CF3
R' OH
R
R' OH
R
Cl
Scheme 5.279
5.7.1.1.5 Synthesis of Indoles by a [4 2] Cycloaddition A very elegant construction of the functionalized indole skeleton has been carried out by the sequence presented in Scheme 5.280 [489]. The key step is the MW-promoted intramolecular [4 2] cycloaddition of the aminofuran intermediate 617, which forms both rings at the same time. The method is particularly useful for the synthesis of 4-substituted indoles (618).
R Li + R O O N OH Boc 617 R [4+2] MW 30 min, 180 C O
OH N Boc
R HO
OH N Boc - 2 H 2O - Boc
N Boc
618
N H
Scheme 5.280
508

5.7.2 Reactivity 5.7.2.1 Reactions with Electrophiles 5.7.2.1.1 Michael Additions and Reactions with Nitroolefins The recent explosion of the eld of asymmetric organocatalysis has had an important impact in the chemistry of indoles, in particular in the reactions of indoles with electrophiles such as a,b-unsaturated compounds, nitroolens, carbonyl compounds, and imines. A review on this eld is available [490]. The FriedelCrafts alkylation of indoles with a,b-unsaturated carbonyl compounds has been carried out employing chiral primary amines as organocatalyst [491]. A chiral binol N-triylphosphoramide derivative has been employed as a Brnsted acid catalyst in the FriedelCrafts alkylation of indoles with b,c-unsaturated-a-ketoesters [492]. An intramolecular version has also been reported [493]. Regarding Lewis acid based asymmetric catalysis, highly enantioselective Friedel Crafts alkylations with a,b-unsaturated phosphonates have been uncovered employing bis(oxazolinyl)pyridine-scandium(III) triate complexes [494]. Several organocatalytic approaches for the asymmetric addition of indoles to nitroolens have been reported, employing thiourea based organocatalysts [495], and promoted by a chiral phosphoric acid derivative [496]. Also noteworthy is a recent catalytic asymmetric version employing a Cu(I) chiral catalyst [497]. 5.7.2.1.2 Asymmetric Organocatalyzed PictetSpengler Reactions Several asymmetric variants of the PictetSpengler (Scheme 5.281) reaction of have been reported [498].
HN X N H + R-CHO
organocatalyst N H
N X R N H
NH R
Scheme 5.281
For instance, carboline 621 was obtained in the chiral Brnsted acid catalyzed reaction between a properly functionalized tryptamine (619) and aliphatic aldehyde (620) (Scheme 5.282) [499].
5.7.2.1.3 Indole as Nucleophile in Pd-Catalyzed Allylic Alkylations The Pd-catalyzed allylic alkylation reaction has been applied in the allylation of 3-substituted indoles, leading to indolenines featuring a C3-quaternary center [500]. The electrophilic arylation of 3-substituted indoles employing diaryl l3-iodanes as electrophilic aryl transfer reagents leads to indolenines 622, which also feature a C3-
5.7 Addendum
j509
SiPh 3 O O P O OH I + O 620
Scheme 5.282
HN N H 619
I N N H O 621 O
SiPh 3 toluene,rt
CHO
yield: 86%, ee: 89%
quaternary center (Scheme 5.283) [501]. The relative unstable indolenines 622 are isolated upon reduction to the corresponding indolines 623.
Ar
N H +
Ar NaBH3 CN
N H
Ar2 I BF4
BTMG CH2 Cl2 622

N
BTMG: tert-butyl tetramethylguanidine

Scheme 5.283
623
5.7.2.2 Transition Metal Catalyzed Reactions 5.7.2.2.1 Direct Alkenylation, Alkynylation, and Arylation reactions The indole ring has served as a platform to develop new CC bond-forming cross-coupling from CH bonds. Indeed, much effort has been made in very recent years in the study of the direct arylation of indoles, which has led to very exciting achievements in transition metal catalysis. A review in this eld is available [502]. Palladium(II)-catalyzed C2-alkenylation has been reported that employs N-(2pyridyl)sulfonyl indoles [503]. Very recently, an intermolecular Au(I)-catalyzed alkynylation of indoles has been disclosed [504]. Palladium-catalyzed selective arylation of indoles at C2 under mild conditions has been accomplished employing a PdII/IV catalytic cycle [505]. A different strategy for the CH arylation, employing boronic acids, has also been reported [506]. Site-selective arylation at either C2 or C3 has been described that employs a Cu(II) catalyst and diaryl-iodine(III) reagents as electrophiles (Scheme 5.284) [507]. Aryla-
510

R = H, Me 35 C i Pr N R + Ar I i Pr R = Ac 60 C
Ph Cu(I)OTf [Ph-I-Ph]OTf
Ar
i Pr OTf
Cu(OTf)2 10% mol
624
N R
625
N Ac
Ar
N R Tf O
CuIII Ph N R base OTf H base OTf 627 H OTf Cu III Ph O H OTf CuIII Ph
PhI [PhCu IIIOTf ]OTf 626 N R
N R
OTf Cu III Ph 628
H N
N 627
N O
OTf CuIII Ph O
Ph O
Scheme 5.284
tion at C3 to give 624 occurs on N-H and N-Me indoles, while N-acetylated indoles undergo arylation at C2 leading to 625. The catalytic cycle proposed for this reaction involves a CuI/CuIII system (Scheme 5.284), and involves oxidative addition to give a highly electrophilic Cu(III) species (626) that undergoes attack at the 3 position of the
5.7 Addendum
j511
indole to form intermediate 627. Rearomatization and reductive elimination releases the arylated product and regenerates the Cu(I) catalyst. For the N-acetylated indole, the intermediate 627 suffers a C3C2 migration directed by complexation with the oxygen atom of the carbonyl, giving rise to the C2metallated system 628. Reductive elimination and rearomatization provide the C2arylates indole. A truly remarkable achievement, carried out by the group of the late Keith Fagnou, is the arylation of indoles with unactivated arenes (Scheme 5.285) [508]. The reactions take place in the presence of a Pd(II) catalyst and a stoichiometric oxidant. C3 or C2 selectivity can be controlled by modication of several parameters: the stoichiometric metal oxidant, the substitution at the N atom of the indole, and the additives present in the reaction. Typically, N-acetyl indoles 629 give C3 arylation, while N-pivaloyl indoles 630 suffer arylation at C2.
Ph Pd(TFA)2 10-20% mol CuOAc 2, 3 eq CsOPiv 110-140 C 30 eq major Ph R + N Ac R N Ac Ph
R 629
+ N Ac
N Ac
Ph
+ N O 630 60 eq
Pd(TFA) 2 5% mol AgOAc, 3 eq PivOH 110 C
Ph R N Ph O major + R N O
Scheme 5.285
5.7.2.2.2 CN Bond-Forming Reactions The introduction of secondary and tertiary substituents at the N position of the indole is a challenging transformation. Important advances in this sense have been achieved recently. A one-step tert-prenylation of indoles has been devised employing a Pd(II) catalyst (Scheme 5.286) [509]. This is an important transformation as the prenyl group is present in a large number of indole natural products and intermediates. Various contributions have appeared regarding the asymmetric N-allylation of indoles [510]. For instance, a method has been described employing a chiral metallacyclic iridium phosphoramidite complex (631, Scheme 5.287) [511]. This important reaction provides the corresponding N-allylated indoles 632 with total regioselectivity (no C3-allylation occurs) for a wide range of 2,3-disubstituted, 3-
512

R N H Pd(OAc)2 40 %mol AgOTf, Cu(OAc) 2 CH 3CN, 40 C, 24h R: CO2 Me, 87% R: CHO, 75% R N
Scheme 5.286
+ Ph
N H
CO2 Et cat (2 %mol) N Ph 632 97 : 3 CO2 Et + N CO 2Et Ph
CsCO3 ,10% mol THF, 50 C OCO 2t Bu
cat
Ir Ar
O P O N Ar
89% yield 99% ee
Ar: 2-MeOC 6 H4 631

Scheme 5.287
substituted, and also 2-substituted indoles. In the last case, the presence of an electron-withdrawing group at C2 is necessary to reduce the reactivity of the C3 position and direct the reaction to the N-position. The branched regioisomer 632 is always obtained as major or exclusively with very high enantiomeric excesses.
5.7.2.2.3 Pericyclic Reactions A Claisen rearrangement involving the C2C3 bond of the indole is the key step in the synthesis of kojic acid derivatives 634 (Scheme 5.288) [512]. The intermediate pyranone substituted indole 633 is prepared employing the Larock indole synthesis.
RO
O I + O O 633 O O O N Boc O
Larock OR Indole synthesis
HO Toluene
MW, 190 C 85%
OR
NHBoc
N Boc 634
Claisen
Scheme 5.288
References
j513
O N H + N Ph O
i) cat. CH2Cl2 -55 C ii) TFAA 91% 98% ee N F3 C O 635 O O
O N Ph
CF3
O S cat. N N H 636 N H
CF3 N CF3 H N N H
S N H O Ph 637 N O CF3
Scheme 5.289
A highly enantioselective organocatalytic [4 2] cycloaddition of 3-vinylindoles with maleimides has been reported recently (Scheme 5.289) [513]. The reaction gives rise to indolenines 634 with very high yields and enantioselectivities. The chiral thiourea 635 is the catalyst for the reaction. The nearly complete enantioselectivity obtained has been justied by the simultaneous interaction of the organocatalyst with diene and dienophile, as presented in the transition state model 636.
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ge, T., and Glorius, F. (2008) Dro Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 38, 7230. Bernini, R., Fabrizi, G., Sferrazza, A., and Cacchi, S. (2009) Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 48, 8078. Yu, W., Du, Y., and Zhao, K. (2009) Org. Lett., 11, 2417. Shi, Z., Zhang, C., Li, S., Pan, D., Ding, S., Cui, Y., and Jiao, N. (2009) Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 48, 4572. Cui, S.-L., Wang, J., and Wang, Y.-G. (2008) J. Am. Chem. Soc., 130, 13526. Fuwa, H. and Sasaki, M. (2009) J. Org. Chem., 74, 212. Jensen, T., Pedersen, H., Bang-Andersen, B., Madsen, R., and Jrgensen, M. (2008) Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 47, 888. Bernini, R., Cacchi, S., Fabrizi, G., Filisti, E., and Sferrazza, A. (2009) Synlett, 1480. Stuart, D.R., Bertrand-Laperle, M., Burgess, K.M.N., and Fagnou, K. (2008) J. Am. Chem. Soc., 130, 16474. Barluenga, J., Jim enez-Aquino, A., Vald es, C., and Aznar, F. (2007) Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 46, 1529. Barluenga, J., Jim enez-Aquino, A., Aznar, F., and Vald es, C. (2009) J. Am. Chem. Soc., 131, 4101. Petronijevic, F., Timmons, C., Cuzzupey, A., and Wipf, P. (2009) Chem. Commun., 104. Marques-Lopez, E., Diez-Martinez, A., Merino, P., and Herrera, R.P. (2009) Curr. Org. Chem., 13, 1585. Bartoli, G., Bosco, M., Carlone, C., Pesciaioli, F., Sambri, L., and Melchiorre, P. (2007) Org. Lett., 9, 1403. Rueping, M., Nachtsheim, B.J., Moreth, S.A., and Bolte, M. (2008) Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 47, 593. Cai, Q., Zhao, Z.-A., and You, S.-L. (2009) Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 48, 7428. Evans, D.A., Fandrick, K.R., Song, H.-J., Scheidt, K.A., and Xu, R. (2007) J. Am. Chem. Soc., 129, 10029. Ganesh, M., and Seidel, D. (2008) J. Am. Chem. Soc., 130, 16464. Itoh, J., Fuchibe, K., and Akiyama, T. (2008) Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 47, 4016. Arai, T. and Yokoyama, N. (2008) Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 47, 4989.
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J. Am. Chem. Soc., 126, 10558. (b) Seayad, J., Seayad, A.M., and List, B. (2006) J. Am. Chem. Soc., 128, 1086. (c) Wanner, M.J., van der Haas, R.N.S., de Cuba, K.R., van Maarseveen, J.H., and Hiemstra, H. (2007) Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 46, 7485. (d) Bou-Hamdan, F.R. and Leighton, J.L. (2009) Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 48, 2403. (e) Muratore, M.E., Holloway, C.A., Pilling, A.W., Storer, R.-I., Graham Trevitt, G., and Dixon, D.J. (2009) J. Am. Chem. Soc., 131, 10796. Wanner, M.J., Boots, R.N.A., Eradus, B., de Gelder, R., van Maarseveen, J.H., and Hiemstra, H. (2009) Org. Lett., 11, 2579. (a) Trost, B.M. and Quancard, J.J. (2006) Am. Chem. Soc., 128, 6314. (b) Kagawa, N., Malerich, J.P., and Rawal, V.H. (2008) Org. Lett., 10, 2381. Eastman, K. and Baran, P.S. (2009) Tetrahedron, 65, 3149. Joucla, L. and Djakovitch, L. (2009) Adv. Synth. Cat., 351, 673. Garc a-Rubia, A., G omez Array as, R., and Carretero, J.C. (2009) Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 48, 6511. Brand, J.P., Charpentier, J., and Waser, J. (2009) Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 48, 9346.
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and Sanford, M.S. (2006) J. Am. Chem. Soc., 128, 4972. (b) Lebrasseur, N. and Larrosa, I. (2008) J. Am. Chem. Soc., 130, 2926. Yang, S., Sun, C., Fang, Z., Li, B., Li, Y., and Shi, Z. (2008) Angew. Chem., Int. Ed., 47, 1473. Philipps, R.J., Grimster, N.P., and Gaunt, M.J. (2008) J. Am. Chem. Soc., 130, 8174. (a) Stuart, D.R. and Fagnou, K. (2007) Science, 316, 1172. (b) Stuart, D.R., Villemure, E., and Fagnou, K. (2007) J. Am. Chem. Soc., 129, 12072. Luzung, M.R., Lewis, C.A., and Baran, P.S. (2009) Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 48, 7025. (a) Bandini, M., Eichholzer, A., Tragni, M., and Umani-Ronchi, A. (2008) Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 47, 3238. (b) Cui, H.-L., Feng, X., Peng, J., Lei, J., Jiang, K., and Chen, Y.-C. (2009) Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 48, 5737. Stanley, L.M. and Hartwig, J.F. (2009) Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 48, 7841. Xion, X. and Pirrung, M.C. (2008) Org. Lett., 10, 1151. Claudio Gioia, C., Hauville, A., Bernardi, L., Fini, F., and Ricci, A. (2008) Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 47, 9236.
j533
6 Five-Membered Heterocycles: Furan

Henry N.C. Wong, Xue-Long Hou, Kap-Sun Yeung, and Hui Huang
6.1 Introduction
Furan (1) is prepared by a gas-phase decarbonylation procedure starting from furfural, which, in turn, is produced in large amounts via an acid treatment of vegetable residues after industrial production of porridge oats and cornakes [1]. In addition, acid-promoted dehydration of saccharides such as D-fructose also leads to the formation of hydroxymethylfurfural (2) [2, 3]. In this connection, furan (1) and hydroxymethylfurfural (2) are generally regarded as compounds that are readily accessible from renewable resources.
O 1 O 2 CHO
HO
The structure of 1 is closely related to those of pyrrole and thiophene. There are two electron lone pairs on the oxygen atom, one being conjugated with the two double bonds to form a sextet, and the other located in the molecular plane in an sp2 hybrid orbital. Furan molecular frameworks are found in many naturally occurring molecules, and play a very signicant role in the eld of heterocyclic chemistry. Furans have been applied to various commercially important products such as pharmaceuticals, avors and fragrant products, and functional polymers. They are also versatile precursors and synthetic intermediates in the preparation of cyclic and acyclic molecules. For example, furans are latent 1,4-dicarbonyl units and are also widely employed as 1,3dienes in DielsAlder reactions. Efcient synthesis of polysubstituted furans therefore continues to be of great interest to synthetic chemists due to their widespread applications and frequent occurrence in Nature [4].
534
j 6 Five-Membered Heterocycles: Furan

43 51 2
Figure 6.1 Numbering of the furan ring system.
6.1.1 Nomenclature
The positions next to the oxygen atom are indicated as a and a0 , while those away from the oxygen are called b and b0 . Figure 6.1 shows the numbering of the furan ring system [5]. Reduced furans are called 2,3-dihydrofuran (3), 2,5-dihydrofuran (4) and 2,3,4,5-tetrahydrofuran (5).
O 3 O 4 O 5
Sections 6.3 and 6.4 give a much more thorough discussion on the reactions of furan 1 and its derivatives. Here we concentrate on the overall reactivity of 1 [1, 6]. In general, furans are rather stable towards weak aqueous acids. However, in concentrated sulfuric acid or Lewis acids the furan framework will be decomposed. Of the three types of ve-membered heterocycles that contain NH, S or O, furans are the least aromatic [7] and would therefore react like dienes. Electrophilic substitution reactions with 1 are regiospecic and lead to mostly a-substituted furans 6 via a general additionelimination pathway (Scheme 6.1) [1, 6, 8]. b-Substitution reactions only occur when both the a and a0 positions are occupied by substituents. Scheme 6.2 depicts an example of b-acylation, in which 7 is converted into 8 [9].
E O 1
+
E O
+ H
O 6
Scheme 6.1
Me Me N O 7 O
MeCOCl AlCl 3 CS2 reflux, 6 hr 65%
Me Me
Me N
O 8
Scheme 6.2
6.1 Introduction
j535
In a nitration reaction, furan 1 reacts with acetyl nitrate to give, initially, an addition product, which undergoes subsequent elimination to offer 2-nitrofuran (9) (Scheme 6.3).
AcONO 2 O 1 5 to 30C AcO O +C5H5N NO2 C5H5NHOAc O 9 NO2
Scheme 6.3
In sulfonation reactions, furan (1) is again sulfonated at C2, with a pyridinesulfur trioxide complex, followed by acidication with hydrochloric acid to afford 10 (Scheme 6.4).
1. C5 H5NSO3 O 1
Scheme 6.4
2. HCl
O 10
SO3H
Halogenation reactions are trickier with furans. Thus, polyhalogenated products are obtained from 1 through reactions with chlorine and bromine at room temperature. Pure 2-chlorofuran and 2-bromomfuran can only be obtained when 1 reacts with chlorine in dichloromethane at 40 C, and bromine in dioxane at 0 C, respectively. 3-Methylfuran (11), in contrast, reacts with N-bromosuccinimide (NBS) to furnish 2-bromo-3-methylfuran (12) (Scheme 6.5) [10].
Me O 11
Scheme 6.5
NBS AIBN Et2O reflux 75% O 12
Me Br
Acylation under VilsmeierHaack conditions with a catalyst such as boron triuoride etherate or phosphoric acid converts 1 into 2-acylfurans. As shown in Scheme 6.6, treatment of 3,4-bis(trimethylsilyl)furan (13) with acetyl chloride and titanium(IV) chloride affords the a-acetylfuran 14 [11].
Me3 Si O 13
Scheme 6.6
SiMe3
MeCOCl TiCl4 CH 2Cl2 78C, 1 hr 73%
Me3Si O 14
SiMe3 COMe
536

Scheme 6.7 gives an appropriate example of a Lewis acid catalyzed alkylation of a furan moiety (15) [12]. This reaction is stereospecic, leading only to the trans-fused diastereomer 16.
O BF3Et2O 84% 15
Scheme 6.7
16
Condensation of 1 with acetone in the presence of an acid, intriguingly, gives 16membered macrocycle 17 (Scheme 6.8) [13].
Me O O Me O Me 17
Scheme 6.8
Me2 C=O MeSO3H O 1 EtOH reflux
Me
Me Me O Me Me
Metallation such as mercuration with mercury (II) chloride and sodium acetate leads to a-mercurated furans. As demonstrated in Scheme 6.9, 3-methylfuran (11) undergoes mercuration to give the corresponding furanmercuric chloride 18 [14]. Lithiation with alkyllithium in reuxing diethyl ether proceeded smoothly at C2, providing a 2-lithiofuran (19). In the presence of tetramethyl ethylenediamine (TMEDA) in hexane, 2,5-bis(lithio)furan (20) is formed instead (Scheme 6.10) [15].
Me HgCl2 O 11 H2 O-MeOH r.t. 95% O 18 HgCl Me
Scheme 6.9
n-BuLi O 19 Li Et2O O 1
n-BuLi (excess) TMEDA C6H14 Li O 20
Scheme 6.10
6.1 Introduction
j537
Lithium chemistry opens up an avenue for the realization of some useful a-substituted furans. An example is shown in Scheme 6.11 [16]. As can be seen, an excess of butyllithium presumably generates a 2,5-bis(lithio)furan, which is then silylated at the less hindered side to give furan 22 with a 2,4-disubstituted pattern.
Me3SiO O O 21
Scheme 6.11
1. n-BuLi (2.0 equiv) THF 78C
Me3SiO O O 22
2. Me3SiCl (0.5 equiv) Me3Si THF 80%
Furan (1) undergoes catalytic hydrogenation to afford the very commercially important solvent tetrahydrofuran. As mentioned above, furans behave like a 1,3diene, so the reaction of 2,5-disubstituted furan 23 with methanolic bromine produces 2,5-dimethoxy-2,5-dihydrofuran 24 (Scheme 6.12) [17].
CO2 Me O 23
Scheme 6.12
Br2 MeOH r.t., 2 hr 96% H33C16 MeO O 24
CO2Me OMe
H33C16
The diene character of furan can be further demonstrated by its DielsAlder cycloaddition reaction with maleic anhydride, forming the endo-adduct 25 at a lower temperature as the kinetic product, and an exo-product 26 as the thermodynamic product after much longer reaction times or at a higher temperature (Scheme 6.13). Notably, this cycloaddition reaction was one of the reactions that led Otto Diels and Kurt Alder to report their now famous DielsAlder reaction [18]. A recent example utilizing an intramolecular DielsAlder reaction between the furan unit 27 and maleic anhydride, leading to the DielsAlder adduct 29 via 28, is shown in Scheme 6.14 [19].
O O 26 H H O
O O 1
Scheme 6.13
O 40C MeCN
O O
H H
Prolonged reaction
O O 25
chi reaction, hydroxymethylfuran (30) Under the conditions of the PaternoBu reacts readily with benzophenone to form the [2 2] adducts oxetanes 31 (65%) and
538

O Me F N H 27 O O O C6H6 20C 510 d 92% F F N O HO2C
Scheme 6.14
Me Me N O 29 O CO2H
28
32 (20%) (Scheme 6.15) [20]. Reductive methylation of furan 33 with sodium in liquid ammonia and subsequent addition of methyl iodide, on the other hand, afforded 2,5dihydrofuran 34 (Scheme 6.16) [21].
Ph Ph Ph O O 32 Ph
hv
HO O 30 Ph 2C=O 96 hr O 31 HO
+
HO
Scheme 6.15
OMe Me O N O 33
Scheme 6.16
1. Na liq. NH3 THF 78C OMe 2. MeI 93% O
Me
OMe N
Me O 34
OMe
6.1.3 Relevant Physicochemical Data [8]
Furan (1) shows only limited solubility in water (1 part in 35 at 20 C) [8]. The hydrogen bonding effect of its oxygen atom with the water protons is the reason why it is more soluble in water than thiophene (1 part in 700 at 20 C). Microwave spectroscopy of 1 and its deuterated analogs in the gas phase has been reinvestigated, and highly accurate structure parameters have been obtained [22]. The dimensions are shown in Figure 6.2. In contrast, the solid-state structural dimensions of furan-2-carboxylic acid [23] and furan-3,4-dicarboxylic acid [24] have been determined by an X-ray diffraction study; the values obtained are in good agreement with those found in the gas phase study [22].
6.1 Introduction
j539
H
1.4301 1.3610 106.07 110.65 1.3622 106.56 1.0748 115.98 1.0768 127.83
Figure 6.2 Geometry of furan.
The UV/Visible spectroscopic absorption maximum of furan (1) in ethanol is lmax 208 nm (log e 3.9). This value is the smallest amongst pyrrole (210 nm) and thiophene (235 nm), and is therefore a good indication that 1 behaves more like a diene than a conjugated system [25]. Chemical shifts of protons are related to the electron-density of the carbons they are attached to, with lower eld shifts corresponding to electron-decient carbon centers. Thus, the a-proton signals of furan (1) at d 7.29 are at a lower eld than those of the b-protons (d 6.24), which is primarily due to the inductive electron-withdrawing effect of the oxygen atom [26]. Coupling constants between protons on 1 are J2,3 1.75 Hz, J2,4 0.85 Hz, J2,5 1.40 Hz and J3,4 3.30 Hz [27]. 13 C NMR chemical shifts also show the electron-withdrawing effect of the oxygen atom, giving signals at d 142.7 ppm of the a-carbons and d 109.6 ppm for the b-carbons [28]. In its mass spectrum, the fragmentation pathway of furan 1 is like that of other vemembered heterocycles (Scheme 6.17). For 1, the strongest peak (70%) is the molecular ion [29]. The He(1a) photoelectron spectrum of furan (1) [30] reveals the energy of the third molecular orbital (p3) as 8.89 eV, which is also the energy of the highest occupied
+
O
C2 H2 e O
+ :+ O
O
HC=O
+
O
HC O
Scheme 6.17
540

0.090 O +0.209 0.015
Figure 6.3 p-Electron excess at positions 2 and 3 of furan.
molecular orbital as well as close to the rst ionization potential (IP1) of 1 (8.99 eV) [31]. Other molecular orbital energies p1 and p2 are measured at 14.4 and 10.2 eV, respectively. Since a high p-donation character of a compound always leads to substantial p-electron excess, the best measure of p-donation is the value of the rst ionization potential (IP1). In this connection, furan and thiophene (p3 8.92 eV) [32] show almost equal p-donor properties, while that of pyrrole is signicantly larger (p3 8.2 eV) [32]. HMO calculations lead to the same conclusion, namely that the total p-electron excess of 1 is smaller than that of pyrrole [8]. As can be seen in Figure 6.3, the b-carbon atoms carry signicantly larger negative charges than the a-carbons. Such a distribution of p-electron excess is also in good agreement with the larger shielding of Hb- and Cb-nuclei in the proton and 13 C NMR spectra, respectively [8]. The PariserParrPople (PPP) approximation method reproduces well the ckel method has electronic spectral features of furan (1) [33], while the simple Hu also been employed to compute the resonance energy of 1 in a quantitative manner, providing a value of 18 kcal mol1, which is less stable than thiophene (resonance energy 29 kcal mol1) [34]. Satisfactory molecular geometry and heat of formation for 1 have been obtained from MINDO/3 semi-empirical MO calculations [35]. In addition, MINDO/3 calculated vibration frequencies for 1 [36] agree well with values obtained experimentally [37]. In addition, satisfactory dipole moment [38] and ionization energies [39] for 1 have been obtained from an ab initio calculation. The electronic spectrum [40] and electronic structure [41] of 1 have also been computed by other ab initio methods.
6.1.4 Relevant Natural and Useful Compounds
As mentioned in Section 6.1, the furan molecular skeleton is found widely in many naturally occurring molecules. Shown below are several furan-containing natural products (3540) identied in 2004 and 2005. Thus, shinsonefuran (35), a sesterterpene exhibiting cytotoxicity against HeLa cells with an IC50 of 16 mg mg1, was obtained from the deep-sea sponge Stoeba extensa [42]. A limonoid containing also a 3-substituted furan, namely xyloccensin L (36), was isolated from the stem bark of Xylocarpus granatum [43]. The new furanocembranolide 37 was isolated from the octocorals Leptogorgia alba and Leptogorgia ridida collected on the Pacic coast of Panama [44]. The linderazulene 38, a novel azulenoid showing moderate activity against the PANC-1 pancreatic cell line with an IC50 of 18.7 mg ml1, was obtained from a deep-sea gorgonian Paramuricea sp. [45]. In
6.1 Introduction
j541
a chemical and genetic study of Ligularia tongolensis in the Hengduan Mountains of China, a strongly Ehrlich-positive furanoeremophilane compound (39) was identied [46]. During automated screening for small-molecule agonists to peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-c (PPAR-c), a new biologically active linear triterpene 40 was isolated and characterized from the bark of Cupaniopsis trigonocarpa [47].
O HO O MeO 2C O O Me Me
H OH O O
O O
Me OH 35
36
CHO Me O O O O 37 O Me MeO2C 38 Me Me Me Me O CO2H Me CO2H Me 40 Me O O O CO2H O 39 H O Me O Me Me
Furan-containing molecules are also useful as catalysts, pharmaceuticals and electronic devices. For example, in the synthesis of a highly potent and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (BMS-594726), MacMillans furan-containing imidazolidinone catalyst 41 [48] has been employed in the key enantioselective indole alkylation step, leading to a desired product with an enantiomeric excess of 84% [49]. Ranitidine (42) (Zantac), a histamine H2-receptor antagonist that inhibits gastric acid secretion, possesses a furan framework as the pivotal structural unit [50]. Anther furan-containing oligoarylcyclophanene (43) showing a strong broad luminescence at 499 nm, due presumably to an intramolecular interaction between the chromophores and the presence of a double bond has potential use in opto-electronic devices [51].
542

O Me N N H
41
NO2 O Me2N Me S O
42
N H
N H
Me
Bu O
O Bu
43
6.2 Synthesis of Furans 6.2.1 Introduction
The synthesis of furans has continued to attract the attention of synthetic chemists during the past several decades [4]. In this connection, many efcient procedures have been documented. Some of these methods have become standard procedures and have been extremely useful in the synthesis of furans with different substituted patterns. One of these classical methods is the acid-catalyzed dehydration reaction of 1,4-diketones to form furans, known as the PaalKnorr synthesis [52]. Not only 1,4ketones but also masked diketones, such as chloroallyl ketones and oxiranes with appropriate substituents, as well as 1,4-dicarboxylic acid derivatives, including esters and nitriles, are suitable substrates. Many variants have also been recorded. Furthermore, cyclization of c-hydroxy ketones or aldehydes in the presence of an acid catalyst can also provide the corresponding substituted furans. Various acids, such as sulfuric acid, p-toluenesulfonic acid, oxalic acid, Amberlyst 15 and zinc bromide, have been used as catalyst. Some examples (44 ! 45 and 46 ! 47) are shown in Scheme 6.18 [53]. Reaction of oxazole derivative 48 and a dienophile via a DielsAlder cycloadditionretro-DielsAlder reaction strategy provides a useful protocol to produce furan 49 with different substitution patterns, provided these starting materials are carefully chosen (Scheme 6.19). The procedure has been employed in the total synthesis of ()-teubrevin G (50) [54]. Furans themselves may also serve as dienes in the reaction with electron-decient alkynes, leading to 7-oxabicyclic compounds, which undergo a retro-DielsAlder reaction to provide the corresponding furans. The advantages of this strategy lie in the functional group compatibility as well as the starting material
6.2 Synthesis of Furans
j543
O
n-Hexyl
(CH2 )7COOMe O 44 CO2Et CHO OEt 46
HCl (trace) CHCl3 reflux 80% H2SO4 68%

n -Hexyl
O 45
(CH2 )7COOMe
EtO
EtO2C O 47
CO2 Et
Scheme 6.18
Me O
N Me O 48 O H
tBuMe SiO 2
CHO O O 49 O O Me O
OSiMe2t Bu 250C 52% single isomer
Me O
O O ()-Teubrevin G 50
Scheme 6.19
accessibility. If the availability of starting materials is not a problem, this procedure may be regarded as the simplest and the most efcient. Organometallic compounds have found signicant application in furan synthesis in recent years. A lithiationelectrophile trapping strategy has been widely applied to the synthesis of 2,3-disubstituted and 2,3,5-trisubstituted furans. These furyllithium species have been obtained by various means, such as the direct metallation of furans at the a-position using n-BuLi or LDA (Scheme 6.10) [15] or using lithium magnesates [55] and metalhalogen exchange methodology. All these furyllithium compounds can be converted into the corresponding substituted furans upon quenching with various electrophiles such as halides or carbonyls. As shown in Scheme 6.20, 3-bromofuran 51 can be lithiated and alkylated at the a-carbon to afford 52, which undergoes further reactions to give rosefuran (53) [56]. Furyllithium species can also be converted into other organometallic species, such as titanium and manganese derivatives through a transmetallation procedure. In addition to titanium and manganese derivatives, organocopper, zinc and tin have all been utilized in the preparation of polysubstituted furans [57].
Br O 51
Scheme 6.20
1. LDA 2. Br 78% Me Me O 52
Br Me Me
1. n-BuLi 2. MeI 63% O 53
Me Me Me
544

Despite the fact that a lot of strategies and procedures for the synthesis of furans have been recorded, the quest for efcient and reliable synthetic methodologies, especially with acceptable regioselectivity, is still an active research eld. Some progress in this area is reviewed in the following section.
6.2.2 Monosubstituted Furans
Transition metal catalyzed coupling reactions of arenes and halides and amines have been very popular in the synthesis of arene derivatives. These protocols can also be used in the synthesis of furans with substituents at different positions. CN cross-coupling reaction of a bromo-substituted furan with various amides, carbamates and lactams catalyzed by CuI furnishes 2- and 3-substituted amidofurans in 4595% yield [58]. Arylboronic acid has been employed as an aryl source in the synthesis of 2-arylfuran under Mn(II) acetate-promoted radical reaction conditions. Although the yields are not high, they are better than those of the phase-transfer GombergBachmann synthesis using arenediazonium ions [59]. Arylation of 3-furoate with 3-bromonitrobenzene using Pd(PPh3)4 as catalyst in toluene affords 2,3-disubstituted furan while 5-aryl products are generated predominantly when Pd/C is used as the catalyst and NMP as solvent [60]. 2-Substituted furan 56 has been prepared using the phosphorylated allenic glycol 54 through a cyclization pathway under basic conditions, followed by dehydration of intermediate 55 in the presence of a catalytic amount of p-TsOH (Scheme 6.21) [61].
HO H 54 HO OH Et 3N 72% O 55
Ph (EtO)2 OP
Scheme 6.21
PO(OEt)2 Ph
p -TsOH
89%
O 56
PO(OEt)2 Ph
2-Substituted furans can be prepared under mild conditions. Thus, reaction of 2,5dimethoxy-2,5-dihydrofuran (57) and an appropriate vinyl ether in the presence of a catalytic amount of MgBr2Et2O affords a functionalized 2-alkylfuran 58 in good yields (Scheme 6.22). The reaction might proceed through a concerted mechanism, in which the MgBr2-activated dihydrofuran reacts with the vinyl ether via a cyclic intermediate [62].
OMe O 58 O
MeO
O 57
OMe
MgBr2 O Et2O 75%
Scheme 6.22
j545
Furyldiuoromethyl aryl ketones 59 are formed when furan (1) is allowed to react with diuoroenol silyl ethers in the presence of Cu(OTf)2 as depicted by an example in Scheme 6.23 [63]. If 2-furfurylcarboxylate is used, the corresponding substituted furan is also obtained [63].
F F OSiMe 3 Ph Cu(OTf)2 MeCN-H2O (50:1) 88% O O 59 F F Ph
O 1
Scheme 6.23
The Yb(fod)3-catalyzed carbonyl-ene reaction of 3-methylene-2,3-dihydrofuran (60) and aldehydes is a mild, efcient way to provide 2-substituted furans, which can be transformed into furano[2,3-c]pyrans 61 in good yield via the oxa-Pictet Spengler procedure (Scheme 6.24) [64]. Similarly, 60, produced from the Wolff Kishner reduction of 2-furylhydrazone, reacts with aldehydes in the presence of Yb (fod)3 or Ti(OPr-i)4, to afford the same 2-substituted furans. Notably, an optically active product is realized when Ti(OPr-i)4/(S)-BINOL is the catalyst [65].
Me Me O 60
Scheme 6.24
CHO O
Me OH Me Me Me
Me CHO O Me Me 61
Me O
Yb(fod)3 72%
p-TsOH 76%
The 2-position of furan is usually derivatized by a simple electrophilic aromatic substitution or metallation. However, the introduction of a substituent to the 3position of furans requires special strategies. Several such procedures have been developed, one of which is the synthesis of furan-3-carboxylic acid (63) via aromatization of 3-trichloroacetyl-4,5-dihydrofuran (62) followed by a nucleophilic displacement with hydroxide, alcohols and amines (Scheme 6.25) [66].
O O O
CCl 3
NBS CCl4 reflux, 2 hr 60%
CCl 3
1 M NaOH C6H6 reflux, 16 hr 70%
OH
O 62
Scheme 6.25
O 63
Reductive annulation of 1,1,1-trichloroethyl propargyl ether 64 in the presence of a catalytic amount of Cr(II) regenerated by Mn/Me3SiCl provides another entry to
546

a 3-substituted furan (65) in high yields (Scheme 6.26). The reaction conditions proved compatible with most other common functional groups. Some natural products, such as perillene and dendrolasin, have been prepared by utilizing this procedure [67].
OAc AcO O Cl3C
64
Scheme 6.26
CrCl2 (cat.) Mn, Me 3SiCl 82% O

65
The reaction of furan with N-tosylimine produced in situ from TsNSO and aldehydes in the presence of ZnCl2 gives no DielsAlder reaction products. Instead, furyl sulfonamides have been separated in high yields (Scheme 6.27) [68]. This procedure provides an efcient synthesis of 2-substituted furans such as 67 from 66, and is general with respect to aldehydes. Moreover, it is possible to synthesize 2,3disubstituted furans by an intramolecular aromatic substitution of N-tosylimines at the 3-position of furans.
O Me Me 66
Scheme 6.27
TsN=S=O H Furan ZnCl2 81% O 67
Me Me NHTs
Ring closing metathesis (RCM), one of the most powerful tools for ring-formation, has demonstrated its high efciency and functional group tolerance. Recently, the RCM reaction has also been employed in the synthesis of substituted furans (e.g., 68 ! 69). A range of different substitution patterns and functional groups are compatible with this sequence, such as the formation of both 70 and 72, employing also the Grubbs catalyst 71(Scheme 6.28) [69].
6.2.3 Disubstituted Furans
Direct metallation of 2-substituted furan with t-BuLi in the presence of TMEDA followed by treatment of the lithiated furan species with electrophiles provides a simple and efcient way to the corresponding 2,3-disubstituted furans [70]. 2-Furancarboxamide reacts with vinylsilanes catalyzed by Ru3(CO)12 or RuHCl (CO)(PPh3)3 to deliver 3-trialkylsilyl-2-furancarboxamide also in high yield [71]. A general protocol has been developed towards a mild, regioselective arylation of
j547
1.10% Grubbs catalyst 71 CH2Cl2, refllux

p-MeOC6H 4
O 68
OMe
2. TFA 79% Ph
p -MeOC6H4
O 69
Ph O OMe
1. 10% Grubbs catalyst 71 CH2Cl2, reflux 2. TFA 70%
MesN O 70 Cl Cl Ru
NMes
PCy3Ph Grubbs catalyst 71

MeO2 C Me O 72
MeO2C Me
Scheme 6.28
1.10% Grubbs catalyst 71 CH2Cl2, reflux O OMe 2. TFA 70%
2-furaldehyde using functionalized aryl halides in the presence of a catalytic amount of PdCl2-PCy3. Slow addition of aryl halides to the reaction mixture avoids the homocoupling efciently [72]. A one-pot Suzuki coupling of aryl halides with in situ generated 5-(diethoxymethyl)-2-furylboronic acid catalyzed by palladium(0) also gave 5-aryl-2-furaldehydes in high yields [73]. A simple procedure to prepare 5-aryl- and 5pyridyl-2-furaldehydes from the inexpensive and commercially available 2-furaldehyde diethyl acetal through direct lithiationtransmetallationelectrophile trapping has been reported. The reaction proceeded in a four-step, one-pot manner and the yields of the coupling step were usually 5891% [74]. Allene derivatives are useful starting materials in the synthesis of furans containing different substitution patterns. In 1990, Marshall found that Rh(I) and Ag(I) can catalyze the isomerization of allene 73 to the corresponding substituted furan 74 in high yield (Scheme 6.29) [75]. Later, this strategy was successfully applied to the synthesis of furanocembranes and other related natural products [76].
H Me 73 H
n-C 7H15
n-C 7H15 RhCl(PPh3)3
MeCN 90C 80%
O 74
Me
Scheme 6.29
Several reports have discussed the isomerization between allenes and propargyl groups. One example is the intermolecular reaction of allenyl ketone 75 and an a,b-unsaturated ketone catalyzed by AuCl3, which gives rise to 2,5-disubstituted furan 76 in good yield (Scheme 6.30) [77]. Both ethyl propargyl ketone and ethyl allenyl ketone lead to the same 2,5-disubstituted furan.
548

OMe H O
Scheme 6.30
O Me Me MeO O 76 Me Me O
75
AuCl3 (1 mol%) 64%
A general, efcient procedure for the preparation of 2,5-disubstituted furans containing acid- and base-labile groups via CuI-catalyzed cycloisomerization of alkynyl ketones such as the conversion of 77 into 78 has appeared (Scheme 6.31), for which a plausible mechanism has been proposed [78]. The allenyl ketone produced from the triethylamine-Cu(I)-catalyzed isomerization of the starting material should be the intermediate. Coordination of copper to the terminal double bond of allene followed by an intramolecular nucleophilic attack of the oxygen lone pair and subsequent isomerization eventually leads to furans as nal products. Indeed, 2-phenylfuran was afforded in 33% yield when allenyl phenyl ketone was treated with CuI in DMA.
Me Me
77
Scheme 6.31
O C 3H7
CuI (5 mol%) Et3 N-DMA (1:7) C3H7 100C 88% O

78
Me Me
2,4-Disubstituted furan 81 has been obtained in high yield through a novel oxidative cyclizationdimerization reaction between the two different allenes 79 and 80 (Scheme 6.32) [79].
Ph H 79
Scheme 6.32
Pr
COOH2 80
H O Me
PdCl 2(MeCN)2 (5 mol%) MeCN 90%
Ph
O Pr
Me
81
As shown in Scheme 6.33, 2,5-disubstituted furan 84, with a cyclopropane subunit at the 5-position, has been synthesized in acceptable yield by a metal-catalyzed
Ph O 82
Scheme 6.33
+
83
Ot Bu
Cr(CO)5(THJF) (5 mol%) THF 63% Ph O 84
OtBu
Ph
O 85 M
j549
cyclization reaction of 1-benzoyl-cis-1-buten-3-yne (82) and the enol ether 83 via (2furyl)carbene complex 85. Many types of metal complexes, such as Mo, W, Ru, Rh, Pd, and Pt, complexes are suitable catalysts [80]. Reaction of 2-alkynal acetal with a divalent titanium reagent and aldehydes provides, after an acid work up, 2,3-disubstituted furans in good to excellent yields [81]. Michael additionaldol condensation reactions of a,b-unsaturated enones with an organocopper reagent and (tetrahydropyranyloxy)acetaldehyde have been followed by treatment of the products with p-TsOH to afford 2,3-disubstituted furans in moderate to good yields [82]. a,b-Unsaturated carbonyl compounds with an appropriate leaving group undergo 1,5-electrocyclization reactions to yield 2,5disubstituted furans upon heating in the presence of an acid, presumably through an intermediate formed from 1-oxapentadienyl cations, whose conformational and energy properties were also studied by DFT calculations (B3LYP/6-31 G ) [83]. A 2,3-disubstituted furan, such as 88, with different functionalities has been synthesized through an acid-catalyzed elimination reaction of 2-alkylidenetetrahydrofuran 87, which can be prepared from the cyclization of 86 in high regioselectivity (Scheme 6.34) [84]. 2-Substituted furans and bicyclic furans can be synthesized by this methodology.
MeO Cl O O OEt 86
Scheme 6.34
DBU (2 equiv) THF 20C 80%
O MeO O 87
TFA CH2Cl 2 OEt 20C 100% O 88 O OEt
Aldol reaction of aziridine and a,b-epoxyaldehydes (e.g., 89) followed by an intramolecular enol cyclization in the presence of Bu2BOTf/DIPEA furnishes 5-substituted-2-furyl amines and carbinols 90 in good yields. The reaction proceeds in a one-pot manner (Scheme 6.35) [85].
X Me 89
CHO +
O Me Me Me
Bu2BOTf DIPEA CH2Cl 2 0-25C Me
OH O Me Me
Me
O Me 90
Me X
X = NHBoc, 72% yield X = O, 75% yiel
Scheme 6.35
Mercury triate-catalyzed cyclization of 1-alkyn-5-one 91 produces 2-methyl-5phenylfuran (92) (Scheme 6.36). The reaction may involve a protodemercuration of a vinylmercury intermediate generated in situ. When the substituent is at the
550

Ph O Hg(OTf)2 (1 mol%) C6H6 4 hr 94% Ph O 92 Me 91
Scheme 6.36
a-position of the carbonyl group, 2-methyl-4,5-disubstituted furans are formed. A plausible reaction mechanism has also been provided [86]. Triuoromethylsulfonamidofuran 94 has been prepared in high yield through the reaction of a cyclic carbinol amide 93 with triic anhydride (Scheme 6.37). Many lactams have been tested and the reaction proceeds under mild conditions. Ketoamides are also suitable substrates in these reactions [87].
O N OH 93
Scheme 6.37
Tf2O C 5H5N 83%
Me
O 94
N SO2 CF3
A two-step electrochemical annulation directed to polycyclic systems containing annulated furans has been developed. This pathway involves an initial conjugate addition of a furylethyl cuprate to cyclopentenone (95) and trapping of the enolate as the corresponding silyl enol ether 96. The second step involves anodic coupling of the furan and the silyl enol ether to form the cis-fused six-membered ring 97 with high stereoselectivity (Scheme 6.38) [88]. The reaction can be extended to the formation of seven-membered ring fused furan 98 [89]. However, the substituent on the 3-position of cyclopentanone is important for the formation of a seven-membered ring fused
MgBr O O 95 CuI, THF TMEDA Me3 SiCl Me O Me3SiO

Scheme 6.38
1. carbon anode iPrOH, LiClO 4 2,6-lutidine, MeCN Me3SiO O 2. 1N HCl 64% (two steps) O H 97 O
96 1. carbon anode iPrOH, LiClO 4 2,6-lutidine, MeCN 2. 1N HCl 61% O HO 98
j551
furans. If the substituent is H, no desired cyclization product is provided. The results show that the gem-dialkyl effect plays a crucial role in this electron transfer reaction.
6.2.4 Trisubstituted Furans
Many procedures mentioned above can also be utilized effectively to the synthesis of 2,3,4- and 2,3,5-trisubstituted furans. In addition, several novel procedures have also been reported. 3-Triuoromethylfuran 100 has been obtained from (Z)-2-alkynyl-3-triuoromethyl allylic alcohol 99 through a palladium-catalyzed cyclization-isomerization procedure (Scheme 6.39) [90].
Pd(PPh3)4 CuI C6H13 Et3N 66% C6H13 F3C 99 HO
i
CF3
F3C HO
iPr
PdCl2(MeCN)2 Pr 64%
iPr
O 100
C6H13
Scheme 6.39
A mild, simple reaction of dimethyl acetylenedicarboxylate with an ammonium ylide supplies trisubstituted furan 101 in good yield (Scheme 6.40) [91].
K 2CO3 (200 mol%) CH 3CN 58% MeO2C Me O 101 CO2 Me
MeO2C
CO2Me
O Me N
Br
Scheme 6.40
The reaction of 1,4-diarylbut-3-yne-1-one 102 with NBS, NIS or ICl affords, via a 5-endo-dig electrophilic cyclization, 3-halofuran 103 in high regioselectivity and high yield (Scheme 6.41) [92].
Me O NBS Br
Scheme 6.41
Br O Br 103 Me
102
acetone 89%
ller has reported the synthesis of 3-halofurans [93]. Thus, cross-coupling of acid Mu chlorides with THP-protected propargyl alcohols gives rise to the corresponding
552

alkynones, which undergo an acid-assisted electrophilic addition of hydrogen halide with concomitant deprotection and cyclization to afford 3-chlorofuran 104. If RB (OH)2 is added to the reaction system before workup, this reaction can provide Suzuki-coupling products in moderate yields (Scheme 6.42).
1. Pd(PPh3)4 (2 mol%) CuI (4 mol%) Et3N (100 mol%) 2. NaCl (200 mol%) PTSA (110 mol%) MeOH, 60C 70% Ph O 104
O Ph Cl
OTHP Et
Cl Et
Scheme 6.42
Organic molecules can also be used as catalysts in furan ring formation reactions. Krische has reported an example of organophosphine serving as catalyst in the construction of substituted furans, in which various c-acyloxybutynoates such as 105 were converted into 2,3-disubstituted, 2,4-disubstituted, and 2,3,5-trisubstituted furans (e.g., 106) (Scheme 6.43) [94].
O2N NO2 EtO O

Scheme 6.43
CO2Et PPh3 (120 mol%) EtOAc Sealed tube, 110C 86% Me O 106 NO2 NO2
O Me
105
Reaction of 2-penten-4-yn-1-one 107 with benzaldehyde initiated by tributylphosphine delivers 2-vinyl substituted furan 108 in a good yield. The reaction might proceed through a 1,6-addition of phosphine to the enynes, and is followed by ring closure and Wittig reaction between the ylide resulting from cyclization and an aldehyde (Scheme 6.44) [95].
Bu Me Ph O 107
Scheme 6.44
PhCHO PBu3 CH2Cl2 64%
Ph Bu Ph O 108 Me
j553
3-Aminofuran-2-carboxylate 109 has been prepared in good yield through the reaction of a cyanoketone with glycolate under Mitsunobu conditions followed by treatment with NaH (Scheme 6.45). 4-Pyridylcarbinol and 4-nitrobenzyl alcohol can also react with cyanoketone to furnish 3-aminofurans [96].
O
t
Bu
CN
+ HO
PPh3 OEt DEAD tBu O 80%
O O CN OEt
NaH 88% tBu O 109
NH2 CO2Et
Scheme 6.45
2,3,5-Trisubstituted furan 112 has been synthesized from a two-step one-pot reaction from epoxyalkyne 110. A facile SmI2-mediated reduction generates 2,3,4trien-1-ol 111, and the reduction is followed by a Pd(II)-catalyzed cycloisomerization (Scheme 6.46) [97]. An attractive variant of this reaction has been extended to the preparation of tetrasubstituted furans. Thus, when electrophilic Pd(II) complexes are generated in situ by an oxidative addition of aryl halides or triates to Pd(0), the oxypalladation process is followed by a reductive elimination and, as a result, tetrasubstituted furans are formed [98].
OAc Me BnO O 110 BnO Me O Ph
Scheme 6.46
Ph
1. SmI2, THF, 5C 2. BzOH, Pd(OAc)2 (PPh3)2 PdL2X 69% BnO BnO
Me O H Me
PdX2L
Ph 111
oxypalladation HX, + L
O 112
Ph
Nucleophilic substitution of sulnylfuran 113 with acetylacetone and allyl tin reagent via a Pummerer-type reaction has been used in the formation of 2,3,5trisubstituted furan 114, as well as with other 2,3-disubstituted furans, in high regioselectivity (Scheme 6.47) [99].
SnBu 3 Me O 113
Scheme 6.47
S O
Ph
(CF3CO) 2O 0C, 30 min 63%
Me
O 114
Ph
554

Regioselective gold-catalyzed cyclization of 2-(1-alkynyl)-2-alken-1-one 115 in the presence of a nucleophile affords 2,3,5-trisubstituted furan 116 in an efcient, atomeconomical manner. Various alcohols, 1,3-diketones as well as some indoles and amines can serve as nucleophiles. This reaction provides another good example of using gold as catalyst in furan synthesis (Scheme 6.48) [100].
O 1 mol% AuCl 3 1.5 eq MeOH 115
Scheme 6.48
OMe
CH 2Cl2 1 hr 80%
O 116
Yamamoto has demonstrated that, in the presence of CuBr as a catalyst, trisubstituted furan 118 is formed from 117 and isopropanol (Scheme 6.49) [101], while Liu has shown that tetrasubstituted 3-iodofurans are afforded on employing similar starting materials and I2/K3PO4 as reagents (see below) [102].
Ph O Me OH Me CuBr (10 mol%) DMF 80C 62% O 118 Me Me
Ph
+
117
Scheme 6.49
Conjugated ene-yne-carbonyl 119 has been employed as a precursor of 2-furylcarbene 121. In this way, 121 was allowed to react with an allyl sulde to form an S-ylide followed by [2,3]sigmatropic rearrangement to give the corresponding trisubstituted furan 120 in an excellent yield (Scheme 6.50) [103].
O H
+
Bz
SPh
[Rh(OAc)2]2 (2.5 mol%) CH2Cl2 reflux 98%
O SPh Bz 120
O Bz 121 [Rh]
119
Scheme 6.50
Palladium-catalyzed cyclization of a-propargyl a-keto ester 122 provided 2-alkenyl4,5-disubstituted furan 123a. High E/Z-selectivity is realized when the Me3Si- group is introduced to the a0 -position of the triple bond. The geometry of the double bond
j555
in 123a is almost completely inverted by reaction with a catalytic amount of diphenyl diselenide, providing 123b. (Scheme 6.51) [104].
CO2Me Pd(OAc)2/ dppf K2CO3 BzO Me O PMBO 73% Me O SiMe3 123a CO2Me PhSeSePh O Me 123b OPMB CO2Me
SiMe3
THF reflux OPMB 96% Me3Si
122
Scheme 6.51
Ma has reported an elegant regioselective synthesis of 2,3,4-trisubstituted furan 126 using a Cu-catalyzed ring-opening cycloisomerization reaction of cyclopropenyl ketone 124 (Scheme 6.52). Notably, the regioselectivity of this reaction can be tuned using different catalysts. 2,3,5-Trisubstituted furan 125 is produced from the same starting materials with excellent regiocontrol using a Pd catalyst [105].
EtO2C Ph 124 O Me conditions Ph O 125 CO2Et Ph Me CO2Et CuI (5 mol%), CH CN, reflux: 3 125 : 126 = 1 : 99, 89% PdCl2 (CH3CN)2 (5 mol%), Me O CHCl3, reflux: 125 : 126 = 99 : 1, 73% 126
Scheme 6.52
Alkylidenecyclopropyl ketones, analogs of allene ketones, have been used as a starting material in the synthesis of polysubstituted furans. Ma has given another example in which highly regiocontrolled transformation of an alkylidenecyclopropyl ketone (127), easily prepared by the regioselective cyclopropanation of an allene or the reaction of alkylidenecyclopropanyllithium with N,N-dimethyl carboxylic acid amide, into 2,3,4-trisubstituted furan 128 is realized in the presence of NaI. Interestingly, the same starting material 127 gives rise to 2,3,4,5-tetrasubstituted furan 129 if Pd (PPh3)4 or PdCl2(MeCN)2 is the catalyst (Scheme 6.53) [106].
O C 7H15 127 O C 7H15 CO2Et O 128 Me
Me C7H15 O 129
CO2 Et Pd(PPh3) 4 (5 mol%) Me MeCN 80C, 12 hr 84%
Me OEt
NaI (100 mol%) acetone reflux, 24 hr 75%
Scheme 6.53
Allene derivatives are important precursors in the regioselective synthesis of substituted furans. One example is the reaction of thioallenyl ketone via a 1,2migration of the thio group from an sp2 carbon atom in allenyl sulde 130 catalyzed
556

by CuI to afford trisubstituted furan 131 in high yield (Scheme 6.54) [107]. Propargyl suldes led to similar results. If thiopropargyl aldehydes are used as starting materials, 2,3-disubstituted furans are obtained. This route therefore provides a simple entry for the preparation of disubstituted and trisubstituted furans. Similarly, reaction of propargylic dithioacetals with an organocopper reagent followed by treatment with an aldehyde and then with acid also furnishes 2,3,5trisubstituted furans, in moderate to good yields [108].
Bu H CuI (5 mol%) 36 hr 82% PhS Bu O 131 (CH2)3OMOM
O PhS MOMO(CH2)3 130

Scheme 6.54
Isomerization of a-allenylcyclopentenone 132, obtained from propargyl ether and morpholino unsaturated amide, in the presence of Hg-catalyst gives furylcyclopentenone 133, therefore providing another example of the conversion of allenyl ketones into furans (Scheme 6.55) [109].
Me HO O 132
Scheme 6.55
Ph
Hg(O2CCF3 )2 TFA CH2Cl 2 71%
Ph Me O O 133
Gevorgyan has reported a regio and divergent synthesis of halofuran 135 via 1,2halogen migration of haloallenyl aldehyde 134 catalyzed by AuCl3 (Scheme 6.56) [110]. The procedure furnished 3-halofurans, some of which are otherwise difcult to access.
Br C7H15 O 135 Me
Br C7H15 134
Scheme 6.56
H CHO
AuCl3 (2 mol%) PhMe 73%
Reaction of aryl or alkyl-1-enyl halides with allenyl ketone 136 in the presence of Pd-catalyst followed by cyclization affords substituted furans with aryl or alk-1-enyl as substituent at the 3-position. This reaction is a new route to 3-substituted furan 137 (Scheme 6.57) [111].
j557
C12H25 H 136 O
H Me
PhI Pd(PPh 3)4 (5 mol %) Ag2 CO3 (10 mol%) Et 3N-PhMe 100C 75% C12H25
Ph O 137 Me
Scheme 6.57
6.2.5 Tetrasubstituted Furans
Many procedures discussed above are also suitable for the synthesis of tetrasubstituted furans if there are substituents at appropriate positions in the starting materials. However, some special methodologies have also been developed solely for the synthesis of tetrasubstituted furans. Liu has shown that cyclization of 2-(1-alkynyl)-2-alken-1-one 117 in the presence of a nucleophile affords fully substituted furan 138 in high regioselectivity and a good yield if I2 and K3PO4 are also used. This reaction provides a mild, efcient route to 3iodofurans. The reaction might be initiated by the formation of iodonium through coordination of the triple bond to an iodine cation, followed by cyclization and, nally, a nucleophilic attack (Scheme 6.58) [102].
Ph I2 (110 mol%) K 3PO 4 (110 mol%) CH2 Cl2 30 min 94% O I OMe
Ph
+ MeOH
117
Scheme 6.58
138
Ruthenium- and platinum-catalyzed sequential reaction of propargylic alcohols (e.g., 139) and cyclohexanone affords tri- and tetrasubstituted furans such as 140 (Scheme 6.59) [112]. In this reaction, two different kinds of catalysts sequentially promote each catalytic cycle in the same medium and give the products in high regioselectivity and good yields.
O Ph OH 139 +
Cp*RuCl(2-SMe)2RuCp*Cl (10 mol%) PtCl2 (20 mol%) NH4BF4 (20 mol%) reflux, 36 h (Cp* = 5-C5Me5) 75%
Ph Me O 140
Scheme 6.59
558

Another example of the regioselective synthesis of substituted furan 142 from the reaction of allenyl ketone 141 with organic halides initiated by Pd-catalyzed nucleophilic attack of the aryl group to allene followed by cyclization reaction has been reported (Scheme 6.60) [113]. This methodology shows a high substituent-loading capacity and functional group tolerance, as well as generality and versatility. If one of the substituents of the allenyl ketones is H, 2,3,4- and 2,3,5-trisubstituted furans can also be generated.
PhI (2 equiv) Pd(PPh3) 4 (5 mol %) K2CO3 (2 equiv) Me TBAB (0.2 equiv) DMA 100C 72%
n-H11 C5
141 O
Bu
Ph n-C5H11 O 142
Bu Me
Scheme 6.60
Gold-catalyzed reactions of propargyl vinyl ether 143 furnish tetrasubstituted furan 145 in high yield. The reaction proceeds through cyclization of the 2-allenyl-1,3-dicarbonyl intermediate 144 produced from a propargyl-Claisen rearrangement (Scheme 6.61) [114].
Me O O OEt Me Me O O OEt Me 144 Me Me
(PPh3)AuCl/AgBF4 (2 mol%) CH2Cl 2 95%
OEt Me
143
O 145
Scheme 6.61
Palladium-mediated sequential cross-coupling Sonogashira reactionWacker-type heteroannulation and deprotection reactions of pyridones, alkynes and organic halides furnish substituted furo[2,3-b]pyridones (e.g., 146) in a one-pot operation (Scheme 6.62) [115]. The coupling products of pyridones and alkynes can be separated and a single palladium catalyst intervenes in three different transformations. A palladium-catalyzed three-component cyclizationcoupling reaction of acetoacetate, propargyl bromide or carbonate and aryl halides gives tetrasubstituted furan 147 in high regioselectivity and a good yield (Scheme 6.63) [116]. Several examples concerning the synthesis of tetrasubstituted furans utilizing acetylenecarboxylate, aldehydes and nitrile or isonitrile have been reported. One such example is a one-pot reaction, affording tetrahydrofuro[2,3-c]pyridine 148 in high yield (Scheme 6.64) [117]. Scheme 6.65 shows a further example, in which the reaction is carried out in an ionic liquid under mild conditions, leading to tetrasubstituted furan 149 in high
j559
OBn I N Me O
MeO2C
CO2Me PdCl2(PPh3)2 (4 mol%) CuI (4 mol%) Et3N-MeCN 60C, 24 hr 63% OBn
N Me
O PhI N Me
Scheme 6.62
Ph O 146 CO2Me
O Me CO2Me +
OCO2Me
PhI Pd(PPh3)4 K2CO3 DMF 100C 50%
Me Ph O 147
CO2Me Ph Me
CO2Me O Me
99 : 1
Scheme 6.63
Bn
CO2 Et N H
Ph N O
C6H 13CHO NH4Cl PhMe reflux 82% Bn N O
CO2Et N O
NC
C6H13 148
Scheme 6.64
NC
CHO MeO2C
CO2Me
MeO2C O 149
CO2Me N H
[bmim]BF4 0.5 hr 85%
Scheme 6.65
yield [118]. A similar reaction employing 2-furyl-2-oxoacetamides instead of aldehydes in the preparation of substituted furylfurans was also recorded [119]. A detailed description of the synthesis of furylcyclopropane 150 from the reaction of an alkene and previously reported 2-furylcarbenoid by a metal-catalyzed cyclization of enyne ketone has been disclosed (Scheme 6.66) [120]. This protocol has been expanded by the same authors to the synthesis of furylcyclopropane-containing
560

Ph O Ph
Ph
Cr(CO)5THF (5 mol%) THF 14 hr 85%
O Ph
150
Scheme 6.66
polymers as well as furfurylidene-containing polymers when phenyl enyne ketones with a vinyl and formyl group at the ortho position of the benzene ring are employed [120]. Cycloisomerization of acyloxy-, phosphatyloxy- and sulfonyloxy-substituted alkynylketones gives tri- and tetrasubstituted furans (e.g., 151) with good regioselectivities; the allene intermediates are produced in situ via migration of the substituents, catalyzed by CuCl or AgBF4 (Scheme 6.67) [121].
AcO O
Scheme 6.67
AcO AgBF4 (5 mol%) CH2Cl2 86% O
151
N-Heterocyclic carbenes (NHC) have found use as reagents in the synthesis of polysubstituted aminofurans. Multicomponent reaction of an imidazolinium salt with an aldehyde and an acetylenecarboxylate in the presence of NaH leads to tetrasubstituted furan 152 in a good yield (Scheme 6.68). A plausible reaction mechanism has been proposed [122]. A similar procedure for the synthesis of tetrasubstituted 3-aminofurans, using a thiazolium salt, aldehydes and acetylenedicarboxylate, has also been reported [123].
CHO
Ph
+
CF3
+
CO2Me
tBu N+ Cl N tBu
NaH PhMe 90C 58%
MeO 2C O F3C
Ph N tBu NHt Bu
152
Scheme 6.68
6.3 Reactivity
This section primarily deals with the reactivity of furans that results in an overall transformation of the ring. Reactions of furans, particularly reactions of C-metallated
6.3 Reactivity
j561
furans, that lead to substituted furan derivatives have been discussed in Section 6.2.1. Most examples in this section are extracted from recent literature so as to document the progress made in each reaction category [4].
6.3.1 Reactions with Electrophilic Reagents
Furans are reactive p-nucleophiles. Nucleophilic additions of furans to electrophiles, from either the 2-position or 3-position, often involve regeneration of the furan ring from the oxonium ion intermediate by loss of a proton, as shown, for example, in Scheme 6.7, Section 6.1.2. An interesting example of direct hydrolytic cleavage that occurs subsequent to furan addition to an N-acyliminium ion is shown in Scheme 6.69. The initially formed oxonium ion likely undergoes a 1,5-proton shift to generate an intermediate that is then hydrolyzed to the dicarbonyl compound 153 [124].
Me HCO2H C6H12 r.t., 30 min n =1, 75% n = 2, 64% n O N O n O N 153 Me O O
OH n N O O Me
Scheme 6.69
2-Silyloxyfurans 154 are chemically equivalent to cyclic vinyl silyl ketene acetals, and have been employed for vinylogous additions to electrophiles under Lewis acid catalyzed conditions to provide c-butenolides 155, which are common structures present in natural products. These include vinylogous Mannich [125, 126], aldol [126] and Michael reactions. Consistent with vinylogous reactions of acyclic silyloxy dienolates, additions generally occur at the 5-position of 2-silyloxyfurans 154 (Scheme 6.70). Further synthetic manipulations of these adducts can lead to carbocycles, piperidines, sugars and azasugars. A subsequent intramolecular Michael/ hetero Michael addition to the a,b-unsaturated system of butenolide can also be exploited to form polycyclic ring structures [127]. Although the factors and the transition state structures (DielsAlder like versus open chain) that govern the stereoselectivity have not been well-dened, anti (erythro) adducts are in general isolated as the major isomers for additions to iminium ions, except cyclic acylimiXH R1SiO O XH X H NR 3; R
2
+
X=
Lewis acid O O X=O
R2
+
O
R2 O
154
Scheme 6.70
155a syn-isomer
155b anti-isomer
562

nium ions, from which the syn-isomers are obtained preferentially. For reactions with aldehydes, syn (threo) products generally predominate. The synthetic utility of vinylogous additions using 2-siyoxyfurans (e.g. 156) is exemplied by the total synthesis of the plant alkaloid croomine (157), in which two vinylogous Mannich reactions of 2-silyloxyfuran to a pyrrolinium ion constitute the key steps for assembling the carbon framework (Scheme 6.71) [128].
Me Me
iPr
3SiO
+ MeO
Br
N Boc
CO2 Me
5% TIPSOTf O CH2 Cl2 0C 32% Me
H Br
N Boc
CO2Me
156
4 steps Me O O H N CO2H
Me O O H N H H O
Me iPr3SiO O POCl3 O DMF 31%
157
Scheme 6.71
Vinylogous Michael additions of 2-silyloxyfurans to 3-alkenyl-2-oxazolidinones are anti-selective, and are highly enantioselective in the presence of a BINAP-Lewis acid catalyst [129]. As illustrated in Scheme 6.72, a complementary, syn-selective, organocatalytic, enantioselective vinylogous Michael addition of 2-silyloxyfuran 158 with an a,b-unsaturated aldehyde to produce c-butenolide 159 has been achieved by using the chiral amine catalyst 160 [130].
Me Me3 SiO Me O Me 158 O O
160 (20 mol%)

H2 O-CH2Cl 2 40C syn : anti = 24 : 1 92% ee 73% Me
O Me Me 159
O O Ph
N N H
Me Me Me Me
160
Scheme 6.72
As shown in the example in Scheme 6.73, 2-trimethylsilyloxyfuran (161) also reacts with MoritaBaylisHillman acetate 162 to provide the interesting c-butenolide 163. These triphenylphosphine-catalyzed substitutions proceed regio- and diastereoselectively. However, the reaction mechanism (vinylogous Michael versus DielsAlder) has not been elucidated [131].
6.3 Reactivity
j563
O O Me3 SiO O OAc
+ MeO
162
PPh3 (20 mol%) Ph THF 25C >95:5 d.r. 84% MeO
O H H Ph
161
163
Scheme 6.73
Similar to 2-silyloxyfuran, the relatively unexplored 3-silyloxyfuran also participates in an aldol addition manner with aldehydes under Lewis acidic conditions. High syndiastereoselectivity is obtained with bulky a-branched aldehydes [132]. In addition, 2-methoxy, 2-aryloxy and 2-phenylthiofurans also serve as nucleophiles [133]. The nucleophilicity of furans can be modulated by complexation to transition metals. When furan is dihapto-coordinated to a rhenium p-base, the nucleophilicity of the uncoordinated C3-position is enhanced. In this manner, furan acts as an enol ether [134].
6.3.2 Reactions with Nucleophilic Reagents
Electron-decient furans, for example 2-nitrofuran (9), can undergo nucleophilic substitutions. Various Grignard reagents react with 9 in a Michael addition fashion, providing predominantly trans-2,3-disubstituted 2,3-dihydrofurans such as 164 (Scheme 6.74) [135].
OMe O 9 NO2
ClMg OMe THF 78 to 0C trans : cis = 12 : 1 65% O 164
NO2
Scheme 6.74
The chiral Fischer-type furan carbene complex 165 (Scheme 6.75) participates in 1,4-addition with organolithium reagents in a regioselective and diastereoselective manner. Consecutive oxidative decomplexation and reductive cleavage of the chiral auxiliary provides 2,3-dihydrofuran 166, which contains a quaternary C3 center [136].
6.3.3 Reactions with Oxidizing Reagents
Furans are valuable precursors to 1,4-dicarbonyl compounds, which are not directly accessible from the reactions between electrophiles and nucleophiles, such as those employed for the synthesis of 1,3- and 1,5-dicarbonyl compounds. Furans are
564

Me Me O (OC)5Cr O 165
Scheme 6.75
1. PhLi Et2O 80C
Me Me O 3 steps Me O 78% ee Me 90% HO Ph Me O 166
(OC)4Cr Me 2. MeOTf 80C to r.t. 84 : 16 d.r. Ph 78%
hydrolytically cleaved to saturated 1,4-dicarbonyl compounds under reux in strongly acidic conditions (Section 6.3.5). The 1,4-dicarbonyl moiety can also be revealed by oxidation of furans using various oxidizing reagents [4, 137]. 2,5-Dialkoxy-2,5-dihydrofurans formed from the oxidation of furans in a methanolic solution of bromine (e.g., Scheme 6.12, Section 6.1.2) can be hydrolyzed to cisa,b-unsaturated-1,4-dicarbonyls. Oxidation of 2-substituted or 2,5-disubstituted furans to cis-a,b-unsaturated-1,4-dicarbonyls 167 can be performed using m-CPBA, PCC or NBS [4, 137], magnesium monoperoxyphthalate (MMPP) [138], dimethyldioxirane [139], methyltrioxorhenium/urea hydrogen peroxide [140] and buffered sodium chlorite [141] (Scheme 6.76). The corresponding trans isomers 168 are obtained by in situ isomerization, especially in the presence of an amine base, or directly by Mo(CO)6-catalyzed oxidation using cumyl hydroperoxide [142]. Furans also serve as surrogates to carboxylic acids, which are obtained by oxidative disassembly of the aromatic ring using ruthenium tetroxide [143].
O R2 R =H oxidation O OH O
2
R1
R2
oxidation
O O 167
isomerization R1 O 168
R2 = H RuO4 O R1 OH R1
R2 = H oxidation OH
R1 HO O
O O
R1
Scheme 6.76
The 1,4-dicarbonyl compounds are useful precursors towards the syntheses of cyclopentenones and cyclopentanones [137]. Interception of the transient oxonium ion during oxidation of furans (e.g., by NBS) by pendant nucleophiles leads to interesting spiro ring systems [144]. Scheme 6.77 depicts an application of furan oxidation in the total synthesis of the indolizidine alkaloid monomorine (169) [145]. Regioselective oxidation of unsymmetrical 3-substituted furan 170 to butenolide 172 has been accomplished by using alcoholic bromine or NBS and controlling the acid-catalyzed hydrolysis of the 2,5-dialkoxy intermediate 171 in acetonewater mixture [146] (Scheme 6.78).
6.3 Reactivity
j565
Me NHCbz
O Bu
MMPP EtOH H2O r.t., 3 hr 61%
Me NHCbz
H2 10% Pd/C O Bu MeOH r.t. 45%
H N Bu Me 169
Scheme 6.77
OBn O 170
Scheme 6.78
NBS BnO NaHCO3 EtOH CHCl3 r.t. EtO O 171
catalytic HCl
OBn O O 172
OEt H 2O Acetone r.t. 78%
Alternatively, regioselectivity can be controlled by the incorporation of a silyl group in the furan ring (Scheme 6.79), producing 173 in a regiospecic manner [147].
tBuMe SiO 2
O O
Me
t 32% MeCO3H BuMe2SiO NaOAc
O O
Me
Me3 Si
Me
CH2Cl 2 0C to r.t., 10 hr 70%
O 173
Me
Scheme 6.79
Photooxidations of furans by singlet oxygen, sensitized by, for example, methylene blue, Rose Bengal or tetraphenylporphyrin, generate endoperoxides [148] (e.g., 174, Scheme 6.80) via a DielsAlder cycloaddition. Intermediate 174 is prone to BaeyerVilliger type rearrangement to provide carboxylate 175 (R including silyl).
O2, hv photosensitizer O R MeOH O O 174
R organic base
O O
OR 175 R
OH 176 R
O Me H H HOO O 177 R OMe
reduction
H O O O
178 179 OMe R
dehydration O
Scheme 6.80
566

Deprotonation at the bridgehead carbon of 174 by an organic base provides hydroxybutenolide 176. This provides a useful method for the regioselective oxidation of unsymmetrical 3-substituted furans by using a hindered base (e.g., i-Pr2NEt) [149]. Reaction of 174 with an alcohol (MeOH is often used as a solvent) at higher temperature forms hydroperoxide 177 regio and stereoselectively due to a hydrogen bonding assisted front side attack of the alcohol on the most stabilized carbocation. Reduction of hydroperoxide 177 and subsequent eliminative ring opening provides 1,4-dicarbonyl compound 178, while dehydration of 177 gives butenolide 179. Photooxidations of furans have the benet of being performed selectively in the presence of alkenes. Scheme 6.81 shows a novel example of taking advantage of the singlet-oxygen photooxidation of furan in the presence of two trisubstituted alkenes in the side chain (R group) during the total synthesis of litseaverticillols 180 [150]. The unusual regio and diastereochemistry obtained from the methylene blue (MB) sensitized oxidation in MeOH is, presumably, the result of a backside attack of MeOH on the intermediate endoperoxide.
O2 hv MB MeOH 0C
R Me
MeO
OOH R Me
Me2S CHCl3 25C Me O
O R
OH
iPr NEt 2
CHCl3 25C
Me O 180
H R
R = geranyl or neryl
Scheme 6.81
Oxidation of furfuryl alcohols under similar conditions leads to ring expansion to form dihydropyranones. These Achmatowicz oxidations are often accomplished by using buffered NBS, VO(acac)2/t-BuOH and singlet oxygen. Dimethyldioxirane [139] and methyltrioxorhenium/urea hydrogen peroxide [140] are also effective oxidants. The corresponding aza-Achmatowicz oxidation of furfurylamines [151], frequently by NBS or m-CPBA, provides a novel method for the synthesis of azasugars and piperidine-containing compounds [152]. An interesting example of simultaneously applying both reaction variants in the synthesis of aza-C-linked disaccharide, such as 182 from 181, is shown in Scheme 6.82 [153].
O Tol
O S O NH OH 181
1. NBS NaOAc THF H2O 2. (MeO)3CH BF3Et2O CH2Cl2 33%
O NTs O OMe 182
OMe
Scheme 6.82
6.3 Reactivity
j567
A novel route for the construction of the daphnane BC-ring in the quest for resiniferatoxin (Scheme 6.83) employed furan 183 in an Achmatowicz rearrangement via, presumably, oxidopyrylium ion 184, which participates in an intramolecular [5 2] cycloaddition to provide dihydropyranone 185 [154, 155].
1. m-CPBA THF 0C 2. Ac 2O DMAP C5 H5N 96% 3. DBU MeCN 80C 84%
2
OAc
OBn
OAc Me O O 184 OSi tBuMe2 OBn
Me O O 185 H
OAc OBn
Me O
OH 183 OSi
tBuMe
OSi t BuMe2
Scheme 6.83
The furan nucleus can be oxidized electrochemically, and the radical cations generated at the anode can be trapped by the reaction medium, for example, methanol, to give 2,5-dioxygenated-2,5-dihydrofurans. Intramolecular electrochemical annulation of furans provides an interesting avenue for the synthesis of polycyclic ring systems. Anodic oxidation of furans that contain pendant vinylsulde, methyl or silyl enol ethers generates radical cation intermediates that cyclize to form six- and seven-membered rings [156]. Scheme 6.84 shows a recent example of the construction of the complex tetracyclic core 186 of guanacastepenes, obtained as a single diastereoisomer, by such an electron transfer reaction [157]. A gem-dialkyl effect has been identied as essential for the efcient formation of a seven-membered ring in this type of reaction [89, 158].
Me Me2tBuSiO Me2tBuSiO Me Me Me O Me RVC anode (0.2 mA) 2,6-lutidine t 0.06 M LiClO4 Me2 BuSiO O H O 186 OMe OSi tBuPh2 Me Me H Me
20% MeOH CH2 Cl2 2.44 F/mol r.t., 17 hr t OSi BuPh 2 70%
Scheme 6.84
6.3.4 Reactions with Reducing Reagents
Furans are reduced by catalytic hydrogenation (Pd/C, Raney Ni and Rh), dissolving metals (Birch reduction) and alkylsilanes to dihydrofurans and tetrahydrofur-
568

ans [159]. 2,5-cis-Reduction products 187a and 187b are obtained from 2,5-disubstituted furans, an example that is essential in the total synthesis of tetranactin (Scheme 6.85) [160].
OH OH MeO2C Me O Me H2 (3 atm) 5 % Rh Al2O3 MeOH r.t., 1.5 hr MeO2C H Me O Me + 187a OH OH Me 187b H
MeO2C
H Me
Scheme 6.85
In the stereoselective reduction of electron-decient chiral furoic amides (Scheme 6.16, Section 6.1.2), under Birch-type reductive alkylation to form dihydrofuran derivatives, methyl and trimethylsilyl substituents at the 3-position of the furan moiety are essential for achieving high diastereoselectivity in the alkylation step, presumably by controlling the enolate geometry [161].
6.3.5 Reactions with Acids or Bases
Rearrangement of furfuryl alcohols in aqueous acidic medium at pH 4.06.0 is a useful reaction for the preparation of hydroxycyclopentenones on a preparative scale (Scheme 6.86). 5-Unsubstituted and 5-methylfurfuryl alcohols having a range of R groups are generally good substrates for this type of reaction. 5-Nitrofurfuryl alcohol, however, does not undergo the rearrangement [137]. As illustrated in Scheme 6.86, this kind of rearrangement provides trans-4-hydroxy-5-substituted 2-cyclopentenones, which can isomerize to 2-substituted 2-cyclopentenones 188 under mild basic conditions, for example, using alumina and phosphate buffer pH 7.9 [137], as well as amine bases [162]. When R is phenyl or 2-thienyl, a reaction in reuxing water without the use of any acid leads directly to isomer 188 [163].
O R O OH acid
pH 4-6 H2 O heat
R OH
mild basic conditions HO
O R
188
Scheme 6.86
A 2-acylfuran derivative reacts with aqueous ammonia to give 3-hydroxypyridine 189 (Scheme 6.87). An initial attack of ammonia at the C5-position of the furan followed by a subsequent ring opening/ring closing sequence has been proposed as the reaction mechanism [164].
6.3 Reactivity
j569
N Me O O
aq. NH3
Sealed tube 150C 31% Me N 189
OH
Scheme 6.87
6.3.6 Reactions of C-Metallated Furans
C-Metallated furans are primarily used for the synthesis of substituted furans (Section 6.2.1). 2-Furylcuprate 190, as shown in Scheme 6.88, was recently discovered to undergo a 1,2-metalate rearrangement to form 191 [165]. A similar dyotropic rearrangement of 2-furylzirconocene complexes has also been reported [166].
1. t-BuLi THF 78C 2. Bu2CuLi Et2O-Me2 S 78 to 0C
Scheme 6.88
Bu
Bu Cu Bu Li2
O 190
Bu
O Bu Cu Li2 Bu
Bu H O 2 68% Bu overall
Bu
191
6.3.7 Reactions with Radical Reagents
Furans react with radical reagents at the a-positions. For example, an acetyl radical, generated from a xanthate, reacts with 2-acetylfuran to provide the a-substituted product [167]. As illustrated in Scheme 6.89, addition of the alkenyl radical generated from the cyclohexenyl bromide 192 to the pendant furan moiety gives the spirodihydrofuran radical intermediate 193. Radical fragmentation in 193 then provides a cyclohexyl radical, leading to unsaturated ketone 194 [168]. Similar methodology has been examined in the synthesis of polycyclic ring system [169].
TBSO Br
Me Bu3SnH AIBN PhMe reflux, 14 hr 34%
OTBS O Me
OTBS O Me
192
Scheme 6.89
193
194
570

6.3.8 Electrocyclic Reactions
There is a large volume of literature on both inter- and intramolecular DielsAlder reactions of furans with dienophiles, for example, alkenes, alkynes, allenes and benzynes, under thermal, Lewis acid promoted or high-pressure conditions. These [4 2] cycloadditions, which form six-membered rings, have been applied to the total synthesis of natural products, and are well documented and reviewed [4, 170]. DielsAlder reaction of furans often requires elevated reaction temperature, as furans are generally poor dienes, unless the dienophiles are reactive or Lewis acids are used. However, structural elements can be incorporated into the starting materials such that these cycloadditions proceed at or below ambient temperature. For example, the cycloaddition of 195 which has an unactivated double bond, occurs at room temperature to furnish 196 (Scheme 6.90). This reaction is a consequence of 195 being populated in a reactive conformation imparted by the amide carbonyl of the tether [171].
Me O 195
Scheme 6.90
SMe N O SMe r.t., 12 hr O Me N 196 O
Examples of transannular DielsAlder reactions of furanophanes are very rare. In such an approach, macrocyclic conformational control can offer high diastereoselectivity, as demonstrated in the synthesis of the chatancin core 198 from 197 (Scheme 6.91) [172].
Me
i
Pr HO
Me
Me O CO2Me H2O DMSO (1:2) 115C, 72 hr 67%

iPr
O OH CO2Me
197
Scheme 6.91
198
The [4 3] cycloadditions of furans have been used to form seven-membered rings, which are widely present in natural products. Reactions with oxyallyl cations are the most explored [4 3] cycloadditions of furans [173], although reactions with oxyallyl equivalents, for example, silyloxyacroleins [174] and cyclopropanone hemiacetals [175], and aminoallyl cations [176], have also been reported. These cycloadditions of furans with oxyallyl cations and their equivalents are generally considered as concerted processes. However, theoretical calculations support an alternative
6.3 Reactivity
j571
stepwise mechanism for certain examples [174, 177]. An example of employing such a reaction as the key step in the total synthesis of colchicine is shown in Scheme 6.92 [178]. Thus, coupling of the highly substituted furan 199 with the oxyallyl cation generated from silyl enol ether 200 produces the desired endo-adduct 201 as a single isomer.
MeO NHBoc OMe 199
Scheme 6.92
MeO MeO O
OTMS Me3SiOTf OMe 200 EtNO2 60C 45%
NHBoc MeO 201 O
MeO
MeO
O OMe
An enantioselective organocatalytic [4 3] cycloaddition of furan using the chiral amine catalyst 160 has been realized [179]. As shown in Scheme 6.93, the endo selective [4 3] cycloaddition between 3-methylfuran (11) and the nitrogen stabilized oxyallyl cation 202 derived from an allenamide can also be rendered highly enantioselective by using a 1,2-cyclohexanediamine derived C2 symmetric salen(Cu) complex as the catalyst, leading to the formation of 203 [180].
Me O O N O O O Me Me O O N
O
11 O N O H O O 203 Me
Cu(OTf) 2 (25 mol%) salen (32 mol%) AgSbF 6 acetone-CH2Cl 2 4 molecular sieves -78C, 8-10 hr 91% yield, 99% ee
202
Scheme 6.93
The [6 4] cycloaddition between furan and tropone, a previously unsuccessful transformation, has recently been realized in an intramolecular conversion of 204 into 205 during the assembly of the ABC-ring of ingenol (Scheme 6.94) [181].
O Me Me MeOCH 2O
Scheme 6.94
O O
Si tBuPh2 OSi tBuPh2
C6H 6 reflux 70%
H Si tBuPh 2 OSi tBuPh2
MeOCH 2O
205
204
572

Gold-catalyzed intramolecular cycloisomerization of furans with a pendant terminal alkyne provide phenol product 207 (Scheme 6.95) [182]. Although the reaction may be a result of a [4 2] or [2 2] process, a viable mechanism has not been identied. The formation of arene oxide intermediate 206, however, has been characterized experimentally [183].
AuCl3 (2 mol%) NTs MeCN 40C 97% Me O 206 NTs Me OH 207
Me
NTs
Scheme 6.95
2-Vinylfurans participate in extra annular [4 2] cycloadditions in which the vinyl group and the furan 2,3-p bond function as the 4p component to form tetrahydrobenzofurans [184]. 2-Butadienylfuran 208 has recently been shown to behave as an 8p-component in cycloaddition with dimethyl acetylenedicarboxylate, providing an oxygen-bridged ten-membered ring (209, Scheme 6.96) [185].
CO2Me
+
O 208
Scheme 6.96
CO2Me
1,4-dioxane 80C, 10 hr 84%
O MeO 2C CO2Me
209
Furans also behave as dienophiles and dipolarophiles. The 2,3-p bonds of furans react with o-quinodimethide [186] and o-benzoquinones. Scheme 6.97 shows an example of a regio- and diastereoselective cyclization involving (R)-furfuryl alcohol 211 and a masked o-benzoquinone 210, producing the ortho, endo adduct 212 [187]. The a-hydroxyl group controlled the facial selectivity of the DielsAlder type reaction. Recent studies, however, suggest a stepwise, double Michael addition as the mechanism for this type of reaction [188].
HO MeO2C OMe OMe O OMe 210

Scheme 6.97
OH Me Me MeOH 40C, 1 hr 60% 99% de MeO MeO O
Me
Me CO2Me Me 212
211
6.3 Reactivity
j573
Furans are less reactive dipolarophiles. However, 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition between nitrile oxides and furans to give furoisoxazolines has been developed as a novel entry to amino sugars and amino acids [189]. Recently, intramolecular cycloaddition of a furan with a carbonyl ylide dipole was also shown to proceed under microwave promoted conditions, providing the cycloadduct in modest yield [190]. The furan 2,3 p-bond also undergoes cyclopropanation with metal carbenoids. Asymmetric cyclopropanation of furan-2-carboxylate with ethyl diazoacetate to provide the exo-diastereoisomer has been achieved under copper(I)-bisoxazoline catalyzed conditions [191]. A retro-Claisen type rearrangement often accompanies cyclopropanation with diazocarbonyl compounds, leading to a 2,4-diene-1,6-dicarbonyl structural motif. Intramolecular versions are attractive methods for synthesizing [6,7]-, [6,6]-, [6,5]- and even [6,4]-fused ring systems [192]. Scheme 6.98 gives an example of a rhodium-catalyzed reaction as applied in the synthesis of guanacastepene core structure 213 [193].
Me Ph2tBuSiO O
Scheme 6.98
O CO2Et N2 Rh2 (OAc)4 CH2Cl 2 r.t. 50% Ph2tBuSiO O
Me O H CO2Et 213
In addition to furan behaving as a 4p-component in photochemical reactions with aromatic compounds, the furan 2,3-p bond also reacts photochemically. The most synthetically interesting photochemical reaction involving furans is the Pater chi [2 2] cycloaddition with carbonyl compounds. The oxetane products noBu obtained are useful intermediates for the synthesis of natural products. Regio- and stereoselectivities of the reaction are determined by the conformational stability of the triplet diradical intermediate [194]. As illustrated in a study with 2-silyloxyfurans (Scheme 6.99) [195], reaction with ketones provided higher substituted products
R R O O
Me
O OSi tBuMe2
Ph
R hv (>290 nm) MeCN 0C
Me O
Ph O
Ph
Me OSi tBuMe2
OSi tBuMe2
214 215 R = Me, 214 : 215 = 93 : 7 R = H, 214 : 215 = 60 : 40

Scheme 6.99
574

(e.g. 214) regioselectively, while those with aldehydes are regio-random. As usual, exo-oxetanes were produced predominantly in both examples. The [2 2] photocycloaddition of furans with alkenes is also synthetically useful. A remarkable example is the pivotal intramolecular cyclization to form 216 (Scheme 6.100), as employed in the total synthesis of ginkgolide B [196].
O CO2 Et O O
tBu
hv (>350 nm)
CO2Et O
tBu
Et 3SiO
Scheme 6.100
C6 H14 100%
Et 3SiO
216
6.4 Oxyfurans and Aminofurans 6.4.1 Oxyfurans
Hydroxyfurans exhibit fairly low stability that is quite different from their benzenoid counterparts. This phenomenon can be explained by a careful structure investigation on 2-furanol (217), which can be treated as the enol form of 2- or 3-butenolide. Estimations of resonance energy reveal that 2-furanol is of much higher energy than the corresponding furanone structure. Therefore, 2(3H)-furanone (218) and 2(5H)furanone (219) dominate at equilibrium in the absence of additional stabilizing effect for enolization (Scheme 6.101) [197, 198].
O 217
Scheme 6.101
OH
O 218
or
O 219
Both the 2(5H)-, and 2(3H)-furanone structures widely occur in biologically active natural products. They are, in general, also called butenolides, as derivatives of 4hydroxybutenoic acids, and not as furan derivatives. Thus, 3-butenolide corresponds to 2(3H)-furanone (218) and 2-butenolide corresponds to 2(5H)-furanone (219) [199]. 2(5H)-Furanones are important synthetic intermediates in the construction of substituted c-butyrolactones. In addition, they also serve as useful building blocks in the syntheses of various organic compounds [200]. Several excellent reviews dealing with the synthesis of these unsaturated lactones have been published [199, 201203]. Instead of providing a thorough literature survey, only recent advances are discussed here.
6.4 Oxyfurans and Aminofurans
j575
Palladium-catalyzed cyclocarbonylation of propargyl alcohol is an excellent method for the construction of 2(5H)-furanones. Thus, a combination of Pd(dba)2 and dppb has been used to catalyze the transformation of 220 into 5,5-disubstituted 2(5H)furanone 221. The reaction mechanism involves the insertion of a Pd(0) species into the CO bond of the substrate, followed by rearrangement to the allenylpalladium intermediate. Insertion of CO and subsequent reductive elimination then lead to the 2,3-dienoic acid, which then affords 221 (Scheme 6.102) [204].
Pd 2(dba)3 CH3Cl3 , dppb CO (600psi), H2 (200psi) CH 2Cl2 95C, 36 hr 92% (L)Pd OH
OH
O 221
220 OH
+ PdL
220 O C H OH Pd(L) C O H OH Pd(0), H2, H+
HO Pd(L) C H
CO
O 221
Scheme 6.102
A highly functionalized 2(5H)-furanone (222) has been prepared from a triphenylphosphine-catalyzed reaction of activated carbonyl compound with dimethyl acetylenedicarboxylate (Scheme 6.103) [205].
O CO2 Me O2 N
CO2Me
+
CO2Me
PPh3 (20 mol%) PhMe 70C 94% O2 N
MeO 2C
O OMe
MeO2C
222
Scheme 6.103
Besides acyclic substrates, 2(5H)-furanones can also be synthesized from cyclobutenone precursors. Thus, when hydroxycyclobutenone 223 was subjected to reaction with a hypervalent iodine reagent, an oxidative ring enlargement took place to give 5-acetoxy-2(5H)-furanone 224 (Scheme 6.104) [206]. The presence of an a,b-unsaturated carbonyl moiety renders the 2(5H)-furanones highly reactive towards different reagents (Section 6.3).
576

OH O OEt 223
Scheme 6.104
PhI(OAc)2 ClCH2CH2Cl r.t. 84%
AcO EtO
EtO
OEt 224
Attempts to synthesize simple 2(3H)-furanones usually result in a mixture containing also 2(5H)-furanones [207]. Generally, 2(3H)-furanone (218) is thermodynamically less stable than 2(5H)-furanone (219). Computational (SCF-MO) results reveal that the energy of 2(3H)-furanone (218) is of 53 kJ mol1 higher than that of 2 (5H)-furanone (219) [198]. Experimentally, isomerization can be achieved by amine bases or at elevated temperature (Scheme 6.105) [208].
Et3N or O refluxing PhMe
218
Scheme 6.105
219
The reactively low stability of 2(3H)-furanones makes them susceptible to nucleophilic attack to give ring-opening products, which may be employed to construct other important heterocyclic systems [209]. As illustrated in Scheme 6.106, a hydrazide 226 is formed on treatment of furanone 225 with hydrazine hydrate. Further reaction with a mixture of NaNO2 and HCl promotes ring closure to afford 227 with a pyridazinone structure [210].
O O
NH2NH2 76% 226
NHNH2 O O
NaNO2 1N HCl
NH O O
225
Scheme 6.106
227
Similar to their 2-hydroxyl isomers, 3-hydroxyfurans tend to exist in the keto form as 3(2H)-furanones [198]. As depicted in Scheme 6.107, free 3(2H)-furanone 228 can be synthesized from 3-bromofuran (51) [211]. Although the 3(2H)-furanone motif is less common than 2(5H)-furanones and 2 (3H)-furanones in bioactive naturally occurring molecules, a series of 4,5-diaryl substituted 3(2H)-furanones (229233) have been studied as cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitors and show excellent anti-inammatory activities [212].
6.5 Addendum
j577
Br1. n -BuLi, hexane 78oC O

51
Scheme 6.107
OSiMe3 O O
228
2. Me3 SiOOSiMe2
MeO2S
H 2NO2S Ar O O O
MeO2S Ar O O
MeO 2S Ar O O
MeO 2S Ar O O Ar O
229
230
231
232
233
6.4.2 Aminofurans
3-Aminofuran is stable only in an inert atmosphere or in vacuo. It polymerizes rapidly upon contact with air. 2-Aminofuran is also a reactive species. However, as illustrated in Scheme 6.108, 234 is one of the exceptions, whose stability may be attributed to the presence of a conjugated electron-withdrawing group on the furan ring. When 234 is treated with a dienophile, the rearranged cycloadduct 235 is obtained in high yield [213].
H2 Pd/CaCO3 63% 234
Scheme 6.108
O2N
CO2Me
H2N
CN CO2 Me C6H6 reflux 99%
MeO2C
OH
CN NH2 235
6.5 Addendum 6.5.1 Additional Syntheses of Furans
In the past few years, several procedures for the synthesis of substituted furans in high regioselectivity and efciency have appeared. Amongst them, reports on the using of Au-catalysts have increased substantially. In all cases the starting materials
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contain an alkynyl or allenyl group. Because of the exceptionally alkynophilic, but not as oxophilic, property of Au-catalysts, the Au-catalyzed reactions are oxygen-, water-, and alcohols-tolerated and thus do not need air- and moisture-free conditions. Also noteworthy is that in Au-catalyzed reactions non-classical carbocation or carbenoid intermediates are very often involved so that the selectivity of these reactions can be controlled. A few examples are shown below. Cyclization of allenones in the presence of Au(III)-porphyrin gave rise to the corresponding substituted furan in good to high yields. The catalyst can be recycled several times and its catalytic activity remained intact [Scheme 6.109, reaction (1)] [214a]. Another example of Au catalysis has been
Scheme 6.109
6.5 Addendum
j579
reported using alkynyl cyclopropyl ketones as a starting material. Trisubstituted furans were afforded in high yields under mild conditions via a domino reaction process [Scheme 6.109, reaction (2)] [214b]. A carbonyl-ene-yne compound is also a suitable starting material in Au-catalyzed furan formation. In the presence of Aucatalyst, 2-alkynyl-1-cycloalkenecarbaldehydes were converted into trisubstituted furans via an Au-carbene intermediate [Scheme 6.109, reaction (3)] [214c]. Alkynyl cyclopropyl ketones have also been employed as starting material, as 1,4-dipoles in an Au-catalyzed [4 2] annulation reaction, providing fully substituted furans in high yields [Scheme 6.109, reaction (4)] [214d]. In addition to Au-catalysis, transition metals were still used widely as efcient catalysts in the synthesis of furans with full control of regioselectivity. Employing ruthenium complexes as catalysts, trisubstituted furans have been provided through an unprecedented 1,4-shift of the sulfanyl group of allenyl suldes in high yields. Furan products have also been afforded in a one-pot reaction from a-diazocarbonyls and propargyl sulde using both Rh- and Ru-complexes or only Ru-complexes as catalysts [Scheme 6.110, reaction (1)] [215a]. The second reaction in Scheme 6.110 provides another example of furan synthesis using metal catalysts. In the presence of In(OTf)3, terminal disubstituted allenyl ketones were smoothly converted into
Scheme 6.110
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tri- and tetra-substituted furans in high yields. The 1,2-shift of the terminal alkyl group was a key step in this reaction [215b]. In addition to In salt, some other Lewis acids, such as Sn(OTf)2, AgOTf, and [Au(PPh3)]OTf, could also be used in similar reactions. Control of regioselectivity in the synthesis of multi-substituted furans has been realized by using Cu-catalyst in the reaction of bis-propargylic ester via Cucarbene intermediate [Scheme 6.110, reaction (3)]. The reaction is suitable for the preparation of tetra-substituted furans, and silane is not necessary when CuBr or CuCl is the catalyst [215c]. 1-(1-Alkynyl)-cyclopropyl ketones have proved useful as a building block in the synthesis of multi-substituted furans by using an Au-catalyst [215b,c]. They are also useful in transition-metal catalyzed furan-formation reactions. In the presence of Rh-catalyst, carbonylation takes place and thus the procedure was developed for the synthesis of tetra-substituted furans in high regioselectivity via a Rh-catalyzed carbonylation/cyclization [Scheme 6.110, reaction (4)] [215d]. A domino-reaction is a powerful strategy that has been adopted by many groups to synthesize furans. Some examples are shown below (Scheme 6.111). Thermally induced cascade cyclizations under metal-free conditions using epoxyhexene as acid scavenger provided polycyclic furans in high yields [Scheme 6.111, reaction (1)] [216a]. Another Pd-catalyzed cascade reaction using conjugated enynals as starting materials has been reported. Here, good to high yields of 2,3,4-trisubstituted furans were realized [Scheme 6.111, reaction (2)] [216b]. Tetrasubstituted furans have been obtained in the three-component Michael additioncyclizationcross coupling reaction by using a Pd-complex as catalyst. [Scheme 6.111, reaction (3)] [216c].
Scheme 6.111
6.5 Addendum
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6.5.2 Additional Reactions of Furans
Noteworthy and interesting transformations of furan nucleus that are related to the types of furan reactions as described in Section 6.3 have been reported between 2006 and 2009. The reaction of a furan tethered at the 2-position to an iminium ion gave a spiro2,5-dihydrofuran derivative as the sole diastereoisomer. This spirocyclization has been used in forming the ABC tricyclic core of manzamine A [217]. Several new catalytic asymmetric addition reactions of silyloxyfurans to electrophiles using various chiral catalysts have been developed and reviewed in detail [218]. The addition of 2-trimethylsilyloxyfuran to MoritaBaylisHillman acetates to form c-butenolides has been rendered enantioselective by using a chiral phosphine catalyst [219]. As exemplied in Scheme 6.112, regioselective addition of 2-methoxyfuran or 2-trimethylsilyloxyfuran to chromium(0) alkynylcarbene complexes furnished interesting dienyne and dienediyne carboxylates by proceeding through a formal vinylogous Michael intermediate [220]. 2-Methoxyfuran reacted with chiral tungsten (0) alkenylcarbene complexes in a similar fashion [221].
Scheme 6.112
Scheme 6.113 shows a reaction of 2-furaldehyde with a secondary amine nucleophile in a lanthanide-catalyzed condensation/ring-opening/electrocyclization process to provide trans-4,5-diaminocyclopenten-2-ones, presumably via a ring-opened, deprotonated Stenhouse salt [222].
Scheme 6.113
The opposite regioselectivity was obtained in the photooxidation of 3-bromofuran to bromo-c-hydroxybutenolides by using DBU and phosphaxene [223]. The regios nigs base was reversed by using electivity provided by the commonly used Hu n-Bu4NF in the photooxidation of unprotected furan BaylisHillman adducts to a-substituted c-butenolides [224].
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2-Furanyl carbamates undergo iodine-promoted oxidative rearrangement to form 5-methoxypyrrol-2(5H)-ones, which have been used as intermediates for the synthesis of 2,4-disubstituted pyrroles [225]. Enantiomeric enriched dihydropyranones can be obtained from Achmatowicz oxidation of furfuryl alcohols under Sharpless kinetic resolution conditions. This approach was adopted in a recent total synthesis of the acetogenin pyranicin [226]. As illustrated in Scheme 6.114, a homologous Achmatowicz oxidation of 2,5-disubstituted, 2-(b-hydroxyalkyl)furans by singlet oxygen produced 3-keto-tetrahydrofurans, presumably via a Michael addition to an intermediate 1,4-enedione [227].
Scheme 6.114
As depicted in Scheme 6.115, electrochemical oxidation of furans tethered to silyl enol ethers at the 2-position leads to a spiroannulation product as a result of the higher nucleophilicity of the furan 2-position [228].
Scheme 6.115
An enantioselective hydrogenation has been developed in which 2-substituted furans using chiral iridium/pyridine-phosphinite complexes as catalysts provide tetrahydrofurans with ee up to 93% [229]. Another interesting example is the Rh/ butiphane-catalyzed enantioselective cis-hydrogenation of a furylnucleoside to form the reduced product with 72% ee [230]. The presence of a halogen or methoxy substituent at the 2-position of furan enhances the rate of intramolecular DielsAlder reactions and the yield of cycloadduct. This phenomenon is attributed to the decreased activation energy and a greater stabilization of the cycloadduct imparted by the substitution as determined by CBSQB3 calculations. The same substitution at the 3-position can also provide a similar effect although to a lesser extent than that of the 2-position [231]. In the example shown in Scheme 6.116, the DielsAlder reaction occurred mainly at the 3-chloro-
References
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Scheme 6.116
furan ring, which suggests a dominant effect of a 3-halo substituent on intermolecular cycloaddition [232]. The [4 3] cycloaddition of furans with epoxy enol silane derived oxyallyl cations (Scheme 6.117) has been rendered a viable process by optimization of the reaction conditions and use of a bulky triethylsilyl group [233]. Dioxines were used as oxyallyl cation equivalents in a Au/Ag-catalyzed [4 3] cycloaddition with furan [234].
Scheme 6.117
A novel Nazarov cyclization of silyloxyfuran as catalyzed by a strong Lewis acidic iridium complex (Scheme 6.118) was the pivotal step in a total synthesis of the sesquiterpene merrilactone A [235].
Scheme 6.118
Besides reacting with rhodium carbenoids, furans also react regioselectively with ruthenium and platinum carbenoids derived from tertiary propargyl carboxylates [236] and sec-O-propargyl thiocarbamates [237], leading to interesting triene systems.
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j593
7 Five-Membered Heterocycles: Benzofuran and Related Systems

Jie Wu
7.1 Introduction
Benzofuran is a very important heterocycle and broadly found in natural [1] and biologically important [2] molecules and is frequently used as a building block in materials science [3a] and in organic synthesis [3b]. Several recent mini-reviews cover the investigation of benzo[b]furans in natural products, bioactivity and synthesis [4]. Two general approaches are commonly used for the preparation of substituted benzofurans: (i) functionalization of existing benzofuran-containing precursors by introduction of new substituents [5] and (ii) the formation of a new benzofuran ring by cyclization of acyclic substrates [610]. The methods based on the rst approach are not general. Derivatization of benzofuran via an electrophilic substitution is not easy due to poor regioselectivity and the low stability of benzofurans under strongly acidic conditions, whereas protocols involving metallation of benzofuran derivatives followed by trapping of the benzofuryl anion with electrophiles are limited to basestable benzofuran substrates and, in the case of alkylation, to primary electrophiles only. Among cyclization approaches, the classical oxidative cyclocondensation of phenol or related precursor remains the most powerful method for the construction of some naturally occurring benzofurans. Signicant attention has been paid to the development of metal-catalyzed approaches aimed at cascade cyclization with substituted phenols or iodophenols under rather mild or neutral conditions [10]. In this chapter, in consideration of the limited space, we rst discuss recent progress in the synthetic methods for metal-catalyzed benzofuran synthesis based on the reaction classication, and then discuss their important uses in terms of drug discovery and material science. For other synthetic methods regarding the synthesis of benzofurans, please see the references provided.
594
j 7 Five-Membered Heterocycles: Benzofuran and Related Systems

5 6 7 4 3
O
1
-0.38 -0.01 -0.38 -0.23
0.47 O 0.54
Figure 7.1 Structure numbering and frontier electron populations of benzo[b]furan.
7.2 General Structure and Reactivity 7.2.1 Relevant Physicochemical Data, Computational Chemistry and NMR Data
Benzo[b]furan is an aromatic compound and is usually recognized as a heterocyclic analog of naphthalene. Each of the ring atoms in the benzo[b]furan rings is in the same plane and has a p-orbital perpendicular to the ring plane. Additionally, (4n+2)pelectrons are associated with each ring. The oxygen in benzo[b]furan acquires considerable positive charge since it provides two p-electrons for the aromatic sextet. Accordingly, the same amount of negative charge is displayed in the all ring carbon atoms. Figure 7.1 illustrates the frontier electron populations of the parent benzo[b]furan according to frontier orbital theory [11], and Table 7.1 shows the UV absorption bands and NMR signals of benzo[b]furan. In benzo[b]furan, the p-electron excess of C2 is lower than that of C3. Consequently,. 13 C NMR chemical shifts show that C2 (141.5 ppm) is deshielded in comparison with C3 (106.9 ppm). It is noticeable that C7 is in the upeld position compared with the other benzenoid carbons at positions 4, 5, and 6. The benzenoid protons H4 and H7 appear downeld from H5 and H6. Also noteworthy is that the long-range coupling between H3 and H7 is of considerable diagnostic value in establishing the orientation of a substituent on the benzo[b] furan ring [12b].
Table 7.1 UV and NMR data of benzo[b]furan [12].
UV (ethanol) l (nm) (e, mol1 dm3 cm1) 244 (4.03) 274 (3.39) 281 (3.42)
H NMR (acetone-d6) [d (ppm)] H6: 7.30 H7: 7.52
13
C NMR [d (ppm)]
H2: 7.79 H3: 6.77 H4: 7.64 H5: 7.23
C2: 141.5 C3: 106.9 C4: 121.6 C5: 123.2
C6: 124.6 C7: 111.8 C3a: 127.9 C7a: 155.5
7.3 Isolation of Naturally Occurring Benzofurans
j595
7.3 Isolation of Naturally Occurring Benzofurans
Numerous biologically active benzofurans have been isolated from natural sources [1]. Table 7.2 shows some examples of naturally occurring compounds containing the benzo[b]furan skeleton. For instance, a new benzofuran dimer, 5,6,50 ,60 -tetrahydroxy[3,30 ]bibenzofuranyl2,20 -dicarboxylic acid dimethyl ester (kynapcin-24, entry 5) has been isolated from Polyozellus multiex and shown to noncompetitively inhibit prolyl endopeptidase (PEP), with an IC50 of 1.14 mM. Kynapcin-24 is less inhibitory to other serine proteases such as chymotrypsin, trypsin and elastase [1c]. Recently, naturally occurring furocarbazole alkaloids were also identied [13]. These molecules have a broad range of useful pharmacological activities [14]. Their useful bioactivities and their interesting structural features attracted the attention of synthetic chemists and has led, over the last decade, to the development of many different synthetic strategies [13a, 15].
Table 7.2 Naturally occurring compounds containing benzo[b]furan skeleton.
Entry Compound name 1 2 3 4 5 Ulexins C, A and D Paradisin C Skimmianine and dictamnine Millettocalyxin C and pongol methyl ether Kynapcin-24
Source Ulex europaeus ssp. europaeus Grapefruit juice
Biological activity
Reference
6 7
Stemofurans AK Tournefolal and tournefolic acid B
Teclea trichocarpa Enge. (Rutaceae) Stem bark of N/A Millettia erythrocalyx Fruiting bodies of Non-competitively inhibited Polyozellus multiex prolyl endopeptidase (PEP) (IC50 1.14 mM) Roots of Stemona Antifungal activity against collinsae Cladosporium herbarum Stems of Anti-LDL-peroxidative activity Tournefortia sarmentosa
No inhibition of the growth [1a] of Cladosporium cucumerinum [1b] Inhibition of cytochrome P450 (CYP) 3A4 (IC50 1.0 mM) N/A [1g] [1d] [1c]
[1f ] [1e]
CO2H O OH OH O Ulexin A O OH O OH OH MeO2C O Tournefolic acid B HO HO O O OH OH CO2Me
Kynapcin-24
596

N H O
furocarbazole
7.4 Synthesis of Benzofuran
As described above, major synthetic strategies for benzofurans include (Scheme 7.1): (i) dehydrative cyclization of a-(phenoxy)alkyl ketones [6a6e]; (ii) dehydration of o-hydroxybenzyl ketones under acidic conditions [7a, 7b]; (iii) decarboxylation of o-acylphenoxyacetic acids or esters on treatment with a base [8a8d]; (iv) cyclofragmentation of oxiranes, prepared in three or four steps from the corresponding o-hydroxybenzophenones [9]; and (v) palladium(II)-catalyzed cyclization of arylacetylenes [10a10e].
R1 R2 R3 O O R4 2 R6 R5 Acid R2 R3 R1 R6 O OH R4 (R5 = Me) 4
Scheme 7.1
R1 O R2 i R1 R6 O R4 ii 1 iv R5 four steps R1 R2 R3 O R3 R4 Base O 3
R6 COOR R5
iii
Acid R5
R2 R3
R6 OH R4 5
(R1 = R4 = H, R6 = Ph)
7.4.1 Transition Metal Catalyzed Benzofuran Synthesis 7.4.1.1 Synthesis of 2,3-Disubstituted Benzo[b]furans The metal-catalyzed intramolecular cyclization of aryl-substituted alkynes possessing a nucleophile in proximity to the triple bond has proven effective for the synthesis of ve-membered heterocycles (Scheme 7.2) [16]; the rst report describing synthetic
j597
X-LG
cat. Cu or Pd
X R'
R LG = leaving group
X = O, S, N R, R' = alkyl, aryl, silyl alkenyl, ester, ketone
Scheme 7.2
efforts relevant to 2,3-diarylbenzo[b]furan with this approach was given by Arcadi in 1996 [17a]. The reaction of o-ethynylphenols with a wide variety of unsaturated halides or triates RX (Rvinyl, aryl; XBr, I, OTf) in the presence of a palladium catalyst gives 2-vinyl- and 2-arylbenzo[b]furans 10 in good to high yield, through an intramolecular cyclization step (Scheme 7.3). Small amounts of 2,3-disubstituted benzo[b]furans 9 are usually isolated as side products. In some cases, however, benzofurans 9 are generated in signicant yield or even as the main products. The formation of 10 can be prevented by employing alternative procedures that use o-[(trimethylsilyl)ethynyl] phenyl acetates as starting building blocks. One procedure is based on the palladiumcatalyzed reaction of o-[(trimethylsilyl)ethynyl]phenyl acetates with RX in the presence of Pd(PPh3)4, Et3N and n-Bu4NF, followed by the hydrolysis of the resultant coupling derivative under basic conditions. The other procedure affords 10 through an in situ coupling/cyclization of o-[(trimethylsilyl)ethynyl]phenyl acetates with RX in the presence of Pd(PPh3)4 and KOBut. The utilization of o-alkynylphenols as the starting alkynes in the palladium-catalyzed reaction with RX leads to the formation of 2,3-disubstituted benzo[b]furans through an annulation process promoted by
X Ln Ar Pd R 7 ArPdIIXLn R Ar-X R O H 6 Base Pd(0) + R Ar R' O 9 O Ar Pd Ln R' O 8
R'
R 10
R' O
base R'
Scheme 7.3
598

s-vinyl- and s-arylpalladium complexes generated in situ. The best results in this case are obtained by using KOAc and Pd(PPh3)4. In the presence of KOAc and Pd(PPh3)4, and under an atmosphere of carbon monoxide, the reaction of o-alkynylphenols with RX provides 2-vinyl- and 2-aryl-3-acylbenzo[b]furans. Later, Arcadi reported that the 5-endo-dig-iodocyclization of 2-alkynylphenols with I2 in the presence of NaHCO3 at room temperature produces 2-substituted 3iodobenzo[b]furans, which are useful synthetic intermediates for the preparation of 2,3-disubstituted benzo[b]furans via Pd-catalyzed cross-coupling reactions [17b]. More recently, Flynn and colleagues [18] have disclosed an efcient approach to synthesize 2-substituted-3-arylbenzo[b]furan by a palladium-catalyzed multicomponent sequential coupling strategy, starting from iodophenol and terminal phenyl acetylene. In this reaction, MeMgBr was used as an essential base to form the corresponding magnesium salts of phenolate. Although the method was applied successfully to one substituted iodobenzene, utilization of MeMgBr to form the magnesium salts could hamper application of this method to other substrates having functional groups such as ketone, ester or amide, thus limiting the universality required in diversity oriented synthesis (Scheme 7.4).
MeO 11
OH
MeMgCl 2 equiv, Pd(PPh3)2Cl2 (3 mol %)

R
12
THF, 65 C 1.5 h under N2 ArI
MeO
OMgCl 13 ArI DMSO, 80 C 16-18h CO O Ar

I Pd R
Ar I Pd
DMSO, 80 C 16-18h
MeO
O MgCl
14
MeO
O MgCl
15
Cyclization reductive elimination Ar

O
Cyclization reductive elimination

O
Ar
R
MeO
16 45-88%
MeO
O 17 64%
Scheme 7.4
j599
To realize a strategy of diversity oriented synthesis and branching reaction pathways Yang [19] has described the palladium/bpy-catalyzed annulation of o-alkynylphenol with various aryl halides to generate diversied 2,3-diarylbenzo[b]furans (19). In the reaction process, the presence of bpy ligand is essential for the successful transformation. This method provides an efcient synthetic pathway for the combinatorial synthesis of conformationally restricted 2,3-diarylbenzo[b]furan (Scheme 7.5).
R2 Pd2(dba)3 (5 mol%) bpy (10 mol%) OH 18
Scheme 7.5
Ar R1 R2 O 19 52-87% yield
R1
ArI, K2CO3 MeCN, 50C
Yang [20a] has also developed a highly effective co-catalysis system (PdI2-thiourea and CBr4) for carbonylative cyclization of both electron-rich and electron-decient ohydroxylarylacetylenes to the corresponding methyl benzo[b]furan-3-carboxylates. This was the rst time using carbon tetrabromide (CBr4) as a superior oxidative agent for the turnover of palladium(0) to palladium(II) (Scheme 7.6).
R' R OH 18 PdI2-thiourea CBr4, Cs2CO3, CO MeOH, 40C R CO2Me O R'
20 79-84% yield
O X MeO C Pd R O base R' R O H 18 Base + XY, MeOH, CO R' R O
R'
OMe XPdII(CO)OMe R O Pd(0) + R O Pd Ln O R'
OMe R'
O 20
Scheme 7.6
600

The overall process may involve attack of a carboalkoxypalladium(II) intermediate on the alkyne 18 to generate a complex, followed by nucleophilic addition of the phenolic oxide to the XPdII(CO)OR-activated alkyne to give intermediate, which went through reductive elimination to produce ester 20 and palladium(0). The palladium(0) is then oxidized to palladium(II), which re-enter the catalytic cycle. The method has been successfully applied in the solid-phase synthesis of benzo[b] furan-3-carboxylates [20e]. Further studies shows the carbonylative annulation of o-alkynylphenols mediated by PdCl2(PPh3)2 and dppp in the presence of CsOAc at 55 C in acetonitrile under a balloon pressure of CO generates functionalized benzo[b]furo[3,4-d]furan-1-ones 25 in good yields [20b]. This novel synthetic approach provides a highly efcient method for diversication of the benzofuran scaffold for combinatorial synthesis. The authors speculated that the overall process may involve attack of alcohol 21 on the PdIIXYLn to generate complex 22, followed by insertion of CO to give intermediate 23. Intramolecular nucleophilic addition of the phenolic oxide to the resulting acylpalladium complex 23 leads to formation of intermediate 24, which might undergo reductive elimination to produce the ve-membered lactone 25 and palladium(0). The palladium(0) is then oxidized to palladium(II), thereby completing the cycle (Scheme 7.7).
OH R2 R1 OH -HY 21
O O R R2 O 25 R1 Pd(0) Pd XYLn + XY
II
X Ln Pd O R2 R1 OH 22
O Ln Pd O R O 24 R R1 R2
R Ln X Pd O O R2 R1 O H 23 Base CO
Scheme 7.7
Recently, Yang [20h] further described a novel, mild method for the rapid synthesis of benzo[b]furan-3-carboxylic acids 26 directly from the substituted o-alkynylphenols
j601
18 in good yields by utilizing a PdII-mediated carboxylative annulation since, from a drug discovery perspective, synthesis of benzofuran-based carboxylic acids could be more interesting because of their increased solubility in aqueous media and the potential enhancement of ionic interactions with basic residues in their association with biological receptors (Scheme 7.8).
R2 R
1
O R1
Pd(MeCN)2Cl2, AgOTs, 2-PyPPh 2 OH 18 CO, CsOAc, MeCN, 50C, 1-2hrs O 26
OH R2
66-81%
Scheme 7.8
Cacchi has also described palladium catalysis in the construction of the benzo[b] furan ring from alkynes and organic halides or triates [16m,16n]. 3-Spiro-fused benzofuran-2(3H)-ones can be conveniently synthesized starting from vinyl triates and o-iodophenols through palladium-catalyzed chemoselective carbonylation and subsequent regioselective intramolecular Heck reaction. For example, 2-iodo-4-methylphenol reacted with triuoromethanesulfonic acid 4-(1,1dimethylethyl)-1-cyclohexen-1-yl ester leading to 4-(1,1-dimethylethyl)-1-cyclohexene-1-carboxylic acid 2-iodo-4-methylphenyl ester. Subsequent ring closure of this intermediate furnishes spirobenzofuranone C (85% yield) [17c].
Spirobenzofuranone C
Arcadi [17d] has reported the synthesis of 2,3-disubstituted furo[3,2-b]pyridines, 2,3-disubstituted furo[2,3-b]pyridines and 2,3-disubstituted furo[2,3-c]pyridines under mild conditions via the palladium-catalyzed cross-coupling of 1-alkynes with o-iodoacetoxy- or o-iodobenzyloxypyridines, followed by electrophilic cyclization by I2 or by PdCl2 under a balloon of carbon monoxide (Scheme 7.9).
R1 N R2 O PdCl2, CO, NaOAc K2CO3, CuCl2.H2O MeOH, RT R1 N R2 27 R3 OE I2, NaHCO3 MeOH, RT R1 N R2 O
R3
R3
COOMe 28 31-70%
I 29 57-76%
Scheme 7.9
602

Dibenzofuran-type molecules can be formed from the reaction of o-iodophenols with silylaryl triate in the presence of a palladium catalyst. Nucleophilic addition of o-iodophenols to benzyne (generated by treatment of silylaryl triate with CsF) and subsequent Pd-catalyzed intramolecular arylation are involved in the reaction [21] (Scheme 7.10).
OH MeO2C 30 I + 31
SiMe3 OTf
1. CsF (3.0 eq.) MeCN, RT
MeO2C O 32 87% yield
2. [Pd] (5 mol%) PCy3 (10 mol%), 80C
Scheme 7.10
Recently, Stoltz [22] has developed a method for the synthesis of electron-rich, highly substituted benzofuran and dihydrobenzofuran derivatives (5080% yields) via an intramolecular Fujiwara-Moritani/oxidative Heck reaction (Scheme 7.11); 15 examples are demonstrated in the article. No extra functionalization step was required for palladium(II)-catalyzed oxidative carbocyclizations, which provided highly substituted benzofurans and dihydrobenzofurans by net dehydrogenation. The direct CH bond functionalization of the aromatic ring and cyclization with unactivated olens is involved in the oxidation process. Furthermore, the products contain quaternary carbon stereocenters that can be obtained in diastereomerically pure form.
MeO
Pd(OAc)2 (10 mol%) MeO Ethyl nicotinate (20 mol%) Me OBn O Benzoquinone (1.0 equiv.) NaOAc (20 mol%) 60% OMe
OMe 33 MeO
Me OBn O
34 Pd(OAc)2 (10 mol%) ethyl nicotinate MeO benzoquinone (1.0 equiv.) tAmOH:AcOH (4:1) 80-120C, 12-24h 71% OMe 36
OMe 35
Scheme 7.11
j603
Ionic liquid ([BMIm]BF4) has been utilized as an effective solvent for the PdCl2-catalyzed benzofuran formation via an intramolecular Heck reaction [23]. This strategy has been applied to construct the seven-membered ring based ()-frondosin B [24]. The palladium-catalyzed annulation of 1,3-dienes with o-iodoacetoxyavonoids for the generation of biologically interesting dihydrofuroavonoids was realized (Scheme 7.12). This reaction is quite general and regioselective, and a wide variety of terminal, cyclic and internal 1,3-dienes are applicable [25].
O O + R1 R2 38 R4 R3 R5 Pd(dba)2 (5 mol%) dppe (5 mol%) Ag2CO3 (2.0 equiv.) Dioxane-H2O (4:1)
AcO I 37
Scheme 7.12
Ph
R3 R2
Ph
R4 R5 39 R1 62-95% yield
One of the key intermediates (43) towards the total synthesis of frondosin B has been synthesized by a sequential reaction from phenol 40, enyne 41, and bromide 42 in a one-pot operation (Scheme 7.13) [26]. Palladium-catalyzed intramolecular CO bond formation between aryl halides and enolates has been employed to form 2,3disubstituted benzo[b]furans [27].
MeO
Br + OH 40 41
1. MeMgBr, THF, 0 C 2. PdCl2(PPh3)2 (5 mol%) 3. DMSO, 80C Br 42 O MeO O
43 61% yield
Scheme 7.13
Synthesis of 3-uoroalkylated benzo[b]furans was achieved via a palladium-catalyzed reaction of uorine-containing internal alkynes with various 2-iodophenols in the presence of P(tBu)3 as an essential ligand [28] (Scheme 7.14).
604

I F3C 44
Scheme 7.14
Cl +
Pd2(dba)3 (20 mol%) PtBu3 (80 mol%)
CF3 O 46 Cl
OH K2CO3, DMF, 100 C 80% 45
As shown in Scheme 7.15, the optically active dihydrobenzo[b]furan-ring 48 has been constructed efciently via a CH insertion reaction, leading to the total synthesis of ()-ephedradine A [29].
Ar O N2 O Br 47 N O Me O Rh2(S-DOSP)4 (0.3 mol%) DCM, 63% Br O H
Ar H O
N O Me O
48
Scheme 7.15
Herndon has reported benzannulation of heterocyclic ring systems through coupling of Fischer carbene complexes and heterocycle-bridged enynes [30]. The benzofuran rings are easily annulated onto furan, thiophene and imidazole ring systems in a reaction process involving the coupling of Fischer carbene complexes with either 2-alkenyl-3-alkynyl- or 3-alkenyl-2-alkynyl-heteroaromatic systems (Scheme 7.16).
R1 Z Y 49
Scheme 7.16
1. MeO 2. H+
Cr(CO)5 Me Z Y
R1
CH3 O R2
R2
42-89%
50
Arylboronic acids reacted with nitriles catalyzed by a cationic palladium complex leading to aryl ketones in moderate to good yields [31]. Based on this result, a one-step synthesis of benzofurans from phenoxyacetonitriles under the catalysis of [(bpy) Pd (OH)]2(OTf)2 or [(bpy)Pd2 (H2O)2](OTf)2 has been developed that shows that the cationic palladium catalyst is highly active for these addition reactions (Scheme 7.17). 2-Chloroaryl alkynes, which are generated from 1,2-dihaloarenes using known methodology, undergo the reaction conditions shown in Scheme 7.18 successfully providing benzofurans 54 in good yields [32]. While the cyclization of 2-hydroxyalk-
j605
OMe ArB(OH)2 + MeO 51

Scheme 7.17
CN O R
Pd cat. CH3NO2 reflux MeO
OMe Ar O 15-91% 52 R
R' R Cl 53
KOH (3.0 equiv) Pd2dba3 (0.5-2.0 mol%) L1 or L2 (2.0-8.0 mol%) H2O / 1,4-dioxane 100 C, 8h
R 54
R'
Pri
i
PtBu2 Pr Pri
i
PtBu2 Pr
Pr
Pr
L1 F3C O n-C8H17 O 87% (L1) S N O 85% (L2)
L2
83% (L1)
Scheme 7.18
ynyl arenes is known, this is the rst time this strategy has been employed starting with a 2-haloaryl alkyne. The formation of 2-alkynyl benzofurans is described via a new tandem coupling approach [33]. This reaction utilizes easily accessible gem-dibromovinyl substrates and terminal alkynes and proceeds via Pd/C- and CuI-catalyzed tandem Ullman/ Sonogashira couplings (Scheme 7.19).
C6H13 Pd-C, CuI P(p-MeOC6H4)3 MeO2C
i
MeO2C OH 55
Scheme 7.19
Br Br
Pr2NH / toluene
C6H13
56 93% yield
An efcient synthesis of benzofurans from o-anisole-substituted ynamides has been reported by Hsung and co-workers via an unexpected Rh(I)-catalyzed demethylation-cyclization sequence (Scheme 7.20) [34]. The silver salt is critical for the successful transformation in the reaction process.
606

O Ph N O cat. RhCl(PPh3)3 cat. AgBF 4 O O N Ph 58 57
Scheme 7.20
50-70% yield
Trost has reported that benzofurans can be formed chemoselectively from the Rh-catalyzed cyclo-isomerization reaction of easily prepared 2-alkynylphenol substrates (e.g., 2,4-dichloro-6-ethynylphenol) [35]. The reaction may proceed by nucleophilic capture of a vinylidene intermediate (Scheme 7.21).
Cl OH Cl 59
Scheme 7.21
5% [{Rh(cod)Cl}2], 60% (4-FC6H4)3P DMF, 85 C 77% yield
Cl O Cl 60
Benzofuran products can be delivered in good yields through palladium-catalyzed intramolecular CO bond formation of enolates derived from a-(ortho-haloaryl)substituted ketones (Scheme 7.22) [36]. A catalyst generated from Pd2(dba)3 and the ligand DPEphos effects the key bond formation to produce various substituted products from both cyclic and acyclic precursors. In the meantime, a cascade sequence that produces the required a-aryl ketones in situ has been developed. However, the substrate scope is more restricted.
X Pd2dba3, DPEphos base R
1
R3
R3
O R2 50-95% 62 R1
R2 61
Scheme 7.22
toluene, 100 C
Li has presented a novel and selective palladium-catalyzed annulation of 2-alkynylphenols method for the synthesis of 2-substituted 3-halobenzo[b]furans [37]. In the presence of PdX2, 2-substituted benzo[b]furans were afforded in good yields, whereas in the presence of 510 mol% of PdX2, 3.0 equiv of CuX2 and 0.2 equiv of
j607
HEt3NI, 2-disubstituted 3-halobenzo[b]furans were selectively produced as the major products (Scheme 7.23). A possible mechanism was also proposed.
R PdX2 / CuX2 OH 63 HEt3NX, DCE, r.t. O X R + H O R
64 major 37-92% X = Cl, Br
65 minor 0-58%
Scheme 7.23
3-Zinciobenzofurans 66, generated in excellent yield through a metallative 5-endodig cyclization reaction of 2-alkynylphenoles in the presence of BuLi and ZnCl2, can be further transmetallated to the corresponding cuprates 67, which then react with electrophiles to produce various 2,3-disubstituted benzofurans 68 [38] (Scheme 7.24).
R 1) BuLi 2) ZnCl2 OH 18 toluene reflux ZnCl O 66 R CuCN/2LiCl O E+ E O 68-98% 68
Scheme 7.24
Cu(CN)ZnCl R 67
7.4.2 Oxidative Cyclization
Recently, Bellur [39] has reported an efcient synthesis of functionalized benzofurans based on a [3 2] cyclization/oxidation strategy. The functionalized benzofurans were prepared by DDQ oxidation of 2-alkylidenetetrahydrofurans, which are readily available by one-pot cyclizations of 1,3-dicarbonyl dianions or 1,3-bis-silyl enol ethers (Scheme 7.25). The rst total and biomimetic synthesis of violet-quinone has been accomplished by utilizing an oxidative dimerization of a substituted 4-methoxy-1-naphthol with a ZrO2/O2 system, the so-formed dimer eventually led to the target molecule (Scheme 7.26) [40]. The same research group later published the SnCl4-mediated oxidative biaryl coupling reaction to build up the dinaphthanofuran framework [41]. Silver(I) acetate is an efcient agent with which to obtain the dimer of resveratrol in
608

Me3Si O OSiMe3 R1 R4 R3 69 R2 MeO OMe Cl MeO O O (iii) DDQ 1,4-dioxane R1 reflux, 24 h R4 R3 71 53-75% yield R3 R1 R2 72 28-37% yield DDQ 1,4-dioxane O O R1 R2
(i) Me3SiOTf (0.5 equiv) R4 R2 CH2Cl2, -78-20 oC R 3 (ii) 2.0 equiv, DBU 70 THF, 20 oC 38-90% yield R3 O R3 O O
Me3Si
OSiMe3 R1
O R1
R2 69
TiCl4 (2 equiv) 4A MS, CH2Cl2
R2 73 31-65% yield
Scheme 7.25
OH Me ZrO2, O2 OMe OMe

74
Scheme 7.26
Me
OMe
OH
Me
O
CHCl3, RT 96%
OMe OMe 2 75
OH O
Me
76
high yield [42]. Oxidation of phenol with PIFA has also been applied to construct the framework of ()-galanthamine [43]. A new family of benzo[b]furans has been synthesized by an anodic oxidation of an aqueous solution of 3-substituted catechols followed by coupling with dimedone (78) (Scheme 7.27) [44].
Me OH OH 77
Scheme 7.27
O + O 78
Me - 4e- 4H+ 87% O 79 O OH OH
Compound 80 can be cyclized in the presence of either mercury acetate in acetic acid or bromine in chloroform to give 3-chloromercurio- or 3-bromobenzofuran,
j609
respectively. The 3-chloromercurio intermediates could be reduced to proton or derivatized to ester or bromide, leading to the synthesis of ailanthoidol (30% yield), XH-14 (15% yield) and obovaten (11% yield), respectively [45] (Scheme 7.28).
OMe OBn HgCl R OMe 80 COOMe OMe R O 82

Scheme 7.28
OMe OBn 81
1. Hg(OAc)2/AcOH 2. satd NaCl (aq.), RT PdCl2, MgO, LiCl CO, MeOH
O reduction
OMe R O 83 OBn
OBn
5-[2-(4-Hydroxyphenyl)vinyl]benzene-1,3-diol 84 (resveratrol) was treated with an equimolar amount of silver(I) acetate in dry MeOH to afford its (E)-dehydrodimer, 5{5-[2-(3,5-dihydroxyphenyl)vinyl]-2-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-2,3-dihydrobenzofuran-3-yl} benzene-1,3-diol 85, as a racemic mixture in high yield [46] (Scheme 7.29). This method is applicable to the oxidative dimerization of 4-hydroxystilbenes such as trans-styrylphenol and 5-{6-hydroxy-2-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-4-[2-(4-hydroxyphenyl)vinyl]2,3-dihydrobenzofuran-3-yl}benzene-1,3-diol (viniferin), giving rise to the corresponding 2-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-2,3-dihydrobenzofurans.
HO AgOAc in MeOH at 50C for 1h 84

Scheme 7.29
HO OH
OH HO OH 85 97% yield OH
OH
610

7.4.3 Radical Cyclization
A radical initiated benzo[b]furan formation has been applied to the synthesis of spiro [chroman-3,30 -(20 H)-benzofurans] in the presence of n-Bu3SnCl and Na(CN)BH3 [47] (Scheme 7.30).
R2 Cl Br O 86 O + R3 87 OH R1 R2 O O 88 80-95% R1 O O O 89 60-75%
Scheme 7.30
R3 K2CO3, acetone reflux, 58h Br
R1 O
R3 Bu3SnCl, Na(CN)BH3 AIBN, benzene N2, reflux, 7h
R2
A similar approach has also been demonstrated by the same group to obtain spiro [pyrimidine-6,30 -20 ,30 -tetrahydrobenzofuran]-2,4-diones [48]. On the other hand, n-Bu3GeH is reported to be an effective alternative compared with n-Bu3SnH in the synthesis of 3-substituted-2,3-dihydrobenzo[b]furans [49]. Moreover, a photoinduced fast tin-free reductive radical dehalogenation has found use for the synthesis of 2,3-dihydrobenzo[b]furans [50]. 2,3-Disubstituted benzofuran derivatives have been synthesized from o-acylphenols in two steps. The b-aryloxyacrylates prepared from the o-acylphenols react with n-Bu3SnH/AIBN and then with 5% HCl-EtOH leading to 2,3-disubstituted benzofurans [51]. A radical [3 2] annulation reaction with an N-centered radical has been developed. The reaction of alkenes with N-allyl-N-chlorotosylamide yields the corresponding pyrrolidine derivatives 90 in good yields, in the presence of Et3B as a radical initiator, via an atom-transfer process [52] (Scheme 7.31). Grimshaw [53] has reported that the cyclization of 20 -bromodeoxybenzoin with Cu powder in reuxing AcNMe2 gives 2-phenylbenzofurans in 6570% yield (Scheme 7.32).
j611
Cl + Ts N Cl Et3B, PhH O 90 82% yield

Scheme 7.31
NTs
CH2COPh Br 91 Cu(0) Cu(I)
CH2COPh
Ph Cu(I) O 92 65-70% yield

Scheme 7.32
Cu(0)
Ph
7.4.4 Acid- and Base-Mediated Cyclization
Katritzky [54] has disclosed the preparation of 2,3-disubstituted benzofurans by reactions of o-hydroxyphenyl ketones or o-(1-hydroxy-2,2-dimethylpropyl)phenol with 1-benzotriazol-1-ylalkyl chlorides in two or three steps (Scheme 7.33). These
O R1 H
BtH, SOCl2 Bt
R1 + Cl R1
Bt O O R4 R4 R2 R3 93 O LDA/THF R2
Bt
R1
OH O
OH R4
R3 TiCl 3/Li DME O R1 R4
R2
R3
R2
R3
94
Scheme 7.33
612

approaches provide a facile route to a variety of benzofurans in good overall yields and complements a previous benzotriazole-mediated preparation of benzofurans. 2-Arylbenzo[b]furan can be cyclized in a modest yield from a non -symmetrical diarylethyne, which was generated via palladium -catalyzed Sonogashira reaction of an aryl bromide and an aryl acetylene (Scheme 7.34) [55]. Other types of 2-alkyl/aryl substituted benzo[b]furans have also been obtained by the palladium-catalyzed coupling reaction of o-iodophenols (even o-iodophenols with a base-labile nitro group) with various alkynes in the presence of prolinol as base in water. This environmental friendly procedure does not need the phase transfer or water-soluble phosphine ligands and is free from the use of any organic co-solvent [56]. A similar process has also been reported with an amphiphilic polystyrenepolyethylether (PS-PEG) resin-supported palladium-phosphine complex as a catalyst in water to give the corresponding aryl-substituted alkynes in high yield under copper-free conditions [57]. In the total synthesis of pterulinic acid, the core structure of 2-substituted benzofuran was generated by the palladium-catalyzed heteroannulation of an o-iodophenol derivative with methyl 3-butynoate [58].
AcO Br O O 96 +
OAc 95 OAc
AcO Pd(OAc)2, CuI DIPA, 50 C, 95%
OAc OMe KOH HO MeOH 62% O 98 MeO O O O
97
Scheme 7.34
Base-mediated conditions have also been applied to afford 2-arylbenzo[b]furan, employing the coupling product generated from the ultra-ne nickel-catalyzed Sonogashira reaction of iodophenols with phenylacetylenes [59]. Four 2,6-linked and 2,5-linked benzo[b]furan trimers as organic electroluminescent materials have been prepared by the base-mediated cyclization of 2-alkynylphenols [60]. In the synthesis of furoclausine A, acid-catalyzed conditions were used to produce the furo[3,2-a]carbazole framework from a ketal as depicted (Scheme 7.35) [61]. An acid-catalyzed intramolecular cyclization to form the scaffold of furoquinoline
Me O MeO N H 99
Scheme 7.35
OEt OEt Amberlyst 15, PhCl 120 C, 20h, 82%
Me O MeO N H 100
j613
alkaloids has also been achieved from 3-oxiranylquinolines [62]. Furanoeremophilane sesquiterpenes have been synthesized by acid-mediated furan ring formation from their corresponding phenolic-ketone ethers [63]. 3-Aryl-2,2-dialkyl-2,3-dihydrobenzo[b]furans have been delivered from phenols and 2-aryl-2,2-dialkylacetaldehydes in the presence of a catalytic amount of CF3SO3H [64]. A ZnCl2-mediated benzo[b]furan formation has been utilized to produce 2-carboxylate benzo[b]furans from 3-dimethylaminopropenoates [65]. Synthesis of different types of substituted benzoheterocycles under metal-free protocols have been developed. The combination of o-alkynylbenzaldehyde derivatives, iodonium ions and alkenes was demonstrated to effectively produce the corresponding benzofurans [66]. The rapid access to benzofurans with interesting di- and tri-substitution patterns and featuring the 2,3-unsubstituted ring motif has been established (Scheme 7.36).
Ph 1. IPy2BF4 / HBF4 (1.1 equiv) CH2Cl2, 0 C to r.t. O 101 2. Ph (1.2 equiv), r.t. 102 36% yield
Scheme 7.36
Ph Ph
A simple procedure for the construction of the trans-5,6-ring system existing in phenylmorphans was developed by the displacement of nitro-activated aromatic uorine with a hydroxyl group [67] (Scheme 7.37).
O2N F OH NMe 103
Scheme 7.37
O2N NaH, THF reflux, 97% O Pd-C HCOONH4 90% 104 NMe
H2N
O NMe
105
Synthesis of coumestrol (108) has been achieved by sequential condensation between phenyl acetate and benzoyl chloride, followed by demethylation and cyclization (Scheme 7.38) [68]. Hellwinkel has reported 2-arylbenzofurans formation using MF/Al2O3 basesystems [69]. Saito has described a novel method for the generation of 4-acetoxy2-amino-3-arylbenzofurans from 1-aryl-2-nitroethylenes and cyclohexane-1,3diones [70]. This one-pot operation shows high efciency (Scheme 7.39).
614

Me O CO2Me O MeO O BBr3, DCM 72h, 100% OMe 107 HO O coumestrol 108 OH O 2. MeO OMe Cl O
CO2Me
OMe 1. LDA, THF, -78 C MeO
MeO 106
Scheme 7.38
X O R O + O2N 109 X Y O R N OH X Y Et3N (10 mol%), RT, 12h Ac2O, Et3N, DMAP, RT, 5h R OAc NH2 O 111 23-70% yield Y
Et3N (10 mol%), RT, 12h
Ac2O, Et3N, DMAP, RT, 5h
O 110
Scheme 7.39
Wagner [71] has described the synthesis of 2-(6-hydroxy-2-methoxy-3,4-methylenedioxyphenyl)benzofuran (113, Scheme 7.40) via an acid mediated cyclization.
OH O O CN 112
Scheme 7.40
HCl
MeO NH O + ZnCl3
HO O O MeO 113 10% yield O
1. ZnCl2, HCl 2. H2O
j615
Johnson [72] has reported benzofuran formation via a organolithium-induced cyclization. Treatment of 2,2,2-triuoroethyl phenyl ethers with 4 equivalents of an aryl or alkyl lithium reagent (R3Li) causes in almost all cases complete dehalogenation of the triuoroethyl side chain with the concomitant introduction of an alkyl or aryl group (R3) at the acetylenic 2-position (Scheme 7.41). This is followed apparently by ortholithiation to give the lithio intermediates; the latter then spontaneously cyclize to the 2-lithioheterocyles. Subsequent electrophilic quenching leads to the corresponding benzofurans depending whether the electrophile is a proton or another electronegative species.
OCH2CF3 R1 R2 114 a R1 = H b R1 = Li
Scheme 7.41
4R3Li R2
O R1 115 R3
R2
R3 O Li
H+ or E
R2
R3 O R
116
117 30-40% yield
Banerji [73] [Scheme 7.42 (1)] and Clerici [74] [Scheme 7.42 (2)] have reported titanium-mediated benzofuran synthesis, respectively.
R2 O R1 118
O Zn TiCl4 O R1 R2 O 119 > 90% yield 2 Ti(III), H + HOAc R R O 121 HO up to 95% yield (2) (1)
CHO R OH 120
Scheme 7.42
Jha has also reported a facile synthesis of 2-arylbenzo[b]furans through an unusual acid-catalyzed 1,2-elimination [75]. 2-Phenoxyalkanals react with methanol at room temperature under homo- or heterogeneous acid-catalysis conditions leading to the formation of diacetal as well as some quantities of appropriate 2-alkylbenzofurans. 2-Alkylbenzofurans can be obtained in high yields via cyclization of the 1,1dimethoxy-2-phenoxyalkanes under mild conditions over Amberlyst 15 [76]. An effective route to chiral optically active 2-substituted benzofurans directly from carboxylic acids has been reported (Scheme 7.43) [77]. This procedure, which allows
616

O Ph OH Cl + Cl PPh3Br OH Et3N, DCM / PhCH3 MW, 110 C, 60 min O 124 93% yield Ph N N 122 N Cl Et3N, DCM MW, 40 C, 10 min
OCOPh N PhOCO N 123 N OCOPh
Scheme 7.43
the preparation of R-alkyl-2-benzofuranmethanamines from N-protected R-amino acids without sensible racemization phenomena, proceeds in good yields under mild conditions with the help of microwave irradiation. Treatment of benzyl 2-halophenyl ethers with 3 equivalents of t-BuLi results in Lihalogen exchange and lithiation at benzylic methylene simultaneously. These dianions can be trapped with electrophiles. Their reactions with carboxylic esters afford the corresponding 2-aryl-3-hydroxy-2,3-dihydrobenzo[b]furans, which subsequently undergo acid-catalyzed or mediated dehydration to give moderate to good overall yield of various 2-aryl-3-substituted benzo[b]furans (127) (Scheme 7.44) [78].
HO Ar G 126 O R Ar G R O 35-73% 127 Ar
X G O 125 X = Br, I G = Me, Cl, ... Ar = Ph, 1-Np...

Scheme 7.44
Zn(OTf)2 (10 mol%) catalyzes the cyclization of propargyl alcohols with PhOH in hot toluene (100 C) without additive to give benzofuran products in good yields. Its mechanism has been elucidated. This catalytic cyclization is also applicable to the synthesis of oxazoles through the cyclization of propargyl alcohols and amides without a 1,2-nitrogen shift (Scheme 7.45) [79]. Asao has described an efcient synthesis of functionalized aromatic compounds from enynals and carbonyl compounds [80]. The reaction most probably proceeds through the reverse electron demand-type DielsAlder reaction between the pyrylium intermediate and enol 2p-system, derived from carbonyl compounds. The scope of the reaction was extended to the synthesis of benzofused heteroaromatic compounds. For instance, benzofuran synthesis using furan derivatives 130 has been
j617
OH + OMe 128 OH Zn(OTf) 2 Ph (10 mol%) 129 MeO
Ph O
91% yield
Scheme 7.45
examined. As expected, the reaction of 130 with propionaldehyde proceeded in the presence of AuBr3 or Cu(OTf)2 catalyst to give the corresponding product 131 in 58 or 67% yields, respectively. The AuBr3-catalyzed reaction of 130 with b-methoxystyrene gave 132 in 50% yield (Scheme 7.46).
Ph O + CHO cat. Lewis acid O AuBr3: 58% yield Cu(OTf)2: 67% yield O OMe O CHO 130
Scheme 7.46
Ph
O 130
CHO
131 Ph
Me
Ph
+ Ph
cat. AuBr3 50% O 132 Ph
SanMartin has reported copper-catalyzed straightforward synthesis of benzo[b] furan derivatives in neat water [81]. This on-water methodology delivers a range of benzo[b]furans (134) in good to excellent yields starting from readily available substrates 133 (Scheme 7.47).
O R
1
R2 CuI, TMEDA Br H2O, 120 C 74-99% yield Me2 N H O R1 N Me2
R1
R2 134
133 O R1 Br
Scheme 7.47
TMEDA
TMEDAH+ R1 [Cu] O
[Cu] TMEDA
Cu
618

A microwave-mediated solvent-free RapStoermer reaction has been reported for the synthesis of benzofurans from various salicylaldehydes and phenacyl halides (Scheme 7.48) [82]. Some of the advantages and highlights of this microwave protocol include, solvent-free clean reaction conditions and high yields of benzofurans obtained in short reaction times. In addition, the 2-aroyl benzofurans formed using this method are also important as the corresponding carbinols (reduction products) are known to have hypolipidemic activity.
R1 R1 K3PO4 X 136
MW
CHO OH
O + R
O O R2
64-98% 137
R2 135
Scheme 7.48
DiMauro has reported a rapid, efcient synthesis of various substituted fused benzofurans using a microwave-assisted one-pot cyclization-Suzuki coupling approach [83]. The benzofuran scaffold was formed under base conditions. Further elaboration via Suzuki cross-coupling reactions afforded the desired products 140 in moderate yields (Scheme 7.49).
B(Pin) X R1 base CHO OH 138 W O 139 R1 [Pd] cat. cross-coupling W N N 140 a: R1 = CO2Et, X = Br, 33% yield b: R1 = CONHPh, X = Cl, 40% yield c: R1 = COPh, X = Br, 74% yield d: R1 = COtBu, X = Br, 72% yield O R1
B(Pin)
Scheme 7.49
7.4.5 Olefin-Metathesis Approach
Sequential isomerization and ring-closing metathesis for the synthesis of benzofused heterocycles has been reported [84]. 2-Allylphenol is converted into allyl-2(allyloxy)benzene (141) under suitable conditions. [RuClH(CO)(PPh3)3] is then added to a solution of 141 in benzene-d6 or toluene-d8 and the reaction mixture heated at 6080 C for 18 h (Scheme 7.50). Analysis by 1 H NMR spectroscopy conrmed that the isomerization of both allyl substituents had occurred to afford
j619
[RuClH(CO)(PPh3)3] (1 mol%) benzene-d6
N Mes Mes N Cl Ru Cl PCy3 Ph 5 mol% DCM, reflux
O 143 > 80% yield
141
142
Scheme 7.50
the acid-labile compound, which was not isolated. The introduction of catalyst (Grubbs Generation I) then readily affords the benzo[b]furan in excellent conversion, as determined by further 1 H NMR spectroscopy. This result constitutes a novel approach to the ubiquitous benzo[b]furan skeleton. Grubbs et al. have described a method for the synthesis of cyclic enol ethers (including benzofuran) via molybdenum alkylidene-catalyzed ring-closing metathesis (Scheme 7.51) [85]. To demonstrate an application of this process, the authors chose the naturally occurring benzofuran 2,4,20 ,40 -dihydroxyphenyl-5,6-(methylenedioxy)benzofuran (Sophora compound I), the antifungal phytoalexin isolated from aerial part of Sophora tomentosa L [86], as a synthetic target.
RO O O 144 O Me Me OR RO 12 mol% Cat. PhH, 2h O O 145 O OR
R = Bn: 85% yield
Pri Cat. N RO Mo RO
Pr Ph Me Me
H2, 10% Pd-C EtOAc, RT, 1h HO O O 146 96% yield O OH
R = CMe(CF3)2
Scheme 7.51
Several 2,3-dihydrobenzo[b]furans can be made by the Ru-catalyzed olen metathesis approach in the presence of trimethylsilyl vinyl ether (Scheme 7.52) [87]. The isovanillin derived benzo[b]furan has also been synthesized by the C-propenylationO-vinylation and olen metathesis approach [88]. A strategy employing a second generation Grubbs catalyst to facilitate the production of various cyclic enol phosphates, including benzofuran-2-yl enol phosphate scaffolds, has been described. This work represents the rst case of an olen
620

MeO O 147
Scheme 7.52
N Mes Mes N Cl 5 mol% Ru Cl PCy3 Ph OSiMe3 Toluene, reflux, 73%
MeO O 148
metathesis reaction in which one of the groups participating in the metathesis event is an enol phosphate moiety [89].
7.4.6 Miscellaneous
3-Cyano or ethoxycarbonyl-2-methyl-benzo[b]furans have been prepared in a onestep synthesis by the microwave induced Claisen rearrangement under solvent-free conditions (Scheme 7.53) [90]. The Fries rearrangement has been employed in the synthesis of benzo[b]naphtha[2,3-d]furan-6,11-dione [91]. A [2,3]-StilleWittig rearrangement has also been utilized to make 2,3-disubstituted benzo[b]furans from 2stannane substituted benzo[b]furans [92].
Microwave 6-8 min Me
Me
O X
Me
149
Me
X = CN or COOEt
Scheme 7.53
150 > 70% yield
An efcient generation of 2-arylbenzofurans proceeds via a route involving acylation and subsequent [3,3]-sigmatropic rearrangement of oxime ethers [93]. Its synthetic utility is demonstrated by a short synthesis of stemofuran A (153) and eupomatenoid (154) in which no procedure for protection of the phenolic hydroxyl groups is needed (Scheme 7.54). The synthetic strategy involving an intramolecular hydroxyl epoxide opening has been applied to build up the cyclopenta[b]benzofuran ring for the total synthesis of naturally occurring rocaglaol [94] (Scheme 7.55). Horaguchi has reported the synthesis of benzofurans using photocyclization reactions of aromatic carbonyl compounds [95]. Benzofurans functionalized with hydroxy and acetyl functionalities are not only the core structures found in numerous biological important natural products but are also the vital precursors for several
j621
Me N
OH CF3CO2SO2CF3
Me DMAP DCM, 86% O 152 Me O 154 OH OH
O 151
OH Me O 153
Scheme 7.54
OH
OH OBn O Pd-C (10 mol%) EtOAc, 5h, 57% MeO
HO HO O
HO O HO O
O rocaglaol
155
156
OMe
OMe
Scheme 7.55
naturally occurring furanoavonoids. Numerous synthetic methodologies are available in the literature for the synthesis of functionalized benzofurans, but few references appear on the access of benzofurans with adjacent hydroxy and acetyl functionalities. Dixit [96] has reported a highly convenient synthesis of naturemimicking benzofurans and their dimers from easily accessible precursors. The crystal structure of 5,50 -diacetyl-20 ,30 -dihydro-2,30 -bibenzofuran-6,60 -diol is reported.
7.4.7 Progress in Solid-Phase Synthesis
Novel titanium benzylidenes (Schrock carbenes) bearing an arylboronate group are generated from thioacetals with low-valent titanium species, Cp2Ti[P(OEt)3]2, and alkylidenate Merrield resin-bound esters to give enol ethers. Treatment with 1% TFA gives 2-substituted (benzo[b]furan-5-yl)boronates, and solid-phase Suzuki crosscoupling gives 2,5-disubstituted benzofurans (Scheme 7.56) [97]. Yang et al. have reported a combinatorial synthesis of a 2,3-disubstituted benzo[b] furan library via palladium(II)-mediated cascade carbonylative annulation of o-alkynylphenols on silyl linker-based macrobeads (Scheme 7.57) [98].
622

TiCp2 (pin)B O O R1 157 3 eq. OMOM (pin)B R1 O 158 1. ArI, [Pd], base 2. 1% TFA, DCM O Ar O 160 54-100 yield
Scheme 7.56
OMOM
THF, reflux
R1
R1
10% HCl-MeOH Ar OMOM 159 25-57% yield
R1 + I R R OH 161 162 Pd(0) OH
R1 Pd(II), dppp CsOAc, R2OH CO (balloon) 45C, 20h R
OR2 R1
O 50-90% 163
Scheme 7.57
The same authors have developed a novel catalytic system of AgOTs-CuCl2TMEDA for the homocoupling of aliphatic acetylenes on solid support. It is the rst observation that an Ag(I)-activated triple bond can facilitate Cu(II)-mediated oxidative acetylenic homocoupling. This procedure provides an efcient way to synthesize a diversied symmetric 1,3-alkadiynediol bis(benzo[b]furan-carboxylate) library on solid support [99]. Furthermore, a split-pool synthesis of dimeric benzo[b]furans has been developed employing the Sonogashira reaction, palladium-mediated carbonylative annulation and olen cross-metathesis as the key steps on high-capacity, lightly cross-linked, silyl-linker-based polystyrene macrobeads. This protocol provides direct access to a range of dimeric molecules that are ideal for high-throughput screening of proteinprotein interactions in a cell-based assay system [100]. Subsequently, the authors described a conformationally restricted 2,3-diarylbenzo [b]furan library built up on a solid-phase by the palladium/bipyridyl-catalyzed annulation of o-alkynyl phenols with aryl halides (Scheme 7.58) [101].
7.5 Uses of Benzofuran
j623
A 2-substituted furo[3,2-b]quinolines library has been made on solid support by K2CO3-mediated sequential deprotection and cyclization [102] (Scheme 7.59).
R1 Pd (dba) (5 mol%) 2 3 bpy (10 mol%), MeCN R 164 OH 50C, R2I, K2CO3 R 165
R2 O R1
Scheme 7.58
O R1 166
Scheme 7.59
N AcO
K2CO3 R2 18-Crown-6 DMF-H2O (19:1)
R1 O 167
N R2
7.5 Uses of Benzofuran 7.5.1 Uses of Benzofuran in Drug Discovery
Jones has synthesized benzbromarone analogs (168) screened for inhibitory potency against 2C19, or used as substrates or metabolite standards [103]. The ndings illustrate the increased utility of benzbromarone analogues since they have now been adapted to act as 2C19 inhibitors. According to this study with benzbromarone and previous works on phenobarbital analogues and proton pump inhibitors, it is demonstrated that for 2C19, ligands with two hydrophobic regions separated by a polar group are the most complementary. Interestingly, high-afnity binding of benzbromarone ligands to 2C19 appears to be achieved without constraining substrate mobility within the enzyme.
624

O R1 R4 R3 R2
O 168
A series of benzofuran-2-yl-(phenyl)-3-pyridylmethanol derivatives have been prepared in good yields using an efcient one-step procedure. Additionally, to determine the effect of the benzene ring in benzofuran with respect to inhibitory activity, furan-2-yl-(phenyl)-3-pyridylmethanol derivatives have been synthesized in the meantime. The pyridylmethanol derivatives were all evaluated in vitro for inhibitory activity against aromatase (P 450AROM, CYP19), using human placental microsomes. The benzofuran-2-yl-(phenyl)-3-pyridylmethanol derivatives displayed good to moderate activity (IC50 1.325.1 mM), which was either better than or comparable with aminoglutethimide (IC50 18.5 mM) but lower than arimidex (IC50 0.6 mM), with the 4-methoxyphenyl substituted derivative displaying optimum activity. Moreover, it shows the activity to reside with the (S)-enantiomer based on molecular modeling of the benzofuran-2-yl-(4-uorophenyl)-3-pyridylmethanol derivatives. The essential role of the benzene ring of the benzofuran component for enzyme binding is demonstrated since the furan-2-yl-(phenyl)-3-pyridylmethanol derivatives were devoid of activity [104]. Histamine H3 receptor antagonists are being developed to treat various neurological and cognitive disorders that may be ameliorated by enhancement of central neurotransmitter release. A nonimidazole, benzofuran ligand ABT-239 [4-(2-{2[(2R)-2-methylpyrrolidinyl] ethyl}-benzofuran-5-yl)benzonitrile] (169) has been utilized in the in vitro pharmacological and in vivo pharmacokinetic proles and compared with several previously described imidazole and nonimidazole H3 receptor antagonists. The assay results demonstrate that ABT-239 is a selective, nonimidazole H3 receptor antagonist/inverse agonist with similar high potency in both human and rat and favorable drug-like properties [105]. The potency and selectivity of this compound and of analogs from this class support the potential of H3 receptor antagonists for the treatment of cognitive dysfunction [106].
CN
O 169 (ABT-239)
A series of 2-(4-hydroxyphenyl)benzofuran-5-ols with relatively lipophilic groups in the 7-position of the benzofuran has been synthesized for measurement of the afnity and selectivity for ERb. Some analogs are active as potent and selective ERb ligands. The structural modications at the benzofuran 4-position as well as at the 30 -position of the 2-Ph group (e.g., 170) further increase selectivity. Such
j625
modications have lead to compounds with <10 nM potency and >100-fold selectivity for ERb [107].
HO O NC 170 F OH
5-Chloro-3-methyl-2-acetylbenzofuran reacts with bromine in acetic acid leading to 5-chloro-3-methyl-2-bromoacetylbenzofuran, which then undergoes condensation with various substituted aromatic amines to afford 2-N-arylaminoacetyl-5-chloro-3methylbenzofurans. These compounds have been screened for their antibacterial, antifungal, analgesic, antiinammatory and diuretic activities and some hits were discovered [108]. A series of 1-(1-benzofuran-2-yl-ethylidene)-4-substituted thiosemicarbazides along with some derived ring systems, substituted-2,3-dihydro-thiazoles and thiazolidin-4-ones, have been synthesized and evaluated for their in vitro anti-HIV, anticancer, antibacterial and antifungal activities. Among the tested compounds, two produced a signicant reduction the viral cytopathic effect (93.19% and 59.55%) at concentrations of >2.0 104 M and 2.5 105 M, respectively. One compound displayed moderate anti-HIV activity. Several compounds showed mild antifungal activity. However, no signicant anticancer activity was discovered for the tested compounds [109].
7.5.2 Uses of Benzofuran in Material Science
New functionalized mono- and bis-benzo[b]furan derivatives which possess a CN, CHO, CHCHPh, CHCPh2, or CHCHCOOH group at C4 have been synthesized and developed as blue-light emitting materials [110]. Two benzo[b]furan nuclei in bis-benzo[b]furan derivatives have been connected by a divinylbenzene bridge. Bisbenzo[b]furan 171 was fabricated as a device with good volatility and thermal stability. It emitted blue light with brightness 53 430 cd m2 (at 15.5 V) and a high maximum external quantum efciency 3.75% (at 11 V) (Scheme 7.60). The direct anodic oxidation of 2,3-benzofuran on stainless steel sheet in boron triuoride di-Et etherate (BFEE) contained 10% poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) with a molar mass of 400 (by vol.) affords a visible-light transparent high-quality substratesupported poly(2,3-benzofuran) (PBF) lm [111]. The oxidation potential of 2,3benzofuran in this medium was measured to be only 1.0 V vs SCE, which is lower than that determined in acetonitrile 0.1 M Bu4NBF4 (1.2 V vs SCE). Good electrochemical behavior and good thermal stability with a condense of 102 S cm1, are displayed for these PBF lms, and the doping level of as-prepared PBF lms was determined to be only 8.9%. The structure of the polymer has been studied by UV/Vis, IR spectroscopy and SEM.
626

OMe O
OLED
Cathode Electron Transporting Layer Light Emitting Layer Hole Transporting Layer Anode Glass
O OMe
Scheme 7.60
171
Yang has reported the synthesis and spectral properties of novel 4-benzofuranyl1,8-naphthalimide derivatives [112]. A series of 4-benzofuranyl-N-alkyl-1,8-naphthalimides has been prepared from 4-ethynyl-N-alkyl-1,8-naphthalimides and substituted o-iodophenols catalyzed by a Pd(PPh3)2Cl2/CuI system under mild conditions. The absorption and uorescence spectra of these benzofuran-1,8-naphthalimides have been recorded and the quantum yields are measured using quinine sulfate as the standard. The UV/Vis absorption spectra were in the range of 380400 nm and the emission spectra were in the range of 500520 nm. A novel uorescence active 12H-benzo[e]indolo[3,2-b]benzofuran and its derivatives (172) has been prepared from 6-R1-2-naphthols in good yields. The synthesized compounds with planar geometry and extended conjugation exhibit excellent uorescence properties [113].
R2 N O 172 R1
Four linear benzofuran trimers have been prepared and tested as materials for organic electroluminescence (OEL). The solubility, aggregation, and lm-forming properties were modulated by tert-butyl and n-hexyl substituents on the benzofurans. Additionally, two tert-butyl groups prevented aggregation in the solid state, thus maintaining emission in the blue region of the visible spectrum. The OEL characteristics of the tert-butyl-substituted benzofuran trimer have been explored, and blue emission observed. The two-stage synthetic procedure employed for the preparation of these benzofuran trimers may be applied to a wide variety of benzofuran oligomer and polymer targets [114].
j627
THPO Br 173
Br
1) Ph Pd(PPh3)4 / PPh3 CuI, Et3N, piperidine Ph
HO OH 81% (2 steps) 174
Ph 1) BuLi / THF 2) ZnCl2 / PhCH3
OTHP 2) p-TsOH, CH2Cl2 / MeOH
ZnCl Ph O O 175 R
Scheme 7.61
Ph
ArI or ArBr Pd2(dba)3, PtBu3 toluene / NMP, 100 C
O O R = H, 65% R = Me, 70% R = Ph2N-C6H4, 69% R = (p-tol)2N-C6H4, 60%
ClZn
176
Recently, Nakamura has described a facile route to 2,3,6,7-tetraarylbenzo[1,2-b:4,5b]difurans (BDFs) (Scheme 7.61), which could be functioned as the hole-transporting material (HTM) in layered organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) [115]. The high performance of the compounds is primarily due to the BDF core itself, which is in sharp contrast to the fact that the biphenyl scaffold in R-NPD alone does not function as a HTM. They also found that there is a synergetic effect of the BDF core and the substituents. The physical properties can be improved by suitable functionalization. It can be expected that the BDF molecule will serve as a useful new molecular scaffold on which multiple functional groups can be attached to obtain new properties.
O O N H N 177 O N H N N O 180 (FBAN) OHC N HO Cl + OHC 178 O N H N N O R 181 182 183 (BAN) R = H 53% (HBAN) R = CH2OH 78% (ABAN) R = CH2NHC12H25 64% Pd(PPh3)2Cl2 CuI, Et3N DMF, 75 C, 16h 179 N H N N HO CHO
Scheme 7.62
628

Benzofuran-naphthyridine links show high-yield uorescence with solvatochromic properties. For instance, after formation of uorescent organic nanoparticles (FONs1.) of ABAN (183, Scheme 7.62), the photophysical properties (such as the spectral features and intensity) are remarkably different from those at the molecular level (solution) and in bulk material [116].
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j635
8 Five-Membered Heterocycles: 1,2-Azoles. Part 1. Pyrazoles

Jos e Elguero, Artur M.S. Silva, and Augusto C. Tom e
8.1 Introduction
Pyrazoles belong to the family of azoles, which for some authors include pyrroles and indoles while for others it contains only by imidazoles, benzimidazoles, pyrazoles, indazoles, 1,2,3-triazoles, benzotriazoles, 1,2,4-triazoles, tetrazoles and pentazoles. The dubious position of pyrroles is due to their very different reactivity and less aromatic stability. We have carried out a search in the Chemical Abstracts on line (19872004) using the following truncated words: pyrazol , indazol , imidazol , benzimidazol , triazol (thus treating together 1,2,3 and 1,2,4-triazoles), benzotriazol , tetrazol and pentazol . In this way, fused compounds are included although they will not be discussed in detail in this chapter. Table 8.1 gives the number of references and the percentages in each case. The evolution of the number of publications between 1999 and 2004 show an increase of all of them, with the most cited, imidazoles and pyrazoles, growing the fastest. From Figure 8.1 is can be concluded that benzazoles are much less studied than the corresponding azoles and that an increase in the number of nitrogen atoms diminishes the importance of the azoles, with pentazoles being only a curiosity. In the Chemical Abstracts 2004, the word pyrazol appears 1931 times. Regarding these 1931, it is possible to classify them (at the price of some simplications) into six different elds (Table 8.2). As expected, the medicinal chemistry aspects of pyrazoles dominates largely the 2004 production, but note their great importance as ligands in coordination chemistry. As materials, the main applications are as dyes, inks and luminescent devices.
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j 8 Five-Membered Heterocycles: 1,2-Azoles. Part 1. Pyrazoles

Table 8.1 Relative importance of azoles in the literature.
Azol Pyrazol Indazol Imidazol Benzimidazol Triazol Benzotriazol Tetrazol Pentazol
Total 20701 1451 31118 10158 15688 6429 8008 42
% 22.12 1.55 33.25 10.85 16.76 6.87 8.56 0.05
Another way to classify pyrazoles is to made a class of 1,2-azoles formed by pyrazoles, isoxazoles and isothiazoles. This is not entirely satisfactory, because there is an important difference between pyrazoles on the one hand and isoxazoles and isothiazoles (Chapter 9) on the other: the presence of an NH (NR) in pyrazoles (13)
3500
3000
2500
Number of publications
2000 Pyrazol* 1500 Indazol* Imidazol* Benzimidazol* 1000 Triazol* Benzotriazol* Tetrazol* 500 Pentazol*
-500 1998
1999
2000
2001
Year
2002
2003
2004
2005
Figure 8.1 Evolution of the number of publications devoted to azoles between 1999 and 2004.
8.1 Introduction
Table 8.2 Use of pyrazoles according to the number of citations.
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Pyrazol
References
% Without biol. appl. 36.91 32.72 10.91 10.30 9.16
Biological applications Coordination chemistry Synthesis Properties Application as materials Reactivity
785 423 375 125 118 105
40.65 21.91 19.42 6.47 6.11 5.44
that confers to this heterocycle a specic behavior to the point that we have treated it separately from the two other heterocycles.
4 5 1
3 2 6
4 3a 3 6
4 3a 2 7 7a 3
N N H 1H-pyrazole (1)
1 N2 N H 1H-indazole (2) 7 7a
N
1
N H
2H-indazole (3)
8.1.1 Nomenclature
We have represented above the three main heterocycles of this chapter. Notably, the migration of the proton of a pyrazole from N1 to N2 changes the numbering of the ring, that is 3-methyl-1H-pyrazole (4a) becomes 5-methyl-1H-pyrazole (4b), whereas in indazoles the same migration transforms 3-methyl-1H-5a into 3-methyl-2Hindazole (5b).
Me N H 4a N Me N H 4b N N H 5a Me N N Me N H
5b
A series of books or chapters in books have been devoted to this heterocycle, including its benzo derivative, indazole, with exclusion of the very large topic of pyrazoles fused with other heterocycles. In 1966, Kost and Grandberg published the rst systematic approach to pyrazole chemistry [1]. It is still a valuable source of information because it summarizes in a short and clear way the knowledge
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accumulated in Russia after the seminal contribution of Karl Friedrich von Auwers (18631939) to the chemistry of these compounds. A year later, a book appeared that contains tables describing many pyrazoles, indazoles and their reduced derivatives, one of the authors, Fusco, was at that time very active in the chemistry of pyrazoles [2]. A book on all azoles is very useful since it represents a more structural and comparative study with much spectroscopic data [3]. In 1984 (updated in 1996) Comprehensive Heterocyclic Chemistry provided an extensive treatment of the structure and reactivity of pyrazoles and indazoles but with a concise report on synthetic aspects [4, 5]. The synthesis is well developed in HoubenWeyl, Methoden der Organischen Chemie and its continuation, Science of Synthesis, which contains synthetic recipes [69].
Depending on the oxidation degree, pyrazoles can be classied into different families (Scheme 8.1). Indazoles saturated in the benzene ring (4,5,6,7-tetrahydroindazoles) are better considered as 3(5),4-tetramethylenepyrazoles. The 3H-indazoles, a third isomer of indazoles, are unstable if one (or both) of the substituents at position 3 is an H atom, that is, there are no 3H-indazole tautomers.
8.2.1 Relevant Physicochemical Data, Computational Chemistry and NMR Data
Figure 8.2 shows the structures of the three parent compounds, giving an image of their compact character. Table 8.3 summarizes the properties of pyrazole (1) and 1Hindazole (2) (the other tautomer, 3, is unstable see under tautomerism). In general, pyrazoles unsubstituted at position 1, NH-pyrazoles, and NH-indazoles are solids, the exception being some pyrazoles substituted at position 4, like 4methylpyrazole [28]. The N-substitution, especially the N-alkylation, is accompanied by a large decrease in the melting point. Figure 8.3 presents, in a simplied manner, the geometry of 1 in the gas phase (both from MW spectroscopy and from high-level theoretical calculations). Pyrazole is planar and to a rst approximation has a regular pentagonal geometry. Closer examination reveals alternating single (C3-C4)/(C5-N1) and double (C4-C5)/(N2-C3) bonds. Particularly relevant to determining the position of the NH, when it is not observed in X-ray crystallography due to disorder, is the fact that the angle on N1 is always larger than that on N2 (the same happens at C3 and C5). Structural assignment of pyrazoles and indazoles is usually carried out by NMR (Schemes 8.28.4), at one time by using tables of reference compounds and/or coupling constants [29] but now more often by 2D spectroscopy, such as NOESY, which detects the proximity of substituents [30]. The identication of pyrazole isomers is easy by NMR when there is only one substituent at positions 3(5). The 1 H NMR chemical shifts are dependent on the
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O Three double bonds O
R3 O
N N R1 Pyrazoline-4,5-diones R4 R5 R3
N R2 N R1 Pyrazolidine-3,4,5-triones R4 R5 R3 R3' N R4 R4' R5 R3
N N R1 1H-Pyrazoles R4 O R4' R5 N R5' N
N 3H-Pyrazoles (Pyrazolenines) O R R5'

5
N N 4H-Pyrazoles (Isopyrazoles) R3 R4 O R3
Two double bonds

1
R3
-Pyrazolin-3-ones O R R5'
5
N N 1 R 2 -Pyrazolin-4-ones R4 R4' O N R1 O N R2 R4 R5 R5'

3
N N R1 2 -Pyrazolin-5-ones O
R4 R4'
N R2 N R1 3 -Pyrazolin-5-ones
O N R1 N R2
Pyrazolidinediones
R4 R3 4' R R3' One 5 R double N N R5' bond
R4 R3 R4' R5 N R5' N R1 1 -Pyrazolines 2-Pyrazolines R R4' R5 R5'

4
R3 N R1 N R2
R4 O R4' R5 N R2 N R5' R1 Pyrazolidin-3-ones
O R5 R5' N R1
R3 R3' N R2
-Pyrazolines
Pyrazolidin-4-ones
No double bond
N R1 Pyrazolidines
R R3' N R2
Scheme 8.1 Different structures of pyrazole derivatives depending on their oxidation degree
Figure 8.2 Space filling models of (a) pyrazole (1), (b) 1H-indazole (2) and (c) 2H-indazole (3).
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Table 8.3 Properties of the parent compounds.
Property Mp ( C) Bp ( C) Log P Dipole moment (m, D) pKa (proton addition) pKa (proton loss) Enthalpies of formation (kJ mol1) UV (lmax nm, log e) IR (cm1) X-ray (CSD) [12] 1 H NMR 13 C NMR 15 N NMR MS PES MW Best theoretical calculations Aromaticity (benzene 0.991)
a)
Pyrazole (1) 6970 186188 (758 mmHg) 0.130.26 1.92 (benzene) 2.52 14.21 179.4 [10] 211 (3.49) [4] 3524 (nNH gas) [4] PYRZOL Source: [13] Source: [15] Source: [17] Source: [18] Source: [20] Source: [22] Source: [24] 0.900: [26]
Indazole (2) 145149 269270 (743 mmHg) 1.82 1.60 (benzene) 1.31 13.80 243.0 [10] 250 (3.65), 284, 296 (3.52) [4] Source: [11] INDAZL Source: [13, 14] Source: [16] Source: [17] Source: [19] Source: [21] Source: [23] Source: [25] 0.808: [26]a)
Naphthalene: 0.811, 2H-indazole: 0.792 (using as criteria the HOMA) [27].
solvent, but the 3J34 VS. 3J45 coupling constants are not, so the fact that J45 > J34 is always a useful test. The ration J45/J34 depends on the substituent on the nitrogen, with EWG (like tosyl) the difference is large and the criteria easy to apply. With EDG (like amino) the difference tends to blur and J34 % J45 [31]. For isomeric pyrazoles bearing different substituents at positions 3 and 5, the 13 C chemical shifts of carbons C3 and C5 is a better method of assignment if both isomers are available. If only one is obtained, one must rely on a comparison with the large amount of data available [15]. In contrast, indazoles are easily identied by 13 C NMR spectroscopy [16]. 15 N NMR spectroscopic data can be routinely obtained from unlabelled samples (natural abundance). But their utility as a diagnostic tool is limited. Note that the 15 N chemical shifts are very sensitive to hydrogen bonds and, obviously, to protonation.
H
1.08 1.42
H
1.08 1.33
1.08
1.37 104.5 111.9 106.4 104.1 113.1 1.36 128.5
N H
1.35 118.4
1.00
Figure 8.3 Geometry of pyrazole.
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6.31 H 7.61 H
H 7.61 N N H 12.64
H 8.08 N N H 13.04
Solution CCl4 (fast tautomerism)
H Solution DMSO-d6 (only this tautomer) J37 = 1.1 Hz H 7.94 N N CH3 3.95 Solution CDCl3 H 7.67 N N CH3 3.80
6.22 H 7.35 H
H 7.49 N N CH3 3.88
Solution CDCl3 J34 = 2.0, J45 = 2.3 J35 = 0.7 Hz
Solution CDCl3 J(Me-H3) = 0.5 Hz
6.90 H 8.18 H
H 8.18 N H 12.5 N H 12.5
6.87 H 8.57 H
H 8.57 N CH 4.20 3 N CH3 4.20
H 9.28 N CH3 4.49 N CH3 4.34 Solution DMSO-d6
Solution H2SO4
Scheme 8.2
1
Solution DMSO-d6
H NMR spectra [d (ppm) and J (Hz)] of some representative compounds
105.8
134.6
103.9 127.6
138.1
107.0
138.7
109.1
135.2
N 134.6 N H Solution CH2Cl2 (fast tautomerism)
N N N H 135.2 N N 128.8 N H H H Solution HMPT (17C) (slow tautomerism) Solid state (CPMAS) Solution H2O 121.8 119.6 123.1 121.2 120.2 N CH3 39.7 N 125.9 125.4 N N 116.8 108.6 CH3 35.3 139.7 148.7 123.8 120.8 132.4 Solution CDCl3 Solution CDCl3
122.8 120.4 133.4 120.1 N 125.8 N 110.0 H 139.9 Solution DMSO-d6 (only this tautomer)
Scheme 8.3
13
C NMR spectra [d, (ppm)] of some representative compounds
NMR information on the non-aromatic derivatives of pyrazoles is very abundant, particularly on D2-pyrazolines and on pyrazolones [4, 7]. Scheme 8.5 contains some multinuclear NMR data on D2-pyrazolines.
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183.5 N 132.9 N 79.8 N 90.5 N H 132.9 N 183.5 N 167.8 N 171.3 N H H H H Solution DMSO-d6 Solution CHCl3 Solid state Solution H2O/HCl (CPMAS) (fast tautomerism) (slow tautomerism) N 65.6 N 194.4 H Solution DMSO-d6 (only this tautomer)
Scheme 8.4
15
N 56.6 N 202.8 CH3 Solution DMSO-d6
N 91.2
161.0 N CH3
Solution DMSO-d6
N NMR spectra [d, (ppm)] of some representative compounds
33.2 142.9 2.65 H H 6.88 H H N 30.4 3.31 H N 18.5 45.4 H 5.33 Neat
31.6 149.0 Ph 3.12 H H H N 3.76 H N 48.1 Ph CDCl3
2.89 H Ph 3.35 H 4.02 H N Ph N H CDCl3
45.1 148.4 H Me H 91.1 2 N J = 30.1 HO F3C N H 124.4 1 J = 282.3 CDCl3
Scheme 8.5 NMR data on some D2-pyrazolines
8.2.2 Tautomerism
The study of the tautomerism of NH-pyrazoles and indazoles (annular tautomerism) and that of functional compounds (e.g., pyrazolones) has been of considerable importance for the development of structural chemistry [3234]. Some protonated cations also shown tautomerism. This huge amount of data is difcult to summarize, but the principal conclusions are as follows: 1) Tautomerism occupies a multidimensional space (Scheme 8.6): the three states of the matter, the thermodynamic and kinetic aspects, and the proton (prototropy versus elementotropy). All these aspects have been observed in pyrazoles although those situations marked with a gray circle are very rare. Theoretical studies of the tautomerism of pyrazole and its derivatives mainly concern the gas phase. Concerning thermodynamic aspects, the main conclusion about annular tautomerism of pyrazoles (6a * ) 6b) is that the equilibrium tautomeric constant KT is never far from 1 [3537]. The preference of 6a versus 6b has been analyzed using the TaftTopson model [35, 36]. BH2, COF, CO2H, and CHO substituents stabilize the 6a tautomer, while the 6b tautomer is stabilized by OH, F, NH2, Cl, CONH2, CN, NO2, and CH3 groups (this paper contains a wealth of information about the IR of NH-pyrazoles) [37]. A more detailed analysis of the annular tautomerism of 3(5)-aminopyrazoles (RNH2) shows that both tautomers are present in solution and even in the solid state [38].
2)
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Gas phase K Proton k K
Solution K
Solid state
X-ray, neutron diffraction
UV, MS, ICR, PES
90%
NMR, relaxation k
NMR, relaxation
K X
K
NMR NMR
K
X-ray
Theoretical chemistry
Scheme 8.6 The tautomerism twelve regions
For indazole, the 1H-tautomer (2) is more stable than the 2H-tautomer (3) by about 20 kJ mol1, and this tendency cannot be reversed by phase effects; consequently, in solution and in the solid state the only tautomer present is 2 [39]. To displace the equilibrium towards one of the tautomers it is necessary to use a combination of substituents, aza and annelation effects [39]. For instance, substituents like NO2 and CO2Me at position 3 favor the 2H-tautomer, the replacement of a CH by an N atom at position 7 favors the 1H-tautomer (by lone-pair/lone-pair repulsion in 7b), and a fused benzo group at positions [ f ] and [g] favors, respectively, the 1H- (8a) and 2H-tautomers (9b).
R N H 6a R N N H 7a N N N 7b N R N H 6b R NH N H 9a N N H 8a R N N 9b R N N 8b R NH R NH
3)
In terms of kinetic aspects, the transfer of group R between both nitrogen atoms is an intermolecular process in the case of prototropy [40]. This requires other
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molecules (another pyrazole, water, a solvent, etc.) or a surface, for instance that of the measuring instrument [41]. Other groups on the nitrogen migrate either intermolecularly (COR, CH3, etc.) or intramolecularly (SiR3, GaR2, GeR3, SnR3, HgR) with barriers that can be very low in some cases [34, 41]. The tautomerism of functional derivatives, such as pyrazolones, is well understood and is no longer a research subject [32, 34]. However, there remains always some interesting cases, for instance that of 4-nitroso-5-aminopyrazoles 10 [42]. The compound exists as a mixture of rotamers 10a/10c of the amino-nitroso tautomer, rather than a mixture of amino-nitroso/imino/ oxime tautomers 10a/10b.
O N H N H N N Bn 10a O N H N H O N N N Bn 10b H N H N N Bn 10c
4)
The common belief is that heterocycles are natural if they can be found in DNA (nucleosides and nucleotides) or in proteins. That is why indole (tryptophan), pyrrole (proline, porphyrins), imidazole (histidine, biotine) and benzimidazole (vitamin B12) are considered naturals while pyrazole is not. One of the rare natural products that contains a pyrazole ring is Withasomnine [5,6-dihydro-3-phenyl-4H-pyrrolo[1,2b]pyrazole (11) an alkaloid isolated from the roots of an Indian medicinal plant, Withania somnifera]: its simplicity means that several synthesis are known, with the most recent described in 2002 [43, 44].
Ph N N 11
Other pyrazoles found in nature are pyrazofurin or pyrazomycin (an antibiotic isolated from the fermentation broth of Streptomyces candidus), formycin (a naturally occurring isomer of adenosine) and L-b-pyrazolylalanine (found in the seeds of many species of Cucurbitaceae). From this it must not be concluded that the pyrazole skeleton is not a good scaffold for making drugs. A recent review examines the topic Pyrazoles as Drugs: Facts and Fantasies [45]. This review describes the past and the present of pyrazole derivatives in medicinal chemistry. From an important past, exemplied in the analgesic and anti-inammatory pyrazolones and pyrazolinediones, not devoid of severe complications, to a glorious present with some of the most important drugs of recent times (sildenal, celecoxib) being pyrazole derivatives.
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Analgesics were, by far, the main area of biological activity of pyrazoles, often associated with antipyretic activity. They belong to three main classes: pyrazolin-5-ones [antipyrine phenazone (12), pyramidon (13), dipyrone (14)], pyrazolin-3,5-diones [phenylbutazone (15)] and pyrazoles [actually, an acetic acid, lonazolac (16)] [46]. Indazole proved to be an interesting nucleus in this eld. Structural modications of the anti-inammatory agent bendazac (17), an indazole derivative, have been realized and, in some cases, the synthesized compounds showed analgesic effects along with anti-inammatory properties [47].
Me O N Me N Ph 12 Me2N O Me N Me N Ph 13 Cl Bu O O N Ph N Ph HO2C-CH2 N N Ph O CH2CO2H N N Bn 17
Me NaO3S-CH2 N
O
Me N Me N Ph
14
15
16
Lesopitron (18) (E-4424), a pyrimidylpiperazine substituted by 1-butyl-4-chloropyrazole, was introduced as a new non-benzodiazepine anxiolytic acting on 5-HT1A receptors. It differed from other 5-HT1A receptors ligands mainly because of its greater anxiolytic potency, its lack of sedative effects, its sustained activity even on long-term treatments and its lack of withdrawal problems [48]. Lesopitron, currently in advanced clinical trials (phase III), and has been shown to be efcient and safe in patients with generalized anxiety disorder. Of particular interest is zaleplon, N-[3-(3cyanopyrazolo[1,5-a]pyrimidin-7-yl)phenyl]-N-ethylacetamide (19), a BZ1-receptor selective ligand [49]. Zaleplon (Sonata, Wyeth-Pharma, MI 10165) is a non-benzodiazepine sedative hypnotic that has been recently introduced for clinical use. It is indicated for short-term treatment of insomnia and presents the advantages of showing weak anxiolytic activity and reduced risk of tolerance.
CN N N O 19 N Et Me
N Cl N N (CH2)4 N 18 N N N
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The implication of glutamate receptors in memory processes has initiated great interest in anti-Alzheimer therapy. In an attempt to obtain heterocyclic analogs of glutamic acid, a synthetic strategy has been developed to prepare pyrazoles that show biological activity at central glutamate receptors [50]. The discovery by Sano [51] in 1994 of the pyrazole SR141716A (20) has been of great interest in the eld of cannabinoids because this study reported the rst cannabinoid antagonist possessing nanomolar afnity. This selective and orally active CB1 receptor subtype antagonist has become an experimental tool for insights into CB1 subtype recognition and activation and for clinical applications such as treatment of psychosis, eating disorders or memory decits [52]. Recent studies of analogs retaining the central pyrazole structure of 20, tested for CB1 binding afnity and in a battery of in vivo tests, suggest that the structural properties of 1- and 5-substituents are primarily responsible for the antagonist activity of SR141716A.
O NH N N N Cl
Me
Cl
Cl
20
The availability in 1997 of the highly specic antagonist SR144528 (21) [53] for the CB2 receptor has allowed the investigation of both the architecture of ligand binding sites, an approach that is difcult due to the structural disparity of cannabinoid agonists, and the respective contribution of cannabinoid receptor subtypes in functional cannabinoid effects in vivo. Its potential therapeutic applications include immune disorders such as rheumatoid arthritis, multiple sclerosis, psoriasis, infections and asthma.
O NH Cl Me 21 N N Me Me Me Me
Various derivatives of SR141716A have been synthesized [54] and Makriyannis et al. [55] have reported a study of structureactivity relationships of pyrazole derivatives as cannabinoid receptor antagonists and have proposed structural requirements for CB1 antagonistic activity.
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6-Aryl-tetrahydropyridazin-3-ones are prototypes of cardiotonic agents, having both inotropic and vasodilator activities. Imazodan and bemoradan are two representatives of this family, which are supposed to exert their actions by selective inhibition of phosphodiesterase type 3 enzymes (PDE3). Many different structural variations have been devised in this series and, related to pyrazoles, the most interesting compound from a series of heterocyclic benzimidazolyl-pyridazinones is meribendan (22). It inhibited myocardial PDE3, showed an interesting calcium sensitizing effect and was selected for development as a positive inotrope [56]. The synthesis and inhibitory effects on cyclooxygenase, lipoxygenase and thromboxane synthetase of 3-amino-4,5-dihydro-1H-pyrazoles and related compounds have been reported. Among these, the triuoromethylphenyl derivative 23 is the most interesting [57].
Me N HN N N H N 22 N
O H N N N 23 CF3
Progress in understanding inammatory processes has led to the search of inhibitors of both the cyclooxygenase (COX) and lipoxygenase (LOX) pathways of the arachidonic acid cascade. In this way tepoxalin (24) has been prepared and found to be a potent anti-inammatory agent [58].
Cl O Me N OH
OMe
24
The discovery of a second, inducible form of cyclooxygenase (COX-2) that exists along with the constitutive form (COX-1) led to the hypothesis that selective inhibitors of COX-2 would be anti-inammatory without causing the side effects associated with inhibition of COX-1 in the gastrointestinal tract and kidney. This is the moment most promising approach at present and has ultimately led Searle to SC-58125 (25) and then to celecoxib SC-58635 (26) (MI 1968), which is useful for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis [59]. Other pharmaceutical companies have explored this avenue; for instance Fujisawa has developed 27 [60].
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CF3 N N F
25 CF3 N N MeO2S
SO2Me CN N N
Me
26
SO2NH2
27
Other groups, like ASTA, have approached the problem by inhibiting the enzyme 5-LOX. By analogy with zileuton, one of the rst launched 5-LOX inhibitors for the treatment of asthma, they prepared a series of 1,5-disubstituted indazol-3-ones, the most potent being 28 [61]. Mosti et al. have also reported indazoles related to angelicin, like compound 29a, which shows good anti-inammatory and antipyretic properties, while 29b shows signicant local anesthetic activity [62]. For the treatment of diabetes, a series of hypoglycemic agents derived from pyrazoles have been prepared and tested. The most interesting antidiabetic in this eld is WAY-123783 (30) obtained after extensive SAR studies; it acts by blocking SGTL (sodium-glucose co-transporter) in the kidney [63].
MeO O N N NH MeO2C O O N
MeS F 3C 30 N H OH N
O 28
29a, R = Me 29b, R = Ph
N R
For the treatment of obesity, Henke from Glaxo Wellcome has optimized a series of 3-(1H-indazol-3-ylmethyl)-1,5-benzodiazepines potent and orally active CCK-A agonists derived from 31 [64].
Me Me O N N N Ph O H N N H OMe
31
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Steroidal pyrazoles have long been known. Kirschke [6] has reported several of these compounds, like cortivazol (32) (X-ray structure) [65] and stanozolol (33), both important and commonly used drugs. Cortivazol (32) is an anti-inammatory glucocorticoid while stanozolol (33) is an anabolic steroid used as androgen. Nivazol (34) also belongs to the glucocorticoid class [66].
COCH2OAc Me OH Me N HC C HO Me Me N Me N
HO Me
Me
OH Me
N H 33
32
34 F
Liver alcohol dehydrogenase (EC 1.1.1.1) catalyzes the rst step in alcohol metabolism and is a rational target for inhibiting alcohol metabolism. Prevention of poisoning by methanol and damaging effects of ethanol metabolism are potential applications of inhibitors of alcohol dehydrogenase. From the pioneering work of Theorell [67] it is known that pyrazole and some of its 4-substituted derivatives (4methyl, 4-iodo and 4-bromo) are potent inhibitors of ethanol metabolism in vivo. Pyrazoles have been proposed as therapeutic agents for treatment of alcohol intoxication. Unfortunately, pyrazole is itself toxic and may not be useful for longterm treatment of humans. Although some interesting efforts have been made, including X-ray studies and molecular modeling [68], 4-methylpyrazole (fomepizol) continues to be the most efcient and less toxic of all the liver alcohol dehydrogenase inhibitors and inactivators. Note also that pyrazole itself, an alcohol dehydrogenase inhibitor, has dual effects on N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors of hippocampal pyramidal cells, agonist and noncompetitive antagonist [69]. One of the most prominent of the anticancer agents with a pyrazole skeleton is pyrazoloacridine (PZA, 35), 2-(N,N-dimethylaminopropyl)-9-methoxy-5-nitro-(6H)pyrazolo[3,4,5-kl]acridine (NSC 366140). PZA is the rst of a new class of rationally synthesized acridine derivatives to undergo clinical testing as an anticancer agent. Recent studies suggest that PZA might be a dual inhibitor of DNA topoisomerases I and II and exerts its effects by diminishing the formation of topoisomerase-DNA adducts. Consistent with this unique mechanism of action, PZA exhibits broadspectrum antitumor activity in pre-clinical models in vivo. In addition, this agent displays several remarkable properties, including solid tumor selectivity, activity against hypoxic cells, and cytotoxicity in noncycling cells. PZA has been studied in phase I trials in adults and children, and is currently undergoing broad phase II trials in several tumor types. No signicant anti-tumor activity has been seen in
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gastrointestinal malignancies and prostate cancer. Owing to its unique properties, combination studies with other antineoplastic agents are in progress [70].
N N MeO N H 35 (CH2)3NMe2
NO2
We end this section by summarizing the most promising elds of application of pyrazoles and indazoles with four compounds. First, edaravone norphenazone, 3methyl-1-phenyl-2-pyrazolin-5-one (36), is a very simple compound, known from old, that it is a free radical scavenger and a very potent antioxidant agent against lipid peroxidation. In vivo studies have revealed that edaravone shows brain-protective activity in a transient ischemia model [71]. The second one is tolfenpyrad, 4-chloro-3ethyl-1-methyl-N-[4-(p-tolyloxy)benzyl]pyrazole-5-carboxamide (37) one of the most promising insecticides recently discovered in Japan [72].
Me O N N Me O H N O 36 37 Cl Et N N Me
The normal biological functions regulated by nitric oxide are attributed to three nitric oxide synthase (NOS) isoforms (neuronal, endothelial or inducible macrophage). A dysfunction of these enzymes is implicated in various diseases such as Alzheimers disease, septic shock, inammatory arthritis, schizophrenia, impotence and susceptibility to infection. 1H-Pyrazole-1-carboxamidines are competitive inhibitors of all three isoforms: the most selective compound, 1H-pyrazole-N-(3-aminomethylanilino)-1-carboxamidine, is 100-fold selective for neuronal NOS over endothelial NOS [73]. In the eld of neuroprotective activity, studies carried out by Wolff and Gribin [74] on inhibition of nitric oxide synthase by indazole agents conrmed the proposal that 5-nitro-, 6-nitro- and 7-nitroindazoles exert inhibitory actions by interaction of nitric oxide synthase such that oxygen does not bind. 7-Nitroindazole (38), a selective inhibitor of neuronal nitric oxide synthase, has been studied for neuroprotective activity and has been used to investigate the role of nitric oxide [7577].
O2N 38
N H
8.4 Synthesis of Pyrazoles and Indazoles
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On 27 March 1998 the US Food and Drug Administration approved sildenal citrate (Viagra) (39) for treating male erectile dysfunction (MED). The drug works by inhibiting cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) phosphodiesterase Type 5 (PDE5). Further structural manipulations have included a-thiagra, the thiophene bioisostere [78], and Monagra, a chiral 5-(2-methyl-2,3-dihydro-7-benzofuryl)-pyrazolopyrimidone analog [79]. At Bristol-Myers Squibb a PDE5 screening of a series of pyrazolopyridines identied a lead compound with modest potency. Based on this template, and using parallel synthesis, from a large and diverse library emerged a new pyrazolopyridine showing comparable in vitro functional PDE5 inhibition when compared to sildenal and improved PDE isozyme selectivity. Thus, due to its pharmacokinetic prole, it is expected to have fewer PDE-related side effects than sildenal [80].
Me N N SO2 N Me O H N O N N Me 39 Me
Since the synthesis of pyrazoles and indazoles have very few items in common it is better to treat them separately. Ring transformations, when a heterocycle is transformed into a pyrazole (or indazole), are discussed in the synthesis section. On the other hand, cases where a pyrazole (or indazole) is transformed into another heterocycle are reported under reactivity (Section 8.5). For the same reasons, oxido-reduction reactions, for example, transformation of pyrazolines into pyrazoles or vice versa, will also be covered under reactivity.
8.4.1 Synthesis of Pyrazoles
There are many methods for the synthesis of the pyrazole ring; it can be formed both by cyclization and by cycloaddition reactions. The reaction of hydrazines with 1,3dicarbonyl compounds (or their equivalents) is probably the most general and versatile method; however, a disadvantage, in some cases, is the formation of mixtures of isomeric pyrazoles from unsymmetrical dicarbonyl compounds. The 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition reaction of diazo compounds, nitrilimines and azomethine imines with alkynes is also a general route to pyrazoles.
652

Scheme 8.7 shows the different possibilities for the creation of the pyrazole ring according to the bonds formed.
Formation of one bond
Formation of two bonds a) from 4 + 1 atom fragments N N N N N N
b) from 3 + 2 atom fragments

Scheme 8.7
The synthesis and chemistry of pyrazoles has been the subject of recent reviews [6, 8, 8184].
8.4.1.1 Formation of One NN Bond Dioximes of 1,3-dicarbonyl compounds give oxidative cyclization to 4H-pyrazole-1,2dioxides 42 (Scheme 8.8). Various oxidants have been used, namely lead(IV) acetate [85, 86] and N-bromoacetamide [8789]. Dehydration of dioximes 41 with thionyl chloride leads to the monooxides 43 [88, 89]. Base-induced cyclization of 1,3diketone dioximes affords 1-hydroxypyrazoles, but in low yield (1030%) [90].
R2 R1
R2 R1 + N N+ O O42 Oxidant
R2 N
R2 N 41
SOCl2/SO2
R2 R1
R2 R1 N N+ O43
HO
OH
Scheme 8.8
Imines 44 react with thionyl chloride, at room temperature, to furnish 1,2,6thiadiazine 1-oxides 45. Thermal extrusion of sulfur monoxide leads to pyrazoles 46 (Scheme 8.9). Alternatively, reaction of imines 44 with thionyl chloride in pyridine at 90 C leads directly to pyrazoles 46 [91, 92]. Iminohydrazones 47 give NH-pyrazoles 48 when treated with an aqueous solution of sulfuric acid (Scheme 8.10). In contrast, they are converted into the N-alkenyl derivatives 49 when treated with an equimolar amount of anhydrous triuoroacetic acid in dry THF [93].
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R3 R
2
R4 NH NH R1 44
SOCl2, Py, 0 C - rt, 2 h 72-87%
R R
R4 N S
toluene, 90 C, 8 h O - SO 73-94%
4
R3 R2 N R1 46
R4 N
N R1 45
3
R = Ph, o-Tolyl, p-Tolyl; R = Ph, 4-ClC6H4; R = H, Me, Cl, Br; R = Ph, p-Tolyl, cyclohexyl
Scheme 8.9
Cl Ar N H 48
Me N
2 M H2SO4, THF, rt, 4 h 66-75%
Cl Ar
Me
NH NH N Ph 47 CH2R1
TFA, THF, 50 C, 15 h 78-85% Ar
Cl N Ph 49
Me N CHR1
Ar = Ph, 4-ClC6H4, 4-MeC6H4; R1 = H, Me

Scheme 8.10
8.4.1.2 Formation of One NC Bond Oxidative cyclization of arylhydrazones 50 leads to 1,3,5-trisubstituted pyrazoles 51 in high yields (Scheme 8.11). Lead tetraacetate [94], manganese dioxide [95] and thianthrene cation radical perchlorate [96] have been used as the oxidants in these transformations.
R Ph HN Ar 50 N Oxidant 73-100% Ph N Ar 51 R N R = Me, Ph
Scheme 8.11
Diazoalkenes 52 give 1,5-electrocyclizations to 3H-pyrazoles 53, which isomerize spontaneously to 1H-pyrazoles 54 (Scheme 8.12). These reactive intermediates can be generated by alkaline decomposition of ethyl alkenylnitrosocarbamates [97], tosylhydrazones of a,b-unsaturated carbonyl compounds [98] or N-methoxypyridaR2 R3 N 52
Scheme 8.12
R1 N
R2 R3 N 53
R1 N
R2 R3 N H 54
R1 N
654

zinium salts [99] or from the reaction of carbonyl compounds with ethyl lithiodiazoacetate [100].
8.4.1.3 Formation of One CC Bond Dieckmann cyclization of hydrazones 55 leads to 4-hydroxypyrazole-5-carboxylic acid derivatives 56 in moderate to good yields (Scheme 8.13) [101, 102]. Triuoroacetic anhydride-pyridine induced cyclization of hydrazones 57 affords 1-alkyl-4-triuoromethylpyrazoles 58 [103].
R3O O EtO2C N R1 55 R2 N NaOEt, EtOH, reflux, 2 h 39-85% R1 = H, Me, Ph R2 = Me, tBu, Ph R3 = Me, Et R2 TFAA, Py, CHCl3, rt, 4-48 h 15-69% R1 = Me, tBu R2 = H, Et, iPr, Bn, 4-MeC6H4 F3C N R1 58 EtO2C N R1 56 HO R2 N
F3C
R2 N
O N Me N R1 57
Scheme 8.13
When heated with trace amounts of concentrated hydrochloric acid at 140 C for 100 h, azines of methyl ketones 59 are converted into 3,5-dialkyl-5-methyl-2-pyrazolines 60 in 6579% yields (Scheme 8.14) [104]. Heating these azines with nickel or cobalt(II) halides at 200 C also affords pyrazolines 60 in good yields [105]. Under these conditions, other azines give pyrrole derivatives [105]. When acetone azine is heated at 100 C in the presence of trace amounts of TiCl3, 90% conversion into pyrazoline 60 (R1Me) is effected after 20 h [106].
R1 Me N 59 R1 Ph R2 61 N N R1 R2 Ph N R1 Me R1 R Me
1
HCl (trace), 140 C, 100 h 65-79%
N H 60
R1 = Me, 65% R1 = Et, 79% R1 = Me(CH2)4, 78%
170-200 C, 20-30 min Ph
R2 N R1
R1 N
R1 = R2 = H, 90-95% R1 = H, R2 = Me, 90% R1 = Ph, R2 = H, 85% Ph
2 62 R
Scheme 8.14
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Cinnamaldehyde azine and derivatives 61 are converted into pyrazoles 62 in high yields when heated at about 200 C (with or without solvent) (Scheme 8.14) [107]. Other a,b-unsaturated azines behave similarly [108, 109]. The thermal decomposition of polyhalogenated propenal azines can be used for the synthesis of mono- and dihalogenated N-unsubstituted pyrazoles [110]. Treatment of benzyl phenyl ketazine with two equivalents of LDA generates a dianion that, when heated at 65 C for 1 h in THF-HMPA, provides 3,4,5triphenylpyrazole [111].
8.4.1.4 Formation of Two Bonds 8.4.1.4.1 From 4 1 Atom Fragments Formation of One CN and One NN Bond [N-C-C-C N] Iminoposphoranes 63 react with 2-azido-cyclopent-1-enecarbaldehyde 64 to afford azidoimines 65. When heated in reuxing toluene, these compounds extrude nitrogen and cyclize to pyrazoles 66 (Scheme 8.15) [112].
R1 N3 + PPh3 PhMe, rt, 4 h - N2 R N PPh3 63
1
PhMe, reflux, 4 h N3 64 - Ph3PO N R1 N3 65 - N2 36-66% N R1 66 N
OHC
R1 = Bn, Ph, CH2CO2Et

Scheme 8.15
Nitrosation of a,b-unsaturated oximes unsubstituted in the a-position with sodium nitrite and acetic acid leads to pyrazole 1,2-dioxides 68 and 69 while the a-substituted ones afford 1-hydroxypyrazole 2-oxides 70 (Scheme 8.16) [113115]. Nitrosation of oximes 67 with butyl nitrite in the presence of pyridine and copper sulfate affords copper complexes 71, which can be conveniently converted into the 1hydroxypyrazole 2-oxides 70 [116].
Formation of One CN and One CC bond [N-N-C-C C] Hydrazones of methyl ketones react with the VilsmeierHaack reagent to afford 1H-pyrazole-4-carbaldehydes 74 (method A, Scheme 8.17) [117]. The reaction time can be reduced from 45 h to 3550 s if microwave irradiation is used instead of conventional heating [118]. An interesting variation of method A consists in the substitution of phosphorus oxychloride by cyanuric chloride (2,4,6-trichloro[1,3,5]triazine, TCT) (method B) [119]. This variation requires milder reaction conditions. Condensation of the VilsmeierHaack reagent with arylhydrazones of b-ketoesters and c-ketoesters yields, respectively, pyrazole-4-carboxylic acid esters [120] 75 and 4pyrazoleacetic acid esters [121] 76 (Scheme 8.18).
656

R1 R R3 HNO2 R2 = H R3 R
2 4
O R3
R1 + N N+ O O 69
+ N N+ O OHNO2 68
R2 = R4 = H R2 HNO2 R =H
4
R1
R1 + N ON OH 70
R4 N OH 67
R3
i) CuSO4, EtOH ii) Bu-ONO, Py, rt R1 R2 R3

Scheme 8.16
i) NaOH (dil), EtOH R3 R2 R1 ii) H3O+
+ O O N N Cu N N O O + 71
Me HN Ar 72 N
R1
A) POCl3/DMF, 70 - 90 C, 4-5 h or B) TCT/DMF, rt, <16 h
Me + N Me Cl -
R1 N Ar 73 N H2O, OH
-
OHC N Ar 74
R1 N
R1 = alkyl, aryl
Scheme 8.17
R1O2C N
R2
POCl3/DMF, 70 -80 C, 6 h 82-90%
R1O2C N Ar 75
R2 N R1 = Me, Et, Bn, tBu R2 = Me, CH2Cl, Pr, Ph, 4-ClC6H4, 2-FC6H4
HN Ar R1O2C
Ar = 2,4-(NO2)2C6H3
Ar1 N HN Ar2
Scheme 8.18
POCl3/DMF, 80 C, 10 h 66-95%
R1O2C
1 i Ar1 R = Me, Pr Ar1 = 4-PhC6H4, fluoren-2-yl, 4-ClC6H4, 2,3-Cl2C6H3 N N Ar2 = Ph, 4-MeOC6H4, 4-NO2C6H4, Ar2 3-CF3C6H4 76
j657
Aminocarbonylhydrazones of methyl ketones [122] or of b-ketoesters [120] react with the VilsmeierHaack reagent to afford, respectively, N-unsubstituted pyrazole-4carbaldehydes 77 and N-unsubstituted pyrazole-4-carboxylic acid esters 78 (Scheme 8.19).
Me
Ar
N HN CONH2
i) POCl3/DMF, 0 - 5 C then 60 - 70 C, 4 h ii) NaOH, H2O, 50 - 60 C, 5 min
OHC N H 77 R1O2C N H 78
Ar N
Ar = Ph, 85% 2-MeOC6H4, 95% 3-NO2C6H4, 54% 4-NO2C6H4, 63% 2-thienyl, 83%
R1O2C
R2
POCl3/DMF, 70 - 80 C, 6 h
R2 N R1 = Et, R2 = Me, 86% R1 = Me, R2 = Pr, 82%
N HN CONH2
Scheme 8.19
Acetophenone azines 79 also react with the VilsmeierHaack reagent to afford 1Hpyrazole-4-carbaldehydes 80 in excellent yields (Scheme 8.20) [123].
Me N Ar 79 N
Ar
OHC POCl3/DMF N Ar 80
Ar N
Me
Ar = Ph, ~100% Ar = 4-MeC6H4, 95% Ar = 4-MeOC6H4, 90% Ar = 4-NO2C6H4, 40%
Scheme 8.20
Anions generated from hydrazones with an a-hydrogen undergo a series of reactions affording N-heterocycles, namely pyrazoles [124]. The reaction of dilithiated hydrazone anions with electrophiles (esters [125129], acyl chlorides [128, 130], nitriles [131], amides [128], a-haloketones [128], aldehydes [132] or diethyl carbonate [133]) followed by acid-catalyzed ring closure furnishes adequately functionalized pyrazoles (Scheme 8.21). The anion derived from the N-phenyl-a-phosphinylhydrazone 81 reacts with aromatic aldehydes to afford hydrazones 82. Heating at 100 C in toluene leads to pyrazoles 83 in excellent yields (Scheme 8.22) [134]. In a similar way, deprotonation of the N,N-dimethylhydrazone 84, addition of isocyanates (XO) or isothiocyanates (XS) and cyclization leads to pyrazoles 86 [135].
658

R
2
R3 N
HN R1
1
2 equiv. BuLi or LDA
R3 Li
+
R2
- N Li+ N R1
Ar COOR (R = Me, Et)
R3 Ar Li
+
R2 N
R3 H3O
+
R2 N R1 N
-N
Ar
R = H, Ph, CO2Et; R2 = H, Bn, Ar R3 = H, Ar R2 HO N N Ph
i) CO(OEt)2 ii) H3O+ (R = Ph, R = H)

1 3
i) ArCHO ii) H3O+
R1
R3 N R1
R2 N
Ar
Scheme 8.21
Ph2(O)P N
i) 2 equiv. LDA THF, -78 C ii) ArCHO 70%
Ar N HN Ph 82
toluene, 100 C 96% Ar = 4-MeC6H4 Ar
HN Ph 81
N N Ph 83
Ph2(O)P N
i) LDA, THF, -78 C ii) R1NCX 75-92%
R1HN
P(O)Ph2 X N Me2N 85
Ph2(X)P POCl3, NEt3, THF, reflux, 2 d 79-91% R1HN N N Me 86
Me2N
84
Scheme 8.22
R1 = Et, tBu, C6H11, Ph, 4-MeC6H4
Treatment of a solution of diazabutadiene 87 in toluene with 110 mol% of Pd(0) catalyst under an atmosphere of CO (12 atm) at 100 C for 15 min affords 1,3,4triphenylpyrazol-5-one (88) in excellent yield (Scheme 8.23) [136].
Ph Ph N N Ph 87
CO, Pd(PPh3)4 toluene, 100 C, 15 min 90%
Ph O
Ph N N Ph 88
Scheme 8.23
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8.4.1.4.2 From 3 2 Atom Fragments Formation of Two CN Bonds [C-C-C N-N] The addition of hydrazines (double nucleophiles) to three-carbon units featuring two electrophilic carbons in a 1,3relationship is one of the most versatile routes to pyrazoles. The condensation of hydrazines with 1,3-diketones, for instance, is perhaps the most common route to the construction of the pyrazole ring (Scheme 8.24) [137139]. Several other 1,3-bis (electrophilic) compounds react with hydrazines to yield pyrazoles, namely b-ketoaldehydes, b-ketoesters, b-ketoamides, b-ketonitriles, vinyl ketones, alkynyl ketones, and so on.
R2 O 89
Scheme 8.24
R2 R O
1
R1 N R4 90 N
R4NHNH2
R3
Substituted 5-alkylamino and 5-(arylamino)pyrazoles 93 can be prepared in onepot synthesis from a b-ketoamide 91, an aryl or alkyl hydrazine and Lawessons reagent (Scheme 8.25) [140]. Hydrazones 92 are probable intermediates. This method has also been applied for the solid-supported synthesis of 5-(Nmonosubstituted-amino)pyrazoles [141].
R5NHNH2, Lawessons reagent, THF/Py (95/5), 50-55 C R3 R4 13-95% R2 N R1 N R5 93 R4 N
R2 N R1 O
R3 O 91
R4
R2 N R1 O
R3 N HN R5 92
R1 = Et, Bn, Ph R2 = H, Me, Et

Scheme 8.25
R3 = H, Me, Ph R4 = Me, Ph
R5 = Bn, Ph Bn = CH2Ph
Diketo oximes 95 (prepared from 1,3-diketones 94) react with hydrazines to yield 4nitrosopyrazoles 96 (Scheme 8.26) [142, 143]. However, if a large excess of hydrazine is used the isolated products are the corresponding 4-amino-3,5-disubstituted pyrazoles 97 [144]. Enamines of general type 98 react with hydrazine derivatives to afford pyrazoles 99 (Scheme 8.27) [145]. For instance, reaction of ( )-camphor derivative 100 with hydrazine or benzylhydrazine leads to pyrazoles 101 [146]. Also, compounds 102 react with phenylhydrazine to afford 1,4,5-trisubstituted pyrazoles 103 in moderate to excellent yields [147]. Similarly, ethyl 4-dimethylamino-2-oxo-3-butenoate 104 and its diester analogue 105 react with a range of hydrazine derivatives to afford pyrazoles 106 and 107, respectively [148].
660

R NHNH2, rt R3 = H, alkyl, aryl HO R2 O 94 O R1 R2 O 95 N O H2NNH2.H2O (10 equiv.) EtOH, 0 C - rt 48-95% R1 = Me, Et, iPr, CO2Et R2 = aryl, hetaryl, tBu
Scheme 8.26
3
ON R2 N R3 96
R1 N
R1
H2N R2 N H 97
R1 N
R2 R1
NMe2
R3NHNH2
R2 R1 N R3 99 N
NMe2 R1NHNH2 O 100 EtO2C R1 O NH NHPh - H2O 68-96% EtO2C R1 N N Ph 103 63-81% R1 = H, Bn N R1 N
O 98
R1 = alkyl, aryl, OR R2 = acyl, CN EtO2C R1 O NMe2
101
PhNHNH2
102 R1 = Me, Et, iPr, Bu, tBu, Bn, Ph R1 EtO2C O NMe2

2
R1 R2NHNH2 R = H, Ph, 4-NO2C6H4, hetaryl EtO2C N N 2 R 106, R1 = H, 9-88% 107, R1 = CO2Et, 29-89%
104, R1 = H 105, R1 = CO2Et

Scheme 8.27
The use of microwave irradiation in this type of chemistry allows the formation of pyrazole derivatives in a few minutes while it requires several hours under conventional heating [149]. The formation of pyrazoles from polymer-bound 2-acyl-3aminopropenoates has also been described [150, 151]. Cyclocondensation of a-oxoketene N,S-acetals 108 with phenylhydrazine gives regioselectively 3- or 5-(N-cycloamino)pyrazoles just by variation of the reaction conditions (Scheme 8.28) [152]. Reaction of 2-cyanoketene N,S-acetals with substi-
j661
NaH, DMF, C6H6, 90 C, 12 h 61-77% R1 N R2 R3 SMe 108 R3 = Me, iPr, Ph, 4-MeOC6H4
Scheme 8.28
R3 R1 N R2 N N Ph 109 R1 N R2 R3 N N Ph 110
PhNHNH2 DABCO, tBuOH, reflux, 12-16 h 54-80%
tuted hydrazines in reuxing ethanol containing a catalytic amount of piperidine gives the corresponding 5-amino-3-anilino-1H-pyrazole-4-carboxamides [153]. a-Oxoketene dithioacetals 111 react with phenylhydrazine to give selectively 5-methylthio-1-phenyl-3,4-substituted/annulated pyrazoles 112 (Scheme 8.29) [154]. Regioisomeric 3-methylthio-1-phenyl-4,5-substituted/annulated pyrazoles 114 are obtained selectively from the reaction of b-oxodithioesters 113 with phenylhydrazine [154].
R2 MeS SMe 111
R1 O
PhNHNH2 t BuOH, reflux, 10-12 h 51-98% MeS
R2
R1 N N Ph 112 R1 = Me, iPr, Ph, 4-XC6H4 (X = Cl, OMe), 3-Py R2 = H, Ph R1-R2 = -(CH2)4-, n = 1, 2
R2
SMe S
PhNHNH2 EtOH, reflux, 5 h 45-88%
R2 R1
SMe N N Ph 114
R1 O 113
Scheme 8.29
Cyclocondensation of 1-bis(methoxy)-4-bis(methylthio)-3-buten-2-one (115) with hydrazine hydrate gives pyrazole 116 with a masked aldehyde functionality (Scheme 8.30) [155]. The corresponding 5(3)-cycloaminopyrazole derivatives 118 can also be synthesized in a one-pot sequence by prior displacement of one of the methylthio groups of 115 by the respective amine. Hydrolysis of the dimethylacetal moiety of 116 with aqueous acetic acid (50%) affords the corresponding pyrazole-3 (5)-carbaldehyde in 95% yield.
662

N2H4.H2O, EtOH, reflux, 3 h 80% MeO OMe i) HN X N MeS MeO OMe aq. AcOH, 60 C, 6 h N N H 116 MeO OMe X N N H 118 X = CH2, 85% X = O, 77% 95% MeS N H 117 CHO N
MeS
SMe 115
EtOH, reflux, 2 h ii) N2H4.H2O, EtOH, reflux, 3-4 h
Scheme 8.30
BaylisHillman adducts 119 and 121 react with hydrazine hydrochlorides to afford regioselectively 1,3,4,5-tetrasubstituted pyrazoles 120 and 122 respectively (Scheme 8.31) [156].
R1 O R2 OH R3NHNH2.HCl ClCH2CH2Cl 50-70 C 59-93% PhNHNH2.HCl ClCH2CH2Cl 50-60 C n = 1, 51% n = 2, 57% Ph
R1 R2 N N R3 120 Ph 121
n O OH
n N N Ph 122
119
R1 = Me, Et R2 = Me(CH2)4, Ph, 4-ClC6H4 R3 = tBu, Ph

Scheme 8.31
5-Trichloromethyl-1-phenyl-1H-pyrazoles 124 and 5-trichloromethyl-1,2dimethylpyrazolium chlorides 125 can be synthesized in 8098% yield by the cyclocondensation of b-alkoxyvinyl trichloromethyl ketones 123 with phenylhydrazine and 1,2-dimethylhydrazine dihydrochloride, respectively, under microwave irradiation and using toluene as solvent (Scheme 8.32) [157]. While the use of microwave and classical methods are comparable for making pyrazoles, the pyrR2 Cl3C R1 N N Ph 124 MeNHNHMe.2HCl, OMe toluene, MW, 45 W, 80 C, 10-12 min R1 80-98% Cl3C R2 R1 Cl+ N Me N Me 125
PhNHNH2, toluene, MW, 80 C, 5 min 80-85% Cl3C
R2 O
123 R1 = H, Me, Et, Pr, iPr, tBu, Ph R2 = H, Me
Scheme 8.32
j663
azolium chlorides can be obtained in a signicantly shorter time and in some cases better yield. The triuoromethyl analogues of 123 react with 7-chloro-4-hydrazinoquinoline to afford 1H-pyrazol-1-yl quinolines in high yields [158]. Treatment of a-benzotriazolyl-a,b-unsaturated ketones 127 with monosubstituted hydrazines leads to the regioselective synthesis of benzotriazolylpyrazolines 128, which, by treatment with a base, can be converted into the trisubstituted pyrazoles 129 (Scheme 8.33) [159]. Alkylation of pyrazolines 128 at the 4-position of the pyrazoline ring is a versatile route to unsymmetrical 1,3,4,5-tetrasubstituted pyrazolines 130 and -pyrazoles 131 [159]. The a-benzotriazolyl-b-ethoxy-a,b-unsaturated ketones 132 react with hydrazines to afford directly the corresponding 4-benzotriazolylpyrazoles 133 [160].
ArCHO, piperidine, Ph EtOH, rt, 40 h O 126 55-71% Ar 127 R1NHNH2, NaOEt/EtOH reflux 51-80% R1 = Me, Ph Ar NaOEt, Ph toluene, reflux N 81-94% N 1 R 128 BuLi R2 I
Bt
Bt
Ph O
Bt
Ph Ar N N R1 129
Ar = Ph, p-Tol, 3-Py
73-95% Bt Ph OEt 132

Scheme 8.33
R2 = Me, Bu, Bn, allyl R2 Ar Ph N N R1 131
Ar O
R1NHNH2, EtOH, reflux 77-84% R1 = H, Ph Ar = Ph, p-Tol
Bt Ph
Ar N N R1 133
Bt R2 Ar
NaOEt, Ph toluene, reflux N 85-99% N 1 R 130
Chalcones 134 react with substituted hydrazines to yield 1-substituted-3,5-diaryl4,5-dihydro-1H-pyrazoles 135 (Scheme 8.34) [84]. With hydrazine hydrate, in acetic
Ar1 Ar2 N R2 135 N
Ar
Ar
134
R NHNH2
R1
R1
H2NNH2 or H2NNHPh, AcOH, reflux, 2-3 h N R2 N R2 = MeCO, Ph
136
Scheme 8.34
O
137
664

acid, they afford the 1-acetyl derivatives; some of them are potent and selective inhibitors of monoamine oxidase [161]. Chalcones 134 undergo a rapid cyclization with phenylhydrazine under solvent-free and silica-supported conditions using microwave irradiation to afford 4,5-dihydro-1H-pyrazoles 135 in good yields in 23 min [162]. Chalcone-epoxides react with hydrazine hydrate, in reuxing ethanol, to afford 3,5-diaryl-1H-pyrazoles in high yield [163]. Cinnamylideneacetophenones 136 react with hydrazine hydrate or phenylhydrazine to afford the dihydropyrazoles 137 (Scheme 8.34) [164]. In a similar process, chalcones, bis(chalcones) and oligo(chalcones) react with hydrazine hydrate or hydrazine derivatives to yield pyrazolines, bis(pyrazolines) and oligo(pyrazolines), respectively [165, 166]. Addition of hydrazine to alkynyl ketones is a simple and regioselective route to pyrazoles. Some examples are shown in Scheme 8.35 [167170].
O
O R1
O
1
H2NNH2, MeOH, rt R1
i t
O N H N
R = Me, Pr, Ph, Bu, adamantyl R1NHNH2, EtOH, reflux
O Me
Me PhMe2Si N R1 N R1 = H, 54% R1 = Me, 51% R1
SiMe2Ph
O R1 CO2Et
R2NHNH2, EtOH, reflux R2 = H, Ph R1
CO2Et N N R2 20-24% + EtO2C N N R2 35-60%
R1 = Pr, Bu, Ph, CO2Et

Scheme 8.35
Alkynylcarbene complexes 138 react with hydrazines 139 to form selectively 1,4disubstituted pyrazoles 140 (Scheme 8.36) [171]. With methylhydrazine it leads to the cyclic aminocarbene complex 141, which can be demetallated to 1-methyl-5-phenylpyrazole (142). Aryl benzophenone hydrazones 143 are convenient substitutes of arylhydrazines in the synthesis of pyrazoles. These hydrazones react with various 1,3-bifunctional substrates under acidic conditions to afford adequately functionalized pyrazoles in good yields (Scheme 8.37) [172, 173]. The obtained regioselectivity is consistent with transhydrazonation followed by subsequent cyclization. This synthetic route is especially attractive for the synthesis of 1-hetaryl-pyrazoles, since N-hetaryl benzo-
j665
(CO)5M
138
OEt
Ph + R1NHNH2
139
CH2Cl2, rt 75-90%
M = Cr, W
Ph
R1 = Ph, MeCO MeNHNH2 EtOH, rt Ph Cr(CO)5 NH N Me 141 74%
N N R1 140
Ph
N N Me 142
Scheme 8.36
O Me R2 R
3
Me
O R
3
O R2 H Ar N N 143 Ph Ph
t
N Ar
3
OEt N EtO N TsOH, EtOH, reflux, 16 h Ar 43-52% Ar = Ph, 2-MeC6H4 O

t
R = R = Me R2 = R3 = Ph R2 = Me, R3 = tBu
Scheme 8.37
TsOH, EtOH, reflux, 5-8 h 84-94%
Ar = Ph, 2-MeC6H4, 3-Py, 2-pyrazinyl, 2-pyrimidinyl
Bu
CN H2N N Ar N
Bu
TsOH, EtOH, reflux, 16-24 h 70-80%
phenone hydrazones can easily be prepared following BuchwaldHartwig procedures [173]. The cyclocondensation of hydrazines with 1,3-dihalopropanes 144 or propane-1,3diol ditosylate (145) in aqueous alkaline medium and under microwave irradiation affords 4,5-dihydropyrazoles 146 as major products instead of the anticipated pyrazolidines 147 (Scheme 8.38) [174].
R1NHNH2 R
2
R X X
K2CO3, H2O, MW 60-74% R1 = H, Bn, Ph, 2-ClC6H4, 4-MeC6H4 R2
R2 N N 1 R 146 major + R2
R2 NH N 1 R 147 minor
144, R2 = H, Ph, X = Cl, Br 145, R2 = H, X = OTs

Scheme 8.38
666

Formation of One CN Bond and One CC Bond [N-N-C C-C] The 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition of diazoalkanes, nitrilimines or azomethine imines to alkynes, alkenes or to functionalized alkenes (enamines or enol ethers, for instance) is a versatile method for the synthesis of pyrazoles. The dipole is the source of the [CNN] fragment while the dipolarophile contributes with the [CC] fragment. This method suffers from the disadvantage that a mixture of two isomeric pyrazoles may be formed when unsymmetrical dipolarophiles are used.
Diazoalkanes + C N N .. : + C N N .. : + C N N .. : - + : C .. N N - + C .. N N .. - + C .. .. N N
Nitrilimines
Azomethine imines
Diazoalkanes react with alkenes and alkynes to give, respectively, D1-pyrazolines and 3H-pyrazoles [175177]. However tautomerization may take place, especially if diazomethane or a monosubstituted diazoalkane is used. The orientation of the dipoledipolarophile interaction is mainly governed by electronic effects, as described by the FMO theory. However, as indicated in Scheme 8.39 [178], the regioisomer ratios are also strongly dependent on steric effects, which are more pronounced in the case of alkynes.
CO2Me R1 MeO2C Me - Me C N+ N R1 CO2Me MeO2C R1 148 : 149 H 100 : 0 Me 91 : 9 Et 80 : 20 i Pr 47 : 53 t Bu 0 : 100 R1 150 : 151 H 100 : 0 Me 63 : 37 Et 39 : 61 i Pr 19 : 81 t Bu 0 : 100
Me Me N N 148
MeO2C + R1
Me Me N N 149
Me Me N N 150
MeO2C + R1
Me Me N N 151
Scheme 8.39
Diazoalkanes react with arylalkynes and acylalkynes to afford, with high regioselectivity, pyrazoles 152 and 153, respectively (Scheme 8.40). In both cases, the polarization of the triple bond is such that the nucleophilic carbon atom of the dipole attacks the terminal position of the alkyne. With acylarylalkynes, a mixture of the two possible regioisomers 154 and 155 is frequently obtained. For each alkyne, the ratio 154 : 155 is strongly dependent on the diazoalkane used [177, 179].
j667
R1 Ar N H 152 N Ar
- R1 HC N+ N Ar Ar R1 N N H 154 + Ar R2
R1 R2 R2 N H 153 N R2 = CHO, COMe, COPh, CN, CO2Me, CONH2
R2 R1 N N H 155
R2
R1 = H, Me, Ph R2 = CO2Me, COPh Ar = Ph, 4-MeOC6H4, 4-NO2C6H4
Scheme 8.40
Pyrazole itself can be synthesized from the reaction of diazomethane with acetylene. When this reaction is carried out under pressure, almost quantitative yields are obtained [180]. Under identical conditions, addition of diazoethane, ethyl diazoacetate or a,v-bis(diazo)alkanes 157 to acetylene gives rise to the corresponding pyrazoles 156 or bispyrazoles 158 (Scheme 8.41) [180].
H + H H + H
Scheme 8.41
- R1 HC N+ N
Et2O
R1 N N H 156 Et2O 73-90%
R1 = H, 95% R1 = Me, 77% R1 = CO2Et, 72% R1 = CH2OMe, 40% n N H N 158 N N H
+ N N
- + N N n n = 1-4, 8 157
Addition of an ethereal diazomethane solution to uoro(tributylstannyl)acetylene (159a), at 30 C, gives the corresponding 5-tributylstannyl-4-uoropyrazole (160a) in 98% yield (Scheme 8.42) [181]. The triuoromethyl analogue 160b can be obtained in the same way [182].
X X SnBu3 159 a, X = F b, X = CF3 CH2N2 -30 C - rt Bu3Sn N N H 160 a, 98% b, 70%
Scheme 8.42
668

A one-pot procedure for the preparation of 1H-pyrazoles involving aryldiazomethanes generated in situ has been reported [183]. The 1,3-dipoles are generated in situ from aldehydes, via tosylhydrazone sodium salts, and then react with arylacetylenes to furnish regioselectively 3,5-diaryl-1H-pyrazoles 161 (Scheme 8.43). When they are generated in the presence of N-vinylimidazole, an acetylene equivalent, 3substituted-1H-pyrazoles 162 are obtained.
Ar2 i) TsNHNH2, MeCN, rt, 3 h H ii) 5M NaOH Ar1 Na+ N N Ts

1 - Ar N+
O Ar
1
50 C, 48 h Ar2 19-67%
Ar1 Ar1 = Ph, 4-CNC6H4, N 4-MeOC6H4, 3-pyridyl N Ar2 = Ph, 3-pyridyl H 161 Ar1 N N H 162
50 C, 48 h 32-79%
Ar1 = Ph, XC6H4 (X = 2-Me, 4-MeO, 4-CN, 4-Cl) 2-furyl, 2-thienyl, 3-pyridyl
Scheme 8.43
The generation of aryldiazomethanes 164 from bromovinyl tosylhydrazones 163 leads to benzopyrano[1H]pyrazoles 165 in high yields (Scheme 8.44) [184].
Br N 163
NHTs
NaH, THF, 0 C - rt, 12 h R1
Br
O N + N 80-90% N H 165 N
R1
164
R1
R1 = H, Me, iPr, OMe, OEt, OBn, Cl, F

Scheme 8.44
An efcient InCl3-catalyzed 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition of diazocarbonyl compounds and alkynes to synthesize pyrazoles has been reported recently [185]. The reaction is carried out in water, at room temperature, and the catalyst, which stays in the aqueous phase after the work-up, can be reused without loss of catalytic activity. The reaction is applicable to various a-diazocarbonyl compounds and alkynes with a carbonyl group at the neighboring position. As an example, methyl a-diazoarylacetates 166 react with methyl propiolate to afford pyrazoles 167 and 168 in excellent combined yields (Scheme 8.45). Nitrilimines are also interesting intermediates in the synthesis of pyrazoles and D2-pyrazolines [186, 187]. These 1,3-dipoles are typically generated by dehydroha-
j669
X
X X MeO2C N2 166 X = H, 3-MeO, 4-MeO, 4-F, 3-Br, 3-CF3

Scheme 8.45
CO2Me
20% mol InCl3 H2O, rt MeO2C N H
CO2Me N + MeO2C N N CO2Me 168 (4-12%)
167 (77-90%)
logenation of N-arylhydrazonoyl halides 169 with triethylamine in an inert solvent in the presence of the dipolarophile (Scheme 8.46) [188]. Useful alternatives for the generation of nitrilimines are the cycloreversion [189] of tetrazoles 170, oxathiadiazolinones 171 and 1,3,4-oxadiazolin-2-ones 172 and the oxidation of aldehyde hydrazones with chloramine T, lead tetraacetate [190] or with (diacetoxy)iodobenzene [191, 192].
R2 C N NHR1 X X = Cl, Br 169 R2 NEt3 - HX
1 N R X Y
X Y 170 N N 171 O SO 172 O CO
-X
heat or h Y
1
1 + - R R2 C N N .. :
R - + R2 C .. N N .. R3 R3 R4 N R1 R2 N
R3 CH CH R4 R3 R4 N R1 R2 N
R4
Scheme 8.46
3-Diethylaminoacrylonitrile (173) reacts readily with nitrilimines generated from hydrazonoyl chlorides 174 and triethylamine to yield selectively 1,3-disubstituted pyrazole-4-carbonitriles 175 (Scheme 8.47) [193]. Bis-pyrazolophanes have been
R1 + Et2N 173 174 N Cl NH Ar NC Et2N N Ar R1 N 55-72% R1 N N Ar 175
CN
NEt3, EtOH, reflux, 4 h
NC
R1 = Ph, COMe, CO2Et, CONHPh; Ar = 4-ClC6H4, 4-NO2C6H4

Scheme 8.47
670

prepared via double cycloadditive macrocyclization of bis-hydrazonoyl chlorides with bis-allyl ethers, a bis-vinyl ether and a bis-propargyl ether [194]. Diaryl azines react with maleic anhydride, maleimide or N-substituted maleimides to give pyrazolo[1,2-a]pyrazole derivatives 177 by (1,3 : 2,4)-dipolar cycloadditions (also known as crisscross cycloadditions) (Scheme 8.48) [195197]. Azomethine imines 176 are probable intermediates in these transformations.
O Ar N N + O X Ar O + N N Ar 176 X O X O O X O Ar N N Ar 177 O X O
O Ar X = O, NH, N-alkyl, N-aryl

Scheme 8.48
Azomethine imines of types 178 and 180 have been used in the synthesis of aza-band aza-c-lactams (Scheme 8.49) [198, 199].
Ph Ph R1 178 Ar H + N N O +
CO2R
R2O2C Ph Ph N R
CO2R2 N O
1
CO2R2
179 CO2Me
+ N N
CO2Me + CO2Me
MeO2C Ar N Ph
O NHCOPh
Ph 180
Scheme 8.49
NHCOPh
181
A highly enantioselective catalytic intermolecular [3 2] cycloaddition of acylhydrazones 182 to electron-rich alkenes has been reported [200]. Tetrahydropyrazoles 183 are obtained in high yield and with high ee (9598%) (Scheme 8.50). The reaction proceeds in the presence of a chiral zirconium catalyst prepared from zirconium propoxide (Zr(OPr)4), (R)-3,30 -I2BINOL (184) and propanol. A concerted mechanism has been proposed for this reaction.
j671
I OH OH
R1 R1 Zr(OPr) , (R)-3,3'-I BINOL 4 2 MeS PrOH, toluene, 0 C, 18 h MeS NH + HN N 60-90% MeS N MeS O Ph O Ph 182 183 R1 = PhCH2CH2, Bn, Pr, iBu, c-C6H11, Me(CH2)4, tBuMe2SiOCH2CH2 H
Scheme 8.50
I (R)-3,3'-I2BINOL 184
Formation of Two CN Bonds and One CC Bond [N-N C-C C] A four-component one-pot construction of pyrazoles via a palladium-catalyzed coupling of terminal alkynes, hydrazine (or methylhydrazine), carbon monoxide and aryl iodides has been described recently (Scheme 8.51) [201]. The reaction proceeds at room temperature and an ambient pressure of carbon monoxide in an aqueous solvent system. The reaction is completely regioselective and the yields are excellent. Under similar conditions, the reaction with phenylhydrazine does not afford the corresponding pyrazole.
PdCl2(PPh3)2 (1 mol%), THF, H2O, rt, 1 atm, 24-36 h 59-93% R2 N R1 Ar N
R NHNH2 R = H, Me
1
R
2
CO
I Ar
R = Ph, 4-MeC6H4, Me(CH2)5 Ar = Ph, 4-MeC6H4, 4-MeOC6H4, 2-thienyl
Scheme 8.51
8.4.1.5 From Other Heterocycles Many heterocyclic compounds can be converted into pyrazoles. However, despite some synthetically interesting exceptions, in most cases the starting heterocycles are not readily available and the routes are unlikely to be general. A few examples of ring enlargement, ring modication and ring contraction reactions leading to pyrazoles are shown in the following schemes. Ring enlargement of diaziridinone 185 by reaction with bifunctional carbanions leads to pyrazolinone 186 or to spiroheterocycles 187 (Scheme 8.52) [202]. Sydnones give 1,3-dipolar cycloadditions with a range of dienophiles to yield pyrazoles. For instance, the reaction of 3-phenylsydnone (188) with meta- and para-diethynylbenzene in reuxing xylene gives meta- and para-phenylenedipyrazoles 190, respectively (Scheme 8.53) [203]. Similarly, the reaction of para-phenylene3,30 -disydnone (191) with phenylacetylene provides 3,30 -diphenyl-1,10 -para-phenylenedipyrazole (192). A range of polysubstituted pyrazoles have been obtained in high yield and with elevated regioselectivity from the reaction of 3,4-disubstituted sydnones with 1-aryl-3,3,3-triuoromethylpropynes [204]. The 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition reactions of nitrilimines with a great variety of heterocyclic compounds, many of them leading to pyrazoles, have been reviewed [187].
672

NC O
t
CN
NC O
CN N t Bu Nt Bu 92%
NC O
NH2 N tBu N t Bu 186
NaH, THF, reflux, 36 h

t
Bu
N N
Bu
t
185
BuO2C
CO2tBu
Bu
OO N N OO 187
NaH, DME, reflux, 48 h 55%
Bu
t Bu N Nt Bu
Scheme 8.52
O + N N Ph 188 + 189 + 2 Ph
xylene, reflux, 20 h - CO2 Ph
N N 190
N N
m-C6H4, 30% p-C6H4, 76% Ph
O O N
+ N 191
+ N
O N O
PhNO2, 180 C, 20 h - CO2 62% Ph N
N 192
Ph
Scheme 8.53
Pd(0)-catalyzed carbonylation of 1,2-diaza-1,3-butadienes 196, generated in situ by thermal extrusion of SO2, CO2 or COS from heterocyclic precursors 193195, respectively, under 12 atm of CO affords pyrazol-5-ones 197 in good yields (Scheme 8.54) [136].
R2 O2S R1 toluene, 100 C, 18 h R2 R1 N N Ph 196 CO (1-2 atm), Pd(PPh3)4 or Pd(dppe)2 40-81% R2 O R1 N N Ph 197
N - SO2 N Ph R1 = Me, Ph 193 R2 = H, Ph R1 N N
R2 O
toluene, 110-135 C, 12-24 h - COX
X Ph 194, X = O 195, X = S
Scheme 8.54
R1 = Ph R2 = Ph, OPh, OC6H4Cl-4
j673
Addition of hydrazine derivatives to (S)-1-acylpyrrolidin-2-ones 198 in reuxing acetic acid leads to (S)-N-acyl-3-(1-substituted-5-hydroxy-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)alanine methyl esters 199 (Scheme 8.55) [205].
COR1 N O COR1 N O N H NHR2 41-88% R1CO NH MeO2C HO N N R2 199
MeO2C
R2NHNH2 AcOH, 80 C - reflux
MeO2C
198 Me2N R1 = Ph, OtBu

Scheme 8.55
R2 = H, Bn, 4-NO2C6H4, hetaryl
3-Benzoyl-2-substituted-5-phenylfurans 200 react with hydrazine to afford the corresponding 4-benzoylmethyl-3(5)-phenylpyrazoles 201 (Scheme 8.56) [206].
O Ph Ph S 200 R1 NH2NH2, HOCH2CH2OH, 150 C, 2 h O Ph Ph N H 201
R1 N R1 = Et, 65% R1 = Bu, 70%
Scheme 8.56
Furan-2,3-diones 202 react with hydrazines under different conditions to yield pyrazole-3-carboxylic acid hydrazides 203 (Scheme 8.57) [207].
O R
1
O O R1 O + 2 R3NHNH2 45-67% R2
O NHNHR3
R2
R3 = Ph, 4-NO2C6H4, 2,4-(NO2)2C6H3 R1 = Ph, 4-MeOC6H4, OEt 2 R = Ph, 4-MeOC6H4,

Scheme 8.57
O 202
N N R3 203
4,5-Dihydro-5-(hydroxyimino)-4-oxothiophene-3-carboxylic esters 204 react with hydrazines to yield pyrazole-3- or -5-thiohydroxamic acids (205 and 206, respectively), depending on the substituents R1 and R2 (Scheme 8.58) [208]. 2,3-Dihydro-4H-pyran-4-ones 207 undergo rapid condensation with arylhydrazines in the presence of montmorillonite KSF clay to afford enantiomerically pure 5substituted pyrazoles 208 in good yields (Scheme 8.59) [209]. In the absence of the clay, no reaction is observed between the pyranones and arylhydrazines. The catalyst
674

EtO2C R1 O R2NHNH2, AcOH, rt, 2 h EtO2C HOHN S R1 N N 2 R 205 or S EtO2C R1 N N 2 R 206 NHOH 40-96% NOH S 204 R2 = H, Me, tBu, Ph R1 = H, Me, Ph
Scheme 8.58
BnO BnO
ArNHNH2, Montmorillonite KSF EtOH, reflux, 4.5-7.5 h 57-86%
OH BnO N OBn Ar N
207
Scheme 8.59
208
can be recovered by simple ltration and reused three times without any signicant decrease in activity after being washed with methanol and activated at 120 C. 2-Formyl glycals 209 undergo rapid condensation with arylhydrazines under solvent-free conditions to give the corresponding optically pure 4-substituted pyrazoles 210 in good yields with high selectivity (Scheme 8.60) [210]. Like arylhydrazines, hydrazine hydrate itself also affords the respective pyrazoles in good yields.
OH OR1 N
R O R 1O
O CHO
R2NHNH2, MW irrad. 3-6 min 79-87% R1 = Me, Et, Bn R2 = H, Aryl
R O OR1 N R2 210
OR1
209
Scheme 8.60
2-(Methyl, phenyl, or styryl)chromones 211 react with methylhydrazine to afford the corresponding 3-(2-benzyloxy-6-hydroxyphenyl)pyrazole derivatives 212 (Scheme 8.61) [211]. Similarly, treatment of 3-aroylavones 213 with hydrazine gives a mixture of the two aroylpyrazoles 214 and 215 [212]. Treatment of the 3-(3-aryl-3-oxopropenyl)chromen-4-ones 216 with hydrazine hydrate in hot acetic acid afforded the 1-acetyl-3-aryl-5-[3-(2-hydroxyphenyl)pyrazol-4-yl]-2-pyrazolines 217 in good yields (Scheme 8.62) [213]. Oxidation of the 2pyrazoline ring with DDQ gave the bispyrazoles 218. N-Deacylation occurred during the oxidation. 3-Acyl-2H-pyran-2,4-diones 219 react with one equivalent of phenylhydrazine to give hydrazones 220ad (R3Ph) (Scheme 8.63) [214]. Reaction of 219a with
j675
R1
MeNHNH2, MeOH, reflux 40-55% R1
HO OBn
OBn O 211
a, R1 = Me b, R1 = Ph Ar c, R1 = R2 OH O
N Me 212
Ar O
H2NNH2, MeOH, reflux, 20 h OBn Ar
Ar N
HO ArCO Ar N H 215 (22-28%) N OBn
OBn O 213
Scheme 8.61
Ar
N H 214 (55-69%)
Ar O Ar O 216 O H2NNH2, AcOH, reflux, 3 h 63-75% HN N HO N N Ac 217
DDQ, 1,4-dioxane, reflux, 10 h 51-60%
Ar HN N HO 218 N H N
Ar = Ph, 4-XC6H4 (X = Me, MeO, F, Cl, Br), 1-naphthyl, 2-naphthyl
Scheme 8.62
R3NHNH2, C6H6, reflux, 5 min 75-92% OH O R2 R1 O 219 O PhNHNH2 (2 equiv) (R1 = R2 = Me) R = H, Ph
3
OH
R2
R1
O 220
N 65-84% NHR3
AcOH, reflux, 1 h
O R1 O
O R2 N R3 221 N
Me
N N Ph Me HO N N Ph
a, R1 = R2 = Me b, R1 = Me, R2 = Et c, R1 = Me, R2 =Ph d, R1 = Ph, R2 = Me e, R1 = R2 = Ph

Scheme 8.63
222
676

hydrazine hydrate affords 221a (R3H) [215]. Hydrazones 220 can be converted into pyrazolin-5-ones 221 in good yields [214]. 3-Acetyl-2H-pyran-2,4-dione 219a reacts with two equivalents of phenylhydrazine to give the pyrazolylpyrazole 222 [214]. Surprisingly, 2H-pyran-2,4-dione 223 reacts with phenylhydrazine to afford dihydropyrazole 224 while with hydrazine it gives pyrazole 225 (Scheme 8.64) [216]. The formation of 225 involves a decarboxylation process, not observed in the reaction of compound 219a with hydrazine [215]. 3-Aryl-1-(3-coumarinyl)propen-1-ones also react with hydrazines to afford 1-substituted 5-aryl-3-(3-coumarinyl)-2pyrazolines [217].
H2NNHPh EtOH, reflux, 2 h OH O 82%
Me
N Ph NNH2 N
225
OH
224
Me
O
223
H2NNH2, EtOH, rt, 1 d, reflux, 5 min 38% Me N H
Scheme 8.64
N-Methoxypyridazinium salts 226 react with hydroxide ion to give vinyl diazomethanes 227, which cyclize to 3(5)-acyl-1H-pyrazoles 228 when heated in benzene (Scheme 8.65) [99].
R2 R1 + N N OMe 226 R2 R1 O N 227 N R2 R1 O N H N
KOH, H2O, 0-5 C, 5 min 70-90%
C 6H 6, 60-80%
228
R1 = R2 = H R1 = H, R2 = Ph R1 = R2 = Me R1 = Me, R2 = Ph
Scheme 8.65
Under the action of hydrazines, pyrimidines give ring contraction transformations to pyrazoles. For instance, 5-nitropyrimidine reacts with hydrazine hydrate at room temperature for 2 days, or at 100 C for half an hour, to yield 4-nitropyrazole in nearly quantitative yield [218]. More recent work has shown that treatment of 4-(dimethylamino)-6-chloro (or 6-methoxy)-5-nitropyrimidine with hydrazine hydrate or
j677
methylhydrazine (2 equiv.) leads to 3,5-diamino-4-nitropyrazole and 3,5-diamino-1methyl-4-nitropyrazole, respectively, in moderate yields (Scheme 8.66) [219]. The conversion of 5-acylpyrimidines and 5-acyl-uracils into a range of pyrazole derivatives has been reviewed [220].
NMe2 O2N R1 N 229
Scheme 8.66
R2NHNH2 EtOH, reflux, 1-3 h 54-61% R1 = Cl, OMe; R2 = H, Me
O2N H2N
NH2 N N R2 230
A novel one-step synthesis route to fully substituted pyrazol-4-ols was reported recently. It is based on the reaction of thietanone 231 with 1,2,4,5-tetrazines 232 (Scheme 8.67) [221]. All of the elements of the thietanone, except its sulfur, are incorporated in the products. Quoting the authors of that work, this is a simple yet non-obvious method for the construction of pyrazol-4-ols.
Ar Ph S 231 O + N N N N Ar 232 KOH/R1OH, THF, rt 9-56% Ph R1O N HO Ar N Ar 233
Ar = Ph, 4-BrC6H4, 2-pyridyl R1 = Me, Et, CH2CH2OH
Scheme 8.67
Thermolysis of the tetrazolo[1,5-a]pyrimidines 234 and tetrazolo[1,5-b]pyridazine 237 gives 1-cyanopyrazoles in good yields (Scheme 8.68) [222]. When these heterocyclic compounds are heated at about 1020 C over their melting temperature evolution of nitrogen is observed. The reactions are particularly fast (few minutes)
R1 N N N 234 N R2 N melting temp. R3 R1 N N 235 N: N melting temp. R1 N 238 N N: R R2
3
R2 R3
R1 N CN 236 N R1 = R2 = R3 = H, 66% R2 = Pr, R1 = R3 = H, 86% R1 = R3 = Me, R2 = H, 60%
R1 N R1 N N N N CN 239 N R1 = H, 70% R1 = Ph, 55% R1 = OMe, 78%
237
Scheme 8.68
678

and the pyrazole derivatives 236 and 239 are the only detectable products. Nitrenes 235 and 238 are probable intermediates in these ring contraction reactions.
8.4.2 Synthesis of Indazoles
There are several methods for the synthesis of indazoles [4, 5, 7, 9, 223, 224]. Most start from benzene derivatives, where the pyrazole ring is formed by ring closure. However, a few examples start from pyrazoles. The different possibilities for the construction of the indazole ring can be regarded according to the bonds formed, as described for the pyrazoles, and their synthesis will be organized in that way. The major part of indazole ring-closure procedures involves creating a bond between the two nitrogen atoms (NN) as the last step; nevertheless, ring closure by creation of a NC bond through the formation of N2C3 or N1C7a bond is also common. A few examples involving a C3C3a ring closure are also reported.
8.4.2.1 Formation of One NN Bond One of the simplest syntheses of indazoles by an NN ring closure involves the reduction of N-ortho-nitrobenzaldimines 240 with triethyl phosphite, to afford 2-aryl2H-indazoles 241 (Scheme 8.69) [225]. The same type of imines (242) can be converted into 2H-indazoles 244 by reductive N-heterocyclization of N-(2-nitrobenzylidene)amines 242 with the catalyst system dichlorobis(triphenylphosphine)palladium(II)tin(II) chloride at 100 C for 16 h under 20 kg cm2 of initial carbon monoxide pressure (Scheme 8.70) [226]. Carbon monoxide operates as a reducing agent of the nitro substituent into a nitrene intermediate 243, which strongly coordinates palladium, along with the generation of carbon dioxide. The electrophilic nitrene can then attack the nitrogen atom of the imino group to give the corresponding 2-substituted 2H-indazoles 244.
N NO2
240
Scheme 8.69
P(OEt)3 N
N
241
R = 2-Me, 4-Me, 4-OMe, 2-Br
2-Aryl-3-chloro-2H-indazoles 247 are obtained by the treatment of ortho-azidobenzanilides 245 with thionyl chloride at reux (Scheme 8.71). The mechanism proposed for this transformation probably involves the initial formation of orthoazidobenzimidoyl chlorides 246, which cyclize into 247 by a concerted pericyclic process with loss of nitrogen [227]. The required anilides 245 can be prepared in high
j679
N NO2 242
R + 2 CO
PdCl2(PPh)2 SnCl2 N 243
R Pd N R N 244
R = Pr, i-Pr, (CH2)3OMe, Ph, 2-ClC6H4, 2,6-Me2C6H3

Scheme 8.70
O N H N3 SOCl2, R
Cl N N3 246 R N
Cl N R
245 R = H, Me, OMe, Cl, NO2, OEt

Scheme 8.71
247
yield from the reaction of the appropriate arylamine with ortho-azidobenzoyl chloride in pyridine solutions. 2-Substituted-2H-indazoles 250 are obtained from N-(2,4,6trinitrobenzylidene)anilines and hydrazones 248 by a similar synthetic process (Scheme 8.72). Treatment of 248 with sodium azide leads to the regiospecic substitution of the ortho-nitro group by the azido group, and the thermolysis of the obtained 249 give 4,6-dinitro-2-substituted-2H-indazoles 250. In some cases, compounds 248 are converted into 2H-indazoles 250 even in the process of the azide formation [228]. The thermal decomposition of other 2-azidobenzylideneamine derivatives into 2-substituted-2H-indazoles is also described [229].
NO2 N O2N 248 NO2
NO2 NaN3, DMF O2N 249 Me N3 N
R or rt O2N
NO2 N
R = Ph, 4-MeOC6H4, 4-FC6H4, NMe, NHC6H4-4-OMe,
Me N N Me
N 250
Scheme 8.72
2-Amino-3-(alkyl or aryl)amino-2H-indazoles 253 are also prepared from the reaction of ortho-azidobenzaldimines 251 with tertiary phosphines followed by acid hydrolysis of the obtained iminophosphoranes 252 (Scheme 8.73) [230].
680

N N3 251
Scheme 8.73
R1 PR3, CH2Cl2 0 C, 1h or rt, 4h N
NHR1 N N PR3
H3O+, rt N 253
NHR1 N NH2
252
2-Aryl-2H-indazoles are also prepared by a base-catalyzed reaction of ortho-nitrobenzyl triphenylphosphonium bromide 254 and aryl isocyanates (Scheme 8.74) [231]. Deprotonation of the triphenylphosphonium bromide 254 with DBU gives a purple ylide 255. When sodium hydride is used, the expected indazoles are accompanied by small amounts of 2-nitrotoluene as a by-product. Treatment of the ylide with aryl isocyanates, bearing electron-withdrawing or electron-donating substituents, affords 2-aryl-2H-indazoles 256 in moderate to good yields; the nitrogen of the nitro group being transformed into the indazole N1 atom.
PPh3 Br DBU NO2 254 CH3CN, 60 C
PPh3
R N=C=O N R
NO2 255
45-62%
256
R = 4-OMe, 2-OMe, 4-OPh, 4-CO2Et, 4-F, 3-CN, 3,4,5-(OMe)3

Scheme 8.74
2H-Indazole-2-oxides 260 are obtained via the 1,7-electrocyclization of non-stabilized azomethine ylides 257, formed from ortho-nitrobenzaldehydes and sarcosine, onto the nitro group to give the unstable benz-1,2,6-oxadiazepine 258, which undergoes a ring contraction, resulting in the elimination of formaldehyde and the formation of 2-methyl-2H-indazole-1-oxides 260 in moderate yield (3240%) (Scheme 8.75) [232, 233]. In these reactions, 3-methyl-5-aryl-oxazolidines 259 are also formed, resulting from the reaction of the starting ortho-nitrobenzaldehydes with an azomethine ylide obtained from formaldehyde generated in situ and the excess of sarcosine. 2H-Indazole-1-oxides 260 are deoxygenated in the presence of PdC to afford 2methyl-2H-indazoles 261 [232, 233]. A NN bond in the synthesis of 1-substituted-1H-indazoles 263 and 265 can be created by dehydration of oximes 262 with acetic anhydride [223] or by heating the oxime acetate 263 in the melt at 170 C, under vacuum [234], respectively (Scheme 8.76).
8.4.2.2 Formation of One N2C3 Bond One of the most common methods for the synthesis of indazoles involving a N2C3 ring closure starts from an ortho-toluidine (Scheme 8.77) [235]. Acetylation of the
j681
R1 R2
1 2
CHO NO2
MeNHCH2CO2H
R1 R2
Me N CH2 NO2 257
R1 R2
N N O O 258
Me
a) R = R = H b) R1 = R2 = OCH2O c) R1 = R2 = OMe a) R1 = Br, R2 = H R1 R

2
R1
2 H2, Pd-C R
Me N O NO2
N 261
N Me
N O 30-32% 260
N Me +
R1 R2 30-43% 259
Scheme 8.75
R R 262
Scheme 8.76
NOH Ac2O NH2
N Ac 263
CH2Ar R OAc N melt 170 C NH Me 264
CH2Ar N N Me 265
Me R NH2
AcOH/Ac2O
Me R NH Ac
N2O3
Me R N Ac NO
HCl (aq) Me
R N H
Scheme 8.77
R N
N O Ac
aniline, followed by nitrosation with nitrous gases, formed by the action of nitric acid on sodium nitrite, and subsequent intramolecular azo coupling, with an initial acyl migration, leads to the 1H-indazoles. This classic protocol is also employed in the synthesis of several potential biologically active N-substituted-1H-indazoles, although with small changes in the experimental procedure [236238]. The diazotization of ortho-toluidines in acid or neutral aqueous solution is also a well-know procedure to prepare indazole rings [239, 240]. However, the reactions are successful only for ortho-methylbenzenediazonium salts bearing an electron-with-
682

drawing nitro or halogen group on the aromatic ring and involve the isolation of an explosive ortho-methylbenzenediazonium chloride. The improvement of this synthetic procedure allows the preparation of 1H-indazoles 268 bearing electronwithdrawing or electron-donating substituents from the reaction of non-explosive ortho-alkylbenzenediazonium tetrauoroborates 267 (Scheme 8.78) [241, 242]. orthoAlkylbenzenediazonium tetrauoroborates 267 are obtained from the reaction of ortho-alkylanilines 266 with sodium nitrite in uoroboric acid or sodium nitrite in hydrochloric acid followed by the addition of sodium tetrauoroborate. Treatment of 267 with two equivalents of potassium acetate, 5 mol% of 18-crown-6 in ethanolfree chloroform at room temperature affords 1H-indazoles 268 in moderate to good yields. The presence of the phase transfer catalyst 18-crown-6 is essential; in its absence no indazole is formed.
R2
CH2R1 NaNO2, HBF4 or NH2 266 1. NaNO2, HCl 2. NaBF4
R2
CH2R1 N2 BF4 267
KOAc, 18-crown-6 CHCl3, rt 39-98%
R2 N H 268
R1 N
R1 = H, Me R2 = H, 4-NO2, 5-NO2, 6-NO2, 4-Cl, 5-Cl, 3-Me, 4-Me, 5-Me, 6-Me, 7-Me, 4-OMe
Scheme 8.78
3-(2-Fluorophenyl)-1H-indazole 271 is prepared from the diazotization of the corresponding 2-aminobenzophenone 269 under strongly acidic conditions (HBF4), followed by reduction with sodium dithionite (Scheme 8.79) [243]. Zhang et al. describe a similar synthesis, save the reduction of the intermediate 270, which is made with SO2 [244].
HO Cl NH2 O 269
Scheme 8.79
NaNO2 HBF4 F HO Cl
HO N N F
Na2S2O4 or SO2 HO Cl N N H 271 F
270
The most common synthesis of 1,2-dihydro-3H-indazol-3-ones 274 (or their enolic forms 3-hydroxy-1H-indazoles) starts from diazonium salts of anthranilic acid 272, which are reduced with sultes or sulfur dioxide to the corresponding orthohydrazinobenzoic acid derivatives 273 (Scheme 8.80) [224]. Cyclization to 274 may be carried out with phosphoryl chloride, by boiling in nitrobenzene or reuxing in an
j683
CO2H R NH2
NaNO2 HCl
CO2H N2 Cl 272 R
SO2 or Na2SO3
CO2H R N H O NH2 273
R = H, 5-Cl, 6-Cl, 6-OMe, 7-OMe, 5,7-Me2
HCl (conc.)
N H 274
Scheme 8.80
NH
aqueous solution of either acidic or buffered with sodium acetate. A variation of this method consists in the nitrosation of N-substituted anthranilic acids or esters, with nitrous acid, followed by reduction of the formed nitroso derivatives. This reduction must be done with sodium hydrosulde when the N-substituent is a hydrogen or halogen atom or an alkyl group; for compounds with an N-aryl group as substituent the reduction must be carried out with zinc in acetic acid or lithium aluminium hydride [224].
8.4.2.3 Formation of One N1C7a Bond Aromatic hydrazides are converted into indazol-3-ones when treated with an excess of butyllithium (Scheme 8.81) [245]. Benzoylhydrazines 275 afford 2H-indazol-3ones 276 in 6180% yield. The same transformation has been carried out replacing butyllithium by sodium or potassium hydride, but the corresponding 2H-indazol-3one was obtained in lower yields (49 and 56%, respectively, when RH). 2H-Indazol3-ones 277279 are obtained by the same procedure from appropriate aromatic hydrazides, while aliphatic and heterocyclic hydrazides afford the corresponding aldehydes [245].
O NH NH2 275 i) BuLi (3 equiv), hexane R = H, Me, OMe

Scheme 8.81
i)
O R N H 276 NH 277 N H
O NH N H 278 O NH N H 279 O NH
3-Substituted-1-tosyl-6-uoro-1H-indazoles 283 are obtained from 2-chlorobenzoylhydrazides 280 (Scheme 8.82) [246]. Treatment of 280 with thionyl chloride affords the corresponding imidoyl chloride 281, which reacts with piperazine derivatives, in the presence of DABCO, to yield imidates 282. This is a trick reaction, the best yields being obtained when 1.1 molar equivalents of piperazine derivatives
684

O N H NHTs SOCl2 F 281 RN Cl Cl N NHTs RN NH N N F K2CO3 Cl 282 NHTs R N Cl
280
DABCO, NMP NR N F N Ts N
NH
K2CO3 R = Me, Bn, CO2Et, CH2CN

Scheme 8.82
283
and 0.7 molar equivalents of DABCO are used; the presence of an amine more basic than piperazine is required. However, imidoyl chlorides 281 are also transformed into 1H-indazoles 283 in one-pot transformation; after the in situ formation of imidate 282, milled potassium carbonate is added to the mixture and the 3-substituted-1-tosyl-6-uoro-1H-indazoles 283 are obtained. Another general method involving the formation of the N1C7a bond consists in the cyclization of phenylhydrazone derivatives. Lead tetraacetate oxidation of phenyl ketone phenylhydrazones 284 leads to the formation of azoacetates 285, which furnish 1-phenyl-1H-indazoles 286 when treated with Lewis acids (e.g., AlCl3, BF3. Et2O) (Scheme 8.83) [247252]. 1-Benzyl-3-(5-hydroxymethyl-2-furyl)indazole YC-1, an indazole possessing important biological applications, is obtained from the hydrazone of ketone 287, although in a modest yield (Scheme 8.84) [253]. YC-1 is obtained in higher yield starting from the unsubstituted-2H-indazol-3-one [254].
R N HN 284
Scheme 8.83
Pb(OAc)4 Ph
OAc N N Ph
R Lewis acid N N Ph 286
285
OH O O 287 i) N O NHBn
OH ii) 10% overall N N Bn YC-1 O
OH
i) BnNHNH2, AcOH, MeOH, reflux ii) Pb(OAc)4, BF3.Et2O, CH2Cl2, benzene

Scheme 8.84
j685
A variation of this method consists in the cyclization of para-nitrophenylhydrazones of several acetophenones, benzophenones and benzaldehyde by reaction with polyphosphoric acid at high temperature (150165 C), affording 1-(4-nitrophenyl)1H-indazoles [255, 256]. Another variation involves the cyclization of arylhydrazines possessing a leaving group in the ortho position (F, NO2, OH or OR) [243, 257261]. These methods also require harsh experimental conditions, such as very high temperatures (200270 C), although there are references to the synthesis of indazoles by the reaction of ortho-uorobenzophenone or pentauoroacetophenone with hydrazine in reuxing ethanol or toluene, respectively [243, 262]. Treatment of 20 ,60 (dialkoxy- or dihydroxy)acetophenone or benzophenone hydrazones 288 with polyphosphoric acid gives 4-(alkoxy- or hydroxy)-3-substituted-1H-indazoles 289 in moderate to good yields (Scheme 8.85) [263, 264].
R2
OR1 R OR O
1 3
R2 i) OR
1
OR1 R N
3
OR1 ii) 34-87% R2
R3
R1 = H, Me, Et, Pr, Bu R2 = H, Me, OMe R3 = Me, Ph, 4-ClC6H4, 4-BrC6H4, 4-OMeC6H4, 4-NO2C6H4
Scheme 8.85
288
NH2
N N H 289
i) NH2NH2.H2O, AcOH, 110-120 C ii) PPA, 115-135 C
The palladium-catalyzed cyclization of arylhydrazones of 2-bromobenzaldehydes and 2-bromoacetophenones 290 constitutes an easy, efcient method for the synthesis of 1-aryl-1H-indazoles 291 (Scheme 8.86) [265267]. N-Arylindazole derivatives are synthesized in a one-pot reaction of 2-bromobenzaldehydes with arylhydrazines in the presence of a catalytic amount of a palladium catalyst, a phosphorous chelating ligand and sodium tert-butoxide [265]. The use of preformed hydrazones is the key to obtaining higher yields, milder reaction conditions and to extend the scope of this method to heterocyclic substrates and to 2-chlorobenzaldehyde [267]. In addition, better yields can be obtained using Pd(dba)2 and chelating phosphines
R1 N N R3 291
R1 R2 Br
1
H N R3
R2 Pd(dba)2, DPEphos K2PO4 or CsCO3, toluene, reflux
R = H, Me R2 = H, NO2, Me, Br R3 = H, NO2, CF3, Me, OMe, Br

Scheme 8.86
290
686

(rac-BINAP, DPEphos and dppf) in the presence of a base, such as caesium carbonate or potassium phosphate. This method is applicable for the synthesis of a wide range of 1-aryl-1H-indazoles bearing electron-donating and electron-withdrawing substituents. Various 2-aryl-2H-indazoles 293 and 1-aryl-1H-indazoles 296 can be prepared by the palladium catalyzed intramolecular amination of the corresponding N-aryl-N-(2bromobenzyl)hydrazines 292 and N-aryl-N0 -(2-bromobenzyl)hydrazines 295, followed by spontaneous aromatization of the formed aryl-substituted-2,3-dihydro-1H-indazoles (Schemes 8.87 and 8.88, respectively) [268, 269]. [N-Aryl-N0 -(2bromobenzyl)hydrazinato]triphenylphosphonium bromides 294, intermediates in the synthesis of 295, also underwent cyclization under suitable conditions to afford 1aryl-1H-indazoles 296 (Scheme 8.88). Toluene is used as solvent when starting with N-aryl-N0 -(2-bromobenzyl)hydrazines 295 and 1,4-dioxane with [N-aryl-N0 -(2-bromobenzyl)hydrazinato]triphenylphosphonium bromides 294 due to the insolubility of the latter in toluene.
R2 R1 Br
1
N NH2 292
Pd(OAc)2, dppf NaOBu-t, toluene, 90 C
R1 N N
R2
293
R = H, F, OMe R2 = H, Me, OMe, Cl, CN

Scheme 8.87
NaOH, 60 C PPh3Br
R1 295 Br
NH NHAr
R1 Br 294
1
NHAr Pd(OAc)2, dppf, NaOtBu, toluene, 90 C R1
Pd(OAc)2, dppf, NaOtBu 1,4-dioxane, 90 C
R = H, F, OMe Ar = Ph, MeC6H4

Scheme 8.88
N 296 Ar
1-Aza-2-azonia allene salts 298, formed by oxidation of hydrazones 297 with tertbutyl hypochloride followed by treatment with SbCl5 in dichloromethane at 50 C, can be used as starting materials for the preparation of 1-substituted-1H-indazoles 300 (Scheme 8.89) [270]. Treatment of 298 with SbCl5 induces an intramolecular cyclization to afford 3-pyridyl-1H-indazolium hexachloroantimonates 299. It is worth
j687
X2 X1
X2 X1
t-BuOCl RN N Cl
X2 X1
SbCl5 CH2Cl2, -50 C N N R
NNHR 297 X1 = H, X2 = N X1 = N, X2 = H R = 2,4,6-Cl3C6H2, CO2Et Cl N X2 N X1 N Cl SbCl6
SbCl6 298 X2 X1
X2 X1 Cl N R N
Na2CO3 (aq)
Et 301
300
NH N SbCl6 R 299
Scheme 8.89
noting the complete regioselectivity of the cycloaddition. The reaction of 1-aza-2azonia allene salts 298, bearing a trichloropyridyl substituent, with propionitrile gives 3H-1,2,4-triazolium hexachloroantimonates 301 instead of 300.
8.4.2.4 Formation of One C3C3a Bond The cyclization of para-nitrophenylhydrazones of ketones and aldehydes with polyphosphoric acid gives 1-arylindazoles through a C3C3a ring closure [271], while N0 , N0 -diphenylhydrazides are converted into 1-phenylindazoles by means of triuoromethanesulfonic anhydride [yields from 2% (RH) to 50% (RPh)] [272]. 1H-Indazoles 303 can also be obtained in moderate yield from the reaction of nitroarenes with aromatic hydrazones in alkaline medium (Scheme 8.90) [273]. The presence of electron-withdrawing groups in both reagents is required for the formation of 1H-indazoles 303. Other substituents originate displacement of the chlorine atom or hydrogen atom in the 4-position of the nitroarene by the hydrazone anion. Although the mechanism of this reaction is not clear, a possible reaction sequence could be described as an initial attack of the hydrazone anion to
NO2 NO2 R1 + NO2 N NH2 R1 = 3-NO2, 4-NO2, 4-Cl
Scheme 8.90
NO2 R1
NaH, DMF N NH R1 302 H NO2
35-37%
N H
303
688

the ortho-position of the nitroarene, to give a Meisenheimer intermediate (302). The presence of an electron-withdrawing substituent on the nitroarene facilitates the attack of the hydrazone anion and stabilizes the anion 302. Displacement of the nitro group leads to indazoles 303. 1,2-Dihydro-3H-indazol-3-ones 308 are also obtained from anilines (Scheme 8.91). Treatment of substituted anilines with phosgene in toluene affords carbamoyl chlorides 304, which react with sodium azide in methanol to give carbamoyl azides 305. Thermal cyclization of 305 gives indazol-3-ones 308 [224, 274, 275]. This cyclization must proceed via intermediates 306, which are converted into isocyanates 307, which then cyclize to indazol-3-ones 308. The existence of intermediate 306 is conrmed by the concomitant formation of benzimidazolinones 309 [224, 274276].
R1 NH R2
COCl2
R1 N R2 304
NaN3 COCl
R1 305 N R2
CON3
R1
NH N R2 309 O
R1 N R2 308
O NH R1
N R2 307
O C N
R1 N R2 306
N O
R1 = H, Cl, NO2 R2 = H, 2-ClC6H4, 3-ClC6H4, 4-ClC6H4, 4-OMeC6H4, Bu

Scheme 8.91
8.4.2.5 Formation of Two Bonds 8.4.2.5.1 From 4 1 Atom Fragments Formation of One CN and One CC Bond [C-C-N-N C] 3-Dimethylamino-1-phenyl-1H-indazoles are obtained from the reaction of N,N-diphenylhydrazine with phosgene iminium chloride (Scheme 8.92) [277].
NMe2 N NH2 + Cl2C NMe2 Cl N N
Scheme 8.92
j689
Formation of One CN and One NN Bond [C-C-C-N N] Several 1H-indazol-3carboxamide or carboxylate derivatives are prepared from 2-nitrophenylacetic acid derivatives (Scheme 8.93) [278, 279]. The nitro group is reduced to the amino derivative, then tert-butyl nitrite or sodium nitrite in acetic acid promotes the cyclization to the corresponding 1H-indazole. The hydrolysis of the ester and amide groups with a great excess of sodium hydroxide in water affords the corresponding 1H-indazol-3-carboxylic acids.
CO2R1 A CO2H NO2 D NO2
CO2R1 NH Ac
CO2R1 N N Ac
CONR2R3 NO2
CONR2R3 NH2
CONR2R3 N N Ac
A: MeOH or EtOH, H2SO4 (conc), reflux B: H2, Pd-C; AcOH or toluene, Ac2O, rt C: t-BuONO, Ac2O, AcOH, 90-95 C or NaNO2, Ac2O, AcOH D: i) SOCl2, DMF, (CH2)2Cl2, 35-40 C; ii) amine, 20-25 C E: Fe, i-PrOH, NH4Cl, reflux F: i) Ac2O, toluene, rt; ii) t-BuONO, 90-95 C
Scheme 8.93
R1 = Me, Et R2 = H, R3 = Pr R2 = R3 = N
,N
8.4.2.5.2 From 3 2 Atom Fragments Formation of Two CN Bonds [C-C-C N-N] Like pyrazoles, indazoles can be prepared by the [C-C-C N-N] approach. The standard method consists of the condensation of a 1,3-difunctional compound with hydrazine or hydrazine derivatives. 1Hindazoles 311 are synthesized by cyclization of hydrazones of 2-mesyloxyphenyl ketones 310 (Scheme 8.94) [280]. Conversion of the appropriate mesylate 310 into the desired 1H-indazoles 311, by the reaction with hydrazine derivatives, proceeds through the hydrazone intermediate, which cyclizes to indazoles by nucleophilic aromatic substitution of the mesylate group. The reaction needs a slightly acidic medium to catalyze the conversion of the ketone into the hydrazone and it is imperative the use of a Dean-Stark apparatus to eliminate the water, to avoid mesylate hydrolysis to the corresponding phenol, which does not cyclize to indazoles under these reaction conditions.
O R
2
R1 OMs 310
R3NHNH2
R2 N 311 R3
R1 N R1 = Me, Et, Ph R2 = Br, Cl, NO2, OMe R3 = Me, Bu, Bn, Ar
Scheme 8.94
690

A related method involves the reaction of benzoic acid derivatives bearing a leaving group in the ortho position with hydrazine. For instance, treatment of methyl 2uorobenzoate 312 with hydrazine in reuxing butanol gives the corresponding 1Hindazole-3-ones 314 (Scheme 8.95) [261]. Under identical conditions, ortho-uorobenzonitriles 313 afford 3-amino-1H-indazoles 315 (Scheme 8.95) [237, 281, 282].
R1 N H X = CN R1 N H O NH 314 NH2 N 315
X = CO2Me X R1 F NH2NH2 BuOH, reflux
312, X = CO2Me 313, X = CN
Scheme 8.95
4,5,6,7-Tetrahydro-2H-indazoles 317 are obtained from the reaction of the BaylisHillman adducts of cyclohexen-1-ones (316) with hydrazine derivatives. These tetrahydroindazoles (317) are oxidized to 2-substituted-2H-indazoles 318 by treatment with DDQ (Scheme 8.96) [283]. 3-Substituted-1-aryl-4,5,6,7-tetrahydro-1Hindazoles 320 are obtained by the reaction of diketone 319 with arylhydrazines (Scheme 8.97) [284]. Various 4,5-dihydro-1H-benzo[g]indazole-based ligands for cannabinoid receptors have been prepared by a similar procedure [285]. TetrahydroR1 N 317 N R2 R1 N N R2
R1CHO O O
R OH
R2NHNH2.HCl ClCH2CH2Cl reflux
DDQ benzene, reflux
316 R1 = Ph, tBu R2 = Ph, 4-MeC6H4, 4-OMeC6H4, 2-OMeC6H4, C5H11

Scheme 8.96
318
OMe Ar OMe
OMe R C6H4NHNH2.HCl, Et3N or NaOAc N N

1
OMe
MeOH or EtOH O O Ar 319 Ar = Ph, 4-FC6H4, 4-ClC6H4, 3,4-F2C6H3, 2-ClC6H4, 3-OMeC6H4, 320 4-OMeC6H4, 4-PhC6H4, 4-tBuC6H4, 1-naphthyl, 2-naphthyl R1 = 4-F, 4-Cl, 4-OMe, 4-OH, 4-CO2Me, 4-CO2Bu, 4-CO2(CH2)7Me
Scheme 8.97
R1
j691
and hexahydro-1H- and 2H-indazole derivatives are also obtained from the reaction of appropriate chalcone-type compounds or b-diketones with hydrazine derivatives [283, 284, 286288].
Formation of One CC and One CN Bond [C-N-N C-C] The 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition reactions of diazo compounds with benzyne is a versatile method for the synthesis of indazoles (Scheme 8.98) [289291]. Benzyne is conveniently generated in situ from the reaction of anthranilic acid with alkyl nitrite in an aprotic media (mixtures of dichloromethane : acetone or acetonitrile) [292]. Aoyama et al. describe the synthesis of 3-trimethylsilyl-1H-indazoles 322 from the [3 2] cycloaddition reactions of lithium trimethylsilyldiazomethane with benzyne, generated from halobenzenes and lithium 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpyperidine (LTMP) (Scheme 8.99) [293]. LDA, a less hindered base, can also be used, but a signicant decrease in the yield of indazole is observed. The reaction mechanism involves a nucleophilic attack of (CH3)3SiC(Li)N2 to the benzyne, subsequent cyclization of the indazole intermediate 321 and reaction with water to afford 3-trimethylsilyl-1H-indazoles 322 (Scheme 8.99).
CO2H NH2
Scheme 8.98
R1
Alkyl-ONO CH2Cl2:acetone or CH3CN
R1
R2COCHN2
R1 N H
COR2 N
X R1
LTMP Et2O, reflux
R1
Me3SiCHN2 LTMP R1
Li
SiMe3 N N
X = F, Cl, Br, I R1 = H, Br, Me, OMe, OBn, OtBu, NMe2 R1
321 H2O SiMe3 N 322 H N
Scheme 8.99
1,3-Dipolar cycloaddition reactions of diazomethane to quinones originate the corresponding 1H-indazole-4,7-diones (Scheme 8.100) [294, 295].
8.4.2.6 Other Synthetic Methods Dehydrogenation of tetrahydro-1H-indazoles in boiling decalin with 5% palladium on activated carbon gives the corresponding 1H-indazoles (Scheme 8.101) [296].
692

O R R O
Scheme 8.100
CH2N2 R
O N
N H
R = Cl, Me
Pd-C N H N N H N N H
O NH
Pd-C N H
O NH
Scheme 8.101
Most syntheses of indazoles proceed from benzene derivatives, where the pyrazole ring is generated by ring closure. However, a few examples of the synthesis of indazoles starting from pyrazoles are known [297299]. One of them involves the condensation of 3-substituted pyrazole-4-carbaldehydes 323 with diethyl succinate in the presence of potassium tert-butoxide, affording esters 324 (mixture of geometric isomers), which undergo cyclization to 1H-indazoles 325 by reaction with sodium acetate in acetic anhydride (Scheme 8.102) [297]. The ring closure step probably takes place by an electrocyclization process after the enolization of the mixed anhydride 326.
OHC R N N H 323 (CH2)2(CO2Et)2 KOtBu, tBuOH reflux EtO2C HO2C 324 N H R N EtO2C EtO2C Ac2O, NaOAc reflux AcO R OAc N H 326 N 325 R N N Ac
R= Me, iBu, 4-MeOC6H4, 2-ClC6H4, CO2Et
(Ac)HO
Scheme 8.102
Another example of synthesis of indazoles from pyrazoles consists in the reaction of stable chromium and tungsten Fischer dienyl carbenes 328, formed from a [3 2] cycloaddition reaction of alkenylethynyl carbene 327 with trimethylsilyl diazomethane, with isocyanides to give highly functionalized 1H-indazoles 329 (Scheme 8.103) [298]. 1,3-Diphenyl-1H-indazoles 333 are obtained from base induced addition elimination of 5-cyanomethyl-1,3-diphenylpyrazoles 331 to various a-oxoketene
j693
N
R2
R1 Me3SiCHN2 THF/hexane
R2 (CO)5M MeO
R1
SiMe3 N t-BuNC
R2 t-BuNH MeO
R1
N 328
(CO)5M
OMe 327
N H 329
M = Cr, W R1 = Me, R2 = Ph R1,R2 = (CH2)2, (CH2)4, O(CH2)3
Scheme 8.103
dimethylthio acetals 330, followed by acid-assisted cycloaromatization of the resulting adducts 332 (Scheme 8.104) [299]. The cycloaromatization of adducts 332 is more efcient (in terms of yield and work-up) in the presence of para-toluenesulfonic acid (PTSA) than with various protic and Lewis acids. By using cyclic of a-oxoketene dimethylthio acetals it is possible to obtain annulated indazoles.
R1 O + R1 O R1
Ph
NaH
Ph
R2 PTSA C6H6, reflux MeS NC
Ph N N Ph
MeS
N N CN Ph 330 331 a) R1 = Me, R2 = H 1 2 b) R = R = Me c) R1 = Ph, R2 = H SMe
THF, 0 C MeS
N N CN Ph 332
333
Scheme 8.104
1-Phenyl-5-vinyl-1H-pyrazole (334) gives cycloaddition reactions with several dienophiles to furnish 1-phenyl-1H-indazole derivatives 335337 (Scheme 8.105) [300]. The reaction of 334 with methyl propiolate affords 1-phenyl-1H-indazole 336 as a result of a double DielsAlder cycloaddition with extrusion of ethylene. 1-Phenyl1H-indazole 338 is obtained by oxidation of its dihydro derivative 335 by treatment with DDQ. Highly substituted-1H-indazoles 341 have been obtained from the cycloaddition reaction of 1-aryl-3-phenyl-1,6-dihydropyrano[2,3-c]pyrazoles 339 with dialkyl acetylenedicarboxylates in reuxing DMF (Scheme 8.106) [301]. The resulting cycloadducts 340 spontaneously eliminate acetone to give 1-aryl-6,7-dialkoxycarbonyl-4methyl-3-phenyl-1H-indazoles 341. N-Unsubstituted pyrazole ortho-quinodimethanes 343, generated by thermal extrusion of sulfur dioxide from NH-pyrazole-fused 3-sulfolenes 342, react with dienophiles to give 4,5,6,7-tetrahydro-1H-indazoles 344346 (Scheme 8.107) [302]. Thermolysis of sulfones 342a,b in reuxing toluene or chlorobenzene in the presence
694

MeO2C N N 334 Ph NC NC CN CN NC NC CN NC N Ph N MeO2C CO2Me N Ph 335 N CO2Me MeO2C DDQ N N Ph 338 CO2Me
CO2CH3 CO2Me N N Ph
MeO2C 336
337
Scheme 8.105
Me Me Me
CO2R C DMF N + N reflux C CO2R2 R1 339 R1 = H, Cl, Br, Me R2 = Me, Et
Ph
Me
Me
Ph N N - Me2CO R O2C R O2C

2 2
Me
Ph N
Me O R2O2C R2O2C
R1 340
R1 341
Scheme 8.106
MeO2C CO2Me O2S R N toluene, reflux N H 343 R N O N Ph O O Ph N O

Scheme 8.107
MeO2C MeO2C
R N N H 344a R = H 344b R = Me R N N O N Ph O
N 342 H a, R = H b, R= Me c, R= OMe
O Ph N O OMe N H N
345a R = H 345b R = Me
346
j695
of dimethyl fumarate gives the 1 : 1 DielsAlder cycloadducts 344a,b without the competition of the Michael addition. However, thermolysis of the same sulfones in the presence of N-phenylmaleimide gives the 2 : 1 cycloadducts 345a,b. Adducts 345a, b were obtained as diastereomeric mixtures of the 1- and 2-substituted indazole isomers. Thermolysis of sulfone 342c in the presence of N-phenylmaleimide gives the tetrahydro-1H-indazole 346 as the only product.
8.4.2.7 Ring Synthesis from Heterocycles Flash vacuum pyrolysis of 2,5-diaryltetrazoles 347 at 400500 C gives almost quantitative yields of 3-aryl-1H-indazoles 350 (Scheme 8.108) [303]. Under these conditions, tetrazoles 347 eliminate nitrogen, leading to nitrilimines 348, which undergo cyclization onto the remote aromatic ring to afford 3-aryl-3H-indazoles 349, which spontaneously isomerize to 3-aryl-1H-indazoles 350. 3-Substituted-1H-indazoles are also prepared by ash thermolysis (400500 C) of 2-substituted-4-phenyl1,3,4-oxadiazolin-5-ones [303, 304]. In this case, the same type of nitrilimines is also involved, being generated by elimination of carbon dioxide.
R2
N N
N 347
FVP 450-500 C - N2 R2 R1 N
R1
N N C 348
R2
R1 = R2 = H, Me
R2 R1 H N N 349
N H 350
Scheme 8.108
Treatment of 1H-[1-3]triazolo[1,5-a]benzimidazole 351 with dimethyl sulfate at elevated temperature results in the formation of benzimidazolyl-1H-indazole 354 [305]. Instead of the simple methylation to yield 352, a ring opening reaction take place and, via formation of a nitrenium cation, indazole 353 is formed (Scheme 8.109). This intermediate is then alkylated to the dimethyl salt 354. Similar transformations occur when 351 is treated with triuoroacetic acid at reux, resulting in the formation of 1H-indazole 353 (RH) [306]. The photochemistry of some 3,5-disubstituted-1,2,4-oxadiazoles 355 bearing a nitrogen nucleophilic group, such as an ortho-aminophenyl moiety, at C3 of the oxadiazole ring leads to the concomitant formation of indazoles 357 and benzimidazoles 359 (Scheme 8.110) [307]. The photochemistry of 355 is characterized by
696

N N 351 Me Ar = 4-BrC6H4 Ar N N Me2SO4 N N Me Ar N N Ar N N N N R
352 R
N N Me Me2SO4 N Ar
N N
N N R
N Ar
N Ar
N 353
354
Scheme 8.109
R1HN
N N O
h R2 R1HN N
N C NCOR2 N O R2 NHR1
355
356
358
a) R1 = H, R2 = CH3 b) R1 = R2 = Me c) R1 = H, R2 = Ph
25-45% NHCOR N N 1 R 357

2
55-75% N N R1 359 NHCOR2
Scheme 8.110
photolysis of the ON bond to give open compounds 356, which rearrange to 1Hindazoles 357 through the NN bond closure. The photolytic species 356 can also be converted into carbodiimides 358, precursors of the benzimidazoles 359. 1H-Indazoles 357 can also be obtained from 3,5-disubstituted 1,2,4-oxadiazoles 355 in almost quantitative yield, by heating these compounds, without solvent, at a temperature much higher than their melting points [308].
8.5 Reactivity
The reactivity of pyrazoles is related to the tautomerism of the neutral forms 360 and to their acid (conjugated anion 361) and basic properties (conjugated cation 362) (Scheme 8.111). It is very important when discussing the reactivity of pyrazoles and indazoles to determine the form that reacts. The pyridinic N2 atom is susceptible to
8.5 Reactivity
R N N 361 R R N H N H 362 N H 360b N
Enhanced reactivity of halogen atoms towards nucleophiles Electrophilic attack at C-4 difficult Attack by hydrides
j697
R N H N
CH3 Y X N CH 3 N R 363
Acidity of the methyl hydrogens Dequaternization by attack of nucleophiles (including X)
360a
N,N-bond cleavage by reduction
Scheme 8.111
electrophilic attack and the pyrrolic N1 is unreactive, but the N1 proton can be removed by bases to afford the anion 361. Electrophilic attack on C4 is generally preferred. Since indazoles have the pyrazolic C4 position substituted, electrophilic attack on indazoles takes place in the 3-position and in the benzene ring (positions 5 and 7). We have also represented in Scheme 8.111 the effect of a positive charge (pyrazolium salts) on pyrazole reactivity. In contrast, the anions (pyrazolates) show the expected inversion of reactivity when compared with the cations. Note that in general N-alkyl pyrazoles and indazoles are prepared from the corresponding anions.
8.5.1 Reactions with Electrophilic Reagents 8.5.1.1 Electrophilic Attack at Nitrogen This is the most characteristic reaction of pyrazoles. The reactivity of the nitrogen atom in neutral pyrazoles and indazoles corresponds to that of pyridine N atom. Notably, the apparent rate of formation of an N-substituted derivative depends more on the rate of reaction of a given tautomer than on the tautomeric equilibrium constant. 8.5.1.1.1 Basicity of Azoles Pyrazoles are medium to weak bases, much weaker than for instance imidazole (pKa 6.95). Some signicant values are reported in Table 8.4 from a large collection described in Reference [309]. In general, the effect of the substituents is additive and the acidity and basicity pKas are linearly related [309]. 8.5.1.1.2 Acidity of Azoles Pyrazole and indazole are very weak acids, unless they bear a strong EWG such as NO2 (Table 8.4). 8.5.1.1.3 Metal Ions (see also Section 8.6.4.3) Pyrazoles and indazoles form sodium, potassium and silver salts that are hydrolyzed to a large extent by water. The resulting anions react very readily with electrophiles. Pyrazoles, pyrazolate anions
698

Table 8.4 pKa for proton addition (basicity) and proton loss (acidity).
Azole Pyrazole 3(5)-Methyl 4-Methyl 3,4,5-Trimethyl 4-Nitro 3,5-Dinitro 1-Methyl 1-Phenyl Indazole 1-Methyl 2-Methyl
pKa (basicity) 2.52 3.32 3.09 4.63 1.96 2.09 0.44 1.31 0.42 2.02
pKa (acidity) 14.21 9.05 3.14 13.80
and polypyrazolylborates (scorpionates) [310] are much used ligands in coordination chemistry.
8.5.1.1.4 N-Alkylation and N-Arylation N-Alkylation is one of the most important and most studied reactions of pyrazoles and indazoles. Alkylations have been carried out using alkyl halides (usually iodides and bromides), dialkyl sulfates, arenesulfonates, diazomethane and dialkyl phosphates. Microwave irradiation has proved very effective for carrying out this reaction [311, 312]. With neutral pyrazoles and alkyl halides, the alkylation yields salts of the corresponding acids. The orientation of the entering group strongly depends on the substituents on the pyrazole ring, on the nature of the alkylating agent and on the experimental conditions. Phase transfer catalysis has been used with success to prepare Nsubstituted pyrazoles [4]. When polyhalogenoalkanes are used as alkylating agents, poly-N-pyrazolylalkanes (useful ligands in coordination chemistry) are obtained. Only activated halogenated benzenes (para-uoronitrobenzene, 1-uoro-2,4-dinitrobenzene, picryl chloride) [313] and halogeno substituted heterocycles (such as 3,6dichloropyridazine, cyanuric chloride and brominated derivatives) [314] react with pyrazoles and indazoles [4]. Pyrazolate anions react with hexauorobenzene to yield hexapyrazolylbenzenes (propellenes, Section 8.6.4.3) [5, 315]. An efcient synthesis of b-hydroxyethyl-pyrazoles 364 and 365 from propylene and styrene oxide using Cs2CO3 has been reported [316].
R1 R2 N N R3 R2 R3 OH 365 N R1 N
OH 364
8.5 Reactivity
j699
Through the use of Bi, B and Pb derivatives and copper-catalyzed cross-coupling reactions it is possible to make NC bonds between pyrazoles and unsubstituted phenyl rings [317320], or between indazoles and aryl rings [321].
8.5.1.1.5 N-Acylation (see also Section 8.6.4.2) N-Acetylated pyrazoles are obtained from N-unsubstituted pyrazoles by treatment with acetyl chloride (alone or in the presence of pyridine) or acetic anhydride. The fact that the isomeric structure of azolides is thermodynamically controlled has been used to prepare the less accessible 1-alkylpyrazoles regioselectively (Scheme 8.112) [4].
R1 R X
2
R1 N H N
N N R2 major R
1
R1
N N R2 minor H2O
N H
R3COX
N COR3
(R23O)BF4 R2SO3F R1 N R2
+ N COR3 X -
Scheme 8.112
Acylation of 3(5)-aminopyrazole 366 with chloroacetyl chloride affords a mixture of 367 and 368, both of which rearrange in the solid state to 3-(chloroacetamido)pyrazole 369 (Scheme 8.113) [322].
NH2 NH2 N N H 366 ClCH2COCl N N COCH2Cl 367 NHCOCH2Cl N N H 369
H 2N
N N COCH2Cl 368
Scheme 8.113
8.5.1.1.6 Michael Addition N-Unsubstituted pyrazoles and indazoles add to compounds containing activated double and triple bonds [15]. Amongst CC double and triple bonds, maleic anhydride, acrylic acid esters and nitriles, acetylenecar-
700

boxylic and -dicarboxylic esters, quinones, and some a,b-unsaturated ketones have been used with success. With an activated CC triple bond two successive additions can occur if the intermediate alkene is reactive enough; this occurs, for instance, with DMAD. For additions on CO double bonds see Section 8.6.4.2.
8.5.1.1.7 N-Halogenation N-Halogenated pyrazoles are unstable compounds (Cl > Br > I) that are seldom isolated. 1-Bromopyrazole resembles NBS and can act as a source of the electrophilic brominium ion [4]. 8.5.1.1.8 N-Amination and N-Nitration The powerful aminating agents hydroxylamino-O-sulfonic acid and O-mesitylenesulfonylhydroxylamine have been used to aminate pyrazole and indazole (60% of 1-amino and 40% of 2-aminoindazole) [4]. Amination of C-aminopyrazole 370 affords both diamino isomers 371 and 372 (Scheme 8.114) [323].
R1 H2N N H N H2N R1 N N NH2 371 + R1
NH2 N N NH2 372
370
Scheme 8.114
8.5.1.2 Electrophilic Attack at Carbon Pyrazole is less reactive towards electrophiles than pyrrole. As a neutral molecule it reacts as readily as benzene and, as an anion, as readily as phenol. Pyrazole cations (pyrazolium ions), formed in strong acid media, show a pronounced deactivation (nitration, sulfonation, FriedelCrafts reactions). Electrophilic attack on pyrazoles takes place at C4. 8.5.1.2.1 Nitration Pyrazole is very stable in acid media and even under rather vigorous conditions neither ring opening nor ring oxidation was observed. Nitration occurs at the 4-position; in the case of 4-R substituted pyrazoles, mono- and dinitration at positions 3 and 5 are observed [4]. 8.5.1.2.2 Sulfonation Direct sulfonation of the pyrazole ring is rather difcult due to cation formation and takes place at position 4 only on prolonged heating with 20% oleum [4, 5]. 8.5.1.2.3 H/D Exchange Qualitatively it was observed that in D2SO4 exchange of 1methylpyrazole occurs initially at C4 and then simultaneously at C3 and C5, while in 1,2-dimethylpyrazolium it occurs only at C4 [4, 5]. 8.5.1.2.4 Halogenation Halogenation is one of the most studied electrophilic substitutions in the pyrazole series [4]. Many reagents can chlorinate pyrazoles:
8.5 Reactivity
j701
chlorine-water, chlorine in carbon tetrachloride, hypochlorous acid and chlorine in acetic acid (one of the best experimental procedures). Bromine in chloroform and bromine in acetic acid are the reagents used most often to brominate pyrazoles. To effect polybromination of pyrazoles the use of iron as catalyst is necessary. Pyrazole does not react with iodine although pyrazolsilver is converted into 4iodopyrazole. Ultrasound irradiation using N-halosuccinimides [324], N-iodosuccinimide [325] and a mild and efcient method for the regioselective iodination of pyrazoles have been reported [326].
8.5.1.2.5 Acylation: VilsmeierHaack and FriedelCrafts reactions 1-Substituted pyrazoles are formylated and acetylated at C4. C-Alkylation of pyrazoles is rather uncommon and only groups like benzyl or adamantyl can be introduced directly on the 4-position. 8.5.1.2.6 Diazo Coupling and Nitrosation Generally, pyrazoles do not react with diazonium salts. However, when an activating group (hydroxy, alkoxy, amino) is present at position 3 or 5, the reaction proceeds easily at position 4. The reaction is very common in pyrazolone chemistry; pyrazolone diazo coupling is an important industrial reaction since the resulting azo derivatives are important dyestuffs, like tartrazine. The behavior of pyrazoles towards nitrosation is similar to that towards diazo coupling. 8.5.2 Reactions with Oxidizing Agents
Pyrazoles are resistant to oxidation but with agents like potassium permanganate the indazole ring is completely destroyed. Side chains can be oxidized; for instance, methyl groups into carboxylic acids.
8.5.2.1 Oxidation The most important of all oxidation reactions in the chemistry of pyrazoles is the aromatization of pyrazolines into pyrazoles. Various oxidizing agents transform pyrazolines into pyrazoles: sulfur, bromine, chloranil, potassium permanganate, lead dioxide and mercury(II) acetate are all effective. The problem is not totally solved, as shown by the numerous papers devoted to this topic. Oxidations using chlorine in CCl4 [327], chloranil [164, 328], trichloroisocyanuric acid [329], Pd/C in acetic acid [330], DDQ [331] and Bi(NO3)3 with MW irradiation [332] have been reported. 8.5.3 Reactions with Nucleophilic Reagents
Little is known about nucleophilic attack on an unsubstituted carbon atom of pyrazoles. Some nucleophiles do not attack the heterocyclic ring carbon atoms but
702

instead the substituent linked to nitrogen with subsequent N-deprotection, for instance dequaternization (pyrazolium salts) [4] or debenzylation (pyrazoles and indazoles) [333].
8.5.3.1 Reduction by Complex Hydrides When an electron (mass spectrometry, electrochemistry) attacks a pyrazolium salt, two different radicals are formed, one leading to a pyrazoline (reduction of a CC double bond) and the other to an open-ring diamine (NN bond cleavage) [334]. With lithium aluminium hydride, D3-pyrazolines and pyrazolidines are obtained from quaternary pyrazolium salts [4]. 8.5.4 Reactions with Bases
This section corresponds to topics like metallation at ring carbon atoms (mainly lithiation) [335], hydrogen/deuterium exchange in neutral pyrazoles and pyrazolium cations, ring cleavage via C-deprotonation (opening to b-amino acrylonitriles or ortho-cyano anilines in the case of indazoles) all of them of secondary importance.
8.5.5 Reactions of N-Metallated Pyrazoles
The main use of N-metallated pyrazoles and indazoles (sodium or silver salts) is for the preparation of N-substituted derivatives.
8.5.6 Reactions of C-Metallated Pyrazoles
This is a eld of growing importance related to Suzuki, Miyaura, Sonogashira [325] and other cross-coupling reactions. Examples of C-arylation [52, 54, 154, 336], Calkylation [154, 159] and C-alkynylation [325, 337, 338] have been reported.
8.5.7 Reactions with Radicals
Expansion of pyrazoles into pyridazines by the action of dichlorocarbenes has been reported [4]. Similarly, indazole and chloroform at 555 C yields 2-chloroquinazoline. Little interest has been shown in the radical reactions (methyl and phenyl radicals) of pyrazoles because they afford mixtures of C-substituted derivatives. A complete study of the chemistry of ground and excited state of ortho-pyrazolylphenyl nitrenes 373 (Scheme 8.115) has been carried out by Carra, Bally and Albini: different kinds of heterocycles have been isolated, amongst them 374376 [339].
8.5 Reactivity
j703
R N N
R R N N N3 h 254 nm R N
R N _ N _ R _ N
R N + N NEt2 374 R N
R N N + HN
376 375 only when R = Me
372, R = H, Me
Scheme 8.115
373
The reduction of pyrazole and 1-phenylpyrazole with H2, in the presence of palladium on active charcoal, gives the pyrazolines or, under more drastic conditions, the pyrazolidines [4].
8.5.9 Ring Transformations 8.5.9.1 Ring Opening without Fragmentation Scheme 8.116 shows two of the most illustrative examples of this kind of reaction: the opening of 1-substituted indazoles 377 into 2-alkylaminobenzonitriles and the rearrangement of 1-(ortho-nitrophenyl)pyrazoles 379 into benzotriazole 1-oxides (cis and trans 381) through intermediate azo compound 380 [4].
R2 h CN N 1 R 378 R2 R
3
R2 N R1 N
R1 N N R h NO2
3
R2 O N
R1 X O
377
O N N N 381
R1 R2
R3 O
X 379, X = H, NO2
Scheme 8.116
380
8.5.9.2 Ring Isomerization The most studied reaction is the transformation of pyrazoles into imidazoles and of 2substituted indazoles into benzimidazoles. 8.5.9.3 Ring Enlargement In dilute sulfuric acid (pH 24) rearrangement of indazoles 382 (Scheme 8.117) into benzimidazoles is suppressed and dihydroazepinones 383 and 384 are formed [4].
704

R2 R N
2 1
R2 O O + NH O
N R
NH
382
Scheme 8.117
383
384
8.5.10 Electrocyclic Reactions
Concerning DielsAlder and 1,3-dipolar cycloadditions, pyrazole never reacts as an alkene towards a diene or a 1,3-dipole nor as an azadiene towards a dienophile. There are very few examples of reactions related to this topic: some are reported in Schemes 8.1058.107 and 8.118 [4, 5].
H H H MeO2C C C CO2Me MeO2C MeO2C Ph H N N N N Me COMe N N Ph 386 Ph H+ N N N NH Me 389
N Ph 385
387
N Me
Scheme 8.118
MeOC C N N
Ph
COMe
388
Stephanidou-Stephanatou et al. have described the sequence of reactions reported in Scheme 8.119. From the N-benzoyl derivative 390, through bromination and dehydrobromination, pyrazole ortho-quinodimethane 392 was generated and trapped with several dienophiles to afford the DielsAlder adducts 393 [340].
Br NBS Br O N H Me N Ph NaI, DMF 80 C O N Me N Ph R N O H Me N Ph
Me N O N Ph
390
Scheme 8.119
391
392
393
8.6 Derivatives
j705
8.6 Derivatives 8.6.1 C-Substituted Pyrazoles and Indazoles
In pyrazoles the simplest way to characterize the carbon atoms is to consider that C3 is similar to the pyridine a-position, C4 to the pyrrole b-position and C5 to both the c-pyridine and the a-pyrrole positions.
8.6.2 Oxy- and Aminopyrazoles and Indazoles
Probably the most studied pyrazole derivatives are the oxy (pyrazolones and indazolones) and the amino derivatives in the order 5-substituted > 3-substituted ) 4substituted. For a long time, the only comprehensive source on pyrazolones was the book from Wiley and Wiley of 1964 [341]. Fortunately, Varvounis et al. have updated it recently (they use 3-ones for the 3- and 5-ones, a logical but uncommon decision) [342]. Pyrazolin-4-ones exist as 4-hydroxypyrazoles and are much less common [46, 8], although deserving attention for their biological potentialities. Indazolones exist as such and not as 3-hydroxyindazoles [343]. The chemistry of pyrazolidinones has been reviewed [344]. 3-, 4- and 5-Aminopyrazoles are interesting in themselves and also as precursors of many pyrazoles with fused ve- [345], and six-membered rings [323, 346349], as well as larger heterocyclic rings [350].
8.6.3 Other Substituents
The synthesis and reactivity of many different C-substituted pyrazoles have been described in the literature. Some of the most important (because of much studied or because very rare) are: CHO [351], CCR [352], NO2 [353355], 11 B [356], 19 F [357360], 31 P [361, 362], 32 S [363], 28 Si (for instance TMS) [364] and 127 I [326, 337, 365, 367].
8.6.4 N-Substituted Pyrazoles and Indazoles 8.6.4.1 Quaternary Pyrazolium and Indazolium Salts Pyrazolium 394 and indazolium salts 395 main importance was as precursors of D3pyrazolines and indazolines [4, 5]. But in recent years the extraordinary development of ionic liquids has promoted the study of pyrazolium salts as an alternative to imidazolium salts [366, 367]. Pyrazolium salts have been used to generate carbenes [368], and several papers dealing with their mass spectrometry have been published [369].
706

R4 R5 N R1 R3 N R 2 N R1 R3 N R 2
394
395
8.6.4.2 Azolides N-Acyl azoles (azolides) are much studied compounds both for their use as synthons and for their structural properties [370]. Pyrazolides 396 and related compounds (like the addition products to aldehydes 397 and 398) are in an equilibrium similar to prototropy and only the most stable isomers are usually isolated [371].
R1 N O N R2 396 R1 O N N R2 N N CH2OH 397 H HO N N 398 N OH H
8.6.4.3 Coordination Chemistry of Pyrazoles As we recalled in the introduction, the use of pyrazoles as ligands is one of the most prominent in their chemistry. Not considering biological properties, which include most patents, this aspect represent 36% of all 2004 references, according to the Chemical Abstracts (Table 8.2). Since this topic has been covered in several reviews, only a classication of the pyrazoles as ligands is described here (see Refs [4, 5, 372375]).
.
Simple pyrazoles: pyrazolate anions. Both examples of pyrazoles acting as exobidentate ligands (399) and, much less common, as endobidentate chelating agent (400).
N Au N N Au N Au N N 399 N N Cp U Cp Cp
400
. .
Simple pyrazoles: neutral pyrazoles. These compounds act as 2-monohaptopyrazoles. Bis-, tris- and poly-pyrazolyl derivatives: Ligands such as 401 (polypyrazolylmethanes) [376], 402 [poly(pyrazolylmethyl)benzenes] [377], 403 (polypyrazolylbenzenes, propellenes) [315], and 404 (polypyrazolylazines) [378] often form chelate complexes with different metals.
8.6 Derivatives
j707
N N N N N N N H N N N
N N N
N N N N
N N N N N N N N
N N
N N
401
.
402
403
404
Tris(pyrazolyl)borates (scorpionates) [310, 379]: The synthesis by Tromenko of the pyrazolylborates (bis, tris and tetrakis, the tris 405 being the most interesting) is one of the major discoveries of pyrazole coordination chemistry. The anionic nature of 405, which can be isolated with the Cp anion, confers to 405 and related compounds very rich coordination chemistry.
N N N B H N N
405
.
Ferrocenylpyrazoles: The possibility that the pyrazole has a C-substituent with interesting properties has enriched the usefulness of pyrazoles in organometallic chemistry. Amongst these substituents, ferrocene is one of the most promising. Two representative structures are 406 [380] and 407 [381]. Other ferrocene-based pyrazolylborates (similar to 407) have been described by Wagner et al. [382] Multidentate ferrocenyl-pyrazoles have been described by Thiel et al. [383].
F3C P(Ph)2 N N Fe Me CF3 N N Fe N N B NN N N
N N B N N
(S)-(R)-406
407
8.6.5 Chiral Derivatives
The increasing interest in chiral compounds comes from the pharmaceutical industry and from the catalytic properties of coordination complexes (e.g., asymmetric hydrogenation). The chiral pyrazoles can be classied into three groups: (i) the
708

chirality is in the substituent; (ii) the chirality is in a fused ring, tetrahydroindazoles from natural chiral ketones; (iii) the chirality pertains to a ring that is partially pyrazolines or totally pyrazolidines saturated.
8.6.5.1 Pyrazoles bearing N- or C-Chiral Substituents Pyrazoles derived from steroids, carbohydrates and vitamins share the chiral properties of the starting materials. Thus compound 408, an analogue of vitamin D, has been prepared [384]. Others, like 409, a CNS agent, have been obtained by resolution [385]. Pyrazoles substituted at position 3 by (2R)-bornane-10,2-sultam 410 have been described and their annular tautomerism determined by X-ray and NMR spectroscopy [386]. Compounds related to Tr ogers bases, such 411, retain the inherent chirality of this family of compounds [387]. The synthesis of enantiomerically pure 5-substituted pyrazoles from 2,3-dihydro-4H-pyran-4-ones and from 2formyl glycals has been reported (Schemes 8.59 and 8.60) [209, 210].
Me Me OH N Ph O N Me N Me N H N S N O O
N H H
Ph N N
N N N N Ph
NMe2 HO OH
408
409
410
411
8.6.5.2 Tetrahydroindazoles from the Chiral Pool Here, the most important compound by far is camphopyrazole (4S,7R)-7,8,8trimethyl-4,5,6,7-tetrahydro-4,7-methano-2H-indazole 412; this compound and related ones have been the subject of many studies: synthetic [146, 388390], structural [391], reactivity [392, 393] and coordination chemistry [394, 395]. Other ketones found in natural sources have also been used to prepare compounds such as 413 [396399].
Me Me Me R N H Me Me N
Me
412
NH
413
8.6.5.3 Pyrazolines and Pyrazolidines These compounds have several stereogenic centers: carbons C4 and C5 in D2pyrazolines 414 and carbons C3, C4 and C5 in pyrazolidines 415. Even taking into
8.6 Derivatives
j709
account the nitrogen inversion, stereogenic nitrogen atoms should be considered. Chiral pyrazolines have been prepared by resolution [400], and by inclusion in a chiral host [401]. The formation of a ruthenium complex from a racemic pyrazoline lead to diastereomeric structures 416 that have been separated [402].
R4
R3
R4
R3 * N R2 * X N N
N * Ru(bpy)
2
R5 * N N R1
R5 * N R1
414
415
416
Using cycloaddition methodologies a series of pyrazolines and pyrazolidines enantiomerically pure have been prepared by Barluenga (417, and then reduced to ~ o (420) [406] and Kobayashi pyrazolidines) [403], 418 [404], Molteni (419) [405], Ortun (421) (Scheme 8.50) [200]. A highly enantioselective [3 2] acylhydrazone-enol ether cycloaddition has been reported for the preparation of mono-benzoyl (similar to 421) and dibenzoylpyrazolidines [407]. This is a very interesting eld that it is expected to become very important in the near future.
R4 R
5
CO2R N Boc N
RO2C R
5
R2 N Ph N R O N R1
CO2Me N R 2P
X N H
CO2Me N MeS MeS Ph N C NH O Ph
417
418
419
420
421
A series of compounds by Sibi are worth mentioning in this context: 422 (used for enantioselective intermolecular free radical conjugate additions) [408], 423 (a new ligand system) [409] and 424 (a pyrazolidinone template used with chiral Lewis acids) [410].
R1 R2 O N N R2 R2 N R1 N R3 N R* O N R1 1 R N O Me R2
422 R
Ph
423
424
Finally, the resolution of compounds 425 and 426, whose chirality resides exclusively in the nitrogen atoms, has been reported by Kostyanovsky [411]. For previous studies on chiral nitrogen atoms in pyrazole reduced derivatives due to hindered inversion see Reference [412].
710

Me N t Bu N tBu Me N i Pr N iPr
425
426
8.6.6 Macrocyclic Pyrazoles
This is an important eld that has been treated in detail in other monographs [4, 5]. Particularly relevant are the results of Navarro et al. [413415] (structures 427 and 428) and of Kohnke et al. (429) [416].
O O O O O 427 N NH O O HN N O O O RN O O 428 N NH O O 429 O O HN N O O NR N N
N N N N
N N
8.6.7 Labeled Derivatives
For biological purposes or by spectroscopic necessities (microwave, IR, NMR, etc.) many labeled pyrazoles have been prepared, mainly deuterium and 15 N derivatives for spectroscopy [4, 5, 417], and radioligands for biological studies: tritium [418, 419], 11 C [420], 18 F [421], and 125 I [422].
References
1 Kost, A.N. and Grandberg, I.I. (1996)
Progress in Pyrazole Chemistry Advanced Heterocyclic Chemistry, 6, 347. 2 Behr, L.C., Fusco, R., and Jarboe, C.H. (1967) in Pyrazoles, Pyrazolines, Pyrazolidines, Indazoles and Condensed Rings (ed. R.H. Wiley), Interscience, New York. 3 Schoeld, K., Grimmett, M.R., and Keene, B.R.T. (1976) The Azoles,
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 4 Elguero, J. (1984) Pyrazoles and their Benzo Derivatives (ed. K.T. Potts), Comprehensive Heterocyclic Chemistry (series eds, A.R. Katritzky and C.W. Rees), Pergamon Press, Oxford. 5 Elguero, J. (1996) Pyrazoles (ed. I Shinkai), Comprehensive
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9 Five-Membered Heterocycles: 1,2-Azoles. Part 2. Isoxazoles and Isothiazoles

Artur M.S. Silva, Augusto C. Tom e, Teresa M.V.D. Pinho e Melo, and Jos e Elguero
9.1 Introduction
Isoxazole 1 (1,2-oxazole) and isothiazole 2 (1,2-thiazole) are ve-membered heterocyclic compounds having a pyridine-like N-atom bonded to an O- or an S-atom, respectively. These NO and NS s-bonds are the weakest bonds in each molecule, being their energy much lower than that of NC, OC or SC bonds, and are cleaved in all ring-opening reactions. Isothiazoles react more slowly with nucleophiles than isoxazoles and in both cases the reactions usually originate ringopening [1].
4 5 3 4 5 3
O
1
N2
S 2
1
N2
The rst reference to the isoxazole structure 1 was made by Claisen in 1888, for the reaction product of benzoylacetone with hydroxylamine [2]. He proposed the corrected structure (3-methyl-5-phenylisoxazole 3) for a compound isolated several years before and suggested the name monoazole; however, Hantsch modied it to isoxazole, a name derived from the already know isomeric ring oxazole [3]. Claisen reported the fundamental outline of isoxazole chemistry in 1891 [4] and synthesized the parent compound of the series, isoxazole 1, in 1903, by oximation of propargylaldehyde acetal [5]. After the fundamental work of Claisen and coworkers and some other contemporary authors [6], the next important contribution to the chemistry of isoxazoles was made by Quilico in 1946, when he began to study the formation of isoxazoles from N-oxides and acetylenic compounds [7]. The saturated derivatives had long been know (1892) but it was only in the 1960s that these compounds were studied extensively [8]. The extensive studies on isoxazoles since the 1980s are due to their versatility in the synthesis of various compounds, namely heterocycles and natural products, as well as their applications in several elds, such as agriculture, medicine and industry [1, 6, 8, 9]. In terms of the literature on isoxazole derivatives,
728
j 9 Five-Membered Heterocycles: 1,2-Azoles. Part 2. Isoxazoles and Isothiazoles

one can nd an enormous number of references on their chemistry, physicochemical and biological properties, as well as some book chapters (in Comprehensive Heterocyclic Chemistry, 1984 [10] updated in 1996 [8], and Science of Synthesis [1113]) and monographs (Isoxazoles and Related Compounds, published in 1962 by Quilico [14] and nanger and VitaIsoxazoles Part 1 and Part 2, published in 1991 [6] and 1999 [9] by Gru Finzi) which collate all this information. Part 1 of the last monograph is restricted to mononuclear isoxazoles and their hydrogenated derivatives (dihydroisoxazoles and tetrahydroisoxazoles), except for the isoxazolones, while Part 2 is devoted to the chemistry of condensed isoxazoles, namely benzisoxazoles and related compounds.
Me O 3 N
Isothiazole (2) was rst described in 1956 [15] while the benzisothiazoles have long been known. The most widely known derivative, saccharin (4), the rst noncarbohydrate sweetening agent discovered in 1879, is 300500 times as sweet as sucrose [16]. Saccharin (4) is manufactured commercially by the cyclization of orthosubstituted benzenesulfonamides with strong bases [17]. It still be used in many countries as a non-nutritive sweetener, although it was found that massive doses administered to rats caused bladder cancer, a fact which led to its ban in developing countries [18]. The controversy over its danger when used in small amounts is still unresolved [19]. Although all types of pharmacological activity have been claimed for isothiazoles, some are notable, such as that of thiomuscinol (5) on the central nervous system, as a potent agonist of c-aminobutyrate (GABA) receptors [20], and the signicant antifungal activity of isothiazolones (6) (marketed under the name Kathon) [21]. Several reviews on isothiazoles and on benzisothiazoles have been published [2126]; the chapters in Comprehensive Heterocyclic Chemistry (1984 [16] and updated in 1996 [27]) and Science of Synthesis [28, 29] describe both types of compounds.
5 6 7 4 3a
O
3
OH H2N 5 S N
R2 R3 S
O N R1
7a
NH S 2 O O 4
6 6a R1 = Me, R2 = R3 = H 6b R1 = Me, R2 = H, R3 = Cl 6c R1 = Me, R2 = R3 = Cl 6d R1 = n-octyl, R2 = R3 =H
9.1.1 Nomenclature
The structure and numbering system of the two mononuclear heterocycles (1 and 2) treated in this chapter and some of their best known derivatives is shown above.
j729
However, before discussing their physicochemical properties, synthesis and transformations, it is important to present the structure and nomenclature of all known saturated and benzo-derivatives. For isoxazoles, one can nd 4,5-dihydroisoxazoles (7) (also known as D2-isoxazoline or 2-isoxazoline), 2,3-dihydroisoxazoles (8) (also known as D4-isoxazoline or 4-isoxazoline), isoxazolidines (9), 1,2-benzisoxazoles (10), 2,1-benzisoxazoles (11) and 2,3-dihydro-1,2-benzisoxazoles (12). Structure 10 has also been described as indoxazene, 4,5-benzisoxazole, a,b-benzisoxazole and benzo[d] isoxazole (IUPAC nomenclature) and benzisoxazole. It is indexed in Chemical Abstracts as 1,2-benzisoxazole and numbered as shown below. The rst member of the family, 3-phenyl-1,2-benzisoxazole (13), was synthesized at the end of the nineteen century (1892) [30] and the 1,2-benzisoxazole itself 10 was obtained in 1908 [31]. Structure 11 has also been described as anthranil, anthroxan, 3,4-benzisoxazole, b,c-benzisoxazole, benzo[c]isoxazole (IUPAC nomenclature) and benzisoxazole. It is indexed in Chemical Abstracts as anthranil and numbered as shown below.
4 5 3 4 5 3 4 5 3 5 6 7 7a 4 3a 3 5 6 7 7a 1 4 3a 3 5 6 7 7a 4 3a 3
N2
Z
1
NH
2
Z
1
NH
2
Z
1
N2
7Z=O 14 Z = S
8Z=O 15 Z = S
9Z=O 16 Z = S
Z2
Z
1
NH
2
10 Z = O 17 Z = S
11 Z = O 18 Z = S
12 Z = O 19 Z = S
N 13
For isothiazoles one can nd the same type of dihydroisothiazoles (14 and 15), tetrahydroisothiazoles (16), and benzisothiazoles (17 and 18) and their reduced form (19). The saturated isothiazole 1,1-dioxides 20 are known as sultams and 1,2benzisothiazole 1,1-dioxides 21 are called saccharins.
R O S 20 NR O O S 21 O NH O
9.2 General Reactivity 9.2.1 Relevant Physicochemical Data, Computational Chemistry and NMR Data
The calculated p-electron density distributions of isoxazole (1) and isothiazole (2) are consistent with electrophilic substitution occurring at the 4-position (highest electron
730

density) rather than at other ring positions [3234]. The positional selectivity in the electrophilic attack on heterocyclic molecules can be explained according to the magnitude of the HOMO electron density of each atomic center [35], which predicts the reactivity order of electrophilic substitution of isoxazole (1) as C4 > C5 > C3, in agreement with the experimental data. Comparison of partial rate factors of isothiazole (2) with those of benzene and related compounds shows that its 4-position is $104 times more reactive towards electrophiles than expected on the basis of the calculated p-electron density at carbon atoms and the electronegativity of the heteroatoms [36]. This indicates that when attempting to correlate the theoretical calculations with chemical reactivity one must be careful and consider whether ground or excited states are involved, or whether it is the electron density of intermediates, rather than the original molecule, that determines the product of a chemical transformation. The p-electron density distribution also suggests that nucleophiles must attack the 3-position of both isoxazole (1) and isothiazole (2) since it presents the lowest electron density. The positional reactivity of isothiazole 2 can also be evaluated by 1 H NMR. The relative rate of deuterium exchange of H5 and H3, under basic conditions, has been demonstrated to be 400 : 1, with no exchange of H4, whereas those of the hydrogens of the methyl groups of 5-, 4- and 3-methyl-isothiazoles were 100 : 1 : 104, respectively [37]. The high reactivity of the 5-position can be due not only to the electron distribution in the ground state but also to the stabilization of the formed anion by the s-3d (sulfur) bonding. A similar study with isoxazoles provided the same conclusions [36, 38]. The very low p-order of the NO bond of isoxazole (1) (Table 9.1) relative to those of the other ring bonds and the largest localized dipole due to the NO bond suggests that this bond can be a site of attack of hydrolytic reagents, which is in agreement with the experimental reactivity. Jug classied isoxazole (1) in the range of moderate aromatic compounds (1.5481.332), based on the index of aromaticity, which corresponds to the value of the lowest bond order (Table 9.1, calculated by MO-SINDO1) [39]. These calcula-
Table 9.1 Calculated p-bond orders of isoxazole (1) and isothiazole (2).
X(O,S)-N 0.285 0.412 0.404 0.296 1.361 0.502 0.474 0.227
N-C 0.795 0.772 0.735 0.858 1.957 0.705 0.707 0.870
C3-C4 0.546 0.580 0.617 0.452 1.501 0.634 0.410
C4-C5 0.817 0.776 0.738 0.833 1.955 0.707 0.850
C-X(O,S) 0.342 0.458 0.526 0.448 1.498 0.594 0.302
Calculation method HMO MO-LCAO PPP-SCF-CI CNDO/2 MO-SINDO1 HMO PPP CNDO/2
Compound, Reference 1, [42] 1, [43] 1, [44] 1, [45] 1, [39] 2, [21] 2, [46] 2, [34]
j731
tions indicate that isoxazole (1) (1.361) is less aromatic than oxazole (1.392) and imidazole (1.423) but more than pyrazole (1.297). These results have been conrmed by using other quantitative measurements of aromaticity, such as empirical resonance energy values for heteroaromatic systems as well as conjugation energies [40]. The aromaticity of isothiazole (2) is greater than that of isoxazole (1), just as the aromaticity of thiophene is greater than that of furan. The tendency of 1 JCC coupling constants in 13 C NMR to converge towards that of benzene (56 Hz) is another possible criterion of degree of aromaticity, increasing with the convergence [41]. Although an interesting model, these coupling constants also depend on the geometry of the molecule. The fact that isothiazole (2) is planar and their 1JCC (1JC3C4 52.5 Hz and 1JC4C5 62.2 Hz) are less divergent than those of the less aromatic isoxazole (1) (1JC3C4 48.7 Hz and 1JC4C5) 67.7 Hz) seems to support this method. The proton resonances of isoxazole (1) and isothiazole (2) are strictly related to electron density distribution on the ring (referred above). The 1 H NMR spectrum of isoxazole (1), neat or dissolved in various solvents, has been reported in many papers (Table 9.2) [34, 4749]. The signals of H4 (d, 6.286.41 ppm) appear at lower frequency values than those of H3 (d, 8.158.40 ppm) and H5 (d, 8.398.61 ppm), but all of them are in the aromatic region. For isothiazole (2) the same kind of chemical shifts appears, H5 is at a higher frequency than H3, but in some cases it can be reversed. The resonance is deshielded (0.5 ppm) when spectra are acquired in DMSO-d6 solution, owing to the interaction of this hydrogen with proton acceptors.
Table 9.2
H NMR chemical shifts (d, ppm) of some isoxazole and isothiazole derivatives. H3 8.34 8.40 8.19 8.15 (2.28) 7.90 (2.24) 8.43 8.15 8.54 (2.46) 8.24 8.24 H4 6.41 6.40 6.32 6.28 6.02 5.85 5.85 6.58 6.39 6.74 7.26 7.00 (2.32) 6.92 H5 8.51 8.61 8.44 8.39 8.13 (2.42) (2.41) 8.39 8.58 9.08 8.72 8.54 8.21 (2.56)
3
Compound 1 [47] 1 [48] 1 [49] 1 [34] 22 [49] 23 [49] 24 [49] 25 [49] 26 [49] 27 [49] 28 [52] 29 [49] 2 [53] 30 [53] 31 [53] 32 [53]
JH3H4 (Hz)
JH4H5 (Hz)
JH3H5 (Hz)
Solvent CDCl3 Neat CCl4 CS2 CCl4 CCl4 CCl4 CCl4 CCl4 CCl4 CHCl3 CCl4 CCl4 CCl4 CCl4 CCl4
1.5 1.7 1.6 1.78 1.6 2.0 1.66 1.63
1.5 1.7 1.6 1.69 1.6 1.6 4.66 4.55
0.5 0.27 0.15 0.33
732

Me Z N Me Z N O 25 Me Me O 24 N Me S 31 N O 27 N O 29 N N O N O 28 N
22 Z = O 30 Z = S
23 Z = O 32 Z = S
26
The interaction between H3 and the ring nitrogen atom, due to the quadrupole relaxation of 14 N, is responsible for the broadening of H3 signals of isoxazole and isothiazole derivatives. This broadening is sometimes the diagnostic for the differentiation of H3 and H5 resonances and it is generally reduced in solvents with high viscosity, lower temperatures or nitrogen protonation [2 J 14 N3-H3 from $10 to 3 Hz] [47, 50]. As one can see from Table 9.2, the presence of methyl substituents (electrondonating groups) causes a shielding in the resonances of the isoxazole 2224 and isothiazole 3032 protons. The 1 H NMR spectra of methylisoxazoles can be used as a tool to calculate the ratio of 3- and 5-methylisoxazoles in some reaction mixtures and to determine the isomeric purity of products, since the chemical shift of the corresponding methyl groups are very different. The 1 H NMR chemical shifts of the isoxazole ring of 3-, 4- and 5-phenylisoxazoles 2527 seem to indicate a different conformation for these compounds, presenting different angles between the planes of the two ring, the most important being that of 5-phenylisoxazole (27). This conclusion is based on the deshielding effect of the phenyl ring on the protons lying in the same plane, which decreases with increasing torsional angle. The resonance of H4 can also be used to distinguish between isomeric 3,5disubstituted isoxazoles [51]. In the case of unsymmetrical 3(5)-substituted-5(3)phenyl-isoxazole derivatives bearing one substituent more electron-donating than the phenyl ring, the H4 resonance is shielded (Dd 0.030.80 ppm) for the isomers where the electron-donating substituent group is at the 5-position. Opposite results were obtained for those compounds containing stronger electron-withdrawing groups. In these cases the H4 resonance is deshielded (Dd 0.110.31 ppm) for compounds bearing an electron-withdrawing substituent at the 5-position of the isoxazole ring compared to those of the 3-isomer. The 1 H NMR spectra of 1,2-benzisoxazole and 1,2-benzisothiazole derivatives have the characteristics of both condensed benzene and isoxazole/isothiazole rings. A typical resonance of these compounds is that of H3, which appears around d 8.78.8 ppm and presents long-range coupling with H-7 (5J 0.91.2 Hz) due to the well-known zigzag route [22, 54]. The vicinal coupling constants of the phenyl ring protons are consistent with some degree of ortho-quinonoid structure and

Table 9.3
13
j733
C NMR chemical shifts (d, ppm) of some isoxazole and isothiazole derivatives. C3 150.0 159.2 150.9 C4 140.5 105.7 101.4 C5 158.9 159.2 169.2 Comp. 2 [58] 30 [58] 32 [58] C3 157.0 166.7 157.6 C4 123.4 123.9 123.3 C5 147.8 148.1 163.0
Comp. 1 [56] 22 [57] 23 [57]
Table 9.4 Physical properties of isoxazole, isothiazole and their fused benzo-derivatives.
Compound Mp ( C) Bp ( C/mmHg) pKa Dipole moment (m, D)
1 80 95/769 2.03 2.90
10 84/11
11 994.5/11
2 113/760 0.51
17 37 2.44
18
242/760 0.05
correlate with the bond orders of 2,1-benzisoxazoles and 2,1-benzisothiazoles (3JH43 H5 $ 9 Hz and JH5-H6 $ 7.5 Hz) [55]. Table 9.3 presents the 13 C resonances of isoxazole (1), isothiazole (2) and some of their methyl derivatives as examples of the 13 C NMR spectra of such compounds. The presence of a methyl group as ring substituent implies a deshielding into the signal of the carbon to which the methyl is bonded. A comprehensive collection of 1 H and 13 C NMR chemical shifts of several isoxazole derivatives is reported in the rst monograph of isoxazoles [6]. Unsubstituted isoxazole (1) (Table 9.4) and its alkylisoxazole derivatives are usually liquids; the introduction on the ring of more than one substituent with a long chain leads to solid compounds. Phenylisoxazoles are usually solids [6]. Isothiazole (2) and their alkylisothiazole and benzisothiazole derivatives are usually liquids or solids with low melting points (Table 9.4). The presence of polar substituents increases the melting points. Isothiazole (2) has a low solubility in water ($3.5%) and is miscible with most organic solvents. Benzisothiazoles are insoluble in water, but are soluble in strong acids (salt formation) and in organic solvents [6]. Table 9.4 shows the physical properties of unsubstituted compounds, isoxazole (1) and isothiazole (2), and their fused benzo-derivatives, 1,2- and 2,1-benzisoxazole (10) and (11) and 1,2- and 2,1-benzisothiazole (17) and (18), discussed in this chapter.
9.2.2 Tautomerism
Annular tautomerism does not occur in isoxazoles, benzisoxazoles, isothiazoles and benzisothiazoles, but they present some substituent tautomers. Isoxazolin-3(5)-ones
734

or isothiazolin-3(5)-ones can exist in equilibrium with the corresponding hydroxyderivatives. Isoxazolin-3-ones or isothiazolin-3-ones have been more studied than the corresponding 5-substituted derivatives. The spectroscopic data indicate that they exist as 3-hydroxy tautomers in solid state or in non-polar solvents, such as cyclohexane or ether, but more polar solvents resulted in a great contribution of the keto tautomers [6, 21, 59, 60]. In the solid state these compounds form hydrogenbonded dimers 33. One of the best known 3-hydroxyisoxazoles, due its important neuropharmacological activity, is the natural compound muscinol (34), isolated from an Amanita species [61, 62].
O H Z N N Z H2N O 34 OH N
H O 33
The infrared (IR) spectra have been useful in establishing the position of the tautomeric equilibrium in 1,2-benzisoxazolin-3-one. The enol form of 35 is preferred in the solid state, as shown by the strong band at 30002500 cm1 and the lack of carbonyl band and the CN band at 1620 cm1. Both tautomeric forms are present in chloroform solution, since the carbonyl (1670 cm1) and hydroxyl band (as above) are present [63]. However, X-ray and other spectroscopic data show that 1,2-benzisothiazolin-3-one and its derivatives, 2,1-benzisothiazolin-3-one and saccharin, all exist in the keto form [64]. Studies on tautomerism have shown that in general isoxazolin-4-ones exist preferentially as 4-hydroxy-isoxazoles [65]. The structure of the bioactive natural compound triumferol (36) has also been established as a 4-hydroxy-derivative by 1 H NMR (dH3 8.25 ppm, dH5 8.33 ppm, dOH 8.18 ppm, acetone-d6) and O-acyl and O-methyl derivatives [66].
OH O N 35 O O NH HO O 36 N
Although isoxazole and isothiazole moieties are rarely found in nature, they present important biological applications. Muscinol (34), a potent CNS depressant and agonist of the neurotransmitter 4-aminobutyric acid [67], has been isolated from Amanita muscaria [61, 62]. The naturally occurring amino acid ibotenic acid (37), a widely used neurotoxin and pharmacological tool for studies of glutamic acid receptors [68], has also been isolated from Amanita muscaria and from Amanita pantherina [62]. Brassilexin (38a) and sinalexin (38b) are
j735
phytoalexins, with fungicidal activity, isolated from the leaves of Brassica juncea (Cruciferae) [69, 70]. Aulosirazole (39) is the major cytotoxin in the blue-green alga (cyanobacterium) Aulosira fertilissima Ghose. It shows selective cytotoxicity against solid tumors [71].
OH HO2C NH2 37 O N N R 38a, R = H 38b, R = OMe N S OH O OMe S O N
39
Isoxazoles are a large group of heterocyclic compounds that display interesting medicinal, agricultural and some other industrial utilities. Some of the most important are the pharmacologically active isoxazoles, including antibacterial sulfonamides 4042, semi-synthetic penicillins 4346, semi-synthetic cephalosporin 47, anabolic steroid 48 and the monoamine oxidase inhibitor 49 (used in psychotherapy) [72].
NH2 HO2C R
1
O N S
1 2
2 OR
RN SO2 N
Me Me
N H Me N
R1
Me O 40 R = R1 = H, Sulfamethoxazole 41 R = H, R1 = Me, Sulfisoxazole 42 R = Ac, R1 = Me, Acetylsulfisoxazole O N S O N H Me O N Cl Me O
O 43 R = R = H, Oxacillin 44 R1 = H, R2 = Cl, Chloxacillin 45 R1 = R2 = Cl, Dichloxacillin 46 R1 = R2 = Cl, Floxacillin
HC Me C OH
HO2C AcOH2C
HN NH N O
Me
H H H
47 Cefoxazole
N O 49 Isocarboxazid
48 Danazol
The isosteric relationship of 1,2-benzisoxazole with that of the indole nucleus has led to its use as a carrier of pharmacophoric moieties in the search for potential drugs. From the many compounds studied, only a few have emerged as candidates for clinical use. 1,2-Benzisoxazole-3-sulfonamide 50 (zonisamide) is a potent antiepileptic drug [73], 6-uoro-1,2-benzisoxazole 51 (risperidone) is a potent antipsychotic agent with thymosthenic properties [74], its analogue 52 (HRP 913) is a potent dopamine antagonist with antipsychotic properties [75], and 1,2-benzisoxazole-3acetamidoxime 53 (PF-257) is a psychotropic agent with seemingly new properties [76]. Phosphonate 54 (Bay 52957) is a potent insecticide [77]
736

O R2 R1 O
1
N F O
2
NH
Me N
N N O
52 F O
50 R = CH2SO2NH2, R = H 53 R1 = CH2C(NH2)NOH, R2 = H 54 R1 = OP(S)(OC2H5)2, R2 = Cl
51
As referred to in the introduction, the most widely known isoxazole derivative is the benzisothiazole saccharin (4), the rst non-carbohydrate sweetening agent discovered [16, 27]. Although many isothiazole compounds exhibited biological activities (all types of pharmacological activity have been claimed!), the most important are (i) saccharin derivative 55, which presents potent sedative, hypnotic and anticonvulsant activity [78]; (ii) the adrenergic b-blockers 56 [79]; (iii) the cyclizine analogue 57, which presents appetite suppressant activity [80]; (iv) the amide 58, which has potent antiinammatory activity [81]; (v) thiomuscinol (5), which is active on the CNS as a potent agonist of GABA receptors (Section 9.1) [20]; (vi) the acid 59, the most interesting compound in the agrochemical sphere, having high herbicidal activity [17, 78]; and (vi) the allyloxy-1,2-benzisothiazole 1,1-dioxide 60, known as Probenazole or Oryzaemate, which is useful in rice crop protection [82].
O NCH(C2H5)CONH2 S O O 55 Me S N Cl S 59 CH2CO2H N R S OCH2CH(OH)CH2NHBut N 56 N H3C N S Me N
57
O N H 58
OCH2CH=CH2 N S O O
60
Numerous biological, pharmacological and biocidal activities are fully described in reviews and monographs published about the compounds treated in this chapter [6, 810, 16, 26, 27, 83].
9.4 Synthesis of Isoxazoles and Isothiazoles 9.4.1 Isoxazoles
Synthetic methodologies for the construction of the isoxazole ring can be classied based on the number of atoms of the component synthons, which are subdivided
9.4 Synthesis of Isoxazoles and Isothiazoles
j737
according to the type and arrangement of the atoms in each component. The [3 2] approach includes the two major routes to isoxazoles: CCC NO reactions (reaction of hydroxylamine with a three-carbon atom component) and CNO CC reactions (1,3-dipolar cycloaddition of nitrile oxides). Isoxazoles can also be obtained via [4 1], [5 0] and [3 1 1] routes. Ring transformation reactions also lead to isoxazoles.
9.4.1.1 [3 2] Routes 9.4.1.1.1 [CCC NO] Reactions: Reactions of Hydroxylamine with a Three-Carbon Atom Component In 1888 Claisen described the rst general synthesis of isoxazoles [2]. The process involved the reaction of b-diketones with hydroxylamine followed by cyclizationdehydration of the intermediate oxime (Scheme 9.1). This became an important route to 4-unsubstituted or 4-substituted isoxazoles bearing the same substituent at 3- and 5-positions. 4-Monosubstituted isoxazoles 62 and unsubstituted isoxazole 61 have also been prepared from the reaction of tetraalkoxypropanes (or b-dialdehydes) with hydroxylamine (Scheme 9.1) [6, 10, 84, 85]. This route was applied to the synthesis of 3,5-disubstituted isoxazole-4-carbaldehydes using also diketones as the three-carbon building-block in the reaction with hydroxylamine [86].
O O R CH(OEt)2 CH(OEt)2 R R' + NH2OH - H2O R R' R O N OH R NH2OH.HCl O N 72% 61 R = H 62 R = Me, Et or Ph 43-67% R' HO R O R N - H2O R' R O R N
Scheme 9.1
The drawback of this approach is that unsymmetrical 1,3-diketones or their derivatives can lead to mixtures of the two isomeric isoxazoles. This is the case in the solid-phase synthesis of isoxazoles outlined in Scheme 9.2 [87]. However, the
HO2C R1 SO2 R2CO2Me NaH, DMA 80-90 C, 1 h
H2N
DIC, DIEA, cat. DMAP 1:1 THF/DCM, r.t. 3 h O2 S O N H R1 O
O2 S
O N H R
1
O2 S
O N H NR2 R
1
O R2
NH2OH 50-60 C
1. Me3SiCHN2 1:1 THF/hexanes N O 2. NHR2 R2 R2
R1 O N O
O R1 O N
R2
R2N
+ isomer
Scheme 9.2
738

selection of a CCC synthon with dissimilar terminal carbon atoms in terms of electronic and/or steric effects, the protection of one terminal carbon or the control of the pH of the medium can lead to selectivity. Nevertheless, many variants of this reaction have been developed and in fact isoxazoles have been prepared from the reaction of hydroxylamine with several three-carbon atom components, namely b-keto aldehydes, b-keto esters, a-acetylenic ketones or aldehydes, a,b-unsaturated ketones, b-imino nitriles and b-keto nitriles [6, 10, 84, 85]. 3-Hydroxy-isoxazole is a synthetic unit present in several biologically active compounds. They have been prepared mainly by cyclization of b-keto esters with hydroxylamine. However, this method usually leads to the formation of isoxazol-5ones as a by-product. By using Meldrums acids the problem of the lack of regioselectivity in the addition of hydroxylamine can be overcome (Scheme 9.3) [88].
O O
RCOCl pyridine/DCM
O O
OH R
OBoc HN Boc Toluene, 65 C, 4 h 53-91%
R O O
0 C, 1.5 h then rt 1.5 h O 74-100%
Boc N OBoc
O OH R O N 76-99%
MeOH/HCl conc. 50 C 1 h or 4 M HCl aq./MeOH rt 16 h

Scheme 9.3
The regioselective synthesis of 5-substituted 3-alkoxyisoxazoles can be achieved using b-oxo thionoesters (Table 9.5, entry 1) [89]. 3-Aryl-5-alkoxyisoxazoles have been obtained in moderate yields from cyclocondensation of acylketene O,S-acetals with hydroxylamine in the presence of sodium alkoxide/alcohol (Table 9.5, entry 2). 5Alkoxy-3,4-annulated isoxazoles can also be obtained using the same synthetic approach (Table 9.5, entry 3) [90]. The a-keto methylene group in 3,5-diarylcyclohexen-2-ones has been used to obtain fused isoxazoles via Claisen-like condensation with ethyl formate followed by cyclocondensation with hydroxylamine hydrochloride (Table 9.5, entry 4). The same type of approach can be applied to prepare other types of fused isoxazoles [91], including those derived from triterpenoids, namely methyl oleanonate and lanost-8en-3-one [92]. The reaction of vinyl ketones bearing a potential leaving group at the b-position (such as halogen, alkoxy or dialkylamino) with hydroxylamine has been extensively explored (Scheme 9.4) [6, 10, 84, 85, 93, 94]. The amine exchange reaction of an enamine ketone has also been used for the regioselective synthesis of 4,5-diarylisoxazoles [9598]. The one-pot reaction of enamino ketones 63 with hydroxylamine hydrochloride leads to the corresponding

Table 9.5 Reaction of hydroxylamine with three-carbon atom components.
j739
OEt
1 [10]
R OH S
OEt
NH2OH.HCl rt, 2 h HO NEt3/CH3CN R 68-82%

NaOR1/R1OH reflux, 8-10 h 45-53% NH2OH.HCl
OEt O N
R O N
OEt CH3OH/H2O reflux, 3 h OH pH 3-5 81-94% R O
OR1
2 [90]
R2S O
H Ar
Ar R1O O N R1 = Me, Et or n-Pr
3 [90]
R2S
n
1
NaOR1/R1OH reflux, 8-10 h 45-53%

O
NH2OH.HCl
X
n
OR O
O
4 [91]
R1O
X = CH2, n = 1, R1 = Et X = S, n = 2, R1 = Me
Ar N Ar
Ar
Ar
1. HCO2Et NaOMe 2. HCl aq.
NH2OH.HCl/AcOH OH 70-80 C, 6-8 h Ar 75-78% O
Ar
O
5 [104]
OMe
CH2Ph NH2
NH2OH.HCl/NEt3 EtOH, reflux, 5 h 73%
MeO2C Me O
CH2Ph N
Me
R2
OR R1
6 [108]
NH2OH.HCl/H2SO4 conc. R3OH, reflux, 8-12 h 65-95% R3O
R2 O
R1 N R3 = H, Me, Et or Pri
Ph
CCl3
O
H Ph O NH2OH.HCl, NaOH MeOH, reflux, 4 h 40%
F3C(F2C)4
7 [109]
MeO
F3C(F2C)4
Ph
8 [110]
NH2OH.HCl O Ar Na2CO3
O Ar
Ph
NH2OH.HCl pyridine/EtOH reflux, 3 h
Ar N O Ph
Ar = C6H4-OMe-p
740

EtO2C R O N NH2OH.HCl NaHCO3/EtOH/H2O R = CO2Et R2 = OEt
1
R1 R O
R2
NH2OH.HCl R1 = H R2 = NR'2 R O
Scheme 9.4
isoxazoles 64 (Scheme 9.5) [95]. This strategy has been applied to the synthesis of the cholinergic channel activator ABT-418 [99].
O Ar
1
Ar
NH2OH.HCl Na2CO3 MeOH/H2O pH 4-5 (AcOH) reflux, 2 h - HNMe2
O Ar1 HOHN
Ar2
H+
Ar2 NH Ar1 O HO
Ar2 88-99% Ar1 O 64 N
NMe2 63
Scheme 9.5
The reaction of 2-acyl-3-(dimethylamino)propenoates with hydroxylamine in reuxing methanol leads to 5-substituted isoxazole-4-carboxylates in high yields (6890%) [100] and open-chain and cyclohexane syn-2-(dimethylamino)ethylene-1,3diones are converted into 5-substituted 4-acylisoxazoles [101]. A cellulose-based resin has also been used to prepare 5-substituted isoxazole-4-carboxylates via in situ generation of a polymer-bound enaminone [101103]. The same strategy can be used to prepare tri-substituted isoxazoles. In fact, a b-enamino ketoester reacts with hydroxylamine hydrochloride in the presence of triethylamine to give a tri-substituted isoxazole (e.g., Table 9.5, entry 5) [104107]. The reaction of vinyl ketones bearing a potential leaving group (bromo or benzotriazole) at the a position with hydroxylamine has also been reported (Scheme 9.6) [111, 112]. Depending on the leaving group or the experimental conditions 3(5)-substituted-5(3)-phenylisoxazoles are regioselectively obtained.
R Ph O N Ph R O N
30-49% Bt Ph O
Br Ph NH2OH.HCl NH2OH.HCl NaOEt in abs. EtOH K2CO3 in 95% EtOH R O 1h R = Me, Et, Prn or Pr1 Bt R Ph O NH2OH Bt R O Ph N
25-33% Ph
RCHO EtOH, rt 40 h 55-66%
55-81% - BtH
Scheme 9.6
j741
Reaction conditions were found to allow the exclusive formation of isoxazole-5carboxylic acid derivatives by conjugate addition, in acidic medium, of hydroxylamine to a b-alkoxyvinyl trichloromethyl ketone (Table 9.5, entry 6) [108]. The trichloromethyl group is the carboxyl group precursor: using water as solvent it leads to the formation of carboxylic acids whereas the use of an alcohol leads to ester derivatives. In contrast, the b-peruoroalkyl-b-alkoxyvinyl phenyl ketone undergoes a selective attack on the carbonyl group upon reacting with hydroxylamine in basic medium, affording an isoxazole bearing a peruoroalkyl substituent (Table 9.5, entry 7) [109]. Isoxazoles can be obtained via oxidative cyclization of a,b-unsaturated oximes with iodine/potassium iodide [113], with N-bromosuccinimide [114] or with palladium complexes in the presence of sodium phenoxide [115]. 3,5-Diarylisoxazoles can also be obtained using lead(IV) acetate as oxidant, although in moderate yields (2428%) [116]. The method of preparation of 3,5-disubstituted isoxazoles by oxidative closure of a,b-unsaturated oximes can be carried out using tetrakis(pyridine)cobalt(II) dichromate (TPCD) as oxidant, under mild reaction conditions and very short reaction time (Scheme 9.7) [117]. A route to ABT-418 involving the same type of strategy for the isoxazole ring has been described [118].
Ar2 HO N
Ar1
Ar1 TPCD/60% AcOH aq. 60 C, 1 min Ar2 O N 51-94%
Scheme 9.7
The synthesis of isoxazoles attached to sugar moieties via oxidative cyclization of a,b-unsaturated oximes has been reported [119]. The isoxazoles were obtained by reacting the oximes with potassium iodide and sodium hydrogen carbonate at 100 C (6468% yield). The reaction of a,b-alkynic ketones with hydroxylamine hydrochloride gives 3- or 5-substituted isoxazole isomers, depending on the conditions used (Table 9.5, entry 8) [110]. This route to isoxazoles has been applied to the synthesis of non-proteinogenic isoxazole substituted a-amino acids [120].
9.4.1.1.2 [CNO CC] Reactions: 1,3-Dipolar Cycloaddition of Nitrile Oxides The study of Quilico et al. on the formation of isoxazoles from nitrile oxides and unsaturated compounds is a milestone in the chemistry of isoxazoles [7]. Since then, the 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition of nitrile oxides has became an important approach to isoxazoles [6, 10, 85, 86, 121, 122]. Nitrile oxides can undergo dimerization to give furoxans (1,2,5-oxadiazole-2-oxides), the rate of this process being strongly dependent on the nature of the nitrile oxide substituent. Thus, steric and electronic effects determine the stability of the nitrile oxides, as illustrated by the time required for complete dimerization of some derivatives (Table 9.6) [123]. To avoid dimerization, nitrile oxides are usually generated in situ.
742

Table 9.6 Stability of some nitrile oxides towards dimerization to furoxans [123].
R 2 R N O N
R
R O N O furoxans
Complete dimerization (at 18 C) 10 days Very slow Very stable
Complete dimerization (at 18 C) <1 min 23 days 3060 min
Methyl t-Butyl Phenyl
p-Chlorophenyl p-Nitrophenyl 2,4,6-Trimethylphenyl
The 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition of nitrile oxides with mono-substituted alkynes (alkyl/aryl) gives the corresponding 3,5-disubstituted isoxazoles regioselectively and occurs in competition with the 1,3-addition to give acetylenic oximes, which in some cases can be isolated. These oximes can easily be converted into isoxazoles (Scheme 9.8) [124].
CCl4 25 C, overnight OH Ph O Ph N
Ph
N O
Ph
N Ph
90%
Ph
Scheme 9.8
A one-pot synthesis of isoxazoles from monosubstituted acetylenes with nitric acid under biphasic conditions (nitromethanewater, 1 : 1) in the presence of the catalyst Bu4N AuCl4 has been described (Table 9.7, entry 1) [125]. Nitrile oxide, generated from a-hydroxyimino carboxylic acids, in the presence of an alkyne furnishes the corresponding isoxazole (Table 9.7, entry 2) [126]. An efcient method for the in situ generation and cycloaddition of nitrile oxides from nitroalkanes, using 4-(4,6-dimethoxy[1,3,5]triazin-2-yl)-4-methylmorpholinium (DMTMM) chlorides and DMAP as catalyst through microwave irradiation has been reported. Carrying out the reaction in the presence of the appropriate alkynes, isoxazoles are obtained in high yields (Table 9.7, entries 3 and 4). This approach can also be applied to solid-phase synthesis [127]. Geometry constraints in the intramolecular 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition of nitrile oxides containing internal terminal alkynes leads to the exclusive formation of 4-substituted isoxazoles (Table 9.8). The reaction of nitrile oxides with disubstituted alkynes leads to isoxazoles exclusively via 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition when the alkyne contains at least one electron-withdrawing substituent [6, 134].
Table 9.7
1,3-Dipolar cycloaddition of nitrile oxides with mono-substituted alkynes.
1 [125]
2 R CH3NO2/H2O (1:1) 50 C R R O R
R1 R2 O N
+ HNO3 N O N
Bu4N+AuCl4- (cat.) 35-50%
COR
N R2 DMF, 0 C 20 min N O CAN(IV) R1 R2 41-70%
OH
2 [126]
R1
CO2H
R1 = Ph or R1 = COPh
R1 N 45-87% R1 DMTMM/DMAP MeCN, rt, 6-12 h NO2 R2 92-100%
3 [127]
DMTMM/DMAP MeCN, MWI, 3 min. R2 O
R1 N
R2
O EtNO2 95% O
4 [127]
DMTMM/DMAP MeCN, MWI, 3 min.
Boc
O Boc
j743
Table 9.8
Intramolecular 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition of nitrile oxides.

744
1 [128]
Ph N OSiMe3 OH O
O 2h, reflux N O O N 57% O O O
Ph O N N O 75% Ph
Br
O NEt3/C6H6 reflux Cl N OH
1. F 2. NaOCl
2 [129]
NO2 NO2 HO NaH, THF 37-40%

R1 N N N NaOCl/NEt3, 0 C 65-80% O
OEt O NaH, DMSO rt, overnight O (CH2)3I EtO O O 97% OEt 92% LiAlH4 /THF rt, overnight OH OH
Ar Ar O O N
3 [130, 131]
Ar
R1
1. n-BuLi/THF - 18 C, 10 min 2. Ac2O, 10 min
R2O N OR2 N N
4 [132]
HO
EtO
5 [133]
1. (COCl)2 / NEt3, -78 C 2. rt, overnight HO N N 85% OH
67% 1. NaOCl, 0 C 2. rt, overnight O N N O
3. NH2OH.HCl / Py rt, 6 days
j745
Solid-phase synthesis of 3-hydroxymethyl-4,5-disubstituted isoxazoles 66 has been achieved through a 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition of different alkynes to resin-bound nitrile oxide generated from nitro compound 65 under Mukaiyama conditions [135]. An alternative solid-phase 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition methodology allows the regioselective preparation of 5-hydroxyalkylisoxazoles 67 by anchoring acetylenic compounds on trityl chloride resin and carrying out the cycloaddition with nitrile oxides generated in situ from aldoximes (Scheme 9.9) [136].
R2 O H N O O NO2 R2 R1 O PhNCO NEt3, DMF 50 C, 5 h H N O O N O R1 20% TFA CH2Cl2 30 min R O n O N R2 R1 O N OH
65
66 33-93% R
Cl
HO
n O
Pyridine rt, 48 h
N OH 1. R NCS. rt, 2 h 2. NEt3, rt
5% TFA CH2Cl2 rt, 20 min
n HO O
67 60-90%
Scheme 9.9
A soluble polymer-supported synthesis of 3-hydroxymethyl-5-arylisoxazole, where construction of the isoxazole ring was based on nitrile oxide cycloaddition reactions, has been reported [137140]. An alternative route to solid-phase synthesis for the construction of a library of isoxazoles involves a solution phase combinatorial synthesis of isoxazoles via cycloaddition of nitrile oxides with alkynes followed by precipitation of the products as HCl salts [141]. The synthesis of isoxazoles via cycloaddition of nitrile oxides can also be achieved using easily available alkenes instead of alkynes and converting the resulting isoxazolines into the corresponding isoxazoles either by dehydrogenation or by elimination reaction in the case of derivatives bearing a potential leaving group. In many cases the cycloaddition of nitrile oxides to alkenes affords directly the isoxazoles due to the lability of the intermediate isoxazoline under the experimental conditions (Scheme 9.10) [10, 121, 142].
OAc H AcO O 90% - AcOH 5%
N O
O N
Scheme 9.10
The reaction of alkenes and alkynes with cerium ammonium nitrate (CAN) in acetone or acetophenone under reux gives 4,5-dihydroisoxazoles or isoxazoles, respectively (Scheme 9.11) [143]. The reaction mechanism involves the nitration of
746

O R2 CAN (IV) or CAN (III)-HCO2H R1
R2 O CH3
n
CAN (IV) or CAN (III)-HCO2H

n = 0-3
R2
N 12-78%
R2 = Me or Ph
CAN (IV) or CAN (III)-HCO2H CH3
N 22-73% O R2 = Me or Ph
O R2 R1 O N
R2 = Me or Ph
O R2
R1
31-80%
Scheme 9.11
acetone or acetophenone mediated by CAN (IV) or CAN (III) followed by the generation of the corresponding nitrile oxide (Scheme 9.12). The 3-acetyl- and 3-benzoylisoxazole derivatives are obtained by 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition of this dipole with the alkenes or alkynes.
O R2 Ce3+/ H+ CH3 NO3R2 O NO2 R2 O NO2H H+ - H2O O R2
N O
Scheme 9.12
Further examples of the use of 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition of nitrile oxides with alkenes and alkynes for the synthesis of isoxazoles have been published [144155]. An alternative approach to the regioselective construction of the isoxazole ring involves the reaction of nitrile oxides with doubly activated methylene groups containing at least one carbonyl or nitrile substituent. This group ends up in the 5-position of the isoxazole: an acyl group as an alkyl or aryl group, 2-oxoacyl group as an acyl group, an ethoxyoxoacyl as an ethoxycarbonyl group, and a nitrile as an amino group (Scheme 9.13) [10, 156159].
X Y CH2 X Y = COR Y = COCOR Y = COCO2Et Y = CN R1 N O R2 O R1 N
R2 = alkyl or aryl R2 = COR R2 = CO2Et R2 = NH2
Scheme 9.13
Several 3-aryl-5-alkylisoxazoles were synthesized in good yields by reacting arylnitrile oxides with free enolates, obtained from alkyl methyl ketones, followed by dehydration (Scheme 9.14) [160].
j747
Ar O N
O R Ar N O
Ar LDA/pentane
- 78 C, 2 h
HO
N R reflux, 2 h O quantitative yields 70-83%
Na2CO3 MeOH/H2O
Scheme 9.14
Polyisoxazole systems containing two or more isoxazole rings can be constructed using the 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition of nitrile oxides. Starting from bisnitrile oxides the reaction with alkynes leads to 3,30 -linkage of the isoxazole rings whereas the cycloaddition of nitrile oxides with diynes produces a 5,50 -linkage [6, 161165].
9.4.1.2 [4 1] Routes 9.4.1.2.1 [CCNO C] Reactions: Reactions of Oxime Dianions with Carbonyl Compounds The reaction of oxime dianions with carbonyl compounds (e.g., esters, amides or aroyl chlorides) is an alternative regioselective method for the construction of the isoxazole ring (Scheme 9.15). The anion is acylated on carbon followed by cyclizationdehydration to give the unsymmetrically substituted isoxazoles. The same type of reaction can be carried out with benzonitriles, benzaldehydes and benzophenones [6, 10]. The condensation of 1,4-dilithiooximes with amides usually leads to higher yields than the reaction with aromatic esters [166168].
1) R3COX 2) H2SO4 conc. 10-87% R1 R3 O R2 N
R2 N 2BuLi
R2 O N
HO
X = OMe or NMe2 or Cl
Scheme 9.15
A regiocontrolled route to isoxazoles has been reported that is a modication of the oxime dianion method (Scheme 9.16) [169].
9.4.1.2.2 [CCNO C] Reactions: via Nitrosoalkenes Isoxazoles can be obtained from the reaction of nitrosoalkenes 68, generated in situ by dehydrohalogenation
O O
Pri N R1 H2SO4
LDA
Pri N R1 R1 Li
R CO2Et - EtOH
PriHN R1
R2
NH2OH - H2NPri
HO N R1
R2
- H2O
Scheme 9.16
R2
(ABT-418)
748

of a-halooximes 69 or of the isomeric nitroso compounds 70, with a C synthon (Scheme 9.17). The formation of alkene-nitrosyl chloride adduct 71 followed by reaction with cyanide affords 5-aminoisoxazoles 72 [170]. N-Substituted 5-aminoisoxazoles are usually prepared through N-functionalization of 5-aminoisoxazoles. However, such derivatives can also be produced directly from oximes of a-haloketones and isocyanides in the presence of sodium carbonate [171]. The process is thought to involve a [4 1] cycloaddition of the transient nitrosoalkene with isocyanides to give 73. The C synthon can also be a keto-stabilized sulfonium ylide, as illustrated by the reaction of benzoylsulfonium ylide with (2-chloro-2-ethoxy-1nitrosoethyl)benzene leading to isoxazole 74 [172].
R N R
X HO
- HX
O
- HX
R NO
69 X = Cl or Br
68
Me
70 X = Cl
Me KCN Me O N
MeCH=CHMe
NOCl DMSO or CH3CN
Cl
Me NO
71
R1 O N
CH3CN rt, 3 days
H 2N
72
R1
X HO N
R1
- HX Na2CO3, CH2Cl2 rt, overnight
CNR
40-93%
R2HN
X = Cl or Br
OEt EtOCH=CHPh NOCl Et2O, - 70 C Ph Cl Ph NO PhCOCHSMe2
73
EtO Ph O N
- 40 C, 40 min
PhOC
- EtOH
PhOC
Scheme 9.17
74 45%
9.4.1.3 [5 0] Routes 9.4.1.3.1 [CCCNO] Reactions Reaction of 1,1-dihalo-2-arylcyclopropanes, bearing electron-accepting substituents in the aromatic ring, with a mixture of nitric acid and sulfuric acid leads to halogen-substituted isoxazoles (Scheme 9.18) [173174]. A simple procedure for the synthesis of 5-aminoisoxazoles takes advantage of the biohydrogenation of nitroacrylonitriles (RH, Me or Ar) with bakers yeast (Scheme 9.19) [175]. The reduction of nitroacrylonitriles as a route to isoxazoles

X X Ar Ar
j749
HNO3/H2SO4 0 C, 1 h
X O
2-85%
Scheme 9.18
Ph NC
R NO2
Ph Baker's Yeast 52-82% H2N O
R N
R = H, Me or Ar
Scheme 9.19
can also be carried out electrochemically or by reduction or by treatment with thiophenol in basic medium [10].
9.4.1.3.2 [OCCCN] Reactions Cyclization of a,b-unsaturated ketones or esters bearing an appropriate nitrogen-containing substituent in the b-position can lead to the corresponding isoxazole derivatives (Scheme 9.20). The nitrogen atom can undergo a nucleophilic attack by the carbonyl oxygen atom if a good leaving group is present. However, the formation of an b-acylvinylnitrene as intermediate cannot be excluded. Examples of this type of isoxazole precursors are b-azidovinyl ketones or esters 75, N-(1-pyridinio)acylvinylaminides 76 and acylvinylsulnimines 77 [6, 10]. The N-(1-pyridinio)acylvinylaminides 78 undergo NN bond cleavage upon heating in benzene to give isoxazoles 79 [176]. Acylvinylsulnimines 80 [177], generated from the reaction of diphenylsullimine with benzoylacetylenes, allows the synthesis of isoxazoles 81 (Scheme 9.21).
R2 R1 O R3 N N N R1 R2 O R3 N N R1 R2 R3 N SR2
R2 R1
R3 N Y R
R2
1
R3 O N
75
76
77
Scheme 9.20
ROC Me O N N
Benzene reflux, 10 min - 2 h 83% (R = Me) 65% (R = OEt)

R
ROC Me O N
78
O Ph Ph2S-NH
79
R
CHCl3 reflux, 1 h
Ph
N SPh2
- Ph2S
Ph O
80 R = H, Ph or COPh
81 54-75%
Scheme 9.21
750

The thermolysis of 3-phenyl-2H-azirine-2-carbaldehyde at 200 C leads to 3-phenylisoxazole in high yield [178]. The same isoxazole can also be obtained in 90% yield by treatment of 3-phenyl-2H-azirine-2-carboxaldehyde at 25 C with Grubbs catalyst [179]. Furthermore, 2-benzoyl-3-phenyl-2H-azirine affords the corresponding isoxazole upon heating in non-hydroxylic solvents [180] (Scheme 9.22).
Ph
80%
OHC N
Ph
Toluene Sealed tube 200 C, 24 h
Ph H O N
Ph N
Scheme 9.22
COPh
non-hydroxylic solvents 30%
Ph Ph O N
9.4.1.3.3 [CONCC] Reactions Lithium hydroxide-catalyzed cyclization of a-(acylmethoxyimino)nitriles 82 provides a route to 5-acyl-4-aminoisoxazoles 83 [181]. The a-nitro oximes 84 act as an CONCC synthon in the synthesis of benzoylprotected 3-ribofuranosyl-4-nitroisoxazole-5-carboxylate 85 (Scheme 9.23) [182].
NC O N R O Br R
1
NC R1 O O 82 N
H2N LiOH 36-61% R1 O NO2 O 83
R N
R1 = Ph or Me
R = Ph, CN, CONH2 or CO2Et NO2 R HO N Cl O CO2Et
O EtO2C O 84 N
O2N EtO2C O 85
R N
Py, 2-methyl-2-butanol rt, 4 h O OCOPh
R = PhCOO PhCOO
Scheme 9.23
9.4.1.3.4 [NOCCC] Reactions 3-Aminoisoxazole can be synthesized by the hydrolysis and ring closure of vinyl-substituted oximes under acidic conditions
j751
(Scheme 9.24) [183]. Similar results are obtained starting with other oximes (e.g., acetone oxime or ethyl acetate oxime) and the cyanoacetylene can also be replaced by b-chloroacrylonitrile [184].
EtOH 0 C, 1 h then rt, overnight O NMe 97%
N OH
CN
N OCH=CHCN
Et2O/H2O (100:1) CHCl3 rt, overnight O
NH2 N
85%
Scheme 9.24
9.4.1.4 [3 1 1] Routes 9.4.1.4.1 [ONC C C] Reactions The reaction of primary nitroalkanes with organic bases affords dioximes 86 which are converted into trialkylisoxazoles 87 in high yields when heated in dilute acids [10]. In contrast, the reaction of phenylnitromethane with cis-a-nitrostilbene gives isoxazoline-N-oxide 88. Treatment of 88 with aqueous alcoholic sodium hydroxide allows the synthesis of triphenylisoxazole 89 (Scheme 9.25) [185]. Trisubstituted isoxazoles can also be obtained from the reaction of nitroalkanes with aldehydes in the presence of a base [10, 186].
R 3 RCH2NO2 N(OH)2 R - 2H2O NOH H2O - HNO3
NOH R
R O 87 Ph Ph O 89
R N
R C NO2 R N(OH)2
R C NO2 R NOH
R CH R 86 NOH
PhCH2NO2
Ph H
Ph NaOMe NO2
Ph
NO2
Ph Ph O 88
Ph N O
Ph CH Ph NO2
NaOH EtOH/H2O
Ph N
Scheme 9.25
9.4.1.5 Ring Transformations of Heterocycles Leading to Isoxazoles 4-Acylisoxazolin-5-ones 90 rearrange to the isomeric isoxazole-4-carboxylic acids 91 upon treatment with aqueous sodium hydroxide [187]. 4-Benzylidene-3-phenylisoxazolin-5-one (92) is converted into isoxazole 93 upon treatment with anhydrous ammonia in ethanol in the presence of benzaldehyde (Scheme 9.26) [188]. The reaction of hydroxylamine with 2-substituted or 3-substituted chromones gives exclusively the corresponding 5-(2-hydroxyphenyl)isoxazoles (Scheme 9.27) [10]. The reaction involves the opening of the chromone ring followed by the formation
752

R O O Ph N R O OH Ph N 1. NaOH aq. 2. H+ HO2C R O 91 Ph O 92
Scheme 9.26
Ph N
90 R = Ph or Me PhHC O H2NOC PhCHO NH3/EtOH Ph O 93 Ph N
R1 R2
NH2OH
OH
R2 O
R1 N R2 = H and R1 = Me, Ph or CO2H R1 = H and R2 = Ph
O
Scheme 9.27
of 5-(2-hydroxyphenyl)isoxazole in 72% overall yield [189, 190]. Some of these isoxazole derivatives show anti-inammatory related activity. The 5-amino-4-triuoroacetyloxazoles 94 can be used in a two-step synthesis of isoxazoles 96 (Scheme 9.28). Nucleophilic attack of hydroxylamine at the ve position of 94 leads to ring opening followed by a cyclization to give isoxazoline 95. Subsequent dehydration in the presence of triuoroacetic anhydride allows the synthesis of isoxazoles in good yields [191].
N Ar O 94
Scheme 9.28
COCF3 NR2 NH2OH
ArOCHN F3COC
NR2 NHOH
ArOCHN HO F3C O 95
NR2 N
ArOCHN F3C O 96
NR2 N
(CF3CO)2O
Isoxazolines with the general structure 97 undergo cycloreversion to give isoxazoles 98 (Scheme 9.29) [6]. The parent isoxazole can be prepared in 37% yield by the thermolysis of the cycloadduct obtained from fulminic acid (HCNO) and norbornadiene [192]. This type of approach can also be used to the synthesis of 3-vinylisoxazole (99), which is unsubstituted at both the 4- and 5-positions. The twostep procedure involves initial 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition of acrylonitrile oxide to norbornadiene followed by retro-DielsAlder fragmentation under ash vacuum pyrolysis [193].
j753
R2 R2 X O R3 N O
R3 N
R1 X
R2
97 X = CH, O, NH, CR=CR
98
FVP O
Scheme 9.29
[475 C, 1x10-3 mmHg] 99%
O 99
Furazans (1,2,5-oxadiazoles) undergo fragmentation to nitrile and nitrile N-oxides by thermolysis or photolysis. Irradiation of benzofurazan in the presence of dimethyl acetylenedicarboxylate (DMAD) to give isoxazole 100 is an illustrative example of this approach (Scheme 9.30) [194, 195].
N N MeO2C MeO2C O N CN
DMAD h
100
Scheme 9.30
9.4.2 Isothiazoles
The rst synthesis of a mononuclear isothiazole ring system was reported in 1956 [15]. Oxidation of 5-amino-1,2-benzisothiazole by alkaline permanganate gives isothiazole-4,5-dicarboxylic acid. Decarboxylation to isothiazole-4-carboxylic acid followed by functional group interconversion leads to the isothiazole itself and a range of monosubstituted isothiazoles [15]. The chemistry of isothiazoles has been reviewed [2529]. The most convenient methods for the construction of the isothiazole ring involve: (i) oxidative cyclization of a c-thio amine derivative (formation of the SN bond), (ii) 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition of nitrile suldes to alkynes or alkenes and (iii) conversion of other heterocycles into isothiazoles. Examples of such synthetic methodologies are described below.
9.4.2.1 Synthesis from Acyclic Compounds Isothiazole itself can be prepared from propynal by two distinct routes (Scheme 9.31). It reacts with thiohydroxylamino-S-sulfonate (101) to give the thiooxime intermediate
754

H2NSSO3- K+ 101 CH NSSO3- K+ 102 CHO Na2S2O3, AcOH, acetone-H2O -5 C, 30 min 65%
Scheme 9.31
NaHCO3 S N
NaO3S S 103
CHO
liquid NH3 -60 C to rt 60%
102, which, in the presence of NaHCO3, cyclizes to isothiazole [21]. In the second route, propynal and sodium thiosulfate afford the intermediate 103, which on treatment with ammonia cyclizes to isothiazole [196]. 3-Methylisothiazole can be obtained by a similar synthetic procedure, changing propynal by but-3-yn-2-one [196]. There are several routes to isothiazoles based on oxidative cyclization reactions in which the NS bond is formed. A good leaving group attached to the sulfur atom is required, which frequently is introduced by reaction with iodine (Scheme 9.32) [197, 198].
R1 H 2N S NH2 I2, EtOEt, reflux, 2 h H2N I S R1 :NH H2N S R1 N
R1 = alkyl, cycloalkyl
Scheme 9.32
Oxidation of 3-amino-2-cyano-3-phenylpropenedithioates with iodine produces 3-phenyl-5-alkylthioisothiazole-4-carbonitriles in near-quantitative yield (Scheme 9.33) [199].
NC R1S S Ph NH2 NC S Ph N
I2, KI, EtOH, pyridine, H2O, rt, 1 h
R1S R1 = Me, Bn, CH2COMe, CH2CO2Et
Scheme 9.33
Ketene S,N-acetals 104 give the isothiazolium salts 105 in good yields when treated with iodine at room temperature. Dealkylation with KI in DMSO affords the corresponding 5-aryl-3-(arylthio)isoxazoles 106 (Scheme 9.34) [200]. Enamino thioaldehydes 108 can be converted in good yields into 3,4-disubstituted isothiazoles 109 by oxidation with m-chloroperbenzoic acid (Scheme 9.35) [201]. Oxidation of enamino thioaldehydes 108 (generated from 107a) with iodine, at room
j755
Ar1 S 104
SAr2 NHR1
I2, EtOH, rt, 30 min 63-90% Ar1
R1 = Me, Et Ar1 = Ph, XC6H4 (X = Cl, 3-MeO, 4-MeO) Ar2 = Ph, XC6H4 (X = Cl, Br, MeO), 2-naphthyl
S 105
SAr2 + I3 N R1
KI, DMSO, 120 C, 3-5 h 67-92% Ar1
SAr2 N S 106
Scheme 9.34
R1 H2N
i) DMF-POCl3, ii) NaHS, H2O
R1 H2N 108
X CHS
MCPBA, EtOH, 65-75 C, 2-3 h 78-97%
R1 N S 109
107a, X = CO2R (R = Me, Et) 107b, X = CN R1 = alkyl, aryl

Scheme 9.35
temperature, also affords the corresponding isothiazoles 109 in moderate to good yields [202]. Thioaldehydes 108 may be synthesized from enamines 107 by solvolysis of the corresponding Vilsmeier salts with aqueous or methanolic sodium hydrogen sulde [201, 202]. 3,5-Diaminoisothiazole-4-carboxylate derivatives can be prepared in a one-pot reaction from active methylene nitriles, isothiocyanates and chloramine (Scheme 9.36) [203]. Reactions starting from malononitrile give the corresponding isothiazole in higher yields (4165%).
NaOEt, EtOH, 0 C - rt, 12 h R1 R2NH CN S- Na+ NH2Cl, H2O, rt, 24 h R2NH R1 S NH2 N
CN +
R N C S
R1 = CN, CO2R (R = Me, Et, tBu); R2 = alkyl, aryl

Scheme 9.36
Dithiolate disodium salt 110 reacts with chlorine to give 4-benzoyl-3,5-dichloroisothiazole (111) in low yield. However, the same compound can be monomethylated and reacted with hydroxylamine-O-sulfonic acid to afford isothiazole 112 in a global 75% yield (Scheme 9.37) [204].
PhCO Cl S Cl N Cl2, CCl4, reflux 24% PhCO NC SNa SNa 110 i) Me2SO4 ii, H2NOSO3H 75% CN MeS S Ph N
111
Scheme 9.37
112
756

Oximes are also useful intermediates in the synthesis of isothiazoles. For instance, oximes derived from a-oxoketene dithioacetals cyclize to 5-methylthioisothiazoles when treated with thionyl chloride in pyridine (Scheme 9.38) [205].
O R2 R
1
SCH3 SCH3
H2NOH, aq. EtOH reflux, 3.5-20 h 80-99%
HO R2
N R1
SCH3 SCH3
SOCl2, pyridine CH2Cl2, 0-5 C, 1 h, rt, 8-10 h 60-85% H3CS
R1 S
R2 N
R1,R2 = -(CH2)4-; -(CH2)3R1 = R2 = H; R1 = Me, R2 = Et
Scheme 9.38
Oxime derivatives 113 are converted into isothiazoles 114 by reaction with a dehydrating agent, namely tosyl isocyanate [206]. Similarly, the 2-(hydroxyimino)alkyl N,N-dialkyldithiocarbamates 115 and the analogous trithiocarbonates 117 react with tosyl isocyanate to afford the bis(4-isothiazolyl) disuldes 116 or 119 and the disubstituted isothiazoles 118 (Scheme 9.39) [207].
Ph S Ar S NOH Ts-N=C=O Ar Ph N S 114 S R2N S R1 N 2
113 R1 Ts-NCO, toluene, reflux, 20-24 h

1
S R2N
NOH 115 Ph
36-68% R = H, Me, Ph Ts-NCO, toluene, reflux, 20 h R1S
116 Ph N S 21-39% 118 + R1S S Ph
S R1S
NOH 117
R1 = Et, i-Pr
N S 35-40% 119
Scheme 9.39
Oxime tosylates of type 120 react with methyl thioglycolate to give 4-amino or 4-hydroxyisothiazole-5-carboxylate esters (Scheme 9.40) [208, 209]. This synthetic methodology has been used to prepare ethyl 4-aminoisothiazole-5-carboxylate C-nucleosides [210]. Photoreaction of arylthioamides with alkenes and alkynes, under aerobic conditions, yields isothiazoles and 1,2,4-thiadiazoles in low to moderate yields (Scheme 9.41). Nitrile suldes are probable intermediates in these reactions [211].
j757
X = CN N OTs
H2N MeO2C S
Ar N
+ HSCH2CO2Me Ar X X = CN, CO2Et 120
X = CO2Et
HO MeO2C S
Ar N
Scheme 9.40
S Ar NH2
R1 h , O2
R1 S
Ar N Ar S N + R2 S Ar N R2 R5 S Ar N
R2R3C CR4R5 h , O2 Ar
R3 R4 R5
Scheme 9.41
a-Acetylenic aldehydes or ketones are converted into 4-unsubstituted isothiazoles by reaction with hydroxylamine-O-sulfonic acid and sodium hydrogen sulde in buffered aqueous solution in a one-pot procedure (Scheme 9.42) [212].
i) H2NOSO3H ii) NaHS R1 S R2 N
R1CO
R2
Scheme 9.42
Arylmethylene-malononitriles react with sulfur chloride in the presence of pyridine to give 5-aryl-3-chloroisothiazole-4-carbonitriles in high yields (Scheme 9.43) [213].
S2Cl2, pyridine, 140-150 C, 6-8 h 60-78% NC Ar S Cl N
CN Ar CN
Ar = Ph, XC6H4, 1-, 2-naphthyl, 3-, 4-pyridyl
Scheme 9.43
3-Chloroalk-2-enals react with ammonium thiocyanate to afford 4,5-disubstituted isothiazoles 121 (Scheme 9.44) [214, 215]. Cycloalka[c]isothiazoles 122 can be prepared by a similar method [216]. 2-Thiocyanatocyclohex-1-ene carbaldehyde (123) reacts with anilines to afford isothiazolium salts 124 [217].
758

R1 R2 O R1 R2 CHO Cl NH4SCN, Me2CO R1 R2 CHO SCN Me2CO, reflux, 1 h R1 R2 N S 121
R1 = H, Me, Pr, Ph; R2 = Me, Et, Ph, 4-XC6H4 (X = Cl, Br); R1-R2 = -(CH2)nn O SCN NH3 n = 1, 2 N S 122 n H2N Ar HClO4
CHO SCN
123
ClO4+ N Ar S 124
Scheme 9.44
Methacrylonitrile reacts with trithiazyl trichloride (NSCl)3 in the presence of excess SO2Cl2, in reuxing chloroform, to give 4-cyanoisothiazole in 78% yield [218].
9.4.2.2 Ring Transformations of Heterocycles Leading to Isothiazoles Several heterocyclic compounds can, by chemical modication, be converted into isothiazoles. Despite some synthetically interesting exceptions, in most cases the starting heterocycles are not readily available and the routes are unlikely to be general. A synthetically useful method involves the generation of nitrile suldes in the presence of alkynes or alkenes, affording isothiazoles or 4,5-dihydroisothiazoles, respectively (Scheme 9.45). The nitrile suldes are conveniently generated in situ by thermal cycloreversion of ve-membered heterocycles already containing the CN-S unit [219]. Decarboxylation of 1,3,4-oxathiazol-2-ones in an inert solvent (e.g., xylene, chlorobenzene) in the presence of an excess of the dipolarophile is one of the most convenient routes [220223]. Using dimethyl acetylenedicarboxylate as dipolarophile, the isothiazole-4,5-dicarboxylates are obtained in yields as high as 96% [221]. The low regioselectivity observed in the reactions of nitrile suldes with unsymmetrical alkynes and alkenes is a major disadvantage of this method. Oxidation of 4,5dihydroisothiazoles with sodium hypochlorite, under phase-transfer conditions, affords the isothiazoles in high yields [223].
R2 R1 N 110-160 C - CO2 R1 + N S
R3
R2 R3 S
R1 N
O O S
NaOCl R2 R3 S R1 N
R CH CH R
Scheme 9.45
j759
Both 2,5- and 2,3,5-substituted furans react with trithiazyl trichloride (NSCl)3 to afford 5-acylisothiazoles in good yield (Scheme 9.46) [224, 225]. A much simpler procedure makes use of a mixture of ethyl carbamate, thionyl chloride and pyridine in boiling benzene or toluene; this generates the reactive thiazyl chloride, NSCl, in situ [226, 227]. Highly polarized 2,5-disubstituted furans (such as 125) yield only one isothiazole. However, when the electronic properties of the substituents are more balanced, two isomeric isothiazoles are formed [225, 227]. The thiazyl chloride reagent has been used for the direct conversion of calix[n]furans into macrocyclic isothiazoles [228].
N S Cl R2 R1 O R1 + Cl N S
Cl S N
R2 N S CCl4, reflux Cl R1 O S
R1 N
R1 = Ph, R2 = H, 80% R1 = t-Bu, R2 = H, 40% R1 = R2 = Ph, 75%
S O
R2 R1
S O
R2 R1 R1 O
R2 S
R1 N
R1
R1
O MeO
Scheme 9.46
H2NCO2Et, SOCl2, pyridine, C6H6, reflux, 6 h NO2 76%
C6H4NO2 MeOC6H4 O S N
125
4,5-Dichloro-1,2,3-dithiazolium chloride reacts with methyl 3-aminocrotonate at room temperature to give 5-cyano-3-methylisothiazole-4-carboxylate in 78% yield (Scheme 9.47) [229].
i) CH2Cl2, rt, 1 h ii) pyridine, rt, 30 min 78% MeO2C NC S Me N
Me H2N
CO2Me
Cl + +S S
Cl N Cl
- HCl - 1/8 S8 MeO2C Me Cl N
Me HN
CO2Me Cl S S N
N S S H
Scheme 9.47
760

Thermolysis of triphenyl-1,3-dithiol-2-yl azide (126) in reuxing toluene gives 3,4,5-triphenylisothiazole (127) in 80% yield. However, under identical conditions, the diphenyl analogue 128 affords a mixture of isothiazoles and 1,4,2-dithiazines (Scheme 9.48). These dithiazines, when reuxed in toluene, extrude the sulfur atom at the 4-position to give, selectively, one isothiazole [230].
Ph Ph
Ph
toluene, reflux, 30 min
Ph Ph
S S N
Ph - 1/8 S8 80%
Ph Ph
Ph N S 127
S N3 126
Ph
toluene, Ph reflux, 15 min Ph S
Ph N 33% +
Ph S
Ph N 2%
S N3 128
Scheme 9.48
Ph +
S S
Ph N 36% + Ph
S S
Ph N 15%
Benzopyran-4-thiones react with diphenylsullimine to give the corresponding 5-(2-hydroxyphenyl)isothiazoles in high yields (Scheme 9.49) [231].
R1 S R
4
R4 R3
R1 R2
Ph2S=NH 60-91%
OH
R2 N
S
Scheme 9.49
R1 = H, Me R2 = H, Me, Ph R3 = H, Me R4 = H, Me
R3
Maleimide derivatives 129 undergo oxidative cyclization to give isothiazole-3,4dicarboximides 130 (Scheme 9.50) [232]. By ammonolysis, the N-unsubstituted derivative affords 5-aminoisothiazole-3,4-dicarboxamide (131).
O H2N S
R1 N
O NH2
H2O2, AcOH, 20-25 C, 2 h 88-91%
O H2N
R1 N N
R1 = H NH3, H2O, H2NOC 20-25 C, 2 h 84% H2N S
CONH2 N
129, R1 = H, Me
Scheme 9.50
130
131
9.5 Synthesis of Benzisoxazoles and Benzisothiazoles
j761
9.5 Synthesis of Benzisoxazoles and Benzisothiazoles 9.5.1 1,2-Benzisoxazoles
Most synthetic approaches to 1,2-benzisoxazoles involve cyclization of a suitable benzene derivative and can be represented as follows:
C N O C O 1-2 bond formation N C O N O C N
7a-1 bond formation
2-3 bond formation
7a-1/3-3a bond formation
1,2-Benzisoxazoles can also be obtained from 3-3a bond formation in the cyclization processes. The remaining methodology involves heterocyclic rearrangements.
9.5.1.1 Formation of Bond 7a-1 The rst synthesis of a 1,2-benzisoxazole was reported in 1892, 3-phenyl-1,2benzisoxazole 132, and involved the reaction of hydroxylamine with ortho-bromobenzophenone in alkaline medium [30]. However, 1,2-benzisoxazole had been known since 1882, obtained from the reduction of ortho-nitrobenzaldehyde with tin and hydrochloric acid [233]. This base-promoted intramolecular displacement reaction for formation of the 7a-1 bond has became an important route to 1,2benzisoxazoles. Other halogens also undergo this type of displacement, with the reactivity of iodide and uoride comparable with bromide but chloride less reactive [10, 234]. The displaceable groups also include nitro, amino, methoxy and hydroxyl groups (Scheme 9.51 and Table 9.9).
R2 R
1
N OH
Base
R1 O 132
R2 N
X = Halogens, NO2, NH2, OMe, OH

Scheme 9.51
The course of the reaction is determined by the conguration of the oxime. A syn relationship of the OH to the aryl substituent bearing the leaving group allows cyclization to 1,2-benzisoxazole whereas the isomeric oximes usually produce Beckman rearrangement products [234]. Amidoximes are congurationally labile, allowing the use of the anti oxime as starting material for the synthesis of 1,2-benzisoxazoles. Thus, the amide oxime 133 cyclizes to 3-(4-pyridinylamino)-1,2-benzisoxazole 134 on reacting with potassium tert-butoxide via an isomerization/cyclization process (Scheme 9.52) [239].
762

Table 9.9
Base-promoted intramolecular displacement reactions for 1,2-benzisoxazole 7a-1 bond
formation.
Ph
1 [235]
Ph NH2OH Br N OH
O Br
Ph O N
NO2
2 [236]
NO2 CH3 NO2 HNO2 h O2N N
O2N
Via photonitrosation of trinitrotoluene
Ph O2N
3 [237]
O X NO2
1. NH2OH.HCl 2. Base, H2O
O2N
Ph O N
O2N
X = OMe or OH Requires substantial activation such as the presence of nitro groups

Ph
4 [238]
Ph N OH
NaNO2/HCl aq. N OH NH2

Via diazonium salt
Ph O N
N2
N HN N F 133
Scheme 9.52
OH
HN t-BuOK/THF reflux, 3 h O N
134 69%
b-Hydroxyoximes 135, bearing a phenyl group unsubstituted in the ortho positions, are converted into styrylbenzisoxazole 136 upon treatment with phosphoric acid [10]. The base cyclization of dithioacetal 137 followed by desulfurization leads to 3-acyl and 3-aroyl-1,2-benzisoxazoles (138) [240] (Scheme 9.53).
9.5.1.2 Formation of Bond 1-2 1,2-Benzisoxazoles can be obtained from 2-hydroxybenzophenone oximes by thermolysis, treatment with base or with dehydrating agents (e.g., sulfuric and phosphoric acid). By reacting oxime 139 with thionyl chloride/pyridine the
j763
NOH OH Ar R S S NOH S KOH O 137

Scheme 9.53
HC CHAr H3PO4 R O 136 S R N HgO/BF3 O R N O 138 N
135
1,2-benzisoxazole 140 can also be prepared [241]. The O-sulfonate oxime 141 is converted, in the presence of mild bases, into 1,2-benzoisoxazole in 95% yield [242]. A synthesis of 3-(2-dialkylaminoethyl)-1,2-benzisoxazoles 143 from oxime acetates of 2-hydroxyphenyl ketones 142 has also been reported [243] (Scheme 9.54). A similar synthetic approach has been applied to the synthesis of 3-[2-(1-pyrazolyl)ethyl]-1,2benzisoxazoles [244].
R N OH OH SOCl2/Py 0 C, 2 h R N Cl OH O 140 N OSO3-Na+ OH 141 R N R R R1 142
Scheme 9.54
2
R N
139 R = OH, Me, H NaHCO3 H2O/CH2Cl2 rt, 1 h R 1. AcCl/THF 0 C, 30 min N OH 2. Na2CO3 N R R2 K2CO3 N OAc benzene reflux OH 2 to 3 h R1
O 95%
R N R R2 O N
R1
OH
143
9.5.1.3 Formation of Bond 2-3 The synthesis of 3-methyl-1,2-benzisoxazole (145) from the reaction of 2-hydroxyacetophenone with hydroxylamine-O-sulfonic acid in diluted aqueous base is an
764

example of a 23 ring closure. The process occurs via the generation of intermediate 144, which then undergoes the cyclization [9] (Scheme 9.55).
Me O OH NH2OSO3H Base 144

Scheme 9.55
Me O ONH2 O 145
Me N
3-Amino-1,2-benzisoxazoles (147 or 149) can be obtained from 2-uorobenzenonitrile [245, 246]. The synthesis involves an SNAr reaction to give an intermediate (146 or 148, respectively) followed by ring-closure to give the 1,2-benzisoxazoles. A solidphase synthesis of 3-amino-1,2-benzisoxazoles uses a similar synthetic strategy: the displacement of uoride from 2-uorobenzonitrile by the Kaiser oxime resin 150 followed by cyclization [247, 248] (Scheme 9.56).
CN F
HON CMe2
CN O 146 N Me Me
H+/ O
NH2 N
147 R NH2 N O 149 43-94%
CN R F
HONHAc t-BuOK DMF, rt 5 h
CN R O 148
H2O NHAc - AcOH
OH R NO2 150
CN F t-BuOK/THF 50 C, 12 h
R CN N O TFA/HCl aq. 55 C, 2 h NO2 R NH2 N O 64-90%
Scheme 9.56
9.5.1.4 Formation of Bonds 7a-1/3-3a 1,3-Dipolar cycloaddition of nitrile oxides to benzyne gives 3-substituted 1,2-benzisoxazoles in modest yield (Scheme 9.57) [249]. Other dipolarophiles can also be used for the synthesis of 1,2-benzisoxazole derivatives, namely 1,4-benzoquinones and enamines [9].

O N NH2 CO2H 1. isoamyl nitrite CH2Cl2, 55-60 C Ar Ar 2. NEt3, Acetone 3. reflux, 2h O N
j765
Scheme 9.57
9.5.1.5 From Other Heterocycles The reaction of 4-hydroxycoumarin 151 (RH) and 4-hydroxycoumarin substituted derivatives with hydroxylamine leads to 1,2-benzisoxazole-3-acetic acid 152 (Scheme 9.58) [250, 251].
OH R O 151 O
1. NH2OH.HCl EtONa/EtOH Reflux, 6 h 2. NaHCO3 aq. O R OH
CH2CO2H R 152 CO2Et O N
Scheme 9.58
9.5.2 2,1-Benzisoxazoles
2,1-Benzisoxazoles are usually prepared by 1-2 or 2-3 bond formation in the cyclization step or by introduction of atom C3, resulting in the formation of bond 2-3.
9.5.2.1 Formation of Bond 1-2 An important route to 2,1-benzisoxazoles involves reduction of ortho-nitrophenones or ortho-nitroalkylbenzenes containing an oxygen function on the a-carbon of the alkyl substituent. 3-Phenyl-2,1-benzisoxazole (154) can be obtained from 153 in the presence of sulfuric acid. 3-Aryl-2,1-benzisoxazoles are also prepared by the reaction of ortho-nitrobenzaldehydes and an aromatic hydrocarbon catalyzed by sulfuric acid (Scheme 9.59) [252]. 5-Substituted-2,1-benzisoxazoles 155 have been prepared from 5-substituted-2nitrobenzaldehydes by the reduction of the nitro group with stannous chloride dihydrate and in situ cyclization (Scheme 9.60) [253]. The allyl bromide/Zn mediated reductive cyclization of 2-nitrobenzaldehydes, 2-nitroacetophenone and N-(2-nitrobenzylidene)anilines (156) leads to 2,1-benzisoxazoles in good to excellent
766

Ph OH NO2 153 CHO O2N
Scheme 9.59
H2SO4 N 154 H2SO4 conc.
Ph O
Ph O2N N O
NO2
CHO NO2
SnCl2.2H2O HCl conc. 15 C, 2-3 h
R N O
155 52-90% X R1 R2 NO2 156 2 Br Zn MeOH R1 X R2 NO R1 R2 N O
R1 = H; X = O, NPh R1 = CH3; X = O
157 52-90%
Scheme 9.60
yields [254]. The reductive cyclization of ortho-nitrobenzaldehydes and ortho-nitroacetophenone can be carried out with 2-bromo-2-nitropropane/Zn in methanol at 50 C to give 2,1-benzisoxazoles 157 in good yields [255]. Electrochemical synthesis of 2,1-benzisoxazole from nitroarenes by controlled potential cathodic electrolysis has been reported [256]. Many methods of oxidative cyclization of ortho-aminoaryl ketones to 2,1-benzisoxazoles are known [9]. An illustrative example is the hypervalent iodine oxidation of ortho-aminochalcones 158 to give styryl-2,1-benzisoxazole 159 in good yields (Scheme 9.61) [257]. Under similar reaction conditions, 3-methyl-2,1-benzisoxazole (160) is obtained from ortho-aminoacetophenone. The thermolysis of ortho-azidoaryl ketones also produces 2,1-benzisoxazoles. For example, the thermal decomposition of azide 161 gives styryl-2,1-benzisoxazoles 162 along with a minor amount of hydroxyquinoline 163 (Scheme 9.62) [258].
9.5.2.2 Formation of Bond 2-3 The 2,1-benzisoxazole ring system can be constructed from the acid- or base-catalyzed dehydration of 2-nitrobenzyl compounds. In fact, sulfuric acid cyclization of ortho-nitrophenylacetic acid yields a mixture of 2,1-benzisoxazole and
j767
Ar
Ar O NH2
PhI(OAc)2 MeOH/KOH
158 O Me NH2 PhI(OAc)2 MeOH/KOH
O N 159 82-88% Me N O
160 50%
Scheme 9.61
OH COCH=CHAr N3 161
Scheme 9.62
CH=CHAr 114 C N O N 163 5-7%
Ar
162 70-80%
2,1-benzisoxazole-3-carboxylic acid [259]. Me3SiCl/Et3N-mediated dehydration of 2-nitrobenzyl derivatives 164 gives sulfones 165 (Scheme 9.63) [260].
CO2H H SO conc. 2 4 NO2
N OH
CO2H O
H N HO O
CO2H N
O CO2H
N SO2Ar NO2 164 Ar = Ph or Tol Me3SiCl/Et3N rt (- H2O) R SO2Ar O N 165 20-72%
Scheme 9.63
Two research groups claimed the synthesis of 2,1-benzisoxazoles from the reaction of ortho-nitrosobenzaldehyde with benzylamine [261] and from treatment of 167a or 167b with aqueous sodium hydroxide [262]. However, Kurth et al. have demonstrated that the products of these reactions were in fact indazalones [263].
768

NHBn CHO NO 166 PO(OEt)2 NO2 167a 167b NHBn PO3H2 NO2
9.5.2.3 By introduction of C-3 2,1-Benzisoxazole can be produced from the condensation of nitrobenzenes with benzyl cyanide in the presence of a base. Starting from para-chloronitrobenzene the reaction with benzyl cyanide gives 2,1-benzisoxazole 168 in 46% yield via an ortho-quinonoid intermediate [264]. The synthesis of 3-substituted 2,1-benzisoxazoles 169 from the reaction of ortho-chloronitrobenzene with the sodium salt of malonic ester or ethyl cyanoacetate occurs through an initial nucleophilic displacement (Scheme 9.64).
Cl NO2 CN
KOH/MeOH 4 h, 0-5 C
Cl
Ph N O
168 46% Ph Ph CN N O R Cl CN N O R CO2Et NO2 169 N O - CN-
KOH/MeOH - H2O
Cl
Cl NO2
R = CN or CO2Et Na+ R CO2Et
Scheme 9.64
9.5.3 1,2-Benzisothiazoles
One of the most synthetically appealing methods for 3-substituted 1,2-benzisothiazoles involves the cyclization of the readily accessible oximes of 2-methylthiophenyl ketones 170. Heating oximes 171 in an acetic anhydride/pyridine mixture converts them into 1,2-benzisothiazoles 172 (Scheme 9.65) [265]. This method has been used to prepare some benzo[d,d0 ]diisothiazoles [266]. The oximes of
j769
R1
R2
R1 O SMe
NH2OH.HCl, pyridine, EtOH, R2 reflux, 4-24 h
R1 NOH SMe
pyridine, Ac2O, reflux, 24 h 76-95%
R2
170 171 R1 = Me, Et, Ph, CH2CH2CO2Me; R2 = H, Me

Scheme 9.65
S 172
2-(t-butylthio)benzaldehydes cyclize to 1,2-benzisothiazoles (172, R1H) when treated with polyphosphoric acid [267]. 1,2-Benzisothiazoles 173 and 3-amino-1,2-benzisothiazoles 174 are obtained, respectively, by treatment of 2-sulfanylbenzaldehydes or 2-sulfanylbenzonitriles with chloramine (Scheme 9.66) [268].
NaOCl, NH3, H2O, -5 C, 1h R1 = OMe, 70% R1 = Cl, 57% R1 S 173 N R1 NaOCl, NH3, H2O, -5 C, 1h R1 = OMe, 73% R1 = NO2, 78% R1 S 174 NH2 N
CHO SH
CN SH
R1
Scheme 9.66
The reaction of 2-benzylthio-4-uorobenzaldehyde or ketones 175 with sulfuryl chloride gives the corresponding sulfenyl chlorides 176, which by treatment with ethanol saturated with ammonia afford the 6-uoro-1,2-benzisothiazoles 177 (Scheme 9.67) [269].
COR1 F 175
Scheme 9.67
SO2Cl2, CH2Cl2, rt, 30 min R1 = H, Me, Ph, etc. F 176
COR1 SCl
THF, NH3, EtOH, rt, 30 min 42-70%
R1 F S 177 N
SBn
A one-pot procedure for the synthesis of 1,2-benzisothiazoles starting from simple bromobenzenes is shown in Scheme 9.68. It involves the generation of substituted
i) LiBu, THF, -78 C ii) Cp2Zr(CH3)Cl iii) R2CN, 80 C Cp = -C5H5 R2 = Me, Pr R1 178
Br R1 1 R = H, Me, MeO
Scheme 9.68
R2 N Zr Cp2
S2Cl2, THF, rt, 18 h 25-83% R1 S 179
R2 N
770

benzynes, formation of zirconium complexes and reaction with nitriles to form metallacyclic compounds 178. These compounds react with sulfur monochloride to afford regioselectively the benzisothiazoles 179 in moderate to good yields [270]. 3-Substituted 1,2-benzisothiazole 1,1-dioxides can be prepared by ortho-deprotonationcyclization of N-acylbenzenesulfonamides with 2 equivalents of LDA (Scheme 9.69) [271]. A related method for the synthesis of 3-aryl-1,2-benzisothiazoles involves the ortho-lithiation of N,N-diphenylbenzenesulfonamides followed by the addition of aromatic nitriles [272].
O SO2 R1 NH LDA (2 equiv.), THF, -78 C, 1 h 58-86% R2 S R1 N
R1 = Me, Et, i-Pr, Ph R2 = H, Cl
O O
Scheme 9.69
The ortho-lithiation of N-tert-butylbenzenesulfonamide followed by reaction with ketones gives the tertiary alcohols 180, which undergo TMSCl-NaI-MeCN reagent mediated cyclization to afford 3,3-disubstituted 2,3-dihydrobenzisothiazole 1,1dioxides 181 in high yields (Scheme 9.70) [273].
i) BuLi, THF, -78 C ii) R1COR2 SO2NH Bu
t
R2
R1 OH
t
TMSCl/NaI/ MeCN 92-99% O
R1 S
R2
55-86% 180
NH
SO2NH Bu
1
O 181 a) R = Me, R = Me, Ph, 1-naphthyl b) R1-R2 = -(CH2)n- (n = 4, 5)

2
Scheme 9.70
9.5.4 2,1-Benzisothiazoles
ortho-Toluidine and ring substituted o-toluidines 182 (R1H) react with thionyl chloride in xylene at reux temperature to yield 2,1-benzisothiazoles 183a [274]. Similarly, o-benzylaniline affords 3-phenyl-2,1-benzisothiazole (183b) (Scheme 9.71) [275]. o-Toluidines can also be converted into 2,1-benzisothiazoles
R1 R2 NH2 182
Scheme 9.71
SOCl2, xylene, reflux, 24-48 h
R2 N 183
R1 S a, R1 = H, R2 = H, Me, Cl, Br, NO2 b, R1 = Ph, R2 = H
j771
by reaction with N-sulnylmethanesulfonamide (CH3SO2NSO) [276]. This method has been used for the synthesis of all the possible angular benzo[c] bisisothiazoles and the symmetrical benzo[c]trisisothiazole and also benzo[c:d0 ] bisisothiazoles [277, 278]. 3-Amino-2,1-benzisothiazoles are easily prepared by the oxidative cyclization of ortho-aminothiobenzamides [279, 280]. These compounds can be converted into other 3-substituted derivatives by diazotization and replacement of the diazonium group by halogen atoms or cyanide or nitro groups (Scheme 9.72) [281]. Similarly, oxidative cyclization of ortho-aminothiobenzoic acid affords 2,1-benzisothiazol-3one, which can be converted into 3-chloro-2,1-benzisothiazole (Scheme 9.72) [282]. The chlorine atom is easily and almost quantitatively displaced by nucleophiles, leading to several different 3-substituted 2,1-benzisothiazoles [282].
NH2 R1 S NH2 O SH NH2
30% H2O2, R1 pyridine, 35 C R1 = H, Cl, Br, MeO 15% H2O2, 40 C 54% N H N
NH2 S
i) NaNO2, HCl 1 R ii) X-
S N X = Cl, Br, I, CN, NO2 Cl N S
O S
POCl3, pyridine, 130-140 C, 1 h 63%
Scheme 9.72
2,1-Benzisothiazole 2,2-dioxides 184 can be prepared from a wide range of precursors (Scheme 9.73) [283]. The nitro derivatives are prepared in higher yields and under milder conditions (Scheme 9.74) [283]. Such compounds are used as precursors of aza-ortho-quinodimethanes (see Scheme 9.119).
Cl
N Me
Me SO2
KNH2/NH3 66% SO2 N R1 1 R = H, Me 184
K2CO3, copper bronze 62%
Cl
NH2 SO2
Br
NH2 SO2
KNH2/NH3 33%
POCl3 36%
NH2 SO3Na
Scheme 9.73
772

NO2 Cl N R1 SO2 NO2 NaOH, DMSO rt, 30 min 69% N R1 NaOH, DMSO SO2 57% N R1 NO2 Me SO2
F O2N N R1
Me SO2
NaOH, DMSO 84%
O2N
N R1
SO2
Scheme 9.74
9.6 Reactivity of 1,2-Azoles 9.6.1 Isoxazoles and Benzisoxazoles
The key feature of these heterocycles is that they possess the typical properties of an aromatic system but contain a weak nitrogenoxygen bond, which, under certain reaction conditions, particularly in reducing or basic conditions, is a potential site of ring cleavage. Thus, isoxazoles are very useful intermediates since the ring system stability allows the manipulation of substituents to give functionally complex derivatives, yet it is easily cleaved when necessary. The ring opening provides difunctionalized compounds, namely 1,3-dicarbonyl, enaminoketone, c-amino alcohol, a,b-unsaturated oxime, b-hydroxy nitrile or b-hydroxy ketone compounds, so that isoxazoles can be considered masked forms of these synthetic units. Consequently, isoxazoles have become an important synthetic tool. The chemical behavior of benzisoxazoles can, in general, be compared with that of substituted isoxazoles. 1,2-Benzisoxazoles undergo electrophilic substitution in the benzo ring whereas the reaction with nucleophiles involves the isoxazole moiety. Benzisoxazoles readily undergo cleavage of the heterocyclic ring and this feature makes them suitable building blocks for the synthesis of other heterocyclic systems.
9.6.1.1 Thermal and Photochemical Reactions Scheme 9.75 outlines the reactivity pattern of isoxazoles under thermal reaction conditions. NO bond cleavage leads to the generation of vinylnitrenes 185, which rearrange to the corresponding 2H-azirines 186. The 2H-azirines can also undergo ring cleavage to give nitrile ylides 187 followed by recyclization to give oxazoles 189 as the nal product. However, thermolysis of isoxazoles unsubstituted at C3 usually leads to nitriles 188 (Scheme 9.75) [284, 285]. Thermolysis of 3-unsubstituted 1,2benzisoxazoles yields the corresponding salicylnitriles 190 [286].
9.6 Reactivity of 1,2-Azoles
j773
R1
R2 R3 O
R1 N R3
R2 O 185 H
R1 N R3
R2 O N 186
R1 R3
R2 O
187 R1 = H O R2 R3
CN OH 190
CN R
2
N O 189 R1
188
Scheme 9.75
The thermal stability of alkyl or aryl substituted isoxazoles is relatively high. In fact isoxazoles 191 are stable on heating at 280 C for 10 days [287]. However, isoxazoles having a heteroatom (O, S, N) substituent at C5 undergo ring cleavage at lower temperatures. In fact, 5-alkoxy-3-arylisoxazole 192 is converted into 2H-azirine 193 when heated at 200 C (Scheme 9.76) [288]. High yields of 3-amino-2H-azirines 195 are also obtained by both thermolysis and photolysis of 3,5-bis(dimethylamino) isoxazoles 194 [289]. The presence of a carbonyl group in the isoxazole C4 position also favors the cleavage of the NO bond [287, 290]. Thus, heating 4-acylisoxazoles 196 at 230240 C affords the isomeric 4-acyloxazoles 197 in good yields.
Ar R2 R3 191 a b c d e O R1 N RO O N 200 C 50-76%
RO2C N 193 R Me2OC N 195
Ar
192 R Me2N O 194 R OC R2

1
R1 = R3 = Ph; R2 = CH3 R1 = Ph; R2 = R3 = CH3 R1 = R3 = Ph; R2 = H R1 = Ph; R2 = H; R2 = Ph R1 = R2 = Ph; R2 = COCH3 R1OC R2 O R2 N
NMe2 N or h 50-76%
NMe2
N O 197
80% 197 a R1 = R2 = Ph b R1 = R2 = Me 82% 2 R c R1 = Me; R2 = Ph 96%
196
Scheme 9.76
Flash vacuum pyrolysis (FVP) of 3-phenyl-1,2-benzisoxazole allows the synthesis of 2-phenylbenzoxazole (198) in 80% yield (Scheme 9.77) [291]. Similar chemical behavior is observed when isoxazoles are subjected to photolysis instead of thermolysis (Scheme 9.78). The photochemical rearrangement of 199a
774

Ph O N FVP [800 C, 0.1-1 Torr] Ph N O 198
Scheme 9.77
N O
Ph
R O 199 C O 201
Scheme 9.78
R 254 nm 0.5 h N O NMe or O
N R O
R N O
CN
N O R
200 a R = H 99% b R = Me 63%
(RH) furnishes 200a in 99% yield. Irradiation of 199b (RMe) gives the corresponding oxazole 200b in 63% yield. Photolysis of 199b at 77 C allowed the observation of an IR band at 2050 cm1, which is assigned to the ketoketenimine 201 [292]. The nature of the solvent used to promote the photochemical reactions can determine the product prole [293]. 1,2-Benzisoxazole undergoes photochemical rearrangement to give benzoxazole 202 and salicylnitrile 203. The synthesis of salicylnitrile can be rationalized by considering the direct cleavage followed by hydrogen transfer, while the formation of benzoxazole occurs via isocyanide intermediate 204, which can be detected be IR and UV spectroscopy (Scheme 9.79) [294].
N 254 nm - 77 C, 3.5 h NC OH 204 O 202 203
CN OH
Scheme 9.79
j775
The photolysis of 3-methyl-1,2-benzisoxazole in n-hexane/acetonitrile gives a salicylamide, whereas carrying out the irradiation in acetonitrile/methanol (95 : 5) gives an iminoester that is converted into methyl salicylate upon hydrolysis. Photolysis of 3-methyl-1,2-benzisoxazole in 2M H2SO4 affords 2-aminophenol via hydrolysis of the benzoxazole intermediate (Scheme 9.80) [10].
O Hexane MeCN Me O N hv MeOH MeCN NHMe OH NMe OMe OH N 2M H2SO4
Scheme 9.80
H+
CO2Me OH NH2
Me
50%
OH
2,1-Benzisoxazoles can undergo ring expansion reactions on photolysis (Scheme 9.81). Carrying out the photochemical reaction in methanol leads to the synthesis of 3-acyl-2-methoxy-3H-azepines 205. The reactionin ether containing water or amines affords the corresponding 2-oxo- or 2-amino-3H-azepines (206 or 207) [295].
h R1 N O R2 h MeOH R
3
H2O R2
R2 R3
H N 205 R2 COR OMe

1
R H3O+
H N H 206 COR1 O
ether
4 5
HNR R
H COR1 NR4R5 207
Scheme 9.81
9.6.1.2 Reactions with Electrophilic Reagents Isoxazoles are quaternized by reaction with alkyl iodides or dialkyl sulfates, although special conditions are required due to the low basicity of isoxazoles and their susceptibility to nucleophilic attack. The reactivity of various azoles (1-methylimi-
776

dazole, thiazole, 1-methylpyrazole, oxazole, isothiazole and isoxazole) towards dimethyl sulfate has been studied and revealed that the parent isoxazole is the least reactive towards quaternization and is also 104 times less reactive than pyridine [296]. Thus, direct alkylation with alkyl iodides and sulfates requires relatively vigorous reaction conditions and long reaction times. The rates of quaternization of isoxazole, 1,2-benzisoxazole and 2,1-benzisoxazole with dimethyl sulfate show that 1,2-benzisoxazole is the least reactive towards N-methylation whereas 2,1-benzisoxazole reacts faster than isoxazole [297]. The reaction of isoxazoles with secondary and tertiary alcohols and perchloric acid, a efcient source of carbonium ions, is a more convenient route to isoxazolium salts with bulky N-substituents. Reaction of 3,5-dimethylisoxazole with a range of alcohols occurs at room temperature, affording isoxazolium salts in 5090% yield (Scheme 9.82) [298].
Me Me O N Me Me O N R
ROH HClO4
a b c d
R = CMe3 R = CHMePh R = CMe2Ph R = CHPh2
Scheme 9.82
4-Unsubstituted isoxazoles undergo electrophilic substitutions such as nitration, sulfonation, halogenation, chloromethylation and hydroxymethylation, Vilsmeier Haack formylation and acetoxy mercuration at the 4-position of the ring. Isoxazoles are less reactive towards electrophilic attack than furan but more reactive than pyridine, as expected for a heterocycle having an activating oxygen and a pyridine-like N-atom. The parent isoxazole is nitrated with great difculty to give 4-nitroisoxazole in 3.5% yield under controlled conditions, with mixed nitric acid and sulfuric acid at 3540 C. However, nitration of 3,5-dimethylisoxazole at 100 C affords the 4-nitro derivative in 86% yield. Both 3-methyl- and 5-methylisoxazole are nitrated regioselectively at the 4-postion. Aryl substituted isoxazoles can be nitrated under mild conditions, although competition between nitration at the C4 of the isoxazole ring and nitration at the aryl group can occur. Under controlled conditions, nitration of 3,5-diphenylisoxazole in Ac2O/HNO3 at 20 C affords only 4-nitro-3,5-diphenylisoxazole. However, the same isoxazole in HNO3 at 0 C undergoes nitration at the phenyl groups [9, 10]. 1,2-Benzisoxazoles undergo electrophilic substitutions, such as nitration, sulfonation and halogenation, preferentially at the 5-position [9, 10]. Nitration of the parent 1,2-benzisoxazole gives exclusively the 5-nitro-1,2-benzisoxazole [299] and 3-substituted 1,2-benzisoxazoles also lead to the synthesis of the 5-nitro derivatives as the major product. Isoxazole can act as an activating substituent, as illustrated by the reaction of 5,50 diisoxazole, which undergoes nitration at the 4-position of both rings (Scheme 9.83) [300].
j777
N O
O N
H2SO4 HNO3
NO2
N O O N 38%
H2SO4 HNO3
NO2
N O
NO2
O N
15%
Scheme 9.83
Isoxazoles are rather resistant to sulfonation [6, 10]. This is illustrated by the reaction of 5-phenylisoxazole with chlorosulfonic acid, which undergoes sulfonation only at the phenyl substituent, to give a mixture of m- and p-phenylsulfonyl chloride isoxazole derivatives. However, on prolonged heating with chlorosulfonic acid, 3-methyl-, 5-methyl, and 3,5-dimethyl-isoxazoles are converted into the corresponding sulfonic and sulfonyl chlorides via electrophilic substitution at C4. Isoxazoles can be halogenated with various reagents, leading to 4-haloisoxazole derivatives. Treatment of isoxazoles with chlorine or bromine leads to coordination compounds, which afford 4-chloro- or 4-bromoisoxazoles when heated or irradiated. An improved procedure for the C4 halogenation of 3,5-diarylisoxazoles with N-halosuccinimide (NBS, NCS and NIS) in acetic acid has been reported. The 4-haloisoxazoles are obtained in yields ranging from 37 to 97% [301]. Other examples of electrophilic substitution of isoxazoles have been reviewed [6, 10]. Ring-opening reactions of isoxazoles can be carried out under acidic conditions. This aspect of the isoxazoles reactivity has been explored in the conversion of 5-(2,3,5-tri-O-benzoyl-b-D-ribofuranosyl)isoxazole-4-carbaldehyde (208) into 3-cyano1,5-benzodiazepine C-nucleosides 209 (Scheme 9.84) [302].
X X NH2 N Rib O N NC Rib N 209
OHC Rib O N
H2N H2N CHCl3, r.t. 68-82% BzO O
H N TFA, r.t. PhH 49-86% X
208
Rib =
BzO OBz
Scheme 9.84
9.6.1.3 Reactions with Nucleophilic Reagents The lability of isoxazoles towards nucleophiles is a key feature of their reactivity. However, its reactivity depends on the nature and position of the substituents. In general, the stability increases with increasing substitution. In fact, the trisubstituted isoxazoles are usually stable and react with nucleophiles preferentially in the sidechains.
778

The 3-unsubstituted isoxazoles are cleaved by bases giving cyanoenolates via a onestep concerted E2 type mechanism [303]. Protonation of 210 followed by rearrangement affords b-ketonitriles 211, which in some cases undergo further reactions (Scheme 9.85). The reaction can be carried out with strong bases such as alkoxides, sodium amide, lithium diisopropylamide, butyllithium and also with hydroxide ion or with weaker bases, such as ammonia and phenyl hydrazine, at higher temperature.
Base R O 210
Scheme 9.85
R R O
H N
R R O N
H Base
R CN RCOCHRCN 211
The 3-unsubstituted 1,2-benzisoxazoles present similar behavior, reacting with hydroxide ion and amines to yield 2-cyanophenolates [304]. Reactions of 1,2-benzisoxazoles with sodium borohydride and lithium aluminium hydride usually result also in NO bond cleavage [9]. The ring opening of 5-unsubstituted 3-alkyl- or 3-arylisoxazoles requires more vigorous reaction conditions, for example heating with alkoxides or use of stronger bases, such as sodium amide or butyllithium. H5 deprotonation of these derivatives leads to NO and C3/C4 bond cleavage with formation of a nitrile and an ethynolate [305]. The 5-unubstituted isoxazoles bearing a potential leaving group at C3 react with bases without the C3/C4 bond cleavage. This is the case with cyanoisoxazole 212, which reacts with sodium ethoxide to give 213 as the nal product (Scheme 9.86) [306].
CN EtO H O N r.t. - CN NCHC C O EtO EtOH NCCH2CO2Et 213
212
Scheme 9.86
1,2-Benzisoxazoles can be used as a building block for the synthesis of other heterocycles via a reaction with bases [307, 308]; Scheme 9.87 shows two examples.
O 214
NH2 LiAlH4
OH N 215 NH
R O 216
CH2CONH2 N LiAlH4 R
OH N 217 NH
Scheme 9.87
j779
The 1,2-benzisoxazole amine derivative 214 is converted into 3-(2-hydroxyphenyl) indazole (215) by treatment with LiAlH4 or NaH [307] and the 1,2-benzisoxazole amide derivatives 216 give 3-(2-hydroxyphenyl)pyrazoles 217 [308]. Trisubstituted isoxazoles with strong electron-withdrawing groups at the 4-position are susceptible to ring cleavage when reacting with nucleophiles (Scheme 9.88). For example, alkaline treatment of 5-methylamino-4-nitroisoxazole 218 leads to oxime 219 along with methylamine [309]. The process proceeds with initial nucleophilic attack at the 5-position of the isoxazole ring. 4-Aroylisoxazole 220 undergoes a rearrangement to give 4-acetylisoxazole 222 via an initial nucleophilic attack at the 5-position followed by cyclization of oxime 221 [310].
O2N MeHN O Ph N
NaOH aq. 80 C, 5 h
Ph NOH 219 COMe
NO2
MeNH2
218 ArOC Me O Me N OH
Me NOH 221
MeOC Ar O 222
Me N
COAr
220
Scheme 9.88
Isoxazolium salts are easily cleaved with nucleophiles. The quaternization of the nitrogen atom increases the lability of the isoxazole ring towards nucleophilic attack. The 3-unsubstituted isoxazolium salts undergo ring cleavage with mild nucleophiles, including carboxylate ions in aqueous solution, which makes these derivatives useful coupling reagents for peptide synthesis. This synthetic strategy is outlined in Scheme 9.89. Deprotonation of isoxazolium salts 223 at the 3-position is followed by ring opening and the ketoketenimines 224 formed react with a carboxylic acid to
H R O N R1
Base R1N C CHCOR 224 R R1HN O OCOR2 225 Nu R2CONu 226 R2CO2H R1HN O R2
R O O
223
O ROCHC CNHR1
Scheme 9.89
780

give 225. Reaction of this enol ester with nucleophiles (e.g., an amino acid) gives the nal product 226 [10]. 1,2-Benzisoxazolium salts readily undergo ring opening to salicylnitrile derivatives upon treatment with bases [311, 312]. The 3-unsubstituted 2,1-benzisoxazoles show similar instability in the presence of bases, and easily undergo ring opening reactions to give anthranilic acid derivatives. The 2,1-benzisoxazolium salts are particularly reactive towards nucleophilic attack at the 3 position and stable adducts can be obtained from their reaction with a range of nucleophiles. The 3-unsubstituted 2,1-benzisoxazolium salts behave in an analogous manner to their 1,2isomers. In the reaction of 2,1-benzisoxazolium salt 227 with triethylamine the deprotonation is followed by ring opening to the iminoketene 228, which undergoes electrocyclization to give N-tert-butylbenzoazetinone 229 in 84% yield (Scheme 9.90) [313].
NEt3 H N t-Bu 227
Scheme 9.90
C r.t.
O 84% N 229
O t-Bu
NBu-t 228
The reactivity prole of isoxazoles with nucleophiles also includes nucleophilic addition to the ring and nucleophilic replacement reactions. Halide displacement reactions can be carried out with 3-halo- and 5-haloisoxazoles bearing the appropriate substitution pattern to prevent ring opening. 4-Haloisoxazoles are very stable and their reactivity towards nucleophiles is similar to that of aryl halides.
9.6.1.4 Cycloaddition Reactions 4-Nitro-3-phenylisoxazoles 230 act as dienophiles towards 2,3-dimethylbutadiene (Scheme 9.92 below) [314, 315]. The activated C4/C5 double bond undergoes DielsAlder reaction with 2,3-dimethylbutadiene, acting as a synthetic equivalent of the corresponding didehydro derivative 231 since the activating groups can be easily removed. Thus, isoxazole 230c undergoes DielsAlder reaction with 2,3dimethylbutadiene to give the bicyclic derivatives 232 and 233 in 49 and 37% yields, respectively. The initial adducts 232 can be easily converted into 233 on treatment with DBU and both 232 and 233 are converted into benzisoxazole 234 either by prolonged heating or by oxidation with DDQ. The reaction of nitroisoxazole 230c with 1-azadiene 235 affords the isoxazolopyridine 237 in 59% yield, with loss of nitrous acid and dimethylamine from the initial cycloadduct 236 (Scheme 9.91) [315]. The nitroalkene moiety of 4-nitroisoxazoles undergo hetero-DielsAlder reactions with enol ethers (e.g., ethyl vinyl ether) [316].
j781
O2N R O2N O Ph N O
Ph N
230a R = CO2Et b R = COPh c R=H Sealed tube CHCl3 110 C, 24 h NO2 Ph N O H 232 49%
Ph O N 231 Ph O N
230c DDQ/ PhH reflux, 30 min O N N Ph N 234
233 37%
O2N O
Ph N
CHCl3 55 C
N N NO2 Ph O N
- HNO2 - HNMe2
N O
Ph N
230c
Scheme 9.91
235
236
237 59%
2,1-Benzisoxazole participates in DielsAlder reactions as a diene. Cycloaddition with N-phenylmaleimide gives the corresponding exo product together with a ringopened product [317]. From the reaction of 2,1-benzisoxazole with dimethyl acetylenedicarboxylate (DMAD) in reuxing benzene the quinoline 1-oxide is obtained. The mercury sulfate-catalyzed cycloaddition of 2,1-benzisoxazole with cyclic ketones has also been reported (Scheme 9.92) [318].
Ph N O NPh O CO2Me N O CO2Me N H O
H O N H
CHO
O NPh
1h, 125-130 C
DMAD N O Benzene, reflux
HgSO4
n
HO
Scheme 9.92
O N OH
11-39 % N
782

1,3-Dipolar cycloadditions of 2,1-benzisoxazole are also known, as illustrated by the example presented in Scheme 9.93 [319]. The reaction of 6-nitro-2,1-benzisoxazole-3-carboxylate 238 with excess of diazoacetic esters affords 6H-pyrazolo[3,4-g] [2,1]benzisoxazoles 240 in good yield. The reaction proceeds via the formation of the 1,3-dipolar cycloadduct 239 followed by elimination of nitrous acid.
CO2R1 N CO2R2 239 O - HNO2 47-67% HN N 240 N CO2R2
O2N
CO2R1 N2CHCO2R2 O 100-120 C N

1
O2N HN N
CO2R1 O
238 R = Me, Et, n-Pr

Scheme 9.93
9.6.1.5 Reactions with Reducing Agents Isoxazoles are readily cleaved at the NO bond under reducing conditions and many examples have been reported. Catalytic hydrogenolysis leads to b-enaminoketones or to the corresponding 1,3-diketone obtained by hydrolysis. The reduction with sodium in liquid ammonia in the presence of 3 equivalents of tert-butyl alcohol gives b-aminocarbonyl compounds, which are converted into a,b-unsaturated ketones on heating or under acidic conditions. Thus, isoxazoles can be considered masked forms of these important synthetic building blocks. The example shown in Scheme 9.94 illustrates this type of reactivity [113]. The use of isoxazoles as masked b-enaminoketones has been applied in a strategy for the total synthesis of vitamin B12 [320].
O O N H2/Pt EtOH quantitative Na/NH3/t-BuOH rt, 15 min O O NH2 Toluene, reflux overnight or TsOH cat., PhH, reflux 24 h 85-84%)
Scheme 9.94
NH2
Na/NH3 t-BuOH
rt, 15 min
Samarium diiodide [321] and transition-metal carbonyls [322, 323], such as molybdenum hexacarbonyl in the presence of water, are also efcient reagents for the reductive cleavage of isoxazoles. Nitta et al. have reported that 3-methyl-5(2-oxoalkyl)isoxazoles 241 undergo a Mo(CO)6-induced reductive cleavage to give pyridin-4(1H)-ones 244 in a single step [322]. Here, complex formation of isoxazole
j783
with Mo(CO)6 is followed by the NO bond cleavage to give the nitrene complex 242. Hydrolysis of 242 gives the enamino ketone 243, which cyclizes to the pyridin-4(1H)ones 244. Li et al. have shown that if the 2-oxoalkyl side-chain is at the 3-position of the isoxazole 245 the corresponding enamino ketone could be isolated after reduction with Mo(CO)6 and could be cyclized to pyran-4-ones 246 under acidic conditions (Scheme 9.95) [323].
CH3 O 241 R O O 243 R2 Ar O N O N CH3 O N Mo(CO)6 242 O 32-89% R N H R2 Mo(CO)6 CH3CN/H2O Ar O H2N O CH3 244 80% HCO2H AcOH 60 C, 12 h O 246 49-90% R2 Ar O R1 R O O CH3 N Mo(CO)5
O R
Mo(CO)6 CH3CN/H2O reflux, 1.0-1.5 h CH3 NH2 R
H2O
R1 O
R1 O
245
Scheme 9.95
54-95%
Under reducing conditions the NO bond of benzisoxazoles is readily cleaved and many examples have been reported. The catalytic hydrogenolysis of 1,2-benzisoxazoles gives 2-iminophenols and/or 2-ketophenols depending on the reaction conditions. The catalytic reduction of 2,1-benzisoxazoles results in the formation of 2-aminophenones. Hydrogenolysis of 3-aryl-2,1-benzisoxazoles is a useful route to 2-aminobenzophenones (Scheme 9.96) [324]. The efcient reductive cleavage of the NO bond of
Cl O Ar N O X Ar NH2
Scheme 9.96
H2/Pd-C
Cl
Ar NH2
O 1. SmI2, THF, rt 5 min Ar 2. YC6H4CO2Me, rt 1 h O 3. H2O 52-72%
1. SmI2, THF X rt, 5 min 2. H2O 78-86 % 247 N
Ar X N 248 C6H4Y
784

5-substituted-3-aryl-2,1-benzisoxazoles 247 can also be achieved with samarium(II) iodide. If aryl methyl ketones are added to the reactive mixture 2,4-diarylquinolines 248 are obtained [325]. Reductive ring cleavage of isoxazoles to the corresponding b-enaminoketones under treatment with titanium(IV) isopropoxide and ethylmagnesium bromide has been reported (Scheme 9.97). The interaction of equimolar quantities of EtMgBr and Ti(O-iPr)4 leads to the formation of titanium(III) isopropoxide. This reagent assists the homolytic cleavage of the NO bond in isoxazoles 249, giving the alcoholates 250, followed by hydrolysis to afford the enaminoketones 251. From isoxazolines the corresponding b-hydroxyketones are obtained [326]. The isoxazole ring is also cleaved by reactions with LDA [327].
R2 R1 O N
1. EtMgBr/Ti(O-iPr)4 2. H2O 71-95% R

1
R1 O
R2 NH2 251
249 2 Ti(O- Pr)3

i
R O N 250
H2O
(Pri-O)3Ti
Scheme 9.97
Ti(O-iPr)3
9.6.1.6 Reactions with Oxidizing Agents Isoxazoles are stable to acidic oxidizing reagents such as peroxyacids, chromic and nitric acids and acidic permanganate. The only general method of oxidation ring cleavage of substituted isoxazoles is ozonolysis. 3-Unsubstituted isoxazoles are also easily converted into cyanoketones with alkaline oxidizing reagents. Oxidation reactions of isoxazoles bearing heterocyclic substituents allows us to redraw conclusions concerning the relative stability of various heterocyclic compounds under the reaction conditions used (Scheme 9.98) [10]. The isoxazole ring proved to be more stable than furan but less stable than pyrazole and furazan rings.
O KMnO4
Ph O N
CO2H Ph
O N
acetone
Ph
N H
KMnO4 Ph N H
CO2H
N
O HO2C N
O N
N HO2C KMnO4 CO2H N

O N
Scheme 9.98
j785
1,2-Benzoisoxazoles are also quite stable towards oxidizing reagents, allowing selective oxidation of substituents of the 1,2-benzisoxazole ring system. Substituted 2,1-benzisoxazole can be oxidized with nitrous acid or with CrO3/AcOH to generate mixtures of ring-opened products, the rate of which is dependent on the amount of oxidant (Scheme 9.99) [9].
O R1 R2 NOH NO O R1 R2 NO
Scheme 9.99
O R1 + N2 R2 R1
O R2 NHNO2
R2 N O
HNO2
O R1 R2 NO2
CrO3/HOAc
9.6.1.7 Reactions of Metallated Isoxazoles Protons at the a-position of alkylisoxazoles are relatively acidic and can be removed by strong bases (e.g., BuLi, LDA or NaNH2/NH3), giving carbanionic species. Reaction of these intermediates with electrophiles is an approach to side-chain functionalization and many examples are known [6, 328]. The a-deprotonation of an 5-alkyl substituent is favored over deprotonation of alkyl groups at 3- and 4-positions of the isoxazole ring, allowing regioselective reactions with electrophiles via lateral metallation. Thus, the 3,5-dimethylisoxazole 252a reacts with BuLi to give specic metallation at C5 methyl group and the subsequent treatment with Me3SiCl affords 253a in 70% yield (Scheme 9.100). Regioselective metallation at the same position is observed for trimethylisoxazole 252b [329, 330]. 4-Metalloisoxazoles are generally prepared by halogenmetal exchange reactions [330].
R H3C
O
CH3
N
R LiH2C
O
CH3
N
n-BuLi THF, - 70 C, 1 h
1. Me3MCl - 70 C, 1 h 2. rt, overnight
R Me3MH2C
O
CH3
N
252a R = H b R = CH3
Scheme 9.100
70% 253 a R = H; M = Si b R = CH3; M = Si 60% c R = CH3; M = Sn 75%
786

Direct lithiation of 3-(Boc-amino)isoxazole 254 and 5-(Boc-amino)isoxazole 256 using BuLi or s-BuLi/TMEDA as the lithiating reagents, respectively, has been reported (Scheme 9.101) [331]. The anion intermediates undergo addition to electrophiles to give 4-substituted isoxazoles (255 and 257).
NHBoc H3C O 254 CH3 BocHN O N 1. s-BuLi/TMEDA -50 C 2. E+, 25 C N BuLi 25 C
Li H3C O
Li NBoc N
E+ 25 C
E H3C O
NHBoc N
255 50-92% E BocHN O CH3 N E+ = CO2 then CH2N2 80% E+ = MeI 76%
256
Scheme 9.101
257
Palladium-catalyzed coupling reactions (SuzukiMiyaura, Stille or Heck reactions) of 3,5-disubstituted 4-iodoisoxazole afford in good yields the corresponding 4-substituted derivatives, bearing 4-aryl, 4-heteroaryl, 4-vinyl or 4-acetylenyl groups as substituents [332]. Tin 4-metallated isoxazoles are synthesized by stannylcupration of 4-haloisoxazoles 258 and can also be used as intermediates in the preparation of 4-substituted isoxazoles 259. The 5-iodoisoxazolylpyridine 261, obtained from 260 via 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition with iodoacetylene, also undergoes palladium-catalyzed coupling to give 5-substituted isoxazoles 262 (Scheme 9.102) [333, 334].
I H3C O
CH3 N
1. BuLi, TMEDA 2. ClSnBu3 72%
Bu3Sn H3C O
CH3 N
Pd(PPh3)2Cl2 PhCOCl 45%
O H3C
Ph
CH3 N
258
259
Cl HO N
N H 260
Cl
I NEt3 90% I O N
N 80-94% R O N 262
261
R = Ph, vinyl, alkynyl, 2-thienyl

Scheme 9.102
j787
3,4,5-Trisubstituted isoxazoles can also be prepared via cross-coupling reactions of isoxazolyl-4-sinanols and isoxazole-4-boronic esters with the appropriate halo-compounds [335, 336].
9.6.2 Isothiazoles and Benzisoxazoles 9.6.2.1 Photochemical Reactions The photochemical reactions of isothiazoles have been reviewed [337]. Isothiazole photoisomerizes to thiazole 264a (Scheme 9.103) [338]. This photorearrangement is also observed in methylisothiazoles. Each methylisothiazole 263bd isomerizes selectively to the corresponding methylthiazole 264, indicating that the rearrangement occurs via a N2C3 exchange process [339].
R2 R
3
R1 S 263 N h R
R2
3
N S 264 R1
a, R1 = R2 = R3 = H b, R1 = Me, R2 = R3 = H
Scheme 9.103
c, R1 = R3 = H, R2 = Me d, R1 = R2 = H, R3 = Me
The photochemistry of phenyl substituted isothiazoles has been extensively studied. The resulting products are phenylthiazoles, phenylisothiazoles isomeric of the starting materials and ring-opened compounds. The relative proportions of these products are strongly dependent on the presence of a base or acid and, in some cases, on the polarity of the solvent used [340342]. Saccharin derivatives undergo extrusion of sulfur dioxide when irradiated in solution. When irradiated in ethanol or propan-1-ol, the N-propyl derivative 265 is converted into N-propylbenzamide 266 by hydrogen uptake, while in benzene it gives the N-propylbiphenyl-2-carboxamide 267 (Scheme 9.104) [343].
O h , EtOH O S N Pr O h , C6H6 Ph 267
Scheme 9.104
NHPr 266 O NHPr
265
788

In contrast to that observed in the saccharin derivatives, in the 3-mono- and 3,3disubstituted 2,3-dihydro-1,2-benzisothiazole 1,1-dioxides a net migration of one oxygen atom from sulfur to nitrogen is observed upon irradiation at 254 nm in acetonitrile or methanol (Scheme 9.105) [344].
R3 R2 S N R1 O R3 R2 S O N OR1
h , MeOH
R1 = H, CH2OMe, CH2OiPr R2 = H, Me, Ph; R3 = H, Me, Ph
Scheme 9.105
9.6.2.2 Reactions with Electrophilic Reagents Isothiazoles are quaternized by iodoalkanes, dialkyl sulfate, trialkyloxonium tetrauoroborate or diazomethane. Mononuclear isothiazoles give electrophilic substitution at the 4-position, with the 3-position being relatively inert to attack. Nitration also occurs at C4, usually in good yield. 5-Haloisothiazoles give the 4-nitro derivatives in moderate yields by reaction with a mixture of concentrated sulfuric acid and 90% nitric acid (Scheme 9.106) [345].
R1 S N a, X = Br, R1 = H, 43% b, X = Cl, R1 = Me, 58%
R1 X S N
HNO3, H2SO4, 110-120 C, 5 h
O2N X
Scheme 9.106
Electron-releasing groups in the 3- or 5-position facilitate halogenation. For instance, 3,5-dimethylisothiazole reacts with iodine to give the 4-iodo derivative (Scheme 9.107) [346].
CH3 H 3C S N I2, HNO3 H3C I S CH3 N
Scheme 9.107
Bromination of 2-substituted isothiazolin-3-ones 268 affords the 4-bromo derivatives in good yields. The formation of 4,5-dibromo derivatives is much more difcult (Scheme 9.108) [347]. In contrast, even under mild conditions, chlorination of 268 gives primarily 4,5-dichloro derivatives and lesser amounts of the 4-chloro derivatives [347]. 3-Diethylamino-4-(4-methoxyphenyl)isothiazole 1,1-dioxide 269 reacts with bromine to afford the 4,5-dibromo derivative 270, which, on heating or by treatment with triethylamine, gives the 5-bromoisothiazole 271 [348].
j789
Br2, 5-80 C, 1 h O S N R1 65-95% Cl2 or SO2Cl2, -40 to -10 C
Br S Cl S
O N R1 O N R1 NEt2 S N O
Br2, 85 C, 3-6 h 20-45% Cl + Cl NEt3, 25 C, 8 h S O N R1 Ar Br
Br Br S
O N R1
268
Ar S
NEt2 N O
Br2, CCl4, 25 C, 2 h
Ar Br Br H
NEt2 S N O
269
Scheme 9.108
270
271
9.6.2.3 Reactions with Nucleophilic Reagents The displacement of a halogen atom from halo-isothiazoles by nucleophiles is a versatile route to new isothiazole derivatives. As shown in Scheme 9.109, substitution of the halogen by alkylthio groups can be conveniently performed by converting the halo-isothiazole into a thiolate followed by reaction with a suitable alkylating reagent (one-pot procedure) [213].
NC Ph S Cl N HNR2, EtOH, reflux, 2-4 h 70-84% NC Ph S NR2 N NR2 = NMe2 ;
N N N O
Na2S 9H2O, MeOH, H2O, reflux, 3 h NC Ph S SN R Br, H2O, rt, 12 h 40-67%

1
NC Ph S
SR1 N R1 = Et, Pr, CH2CN, (CH2)2OH, CH2CO2Et, (CH2)nBr n= 2-4
Scheme 9.109
Certain groups at the 5-position of the isothiazole ring can be easily displaced by nucleophiles, affording new functionalized isothiazoles. As an example, starting from 5-methylthioisothiazole 272, four new isothiazoles have been prepared by successive nucleophilic substitutions (Scheme 9.110) [199]. 5-Unsubstituted isothiazole 1,1-dioxides give addition products with sulfur, oxygen, nitrogen [349] and phosphorus [350] nucleophiles. When 5-bromoisothiazole 1,1-dioxides are reacted with these nucleophiles, the substitution products are obtained [69, 70]. 5-Iodoisothiazole 273 can be used as electrophile in Suzuki and Negishi crosscoupling reactions to afford 5-aryl and 5-hetarylisothiazoles 274 in good to excellent yields (4895%) (Scheme 9.111) [351]. Similarly, 3,5-dichloroisothiazole-4-
790

NC EtO S Ph N NaOEt, EtOH, reflux, 4 h 70% NC MeS S Ph N NaOH, HOCH2CH2OH 130 C, 2 h 76% NC HO S Ph N
72% NC H2NHN S
H2NNH2, EtOH, heat, 1 h Ph N I2, KI, EtOH, H2O, reflux, 4 h 57%
272
NC I S
Ph N
Scheme 9.110
OBn I N S 273 Cl N S 275
Suzuki: PdCl2(PPh3)2, NEt3, DME, H2O, boron nucleophile Negishi: PdCl2(PPh3)2, PPh3, THF, DMF, zinc nucleophile RB(OH)2, Pd(OAc)2, KF, 18-crown-6, PhMe, reflux 30-97%
OBn Ar N S 274 Cl N S 276 R = Me, Ph, XC6H4, 2-, 3-thienyl Ar = Ph, 2-furyl 2-, 3-thienyl 2-, 3-, 4-pyridyl
NC Cl
NC R
Scheme 9.111
carbonitrile (275) reacts with aryl- and methylboronic acids to give in high yields the 3-chloro-5-(aryl or methyl)-isothiazole-carbonitriles 276. This reaction is totally regioselective [352]. The palladium-catalyzed reaction of 5-bromo-3-diethylamino-4-(4-methoxyphenyl)-isothiazole 1,1-dioxide with vinyl-, aryl-, heteroaryl- and alkynylstannanes provides a general and efcient method for the synthesis of 5-substituted isothiazole 1,1-dioxides [348]. 2-Alkylisothiazolium salts are converted into polymeric products by alkali hydroxides or alkoxides. When treated with ethanolic ammonia, isothiazolium salt 277 yields the corresponding demethylated isothiazole 278. However, under identical conditions, its isomeric compound 279 affords the 3-methylamino derivative 280 (Scheme 9.112) [353]. These transformations result from an initial nucleophilic attack on the ring S atom and recyclization of the initial intermediates.
Ph MeS S + N Me NH3, EtOH, rt MeS S Ph N Ph S SMe NH3, EtOH, rt + N Me NHMe Ph S N
277
Scheme 9.112
278
279
280
j791
Isothiazolium salts react with other nitrogen nucleophilic reagents such as phenylhydrazine and hydroxylamine to give, respectively, pyrazoles, and isoxazoles; with benzylamine they afford acyclic thiones [21]. They also react with carbanions to give thiophene or benzo[b]thiophene derivatives (Scheme 9.113) [354].
SMe Ph S + N Ph :CH2CO2Et Ph S
SMe NPh CO2Et Ph S
SMe NHPh CO2Et - MeSH Ph S
NHPh CO2Et
- CO2
EtO2CCH2CO2K SMe S + N Bn CH2CO2Et 74% S NHBn CO2Et
Scheme 9.113
9.6.2.4 Cycloaddition Reactions Isothiazoles participate in DielsAlder reactions and in 1,3-dipolar cycloadditions as the 2p electrons component [355]. A few examples of their participation in [2p 2p] cycloadditions with diphenylketene or inamines have also been reported [356, 357]. Some isothiazole derivatives are used as precursors of reactive dienes (ortho-quinodimethanes) that can be trapped in DielsAlder reactions (see below). Isothiazol-3(2H)-one 1,1-dioxides react with buta-1,3-dienes [358, 359], cyclo-1,3dienes [356], anthracene [356], 1-azadienes [360], furans [356, 361], 1,3-oxazoles [362] and so on to afford the DielsAlder adducts in moderate to good yields (Scheme 9.114). A general method for the synthesis of saccharin derivatives involves the DielsAlder reaction of 4-bromo-2-t-butylisothiazol-3(2H)-one 1,1-dioxide with oxi-substituted buta-1,3-dienes (Scheme 9.115) [359]. Dehydrobromination of the cycloadducts and removal of the protecting groups leads to the saccharin derivatives. Isothiazole derivatives, especially the 1,1-dioxides, undergo 1,3-dipolar cycloadditions with a wide range of dipoles under mild conditions [363]. For instance, isothiazol-3(2H)-one 1,1-dioxides react with nitrile imines and nitrile oxides to give the expected cycloadducts (Scheme 9.116) [364]. In the case of reaction with azides and diazo compounds, the presence of a substituent at 4-position makes all the difference in the outcome of the reaction (Scheme 9.117) [360]. The 3-amino-4-arylisothiazole 1,1-dioxides are also very reactive in 1,3-dipolar cycloadditions. They react with a wide range of dipoles, such as oxazolones [365], diazo compounds [366], azides [367], and nitrile oxides [368]. The bicyclic cycloaddition products are versatile intermediates for monocyclic heterocycles by cleavage of one ring.
792

Me Me H S
1
O N R1 92%
H n 30-91% n = 1-3 n H S
O N R1
O O R = H, Bu, t-Bu, (CH2)7Me H S O NH
O O R = H, Bu, (CH2)7Me
1
O S O O N R1
R3
2
NMe2 N R2
R1 = H anthracene 41%
NMe2 N H O R3 S R2 H O O O N R1
H Me
O O OEt O
R = H, Me R3 = Me, Et
Me N
OEt O O
NO S
N R1
O S
(endo + exo) O O
Scheme 9.114
OAc
93%
N R1
O O (endo + exo)
OMe
O S N R1 Br S O N tBu
OMe OSiMe3 Me3SiO Me3SiO
O HO S N R1
O O
O O
HO HO S
O N R1
Me3SiO Me3SiO
O O
OH HO S
O N R1
O O
Scheme 9.115
O O
+ Ph C N N Ph O S N R
1
Ph H N S
O N R1 R1 = H, t-Bu, CH2CO2Et, 4-MeOC6H4CH2
50-66%
Ph H
O O H S
O O
+ 4-ClC6H4 C N O 50-64%
O N R1
4-ClC6H4 H
O O
Scheme 9.116
j793
O N R1
N EtO2C
H N
CONHR1
X=H N2CHCO2Et 69%

1
X S
O N R1
X = Br N2CHCO2Et 70%
N EtO2C
H N S
O O R = CH2CO2Et
O O
Scheme 9.117
Isothiazole-fused 3-sulfolenes 281 extrude SO2 when heated at 185 C in a sealed tube, generating the isothiazole o-quinodimethanes 282. Extrusion of SO2 in the presence of N-phenylmaleimide (NPM) or dimethyl acetylenedicarboxylate affords the corresponding DielsAlder adducts 283 and 284, respectively, in good yields (Scheme 9.118) [369]. Benzisothiazole 285 is obtained by the oxidation of the corresponding adduct 284.
O NPM O2S 281
1
Ph N O 283 S
R1 N
R1 S N
toluene, 185 C, sealed tube S
R1 N
88-96%
R = Me, Et, Pr
282
DMAD
MeO2C
R1 S N
81-85% MeO2C MeO2C MeO2C 285
R1 = Et DDQ, 284 toluene, reflux Et 60% N
Scheme 9.118
2,1-Benzisothiazole 2,2-dioxides (see Schemes 9.73 and 9.74) extrude SO2 when heated in reuxing 1,2-dichloro- or 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene to yield aza-ortho-quinodimethanes that can be trapped in inter- or intramolecular DielsAlder cycloadditions (Scheme 9.119) [283, 370].
9.6.2.5 Reactions with Reducing Agents Catalytic hydrogenation of isothiazol-3-ones 286 at 3.5 atm leads to the cis-dihydro derivatives 287 (Scheme 9.120) [214]. The dimethyl derivative 287, however, isomerizes to the trans-isomer 288 via keto-enol tautomerism. 2-Alkyl-3-alkylthio-5-arylisothiazolium halides 289 are reduced to the S,N-acetals 290 by treatment with NaBH4 in ethanol at room temperature (Scheme 9.121) [200, 371].
794

NO2 SO2 1,2,4-Cl3C6H3, 214 C - SO2 NO2 NPM N Me NO2 94% N Me NO2 NO2 O N Ph O
N Me NO2
SO2
1,2,4-Cl3C6H3, 214 C - SO2
82%
Scheme 9.119
R1 R1 S
O NH
H2, Pd/C, AcOH 73-88%
R1 R1 S
O NH
R1 = Me
Me Me S
O NH
O O R1 = Me 286 R1-R1 = -(CH2)4Scheme 9.120
O O 287
O O 288
SR2 Ar1
+ X N R1 S 289
NaBH4, EtOH, rt R1 = Me, Et R2 = Me, Pr, i-Pr
Ar1 S
SR2 NHR1 290
Scheme 9.121
9.6.2.6 Reactions with Oxidizing Agents Isothiazoles unsubstituted at 3-position (291) are oxidized with 35% H2O2 in acetic acid to 1,2-isothiazol-3(2H)-one 1,1-dioxides 292 (Scheme 9.122) [214]. Oxidation of 3-aminoisothiazoles 293 with m-chloroperbenzoic acid affords the corresponding 1,1-dioxides 294 [372]. The oxidation of isothiazolium salts 295, containing electron-withdrawing substituents in the ortho-position of the 2-aryl ring, with 30% H2O2 in acetic acid gives 3-hydroperoxy derivatives 296 in moderate to good yields (4270%) and minor amounts of the corresponding 1,1-dioxides 297 (Scheme 9.123). When R1 is an electron-donating group compounds 297 are the only products (4063%) [372]. If the reaction is carried out at 80 C the products are the isothiazol-3(2H)-one 1,1-dioxides 298 (up to 81% yield) [372]. Oxidation of 1,2-benzisothiazoles with hydrogen peroxide [373, 374] or perphthalic acid [375] yields the corresponding 1,1-dioxides.
j795
R1 R2 S N
H2O2, AcOH, 80 C 20-80%
R1 R2 S
O NH
291 R2 R3 S NHR1 N MCPBA, CH2Cl2 or MeOH, 25-40 C, 5 h 35-85%
O O 292 R2 R
3
R1 = H, Me, Pr, Ph R2 = Me, Et, Ph, 4-XC6H4 (X = Cl, Br) R1-R2 = -(CH2)n- (n = 4, 5, 6)
NHR1 N R1 = Me, Et, Bn, c-Hex, Ph, etc. R2 = H, Cl R3 = H, Cl
293
Scheme 9.122
S O O 294
H2O2, AcOH, rt N + ClO4R1 H2O2, AcOH, 80 C S O
OOH N 296 O N S O O 298 R1 + R1
OOH N S O O 297 R1
295
Scheme 9.123
BuLi, DMF, THF, -75 C, 1 h 73%

R1 X X = Br, I Ph
OHC
R1 N S 299
R1 = Me, 83% R1 = Bu, 73% R1 = Bn, 83%
Me Ph S N BuLi THF -78 C Ph S N
Li
O R1 R2 Ph O
18-86%
N S 300
OH R1 R2
R1 OH 302
R1 CO2Et Ph S N
R1
+ Ph
Ph
301
Scheme 9.124
796

9.6.2.7 Reactions of Metallated Isothiazoles Isothiazole is selectively lithiated with BuLi at the 5-position. 5-Substituted isothiazoles can be prepared by reacting the 5-lithioisothiazole with electrophiles [376379]. For instance, it reacts with DMF to afford selectively the isothiazole-5-carbaldehyde in good yield (Scheme 9.124) [196]. 3-Benzyloxyisothiazole is also lithiated regioselectively in the 5-position using LDA in diethyl ether. Quenching the lithiated species with electrophiles leads to the corresponding 3,5-disubstituted isothiazoles (Table 9.10).
Table 9.10 Lithiation of 3-benzyloxyisothiazole and reaction with various electrophiles.
OBn S N
i) LDA, Et2O, -78 C, 15 min ii) electrophile, 15 min E S
OBn N
Electrophile
Product
Yield (%)
Reference
OBn
MeOD
N OBn
57
[380]
DMF
OHC
N OBn
54
[377]
MeOCOCN
MeO2C
56
[377]
OBn
PhCHO
Ph HO
N
OBn
65
[377]
OH S
68
[377]
OBn
I2
95
[351]
OBn
(i) B(O-i-Pr)3
B O
89
[351]
ii)
OH OH
References
j797
OH CHO 71% O I Me S Me N IMg EtMgBr Me S Me N 85% Me Cl 83%

Scheme 9.125
Me N
Me Me S N
Me Me S N
Lithiation of 3-methyl-5-phenylisothiazole with butyllithium occurs selectively at the methyl group (Scheme 9.124). The lithiated species reacts with alkyl halides to give isothiazoles 299 in high yields [363]. It also reacts with a range of aldehydes and ketones to afford the corresponding secondary or tertiary alcohols 300 [381]. When esters are used as electrophiles, mixtures of ketones 301 and tertiary alcohols 302 are obtained [378]. 3,5-Dimethylisothiazol-4-ylmagnesium iodide, generated in situ from 4-iodo-3,5dimethylisothiazole and ethylmagnesium bromide, reacts with a range aldehydes, ketones and alkyl halides to afford 4-substituted 3,5-dimethylisothiazoles in good yields (Scheme 9.125) [382].
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j809
10 Five-Membered Heterocycles: 1,3-Azoles

Julia Revuelta, Fabrizio Machetti, and Stefano Cicchi
10.1 Introduction
Imidazole, oxazole, and thiazole, known as 1,3-azoles, are planar ve-membered ring systems with three carbons, one nitrogen, and an additional heteroatom (nitrogen, oxygen or sulfur). These compounds and their derivatives have been known since the nineteenth century. The rst reports on imidazoles were published in the 1840s concerning the 2,3,5triphenylimidazoles [1, 2]. In 1858 Debus [3] reported the reaction between glyoxal and ammonia and pioneered the synthesis of imidazoles. Historically, the molecule was named glyoxaline and iminazole, but imidazole is now used universally. Oxazole (1,3-oxazole) was rst prepared by Cornforth [4] in 1947, about 100 years after the rst synthesis of a substituted oxazole, 1,4,5-triphenylisoxazole, reported by Zinin in 1840 [5]. In 1888, Hantzsch [6] gave the name of oxazoles to these class of compounds. Oxazole is not easily synthesized and has been unavailable in large quantities (because of high synthesis costs) and has only recently become commercially available in multigram scale at a reasonable cost. The Cornforth procedure was a lengthy route in which the oxazole was obtained in the nal stage by decarboxylationdistillation of the corresponding oxazole-4-carboxylic acid from hot quinoline-CuO. Oxazole may be prepared in the laboratory following the practical method of Brederick and Bangert [7]. Modern oxazole chemistry was stimulated in the 1940s by the synthesis of penicillin, which was presumed to contain the oxazole nucleus. The next important development of oxazole chemistry came from the discovery by Kondrateva in the late 1950s that these compounds acts as dienes in the DielsAlder reaction and by Huisgens work on 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition reactions of mesoionic derivatives. Wallach reported the synthesis of some thiazoles in the 1870s. One of the rst thiazoles prepared was the 5-aminothiazole-2-carboxylic acid amide [8]. In terms of literature about imidazoles, oxazoles and thiazoles there are many reviews on specialized topics (chemistry, physicochemical, biological and pharma-
810
j 10 Five-Membered Heterocycles: 1,3-Azoles

cological properties) but Comprehensive Heterocyclic Chemistry (1984 [9] updated in 1996 [10]) and Science of Synthesis [11] are the most exhaustive sources of information.
10.1.1 Nomenclature
The general name 1,3-azoles (1) indicates, according to the more recent IUPAC nomenclature rules, ve-membered (stem -ole) heterocycles with one nitrogen atom (prex aza-) bearing a second heteroatom in position 3 of the cycle. This name is generally used to indicate thiazole, oxazole and imidazole. The rst two names correspond to the IUPAC nomenclature, whereas the name imidazole is a trivial one that is commonly preferred to 1,3-diazole. The state of hydrogenation is indicated either by the prexes dihydro- or in the stem -olidine. This chapter examines 1,3oxazole, 1,3-thiazole and imidazole, as well as their saturated derivatives. Figure 10.1 gives an easy, exhaustive description of nomenclature and numbering of the structures. These heterocyclic rings occur widely in nature, contained in the structure of several secondary metabolites. Some of these compounds are promising candidates as drugs and their synthesis has been performed. The oxazole ring is present in the backbone of diazonamide A (3), a complex macrocyclic molecule with anticancer properties, which was recently been synthesized [12]. Phorboxazole A (4), which possesses two isolated oxazole rings, is an extremely cytotoxic compound that is active towards numerous human tumor cell lines [13]. Other bis- and trisoxazole oxazole compounds are known, such as muscoride A (5) [14] and ulapualide A (6) [15]. The thiazole ring, in different degrees of saturation, is present in thiamine pyrophosphate (7), 6-aminopenicillanic acid (8) and other secondary metabolites such as dendroamide A (9) [16] and epothilone A (10) [17]. Histidine (11), which has an imidazole ring, is a very well known amino acid with a fundamental role in the metabolism and also in the family of alkaloids derived from it. The same ring, in reduced form, is also found in biotin (12) and in a large series of alkaloids, such as ()-agelastatin A (13) [18] and fumiquinazoline A (14) [19] (Figure 10.2).
10.2 General Reactivity 10.2.1 Relevant Physicochemical Data, Computational Chemistry and NMR Data
These compounds present an additional nitrogen atom in the ring with respect to pyrrole, thiophene and furan. This additional nitrogen atom contributes with one electron to the aromaticity of the ring while a lone pair of electrons remains in the plane of the molecule. This additional nitrogen atom lowers the energy levels of p orbitals, as veried by the ionization potentials, which are higher than those of pyrrole, thiophene and furan, respectively. At the same time the additional nitrogen

4 5
j811
N X
1
3 2
5 6
4 3a
N
2
7 7a
X
1
X = O 1,3-oxazole X = S 1,3-thiazole X = NH 1H-imidazole
X = O 1,3-benzoxazole X = S 1,3-benzothiazole X = NH 1H-benzimidazole

3
4 5
N
2
4 5
N
2
X
1
X
1
X = O 1,3-oxazol-5(4H)-one X = S 1,3-thiazol-5(4H)-one
X = O 1,3-oxazol-5(2H)-one X = S 1,3-thiazol-5(2H)-one
5 4
N N H
3
1 2 4
N N H
3
1 2
3,5-dihydro-4H-imidazol-4-one
2,3-dihydro-4H-imidazol-4-one
4 5
N
2 5
N
2
X
1
X
1
X = O 4,5-dihydro-1,3-oxazole X = S 4,5-dihydro-1,3-thiazole X = NH 4,5-dihydro-1H-imidazole

3

3
4 5
NH
2 5
NH X
1 2
X
1
X = O 1,3-oxazolidine X = S 1,3-thiazolidine X = NH imidazolidine

O
4 3
4 5
NH X
1 2
NH
X
1
X = O 1,3-oxazolidin-2-one X = S 1,3-thiazolidin-2-one X = NH imidazolidin-2-one
X = O 1,3-oxazolidin-4-one X = S 1,3-thiazolidin-4-one X = NH imidazolidin-4-one
Figure 10.1 Nomenclature and numbering of 1,3-oxazole, 1,3-thiazole, imidazole, and their saturated derivatives.
812

N N O O O Cl Cl NH NH Br OMe OMe HO H OH 4 N O N O O N OH O N O H2N
O
HO O 3
H N
O N O O O O
OH
O diazonamide A
O N O
N NH O
H O
phorboxazole A N O OAc 6 ulapualide A

H H N
O N OMe O
CHO
(-) muscoride A 5
N N
N NH2 S 7
thiamine pyrophosphate O O N NH 9 O N H S N HN S
O O P O O P O O O S N H O 10 epothilone A HO Br N NH 13 O (-)agelastatin A
O HO 6-aminopenicillanic acid 8 O O OH
N
NH2
O
OH NH 11
dendroamide A H H N O HO S H biotin 12 NH H
O OH N N NH 14 O O N
histidine NH O H H N N O
fumiquinazoline A
Figure 10.2 Some natural compounds containing the 1,3-azole structure.
atom has an inductive electron-withdrawing effect that provides stabilization to negatively charged reaction intermediates formed in reactions like nucleophilic substitution [Scheme 10.1 (1)] and deprotonation of the methyl group [Scheme 10.1 (2)]. A recent study, based on NMR data of the carbanions of 2-benzyl-1,3-azoles, ranked the p electron-withdrawing power of these heterocycles as thiazole > oxazole
j813
XN Y Z Y N X Z N -ZY N CH2 Y X (1)
N Y 1
Base CH3 Y
(2)
Scheme 10.1
> imidazole in terms of charge demand, that is, the fraction of p-negative charge delocalized by the ring [20] These compounds are aromatic, each carbon atom and one nitrogen atom participating with one electron to the conjugated p system while the other heteroatom participates with a lone pair of electrons. The NMR and UV spectra conrm the aromaticity of the ring (Table 10.1). The p electrons are delocalized across the ring although the electron density is largely concentrated onto the two heteroatoms. The electron density map also indicates that these compounds are p excessive although this character decreases on passing from N to O to S. From the same map it can be predicted that electrophilic substitution is favored at C4 and C5, while the reduced electron density at C2 should favor nucleophilic attack onto this position (Table 10.2). The effect of the additional nitrogen atom is evidenced also by the acid/base properties of these compounds. The lone pair on nitrogen atom provide a site for protonation and most azoles are stronger bases than pyrroles. However, the stability of the azolide anions makes imidazole a stronger acid than pyrrole (Figure 10.3). Outstanding, in this series, is the pKa of imidazole and of the imidazolium ion. These values are justied by the predominance of a mesomeric effect. The two
Table 10.1 UV and NMR data for 1,3-azolesa).
X (Table 10.2)
UV (ethanol) l (nm) (e, mol1 dm3 cm1) 207208 (3.7)
H (d, ppm)
13
C (d, ppm)
205 (3.9)
207.5 (3.41) 233.0 (3.57)
H2: H4: H5: H2: H4: H5: H2: H4: H5:
7.73 7.14 7.14 7.95 7.09 7.69 8.77 7.86 7.27
C2: 135.4 C4: 121.9 C5: 121.9 C2: 150.6 C4: 125.4 C5: 138.1 C2: 153.6 C4: 143.3 C5: 119.6
For atom numbering see structure in Table 10.2.
814

Table 10.2 Physicochemical data for 1,3 azoles.
4 d 5 e
3 b 2
a X 1
Bond angles ( ) a b 111.3 115.0 115.2 c 105.4 103.9 110.1 d 106.3 109.7 115.8 109.8 108.1 109.6
Bond distances (A) a 1.349 1.357 1.713 b 1.326 1.292 1.304 c 1.378 1.395 1.372 d 1.358 1.353 1.367 e 1.369 1.370 1.713
N O S
107.2 103.9 89.3
Electron densities X N O S 1 1.502 1.730 1.970 2 0.884 1.021 0.870 3 1.502 1.115 1.190 4 1.056 1.058 0.960 5 1.052 1.076 1.010
identical resonance structures account for the high stability of these ions (Scheme 10.2). Oxazole, on the other hand, is the least basic of the three heterocycles due to the inductive effect of the oxygen atom.
10.2.2 Tautomerism
A peculiar behavior of N-unsubstituted imidazoles is their rapid equilibrium between the two possible tautomers. This rapid equilibrium hampers the separate isolation of 4- and 5-substituted imidazoles. Nevertheless the tautomeric equilibrium can be shifted mainly towards one of the two forms. Imidazoles substituted with electronN N H 14.52 N 13.2 N H 5.5 NH N H 7 NH N H S 2.53 NH S 1.2 NH NH O 0.8 NH O -0.13
Figure 10.3 Values of pKa for 1,3-azoles and azolium ions.
10.3 Synthesis of Aromatic 1,3-Azoles
j815
NH N H N N N
NH N H N (1)
(2)
Scheme 10.2 Resonance structures of imidazolium and imidazolide ions.
withdrawing groups are predominantly present as 4-substituted tautomers (e.g., 4nitroimidazole, 2) [Scheme 10.3 (1)]. In neutral organic solvents this equilibrium can be an intermolecular process involving two or more imidazole molecules while in protic solvents the solvent itself is involved. The NH proton of imidazole exchanges rapidly in D2O solution. The tautomeric equilibrium of 2-amino substituted 1,3-azoles is shifted towards the amino form over the imino form [Scheme 10.3 (2)]. This assumption is conrmed by the basicity of the imino form, which is generally higher than that of the amino. Conversely, 2-hydroxy substituted 1,3-azoles behave as keto derivatives [Scheme 10.3 (3)]. These considerations can generally be extended to other amino and hydroxy derivatives.
O2N N N H 2 R X R X N OH N NH2 R X O2N
NH N R X NH O NH NH
(1)
(2)
(3)
Scheme 10.3 Tautomeric equilibria of substituted 1,3-azoles.
10.3 Synthesis of Aromatic 1,3-Azoles 10.3.1 Synthesis of Imidazoles
A remarkable number of synthetic approaches have been developed for imidazoles, due to is prevalence in natural products and pharmacologically active compounds. Clearly, no a single general synthetic method fulls all needs in the preparation of
816

functionalized imidazoles, and various cyclization reactions are used to produce specically substituted imidazoles [2124]. A detailed compilation of known methods of synthesis of imidazoles has been published [25]. This brief section, while covering classical methods, focuses mainly both on their conceptual extensions and on new synthetic routes. Most classical preparation methods of imidazoles derive from the approach followed by Debus, who pioneered the use of 1,2-dicarbonyl compounds for the synthesis of substituted imidazoles (Scheme 10.4). The reaction was extended using a-ketoaldehydes or a-diketones as substrates. This route in general provides 2-monosubstituted and 2,(4,5- homo and hetero)trisubstituted imidazoles (Scheme 10.4).
R4 R5 O + O R4 R5 N H
O R2
NH3/H2O or NH4Ac/AcOH
N R2 15
R4 R5
NH + NH
R4 NH R2 HN H2N
R5 N R2
R4 - NH3 R5
N H N R2
Debus' reaction: R2=R4=R5=H

Scheme 10.4
The Radziszewski reaction [26] is a modied version of this method using a-hydroxyketones. A similar synthetic methodology was introduced by Bredereck [27] in which an a-hydroxyketone or an a-haloketone is heated with formamide instead of ammonia or ammonium acetate. Brederecks reaction provides 4-substituted and 4,5-disubstituted imidazoles (Scheme 10.5).
R4 R5 O + 2 OH OH N H O O NH2 -2 H2O -HCO2H R4 R5 N H H N H N OH O O N
R4 R5
R4 R5
Scheme 10.5
The advent of microwave assisted organic synthesis (MAOS) has allowed the reinvestigation of the classical conditions of Debus synthesis of imidazoles. Thus, synthesis from 1,2-diketones and aldehydes in the presence of various catalysts has
j817
been reported. These include silica gel [28], silica gel/Zeolite HY [29], Al2O3 [30] and CH3CO2H [31]. These recent more reports, with some green chemistry related improvements, utilize solvent-free, silica-gel catalyzed condensation of aromatic aldehydes or benzonitrile derivatives with benzyl (16) (as well as other aromatic or heteroaromatic diketones) [31] in the presence of primary amines to obtain the corresponding tetrasubstituted imidazoles (17). The reactions proceed with high yields but the tolerated substitution pattern is restricted to symmetrical residues due to a lack of regiocontrol for the 4- and 5-positions (Scheme 10.6) [29].
Ph Ph O O + R1NH2 + ArCHO or ArCN/NH 4AcO Ph N Ar
Silica gel
MW, 6 min Ph
16
N 17 R1
Ar = Ph, 4-MePh, 4-BrPh R1= alkyl, allyl, benzyl

Scheme 10.6
60-91%
a-Hydroxyketones have also been used in MAOS procedures [32], and both diketones and a-hydroxyketones have found application in ionic-liquid promoted synthesis [33]. The cyclization of N,N0 -disubstituted oxamides 18 with PCl5 to afford 1-substituted 5-chloroimidazoles 19 is another classical method of imidazole ring preparation. This method was discovered by Wallach [3436] and elaborated by Sarasin [37]. This approach, initially limited to methyl and ethyl symmetrical disubstituted oxamides, was extended to higher symmetrical [34, 38, 39] and unsymmetrical N,N0 -disubstituted oxamides (Scheme 10.7) [40]. In the latter case, to obtain appreciable regioselectivity very dissimilar substituent (alkyl versus aryl) should be used. The reaction gives high yields for limited phenyl and chlorinated phenyl substituents but with a 3pyridyl substituent the yield is low (Scheme 10.7).
Ar HN 18 O HN PCl5 POCl3, reflux R N Cl N Ar 19
O R R=H,(CH2)3OCH3; Ar = Ph (75%) R=H; Ar = p-ClPh (81%),o-ClPh (61%) R=H; Ar = 3-pyridyl (39%) Ar N 20 Cl N R N R N H
Ar N Cl
Ar N R
Cl H Cl 21
Cl 22
Scheme 10.7
818

Wallachs reaction proceeds via a dichlorinate adduct (20), which after a double bond migration (hydride shift), cyclizes to the nal 5-chlorosubsituted imidazole 19 (Scheme 10.7). Another example of a classical approach to imidazole is represented by the Marckwald synthesis, involving the use of a-aminocarbonyl compounds with cyanates, thiocyanate and isothiocyanates. This approach allows the synthesis of 4,5disubstituted imidazoles and will be described in more detail in Section 10.4.5 for the synthesis of 2-amino-1,3-azoles. TosMIC (tosylmethyl isocyanide) 25 and other isocyanides, 23, are key reagents for the preparation of 1,5 substituted imidazole rings, providing the CNC fragment [Scheme 10.8 (1)] [41]. Different species like aldimines, imidoyl chlorides, isothiocyanates, nitriles and imino ethers can undergo cycloadditions with TosMIC giving imidazoles. This methodology provides densely functionalized imidazoles, as 24, with various substitution patterns in a completely regioselective manner.
O S R4 O N R5 C + R1 R1 N -TsOH R4 R5
Tol
23 O NC
N 1 24 R N
(1)
S N + Tol O R5 25
Base - toluensulfinic acid
R5
N R1
(2)
Base O Tol S O N C R5
Scheme 10.8
-TolSO 2H Tol S O 26 R5 O N N R1
[3+2] R1
The TosMIC molecule (which accommodates a reactive isocyanide carbon and an activated methylene) can cycloadd its CH2NC moiety to polarized double bonds under basic conditions [Scheme 10.8 (2)]. When applied to aldimines, this type of reaction affords imidazoles by elimination of p-toluenesulnic acid from the intermediate 4-tosyl-2-imidazolines 26 [42]. This methodology regioselectively provides 1,5 and a limited number of 1,4,5-trisubstituted imidazoles. This methodology provides regioselectively 1-arylimidazole-5-carboxylates 28 by the addition of anilines to ethyl glyoxylate 27 in methanol followed by reaction with TosMIC (Scheme 10.9) [43]. The related reaction of ethyl glyoxylate or glyoxylic acid with primary amines or ammonia and aryl substituted TosMIC reagents 23 [44] is a versatile method for the synthesis of imidazole-5-carboxylates substituted at C4 (e.g., 29, Figure 10.4) [45].
j819
O O
ArNH2 MeOH OEt
O ArNH O OEt ArN
O OEt
TosMIC K2CO3 EtO2C
N N 28 Ar 40-94%
27
Scheme 10.9
R4 Ts
N 23
N N EtO2C 29 N Ar
R = Ar, CN
Figure 10.4 Structures of susbstitute TosMIC reagents and of imidazole-5-carboxylates substituted at C4.
The TosMIC chemistry can be extended utilizing an aldehyde as a partner (Scheme 10.10) [46]. Polysubstituted imidazoles are not easily made with this methodology and a mixtures of regioisomeric imidazoles are obtained.
R O S O S O O R N O O S N Tol O R1NH2 N R1 R N + R N R1 N
N C
Base
Scheme 10.10
Amidines, guanidines, ureas and thioureas are the most common NCN synthons. With these synthons we can selectively synthesize 1,2,5 substituted imidazoles [47]. Bromo enol ethers 31 react with a range of monosubstituted amidines 30, giving with high regioselectivity 1,2,5 imidazoles in moderate yields [Scheme 10.11 (1)]. The mechanism that explains the high regioselectivity of this reaction is shown in Scheme 10.11 (2). The unsubstituted nitrogen of amidine 30 adds in Michael fashion to the b-carbon of the ether. Intermediate 32 then cyclizes with extrusion rst of HBr and then of ROH to afford imidazole 33. Initial attack by the monosubstituted nitrogen is disfavored, particularly in cases where R1 is a bulky group. 1,5 Disubstituted imidazole-4-carboxylates can be efciently synthesized using the reactivity of BICA [3-bromo-2-isocyanoacrylate (34)] [48]. In this strategy, a Michael reaction of a primary amine with a,b-unsaturated ester 34 and subsequent b-elimination of hydrogen bromide occurs as the rst step. The resulting enamine 35 undergoes an intramolecular nucleophilic addition to the isonitrile group, affording the nal imidazole 36 (Scheme 10.12). This approach has been applied to the synthesis of imidazoles having a range of substituents at the 1- and 5-positions.
820

NH R2 30 N H O R1 Br X K2CO3 CHCl3, H2O R rt, 18h N X 33 R O N O R1 minor Br 31 X R2 R N 32 H N R1 R2 + X N R2 N 1 R minor (1)
31 X=CHO, CN Br H X
R1 = Bu, Bn, CH2 -1-naphthyl R2 = Bu, Ph major NH R2 30 N H
major 33-83%
R O H -HBr X
N N R1 R2 -ROH
N X R2 N 1 R 33 (2) X H N N R1 R2 X
R1
HN R2
Br H X N R1 O R
N N R1 R2
-HBr O R
Scheme 10.11
Br C N 34
R5 O O
R1NH2 -HBr
R1HN C N 35
R5 O O
MeO2C R5
N 1 36 R
Scheme 10.12
A methodology for the preparation of 2-substituted-4,5-dicyanoimidazoles is the reaction of DAMN (diaminomaleonitrile) with carbonyl compounds under oxidative conditions [49]. A more recent variation is the reaction of DAMN with anhydrides to afford b-aminoenamides that dehydrates to afford the imidazole nucleus [50]. The commercial availability of this reagent gave impulse to its use in the synthesis. Its use and the mechanism of action are discussed in Section 10.5.6 for the synthesis of 2-amino derivatives. Few methods for the direct construction of tetrasubstituted imidazoles are available and they are often restricted to a xed pattern of substitution [28, 51, 52]. Popular methodologies for the construction of imidazole rings such as the aforementioned approaches based on van Leusens TosMIC chemistry are not able to provide direct access to tetrasubstituted imidazoles, because do not allow to insert substituent on C2 of the imidazole ring. Further introduction of substituent requires activation/substitution (Section 10.3). In general the synthesis of tetrasubstituted imidazoles rely on the regiocontrolled synthesis of trisubstituted imidazoles followed by insertion of the fourth substituent [5356]. This approach have some drawbacks. For example the N-alkylation of 2,4,5-trisubstituted imidazoles has as a major drawback the formation of both possible regioisomers that are often difcult to separate.
j821
One of the more versatile intermediates for the synthesis of imidazoles and in particular tetrasubstituted imidazoles are 1,4 dicarbonyl compounds. This approach is limited for two main reasons: (i) the syntheses of these precursors are nontrivial and in many examples involve multistep sequences starting from 1,2-aminoalcohols [5759]; (ii) the reaction conditions are often drastic. An efcient synthesis of triand tetrasubstituted imidazoles starting from b-ketoamides under neutral reaction conditions has been reported (Scheme 10.13) [58]. Cyclization was carried out using ammonium triuoroacetate as a solvent.
O Ph N X
Scheme 10.13
OH NH R1
1) Cl
R2
Ph
OO N R1 R2 CF3CO2NH4 N X
Ph
N N R1 R2
2) Swern oxidation N X
The method tolerates a various array of substituents at N1 and C2. For bulky R1 the substituent R2 is limited to small groups due to the difcult synthesis of the corresponding keto amides. With this methodologies it is possible decorate the imidazole scaffold with sufcient exibility (Figure 10.5) [60]. A very attractive method for the preparation of tetrasubstituted imidazoles is based on an hetero-Cope rearrangement followed by an amidine cyclization [61]. This procedure utilizes as starting materials oximes 37 (bearing R4 and R5 imidazole substituents) and imidoyl chlorides 38 (bearing R1 and R2 imidazole substituents) (Scheme 10.14). This reaction is highly regioselective, the main limitation being the aromatic nature of the C2 substituents. Another direct approach towards 1-methyl-tetrasubstituted imidazoles involves nchnones). the 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition of methylated mesoionic oxazolones (mu The reaction of N-methyl-1,3-oxazolium-5-olates 39 with imines 40 involves a 1,3dipolar cycloaddition to give an unstable primary bicyclic adduct 41 that loses carbon dioxide and benzenesulnic acid and gains aromaticity (Scheme 10.15) [52]. The phenylsulfonyl leaving group enhances the tendency to aromatize. The yields reported for this reaction are low, at least partly due to self-condensation of nchnones. mu
Ph BnO Ph O N N ( )3 Ph N MeO N N Ph OMe N Ph
N N N N
N N Ph OH
Ph
Figure 10.5 Structures of compounds obtained starting from 1,4-dicarbonyl reagents.
822

+ 2 N R1 PhCONHR1 R4 R5 PhCONHR1 R5 R4 Ph R1 N N O N R5 R4 Ph R1 N N O N H R1 Ph R5 H R4 Ph R1 N N O N H R1 R4 R5 Ph N N R1 NHR1 N N R1 Ph N Cl Ph 37 OH 38
R5 R4
Ph
Ph
R1
O Ph
R1, R4, R5 = Ar, Alk 32-96%

Scheme 10.14
HO2C R5 DCC O R5 N
O R2
1) DCC SO2Ph 2) R4 N -CO2 -PhSO2H 40
R4 R
5
N N R2
O N R2 39
R4
H SO2Ph R4 R5 N
CO O
SO2Ph R2 41
Scheme 10.15
The problem of self-condensation can be suppressed by using a solid-phase approach towards preparation of imidazoles (Scheme 10.16) The precursor 43 prepared from commercially available resin 42 (ArgoGel-MB-CHO) and treated with nchnone 44. Subsequent cycloethyl-diisopropylcarbodiimide (EDC) led to the mu addition with tosyl imine 45 followed by elimination of toluenesulnic acid and CO provided the resin linked imidazoles 46. The imidazoles were liberated from the resin by treatment with glacial acetic acid at 100 C and obtained in good yield and purities [62]. There are a few examples that utilize the concept of a multicomponent reaction (MCR), especially the Ugi type reaction, for the synthesis of imidazoles. However, most syntheses have been performed in a stepwise fashion and were not set-up as MCR. A three component reaction utilizing aldehydes, o-picolilamines and isocyanides is shown in Scheme 10.17 [63]. The reaction proceeds through in situ formation of imine 49 from aldehyde 48 and amine 47 followed by the attack of the a-acidic isocyanide 51 and subsequent ring
j823
R5 O O
O O O Argogel-MB-CHO 42 O R4 45 NHTs O R2 N N 46 O
O N R2 43 R5 R4
R5 O OH EDC O
O N R2 R5 N N R4 53-99% 44
AcOH, 100 C
H R2
R2,R3,R4
Scheme 10.16
= Aryl or heteroaryl
NH2 N R O + R2 48
InCl3, 0.5 eq BnNC 16h, rt
R N N N Bn -H2 R2 R = H, Me R2 = CH2Ar, Alkyl 17-55 %
47 -H2O R2 N N R 49
N NH R 50
R2
1 N R C 51
Scheme 10.17
closure. Subsequent aromatization affords the nal imidazole. The nucleophilicity of the (2-pyridyl)methyl carbon derives from the enamine tautomer 50. Scheme 10.18 depicts the synthesis of 1-substituted-4-carboxylic acid imidazoles 53 through a resin-bound isonitrile [64]. The solid supported isonitrile
O O N N 52 O O N N
Scheme 10.18
R1NH2 MW, 220C
O O N N R1
TFA
O HO 53 N N R1
H NHR1
-HNMe2
R1 = Alkyl, Aryl 20-90%
824

(Wang resin) 52 was treated with alkyl and aryl amines to give, in variable yields, the imidazoles. The reactions can be speeded up using microwaves. The reaction proceeds with a mechanism involving a-addition of the amine to the isocyanide.
10.3.2 Synthesis of Oxazoles
Oxazole are common substructures in several biologically active compounds, synthetic intermediates and pharmaceuticals, and consequently there is a continuing stimulus for the development of more general and versatile synthetic methodologies for this class of compounds [65]. The cyclodehydration of 2-acylamino ketones 54, known as the RobinsonGabriel reaction, is one of the oldest and most widely used synthesis of 2,5-disubstituted and 2,4,5-trisubstituted oxazoles (Scheme 10.19) [66, 67].
R4 R5 O N 54 H H O N H R4 R5 O
O R2 H+ O R2 R4 R5
H+ -H2O
N R2 -H2O
R4 R5
H O N H
O R2
R4 R5 H
OH N
O R2
R2,R3,R4= alkyl, aryl, heteroaryl

Scheme 10.19
As an extension of RobinsonGabriel synthetic approach to oxazoles, N-acylamino acids, N-acylamino esters, N-acylamino nitriles and N-acyl peptides have been used as substrate for cyclodehydration. Classically, this transformation was carried out with relatively harsh dehydrating agents, including concentrated H2SO4, polyphosphoric acid, P2O5, SOCl2, POCl3 and anhydrous HF. These classical reagents continue to be used to prepare a wide variety of oxazole derivatives and some examples are shown in Table 10.3. 2-Monosubstituted and 2,4-disubstituted oxazoles are generally inaccessible by the RobinsonGabriel method owing to the sensitivity of 2-acylamino aldehydes to oxidative and dehydrating conditions. In addition, the same problems can be suffered by a-acylamino ketones containing stereochemically sensitive side chains. However, milder dehydrating agent can be used, offering broader functional group compatibility [76]. A protocol based on triphenylphosphine/iodine in the presence of triethylamine has been introduced by Wipf and Miller (Scheme 10.20) [77].

Table 10.3 RobinsonGabriel synthesis of substituted oxazoles.
j825
R4 R5
O N H
O R2
H+ -H2O R
R4
5
N O R2
R2 CH2Cl
R4 Et H
R5 H
Yield (%) 31a) 77a)
Reference [68] [69]
N
Me Pr CO2Me Ph
N
CH2CO2Me Ph 19b) 87c) [70] [71]
N N CONHCH2CF3
(CH2)6CO2Me i-Pr Me
Dehydrating agents: a) POCl3. b) SOCl2. c) H2SO4. d) P2O5. e) TFA/TFAA. f) PPA.
MeO
H 82c) [72]
N
H H i-Pr Ph 3,4-di-MeOPh N(Bn)2 84d) 79
e) f)
[73] [74] [75]
86
The authors have proposed a mechanism in which an enol phosphonium salt 56 loses Ph3PO to generate acylimino carbene 57, which cyclizes to the oxazole ring (Scheme 10.20). The same result can be obtained using the Burgess reagent 55 (Scheme 10.20), in combination with microwave irradiation [78]. The RobinsonGabriel synthesis of oxazoles can be extended to solid-phase synthesis utilizing solid supported a-acylaminoketones with TFAA as dehydrating agent [79], (Scheme 10.21) or the Burgess reagent [80]. Following the RobinsonGabriel [66, 67, 81] approach new methodologies have been developed mainly with the aim of improving the generation of the a-aminoacyl ketone precursors. A synthesis described by Moody and coworkers is based on Rhcatalyzed insertion of carbenoids. The use, as counterparts, of nitriles [82] affords directly the oxazole, while the use of primary amides goes through a preliminary insertion of the carbenoid in the NH bond and subsequent cyclization following the methodologies introduced by Wipf [83]. The source of carbenoids are diazoesters 58 (Scheme 10.22).
826

O R5 HN R4 O R2 Ph3PI2,TEA RT, 15min-8h -P(Ph)3O -HI R4 R5 N O R2 R2 = alkyl, aryl R4 = H, CO2Me, Me R5 = H, Me, Ph 37-81% H N R4 56 O R2 -P(Ph)3O -HI R5 R 57
4
Ph3PI2,TEA I(Ph)3P O R5 R2 N R5 R2 N R4
N 55 O
O S N
O O
Burgess reagent
Scheme 10.20 Wipf-Miller cyclodehydration synthesis.
O X N
R1
O R5
TFA 12h, rt
R4 R5
N O R1
many examples 12-89%
R4
Scheme 10.21
R1
N Rh2(OAc)4
O H2N R1 O + Rh2(OAc)4 N2 O 58 CO2Me R5 R5 HN R1 R1 = aminoacid residues R5 = alkyl, Ph, OMe

Scheme 10.22
CO2Me O
Ph3P, I2 MeO2C TEA R

5
N O R1
31-88%
Another well established and widely used method to prepare oxazoles is the cyclocondensation of a-haloketones 59 with primary amides 60 (Hantzsch type reaction). The reaction is typically driven by heating the mixture of 59 and 60 in the presence of a buffer to remove the generated acid. Both 2,4-disubstituted oxazoles and
j827
2-amino-4-substituted oxazoles can be accessed with this methodology (Scheme 10.23). This approach can be extended to synthesize 2-aminooxazoles using urea and its derivatives as the partner of a-haloketones (Section 10.4.4). Furthermore, this approach, using thioamides, is the most general method for the synthesis of thiazoles and it is discussed in details in the next section.
R4 R
5
O + X 59 H2N
O R2 60 -H2O -HX X
R4 R5 -HX
N O R2 -H2O NH R2
R4 R5
O O
NH2
R4 R
5
O O
R2
Scheme 10.23
As we have previously seen for the synthesis of imidazoles, TosMIC (23) is also a useful reagent for the synthesis of oxazoles [45]. Aldehydes condense, in presence of a base, with TosMIC to afford 4,5-disubstituted oxazolines that eliminate toluenesulnic acid to yield 5-monosubstituted oxazoles, as already outlined for the imidazole series. The reaction can be extended to substituted TosMIC, giving 4,5-disubstituted oxazole (Table 10.4). The reaction proceeds with the nucleophilic addition of TosMIC to aldehyde followed by cyclizationaromatization. The TosMIC route has been extended to solid-phase synthesis. The use of a polymer-supported version of TosMIC offers the advantage, compared with the homogeneous counterpart, of easy recovery of pure products. Resins that are unstable in basic reaction conditions are avoided. Polystyrene-SO2-CH2-NC resin 61, prepared from Merrield resin, can be used as a solid-phase equivalent of TosMIC and has found application in the synthesis of 5-aryloxazoles using tetrabutylammonium hydroxide as base (Figure 10.6) [88]. Resin 62 has also been used for the preparation of 5-aryloxazoles in conjunction with t-Bu-tetramethylguanidine [89]. An alternative method to the cyclodehydration of keto amide is the base-promoted [90] or palladium-catalyzed cycloisomerization of propargyl amides. The rst reaction in Scheme 10.24 is an example of the latter, in which 2,5 disubstituted oxazoles 63 are prepared. The reaction proceeds through a palladium-catalyzed coupling step followed by cyclization [91]. In the same manner [Scheme 10.24 (2)], 2,4,5 trisubstituted oxazol-5-yl carbonyl derivatives 64 can be prepared using cheap and easily removable silica gel as the mediator of cycloisomerization. These oxazol-5-yl carbonyl compounds were inaccessible utilizing the base- or palladium catalyst-mediated procedure [92]. Oxazoles can also be prepared from b-(acyloxy)vinyl azides by reaction with phosphorous(III) reagents (Table 10.5). The intermediate iminophosphorane gives substituted oxazoles through an intramolecular version of the aza-Wittig reaction.
828

Table 10.4 Substituted oxazoles prepared using the van LeusenTosMIC route.
O S
R4 O N C + R5 O Base
R4 R5 O
+ TsOH
Base O Tol S O N C R5
R4 R5
-TolSO2H Tol S O 26 R5 O N O
[3+2]
Yield Reference R4 (%)
R5
Yield Reference (%)
N O
65
[84]
p-CF3Ph
79
[74]
CO2Et 3,4,5-(MeO)3Ph
80
[45]
Ph
Me p-NO2Ph
90
[85]
3-BnO-4- 89 MeOPh
[86]
96
[87]
This route is particularly useful for the synthesis of acid-labile oxazole derivatives (Table 10.5) [93]. An intermolecular version of the aza-Wittig reaction, using aroyl chlorides, affords imidoyl chloride derivatives 65 which easily cyclize to afford derivatives 66 (Scheme 10.25) [94, 95].
polystyrene n
CN
SO2 61 CN SO2
62
Figure 10.6 Resins used for the preparation of 5-aryloxazoles.
j829
H N
R2 + ArI
Pd2(dba)3 P(2-furyl)3 NaOtBu MeCN, 40C
N Ar O 32-83% R2 63 R4 O
(1)
O R2 = alkyl, aryl O R R4 H N
SiO2 CH2Cl2, rt R2
O R
R4 O
N R2 R
N R2
(2)
O R = alkyl, aryl, OEt R2 = alkyl, aryl R4 = alkyl

Scheme 10.24
64
32-99%
Iminophosphorane joined with isothiocyanate are also useful intermediates for the synthesis of 2-amino substituted oxazoles. This tandem iminophosphorane/ heterocumulene mediated annulation is described in Section 10.4.4 [96]
Table 10.5 Oxazoles via intramolecular aza-Wittig rearrangement.
O O
R2
N3
P(OR)3 90C, 24h
O O
R2
P(OR)3
-PO(OR)3 R5
N O R2
R5
R2
R5
R5
Yield (%)
55
74
61
Me
61
830

O N3 ArCOCl, P(Ph)3 Fe Oxazole-ferrocene complex N O Ar Fe O N
Fe
O Fe N Fe
Fe
-PO(Ph)3 -HCl P(Ph)3 O P(Ph)3 N ArCOCl -PO(Ph)3
66 45-51% -HCl O Cl N Fe 65 Ar
O O Fe N N N O
Fe
Fe
Scheme 10.25
10.3.3 Synthesis of Thiazoles
The classical method for the synthesis of thiazole is the Hantzsch process in which an a-halocarbonyl compound 59 (or the corresponding a-haloacetal) is condensed with a primary thioamide 67 (or a thiourea for the 2-amino derivatives) [97, 98]. The reaction proceeds with the nucleophilic attack of sulfur on the carbon atom bearing the halogen. The acyclic intermediate (isolated in few cases) a-S-alkyliminium salt 68, after a proton transfer, undergoes cyclization and subsequent acid-catalyzed elimination of water (Scheme 10.26).
R4 X 59 O R5 + R2 R4 NH2 -H2O, -HX R5
S 67
N S R2
R4 R5
O S
NH2
R4 R5
X OH NH S R2
-H2O -HX HO R4 R5 NH S X R2
R2
68
Scheme 10.26
This reaction usually proceeds smoothly to yield the desired thiazole and excellent yields have been obtained for simple thiazoles. However, for some types of substituent the range of pattern is limited, and low yields occur, as a result of dehalogenation of the a-haloketone during the reaction. Using thioamides and unsubstituted
j831
a-halocarbonyl it is possible to access 2-substituted thiazoles. In this case the range of substitution pattern is in almost every case abundant. Table 10.6 lists some examples. Dimethyl and diethyl acetals as well as halohydrine derivatives frequently replace the aldehydes.
Table 10.6 2-Substituted thiazoles prepared following the Hantzsch procedure.
O X
S R2 NH2 -H2O, -HX S
N R2
X = Cl, Br
Yield Reference R2 (%) Yield Reference (%)
R2
Me
49
[99]
33
[100]
MeO2C
Ph NH2 79 91 [101] [103]
SO2
71 [102] [104]
NHCbz
(iPrO)2PO
41
p-MePhCO2
SH 50 [105]
O p-MePhCO2
70
[106]
SMe
88
[107]
Ph
NH
78
[108]
Me2N
85
[109]
p-MeOPh O
50
[110]
O S S
65 [112]
NH
80
[111]
50
[113]
15
[114]
AcO
Me tBu
Si
Me O NBoc
73 [115]
N NH
79
[116]
832

For the synthesis of 4-substituted thiazole the thioformamide is the reagent of choice, while using substituted thioamides and substituted a-haloketones affords 2,4,5-trisubstituted azoles (Table 10.7). A modication of the Hantzsch synthesis utilizes a-tosylketones instead of a-halocarbonyl compounds [128]. One of the advantages of this modication is to
Table 10.7 Synthesis of 2,4,5-trisubstituted azoles.
R4 X
S R2 NH2 -H2O, -HX R
R4
5
N S R2
R5 X = Cl, Br
R4
R2 H H
R5 H H
Yield (%) 78 40
Reference [117] [118]
CH2CH2Phth CH2CH2CO2Et O R
CO2H
H 83 [119]
N
H m-NH2Ph H 84 [119]
O
H
N F3C
O CF3
52
[120]
Me Bt
3,4-diOMe-Ph Me Ph Ph
CO2Me Me Ph Me
80 66 50 59
[121] [122]
CbzNH
CO2Et NH2 Me CO2Me CO2Me 81 53 65 [123] [124] [125]
CO2tBu
Me CO2Me
N H
O
Ph
O NH O
H 86 [126]
Br
NH2
CO2Et
76
[127]
j833
avoid the use of lachrymatory and toxic a-halocarbonyl compounds. This method involves a reaction of ketones with the hypervalent iodine reagent HTIB [hydroxy(tosyloxy)iodobenzene] (69) to produce the a-tosylketone 71 through the intermediate formation of a-l3-iodanil ketone 70 (Scheme 10.27).
1) Ts I OH HTIB O R4 R5 69 2) R2CSNH2, MeCN, reflux -H2O R4 R5
N S
R2 65-79%
R2CSNH2 OH R
4
HTIB R5
TsOI 70 Ph R4
O OTs 71 R5
R2 = NH2, NHAr R4 = Ar R5 = H, COMe, CO2Me

Scheme 10.27
It was subsequently noted that a-l3-iodanil ketones, obtained in situ, could also undergo direct cyclization by the reaction with thioamides, avoiding the isolation of the a-tosylketone 71 [129]. Another important synthetic method for the synthesis of thiazoles involves treating a-acylamino ketones 54 with phosphorous pentasulde or Lawesson reagent [130] (Gabriel synthesis) (Scheme 10.28).
R5 R
4
O NH
O R 54
2
P2S5
-H2O
R4 R
5
N S R2 -H2O
P2S5 R
5
O NH
S R2
R5 R4
O N
H R2
R5 R
4
OH N
R4
S R
2
Scheme 10.28
An alternative thiazole synthesis, which is applied to combinatorial chemistry, is shown in Scheme 10.29. These isocyanide based four-component reactions provides
834

+ O SH -H2O R' R'' NH MeO2C H N S NMe2 R' N R'' Ac MeO2C N NMe2 R' SH N R'' Ac + O R' + R''NH2 MeOH, rt, 20h -H2O, - NHMe2 MeO2C N S R' -NHMe2 MeO2C Me2N N S R' Ac N R'' Ac N R'' 37-81%
MeO2C
NC NMe2
MeO2C
N S NMe2
O R'' = alkyl
R' = alkyl, aryl
Scheme 10.29
2,4-disubstituted thiazoles. The substituent on C4 is limited to carbomethoxy (Scheme 10.29) [131]. Methods involving a regioselective metal-catalyzed coupling reaction have also been utilized to construct highly substituted thiazoles in view of the fact that coupling reactions would be selective for the more electron-decient C2 (see below).
10.4 Reactivity
This section considers the reactivities of 1,3-azoles in detail and, when possible, the reactions of these heteroaromatic systems are compared among themselves. These reactions can be rationalized with reference to the tautomeric and acidbase equilibria shown by these compounds that are discussed in Section 10.1.
10.4.1 Reactions with Electrophilic Reagents 10.4.1.1 Electrophilic Attack at N3 Electrophilic attack at the azomethine nitrogen (pyridine-type) depends upon (i) the electron density on the pyridine-type nitrogen and (ii) the substituents present on the azole ring. The nature and position of the heteroatom other than azomethine nitrogen determine the electron density on the former. The interaction of pyridinetype nitrogen with pyrrole-type nitrogen, oxygen and sulfur atoms has a considerable inuence due to the presence of two opposite electronic effects: (i) the mesomeric effect and (ii) the inductive effect. The balancing of both these effects determines the electron density at the pyridine-type nitrogen atom. The inductive effect is stronger when the second atom is oxygen or sulfur and thus lowers the electron density on nitrogen. In contrast, with two nitrogen atoms the mesomeric effect is stronger and increases the electron density at position 3. Imidazoles substituted at N1 [132], oxazoles [133], and thiazoles [134] 72 are alkylated/acylated with the formation of
10.4 Reactivity
j835
quaternary salts 73 (Scheme 10.30a) and alkylation/acylation of imidazole 74 (with free NH group) produces protonated N-alkyl-/acyl-imidazolium salt 75 that can be deprotonated by a base to afford N-alkyl imidazole 76 [135]. In this case, if the electrophilic reagent is a proton, this reaction sequence is a simple tautomer interconversion (Scheme 10.30b).
R1X R1
a)
N X 72
X 73 R1
R1 = alkyl or acyl halide X = NR, O or S
b)
N N H 74
R1X
-H+
N N 76
R1
N XH 75
Scheme 10.30
There are several examples of quaternizing alkylations of imidazoles using diverse reagents like alkyl, alkenyl or arylalkyl halides, ethyl chloroacetate, phenacyl bromide or dimethyl sulfate [136]. Although quaternization at the already substituted nitrogen atom has been reported and one of the products of the reaction of imidazole with 2,2dichlorodiethyl sulde was identied as 77, it is more likely to be 78 or 79 (Figure 10.7). The observations of Pinner and Schwarz in 1902 that the quaternary salt obtained from 1-methylimidazole and 1-bromopentane was decomposed by alkali to give both aminomethane and 1-aminopentane was the rst piece of evidence (more recently conrmed by NMR studies) to support the accepted view that quaternization takes places at the unsubstituted ring nitrogen [137]. The oxazole and thiazole nitrogen atom also reacts with various alkylating and acylating agents [138, 139]. Oxazoles react with bromine in methanol to give a mixture of products via initial attack of bromine on nitrogen atom to form the charged complex 80. Subsequent rapid reactions with methanol lead to intermediates 81 or 82 depending on the C2 and C4 substituents ability to stabilize the CN bond. Thus, a phenyl substituent on C2 favors the 2,5-dihydrooxazole structure 81, whereas a phenyl group on C4 favors the 4,5-dihydrooxazole structure 82. The intermediates give cyclic or ring-opened products 8386 (Scheme 10.31) [140].
N N S 77 N N 78 S S S
N N 79
Cl Cl
Figure 10.7 Possible products of the reaction of imidazole with 2,2-dichlorodiethyl sulfide.
836

R4 R5 MeO N O Br R Br81
2
R4 R5 MeO
N O R2 83
R4 R5
N O R2
R4 Br2 R5
N O Br-
Br R2 80 MeOH
MeO R5 MeO
R4 Br N OMe O R2
R2= Ph R4 N O
MeO R5 MeO R4 Br N OMe O R2
Br R2
MeO R5 MeO +
R4 N O 84 R2
R4 R5 O
Br OMe R2
MeO R5 Br
Br- 82
R2 = R4 = Me
R4 =Ph
O R4 OMe R5 R2 N OMe H OMe or 85 R2 O R4 OMe R5 N H 86 O
Scheme 10.31
The electronic density on pyridine-type nitrogen is also affected by the substituents on the azole ring and may be rationalized as follows: 1) Strongly electron-withdrawing substituents (e.g., NO2, COR, CHO) make these reactions less favorable by decreasing the electron density on the nitrogen atom(s). The effect is largely inductive and, therefore, is particularly strong for the a-position. 2) Strongly electron-donating substituents (e.g., NH2, OR) facilitate electrophilic attack by increasing the electron density on the nitrogen atom. This is due to the mesomeric effect and is, therefore, strongest for the a- and c-positions. 3) Groups with relatively weak electronic effects have a relatively small electronic inuence. More recently, an efcient and straightforward copper-catalyzed method allowing vinylation of imidazoles in high yields and selectivities with di- or trisubstituted vinyl bromides has been described. The reaction can be performed with catalytic amounts of copper iodide and inexpensive nitrogen ligands under very mild temperature conditions (35110 C) [141]. For example, the viynilation of imidazole 74 by b-bromostyrene afforded compound 87 with a yield of 93% (Scheme 10.32).
N N H 74
Scheme 10.32
Br + Ph
CuI ligand Ph
N N 87
10.4 Reactivity
j837
In this context, triphenylphosphine has been used as nucleophilic catalyst for umpolung addition of azoles to electron-decient allenes. This strategy offers a simple and efcient method for functional allylation of azoles under neutral conditions and affords heterocyclic substituted Michael olens [142]. The catalytic cycle might be initiated by a nucleophilic addition of triphenylphosphine to the electron-decient allene 88. The enolate 89 then deprotonates the azole, generating the vinylphosphonium 90. Subsequently, nucleophilic addition to vinylphosphonium 90 leads to the ylide. Finally, the enolate is obtained by prototropy and then undergoes a b-elimination, affording the nal allylazole 91 and regenerating the nucleophilic catalyst. (Scheme 10.33).
Ph3P
CO2Me
88
PPh3 N N
91
CO2Me
89
CO2Me
N N
CO2Me PPh3 N N N H
CO2Me PPh3 90 N N
Scheme 10.33
CO2Me PPh3
Finally, many metal complexes with azoles or alkyl derivatives are known. The sulfur, oxygen and pyrrolidine-type nitrogen atoms are less nucleophilic than a pyridine-type nitrogen atom and the latter is expected to be the dominant donor. For example, a palladium(II) bisimidazole complex was obtained from the reaction of Pd (cod)ClMe (codcyclooctadiene) with equimolar amounts of 92 and proved to be an effective catalyst for the Heck reaction under phosphine-free conditions using ionic liquids as solvent (Scheme 10.34) [143].
10.4.1.2 Electrophilic Attack at Carbon Figure 10.8 depicts the reactivity order in 1,3-azoles. Imidazoles containing an unsubstituted NH group are easily chlorinated (Cl2/H2O or N-chlorosuccinimide/CHCl3), brominated (Br2/CHCl3 or KOBr/H2O) and iodinated (I2/HIO3). Substitution generally occurs rst at the 4-position but further reaction at the other available positions takes place readily, providing
838

Pd(cod)ClMe N N CH2Cl2, rt N N Me Me 92
Scheme 10.34
Cl N
Me Pd N 96%
N N Me Me
N N H >
N S >
N O
Figure 10.8 Order of reactivity in 1,3-azoles.
2,4,5-tribromoimidazole [Scheme 10.35 (1)] [144]. Ring bromination of oxazole 90 with bromine or NBS (N-bromosuccinimide) occurs preferentially at the 5-position to afford 5-bromooxazole and, if this is occupied, at the 4-position [Scheme 10.35 (2)] [145].
Br Br
N Br2/CHCl3 N H Br2/H2O
N N H Br
(1)
N O
Br2 NBS Br
N O
(2)
Scheme 10.35
Thiazole does not react with bromine or chlorine in an inert solvent, but thiazoles with an electron-releasing substituent in the 2 or 4-position are brominated at C5 [146]. For example, 2-aminothiazole afforded compound 93 in a bromination reaction (Scheme 10.36).
N S Br2 Br N O 93
NH2
NH2
Scheme 10.36
Nitration of imidazoles [137] and thiazoles [139] has usually been carried out using either a mixture of concentrated (or fuming) nitric acid and concentrated sulfuric acid, or in some cases with concentrated nitric acid and acetic anhydride. Nitration
10.4 Reactivity
j839
(HNO3/H2SO4, 160 C) and sulfonation (H2SO4/SO3, 160 C) of imidazoles proceeds at the 4-position very slowly, because the reaction takes places in acidic medium, with formation of imidazolium cations (e.g., 74 yields 94) (Scheme 10.37) [137]. The deactivating effect of a protonated nitrogen atom is considerably greater than, for example, the two nitro groups in m-dinitrobenzene.
N N H 74
Scheme 10.37
H+ N H
+ NH NO2
O2N H
94
2 N H
NH
O2N -2H+
N N H
With the object of nding milder nitration conditions, the use of cerium (IV) ammonium nitrate [147], montmorillonite impregnated with bismuth nitrate [148], and nitrations with dinitrogen pentoxide [149, 150] have been studied. Direct nitration of various imidazoles and thiazoles with nitric acid/triuoroacetic anhydride, which involves N2O5, affords mononitro derivatives with an average yield of 60% [151]. Finally, dinitrothiazoles have been obtained by direct nitration of the corresponding mononitro derivative with acetyl nitrate [152]. In the case of thiazole, the reaction only occurs at the 5-position under forcing conditions (H2SO4/SO3 in the presence of HgSO4, 250 C). As expected, these reactions are facilitated by activating groups such as an amino group; for example, 2-aminothiazole 92 is sulfonated at low temperature with the formation of sulfamic acid 95, which on heating rearranges to 2-aminothiazole-5-sulfonic acid 96 (Scheme 10.38) [153].
N S 92 NH2 H2SO4 N S 95 NHSO3H HO3S S 96 N NH2
Scheme 10.38
Mercuration of oxazole with mercury(II) acetate occurs at C4 or C5 depending upon the available unsubstituted position. If both positions are substituted, mercuration occurs at the 2-position. Thiazole 97 is mercurated at positions 2, 4 and 5 in the order: C5 > C4 > C2, providing 2,4,5-tris(acetoxymercury)thiazole 98 on treatment with mercury acetate in the presence of aqueous acetic acid (Scheme 10.39) [153].
N S 97
Scheme 10.39
Hg(OCOMe)2
MeCO2H
MeOCOHg MeOCOHg
N S 98
HgOCOMe
840

Diazonium ions couple with the anions of N-unsubstituted imidazoles at the 2position (e.g., 74 affords 99) [Scheme 10.40 (1)]. In general, other azoles react only when they contain an amino or an hydroxy group. For example, 2-aminothiazole 92 undergoes diazo coupling with diazonium salts at C5 to afford 100 [Scheme 10.40 (2)] [154].
N N H 99 Ar N N NH2 N Ar N N N Ar
N N H 74 N S 92
Ar N N
(1)
N S 100 NH2 (2)
Scheme 10.40
Phosphorylation of 1-substituted imidazoles has been achieved under basic conditions by treatment with phosphorous(V) acid chlorides and provided good yields of the corresponding phosphinic acid salts after treatment with aqueous base [155]. Direct electrophilic silylation of 1,3-azoles with silane (II) under basic conditions afforded C-trimethylsilylazoles in good yields. The silylation occur at C2 [156]. On the other hand, electrophilic substitution is by far the most common method for substitution at the 2-position of substituted 1,3-azoles [157]. With this aim the addition of electrophiles as acid chlorides [158] or aldehydes [159] has been studied. In general, the reactions are run with an amine base for acid chlorides and are proposed to proceed via an intermediate carbene/ylide species [160]. In this context, the addition of 2,2,2-trichloroacetyl chloride to 76 affords 101 (Scheme 10.41).
Cl3CCOCl Et3N -HCl
N N R1 76 Cl3CCOCl O N Cl- N R1
Scheme 10.41
N N R1
O CCl3
CCl3 Et3N -HCl
O N N R1 CCl3 N N R1
O CCl3
10.4 Reactivity
j841
Imidazoles are sufciently nucleophilic to condense with aldehydes under thermal conditions in the presence of acid to give 2-hydroxymethylimidazoles. For example, the addition of formaldehyde to N-methylimidazole yields 102 (Scheme 10.42). The reaction, however, is highly variable and substrate dependent.
N N Me (CH2O)n N N Me
Scheme 10.42
(CH2O)n
N CH2OH
N 102 Me CH2ON N Me
CH2OH
The addition of imidazole-1-carboxamides 103 to phenyl isocyanate gives the corresponding amides 104 in modest yield (Scheme 10.43) [161].
N N Ar N H O 103 N N Ar N H O 104
PhNCO
O HN Ph
Scheme 10.43
The intramolecular addition of azoles to iminium ions formed from aldehydes and secondary amines affords 2-substituted derivatives cleanly only when the 4- or 5position is blocked. For example, the addition of the iminium ion 106 obtained from the azole-aldehyde 105 and an aryl-piperazinone affords a mixture of 107 and 108 in a 1 : 2 ratio, respectively (Scheme 10.44) [162]. When position 2 is substituted the reaction yields the 4-substituted product [137, 163]. The preformation of 1-cyano-4-(N,N-dimethylamino)-pyridinium bromide (109), from DMAP (4-N,N-dimethylaminopyridine) and BrCN, allows for the selective 2cyanation of N-methylimidazole to yield 110 (Scheme 10.45). In the absence of DMAP, the 2-position is brominated [164]. Finally, although the Lewis acid-promoted FriedelCrafts acylation is the most commonly used method for the acylation of an aromatic ring, it is impracticable for imidazoles, due to deactivation of the Lewis acids. Other azoles, such as oxazoles and thiazoles, are generally also not amenable, because of their electron-decient aromatic character. This type of acylation, however, proceeds in the presence of strong activation from electron-donating groups, such as alkoxy, amino or arylthio groups, in the substrates [165].
842

Cl N N N H O ClPh, reflux 1.5 h Ar 107 Ar O 106 N N N N N
Ar O + 1 : 2 41%
Ar O
N N N
Ar 105
CHO
Ar 108
N N Ar
Scheme 10.44
N N
NMe2
N N Me 101
Br-
N CN 109
N N Me 110 CN
Scheme 10.45
10.4.2 Reaction with Oxidizing Agents
Imidazoles and thiazoles are resistant to oxidation, but they can be oxidized by hydrogen peroxide and peracids as, for example, perbenzoic or peracetic acid. In the case of imidazoles the ring is degraded [166] to afford 111a and 111b [Scheme 10.46 (1)] and with thiazoles the 3-oxide 112 is obtained [Scheme 10.46 (2)] [167]. Photosensitized oxidation of imidazole (74) with singlet oxygen produces imidazolidin-2-one 114 via the cyclic peroxide 113 (Scheme 10.47) [168]. Trisubstituted imidazoles and thiazoles undergo photosensitized oxidation with the formation of ring cleaved products depending on the solvent and the sensitizer used [169]. The oxazole ring is cleaved by oxidizing agents such us permanganate, chromic acid or hydrogen peroxide to give acids or amides [170].
10.4 Reactivity
j843
H2O2 N N H PhCO3H - NH3 Me S
H2NOC CONH2 111 a
(1)
NH2CONH2 111 b Me O (2) Me
N CH3
H2O2 or MeCOOOH
S 112
Scheme 10.46
N N H 74
h, O2
H MeO NH H O MeO N H 114
h, 1O2 H N N H H H MeO N N H O
O O 113
Scheme 10.47
Substitution at C2 of 1,3-azoles with a leaving group generates a heterocycle that can be functionalized via displacement of the C2 substituent. Heteroatom nucleophiles add either as the deprotonated species (e.g., alkoxides, thiolates) or under milder basic conditions. Diazo salts (e.g., 115) can be displaced by bromide ion (Scheme 10.48) [171] or by alcohols [172].
EtO2C NaBr, CuSO 4 N2+ EtO2C
N S 115
N S Br 75%
Scheme 10.48
2-Haloazoles 116 undergo nucleophilic substitution reactions with replacement of the halogen atom by nucleophiles [Scheme 10.49 (1)]. Halogen atoms at the 4- and
844

N X 116 Z Z = NH, O, S X = Br, Cl O2N Cl 117 N N Me KCN NH2R N Z NHR (1)
O2N NC
N 118 Me
(2)
Scheme 10.49
5- positions of imidazoles are normally unreactive but can be activated by an a- or c- electron-withdrawing substituent (e.g., 117 yields 118) [Scheme 10.49 (2)] [173]. Addition of carbon nucleophiles to halogenated thiazoles includes the use of sodium cyanide [174], indolyl Grignard reagent [Scheme 10.50 (1)] [175], 2-lithio-2nitropropane [Scheme 10.50 (2)] [176] and ester enolates [177].
N S MeO N MgI NO2 Br S
N N H (1)
OMe N O2N S NO2
N O2N S Br
Li
(2)
Scheme 10.50
Imidazole (74) has been used as electrophile with silyl enol ethers in the presence of alkyl chloroformates to provide the 2-substituted 2,3-dihydroimidazole 119 (Scheme 10.51) [178]. The same reaction can be performed with thiazole.
1. ClCO2R1, Et3N 2. ClCO2R1 0 C, 10 min-24h R2 R3 OTMS R4
N N H 74
CO2R1 R2
R4 N 3 R R1O2C O 119 several examples 29-99%
Scheme 10.51
10.4 Reactivity
j845
Imidazo[1,2-b]thiazolines 120 undergo nucleophilic displacement with allylic, benzylic and alkyl Grignard reagents to yield 121 (Scheme 10.52) while alkyl or aryl lithium reagents result in nucleophilic attack on sulfur and loss of ethylene to afford 2-thioalkyl-1H-imidazoles 122 (Scheme 10.52) [179].
Ph Ph MeLi, -78 C Ph N S PhCH2MgCl 121 N HS 76 % N
Ph
SMe -CH =CH 2 2 70% N H 122

Scheme 10.52
N 120
In some cases nucleophilic attack results in the cleavage of the ring. For example, oxazoles 123 when treated with ammonia at 200 C undergo nucleophilic attack at the 2-position and are transformed into the corresponding imidazoles 124 (Scheme 10.53) [180].
R4
5
N R
2
NH3 -H2O
R4
5
N R2 -H2O
R O 123 NH3 R R5
4
R N 124 H
N O
R4 R5
H N O R2
NH3
NH2
R4 R5 HO
H N N H R2
Scheme 10.53
Imidazole (74) reacts with acid chlorides to give salts that in the presence of alkali react to afford compound 125, derived from the ring cleavage (Scheme 10.54) [181].
O N N 74 H 2 PhCOCl N COPh COPh N H O H N COPh Ph Cl -CO 125 / HONHCOPh NHCOPh -CO NHCOPh CHO N COPh
N HOCOPh
Scheme 10.54
846

Finally, thiazoles are quite inert in the presence of hydroxide and alkaline ions. However, two proteases were found to catalyze the enantioselective hydrolysis of several 5-hydroxythiazoles (126) to give a-amino acids (127) (Scheme 10.55) [182].
R4 HO 126 S protease 0.2 M phosphate buffer Me S R4 H O (37-90%) 127 N H
OH
(R4 = Alkyl)
Scheme 10.55
10.4.4 Reactions of N-Metallated Imidazoles
Although the direct alkylation of imidazoles at N3 affords the 1-substituted imidazoles through a tautomer interconversion (Scheme 10.56, route a), in some cases the synthesis of these compounds has been reported using N-metallated imidazoles (Scheme 10.56, route b).
R
N N
Base N H
RX
N N H
route b RX
route a N Base
N R
Scheme 10.56
Route b can be considered as a complementary way for the preparation of 1substituted imidazoles and has permitted the introduction of the imidazolyl unit in a large number of structures for the synthesis of natural products or analogues [183]. In general, N-metallated imidazoles 128 are obtained using a base such as NaH or BuLi (Scheme 10.57).
N N H NaH or BuLi N N M 128
M = Na+ or Li+
Scheme 10.57
10.4 Reactivity
j847
10.4.5 Reactions of C-Metallated Azoles 10.4.5.1 Lithium Azoles These derivatives are prepared by direct deprotonation [184, 185] using strong bases or, particularly useful in the case of the less acidic sites in aromatic rings, by halogen exchange [186] between an halogenated heterocycle and an organolithium compound or lithium metal. 1,3-Azoles are prone to be lithiated at C2, but if this position is already occupied, lithiation occurs at C5. If a C4 metallation is required, usually the halogenlithium exchange methodology is employed. The combination of all these techniques allows the selective lithiation at any position in the azole nucleus. N-Substituted imidazoles tend to lithiate with alkyllithiums at C2, affording a carbenoid species that can be used as a bulky base, as in the case of 2-lithio-1methylimidazole, which has been used in the stereoselective deprotonation of cyclohexene oxides when combined with a chiral lithium amide [187]. However, 2-lithioimidazoles are employed normally as nucleophiles, for instance in addition reactions to aldehydes [188], ketones [189], esters and isocyanates [190], as well as in silylation [191], sulfenylation [192], and cyclic sulfate ring-opening [193] reactions. 2-Lithiated N-substituted imidazoles such as 2-lithio-N-methylimidazole (129), prepared by direct deprotonation using n-butyllithium, has recently been used in the reaction with the diester 130 for the preparation of compound 131 as a zinc ligand (Scheme 10.58) [194].
OMe N MeO N N Me 129
Scheme 10.58
OMe OMe OMe N OH Me NMe N N 131 NMe N OMe
O Li
130
HO Me N N N
2-Lithioimidazoles can also be generated by treatment of 1-substituted imidazoles with an excess of lithium powder in the presence of a catalytic amount of an electroncarrier [195] such as isoprene [196]. The isoprene-catalysed lithiation of different 1substituted imidazoles 132 (PG trityl, allyl, benzyl, vinyl, N,N-dimethylsulfamoyl, para-toluenesulfonyl, tert-butoxycarbonyl, acetyl, trimethylsilyl, tert-butyldimethylsilyl) leads to the cleavage of the protecting group producing 1H-imidazole (Scheme 10.59). However, the use of 1-(diethoxymethyl)imidazole (133) in the same lithiation reaction allows the preparation of the corresponding 2-lithio intermediate, which by reacting with different electrophiles such as, for example, benzaldehyde or N-phenyl-benzyl imine leads to 2-functionalized imidazoles (Scheme 10.60) [197].
848

PG N 1) Li, isoprene, THF H N N N 2) H2O 132 PG = Tr, Allyl, Bn, vinyl, -SO2NMe2, Ts, Boc, Acetyl, -SiMe3, -SiButMe2
Scheme 10.59
EtO 1) Li, isoprene, THF 2) O H N N
OEt OH
EtO N
OEt
N 133 EtO 1) Li, isoprene, THF 2) N H

Scheme 10.60
OEt HN
N N
As mentioned above, 5-lithiumimidazoles can be generated by direct deprotonation with an alkyllithium if the C2 position of the ring is blocked. When the substituent at C2 is a trialkylsilyl group, introduced by deprotonation and reaction with a trialkylsilyl halide, lithiation at C5 takes place. Examples of the use of these 2sylilated imidazol-5-yllithiums (132) are in the synthesis of imidazolsugars 133 (Scheme 10.61) [198]. As in the case of any 1,3-azole, oxazoles are readily lithiated at C2. However, attempts to trap 2-lithioxazoles with electrophiles must contend with complications due to the ring opening of the anion that equilibriates by an elimination/ringopening to produce the b-cyano enolate 135, which, according to NMR data, is the dominant form. In many cases enolate 135 cyclizes back after the C-electrophilic attack, affording mixtures of C2 and C4 substituted oxazoles, 136 and 137 (Scheme 10.62) [200].
10.4 Reactivity
j849
HOC OBn O N Li SiMe2tBu N SO2NMe2 134 O O -70 C, THF
N HO
SiMe2tBu N SO NMe 2 2 OBn O O 78% O
Scheme 10.61
OH N O OH Ph PhCHO O N Li PhCHO Ph N O OH N C OLi
137
136
N C OLi
Ph PhCHO H
OLi N C O
Ph H
135
Scheme 10.62
In this electrophilic ring opening, it is possible to lock the electron pair at the oxazole nitrogen by complexation with a Lewis acid, such as borane, thus allowing C2-lithiation (Scheme 10.63) [201].
1. THF-borane 2. s-BuLi -78 C
N O
N O
BH3 Li
PhCHO
OH
O 70% Ph
Scheme 10.63
In 2-substitued oxazoles, direct C5-lithiation can be carried out, allowing further reaction with electrophiles [202], although the brominelithium exchange methodology has also been used [203]. Remarkably, in 2 methyl-4-substituted oxazoles, a selectivity for lithiation at C5 to give compound 138, versus lithiation at the methyl group to give compound 139, has been observed, depending on the lithium base (Scheme 10.64) [204]. 5-Lithiation of 2-substituted oxazoles has also been achieved by ortho-lithiation to a triate group [205]. Concerning 5-bromo-2-phenyloxazole, 5-lithiation and further reaction with electrophiles has been achieved through an initial LDA-promoted 4-lithiation followed by halogen migration, leading to a 4-bromo-5-lithio-2-phenyloxazole intermediate [206].
850

Ph
N O
Me
1. Base 2. MeOTf
Ph Me
N O 138
Ph Me
+
N O 139
90%
Me
base = nBuLi, 138:139, 91:9 base = LDA, 138:139 9:91

Scheme 10.64
2-Lithiothiazoles [207] have been used as nucleophiles, for instance addition to aldehydes [208], the thiazole moiety being considered as a formyl equivalent [209], for example in addition reactions to lactones [210], to benzyloxyacetaldoximes [211] or in reactions with nitrones 140 for the synthesis of amino sugars (e.g., 141) (Scheme 10.65) [212].
Bn N BnO O BnO 140 OBn Et2O, -78 C OH
N S
OH OBn N BnO 141 75% S OBn N(OH)Bn
Li
Scheme 10.65
Lithiation at C5 in thiazoles takes place directly if the C2 position is blocked, an example being the lithiation of 2-(methylthio)thiazole (142) to give intermediate 143, which can react further with a nitrile such as p-chlorobenzonitrile, affording 5-(arylcarbonyl)thiazole 144 after hydrolysis (Scheme 10.66) [213].
1. Cl
N S
CN
SMe
nBuLi
Cl
N S
142
THF, -50C
Li
S 143
SMe
2. aq. HCl 90%
SMe
O 144
Scheme 10.66
5-Lithiation has also been achieved in 2-thiazolamines bearing a bromine atom at C5 through a halogen migration process starting from a LDA-promoted 4-lithiation [214]. 4-Lithiated thiazoles have usually been generated by brominelithium exchange, an example of their use being the synthesis of some photochromic dithiazolylethenes [215].
10.4.5.2 Magnesium Azoles The direct preparation of azolic organomagnesium reagents using the standard reaction between a halogenated derivative and magnesium is rather difcult due to
10.4 Reactivity
j851
the presence of a basic nitrogen. In these cases, the usual preparative procedure is to treat the azole with an alkyl Grignard reagent (generally EtMgBr, iPrMgBr, or iPr2Mg) or to perform a halogenmagnesium exchange by treating bromo and iodo azoles with the mentioned alkyl Grignards [216]. This procedure tolerates the presence of other functionalities [217]. Furthermore, the preparation of the organolithium derivative followed by interchange using magnesium dibromide can also be used. The generated imidazolylmagnesium halide has been employed in addition reactions to carbonyl compounds for the preparation, for example, of ligands for the a2D adrenergic receptor [218], sugar-mimic glycosidase inhibitors [219] or C-nucleosides [220]. It has also been used in acylation reactions with esters in the synthesis of pilocarpine analogues [221] or with Weinreb amides such as 145 (Scheme 10.67) [222].
S N N Tr CH2Cl2 O rt, 12h N N Tr 52%
S 145
Me N Me O
BrMg +
Scheme 10.67
In addition, examples of the use of oxazolylmagnesiums can be found in the addition of 2-(methylthio)-5-oxazolylmagnesium bromide (146) to the aldehyde 147 to give compound 148, which has been employed for the synthesis of conformationally locked C-nucleosides (Scheme 10.68) [223].
BnO N BrMg O 146 SMe
OH OBn O
O 147 BnO
N OH OBn O 61%
SMe O H OH 148
Scheme 10.68
Finally, thiazolylmagnesiums metalated at C2 have been obtained by the usual bromine-magnesium exchange using alkyl Grignards, even regioselectively. For example, 2-thiazolylmagnesium bromide 149 has been obtained from 2,4-dibromothiazole. This reagent has been used in an addition reaction to the chiral nitrile 150, affording, after reduction, the corresponding amine, which is a building block for the synthesis of thiazolyl peptides (Scheme 10.69) [224]. The lithiummagnesium transmetalation can also be used for the generation of thiazolylmagnesiums, an example being the preparation of 2-methylthiazol-4-ylmagnesium bromide, which is
852

Ph N S Br i-PrMgBr Br N S 149 MgBr 1. NC 150OTBDS 2. NaBH4 Br S N Ph OTBDS NH2
Br
Scheme 10.69
useful in the preparation of a fragment of epothilone via a copper(I)-catalyzed coupling to an allylic bromide [225].
10.4.5.3 Silicon Azoles Azole silanes are usually prepared by reaction of the corresponding heterocyclic organolithiums with alkylhalosilanes [226]. Imidazoles have been silylated at C2 using the conventional lithiumsilicon exchange, although it has been observed that 2-tert-butyldimethylsilylimidazole can be obtained by reaction of O-tert-butyldimethylsilylimidazolyl aminals with organolithium reagents through a retro-[1,4]-Brook rearrangement [227]. Usually, 2-silylimidazoles are employed in a subsequent lithiation at the 3-position and further reaction with electrophiles such as aldehydes [228] or tosyl azide [229]. The introduction of a silyl group at the 2-position in N-protected imidazoles was used as a logical way of changing the acidic proton by an easily removable group, thus allowing deprotonation at C5 and further transformations (Section 10.4.5.1). Examples are 2-silylated imidazoles, which are lithiated at C5 and act as nucleophiles [230]. The preparation of 2-silylated oxazoles is not obvious, since the usual 2-lithiationsilylation sequence drives the above mentioned ring opening to give an isocyano enolate (Section 10.4.5.1) after the lithiation step. This problem was overcome by Osilylation of the isocyano enolate followed by a base-promoted insertion to give the corresponding 2-silyloxazole 151 (Scheme 10.70) [231]. The procedure can be simplied by a heat-induced cyclization in the nal distillation step [232]. These derivatives have also been prepared by reaction with trimethylsilylbromide in the presence of triethylamine [233].
Me 1. n-BuLi 2. Me3SiCl n-hexane -78 C Me
N O
Me
NC OSiMe3
N O 151 SiMe3 60%
Me Me3SiO
Scheme 10.70
NC
These 2-silylated oxazoles can be used as nucleophiles in additions to aldehydes [234], such as to the tripeptide-derived aldehyde 152 (Scheme 10.71) [232].
10.4 Reactivity
j853
iPr
iPr N O iPr N H H O N O iPr N H OSiMe3 N O O
NHCbz
CbzHN
N O
152 O SiMe3
80 C, 38 h
53 %
Scheme 10.71
Recently, 4-(triethylsilyl)oxazoles have been prepared, by treatment of (triethylsilyl) diazoacetates with rhodium(II) octanoate and nitriles, as precursors of 4-halogenated oxazoles after treatment with N-bromosuccinimides [235]. On the other hand, these derivatives have been used to perform a 4-litiation followed by reaction with electrophiles [236]. 2-(Trimethylsilyl)thiazole (153), which is prepared by the conventional lithiationsilylation sequence, has been frequently used for addition reactions to aldehydes [237], mainly for chain elongation due to consideration of the thiazole moiety as an equivalent of the formyl synthon. An example of the use of 153 is its diastereoselective addition to the chiral aldehyde 153, yielding the corresponding protected alcohol 155, an intermediate in the synthesis of the pseudopeptide microbial agent AI-77-B (Scheme 10.72) [238].
BocN N S 153
Scheme 10.72
O H O N S 155 O NBoc
Ph SiMe3
154
OSiMe3 Ph
In addition, 2-methylthiazole can be trimethylsilylated at C5 by lithiumsilicon exchange, with the resulting 2-methyl-5-silylthiazole permitting, therefore, a subsequent lithiation at the 2-methyl substituent [239]. Although the addition to aldehydes is well documented, the less known reaction with ketones [240] and some acid chlorides [241] has also been reported. Other examples of the use of 2-(trimethylsilyl)thiazole are the ring expansion of a cyclopropanated carbohydrate [242], the copper(I) salt-mediated coupling to iodobenzene [243] and the ipso-substitution with iodine [244].
10.4.5.4 Tin Azoles In general, azolic stannanes have been obtained by reaction of their corresponding azolic organolithiums with a chlorostannane [245, 246]. These metallated azoles have
854

found application mainly in palladium-catalyzed cross-coupling reactions (the socalled Stille coupling) (see Section 10.4.6.31). 2-Azolylstannanes and 2-substituted-5-stannylazoles have been prepared following the usual stanylation sequence. 5-Stannylimidazoles have also been prepared by a 2,5-dilithiation, followed by a double stannylation and a 2-hydrodestannylation sequence [247]. The preparation of 4-stannylated azoles is not obvious. 4-Stannylated thiazoles are usually obtained by a sequential halogenlithiumtin interchange [248], although after lithiation of 4-bromo-2-stannylthiazoles, to give the 4-stannylated heterocycles, rearrangements were observed [249]. In some cases, 4-stannylthiazoles are prepared by palladium-catalyzed cross-coupling of the corresponding bromide using bis (trimethyltin) [250]. The same methodology has been employed when 4-stannylated oxazoles bearing labile groups are required [246].
10.4.5.5 Zinc Azoles Organozincs are a useful class of organometallic reagents due to their tolerance of several functional groups [251]. Azolic zinc derivatives are generally prepared by exchange reactions of the corresponding organolithium or magnesium with zinc halides, being stable at higher temperatures than their precursors [251]. Other methods for their preparation employ zinc dust [251], active Rieke zinc [251] or electrochemical methods [252]. 2-Zincated 1,3-azoles are used mainly in palladium-catalyzed Negishi crosscouplings, as in the reaction of the triate 157 with the N-silylated imidazolylzinc chloride 156 to afford compound 158 (Scheme 10.73), in studies toward the synthesis of anxiolytics.
O TfO N Me
N Me Me N ZnCl N SEM 156 157 OMe Pd(PPh3)4 THF, 50 C N N SEM 158 O N Me N 28 % OMe
Scheme 10.73
More recently, the coupling of the organozinc reagent 159 with the bromopyridine 160 afforded compound 161, which is an intermediate in the synthesis of the heterocycle core of the GE 2270 antibiotic (Scheme 10.74) [253].
10.4 Reactivity
j855
MeO2C Br MeO2C N S 159 ZnBr + N 160 CONHBn 161 N CONHBn

Scheme 10.74
Br S Pd(PPh3)2Cl2 S
N N Br S
Imidazol-4-yl-zinc chloride has been used in several synthesis [218], whereas oxazol-2-yl-zinc [254] and thiazol-2-yl-zinc [255] derivatives are also employed in Negishi cross-couplings. Furthermore, copper-catalyzed cross-coupling reactions have been performed using N-methylimidazol-2-yl-zinc iodide [256]. Finally, thiazol-4-yl-zinc bromide is used in additions to nitrones [209].
10.4.5.6 Copper Azoles Azolyl copper reagents are usually obtained from the corresponding organolithium reagents (2 equivalents) by reaction with a copper(I) salt [239, 245]. For example, N-substituted 4,5-diiodoimidazole 162 has been regioselectively transformed into the 5-cuprated imidazole 163 after reaction with (PhMe2CCH2)2CuLi. These organocopper reagents reacted with electrophiles such as allyl bromide to give the corresponding 5-functionalized imidazole 164Scheme 10.75) [257].
N I N I
(PhMe2CCH2)2CuLi
Br
N N EtOH2C 164
N I EtOH2C 162
Scheme 10.75
N Cu(CH2CMe2Ph)Li EtOH2C 163
Examples of high order 5-oxazolyl cuprates in allylation and propargylation reactions have also been reported [258].
10.4.6 Transition Metal Mediated Reactions 10.4.6.1 Metal-Mediated Functionalization Recently, several new methods for the functionalization of 1,3-azoles under selective conditions of CH activation have been developed, particularly through the use of transition metal catalysts. The arylation of 1,3-azole derivatives (oxazoles, thiazoles and protected imidazoles) proceeds using catalytic palladium, rhodium, and/or copper in the presence of an inorganic base [259]. However, these reactions often suffer from low yields and poor selectivity, and a major disadvantage is the need to apply a relatively high reaction
856

temperature. In general, the addition of copper(I) iodide facilitates the reactions and in specic cases can promote the reaction without a source of palladium (Scheme 10.76).
Pd(OAc)2 and/or CuI PhI or PhBr Z
N Ph
Z Z = NR, O or S
Scheme 10.76
N Ph Z
N + Ph Z Ph
Employing solid-supported aryl iodides, regioselective arylation at C2 is obtained (Scheme 10.77) [260]. The observed selective monofunctionalization can be attributed to the solid-phase pseudodilution effect which prohibits a second equivalent of the iodide interacting with the already coupled product.
Azole, Pd(OAc)2 PPh3, CuI DMF, 120 C MeONa MeOH O O N Z O
O O
N Z Z = NMe, S
Z = NMe 49% O Me Z = S 65%
Scheme 10.77
In contrast, in the absence of CuI the 5-arylated products are obtained (Scheme 10.78) [260].
Azole, Pd(OAc)2 N PPh3 DMF, 120 C MeONa MeOH Z O O N Z O
O O
Z = NMe, S
Scheme 10.78
Z = NMe 67% O Me Z = S 54%
However, although in particular cases it is possible to obtain the arylation with palladium in a regioselective form, in general, non-fused azoles gave mixtures of substitution at the 2- and/or 5-position and the use of bulky phosphines as ligands gives improved yields of diarylation [261]. As an alternative to problematic organometallic azole functionalization, thiazole N-oxides have been investigated as alternatives [262].The N-oxide group not only imparts a dramatic increase in reactivity in direct arylation at all positions of the azole ring but also changes the weak azole bias for C5 > C2 arylation to a reliable C2 > C5 > C4 reactivity prole (Scheme 10.79). This permits high yielding, regioselective, and room temperature arylation at C2, high yielding arylation at C5, and the rst
10.4 Reactivity
O N S
j857
Ar3 Ar
2
Step A Ar1I Pd(OAc)2 / ligand Cs2CO3/ PivOH / CuBr
Step B Ar2Br Pd(OAc)2 / tBu3PHBF4 K2CO3
Step C Ar3Br Pd(OAc)2 / PPh3 K2CO3
Deoxygenation
O N S
Ar1
Scheme 10.79
examples of arylation at C4, providing a unique opportunity for exhaustive functionalization of the azole core (Scheme 10.80).
Aryl Halides: H3C

CH3
CH3 MeO X
CH3
X
MeO N S
H3C
N S
H3C
N OMe S
CH3
CH3
MeO
Scheme 10.80
In recent years, phosphine-free and even base-free conditions, palladium-catalyzed CH bond arylation of azoles have been reported [263]. However, these methods are typically restricted to only one type of heterocycle, even under harsh conditions, such as elevated temperature and/or microwave assistance. Moreover, stoichiometric amounts of copper salts (13 equiv) or silver additives are generally required to improve these phosphine-free, Pd-catalyzed coupling reactions. The direct C-arylation of azoles with a broad spectrum of aryl bromides without the presence of phosphines, the aid of CuI, or other metal additives has been described by using pivalic acid as a cocatalyst. Particularly noteworthy is than this protocol can tolerate an array of functional groups such as ester, nitrile, nitro, aldehyde, methoxy, triuoromethyl, uoro, and chloro substituents [264]. In addition to such carboncarbon bond-forming reactions, carbonheteroatom bond formation is also an important issue. Limited examples of intra- [265] and intermolecular [266] CH funcionalization with amines have been described. For example, CH, NH coupling of azoles takes place with several amines in the presence of a copper catalyst to undergo amination at the 2-position (Scheme 10.81) [267]. Finally, several metal-promoted NC cross-coupling reactions have been developed [268]. For example, copper-catalyzed N-phenylation of imidazoles 165 with diphenyliodonium tetrauoroborate affords N-phenylimidazoles 166 (Scheme 10.82) [269].
858

N Z
Scheme 10.81
R1 H N R2
Cu (cat.) O2 (1 atm.)
N Z
R1 N R2
Ph2I+BF4R4(5) N Cu(acac)2 Toluene, 50 C N
N 165 H
166 N Ph R4(5) = H 80%
R4(5)
Scheme 10.82
The N-arylation of azoles, in lower nitrile solvents, with aryl halides has been achieved efciently in the presence of copper powder without any additional ligands. Thus, the rst nitrile type of monodentate ligand-mediated, ligand-free-like copper catalyzed N-arylation procedure was established [270]. Arylboronic acids 167 react efciently with imidazoles 165 in the presence of a novel diamine-copper complex to give various N-arylimidazoles 168 (Scheme 10.83) [271].
R4(5)
N N H 164
B(OH)2 167 [Cu(OH).TMDA]2Cl2 R CH2Cl2, 12 h
R4(5)
N N
R R 4(5) = H 72%
168
Scheme 10.83
Alkoxydienyl and alkoxystynyl boronates have also been used in various copper acetate mediated cross-coupling reactions with imidazole, affording various N-alkoxydienyl- and N-styrylimidazoles in good yields under mild conditions [272].
10.4.6.2 Catalytic Transition-Metal Mediated Reactions of Halogenated Azoles 2-Halogenated azoles are among the most valuable synthons for further functionalization of 1,3-azoles using catalytic transition-metal mediated reactions. They are readily prepared by direct halogenation (Br2, I2, or N-halosuccinimides) or trapping of C2-metalated (Li, Mg, Zn) azoles. Numerous methods have therefore been made for their further functionalization. Coupling reactions mediated by transition-metal catalysts allow for bond formation between halogenated azoles and unsubstituted olens and acetylenes, as well as dimerization reactions.
10.4 Reactivity
j859
10.4.6.2.1 Heck and Ullmann Couplings Classical Heck-type couplings (using Pdcatalyst and a base) are one of the most common bond-forming reactions of aromatic halides. Its use in the chemistry of 1,3-azoles is also very common. A s-azolylpalladium complex, generated in situ from 2-halogenated azole, undergoes an insertion with the alkene/alkyne cosubstrate, followed by b elimination to give the product. A useful example of this reaction is the coupling of methyl 3-oxo-6-heptynoate 170 with 2-bromothiazole (169) in the presence of K2CO3 and catalytic amounts of Pd (PPh3)4 that provide the derivative 171 (Scheme 10.84) [273].
H3CO O O 170 O
N S
Br
K2CO3 Pd(PPh3)4 DMF, 100 C, 6h S
MeO
N O
169
Scheme 10.84
171 73%
This reaction has also been utilized to catalyze the dimerization of bromothiazole 169 [274], isolating the product 172 in an improved yield (Scheme 10.85).
Pd(OAc)2, Bu4NBr, DIPEA N Br S 169
Scheme 10.85
Toluene, 105 C, 23 h
N S
N S 172 86%
One of the more common methods for forming 2,20 -azoles is to utilize copper as a coupling catalyst (Ullmann conditions). For example, selective lithiumbromine exchange followed by oxidative coupling with copper(II) chloride allows for the formation of dibromobithiazole 173 via a homodimerization (Scheme 10.86) [275].
Br S nBuLi, CuCl2 2 h, -78 C Br Br Br
N S
N S
173 69 %
Scheme 10.86
Another example of this reaction is the cyclization of the symmetric derivative 174 in modest yield utilizing copper to furnish a tetracyanobisimidazole 175 (Scheme 10.87) [276].
860

NC NC NC NC N N N N Br Cu, DMF NC 85 C, 12 h NC N N N N CN CN
Br 174
175 51%
Scheme 10.87
However, despite extensive research in this area, the classical Ullmann reactions were invariably plagued by the need for large amounts of copper (in the form of salts, oxides, or nely divided metal) and for very harsh reaction conditions, most notably for a high reaction temperature. In this context, very recently it was shown that simple copper(I) complexes formed in situ with chelating nitrogen- and/or oxygen-containing ligands could effect N- and O-arylations of many different organic compounds with azol halides in good yields at temperatures in the range 80150 C [277]. The range of employed ligands is continuously increasing [278], and other kinds of copper-containing catalysts, such as Cu2O-coated soluble copper nanoparticles [279], copper-exchanged apatites [280], and copper-containing perovskites [281] have been successfully tested as well.
10.4.6.2.2 Sonogashira Reaction The Sonogashira reaction [using Pd(0)/Cu(I)-catalyst] is a useful method for the cross-coupling of a terminal alkyne to an 2-halogenated azole. In this case the s-azolylpalladium complex reacts with a copper acetylide, generated in situ, and after a b-elimination the nal product is obtained. This reaction has been used, for example, to prepare histidine derivatives wherein diiodide 176 undergoes selective coupling as well as dehalogenation in the presence of excess phenylacetylene (Scheme 10.88) [282].
PdCl2(PPh3)2 BocHN t-BuO2C 176
Scheme 10.88
N N H I
CuI, Ph TEA
BocHN t-BuO2C
N N H 65% Ph
Imidazole derivatives [283] and thiazole analogs (Scheme 10.89) [284] have been investigated, and regioselective alkynylation is often feasible. Finally, although in general 2-halogenated azoles are employed as starting materials for this type of reaction, oxazolyl and thiazolyl triates 177 are also effective substrates [285] for substitution (Scheme 10.90).
10.4 Reactivity
j861
Br
OH N S Br +
Pd(PPh3)4 CuI
Br
N S 83% OH
Scheme 10.89
Ph Z
N OTf
Ph
Pd(PPh3)4, CuI lutidine, DMF, 20 C 16-18 h
Ph Z
Z = S,O 177
Scheme 10.90
Z = S 91% Z = O 76%
Ph
10.4.6.3 Stoichiometric Organometallic/Transition Metal Mediated Reactions Whereas the use of 1,3-azoles in coupling reactions with unsubstituted partners (Section 10.4.6.1) is somewhat limited, the use of stoichiometric organometallic reagents is very broad. The use of organostannanes, boronates and other metalsubstituted reagents in transition-metal mediated coupling reactions has been widely examined. 10.4.6.3.1 Stille Cross-Coupling Reactions The availability of organostannanes and their well-understood cross-coupling reactions has been applied to the coupling with 2-halogenated azoles. The cross-coupling of the organostannane 178 with 2-bromothiazole 169 has been used to construct alkylidene-cephalosporine derivatives 179 as b-lactamase inhibitors (Scheme 10.91) [241].
H N S 169
Scheme 10.91
Me3Sn Br + O N 178
S OAc CO2CHPh2
1) Pd2(dba)3, DMF, rt 2) mCPBA, CH2Cl2, rt
N S
O O S
N OAc O 179 68% CO2CHPh2
Trialkylstannyl-1,3-azoles have also been utilized as partners in the Stille reaction with aromatic or heteroaromatic halides and triates. This reaction constitutes a useful solution for the selective arylation of azoles. For example, a good yield of the arylated imidazole derivative 181 is obtained from dibromide 180, with good selectively for C2 substitution (Scheme 10.92) [287]. Examples using N-protected imidazolyl-stannanes or thiazolyl-stannanes can be found in the coupling with iodouracil derivatives [288]. Standard conditions were
862

Br Me 180 N N Bn Br PhSnMe3 PdCl2(PPh3)2 toluene, 12 h, reflux Br Me N Ph N Bn 181 58%
Scheme 10.92
effective for incorporation of the thiazole moiety; however, the reaction of imidazole 182 required the use of stoichiometric silver(I) oxide (Scheme 10.93).
O I N Z SnBu3 + RO OR' N NH O N Z RO OR' Z = S 81% Z = NSO2NMe2 37% N O NH O
PdCl2(PPh3)2 Ag2O (for 182)
Z=S Z = NSO2NMe2 182
Scheme 10.93
More recently, these conditions have been employed in the synthesis of RNA containing imidazole attached directly to 5-position of uracyl heterocycles of tandem GU wobble base pairs. The modied uridine was prepared using a palladiumcatalyzed coupling of 5-iodouridine and 4-tributylstannyl imidazole [289]. Other examples of Stille couplings using 2-substituted 5-stannylimidazoles [290] are applicable to the synthesis of cytotoxic agents [291] and an imidazolyl isomer of the alkaloid didemnimide C [292]. 5-Stannylimidazoles have also been prepared by a 2,5-dilithiation, followed by a double stannylation and a 2-hydrodestannylation sequence [291]. In addition, the stannyl group on imidazoles has been employed for ipso-iodination reactions, as in the synthesis of inhibitors of phophodiesterase PDE4 [293]. Finally, sometimes attempts to generate either coupling partner as a discrete stannane lead to dimeric or decomposition products. In some cases it is necessary to form the stannane in situ, such as in the synthesis of dimethyl sulfomycinamate, which was prepared via in situ stannane formation from triate 184 followed by addition of bromide 183 to the reaction (Scheme 10.94) [294].
10.4.6.3.2 SuzukiMiyaura Cross-Coupling Reactions Reactions of azole derivatives that take advantage of a boron-containing partner in the coupling reaction are also very common, but generally use an halogenated azole and an aryl or heteroaryl boronic acid, many of which are now commercially available. The Suzuki reaction is exceptionally tolerant of functional groups that often need protection under other coupling conditions.
10.4 Reactivity
j863
MeO2C 183 S
MeO2C N Br + N 184 O Me
Sn2Bu6 Pd(PPh3)4 OTf PdCl2(PPh3)2 LiCl dioxane, 100 C N O
MeO2C N N N CO2Me O S
O 35% Me
Scheme 10.94
Also in this case, 2-bromothiazole (169) [295ac] is a common substrate for this type of reactions (Scheme 10.95) [295a].
N S 169 Br ArB(OH)2 Pd(PPh3)4 N S 68% HN
Scheme 10.95
These cross-coupling reactions are a useful solution for the selective arylation of azoles. For example, chemoselective reaction of 2,4-dibromothiazole 185 proceeds selectively at C2 [Scheme 10.96 (1)] [296], as does the 2-bromo-5-chloro derivative 186 [Scheme 10.96 (2)] [297].
Br S EtO2C Cl S
N Br 185 N Br 186
ArB(OH)2 Pd(PPh3)4
Br
Me3CO N S
N N
OCMe3 15%
(1)
ArB(OH)2 Pd(PPh3)4
EtO2C Cl
N S 88%
OMe (2)
Scheme 10.96
10.4.6.4 Zinc, Magnesium and Other Metal Mediated Couplings Metal-substituted coupling partners for transition-metal mediated reaction, other than tin and boron, are of interest for environmental (tin toxicity) or synthetic (availability of boronates) reasons. Zinc-mediated couplings have been developed. For example, highly active zinc [298] generates 188, which efciently couples with 2-iodothiazole (187) to afford indolyl-thiazole adduct 189 (Scheme 10.97).
864

N S 187 I ZnI + N 188 SO2Ph Pd(PPh3)4 rt, 18h N S N 189 44% SO Ph 2
Scheme 10.97
Another class of cross-coupling reactions recently described are the Grignard couplings. For example, the combination of zinc bromide and a Grignard reagent allows for installation of the isobutylene fragment in thiazole 190 in the rst step (Scheme 10.98) towards the fungicidal natural product hectochlorin [299].
ZnBr2 PdCl2(dppf) EtO2C THF S
EtO2C
N S
+ BrMg Br
N 190 89%
Scheme 10.98
New methods for the coupling of thioether derivatives have been reported. Nickel catalysis in combination with both aryl and alkyl Grignard reagents affords derivative 191 (Scheme 10.99) [300].
NiCl2(dppe) RMgBr 16 h, rt SMe
S Ph S
S Ph
N R S 191
R = Me R = Pr R = cyclopentyl R = Ph R = 4-MeO-Ph
Scheme 10.99
16% 93% 36% 90% 95%
Finally, the use of other organometallic reagents has proven useful with halogenated azoles, and include organoaluminates [301] with palladium catalysis as well as Grignard reagents with the catalysis of nickel [302] and iron [303].
10.4.7 Reactions with Radicals
Free radical reactions are still very much less common in azole chemistry than those involving, for example, electrophilic or nucleophilic reagents. In reactions involving
10.4 Reactivity
j865
free radicals, substituents have little orienting effect; however, rather selective radical reactions are now known. Phenyl radicals attack azoles unselectively to form a mixture of phenylated products. The phenyl radicals may be prepared from the usual precursors: PhN (NO)COMe, Pb(OCOPh)4, (PhCO2)2 or PhI(OCOPh)2. For example, the three monophenylthiazoles are obtained in the practically constant ratio of 6 : 3 : 1 (2 : 5 : 4, respectively) using the photolysis of benzyl peroxide as source of radicals in the presence of thiazole. In the case of 1-methylimidazole, phenylation, using the decomposition of benzoyl peroxide at 118 C, no change in the overall yield is reported whether the solvent is 1-methylimidazole itself or acetic acid. In acetic acid, however, only 1-methyl-2-phenylimidazole was formed, while with the excess of heterocycle 1-methyl-2-phenyl- and -5-phenyl-imidazoles were isolated in the ratio 79 : 21 [304]. In contrast, alkyl radicals produced by oxidative decarboxylation of carboxylic acids are nucleophilic and attack azoles at the most electro-decient sites. Thus, imidazole and 1-alkylimidazoles are alkylated exclusively at the C2. Similarly, thiazoles are attacked in acidic media by methyl and propyl radicals to give 2-substituted derivatives in moderate yields, with smaller amounts of 5-substitution. Similar reactions occur with acyl radicals, for example with the CONH2 radical from formamide [305]. Recently developed are alkyl [Scheme 10.100 (1)] and aryl [Scheme 10.100 (2)] radical cyclization onto azoles for the synthesis of bi-or tricyclic heterocycles [306].
Bu3SnH MeCN, reflux, AIBN OHC 53% N MeO2C N Br
Scheme 10.100
N OHC PhSe N
N N
(1)
Bu3SnH toluene, reflux, MeO C 2 71%
N N (2)
Oxazoles are readily reduced, usually with ring scission (Scheme 10.101). Only acyclic products have been reported from the reductions with complex metal hydrides of oxazoles. Similar results have been obtained using catalytic hydrogenation or reduction by dissolving metals [307]. Imidazoles are generally resistant to reduction. Unless the NH of imidazole is substituted, the preferential reaction with a complex hydride will be salt formation,
866

Ph HO Ph
Scheme 10.101
H N
Ph R R = aryl Ph
N O R
R = alkyl
Ph Ph
H N O
which leaves a negative charge on the ring nitrogen. Consequently, the species becomes resistant to reduction. Finally, thiazole reduction is a very useful method for the synthesis of aldehydes [207]. The aldehyde is prepared via a three-step reaction sequence that consists of N-methylation of the thiazole ring 192, reduction of the resulting N-thiazolium salt (not shown) to the thiazolidine 193 and, nally, HgCl2-promoted hydrolysis of the heterocyclic nucleus of 193 (Scheme 10.102).
Me S N 192 1. Me3OBF4 2. NaBH4 Me S N Me Bn
Bn
HgCl2, H2O
Bn 60% O
193
91%
Scheme 10.102
One of the rst examples of this reaction was the thiazole-based one-carbon homologation of 2,3-O-isopropylidine-D-glyceraldehyde 194 to protected D-erythrose 195 (Scheme 10.103) [308].
O N S 93% OH O CHO 195 OBn overall yield from 194 38%
Scheme 10.103
N S SiMe3
O CHO 194
10.4.9 Electrocyclic and Photochemical Reactions 10.4.9.1 DielsAlder Reactions and 1,3-Dipolar Cycloadditions The distinction between these two classes of reactions is simply semantic for the vemembered rings: DielsAlder reaction at the F/B positions in 196 (four-atom fragment) is equivalent to 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition in 197 across the three-atom fragment, both providing the four p-electron component of the cycloaddition (Figure 10.9) [309]. Oxazoles exhibit diene-type characteristics and undergo DielsAlder reactions with alkenic and alkynic dienophiles (HOMO-oxazole, LUMO-dienophile) (Scheme 10.104) [310]. The presence of electron-releasing substituents on the oxazole ring facilitates the reaction with dienophiles.
10.4 Reactivity
j867
E D F B A 196
E D + F B A 197
Figure 10.9 A DielsAlder reaction at the F/B positions in 196 (four-atom fragment) is equivalent to 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition in 197 across the three-atom fragment.
R4 R5 R O
N R'
R R2
R' R
R4
5
N O R
2
R'
R4 R5 R O
N R'
R2
Scheme 10.104
The primary adducts of oxazoles with alkenes and alkynes are usually too unstable to be isolated. An exception, for example, is compound 200, obtained from 5-ethoxy4-methyloxazole 198 and 4,7-dihydro-1,3-dioxepine 199, which has been separated into its endo and exo components (Scheme 10.105) [310].
Me N O 198 R2 + MW 30 min O 199 O EtO 200 O O
Me EtO
O 80%
Scheme 10.105
If the dienophile is unsymmetrical the cycloaddition can afford the two regioisomers. This is usually the case in the reactions of oxazoles with monosubstituted alkynes; while with alkenes regioselectivity is observed. A general rule for the reactions of alkyl- and alkoxy-substituted oxazoles is that in the adducts the more electronegative substituent of the dienophile R4 occupies the position shown in Scheme 10.104. Acid- or base-catalyzed cleavage of the ether bridge in primary cycloadducts leads to pyridine derivatives (Scheme 10.106) [312]. The intermediates 201 cleave to unstable dihydropyridinols 202, which aromatize in four ways:
. . . .
path path path path
A: pyridines are formed by dehydration; B: 3-hydroxypyridines results from elimination of R3H; C: elimination of R4H if R3 is hydrogen; D: dehydrogenation if R3 is hydrogen.
Generally, more than one path is followed and a mixture of products results. However, the reaction of oxazoles with alkyne dienophiles affords furans 203 with the elimination of cyanide in a retro-DielsAlder reaction (Scheme 10.107) [313].
868

R3 R
4
R2
R4
R3
OH N
O N R5 201 R1
R2
D (R3 = H) -H2
R5 202 R1 C (R3 = H) -R4H R

2
B -R3H OH R N R
1 2
A -H2O R3 R2 N R
1
OH R N R
1 2
OH N R
1
R5
R5
R5
R5
Scheme 10.106
R3 R4 O R5 R
1
R2 N
R2CN
R3 R4
R1 R5
203
Scheme 10.107
In contrast to oxazole, thiazole does not undergo DielsAlder cycloaddition reaction. This behavior can be correlated with the more dienic character of oxazole relative to thiazole. Dipolarophiles like DMAD (dimethyl acetylenedicarboxylate), dibenzoylacetylene and ethyl propiolate condense with ylides 204 resulting from quaternization of 4methylthiazole with an a-bromo ketone or ester and subsequent deprotonation. The 1 : 1 molar adduct 205 rearranges to a pyrrolothiazine 206 (Scheme 10.108) [341].
O Me N S COPh EWG EWG Me Ph Br Me CH2COPh Et3N N BrS Ph S N 206 CHCOPh N dipolarophile S
Me 204
Me
H N
OH
EWG
Dipolarophile: DMAD 89% dibenzoylacetylene 89%
S H 205
Scheme 10.108
EWG
10.4 Reactivity
j869
Thiazoles itself reacts with DMAD at room temperature in DMF; the initially formed adduct 207 rearranges either via a concerted suprafacial 1,5-sigmatropic shift or by a non-concerted pathway proceeding via zwitterions 208 to 209 (RR1H) (Scheme 10.109) [315].
R [1,5]shift E R1 N S E E 209 E R1 N S R E 208
Scheme 10.109
E R1 S N R 2 DMAD DMF R1 N S R E 207
E E
E E
2-Isopropylthiazole (209) reacts with dichloroketene in a [2 2 2] manner to give 210 as the major product (Scheme 10.110) [316].
Cl N S Me Cl Me O O Cl 210 45%
N S 209
Me Me
Cl Cl
C O
Et3N rt, 3.5h
Cl
Scheme 10.110
Finally, reactions of imidazoles 211 with DMAD usually do not lead to normal DielsAlder adducts but to products of N-alkylation (212) (Scheme 10.111) [317].
Me Me N N H 211
Scheme 10.111
MeO2C
CO2Me 212 MeO2C N
N CO2Me
There are instances, nevertheless, in which some form of addition takes place. For example, 1,2-dimethylimidazole gives the adduct 213 (Figure 10.10) [318].
870

MeO2C Me Me MeO2C N MeO2C N CO2Me 213
Figure 10.10 DielsAlder adduct between 1,2-dimethylimidazole and DMAD.
10.4.9.2 Photochemical Reactions Oxazoles are generally photostable and are, indeed, produced by lightinduced rearrangements of isoxazoles [319]. However, irradiation of 2,5-diphenyloxazole in ethanol gives a mixture of 3,5-diphenylisoxazole (214), 4,5-diphenyloxazole (215), the phenanthrooxazole (216) and traces of benzoic acid. This reaction proceed by two distinct paths, which are rationalized as shown in Scheme 10.112.
N Ph O Ph h
h Ph
N O Ph Ph
N O Ph Ph O
Ph N 214
O Ph
N Ph
N O Ph 215 Ph
216
Scheme 10.112
In the case of photoaddition of acetone and other ketones to 1-, 2- and 1,2-dimethylimidazoles the products are a-hydroxyalkylimidazoles 217, which are derived from the selective attack of excited carbonyl oxygen at C5 (Scheme 10.113) [320]. Imidazole itself does not react. Benzophenone reacts differently with 1,2-dimethylimidazole. The diarylketone adds at the 2-methyl group [Scheme 10.114 (1)]; 1-benzylimidazole reacts at the exocyclic methylene group [Scheme 10.114 (2)] [321]. More recently, a photoinduced procedure for the intermolecular hydroamination of alkenes using azoles has been described. This reaction occurs in modest to good yield for six- and seven-membered cyclic alkenes. Upon irradiation at 254 nm in the presence of methyl benzoate and a small amount of triic acid as an additive (20 mol. %), imidazoles can react with the alkene to afford complex Markovnikov adducts [322].
10.5 Derivatives
j871
N N Me
Me
R2CO* h
R R
OH N N Me Me 217
R H C R O H
N N Me
R H Me R O H
N N Me Me
Scheme 10.113
N N Me Me
Ph2CO h
HO Ph Ph
(1)
N Me Ph2CO h HO Ph N N Ph Ph (2)
N N Ph
Scheme 10.114
10.5 Derivatives 10.5.1 Dihydro-1,3-Azoles
The most important partially saturated derivatives of 1,3-azoles are 4,5-dihydroazoles, and several methods have been developed to obtain substituted derivatives both achiral and chiral. The impetus to this development was surely given by the wide use oxazolines (another common name for 4,5-dihydroxazoles) have found in homogeneous catalysis [323]. For this reason, synthetic approaches to 4,5-dihydrooxazoles are the blueprint of this section. The synthesis of 4,5-dihydroimidazoles and -thiazoles, which also have important application in catalysis [324] and natural compounds chemistry, are discussed in comparison with 4,5-dihydrooxazoles. The most important and widely used approach is the cyclic dehydration of a b-hydroxyamide derivative. Several reagents are commonly used to obtain this dehydration and new ones are developed every year. Simple heating of the amide
872

can in some cases afford the nal oxazoline derivative but a high temperature is generally required and efforts have been devoted to using milder reaction conditions. All known reactions can be divided into two main classes [Scheme 10.115 (1) and (2)]: (i) reactions that give retention of conguration on the stereocenter that bears the hydroxyl group; (ii) reactions that cause inversion of conguration on the same stereocenter [325]. The rst class of reactions resembles the biosynthetic process.
R5 HO R5 HO
H N O H N O
R2 retention 5 -H2O R
N O N O R2 R2
(1)
R2 inversion R5 -H2O
(2)
Scheme 10.115
In the rst class the common mechanism is the activation of the carbonyl group of the amide moiety to nucleophilic attack of the hydroxyl group, followed by elimination of water. The activation is performed through the use of Lewis or Brnsted acids (Scheme 10.116).
R5 HO
H N O H+
R2
H+ cat. -H2O
-H2O R5
N O R2
-H+ -H2O H N O R5 H R2 OH R5 H R2 OH2
R5 HO
R2 H
N O H
N O
Scheme 10.116
This class of reagents includes TiCl4 [326], TsOH [327], Ph3PO-Tf2O [328] and recently also Mo(IV) and Mo(VI) oxides [325]. The second class of reagents is instead based on the transformation of the hydroxyl group into a good leaving group to perform a nucleophilic substitution by the amide oxygen through an SN2 mechanism. This mechanism is described, using TsCl as reagent, in Scheme 10.117. This class of reagents includes Martins sulfrane [329], the Burgess reagent [330], Mitsunobu reagents [331], DAST (diethylaminosulfur triuoride) [332], polymersupported TsCl [333] and SOCl2 [334].
10.5 Derivatives
j873
O R
2
N H
OH R
5
TsCl, base
N R
5
O -BH+ -TsO-
R2
TsCl -HCl R2 B:
Scheme 10.117
O N H OTs R
5
In a similar process, a solid-phase supported synthesis of 4,5-dihydrooxazoles has been performed, transforming the hydroxyl group into a iodide through the use of PPh3, I2, imidazole [335]. Several of these methods can be extended to the synthesis of 4,5-dihydrothiazoles. Thiazoles derivatives can be obtained by cyclodehydration of b-hydroxythioamides with SOCl2-Py [336], and with MsCl/NEt3 [337], as well as by TiCl4-induced dehydration of amides derived from vicinal aminothiols [338], cyclization of a serinederived thiolamide with [339] or without [340] the use of Burgess reagent, dehydrocyclization of thioamides with deoxouor or DAST [332, 341] or with Mitsunobu reagents [342], and reaction of aminothiols with carboxylic acids [346]. Concerning 4,5-dihydroimidazoles, N-aminoethyl amides dehydrocyclize in the presence of POCl3 [343], and this procedure has been applied also for the solid-phase synthesis of imidazoline 218 (Scheme 10.118) [344].
R N O N R4 O H N R2 O R N N R4 O N N N N R2 218 R R4
POCl3
HF anisole
N N H R2
NH
R4, R2 =Alk, Ar overall yield > 60%
Scheme 10.118
A somewhat related procedure is used to produce imidazoline derivatives. N-hydroxyethylamides are treated with excess thionyl chlorides, or thionyl chlorides followed by PCl5, to afford N-chloroethylimidoyl chlorides 219. These intermediates are treated with amines and anilines to produce N-chloroethylamidines 220, which are converted into imidazolines upon workup with aqueous sodium hydroxide (Scheme 10.119) [345]. Direct condensation of carboxylic acids with b-aminoalcohols is quite a drastic procedure but works nicely with substituted aminoalcohols in the presence of acid
874

1) SOCl2, or PCl5 H N O OH SOCl2 H N Cl O R2 SOCl2 or PCl5 N Cl Cl 219 R2 R2 2) R1NH2 3) NaOH - 2 HCl N N R1 -HCl H N R2
NaOH R2
R1NH2 -HCl
HN 1 R Cl 220
R1, R2 = Ar, Alk 46-76%

Scheme 10.119
catalysts, such as boric acids, to afford polysubstituted oxazolines such as 221 (Scheme 10.120) [346].
B(OH)2 10% mol NO2 xylene, reflux 49 h OH N O
Ph
CO2H
H2N
Ph 221 46%
Scheme 10.120
The use of a combination of PPh3, a base and CCl4 [347] allows the one-pot condensation and cyclic dehydration of amino acids and b-aminoalcohols, in a process that affords 2-aminomethyl-4,5-dihydrooxazoles 222 (Scheme 10.121) [348].
1) CH2Cl2, PPh3, (iPr)2NEt syringe pump, CCl4 Fmoc 2) base, MeOH R4 R5 R4, O 222 R5 57-92%
Scheme 10.121
HO R5
NH2 R4 HO
O R
H N
N R
NH2
= Alk, Ar
A microwave accelerated two-step, one-pot procedure has been proposed, using 1-acyl benzotriazole, SOCl2 and the aminoalcohol. The SOCl2 was needed to
10.5 Derivatives
j875
complete the cyclization of the intermediate amide formed. This procedure is also convenient for the synthesis of thiazoline derivatives [349]. Several other derivatives of carboxylic acids can be used for the synthesis of oxazoline. The reaction of esters with vicinal diamines affords the expected imidazolines and, in the same way, also thiazolines and oxazolines. The reaction conditions are reuxing toluene and Al(Me)3 [350]. Vicinal diamines, as well as aminoalcohols and aminothiols, also react with orthoesters in the presence of HCl to afford the corresponding heterocycles. Often the orthoester is the solvent [351]. The cyano group reacts with aminoalcohols in the presence of metal catalysts, such as Cd salts [352] or ZnCl2 [Scheme 10.122 (1)] [353]. The same reaction can be performed using aminothiols to afford thiazoline derivatives [354].
OH N NH2 N Cd(OAc)2(H2O)2 C6H5Cl HN NH2 OTBDMS HN
Scheme 10.122
O N N O TBDMSO . 2HCl O N N O OTBDMS (2) (1)
OH
OEt OEt
Much milder reaction conditions are needed when employing imidates and vicinal aminoalcohols [355], aminothiols [356] and diamines [Scheme 10.122 (2)] [357]. Oxiranes and aziridines are converted, in a Ritter reaction, into 4,5-dihydrooxazoles and 4,5-dihydroimidazoles by treatment with cyanides in the presence of Lewis acids. The reaction occurs with inversion and, for substrate 223, is completely regiospecic (Scheme 10.123) [358].
R1 R3
CO2Me
O
BF3
R1
CO2Me
O BF3
R2 223 R
R3 R2
MeO2C R1 R N
OH
R2 R3
R1 R3 R2
CO2Me N O
R1 = Me R2, R3 = H 90% R1 = H R2, R3 = Me 85% R1 = Ph R2, R3 = H 0%
Scheme 10.123
Analogously the Ritter reaction of enantiopure 2-(1-aminoalkyl)aziridines 224 with different nitriles affords enantiopure tetrasubstituted imidazolines. Again the
876

opening of the aziridine ring takes place with total regio- and stereoselectivity, by the mechanism proposed in Scheme 10.124 [359].
R4 R4 Bn2N N R 224 BF3 F3 B R4 Bn2N N R2 N R4 N Bn Bn BF3 N R Bn2N R4 N BF3 N R -BF3 R4 N R R2 N N BF3, 2 x R2-CN 80 C -RCONHBn RHN
N N Bn R2
-RCONHBn NHR Ph Ph
R2
R, R1, R2, R4 = Alk, Ar 45-61%

Scheme 10.124
A very general route to 1,3-azolines is represented by the cyclization obtained by the aza-Wittig reaction of substituted azides. The reaction occurs under very mild conditions and the synthesis appears particularly versatile. Triphenylphosphine reacts with the azido group of 225 to afford the corresponding iminophosphorane 226, which then react with the vicinal ester group to give the ring closure (Scheme 10.125) [360].
AcO AcO AcO N O OAc OAc -Ph3PO PPh3
O AcO N 3 225 -N2
PPh3 -N2, -Ph3PO PPh3 AcO AcO AcO 226 Me
O AcO
O O N O
Scheme 10.125
The use of polymer-supported triphenylphosphine makes the purication easier. The same reaction can be performed using thioester to obtain the corresponding thiazolidine [361]. The equivalent reaction for the synthesis of imidazolidine is more limited since it is necessary to use activated amides to obtain the ring closure. For example, azido imide 227 reacts to give the corresponding imidazolinone 228 (Scheme 10.126) [362].
10.5 Derivatives
j877
O N N3
PPh3 -Ph3PO
N O N
227
Scheme 10.126
228
A more general route to imidazoline is obtained by treating the intermediate iminophosphorane 229 with an acyl chloride and subsequently with NH3. Imidoyl chloride 230 is the proposed reactive intermediate (Scheme 10.127) [363].
AcO N3 N X -HCl NH3 Cl Ar N H Ar
PPh3, ArCOCl, NH3 -Ph3PO, -HCl
X AcO
PPh3 N PPh3 ArCOCl -PH3PO X 229
AcO
230 X X = H Ar = 4-MeC6H4 41%
Scheme 10.127
Propargylamides 231 are transformed into the correspondent 5-carboxymethylene-4,5-dihydrooxazoles 232 in a Pd-catalyzed process in the presence of CO, an alcohol and molecular oxygen (Scheme 10.128) [364].
CO, ROH, (1/2)O2 PdI2, KI -H2O R2 R4 R4
O R4 R4 R2 N H 231
O 232
CO2R
R2 = Me R4 = Me 65% R2 = Ph R4 = Me 83%
Scheme 10.128
A multicomponent reaction of oxazolones with aldehydes, primary amines and TMSCl affords diastereoselectively highly substituted imidazolines. The proposed mechanism proceeds through a 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition reaction of the mesoionic intermediate 233 (Scheme 10.129) [365].
878

R4 O O N O TMSCl R4 O R2 R2 R3 NH2 TMSCl -CO2 HO2C R4 R2 N N R3 N R2 R2 51-78% R3
-CO2 TMS HCl R2
N O
233
Scheme 10.129
Another multicomponent reaction (MCR) has been developed using aldehydes, primary amines and isonitriles with AgOAc as catalyst. This MCR probably involves an aldol-type addition of the isocyanide 234 to the in situ generated imine followed by ring closure of the intermediate 235 (Scheme 10.130). The role of AgOAc is to increase the acidity of the proton a to the isonitrile group through complexation [366].
R4 R5 R5' R4'' N N R1 yields up to 91%
R1 NH2 +
O R4 R4''
NC R5 234 R5'
AgOAc (2%) CH2Cl2, r.t.
R1 R4
NC N R4' R5 R5' 234
R4' R4 R5 R5' 235
R NH NC
Scheme 10.130
Isonitrile derivatives have also found application in reactions with N-sulfonylimines, as 236, catalyzed by Ru or Gd complexes to afford stereoselectively the corresponding N-sulfonyl-2-imidazolines 237 (Scheme 10.131).
Ts N 236 R + CN CO2Me RuH2(PPh3) R Ts N 237 CO2Me N
Scheme 10.131
The salt derived from Ph3PO/Tf2O is effective in the dehydrocyclization of N-aminoethyl amides obtained by condensation of amino acids. This procedure
10.5 Derivatives
j879
affords imidazolines that still contain the amino acid functionality and preserves the stereochemical integrity [367]. The same procedure has been used by the same authors for the biomimetic synthesis of thiazoline starting from cystein-containing dipeptides [368]. N,N-Dichloro-o-nitrobenzenesulfonamide (2-NsNCl2) is an effective electrophilic nitrogen source for the direct diamination of a,b-unsaturated ketones in the presence of acetonitrile, without the use of any metal catalysts (Scheme 10.132) [369].
2-NsNCl2, MeCN 4A MS, r.t. 24 h Cl Cl
Scheme 10.132
O Ph
H O
Ph N N Ns Cl 86%
Peculiar to the synthesis of thiazolines is the phosphine-induced annulation of thiolamides and 2-alkynoates. The proposed mechanism, depicted in Scheme 10.133, is based on the bielectrophilic character imparted by the phosphine to the triple bond [370]. The addition of tributylphosphine to the polarized triple bond of 238 induces, after migration of the double bond, the formation of the ylide 239, which undergoes cyclization to afford thiazoline 240.
PhCSNH2 CO2Et 238 PhCSNH2 S Ph + CO2Me PBu3
Scheme 10.133
Bu3P (10%)
EtO2C 240
N S Ph -Bu3P
Bu3P S Ph NH CO2Me S NH CO2Et 239 PBu3
Ph N S CO2Et PBu3
NH
Ph
PBu3
Direct oxazolinethiazoline conversion can be realized by thiolysis of oxazolines with H2S in methanol/triethylamine, followed by cyclodehydration with Burgess reagent 55 (for structure see Scheme 10.20). This protocol is high yielding, chemoselective and essentially free of racemization for C(5)-unsubstituted and trans-4,5disubstituted peptide oxazolines (Scheme 10.134) [371].
880

O HN O H2S H N Ph HS O
Scheme 10.134
N Ph
1) Et3N, MeOH, H2S 23 C, 12h 2) Burgess' reagent
O HN S N Ph Burgess' reagent
O N H Ph S
H N
O N H OH
A very mild transformation of secondary and tertiary amides into thiazolines has been described using iminium triates. The reaction proceeds at very low temperature and is tolerant towards several functional groups [372]. The iminium triate 241 undergoes nucleophilic additionelimination by 2-aminoethanthiol to afford 242, which subsequently cyclizes with loss of the secondary amine to give 243 (Scheme 10.135).
1) Tf2O, Py N R R 2) HS - 2 TfOH -R2NH NH2 R2 NH2 R 242 91% S NH H R2 N TfO- R R NH2 S 243 -TfOH HS S N TfO- R R = Et R2 -R2NH N
O R2 Tf2O OTf R2
R N -TfOH TfO- R 241 R2 = PhCH2CH2
Scheme 10.135
10.5.2 Benzo-1,3-Azoles
The synthesis of this class of compounds presents peculiar approaches, since the structure forces the syntheses towards cyclization reactions on a preformed 1,2 disubstituted benzene ring. Extremely rare are synthesis in which the benzene ring is formed during the synthesis. However, this implies that many synthetic approaches are common for benzoimidazoles, benzoxazoles and benzothiazoles. For this reason all the procedures presented here are applied to the three different kinds of
10.5 Derivatives
j881
NH2 244 NH2 245
NH2 OH 246
NH2 SH
Figure 10.11 Starting materials used for the formation of benzo-1,3-azoles.
derivatives. Special syntheses that concern just one heterocycle are presented together with similar generic procedures. The starting material are usually the ortho-substituted anilines 244246 (Figure 10.11). These compounds, as well as their derivatives bearing other substituents on the benzene ring, are generally available and stable. Only 2-aminobenzenethiol and its derivatives are not very stable since they are oxygen sensitive. To circumvent this problem they are often used in the form of derivatives such as acid salts, alkaline salts, zinc salts or disuldes [373]. A general synthetic approach is the intramolecular nucleophilic addition of the heteroatom substituent onto an imine moiety followed by oxidation to afford the aromatic derivative. The imine can be used as starting material but often the reaction is performed on a mixture of the 2-substituted aniline 247 and the aldehyde. The saturated intermediate 248 is subsequently oxidized to afford the nal benzoderivative 249 (Scheme 10.136).
O NH2 247 -H2O N X H H R2 X H R2 H [Ox] -H2O 249 [Ox] NH X 248 H N X R2 X = NR, O, S
R2
Scheme 10.136
Several oxidants have been used, such as DDQ or the simple 1,4 benzoquinone [374, 375], MnO2 [376], Mn(OAc)3 [377], NBS [378], Ag2O [379], and oxone [380]; however, reactions in which the mixture of reagents is heated at high temperature in DMSO [381], or even under solvent-free conditions with Yb catalyst have also been described [382]. Remarkable is the reported synthesis of substituted benzoxazoles by heating the aniline and the aldehyde in xylenes in the presence of activated carbon is; the oxidant is presumed to be atmospheric oxygen [383]. Benzimidazoles can be obtained at room temperature by condensing ortho-phenylenediamine and aldehydes with silica-supported thionyl chloride [384]. Examples of reactions performed under
882

microwave irradiation, optimizing the time and the yields [385], have been reported, as have several examples of reactions applied on the solid phase for the production of libraries [374, 376, 386, 387] as well as for the synthesis of libraries in solution phase [388]. The most important synthetic methods for the preparation of a wide range of benzoazoles is the condensation of 2-substituted anilines with carboxylic acids or derivatives (Scheme 10.137). Benzimidazole can be made in 80% yield by merely standing a mixture of o-phenylenediamine and formic acid at room temperature for 5 days; however, at 100 C the process takes only 2 h and it is applicable to a wide range of 2-substituted benzimidazole. Careful choice of reaction conditions is, however, essential to obtain good yield for each substrate [389]. The most widely used conditions (Phillips method [390]) involve heating the reagents in the presence of hydrochloric acid, usually around 4 M concentration. However, the range of reaction conditions that has been used is wide: from merely heating the diamines with a carboxylic acid [391], to heating in the presence of acids such as HCl [392], PPA [393], and POCl3 [394].
NH2 XH -H2O H N XH
Scheme 10.137
+ R2
O OH - 2 X H2O
N X -H2O R2
R2 O
NH OH X R2
If the o-diaminoarene has one of the amino groups substituted by an alkyl or aryl group, 1-substituted benzimidazoles are formed [395]. As described in Section 10.5.1 the complex Tf2O/POPh3 acts as a dehydrating agent favoring the formation of the benzoimidazole 250 in common solvents, giving high yields in 3060 min at room temperatures (Scheme 10.138) [344].
NH2 Tf2O, CH2Cl2 0C 2 Ph3PO NH2 Ph3P(OTf)2 249 ArCO2H 250 N H N Ar
Scheme 10.138
A range of acid derivatives can substitute for carboxylic acids (Scheme 10.139): esters [397], orthoesters [398], nitriles [399], imidates [400], acid chlorides (including
10.5 Derivatives
j883
NH R NH2 XH
2
R2
R2 R
2
N OR OR OR
N X R2
Scheme 10.139
phosgene) [401] and anhydrides [402]. Concerning the use of orthoester the reaction conditions may vary considerably depending on the reactivity of the 2-substituted aniline. In many cases an excess of orthoester is used it is often the solvent and the reaction is conducted in the presence of catalytic TsOH [402], of a base [404] or of KSF clay [405]. A few examples of the synthesis of benzimidazoles using amides have been reported in the literature. Usually, these reactions occur at high temperature [406]. A procedure strictly related to the previous method is the reaction of N-acyl derivatives of 244246, which undergo thermal dehydration to afford the corresponding benzoazoles (Scheme 10.140) [407410].
R2 NH X X = NHR1, OH, SH
Scheme 10.140
heat acid
N R2 X R2 = CF2Bn X = OH 73%
The cyclization may occur by simple uncatalyzed thermolysis or with aqueous or ethanolic acid as well as phosphoryl chloride. Recently, Mitsunobu reaction conditions were also used [411]. Since the amide intermediate 252 is formed, the Beckmann rearrangement of ohydroxybenzophenone oxime 251 leads directly to benzoxazole 253 (Scheme 10.141) [412].
Ph N OH 251
Scheme 10.141
OH
H N OH 252 O
Ph
N 253 O Ph
884

In situ reduction (tin and acetic or hydrochloric acids, hydrogen/palladium carbon, hydrogen/Raney nickel/hydrochloric acid) of o-nitroacylaminoarenes is followed by cyclization to afford 1,3-benzoimidazoles usually in good yields (Scheme 10.142) [413].
X O N R2 R1
reduction, heat
NO2
R2 N R1 X = CONH2 R2 = CF3 R1 = H 75%
Scheme 10.142
This general method can be applied to the synthesis of 2-unsubstituted benzimidazoles by cyclization of an o-formamidoarylamine and to 1-aminobenzidimazoles when o-acylaminophenylhydrazines are the substrates. An example of a MCR can be included in this methodology since the reaction of o-phenylenediamine derivative 254 affords, in the Ugi reaction, compound 255, which upon deprotection cyclizes to afford benzimidazole derivatives 256 (Scheme 10.143) [414].
R2 CO2H R' CHO H N R2 Boc NC R'' MeOH R O N R' HN R'' HO TFA N Boc 255
NH2
N N R' 256 O R2 H N R''
254
library of 960 compounds

Scheme 10.143
o-Nitrochlorobenzene easily undergoes nucleophilic substitution reactions with sulfurated reagents. The adducts can successively cyclize, after reduction of the nitro group, to afford the corresponding benzothiazole derivative (Scheme 10.144).
O NO2 Cl
Scheme 10.144
SK O
NO2 S R
[H]
NH2 S O R
N S Ph
O,N- [415], N, N0 -, S,N- [416] diacylated compounds can also cyclize under different conditions, ranging from simple heating at 200 C [417] to microwaves irradiation of mixtures with montmorillonite K10 [418].
10.5 Derivatives
j885
A modication has been introduced to prepare 1-acetyl-2-methylbenzimidazole (257) in quantitative yield (Scheme 10.145) [419].
H N 1) Me3SiCl Ac Et3N Ac 2) CF3SO3H N H N N 257 Ac
N N H
Scheme 10.145
HMDS, H+ reflux 63 h
Simple aniline derivatives, such as thioanilides (Jacobson method) [420] or arylmonothiocarbamates (JacobsonHunter method) [421], cyclize to afford the corresponding 2-substituted benzothiazole derivative in the presence of potassium ferricyanide (Scheme 10.46).
H N S H N S N S PCl5 O R2 N S N S S S
NaOH Fe(CN)6K3
R2 R O
NaOH Fe(CN)6K3 N
Cl
N S
SH
Scheme 10.146
Aryl isothiocyanate can be cyclized by heating with PCl5 to 2-chlorobenzothiazoles (Hunters method) or with sulfur to 2-mercaptobenzothiazoles. o-Halothioanilides undergo ring closure, presumably through an intermolecular aromatic nucleophilic substitution, under basic conditions [422, 423] in the presence of catalysts. The thioamide can also be formed in situ (Scheme 10.147) [424].
H N X S R2 Base S
N R2
Scheme 10.147
A novel palladium-catalyzed carbonylation of iodobenzene has recently been linked to base-induced coupling and cyclization with o-phenylenediamine, to give 2-arylbenzimidazoles without having to use an aryl carboxylic acid (Scheme 10.148). Provided that bases with pKa values around 6.6 are used, the yields of 2-arylbenzimidazole lie in the range 7098%. This route is tolerant of various functional
886

NH2 NH2
Scheme 10.148
ArI, Pd2Cl2L2 Me2NCOMe, CO (95 psi), 140-145C N H
N Ar
groups and complements the classical approaches where the required benzoic acid is not readily available [425]. The presence of a fused aromatic ring on the ve-membered ring induces some modication of the reactivity. As expected from the nature of the heterocyclic portion, nucleophilic reaction concerns essentially the ve-membered ring in the lone reactive position, that is, 2. Conversely, electrophiles attack the benzenoid ring. The fused aryl ring appears to exhibit less aromatic stability than the hetero-ring, as evidenced by the easy oxidation of benzimidazole to imidazole-4,5-dicarboxylic acid, and by its catalytic reduction over platinum oxide to give 4,5,6,7-tetrahydrobenzimidazole. Benzimidazole is subject to N-alkylation and N-acylation as imidazoles, although the benzene ring reduces the reactivity as well as the basicity (Section 10.5.1). Furthermore, the electron-withdrawing nature of the benzene ring increases the facility with which nucleophilic substitution occurs at C2. Since most electrophilic substitution reactions involve Lewis acids it is the benzoazolium species that is involved and in this substrate it is the benzene ring that is the more reactive. Only a few electrophilic substitutions take place at the C2 of benzoazoles, for example acylation in the presence of triethylamine (compare reactivity of 1,3-azoles, Section 10.4). Sulfonation with oleum at 100 C affords 4-, 6- and 7-benzothiazole sulfonic acids in the ratio 70 : 25 : 5%, respectively, while bromination at 100 C in acetic acid gives 4,6-dibromobenzothiazole. Nitration of 2-methylbenzoxazole gives a 4 : 1 mixture of 6- and 5-nitro derivatives.
10.5.3 Tetrahydro-1,3-Azoles
Imidazolines, oxazolidines, and thiazolidines are easily obtained by reactions of vicinal diamines, aminoalcohols and aminothiols, respectively, with carbonyl compounds (Scheme 10.149). The typical condensation is conveniently conducted in boiling benzene with continuous removal of water [426] as described for the synthesis of oxazolidine 258, which was then transformed into the Garner aldehyde 259 (a useful synthetic intermediate) (Scheme 10.150) [427]. However, the most recent syntheses can be achieved at rt. For example, imidazolidine 262 is obtained by simply reacting at rt the aldehyde 260 with the vicinal
10.5 Derivatives
j887
R NH XH +H+ R NH XH R
O R R
H+ cat. -H2O
N X -H+
R R R
H R R
XH NHR R OH R
XH NR R -H2O
XH N R R R
N X H
R R R
OH2
Scheme 10.149
MeO OMe HO CO2Me NHBoc MeO2C TsOH, C6H6 N Boc DIBAL OHC N Boc
O 258 89%
O 259 79%
Scheme 10.150
diamine 261 in the presence of molecular sieves [Scheme 10.151 (1)] [428]. In some cases less reactive substrates, such as 263, may require activation, for example, the use of montmorillonite KSF [Scheme 10.151 (2)] [429].
4 MS CH2Cl2, rt Ph Ph 262 N N Tr (1) N 100% Boc (2) OBn OMe 90%
OHC 260
N Tr
Ph
Ph
NH HN 261
BnO Boc H N 263 R N F F F

Scheme 10.151
N H
OMe O
CH2O Montmorillonite KSF O
N N
N R F F 264
888

Oxazolidines have also been obtained by these procedures [430], although an application to the production of a library of 96 oxazolidines through a parallel solidphase synthesis required MgSO4 as dehydrating agent and a temperature of 60 C [431]. Particularly interesting is the synthesis under acid catalysis of substituted imidazolidines bearing a peruorinated phenyl ring on C2, such as 264 (Scheme 10.151). On heating at temperatures ranging from 65 to 144 C these compounds afford the corresponding carbene even the in absence of any transition metal [432]. The easy nucleophilic substitution of a benzotriazolyl group by C-nucleophiles allows the ready synthesis of unsymmetrical imidazolines. The process proceeds through Mannich reactions between 1,2-ethanediamines, benzotriazole (BtH) and formaldehyde at rt to produce imidazolidine 265. Finally, reaction of 265 with different nucleophiles affords the products of general structure 266 (Scheme 10.152) [433].
Bt BtH, 2 HCHO N N R 92-96% 265 Nu -BtH Nu N N R 266
R NH
NH2
R = Ph, Et
Reagent = NaCN 77-97% PhSh 66% P(OEt)3 70% RMgX >70%
Scheme 10.152
Simple thiazolidine has been obtained by reacting at rt cysteamine hydrochloride with formaldehyde. Under these reaction conditions cysteamine can be replaced by aziridine and hydrogen sulde [434]. Diastereomeric mixtures have obtained by reacting N-protected amino glyoxals 267 with L-cysteine methyl ester (268) (Scheme 10.153) [435].
KHCO3 MeO2C EtOH/H2O S > 90%
CbzHN R 267 O
O H +
HS
NH O
NHCbz R
H2N CO2Me 268
Scheme 10.153
Several derivatives of carbonyl compounds can be used, such as acetals [436], hemiacetals [437], Schiff bases and orthoesters. The reaction of N-tosylaminoalcohols with orthoformates affords 2-methoxy-oxazolidines 269 that react with allyltrimethylsilane or trimethylsililenolether at 0 C in a zinc chloride or trimethylsilyl triatecatalyzed reaction to afford new oxazolidine derivatives [438]. The kinetic derivative
10.5 Derivatives
R5 Ts NH R4 OH R4 MeSO3H HC(OMe)3 > 95% R5 O N Ts 269 OMe TMS TMSOTf 0 C 30-72 % R4 O N Ts 270 TMSOTf rt > 95%
j889
O N Ts 271
R4 R5
R5
Scheme 10.154
270 isomerizes to the all-cis oxazolidine 271 when treated at room temperature with TMSOTf (Scheme 10.154). Similar reactivity is found with titanium enolates [439]. Similar substrates, in the enantiopure form, have been obtained in the solid phase by reaction of enantiopure aminoalcohols with solid-supported aldehydes and subsequent reaction with a sulfonyl chloride [440]. A new procedure for the formation of oxazolidines derived from ketones has been reported. It is based on the use of isopropoxytrimethylsilane and a catalytic amount of trimethylsilyl triuoromethanesulfonate and has found application in the synthesis of a polymer-supported oxazolidine aldehyde [441]. A vicinal aminoalcohol moiety is a perfect starting point for the construction of an oxazolidine ring; however, if the oxazolidine ring is built up in a different manner, hydrolysis of the ring is an efcient way to obtain aminoalcohols in stereoselective fashion. Intramolecular conjugate addition of the N-hydroxymethyl moiety onto an a,b-unsaturated ester affords the corresponding oxazolidine 272 with high stereoselectivity. Finally, the oxazolidine ring was cleaved (Scheme 10.155) [442].
Boc 1) HCl 2) ion exchange resin ClNH3 OH (-)-statine CO2Me 41%
Boc
OH CO2Me
K2CO3 MeO2C
N O 272 85%
Scheme 10.155
Recently, a novel MCR has been developed using four components for the synthesis of highly substituted 1,3-oxazolidines. The reaction may be catalyzed by transition metals; however, the use of microwaves can efciently substitute the metal catalysis (Scheme 10.156) [443].
CO2Me O CO2Me R
5
R5 NEt3 cat. CH2Cl2, 0 C MeO2C O
CO2Me
MeO2C R3NH2 R5 SiO MW

2
N O
R3 CO2Me
Scheme 10.156
890

10.5.4 Alkyl-1,3-Azoles
The synthesis of alkyl-1,3-azoles is described throughout Section 10.3, for this reason this short section will deal only with the most characteristic reactivity of the alkyl residues linked to the heteroaromatic nuclei. Alkyl groups attached to heterocyclic systems undergo many of the same reactions as those on benzenoid rings. For example, free radical bromination with NBS is often performed on these substrates. Bromination with NBS of 2-alkylthiazoles affords a-dibromothiazoles in good yields. The hydrolysis of these compounds leads to 2-acylthiazoles [444]. The side chains can, under certain circumstances, be oxidized. For example, methyl thiazoles with SeO2 give thiazolecarbaldehydes but oxazole derivatives cannot be easily oxidized since the oxazole itself is reactive towards strong oxidants. However, it is stable to the Sharpless oxidation conditions with certain precautions [445]. In addition to these reaction, alkyl groups in the 2-positions of imidazole, oxazole and thiazole rings show reactivity that results from the easy loss of a proton from the carbon atoms of the alkyl group adjacent to the ring [compare Scheme 10.1 (2)]. Very strong bases, such as sodamide, LDA or butyllithium convert 2-methyl-oxazole and -thiazole and 1,2-dimethylimidazole essentially completely into the corresponding anions, although this transformation is not always straightforward since it is very sensitive to reaction conditions and the nature of the substituents [446]. Butyllithium reacts with 1,2-dimethylimidazole at 80 C to lithiate the 2-methyl group, but at higher temperatures some 5-metalation also occurs [447], while treatment with LDA at 78 C gives 84 % of 2-methyllithiation and 18% of 5lithiation [448]. Much better control was obtained with 1-dimethylaminomethyl-2methyl-imidazole, which was converted by butyllithium into the stabilized anion 273, which reacted with benzyl chloride to form 274 (Scheme 10.157) [449].
N N NMe2
Scheme 10.157
N BuLi Li 273 N Me2 N BnCl
N N
Bn
274 NMe2
BuLi reacts at 78 C with 2-methylthiazole to give a mixture of 2-lithiomethyl and 5-lithio derivatives in a ratio of 1 : 4 [450], while when the 2-position is blocked 4-or 5- methyl groups can be lithiated [451]. These anions all react readily even with mild electrophilic reagents; thus the original alkyl groups can be modied through alkylation, acylation, carboxylation and reaction with aldehydes [452]. Extremely useful are the reactions of alkyl-1,3-azoles in which traces of the reactive anion is involved. In aqueous or alcoholic solutions, many 2-alkyl-1,3-azoles react with bases to give traces of anions. With suitable electrophilic reagents these anions undergo reasonably
10.5 Derivatives
j891
rapid and essentially non-reversible reaction. 2-Methyl and 2-ethylbenzothiazoles condense with aromatic aldehydes at room temperatures in 50% aqueous sodium hydroxide under phase-transfer catalysis conditions to afford secondary carbinols [453], while 2-methyl thiazole heated at 150 C with ZnCl2 and benzaldehyde gives the styryl derivatives. To conrm the peculiar reactivity of the 2-alkyl group, neither 4- nor 5-methyl thiazole undergo such condensation. 1-Benzyl-2-methylimidazole 275 reacts with benzoyl chloride in the presence of a tertiary amine to give the phenacyl derivative 276, but with 1-benzyl-5-methylimidazole the product is the 2-benzoyl derivative due to the substitution at C2 (Section 10.4.1.2) [454]. The reaction has also been extended to 2-methylimidazole [Scheme 10.158 (1)] [455].
N N 275 Bn N 277 N H PhCOCl NEt3 CN N N Bn Me2CO NMe3 278 Ph OCOPh N N Bn CN Ph 276 O (1)
N N H
(2)
Scheme 10.158
The presence of other activating group makes the condensation reaction even easier. In the presence of trimethylamine, 2-cyanomethylbenzimidazole (277) condenses with acetone to give the unsaturated derivative 278 [Scheme 10.158 (2)] [456].
10.5.5 Quaternary 1,3-Azolium Salts
In the past literature methods for the synthesis of azolium and azolinium salts have generally focused on N-alkylation reactions (Section 10.4.1.1). However, these reactions are limited to reactive halides and are inappropriate for introduction of chiral substituents. Since this class of compounds has very important applications, new general synthesis of them are of substantial interest. In this context, imidazolium salts are precursors of carbene ligands used for the synthesis of metathesis catalysts [457] and have been used also as ionic liquids (Scheme 10.159) [458].
R1 N N XR2
Scheme 10.159
Base
R1 N N R2
BF4N Mes Mes N Cl Ru Cl PCy3 Ph Me N N nBu Me N
PF6N nBu PPh2
892

Ar O H O R N N R NHR Br H + H Me (1) O H HCl -3H2O Ar N H N H R NH N Cl280 R
'
H Ar
Me
+ NH2
H H
O O
2 NH2R 279
NaBH4
R NH NH R
Me (2)
HC(OEt)3
Br Pd(0), RNH 2 Br
Pd(0), R NH2
NHR' NHR
1. (MeO)3CR2 2. HX
R1 N
(3) R2
N ClR2
Scheme 10.160
Chiral imidazolium salts have been synthesized in one step (Scheme 10.160). Starting from racemic amines the meso-forms were produced. In contrast, only the C2-symmetric imidazolium salts are formed when enantiomerically pure amines are employed [Scheme 10.160 (1)] [459]. In a similar reaction, starting from glyoxal, 1,3-diarylimidazolium chlorides are obtained in a three-step sequence via the diimine 279, which is then reduced. Finally, cyclization of the diamines afforded the imidazolinium salt 280 [Scheme 10.160 (2)] [460]. Benzimidazolium salts have been prepared through a subsequent Buchwald Hartwig amination and ring closure. This method is suitable for the preparation of 2-substituted salts and benzimidazolium salts that bear chiral substituents on one or both the nitrogen atoms [Scheme 10.160 (3)] [409]. Solid-supported azolium and benzoalium salts have been prepared. Azole derivatives react with bromoacetic acid to give azolium acetic acids that have been anchored to a Wang resin [Scheme 10.161 (1)]. Compounds 281283 have been employed in the Westphal reaction, obtaining cycloiminium salts [Scheme 10.161 (2)]. The synthesis of 1-amino-3-alkylimidazolium 284 [461] and N-imidazolium-Nmethyl-amides 286 [462] has been reported. In the rst case, the salts are obtained by direct amination of the corresponding alkoxycarbonylazoles using mesitylenesulfonylhydroxylamine (MSH) as the aminating agents (Scheme 10.162). In the second case, the amino derivatives 284 are acylated with acyl chlorides, and the resulting betaines 285 are alkylated with methyl iodide to give the salts 286. Azolium N-aminides 287, generated from the corresponding salts in the presence of N-ethyldiisopropylamine, and cycloimmonium N-ylides are 1,3-dipoles, usually involved in 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition reactions (Figure 10.12) [463]. 2-Alkyl- and 2-amino-substituted structures 288 have the potential to function as 1,4-dinucleophiles through deprotonation and can react
10.5 Derivatives
j893
Het
N Me
1. BrCH2CO2H 2. HBr Me N Br
-
CO2H Het N BrMe Me N Br

-
O OH Het N
O BrMe (1)
N 281
Me CO2
S Me CO2 Br
-
N 282
Me
CO2 283
O Het N
O BrMe
O Me O BrMe O N Het O Me Me (2)
Scheme 10.161
R4 R5
Me N N
CO2Et N MSTSNH2 MSTS-= Mesytilenesulfonate 284 R3 RCOCl K2CO3 R4 R

5
CO2Et
MSH
R4
Me N
(1)
Me N N N
284
CO2Et O
MeI
R4
Me N
285
Scheme 10.162
R5 I- N N 286 Me
CO2Et O
(2)
with 1,2-dicarbonyl compounds to afford a great variety of derivatives [464]. 2-Alkoxycarbonylazolium N-ylides-N-aminides 289 are species that have the potential to act as efcient 1,4-dipole equivalents when they react with heterocumulenes such as iso(thio)cyanates and carbodiimides [465].
X 287 N Z X Y 289 X Y +
N 288 Z
N Z
Z = NH, CHR 1,3-Dipole

Figure 10.12
Y = NH2, CH2R Z = NH, CHR 1,4-Dinucleophile
Z = CO2R, CN, COR X = NH Y = OR 1,4-Nucleophile-electrophile
894

O R1 O OR 1.LDA 2.R1M IMe Me N N N R O 1.BuLi 2.R1M O R1 R Ketones
Esters
Scheme 10.163
N-Imidazolium-N-methylamides and bis-amides behave as highly selective acylating reagents towards organometallics, leading to ketones [462] and diketones. The metallation of alkoxycarbonyl-N-imidazolium-N-methyl amides with LDA followed by the addition of a Grignard reagent affords 4-oxo and homologous esters (Scheme 10.163).
10.5.6 Oxy- and Amino-1,3-Azoles
Cyanogen chloride (or bromide) as well as cyanamide are the reagents of choice for the synthesis of 2-aminoderivatives. These reagents have found application in the synthesis of the simple heterocycles as well as their benzofused derivatives by reaction with a-hydroxy [466] or a-amino ketones (an extension of the Marckwald synthesis in which cyanamide replaces cyanate, thiocyanate and isothiocyanate as a counterpart of a-aminoaldehydes or ketones) (Scheme 10.164) [467, 468].
R4 R5
O + XH
N C Y
R4 -H2O -YH R
5
N X NH2
X = O, NH Y = Cl, Br, NH2 H HN X R5 NH H
O R4(5)
R4
R5 X HO
NH NH -H2O
R4 R5 X
NH NH
Scheme 10.164
An application of this routes allows the synthesis of 2-aminoimidazole-containing natural products, demonstrating the usefulness and power of this methodology [469]. Another application of cyanogen chloride (or isocyanide dichlorides) for the synthesis of 2-aminoimidazoles is the reaction with DAMN, in which the nucleophilic addition of DAMN proceeds through a mechanism analogous to that reported above [470].
10.5 Derivatives
j895
The reaction of o-aminophenols with cyanogen bromide or cyanamide affords 2-aminobenzoxazoles 290 or benzoxazoleimines 291; yields are high and the general method can be adopted to give 2-substituted amino derivatives (Scheme 10.165).
NH2 BrCN OH H N R 290 BrCN 291 N O R N O
NH2
OH
Scheme 10.165
NH
Alternatively, the reactivity of 2-bromo derivatives towards amines in the presence of CuBr can be used as well as the direct nucleophilic amination of benzimidazole by sodium amide. The reaction of a b-aminoalcohol with BrCN affords the correspondent 2-aminooxazoline, whose reactivity is nicely exploited in the synthesis of the bis-oxazoline 292 (Scheme 10.166) [471].
O R N
OH R NH2
BrCN, MeOH R
O N 89% H N N
PhCHO, 0.5 eq. NH2 TsOH
Ph
292 R O R N
O N R 53-58% R
O N
H N Ph N O HN R O
NH2 O R N OEt Et3OBF4 R O N H O EtO
OEt
OH NH2
NaOEt R
Scheme 10.166
The cycloaddition of azides across a double bond provides another method of imidazole preparation. In this reaction an iminium species, 293, generated in situ under Vilsmeier conditions, attacks an azide functionality [472]. The method is intrinsically limited to 2-dimethylamino substituted imidazoles 294 (Scheme 10.167). A variation of the Hantzsch procedure uses thiourea with a-halocarbonyl compounds to produce 2-aminothiazoles, while a-halocarboxylic acids afford the correspondent 2-amino-4-hydroxythiazoles [Scheme 10.168 (1)].
896

N Ar H N O N3 Cl 293 N Ar N O N
Scheme 10.167
DMF/POCl3 -H2O -N2
Ar
N 41-62% O - H2O
294 Cl
N N N N
N Ar N O N
N N N N
N Ar
H N N N N Cl N -N2
N Ar N Cl N N
This reaction has found application for the development of a solid-supported synthesis of 2-aminothiazole using the amino group as a convenient, traceless point of attachment to acid-sensitive resins [Scheme 10.168 (2)] [473].
S H2N NH2 -H2O HO S
HO
O X
N NH2 O Br R5 N R R5 S N R4 TFA R4 S
(1)
NH R
Fmoc-NCS, DCM 20% piperidine/DMF
S N R NH2
R4
(2) N N H R
R5
R = H, Alk R 4 = Ar R 5 = H, Ph 70-95%
Scheme 10.168
2,4-Diaminothiazole (295) can be prepared by the reaction of thiourea with chloroacetonitrile (Scheme 10.169).
H2N S NH2 N C Cl -HCl -H2S H2N 295 S
N NH2
Scheme 10.169
Mono-, di-, and tri-substituted arylthioureas 296 are very easily cyclized to 2-aminobenzothiazoles by the action of bromine in a solvent such as CHCl3, CCl4
10.5 Derivatives
j897
H N R 296 S
H N
Ar
i) Br2 ii) SO2, NaOH
N S
NHAr
(1)
HN O
CO2Me N CO2Me 1) Pb(OAc)4 NH 2) , MeOH NH 297
N N H
CO2Me NH
(2)
Scheme 10.170
(Hugershoff s method) followed by a treatment with SO2 and with a base [Scheme 10.170 (1)]. Under oxidative or acidic conditions, or merely by heating the reagents, appropriately functionalized guanidines 297 cyclize to 2-aminobenzimidazoles [Scheme 10.170 (2)] [474]. A variation of the Hantzsch synthesis has been introduced for the preparation of 2-aminoimidazoles using a-haloketones and N-acetylguanidines to afford the corresponding 4(5)-substituted N-(1H-imidazol-2-yl)acetamides 298. These compounds are then hydrolyzed to their corresponding 2-aminoimidazoles 299 (Scheme 10.171) [475].
O R4(5) X R5(4) + H2N H2N DMF, rt R4(5) R5(4) N N H H2SO4 NHAc R4(5) R5(4) 299 N N H NH2
NAc
298
R = Alk, Ar, H 31-78%

Scheme 10.171
Iminophosphoranes have found several applications in the synthesis of 2-aminoimidazole derivatives and particularly for the synthesis of natural product [476]. Aza-Wittig-type reactions of properly substituted iminophosphorane 300 with CO2, isocyanates or isothiocyanates afford heterocumulenes that undergo
NH2 N=PPh3 300 O OR R N=C=O N=PPh3
Scheme 10.172
1
Y=C=Y
NH2 N C Y O OR 302 R2NH2
NH N 301 O OR NHR2 -ROH O YH
(1)
N N R1 NHR2
(2)
N C NR1
N 303 NHR1
898

nucleophilic attack of the amino group to give the ve-membered heterocycles 301 [Scheme 10.172 (1)]. A variation to this method is the use of azido esters in combination with isocyanates. The intermediate carbodiimide 302 reacts with a primary amine to afford the guanidine derivative 303 that nally cyclizes on the ester group [Scheme 10.172 (2)] [476]. Concerning the reactivity of 2-aminoazoles, some general points can be made. In aminoazoles with the amino group a to CN, the imino resonance structure justies the increased reactivity of the pyridine-like nitrogen atom towards electrophilic reagents, but decreases that of the amino group. Consequently, protons, alkylating agents and metal ions usually react with amino azoles at the annular nitrogen. This is exemplied by the behavior of 2-aminothiazole. If the thiazole reacts in its neutral form, the ring nitrogen atom is the more reactive center, except when bulky substituents are present at the C4 position. If the thiazole reacts in the form of its conjugate base, the ambident anion leads to a mixture of products resulting from Nring and N-exocyclic reactivity [Scheme 10.173 (1)].
E+ NH2 S E+ N NH S Ph Ph S N NH2 S S Ph
Scheme 10.173
N S
N NH N N CHAr
(1)
ArCHO
Ar
(2) N CHAr N
Under mild conditions, 2-aminothiazoles react at their exocyclic nitrogen atom with aromatic aldehyde, yielding Schiff bases. Under more forcing conditions, however, the 5 position can also react [Scheme 10.173 (2)]. Acylation of 2-, 4- and 5-aminothiazoles takes place on the exocyclic nitrogen atom. Acetic anhydrides acetylate aminothiazoles and benzothiazoles on the exocyclic nitrogen atom. The reaction of 2-aminothiazoles with alkyl or aryl isocyanates or isothiocyanates gives the corresponding thiazolylureas or thioureas. Alkylation of D4-thiazolin-2-ones may yield OR or NR derivatives according to experimental conditions. With diazomethane in ethanol, O-methylation takes place whereas N-methylation occurs when a basic solution of the thiazolinone reacts with methyl iodide. Alkylation of 2-amino imidazole occurs at the exocyclic N atom. Azolidin-2-ones are popular tools in asymmetric synthesis and as synthetic intermediates, and new methods for their synthesis are described in the literature. Azolidin-2-ones are commonly prepared from aminoalcohols, vicinal diamines and aminothiols by incorporation of a carbonyl unit. Additions to the list of reagents that effect the transformation are bis(trichloromethylcarbonate) [477, 478] and
10.5 Derivatives
j899
trichloromethyl chloroformate [479], which offer the advantages of easier handling and reduced risk of exposure compared to phosgene [480]. Another reagent of choice is carbonyldiimidazole, which by reaction with cysteine affords derivative 304 [Scheme 10.174 (1)] [481].
O O HS NH2 NH2 X H t-BuO O O O Ot-Bu OEt N N N N EtO2C 304 S NH O O DMAP N 305 X Ot-Bu O (2) (1)
X = NR, OH
Scheme 10.174
Vicinal aminoalcohols and diamines react with Boc2O/DMAP to afford the corresponding azolidinones 305 substituted on the N atom with Boc groups, while aminothiols are less efcient in this transformation [Scheme 10.174 (2)] [482]. A recent method for the effective synthesis of imidazolidinones and oxazolidinones is MW irradiation. The proposed mechanism is shown in Scheme 10.175 [483].
NH N -H+ H N O - NH3 N H +H+ HN O N H O 99%
O H2N - NH3 O C NH N H NH2 N H NH2
N H
NH2 - 2 NH3
ZnO, MW
NH2
N H
N O
Scheme 10.175
The ability of the benzotriazole nucleus to act as a good leaving group has found another application in the synthesis of polysubstituted imidazolidinones. Treating amine 306 with s-BuLi and subsequently with an aldimine or an aldehyde, affords imidazolidinones or oxazolidinones bearing a benzotriazolyl group on C4.
900

With imidazolidinones 307 it is possible to substitute the benzotriazolyl group with various C-nucleophiles to obtain differently substituted imidazolinones (Scheme 10.176) [484].
Bt N Ph Boc 306 s -BuLi R5CH=Y Bt R5 Ph
O Y Y = NAn Y=O
An = 4-MeO-C6H4 O Ph R5 N N An OSiMe3 Ph Ph O Bt BF3.Et2O R5 N Ph R2MgX ZnCl2 O R2 R5 Ph O
N N An
N 307 An
Scheme 10.176
Aziridines in the presence of Lewis acids rearrange to afford substituted oxazolidinones. This approach has found interesting application for the production of enantiopure 4- and 5-carboxymethyl oxazolidinones, which are important precursors for the synthesis of amino acid analogs or as starting material for the synthesis of natural products. In the rst case, aziridine 308 was treated with methyl chloroformate to afford the corresponding oxazolidinone 309 with retention of conguration on the reacting stereocenter due to a double inversion of conguration as described in Scheme 10.177 [485].
O Ph N O Cl OMe CO2Et H 308 Cl OMe CH3CN, reflux MeO2C H 309 N O Ph O
-MeCl Me O H CO2Me Cl
Ph O N ClScheme 10.177
OMe CO2Et H
Ph O N
In contrast, treating aziridine 310 with Lewis acids induces a rearrangement in which it is the carbonyl group of the carbamoyl moiety, activated by the exit of
10.5 Derivatives
j901
isobutene, that induces the enlargement of the three-membered ring (Scheme 10.178) [486].
O R N O O 310 OMe Cu(OTf) 2 O R OMe N [Cu] O H R O O O OMe NH R = Me 99% R = iPr 85% R = Ph 98%
Scheme 10.178
The reaction of vinyl epoxides with aryl isocyanates is facilitated by Pd catalysis [487]. The intermediate p-allyl complex equilibrates to afford stereoselectively the cis derivative from either isomer of the epoxide [Scheme 10.179 (1)].
X R
(dba)3Pd2.CHCl3 R
N X
Ar O R1 O Ligand O O
(1)
X = NR, O, S ArNCO
(3 C3H5PdCl)2 Ligand R2 NCO N + R1
N R N R2
NH HN PPh2 Ph2P
(2)
Scheme 10.179
The same reactivity has been extended to aziridines [488] and to thiiranes [489]; for every substrates the enantioselective version of the transformation has also been described [Scheme 10.179 (2)]. Oxazolidinones can be obtained also through a palladium-catalyzed oxidative carbonylation of b-aminoalcohols [490]. In an analogous procedure vicinal diamines are converted into imidazolidinones through an oxidative carbonylation catalyzed by W(CO)6 [491]. Particularly important, especially for the breakthrough that it allowed in the synthesis of tetrodotoxin [492], is the Rh-catalyzed CH insertion reaction for the oxidative conversion of carbamates into oxazolidinones [493] and the more recent expansion to the synthesis of imidazolidines (Scheme 10.180) [494]. Some specic reported syntheses for the obtainment of benzo-1,3-azol-2-ones have found recent application. The most direct approach to these derivatives is the reaction of a 2-substituted aniline with the general reagent 311 (Scheme 10.181). The reagent of general formula 311 stands for a series of different reagents in which the Z groups represents good leaving groups. For this reason, good reagents
902

NH2 O H2N Ph N O O [Rh2(OAc)4] PhI(OAc))2 NH O Ph NH O N 87% SO2CH2Cl3 O 86%
Rh2(esp)2 PhI(OAc))2
SO2CH2Cl3
Scheme 10.180
NH2 X
O Z Z 311
NH Y O
+ 2 HZ
Scheme 10.181
are phosgene [495], urea [496],carbonyldiimidazole [497], dimethyl carbonate [498], N,N-diethylcarbamyl chloride and carbon dioxide [499].
10.5.7 Azole N-Oxides and Azoline N-Oxides
Oxazole and imidazole N-oxides cannot be synthesized by oxygenation of oxazoles or imidazoles, respectively. The only method described for the synthesis of oxazole N-oxides is the condensation of monooximes of 1,2-dicarbonyl compounds with aldehydes in acidic medium [Scheme 10.182 (1)]. The aldehyde may be aromatic or aliphatic (including formaldehyde) and the oxime may be derived from an aromatic
O N O O N NR1
R4 R5 R4 R5
NOH O NOH O
OCHR2 -H2O OCHR2 NH2R1 -H2O H
R4 R5 R4 R5
R2
(1)
R2
(2)
R = alkyl, aryl, OH R R NOH NOH X R R O N N OH
R2
R2
(3)
-H2O X = O, NOH
Scheme 10.182
10.5 Derivatives
j903
diketone or it may be an a-keto aldoxime, leading to a 2,5-disubstituted oxazole Noxide. For imidazole N-oxides the most common approach is the condensation of an a-oximinoketone with an aldehyde and a primary amine. The use of an hydroxylamine in this condensation [Scheme 10.182 (2)] or the reaction of the aldehyde oxime or aldehyde with a 1,2-dioxime [Scheme 10.183 (3)] afford 1-hydroxyimidazole-3oxides.
O N O 93-98%
R2
1. R2C(OEt)3 2. Et3N route A
NHOH OH HCl
EtO
R2
OEt NMe3
O N O
route B
O N N Bn
R2
59% R2 = Ph
Ph
NHOH NHBn 2HCl
1. HC(OEt)3 Ph 2. Et3N
Scheme 10.183
A similar method has been used for the synthesis of 4,5-dihydrooxazole-3-oxides (cyclic C-alkoxynitrones). In this case the condensation of an b-hydroxyamino alcohol hydrochloride with an ortho ester (Scheme 10.183, route A) [500] or an amide acetal (Scheme 10.183, route B) [501] affords the desired compound. 4,5-Dihydro-1Himidazole-3-oxides (cyclic C-aminonitrones) have been prepared using route A with N-(2-aminoethyl)hydroxylamine dihydrochloride as starting material. Treatment of 2-(hydroxyamino)alkan-1-one oximes with phenyl or methylglyoxal affords 4,5-dihydro-1H-imidazole 3-oxides. The reaction is occurs through the formation of intermediates 312314 (Scheme 10.184).
O R4 R5 NOH NHOH R5 N NOH O COR3 312 O N N OH R CHO R4 R5
OH O N N H
COR
+ H2O COR3 -H2O R4 R5 314
R4
R4 R5 313
O N N
COR3
Scheme 10.184
On the other hand, oxidation of 4,5-dihydrooxazoles with 3-chloroperoxybenzoic acid (MCPBA) produces oxaziridines that undergo isomerization to the corresponding nitrones upon treatment with triuoromethanesulfonic acid (TfOH) [Scheme 10.185 (1)] [502].
904

N O MCPBA N O O TfOH O N O O N N R O N N R (1)
Cl O N n-BuLi -78 C Li O N N R Ph2P(O)Cl TsCl 316 90% O Ph2P 317 60%
N 315 R
(2)
Scheme 10.185
Lithiation of 315 followed by treatment with 4-toluensulfonyl chloride or diphenylphosphoryl chloride [503] affords the C-chloronitrone or the C-phosphorylnitrone, 316 and 317, respectively [Scheme 10.185 (2)]. Oxidation of 315 in methanol with lead(IV) acetate or manganese(IV) or lead(IV) oxides affords predominantly the corresponding C-methoxynitrones 318 [504], which react with potassium hydrosulde to afford the thiohydroxamic acids 319 [505]. Compound 319 has also been obtained by treatment of the nitrone 320 with sodium sulde (Scheme 10.186) [506].
O N N R O N N R O N N R
oxidizing agent / MeOH 315 MeO O N N R
MeO
O N N R 318
KSH
HS
Na2S 319
NC 320
OH N N R
Scheme 10.186
Finally, the reactivity of azole-N-oxides is somewhat similar to that of the azolonium ions, particularly when the cationic species is involved. In the case of imidazoline-N-oxides (cyclic C-amino nitrones) and oxazoline-N-oxides (cyclic C-hydroxy nitrones) the reactivity is well known. These compounds are versatile synthetic intermediates that readily undergo 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition [507] and addition of nucleophiles [508] and are also useful as radical spin traps [509].
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Cycloaddition Chemistry, Vol. 5 (ed. A. Padwa), John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, p. 83; Breuer, E., Aurich, H.G., and Nielsen, A. (1989) Nitrones, Nitronates and Nitroxides, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Chichester, UK; Dirat, O., Kouklovsky, C., Mauduit, M., and Langlois, Y. (2000) Pure and Applied Chemistry, 72, 1721. 508 Frederickson, M. (1997) Tetrahedron, 53, 403; Gothelf, K.V. and Jorgensen, K.A. (1998) Chemical Reviews, 98, 863; Merino, P., Franco, S., Merchan, F.L., and Tejero, T. (2000) Synlett, 442. 509 Janzen, E.G. and Haire, D.L. (1990) Advances in Free Radical. Chemistry, 1, 253; Free Radical Research Janzen, E.G. (1971) Accounts of Chemical Research, 4, 31.
j925
11 Five-Membered Heterocycles with Two Heteroatoms: O and S Derivatives

David J. Wilkins
11.1 Introduction
A general review of chemistry for all the derivatives described in this chapter covering the period up to 1995 can be found in Comprehensive Heterocyclic Chemistry rst edition (Volume 6) and second edition (Volume 3).
11.2 1,2-Dioxoles and 1,2-Dioxolanes 11.2.1 Introduction
Most work on 1, 2-dioxole systems has been on derivatives of the fully saturated 1, 2dioxolane (1) and as cyclic peroxides these have been the subject of three major reviews [13]. 1,2-Dioxoles are unstable and they have only been detected spectroscopically at temperatures below 60 C [4].
O O
11.2.2 Relevant Physicochemical Data 11.2.2.1 NMR Spectroscopy 1 H and 13 C NMR data for trans- and cis-3, 5-dimethyl-1,2-dioxolane 2, 3 have been published [5]; proton resonances appear (in ppm) at dH 4.25 cis and 4.3 trans for H3, at dH 2.77 cis and 2.19 trans for H4, and at dH 4.25 cis and 4.30 trans for H5.
926
j 11 Five-Membered Heterocycles with Two Heteroatoms: O and S Derivatives

The cis and trans isomers are readily identied by 13 C NMR, which shows cis d 19.25 Me, 49.34 C4 and 77.30 C3,5; trans d 18.40 Me, 48.61 C4 and 77.04 C3,5.
O O O O
11.2.2.2 Electron Diffraction Studies Electron diffraction has been used to obtain the following dimensions for the heterocyclic ring of peruorinated 1,2-dioxolane (4) [6]: OO, 1.443 A; CO, 1.377 A and CC, 1.531 A; CCC, 98.1 ; CCO, 107.3 and COO, 102.9 .
F F O O F F F F 4
11.2.3 Synthesis 11.2.3.1 Synthesis by Ring Construction Oxidative addition of elemental uorine to appropriate 1, 3-dicarbonyl compounds provides a convenient synthesis of peruorinated 1,2-dioxolanes. Compound 4 can be synthesized by treatment of diuoromalonyl diuoride with uorine [6] and 5 is similarly prepared from either hexauoroacetylacetone or the copper(II) or nickel(II) chelate of triuoroacetylacetone [7].
F F3C O O
F F F CF 3 5
Several studies have appeared on the formation of 1, 2-dioxolanes either by endo cyclization of allylic hydroperoxides [8] or by exo cyclization of homoallylic hydroperoxides upon treatment with various electrophilic reagents [9]. For example, cyclization of the homoallylic peroxide 6 with ButOCl affords the 1, 2-dioxolane 7 (Scheme 11.1) [10]. Photooxygenation of arylcyclopropanes 8 (R Ph) provides direct access to the corresponding 1,2-dioxolanes 9 (R Ph), although the reaction is non-stereospecific [11]. The addition can also be radical mediated, as in the conversion of 8 (R H) to 9 (R H) by treatment with O2 in the presence of PhSeSePh and AIBN (Scheme 11.2) [12].
11.2 1,2-Dioxoles and 1,2-Dioxolanes
j927
HO O
R1 R3 6 R2
Bu tOCl
R1 Cl R2 O O 7 R3
Scheme 11.1
Ph R 8, R = H or Ph
Ph R O O
9, R = H or Ph
Scheme 11.2
a,b-Unsaturated imines 10 react directly with singlet oxygen to give 3-amino-1,2dioxolanes 11 (Scheme 11.3) [13].
NBut
NHBut O O 11
10
Scheme 11.3
11.2.3.2 Ring Transformations of Heterocycles Leading to 1,2-Dioxoles and 1,2Dioxolanes 3-Hydroperoxypyrazolines 12 react readily with oxygen with the loss of N2 to give 3-hydroxy-1,2-dioxolanes 13 (Scheme 11.4) [14].
O2 R3 OH
R2 R1
N N 12
R3 OOH
R2 R1
O O 13
Scheme 11.4
Lewis acid treatment of 1,2,4-trioxolanes gives metallated carbonyl oxides that may be trapped by cycloaddition to allylsilanes to give 1,2-dixolanes 14 [15].
R2 R1 SiMe3 O O 14
928

11.2.4 Reactivity of 1,2-Dioxoles and 1,2-Dioxolanes
Solution thermolysis of the bicyclic dioxolane 15 gives epoxy aldehyde 16 in non-polar solvents and the diketone 17 in polar solvents [16]. Flash vacuum pyrolysis of 15 at 450 C and 103 Torr gave only 16 [17]. Monocyclic dioxolanes such as 18 [17] and 19 [18] give under similar conditions a mixture of epoxide and carbonyl compounds (Scheme 11.5).
H O O 15 O O 16 R2 O R1
and / or
H O 17 O
O Ph
18
Scheme 11.5
19
11.3 1,3-Dioxoles and 1,3-Dioxolanes 11.3.1 Introduction
There has been relatively little work published on the fully conjugated system, 1,3dioxolium salts 20 and their benzo analogues 21, but there are reviews on these compounds [19, 20]. More recently a comprehensive review chapter on 1,3-dioxolium salts has appeared [21]. A much larger volume of work has been published on 1,3dioxoles 22, although most work published in this area is on the fully saturated compounds, 1,3-dioxolanes 23. A major review of these compounds has been published [22].
O + O
21 O O O O
O + O
20
22
23

Table 11.1 X-ray structural data for 24.
j929
Bond length (A) O1C2 1.281 Internal angle ( ) O1 108.1
C2O3 1.282 C2 103.4
O3C4 1.472 O3 103.1
C4C5 1.505 C4 108.6
C5O1 1.480 C5 116.8
11.3.2 Relevant Physicochemical Data 11.3.2.1 X-Ray Diffraction Studies X-Ray diffraction studies on the 1,2-dioxolan-2-yl cation 24 has given molecular dimensions (Table 11.1). The data show the structure to be essentially planar at C2 [23].
O + O
24
11.3.2.2 NMR Spectroscopy Table 11.2 presents the 1 H NMR spectra of 1,3-dioxolane derivatives. 13 C NMR data for 1,3-dioxolium salts 2426 and 1,3-dioxolane 27 are shown in Table 11.3. The high frequency for C2 signals in 1,3-dioxolium salts is notable when compared to the dioxolane 27.
Table 11.2
H NMR data for ring protons of 1,3-dioxolane derivatives. dH (ppm) 2H 4H 5H 3.51 4.40 4.15 3.38 Reference [24] [25] [26] [26]
Compound
4,4-Dimethyl-1,3-dioxolane 2-Imino-1,3-dioxolane cis-2,2,4,5-Tetramethyl-1,3-dioxolane trans-2,2,4,5-Tetramethyl-1,3-dioxolane
4.9 4.40 4.15 3.38
930

Table 11.3
13
C NMR data for ring carbons of 1,3-dioxole derivatives. dC (ppm) C2 C4 146.6 147.9 90.6 153.2 C5 146.6 147.9 90.6 69.1 Reference [27] [27] [27] [28]
Compound
24 25 26 27
174.7 175.4 181.9 101.5
F3C O + O R R 26 27 O + O O
CF3 O
24, R = Ph 25, R = Me
17
O NMR studies have been carried out on 1,3-dioxolanes 28 and a few simple derivatives. The chemical shift for the parent compound has been given variously as dO (with respect to H217O): 34 [29], 35.8 [30] and 34.8 [31].
O O 28
11.3.3 Synthesis 11.3.3.1 Synthesis by Ring Construction 1,3-Dioxolium salts have been prepared from a-diazoanhydrides 29 by palladiumcatalyzed decomposition to give a carbene intermediate that undergoes electrocyclization to give 30 (Scheme 11.6) [32].
O Ar2 O
O Ar1
+
30
O O
Ar2
Ar1
N2 29
Scheme 11.6
j931
Other methods that involve the decomposition of diazo compounds include the reaction of the diazoketone 31 with PhCO2Tf to afford the diazolium salt 32 [27] and the copper-catalyzed decomposition of the 2-diazo-1,3-dicarbonyl compound 33, which in the presence of aldehydes or ketones gives 4-acyl-1,3-dioxoles 34 (Scheme 11.7) [33].
R1 R2 O N2 31 R1 R2 O + O Ph OTf 32 -
R3 O R1 O N2 33
Scheme 11.7
R2
O R1 O
O O
R2 R3
34
Rhodium-catalyzed reaction of the diazo esters 35 with carbonyl compounds, R1COR2, provides a new route to silyl dioxolanones 36 in a process involving an intermediate carbonyl ylide (Scheme 11.8) [34].
O
O N2 Ph
O R3Si
Ph R2 R1 O
SiR3 O O R2 36
R1
35
Scheme 11.8
The treatment of chloroesters 37 and 38 with SbCl5 results in cyclization with rearrangement of the carbon skeleton to give, respectively, the salts 39 [35] and 40 [36] (Scheme 11.9). Vinyl esters such as 41 react with benzoyl or t-butyl hexachloroantiminoate to give the 1,3-dioxolium salt 42 (Scheme 11.10) [37, 38]. A simple preparation of 2-methyl-1,3-dioxolane (44) involves heating the vinyl ether 43 with KOH to give 44 in 66% yield [39]. A similar preparation involving enol ethers starts with 45, which reacts with either EtMgBr or Bu2iAlH followed by benzaldehyde to give hydroxyalkyldioxolanes 46 (Scheme 11.11) [40].
932

R1 Cl R2 R3 O R4 O 37 Pri O Cl O 38
Scheme 11.9
R3 O R2 + O R1 39
R4
O + O 40
O O 41
Scheme 11.10
Ph
O + O
Ph
42
KOH O OH 43 R1 1. EtMgBr or Bu2 AlH OH 45

Scheme 11.11
O O 44
R2 O
R1 R2
Ph
2. PhCHO
O 46
OH
Treatment of glycidic esters like 47 with cationic zirconium species and AgClO4 affords the dioxolane 48 [41]. Epoxides like 49 react with CO2 to give dioxolanones 50 (Scheme 11.12) The reaction may be catalyzed either by mixed alkali metal or manganese halides [42] or alkali metal/lead/indium halides [43]. The use of ionic liquids to catalyze this reaction has also been described [44].
j933
CO2Et O EtO2C 47 O O Bun

ZrClCp 2
O O HO 48
Bun
O R1 49
Scheme 11.12
CO2 R2
R1 R2
O O 50
Treatment of the acetylenic alcohol 51 with aq LiOH affords the dioxolane 52; the yield of this reaction is increased by the addition of acetone (Scheme 11.13) [45].
CN HO 51
Scheme 11.13
LiOH
O O 52
CN
Reaction of the stabilized iodonium ylide 53 with ketones affords 1,3-dioxoles 54 (Scheme 11.14) [46].
O
MeO2C
I Ph O
R1
R2 R1
O O R2
54
CO2Me
53
Scheme 11.14
The palladium-catalyzed reaction of propargyl acetates with CO in methanol results in cyclization to give dioxolanes 55 (Scheme 11.15) [47].
934

R3 O O R1 R2 R3 O O O R1 R2 CO2Me 55
Scheme 11.15
Treatment of a-hydroxyketones, R1CH OH COR2, with triphosgene, Cl3CO2CO, gives the 1,3-dioxol-2-ones 56 in moderate yield [48].
O O R1 56 O R2
2-Imino-1,3-dioxoles 57 can be prepared either by electrochemical reduction of benzils 58 in the presence of Ar2NCCl2 [49] or by the treatment of bis tin derivatives such as 59 with Ar2NCS (Scheme 11.16); 59 also reacts with CS2 to give 1,3-dioxole-2thiones [50].
O O O O OSnBu3 OSnBu3 59
Ar1 Ar1 58
Ar1 Ar1
Ar2
Ar1 Ar1
57
Scheme 11.16
2,2-Disubstituted-1,3-dioxolanes 61 may be formed by nucleophilic attack with stabilized carbanions on 2-haloalkyl esters 60 (Scheme 11.17) [51].
O R3 O R1 R2 61
O O Br 60
R1 R2
Scheme 11.17
The transfer hydrogenation of the tosylacetophenone 62 using a chiral ruthenium catalyst and formic acid as the hydrogen source unexpectedly gives the chiral dioxolanone 63 in 94% ee (Scheme 11.18) [52].
j935
O Ph 62
Scheme 11.18
OTs
Ru* HCO2H
O O 63
Ph
1,2-Diols like 64 react with oxalyl chloride and triethylamine to give the 1,3dioxolanone 65 rather than the expected six-membered ring products (Scheme 11.19) [53].
R1 R2 64
Scheme 11.19
OH OH
R1 R2 65
O O
The treatment of styrene oxide with ruthenium trichloride in acetone gives the dioxolane 66 [54]. Titanium-based catalysts for the reaction of epoxides with acetone to give 2,2-dimethyl-1,3-dioxolanes are TiO CF3CO2 and TiCl CF3SO3 [55].
O O Ph 66
The most widely used method for the preparation of 1,3-dioxolanes involves the reaction of carbonyl compounds with 1,2-diols. A wide range of catalysts has been used in this reaction, trimethylsilyl triate in the presence of a trimethylsilyl ether [56], K10 montmorillonite under solvent-free conditions [57, 58], scandium triate [59] and N-benzoylhydrazinium salts [60].
11.3.3.2 Ring Transformations of Heterocycles Leading to 1,3-Dioxoles and 1,3-Dioxolanes The treatment of 1,3-dioxane 67 with mCPBA provides an interesting route into 1,3-dioxolane aldehydes 68, presumably via an epoxide rearrangement (Scheme 11.20) [61]. 11.3.4 Reactivity of 1,3-Dioxoles and 1,3-Dioxolanes
The phenyliminodioxolane 69 (RPh) undergoes isomerization to the oxazolidinone 70 upon heating at 200 C with LiCl [62]. The parent compound 69 (RH) undergoes
936

R1 O R2 O R1 O R2 O CHO 67
Scheme 11.20
68
spontaneous isomerization and trimerization to give the 1,3,5-triazine 71 (Scheme 11.21) [63].
OH OH O O N Ph O RN 69 O O N O HO 71
Scheme 11.21
N N
70
11.3.4.1 Reactions with Nucleophiles There has been several studies on stable cations such as 72 and their reactions with nucleophiles; 72 reacts with NaOMe at C2, but with NaHCO3 or LiCl at C4 to give ring open 2-hydroxyethyl or 2-chloroethyl methyl carbonates, respectively [64]. The reaction of salts like 73 with acetylenic Grignard reagents takes place at C2 [65].
+O
OMe 72
BF4
+O
R
ClO4
73
Efcient hydrolysis of 2,2-disubstituted-1,3-dioxolanes to carbonyl compounds has been an area of much interest. Methods for the hydrolysis of 2,2-dimethyl-1,3dioxolanes include cerium ammonium nitrate and oxalic acid [66] and a polymersupported dicyanoketene acetal [67]. Cleavage may also be achieved using Ph3P/ CBr4 [68] or CpTiCl3 [69], other reagents used include DDQ in aq. CH3CN [70] and TeCl4 [71].
j937
11.3.4.2 Uses in Asymmetric Synthesis There has been a large volume of work published on the use of 1,3-dioxolanes in asymmetric synthesis. TADDOL complexes 74 have been used widely in asymmetric synthesis and have been the subject of a major review [72]. Further developments in this area involve the synthesis of polymer-supported TADDOLs [73] and TADDOL crown ethers [74]. Benzylcyclohexanone has been deracemized by the formation of an inclusion complex with TADDOL compound 74, R,Rcyclohexyl. The X-ray structure of this complex has also been published [75]. The TADDOL complex 74, R,Rcyclopentyl, has been used to direct enantioselective DielsAlder reactions in aqueous solution [76].
Ar Ar O OH O OH Ar Ar 74
R R
There has also been considerable work on CC bond formation by attack on suitable dioxolane systems by carbanions, and of particular interest has been the use of chiral dioxolanes in asymmetric synthesis. Conjugate addition of organozinc compounds to chiral dioxolanes such as 75 and 76 affords adducts with a high degree of enantioselectivity [77, 78].
O O O O Bu 75 76 MeO2C O
11.3.4.3 Reactions with Carbenes and Radicals Treatment of 1,3-dioxolane (23) with ferrous sulfate and a peroxide in the presence of pyridine gives predominantly 77 together with small amounts of products resulting from reaction at the 4-position of the dioxolane and the 2-position of the pyridine [79].
O O O N O 77
23
The reaction of 1,3-dioxolanes with carbenes generally proceeds by insertion into the C2H bond and this has been examined for phase-transfer generated Cl2C: and Br2C: [80, 81] and for various arylchlorocarbenes (ArClC:) [82, 83]. Ethoxycarbonylcarbene behaves differently and reacts with 78 by insertion into the C2O bond to give 79 [84].
938

O O O O EtO2C 79 O O
78
11.3.5 Compounds of Interest
1,3-Dioxolane derivatives such as 80 have been used as a fungicide [85] and related derivatives have anti-fungal activity [8688]. The structurally related compounds 81 and 82 have been prepared as intermediates for ketoconazole synthesis by lipasecatalyzed kinetic resolution [89].
Cl Cl O N N O O F 80 Ph Br O R O Cl Cl
81, R = CH2OH 82, R = CO2H
Tertiary ammonium salts containing a 1,3-dioxolane ring (83) have been described as muscarinic acetylcholine antagonists [90].
Ar O O N
+
83
11.4 1,2-Dithioles and 1,2-Dithiolanes 11.4.1 Introduction
The 1,2-dithiolane system 84 is known but the partially unsaturated 1,2-dithiole system 85 is very common, along with its derivatives 85 (XO, S, NR). There are only
11.4 1,2-Dithioles and 1,2-Dithiolanes
j939
a few references to systems where XH,H or alkyl. Cationic species such as 86 and 87 are also known. 1,2-Dithiolanes have a greater reactivity than acyclic disuldes, which is attributed to some repulsion between the lone pairs on the adjacent sulfur atoms [91]. 1,2-Dithiolium cations are aromatic 6p systems and are very stable except to nucleophilic reagents. A comprehensive review of 1,2-dithiolium salts has been published [92].
X S S S S R 85 R 86 S S
+
S S R 87
84
11.4.2 Relevant Physicochemical Data
X-Ray methods for 1,3-dithiolanes have shown the SS bond distances to be in the range of acyclic disuldes [91]. Figure 11.1 shows the bond lengths and angles of 1,2dithiol-3-thione [93]. The 1 H NMR spectrum of 1,2-dithiolane 84 has signals at d2.09 ppm for H4 and d3.36 ppm for H3 and H5 [91]. Protons in 1,2-dithiole-3-ones absorb at higher eld than the corresponding 1,2-dithiole-3-thiones. In the unsubstituted 1,2-dithiolium ion 88, the H3 and H5 protons absorb at d10.7 ppm and the H4 proton at d8.88 ppm [91].
S S 88
The 13 C NMR chemical shifts for 1,2-dithiolanes are $41 ppm for C3 and C5 and 56 ppm for C4; the chemical shifts for 1,2-dithiole-3-one are 216 ppm for C3, 140.2 ppm for C4 and 155.1 ppm for C5 [94].
1.34A
1.38A
120.0o
S
1.67A
o 119.04 o 111.1
1.69A 93.0o 96.8o
2.05A
1.77A
Figure 11.1 Geometry of 1,2-dithiol-3-thione.
940

11.4.3 Synthesis 11.4.3.1 Synthesis by Ring Construction The synthesis of 1,2-dithioles and 1,2-dithiolanes has been the subject of a review [95]. The most practical method for the synthesis of 1,2-dithiols involves direct SS bond formation, usually via oxidation or displacement of a leaving group on one of the sulfur atoms. For example, treatment of dithiols with bromine on hydrated silica has affords 1,2-dithiolanes 84 and 89 [96].
OH OH S S 84 S S 89
A mild method for the preparation of 1,2-dithiolanes involves the treatment of 1,3dithiocyanates with Bun4N F [97]. Treatment of b-ketoamides such as 90 with Lawessons reagent gives the 1,2dithiole-3-thione 91 [98]. In a similar preparation, treatment of malonates 92 with Lawessons reagent and sulfur in xylene in the presence of a catalytic amount of 2-mercaptobenzothiazole and ZnO affords the 1,2-dithiol-3-thione 93 [99].
O O N H
Ph S S 91 R1
90
O O OR
RS S S 93
RO R1 92
Dicyclic 1,2-dithiolane 94 has been prepared by treating either the ylide Ph3Ar2 or the thione Ar2CS with sulfur in boiling xylene in the presence of maleic anhydride [100]. The cycloaddition of thiocarbonyl suldes with reactive alkynes gives access to 1,2-dithioles 95 [101].
S O O Ar O 94
S Ar
Ph Ph R
S R
95
j941
1,2-Dithiolanes are formed by the reaction of 1,3-halopropanes or haloalkenes with disulde ions. Hydrogen disulde provides the source of disulde ion and it readily condenses with phenylpropynyl chloride to form 5-phenyl-1,2-dithiol-3-one (96) [102]. Similarly 1,3-diketones condense with hydrogen disulde to give 1,2dithiolium salts 97 (Scheme 11.22) [102].
O Cl H2S2 Ph S S 96
R1 O O R2
Ph
H2S2
R1 S S 97
+
R2
Scheme 11.22
a-Thioderivatives of enamines or enol ethers react with carbon disulde to form 5-amino or 5-alkoxy-1,2-dithiole-3-thiones [103]. An interesting reaction of the oxime 98 with S2Cl2 gives the bicyclic 1,2-dithiole isomers 99 and 100 (Scheme 11.23) [104].
Cl N OH S2Cl2 Cl Cl 98
Scheme 11.23
CN CN S S
Cl Cl 100 S
Cl S
99
A common method for the synthesis of 1,2-dithioles is the sulfurization of various 3-carbon units by elemental sulfur. The conversion of 101 into 102 and 103 into 104 is usually carried out under thermal conditions (180250 C) (Scheme 11.24) [105].
11.4.3.2 Ring Transformations of Heterocycles Leading to 1,2-Dithioles and 1,2-Dithiolanes The synthesis of 1,2-dithioles by the transformation of other heterocyclic rings is a common method of preparation. Thiophene derivative 105, when reacted with Na2S in air affords the 1,2-dithiole 106 (Scheme 11.25) [106]. Ring contraction of 1,3-dithianes or 1,3-dithienes is also a well reported method for the preparation of 1,3-dithioles and 1,3-dithiolanes. The reaction is usually carried out under oxidizing conditions in the presence of acid or from 1, 3-dithiane-S-oxides with acids. Bromine has been used to transform the 1, 3-dithiane 107 into the 1,2dithiolane 108 (Scheme 11.26) [107].
942

S8, Ph 101 Ph S S S 102
S8, S S 103
Scheme 11.24
104
EtO2C
OMe S O
EtO2C
CO2H S S 106
105
Scheme 11.25
R S N
R R S CONH2 107 S S R
108
Scheme 11.26
Isoxazoles possess a three-carbon unit suitable for conversion into the 1,2-dithiole skeleton. Thus, 5-phenylisoxazole (109) is thionated to afford 5-phenyl-1,2-dithiole-3thione (110) [108] and isoxazoline-3-thiones 111 affords 1,2-dithiole-3-imines 112 on treatment with H2S (Scheme 11.27) [109]. Thiazolidinones 113 react with Lawessons reagent to give 3-imino-1,2-dithioles 114 [110].
11.4.4 Reactivity of 1,2-Dithioles and 1,2-Dithiolanes 11.4.4.1 1,2-Dithiolium Salts 11.4.4.1.1 Reactions with Nucleophiles 1,2-Dithiolium salts react readily only with nucleophiles and often at the least hindered 3 or 5 position to form 1,2-dithioles.
j943
Ph O N 109
Ph S S 110
Ph O N 111 R
Ph S S 112
NH
R O
S N H 113 O
Ph
Ph S S 114
N S
Scheme 11.27
These 1,2-dithioles may reform 1,2-dithiolium salts if there is a suitable leaving group at the 3-position Scheme 11.28.
X S S
+
Nuc
X Nuc S S
- XS S
+
Nuc
Scheme 11.28
Oxygen and sulfur nucleophiles react in a similar fashion to give 3-alkoxy or 3-alkylthio substituted 1,2-dithioles, again if there is a suitable leaving group at the 3-position the products obtained are 1,2-dithiolium salts [111]. 1,2-Dithiolium salts react with nitrogen nucleophiles at the 3-position but the nal product depends on the substitution pattern on the dithiolium ring. Dithiolium salts 115, without a leaving group at C3, react with ammonia to form isothiazoles 116 [111] and with primary and secondary amines to form aminothiones 117 (Scheme 11.29) [111].
R1 S R2 N R3 R4
R1 S S 115
+
R2
NH3
R1 S N 116
R2
117
HNR3R4
Scheme 11.29
944

The reaction of 1,2-dithiolium salts with carbon nucleophiles usually leads to ring opening and recyclization to give thiopyrans or thiophenes these reactions are similar to those involving nitrogen nucleophiles by attack at C3 or it may involve an initial attack of the carbanion on a ring sulfur [112, 113].
11.4.4.1.2 Reduction Electrochemical reduction of 1,2-dithiolium salts 118 gives bis-1,2-dithiole dimers 120 via radical intermediates 119 whose stability depends on the substitution pattern (Scheme 11.30) [114].
R2 R3 S S
+
R2 R1
R2 R1 S
R3 S
R1
C R3 S S 119
R1 R2
R3
118
Scheme 11.30
120
11.4.4.2 1,2-Dithioles To a certain extent 1,2-dithioles behave like acyclic disuldes in their reactions. 1,2Dithioles with exocyclic double bonds are potentially aromatic and readily undergo reactions that result in the formation of 1,2-dithiolium salts. 11.4.4.2.1 Reactions with Electrophiles 1,2-Dithioles react with electrophiles at the ring sulfur atoms; thus chlorine, sulfuryl chloride and sulfenyl chlorides react at the ring sulfur to afford acyclic products [115]. 11.4.4.2.2 Reactions with Nucleophiles 1,2-Dithiole-3-thiones react with nucleophiles at S2, C3, C4 or C5, the exact position depending on the substitution pattern on the ring and on the hard/soft character of the nucleophile [116118]. 1,2-Dithioles are attacked at C3 by hydroxide ion. Ethoxide ion attacks Oltipraz (121) at C5; subsequent ring opening and recyclization forms pyrrolodiazine 122 [116].
N N N S S 121 N S OEt 122 SMe
1,2-Dithiole-3-ones and 3-thiones behave like acyclic ketones and thiones, forming imines such as 125, oximes and hydrazones with nitrogen nucleophiles [119]. 1,2Dithioles 123 can also undergo ring opening and recyclization to afford isothiazoles 124 (Scheme 11.31). This pathway is dependant on the substituents at R1 and R2 and is particularly common with fused dithioles [120]. 1,2-Dithioles react with carbon nucleophiles at a range of sites. Grignard reagents react as thiophiles, attacking at S2 of 1,2-dithiol-3-ones. Phosphonium ylides and
j945
R2 R1 S S 123
Scheme 11.31
RNH2
R2 R1 S N 124 R S and / or R1
R2 NR S S 125
other carbanions attack at C3 of 1,2-dithiole-3-ones and 3-thiones to form 3-alkylidene-1,2-dithioles [121]. Reaction of the 1,2-dithiole-3-thione 126 with trimethyl phosphate affords some of the desired coupling product but also the phosphonate derivative 127 (Scheme 11.32) [122].
S S Cl 126
Scheme 11.32
S CN
(MeO)3P Cl
S S CN
R P(O)(OMe) 2
127, R = H or Me
11.4.4.2.3 Reactions with Carbenes and Nitrenes 1,2-Dithioles react with carbene and nitrenes at the SS bond, leading to insertion and sometimes with loss of one sulfur atom to form thiophenes (128) or isothiazoles (129), respectively, Scheme 11.33 [123, 124].
R2 :CR2 R2 R1 S S :NR R1 S N R S X R1 S R S R R2 X X R1 S 128 R1 S N 129 R R R2 X R2 X R
Scheme 11.33
11.4.4.3 1,2-Dithiolanes 11.4.4.3.1 Reaction with Electrophiles Reactions of 1,2-dithiolanes all occur at the ring sulfur atoms. The sulfur is nucleophilic and is readily alkylated to form 1,2dithiolium salts 130 (Scheme 11.34) [125].
946

Me3O+ BF4S S 84
Scheme 11.34
S S 130
Me
11.4.4.3.2 Reaction with Nucleophiles Alkyl lithium reagents, Grignard reagents and cyanide ion attack 1,2-dithiolanes at a sulfur atom to form ring open products [126, 127]. 1,2-Dithiolanes 131 react with lithium acetylides to give the ring expanded product 132 [128]. If the 1,2-dithiolane 131 is reacted with dimethylsulfoxonium methylide the 1,3-dithiane 133 is formed (Scheme 11.35) [129].
R R S S 133
Bu
Li
S R R 132 S
Bu
S S 131
Scheme 11.35
11.4.4.3.3 Reactions with Carbenes Carbenes react with 1,2-dithiolanes to afford insertion products at the SS bond. The 1,2-dithiolane 134 reacts with diphenylcarbene to afford a mixture of the 1,3-dithiane insertion product 135 and the desulfurization product 136 (Scheme 11.36) [130].
O S S 134
Scheme 11.36
:CPh2 S Ph 135 S Ph
136
11.4.4.3.4 Compounds of Interest 1,2-Dithiolane-4-carboxylic acid (asparagusic, 137) is thought to act in biological systems as a substrate of a dehydrogenating enzyme and to stimulate pyruvate oxidation. Lipoic acid 138 is involved in the oxidative decarboxylation of 3-ketoacids, oxidative phosphorylation and in photosynthesis [91]. The sulfonamide derivative of lipoic acid (139) is a glutathione reductase enhancer [131]. Oltipraz (121) has schistosomicidal activity [116].
j947
O CO2H S S 137
S S 138, R = OH 139, R = NHSO 2Me
11.5 1,3-Dithioles and 1,3-Dithiolanes 11.5.1 Introduction
This section deals with 1,3-dithioles derivatives such as 1,3-dithiolylium ions 140, mesoionic 1,3-dithiol-4-ones 141, 1,3-dithioles 142, 1,3-dithiolanes 143 and the tetrathiafulvalene (TTF) system 144. The latter system has been the subject of a large number of publications because of its organic conducting properties.
O S R1 S
+
S S R2
S S 143
S S S 144
S S
140
141
142
A comprehensive review chapter on 1,3-dithiolium salts has appeared [132]. The synthesis and reactions of 1,3-dithioles and dithiolanes have also been reviewed [95]. There have also been several reviews on the properties of TTFs [133135].
11.5.2 Relevant Physicochemical Data 11.5.2.1 X-Ray Diffraction Studies Several X-ray crystal structure determinations on 1,3-dithioles and 1,3-dithiolanes have been published; bond lengths and angles are presented in Tables 12.4 and 12.5, respectively. Interestingly, the TTF system 144 is not planar but is slightly distorted into a chair conformation [136]. 11.5.2.2 NMR Spectroscopy 1 H NMR data of variously substituted 1,3-dithiolylium ions have been published [113, 138]. Table 11.6 contains 1H NMR data for several derivatives.
948

Table 11.4 Bond lengths (A) for 1,3-dithiolane derivatives.

Bond
S S
S S
S S Ph O Ph
S1C2 S3C2 S3C4 C4C5 S1C5 Reference
1.756 1.758 1.729 1.314 1.732 [136]
1.72 1.76 1.80 1.54 1.83 [137]
Table 11.5 Bond angles ( ) for 1,3-dithiolane derivatives.
Bond
S S
S S
S S Ph O Ph
S1C2S3 C2S3C4 S3C4C5 C4C5S1 C5S1C2 Reference
114.5 94.3 118.6 118.0 94.5 [136]
115.5 96.7 115.4 108.3 94.6 [137]
Table 11.6
HNMR data for 1,3-dithiole derivatives. H2 (d, ppm) 11.65 H4 & 5 (d, ppm) 9.67 Reference [139]
Compound
S + S C H S S S S S O
7.2
[138]
6.74
[138]

Table 11.7
13
j949
C NMR data for 1,3-dithiole derivatives. C2 (d, ppm) 179.5 C4 (d, ppm) 146.2 Reference [140]
Compound
S + S C BF4 H S + S C BF4 H
221.2
46.4
[140]
182.4
146.0
[140]
S + S C BF4 H
S S S
140.7
133.7
[141]
C NMR data for 1,3-dithiole derivatives are presented in Table 11.7. Calculated electron densities have been correlated with observed 13 C chemical shifts for the benzo-1,3-dithiolylium ion [140].
11.5.2.3 Theoretical Methods Simple LCAO-MO calculations for 1,3-dithiole-2-thione, benzo-1,3-dithiolylium ion,1,3-dithiole-2-one and 1,3-dithiolylium ions indicate that the lowest electron density is found at the 2-position of the 1,3-dithiolylium cation and showed that the C4C5 bond order corresponded approximately to that of an isolated double bond [138]. 11.5.3 Synthesis 11.5.3.1 1,3-Dithiolium Salts, 1,3-Dithiolones and 1,3-Dithioles Several methods are known for the preparation of 1,3-dithiolylium salts from acyclic precursors by the formation of one bond. Acid-catalyzed cyclization of thioesters 145, dithioesters 146 or thio analogues 147 using either mixtures of perchloric acid and glacial acetic acid or sulfuric acid in the presence of H2S [138] or H2S/BF3 [113] results in the formation of 148 (Scheme 11.37). Dithiocarbamates like 149 afford the perchlorate salt 150 upon reaction with perchloric acid (Scheme 11.38). Reduction of 150 with sodium borohydride gives the 1,3-dithiole 151, which can then be treated again with perchloric acid to afford the 1,2dithiolylium salt 152 [142].
13
950

R1 R2 S X Y R3 R1 R2 148 S
+ C R3 S
145, X = O, Y = O 146, X = O, Y = S 147, X = S, Y = O

Scheme 11.37
S O 149 S
HClO4
S S 150
NaBH4
S S 151
ClO4-
HClO4
+ C H S ClO4-
152
Scheme 11.38
1,3-Dithiol-2-ones 154 are also obtained by acid-catalyzed cyclization of thioxodithiocarbamates 153 (Scheme 11.39) [143].
R2 R1 S S S OR3 R2 R1 S S 154 O
H+
153
Scheme 11.39
In a similar approach S-vinyl-N,N-dialkyldithiocarbamates 155 afford, upon reaction with bromine, the 1,3-dithiolylium bromides 156 (Scheme 11.40) [144, 145].
S R1
S R1 S 155
Scheme 11.40
NR2
Br2
+ C NR2 S Br
156
j951
Thiobenzoylthioglycolic acid 157 reacts with acetic anhydride in the presence of boron triuoride results to form dithiolylium salt 158 (Scheme 11.41) [146].
O Ac2O BF3.Et2O Ph S O 158 O S
+ C Ph S
S OH S
Ph
157
Scheme 11.41
Various methods have been described for the synthesis of 1,3-dithiole-2-thiones, which are widely used as precursors for the preparation of 1,3-dithiole derivatives. Dithiocarbamates 159 are easily cyclized with conc. sulfuric acid or 70% perchloric acid to yield the 1,3-dithiolylium salts 160, which upon treatment with H2S afford the 1,3-dithiole-2-thiones 161 (Scheme 11.42) [147].
R1 R2 S O S NR2 H+ R1 R2 S
+ C NR2 S
H2S
R1 R2
S S 161
159
Scheme 11.42
160
An alternative approach uses propargyl-t-butyltrithiocarbamates 162, which afford mono substituted 1,3-dithiole-2-thiones 163 on treatment with triuoroacetic acid/ glacial acetic acid (Scheme 11.43) [148].
S S R 162
Scheme 11.43
R TFA AcOH
S S
163
A two-step conversion of alkynes into dithiolones 164 and dithiolethiones 165 has been reported. The initial step involves palladium-catalyzed addition of Pri3Si-S-SSiPri3 followed by treatment with uoride ion and either PhSOCl or CSCl2 [149].
R1 R2 164, X = O 165, X = S S S X
952

A convenient synthesis of 1,3-dithiole-2-thiones 166 involves the treatment of a terminal alkyne with butyllithium, sulfur and then CS2 (Scheme 11.44) [150]. In similar fashion, the reaction of phenylacetylene with sulfur and KOH in DMSO leads to direct formation of the dithiole 167, albeit in low yield [151].
S S (166) Ph S S (167) Ph
1. nBuLi, S8 2. CS2
Scheme 11.44
The bis-dithiole salt 168 reacts with long-chain alkyl iodides to give dithioles 169 (Scheme 11.45) [152].
K
+
S NO2 168
R-I
K S
S S 169 NO2
Scheme 11.45
Unsubstituted 1,3-dithiole-2-thione (172) can be prepared from 1,2-dichloroethyl ethyl ether (170) and potassium trithiocarbonate (Scheme 11.46). The intermediate 4-ethoxy-1,3-dithiolane-2-thione 171 is treated with p-toluene sulfonic acid to give 172 [153].
K
+
EtO S
Cl Cl
K S
EtO
S S 171
pTSA
S S 172
EtO 170
Scheme 11.46
1,3-Dithiolylium salts 175 have also been prepared by the reaction of a-haloketones 173 with an excess of dithio-carboxylic acids 174 in the presence of strong mineral acids at 6080 C (Scheme 11.47) [154].
O X R3 173
Scheme 11.47
R2
R1
S SH
HX
R3 R2
+ C R1 S
174
175
j953
a-Haloketones 176 also react with N,N-dialkyldithiocarbamidates 177 in the presence of strong acid to afford 2-alkylamino-1,3-dithiolylium salts 178 (Scheme 11.48) [155, 156].
S R1 + C N R2 S
O X R3 176
Scheme 11.48
R4
R1 R2
S S
H+
R3 R4
177
178
Benzo-annellated 1,3-dithiole-2-thiones (180) can be prepared by the reaction of benzene-1,2-dithiol (179) with thiocarbonyldiimidazole in glacial acetic acid (Scheme 11.49) [157].
S N SH SH 179
Scheme 11.49
N S S
AcOH 180
11.5.3.2 Ring Transformations of Heterocycles Leading to 1,3-Dithiole Derivatives Thermolysis of 1,2,3-thiadiazoles 181 in carbon disulde provides a useful route to 1,3-dithiole-2-thiones 182 (Scheme 11.50) [158].
R1 R2 N N S CS2 sealed tube 220oC R1 R2 S S S
181
Scheme 11.50
182
1,2-Dithiole-3-thione derivatives can also be used as starting compounds for 1,3dithiole synthesis. 1,2-Dithiole-3-thiones 183 react with alkynes or even benzyne to afford 1,3-dithioles 184 (Scheme 11.51) [159]. Alkynes bearing electron-withdrawing groups also react with O,S-ethylene dithiocarbonate 185 (XO) or ethylene trithiocarbonate 185 (XS) to afford 1,3-dithiole-2ones 186 (XO) or 1,3-dithiole-2-thiones 186 (XS) (Scheme 11.52) [160, 161].
954

S R1 R2 S S 183
Scheme 11.51
R2 R1
R3
R4
R3 R4
S S 184
X R1 R2 + S S 185
Scheme 11.52
R1 R2
S S 186
11.5.3.3 Ring Synthesis of 1,3-Dithiolanes The most widely used method for the synthesis of 1,3-dithiolanes involves the condensation reaction of an aldehyde or ketone with suitably substituted 1,2-dithiols in the presence of a catalyst. Catalysts for the conversion of aldehydes and ketones into 1,3-dithiolanes with ethanediol include HCl [162], BF3Et2O [162], iodine [163], MoCl5 [164], indium triate [165] and Cu(CF3SO3)2 [166]. Iodine and indium triate and indium chloride are also good catalysts for effecting the transthioacetalization of 1,3-dioxolanes [167]. ZrCl4 has also been used in this transformation [168]. The use of BF3Et2O as a catalyst allows the synthesis of some very sensitive systems; the cyclopropanone 187 reacts with 1,2-dithiols 188 in 2458% yield to give the spiro derivatives 189 (Scheme 11.53) [169].
R2 O
+
Ph 187
Scheme 11.53
R2
R1
HS
SH
BF3Et2O 25oC, 2h. Ph
S R1 189
188
Carbonyl compounds possessing an a-methylene group (190) react with 1,2bis(chlorosulfenyl)alkanes 191 to give 2- formyl-1,3-dithiolanes 192 (Scheme 11.54) [170].
j955
R2 R1
O H
Cl
S
R2
Cl
S OHC
S R1
190
Scheme 11.54
191
192
Compound 191 also reacts with ethyl acetoacetate to give 2-acetyl-2-ethoxycarbonyl-1,3-dioxolanes 193, which are readily hydrolyzed and decarboxylated to give 2-acetyl-1,3-dioxolanes 194 (Scheme 11.55) [170].
O
Cl
S R2
Cl
CO2Et
S O
S CO2Et
S O 194
191
193
Scheme 11.55
1,2-Bis(triphenylphosphonium)ethane dibromides 195 react with 1,2-ethanedithiol in the presence of a base to give an almost quantitative yield of 2-triphenylphosphoniomethyl-1,3-dithiolane (196), which can then undergo Wittig reactions (Scheme 11.56) [171].
+
Ph3P 195
Scheme 11.56
PPh3 Br-
PPh3 2 Br
HS
SH
S 196
2-Amino substituted 1,3-dithiolanes 198 can be obtained from amide acetals such as 197 and 1,2-ethanedithiol (Scheme 11.57) [172].
R + HS SH S NMe2 S
OMe OMe NMe2 197
198
Scheme 11.57
956

Ethane-1,3-dithiol also reacts with dichloromethyl methyl ether in the presence of sodium to give 2-methoxy-1,3-dithiolane 199 (Scheme 11.58) [173]. It also reacts with phosgene to give 1,3-dithiolan-2-one 200 [174].
Cl O S S Cl
O HS SH
Cl2CO
O S S
199
Scheme 11.58
200
The reaction of ethylene dibromide with sodium trithiocarbonate affords 1,3dithiolan-2-thione (201) (Scheme 11.59) [175].
S
Br
Br
Na2CS3
S 201
Scheme 11.59
11.5.3.4 Ring Transformations of Heterocycles Leading to 1,3-Dithiolane Derivatives 2-Substituted 1,3-dioxolanes react with ethanediol in an ionic liquid transthioacetalization occurs to afford the corresponding 2-substituted 1,3-dithiolanes [176]. The asymmetric synthesis of various nucleoside analogues in which the ribose base is replaced by a 1,3-dithiolane ring has been described [177]. The transformation of complex and sensitive carbonyl compounds under neutral conditions into 1,3-dithiolanes 203 can be achieved using 2-phenyl or 2-halogeno 1,3,2-dithiaborolanes 202 (Scheme 11.60) [178].
R1 B S S
R2 R3 S
R3 S
R2
202, R1 = Ph or Cl
Scheme 11.60
203
An alternative method for the synthesis of 1,3-dithiolanes 205 from acid-sensitive carbonyl compounds involves the reaction of 2-ethoxy-1,3-dithiolane (204) in the presence of mercury(II) chloride or other Lewis acids (Scheme 11.61) [179].
j957
O S S 204
Scheme 11.61
HgCl2 R2
R2 S
R1 S
R1
205
11.5.3.5 Synthesis of Tetrathiafulvalenes Tetrathiafulvalenes (TTFs) are electron donors that easily form charge-transfer complexes with electron acceptors such as radical salts. The discovery of the exceptional electron conductivity of TTFs has encouraged a great deal of research into their synthesis. The vast majority of syntheses of TTFs involve the preparation of the p-bond in between the two 1,3-dithiole rings as the nal step. This bond can be formed via an elimination reaction involving either two-proton electrochemical oxidation or the s- and p- bonds can be formed simultaneously by a coupling reaction between two carbenes. The electrochemical oxidation of the 1,3-dithioles 206 and 208 in the presence of pyridine has been described. The respective TTFs 207 and 209 were obtained in low yield, 30 and 40%, respectively (Scheme 11.62) [180].
S Ph S 206 Ph
S S
S S 207 Ph
S S 208
Scheme 11.62
S S 209
S S
The synthesis of TTF via elimination of a proton from 1,3-dithiolylium salts in the nal synthetic step involves the reaction of a carbene or phosphonium ylide on a 1,3dithiolylium salt bearing a hydrogen at C2. These precursors can be prepared either by an alkylation of 2-alkylthio-1,3-dithioles 210 [181] or by oxidation of 1,3-dithiole-2thiones 211 either with peracid or hydrogen peroxide (Scheme 11.63) [182]. Treatment of these precursors with a tertiary amine base affords TTF (144). The presence of alkyl groups in the 4 or 5 position does not interfere with this reaction; however, electron-withdrawing groups in these positions can lead to no reaction.
958

S S 210 SMe HBF4 S
+ C H S
Et3N
S S
S S 144
S S 211
MeCO3H
Scheme 11.63
The reaction of carbon disulde with either a strained or electron-rich acetylene derivatives in the presence of an acid or under high pressure is another common method for the preparation of TTFs. This method can be used to afford TTFs with electron-withdrawing substituents in the ring. Acetylenes 212 and 213 react with CS2 to give the TTFs 214 [183] and 215 (Scheme 11.64) [184].
CF3 CF3CO2H 100oC, 100h. F3C F3C S S 214 S S CF3 CF3
+
CF3 212 CO2Me
CS2
+
CO2Me 213
Scheme 11.64
CS2
MeO2C MeO2C
S S 215
S S
CO2Me CO2Me
1,3-Dithiolylium salts 217 react with 2-triphenylphosphino-1,3-dithioles 216 to afford an intermediate that eliminates a proton and triphenylphosphine on treatment with base to give the TTF 218 (Scheme 11.65) [185].
S 1. S S 216
Scheme 11.65
S 217
C H S S S S 218
PPh3 2. Et3N
j959
Similarly, TTF (144) is obtained from a mixture of trialkylphosphanes and alkynes in the presence of carbon disulde (Scheme 11.66) [186].
+ R3P S S CO2Me -30oC S S 144
Scheme 11.66
R3P
CS2
S S
TTF may be obtained by dethioxygenation of 2-thioxo-1,3-dithioles by transition metal complexes. The reaction of 2-thioxo-1,3-dithioles 219 with Fe3(CO)12 or Co2(CO)8 furnishes TTFs 220 with aryl, alkyl or electron-withdrawing groups in the 4- and 5-positions of the dithiole ring (Scheme 11.67) [187, 188].
R1 R2
R1 R2
S S
Fe3(CO)12 or Co2(CO)8
R1 R2
S S
S S 220
219
Scheme 11.67
2-Thioxo-1,3-dithioles bearing electron-withdrawing groups such as in 221 also react with trivalent phosphorus compounds to form the corresponding TTFs (222) as a mixture of regioisomers (Scheme 11.68) [189].
CO2Me
MeO2C
S S 221
P(OEt)3
MeO2C
S S
S S 222
trans isomer
Scheme 11.68
Tetrachloroethylene has also been used as a central building block for TTF synthesis. This method is suitable for the synthesis of symmetrical and unsymmetrical TTFs. The reaction of tetrachloroethylene with 1,2-benzenethiols 223 and 224 leads to a mixture of benzotetrathiafulvalenes 225 (Scheme 11.69) [190]. TTF (144) has been synthesized in two steps (85% overall yield), starting from 4,5bis(benzoylthio)-1,3-dithiole-2-thione (226) (Scheme 11.70). The intermediate tetrathianaphthalene 227 is treated with base to afford TTF. This method is suitable for the large-scale synthesis of TTF as no chromatography is required [191].
960

Cl SH SH 223 224 SH Cl Cl Cl R S S S S R
SH
225; R = H or Me
Scheme 11.69
Ph S O Ph
O S S S S S S 227 S S S S 144 S S
226
Scheme 11.70
11.5.4 Reactivity of 1,3-Dithiolylium Ions, Mesoionic 1,3-Dithiol-4-ones and 1,3-Dithioles 11.5.4.1 Thermal and Photochemical Reactions 1,3-Dithiole-2-one 228 undergoes a photochemically induced decarbonylation to afford the dithione derivative 229, which may react further to give the dithiete 230 (Scheme 11.71) [192].
S S 228
Scheme 11.71
Ar Ar
hv
Ar Ar 229
S S
Ar Ar 230
S S
Photolysis of the 1,3-dithiolylium-4-oate 231 gives a mixture of the 1,2-dithiol-3one 232 along with diazine 233 and thiophene 234 (Scheme 11.72) [193].
S Ph Ph S S 233 Ph Ph Ph Ph S 234 Ph
O Ph
S S
+
Ph
hv
O Ph
Ph
231
Scheme 11.72
232
j961
11.5.4.2 Reactions with Electrophiles The attack of electrophiles at the ring carbons of 1,3-dithiolylium ions is seldom observed. 1,3-Dithiole-2-thiones can be alkylated on the ring sulfur atom to give a 1,3dithiolylium system strong alkylating agents such as triethyloxonium tetrauoroborate must be used [194]. 11.5.4.3 Reactions with Nucleophiles 1,3-Dithiolylium salts react with nucleophiles at the 2-position while 1,3-dithiolylium-4-oates undergo nucleophilic attack at the 4-position. 1,3-Dithiolylium cations are hydrolyzed to the corresponding 2-hydroxy-1,3-dithioles, which upon treatment with acid reform the 1,3-dithiolylium cation [195]. The reaction of 1,3-dithiolylium salts 235 with alcohols leads to stable 2-alkoxy-1,3-dithioles 236 (Scheme 11.73) [196]. These alkoxy derivatives are useful precursors of 2-aryl-1,3-dithioles [197]. Sulfur nucleophiles react in a similar fashion to alcohols with 1,3-dithiolylium salts to afford 2-alkylthio or 2-arylsulfanyl-1,3-dithioles [196].
S S 235
Scheme 11.73
+
R1 R2
ROH
R1 R2
X OR S
236
Secondary amines react with 1,3-dithiolylium salts that are unsubstituted at the 2-position (237) to afford 2-amino-1,3-dithioles 238 (Scheme 11.74) [196]. 2-Methylsulfanyl-1,3-dithiolylium salts 239 give the corresponding 2-amino-1,3-dithiolylium salts 240 with secondary amines [198]. Primary amines react with 239 to afford 2-imino-1,3-dithioles 241 [199].
HNR3R4 R1 R2 R3 N R4
R1 R2
S S
+
S S
237
238
R1 R2
S S
R3 N
R3NH2
R1 R2
S S
+
SMe
HNR3R4
R1 R2
S S
+
R3 R4
241
Scheme 11.74
239
240
962

2-Methylsulfanyl-1,3-dithiolylium salts 239 also react with Grignard reagents to form 2-alkyl-2-methylsulfanyl-1,3-dithiolylium salts 242, which may react with excess Grignard reagent to give 2,2-dialkyl-1,3-dithioles 243 (Scheme 11.75) [200].
S S 242 SMe R3 S S 243 R3 R3
R1 R2
S S
+
SMe
R3MgX
R1 R2
R3MgX
R1 R2
239
Scheme 11.75
11.5.4.4 Reductions 1,3-Dithiolylium salts are easily reduced by NaBH4, LiAlH4 or NaSH to give the corresponding 1,3-dithiole [196]. If 1,3-dithiolylium salts 244 are reduced with zinc [201] or V(CO)6 [202] the dimer 245 is formed (Scheme 11.76). 2-Methylsulfanyl-1,3-dithiolylium iodide (246) forms TTF (144) when reduced with zinc in the presence of bromine [203].
S S
+
Zn or V(CO)6
S S 245
S S
244
S S
+
SMe I
Zn / Br 2
S S 144
S S
246
Scheme 11.76
1,3-Dithiolylium-4-olates 248 can be regarded as masked 1,3-dipole thiocarbonyl ylides; they react with dipolarophiles to give cycloadducts. Thiophenes 249 are obtained when 248 are reacted with alkynes (Scheme 11.77) [204]. Stable adducts such as 250 are formed when 248 is reacted with electron-decient alkenes [205].
11.5.4.5 Coupling Reactions The palladium-catalyzed coupling of the tributyl tin 1,3-dithiole derivative 251 with 2-iodoquinoline to give the coupled product 252 has been described (Scheme 11.78) [206].
j963
S O O R1 S S
+
R1
R3
R2
S R3 R4
R3 R1 S
R4 R2
R2 R4 247
248 S 248 R1
249
CN
O S
R2 CN
250
Scheme 11.77
O S Bu3Sn S O O 251
Scheme 11.78
O N Me Me 252 I S N S O O Me Me
11.5.5 Reactivity of 1,3-Dithiolanes
1,3-Dithiolanes are resistant to both acid and alkaline hydrolysis, they are also resistant to nucleophilic attack by nucleophiles such as hydride ions.
11.5.5.1 Cleavage Reactions A review of methods for cleaving 1,3-dithiolanes to aldehydes or ketones has been published [207]. The ring can be cleaved by a mixture of HgCl2/CdCO3 quite effectively [208]; alternatively, sodium in ethanol in liquid ammonia [209], NBS in acetone [210], or thallium(III) nitrate in methanol can be used. The latter method has been used for the selective cleavage of a mixture of thioketals 253 to afford the unsaturated ketone 254 (Scheme 11.79) [211]. SOCl2-treated silica and DMSO is a good combination with which to cleave 2-substituted-1,3-dithiolanes; however, under similar conditions 2,2-disubstituted1,3-dithiolanes undergo ring expansion to give dihydro-1,4-dithiins [212].
964

O S S Tl(NO3)3 MeOH 5 min. 67% S S 253
Scheme 11.79
S S 254
Recent methods for the cleavage of 1,3-dithiolanes include the use of 2,4,6trichlorotriazine and DMSO [213], oxone on wet alumina [214] and ferric nitrate on K-10 montmorillonite clay [215]. Treatment of 2-substituted-1,3-dithiolanes with NBS followed by 1,2-ethanediol affords 1,3-dioxolanes [216].
11.5.5.2 Electrophilic Attack at Carbon 1,3-Dithiolanes can be deprotonated at C2 with equimolar amounts of butyllithium. The resultant carbanions can then be trapped by various electrophiles [217]. 2-Alkynyl-1,3-dithiolanes 255 affords allenes 256when treated with an organocuprate compound followed by an electrophile and then a Grignard reagent with nickel catalysis (Scheme 11.80) [218]. Similarly, the reaction of 2-alkenyl-1,3-dithiolanes 257 with Bu2CuLi or BuLi and an electrophile followed by treatment with a Grignard reagent under nickel catalysis affords alkenes 258 [219].
R2 R1 S S 1. Cu, E
+
R1 E
R3 R2 256
2. R3MgX, Ni
255
R2 R1 S
1. BuLi, E
R3 R2
2. R3MgX, Ni
R1 258
257
Scheme 11.80
11.5.5.3 Oxidations 1,3-Dithiolanes can be oxidized to afford 1,3-dithiolane-1-oxides by photooxidation [220], while oxidation under more vigorous conditions leads to mono and bis
j965
sulfones [221]. Enantioselective oxidations of 1,3-dithiolane (143) by microbial oxidation gives the corresponding S-oxide 259 in high enantiomeric excess (Scheme 11.81) [222]. A review of the preparation and use of the C2 symmetric bis-sulfoxide 260 has been published [223].
microbial S 143
Scheme 11.81
S S O 259
O S S O 260
oxidation
On a similar theme the 2-phenyl monosulfoxide derivative 262 has been prepared in a diastereoselective manner by the reaction of 2-phenyl-1,3-dithiolane (261) with ButOOH and Cp2TiCl2 (Scheme 11.82) [224].
S Ph S 261
Scheme 11.82
tBuOOH Cp2TiCl 2
S Ph S O
262
11.5.5.4 Radical Reactions Intramolecular addition of the 1,3-dithiolan-2-yl radical generated from 263 by photolysis affords the spirocyclic derivative 264 (Scheme 11.83) [225].
S S
CO2Et
S CO2Et 264
263
Scheme 11.83
11.5.5.5 Ring Transformation Reactions Treatment of dithiolane 265 with WCl6 in DMSO gives the ring-expanded dithiin 266 (Scheme 11.84) [226].
966

S Ar Me 265
Scheme 11.84
WCl 6 S DMSO
Ar Cl
S S 266
Ethylenediamine reacts with 1,3-dithiolane derivatives 267 to give imidazolines 268 (Scheme 11.85) [227].
O R1 S 267
Scheme 11.85
O R2 S H2N
NH2
O R1 HN
O R2 NH 268
11.5.6 Compounds of Interest
TTF derivatives have been the focus of scientic interest since the mid-1970s. Indeed, their organic metal properties and superconductivity has prompted the publication of several reviews discussed earlier in this section [133135].
11.6 1,2-Oxathioles and 1,2-Oxathiolanes 11.6.1 Introduction
The parent oxathiolone 269 is known but most work published has been on the S-oxidized derivatives like 270 and 271. The corresponding saturated derivatives 272 and 273 have also been described. A comprehensive review of 1,2-oxathiolium salts has been published [228].
O S O S O O S O O O O O O O
269
270
271
272
273
11.6 1,2-Oxathioles and 1,2-Oxathiolanes
j967
Bu
1.469 109.3 1.374
O
t
114.1
Bu
1.748 93.1o
1.682
274
Figure 11.2 Geometry of a 1,2-oxathiolone derivative.
Table 11.8
H NMR data for 1,2-oxathiolanes derivatives. 3-H (d, ppm) 1.35 3.1 4-H (d, ppm) 1.35 2.5 5-H (d, ppm) 3.45 4.82 Reference [230] [231]
Compound 1,2-Oxathiolan-2-oxide (272) 1,2-Oxathiolan-2,2-dioxide (273)
11.6.2 Relevant Physicochemical Data 11.6.2.1 X-Ray Diffraction The X-ray structure of 274 has been published to give the dimensions [229] shown in Figure 11.2. 11.6.2.2 NMR Spectroscopy Table 11.8 gives 1 H NMR data for S-oxidized 1,2-oxathiolane systems 272 and 273. 11.6.3 Synthesis 11.6.3.1 Ring Synthesis of 1,2-Oxathioles Chlorination of 1,3-thioalcohols using either Cl2 or SO2Cl2 affords 1,2-oxathiolan-2oxide 272 by way of an intermediate 3-hydroxysulnyl chloride (275) (Scheme 11.86) [232].
HO 275 HO SH
Cl O S O
272
Scheme 11.86
968

Oxathiolane 277 is prepared by treatment of N-alkylcystinol 276 with NCS or NBS (Scheme 11.87) [233].
HO
SH NHR 276
NCS or NBS
S O
NHR 277
Scheme 11.87
Substituted 1,3-thioalcohols 278 can also be oxidized with NaIO4 to give the corresponding 1,2-oxathiolane-2-oxides 279 (Scheme 11.88) [234].
R2 R1 R1 HO SH
NaIO4
R2
S O R1
R1 278
Scheme 11.88
279
A ring-closing metathesis reaction of the allylvinyl sulfonate 280 using a secondgeneration Grubbs catalyst gives the oxathiole 270 (Scheme 11.89) [235].
O O 270
280
Scheme 11.89
Full details of the asymmetric synthesis of chiral c-sultones 281 have been described [236].
H2N R1 O O S O R2 281
j969
The direct reaction of cyclopropanes 282 with SO2 in TFA to give 1,2-oxathiolane-2oxides 283 and 284 has been studied extensively to determine the regioselectivity of this reaction (Scheme 11.90) [237].
SO2 Ar 282
Scheme 11.90
O S
O Ar
TFA 283
+
R
O S
O Ar
284
Similarly, treatment of the methylene cyclopropane 285 with SO3 affords 286 directly (Scheme 11.91) [238].
Ph Ph Ph Ph O O S O
SO3
285
Scheme 11.91
286
The adamantyl alcohols 287 can also be treated with SO3 to afford 1,2-oxathiolane2,2-dioxides 288 (Scheme 11.92) [239].
O O S O R 288
OH R 287
Scheme 11.92
SO3
The epoxide 289 can be cyclized with triethylamine to give the 1,2-oxathiolane-2,2dioxides 290 (Scheme 11.93) [240].
Et3N R 289
Scheme 11.93
SO2Cl
O S O O
290
970

11.6.3.2 Ring Transformations of Heterocycles Leading to 1,2-Oxathiole Derivatives Oxidative ring expansion of thietan-2-ones 291 by treatment with chlorine or SO2Cl2 and acetic anhydride gives the 1,2-oxathiolan-5-one 292 (Scheme 11.94) [241].
R1 R2 S O O R1 R2 291
Scheme 11.94
O S O 292
Cyclic suldes 293 undergo ring contraction upon treatment with BF3Et2O to give the 1,2-oxathiolane-2,2-dioxides 294 (Scheme 11.95) [242].
O O S O 294
O S O O
BF3Et2O
293
Scheme 11.95
11.6.4 Reactivity of 1,2-Oxathioles and 1,2-Oxathiolanes
Most reactions in this area have involved either 1,2-oxathiolane 2-oxides or 2,2dioxides. The type of reactions involve either thermal extrusion of SO or SO2 or nucleophilic attack at the cyclic sulnate or sulfonate functions.
11.6.4.1 Thermal or Photochemical Reactions 1,2-Oxathiolane 2-oxides 295 readily undergo thermal extrusion of SO to afford a,b-unsaturated carbonyl compounds. The reaction is most likely to proceed via an initial tautomerization from the 5H to the 3H form 296, which then undergoes an electrocyclic process to give cinnamaldehyde (Scheme 11.96) [243].
O S O S Ph
Ph
Ph
-SO
O H
295
Scheme 11.96
296
1,2-Oxathiolan-5-one 2,2-dioxide derivative 297 undergoes thermally induced elimination of SO2 at 180 C to give methacrylic acid (Scheme 11.97) [244].
j971
O O S O O 297
Scheme 11.97
-SO2
O OH
11.6.4.2 Nucleophilic Attack Nucleophilic attack on the cysteine-derived chiral 4-amino-1,2-oxathiolane 2-oxide 298 by alkyllithiums takes place on the sulfur atom with inversion of conguration to give 299 (Scheme 11.98) [245].
O S R1NH 298
Scheme 11.98
R2Li R1NH
OH
O S R2
299
Reaction of the 1,2-oxathiolane 2-oxide 300 with bromine results in the loss of SO2 to give the 1,3-dibromo derivative 301 (Scheme 11.99) [246]. Compound 300 also reacts with PCl3 to give the ring open product 302 [247].
Ar2 Br 301
Scheme 11.99
Ar1 Br
Br2
Ar2 S O O 300
Ar1
PCl3
Ar2 O P
Ar1 Cl2
302
11.7 1,3-Oxathioles and 1,3-Oxathiolanes 11.7.1 Introduction
Little work has been published on 1,3-oxathiolium salts 303 and their mesoionic system 304 [20]. A review on 1,3-oxathiolium salts has appeared [248]. A larger amount of material has been published on 1,3-oxathioles 305. Most studies have been
972

1.763 90.3o
1.318
1.743 1.361
NAc
111.3o
NC
1.394 112.0o
307
Figure 11.3 Geometry of a 1,3-oxathiolone derivative.
carried out on the fully saturated systems, 1,3-oxathiolanes (306), and reviews covering this system have appeared [249, 250].
O S
+
O 303 304 305 306
11.7.2 Relevant Physicochemical Data 11.7.2.1 X-Ray Diffraction The X-ray structure of 307 has been published to give the dimensions [251] shown in Figure 11.3. 11.7.2.2 NMR Spectroscopy Table 11.9 gives 1 H NMR data for 1,3-oxathiolane systems 308 and 309.
S O S O O
308
13
309
C NMR data for the mesoionic 1,3-oxathiolium 4-oxide compound 310 has been published (Figure 11.4) [254].
Table 11.9
H NMR data for 1,3-oxathiolane derivatives. 2-H 4.72/4.89 4-H 2.5/3.0 3.59 5-H 3.96 4.53 Reference [252] [253]
Compound 5-Methyl-1,3-oxathiolane (308) 1,3-Oxathiolan-2-one (309)
j973
154.6
F3C
110.3
215.5
SMe
O
310
13
Figure 11.4
C NMR data for a mesoionic 1,3-oxathiolium-4-oxide compound.
11.7.3 Synthesis 11.7.3.1 Ring Synthesis of 1,3-Oxathioles and 1,3-Oxathiolanes An important method for the preparation of 1,3-oxathiolium salts has been published. Phenacyldithiocarbamates 311 can be desulfurized with a silver, mercury or copper salt to afford 2-amino-1,3-oxathiolium salt 312 (Scheme 11.100) [255].
NR2 S Ar
311
Scheme 11.100
NR2 O Ar
312
S O
Thermolysis of the bis-dithiocarbonates 313 results in loss of COS to afford the 1,3oxathiolane 314 in up to 90% yield (Scheme 11.101) [256].
O O
S SMe SMe S heat -COS R
O S
SMe SMe
313
Scheme 11.101
314
The 1,3-oxathiolane 2,2-dioxide 316 has been prepared by treatment of the diazosulfone 315 with BF3 (Scheme 11.102) [257]. Similarly, rhodium-catalyzed decomposition of a-diazoketones 318 in the presence of CS2 affords the 1,3-
974

Ph O S N2 BF3 O S O O 316
O O 315
S S
R1 R2
CS2
O N2 318
R1 R2
R3NCS
R1 R2
O S 319
NR3
317
Scheme 11.102
oxathiolane-2-thione 317 [258]. If the decomposition is carried out in the presence of an isothiocyanate then 2-imino derivatives 319 are formed [259]. The reaction of hydroxyethylthiocyanates 320 with a tertiary alcohol in sulfuric acid gives the 2-iminooxathiolane 321 (Scheme 11.103) [260].
OH R2 NCS R3
320
Scheme 11.103
R1OH
O S R2 R3
321
NR1
Routes to fully conjugated systems include the reaction of the phenacyl benzoate 322 with H2S and iodine to give the oxathiolium salt 323 in 88% yield (Scheme 11.104) [261].
Ph O O O Ph 322
Scheme 11.104
H2S, I2 Ph
O S
+
Ph I3
323
j975
The addition of diazomethane to an a-oxothioester 324 affords 4-alkylthio substituted 1,3-oxathioles 325 (Scheme 11.105) [262].
O S
R1 R2 S 324
O S
CH2N2
R1 R2 S
325
Scheme 11.105
The standard method of preparation of 1,3-oxathiolanes is to condense a carbonyl compound with 2-thioethanol. Several catalysts have been used for this reaction the most common is BF3Et2O [263]. More recently, other catalysts used for this reaction include triisopropyl triate [264], indium triate [265], NBS [266], tetrabutylammonium tribromide [267] and scandium triate [268]. A catalyst that is selective for aldehydes in the presence of acyclic ketones is LiBF4 [269]. A catalyst that is suitable for a,b-unsaturated ketones is an aminopropyl functionalized silica [270]. Dimethyl acetals can also be used in place of the carbonyl component for this reaction [271]. The iodonium salt 326 reacts with either carbon disulde or a thioketone to form 2-thione 1,3-oxathiolane derivative 327 (Scheme 11.106) [46].
S
_ I+ Ph MeO2C
O
R1
R2 R1
O S R2 327
CO2Me
326
Scheme 11.106
The phosphonate derivative 329 is prepared by the condensation of the a-haloaldehyde 328 with KSCN (Scheme 11.107) [272]. Acetylenic alcohols 330 also react with KSCN by a more complex course to give the 1,3-oxathiolane derivative 331 [273]. The standard method for the preparation of 2-imino-1,3-oxathioles 333 is to condense a phenacyl bromide with either a dithiocarbamate 332 (XSR) [274] or a thiourea 332 (XNMe2) (Scheme 11.108) [275]. Silyl enol ethers 334 and a-halosulfonyl bromides when treated with DBN afford 1,3-oxathiole 3,3-dioxide 335 (Scheme 11.109) [276].
976

(PriO)2 O P X 328 CHO KSCN O HN S O P (PriO)2
329
R2 R1 R2 HO KSCN CN O
R1 S NCS CN
NC R1 R2 330
331
Scheme 11.107
Ar1SO2
H N 332
X S
Ar2COCH2Br Ar1SO2
N S
Ar2
333
Scheme 11.108
Cl R1 R2 334
Scheme 11.109
OTMS
R3
SO2Br
R1 R2
R3
DBN
S O O 335
Treatment of the silyl derivative 336 with CsF generates a thiocarbonyl ylide that can then be trapped by addition of aldehydes to give 5-substituted 1,3-oxathiolanes 337 (Scheme 11.110) [277].
11.7.3.2 Ring Transformations of Heterocycles Leading to 1,3-Oxathiole Derivatives The 1,2,4-dithiazol-3-one 338 undergoes cycloaddition to ynamines 339 to give 2imino-1,3-oxathioles 340 (Scheme 11.111) [278]. Similarly, the 1,2,4-thiadiazol-3-one 341 reacts with enolates 342 to also give 2-imino-1,3-oxathioles 343 [279].
j977
1. CsF
Me3Si S Cl
O S 337
2. RCHO
336
Scheme 11.110
Ar Ar N 338 S S O 339
S N S O R NEt2
NEt2
340
Ph Cl N 341
Scheme 11.111
Ph
N H
O N O S R1 R2
N O
R1CH2COR2
342
343
The 1,4-oxathiane 344 undergoes rearrangement to the 2-acyl-1,3-oxathiolane 3oxide derivatives 345 and 346 on treatment with singlet oxygen (Scheme 11.112) [280].
R1 O O O S
R1 R2
O S 344
R1
R2 O O
O S
R2
345
346
Scheme 11.112
11.7.4 Reactivity of 1,3-Oxathioles 11.7.4.1 Reactions with Electrophiles Electrophilic substitution on the heterocyclic ring of 1,3-oxathioles is essentially unknown.
978

11.7.4.2 Reactions with Nucleophiles 1,3-Oxathiolium salts 347 react with NaN3 by attack at C2, followed by loss of nitrogen and rearrangement to give the 1,4,2-oxathiazine 348 (Scheme 11.113) [281].
S O 347
Scheme 11.113
+
Ph
NaN3 Ph
Ph N
S O Ph
348
11.7.4.3 Cycloaddition Reactions Mesoionic 1,3-oxathiolium-4-olates 349 undergo ready cycloadditions with alkene and alkyne dipolarophiles. Addition of 349 to CS2 or PhNCS proceeds by formation of a bicyclic adduct that then loses COS to give a new mesoionic system (350) (Scheme 11.114) [282].
O O O R1 O S
+
R1
S R1
R2
X R2
X O
R2
X = S, NPh 349
Scheme 11.114
350
11.7.5 Reactivity of 1,3-Oxathiolanes 11.7.5.1 Thermal Reactions Pyrolytic extrusion of CO2 from both 1,3-oxathiolan-2-ones and 5-ones affords thiiranes. 2-Imino-1,3-oxathiolanes 351 rearrange to the isomeric thiazolidinones 352 at 80 C where Ralkyl; where RPh an alternative pathway leads to the formation of RNCO and a thiirane (Scheme 11.115) [283]. 11.7.5.2 Reactions with Electrophiles Oxidation of 1,3-oxathiolanes to the corresponding 3-oxides is readily achieved in high yield using peroxyacetic acid [284]; mCPBA can also be used [285]. Asymmetric 3-oxidation using ButOOH/TiOPri4 and diethyl tartrate has been examined. The diastereoselectivity observed was moderate but the enantioselectivity observed was very poor [286].
j979
RN
S O
O R N
R = Ph or alkyl 351
Scheme 11.115
352
11.7.5.3 Reactions with Nucleophiles New catalysts for the efcient hydrolysis of 1,3-oxathiolanes to the corresponding aldehydes or ketones include H2O2/CH3CN [287], NaNO2/AcCl [288] and Amberlyst15/glyoxylic acid under solvent-free conditions [289]. A method that is selective for 1,3-oxathiolanes in the presence of 1,3-dioxolanes is NBS in aqueous acetone [290]. The 1,3-oxathiolan-2-one (353) reacts with secondary amines in toluene to afford, by loss of CO2, thioethylamines 354 [291], when the same reaction is performed in dioxan the thiopropyl carbamate is formed (Scheme 11.116) [292].
R2NH dioxan 355
Scheme 11.116
R 2N O
SH
S O 353
R2NH toluene
R 2N
SH
354
1,3-Oxathiolane-5-ones such as 356 can be deprotonated and alkylated with reactive electrophiles at C4 when RMe but not when RH [293].
O R 356 O S
11.7.5.4 Radical, Electrochemical Reactions 2-Substituted 1,3-oxathiolanes 357 can undergo reductive cleavage when treated with trimethylsilyl hydride. Reduction occurs at the C2S bond to give 358 (Scheme 11.117) [294]. 2-Substituted 1,3-oxathiolan-5-ones react in a similar way. They also undergo selective anodic uorination to give the 4-uoro derivatives [295]. 11.7.5.5 Ring Expansion 2-Substituted 1,3-oxathiolanes 357 react with carbenes to give ring-expanded 1,4oxathianes 359 via insertion into the C2S bond (Scheme 11.118) [296].
980

S O 357
Scheme 11.117
TMS3SiH
S 358
Si(TMS)3
S O
N2 + Et3Si CO2Et
O S
R SiEt3 SiEt3
357
Scheme 11.118
359
The titanium tetrachloride mediated reaction of a,b-unsaturated oxathiolanes 360 with styrene or a-methylstyrene gives the ring-expanded dihydrothiapyrans 361 (Scheme 11.119) [297].
R2 R3 S 361 R1 R4 Ph
O S
R3 R1 R2
R4
TiCl4
Ph
360
Scheme 11.119
11.7.6 Other Compounds of Interest
1,3-Oxathiolanes bearing a 2-propenyl, 2-furyl- or 2-phenyl group have been used as avorings [298]. Anti-viral activity has been claimed for the nucleoside analogue 362 [299].
NH2 F N HO O S 362 N O
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and Khan, A.T. (2002) Tetrahedron Letters, 43, 2843. Karimi, B. and Mamani, L. (2003) Synthesis, 2503. Yadav, J.S., Reddy, B.V.S., and Pandey, S.K. (2001) Synlett, 238. Kerverdo, S., Lizzani-Cuvelier, L., and Dunach, E. (2002) Tetrahedron, 58, 10455. Castro, P.P., Tikomirov, S., and Gutierrez, C.G. (1988) The Journal of Organic Chemistry, 53, 5179. Guseinov, F.I., Asadov, Kh.A., and Burangulova, R.N. (2002) Russian Journal of Organic Chemistry (English Translation), 38, 1216. Tromov, B.A., Skvortsov, Yu.M., Moshchevitina, E.I., Malkina, A.G., and Belskii, V.K. (1991) Zhurnal Organicheskoi Khimii, 27, 188. Hans, M. and Dehne, H. (1983) Die Pharmazie, 38, 441. Gutsu, Ya., Boy, L.V., Maiga, S.B., Inthapanya, P., and Barba, N.A. (1992) Bul Acad Stiinte Repub Mold, Stiinte Biol Chim., 56. Block, E., Aslam, M., Iyerand, R., and Hutchinson, J. (1984) The Journal of Organic Chemistry, 49, 3664. Hosomi, A., Hayashi, S., Hoashi, K., Kohra, S., and Tominaga, Y. (1987) Journal of the Chemical Society, Chemical Communications, 1442. Dibo, A., Stavaux, M., Lozach, N., and Hordvik, A. (1985) Acta Chemica Scandinavica. Series B: Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, 39, 103. Labbe, G., Buelens, J., Dehaen, W., Toppet, S., and Van Meervelt, L. (1994) Journal of the Chemical Society, Perkin Transactions 1, 1263. Cermola, F., De Lorenzo, F., Giordano, F., Graziano, M.L., Iesce, M.R., and Palumbo, G. (2000) Organic Letters, 2, 1205. Yonemoto, K., Honda, K., Shibuya, I., Tsuchiya, T., and Yasumoto, M. (1992) Bulletin of the Chemical Society of Japan, 65, 668. Gotthardt, H. and Opperman, M. (1985) Journal of the Chemical
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j989
12 Five-Membered Heterocycles with Three Heteroatoms: Triazoles

Larry Yet
12.1 1,2,3-Triazoles 12.1.1 Introduction
The chemistry of 1,2,3-triazoles is reviewed extensively elsewhere [1]. This chapter will focus on the general synthesis and reactivity of the monocyclic 1,2,3-triazole system with recent methods, which include solid-phase and microwave-assisted reactions.
12.1.2 General Reactivity 12.1.2.1 Relevant Physicochemical Data and NMR Data N-Unsubstituted 1,2,3-triazole can be shown as either 1H- or as 2H-triazoles since these two tautomeric forms are in equilibrium in the solution phase (Figure 12.1). In this chapter, for simplication, this type of compound will be represented as 1Htriazoles, independent of the predominant tautomer. In the gas phase, the 2Htautomer of the 1,2,3-triazole represents more than 99.9% of the equilibrium mixture [2]. 1H-1,2,3-Triazole is both a weak base (pKa 1.17) and a weak acid (pKa 9.40). The basicity of N-unsubstituted and N-methyl-1,2,3-triazoles in the gas phase, in solution, and in the solid state has been determined [3]. The 1 H and 13 C NMR spectra of the parent 1,2,3-triazole for the protons and carbons at the 4- and 5-positions are identical because the compound exists as both 1H- and 2H-triazoles in solution at room temperature (Table 12.1). Other 1 H and 13 C NMR data of the methyl group attached to the 1,2,3-triazole in the 1- and 2-positions are listed for comparison.
990
j 12 Five-Membered Heterocycles with Three Heteroatoms: Triazoles

4 5
N3 N N H
1
4 2 5
N3 NH N
2 1
1H-1,2,3-triazole stable, water-soluble, colorless crystals mp 120-121 C pKa = 9.40
2H-1,2,3-triazole
pKa = 1.17 of the protonated species

Figure 12.1 Tautomeric structures of 1,2,3-triazoles.
12.1.3 Relevant Natural and/or Useful Compounds
1,2,3-Triazoles are not present in natural products and are remarkably stable to metabolic transformations such as oxidation, reduction, and both basic and acidic hydrolysis. 1,2,3-Triazoles have found broad use in industrial applications such as dyes and brighteners for bers, corrosion inhibitors for many metals and alloys, light stabilizers for organic materials and polymers, and agrochemicals such as herbicides, fungicides, and antibacterial agents [1d]. They have been considered as an interesting component from the viewpoint of biological activity and are seen in many drugs such as potent HIV-inhibitors [6], antimicrobial agents [7], and selective b3-adrenergic receptor agonists [8]. Figure 12.2 shows the structures of b-lactam antibiotics tazobactam [9] and cefatrizine [10].
12.1.4 Synthesis of 1,2,3-Triazoles
The most important general approach to the synthesis of 1,2,3-triazoles involves the use of azide reagents. Azides that have been employed in these syntheses can be alkyl,
Table 12.1
H and 13 C NMR data (ppm) of 1,2,3-triazoles.
4 5
1 H NMR (DMSO-d6)
N 1 N N H
13 C NMR (DMSO-d6)
Reference
Reference
Substituents 1-Me 2-Me
H4 7.91 7.72 7.77
H5 7.91 8.08 7.77
[4] [4] [4]
C4 130.3 134.3 133.2
C5 130.3 125.5 133.2
[5] [5] [5]
12.1 1,2,3-Triazoles
j991
H O O S O N H CO2H
HO N N N
O NH2 N H O
H N
S S CO2H NH N N
tazobactam
cefatrizine
Figure 12.2 Structure of b-lactam antibiotics containing 1,2,3-triazole rings.
aryl, heteroaryl, acyl, alkoxycarbonyl and sulfonyl azides, trimethylsilyl azide, hydrazoic acid, and sodium azide. Azides can react with substituted alkynes and alkenes and with activated methylene compounds to yield various 1,2,3-triazoles.
12.1.4.1 1,3-Dipolar Cycloadditions of Alkynes with Azide Reagents 1,3-Dipolar cycloaddition of azides to alkynes is the most popular method for the syntheses of various 1,2,3-triazoles since it provides the desired product directly. A review on 1,2,3-triazole formation via 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition of acetylenes with azides under mild conditions has been published [11]. When unsymmetrical alkynes are used, two possible regioisomers are usually obtained. Isomers with the electronwithdrawing groups at the C4 position and the electron-donating groups at C5 are usually the major products. N-Unsubstituted-1,2,3-triazoles are prepared by direct addition of hydrazoic acid [12] or with azide ions [13] to alkynes, such as the reaction of a,b-acetylenic aldehydes 1 with sodium azide in dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) followed by hydrolysis to give 5-substituted-4-carbaldehyde-1,2,3-triazole derivatives 2 (Scheme 12.1) [14]. The major disadvantage of this method is that often thermal conditions are required for these reactions and that sodium azide can be explosive.
R 1. NaN3, DMSO 2. Hydrolysis (>98%) N N H 2 CHO N R = Ph, (CH2)nOTBS, (CH2)nOTHP n = 1, 3
R 1
O H
Scheme 12.1
The most prominent method employed for the synthesis of 1,2,3-triazoles is the addition of alkyl, aryl, and heteroaryl azides to alkynes. Azides can add to acetylene [15] and symmetrically substituted alkynes [16] to give only 4,5-unsubstitutedand 4,5-disubstituted-1,2,3-triazoles, respectively. Addition of azides to monosubstituted alkynes afford mixtures of 1,4- and 1,5-disubstituted 1H-1,2,3-triazoles 3 and 4, respectively (Table 12.2). The ratio of the two products depends on the structure of the monosubstituted alkyne; alkynes with the electron-withdrawing groups preferentially give products substituted at C4 like 3, while alkynes with electron-donating groups provide major products substituted at C5 like 4.
992

Table 12.2 Addition of azides to monosubstituted alkynes.
R2 R1 N3 + R2
N R1 3
N N
N R1 4
N N
Yield (%) R1 Ph Ph Bn CF2CFHCF3 CH2PO(OEt)2 4-Tol Benzotriazolylmethyl R2 Ph CO2Me CONHBn Bu CH2OH Bz Ph 3 43 88 65 37 30 60 40 4 52 12 22 58 69 11 60 Reference [17] [18] [19] [20] [21] [22] [23]
Recent advances in this area are the acceleration and regioselectivity of these azide additions to alkynes, which can sometimes be slow. Click chemistry is a recently coined term to denote a growing family of powerful chemical reactions that are based on spring-loaded energy-intensive substrates that can, under the right conditions, unload their energy to form stable products in high selectivity [24]. A microreview on copper(I)-catalyzed alkyneazide click cycloadditions from a mechanistic and synthetic perspective has been written [25]. A mini-review has been published on the 1,3-dipolar cycloadditions of azides and alkynes as a universal ligation tool in polymer and materials science [26]. A highlight has been published on the click reaction in the luminescent probing of metal ions and its implications on biolabeling techniques [27]. A perspective on the Cu(I)-catalyzed 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition of azides and alkynes in carbohydrate chemistry, highlighting developments in the preparation of simple glycoside and oligosaccharide mimetics, glyco-macrocycles, glycopeptides, glyco-clusters, and carbohydrate arrays has been reported [28]. A review titled Click chemistry Whats in a name? Triazole synthesis and beyond has been published [29]. A highlight on the copper-free azidealkyne cycloadditions with new insights and perspectives has been written [30]. Substituent effects in the 1,3dipolar cycloadditions of azides with alkenes and alkynes have been investigated with the high accuracy CBS-QB3 method [31]. For example, a high-yielding copper-catalyzed reaction, which involves the reaction of azides to terminal alkynes in the presence of copper(II) sulfate with ascorbic acid or sodium ascorbate, gave 1,4-disubstituted-1,2,3-triazoles 5 regardless of the group on the alkynes or azides (Scheme 12.2) [32]. The mechanism of the ligand-free Cu(I)catalyzed azidealkyne cycloaddition reaction has been proposed in a literature report [33]. Triazole-linked glycopeptides have been obtained by Cu(I)-catalyzed cycloadditions of either azide-functionalized glycosides and acetylenic amino acids
j993
CuSO45H2 O R N3 + R
1 2
R2
sodium ascorbate H2 O/t-BuOH (2 : 1) 25 C (84-94%)
N R1 5
N N
R 1 = CH 2Cbz, adamantyl, Ar, Bn R 2 = CH 2NEt2 , CO2 H, Ph, cholesterolyl, H N NH 2 NH
Scheme 12.2
or acetylenic glycosides and azide-containing amino acids in the presence of sodium ascorbate [34]. A highly efcient one-pot synthesis of 1,2,3-triazole-linked glycoconjugates involving a Cu(I)-catalyzed 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition as a key step has been reported [35]. Microwave irradiation has also become a recent method for the synthesis of 1,2,3triazoles under solvent-free conditions. For example, 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition of organic azides 6 with acetylenic amides 7 under solvent-free microwave irradiation produced N1-substituted-4C-carbamoyl-1,2,3-triazoles 8 (Scheme 12.3) [19]. Microwave irradiation allowed a substantial decrease in reaction times and offered greater simplicity in the purication step.
O ( )n 6 n = 1, 3 N3 + O microwave, 55 C (62-84%) Ph R N N N ( )n 8
Scheme 12.3
R 7 R = piperidyl, NHBn
Addition of azides to unsymmetrical disubstituted alkynes often yields mixtures of isomeric 1,2,3-triazoles. The relative ratios of the two products depend strongly on the nature of the substituents on the alkyne. A more recent example showed the 1,3dipolar cycloadditions of azido ester 10 with electron-decient alkynes 9 to give 1,4,5trisubstituted 1,2,3-triazoles 11 under mild conditions in water (Scheme 12.4) [36]. 1,3-Dipolar cycloaddition of tributyl(3,3,3-triuoro-1-propynyl)stannane (12) with
O R 9 EWG N3 H2O, 50 C R = H, Me, CO2Et EWG = CO2Me(or Et), CH2OSO2Ph (81-94%)
Scheme 12.4
OEt 10
EWG N N
R N 11 O OEt
994

phenyl azide gave the corresponding 1,2,3-triazole 13, which was a useful building block for further functionalization (Scheme 12.5) [37]. An interesting approach to prepare regiospecically 4,5-disubstituted-1,2,3-triazoles is the addition of bromomagnesium acetylides 15 to aryl azides 14 to yield 1,5-disubstituted-1,2,3-triazoles 16, which could be trapped with various electrophiles to form 1,4,5-trisubstituted 1,2,3triazoles 17 (Scheme 12.6) [38]. In addition, copper(I) iodide promoted reaction of alkyl azides and terminal alkynes in the presence of iodine monochloride led to a regiospecic synthesis of 5-iodo-1,4-disubstituted-1,2,3-triazole 18, which could be further elaborated to a range of 1,4,5-trisubstituted-1,2,3-triazole derivatives (Scheme 12.7) [39]. A series of 4,5-disubstituted-1,2,3-triazoles has been regiospecically prepared directly from propargyl halides and sodium azide via the Banert cascade [40].
PhN3 F3C 12
Scheme 12.5
SnBu3
CH(OMe)3 85 C (66%)
F3C Bu3Sn
Ph N N N 13
Ar
N3
+ R 15
MgBr
TH F, 5 0 C
Ar N N N R MgBr
Elec tr o phile s (45-95%) E
R N
14
Ar N N
R = Ph, n-C3 H7, n -C 5H 11, (EtO) 2CH

Scheme 12.6
16
17
I R1 N 3 + R2 CuI (1 equiv), Et3N ICl, THF, 25 C (34-81%) R1 = CF3CH 2, CHF2CF2CH, Bn, n-C 8H17 R 2 = Ph, n-C 4 H9, CO2allyl, CONHallyl
Scheme 12.7
R2
R1 N N N 18
Recently, metal-mediated methodologies have been published where 1,2,3-triazoles can be prepared regiospecically, with non-activated terminal alkynes and trimethylsilyl azide as the safe synthetic equivalent of the highly explosive hydrazoic acid or sodium azide. Various triazoles (19) were synthesized from non-activated terminal alkynes, allyl methyl carbonate, and trimethylsilyl azide (TMSN3) in a [3 2] cycloaddition with the use of a Pd(0)-Cu(I) bimetallic catalyst (Scheme 12.8) [41]. The
j995
Pd2(dba)3CHCl3 (2.5 mol%) R H + OCO2Me + TMSN3 CuCl(PPh3)2 (10 mol%) P(OPh)3 (20 mol%) EtOAc, 100 C (50-83%) 1. HRuCl(CO)(PPh3)2, toluene, R N N N reflux 2. O3; Me2S or t-BuMgCl, NiCl2(dppe), 19 toluene, 25 C (78-92%) R = t-Bu, Ph, Ar, n-C6H13, BnOCH2, 1-naphthyl
Scheme 12.8
R N N H N
20
allyl group of 19 is efciently deprotected by ruthenium-catalyzed isomerization followed by ozonolysis or by nickel-catalyzed Grignard addition reaction to give 4substituted triazoles 20 [42]. 2-Allyl-1,2,3-triazoles 21 have been prepared regiospecically by the palladium-catalyzed three-component coupling reaction of alkynes, allyl methyl carbonate, and trimethylsilyl azide (Scheme 12.9) [43]. Similarly, the fourcomponent coupling reactions of silylacetylenes, allyl carbonates, and trimethylsilyl azide catalyzed by a Pd(0)-Cu(I) bimetallic catalyst led to trisubstituted 1,2,3-triazoles [44]. The [3 2] cycloaddition of non-activated terminal alkynes and trimethylsilyl azide proceeded smoothly in the presence of copper catalyst and N,N-dimethylformamide and methanol to give the corresponding N-unsubstituted-1,2,3-triazoles in good to high yields [45]. [3 2]-Cycloadditions of alkyl azides with various unsymmetrical internal alkynes in the presence of Cp RuCl(PPh3)2 as catalyst in reuxing benzene led to 1,4,5-trisubstituted-1,2,3-triazoles, whereas alkyl phenyl and dialkyl acetylenes underwent cycloadditions to afford mixtures of regioisomeric 1,2,3triazoles and acyl-substituted internal alkynes reacted with complete regioselectivity [46]. In the presence of catalytic Cp RuCl(PPh3)2 or Cp RuCl(COD), primary and secondary azides reacted with a broad range of terminal alkynes containing a range of functionalities to produce selectively 1,5-disubstituted-1,2,3-triazoles [47]. 1,3-Dipolar
R1 R1 R
2
R2 N N
OCO2Me
TMSN3
Pd2(dba)3CHCl3 dppp, EtOAc, 100 C (29-66%)
N 21
R1 = H, Et, Et, i-Bu, Cy R = CN, CHO, CO2Me, SO2Ph, COMe

Scheme 12.9
2
996

cycloaddition of triuoromethylated propargylic alcohols with azides in the presence of catalytic [Cp RuCl2]n afforded exclusively 4-triuoromethyl-1,4,5-trisubstituted1,2,3-triazoles in high yields [48]. Copper-catalyzed [3 2] cycloaddition of azides to mono- and disubstituted alkynes with N-heterocyclic carbene ligands has been found to be a versatile and highly efcient reaction in which an internal alkyne was successfully shown to work for the rst time [49]. Azides can be prepared in situ from their respective halides and then reacted with their alkyne partners. 1,4-Disubstituted-1,2,3-triazoles 22 have been obtained in excellent yields by a convenient one-pot procedure from various aryl and alkyl iodides and terminal alkynes without isolation of potentially unstable organic azide intermediates (Scheme 12.10) [50]. The microwave-assisted synthesis of this version has been published by the same group [51]. A similar one-pot procedure uses benzyl and alkyl halides for generation of the azides with a series of terminal and disubstituted alkynes [52]. A one-pot sequential and cascade sequence involving the formation of allylic azides, from aryl/heteroaryl/vinyl halides, allene, and sodium azide, by palladium-catalyzed anion capture, and cyclization-anion capture, followed by 1,3dipolar cycloaddition provided various 1,2,3-triazoles in good yields [53]. A copper(I)catalyzed three-component reaction with amines, propargyl halides and azides in water affords 1-substituted-1H-1,2,3-triazol-4-ylmethyl)dialkylamines [54]. Terminal alkynes reacted with benzyl- or alkyl halides and sodium azide in the presence of a copper(I) catalyst immobilized on 3-aminopropyl- or 3-[(2-aminoethyl)amino]propylfunctionalized silica gel in ethanol to generate exclusively the corresponding regiospecic 1,4-disubstituted-1,2,3-triazoles in good to excellent yields [55]. An efcient and improved procedure for the preparation of aromatic azides from the corresponding aromatic amines 23 is accomplished under mild conditions with tert-butyl nitrite and trimethylsilyl azide and their application in the Cu(I)-catalyzed azidealkyne 1,3dipolar cycloaddition gives 1,4-disubstituted-1,2,3-triazoles 24 without the need for isolation of the azide intermediates (Scheme 12.11) [56].
Ar N N N 22
Ar-I
Conditions
R = alkyl, TMS, aryl, CH2 OAr, CH2 NEt 2
Condition A: NaN 3, L-Proline, CuSO 45H 2O, sodium ascorbate, Na2 CO 3, DMSO/H 2O (9 : 1), 60 C (66-98%) Condition B: NaN 3, tr ans -1,2-(methylamino)cyclohexane, CuI, sodium ascorbate, DMSO/H 2 O (5 : 1), 25 C (38-99%)
Scheme 12.10
Many recent reports have shown that polymer-supported azides and alkynes can be employed in the synthesis of 1,2,3-triazole derivatives. Functionalized 1,2,3-triazoles 26 and 27 were prepared by [3 2] cycloaddition of resin-bound a-azido esters 25 with terminal alkynes (Scheme 12.12) [57]. Polystyrene resin-bound azide 28 reacted
j997
t-BuONO, TMSN 3 , CH 3 CN; ArNH 2 23 Na ascorbate, aq. CuSO4 , alkyne (79 87%)
Scheme 12.11
N Ar 24
N N
R2 O O 25 N3 R1 1. R , DMA HO O
2
N N N R1
R2 HO O
N N N R1
2. TFA, CH 2Cl2 (4-27%)
26
Scheme 12.12
27
with disubstituted alkynes followed by acidic cleavage to give 1,2,3-triazoles 29 (Scheme 12.13) [58]. Regiospecic copper(I)-catalyzed 1,3-dipolar cycloadditions of resin-bound alkynes 30 to azides afforded solid-supported 1,2,3-triazoles 31, which were ligated further to give 1,4-substituted-1,2,3-triazole-peptide compounds (Scheme 12.14) [59]. Immobilized REM resin azides have provided a regioselective method for the preparation of 1,5-trisubstituted-1H-1,2,3-triazoles via a 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition of trimethylsilyl-propynoic acid [60]. A library of peptidotriazoles have been prepared by solid-phase peptide synthesis combined with a regiospecic copper (I)-catalyzed 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition between resin-bound alkynes and protected amino azides [61].
R2 N3 O 28 1. R1 R 2, DMF, 80-120 C HO 29 2. TFA, CH 2 Cl2 R 1 = H, Ph, CO 2Me, CHO, CH2 OH, TMS R 2 = H, Ph, CO 2Me, CH2 OH (17-58%) N N N R1
Scheme 12.13
CuI, R-N3, DIPEA (>95% conversion, 75-99% purity)
O N R N N 31
30
Scheme 12.14
998

There are published reports on the use of polymer-supported azide reagents in the 1,3-dipolar cycloadditions of alkynes. Different alkyl bromides reacted with Merrield resin supported ammonium azide (32) to give various alkyl azides, which were reacted with methyl propiolate to give 1,2,3-triazoles 33 in excellent yields (Scheme 12.15) [62]. The monomethyl ether of poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG)- or MeOPEG-bound azide 34 has been utilized in the 1,3-dipolar cycloadditions with various alkynes to afford regioisomeric mixtures of 35 and 36 (Scheme 12.16) [63]. The 1,2,3-triazoles could be cleaved with formic acid in dioxane in one example (R CO2Me). 1,3-Dipolar cycloaddition of poly(ethylene glycol)-supported azide with various dipolarophiles followed by acidic cleavage afforded 4- and 5-substituted-1,2,3triazoles [64].
MeO2C
R N3
R Br
N 3 32 DMA, 25 C, 72 h (35-98%)
CO2 Me DMA, 80 C, 24 h (73-100%)
N N N R 33
R = Bn, PhO(CH2 )2, (EtO) 2P(O)(CH 2) 2, 3-indolylethyl

Scheme 12.15
N3 34
R PhMe, reflux (93-98%; 57:43 to 87:13 ratio)
N N 35 R
N N
R = Ph, CO 2Me, (CH 2) nOH, CH 2X

Scheme 12.16
36
12.1.4.2 Reactions of a,b-Unsaturated Systems with Azide Reagents a,b-Unsaturated systems are good substrates for azide additions to prepare 1,2,3triazole derivatives. Frequently, the azides undergo addition to unactivated or activated alkenes with electron-withdrawing or electron-rich substituents, such as enamines, enamides, enol ethers, and ketene acetals, to give 4,5-dihydro-1H-1,2,3triazoles, which are unstable and by elimination of a stable fragment functional group aromatizes to 1,2,3-triazoles. Generally, the addition of azides to alkenes is regioselective and only one isomer is obtained. Several reports have been published on sodium azide additions to alkenes with strongly electron-withdrawing substituents to give N-unsubstituted-1,2,3-triazoles [65]. For example, tetrabutylammonium uoride-catalyzed [3 2] cycloaddition reactions of 2-aryl-1-cyano(or carbethoxy)-1-nitroethenes 37 with trimethysilyl azide under solvent-free conditions provided 4-aryl-5-cyano(or carbethoxy)-1H-1,2,3triazoles 38 in good to excellent yields under mild conditions (Scheme 12.17) [66a].
j999
Ar 37
NO2 CN (CO2 Et)
TMSN 3 , TBAF3H 2O solvent-free conditions (70-90%)
Ar (EtO2 C) NC
N N N H 38
Scheme 12.17
Similarly, nitroalkenes or vicinal acetoxy nitro derivatives underwent a clean reaction with sodium azide in hot dimethyl sulfoxide to give the corresponding 1,2,3-triazoles in good yield [66b]. There are reports of additions of azide reagents to enol ethers [67], vinyl acetates [68], a-acylphosphorus ylides [69], allenes [70], and alkenes with very strong electron-withdrawing groups like nitro and sulfonyl [71] to produce the corresponding 1,2,3-triazoles. There are several interesting reports on the additions of various azide additions to enamine-type alkenes to give 1,2,3-triazoles where the amine portion either becomes part of the product or is eliminated as a fragment via the unstable 4,5-dihydro-1H1,2,3-triazole intermediate. For example, aroyl-substituted ketene aminals 39 react with aryl azides to provide polysubstituted 1,2,3-triazoles 40 (Scheme 12.18) [72]. A series of 5-uoroalkylated 1H-1,2,3-triazoles 42 have been prepared in good yield by the regiospecic 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition reaction of (Z)-ethyl-3-uoroalkyl-3-pyrrolidinoacrylates 42 with aryl azides (Scheme 12.19) [73]. Benzyl azides also participated in these reactions but sodium carbonate was required to provide good yields of the triazoles. Condensation of enaminones 43 with mesyl azide (MsN3) gave 1,4,5trisubstituted-1,2,3-triazoles 44 (Scheme 12.20) [74]. A solid-phase version of this reaction has also been reported [75].
X H N N H O
X N3
Ar
dioxane, 80 C X = Cl, NO 2 (37-80%)
H 39
H N N
Ar N
N N
40
Scheme 12.18
EtO2C N Rf 41 CO2 Et ArN 3, 80 C (66-97%) Rf
R f = ClCF2 , BrCF 2, CF3 , Cl(CF2) 2CF2

Scheme 12.19
N N N Ar 42
1000

R 2HN O R1 43
Scheme 12.20
MsN 3 NaH CH3 CN (50-81%) R1 O
R2 N R 1 = OEt, Me N R 2 = Bn, n -Bu, n-decyl, Ph N 44
4-Acyl-1H-1,2,3-triazoles 46 have been formed from diethylaluminium azide and a,b-unsaturated ketones 45 by [3 2] cycloaddition of azide, followed by 1,5-hydride transfer to the b carbon of the triazoline side chain and fragmentation of the tertiary amino group (Scheme 12.21) [76].
R1 R1 Bn2 N O 45
Scheme 12.21
Et2AlN 3 R2 PhMe 25 C (10-41%)
O R2
N H 46
N N
R1 = i-Pr, Bn R2 = Me, Bn, i -Pr
12.1.4.3 Reactions of Azides and Hydrazines with Active Methylene Compounds Base-catalyzed condensation of azides with active methylene compounds, known as the Dimroth reaction, is a versatile method for the preparation of 1,2,3-triazoles regioselectively. The 5-position of the 1,2,3-triazole can be an alkyl, aryl, hydroxyl, alkoxycarbonyl, or an amino group depending on the functional group of the active methylene compound used. Various azides can react with 1,3-diketones, 3-oxoesters, and 3-oxoamides to give 4-carboxy-1,2,3-triazoles 47 in good yields (Table 12.3) [7779].
Table 12.3 Reactions of azides with active methylene compounds to give 4-carboxy-1,2,3-triazoles.
R1 N3 +
O R2
O R3
NaOEt, EtOH
R3 R2
O N N N R1 47
Yield (%) 83 89 80 Reference [77] [78] [79]
R1 4-O2NC6H4 3,5-Cl2C6H3CH2 2-O2N-4-ClC6H3
R2 Me Me Me
R3 Me OEt NHPh
Table 12.4 Reactions of organic azides with malonic esters and amides to give 1H-1,2,3-triazol-5-
j1001
ols.
R1 N3
O + R2
O R2
R2 NaOMe MeOH HO
O N N N R1 48
Yield (%) 88 75 72 Reference [80] [81] [82]
R1 Bn 4-pyridyl Ph
R2 OEt OEt NHPh
Furthermore, the base-catalyzed reaction of organic azides with malonic esters and malonamides gave the best synthesis of 1H-1,2,3-triazol-5-ols 48 with an alkyloxy(or aryloxy)carbonyl or carbamoyl functions at C4 (Table 12.4) [8082]. Similarly, reactions of azides under base-catalyzed conditions with acetonitrile derivatives yielded 1substituted-1H-1,2,3-triazol-5-amines 49 (Table 12.5) [8385]. There are also reports where activated acyl compounds can react with hydrazines instead of azides to give substituted 1,2,3-triazoles. For example, a-aminoacetophenones 50 react with hydrazines in acetic acid to give an efcient preparation of 2,4disubstituted-1,2,3-triazoles 51 (Scheme 12.22) [86]. Various phenacyl halides 52 react with excess tosyl hydrazide in reuxing methanol to provide 4-aryl-1-(ptoluenesulfonylamido)-1,2-3-triazoles 53 (Scheme 12.23) [87]. A general and efcient
Table 12.5 Reactions of organic azides with acetonitrile derivatives to give 1H-1,2,3-triazol-5-
amines.
R2 R1 N3 + R2 CN Base/Solvent H 2N
N N N R1 49
Yield (%) 29 84 48 84 55 Reference [83] [84] [84] [84] [85]
R1 PhSCH2 Bn Bn Bn 2-O2NC6H4
R2 2-FC6H4 Ph CN CONH2 CONH2
Base/solvent K2CO3/DMSO K2CO3/DMSO K2CO3/DMSO K2CO3/DMSO NaOEt/EtOH
1002

O NH 2 R
1
HOAc, CuCl (5 mol%) + R 2NHNH 2 ref lux, 2 h (41-75%) R1 = Cl, Br, OMe, F R2 = Me, Ph R1
R2 N N N
50
51
Scheme 12.22
O Ar 52
Scheme 12.23
TsNHNH 2 (3 equiv) Ar X MeOH, 65 C X = Cl, Br (33-48%)
N N N NHTs 53
method for the preparation of 2,4-diaryl-1,2,3-triazoles 55 from a-hydroxyacetophenones 54 and arylhydrazines has been reported (Scheme 12.24) [88].
O Ar1 R 54
Scheme 12.24
OH
Ar2 NHNH2 , CuCl2 HOAc, reflux (52-86%) R = H, Ph
Ar1 R
N N Ar 2 N 55
12.1.4.4 Oxidation/Cyclization of Hydrazones Oxidation of bis(hydrazones) 56 with manganese dioxide or mercury(II) oxide affords 4-aryl-1H-1,2,3-triazol-1-amines 57 as the only regioisomer (Scheme 12.25) [89]. However, other vicinal bis(hydrazones) have generated regioisomeric 1H-1,2,3triazoles [90, 91]. Unsymmetrical vicinal bis(arylsulfonylhydrazones) have been cyclized either with acid or base to give 1-(arylsulfonylamino)-1H-1,2,3-triazoles as a mixture of regioisomers [92].
NH2 N N NH2
Ar H 56
MnO2 or HgO (35-45%)
Ar H
N NH2 57
N N
Scheme 12.25
j1003
O N OBn 58
NH 2NH 2 MeOH 0 C
NH 2 N N OBn 59
CuSO 45H 2O pyridine 100 C (63%)
N OBn 60
N N
Scheme 12.26
Imine hydrazones can be cyclized in the presence of oxidants to give 1,2,3-triazole derivatives. Glyoxal O-benzyloxime hydrazone 59, which is generated in situ from the reaction of glyoxal O-benzyloxime 58 with excess hydrazine, afforded 1-(benzyloxy)1H-1,2,3-triazole (60) by oxidative cyclization (Scheme 12.26) [93]. Similarly, iodobenzene diacetate-mediated oxidation of hydrazones 61 furnished fused 1,2,3-triazoloheterocycles 62 (Scheme 12.27) [94]. a-Hydroxyimino hydrazones 63 undergo intramolecular cyclization with elimination of water to generate 2H-1,2,3triazole derivatives 64 in the presence of acetic anhydride or phosphorus pentachloride (Scheme 12.28) [95].
PhI(OAc)2 N N 61 R NH2 CH 2Cl2 (68-93%) N N N 62 R R = H, Me, Ph
Scheme 12.27
R1 R2
NHR 3 N N OH 63
Ac2O or PCl5 heat
R1 R2
N N R3 N 64
Scheme 12.28
12.1.4.5 Other Methods for Preparations of 1,2,3-Triazoles Several other recent methods for preparation of 1,2,3-triazoles do not fall into the above categories. Treatment of oxazolone 65 with iso-pentyl nitrite in the presence of acetic acid gives 1,2,3-triazole 66, a precursor to b-(N-1,2,3-triazolyl)-substituteda,b-unsaturated-a-amino acid derivatives (Scheme 12.29) [96]. 2-Aryl-2H,4H-imidazo[4,5-d][1,2,3]triazoles 68 have been prepared from the reaction of triethyl N-1ethyl-2-methyl-4-nitro-1H-imidazol-5-yl phosphoramidate (67) with aryl isocyanates (Scheme 12.30) [97]. N-(Uracil-6-yl)-S,S-diphenylsullimine (69) reacted with aryldiazonium salts to give arylsullimines 70, which were thermolyzed to the 1,2,3-
1004

O O N NH NC NC 65
Scheme 12.29
Ph iso-pentyl nitrite NH 2 HOAc, 25 C (65%)
O N N N N CN 66
Ph
NC
Me
Et N
N P(OEt)3
ArNCO MeCN (57-79%) Me
Et N N 68
N N
N NO2 67
N Ar
Scheme 12.30
O Me O N N Me ArN 2 Cl H O, DMF N SPh 2 2 THF, 5 C Me O N
O N N Me N
R PhMe, reflux - SPh 2 (86-98%) R = H, Me, OMe, Cl, NO 2 Me O N
O N N Me N N R
N SPh2
69
Scheme 12.31
70
71
triazolopyrimidine diones 71 in good yields (Scheme 12.31) [98]. Polystyrene-sulfonyl hydrazide resins 72 reacted with various amines to give regiospecically 1,4-disubstituted-1,2,3-triazoles 73 via traceless cleavage reactions (Scheme 12.32) [99]. Palladium-catalyzed synthesis of 1H-triazoles 75 from alkenyl bromides 74 and sodium azide in the presence of xantphos ligand has been reported (Scheme 12.33) [100]. A new one-pot procedure has been developed to synthesize 1-aryl- and 1-vinyl-1,2,3triazoles directly from boronic acids and alkynes, which avoids the need to isolate unstable azide intermediates [101].
O2 S R1 CHCl2 72 R2 NH2 MeOH 25 C (28-57%) R1
NHN
N R2 73
N N
Scheme 12.32
j1005
NaN 3, Pd2(dba)3 R 74 Br xantphos, dioxane or DMSO, 90-110 C R = Ph, Ar, 2-furyl, CH 2OBn (45-94%)
Scheme 12.33
N N N H 75
12.1.5 Reactions of 1,2,3-Triazoles 12.1.5.1 Reactions of Carbon of 1,2,3-Triazoles In general, the 1,2,3-triazole ring system is relatively resistant to both oxidation and reduction conditions but many synthetically useful reactions can still be achieved with this system. For example, lithiation of N-protected 1,2,3-triazoles is one of the most general methods for introduction of carbon or hetero substituents onto the C5 position of the ring. 1-Substituted-1,2,3-triazoles 76 react easily with n-butyllithium, lithium diisopropylamide (LDA), or with lithium tetramethylpiperidine (LTMP) to generate lithio species 77, which are quenched with various electrophiles to give 1,5disubstituted-1,2,3-triazoles 78 (Table 12.6) [93, 102, 103]. Low temperatures must be maintained, otherwise cycloreversion to the alkyne species can result. Alkyl, alcohol,
Table 12.6 Lithiation of 1H-1,2,3-triazoles and quenching with electrophiles.
N N N R1 76
R1 SEM SEM SEM SEM OBn OBn OBn OBn OBn OBn OBn Me Me Me Me
n -BuLi or LDA or LTMP THF, -78 C
Li
N R1 77
N N
electrophile THF
N N N R1 78
Reference [102] [102] [102] [102] [93] [93] [93] [93] [93] [93] [93] [103] [103] [103] [103]
R2 CH(OH)Ph Me Cl SPh Me CHO Cl Br SnBu3 CO2Me TMS Me CH(OH)Ph PhC(O) PhCOCH2
Electrophile PhCHO MeI Cl3CCCl3 PhSSPh MeI DMF Cl3CCCl3 Br2 Bu3SnCl ClCO2Me TMSCl MeI PhCHO PhCONMe2 PhCOCH2Br
Yield (%) 45 30 50 80 93 87 88 86 91 76 93 56 61 78 66
1006

halogen, sulfur, silicon, tin, aldehyde, and ester products can be formed from these reactions. The 2-(trimethylsilyl)ethoxymethyl (SEM) and benzyloxyl (OBn) N-protecting groups both stabilize the intermediate triazol-5-yllithium species by intramolecular coordination. The SEM group can be deprotected easily with dilute hydrochloric acid or with tetrabutylammonium uoride to give the 5-substituted1H-1,2,3-triazoles, while the Bn group can be deprotected with catalytic hydrogenation to give the corresponding 5-substituted-1H-1,2,3-triazol-1-ols. From Table 12.6, higher yields are generally obtained for the same type of reaction (Cl, Me) when the nitrogen was protected with the benzyloxy group [93]. Lithiation of 1-methyl-1H1,2,3-triazole with n-butyllithium or with LTMP followed by addition of electrophiles gives moderate yields of 5-alkyl- or 5-acyl-1-methyl-1,2,3-triazoles [103]. Bromine lithium exchange can be carried out on 4,5-dibromo-1-(methoxymethyl)-1H-1,2,3triazole with n-butyllithium and subsequent quenching with various electrophiles gives high yields of the corresponding 5-substituted-1,2,3-triazoles [104]. 1-(Benzyloxy)-1H-1,2,3-triazoles 79 have been lithiated followed by transmetalation to the zinc species 80, which undergoes Negishi cross-coupling with aryl iodides to generate 5-aryl-1,2,3-triazoles 81 (Scheme 12.34) [105].
ArI, DMF Pd(PPh 3)4 80 C (30-87%) Ar
N N N OBn 79
n -BuLi THF, -78 C
Li
N N
ZnI2
IZn
OBn
N N N OBn 80
N N N OBn 81
Scheme 12.34
Substitution of halogens by nucleophiles is possible in N-substituted-1,2,3-triazoles. Displacement of the chloro group in N-substituted-1,2,3-triazoles 82 by nucleophiles, such as cyanide, phenolates, arene, and furylthiolates, gave moderate to good yields of derivatives 83 (Table 12.7) [106109]. Heating 1-aryl-5-chloro-1H1,2,3-triazoles with hydrazine gave 5-substituted-1H-1,2,3-triazol-1,5-diamines, via the 5-hydrazinotriazole intermediates which spontaneously rearrange under the reaction conditions [110]. 5-Bromo-1-methyl-1H-1,2,3-triazole reacts with aniline to give the corresponding 5-anilino derivative [111].
12.1.5.2 Reactions of Nitrogen of 1,2,3-Triazoles 1H-1,2,3-Triazoles can be N-alkylated with alkyl halides in the presence of bases such as sodium alkoxide, sodium hydride, or sodium hydroxide to give mixtures of 1- and 2-alkylated-1H-1,2,3-triazoles [112]. Selectivity for alkylation at the 1-position has been achieved in the presence of silver or thallium salts of 1,2,3-triazoles on reaction with alkyl halides [113]. Reaction of 2-(trimethylsilyl)-2H-1,2,3-triazoles with primary alkyl halides afforded products of selective alkylation at N1 [103]. 1H-1,2,3-Triazoles can be N-acylated with acyl halides and anhydrides to give exclusively 1-acyl-1H-1,2,3triazoles; however, the acyl group can migrate to the 2-position on heating or on treatment with base [114].
Table 12.7
j1007
Nucleophilic displacement of 5-chloro-N-substituted-1,2,3-triazoles with nucleophiles.
R2 Cl
R2 N N N R1 82
R2 CO2Et CO2Et Ph CO2Et CO2Me CO2Me
nucleophile DMF, 80 C
Nuc
N R1 83
N N
R1 PMB PMB Ph Bn Bn PMB
Nucleophile NaCN 4-OMeC6H4SNa NaCN NaOPh S SNa
Nuc CN 4-OMeC6H4S CN OPh S S
Yield (%) 66 74 75 82 48 34
Reference [106] [106] [107] [108] [109] [109]
SNa
N-Arylation of 1,2,3-triazoles is possible with activated aryl halides. Activated aryl halides such as 1-uoro-2-nitrobenzene and 1-uoro-4-nitrobenzene with 1H-1,2, 3-triazoles afforded mixtures of the corresponding 1- and 2-nitrophenyl-1,2,3-triazoles [115, 116]. However, reactions with even more activated halides such as 1-uoro-2,4-dinitrobenzene and 2-chloro(or uoro)-1,3,5-trinitrobenzene provided only 1-substituted-1H-1,2,3-triazoles 84 (Scheme 12.35) [116]. The copper-catalyzed arylation of 1,2,3-triazole with iodobenzene proved to be problematic as competitive N-1/N-2 arylation products were observed [117]. Efcient post-triazole regioselective N-2 arylation to give 86 has been developed from C4, C5 disubstituted-1,2,3-NHtriazoles 85 (Scheme 12.36) [118].
N N N NO2 DMF or DMSO (58-96%) NO2 84 O2 N NO2
N H
N N
O2 N + (NO2 ,F) Cl O2 N
Scheme 12.35
1H-1,2,3-Triazoles can also N-substituted with heteroatoms. For example, 4,5diphenyl-1H-1,2,3-triazole has been aminated with hydroxylamine-O-sulfonic acid to yield mixtures of N-aminotriazoles substituted in the 1- and 2-positions [119]. 1H1,2,3-Triazoles can be oxidized by peracids such as 3-chloroperoxybenzoic acid and hydrogen peroxide to give 1H-1,2,3-triazol-1-ols [92, 120], which are also obtained by catalytic hydrogenation of 5-substituted-1-(benzyloxy)-1H-1,2,3-triazoles [92, 121].
1008

ArF or ArCl, base or R1 R2 N 85 ArB(OH)2 , Cu(OAc) 2 (20 mol%) N NH O 2, 1 atm, 50 C, 12 h or ArI, CuCl (10 mol%), L-proline (20 mol%), 110C, 24 h (or microwave, 160 C, 30 min) (50-95%)
Scheme 12.36
R1 R2
N N Ar N 86
12.1.5.3 Electrophilic Reactions of 1,2,3-Triazoles Halogenations are the most common type of electrophilic reactions of 1,2,3-triazoles. For example, 1H-1,2,3-triazole reacts with bromine to afford 4,5-dibromo-1H1,2,3-triazoles (87) in almost quantitative yield (Scheme 12.37) [122]. 4-Bromoand 5-bromo-1H-1,2,3-triazoles are obtained indirectly by bromination of a triazole with a protecting group at N1 [123]. In general, most halogens are introduced into the carbons of the ring system by a lithiation/electrophilic sequence (Section 12.1.5.1). Direct nitration of 1H-1,2,3-triazole is not possible. Nitration of 1-phenyl and 4-phenyl-1H-1,2,3-triazole was also unsuccessful as nitration occured only on the phenyl ring [124]. However, nitration of 2-methyl-2H-1,2,3-triazole (88) with a mixture of fuming nitric acid and concentrated sulfuric acid afforded 2-methyl-4nitro-2H-1,2,3-triazole (89), which can be nitrated further to 90 under more vigorous conditions (Scheme 12.38) [125].
N N N H
Br Br 2, H2 O (97%) Br N H
N N
87
Scheme 12.37
N HNO3 , H 2SO4 N Me 25 C, 3 h N 88
Scheme 12.38
O2 N
N N Me N 89
HNO3 , H 2SO 4 100 C, 10 h (97%)
O2 N O2 N
(98%)
N N Me N 90
12.2 Benzotriazole
j1009
12.2 Benzotriazole 12.2.1 Introduction 12.2.2 General Reactivity 12.2.2.1 Relevant Physicochemical Data and NMR Data The parent benzotriazole is a weak base with a pKa of 8.2, which is a stronger NH acid than indazole, benzimidazole, or 1,2,3-triazole (Figure 12.3). The 1-substituted 1Hbenzotriazole is remarkably stable to strong acid and bases and to oxidative and reductive conditions. The two tautomeric forms of benzotriazole (Figure 12.4) are in equilibrium, but 1H-benzotriazole is the predominant species (99.9%) in both the gas and solution phases [2]. The 1 H and 13 C NMR spectra of the parent benzotriazole for the protons and carbons at the 4-/7- and 5-/6-positions are identical because benzotriazole undergoes rapid proton exchange between the tautomeric forms at room temperature (Table 12.8). Other 1 H and 13 C NMR data of the methyl group attached to the benzotriazole in the 1- and 2- positions are listed for comparison. 12.2.3 Synthesis of Benzotriazoles 12.2.3.1 Synthesis by Ring-Closure Reactions Diazotization of benzene-1,2-diamine derivatives is the most common synthetic route to 1-substituted benzotriazoles. Diazotization is mostly commonly performed with nitrous acid, generated in situ from sodium nitrite and a mineral acid source such as nitric, sulfuric, or acetic acids. A range of various 1-substituted benzotriazoles 92 can be prepared from the corresponding benzene-1,2-diamine derivatives 91 (Table 12.9).
N acid pKa 8.2 for proton loss very weak Bronsted base (pKa for proton addition) Lewis base of appreciable strength non-volatile, crystalline, odorless, nontoxic almost insoluble in water, soluble in sodium carbonate solution
N H
Chemical Stability of Benzotriazole Ring System N Stable: thermally to 400 C to hot strong sulfuric acid to fused potassium hydroxide to oxidation to reduction
N N R
Figure 12.3 Physical and chemical properties of the parent and 1-substituted 1H-benzotriazole.
1010

2 1 N
N
1
N H
2 NH
1H-benzotriazole
2H-benzotriazole
Figure 12.4 Tautomerisim in benzotriazoles.
Table 12.8
H and 13 C NMR data (ppm) of benzotriazoles.
4 5 6 7
Substituents
1
1 N N H
13
H NMR (DMSO-d6) H5 7.44 7.47 7.34 H6 7.44 7.47 7.34 H7 8.00 7.36 7.85 Reference [126] [127] [127]
C NMR (DMSO-d6) C5 130.3 123.4 125.9 C6 130.3 126.8 125.9 C7 130.3 108.8 117.5
Reference
1-Me 2-Me
H4 8.00 8.02 7.85
C4 130.3 119.3 117.5
[128] [129] [129]
1-Substituted benzotriazoles can be prepared from various azides with a benzyne intermediate generated in situ from 2-aminobenzoic acid (Table 12.10). 1-Chloro-2nitrobenzenes 93 react with hydrazine to yield benzotriazol-1-ols 95 via the 2nitrophenylhydrazines 94 (Table 12.11). The polymer-supported synthesis versions of benzotriazol-1-ols has also been published [141, 142]. These benzotriazol-1-ols can be readily deoxygenated to their NH derivatives by reductive cleavage with either phosphorus trichloride or samarium(II) iodide [142]. Various substituted benzotriaTable 12.9 Diazotization of benzene-1,2-diamine derivatives to give 1-substituted benzotriazoles.
NH 2 R2 91
R1 H Me Ac CO2Et SO2Ph Benzotriazol-2-yl
NaNO2 , HCl or H2 SO4 or HOAc, 0 C
NHR1
R2
N N 1 92 R
Yield (%) 81 83 63 68 100 63 Reference [130] [131] [132] [133] [134] [135]
R2 H 5,6-(NO2)2 5-6-Me2 7-Cl-4-OEt-5-CO2Me 5-Me H
12.2 Benzotriazole
Table 12.10 Synthesis of 1-substituted benzotriazoles from azides and a benzyne intermediate.
j1011
CO 2H NH2
BuONO
RN3
N N R
Reference [136] [137] [137] [137] [137] [138]
R Ph 4-O2NC6H4 Bz SO2Ph 4-OMeC6H4CO 1-Naphthalenyl
Yield (%) 52 62 63 52 60 75
Table 12.11 Benzotriazol-1-ols from 1-chloro-2-nitrobenzenes and hydrazines.
Cl R 93 NO 2
NH 2NH2 EtOH reflux 94 R
NHNH2 NO 2
- H 2O
R 95
N N OH
R H 4,5,6-Cl3 6-CF3 6-OMe 6-CONH2 6-SO2NHBn
Yield (%) 90 67 90 6 39 96
Reference [139] [139] [140] [140] [140] [135]
zoles 97 have been prepared by the [3 2] cycloaddition of azides to benzynes generated from aryl triates 96 and cesium uoride (Scheme 12.39) [143]. 2-Substituted benzotriazoles can be prepared by several methods. For example, 2aminoazobenzenes 98 can be converted into their 2-aryl-2H-benzotriazoles 99
TMS Z OTf 96
Scheme 12.39
RN 3, CsF CH 3CN, 25 C (20100%) R = Ph, Ar, Bn, alkyl Z 97
N N R
1012

by oxidation with copper(II) sulfate in reuxing pyridine [144], copper(II) acetate in air [145], or by reuxing the azo compound in thionyl chloride (Scheme 12.40) [145a]. 2-Aryl-2H-benzotriazoles 101 can be prepared directly by reaction of 1-halo(or nitro)-2-nitrobenzenes 100 with an excess of an arylhydrazine (Scheme 12.41) [146].
CuSO 4, pyridine, reflux N R 98
Scheme 12.40
Ar
or Cu(OAc)2 , air, DMF, reflux or SOCl2, PhH, reflux R 99
N N
N Ar
NH2
X R 100 NO2
ArNHNH2 , heat
N N 101
N Ar
X = Cl, Br, NO2

Scheme 12.41
12.2.4 Reactions of Benzotriazoles
The growing applications of benzotriazole methodology as a versatile synthetic tool have been reviewed extensively [147]. Practically all the chemistry occurs on the N1position of the benzotriazole. The benzotriazole group conveys multiple activating inuences such as a leaving group, proton activator, ambident anion directing group, cation stabilizer, radical precursor, and anion precursor. The benzotriazole group can also easily be eliminated by radical-type reactions, by hydrolysis, by palladiumcatalyzed SN20 substitution, and by reductive metal reductive reactions. This section will not describe the chemistry needed to give the benzotriazole derivatives; however, the intermediates of these substitution reactions will be used to explain the myriad of useful synthetic reactions.
12.2.4.1 Acylation of 1-Benzotriazoles and Benzotriazole Methodology The classical preparation of N-acylbenzotriazoles uses the corresponding acid chlorides (Table 12.12) [148]. More recently, two methods have been developed for the preparation of N-acylbenzotriazoles directly from carboxylic acid without the necessity of isolating the acid chlorides. Carboxylic acids are converted into the mixed carboxylic sulfonic anhydride, which is then attack by the benzotriazole anion with methanesulfonylbenzotriazole as the reagent [149]. Treatment of carboxylic acids
12.2 Benzotriazole
Table 12.12 Synthesis of N-acylbenzotriazoles.
j1013
Acyl Reagent
Benzotriazole Reagent
Base
N N R
N O
Acyl reagent RCOCl RCO2H RCO2H/SOCl2 CO/iodonium salts
Benzotriazole reagent BtH BtSO2Me BtH (4 equiv) BtH
Reference [148] [149] [150] [151]
with thionyl chloride in the presence of excess benzotriazole provided N-acylbenzotriazoles in high yields [150]. N-Acylbenzotriazoles can be synthesized by palladiumcatalyzed carbonylation of benzotriazole and hypervalent iodonium salts [151]. N-Acylbenzotriazoles are useful intermediates in several synthetically valuable reactions (Table 12.13) [152]. N-Acylbenzotriazoles can react with ammonia and primary and secondary amines to give high yields of their respective amides [149]. OAlkyl, N-alkyl, and O,N-dialkylhydroxamic acids have been synthesized from Nacylbenzotriazoles [153]. C-Acylation of N-acylbenzotriazoles with furan, thiophene, pyrrole, and indole under FriedelCrafts conditions gave products in high yields [154]. b-Diketones have been prepared from monoketones and N-acylbenzotriazoles in the
Table 12.13 Benzotriazole-mediated methodology of N-acylbenzotriazoles.
N N O
Reactants
N R
Products Amides (primary, secondary, tertiary) O-Alkyl, N-alkyl, O,N-dialkylhydroxamic acids C2-acylated heterocycles b-Diketones a-Substituted b-ketonitriles b-Ketosulfones b-Ketoesters/b-diketones Ketones Acyl azides Aroylindoles
Reference [149] [153] [154] [155] [156] [157] [158] [159] [160] [161]
Amines (ammonia, primary, secondary) R1NHOR 2 HCl Five-membered heterocycles Cyclic and acyclic ketones Nitriles (primary, secondary) Sulfones Acetoacetic esters Grignards/heteroaryllithiums Sodium azide Indoles
1014

presence of base [155]. a-Substituted b-ketonitriles have been synthesized from N-acylbenzotriazoles with primary and secondary alkyl nitriles [156]. C-Acylation of sulfones with N-benzotriazoles affords b-keto sulfones [157]. b-Ketoesters and b-diketones have been prepared by an acylative-deacylative sequence [158]. Stable and easily accessible N-acylbenzotriazoles, derived from various aliphatic, unsaturated, (hetero)aromatic, and N-protected-R-amino carboxylic acids, have been reacted with Grignard and heteroaryllithium reagents to afford the corresponding ketones [159]. A general synthesis of acyl azides from the corresponding N-acyl benzotriazoles have been described [160]. Stable and easily accessible N-aroylbenzotriazoles react with indoles in the presence of a base to afford the corresponding Naroylindoles [161].
12.2.4.2 Benzotriazole-Mediated Imidoylation N-(Imidoyl)benzotriazoles have found synthetic applications in the syntheses of various substituted guanidines. For example, benzotriazole-1-carboxamidinium tosylate (102) was found to be an efcient reagent for the synthesis of mono- and disubstituted guanidines 103 in moderate to good yields and offers advantages over previous procedures (Table 12.14) [162]. Introduction of Boc groups on both nitrogens of the amidine moiety and nitro or chloro group on the benzotriazole enhances the ability of the benzotriazole moiety as a leaving group [163]. Bis(benzotriazolyl) carboximidamide (104) has been developed as a new guanylating agent for the synthesis of tri- and tetrasubstituted guandines 105 [163, 164]. Benzotriazolyl carboximidoyl chlorides (106) are stable, colorless, and conveniently handled reagents for the synthesis of unsymmetrical guanidines 107 [165]. Polysubstituted acylguanidines and guanylureas 109 [166] have been prepared from N-acyl-N,Ndisubstituted benzotriazolyl carboximidates 108.
Table 12.14 Synthesis of substituted guanidines with various benzotriazole imidates.
Benzotriazole imidate
Reagents
Products
Reference
NH2 Bt NH 2 NH Bt Bt NR 1 Bt R1 Bt Cl O N
OTs
102
R1R2NH
NH H2 N NR1 R2 NH R 2 R1 N NR3 R 4 105 NR1 R 2R 3N O NR 4R 5

[163, 164]
103
[162]
104
R1R2NH, R3R4NH
106
R2R3NH, R4R5NH
107
[165]
NR2 R3
108
R4R5NH
R1 R R N
4 5
N NR R
2 3
109
[166]
R 1 = aryl, alkyl, NHAr
12.2 Benzotriazole
j1015
R Bt NR1R2 110 Bt
R N H
O R Bt
R1 OR 2 112 Bt
R1 SR2 113
111
Figure 12.5 Structures of amino- (110), amido- (111), alkoxy- (112), and alkylthio- (113) methylbenzotriazoles [167].
12.2.4.3 Benzotriazole-Mediated Amino-, Amido-, Alkoxy-, and Alkylthio-Alkylations A very detailed recent review describes extensively the synthesis and the broad utility of aminomethylbenzotriazoles 110, amidomethylbenzotriazoles 111, alkoxymethylbenzotriazoles 112, and alkylthiomethylbenzotriazoles 113 (Figure 12.5) and so this chemistry will not be presented here [167]. 12.2.5 Benzotriazole-Containing Reagents
Substituents located in the N1 position of 1,2,3-benzotriazoles have become useful reagents in various reactions (Table 12.15). 1-Hydroxybenzotriazole (114) is a useful co-reagent in peptide coupling reactions in the activation of carboxylic acids [168]. Aminium-based 115 [169] and phosphonium-based 116 [170] benzotriazoles are currently utilized as peptide coupling reagents. 1-Aminobenzotriazole (117) is a useful reagent in the generation of benzyne intermediate, which can be trapped with various dienes [171]. 1-Cyanobenzotriazole (118) has been found to participate in electrophilic cyanations of sp2 and sp carbanions [172]. 1H-Benzotriazole-1-yl methanesulfonate (119) has been explored as a regioselective N-mesylating reagent [173]. Reagent 119 mesylated molecules containing both primary and secondary amines on the primary amino position and mesylation occurred on the amino group in molecules containing both amino and hydroxy groups. 1H-Benzotriazole-1-yl alkyl carbonates (120) are convenient and inexpensive coupling agents in the preparation of active esters for the synthesis of amides [174]. A general and efcient route to thionoesters via thionoacyl nitrobenzotriazoles 121 has been reported [175]. The Vilsmeier-type reagent 122 with b-enaminonitriles provides a regioselective route to the preparation of nicotinonitriles [176] and was employed in the direct and efcient synthesis of dimethylformamidrazones from hydrazines [177]. 1-(Chloromethyl)benzotriazole reacted with sodium dialkyl phosphites to give dialkyl-(1-benzotriazolmethyl)phosphonates 123, which are potential HornerEmmons reagents [178] for the stereoselective preparation of (E)-1-(1alkenyl)benzotriazoles [179]. 2-Benzotriazolyl-1,3-dioxolane (124) has been utilized as a novel formyl cation equivalent [180]. The novel three-carbon synthon 1-(1H-1,2,3benzotriazol-1-yl)-3-chloroacetone (125) has been used for the synthesis of benzothiazoles, pyrido[1,2-a]indoles, styryl-substituted indolizines, and imidazo[1,2-a]pyridines [181]. Various functionalized N-allylamines and N-allylsulfonamides have been synthesized by Pd(II)-catalyzed intermolecular amination of the corresponding N-allylbenzotriazoles 126 [182]. S-(1H-1,2,3-Benzotriazol-1-ylmethyl)-O-ethylcarbo-
1016

Table 12.15 Synthetic utility of 1-substituted benzotriazole reagents.
N N N R
R OH Number 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 Synthetic utility Co-reagent in peptide coupling Peptide coupling agent Peptide coupling agent Benzyne intermediate Electrophilic cyanations N-Mesylating reagent Synthesis of active esters Synthesis of thioesters Vilsmeier-type reagent HornerEmmons reagent Formyl cation equivalent Three-carbon synthon N-Allylating reagent Benzotriazolylmethyl radical One-carbon synthon Sulfonylating reagents Thioacylating reagents Mosher-Bt reagent Formaldehyde generation Carbamoyl chloride reagent Reference [168] [169] [170] [171] [172] [173] [174] [175] [176, 177] [178, 179] [180] [181] [182] [183] [184] [185] [186] [187] [188] [189]
CHNR2 X OP(NHR 2)3 X

NH2 CN OMs OCO2R C(S)R
CH=NMe2Cl
CH2P(O)(OR)2 O
O CH2C(O)CH2Cl CHRCH CH2 CH2SC(S)OEt CH2TMS SO2R C(S)X X R, OR, SR, HetNH PhC(OCH3)(CF3)C(O)) CH2OH CONH2
nodithioate (127) has been used to generate the benzotriazolylmethyl radical, which was trapped by various olens [183]. 1-(Trimethylsilylmethyl)benzotriazole (128) has been utilized as a one-carbon synthon in the conversion of alkyl and aryl carboxylic acids into their corresponding homologated acids or esters [184]. NAlkane-, N-arene-, and N-heteroenesulfonylbenzenetriazoles 129 have been exploited as efcient sulfonylating agents [185]. Several benzotriazole sulfur reagents 130 have been prepared and used for thioacylations, thiocarbamoylations, alkyl/ alkoxythioacylations, and aryl/alkylthioacylations [186]. Benzotriazole of 3,3,3-triuoro-2-methoxy-2-phenylpropionic acid (131) reacted with water-soluble amino acids and peptides in an acetonitrile/water (2 : 1) mixture to give the corresponding Mosher derivative in quantitative yield [187]. Anionic in situ generation of formaldehyde from benzotriazolylmethanol 132 has proved to be a very useful and versatile tool in synthesis [188]. Carbamoyl-1H-benzotriazole 133, an effective carbamoyl
j1017
chloride substitute, and a range of its analogs have been synthesized in good yields in two very simple steps from 1,2-diaminobenzene [189].
12.3 1,2,4-Triazoles 12.3.1 Introduction
The chemistry of 1,2,4-triazoles is extensively reviewed elsewhere [190]. A comprehensive review on the chemistry of mercapto- and thione- substituted 1,2,4-triazoles and their utility in heterocyclic synthesis has been published [191]. This section will focus on methods for the synthesis of the monocyclic 1,2,4-triazole system, including solid-phase and microwave-assisted reactions.
12.3.2 General Reactivity 12.3.2.1 Relevant Physicochemical Data and NMR Data The parent 1,2,4-triazole consists of a ve-membered aromatic ring containing three nitrogen atoms, two of which are adjacent; it is a stable, water-soluble solid. Two tautomeric forms, 1H-tautomer and 4H-tautomer, can be envisaged (Figure 12.6). Theoretical and analytical methods show that the 1H-tautomer is the preferred structure. Every carbon atom in 1,2,4-triazole is linked to two nitrogen atoms and, thus, this ring system is electron decient. The ring is deactivated towards electrophilic attack so nitration and other reactions at carbon typical of aromatic chemistry do not apply to the parent compound. However, electrophilic attack at nitrogen is found in abundance in the literature and this will be discussed later. The parent compound has a pKa of 10.26 and so alkali metal salts form readily at the N1 position. The pKa of the protonated species is 2.19 and the weakly basic nature allows electrophilic attack at the N4 position in 1-substituted-1,2,4-triazoles. The 1 H NMR spectrum of the parent 1,2,4-triazole in HMPT is temperature dependent; the H3 and H5 protons show one broad singlet at slightly above or below room temperature due to the rapid proton exchange between the tautomeric forms
4 5
N N H
1
HN
2 5 1
N2
1H-tautomer stable, water-soluble, colorless crystals mp 120-121 C pKa = 10.26 pKa = 2.19 of the protonated species
Figure 12.6 Tautomerism of 1,2,4-triazoles.
4H-tautomer
1018

Table 12.16
1
H and 13 C NMR data (ppm) of 1,2,4-triazole.
N 5 N H
3 N
H NMR (HMPT) H5 8.03 8.17 8.85
13
C NMR (CD3OD-d4) C5 147.4
Temperature ( C) 37 10 34
H3 8.03 8.17 7.92
C3 147.4
(Table 12.16) [192]. However, at 34 C, the H3 protons and H5 protons are observed separately. The 13 C NMR spectrum shows a single peak for the parent triazole.
1,2,4-Triazoles have several applications in analytical chemistry, in industrial, and in molecular recognition processes [190d,190f ]. The 1,2,4-triazole ring is also a component of a wide range of biologically active pharmaceutical products. For example, rizatriptan benzoate, marketed as Maxalt, was launched in 1998 by Merck & Co. as an antimigraine medication (Figure 12.7) [193]. Voriconazole is sold as Vfend by Pzer for treatment of fungal infections [194]. Aprepitant is sold as Emend for the treatment of chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting [195].
12.3.4 Synthesis of 1,2,4-Triazoles 12.3.4.1 Reactions of Acylhydrazines with Various Nitrogen-Containing Reagents One of the most common methods of preparing 1,2,4-triazoles is the reaction of acylhydrazines with various nitrogen-containing reagents. For example, reactions of
O N N NMe 2 N H (Maxalt TM ) N N CH 3 F OH N N CF3 F voriconazole (Vfend TM) Pfizer F aprepitant (Emend TM ) Merck & Co. HN NH N N O O Me CF 3
N F
rizatriptan benzoate Merck & Co.
Figure 12.7 Some biologically active pharmaceutical products that contain a 1,2,4-triazole ring.
j1019
acylhydrazines with isothiocyanates or isocyanates to give 1,2,4-triazoles can be seen in the following examples. Acylhydrazines 134 and isothiocyanates 135 afforded 1,2,4-triazole-3-thiones 136, which were intercepted by alkyl halides to give substituted 3-thio-1,2,4-triazoles 137 (Scheme 12.42) [196]. Solid-supported acylhydrazines 138 react with isocyanates or isothiocyanates followed by base-induced cyclization/ cleavage to provide 1,2,4-trisubstituted urazoles and thiourazoles 139 (Scheme 12.43) [197]. A traceless liquid-phase synthesis of 3-alkylamino-4,5-disubstituted-1,2,4-triazoles on poly(ethylene glycol)-supported thioureas and acylhydrazines has been reported [198].
O R1 N H 134
Scheme 12.42
NH 2
R2
N=C=S 135
THF
N NH R1 N S R2
R 3 X, Et3N CH 2Cl2 (45-95%)
N N R1 N R2 137 SR3
136
O O 138
Scheme 12.43
R1 N R1 N H 1. R 2 NCX, ClCH 2CH2 Cl (X = O,S) 2. Et3N, PhMe or KO t-Bu, THF (18-44%)
R1 R
O N R2
N 1N
X 139 X = O,S
Acylhydrazines can also be used in conjunction with substituted imidates to give 1,2,4-triazole derivatives. The three-component condensation of acylhydrazines in the presence of S-methyl isothioamide hydroiodide 140, silica gel, and ammonium acetate under microwave irradiation afforded 1,2,4-triazoles 141 in good yields (Scheme 12.44) [199]. Acylhydrazines 142 react with imidates 143 to yield 1,2,4triazoles 144 (Scheme 12.45) [200].
N N R
1
O R1
NHNH 2
NH2 I
R2
silica gel, NH 4OAc
SMe 140
Et3N, microwave (900 W) (66-91%)

R1 = Me, Ar R 2 = Me, Ph
N H
R2
141
Scheme 12.44
Other non-traditional reactions of acylhydrazines with nitrogen reagents for the synthesis of 1,2,4-triazoles are also available. An efcient one-pot, three-component synthesis of substituted 1,2,4-triazoles 146 has been prepared from primary acylhy-
1020

NHHCl
NHNH 2
O
EtO
( )n
R2 N
143
R3 R1 O
HN N
N ( )n
NR2 R3
i-PrOH, Et3 N, 65 C
142
144
Scheme 12.45
drazines, dimethylamino acetals 145, and amines (Scheme 12.46) [201]. 1,3-Benzoxazine 147 reacts with acylhydrazines in reuxing methanol to give 1,2,4-triazoles 148 (Scheme 12.47) [202]. Diethoxyphosphinyl acetic acylhydrazine 150 was found to be a unique reagent that provided a convenient and efcient process to prepare fused [5,5]-, [5,6]-, and [5,7]-3-[(E)-2-(arylvinyl)]-1,2,4-triazoles 151 from aldehydes and alkoxyimines 149 (Scheme 12.48) [203]. A convenient and efcient one-step, base-catalyzed microwave-assisted synthesis of 3,5-disubstituted-1,2,4-triazoles by condensation of a nitrile and acyl hydrazide has been reported [204].
CH3CN, 50 C (9-87%) R 1 = alkyl, aryl R 2 = alkyl, Bn, aryl R 3 = Me, H
O R1 NHNH 2 + R 2 NH2 +
OMe Me2N 3 OMe R 145
R2 N R1 N
R3 N
146
Scheme 12.46
O O N 147
Scheme 12.47
RCONHNH2 MeOH, 65 C Ph (60-63%) R = 4-CH3 C6 H 4, 2-ClC6 H4
CO 2H Ph N R 148 N N
( )n ( )n N 149
Scheme 12.48
1. (EtO)2 P(O)CH 2CONHNH 2 (150), PhMe 2. NaOEt, EtOH, ArCHO 3. PhMe, 110 C (33-81%) Ar
OMe
N N 151
j1021
12.3.4.2 Reactions of Hydrazones Substituted hydrazones are a rich source of precursors for the syntheses of 1,2,4triazoles. For example, hydrazonyl chlorides can be used as partners in reactions with compounds containing a CN multiple bond that lead to 1,2,4-triazoles. Arylsubstituted hydrazonyl chlorides 152 reacted with cycloalkanone oximes 153 to give 1,2,4-triazolospiro compounds 154 (Scheme 12.49) [205]. Intermolecular cyclization of hydrazonyl chlorides 155 with nitriles catalyzed by ytterbium(III) triate afforded a series of 1,3,5-trisubstituted-1,2,4-triazoles 156 in good yields (Scheme 12.50) [206]. Dipolar cycloadditions between hydrazonyl chlorides 157 and nitriles in aqueous sodium bicarbonate in the presence of a surfactant provided mild conditions for the synthesis of 1-aryl-5-substituted-1,2,4-triazoles 159 via intermediate 158 (Scheme 12.51) [207]. A series of 1,2,4-triazoles have been prepared by oxidative intramolecular cyclization of heterocyclic hydrazones with copper dichloride [208]. Other CN multiple partners include aryl cyanides [209], amidines [210], and cyanamides [211].
X
N NH Cl 152
HON ( )n 153
Et3N, THF (44-58%) R
N N N H 15 4 ( )n
Scheme 12.49
Cl Ph N NHPh (Ar)
RCN, Yb(OTf) 3 PhCl (70-85%) R = Me, Ph, Ar R
Ph
155
Scheme 12.50
N N Ph (Ar) 156
MeO2 C HN N Cl CO 2Me 5% aq. NaHCO 3 THAC, 25 C R

1
N N R2
N R1 R CN N N CO2 Me (24-95%)
2
157
158 R 1 = H, Me R 2 = CO2Et, CO2 Bn, CCl3
R1 159
Scheme 12.51
1022

Aminohydrazones or amidrazones are versatile reagents that can react with various electrophilic carbon compounds to give 1,2,4-triazoles. As an example, N-tosylamidrazones 160 can react either with acid chlorides or with ethyl chloroformate to give tosylated 1,2,4-triazoles 161 or 1,2,4-triazole-3-ones 162, respectively (Scheme 12.52) [212]. Other amidrazone reactions can occur with carboxylic acids [213], cyanogen bromide [214], aldehydes [215], and orthoesters [215, 216]. Amidrazones 163 have been oxidized to 1,3,5-trisubstituted 1,2,4-triazoles 164 in good yields by silver carbonate, DessMartin periodinane, sodium and calcium hypochlorites, and tetrapropylammonium perruthenate (TPAP)/N-methylmorpholine N-oxide (NMO) combination (Scheme 12.53) [217219].
N N R1 N H 162
Ts O
1
ClCO2 Et, pyridine CHCl3, 0 C (90%) R = Ph, Bn, i -Pr, 4-MeC 6H 4 R1
NNHTs NH 2 160
1
R 2COCl, pyridine CHCl3, 0 C (70-90%) R = Ph, Bn, i-Pr, 4-MeC6 H4 R 2 = Me, Bn, i-Pr R1
N N N 161
Ts R2
Scheme 12.52
R2 R1
NH N 163 NHR
[O]
R2 R1
N N
NHR 3
[O] (45-86%)
N R2 N R3 164
R1 N
[O] = Ag 2CO3 , Dess-Martin periodinane, NaOCl, Ca(OCl) 2, TPAP/NMO

Scheme 12.53
Other hydrazone intermediates have been utilized in the synthesis of 1,2,4triazoles. Addition of primary amines to a-nitrohydrazones 165 followed by addition of sodium nitrite affords 1,3,5-trisubstituted-1,2,4-triazole 166 (Scheme 12.54) [220]. 1,3,-Dipolar cyclocondensation of C-acetyl-N-arylnitrilimines 167 with benzoylhydrazones 168 furnished 1,2,4-triazoles 169 (Scheme 12.55) [221]. Iodobenzene
NHAr NO 2 165
Scheme 12.54
N Me
1. RCH 2NH2, ref lux 2. NaNO 2, PhMe, TEBA (52-65%) R = n -C 3H 8, CH=CH 2, CH2 OMe R
N N Ar 166
Me N
j1023
CH3COC N N Ar 167
N R1
COPh N H R2
O THF, 25 C (44-75%) R = H, Me R2 = Me, Et R1 = R 2 = cycloalkyl

1
PhOCHN R
2
N N
Me
168
R1 N Ar 169
Scheme 12.55
diacetate or lead tetraacetate cyclization of hydrazones 170 [222] or 172 [223] afforded fused 1,2,4-triazoles 171 and 173, respectively (Scheme 12.56).
OMe PhI(OAc)2 N N 170 NHN=CHAr solid state (74-82%) N Ar N N N OMe
171
H N N N 172
Scheme 12.56
Pb(OAc) 4 or NHCOPh PhI(OAc)2 , CH2 Cl2 (17-69%) 173 N
N NHCOPh
12.3.4.3 Reactions of Oxadiazoles or Thiadiazoles 1,2,4-Triazoles can be synthesized from oxadiazoles. Photolysis of 1,2,4-oxadiazoles in the presence of nucleophiles led to 1,2,4-triazole products [224] and 1,3,4oxadiazoles can undergo ring-cleavage with nitrogen nucleophiles followed by recyclization of the intermediates to give 1,2,4-triazoles. For example, the unusual hydrazinolysis of 5-peruoroalkyl-1,2,4-oxadiazoles 174 provided an expedient route to 5-peruoroalkyl-1,2,4-triazoles 175 (Scheme 12.57) [225]. Similarly, 3,5bis(triuoromethyl)-1,3,4-oxadiazole is particularly activated towards nucleophilic
NH2 NH2 MeOH 25 C (44-88%) Rf R N H N Rf = CF3 , n-C3 H 7, n -C 7H 15 R = Ph, n -C 11 H23
N Rf O 174
R N
175
Scheme 12.57
1024

attack by primary amines to yield 4-substituted-1,2,4-triazoles [226]. Microwaveassisted rate acceleration of reactions between 2-aminothiadiazoles 177 with oxadiazoles 176 on alumina support affords thiadiazolyl-substituted-1,2,4-triazoles 178 (Scheme 12.58) [227]. Photochemistry of some uorinated oxadiazoles gives rise to mixtures of uorinated 1,3,4-oxadiazoles and 1,2,4-triazoles [228]. 2-Amino-1,3,4oxadiazoles 179 reacted with alcohols followed by subsequent ring-cleavage and ringcyclization to give 3-alkoxy-1,2,4-triazoles 180 (Scheme 12.59) [229], while amines and hydrazines react with 2-amino-1,3,4-oxadiazoles to afford 3-amino- and 3,5diamino-1,2,4-triazoles, respectively [230]. Condensation of highly reactive chloromethyloxadiazoles with ethylenediamines provides a concise synthesis of [1,2,4] triazolo[4,3-a]piperazines [231]. Reaction of some uorinated 1,2,4-oxadiazoles in the presence of methylamine or propylamine under photochemical irradiation in methanol or acetonitrile led to the corresponding uorinated 1-methyl- or 1-propyl1,2,4-triazoles [232].
N N N N R1 O 176 SH + R2 N N S 177 NH 2 R1 Alumina Microwave (77-93%) R1 = R2 = alkyl S R2 N N N 178 SH
Scheme 12.58
OR2 N
O R1 N 179
NH2 N
R2 OH
R1 HN
O N
NH2 OR
2
-H2 O (38-100%)
N R1 N H
180
Scheme 12.59
12.3.4.4 Synthesis of 1,2,4-Triazoles from Thioureas, Thiocyanates, and Thioamides Unsaturated and saturated thio compounds have been employed in the syntheses of 1,2,4-triazoles. D2-1,2,4-Triazolin-5-ones 182 have been prepared from 1-aryl/alkyl-6phenyl-2-thiobioureas 181 in the presence of benzyl chloride and aqueous ethanol (Scheme 12.60) [233]. A novel one-pot synthesis of 1,2,4-triazole-3,5-diamine derivatives 184 and 185 from isothiocyanates 183 and monosubstituted hydrazines has
O PhHN N H H N S BnCl aq. EtOH BnS R N N O NH
NHR
181
Scheme 12.60
182
j1025
been reported; derivatives 185 were obtained with higher regioselectivity when aromatic and sterically bulky hydrazines were used (Scheme 12.61) [234]. S-Ethyl thioamides 186 react with acyl hydrazides 187 in reuxing n-butanol to give 3,4,5trisubstituted 4H-1,2,4-triazoles 188 (Scheme 12.62) [235]. An efcient synthesis of substituted 1,2,4-triazoles involved condensation of benzoyl hydrazides with thioamides under microwave irradiation [236]. 3-N,N-Dialkylamino-1,2,4-triazoles 191 have been synthesized from S-methylisothioureas 189 and acyl hydrazides 190 in moderate to good yields (Scheme 12.63) [237].
R 1NCS 183
1. NaNHCN, DMF, 25 C 2. R 2 NHNH 2, EDC, Et 3N, 60 C (42-90%, 3:1 to 20:1 ratio) R 1 = Ph, CH3 CH 2 CH 2 R 2 = t -Bu, Ph, nC6H11, Ar H 2N
N N R2 184
NHR 1 N + N H 2N N
NHR1 N R2
185
Scheme 12.61
O N 186 N SEt R + NHNH2 X 18 7 n -BuOH reflux (52-73%) R = Me, i-Bu, Ar X = CH, N N
N N N
1 88
Scheme 12.62
R1
SMe N R2 N 189
R3
O + H 2N N H 190 R4
THF/HOAc (10:1) reflux (33-72%)
R3 R4
N N
R2 N R1 N
R1 = R2 = piperidinyl derivatives R4 = Me, CH 2NHBoc, R3 = Ar, CH 2Ar, pyridyl CH2 Ar, CH 2OMe
191
Scheme 12.63
Combinatorial solid-phase reactions have been used in the synthesis of libraries of 1,2,4-triazole compounds. Reaction of resin bound S-methyl-N-acylisothioureas 192 with hydrazines followed by acidic cleavage yielded 3-amino-1,2,4-triazoles 193 under mild conditions (Scheme 12.64) [238]. 3,4,5-Trisubstituted 1,2,4-triazoles 195 have been synthesized on solid-phase from various thioamides 194 and hydrazides, leading to peptidomimetic scaffolds (Scheme 12.65) [239]. A robust catch,
1026

O O N SMe O N H 192 R1 1. R2 NHNH 2 , DMF, 40 C 2. TFA/CH 2Cl2 (1:1) (62-75%) R = alkyl, CH2 Ar R2 = H, Ph
1
N R1
NH2
N N R2 193
Scheme 12.64
1. NH 2 NHCOR3 , O O N H 194 R1 S H N Hg(OAc)2 , DMF R2 2. TFA, CH 2Cl2, H2 O, i-Pr 3 SiH R1
R2 N N
R3 N
H 2N (31-80%) 195 R 1 = Bn, i -Bu, indol-3-yl-methyl R 2 = Bn, CH2 CHPh2 , indol-3-yl-methyl R 3 = H, Ph, Bn
Scheme 12.65
cyclize, and release preparation of 3-thioalkyl-1,2,4-triazoles mediated by the polymer-bound base P-BEMP has been described [240].
12.3.4.5 Reactions of Semicarbazides A couple of reports present the use of semicarbazides in the synthesis of 1,2,4triazolones. Condensation of semicarbazide hydrochloride 196 with orthoester 197 resultedina simple synthesisof chlorotriazolinone 198 (Scheme 12.66), and themethod was applied to the convergent synthesis of an NK1 antagonist [241]. Amines have been converted into 1-formyl semicarbazides 199, which were cyclized smoothly to 2,4dihydro-3H-1,2,4-triazolin-3-ones 200 with hexamethyldisilazane (HMDS), bromotrimethylsilane, and a catalytic amount of ammonium sulfate (Scheme 12.67) [242].
H2 N O Cl NH HCl NH2 196 MeO MeO OMe MeOH, 20 C 3d (98%) O HN N H 198 N Cl
197
Scheme 12.66
phosgene R NH2 NH 2NHCHO NaHCO 3 CH 2Cl2 (57-91%)

Scheme 12.67
CHO HN NH R NH O 199
R HMDS, TMSBr (NH 4) 2SO4 (cat) (65-90%)
N N
O NH
200
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N N R 2 R1N
N N O R3
R 4NHNH2 CHCl3 (25-95%) R1R 2N
N N 202
R3 N R4
201
Scheme 12.68
12.3.4.6 Synthesis of 1,2,4-Triazoles via Benzotriazole Methodology Solution- and solid-phase benzotriazole-mediated methodologies are employed in the synthesis of 1,2,4-triazoles. Acyl 1H-benzotriazol-1-carboximidamides 201 and hydrazines have been employed in a general synthesis of N,N-disubstituted 3-amino1,2,4-triazoles 202 (Scheme 12.68) [243]. Polymer-supported N-acyl-1H-benzotriazole-1-carboximidamides 203 reacted with hydrazines followed by acidic cyclizative release to give 3-alkylamino-1,2,4-triazoles 204 (Scheme 12.69) [244]. Reaction of acyl hydrazides 206 with imidoylbenzotriazoles 205 in the presence of catalytic amounts of acetic acid under microwave irradiation afforded 3,4,5-trisubstituted triazoles 207 (Scheme 12.70) [245].
R1 Bt O 203
Scheme 12.69
N N R
2
1. R 3NHNH 2, DBU, THF 2. TFA, CH 2Cl2 (45-65%) R2
N N R3 204
NHR1 N
N N R1 205
HOAc, microwave N NR2 + O R3 NHNH 2 206 R 1 = Me, Bn, p-Tol R 2 = p -Tol, 4-OMeC6 H4 R 3 = Me, Ph, p-tol (77-100%) R2 N R1 N R3 N
207
Scheme 12.70
12.3.4.7 Other Synthesis of 1,2,4-Triazoles Three-component condensation of ethyl triuoroacetate (208), hydrazine, and amidines in the presence of sodium hydroxide gave 3-triuoromethyl-5-substituted1,2,4-triazoles 209 (Scheme 12.71) [246, 247]. The amidine supplies a CN bond to the new ring system while the other two nitrogen atoms are derived from hydrazine. Reaction of aromatic nitriles with hydrazine dihydrochloride in the presence of hydrazine hydrate in ethylene glycol under microwave irradiation gave 3,5-disubstituted-4-amino-1,2,4-triazoles 210 (Scheme 12.72) [248]. 1,3-Dipolar cycloadditions
1028

nchnones and diethyl azodicarboxylate between poly(ethylene glycol) supported mu led to synthesis of 3,5-disubstituted-1,2,4-triazoles [249].
1. NH 2NH2 H2 O, THF, reflux O F3 C OEt 208 2. R NH NH 2HCl, NaOH, R N CF3
THF, reflux (70-95%)
N N H 209
Scheme 12.71
ethylene glycol, NH2NH2 2HCl ArCN NH2NH 2H 2O, microwave (58-96%)

Scheme 12.72
H2N Ar
N N
Ar N
210
12.3.5 Reactions of 1,2,4-Triazoles 12.3.5.1 Reactions on the Nitrogen of 1,2,4-Triazoles 12.3.5.1.1 N-Alkylation of 1,2,4-Triazoles 1,2,4-Triazoles that are unsubstituted on nitrogen can be readily alkylated. 1-Substituted-1,2,4-triazoles are the predominant products of these base-catalyzed alkylation reactions; 4-substituted-1,2,4-triazoles are rarely isolated after purication. DBU is found to be a mild and convenient base for the alkylation of 1,2,4-triazole with alkyl halides in the high-yielding syntheses of 1substituted-1,2,4-triazoles 211 (Scheme 12.73) [250]. Sodium hydroxide [251], sodium methoxide [252], and sodium hydride [253] are other bases that have been successfully employed in these reactions. The synthesis of 1,2,4-triazole-functionalized solid-support 212 and its use in the solid-phase synthesis of various N1 and N2 trisubstituted-1,2,4-triazoles 213 has been reported (Scheme 12.74) [254]. 1,2,4-Triazoles can be alkylated at N4 by using a removable protecting group at N1 and then forming a quaternary salt with the 1-substituted triazole. 1-Acetyl and 1-cyanoethyl groups have been used as removable protecting groups [255].
N N H N RX, DBU, THF R = Me, CPh 3, Bn (73-100%)
Scheme 12.73
N N N R 211
j1029
R1 N N H O 212 N N 1. R 2X, NaOH HO
R1 N H 2 13 N
R2
2. 20%TFA (>95%, 70-90% purity, 18:82 to 94:6 ratio)
Scheme 12.74
The sequence involving quaternization/dealkylation with 1,10 -methylenebis(triazolium) salts 214 linked at the N1 position is shown in Scheme 12.75 [256]. Other similar sequences have also been reported [257]. Alternatively, 3-phenylthio-1,2,4triazoles 215 were alkylated to their triazolium salts 216, which under aqueous basic conditions provided 2,4-disubstituted-1,2,4-triazol-3-ones 217 (Scheme 12.76) [258].
N N H N
CH 2Br 2 (77%)
N N
N N N
RX (2 eq) (70-99%)
R N
N N 2X 214
R N N N
R EtOH reflux
N N H X N
Scheme 12.75
N PhS N R1 215 N
R 2X EtOAc or CHCl3 or neat 80 C R = Me, Et, Bn R 2 = Me, Bn, allyl, Bu

1
R2 N PhS N R1 216
X N
K2 CO 3 water (5-92%) O
R2 N N N R1 217
Scheme 12.76
12.3.5.1.2 N-Acylation of 1,2,4-Triazoles N-Unsubstituted-1,2,4-triazoles can be readily acylated at N1 by common acylating reagents such as acetyl chloride or acetic anhydride under standard conditions to give 1-acyl-1,2,4-triazoles [259]. 1H-1,2, 4-Triazol-3-amines are acetylated rst on N1 and then on the 3-amino group [260]. 12.3.5.1.3 N-Arylation of 1,2,4-Triazoles 1,2,4-Triazole can be N-arylated at the 1-position by activated aryl halides such as 1-uoro-2-nitrobenzene or 1-chloro-2nitro-4-(triuoromethyl)benzene [261]. N1-Phenylation can be achieved with triphenylbismuth diacetate and copper(II) acetate [262].
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Recent protocols of copper-catalyzed N-arylations of aryl iodides with 1,2,4triazoles represent a new landmark in the eld of Ullmann-type arylation couplings of nitrogen-containing heterocycles. The aryl iodides 218 reacted efciently and regioselectively at the N1 position with 1,2,4-triazole in the presence of copper(I) iodide and trans-diamine ligand 219, with potassium phosphate as a base, to give 220 (Scheme 12.77) [117]. Another similar procedure employs copper(I) oxide, Chxn-PyAl as the ligand, and cesium carbonate as the base [263]. However, these procedures are limited to aryl iodides; aryl bromides and aryl chlorides are not efciently crosscoupled under these conditions.
N CuI (5 mol%) N ligand 219 (10 mol%) K3 PO 4 (2 equiv) DMF, 110 C, 24 h (83-89%) R = H, OMe, Ac
Scheme 12.77
R 21 8
N H
N 22 0
N N MeHN 219 NHMe
12.3.5.2 Reactions on the Carbons of 1,2,4-Triazoles 1,2,4-Triazoles are electron-decient aromatic systems and so conventional electrophilic substitution reactions are not a practical method for the introduction of carbon substituents at C3 or C5. The most common methods for introduction of groups to C3 or C5 are by triazolyllithium intermediates or more recently by radical or carbene species. 12.3.5.2.1 C-Substitution by Triazolyllithium Hydrogenmetal exchange by n-butyllithium can occur at C5 if N1 is substituted to give organolithium species, which then react quickly with alkylating agents or with other electrophiles (Scheme 12.78) [264]. If the N1 is a removable protecting group, then monosubstituted 1,2,4-triazoles can be prepared by this method [264b,264c]. 1-(Methoxymethyl)-1H-1,2,4-triazole is converted directly into 5-acyl derivatives by reaction with acyl chlorides and triethylamine and the methoxymethyl protecting group could be removed in a subsequent step [265].
R2X or R2COCl N R (R2CO)
2
N N R1 N
n-BuLi, THF
N Li N 1 R N
N R1
Scheme 12.78
Methods are available for preparation of 3-substituted-1,2,4-triazoles. A C5 removable group such as a phenylthio is employed in a protection/deprotection sequence to give 1-substituted 3-acyl-1,2,4-triazoles 221 (Scheme 12.79) [266]. 1H-1,2,4- and
j1031
N N N Me
n-BuLi, PhSSPh THF (97%) PhS
N N N Me
1. LiTMP, RCONMe 2 (35-67%) 2. RaNi (31-52%) N
R O
N N Me 221
Scheme 12.79
1-methyl-1H-1,2,4-triazoles have been transformed directly into their 3(5)-arylcarbamyoyl derivatives by heating with aryl isocyanates [267]. These C-acylations are suggested to proceed by formation of N-acylated triazoles, followed by thermal rearrangements.
12.3.5.2.2 Radical Reactions of 1,2,4-Triazoles Reaction of 1-N-alkyl triazoles 222 with an alkyl radical generated from the corresponding secondary carboxylic acid in the presence of silver nitrate affords the triazole ring 223 alkylated selectively in the 5-position (Scheme 12.80) [268].
N N R1 222
Scheme 12.80
R 2CO2H, AgNO 3 (NH 4) 2S2 O8 , TFA, H 2O (35-60%)
N R2 N R1 223 N
12.3.5.2.3 Carbene Reactions of 1,2,4-Triazoles There are two published reports on the syntheses of stable 1,2,4-triazolyl carbenes. Thermal decomposition in vacuo of 5-methoxytriazoline 224 provided in quantitative yield 1,2,4-triazol-5-ylidene 225, a stable carbene in the absence of oxygen and moisture (Scheme 12.81) [269]. Nucleophilic carbene 225 could react with various alcohols, thiols, amines, oxygen, sulfur, selenium, isocyanantes, and metal carbonyls to form a myriad of addition products. Reactions of 1,2,4-triazolyl perchlorate salts 226 with base afforded stable nucleophilic 1,2,4-triazol-5-ylidenes 227, which could react with acetonitrile and elemental sulfur and selenium to yield addition products (Scheme 12.82) [270].
Ph N N Ph N Ph 224
Scheme 12.81
90 C OMe 0.01 mbar neat Ph
Ph N N N Ph 225
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ClO4 R1 2 26
Scheme 12.82
Ad N N N R2
KO t-Bu, PhH or H NaH (60%), CH 3 CN R1 = Ph, 4-BrC 6H 4 R2 = Ph, 4-BrC 6H 4 Ad = 1-adamantyl R1
Ad N N N R2 2 27
12.3.5.2.4 Halogenations of 1,2,4-Triazoles Most halogenation reactions of 1,2, 4-triazoles are N-chlorotriazoles, kinetic products that rearranges to 3-halo-1,2,4triazoles slowly upon storage or heating in water [271]. 5-Chloro derivatives of 1-substituted-1,2,4-triazoles have been obtained by C5-lithio derivatives [272]. C-Halo-1,2,4-triazoles can be prepared more directly without isolation of the Nhalo-1,2,4-triazoles. For example, bromination of 1H-1,2,4-triazole in excess aqueous sodium hydroxide afforded 3,5-dibromo-1H-1,2,4-triazole (228), which selectively exchanges a bromine with a uorine to give 229 (Scheme 12.83) [273].
N N H N 1. Br 2, 50% aq NaOH, CH2Cl2, H 2O, -15 C 2. cHCl (90%) Br Br N CsF, DMSO (70%) F N N H Br N
N N H 228
229
Scheme 12.83
12.3.5.2.5 Other Reactions of 1,2,4-Triazoles Urazoles 230 can be converted into the corresponding 1,2,4-triazol-3,5-diones 231 by various oxidizing reagents (Table 12.17). Trichloroisocyanuric acid [274], a silica gel/sodium nitrite combination [275], an ionic complex, obtained from N2O4 and 18-crown-6 [276], Oxone/
Table 12.17 Dehydrogenation of urazoles to 1,2,4-triazol-3,5-diones with various oxidants.
R O
O N N H 230 NH Conditions O
O N N N
231
Reference [274] [275] [276] [277] [278]
Conditions Trichloroisocyanuric acid Silica gel/NaNO2 N2O4/18-crown-6 Oxone/NaNO2/wet silica gel Silica sulfuric acid/NaNO2
j1033
sodium nitrite in the presence of wet silica [277], and silica sulfuric acid/sodium nitrite [278] have all been reported as oxidants in this reaction. 1,2,4-Triazoline-3,5-dione 233 underwent an ene reaction with olens 232 to yield trialkylated allylic urazoles 234, which were further elaborated into allylic amines 235 (Scheme 12.84) [279]. 1-Methyl-1,2,4-triazole 236 participated in a palladium-catalyzed CH arylation reaction with 3,5-dimethoxychlorobenzene (237) to give coupled product 238 (Scheme 12.85) [280].
HN NH R4 R5 R1 232
Scheme 12.84
R3 R2
R4 R
5
Me 233 CH 2Cl2, 20 C
R3 R2 N NH O N Me O
1. NaH 2. BrCH 2COPh 3. aq. KOH (40-68%)
R4 R5 R1 235
R3 R2 NH 2
R1
234
N N N Me 236
Scheme 12.85
Cl + MeO 237 OMe Pd(OAc) 2 (5 mol%), BuAd2 P (10 mol%) K3PO 4 (2 equiv), NMP, 125 C (76%)
MeO
N N N Me 238
MeO
12.3.6 1,2,4-Triazole-Containing Reagents
Monocyclic 1,2,4-triazole-containing structures have found synthetic utility. For example, 4-phenyl-1,2,4-triazole-3,5-dione (239) was found to be a novel and reusable reagent for the aromatization of 1,4-dihydropyridines under mild conditions [281] and to be an efcient and chemoselective reagent for the oxidation of thiols to their corresponding symmetrical disuldes [282]. N-4-(p-Chloro)phenyl-1,2,4-triazole-3,5dione 240 has been used as an effective oxidizing agent for the oxidation of 1,3,5trisubstituted pyrazolines to their corresponding pyrazoles under mild conditions at room temperature [283]. 1-Benzylsulfanyl-1,2,4-triazole (241) is a useful electrophilic sulfur source in the organocatalyzed a-sulfenylation of aldehydes [284]. Catalyst 242 catalyzed the oxidation of allylic alcohols to allylic esters with manganese(IV) oxide in excellent yields [285] and the oxidation of unactivated aldehydes to esters with manganese(IV) oxide in excellent yields [286]. The asymmetric synthesis of hydrobenzofuranones via desymmetrization of cyclohexadienones using the intramolecular Stetter reaction has been accomplished with 1,2,4-triazolium salt catalyst 243 [287].
1034

N N O N R O N N N S Me N Ph N N Me 242 I Me N N PF6 P N N N NO2 Me N 243
239 R = Ph 240 R = 4-ClC 6H 4
241
1,2,4-Triazolium salt catalysts 244 and 246 have been employed in the highly enantioselective azadiene DielsAlder reactions [288]. Chiral catalyst 245 promoted the intramolecular Stetter cyclization of an aldehyde onto a vinylphosphine oxide or vinylphosphonate Michael acceptor [289]. Chiral triazolium salt 246 has been employed successfully in the hetero DielsAlder reactions of a-chloroaldehyde bisulte adducts with various oxodienes under biphasic reaction conditions with high levels of enantioselectivity [290] and in the highly enantioselective cis-cyclopentene-forming annulation reactions [291].
O N N X N R
244 R = 4-OMeC 6H 4 , X = BF4 245 R = C6 F5 , X = BF4 246 R = Mes, X = Cl
Bicyclic 1,2,4-triazolium salts have varied synthetic utility in a host of reactions. 1,2,4-Triazolium salts 247 have been identied as a new family of stable annulated Nheterocyclic carebenes that found applications in catalytic benzoin condensations and transesterications at ambient temperature [292]. N-Pentauorophenyl triazolium tetrauoroborate salts 248 were found to be useful catalysts in the macrocyclization of a,v-dialdehydes to a-hydroxyketones [293] and in the synthesis of 1,2amino alcohols via azidation of epoxy aldehydes (where modest asymmetric induction was achieved) [294]. N-Pentauorophenyl triazolium tetrauoroborate salt 249 was found to be useful catalyst in the asymmetric intermolecular Stetter reaction of glyoxamides with alkylidenemalonates [295]. Chiral catalyst 250 has been utilized in the N-heterocyclic carbene-catalyzed redox amidations of a-functionalized aldehydes with amines [296]. The N-heterocyclic catalyst 251 promoted O to C carboxyl transfer on a range of indolyl and benzofuranyl carbonates [297] and also promoted the formal [2 2] cycloaddition of ketenes with N-tosyl imines to give the corresponding b-lactams [298]. Chiral triazolium catalyst 252 has been found to be efcient in the formal [2 2] cycloaddition reactions of alkyl(aryl)ketenes with 2-oxoaldehydes to afford b-lactones with a-quaternary-b-tertiary stereocenters in high yields with good diastereoselectivities and excellent enantioselectivities [299]. The asymmetric Michael addition of aromatic heterocyclic aldehydes to arylidenemalonates catalyzed
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N N R1
X N R2
BF4 N N N
Me C6 F5 Cl N N N Me
Me N R1
BF4 N R2
247 X = BF4 , PF6
248 R = H 249 R = Bn
250
251 R1 = H, R2 = Ph 252 R1 = CPh 2OTBS, R2 = Ph 253 R1 = CH 2 OTBDPS, R2 = Bn
by N-heterocyclic carbene 253 has been disclosed [300]. Catalyst 253 was also effective in an intermolecular Stetter reaction to give 1,4-diketones [301].
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13 Oxadiazoles
Giovanni Romeo and Ugo Chiacchio
13.1 Introduction
There are four isomeric types of oxadiazoles (14).

N N O 1 O 2 N N N O 3 N O 4 N N
Examples of all these ring derivatives are reported; the 1,2,3-oxadiazole system is well represented by the mesoionic sydnones (5, X O) and sydnonimines (5, X NR). In fact, potential 1,2,3-oxadiazoles 6 are not known: when formed in some reactions, they isomerize, instantaneously, into the open a-diazoketone tautomeric forms 7 (Figure 13.1). Arguments concerning the existence of 6 and 7 have been summarized [1], but the rmly established 1,2,3-oxadiazole ring system is of the sydnone type. Ring systems of type 2 are commonly termed azoximes and the 1,2,5-oxadiazoles 3 are often referred to by the trivial name furazan, while 1,2,5-oxadiazole-2-oxide, a well-known derivative, has the trivial name furoxan. Notably, 1,2,4-oxadiazoles have received great attention in the pharmaceutical industry. In contrast, 1,3,4-oxadiazoles have recently found extensive application in the eld of new materials for the development of electric as well as optical devices. The chemistry of 1,2,3- [2], 1,2,4- [3], 1,2,5- [4], and 1,3,4-oxadiazoles [5] has been widely reported in a series of books and reviews. We refer here to the cited references for general aspects of reactivity of these heterocycles. Particular attention is paid to the literature published after 1995.
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j 13 Oxadiazoles
R2 N X N O 5 R1 R R N N O 6 R O 7 R N N
Figure 13.1 Mesoionic sydnones (5, X O) and sydnone imines (5, X NR) are well represented, while potential 1,2,3-oxadiazoles 6 are not known since when formed in some reactions they isomerize instantaneously into the open a-diazoketone tautomeric forms 7.
13.2 1,2,3-Oxadiazoles
These are the least common of the oxadiazole group of heterocycles and the literature relating to them is rather sparse. With a very limited and still not perfectly dened number of exceptions, simple 1,2,3-oxadiazoles 6 are not isolable because they isomerize immediately to the their more stable open-chain tautomers, the a-diazoketones 7. The sterically protected 1,2,3-oxadiazole 8 is the only known oxadiazole, bearing alkyl substituents, which exists in the cyclic form in the crystalline state but as diazoketone in chloroform solution [6]. 1,2,3-Oxadiazoles have been proposed [7] as not-isolated intermediates in the oxidation of alkenes with nitrous oxide: a recent DFT analysis predicts that the reaction consists of two steps, with the formation of 1,2,3-oxadiazole in the rst and its decomposition in the second, leading to carbonyl compounds [8] (Scheme 13.1).
N N O 8 N N R R
Scheme 13.1
RCH=CHR + N2O
RCH2COR + N2
Fusion with an aromatic ring does not stabilize the system. 1,2,3-Benzoxadiazole (9) is more stable as an o-quinone diazide (10$11): the ionization potentials, measured by MS for 10 and 11 and estimated for 9, indicate that the stabilizing inuence of the zwitterionic structures is more important than the gain in aromaticity [9, 10].
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N N O 9 10
N N O 11
N N O
Some substituted 1,2,3-benzoxadiazoles have been shown to exist in equilibrium with their open chain tautomers. The relative concentration of the species at the equilibrium is strongly dependent upon solvent and substitution effects: the diazoketone structure is stabilized by hydrogen bonding and polar interactions. The most stable of these compounds is 5,7-di-t-butyl-1,2,3-benzoxadiazole (12) which is 6.3 kJ mol1 more stable than its diazocyclohexadienone valence isomer 13 in the vapor phase.
t-But N N O t-But 12 t-But 13 O t-But N2
Several examples in the literature report on compounds that have been incorrectly formulated as 1,2,3-oxadiazoles [11]: the previously formulated diazoesters 14 were successively established as non-cyclic 15.
N EtO N O 14 CHCO2 Et N N 15
13.2.1 Sydnones and Sydnonimines
The 1,2,3-oxadiazole ring system is present in the stable mesoionic sydnones (5a, X O and sydnone imines (5b, X NR). The trivial term sydnone comes from the University of Sidney, where the rst example of these compounds, the 3-phenylsydnone 16, was synthesized (by Earl and Mackney) by cyclodehydration of N-nitroso-N-phenylglycine with acetic anhydride [12] (Scheme 13.2). Baker and Ollis coined the term mesoionic [13] to describe the structure of such compounds, for which a totally covalent structure cannot be written, and which cannot be represented satisfactorily by any one polar structure. The term was then extended to several compounds that can be depicted only as resonance hybrids of dipolar structures. Structure 17, in which the positive charge is delocalized, can be represented as the summary of three canonical forms 1820 [14]. The formal positive charge is associated with the ring atoms, and the formal negative charge is associated
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j 13 Oxadiazoles
R2 X O R1 N N
5a: X = O 5b: X = NR 1 R 1 = Me, Ph, Bn R 2 = Me, Et, Ph, Bn
O Ph HO 2 C N H HNO2 - H2 O N HO 2 C N O Ph Ac2 O - H2 O 73% O
Ph N N O
Ph N N O 16
Scheme 13.2
with ring atoms or an exocyclic nitrogen or chalcogen atom. X-Ray evidence shows that the valence tautomer 21 should also be considered in discussions of the structure of the sydnones [15].
R2 O R1 N N O 17 R2 O R1 N N O 18 R2 O R1 N N O 19
R2 C O
R1 N O
R2 O
R1 N N O 20
21
13.2.2 1,2-3-Oxadiazolines
The partially reduced 4,5-dihydro-1,2,3-oxadiazole system, theoretically assemblable by dipolar cycloaddition of diazoalkanes to carbonyl compounds, has never been detected directly in such reactions, although dihydro-1,2,3-oxadiazoline structures
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have been proposed in the literature [16]. Ab initio and DFTcalculations indicate that, in the reaction of diazomethane with formaldehyde, the kinetically most favorable cycloadduct is less stable than the reactants and has a lower barrier for nitrogen elimination [17]. Derivative 22 has been postulated as intermediate in the metabolism of some (2-hydroxyethyl)- or (2-haloethyl)nitrosoureas, a class of highly active antitumor agents (Scheme 13.3) [18].
O ON N Cl H N Cl O N N O H N Cl
N N O 22
N2O
Scheme 13.3
One derivative, the salt 23, has been isolated as a crystalline solid [19].
Me N N ClO4 O OH 23
An unambiguous characterization of the so-called Traubes oxazomalonic acid, obtained from the condensation of dimethyl malonate with nitric oxide, has demonstrated that the compound is really an unusual ve-membered heterocycle and corresponds to 3-hydroxy-2-carboxysydnone dianion 24 (Scheme 13.4): the synthesis, structure and spectroscopic analysis of the potassium salt and methyl ester have also been reported [20].
MeO NO CH(CO 2Me) 2 MeOH/MeO 2.5 Atm 31% Traube's "oxazomalonic" acid
Scheme 13.4
N O N
MeOH/MeO O 17% N O N 24
The oxidation state represented by an N-oxide lends stability to the 1,2,3-oxadiazole system [21]. Thus, the reaction of diene 25 with nitrosyl chloride afforded 4,4dimethyl-5-(2-methylpropenyl)-D2-1,2,3-oxadiazoline 3-oxide 26, whose structure was conrmed by chemical and spectroscopic data (Scheme 13.5). A wide variety of 1,2,3-oxadiazole 3-oxides, valuable candidates for drug frameworks, have been synthesized by the reaction of nitric oxide with functionalized
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j 13 Oxadiazoles
Me
(CH3)2C=CHCH=C(CH3)2
25
Scheme 13.5
NOCl
Me
Me Me O N N O 26 30%
alkynyllithium derivatives [22]. A theoretical study [23] indicates that the overall reaction is stepwise and is considered to include two processes. In the rst, the nitrogen atom in nitric oxide at rst attacks the C1 atom in alkynyllithium to afford the intermediate 27. In the second, another nitric oxide reacts with 27 to produce 28. Then, attack of the oxygen atom at C2 to form a ve-membered-ring geometry (29) is followed by addition of water, leading to the nal 5-alkyl-1,2,3-oxadiazole 3-oxides 30 (Scheme 13.6).
O R Li NO - 78 C R 27 N O Li NO R 28 N Li N O
R = n-C8H17, Ph, -(CH2)3OBn, -CH2OCH2CCPh CH2N(p-Ts)CH2CHCH2 O H2O O 29 R O N N Li O
N N
30 72-88%
Scheme 13.6
The structure of some of the obtained compounds was conrmed by X ray crystallography and spectroscopic data. The isomeric 2-oxide system is present in 32, isolated as a crystalline solid from the reaction of the nitroazo-compounds 31 with bases [24]. As a general process, the intramolecular alkylation of 2-halo- or 2-cyano-substituted nitramines proceeds through an O-alkylation and leads to 4,5-dihydro-1,2,3-oxadiazole 2-oxides 32 (Scheme 13.7) [25]. Recently, a new synthetic approach to functionally substituted 4,5-dihydro-1,2,3oxadiazolo 2-oxides 34 has been described, starting from sulfamic acid derivatives 33 (Scheme 13.8) [26].
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Br X
CO 2 Me 42-48% Br
O N O N 32
NO 2 31
X = Cl, Br, CN
Scheme 13.7
OH HN R SO 3H 33
HNO3 H2SO4
- 30C
ONO 2 HN NO2 R
R 1) NH3
gas,
Et 2O
2) NaOH, MeOH 45- 50 C
O N N O
34
26-63%
a: R = H b: R = CH2 OMe c: R = CH 2Cl

Scheme 13.8
Stable derivatives of the 1,2,3-oxadiazolidine ring system 35 are unknown.

O N N H H 35
13.2.3 Theoretical Aspects
Ab initio theoretical studies and semiempirical MNDO calculations [27], performed on 1,2,3-oxadiazoles, indicate that the heterocycle is too unstable to be isolated and predict a major stability for its tautomer the diazoacetaldehyde. MNDO calculations on substituted 1,2,3-benzoxadiazoles and the isomeric diazocyclohexadienones reach the same conclusion [10]. Ab initio methods have also been used to calculate the geometry and the energy of 4,5-dihydro-1,2,3-oxadiazole (22): the molecule is predicted to be unstable, its most favorable mode of decomposition being a retro 1,3-dipolar addition to diazomethane and formaldehyde [28]. Several theoretical studies have addressed the structure and aromaticity of sydnones [2034]. Sydnones could be regarded as aromatic because their structures could be represented as cyclic arrays of p-orbitals containing six p-electrons, with four from the CNN system and two from the lone pair on oxygen. However, sydnones are not a delocalized aromatic ring system, as conrmed by their chemical reactivity: the reactions of sydnones include both substitutions and additions
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j 13 Oxadiazoles
Semiempirical and ab initio calculations provide the same overall description of the bond lengths. The bond from C5 to the exocyclic oxygen atom is essentially a double bond, while the bonds O1N2, O1C5, and C4C5 are approximately single bonds. N2N3 and N3C4 are partial double bonds (36). On this basis, these compounds could be regarded as 1,3-dipolar azomethyne imines bearing a conjugative carbonyl group at C5 [29].
O
4 5 O1 N N 3 2
O O N N
36
37
X-Ray structural measurements conrm that the exocyclic CO bond is close in length to that of a normal carbonyl group [3538]. Therefore, according to the values of the net atomic charges on the ring, determined by semiempirical methods, the resonance structure 37 appears to be the best single representation. The large dipole moments of sydnones (>6 D) are consistent with their strongly polar character and the charge separation shown in structure 37 [29, 36]. Frontier orbital energies and coefcients for sydnones and for some substituted sydnones, performed by the MINDO/3 method, show that the HOMO is a pure p-orbital with a large coefcient on N2 and C4 (Figure 13.2) [29, 33]. On this basis, 1,3dipolar cycloadditions of sydnones to electron-decient alkenes should be controlled by the HOMO of the sydnone and the LUMO of the dipolarophile.
13.2.4 Structural Aspects
Structural parameters, IR spectra, ionization potentials, relative energies, isomerization barriers, and solvation energies have been calculated for sydnones and for the aromatic benzo-1,2,3-oxadiazole (prevalent tautomer in the gas phase) and zwitterionic 6-diazocyclohexa-2,4-dienone (prevalent tautomer in a polar solvent) molecules. The calculations indicate that unsubstituted 1,2,3-oxadiazole is unstable in all solvents [39].
-0.67 C
N + 0.59
-0.44 C
C N -0.56 C
HOMO
HOMO (- 8.48 eV)
LUMO (+ 0.37 eV)
C Z
LUMO
Figure 13.2 Frontier orbital energies and coefficients for sydnones and for some substituted sydnones show that the HOMO is a pure p-orbital with a large coefficient on N2 and C4.
j1055
13.2.4.1 X-Ray Diffraction Crystal structure data of several sydnones have been reported [34, 40]. The ring is nearly planar and the values for bond lengths are in the range illustrated in structure 38. The exocyclic carbonyl bond length is 1.21 A; the N2N3 and N3C4 bonds are somewhat shorter than a single bond, while the only CC bond present is longer than a double bond.
1.32-1.34 1.39-1.40 1.21-1.22 O N 1.31-1.32 N O 1.38-1.39 38
1.39-1.42
13.2.4.2 UV and IR Spectra UV and IR spectroscopy have afforded useful information in studies of the equilibrium between 1,2,3-benzoxadiazole and o-quinone diazide structures. The IR spectra of 1,2,3-benzoxadiazoles show absorptions at 1626, 1611, 1464, and 1457 cm1, whereas the isomeric quinone diazides show strong absorptions at 2090 and 1718 cm1 [41]. The UV spectrum of 1,2,3-benzoxadiazole in an argon matrix shows maxima at 201, 243, and 289 nm [10]. Carbonyl stretching frequencies of sydnones are in the range 17201790 cm1. Alkylsydnones show a single maximum at 290 nm in the UV spectrum. 13.2.4.3 NMR Spectra The 1 H and 13 C spectra of several sydnones and sydnonimines have been reported [42]. In accord with the dipolar structure 5, the H4 proton resonates upeld in the range 6.26.8 ppm. Analogously, for the strong deshielding effect of positively charged N3 atom, the 3-alkyl protons are shifted downeld (4.104.40 ppm) with respect to 4-alkyl protons (2.202.50 ppm). For 3-methylsydnone, the 14 N and 17 O spectra have also been determined and a complete set of chemical shift values for all the atoms have been reported [45]. The 13 C chemical shifts are reported on structures 39 and 40.
40.4 97.7 N O O 170.7 N Me 33.9 NC NC 109.8 Ph
N N O 174.2
39
40
1056
j 13 Oxadiazoles
According to a synthetic approach that allowed for the independent labeling of the nitrogen atoms (Section 13.2.5.1), the NMR chemical shift for each 15N has been determined unambiguously.
13.2.4.4 Mass Spectra Electron impact mass spectra of the sydnone ring are characterized by the loss of NO (M30) and CO (M28) fragments, which can occur consecutively or simultaneously. The fragment M-58 represents generally the base peak and the molecular ion is often distinguishable [44]. Reported CI spectra indicate the same pattern of fragmentation. In the fused sydnone 41, the initial loss of NO is followed by CO, HCN, acetylene, and nally Ph, as the principal fragment ion [45].
N N
41
13.2.4.5 Other Properties The highly polarized yet neutral electrical character and the high dipolar moments of sydnones have been exploited for the design of technologically interesting thermotropic liquid crystals (LCs) with properties between those of covalent and ionic LC. The molecular design, synthesis, and characterization of the rst examples of both classical and non-conventional chiral mesoionic (mesomeric ionic) liquid crystals derived from sydnones have been reported (Scheme 13.9) [46, 47].
F N O O R
F B(OH)2 57-61% R F F N N O O
Br
HO O O H2N N N O O ( )n O 87-92% R O O N HO N N O ( )n O R
Scheme 13.9
The occurrence of chiral smectic phases in these novel compounds was evidenced by optical microscopy, calorimetry, and X-ray studies.
j1057
A side-chain polysiloxane containing 3-(4-aminophenyl)sydnone moieties at terminal and aliphatic spacer has been prepared and its structure was conrmed by IR and NMR measurements. By introducing sydnone into polysiloxane, the polymer displays a high electrorheological effect due to the increased interaction between sydnone moieties [48].
13.2.5 Synthesis of 1,2,3-Oxadiazoles
The synthetic approach towards substituted 1,2.3-benzoxadiazoles is based on the synthesis of the tautomeric open-chain 6-diazo-1,2-cyclohexadienones [49, 50]. Thus, the diazotization of 2-aminophenols by treatment with sodium nitrite or isoamyl nitrite, followed by careful neutralization with potassium carbonate, afforded the diazoketones (Scheme 13.10), which is in equilibrium with the cyclic tautomer benzoxadiazole (42) (Section 13.2). An alternative route exploited the reaction of a substituted o-benzoquinone with tosyl hydrazine [43]. Naphthoxadiazole (43), stable in the solid state at 19 C, has been prepared according to this synthetic route.
NH2 R OH
1. NaNO 2 , HCl 2. K2CO 3 19-56% R O N2 R O 42 N N
O R O 1. TsNHNH 2 2. Al 2O3 28-65%
N R = Me, OMe, NO 2, CF 3 O 43
Scheme 13.10
13.2.5.1 Sydnones and Sydnonimines Despite extensive studies of the sydnone ring, practically only one general synthetic entry is available [51]. The method involves (a) nitrosation of amino acids to give 44; (b) formation of a mixed anhydride 45 and (c) cyclization to the sydnone ring 46 (Scheme 13.11). The nitrosation step has been carried out under neutral conditions, using isoamyl nitrite. Among the dehydrating agents, triuoroacetic anhydride gives the most rapid
1058
j 13 Oxadiazoles
O OH R2 23-63% R1 R
2
OH R N N O O 72-88%
H N R1
2 1N
OAc R1 O N O 23-76% O
R2 N N O 46
R1 = Me,Et, Ph, Bn R2 = Me,Ph, Bn

Scheme 13.11
44
45
results; thionyl chloride, phosphorus oxychloride, phosphoric anhydride, and carbodiimides have also been used successfully. The cyclization step can be aided by ultrasonic irradiation [52, 53]: in this way, functionalized 3-aryl sydnones have been prepared in good yields. A similar general method towards sydnonimines involves the nitrosation of the corresponding a-aminonitriles 47 and cyclization of the intermediate 48 (Scheme 13.12) [54]. Substituents can be introduced at the exocyclic nitrogen atom by normal methods in acidic or buffered solutions: sydnone imines are more stable in acid and less stable in base than sydnones.
Me
H N
O CHMe2 CN 47 HONO HCl 62% Me
N N
CHMe2 CN 48
dry HCl 68%
Me HN
Me N N O 49
Scheme 13.12
A three-component reaction of the Mannich type has been exploited to prepare 3-Nhydroxy- (50) and3-N-amino- (51)substituted sydnone imines (Scheme13.13) [5557].
13.2.5.2 4,5-Dihydro-1,2,3-Oxadiazolines Methods for the synthesis of the few reported compounds of this type have been described in Section 13.2.2. Scheme 13.14 describes the synthesis of 4,5dihyro-3-methyl-1,2,3-oxadiazolium tosylate (52) [58]. Accordingly, 5-alkoxy-substituted derivatives can be prepared by cyclization of 2,2-dialkoxy-N-methyl-Nnitrosoethylamines [59]. 13.2.6 Reactivity of 1,2,3-Oxadiazoles
With the exception of some benzo-fused derivatives and 4,5-dihydro-1,2,3-oxazolidinium salts, the chemistry of the 1,2,3-oxadiazole system is nearly conned to the mesoionic sydnones or sydnonimines.
H N N O R N CN dry HCl 23-67% HN
j1059
R O OH N N
RCHO + NH 3 OH + CN 16-92%
HO
R CN
HONO HO HCl 63-86%
50
R1 N O R2 N N CN
R CHO +
R1 N
NH 2
+ CN 17-56%
R1 N
R2 N H CN 57-82% R
R = Me, Ph, Bn R 1 = H, Me, Et, Ph R 2 = Me, Et, Ph, Bn R2 H2 N
16-72%
R N R1 N N O
51
Scheme 13.13
O Me
N N
heat OTs CH2 Cl2
Me N N O 52 83%
TsO
Scheme 13.14
13.2.6.1 Benzo-1,2,3-Oxadiazoles UV irradiation cleaves the benzoxadiazole ring to 2-diazocyclohexadienones: subsequent loss of nitrogen and Wolff rearrangement leads to ketene 53 (Scheme 13.15) [10]. The formation of 2-naphthol 54 and methyl indene-2-carboxylate 55 by irradiation of naphthoxadiazole 43 is amenable to the loss of nitrogen from the diazocarbonyl tautomer [60]. 13.2.6.2 4,5-Dihydro-1,2,3-Oxadiazoles The known chemistry is limited to 4,5-dihydro-3-methyl-1,2,3-oxadiazolinium salts. The cation reacts with nucleophiles at the methyl group (methylation of the nucleophile) or at C5, with opening of the ring. 13.2.6.3 Sydnones 13.2.6.3.1 General Aspects Sydnones are crystalline compounds that are sensitive to hydrolysis, especially in basic media where they are rapidly cleaved. The ring is also
1060
j 13 Oxadiazoles
..
O 76% 54 OH
N 43 O
N2 N O
C O 53
Scheme 13.15
MeOH 62% 55
CO2Me
cleaved by catalytic reduction and, oxidatively, by reaction with nitric acid, potassium permanganate, and other oxidants. The chemical reactivity of the sydnone system is displayed in ring cleavage reactions and in processes in which the ring system is retained such as substitution or addition reactions (at the 4-position). Substituents can be introduced into the 4-position by conventional electrophilic substitution or after metallation at C4. Standard transformation of functional groups at C4 of sydnone have also been investigated extensively and targeted to the synthesis of various 4-substituted sydnones. Sydnones can act as 1,3-dipoles in dipolar cycloaddition reactions.
13.2.6.3.2 Ring Cleavage Hydrolysis (Acid and Basic Ring Cleavage) The alkaline hydrolysis of sydnonimines (Scheme 13.16) proceeds through an experimentally ascertained third-order kinetics, and leads to ring cleavage that affords the nitrosonitrile 56 [61].
R
1
R N N O OH 13-46% R1 CN 56
R N N O
HN
R = Me, Ph R = Me, Et, Bn

Scheme 13.16
1
Acidhydrolysisofsydnones,whichoccursatelevatedtemperatures,hasbeenexploited as a synthetic path to alkyl- and arylhydrazines (Scheme 13.17) [6264].

Oxidative Ring Cleavage Ring cleavage of sydnones with oxygen in the dark affords a mixture of products; thus, oxidation of 3-phenylsydnone gives benzaldehyde, benzyl
j1061
R1 O
R N N O
H RNHNN 2 H2 O 41-59%
R = Ph, Pyridyl R1 = Me, Ph, Bn

Scheme 13.17
alcohol, and benzyl formate, while 3-benzyl-4-phenylsydnone affords benzyl phenylglyoxylate, benzyl benzoate, diphenylmethane, benzyl alcohol benzaldehyde, and benzoic acid (Scheme 13.18) [65].
Ph Ph O O N N O 8.3% O2 Ph O O
+ Ph
O O 29%
+ PhCH 2Ph + PHCH 2OH + PhCHO + PhCO 2H Ph
Ph 1.6% 3.4% 3.4% 54%
Scheme 13.18
The proposed mechanism, which implies radical intermediates, arises from an initial electron-transfer reaction of the sydnone with oxygen. Recombination of the radical ion with . O2 would lead to the hydroxyperoxy zwitterion 57, which could then cyclize at the 3- or 2-position to give 58 and 59, respectively. Further collapse of 58 and 59 afforded the obtained mixtures of compounds (Scheme 13.19). Oxidation with ozone of 4-methylsydnones leads to pyruvate esters (Scheme 13.20) [66].
Thermal and Photochemical Ring Cleavage Thermochemical and photoinduced decomposition of sydnones give different products as a function of the nature of substituents present in the ring. 3,4-Diarylsydnones lose carbon dioxide by UV irradiation or by ash photolysis and give transient nitrile imines, which can be intercepted by external or internal dipolarophiles [67, 68]. For example, the photochemically induced reaction of 3,4diphenylsydnone affords, in the presence of DMAD, the dimethyl 2,5-diphenylpyrazole-3,4,dicarboxylate (61) (Scheme 13.21), which originates from the loss of CO2 and the addition of the dipolarophile to the dipolar intermediate 60 (Scheme 13.21) [69]. In the thermochemically induced process, the addition of DMAD occurred rst to give 62, followed by elimination of carbon dioxide to form the dimethyl 1,5diphenylpyrazole-3,4-dicarboxylate 63. Alkenes and other trapping agents have been used to capture the dipolar nitrilimine [7072]. When 1,3-butadiene was used as a dipolarophile, 1,3-diphenyl-5-vinylpyrazole (64) was obtained, so conrming that 60 is the trapped fragment (Scheme 13.22) [73].
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j 13 Oxadiazoles
Ph O Ph N N O2 O O Ph Ph N N O
+
Ph O O
O N N O
57
O O
Ph
Ph O O N N O O 58
Ph
Ph
N N OCOPh
Ph
NO N O
N Ph
O O N O
59
CH2Ph Ph O
Ph
N O
COCOPh
PhCH2Ph + PhCH2OCOPh
PhCHO + PhCH2OCOCOPh
Scheme 13.19
Ph Me O N N O
O3
Ph N N OCOMe
- N2
Ph O
O COMe 16%
Scheme 13.20
O O Ph C N NPh Ph C N NPh 60 62 DMAD - CO2 Ph MeO2C N N Ph MeO2C 61 47%

Scheme 13.21
Ph O
Ph N N O
DMAD
Ph MeO2C
Ph N N CO2Me
MeO2C MeO2C N N Ph Ph 63 98%
j1063
Ph Ph O Ph N N O h Ph C N NPh Ph C N NPh 60
Scheme 13.22
58%
N N Ph 64
3-Aryl-4-[2-(2-vinylphenyl)ethenyl]sydnones undergo fast isomerization to the trans isomer and competitive photolysis of the sydnone moiety, giving the corresponding nitrile imine, which cannot react intramolecularly. In the presence of acrolein, a [3 2] cycloaddition takes place to give the trans-styrylpyrazoline derivative 65, which during isolation aromatizes to the pyrazoles 66 and 67 (Scheme 13.23) [74].
Ar Ar N N N N O O
Ar N N CHO CHO
h - CO2
65
Ar = Ph, Tolyl
Ar N N CHO N N Ar
66 10%
Scheme 13.23
67 30%
Nitrile imines have not been detected from 3-arylsydnones unsubstituted at C4; ESR techniques have, however, revealed the presence of the radical species 68, which originates from the photolysis of 3-phenylsydnone [75]. Nitrile imines have also been claimed as intermediates in the formation of triazole derivatives by photochemical decomposition of a sydnone in dioxane. By labeling the nitrogen atoms in 69, the mechanism for the formation of the triazole 71, based on 70 as key intermediate, has been supported (Scheme 13.24) [76]. The photosensitized oxidation of sydnones with singlet oxygen has also been reported to give a mixture of products. In the presence of Rose Bengal as a sensitizer, singlet oxygen adds to a sydnone as a dipolarophile. The identication of benzoic acid and dibenzoylphenylhydrazine among the reaction products has been rationalized on the basis of two simultaneous reaction pathways (Scheme 13.25) [77].
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j 13 Oxadiazoles
Ph N N O 68 Ph Ph O N 15 N O 69 Ph h Ph C N NPh
15
Ph
Ph
NPh N15 15 N N Ph 45%
70
Ph PhN Ph +
15 N
PhNH2
N15 N Ph 71
Scheme 13.24
Ph Ph N N O 69 Ph Ph h O2 , Sens. O O N O N O Ph - CO2 O O N N Ph
Ph N N OCOPh
Ph O
H N
Ph PhCO 2 H 10%
COPh
44%
Scheme 13.25
Several sydnones develop a color when irradiated by UV light; for instance, a blue color has been observed by irradiation of the 3-(3-pyridyl)sydnone. The phenomenon has been explained through the formation of diketene 72, which has been identied as the blue species [78].
j1065
C N N 72
NO
13.2.6.3.3 Nucleophilic Substitution at C4 Replacement reactions at C4 in sydnones have been reviewed. Butyllithium has been exploited to displace the bromine atom from a 3-phenylsydnone [46b]: the resulting organometallic compound has been carbonylated, added to ketones and converted into a silyl derivative [79]. Grignard compounds have also been prepared from 3-bromosydnones, and subsequently reacted with ketones to give the corresponding alcohols (Table 13.1) [80]. Metallation reactions have been exploited as a synthetic tool for effecting electrophilic substitution at C4 (Section 13.2.6.3.4) [81]. 13.2.6.3.4 Electrophilic Substitution at C4 Electrophiles can be directly introduced at C4 in the sydnone ring. Table 13.2 summarizes a series of such reactions reported in literature [82, 83]. With 4-unsubstituted 3-alkyl- or 3-phenylsydnones, substitution occurs only at the electron-rich C4, while when aryl substituents are present at C3 the position of the electrophilic attack depends upon the nature of the aryl group, Exclusive aryl ring nitration occurs with electron donors on the aryl group [84]. Thus, 3-(2-aminophenyl) sydnone is brominated in the benzene ring para to the amino group [85] while the nitration of 3,4-diphenylsydnone affords the 4-nitrophenyl derivative. As further
Table 13.1 Nucleophilic replacement reactions at C4 in sydnones.
X O O
Ph
Reagent A O
Y O
Ph
Z Reagent B O O
N N
Ph
60-84%
X Br, H Reagent A BuLi Y Li Reagent B CO2 COCl2 MeCOCHMe2 I2 Ac2O RCHO NaBH4 Z COOH (CO)1/2 MeC(OH)CHMe2 I COMe CH(OH)R H
Br
Mg, ether, MeI
MgBr
SMe
H2O2
SO2Me
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j 13 Oxadiazoles
Table 13.2 Electrophilic replacement reactions at C4 in sydnones.
Ph N O
Reagent (a) Br2, ether, NaHCO3 (b) HONO2 HOSO3H, O C (c) SO3 (dioxane) (d) ClSO3H H3PO4 (e) Ac2O BF3 (ether) (f) HCONMe2 POCl3 (g) Hg(OAc)2 (h) DMSO AcCl
Y 80-90% O
Ph N O N
Y Br NO2 SO3H SO2Cl COMe CHO HgOAc SMe
examples, the sydnone ring is brominated in preference to a pyrazolyl system at C3, while nitration of 3-methyl-4-phenyl sydnone affords the 4-nitrophenyl substituted derivative. Intramolecular electrophilic substitutions at C4 provide a route to fused sydnones such as 73 [86] and 74 [87].
N N N O 73 O O HN N N O 74
ArHN O
Electrophiles have also been introduced at the 4-position through organometallic derivatives. 4-Lithio intermediates [46b] (Section 13.2.6.3.3) have been used to introduce several S, Se, and Te electrophiles [88, 89], and also formyl or acetyl substituents (Scheme 13.26) [90]. This strategy has been exploited for the synthesis of 3-amino-4-benzoylsydnone (75), the rst example of a sydnone containing an amino group at C3 [91].
N O
H N
Ph a. 2 BuLi b. PhCOCl 76% Ph O
ON
N N
H N
Ph NBS 85% Ph O
O N N N
Ph HCl
Ph O O NH2 N N 75
87% O
Scheme 13.26
j1067
Vinyl and aryl substituents at C4 have been introduced by means of other organometallic species. Thus, the reaction of 4-lithio-3-phenylsydnone with copper(I) bromide affords the stable copper derivative 76, which gives palladium (0)-catalyzed coupling to iodobenzenes and vinyl bromides [92]. The reaction of the lithium intermediate with copper(II) bromide leads to the dimer 77 (Scheme 13.27).
Ph Cu O O 76 CuBr2 Ph Ph BrCH=CHPh Pd(Ph3)4 86% O O N N Ph
N O O N
a. BuLi b. CuBr
N N
O Ph O N N
N N O
ClHg O O
N N
Ph
Br(PPh3)2M O O
N N
Ph
Ph O 77
78 M=Pd, Pt
79
Scheme 13.27
Various 4-arylethynyl sydnones have been prepared in good yields by the reaction of 4-bromo-3-phenylsydnone with aryl acetylenes under palladium catalysis [93]. Chloromercuro derivatives 78 have also been used in Heck coupling reactions with vinyl halides, and sydnones with platinum or palladium substituents 79 have been prepared from 4-bromo-3-phenylsydnone and M(PPh)3 [94].
13.2.6.3.5 Reactions of Substituents Standard transformations occur in various functional groups present on the sydnone ring. Thus, 3-phenylsydnone-4-carboxylic acids can be easily converted into the corresponding esters, amides, and hydrazides; tertiary alcohols can be dehydrated to alkenes and ketones can be condensed with benzaldehyde. Aldehyde 80 can be converted into the corresponding (E)- and (Z)alkenes by a Wittig reaction (Scheme 13.28) [95].
OHC N O O 80
Me + ArCH2 PPh 3 Br DMSO NaH
Ar N O O Me
56-90%
Scheme 13.28
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j 13 Oxadiazoles
Sydnonyl-substituted a,b-unsaturated ketones have been synthesized by ClaisenSchmidt condensation of 4-acetyl-3-arylsydnones with aryl aldehydes. An easy, eco-friendly synthetic version has also been reported that involves grinding 4acetyl-3-aylsydnones with aryl aldehydes in a mortar [96]. Further reaction of sydnonyl-substituted a,b-unsaturated ketones with hydrazine hydrate afforded sydnonyl-substituted pyrazolines 81, which possess useful applications in medicine (Scheme 13.29) [97].
H R1 O N N O R = Me, Et, Ph, Bn R 1 = Me, OMe, NO 2

Scheme 13.29
R H NH2-NH 2. H 2O 22-76%
R1
N N N O 81
H N
Moreover, the reaction of 3-aryl-2-bromo-1-sydnonylpropenones with 3-arylaminomethyl-4-amino-5-mercapto-1,2,4-triazoles gives 3-arylaminomethyl-6-(3-arylsydnon-4-yl)-8-aryl-1,2,4-triazolo[3,4-b][1,3,4]thiadiazepines 82 with antibacterial activity (Scheme 13.30) [98].
R N N N N N O O 82 R1 R = Me, OMe, CF3 R1 = Me, OMe, NO2
R1 O Ar S N NH
N O
N O + N N Br
Ar 23-67% H N
HS
N NH2
Scheme 13.30
4-Aryl-3-formylsydnones can be easily converted into their oximes, from which other functionalized sydnones such as the nitrile 83 [99] and the nitrile oxide 84 [100] can be obtained.
j1069
O N Ar N O O N O O N N N Ar
83
84
The reaction of 3-aryl-4-carbohydroximic acid chlorides with hydrazine hydrate gives hydrazino(3-arylsydnon-4-yl)methanone oximes, which by reaction with aldehydes are good precursors of 4-triazolyl-sydnones (85, Scheme 13.31) [101].
Cl Ar N N O
N O
OH NH2-NH2 H2O
.
H2NHN Ar N N O
N O
OH
Ar = Ph, Tolyl, MeOC6H4, EtOC6H4 R = C5H11, C6H13, C6H11, Ph, Tolyl, 4-ClC6H4, 2-furyl, 2-thienyl
36-88%
RCHO N NH
Ar
N N O
N O 85
Scheme 13.31
4-Formylsydnones undergo reduction, Claisen condensation with acetophenone, and condensation with nitroalkanes and active methylene compounds. Thus, the Knoevenagel reaction of 3-aryl-4-formylsydnones affords multifunctional derivatives [102]. 3-Aryl-4-formylsydnone-40 -phenyl-thiosemicarbazones and 30 aryl-4-formylthiosemicarbazones 86 react with ethyl chloroacetates, ethyl 2-chloroacetoacetate, and 2-bromoacetophenone to produce heterocyclic substituted sydnone derivatives 87ac that possess 4-oxo-thiazolidine and thiazoline groups (Scheme 13.32) [103]. The antioxidant activity of the synthesized compounds was evaluated. Among these compounds, 4-methyl-2-[(3-arylsydnon-4-yl-methylene)hydrazono]-2,3-dihydro-thiazole-5-carboxylic acid ethyl ester and 4-phenyl-2-[(3-arylsydnon-4-yl-methylene) hydrazono]-2,3-dihydro-thiazoles exhibit potent DPPH (1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl) radical scavenging activity, comparable to that of vitamin E. A suitable substituent at C4 can be used as a temporary blocking group to allow reaction to take place at another side of the sydnone. For example, 4-acetyl-
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O Cl O C2H5 Ar H N O N 80, 27-35h 52-68% H N O N H O S NHR O Ar N N O 87b H N O N N N O 87a H N O N O S N R OC2H5 Me S N R O
Ar
N N O 86
OC2H5 Cl 80, 20-24h 40-47% O Br
Ar
0, 8-19h 48-57% R = Ph, H

Scheme 13.32
N N O 87c
S N R
Ar = Ph, Tolyl, MeOC6H4, EtOC6H4
or 4-formyl-3-phenylsydnones can be nitrated in the aromatic ring (in the meta position) and subsequently the acyl group can be removed under basic conditions. Similarly, a thioether group at C4 can be removed by oxidation to sydnone sulfone and subsequent reduction with sodium borohydride.
13.2.6.3.6 1,3-Dipolar Cycloaddition Reactions Sydnones can be regarded as cyclic azomethine imines and as such they undergo thermal cycloaddition reactions with a range of dipolarophiles. As previously discussed (Section 13.2.6.3.2), on photolysis 3,4-diaryl-sydnones lose carbon dioxide and afford transient nitrile imines, which can be trapped by alkynes to give pyrazole derivatives. Thermal reactions with acetylenic dipolarophiles also lead to pyrazoles by spontaneous loss of carbon dioxide from the cycloadducts. According to this reaction route, a series of 5-halopyrazoles (89) with potential pharmacological activity has been synthesized in good yields by 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition of 4-halogenated sydnones 88 with dimethyl acetylenedicarboxylate (DMAD) (Scheme 13.33) [104].
Me X N O O DMAD 80-82% Me Me X N N 89 O O OMe OMe
N 88
Me
X = Cl, Br, I
Scheme 13.33
j1071
R N N O 90
Z 79-90% + Z 91 Z = CHO, CH2OH CO 2 Me N R
CO 2Me N +
MeO 2C N R 93
Z N
40:60 72:28
R = Ph, PhCH 2
Scheme 13.34
92
With unsymmetrical alkynes 91, the cycloaddition reactions of sydnones 90 rarely show a good regioselectivity (Scheme 13.34) [105]. With monosubstituted alkenes bearing conjugative electron-withdrawing groups, the regioselectivity of the reaction is that predicted by frontier orbital analysis (Figure 13.2), that is, with the carbon bearing the electron-withdrawing group next to nitrogen. The obtained products are usually dihydropyrazoles or pyrazoles formed by oxidation of the intermediate dihydropyrazoles. The unstable species formed by loss of carbon dioxide are also azomethine ylides: thus, in the reaction of 3-phenylsydnone with N-phenylmaleimide, a second dipolar cycloaddition reaction can take place (Scheme 13.35) [106].
O Ph O N N O + N Ph O -CO2 Ph- N N
O N Ph O O N Ph O
O Ph N O 76%
O N Ph N Ph N O
(exo, exo and exo, endo)

Scheme 13.35
The tandem 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition between sydnones and 1,5-cyclooctadiene afforded 9,10-diazatetracyclo[6.3.0.0.4,110.5,9]undecanes (Weintraub reaction) [107].
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13.2.7 Important Compounds and Applications
1,2,3-Oxadiazole derivatives show a wide range of biological activities. In particular, two most important and studied compounds are the sydnonimines molsidomine (94) and sydnocarb (95).
O N N O N N O N N N O Ar
N O OEt 94
NHPh 95
Molsidomine (94), endowed with very low toxicity, has a long-term effect in vasodilation, thus exerting a positive effect in cases of ischemic heart diseases. In combination with the b-blocker propanolol, molsidamine has shown a high efcacy for the treatment of portal hypotension [108]. Molsidomine is also used in treating angina pectoris [109]. The pharmacological activity is correlated to the formation of a metabolite, the N-morpholino-N-nitrosoaminoacetonitrile, which acts as a nitric oxide donor (Scheme 13.36) [110].
O N N O HO OH O O N N O
OH OH O HO OH
Scheme 13.36
OHOH OH
-galactosidase
NO
Accordingly, to achieve site-specic delivery of nitric oxide (NO), a new class of glycosidase activated NO donors has been developed, in which glucose, galactose, and N-acetylneuraminic acid were covalently coupled to 3-morphorlinosydnonimine, via a carbamate linkage at the anomeric position [111]. The b-glycosides were successfully prepared for these conjugates, while the a-glycosidic compounds were very unstable. The new stable sugarNO conjugates could release NO in the presence of glycosidases (Scheme 13.37). Such NO prodrugs may be used as enzymeactivated NO donors in biomedical research. With analogous aim, conjugates of cephalosporin with 3-morpholinosydnonimine have been designed and evaluated [112]. The obtained compounds demonstrated promising b-lactamase dependent NO releasing ability.
R1 OAc O OH OAc b) 28-90% R1 OH R2 HO O OH O O O
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NO 2
R2 AcO
R1 OAc O OAc OAc
a) 90-92%
R2 AcO
R 1 = H, OAc, R 2 = H, OAc
c) 35-100%
H 2N
N N O N Cl O N N
R1 OH R2 HO O OH O O N
N O
a) BnNH 2, THF, rt, 30h; b) p-NO 2 C6 H4 OCOCl, Et 3N, CH2 Cl2, rt, 4.5h; c) pyridine, rt, 12h.
Scheme 13.37
Sydnocarb acts on the central nervous system and has been used as a psychostimulant and an antidepressive. Nitrososydnonimines 96 and 97 showed potent antithrombotic activity [113, 114].
Me O N N Me(H 2C)4 H 2C NO N NO N O N N CH 2(CH 2) 4Me
N O N
N N O 96
97
A series of derivatives 98 and 99 prepared by manipulation of the carboxylic group of 3-(3-carboxyphenyl)- and 3-(3-carboxyphenyl)sydnones, or by ClaisenSchmidt condensation of 3-(4-acetylphenyl)sydnone with aldehydes or malononitrile, showed high antibacterial activity against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative organisms [115].
H N R O 98 R = H, EtO, Ac, CO 2H, CO2 Et O O N N O O R1 O N N H 99 N N O O
R 1 = Ph, 2-Furyl, 4-Cl-C 6 H4 , 4-NO 2-C6 H4 , 2-Cl-4-NO2-C6 H 3
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HN CO2 H ON N CO2 H X NO 2 NO2 X CH 3CH2 CH3 CH2 N R N O2 N N N O O X NO2 O2 N N N O O
NH 2
X=
100 45-76%
N
Scheme 13.38
A series of 40 -substituted-30 -nitrophenylsydnones 100 have been synthesized (Scheme 13.38) and evaluated [116, 117] for anticancer activity and it was found that the 40 -chloro, 40 -uoro and 40 -pyrrolidino compounds signicantly enhanced the survival of Sarcoma 180 (S180), Ehrlich carcinoma (Ehrlich), and Fibrous histiocytoma (B10MCII) tumor bearing mice. Many other sydnones have been tested for antioxidant, antimicrobial, antifungal, analgesic, anti-inammatory, and antipyretic activities [118]. 4-Styrylcarbonyl-3-phenylsydnone derivatives 101 and 102 showed activity similar to that of aspirin, at the same dosage [119].
Ph N N O COCH=CH O 101 NO2 Ph N N O COCH=CH O 102
The chemistry of 1,2,4-oxadiazoles 103 has been extensively reported [120]. Research on this class of heterocycles has registered great interest in medicinal chemistry. Many derivatives possess diverse biological activities [121123]. Some 1,2,4-oxadiazoles can reduce pain and inammation in rats and mice [124, 125]; for example, N-[3-aryl-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl-methyl]phthalimides have been found to be analgesic, and one of them, namely, N-[3-phenyl-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl-methyl]phthalimide, possesses highly enhanced analgesic activity compared to aspirin [124].
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N O N
103
Furthermore, the 1,2,4-oxadiazole ring has been exploited as a peptidomimetic, as a stable ester and amide isostere; specic 1,2,4-oxadiazoles have been used as inhibitors in several biological systems [126, 127]. In particular, numerous papers deal with applications of the soluble guanylyl cyclase inhibitor 1H-[1,2,4]-oxadiazole[4,3-a] quinoxalin-1-one (ODQ) (104) and with applications of the neuroexcitatory quisqualic acid (105), the only naturally occurring 1,2,4-oxadiazole known hitherto [128].
O N N O N
HN O
O N
NH3 CO2
104
105
Partially or fully saturated 1,2,4-oxadiazoles (106109) have also been reported. In particular, 4,5-dihydro-1,2,4-oxadiazoles 106 have been evaluated very little for biological activities compared to 1,2,4-oxadiazoles, but some of them have shown interesting pharmacological results. For example, some are fungicides [129, 130], and other 3,4,5-triaryl-4,5-dihydro-1,2,4-oxadiazoles demonstrated bronchodilator, anticholinergic, hypertensive, analgesic, anti-inammatory, diuretic, antiulcer, vasodilatatory, and sedative properties [131]. Some 4-adamantyl-5-aryl-3-phenyl-1,2,4oxadiazolines have been evaluated in vitro for antiviral activity against human immunodeciency virus (HIV), where the 5-phenyl substituent produced a reduction of more than 50% of viral cytopathic effects [132]. The present chapter updates the previous work and reviews the literature published since, with reference to new advances, preparations, reactions, and uses.
N O N
106
N O N
N O N
N O N
107
108
109
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13.3.1 Structure
The 1,2,4-oxadiazole ring is planar and described as having little aromatic character [133] lower than furan on the Bird index [134]. Dipole moments and Kerr constants of certain oxadiazoles seem to indicate some ability of the ring oxygen atom to donate p electrons into the ring. This heterocyclic system has an appreciable heterodiene character, as suggested by X-ray analysis, which indicates, for both CN distances, conjugated double bond character. The low aromaticity manifests itself by allowing rearrangement to more thermodynamically stable ring systems, thus making 1,2,4-oxadiazoles good substrates for ring-to-ring transformations [135]. The ring of 4,5-dihydro-1,2,4-oxadiazoles, according to CNDO/2 calculations, is nonplanar, adopting an envelope conformation with one atom sitting above the plane described by the four others, and, in contrast to the 1,2,4-oxadiazole ring, it is quite polar [136]. The parent compound 103 is an extremely volatile liquid, very soluble in water and organic solvents, but it is unstable at room temperature. 3,5-Dialkyl and 3,5-diaryl 1,2,4-oxadiazoles are thermally stable and do not hydrolyze by treatment with aqueous sodium hydroxide or hydrochloric acid. In contrast, 103 and monosubstituted oxadiazoles 110 and 111 are thermally and hydrolytically markedly less stable (Scheme 13.39) [137].
Me N MeOCN + MeCN O N Me
NH2 NOH
HCO2H
110
Me O
H N
N CN Me O N Me
NH2 NOH
MeCO2H
111
Scheme 13.39
Tautomerism of 3- and 5-hydroxy, 3- and 5-amino, and 3- and 5-sulfur analogues has been recently reviewed [138]. In 5-hydroxy-3-phenyl-1,2,4-oxadiazole (112a), the keto forms 112b and 112c predominate according to NMR data [139]. The tautomer 113b is more important in the 5-phenyl isomer in solution, but in acetone and oxygenated solvents 113a allows for an effective hydrogen bonded dimer 114 (Figure 13.3).
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Ph N HO O N O O HN
Ph N N O O
Ph N H
112a
112b
112c
OH N Ph O N Ph
H N O
O N N Ph O
O NH
113a
113b
113c
N Ph O
O H N N H O 114a
O N
O Ph Ph N N H O
H N O O 114b N
Ph
Figure 13.3 Tautomerism exhibited by hydroxy derivatives.
In aminooxadiazole derivatives the tautomeric imino form 115b is less signicant, since 115a is more basic; in the corresponding sulfur analog there is only evidence for the thione form 116 with the hydrogen at N2.
N H2N O Ph N HN HN Ph NH O Ph N
115a N S O
115b
116
Interestingly, the 5-aryl-4,5-dihydro-1,2,4-oxadiazole 117a undergoes formal tautomerism with the 4-aryl-1,3-diaza-1,3-butadiene 117b, which in turn can undergo ring closure with loss of water to form the quinoxaline 118 (Scheme 13.40) [140].
Theoretical studies on the structure and properties of 1,2,4-oxadiazoles have been reported. Semiempirical (PM3 and AM1) and ab initio molecular orbital
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Ph Ph HN Me O N Me 117b N N OH Ph Ac2O N N Ph
117a
Scheme 13.40
118
calculations have been performed for diaryl-1,2,4-oxadiazoles and 4,5-dihydro1,2,4-oxadiazoles to determine bond orders, total energies, ionization potentials, and dipole moments [141]. In particular, ab initio molecular calculations give values close to those obtained by crystallographic techniques and NMR spectroscopy. Proton afnities and pKa values of amino-substituted oxadiazoles have been calculated [142]. INDO studies on 3-phenyl-1,2,4-oxadiazole and its 5-methyl analog suggest that nucleophilic attack should occur on C3 and C5 [143]. In connection with pharmacological structureactivity relationships, semiempirical and ab initio molecular orbital calculations have been reported for a series of analgesic compounds, leading to new suggestions for their mechanism of activity [120, 144]. A new model of interaction between the drug and the enzyme has been proposed that involves an electron transfer from the amino acid residue of the enzyme to the drug. A theoretical study of photoinduced ring-isomerization of 3-amino-5-methyl- and 3-amino-5-phenyl-1,2,4-oxadiazoles has been reported. The results agree well with experimental data and explain the ring-photoisomerization into the corresponding 2amino-1,3,4-oxadiazoles through a ring contractionring expansion route [145] (see Scheme 13.19 in 1,3,4-oxadiazoles). On the same basis a theoretical study of degenerate BoultonKatritzky rearrangements concerning the anion of the 3-formylamino-1,2,4-oxadiazole has been carried out by using semiempirical MNDO and ab initio HartreeFock procedures [146]. A combined kinetic and theoretical study of the monocyclic rearrangements of the (Z)-hydrazone of 3-benzoyl-5-phenyl-1,2,4-oxadiazole into the corresponding triazole (Scheme 13.41) has been investigated at the DFT level [147]. The synthetic approach towards 1,2,4-oxadiazoles, based on the BH3- or BF3mediated cycloaddition of benzonitrile oxide to nitriles, has been investigated theoretically according to quantum chemical methods (MP2 and B3LYP) together with a topological analysis of the charge density (Section 13.3.4.2) [148]. Activation by the Lewis acid occurs via two different mechanisms: if the Lewis acid is coordinated to the nitrile oxide, the reactant is activated, so that the reaction is expected to be catalytic. If the Lewis acid is coordinated to the nitrile and strong enough, the process requires a stoichiometric amount of Lewis acid and forms a stable Lewis acidproduct complex.
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R2 N N R1 O N
NHR 3
R1 HN
O R2 N
N R3
119 R 1 = Ph, H
Scheme 13.41
120 R 2 = Ph R 3 = Ph, 2,4-NO 2-C6 H 3
13.3.3 Structural Aspects 13.3.3.1 X-Ray Diffraction X-Ray data of many 1,2.4-oxadiazoles conrms that the ring is planar [149154]. Values of CN bond lengths are consistent with a heterodiene character and account for the low aromaticity of the system. Table 13.3 shows the reported bond lengths and bond angles for methyl 2-[3-(4-methylphenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl]benzoate (121), a compound used as spacer in the synthesis of a potential non-peptide angiotensin receptor antagonist [155].
Table 13.3 Molecular dimensions for methyl 2-[3-(4-methylphenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl]benzoate
(121).
Me
11
N
6
12
CO2Me 121
( ) 103.51 114.10 102.83 113.30 106.25
Bonds O1N2 N2C3 C3N4 N4C5 C5O1
Distances (A) 1.415 1.310 1.325 1.298 1,347
Bond angles O1N2C3 N2C3N4 C3N4C5 N4C5O1 C5O1N2
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The 3,5-diphenyl-oxadiazole fragment is almost coplanar. The angles between the planes of the rings C5N4/C6C7 and C5N4/C11C12 are 11.13 and 2.28 , respectively. The phenyl rings are tilted to the same side with respect to the oxadiazole ring and the angle between them is 8.86 . An interesting aspect of the crystal structure is the presence of two weak CHO bonds between two neighboring molecules in the same layer. Each molecule behaves as both donor and acceptor, leading to a dimer formation [155]. Crystal structures for a series of 2,3-dihydro-1,2,4-oxadiazoles have been reported [156158]. The 4,5-dihydro-1,2,4-oxadiazole ring in compounds 122 [156] and 123 [151] are in an envelope conformation, with the oxygen atom above the plane occupied by other atoms.
Me H MeO2 C H N O N Me H O N O N
122
123
Yu and coworkers have reported the preparation and spectroscopic and X-ray diffraction studies of two diastereoisomeric D2-1,2,4-oxadiazolines (124, showing the assigned conguration of the diastereoisomer) having a spiral junction at C3 of fructopyranose. These compounds show extensive applications as drugs [159, 160].
Me Me H O O N H O O N Ac 124 Me Me
According to the biological activities of 1,2,4-oxadiazole derivatives, the combination of an oxadiazole moiety with a sugar framework has been performed. Unsaturated glycosides having an 1,2,4-oxadiazole part as an aglycone, 125 and 126, have been reported [153]: crystallographic data, providing precise information regarding the conguration at C8 and also about the molecular conformation, have shown that compound 125 has a torsion angle H(15)C(15)C(10)H(10) of 43.2 , which clearly shows that the anomeric proton is disposed equatorially. The ring oxygen atom is a little above the C(10)-C(15)-C(14)-C(13) plane; the C(12) atom is slightly below this plane. The p-tolyl ring and the 1,2,4-oxadiazole rings are coplanar [torsion angle N(2)C(3)C(16)C(17)Z10.618 ]. The bond distances C(13)C(12) and C(12)O(11) are 1.54 and 1.43 A, respectively.
25 24 13
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OAc
12 11
OAc
23
O H
10
O H AcO O Me H O N
AcO
14
15
O
9 6
H
8 7 5
Me
N
4 17 18 22
O1 N 2
21 20
16
Me
19
Me 126
125
Based on the recent observation that Pt(II) mono- and bis-1,2,4-oxadiazoline complexes exhibit in vitro cytotoxicity against a series of platinum-sensitive and resistant human cancer cell lines, with a potency comparable to that of cisplatin and superior to carboplatin [161], a series of PtX2(nitrile)(oxadiazoline) (127) and PtX2 bis-1,2,4-oxadiazoline (128) complexes have been prepared.
R2 Pt N N X X R1 N O Me R2 Pt N N X O R2 N 1 Me R 128 X R1 N O Me
Me
127
13.3.3.2 NMR Spectroscopy Protons on the 1,2,4-oxadiazole ring are shifted downeld with respect to protons in benzene, according to the electron deciency of the heterocyclic ring. In the parent compound 103, the signal for the C3 proton is at 8.99 ppm, while the C5 proton resonates at 9.49 ppm. The presence of an alkyl or aryl substituent shifts the resonance upeld; for 3-phenyl-1,2,4-oxadiazole, the H5 in CCl4 is at 8.70 ppm [120]. Resonances for H5 of 4-unsubstituted 5-alkyl-4,5-dihydro-1,2,4-oxadiazoles appear at 5.45.7 ppm [125, 162]. Chemical shifts for H5 of 5-alkyl-2,5-dihydro-1,2,4-oxadiazoles have been found at 6.16.3 ppm [163]. For 3-substituted 2,3-dihydro-1,2,4-oxadiazoles, the H3 shift is in the range 5.76.2 and 7.27.6 ppm, according to the presence of N-alkyl or N-aryl substituents, respectively [164]. Many fully assigned 13C data for C3/C5 disubstituted 1,2,4-oxadiazoles have been reported [165168]. C3 resonances are in the range 148169, while chemical shifts for
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Table 13.4
13
C NMR shifts (ppm) for C3/C5-disubstituted 1,2,4-oxadiazoles 129132. 129 148.6 164.1 CD3CN 130 168.8 174.7 CDCl3 131 176.9 182.7 CDCl3 132 169.3 173.4 DMSO
1,2,4-Oxadiazole C3 C5 Solvent
Me
Me N O 131 N O furanose N
NC N O N
N O 129
CN N
N O N
130
132
C5 are downeld, in the range 165185 ppm. Table 13.4 summarizes the data for oxadiazoles 129132.
13.3.3.3 UV and IR Spectroscopy UV spectra of aryl-substituted 1,2,4-oxadiazoles have been reported [162, 169]; nonaryl 1,2,4-oxadiazoles have no UV absorption. UV and uorescence spectra of Cu(II) complexes of 5-(2-hydroxyphenyl)-3-phenyl-1,2,4-oxadiazole (133) have been reported [170]: Cu (II) binds to monodentate oxadiazole via N4 and the OH group in a 2 : 1 complex. A detailed IR analysis exists for the parent compound and a series of fully conjugated 1,2,4-oxadiazoles [162]. Diagnostic absorptions are at 15901560 (CN), 11191218 (CO) and 895910 (NO) cm1 [171, 172]. For 4,5-dihydro-1,2,4oxadiazole 134, the C N absorption is shifted to around 1600 cm1 [162, 173]. 2,3-Dihydro-1,2,4-oxadiazoles exhibit a nC N between 1670 and 1676 cm1 [156, 183], while in 2,5-dihydro the same absorption is at 16221640 cm1 [162, 173].
Ph OH N O N Ar HN N H O R1 134
133
13.3.3.4 Mass Spectrometry The diagnostic fragmentation pattern of 1,2,4-oxadiazoles is a 1,3-dipolar cycloreversion process, which proceeds via initial cleavage of the 1,5 (CO) and 3,4 (CN)
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bonds: the positive charge is retained in the predominant nitrile oxide fragment (Scheme 13.42) [175, 176].
-CN R1 N R2 O N -R2CN O R1 R1 N N C O R1=Ar

Scheme 13.42
R1
R1
-CO
The nitrile oxide fragment itself fragments further, either by expulsion of oxygen to give a nitrile, which may then lose a CN fragment, or via rearrangement and expulsion of CO. A recent review reports a detailed mass spectrometric analysis of a series of 1,2,4oxadiazoles and 4,5-dihydro-1,2,4-oxadiazoles [177]. The fragmentation mode of the latter compounds differs from that of 1,2,4-oxadiazoles. For example, the electron impact dissociation of compounds 135 is reported in Scheme 13.43.
a) Ph a) R O N 135
Scheme 13.43
PhCHO Ph b) R Ph N O + MeCN
PhCO
Ph N b) Me
H2 C C N
13.3.4 Synthesis
Many synthetic routes for the 1,2,4-oxadiazole system have been reported [120]. 1,2,4Oxadiazoles can be achieved from open-chain precursors through conventional heterocyclization reactions: the best represented approach exploits the cyclodehydration of O-acyl-amidoximes, a method rst used by Tiemann and Kruger [178], or N-acylamidoximes, a method developed by Beckmann and Sandel (amidoxime route) [179]. Another different general synthetic route is based on the 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition of nitrile oxides to nitriles, developed by Leandri (cycloaddition route) [180].
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13.3.4.1 Amidoxime Route 13.3.4.1.1 Cyclization of O-Acylamidoximes According to the most represented route, 1,2,4-oxadiazoles 138 can be prepared by cyclization of O-acylamidoximes 137, which are obtained from the appropriate amidoxime 136 (easily prepared by reaction of the corresponding nitrile with hydroxylamine) and an acylating reagent [120] (generally acyl halides [181, 182], esters [183], or anhydrides [184]) (Scheme 13.44).
O RCN NH2 OH R NOH NH2 136 R1 Cl R1 H2 N O O N R
17-91% R1
N O N
R 1 = R 2 = Alkyl, aryl
Scheme 13.44
137
138
The cyclization of O-acylamidoximes is performed by heating them at their melting point [185], or at reux in a high-boiling solvent (DMF [186], toluene [187], pyridine [188], ethanol [189], acetonitrile [190], glacial acetic acid at reux) [191, 192], eventually in the presence of a dehydrating agent (phosphorous pentoxide, phosphorus oxychloride, or acetic anhydride). The experimental conditions required to realize the ring closure of the corresponding O-acylamidoximes vary as a function of their structures. In some cases, depending on the substrates, the cyclodehydration reaction occurs under the same conditions as the acylation reaction and the open-chain intermediate is not isolated. An efcient one-pot method based on the reaction of nitriles with hydroxylamine hydrochloride in the presence of magnesia-supported sodium carbonate, followed by reaction with acyl halides under solvent-free conditions and microwave irradiation, has been reported [193a]. The use of microreactors (microuidic chips) as an alternative to in ask chemistry has been exploited for a rapid synthesis of bissubstituted 1,2,4-oxadiazoles from aryl nitriles and acyl chlorides or succinic anhydride in a single continuous microreactor sequence. In this way, a multiday, multistep sequence has been amended to a highly efcient procedure lasting less than 30 min (Scheme 13.45) [193b]. Cyclization can be performed under mild conditions if the weak nucleophilic amide group is converted into the more nucleophilic amide ion. Thus, 1,2,4oxadiazoles 140 have been obtained by treatment of 139 with DBU at 70 C [205]. A signicant advance is the use of TBAF at room temperature as a cyclization media, a process that occurs in high yields in the presence of 0.11 eq of TBAF, with the uoride ion acting as both a homogeneous and strongly basic reagent (Scheme 13.46) [194, 195]. A wide variety of carboxylic acid derivatives can be used for the formation of Oacylated amidoximes, such as esters [196], acid chlorides [152, 154, 171, 175, 187, 197],
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R N
O ArCN or Het-CN NH 2OH R NOH NH 2 136 R = Ar, Het R1 Cl R1 H2 N O O N R 45-63% R1 N O
137
138
N R N N N
N N F
OMe
R1 CN
O O O
Scheme 13.45
H2 N O R2
R1 N O
H2 N O R2
R1 N O
H N R2 O
R1 N O
F H H N R2 HO
R1 N O
F N 50-98% R2
R1 N O
139
140
R 1 = Ph,2-,3- or 4-Tol,2-,3- or 4 MeOC 6H 4,2-,3-, or 4-NO 2 C6 H4, Me, 4-BocHNC 6H 4, 2-Cl, 5-1,4-BocHNC 6H 2 R 2 = Me, Ph, OMe, But, CH2 Cl, CH2OCH 2 CH 3, CF3 , Pr i, 2-, 3-, or 4-NO 2C 6 H4 , CH2 Ph
Scheme 13.46
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acid anhydrides [197b, 152, 171, 198], including symmetrical acid anhydrides derived from amino acids [184c], and amino-acid activated as succinimides [183]. Succinic [199] and glutaric anhydrides [200] are excellent substrates for reaction with amidoximes, giving 1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl carboxylic acids 141 and 142, respectively: the obtained compounds are excellent substrates for coupling to amino acid derivatives (Scheme 13.47).
Ph N NH 2 + OH O heat O 70% O HO 2C N O N 141 Ph
R3
R2 R2 HO2C
O R
1
R3
N O N 142
R1
NH2 N OH
1,4-dioxane, heat 40-90%
H N R1 =
H N
THPO
R2 = H, Me
MeO N R3 N Me S
N O
O O
N O
N S
Ph N N
C CR
R = H, Ph, Me, 3-FC6 H 4, 3-pyridyl

Scheme 13.47
Examples of the amidoxime route, by which two 1,2,4-oxadiazole moieties can be linearly joined by alkyl chains through the annular 5,50 -positions, have been reported. Thus, the 5,50 -bis-1,2,4-oxadiazolyl system 144 has been obtained by reaction of malonates 143 with two equivalents of an amidoxime in the presence of potassium carbonate (Scheme 13.48) [196f ]. The use of carboxylic acids, activated in situ and reacted with an amidoxime, has also been exploited, using various coupling reagents, including dicyclohexylcarbodiimide (DCC) [184af ], 1-[3-(dimethylamino)propyl]-3-ethylcarbodiimide(EDC) [184a,d, 201c], (EDC)/HOBt [201b,c, 202], bis(2-oxo-3-oxazolidinyl)phosphinic
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R2 RO O O 143 OR + R1
OH NH2
K2CO3 toluene,reflux 40-83% R1 N N O
R2 N O N 144 R1
R1 = Me, Et, Bn, 4-FC6H4, 4-MeOC6H4, cyclopropylmethyl, CH2CH2OMe R2 = H, Bn R = Me, Et

Scheme 13.48
chloride (BOP-Cl) [184a], 2-(1H-benzotriazole-1-yl)-1,1,3,3-tetramethyl-uronium tetrauoroborate (TBTU) [186, 201c], 1,10 -carbonyldiimidazole (CDI) [184a, 203], and/or high-speed microwave irradiation (Scheme 13.49) [186,197a, 201].
R1 O N
O R OH
+ R
1
OH NH2
activating agent 27-91% R
145 R1 = 4-MeC6H4, Me, 4-FC6H4, 3-pyridyl R = Ph, 4-MeC6H4, 4-MeOC6H4, 4-NO2C6H4, 4-EtOC6H4, 3-MeOC6H4
Scheme 13.49
Chiral 1,2,4-oxadiazoles 147 have been synthesized from amino acids by reaction of the readily available N-protected (a-aminoacyl)benzotriazoles 146 with amidoximes in ethanol (Scheme 13.50) [189].
EtOH R Pg HN O + Bt 146 R 1 = 4-Tol, 4-pyridyl, Bn R = Me, Me2 CH, PhCH 2, MeSCH 2 CH2, NH2 COCH 2CH 2, C8 H6 NCH 2 Pg = Boc, Fmoc
Scheme 13.50
N R1
OH NH2
25C to rt 70-94%
R Pg HN
N O N
R1
147
In some cases, nitriles can be used as acylating reagent for amidoximes, and the subsequent heterocyclization involves loss of ammonia in the nal step, with formation of 1,2,4-oxadiazoles 148 (Scheme 13.51) [204].
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NOH NH2 O NO2 RCN R H2N NH O N O - NH3 R N O N O
148 R = Alky, Aryl

Scheme 13.51
For this purpose the reaction is carried out in the presence of an ammonia acceptor reagent (a carboxylic acid or an excess of the nitrile). For example, from the reaction of benzamidoximes with peruoroalkyl nitriles, a series of uorinated 5-alkyl-1,2,4oxadiazoles can be obtained [205]. Disubstituted 1,2,4-oxadiazoles have been synthesized in good yields and good purity in a one-pot procedure by reaction of aromatic nitriles, hydroxylamine hydrochloride, and sodium carbonate in ethylene glycol under heating at 195 C [168]. Microwave irradiation of nitriles in the presence of hydroxylamine and different aromatic aldehydes, under solvent-free conditions, affords fully conjugated 1,2,4oxadiazoles 149 in high yields (Scheme 13.52) [206].
R1 MW, AcOH(cat.) R 1CN + NH2OH ArCHO, 4 min. 92-97% R1 = Ph, 4-MeC 6 H4, 3-ClC 6 H4 Ar = Ph, 4-MeC 6H4, 4-ClC 6 H4 , 4-MeOC 6H4
Scheme 13.52
N Ar O N
149
Other methods to obtain 1,2,4-oxadiazoles 150 include the palladium-mediated coupling of an aryl iodide with an amidoxime in the presence of carbon monoxide (Scheme 13.53) [207].
I N + X R 1 = Me, CO 2 Et
Scheme 13.53
1
OH NH2
R1 CO PdCl2 (PPh3 )2, Et 3N 25-71% X N O 150 N
X = 2-OMe, 4-OMe, 4-Br, 4-NO2 , 4-CO 2 Me
j1089
Similarly, 1,2,4-oxadiazoles 152 have been prepared by palladium-catalyzed reactions of diaryliodonium salts (151) with amidoximes in the presence of carbon monoxide (Scheme 13.54) [208].
X I + X 151 N R R N
BF4
OH NH2
CO PdCl2(PPh3)2, K2CO3 42-78%
N O X
152
X = H, 4-Me, 4-Cl, 4-OMe, 3-NO2 R = Ph, 4-MeOC6H4, 4-ClC6H4, PhCH2
Scheme 13.54
13.3.4.1.2 Cyclization of N-Acylamidoximes N-Acylamidoximes 158 cannot be prepared by acylation of amidoximes because O-acylation is faster. Suitable starting materials for N-acylamidoximes can be found in N-acylimidic chlorides 153 (X Cl), cyanides 154 (X CN), acylamidines 155 (X NHR, NR2), N-acyl(alkylthio)imides 156 (X SR), or N-acyl(alkoxy)imides 157 (X OR), which, by reaction with hydroxylamine, lead to 1,2,4-oxadiazoles 159 (Scheme 13.55) [209].
R2 N R1 O X H N R1 O N R2 OH
NH2 OH 50- 97%
158 153-157: X = Cl, CN, NHR, NR2 , SR, OR R 1 = R 2 = Me, Et, Ph 38-95%
R2 N R1 O N
159
Scheme 13.55
Imidates such as 160 react with cyanamide to give N-cyanoamidines 161, while the hydrochloride 162, is transformed into 163 [210]. Both 161 and 163 give 3-amino1,2,4-oxadiazoles 164 on treatment with hydroxylamine (Scheme 13.56).
1090
j 13 Oxadiazoles
NH2 OMe Ph NH 160 72% NH 2CN Ph N CN 161 R = Ph - NH 3 NH 2 NH 2OH 31% N Ph N OH NH 2
OMe NH 2 Cl 162
Scheme 13.56
NH 2CN 66%
OMe N CN
NH 2OH 69% R
NH 2 N O N
163
164
A different approach involves the nitrosation of dimethylaminopropenoates 165, with formation of the corresponding oximes 166, which undergo cyclization to give the 5-substituted 1,2,4-oxadiazoles 3-carboxylates 167 (Scheme 13.57) [211].
CO2 R CO 2R Me 2N 165 NHCOR1 HNO 2 HO 166 N CO 2R NHCOR

1
-H 2O 38-78% R
1
N O
167
R = Me, Et; R 1 = Ph, 2-ClC 6 H4 , 4-ClC 6 H4 , 4-Tol, 4-MeOC 6H 4 , Me, styryl, 2,6-dichlorostyryl, 2-methystyryl, 2-methoxystyryl
Scheme 13.57
The reaction of cyanohydrines 168 with hydroxylamine leads to the non-isolable amidoximes 169, which, through intramolecular acylation to 170, cyclize to epimeric 1,2,4-oxadiazoles 171 (Scheme 13.58) [212]. A series of substituted 1,2,4-oxadiazoles 176 have been synthesized through a new and versatile solid-phase synthesis protocol using resin-bound nitriles (172). This resin was treated with hydroxylamine and converted into resin-bound amidoximes 173, which were transformed into the polymer supported O-acylamidoximes 174 upon treatment with acyl chloride. These compounds were subsequently converted into immobilized 1,2,4-oxadiazoles 175, and then to 176 by treatment with 95% aqueous TFA in 1552% overall yield (Scheme 13.59) [213].
j1091
MeO O
OMe NH 2OH OCOR
MeO O
OMe
OCOR H 2N NOH 169
CN 168 R = Ph, Me MeO O OMe
MeO O
OMe
OH N R N O 171
OH 38-42% H 2N NOCOR
170
Scheme 13.58
Ph Ph Ph N MeO N O NH2OH MeO Py O RCOCl MeO N O
174 172 173

CN H2N N OH H 2N N
O O
TBAF
Ph H N O 95 % aqeous TFA MeO (15-52% overall yield)
Ph N O
N O
N R
N O
N R
176
175
R = Me, t-butyl, Ph, 1-Naphthyl, 2-Naphthyl, 2-furyl, 2-thienyl, 4-pyridyl, 3-pyridyl, 2-MeO-C6 H 4, 3-MeO-C6 H4, 4-MeO-C6 H 4, 2-F-C 6H4, 3-F-C 6H 4, 4-F-C6 H4, Cyclopropyl, Cyclobutyl, Cyclopentyl, Cyclohexyl, Phenylacetyl, hydrocinnamyl
Scheme 13.59
1092
j 13 Oxadiazoles
13.3.4.2 Cycloaddition Route Another general and well-established route to 1,2,4-oxadiazoles 159 relies on the 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition between a nitrile 176 and a nitrile oxide 177 (Scheme 13.60) [120]. Aromatic and electron-decient nitriles showed good reactivities, while aliphatic nitriles do not undergo cycloaddition to the oxadiazole derivative. However, under Lewis acid catalysis even aliphatic nitriles form cycloadducts [148].
N C R2 176
R1 C N O 177
N 29-37% R2 O
R1 N
159 R1 = 3-NO2-C6H4, 4-NO2-C6H4
R2 = Methyl-tetrazolyl ring
Scheme 13.60
Non-activated nitriles undergo cycloaddition with especially reactive nitrile oxides such as bromo- and chlorocyanogen oxide (Scheme 13.61) [214].
R N
N C R
X C N O 35-79% Br
N O
178 X = Cl, Br R = i-propyl, ClCH2, BrCH2, PhCH2

Scheme 13.61
Several methods are reported in the literature for the in situ generation of nitrile oxides. Huisgens base-induced dehydrohalogenation of hydroximoyl chlorides [215] and Mukaiyamas dehydration of primary nitro compounds, using phenyl isocyanate with a catalytic amount of triethylamine [216], are the most frequently used routes to generate nitrile oxides. Thus, the loss of HCl from imidoyl chloride 179 leads to the nitrile oxide 180, which undergoes cycloaddition to the dicyanoketene acetal 181, producing the 1,2,4-oxadiazole 182 (Scheme 13.62) [217]. The ultrasound cycloaddition of nitrile oxide, formed by Mukaiyamas dehydration of nitroethane, with trichloroacetonitrile 183 affords the 1,2,4-oxadiazole 184 whose remarkable reactivity towards nucleophilic substitution by amines has been widely exploited (Scheme 13.63) [218]. Treatment of nitriles with acetone or acetophenone in the presence of iron(III) nitrate affords 3-acetyl- or 3-benzoyl-oxadiazoles 186; the reaction proceeds through enolization and nitration to give an a-nitroketone, which undergoes an acid-catalyzed dehydration to the intermediate nitrile oxide 185 (Scheme 13.64) [219].
j1093
NOH R Cl Et 3 N R Et 2 O N O
179
O NC CN R = H, 4-OMe, 4-Cl, 3-NO2 O O O
180
CHCl 3, BF 3 -OMe 2 79-91%
181
N O CN
182
Scheme 13.62
EtNO 2 N C CCl3 183 PhNCO, Et 3N )))) 24h 53%

Scheme 13.63
Me N Cl3C O N
184
O Me R
Fe(NO 3) 3 80 C
O H 2C R NO2 O N C
O R
185 R1 C N
R= Me, Ph R1 = Me, Et, Pr, i-Pr R
O N N O 186 25-95% R1
Scheme 13.64
1094
j 13 Oxadiazoles
A similar reaction leading to 1,2,4-oxadiazoles from ketones, nitriles, and nitric acid has been described using yttrium triate as catalyst (Scheme 13.65) [220].
O R Me + R 1 CN HNO3 , 80C Y(OTf) 3 46-810% R = Me, 4-FC6 H 4, 4-ClC 6 H4 , 3-NO 2C 6H 4, 2,4-Cl 2-5FC 6H 2 , 3-NO 2-4MeC 6 H3 R 1 = Me, Ph, 2-FC 6H 4
Scheme 13.65
N O R N
R1
The reaction mechanism involves the 1,3 dipolar cycloaddition of nitriles with nitrile oxide 187, which is obtained by enolization of the ketones promoted by yttrium triate, followed by nitration and subsequent dehydration (Scheme 13.66).
Y(OTf) 3 OH R NO 2 HNO 3 O R
O R
Me
Y(OTf) 3
- H 2O
N O R
Scheme 13.66
R1 CN R1 O N
O R 187
A less common method for the formation of nitrile oxides is the oxidation of aromatic aldoximes with ceric ammonium nitrate (Scheme 13.67) [221]; the subsequent cycloaddition to nitriles leads to 1,2,4-oxadiazoles 188.
H HO N Ar Ar
(NH4 )2 Ce(NO 3 )6 RCN,
N N O 188 R
R = Me, Et Ar = Ph, 4-MeC 6H 4, 4-MeOC 6H 4, 4-Cl, 4-NO 2 C6 H4

Scheme 13.67
j1095
The cycloaddition methodology has been employed for the synthesis of complex systems. The reaction between nitrile oxides 189 and trans-[PdCl2(RCN)2], or RCN (R Me, Et, CH2CN, NMe2, Ph) in the presence of PdCl2, proceeded smoothly under mild conditions and allowed isolation of the trans-[-PdCl2]-1,2,4-oxadiazole complexes (190197) in 4085% yields. (Scheme 13.68) [222].
R1 N R1 [PdCl2(RCN)2 CH3CN R1 PdCl2 CH3CN R R O N R1 N R1 Cl Pd Cl R R1 N O R1 N

1
189
190: R= Me, 191: R= Et,
R1 = Me R1 = Me
R = Me, Et, CH2CN, NMe2, Ph R = OMe, Me

1
192: R= CH2CN, R1 = Me 193: R=NMe2, R1 = Me 194: R= Ph, 195: R= Me, 196: R= Et, 197: R= NMe2, R1 = Me R1 = OMe R1 = OMe R1 = OMe
R1 190-197 40-85%
Scheme 13.68
3-Aryl-5-C-glucosyl-1,2,4-oxadiazoles 199 and 200, assayed as glycogen phosphorylase inhibitors, have been prepared in high yield by 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition of aryl nitrile oxides to benzoylated glucosyl cyanide 198 and subsequent cleavage of the protecting group (Scheme 13.69) [223]. 1,2,4-Oxadiazoles have been prepared by cycloaddition of nitrile oxides to different dipolarophiles. Thus, the cycloaddition of nitrile oxides to amidoximes 201 proceeds with loss of diethylamine to give the 1,2,4-oxadiazole-4-oxide 202, which can be deoxygenated with trimethyl phosphite to give 1,2,4-oxadiazole 203 (Scheme 13.70) [224]. The reaction of nitrile oxide 204 with imine 205 affords the 1,2,4-oxadiazole 207 via the non-isolable intermediate 206 (Scheme 13.71) [225].
13.3.4.3 Miscellaneous Synthesis of 1,2,4-Oxadiazoles Fully conjugated 1,2,4-oxadiazoles have been prepared by oxidation of 4,5-dihydro1,2,4-oxadiazoles 208 (Section 13.3.4.4.1), containing hydrogen atoms in the 4- and 5-positions: the oxidation can be performed by MnO2 [125], nitric acid [125], NaOCl [162], or N-chlorosuccinimide (NCS) [169] (Scheme 13.72).
1096
j 13 Oxadiazoles
R BzO BzO BzO O CN ArCNO 90-99% BzO BzO BzO O OBz N N O
OBz 198
NaOMe MeOH, CHCl 3
HO HO HO 4-7% O
+ N N O
HO HO HO O
N OH
N O
200
199
75-92%
R = H, 4-MeO, 4-NO 2
Scheme 13.69
Cl HO N
R +
R1 HO N
NEt2
Et3 N
OH N NEt2 N O R1
201
R = Ph, 4-Me, 4-MeO, 4-Cl, 4-NO 2, Me R1 = Ph, 4-Me, 4-MeO, 4-Cl, 4-NO2 - Et2 NH
N N O 203 R1
P(OEt)3 20-52%
O N N O 202 R1
Scheme 13.70
j1097
Me Me 204 C N O + N HN Ph 205 206 H N N O
Ph N
Me N N O 207
Scheme 13.71
+ Ph N H
49%
Ar
H N N O 208 R
Ox 74-96%
Ar
N N O R
Ox=MnO2, HNO3, NaOCl, NCS
R=Pr, i- Pr Ar=Ph,4-MeO-C6H4, 4-Cl-C6H4, 4-NO2 -C6H4

Scheme 13.72
Oxidation of N-benzylamidoxime 209 with KMnO4 affords 1,2,4-oxadiazole 211, through the intermediate 4,5-dihydro-1,2,4-oxadiazole 210 (Scheme 13.73) [226]. Bicyclic 4,5-dihydro-1,2,4-oxadiazole 212 leads to 213 through a retro-[2 2] cycloaddition via loss of styrene in toluene at reux (Scheme 13.74) [227]. Some recent synthetic procedures concern ANRORC-like reactions that consist of the Addition of a Nucleophile to a p-decient heterocycle, followed by Ring-Opening and Ring-Closure steps. By this approach, a heterocycle can be transformed into a different one containing the heteroatoms originally belonging to the nucleophilic reagent. Thus, the reaction of 5-uoroalkyl-1,2,4-oxadiazoles 214 with hydroxylamine furnishes high yields of 3-uoroalkyl-1,2,4-oxadiazole 217 in a virtual C5C3 annular shift (Scheme 13.75) [228]. The reaction is promoted by nucleophilic attack of the hydroxylamine to the electron-decient C5 to produce 215. Heterocyclization of the dioxime intermediate 216 and removal of hydroxylamine leads to the more stable oxadiazole 217, in an irreversible ring-degenerate process.
1098
j 13 Oxadiazoles
O 2N H N N OH 209 Ph KMnO 4 69% O 2N H N N O 210 Ph
O 2N N N O 211
Scheme 13.73
Ph
Ph PhMe N N3 N O 212
Scheme 13.74
SEt -PHCH=CH2
N N3 213 N O 33% SEt
N N O 214 Rf
NH2OH 70-94%
Rf
N N O 217 R
H N N O
R NHOH Rf
H N
Rf NOH
H N N O 216
NHOH R
N OH Rf
215
Scheme 13.75
j1099
Accordingly, photoinduced rearrangements of ON bond containing azoles can be useful for the synthesis of 3-amino-5-alkyl-1,2,4-oxadiazoles [229]. This procedure exploits the photofragmentation pattern of the furazan heterocycle into a nitrile and a nitrile oxide. Thus, irradiation of 3-alkanoylamino 217 at l 313 nm in methanol and in the presence of ammonia or primary aliphatic amines gives the corresponding 3-amino- or 3-N-alkylamino-5-alkyl-1,2,4-oxadiazoles 219 as a result of the heterocyclization of the intermediate 218 (Scheme 13.76) [230, 231].
Ph N N
H N O O
h 313 nm, MeOH PhCN O N
R NH
217
R 1 NH2
N R O N
H N
H2 O
H R1 N HO N
R O
219 R = C 3F7, C 7 H15 R 1 = H, Me, Pr, nC 8 F17

Scheme 13.76
218
Unfortunately, yields of isolated products (about 3040%) were not very good because of the photoreactivity of oxadiazoles under irradiation conditions; this, however, appears to be the only method that allows these derivatives to be obtained.
13.3.4.4 Synthesis of Dihydro-1,2,4-Oxadiazoles 13.3.4.4.1 4,5-Dihydro-1,2,4-Oxadiazoles The main methodology towards the synthesis of 4,5-dihydro-1,2,4-oxadiazoles 220 relies on the reaction of carbonyl compounds with amidoximes 136 under acidic conditions (Scheme 13.77) [120, 162, 232]. The use of chloroformate or diethyl carbonate leads to 4,5-dihydro-1,2,4-oxadiazolones 222 via an intermediate acetamidoxime, which cyclizes under base treatment (Scheme 13.78) [233]. The reaction with phosgene or thiophosgene constitutes an alternative route towards the 4,5-dihydro-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-ones or-5-thiones 223 (Scheme 13.79) [234]. A widely exploited route to 4,5-dihydro-1,2,4-oxadiazoles is the 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition of nitrile oxides to azomethines [120, 235]. Thus, the reaction of imines 224 with hydroxyimoyl chlorides 225 in the presence of triethylamine gives 4,5-dihydro-1,2,4-oxadiazoles 226 (Scheme 13.80) [236].
1100
j 13 Oxadiazoles
N R OH NH2 136 H H R R1 N O N + R1 O R2 29-94% R1 N O R OH R NH2
220
R = Ph, Bn, 2-furyl, 2-thienyl, 2-Tol, 3-Tol, 4-Tol, 4-pyridyl, 2-MeO-C6H4CH2, R1 = H, Me, Me2CH, Et, 4-MeO-C6H5, R2 = H, Me; R1, R2 = -(CH2)5Scheme 13.77
N R
OH NH2 + X
O OEt
40-80% R
Base O
R N O N
OEt NH2 221
136
Scheme 13.78
R = Me, 4-Tol X = Cl, OEt
222
N O O
OH NH R + Cl
X Cl
80-92% O O R = H, Ph, 4-Tol, X = O, S
N O N R 223
Scheme 13.79
j1101
N Ar
H + Ar Ar 1
OH X
30-80% Ar Et3N Ar
H N O
Ar1 N
224
225
226
Ar = Ph, 4-MeC 6 H4 , 4-ClC 6 H4 , 4-BrC 6 H4 , 3NO2 -C 6H 4 , 4-C6 H4 , 4-C 6H 4, 4-C6 H4 , Ar 1 = Ph, 4-MeC 6H 4
Scheme 13.80
Scheme 13.81 reports a parallel synthesis of 4,5-dihydro-1,2,4-oxadiazoles, through a cycloaddition reaction of imines with poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) supported nitrile oxide. 4-Formylbenzoic acid (227) was attached to the dihydroxylated PEG by esterication in the presence of DCC. The PEG-bound derivative 228 was converted into oxime 229 by treatment with hydroxylamine hydrochloride, in the presence of trioctylamine, which with N-chlorosuccinimide afforded the PEG-bound chlorooxime 230. This derivative was then treated with several imines to give the corresponding cycloadducts 231, which were released from the PEG by treatment with sodium methoxide in methanol, to afford 1,2,4-oxadiazolines 232 in 7191% overall yield [237].
O HO 2C OH + 227 dihydroxy-PEG DCC, DMAP CHO 228 O NH2 OH base
O O
CHO
229
CHNHOH
NCS
Me
O O MeONa
3 N R
O O Base N O R2 R1 N R2 R3
MeOH
Cl HOHN 230
N O R1
R2 232
R N R1
3
231
R 1 = H, Me R 2 = Ph, 4-MeO-C 6H 4, 4-F-C 6 H4 , 4-Me-C 6H4, 3-NO 2-C6 H4 , 4-C7 H5 O2 , R 3 = Ph, 4-F-C 6H4 , 4-Me-C 6 H4 , PhCH2 , butyl
Scheme 13.81
1102
j 13 Oxadiazoles
The use of cyclic imines in the cycloaddition reaction is a useful route to various fused 4,5-dihydro-1,2,4-oxadiazoles. In this way, oxadiazolo-1,4-diazepines, 233 [238], oxadiazole-1,5-benzodiazepines 234 [239], and oxadiazolotriazole-1,5benzodiazepines 235 have been prepared [240] (Scheme 13.82).
Me N N R + Me N Me O Me 27-30% Me 233
N HO + N Cl N R Et3 N 91% R N N R1
Me
N N Me
N Me
R O
Me
Me
R = Ph, Me
R1
Ph
O
Ph
R = 3-Cl,4-Me-C 6H 3, R1 = SMe
234
EtO2 C N N N
R HO + Cl N R1 Et3 N 47-58%
EtO2 C N N R1
N N
Ph
Ph O
N
R = NO 2 , Cl, R1 = 4- NO 2 -C 6H 4, 4- Me-C 6H 4,4- Cl-C 6 H4

Scheme 13.82
235
13.3.4.4.2 2,5-Dihydro-1,2,4-Oxadiazoles Aminonitrones 236, prepared by reaction of hydroxylamines with ethyl cyanoformate, cyclize by treatment with triphosgene to 2,5-dihydro-1,2,4-oxadiazin-5-ones 237 (Scheme 13.83). A related reaction involves the acylations of 2-aminopyridine N-oxides 238 and 239 with ethyl chloropyruvate or phosgene, respectively (Scheme 13.84) [241].
j1103
CH 2 Cl2 EtO2 C C N + RNHOH 65-79%
H 2N O O N
CO 2Et R 236 Et3 N
Cl3 CO
OCCl3
54-89% CO2 Et
N O O 237 N R
R = Me, i-propyl, Ph, 4-BrC 6H 4 , 4-MeC 6H 4, 3-MeC 6H 4

Scheme 13.83
R N O 238
CO 2Et + NH 2
O Cl CO2 Et
R 56% N O
CO 2Et NH 2 O CO 2Et N O N
EtO2 C
R = 4-pyridyl
O N O 239
Scheme 13.84
60% Cl N O N O
NH 2
+ Cl
The reaction of substituted oxazoles 241 with arylnitroso derivatives 240 affords 2-aryl-2,5-dihydro-1,2,4-oxadiazoles 242 regioselectively, through a formal [3 2] cycloaddition, proceeding via a ring opening of oxazoles promoted by a nucleophilic attack of the nitroso compound at the 2-position of the penta-atomic ring (Scheme 13.85) [242]. A facile one-pot synthesis of 2,3,5-substituted 1,2,4-oxadiazolines from nitriles in aqueous solution has been reported [243]. Thus, alkyl/aryl amidoximes, prepared from the corresponding nitriles and N-alkylhydroxylamines, readily undergo consecutive double Michael additions to electron-decient alkynes and provide highly
1104
j 13 Oxadiazoles
NO + R 240 R1 O 241 R3 R3 N R2 29-100% R 3O2 C R1 N O 242 N R
R3 R1
O N N O R2
R3 R R1
2 N R
O O
Me
R = H, Cl, Me
R1 = Me, MeO, EtO,
R2 = Me, nonyl, 4-MeC 6H 4, 4-MeOC 6 H 4
R3 = H, Me, CO2 Et, Ph, 4-NO2 C6 H 4

Scheme 13.85
substituted 1,2,4-oxadiazolines 243 in good yields in homogeneous aqueous solution (Scheme 13.86).
R2 N H HO HCl EtOH/H2O Na2CO3, 80 C OH N R2 R1
R CN
HN
EtO2C
CO2Et EtO2C
EtO2C N R1 N R2 141 O
CO2Et 36-100%
HN R1
O CO2Et N R2
R1 = Me, i-pr- Ph, PhCH2, 2-furyl, 2-pyridyl, 3-pyridyl, 4-pyridyl R2 = Me, Cy, PhCH2
Scheme 13.86
13.3.4.4.3 2,3-Dihydro-1,2,4-Oxadiazoles A general route to 2,3-dihydro-1,2,4-oxadiazoles is based on the 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition of nitrones to nitriles. Thus, 3-tbutyl-2,3-dihydro-1,2,4-oxadiazoles 246 have been prepared through cycloaddition between butylnitrone 244 and different activated nitriles 245 (Scheme 13.87) [244].
j1105
R N O + N C R1 245
R 80-100% R
1
N O
244 R = Ph, 4-NO2-C6H4 R1 = ClC(CN)2, Br2(CN), C(CN)3, CCl3

Scheme 13.87
246
The cycloadditions have been performed in the absence of solvent, under microwave irradiation within 210 min [245]. Recently, a series of 5-trichloro- and 5-(2-methylpropanenitrile)-D4-1,2,4-oxadiazolines 247 have been synthesized by 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition of nitrones to trichloroacetonitrile and 2,2-dimethylmalononitrile, respectively. These oxadiazolines rearrange into formamidine derivatives 248 by prolonged heating, via ring opening and a 1,2-aryl shift from carbon to the adjacent amino nitrogen (Scheme 13.88) [246].
R1 N N R
R C N +
R1 O N
H Me
CHCl3 60 C, 1-5 h 95-100% R
R1 N H N Me O
60 C, 12 h- 70 d 15-82%
Me O 248
247
R = CCl 3 , Me 2CCN R1 = 2-MeOC 6 H4 , 2,3-(MeO) 2C 6H 3, 2,4-(MeO) 2 C6 H3 , 2,5-(MeO) 2C 6 H3 , 2,6-(MeO) 2 C 6H 3, 3,4-(MeO) 2 C6 H3 , 2,3,4-(MeO) 3C 6 H2 , 3,4,5-(MeO) 3C 6H 2, 2,4,5-(MeO) 3 C6 H 2, 2,4,6-(MeO) 3 C6 H2
Scheme 13.88
Based on a recent observation that Pt(II) mono- and bis-oxadiazoline complexes exhibit in vitro cytotoxicity against a series of platinum-sensitive and resistant human cancer cell lines with a potency comparable to that of cisplatin and superior to carboplatin [247] a series of 2,3-dihydro-1,2,4-oxadiazoles have been synthesized by 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition of coordinated dinitriles 249a,d to nitrones 250ac (Scheme 13.89). Moreover, Pt(II)oxadiazoline complexes 251a and 251d, having only one of the coordinated nitriles, have been used for various new mixed ligand complexes. Thus, 252254 have been obtained by reaction of the corresponding oxadiazolines with pyridine, 4-N-dimethylpyridine, and 1-benzyl-2-methylimidazole, respectively (Scheme 13.90) [248]. A novel type of heterocycle, 2,3a-disubstituted 5,6-dihydro-3aH-[1,3]oxazolo[3,2-b] [1,2,4]oxadiazoles 258ag, has been generated by an intermolecular Pt(II)-mediated 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition between the oxazoline N-oxide 256 and coordinated nitriles
1106
j 13 Oxadiazoles
Ph C N Pt + X R2 R1 O N Me 68-76% R1 250a-c C Ph 251a-d X Pt N 249a,d X R2 N Me N O Ph
X N C Ph
X a b c d Cl Br I Cl
R1 H H H CO 2E
R2 46-71% Ph Ph Ph CH2 CO 2Et Ph O N Me N X Pt R2 R1 R2 N
O R2
Me 250a-c R1
Me N O Ph
X 261a-d
R1
Scheme 13.89
Ph H Cl Pt N Me N Me Cl N
Me N O Ph
Me
Me N N Cl
Ph H Pt N C Ph Cl N
Me N O Ph
Ph Pyridine CHCl 3 , 60 C 24 h, 77% Cl Pt N Cl H N
Me N O Ph
CHCl 3 , 60 C 24 h, 27%
253
251a
252
EtO 2 C
EtO 2 CH2 C N Cl Pt Ph N Cl C Ph 251d
Me N O
N Ph Me
EtO 2 C
CHCl 3 , 60 C 24 h, 62%
EtO 2 CH2 C N Cl Pt Ph Cl N N Ph Me
Me N O
254
Scheme 13.90
j1107
in the complexes trans/cis-[PtCl2(R-CN)2] 255. The reaction is unknown for free RCN and oxazoline N-oxides, but under PtII-mediated conditions the reaction proceeds smoothly and gives pure complexes 257ag in 4279% yields (Scheme 13.91) [249].
R1 C Cl Pt N R
1
R1 O + R N O 256 42-79% Cl O R Pt N N Me Me O R1 N
O N R O Cl
Me Me
N Cl
C 255
257
R = Me, Et R = Me, Et, Ph. Bn

1
15-86%
ethane-1,2-diamine
O R N N Me Me O R1 258
Scheme 13.91
13.3.4.5 Synthesis of 1,2,4-Oxadiazolidines A general synthetic approach to 1,2,4-oxadiazolidines 259 exploits the 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition of nitrones to a CN double bond, a method rst used by Beckmann (Scheme 13.92) [250].
EtO 2 C H
R1 N CCl3 + O N R
52-84%
R1 R
CO 2Et N CCl3 N O 259
R = CH2 Ph, Me, Ph R1 = Ph, 4-O 2NC6 H4, 4-MeOC 6H 4

Scheme 13.92
1108
j 13 Oxadiazoles
The use of isocyanates and isothiocyanates as dipolarophiles affords an easy entry to 1,2,4-oxadiazolidinones and thiones 260 (Scheme 13.93) [251].
R1 Ph N C X + O N R MeCN, 27-57% Ph X R1 N O N R
260 X = O, S
R= Me, PhCH2, 4-O2NC6H4, 2,3-(MeO)2C6H3CH2
R1 = Ph, 2-O2NC6H4, 3-O2NC6H4, 2,3-(MeO)2C6H4, 3,4-(MeO)2C6H4

Scheme 13.93
On this basis, 1,2,4-oxadiazolidinones as stable chiral building blocks have been prepared by 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition of isocyanates with mannosyl- or erythrosyl derived nitrones 261. The reaction proceeds with a good diastereoselectivity, giving enantiopure 1,2,4-oxadiazolidin-5-ones 262 after removal of the auxiliary (Scheme 13.94) [252].
R1 R N C O Me O O O H O Me Me ; + O Aux 261 Me O Me O N R1 69-87% R O N N Aux O 262
Me O Aux=
O H
R= Ph, PhCH2 , PhCO, 4-O 2NC6 H4, 4-CF 3C 6 H4, 4-FC 6H 4, 4-MeOC 6H 4, 2,6-Cl2 C 6H 3, R1 =Me, Cy, t-Bu, Ph, 3-Py, 2-furyl, 1- Naph, 4-O 2NC 6H 4, 4-CF3 C6 H 4, 4-BrC 6 H4, 4-MeOC 6H 4
Scheme 13.94
The reaction of oxaziridines 263 with isothiocyanates affords 1,2,4-oxadiazolidin-5thiones 264; interestingly, the reaction of 263 with chlorosulfonyl isocyanate 265 leads to 1,2,4-oxadiazolidin-3-ones 266, as established by X-ray crystallography (Scheme 13.95) [253].
13.3.4.6 Synthesis of 1,2,4-Oxadiazole-N-Oxides The 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition of amidoximes 267 with nitrile oxides affords an easy entry to 1,2,4-oxadiazole-N-oxides 268, through elimination of an amine (Scheme 13.96). A version of this approach exploited the use of Wang-supported nitrile oxide [224, 254].
j1109
R1 R N O 263 CH 2Cl 2, 30 min
Ph R2 N C S toluene, , 3-10 h 30-85% R2 S N O 264 N R R = t-Bu; R 1 = H R 2 = Bn, Cy, allyl
ClO 2 S N C S 265
O O ClO2 S N O R
1
Et 3 N/H 2O 77-92% R1 R= i-Pr, t-Bu R1 = H, 4-Cl, 4-Me
N O
N R
N R
266
Scheme 13.95
R1 N O
+
R2 N
NR3 OH
25-53%
R1
O N N O 268
R2
267
R1 = Ph, 4-MeOC6H4, 4-ClC6H4, 4-O2NC6H4, 4-MeC6H4 R2= Me, Ph, 4-O2NC6H4, 4-MeOC6H4, 4-ClC6H4 R3 = H, Et
Scheme 13.96
13.3.5 Reactivity of 1,2,4-Oxadiazoles 13.3.5.1 Reactions with Electrophiles 1,2,4-Oxadiazoles are rather inert against electrophilic attack. Halogenation, nitration, FriedelCrafts alkylation, and acylation do not occur in this ring system. However, electrophilic mercuration of 5-unsubstituted oxadiazoles 269 is possible (Scheme 13.97) [120]. 3,5-Diaryl-substituted 1,2,4-oxadiazoles serve as monodentate ligands for some transition metal complexes. The reaction of 1,2,4-oxadiazole 270 with Cu(II)acetate, to give 271, occurs selectively on N4 (Scheme 13.98) [170].
1110
j 13 Oxadiazoles
R N N O 269 45-50% 30d,HgCl 2 AcONa/H 2 O R N N O HgCl
R=Me,Ph
Scheme 13.97
O N N Ph N N O 270 HO 67% Cu(OAc) 2 /EtOH Ph O Cu N N O 271

Scheme 13.98
Ph
The closely correlated oxadiazole 272 is, by treatment with dimethyl sulfate and perchloric acid, methylated at N2 to give the 1,2,4-oxadiazolium salt 273 (Scheme 13.99).
H O Me Me HO
Me
N N O
Me 2SO4 HClO4 /AcOH 70%
N N O
272
Scheme 13.99
ClO4 273
An interesting example of an intramolecular electrophilic attack at the N2, reported in Scheme 13.100, yields oxadiazolopyrimidinium salts 274 [255].
R R O H N HClO4 /MeCN R1 30-60% R 274 R = H, Me, CF3 R 1 = Me, Ph
Scheme 13.100
N N O
N N O R1
j1111
Acetylation of 1,2,4-oxadiazoline 275 with acetic anhydride in pyridine furnishes the N2-acetylated compound 276, while the treatment with potassium hydride in 1,2dimethoxyethane (DME) gives mixtures of the N2 and the N4-acetylated heterocycles 276 and 277, respectively (Scheme 13.101) [120b].
HN Et KH O Ar N 275 Ac2O DME N Et O Ar N Ac + Et Ac2O, Py 70 C, 47-90% Et N Ar
N Ac O 276
Ar = Ph, Tolyl Ac Ar N
N O
276
Scheme 13.101
277
4,5-Dihydro-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-one 278 can be N-alkylated with alkyl halides or with epoxides in the presence of bases to give 279 and 280, respectively (Scheme 13.102) [256].
Me HO O N O Ph Me 77-90% O H Ph N R O Ph N
N O
RX 58-90% R = Me, Et, Pr
N O
N O 280
278
279
Scheme 13.102
Similarly, 4,5-dihydro-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-one 278 reacts with alkyl halides 281 and 283 to give the N4 substituted derivatives 282 and 284, respectively. Compound 278 also reacts with acrolein, via Michael addition, to give 285 (Scheme 13.103) [257]. Unsubstituted 1,2,4-oxadiazolidine 3,5-dione (286) undergoes alkylation preferentially at N2. Thus, the reaction with benzyl bromide leads to 2-benzyl derivative 289, which can be further methylated at N-4 to give 290 [258]. Similarly, the reaction with (S)-aziridine 287 produced the protected (S)-quisqualic acid 288 (Scheme 13.104) [259].
13.3.5.2 Reactions with Nucleophiles Nucleophilic attack on 1,2,4-oxadiazole systems occurs mainly at C5 with nucleophilic displacements of good leaving groups. Table 13.5 summarizes some of these reactions [120, 121, 198, 218, 260].
1112
j 13 Oxadiazoles
R Br OEt Me O 281 N Cs 2CO 3 58% 100% O Me N O O N O O HN O 278 N 87-90% O O 283 R Me N N O 284
EtO Cl O O O N O 282 Me
R = H, Br, NO 2
285
Scheme 13.103
BOC N H O N O O N H 287 CO2t-Bu O H N O N CO2t-Bu NHBOC
DMF, 98 C 18h, 49%
286 DMF 91%
288
PhCH2Br Na2CO3
H O
N O N
MeI Ph DMF
Na2CO3 87%
Me O
N O N
Ph
289
Scheme 13.104
290
The 3-position is remarkably stable to nucleophilic attack. While the 5-trichloromethyl group of 291 leads, by treatment with KOH, to the 5-oxo compound 292, the 3-trichloromethyl isomer 293 gives carboxylic acid 294, which rearranges with loss of CO2 to acetyl cyanamide 295 (Scheme 13.105) [261].
Table 13.5 Nucleophilic displacements on 1,2,4-oxadiazoles.
j1113
N X
R1 Me Me Me C6H4-p-NO2 C6H4-p-Me C6H4-p-NO2
R1 N
Reagent 23-60% Y
N O
R1 N
O
X
Reagent OH MeNH2 Me2NH (CH2)5NH PhCH2ONa NH3
Y OH MeNH Me2N (CH2)5N PhCH2O NH2
Cl Cl OEt S-C6H2-[2-Cl-4,6-(NO2)2] Cl CCl3
Me N Cl3C O N KOH, EtOH 100%
H O
Me N O N
291
292
CCl3 N Me O N
KOH, MeOH HCl, EtOH Me
CO2H N O N
H - CO2 Me N O 295 N
293
Scheme 13.105
294
Nucleophilic addition of hydrazine or hydroxylamine to the 5-position of 5uoroalkyl-1,2,4-oxadiazoles leads to triazole or oxadiazole derivatives 296 and 297 (Scheme 13.106) [135, 228, 262]. The reaction of fully conjugated 3,5-diaryl-1,2,4-oxadiazoles 298 with butyllithium allows facile access to 5-butyl-3,5-diaryl-4,5-dihydro-1,2,4-oxadiazoles 299 (Scheme 13.107) [263]. A similar reaction occurs with 3-methyl derivative 300 to produce 301 [120a], while the 5-methyl of 302 is deprotonated by butyllithium to afford the anion 303, which produces, after CO2 treatment, the corresponding acid 304 (Scheme 13.108) [264]. 4,5-Dihydro-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-one 305 hydrolyzes by treatment with NaOH to give amidoximes 306 (Scheme 13.109) [153].
13.3.5.3 Reductions and Oxidations of 1,2,4-Oxadiazoles Catalytic hydrogenation of 1,2,4-oxadiazoles 307 have been reported, and begins with N-O ssion, leading to the corresponding iminoamides intermediates 308 that under
1114
j 13 Oxadiazoles
R1 N R O N NH2XH HX HCl, EtOH N O H R H N N HX N R R1 H N N OH R1
R = CF3, C3F7, C7F15 R1 = PhCO, 4-MeOC6H4, C11H23 H N R1 X N 70-94% R HO N 1X H R N N R
296 : X = NH, NMe 297 : X = O

Scheme 13.106
R1 N Ar O N
H THF, BuLi - 78 C 23-60% Ar Bu N O
R1 N
298
299
Ar = Ph. 2-ClC6H4, 2-OHC6H4, R1 = Ph, 2-ClC6H4

Scheme 13.107
Me N Ph O N - 60 C 83% THF, BuLi
H N Ph Bu O
Me N
300
301
Ph N Me O N - 60 C, 30 min THF, BuLi H2 C
Ph N O 303 N CO 2 HO 2C HCl/H 2O 67% N O
Ph N
302
Scheme 13.108
304
j1115
R N O O 305
Me N
NaOH 61-83%
R HN HO
Me N
306 R = H, Br, NO 2
Scheme 13.109
the reaction conditions adopted are converted into amidines 309 (Scheme 13.110) [265].
N R= N O 80% 1) H 2, Pd/C, EtOH, AcOH 2) H 2O O N CO 2t-Bu
R N Me O N H 2, Ni/Raney MeOH/AcOH Me R HN O NH 77% R NH2 NH 309
307
308 OMe O NH N N Me
R=
Me
Scheme 13.110
LiAlH4 reduction furnishes N-substituted amidoximes [121, 266]. An application of this reaction concerns the reduction of the Wang resin-bound 1,2,4-oxadiazole 310 to furnish directly the amidooxime 311 via a reductive cleavage from the resin followed by a reductive ring opening of the 1,2,4-oxadiazole ring (Scheme 13.111) [267].
1116
j 13 Oxadiazoles
Me Me
N O O 310
Scheme 13.111
LiAlH 4 N 95% H N
HN HO N
311
Amidines are also obtained by catalytic hydrogenation of 4,5-dihydro-1,2,4-oxadiazoles. Thus, 1,2,4-oxadiazolo[4,5-a]indolines 312 are catalytic hydrogenated over Raney nickel to furnish the corresponding amidines 313 that under tautomerization reaction lead to the opened structures 314 (Scheme 13.112) [268].
Me Me N Ar 312 60-92% Me O Me N H2 , Ni-Ry Me Me OH NH N Ar 313 O Me Me Me NH 2 N Ar
314
Ar= Ph, 4-Cl-C 6H 4,2-Cl-C 6 H4 , 2,6-Cl 2-C6 H3 , 2,4,6-Mel3 -C6 H2

Scheme 13.112
Similar reactions have been reported for 4,5-dihydro-1,2,4-oxadiazole 5-ones 315 (Scheme 13.113) [269].
R1 N O O R1 N Ph O R NH R1 NH NH
R N
H2 , Pd/C 91-99%
315
R = Me, 4-Me-C 6H4 R1 = H, Me

Scheme 13.113
Oxidation of 4,5-dihydro-1,2,4-oxadiazoles 316 leads to fully conjugated 1,2,4oxadiazoles 317; the oxidation has been performed with different oxidants such as N-chlorosuccinimide, manganese dioxide, and concentrated HNO3 (Scheme 13.114) [125, 162, 169].
j1117
H N H R
1O
R N
Ox 74-95% R1
R N O N
316 R = Me, 4-Me-C 6H4 R 1 = H, Me

Scheme 13.114
317
13.3.5.4 Thermal and Photochemical Ring Cleavage Owing their low aromaticity, 1,2,4-oxadiazoles undergo, by thermal or base-treatment, an easy ring rearrangement known as the CusmanoRuccia or BoultonKatritzky rearrangement. This rearrangement involves a nucleophilic attack on N2 by the oxygen, sulfur, selenium, nitrogen atoms, or carbon anion of a side chain (W) linked at the 3-position of the heterocycle. The generalized rearrangement is reversible only when atom W is oxygen. Table 13.6 summarizes the more common rearrangements [270]. The ring degenerate version of the process has also been reported and investigated as a function of substituent effects and experimental conditions [271]. Thus, for the interconversion 318319, mixtures enriched in compound 318 are obtained, while in neutral conditions compound 319 predominates. The effect of substituent X is signicant in basic media (Scheme 13.115). The rearrangement has been used for a synthesis of a series of 3-amino-5-aryl-, 3amino-5-alkyl-, and 3-amino-5-polyuorophenyl-1,2,4-oxadiazoles 321 starting from 3-amino-5-methyl-1,2,4-oxadiazoles 320 (Scheme 13.116). Detailed studies of experimental and theoretical aspects of the rearrangement of phenylhydrazones of 3-benzoyl-1,2,4-oxadiazoles 322 and 323 into the corresponding triazoles 324 and 325 have been performed (Scheme 13.117) [272].
Table 13.6 Rearrangement reactions of 1,2,4-oxadiazole rings.
N Ar O N
Y W
N Ar OH N
Y W
Sequence atoms XYW
Rearranged products
Sequence atoms XYW CNN NCN CCO CNC
Rearranged products 1,2,3-Triazole 1,2,4-Triazole Isoxazole Imidazole
NCC CNO NCS NCSe
Imidazole 1,2,5-Oxadiazole 1,2,4-Thiadiazole 1,2,4-Selenadiazole
1118
j 13 Oxadiazoles
N Me O H N N X 318 O 7-93% X 319 N O H N COMe N
X=H, p-Me, p -OMe, p -Cl, p-CF 3, p -CN, p-NO 2, m-NO2 , m-Me, m-Cl, m-CF3, p-CN, m-OMe
Scheme 13.115
N Me O
NH2 N
RCOCl Py Me
N O
H N N
O R
320
9-91%
N R O 321
NH2 N
H,EtOH R 50-90%
N O
H N COMe N
R = n -Pr, t-Bu, n -C11H23, Ph, 4-CF3 -C6 H 4, 2-NO2 -C6 H 4, 2-CF3 -C6 H 4, 3-CF3 -C6 H 4, 2-Furyl, 2-Thienyl, 2,3,4,5-Tetrafluorophenyl, 2,3,4-Trifluorophenyl
Scheme 13.116
1,2,4-Oxadiazoles undergo photochemically induced azole to azole interconversions, similar to the previously mentioned thermal rearrangements (Scheme 13.118) [273]. Thus, photolysis of the 3-acetamino-1,2,4-oxadiazole 326 involves cleavage of the NO bond and the formation of the new oxadiazole 327 (Scheme 13.119). Similarly, the irradiation of 3-(o-aminophenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazole 328 affords the indazole 331 from the photolytic species 329 and the benzimidazole 332 as
j1119
N Me
Ph C N N
N H
O KOH, EtOH 90-99% X Ph
H N N N
Ph N
322 324 X= H, p-Me, p-OMe, p-Cl, p-CF3, p-CN, p-NO2, m-NO2, m-Me, m-Cl, m-CF3, p-CN, m-Me, m-Et, p-Et, p-Fl, m-Fl, m-Br, p-Brl
O2N Ph C N N N N H O
O NO2 EtOH 82% X = Ph, NH2 X
H N N N
Ph N NO2
323
NO2 325
Scheme 13.117
N Ph O N
Y W
h Ph H
N O N
Y W
X=O,NR;Y=W=COR X Y N H
O Ph
W N
Scheme 13.118
a byproduct originating from the carbodiimide 330, the rearrangement product of 329 (Scheme 13.120) [274]. UV irradiation of 1,2,4-oxadiazoles 333 in the presence of nucleophilic nitrogen sources (primary amines, ammonia, hydrazine) affords triazoles 335, via cleavage of the NO bond and addition of the nucleophile to the intermediate 334 (Scheme 13.121) [275].
1120
j 13 Oxadiazoles
N Ph O N 326 H N C O Me h, 18h MeOH 90% Ph N O N H N O Me
Me O Ph N H N N O
327
Scheme 13.119
h , 254 nm N R
1
+ N R1 O N 329 NH R 2
N C N R
1
NH R 2
MeOH
HN R2 330
328
R 1 = Ph, Me, H R 2 = Me, H R1 O N N
H R2 +
O N H N N R1 332 50-60%
N R2
331
20-40%
Scheme 13.120
The use of methanol as nucleophile leads to a 1 : 1 mixture of 1,3,4-oxadiazole 337 and triazole 336 (Scheme 13.122). When an amino group is present at C5, the reaction with a sulfur nucleophile leads to 1,2,4-thiadiazoles 338 (Scheme 13.123) [276]. Irradiation of 1,2,4-oxadiazoles-4-oxides 339 in methanol causes the initial formation of an isolable nitrile together with the nitrosocarbonyl derivative 340, which
j1121
Ph N R1 O N
R 2 NH2 h , 254nm MeOH 37-60% R1
Ph N O N
333
Ph N R
1
Ph N R1 O N NHR 2
335
N R2
334
Scheme 13.121
NHR N R1 O N Et 3 N h , 254nm MeOH 27-40% R

1
OMe N N R N + R1
N N O
NHR
336
337
R=Me,Pr R 1 =C7 F15, C3 F7

Scheme 13.122
can be trapped by cyclohexadiene to give the hetero-DielsAlder adducts 341 in good yields (Scheme 13.124) [277]. The intermediate nitrosocarbonyls 340 can also be trapped in ene reactions to give adducts 342 and 343 [254, 278]. The 1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-ones 344 undergo, when heated in vacuum, a retro-1,3dipolar cycloaddition to give nitrones 345 (Scheme 13.125) [251].
13.3.5.5 Reactivity of Substituents Reactions involving substituents attached to ring carbons reveal the particular stability of the heterocyclic system. A series of examples are related to the formation and reactivity of a-anions. Thus, 5-methyl-3-phenyl-1,2,4-oxadiazole (302) is deprotonated by bases to the corresponding anion, which adds to carbonyl group of ketones or CO2 [264]. Conversely, the methyl group of 3-methyl-5-phe-
1122
j 13 Oxadiazoles
Ph N H2N O N h , 254 nm MeOH 45-67% H2 N N O Ph N
S R = Ph, Me, H X = MeO, NH2 Ph N RHN S 338

Scheme 13.123
NHR
Ph HN H2 N O N S X NR
N R
1
O N 339
R O
h, 313 nm MeOH 73-87%
R CN +
N R
O 61-95% H R4 Ph
O N R O 341
O 340
R2 R3
R5 O R3 R2 N H R5 R4 342
HO
N ROC 343
90-99%
R2, R3, R4, R5 = H, Ph, Me
R = Ph, 2,4,6-MePh, p-Cl-Ph, p-MeOPh R1 = Ph, 2,4,6-MePh, p-Cl-Ph

Scheme 13.124
nyl-1,2,4-oxadiazole (300) by treatment with butyllithium does not form the anion: the reagent adds to the 4,5-bond (Scheme 13.108) [120a]. 1,2,4-Oxadiazole 302 also undergoes the aldol condensation with benzaldehyde (Scheme 13.126) [120a].
j1123
Ph N O O 344
R N R1
vacuum 26-57%
H R N O
R1 H
345
R = Ph,2,3-(MeO)2 Ph, 2-NO2 Ph,3,4-(MeO)2 Ph R 1 =H, Ph, 2,3 - (MeO)2 Ph

Scheme 13.125
N Me O
Ph N
PhCHO Ph ZnCl2 190 C, 15 h
N O 65%
Ph N
302
Scheme 13.126
Phosphonate 347, obtained by Arbuzov reaction of 3-chloromethyl-1,2,4-oxadiazole 346, has been used in WadsworthEmmons reactions: the methodology provides useful access to 3-alkenyl-1,2,4-oxadiazoles 348 (Scheme 13.127) [264].
O N
Cl
N
P(OEt) 3 78%
Ph
Ph
P OEt OEt
346
347
OTMS TMSO
R=
Me
Me OTMS
22%
NaH RCOMe
R N
O O
Me
N
Ph
348
Scheme 13.127
1124
j 13 Oxadiazoles
The formation of a-anions has been exploited for the synthesis of a library of 5-alkenyl-substituted 1,2,4-oxadiazoles 353. Compounds 353 have been prepared starting from a polystyrene-supported oxadiazolyl-substituted selenium resin 350, prepared by reaction of polystyrene-supported selenyl acetic acid 349, with amidoxime and DDC through Porcos two-step, one-pot condensation. Alkylation of 350 by base treatmentand additionof allyl bromidesproducedthe a-alkylatedseleniumresins 351, whichwereusedasdipolarophiles ina1,3-dipolar cycloadditionto furnishpolystyrenesupported oxadiazolyl- and isoxazolinyl-substituted selenium resins 352. Oxadiazolyl and isoxazolinyl substituted olens 353 were then obtained stereoselectively through selenoxide syn-elimination from resins 352 by H2O2 treatment (Scheme 13.128) [279].
R N N Se O R1 R N
DCC, 95C, 20h Se CH 2CO 2 H 349 R HON NH2 Se
N O
LDA, -60-40C, 1h R1
350
Br
351 R2 rt,24 h N O R N N
R = Ph, p-Me-C 6 H4 , p-F-C 6 H4 , p-Cl-C 6 H4 , R1 =Ph,H

2
R =CO2Et, p-MeO-C 6 H4 , p-Br-C 6 H4 , p-Cl-C 6 H4 , p-NO 2 -C6H 4
N R2 N O 353
Scheme 13.128
R N H 2O 2,THF 0C/rt, 80 min 48-72%
N Se R1 O O
O R1
R2 352
The stability of the oxadiazole ring is pointed out in many reactions that substituents at C3 or C5 undergo. Among the more recent reactions, Scheme 13.129 shows the synthesis of aryl ethers 354 [280], the nucleophilic attack of methanol to a pentauorophenyl or tetrauorophenyl 1,2,4-oxadiazole (355) [275b], a Sonogashira coupling to afford 356 [195a], and the synthesis of amino compounds 357 by tetrapropylammonium perruthenate (TPAP) oxidation of the hydroxyl group followed by reductive amination of the resulting aldehyde [200]. The reaction of 5- and 3-chloromethyl-1,2,4-oxadiazoles 358 and 359, respectively, with pyrazolyl-purine affords the corresponding derivatives 360 and 361 (Scheme 13.130) [187]. Analogously, the polymer supported-1,2,4-oxadiazole 362 reacts with primary amines to give 5-aminomethyl oxadiazoles 363 (Scheme 13.131) [281].
j1125
R N
1) BBr3, CH2Cl2 N O MeO R = H, 4-CF3, 4-OPh, 4-F, 4-Cl, 3-Cl N R 2) chloroalkylamine K2CO3, 90C, DMF 60-85% X O
N O 354
X = piperazine, morpholine
F F F
N O X
NH2 N h, ecc = 254 nm MeOH, TEA 10-11% X = H, F
F MeO F
N O X
NH2 N
355
NHBOC Cl N Me O N I Cu(I), Et3N Ph Pd(Ph3P)2Cl2 72% 356 OH MeO2C Ar 1) NMO, TPAP N O N 2) 2- (NH2)-4-Me-Py, 2(NH2)-4-MeO-Py 3) NaBH(OAc)3 40-53%
Scheme 13.129
NHBOC Cl N Me O N R Ph
NH MeO2C Ar N O 357 N
R = Me, OMe
A series of highly p-conjugated nonsymmetrical liquid crystals, based on the core 3,5-(disubstituted)-1,2,4-oxadiazole with a shape similar to a hockey stick, have been synthesized by Sonogashira coupling reaction. Thus, compounds 366 were prepared in 7482% yield, by reaction of an aryl iodide containing the 1,2,4-oxadiazole ring (364) with the terminal arylacetylenes 365, using 10 mol.% of dichlorobis(triphenylphosphine)palladium, 5 mol.% of the co-catalyst copper(I) iodide, in a triethylaminetetrahydrofuran mixture (7 : 3). The obtained compounds showed liquid crystal phases, in particular smectic and nematic typical of calamitic structures, and moreover exhibit strong blue uorescence in solution (Scheme 13.132) [282].
1126
j 13 Oxadiazoles
Pr R N Pr N 1) O N Pr K2CO3, MeOH, rt Pr N N O O O NH N O N N Pr NH N N N N O N R SEM N N
Cl
N O
358
360
N O N
Cl 2) 3MHCl, EtOH 65-88% R N O N N N
N N H
O Pr
359
361
R = H,4-Cl,4-CF 3 ,4-CN,4-OMe,4-Me, 3-Cl,3-CF 3 ,3-OMe,3-Me, 2-Cl,2-CF 3 ,2-OMe,
Scheme 13.130
N O X 362
Scheme 13.131
I
RNH 2 Cl DMF 60-73% Me, PhCH2 X
O N 363 NHR
N N C 10H 21O 364
365 CuI, PPh 3 O PdCl 2(PPh 3) 2 Et3 N-THF rt 18 h
C 10H 21O N N O 366
OC nH 2n+1 L L = H, NO 2 n = 10, 12 74-82%
Scheme 13.132
j1127
13.3.6 1,2,4-Oxadiazoles in Medicine
1,2,4-Oxadiazole ring occurs widely in biologically active synthetic compounds, and is often used in drug discovery as a hydrolysis-resisting bioisosteric replacement for amide or ester functionalities [283] because of its electronic properties. Its derivatives can be found in a vast number of compounds exerting biological activity, such as ligands of benzodiazepine receptors [284, 285], anti-inammatory agents [131, 199, 234], antiviral agents [283], inhibitors of protein tyrosine phosphatases [286], agonists of muscarinic receptors [287], inhibitors of Src SH2 [183], antagonists of histamine H3-receptors [288], integrin receptor antagonists [200], angiotensin II receptor antagonists [289], and HIV-1 reverse transcriptase inhibitors [290]. 1,2,4-Oxadiazole moieties have been used in the design of dipeptidomimetics as peptide building blocks [184a,b]. Compounds 367 contain, at C5 of the 1,2,4-oxadiazole nucleus, a residue of an amino group linked to peptide moieties, and a carboxyl or ester functionality attached at C3 directly or through a methylene chain [291]
R1 N H R2
N O ROC n N
n =0, 1,2 R = OH, OEt, NHMe
367 R 1 = PhCH2 , Me, i-Prop
R 2 = Ac, Boc, H-Tyr-D-Ala, H-Arg-Pro--Lys-Pro-Gln-Gln-Phe
Numerous 1,2,4-oxadiazoles have been suggested as potential agonists for cortical muscarinic [292], benzodiazepine [293], and 5-HT1D (5-hydroxytryptamine) receptors [294], and as antagonists for 5-HT [295] or histamine H3 receptors [296]. They show activity as antirhinoviral agents [297], growth hormone secretagogues [298], anti-inammatory agents [234], and antitumor agents [183, 188, 299]. They also inhibit the SH2 domain of tyrosine kinase [300], monoamine oxidase [301], human neutrophil elastase [302], and human DNA topoisomerases. Finally, tropane derivatives of 1,2,4-oxadiazoles display high afnity for the cocaine binding site of the dopamine transporter [303]. More recently, it has been reported that the ring opening of N-oxides of adenosines 368, followed by exocyclic ring closure, in the presence of carboxylic anhydrides and thiophenol, followed by ammonia treatment, generates 1,2,4-oxadiazolyl imidazoles 369 (Scheme 13.133) [304]. The so-obtained separation of the fused imidazole and pyrimidine rings of purine nucleosides increases the conformation exibility: these shape-modied analogues have been used to investigate triple helix formation and as probes for the study of enzyme interactions [305a].
1128
j 13 Oxadiazoles
O N N OAc 368 N N NH 2 O 1) PhSH, (RCO) 2 O ( 48-83%) 2) MeOH/NH 3 (29-63%) HO HO O N N OH N R NH2 N O 369
AcO AcO
R = Me, Et, pr, i-pr, t-bu, C 5 H11, C7 H15, C9 H19 , Ph

Scheme 13.133
Furthermore, a series of keto-1,2,4-oxadiazoles (370) have been prepared that have been shown to be potent inhibitors of human mast cell tryptase and useful in the treatment of asthma and allergic diseases.
O R N H2N H N O N O 370 Cl Cl O
HCl
R = CF3 , C 3 H5 , OEt, N(CH2 )4 O, t-bu, i-pr, n-pentyl, 2,4-F2 C 6H 3, 3,4-F2 C 6H 3, 4-FC6 H4, 4-ClC6 H4
The 1,2,4.oxadiazol-5-one moiety can act as a bioisostere of the carboxylic acid function in retinoid structures. Recently, the solid-phase or solution-phase syntheses of a new series of non-carboxylic acid retinoic acid receptor ligands (RARs) bioisosteres of Am580 or tazarotene-like retinoids has been reported [305b]. In particular, the retinoidal activity of compound 371 (RAR-b,c selective) is signicant. These non-carboxylic acid type RAR ligands may exhibit different pharmacological behaviors from classical carboxylic acid compounds, as well as unique biological activity, and they may provide further scope for clinical applications.
N O N H O
371
j1129
1,2,5-Oxadiazole (372) is often referred to by the trivial name furazan; for 1,2,5oxadiazole-2-oxide (373), a common derivative, the trivial name furoxan is still in wide usage. The rst report on a 1,2,5-oxadiazole ring system appeared in the 1850s: the parent compound 1 was prepared in 1964 by treatment of glyoxime with succinic anhydride [306]. For 2,1,3-benzoxadiazoles (374) and the corresponding N-oxide 375, the terms benzofurazan and benzofuroxan are commonly used. The partially reduced dihydro- (D2, D3) and tetrahydro-derivatives 376378 are very rare.
N N O N O N 374 O N O N 375
372
373
NH
HN
NH
HN
NH
376
377
378
1,2,5-Oxadiazoles, their N-oxides, as well as their benzo-fused systems are biologically active compounds. Some of their derivatives are important because of their anthelmintic, fungicidal, bactericidal, and herbicidal action. They have also been found to possess antitumoral activity. Several reviews have been published on 1,2,5-oxadiazoles [307311]: the most comprehensive account of the chemistry of furoxans and benzofuroxans is that by Gasco and Boulton [312], and the more recent one by Paton [313].
13.4.1 Structure
1,2,5-Oxadiazole is a heteroaromatic compound; strictly, it should be regarded as a p-excessive heterocycle with six electrons distributed over ve atoms. However, the p-electron density on the heteroatoms is so great that the values for the C-atoms are smaller than one, where p-deciency prevails, thereby inuencing the reactivity [314]. Despite low p-electron density on the C-atoms, 1,2,5-oxadiazoles do not react at all or onlyslowlywithnucleophiles:treatmentwithstrongbases, suchasNaOHinmethanol, causes ring opening to form sodium salts of a-oximinonitriles 380 (Scheme 13.134). The 1,2,5-oxadiazole ring is a stable system and annular-group tautomerism is not favored [308]. Thus, the two theoretically possible tautomeric forms 381a and 381b for 3-hydroxyfurazans 381 can be discarded on the basis of IR and NMR data, which show the exclusive presence of the hydroxy compound in chloroform solution (Scheme 13.135).
1130
j 13 Oxadiazoles
OH H N O R N R N O 380 NC
379
Scheme 13.134
R N O
OH
N
R N O
NH
H N O N
381
Scheme 13.135
381a
381b
However, the formation of 2-alkyl-1,2,5-oxadiazol-3(2H)-ones 382 by alkylation of trimethylsilyl derivatives of 3-hydroxyfurazans using triethyl orthoformate has been reported [315]. The compounds were characterized by NMR and MS measurements.
R N O O N R
382
The N-oxide structure for furoxans and their benzo-derivatives was ascertained by Wieland [316] and Werner [317]. Ring-chain tautomerism is a distinctive feature of furoxan chemistry, as evidenced in the interconversion of 2-oxide 383 and 5-oxide isomers 384 (Figure 13.4: see Section 13.4.2).
R1
R1
O N O N 383a O N O N
O N O N 384a N
383b
O N O 384b
Figure 13.4 Example of ring-chain tautomerism shown by the interconversion of 2-oxide 383 and 5-oxide isomers 384.
j1131
A furazan fused to a ve-membered heterocycle was rst described in 1908 [318]: annelation in 5/5-byciclic systems suggests the presence of strain energy in the molecules, which is manifested in the difculty to form these compounds. Destabilization of the distorted aromatic oxadiazoles results not only from bond stretching, angular distortion, and torsional effects, but also from the decreased resonance stabilization [319]. 5,7-Dimethyl-3-phenyl-furazano- and furoxano[5,4-a]pyridinium perchlorates (385 and 386), a new type of condensed system, have been obtained by cyclocondensation of aminophenylfuroxan and aminophenylfurazan with acetylacetone in the presence of HClO4. The structure of these compounds is supported by crystallographic analysis and CNDO/2 calculations [320].
Ph N O N N Me 385 Me ClO4 Ph N Me ClO4
O N O N 386
Me
Very few partially or totally reduced 1,2,5-oxadiazole ring systems has been reported. For instance, a Japanese patent [321] describes the synthesis of 5-(4-oxo2,5-diphenyl-1,2,5-oxadiazolidine-3-yl)-2,4(1H,3H)-pyrimidinedione (387), the rst representative of 1,2,5-oxadiazolidines.
HN O O NH
O Ph N O N Ph 387
As a result of the low aromatic character of the benzofuroxan system, recent studies have revealed that nitrobenzofuroxan acts as very versatile DielsAlder reagent, with the carbocyclic ring being capable of acting as a dienophile [322], a heterodiene [322], or a carbodiene [323], depending upon the experimental conditions. Thus, treatment of 4-nitro-6-triuoromethylfurazan (388) and -furoxan (389) with 1,3-cycloexadiene afforded a mixture of fused derivatives 390 and 391, respectively (Scheme 13.136) [324].
Theoretical studies on the structure and properties of 1,2,5-oxadiazoles have been reported. Molecular orbital calculations [325, 326] and ab initio quantum mechanical methodologies have been used to determine bond orders, total energies, ionization potentials, and dipole moments [327]: a good match with experimental data has been obtained.
1132
j 13 Oxadiazoles
NO2 N F3C O + 83% NO2 N O F3C N (O)n N (O)n
388 n = 0 390 389 n = 1 391

Scheme 13.136
Dipole moments for a set of substituted 1,2,5-oxadiazoles and 1,2,5-oxadiazole 2-oxides have been measured in benzene solution [328]. The dipole moment of furazans is oriented with the negative end towards the oxygen atom, while in furoxans the data revealed a strong electron shift from the exocyclic oxygen back into the heterocyclic system, corresponding to a mesomeric moment of approximately 3 D. The molecule of furoxan is well characterized as electron-overcrowded, particularly near the nitrogen atom N2. Dipole moments of 3-amino-4R-furazans 392 have been determined experimentally and also calculated by HF ab initio (STO-3G, 3-21G, 4-31G, 6-31G, 6-31G/431G, 6-31G levels) and semiempirical (MNDO, AM1, PM3) quantum chemical methods; good agreement with the experimental values has been found.
R N O NH2 N
392 R = H, NH2, OMe, N3, COOH, COOMe, NO2
For these compounds, the aminoimino tautomeric equilibrium is strongly shifted towards the amino-form [329]. A great deal of interest has been taken in the 2-oxide and 5-oxide tautomers and the pathway of their interconversion (393$395) has been studied in some detail [330335]. Structures and relative stabilities of furoxan and its open-chain tautomers have been calculated by semiempirical and ab initio procedures. The obtained results support a mechanism that involves the cis-1,2-dinitroethene 394 as intermediate/transition state, with an energy about 120 kJ mol1 above that of furoxan.
R R1 R R1 NO NO R1 R
O N O N
O N O N
393
394
395
Analogously, in the benzofuroxan series, MP2 calculations afford a correct prediction of the structure [336]: the most likely intermediate in the interconversion
j1133
396$398 is anti-1,2-dinitrosobenzene (397) with an energy of 50 kJ mol1 above that of benzofuroxan [337].
O N O N
396
O N N O 397
O N O
398
The involvement of 1,2-nitrosoarenes as intermediates in the equilibration process has been established by matrix isolation experiments [338340]: photolysis (360 nm) of benzofuran in an argon matrix at 14 K generated 1,2-nitrosobenzene, which was characterized by UV and IR spectroscopy, and subsequent thermolysis or photolysis (320 nm) afforded benzofuroxan. The gain of resonance energy of the benzene ring does not compensate for the energy needed to open the furoxan ring, and therefore dinitrosobenzene is less stable than benzofuroxan. More recently, the rst experimental evidence for the formation of 2,3-dinitroso2-butene as a reactive intermediate, during the photolytically induced decomposition of dimethylfuroxan, has been reported by matrix isolation experiments [341a]. DFT calculations gave the geometry of the dinitrosoalkene intermediate [341b]. However, this species is photolabile and decomposes upon prolonged photolysis time to give acetonitrile N-oxide as the nal, photostable product. The two photoproducts were characterized using a combination of experimental and quantum chemical results. Factors inuencing the equilibrium constants and rates have been reviewed [312, 342344]. The equilibrium between annelated furoxans and the isomeric dinitroso derivatives, for example, 399 and 400, has been investigated theoretically by semiempirical (AM1, PM3) and ab initio methods (MP2/6-31G//6-31G and RHF/6-31G ) [345]. For both 1,2- and 2,3-dinitrosonaphthalene, several conformers exist as minimum on the potential energy surface (PES). Calculations of the energy difference between [1,2,5]thiadiazolo[3,4-e]benzoxadiazole-1-oxide and -3-oxide are in agreement with experimental data.
O N O N O N N O
400
399
Ab initio and density functional theoretical studies on non-classical furoxans 401 (Y O, NH, S for each of the following combinations of X,Z: CH,CH; N, CH; CH,N; and N,N) and their open-chain anti-1,2-dinitroso isomers 402 have been reported [346, 347]. Calculations indicate that, in all cases considered, the non-classical furoxans are less stable than the corresponding open-chain isomers.
1134
j 13 Oxadiazoles
Y X Z O N O N 401 Y X Z 402 NO NO
Density functional theory (DFT) has been used to calculate the heats of formation and IR active vibrational frequencies of 12 furazan compounds [348]. The assignments of the vibrational motions to IR frequencies based on a force eld analysis are given to clarify the complex coupling in these molecules. Dissociation enthalpies of terminal (NO) bonds, DH (NO), in furoxans have been calculated from enthalpy of formation, enthalpy of sublimation, and enthalpy of vaporization data [349].
13.4.3 Structural Aspects 13.4.3.1 X-Ray Diffraction X-Ray crystal structures have been reported for various furazans and furoxans [350 357]. Bond lengths and bond angles have been determined also by double resonance modulation microwave spectroscopy [358]. For furazans, crystallographic data show that the heterocyclic ring is essentially planar and possess C2v symmetry. p-Bond orders are 0.720.82 for N2C3 and C4N5 and 0.450.52 for C3C4. These data suggest a signicant p-delocalization; in contrast, O1N2 and N5O1 are essentially single bonds (0.320.36). Benzofurazans show similar parameters and a signicant double bond xation in the fused ring. The molecular geometry for the parent furazan (403) has been determined by microwave spectroscopy.
0.5051 0.8116
N O 0.3563 403
As for furazans, the oxadiazole ring of furoxans in nearly planar, but the exocyclic oxygen at N2 causes substantial distortion, lying 0.05 A out of the plane of the heterocycle. Structures are characterized by the long O1N2 and the short N2Oexo bonds. Moreover, C3C4 is shortened, with about 30% double bond-character, while N2C3 is longer than C4N5. Benzofuroxans show a similar pattern of bond lengths and angles. In the homocyclic ring, signicant bond localization is supported by the consideration that the C4C5 and C6C7 bonds are notably shorter than C5C6, in accord with their chemical reactivity (Section 13.4.5.2). Crystal structure simulations for three azoxyfurazans, 4,20 -dichloroazoxyfurazan (404), 4,40 -di(morpholin-1-yl)azoxyfurazan (405), and 4,40 -dimethylazoxyfurazan (406), have been carried out to test the reliability of standard force elds for
j1135
furazan derivatives [359]. The predicted crystal structures were compared with experimental ones, obtained by X-ray diffraction analysis.
MeN Cl N N O N 404 Cl O N O O N N N O N N O N N O N O N N Me N N O N 406
Me O N
405
X-Ray data for 1,2,5-oxadiazoles fused with a pyrazine ring have been reported recently [360]. Azofurazan annulated macrocycles 407 [361], 408 [362], and 409 [363] have been synthesized and then characterized by X-ray analysis. Lactam 407 show two furazan rings linked to a piperazine system, while compound 408 contains four furazan rings bonded by three azo bonds. The ion binding ability of compounds 409 was tested.
N O N O N O N N N N N O N O N N N N X N O N O N N N N N O N N N N N N O N O N O R R1 409 O R1 O O N N N N O
O N
407
408 X = O, S, O(CH2)2O
13.4.3.2 NMR Spectroscopy Monosubstituted furazans [364], phenylfurazans [365], azoxyfurazans [366], and hydroxy-, alkoxy- and phenoxyfurazans [367] have been studied by NMR spectroscopy. Additive schemes have been developed and spectrumstructure correlations have been elucidated. Table 13.7 reports the NMR chemical shifts (1 H, 13 C, 15 N, and 17 O) of furazan, furoxan, and their benzo derivatives [308].
Table 13.7 NMR chemical shifts (ppm) for furazan, furoxan, and their benzo-fused derivatives.
Compound Furazan Benzofurazan Furoxan Benzofuroxan
H3 7.92 7.44
H4 7.92 8.50
C3 142.0 148.6 105.2 113.7
C4 142.0 148.6 146.8 152.2
N2 33.5 35.6 15.4 25.3
N5 33.5 35.6 3.9 13.2
O1 450 507.5
O-exo
364.0
1136
j 13 Oxadiazoles
In the furoxan series the lower chemical shifts of 3H with respect to 4H is due to the contribution of the resonance structure 411.
R R R R R R R R
O NO N 410
O N O N 411
O N O N 412
O NO N 413
The strong shielding effect exerted by the exocyclic oxygen atom on the proton attached to the substituents at C3 allows one to identify the individual isomer 383a and 384a. Thus, for dimethylfuroxan the resonance at 2.16 ppm is assigned to the 3-methyl group, while that at 2.38 ppm is attributable to the 4methyl group [368]. In benzofuroxans, the shielding effect exerted by N-oxide shifts all the signals to higher frequency with respect to the resonances of benzofurazans, with the larger shifts for H7 and for H4 [369]. The ring-chain tautomerism of these compounds has been investigated by 1 H spectroscopy. The unsymmetrical ABCD pattern for the homocyclic protons, observed at 40 C, changes into a symmetrical A2B2 pattern at 100 C, as a consequence of the rapid equilibration of two isomers. In this way, exchange rates over a range of temperatures have been determined and thermodynamic activation parameters calculated [344, 370]. The most noteworthy feature of the 13 C NMR of furoxans is the large difference in chemical shifts of C3 and C4 resonances. As indicated in Table 13.7, C3 resonates at higher eld in the range 100123 ppm, while C4 appears in the range 140160 ppm [368]. The chemical shifts and multiplicities of the two bridgehead carbons in the 13 C NMR spectra of various fused furoxans have been shown to provide a general method for assigning structure in these tautomeric systems [371]. 3-Methylfurazans with nitrogen-containing substituents at C4 have been studied by 1 H, 13 C and 14 N NMR spectroscopy [372]. A correlation between the chemical shifts in 13 C NMR spectra of these furazans and monosubstituted benzenes with the same substituents was found. The inuence of substituents on the NMR data of the iodofurazans was also investigated [356]. The 15 N NMR spectra of furazan and benzofurazan show a single absorption at 33 and 36 ppm, respectively [373, 374]. The nitrogen atoms of furoxans show distinct signals in the range 26 to 15 for N2 and 14 to 4 ppm for N5: these resonances coalesce on heating. The parent furoxan 373 has 17 O signals at 508 and 364 ppm, while furazan 372 shows a single resonance at 450 ppm [368]. The corresponding gures for dimethylfuroxan are 460 and 350 ppm, and 475 ppm for dimethylfurazan.
13.4.3.3 UV and IR Spectroscopy Characteristic peaks in the IR spectra of furazans are in the ranges 15251560 (CNO), 14301385 (NO), and 10401030 and 890880 cm1 (heterocyclic ring). Furoxans show diagnostic peaks at 16251600 (CNO), 14901400 (CNO2),
j1137
13601280 (NO), and at 11901150, 10301000, and 890875 cm1 (heterocyclic ring) [308]. MINDO/3 and DFT methods have been used to calculate the IR active vibrational frequencies of a series of furazans and furoxans [348]. The 1605 cm1 band of furoxans was assigned to vibrations of the C:N(O) group [326]. Monocyclic furazans and dimethylfurazan have UV absorption bands at 228241 nm, while typical monocyclic furoxans have a peak at 255295 nm [375]. The extended conjugation in the chromophores of benzofurazans and benzofuroxans results in a shifts of lmax to longer wavelengths (350410 nm); the energy band can extend into the visible region when conjugating groups are present. 7-Halo-4-nitro and 7-halodinitrobenzofurazans are used as analytical reagents because of the strong visible uorescence in the region 525545 nm when reacted with ethers, thioethers, and amines. Thus, tyrosil, cysteinyl, and amino residues of proteins can be labeled by this method, providing access to a uorescence probe incorporating various biological interesting molecules [376].
13.4.3.4 Mass Spectrometry Two general patterns of fragmentation under ionizing radiation characterize monocyclic furazans (Scheme 13.137) [377379]. Initial ring opening by cleavage of the weak O1N2 bond is followed by the C3C4 bond breaking to yield nitrile and nitrile oxide (path a) or by the extrusion of NO (path b) [380]. Peaks attributable to RC are usually observed.
R C N OH
R N O
R N b
R C N O
R2C2N
NO
Scheme 13.137
Unlike many aromatic N-oxides, the (M16) peak for furoxans is weak. The electron impact mass spectra of furazans are characterized by diagnostic peaks at (M30) and (M60) , due to the loss of NO and two NO molecules, respectively [381, 382]. The fragmentation pattern (Scheme 13.138) is consistent with the O1N2 bond cleavage, with formation of the 1,2-dinitrosoethene tautomers, followed by sequential expulsion of NO. In parallel with this route, cleavage of the C3C4 bond yields two nitrile oxides.
1138
j 13 Oxadiazoles
Ar Ar eV a Ar Ar b Ar C N O O N O N O N O N
Ar O N
Ar N O
- 2NO d
Ar
Ar
Scheme 13.138
The acetylenic structure of the (M60) fragment has been ascertained by massanalyzed ion kinetic energy (MIKE) spectroscopy performed under high energy collision activation conditions [312]. The direct generation of NO by a chemical decomposition suggests that the furoxan derivatives can be utilized as a potential NO-related biological probe [381].
13.4.4 Synthesis
Many synthetic routes for the 1,2,5-oxadiazole system have been reported [308, 313, 384]. Different approaches are generally required for furazans, furoxans, and their benzo-fused analogues; thus separate subsections are devoted to the synthesis of furazans, benzofurazans, furoxans and benzofuroxans. Moreover, according to the stability of the heterocyclic ring, numerous different 1,2,5-oxadiazole derivatives can be generally prepared by exploiting appropriate interconversion reactions of the substituents present on the ve-membered ring.
13.4.4.1 Furazans Three main routes have been designed for the synthesis of furazans: (i) dehydrative cyclization of 1,2-dioximes, (ii) deoxygenation of furoxans, and (iii) BoultonKatritzky rearrangement of other ve-membered heterocycles. 13.4.4.1.1 Dehydration of 1,2-Dioximes Furazan 372 was rst prepared in 1964, by melting glyoxime with succinic anhydride, in 57% yield [306]. Cyclization of substituted glyoximes 413 is the most exploited methodology for the preparation of mono and disubstituted furazans 414 (Scheme 13.139). The starting material is prepared by reaction of 1,2-diketones 411 with hydroxylamine or by a-nitrosation of an alkylketone 412, followed by oximation of the resulting 1,2-dione monooxime. A one-pot method for the synthesis of 3-alkyl-, 3-aryl-, and 3-hetaryl-4-aminofurazans
j1139
R N O
R1 N O
H 2/Pd RONO NH2 OH R1 R NOH NOH 413 -H 2O R N O R1 N R = Me, Et, Ph R 1 = Et, Pr, t-Bu, Adamantyl NH2 OH RCOCOR 1 411
RCOCH 2R 1 412
414 31-57%
Scheme 13.139
from b-alkyl- or b-aryl and b-hetaryl-b-oxoesters has been reported recently. The multistep process involves hydrolysis of the ester, nitrosation at the activated methylene group, and treatment of the resulting intermediate with an alkaline solution of hydroxylamine in the presence of urea [385]. Dioximes can be also obtained by reduction of furoxans with H2, Pd/C (Section 13.4.4.1.2); thus, when furoxan is easily available, as for example by dimerization of nitrile oxides, the sequence furoxanglyoximefurazan constitutes a valuable synthetic route for symmetrically substituted furoxans. Various dehydrating agents have been utilized, such as acetic, succinic and phthalic anhydrides, sulfuric acid, dicyclohexylcarbodiimide, phosphorus oxychloride, thionyl chloride, and alcoholic sodium hydroxide. According to this procedure, diaminofurazan 418 has been prepared in good yield by reaction of glyoxime 416 and hydroxylamine hydrochloride in aqueous NaOH, to give diaminoglyoxime 417, followed by KOH mediated dehydration; the reaction has also been performed under microwave irradiation in 2/3 min (Scheme 13.140) [386]. For monosubstituted furazans such as 419, basic dehydrating agents must be avoided because most of these compounds are isomerized to oximes of a-ketonitriles (421), according to a sequence that originates from the initial deprotonation at C4 (Scheme 13.141) [387]. Thus, in these cases, dehydration of the corresponding dioximes is conveniently carried out with anhydrides or sulfuric acid. In contrast, disubstituted furazans are stable to both heat and chemical conditions and a wide range of dehydrating agents may be used. An unusual synthesis of
1140
j 13 Oxadiazoles
HCOCOH
415
NH2 OH NaOH HON

416
NOH
NH2 OH
H 2N N O
NH2
N
KOH
H 2N
NH 2 NOH 417
HON
76%
418
Scheme 13.140
Ph N O
H N
OH
Ph N O N H 2O
Ph
NOH N
419
Scheme 13.141
420
421
F3 C HON
Ar NOH
422
SiO2 40-86%
F3 C N O
Ar N
423
Ar =Ph, Tolyl
Scheme 13.142
3-(triuoromethyl)-4-aryl-furazans 423 has been reported (Scheme 13.142) [388]: dehydration of 1,1,1-triuoromethyl-2,3-dione dioximes 422, which failed with traditional methods, was performed on heating with silica gel. A modication of the dehydration route involves the conversion of dioximes into diesters, followed by cyclization via distillation or reaction with alkali [389]. The 1,2-dioxime dehydration route is compatible with various substituents, such as alkyl, aryl, acyl, carboxyl, and amino groups. For example, 3-amino-4-phenylfurazans (425) are obtained by treatment of aroyl cyanides 424 with hydroxylamine and sodium acetate in ethanol or on heating N-hydroxy-2-(hydroxyimino)-2-arylacetimidamide (426) with sodium acetate in ethanol (Scheme 13.143) [390].
13.4.4.1.2 Deoxygenation of Furoxans Furazans have been prepared by deoxygenation of furoxans: this method is suitable for furazans bearing different substituents, including alkyl, aryl, acyl, cyano, and amino groups (Scheme 13.144) [313].
j1141
H2 N ArCOCN 424 NH 2 OH NaOAc 26-72% N O
Ar N 38-81%
H2N Ar
NOH NOH 426
425
Ar = Ph, p-OMeC 6 H4, p-NO2 C6 H4

Scheme 13.143
Ph
Ph
Ph [H] 80% N O
Ph N
O N O N 427
Scheme 13.144
428
However, the reduction process must be carried out so as to avoid over-reduction and, when the furazan is thermally labile, the formation of by-products by ring opening [319]. The most employed reducing agents include trialkyl and triarylphosphites and phosphines, phosphorous pentachloride, stannous chloride in acetic acid, and Zn/acetic acid [308]. The strategy is particularly efcient for the preparation of symmetrical substituted furazans because the corresponding furoxans can be easily prepared via dimerization of the appropriate nitrile oxides (Section 13.4.4.3.3) (Scheme 13.145) [391].
H 2N
NH2
N O N N 70 % O
N O N
NH2
N O N
O N O N
429
Scheme 13.145
430
Vinyl azides 431 [392] and vicinal vinyl nitro compounds 433 [393] can be precursors for furoxans and furazans (Scheme 13.146).
13.4.4.1.3 BoultonKatritzky Rearrangement Oximes of several classes of 3-acyl-1oxa-2-azoles, such as isoxazoles, 1,2,4-oxadiazoles, and furazans, undergo a thermal or base-catalyzed rearrangement, known as the BoultonKatritzky rearrangement, which leads to furazans (Scheme 13.147) [342, 394]. The reaction can proceed by a concerted electrocyclic mechanism or, in the presence of a base catalyst, in two steps by an intramolecular nucleophilic attack at the nitrogen atom of an anionic intermediate.
1142
j 13 Oxadiazoles
R R' N3
NO 2 BF 4
12-80%
R N O
'R N O
NaN3 62-75%
R O 2N
R' NO 2
431
R = H, Me, n-Bu R' = H, Me, Ph
Scheme 13.146
432
433
R N HO Z Y
R N O
Z Y OH N
A) Z=Y=CH; B) Z=N, Y=CH; Z=CH, Y=N

Scheme 13.147
The process is geometry dependent, with the (Z)-isomer rapidly transformed, while the (E)-isomer is generally stable. Thus, the reaction of 3-benzoyl-5-phenyl1,2,4-oxadiazole (434) with hydroxylamine gives rise to a mixture of (E)-oxime 436 and the amido furazan 437 resulting from the rearrangement of (Z)-oxime 435 [395]. The addition of an acid improves the process because of the (Z/E)-oxime isomerization. Under this condition the amidofurazan 437 is hydrolyzed to its amino derivative 438 (Scheme 13.148).
Ph
O N N O
Ph NH 2OH Ph 65%
N HO N N O +
HO
N
Ph
N N
Ph
434
435 70% Ph
N O
Ph O 436
NHCOPh
N
Ph
N O
NH 2
N
86%
437
Scheme 13.148
438
j1143
The transformation is not limited to oximes, but also amidoximes and hydrazidoximes can give the corresponding furazans [396]. The (Z)-oximes of 3-acylisoxazoles 439, which are more stable than the corresponding 1,2,4-oxadiazole derivatives, do not react in the absence of a catalyst; the rearrangement occurs easily by treatment with bases, leading to the formation of b-ketoalkylfurazans 440 (Scheme 13.149).
R1 N HO N R2 R3 R1 N O
OH 36-92%
CHR 2COR 3
N
439
R =H,Me,Et,Ph R 2 =H,Me,Ph,Bn R 3 =Me,Et,i-Pr
Scheme 13.149
1
440
Various oximes of 3-acyl-substituted furazans 441 undergo the BoultonKatritzky rearrangement in which the oxadiazole ring is converted into a new furazan system bearing a hydroxyiminoalkyl group (442). Several examples of N-mono and N,Ndialkylfurazanamidoximes (443$444) have been reported (Scheme 13.150) [397].
H R N N O 441 R H 2N N O N N OH 56-67% N OH HON N R H N O 442
HON
NH2 N
R N
443
444
R = PhNH,PhCH2 NH, (CH2) 5N, (CH 2) 4ON, Me2 N, Me2CHN, (Me 2 CH)2 N
Scheme 13.150
13.4.4.2 Benzofurazans The main synthetic routes towards benzofurazans are (i) dehydration of o-quinone dioximes, (ii) cyclization of o-substituted nitrosoarenes, and (iii) deoxygenation of benzofuroxans (Scheme 13.151) [307, 309].
1144
j 13 Oxadiazoles
R NOH NOH
445
N N
446
R
447
NO X
O N O N
448
Scheme 13.151
Various dehydration conditions have been used for the conversion of o-quinone dioximes into benzofurazans, such as the use of acetic anhydride, thionyl chloride, sulfuric acid, phenyl isocyanate, and alcoholic sodium hydroxide. Alternatively, cyclization may be performed by thermolysis of the corresponding dioxime diacetates or dibenzoates [307, 309]. The utility of this synthetic approach is linked to the availability of dioxime precursors, which can be prepared by direct oximation of o-quinones or by reduction of the corresponding benzofuroxans, although, in many cases, direct deoxygenation to benzofurazans can occur. A different widely exploited methodology starts from o-nitrosoarenes: thus, o-azido nitroso derivatives, generated from the o-chloro analogues, can be converted into benzofurazans by thermolysis [398], while 1-amino-2-nitrosoarene affords benzofurazan by oxidation with ferricyanide or hypochlorite, probably through an o-quinone dioxime intermediate. In addition, o-nitrosophenol heated in the presence of hydroxylamine leads to furazans, presumably by oximation of the tautomeric o-quinone monooxime followed by dehydration. Other approaches involve the thermolysis of o-nitroanilines or the reaction of o-dinitroarenes with sodium azide [399] and the reduction of o-dinitroarenes with sodium borohydride [400] (Scheme 13.152) Moreover, benzofurazans can be synthesized by a BoultonKatritzky rearrangement. Thus, 7-nitrosobenzofuroxan or 3-methyl-7-nitroso-2,1-benzisoxazole afford the corresponding 4-nitrofurazan [398] and 4-acetylbenzofurazan [401]. Analogously, benzofurazan is formed by photolysis of 2,1,3-benzoselenadiazole N-oxide. This reaction involves cleavage of the heterocyclic ring, and the extrusion of selenium followed by ring closure [402].
13.4.4.3 Furoxans The most exploited routes towards furoxans are (i) oxidative cyclization of 1,2dioximes, (ii) dehydration of a-nitroketoximes, and (iii) dimerization of nitrile oxides for symmetrically substituted furoxans. For unsymmetrical furoxans, the possibility
j1145
Cl NO N3 93% N N Ox 48%
NO NH 2
O 43% NO 2 N3
O H
NO OH
10%
NaBH 4 NO 2 NO 2
Scheme 13.152
of formation of mixtures of 2- and 5-isomers must be taken in account in choosing a suitable synthetic strategy. No data have been reported on the direct oxidation of furazans to furoxans.
13.4.4.3.1 Oxidation of 1,2-Dioximes The oxidation of 1,2 dioximes offers a valuable route towards furoxans. The oxidation can be carried out with t-butyl hypochlorite [403], lead tetraacetate, dinitrogen tetroxide [404], as well as electrochemically [405]; as an example, Scheme 13.153 shows the oxidation reaction of compound 449 to give 450.
Ph Cl NOH Ox NOH 449
Scheme 13.153
Ph 60-70% N
Cl N 450 O
Ring closure can be achieved stereospecically, thus allowing the formation of individual isomers for asymmetrically substituted furoxans 452 and 453 (Scheme 13.154) [406]. This approach is suitable for the synthesis of 1,2,5-oxadiazoles fused to other carbocyclic and heterocyclic systems [406, 407].
13.4.4.3.2 Dehydration of a-Nitro Ketoximes Mono- and polycyclic furoxans have been easily prepared by a synthetic strategy that starts from readily available alkenes [312, 408]. The process involves the initial reaction of alkenes 454 with
1146
j 13 Oxadiazoles
R R1 N OH Ox 15-70% R N O R1 N O N OH 451 R R1 N OH Ox 15-70% R1 N O R N O
452
N OH 451
453
R = NH2, CN, SPh, t-Bu R1 = Me, Ph, Me-C6H4, SO2-C6H4-Cl

Scheme 13.154
nitrogen trioxide to afford the 1-nitro-2-nitroso adduct 455 isolable as its nitroso dimer 456 followed by thermal isomerization to the a-nitro ketoxime tautomer 457 and dehydration with cyclization to the target furoxans 458 (Scheme 13.155).
O O N N R NO2 456
N2O3 R 454
R R
NO NO2 455
R R
NO2 R
R = Alkyl, Phenyl, Alkoxyphenyl R - H2O N O R N O
R R
NOH NO2 457
458 27-83%
Scheme 13.155
Mixtures of isomers are obtained from non-symmetrical alkenes. The reaction route is compatible with a wide range of functional groups; thus, nitrosation of crotonoaldehyde leads to 4-formyl-3-methylfuroxan [409] and similarly the reaction of b-nitrostyrene with N2O3 yields the corresponding aryl nitrofuroxan isomers [410]. Recently, it has been reported that AgNO2/TSMCl reacts with olens to afford nitrosonitrates that are then converted into furoxans in high yields (Scheme 13.156): the reaction of AgNO2 with TSMCl furnishes rst hexamethylsiloxane and N2O3
j1147
N (CH2)n AgNO2 TMSCI 50-67% 459

Scheme 13.156
(CH2)n N 460
n= 3, 4, 5, 6
which in situ add to alkenes 459 [411]. The approach has been applied to the synthesis of furoxans fused to penta-, six-, seven-, and eight-membered saturated rings 460. A general method for the synthesis of furoxans 463 starts from a-nitroketones 461 [412], by conversion into the corresponding a-nitro-ketoximes 462, followed by treatment with acidic alumina (Scheme 13.157) [413].
R R1 O NO2 461 NH2OH Amberlyst A 21
R
NHOH NO2 462
Acidic Al2O3 CH3CN
R1 N O O 463
R1
R = Et, Ph(CH2)2, i R1 = Me, Et, n-Pr

Scheme 13.157
Pr
83-91%
A number of symmetrically substituted dibenzoylfuroxans have been synthesized by treating substituted acetophenones with nitric acid distilled from sulfuric acid [414].
13.4.4.3.3 Dimerization of Nitrile Oxides Besides their characteristic and synthetically important 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition reactions, nitrile oxides undergo spontaneous [3 2] dimerization, usually regarded as an unwanted side reaction, which can be exploited for the preparation of furoxans (Scheme 13.158).
R R N O R
O N O N
Scheme 13.158
Two paths have been proposed for the dimerization of nitrile oxide to furoxans, but the detailed mechanism is unknown. The most widely accepted mechanism is a concerted 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition process, where one nitrile oxide acts as a dipole, while the CN multiple bond in the other nitrile oxide acts as a dipolarophile (Scheme 13.159) [415, 416]. A (closed-shell) stepwise mechanism, often called the carbene mechanism, has also been proposed [417419]. In the carbene mechanism, the rst step corresponds to bond formation between the carbenoid carbons of
1148
j 13 Oxadiazoles
Concerted
R R N O N O
2 R
N O
Stepwise (closed-shell)
R R
N O N O
O N O N
N R
R N O
R R
N O N O
Stepwise diradical
Scheme 13.159
two nitrile oxides to form a dinitroso alkene intermediate, which then cyclizes to the furoxan. DFT calculations performed at the B3LYP/6-31G level on the dimerization reactions of acetonitrile oxide and para-chlorobenzonitrile oxide to form furoxans indicate that these processes are stepwise, involving dinitrosoalkene intermediates that have considerable diradical character (stepwise diradical mechanism in Scheme 13.159). The rate-determining steps for these two reactions correspond to CC bond formation [420]. The retardation of dimerization in aromatic nitrile oxides arises from the interruption of conjugation between the nitrile oxide and aryl groups in the CC bond formation step. The reluctance of aromatic nitrile oxides to dimerize with respect to aliphatic nitrile oxides is attributed to conjugative stabilization of the former. The dimerization processes in solution are slower than in the gas phase, and polar solvents retard the reaction rates. The method is not appropriate for bicyclic furoxans; a few examples of intramolecular dimerization have been reported. The bimolecular dimerization competes with the unimolecular rearrangement to the isomeric isocyanate, with the latter dominant at higher temperature. Therefore, the preparation of furoxans from nitrile oxides is carried out in concentrated solution at room temperature. Nitrile oxides are conveniently accessible from many compounds such as oximes, hydroximoyl halides, nitromethyl compounds, alkyl esters of a-nitroalkanoic acids, and others.
j1149
The most useful methods have been widely reported in reviews and specialized books [421, 422].
13.4.4.4 Benzofuroxans The benzofuroxan system can be constructed by suitable modication of the synthetic methods used to synthesize benzofurazans. Thus, the main routes involve the thermolysis of o-nitroaryl azides, the oxidation of o-quinone dioximes, the oxidation of o-nitroanilines (Scheme 13.160), and the BoultonKatritzky rearrangement.
NO2 N3 464
N 448 O Ox
Ox
NOH R NOH 445
NO2 NH2
Scheme 13.160
The most exploited methodology for the synthesis of benzofuroxans and heterosubstituted analogues is the thermolysis or photolysis of o-nitroarylazides, which can be easily generated from the o-nitrohaloarene and sodium azide [423]. The reaction mechanism involves the intramolecular displacement of the nitrogen by the oxygen of the adjacent nitro group. The method can be used to prepare various hetero-substituted analogues, such as thieno-, imidazo-, oxadiazolo-, thiadiazolo-, pyrido-, quinilino-, pyridazino-, and pyrimidino-derivatives. Thus, photolysis of 4-azido-5-nitrothiophene-2-carboxylic acid ester 465 gives a mixture of thieno[2,3-c]furoxan isomers 466 and 467 (Scheme 13.161) [424].
O h 97% MeO2C S 466 O N O N + MeO2C N S N O
N3 MeO2C S 465
Scheme 13.161
NO2
467
In analogy with the formation of furoxans by oxidation of 1,2-dioximes, benzofurazans can be prepared by oxidation of o-quinone dioximes. The method is, however, limited by the availability of the starting materials.
1150
j 13 Oxadiazoles
Oxidative ring closure of o-nitroanilines constitutes a preferable and commonly used alternative route towards benzofuroxans [425, 426]. Alkaline hypochlorite is the most used reagent: the mechanism involves an initial N-chlorination, followed by deprotonation and loss of chloride ion (Scheme 13.162).
NO2 NH2 468
CIO 469
NO2 NHCI
-H
NO2 NCI 470
- CI
O N O N 448 68%
Scheme 13.162
13.4.5 Reactivity of the Heterocyclic Ring
The parent 1,2,5-oxadiazole, with pKa about 5, is less basic than isoxazole (pKa 2.97). 1,2,5-Oxadiazoles are aromatic in nature and are to be considered as p-excessive heterocycles with relatively p-decient C-atoms. Despite the electron deciency of carbon atoms, nucleophilic substitution reactions are not common; however, when good leaving groups are present, then reactions can take place. Generally, electrophilic substitutions at the C-atoms cannot be achieved.
13.4.5.1 Furazans and Benzofurazans 13.4.5.1.1 Reactions with Electrophiles and Oxidizing Agents The heterocyclic ring of 1,2,5-oxadiazoles is particularly resistant to attack by electrophilic reagents; thus, halogenation, nitration, and oxidation take place at substituent groups. Electrophilic substitutions in benzofurazan and phenylfurazan occur on the aromatic ring, predominantly at the 4-position and in orthopara positions, respectively. For example, bromination of phenylfurazan with bromine in the presence of Ag2SO4/H2SO4 gave the p-bromophenyl derivative in 82% yield [427]. Similar results have been obtained on nitration with fuming nitric acid, which gives 4-nitro- or 2,4-dinitro products [428, 429]. There is a single example of an electrophilic reaction at the ring carbon of furazans: insertion of methoxymethylcarbene in the CH bond of a furazan occurred on thermolysis of furazans 471 with methyl diazoacetate in the presence of copper stearate to give the corresponding methoxycarbonylmethylfurazans 472 in 912% yield (Scheme 13.163) [430, 431]. For benzofurazans and benzofuroxans the most facile electrophilic substitution is nitration, which occurs preferentially at the 4-position; a second nitro group can sometimes be inserted at C6. Other electrophiles react less readily, with nitrosation and diazo-coupling occurring only in the presence of activating groups. 5-Methylbenzofurazan reacts with bromine to give substitution at the 4-position; however,
j1151
R N O 471 N
R
Cu2+ N2CHCO2Me
OMe
R = H, thien-2-yl-3-aminofurazan-4-yl
Scheme 13.163
472 9-12%
bromine in the presence of sun light undergoes electrophilic addition to the 4,5,6,7tetra-adduct rather than substitution. Direct oxidation of furazans to furoxans has not been achieved, as can be expected from the high ionization energy. For instance, oxidation of 3,4-dimethyl-1,2,5oxadiazole (473) [432] and 3-methyl-4-phenylfurazan (474) [433] with potassium permanganate occurs at the alkyl substituents, giving rise to 1,2,5-oxadiazole-3,4dicarboxylic acid (475) and 4-phenylfurazan-3-carboxylic acid (476), respectively. Under mild conditions, oxidation of fused furazan 477 afforded the dicarboxylic acid 478 (Scheme 13.164) [434].
R N O
Me
N
CO2H
O N
KMnO4
H
473: R= Me 474: R= Ph
32-75%
475: R= CO2H 476: R= Ph CO2H
N N
KMnO4
H
HO2C
N O N
477
Scheme 13.164
86%
478
The heterocyclic ring is also resistant to acid attack; pKa values for protonation of methylphenylfurazan and benzofurazan are 4.9 and 8.4, respectively. Quaternization with dimethyl sulfate in sulfolane proceeds under forcing conditions, more slowly than that of isoxazoles with iodomethane, to give the corresponding N-methylfurazinium salt [435]. N-Ethyl salts of furazan and 3-phenylfurazan have been obtained by reaction with triethyloxonium tetrauoroborate. The reaction of the silyloxy-furazan derivative 479 with triethyl orthoformate led to a mixture of 2-ethyl-1,2,5-oxadiazole-3(2H)-one (480) and O-ethyl compound 481 (Scheme 13.165). Compound 480 is a rare example of a tricoordinate N-substituted 1,2,5-oxadiazole [436].
1152
j 13 Oxadiazoles
Ph N O 479 OSMT HC(OEt)3 Ph N O O N Et + Ph N O OEt N
480 45%
481 37%
Scheme 13.165
13.4.5.1.2 Reactions with Nucleophiles and Reducing Agents Furazans and benzofurazans are generally resistant to attack by nucleophiles. As reported in Scheme 13.134, treatment of the parent compound and monosubstituted furazans with strong bases, as NaOH in methanol, causes the ring opening to form sodium salts of a-oximinonitriles. Disubstituted furazans are comparatively inert. Furazan ring cleavage occurs also when 482 is treated with Ac2O at elevated temperatures to produce acylated derivatives 483 [387]. Ring opening with subsequent recyclization has been observed by nucleophilic attack of hydroxylamine on monosubstituted furazans 482, leading to aminofurazans 485 (Scheme 13.166) [437].
NC R Ac2O 56-92% H N O R N R N HO 484
N AcO 483
OH
NC
NH2OH - H2O
H2N N O
R N
482
485 23-82%
R = H, Me, Et, Ph, Bn

Scheme 13.166
However, when a good leaving group is present, then substitution can occur. Thus, displacement of the nitro group by a hydroxy group has been observed on heating 3-nitro-4-phenylfurazan 486 with sodium hydroxide (Scheme 13.167) [436]; displacement of nitrite or phenylsulfonyl group by alkoxy nucleophiles and by ammonia [438] has also been reported. Similarly, the homocyclic ring of benzofurazans is susceptible to analogous nucleophilic substitutions. Thus, halides are displaced by various nucleophiles such as alkoxides, fenoxides, cyanide, amines, and thiolates. 4-Halogenobenzofurazans give 4- or 5-substitued products generated from normal ipso or cine reactions; the cine products are amenable to an additionelimination mechanism (AE), while ipso substitution can result from both AE and SNAr (Scheme 13.168) [439]. However, substitution reaction on the homocyclic ring can take place even in the absence of a leaving group: benzofurazan has been converted into its 4-formyl derivative by treatment with LDA in DMF. The furazan ring is susceptible to reduction. Thus, benzofurazans give 1,2diaminoarenes by treatment with tin and hydrochloric acid, while catalytic reduction
j1153
Ar N Ar N O OH N 22-85% NaOH Ar N O 486 NO2 N NH3 37-60% Ar N O RO 16-65%
OR N O 488
Na OH /E tO H 96%
Ar N O
487
SO2Ph N
NH2 N
Ar = Ph, Tolyl R = Me, Et, n-Bu, i-Pr
490
489
Scheme 13.167
Nu SN Ar
X N N O -X
Nu N N O
X N N O NuAE
X N N Nu X Nu AE N N Nu O - HX N N O N O - HX Nu N O
Scheme 13.168
takes place at the homocyclic ring to afford tetramethylenefurazans. 1,2-Diamines are also formed by reduction of furazans with sodium borohydride, whereas LiAlH4 causes fragmentation of the C3C4 bond, yielding primary amines as nal products. Treatment with phosphites results in both fragmentation and deoxygenation to nitriles. Zinc and acetic acid can lead to a selective reduction of the oxadiazolo moiety in the presence of other heterocyclic systems: furazano[3,4-d]pyrimidines 491 and furazano[3,4-e]pyrazines 492 have been converted into the corresponding o-amino compounds (Scheme 13.169) [440]. 4,6-Dinitrobenzofurazan, which is strongly electrophilic, undergoes facile s-complexation with weak nucleophiles to form stable Meisenheimer complexes (Section 13.4.5.3).
1154
j 13 Oxadiazoles
O N N Y X N Zn, AcOH 70-75% H2N Y NH2 N X
491: X= N, Y=CH 492: X= CH, Y=N

Scheme 13.169
13.4.5.1.3 Thermal and Photochemical Ring Cleavage Thermolysis and photolysis of 1,2,5-oxadiazoles proceeds by cleavage of the O1N2 and C3C4 bonds to give nitrile and nitrile oxides, together with products derived therefrom. The thermal process requires temperatures above 200 C, except for ring-strained derivatives, where less drastic conditions are needed. Thus, diphenylfurazan decomposes at 250 C to give benzonitrile, phenyl isocyanate, and 3,5-diphenyl-1,2.4oxadiazole, with the latter two products arising from the rearrangement and 1,3dipolar cycloaddition with benzonitrile of the initially formed benzonitrile oxide. In contrast, the ring-strained acenaphthofurazan 493 fragments at 120150 C to produce the transient 494, which in the presence of phenylacetylene gives 495 in 53% yield (Scheme 13.170) [441].
N O N O Ph N CN 494 O 53% H CN
Ph
N 493
495
Scheme 13.170
The kinetics of the gas-phase thermolysis of several furazans to phenyl isocyanate and 3,5-diphenyl-1,2.4-oxadiazole have also been examined [442], and a biradical mechanism has been proposed. Benzofurazans, which are thermally more stable, may be cleaved photochemically. For example, benzofurazan 446 in benzene affords cyanoisocyanate 498 and azepine 499 (Scheme 13.171). Compound 499 probably originates from the reaction of the solvent with the acylnitrene intermediate 497 [443].
13.4.5.2 Furoxans and Benzofuroxans 13.4.5.2.1 Reactions with Electrophiles and Oxidizing Agents As reported for furazans, the furoxan nucleus shows low reactivity towards electrophiles; reactions occur at the substituents or at the homocyclic ring of benzofuroxans [444]. Reaction with acids is also slow: benzofuroxans have pKa values of about 8, similar to those of
j1155
N O N CN 496 497 N C O CN 498 52%

Scheme 13.171
O CN . 499 58%
N N 446
N O N
benzofurazans. Treatment of the parent furoxan 372 with concentrated H2SO4 proceeds with ring-cleavage to (hydroxyimino)acetonitrile oxide 500, followed by dimerization to bis(hydroxyiminomethyl)furoxan 501 in nearly quantitative yield (Scheme 13.172) [375].
N N H2SO4 NOH HON 500 N O HON N O 501 73%
Scheme 13.172
N O
372
Quaternization is difcult for all furoxans: benzofuroxan does not react with triethyloxonium tetrauoroborate. The heterocyclic ring of furazans is also resistant to attack by oxidizing agents, with reactions occurring preferentially at the substituents groups. However, benzofuroxan is oxidized by persulfuric or triuoroperacetic acid to 1,2-dinitrobenzene, while the 4,6-dinitro compound affords the 1,2,3,4-tetranitrobenzene [445].
13.4.5.2.2 Reaction with Nucleophiles and Reducing Agents The reactivity of furoxans with nucleophiles and reducing agents is good. In fact, Grignard reagents react with disubstituted furoxans, primarily at C3, leading to nitrile and nitronate fragments, which, in the presence of an excess of Grignard reagent, yield the corresponding ketones. Monosubstituted furoxans give glyoximes. Nucleophilic substitution of substituents at C3 and C4 is an easy and valuable pathway towards the synthesis of a wide series of derivatives. The nitro group in particular is readily displaced by numerous nucleophiles such as amines, alkoxides, thiols, azide, halides, and sulfonyl groups [375, 446]. In the benzofuroxans series, nucleophilic reactions take place preferentially at the homocyclic ring; the reactivity is
1156
j 13 Oxadiazoles
enhanced by the presence of nitro groups [447]. Numerous biologically interesting applications of this kind of reaction have recently appeared in the literature (Section 13.4.6). In the absence of a good leaving group, nucleophilic attack occurs at N5 of the oxadiazole ring: in this case, the reaction with secondary amines proceeds via ring opening to furnish o-nitroarylhydrazines. However, a substitution reaction on the homocyclic ring can take place even in the absence of a leaving group: with 4-nitrobenzofuroxan, carbanions of the form RSO2ClCH cause the displacement of the hydrogen at C5 and at C7 [448]. All monosubstituted furoxans are quite sensitive to bases, which causes ringopening reactions, with the formation of nitrile oxides 503 from 4-substituted furoxans 502 and aci-nitro compounds 505 from 3-substituted furoxans 504 (Scheme 13.173) [313].
R N N O O 502 B R HON N O 503
R N N O O 504
Scheme 13.173
NC
R NOOH 505
Base attack is favored at the position adjacent to the more highly electronwithdrawing substituent. Ring opening with subsequent recyclization has been observed by nucleophilic attack of hydroxylamine in aqueous KOH on 3-thien-2-yl and 4-thien-2-yl furoxans (506, 507), leading to aminofurazans 508 (Scheme 13.174) [449]. Furoxans and benzofuroxans can be reduced by various reagents to yield furazans a-dioximes, 1,2-diamines, and nitriles, according to the experimental conditions. Catalytic hydrogenation usually leads to dioximes, but, under forcing conditions, ring cleavage at C3C4 and N1O2 can occur. For example, tetramethylenefuroxane 509 affords cyclohexane-1,2-dione dioxime (510) by treatment with H2 and Pd/C at room temperature, while the use of Raney nickel at 100 C leads to 1,6-diaminohexane (511) (Scheme 13.175). NaBH4 behaves in a similar way, while LiAlH4 reduction is accompanied by ring cleavage to give primary amine fragments. Benzofuroxans are reduced to o-nitroaniline derivatives by ferrous salts [450] and to o-phenylenediamines by ammonium sulfatesodium borohydride [451].
j1157
S N O N O NH2OH - H2O H2N N R N O 508
506 S
N O
37-65% R = Me, Et, t-Bu
507
Scheme 13.174
NH2 NH2 511

Scheme 13.175
Ra-Ni 100 C 72%
O N O N 509
H2 Pd/C 63% 510
NOH NOH
Reduction with tervalent phosphorus compounds, such as trialkyl and triaryl phosphites and phosphines, causes deoxygenation of furoxans and benzofuroxans to give furazans and benzofurazans, respectively, leaving the heterocycle intact.
13.4.5.2.3 Thermal and Photochemical Ring Cleavage Monocyclic furoxans undergo by thermolysis ring cleavage at the O1N2 and C3C4 bonds to give two nitrile oxides fragments, in a formal retro 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition reaction. In the presence of a dipolarophile, the nitrile oxide can be trapped as its 1,3-dipolar cycloadduct; otherwise, the nitrile oxide rearranges to the isomeric isocyanate (Scheme 13.176).
N O O N O N N O
Scheme 13.176
N C O
N O
1158
j 13 Oxadiazoles
Under ash vacuum pyrolysis conditions, the nitrile oxides can be isolated [452a]. Bicyclic furoxans afford bisnitrile oxides and diisocyanates. The process is sensitive to the ring strain: for decamethylenefuroxan 513 a temperature above 200 C is required, while the trimethylene analog 512 reacts at 80100 C (Scheme 13.177) [452b,c]. In general, benzofuroxans are much less susceptible to decomposition.
O O NCO + (CH2)n NCO
N (CH2)n N
40-60% 512 n= 3 513 n= 10 (CH2)n
CNO CNO
Scheme 13.177
13.4.5.3 Meisenheimer Complex Formation 4,6-Dinitro compounds 513 and 514 are strongly electrophilic and form stable Meisenheimer complexes when treated even with weak nucleophiles under mild conditions. In particular, 514 is regarded as a super-electrophile more powerful than 1,3,5-trinitrobenzene. Thus, 514 reacts with methanol, enols, phenols, anilines, thiophenes, pyrroles and indoles, and nitroalkanes to form, in the absence of base, stable C-bonded s-adducts 516. Moreover, the electrophilic character of 515 is also conrmed by its reaction with 1,8-bis(dimethylamino)naphthalene, the so-called proton sponge, yielding carbon-linked compound 517 (Scheme 13.178) [453].
Me2N NMe2 NMe2 NMe2 O2N O2N On N O N O N O 56% On N O N NO2 514 n= 0 515 n= 1 Nu HNu O2N On N O N
70-90% O
O 516
517
Scheme 13.178
13.4.5.4 Heterocyclic Ring Rearrangements of Furoxans and Benzofuroxans Furoxans have been extensively used as starting material for synthetic conversions into various other heterocyclic systems, some of which show interesting biological activity. The BoultonKatritzky rearrangement is the most exploited reaction route, affording an easy entry towards isoxazoles, pyrazoles, and furazans. Other conversion reactions give access to isoxazolines, quinaxoline, and benzimidazole N-oxides.
j1159
13.4.5.5 Rearrangements of Furoxans The BoultonKatritzky rearrangement [342, 393] of non-condensed furoxan derivatives has been reported for oximes of 4-furoxanylcarbonyl compounds [454]; in particular, the base-catalyzed rearrangement of the (Z)-isomer of 4-benzoyl-3methylfuroxan oxime (518) leads to 3-(1-nitroethyl)-4-phenyl-1,2,5-oxadiazole 519 (Scheme 13.179).
D E N O N O Ph N OH N Ph Base 56% N O N Cat D E N NO2
Me O N O
Me O N O
Ph N O
NO2 CHMe N
190
Scheme 13.179
191
192
Other variants of rearrangement of monocyclic furoxans have been performed for derivatives involving different side chains: C-N-N (phenylhydrazones), N-C-N (amidines), and N-C-S (thioureides) [455]. Thus, treatment of (Z)-isomers of phenylhydrazones 520 with ButOK and heating yielded 1,2,3-triazoles 523, formed with a Nef-type [456] reaction via 5-(1-nitroethyl)-1,2,3-triazole 522 intermediate (Scheme 13.180).
R N NH N R
ButOK, DMF 10C, 10 h
Me O N O
Ph
Ph
N N N K
Me O N O
R N 521
Me
O N O
5% HCl
520
t
N N O K Ph a R = Ph b R = Me
Bu OK, DMF 120C, 2 h
NO2 R N N N Me
O R N N N Me
Ph 522
Scheme 13.180
40%
Ph 523 82-95%
1160
j 13 Oxadiazoles
Analogously, the rearrangement of 3-aryl(alkyl)-1-(3-R-furoxan-4-yl)amidines 526 synthesized by reaction of aminofuroxans 524 with triethyl orthoformate or triethyl orthoacetate, followed by the action of various amines on the resulting iminoethers 525 afforded the 1,5-disubstituted 3-[1-nitroethyl(benzyl)]1,2,4-triazoles 527 (Scheme 13.181) [455].
NO2
R O N O
NH2 N
R1C(OEt) 3
R O N O
N N
R1 OEt
R2NH 2
R O N O
N N
R1 NHR2
1. MeOK or Bu tOK 2. AcOH
R N
N N R2 R1
56-92%
524
R = H, Me R1 = Me, Et, Ph R2 = Me, Et, i-Pr
525
526
43-78%
527
Scheme 13.181
5-Ethoxycarbonylamino-3-(1-nitroalkyl)-1,2,4-thiadiazole derivatives 530 have been obtained by reuxing a mixture of aminofuroxans and ethoxycarbonyl isothiocyanate in various solvents: the reaction proceeds through a not-isolated 4-(3-ethoxycarbonylthioureido)-3-substituted-furoxan intermediate (529) (Scheme 13.182) [456].
H 2N N O
R N O
EtO2CNCS 19-82%
EtO 2 CHN S
H N N O
R N O
EtO 2 CHN 43-78% S N
N CHR NO2
528 a R = Ph b R = Me d R = COMe
Scheme 13.182
529
530
a R = Ph b R = Me e R=H
A different kind of rearrangement has been described that proceeds through a dinitrosoethylene intermediate. In particular (Z)-isomers of 4-benzoyl or 4-acetyl-3methylfuroxan phenylhydrazones 520, thermally or in the presence of various bases, give oximes of 5-acetyl-4-phenyl(methyl)-2-phenyl-2H-1,2,3-triazole 1-oxide 532 (Scheme 13.183) [457]. It has been suggested that the reaction starts with rupture of the O1N2 bond in the furoxan ring, which results in formation of dinitrosoethylene intermediates 531, followed by the reaction of one nitroso group with the phenylhydrazone moiety and transformation of the second nitroso group into the oxime group. Another example of this rearrangement is represented by the thermally induced transformation of 3,30 -disubstituted-4,40 -azofuroxans 533 in an oxidizing medium into triazole 1-oxide derivatives 536 (Scheme 13.184) [458].
j1161
R N Ph NH N O
R Me N O
o-xilene
NOH Me R N Me N N O Ph 532 48-67%
N Ph
reflux
520 a R = Ph b R = Me
Scheme 13.183
N N N O H O 531
N R
N N R N O
R O N N N
N O N R O
R N N N 535
N O N R N O
N N
CH3CO2OH
O 533
N O O 534
a b c d e
R = CO2Me R = CONH2 R = Ph N R = COR = Me
[O] R O 26-52% N N N NO2 N R N O
536
Scheme 13.184
Furoxans 537 bearing a methyl group at C3 give hydroximino derivatives of isoxazolines 538 on treatment with alkoxides or alcoholic alkali hydroxides (the so-called isoxazoline transposition or Angeli rearrangement) (Scheme 13.185) [459].
R 1. NaOEt 2. H 67-87% N O 538 NOH
R N O
Me N O
537
R = Ph, PhCH2, Cl-C6H4, MeO-C6H4

Scheme 13.185
1162
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13.4.5.6 Rearrangements of Benzofuroxans The BoultonKatritzky rearrangement of benzofuroxans bearing at the 4-position a ring-conjugated side chain has been studied in detail from both a synthetic and mechanistic point of view [342, 370, 393, 460465]. As a rule, rearrangements are initiated thermally, photochemically or in the presence of bases; the rst example of acid catalysis has been published [466]. Several types of unsaturations can constitute the X Ygroup, such as CO, NN, CN, and NN, so allowing the construction of a series of new heterocyclic systems. Thus, 4-acetylbenzofuraxan 539 rearranges spontaneously to 3-methyl-7-nitrobenzo[c]isoxazole 540, while nitroindazoles 542 are formed from 4-formylbenzofurazan 541 and primary amines (Scheme 13.186).
O N O N O 539 O N O N O 541
O N O 76% N O 540 O N O N 542 N R
RNH2 72-80%
R= Me, Et, Cy
Scheme 13.186
Analogously, nitrosation of 5-(dimethylamino)benzofuroxan (543) affords 4-(dimethylamino)-7-nitrobenzofurazan (545) through the rearrangement of the intermediate 4-nitroso compound 544. Similar behavior has been observed for 4arylazobenzofuroxans 546 yielding 4-nitrobenzo-1,2,3-triazoles 547 (Scheme 13.187). Quinoxaline-1,4-dioxides 551, 553, and 555 are readily obtained from the reaction of benzofurazans with enamines or carbonyl compounds in the presence of ammonia or amines (Beirut reaction) (Scheme 13.188) [467]. In the absence of the a-hydrogen required for the elimination, the 2,3-dihydroquinoxaline intermediate 550 can be isolated. Enolates derived from b-diketones react in an analogous way, affording 2-acylquinoxalines [468]. This process formally involves the insertion of a two-carbon fragment between the NO groups of the furoxan (Scheme 13.188). Various quinoxalines are endowed with interesting biological activity: this feature has considerably extended the scope of this reaction. In the same context, the reaction also gives ready access to polycyclic compounds: for example, phenazine derivatives result from benzofuroxans and phenolates, p-benzoquinone, or hydroquinone [312, 469].
j1163
O N O
N 543
O N O N
NO N N O 544
O N O N
65%
N N
N O 545
O N O N Ar N2 546
Scheme 13.187
O N O 22-76% N 547 N N Ar Ar = Ph, Tolyl
O O R N 549
0% -9 7 2
O N N O 550 39% O
N - HNMe2 R
O N N O 551
R 548
O N O N 64% Ac2CH2 554
Cl CH2 Ph 553
O N N O
Ph
N 552 O N N O 555
Me Me
Ac Me
R = H, 5(6)Cl, 4,7-Cl2, 5,6-Cl2, 4(7)-Me, 5(6)Me, 5,6-Me2, 5(6)-CF3, 4(7)-MeO, 5(6)-MeO, 5(6)-Ac
Scheme 13.188
1164
j 13 Oxadiazoles
Benzimidazole oxides, in 2590% yields, are also accessible from benzofuroxans. The reaction with primary nitroalkanes leads to 2-substituted-1-hydroxybenzimidazole-3-oxides 556 via displacement of the NO2 group; similarly, the nitrile group of a-cyanoacetamides is removed with formation of 2-amide derivatives 557 (R0 CONR2). Secondary nitroalkyl compounds afford 2,2-disubstituted-2H-benzimidazole-1,3-dioxides 558.
O N N OH O N R' R' N O 558
R'
556 : R' = Alkyl 557 : R' = CONR2
Benzimidazoles are also obtained from the reaction of benzofuroxans with phosphorus ylides [470], nitrones [471], and diazo compounds [472]. A mechanism has been suggested that involves the nucleophilic attack at N3 of the benzofuroxan 396 (or at one of the nitroso groups of the o-dinitroso tautomer), followed by cleavage of the O2N3 bond to give the di-N-oxide 561, with subsequent cyclization to ve- or six-membered ring products, according to the nature of the nucleophile (Scheme 13.189).
O N O N Nu
Scheme 13.189
396
O N O N Nu 559 560
O N Nu 561
O N
O N Nu
products
13.4.5.7 Cycloaddition Reactions of Benzofuroxans The double bonds at the 4,5- and 6,7-positions in benzofuroxans are sufciently localized and activated to undergo [3 2] and [4 2] cycloaddition reactions. Thus, isoprene (563) gives in 80% yield the 1:1 DielsAlder adduct 562 with 4-nitro-6triuoromethansulfonylbenzofuroxan (564) (Scheme 13.190) [473].
Me F3C Me H 563 S O O NO 2 562 O N O N
O O F3C S
O N O N NO 2 564
Scheme 13.190
j1165
Similarly, alkyl diazoacetates 566 afford pyrazolo derivatives 567 by reaction with 6-nitrobenzofuroxan (565) (Scheme 13.191) [474].
O2 N
O N O N
N 2CHCO 2 R
N HN
566
70-100C 45-55%
565
CO 2R O N O N 567
R=Et, Me
Scheme 13.191
Mesitonitrile oxide gives mixtures of 1 : 1 and 2 : 1 adducts [475], and diazomethane reacts at C5C6 of 4-nitrobenzofuroxan to give the 5-6-cyclopropa-fused derivative 568, probably by loss of nitrogen from the initial pyrazoline cycloadduct [476].
O N O N NO2 568
13.4.5.8 Alkyl and Aryl Furazans and Furoxans Reactions of aryl furazans and furoxans have been studied in detail. The heterocyclic ring exerts an orthopara-directing inuence with the predominant formation of para products. For example, nitration or chlorosulfonation of phenylfurazan and phenylfuroxan take place at the phenyl group, at the 40 -position, leaving the heterocycle intact. In benzofurazans and benzofuroxans, electrophilic attack occurs, as previously reported (Section 13.4.5.1.1), at the 4-position; a second group can be sometimes inserted at the 6-position. Alkyl groups on the furazan or furoxan ring can undergo functional transformations that depend on the electron-withdrawing properties of the rings. Treatment of alkylfurozans 569 with NBS in the presence of BPO or AIBN gives a-bromoalkyl derivatives 570 (Scheme 13.192) [477]. Similar results were obtained with 3-methylfuroxans 571 [478]. These a-haloyl derivatives are excellent starting materials for side-chain substituted furazans and furoxans through classical nucleophilic substitution reactions. The halogen atom is readily displaced by a wide range of oxygen, sulfur, nitrogen, phosphorus, and carbon nucleophiles to give the corresponding products in good yields [477483].
1166
j 13 Oxadiazoles
R Me N O N NBS AIBN 55-65% R N O N R Br R = H, Me, Et
569 R Me N O N O
570 R
NBS AIBN 63%
Me N
Br N O O 572 R = Me, Ph, CH=NOH, CONH2; OEt, OPh
571
Scheme 13.192
a-Metalation offers an alternative approach to functionalization of the methyl compounds. 3,4-Dimethylfurazan readily undergoes lithiation by treatment with nbutyllithium: the lithiated intermediate 573 reacts with electrophiles at 55 C to give various a-functionalized alkylfurazans (Scheme 13.193) [484486]. The electrophile
R Me O N R 98% 1. CO2 2. H+ N X 80-94% Me N O Me N BuLi 99% OMe O N 48% O N O OH R Me N O N R = 2-furyl 95% R O R N O OH
Me N
R = Et, Ph
Me N O 573 N
Li
MeCN or MeCO 2Et 95% Cl 2
Me N O
R = Me, Ac
MeO N Me N O N MeO N O
N N N N
Me X Si Me Me Me
95% Me Si Me Me
84% Me N O N
Cl
N NH
OMe
N N O N
Scheme 13.193
j1167
can be an alkyl halide, a chlorosilane, a carbonyl compound, a nitrile, or an ester, an azo compound, and chlorine. A similar procedure using two equivalents of BuLi and two equivalents of the electrophile offers access to a,a0 -difunctionalized derivatives.
13.4.6 Furazans, Furoxans, and Benzo-Related Compounds in Medicine
Furazans, benzofurazans, and in particular furoxans and benzofuroxans are very important bioactive compounds. They have shown anti-microbial, anti-parasitic, antiviral; mutagenic, anticancer and immunosuppressive, anti-aggregating, and vasorelaxant activity. Moreover, compounds containing the furoxan or benzofuroxan moiety inserted in a classical active principle have produced hybrid compounds that have been used, very recently, as new anti-ulcer drugs, calcium channel modulators, and vasodilatators. Several furoxan and furazan derivatives have been evaluated as antibacterial (Gram-negative and Gram-positive), antiprotozoal (Trichomonas vaginalis and Entamoeba histolytica), and antifungal compounds. 4,7-Dicyanobenzofurazan (574) presents a bacteriostatic effect in Escherichia coli, due to inactivation of 2,3-dihydroisovalerate [487]. 3-Nitro-4-phenylfuroxan (575) and its tautomer 576 displayed anti-infective properties, but with mutagenic activity; 3bromo-4-phenylfuroxan (577) shows strong antimicrobial activity [488].
CN N N CN
574 575 576 577
Ph O N O
NO 2 N O
O2 N N O
Ph N O
Ph N O
Br N O
Furoxans and benzofuroxan 578580 have been reported to inhibit in vitro the growth of Trypanosoma cruzi, the etiologic agent of Trypanosomiasis americana, the so-called Chagas disease, and their activity is in the order 580 > 579 > 578.
Me R Ph R R
580
O N O N
578
O N O N
579
O N O
R = CH=NNHCONH-butyl
Anti HIV-1 reverse transcriptase activity has been described for compounds 581 and 582. In particular, compound 582 has shown the best anti-viral activity with a selectivity index (ratio of cytotoxic concentration to effective concentration) ranked in the order of 582 > 581.
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j 13 Oxadiazoles
Ar O O O N O N Me N Pr
581 Ar = Ph 582 Ar = 2,6-di-Cl-Ph
4-Nitro (583), 4-thio (585) or 4-phenoxy- (587) benzofurazans and 4-nitro- (584), 7thio (586) or 7-phenoxy (588) benzofuroxans present optimal drug activity as inhibitors of RNA synthesis in sheep lymphocytes [489].
NO 2 N N 583 NO 2 N O N O 584 O SH 585 N N N N O OPh 587 N N O
SH
N O 586
O N OPh O 588
Since the rst report indicating that some nitrobenzofurazans displayed antileukemic properties, numerous 7-nitro-2,1,3-benzoxadiazole derivatives have been evaluated as anticancer agents. In particular, 7-nitro-2,1,3-benzoxadiazoles such as 589 [R1 alkyl, cycloalkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkynyl, aryl, etc.; X O, S] have been prepared recently and used as agents able to inhibit glutathione S-transferase (GST). These compounds are useful in the production of pharmaceutical drugs to be used in anticancer therapy, and may be employed either alone or in combination with other chemotherapeutic agents. Thus, 4-[(7-nitro-2,1,3benzoxadiazol-4-yl)sulfanyl]butanol 590, prepared by reacting 4-chloro-7-nitro2,1,3-benzoxadiazole with 4-mercapto-1-butanol in EtOH and potassium phosphate buffer, has shown a relevant activity against different cancer cell lines, such as K562 human myeloid leukemia, HepG2 human hepatic carcinoma, CEM1.3 human T-lymphoblastic leukemia, and GLC-4 human small cell lung carcinoma [490].
OH N N NO2 590 O
Cl N N NO2 589 O
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Combretafurazan (592), obtained from combretastatin A-4 (591), an antitumoral and antitubulin agent that is active only in its cis conguration, has shown to be a potent in vitro cytotoxic compound compared to combretastatin in neuroblastoma cells, while maintaining a similar structureactivity relationship and pharmacodynamic proles [492].
H3 CO H 3CO OCH3 OCH3 OH H3 CO H 3CO N
Combrestatin A-4 (591)
OCH3
OCH3 OH
Combretafurazan (592)
Recently, another class of furazans, and in particular the furazano[3,4-b]pyrazines 593 have been prepared and used as antitumoral agents. Their activity is not limited to sarcomas, melanomas, neuroblastomas, carcinomas (including but not limited to lung, renal cell, ovarian, liver, bladder, and pancreatic carcinomas), and mesotheliomas. Moreover, specic assays, conduced for compound 594, have demonstrated that it exhibited an IC50 of 0.00834 nM against sarcoma tumors [492].
Cl
N O N
N N 593
X N
R2 N
R3
N O N
N N
NH NH
R1 Cl 594
X = O, S, NH
R1 = H, Alkyl R2 = H, Aryl, Heteroaryl, alkyl R3 = H, Ary, Heteroaryl, alkyl
Some furazanobenzimidazoles 595 (R aryl, haloaryl, etc.; R1, R2 H, alkyl, cycloalkyl, etc.; R3, R4, R5, R6 H, alkyl, haloalkyl, cycloalkyl, etc.; X O, C:Y; Y O, NOH, etc.) and their salts have been synthesized as apoptosis inducers for the treatment of neoplastic and autoimmune diseases. In particular, compound 596 exhibits a strong apoptotic activity in the Hoechst 33342 nuclear staining assay [493].
R4 R5 R6 R X N R3 N N O O N H 2N 596 N N O
R2 R 1N 595
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j 13 Oxadiazoles
It has also been found that azabenzimidazoles 597 in which R1 is H or C16 alkyl; R2 is halo or optionally substituted Ph, heteroaryl, or carboxamide; R3 is halo, (un) substituted C16 alkoxy, (un)substituted phenoxy, heteroaryloxy, or heterocyclyloxy are inhibitors of Rho-kinases. Rho-kinase is implicated in the phosphorylation of myosin light chain downstream of Rho, which is thought to induce smooth muscle contraction and stress ber formation in non-muscle cells [494].
R3 R2 N N R1 N N O NH 2 N
597
Moreover, compound 598 is useful for the treatment of diseases such as hypertension, heart failure, and ischemic angina [495].
AcHN O N N Ph 598 N N O NH 2 N
Many other furoxans and furazans have been synthesized to improve their cytotoxic activity; their biological assays have established that the furazan analogues are, usually, less active than the corresponding furoxans. These results indicate the relevance of N-oxide in terms of the bio-response. One of the most interesting pharmacological properties of furoxans and benzofuroxans is the nitric oxide (NO) releasing capacity. NO displays diverse potent physiological actions. As regards the cardiovascular system, it plays a crucial role in vascular homeostasis through several mechanisms, including vasodilation, inhibition of platelet aggregation, and modulation of platelet and leukocyte adherence. In the central nervous system, it plays roles in learning and memory formation. In the peripheral nervous system, it regulates several gastrointestinal, genitourinay, and respiratory functions as neurotransmitter at the endings of nonadrenergic, noncholinergic nerves. NO is also potentially toxic and can induce genomic alterations. Figure 13.5 gives some examples of these drugs.
1,3,4-Oxadiazole (599) is a partially aromatic and thermally stable molecule [496]. Exocyclic-conjugated mesoionic 1,3,4-oxadiazoles (600), 1,3,4-oxadiazolium cations
j1171
Vasodilating agents:
ON O N N N O O
Me
N O
SO2Ph
N O
Ph
N O
CN
N O
NC
N O
Ph
N O
Human platelet-SGS activators:

Ph
N O
SO2Ph
N O
EtO
N O
SO2Ph
N O
Hybrid Antiulcer agents:

PhO2S O O N O N H2N H2N N N S (CH2)2
(CH2)3
H N
H N NCN
S H N H N NCN PhO2S O
O N O N
Ph EtO2C Me
N O N O CO2Et N H Me
O N O N MeO2C Me N H
CO2Me Me
Figure 13.5 Examples of drugs that contain a furoxan moiety.
(601), and 1,3,4-oxadiazolines (602) are also stable molecules. The partially and fully reduced systems designated as 4,5-dihydro-(D2) (603), 2,5-dihydro-(D3) (604), and 2,3,4,5-tetrahydro-1,3,4-oxadiazole (605) are also known.
N N O 599 R N N O X R N N O 601 N N O R X
600 X = O, S, NR H
602 X = O, S, NR
N N O 603
N N O 604
HN NH O 605
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1,3,4-Oxadiazoles are of great practical importance. In particular, these compounds are used in medicine, as leprostatics, tuberculostatics, antibacteric, antiproteolytic, and anticonvulsants. They also possess analgesic, antipyretic, antiphlogistic, bactericides, insecticides, fungicidal, and several other biological activities [496]. More recently, compounds containing the 1,3,4-oxadiazole motif have been used as HIV integrase and angiogenesis inhibitors [497]. 1,3,4-Oxadiazoles have also been used in agriculture, in the production of polymers, laser dyes, photographic materials, or scintillators. Furthermore, they show a combination of interesting properties, which makes them suitable for the development of new electrical and electro-optical devices. A good number of reviews on the chemistry of the 1,3,4-oxadiazoles are present in the literature [496]: the most recent report covers the literature up to the early part of 2007.
13.5.1 Structure 13.5.1.1 Theoretical Aspects 1,3,4 Oxadiazole is not fully aromatic; it has an aromaticity index of 50 (43 and 66 for furan and thiophene, respectively), while the bond orders for OC, CN, and NN bonds are 1.3124, 1.9062, and 1.3348, respectively. Theoretical studies on the structure and properties of 1,3,4-oxadiazoles are numerous [496]. In particular, MNDO and STO-3G ab initio methods have been used to calculate the proton afnities; CNDO/2 methods have been used to calculate the total energies, ionization potentials, and net atomic populations; INDO/S has been used to calculate the electron distribution of ground and excited states. DielsAlder reactions of several 1,3,4-oxadiazoles used as dienes with alkenes have been investigated through molecular orbital calculations at the B3LYP/6-31G(d)AM1 theory level [498]. MNDO-PM3 calculations have been used to calculate the geometry and electronic structure of mesoionic 1,3,4-oxadiazolium-2-aminides 606 (R 4-MeO-3-O2NC6H3, R1 Me, Ph; R 4-Cl-3-O2NC6H3, R1 Me; R Me, R1 Ph) and 1,3,4-oxadiazolium-2-olates 607 (Ar 4-Cl-3-O2NC6H3, 4-MeO-3-O2NC6H3) [499].
N N N Ph O 606 R1 N N R Ar O 607 Me O
2-Hydroxy, 2-amino and 2-thiol derivatives 608 are in tautomeric equilibrium with D2-1,3,4-oxadiazolin-5-ones, 5-imino, and 5-thiones 609, respectively. Usually, one of the forms distinctly predominates.
N N O X H N N O H X
608
X = O, NH, NR, S
609
j1173
Most of 1,3,4-oxadiazoles are solids, apart from the parent compound (bp 150 C) and its lower alkyl derivatives, which are liquids. Some of them are soluble in water, with a solubility that decreases with increasing molecular weight.
13.5.1.2 Structural Aspects 13.5.1.3 X-Ray Diffraction Many papers related to the X-ray structures of 1,3,4-oxadiazoles have been reported [500]. The oxadiazole ring has a nearly at structure: all the atoms of the ring lie in the same plane with very slight deviation from it. Table 13.8 shows the reported bond lengths and bond angles for 2,5-di(4-pyridyl)1,3,4-oxadiazole 610 and for 2-(4-cyanophenyl)-5-(4-dimethylaminophenyl)-1,3,4oxadiazole 611. In the crystal, compound 610 has an almost planar structure. All three rings of the molecule are planar but they show a slight torsion relative to each other. The deviation of the planes of the two pyridyl rings relative to the plane of the oxadiazole ring is 3.3 for one ring and 3.4 for the other. Owing to the absence of signicant steric hindrance the torsion angle between the neighboring rings is small and, therefore, the conjugation is not lost. Compound 611 is almost planar. The planarity of the three single rings is nearly perfect but again the rings show a slight torsion relative to each other. The rotation of the inter-ring bond between the oxadiazole ring and the benzonitrile is 6.5 and between the oxadiazole ring and the dimethylaniline is 4.2. In this molecule the two substituents are tilted in the same direction relative to the oxadiazole ring whereas in 610 the rings are tilted in opposite directions [501].
Table 13.8 Molecular dimensions for 2,5-di(4-pyridyl)-1,3,4-oxadiazole (610) and for 2-(4-
cyanophenyl)-5-(4-dimethylaminophenyl)-1,3,4-oxadiazole (611).
N N N O N Me2 N
N N O CN
610
Compound 610 Bond lengths (nm) Bond angles ( )
611
Compound 611 Bond lengths (nm) Bond angles ( )
O1C2 C2N3 N3N4 N4C5 C5O1
0.1365 0.1292 0.1409 0.1292 0.1365
O1C2N3 C2N3N4 N3N4C5 N4C5O1 C2O1C5
112.50 106.20 106.20 112.50 102.50
O1C2 C2N3 N3N4 N4C5 C5O1
0.1368 0.1292 0.1407 0.1294 0.1374
O1C2N3 C2N3N4 N3N4C5 N4C5O1 C2O1C5
111.36 106.97 106.13 112.36 102.82
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Table 13.9 Proton NMR data (ppm) for ring hydrogens of 1,3,4-oxadiazoles.
N N H
R H Me Et PhCH2 Ph MeS
O
Solvent
R
d 8.73 8.53 8.48 8.26 8.50 9.42
CDCl3 CDCl3 CDCl3 CDCl3 CDCl3 d6-DMSO
13.5.1.4 NMR Spectroscopy The 1 H NMR spectrum of the parent compound 599 shows the relative signals at 8.73 d in CDCl3 [496, 502]. The presence of alkyl groups or phenyl group moves the proton of the ring upeld, while the shift is downeld for 2-alkylthio derivatives (Table 13.9). The 13 C chemical shift for C2, or C5 carbon in the parent compound is centered at 152.1 ppm. The presence of a phenyl ring at C2 moves this carbon to 164 d [502]. The chemical shifts of the ring carbon atoms in several 1,3,4-oxadiazoles have also been reported. For example, in 2-methoxy-1,3,4-oxadiazole the C2 signal is shifted downeld in comparison with signal of C5. The same trend has been observed for the oxadiazolinone and oxadiazolinethione derivatives where the C2 carbons resonate downeld with respect to C5 carbon [496]. Recently the structure of some 2,5-disubstitued-1,3,4-oxadiazoles has been elucidated by spectral (IR, 1 H NMR, 13 C NMR) analysis. The 13 C NMR analysis revealed that the presence of alkyl groups attached to C2 and C5 of the ring induced a downeld shift of both carbons by at least about 2022 ppm in comparison with the relative signal present in 599 [503]. The 15 N and 17 O data of different 1,3,4-oxadiazoles have also been used to elucidate their structures. In particular, the 17 O resonances registered for the 1,3,4-oxadiazolium-2-olate have demonstrated that the value centered at 181 ppm, relative to exocyclic oxygen, is that expected for an enolate form instead of that for a carbonylic function [496]. 13.5.1.5 UV and IR Spectroscopy The electronic spectrum of the 1,3,4-oxadiazole system is equivalent to that of benzene and the maxima are only slightly hypsochromically shifted. Substituted 2,5-diaryl- derivatives show strong uorescence in solution on stimulation by UV or b-irradiation, and some of them are electroluminescent with irradiation of blue light [504]. The electronic effects of conjugated rings on 1,3,4-oxadiazoles are maintained and the absorption and emission spectra of these compounds have been extensively studied and reported [499, 505]. The IR absorption spectra for 1,3,4-oxadiazoles show bands at 16401560 (nCN), 10301020 (nCO), and 970 cm1 [496, 503, 506]. These bands occur at longer
j1175
wavelengths in the spectra of 2,5-dialkyl-1,3,4-oxadiazoles and at shorter values in 5thione derivatives [496]. A band in the range 17851740 cm1 is reported for CO absorption in the case of oxazolidin-5-ones [496].
13.5.1.6 Mass Spectrometry The electron impact mass spectra of most 1,3,4-oxadiazoles exhibit a very intense signal for the molecular ion [496, 503, 506]. Moreover, the predominant fragment is represented by R-C O . . In the case of 2-substituted 1,3,4-oxadiazoles, diagnostic fragments derive from loss of CO and HCO. Loss of HNCO is fundamental in the spectrum of 2-amino-5-phenyl-1,3,4-oxadiazole. Oxazolidin-5-ones easily lose CO2 to give the corresponding ions of general formula R-CNNH . A study regarding the electron-spray ionization mass spectra of 2,5-diaryl and 2arylamino-5-aryl-1,3,4-oxadiazoles together with their complexes with copper cations has been reported [507]. In this latter case, loss of NH3 and HNCO was observed. In some protonated 2,5-diaryl derivatives an unusual elimination of HNCO was also detected [508]. 13.5.2 Synthesis of 1,3,4-Oxadiazoles
The common synthetic routes to these compounds involve: 1) cyclization of diacylhydrazines with various anhydrous reagents such as BF3OEt2 [503], thionyl chloride [509], phosphorous pentoxide [510], phosphorous oxychloride [511], triic anhydride [512], triphenylphosphine [513], polyphosphoric acid [514], and sulfuric acid [515]; cyclization of acylhydrazones [516], semicarbazones, and thiosemicarbazides; ring transformations [517].
2) 3)
13.5.2.1 Cyclization of Diacylhydrazines The rst synthesis of this ring, reported by Robert Stolle, exploits a condensation reaction of N,N0 -diacid hydrazides 612 under vigorous conditions to produce in variable yields 2,5-diaryl(alkyl)-1,3,4-oxadiazoles 613 (Scheme 13.194) [518].
HN NH R O O 612
Scheme 13.194
R'
-H2 O R
N N O 613 R'
Useful as agricultural fungicide, Boesch has reported the synthesis of 2-cyanooxadiazole 617 by cyclocondensation of ethyl 2-(2-benzoylhydrazinyl)-2-oxoacetate 614 with P2O5 followed by NH3 treatment and dehydration with POCl3 (Scheme 13.195) [519].
1176
j 13 Oxadiazoles
O N H H N O CO 2 Et P2O 5 95% Ph N N O 615 NH3 97% N N Ph O 617
Scheme 13.195
CO 2 Et
614
POCl 3 CN 94% Ph
N N O 616 CO 2 Et
Using hot polyphosphoric acid (PPA) 5-substituted [1,3,4]oxadiazol-2-yl compounds 619 have been obtained in good yield (7595%) (Scheme 13.196).
R4 R3 N N R2 618 R1 N O R5 HN NH O PPA 120C,60min 75-95% R 2 = Me R4 R3 R N N
2
N R1
N N O R5
R 1 = H, Br, Cl
619
R 3 = Et,Pr, allyl, CH3 CH=CH R 4 = OMe R 5 = H, Me, Et,Pr,CF3, Ph
Scheme 13.196
The 2-(oxadiazolyl)imidazo[1,2-a]pyrimidines (619) thus obtained are a class of compounds that bind to benzodiazepine receptors with moderate to weak afnity, and yet display antianxiety properties of similar potency to chlordiazepoxide in animal models, while demonstrating reduced or negligible myorelaxant effects [514]. A polymer-supported Burgess reagent under microwave conditions has been efcaciously used for the cyclodehydration of 1,2-diacylhydrazines 620 to provide 1,3,4-oxadiazoles 621 in excellent yields (Scheme 13.197) [520]. A convenient, one-pot procedure has been reported by Mashraqui and coworkers for the synthesis of various 2,5-disubstituted-1,3,4-oxadiazoles 625 by condensing mono-aryl hydrazides 622 with acid chlorides 623 in HMPA solvent under microwave heating (involving as intermediates diaroylhydrazines 624) (Scheme 13.198) [521]. The yields are good to excellent; the process is rapid and does not need any added acid catalyst or dehydrating reagent.
j1177
R1
HN NH O O 620
R1 Ph
O O O S Et3 N N O R2
PEG R1
N N O 621
HPLC Purity (%) 91 >99 97 >99 97 >99 >99 92
MW (2-4 min 100 W) 70-96%
R2
R2 Ph Me Me Me Ph Ph NHPh Ph
Yield 96 89 70 95 95 95 95 90
2-Methoxyphenyl 2-Chlorophenyl 2-Nitrophenyl 2-Tyhiophenyl 3-Pyridyl 4-Pyridyl 4-Chloro-3Nitroamminophenyl

Scheme 13.197
Ar
HN NH2
O
+ ArCOX
HMPA MW
HN NH Ar
O O
Ar
622
623
624
N N
Ar
Ar
625
Scheme 13.198
13.5.2.2 Cyclization of Acylhydrazones, Semicarbazones, and Thiosemicarbazides Mono and disubstituted 1,3,4-oxadiazoles 629 have been prepared by oxidation of acylhydrazones 628 prepared in situ by the condensation of aryl carboxylic acid hydrazides 626 with orthoesters 627 (Scheme 13.199). In two examples, the 1-acyl-2ethoxymethylenehydrazine 628 intermediate was isolated [522]. This reaction has been used to prepare the parent 1,3,4-oxadiazole (599) [523]. The above reaction has been revised recently by Varma et al., who have used a green protocol to synthesize 1,3,4-oxadiazoles 629 [502]. In particular, various
1178
j 13 Oxadiazoles
+ R 1C(OC 2 H5 )3
O R
150-190
12/16 h R
O NN H
N N R O R1
NHNH 2 626
OC 2H 5
627
628
629
R Phenyl o-Methoxyphenyl p-Chlorophenyl p-Nitrophenyl -Naphthyl 4-Pyridyl 3-Pyridyl 2-Quinolyl Phenyl 4-Pyridyl Phenyl o-Methoxyphenyl p-Chlorophenyl p-nit rophe n y l -Naphthyl 4-Pyridyl
Scheme 13.199
R1 H H H H H H H H Me Me Et Et Et Et Et Et
Yield (%) 70 79 78 79 63 82 68 70 70 70 80 79 86 92 80 84
hydrazides 626 have been reacted with triethyl orthoalkanates or triethyl orthobenzoate (627), in the presence of Naon NR50, under microwave irradiations and in the absence of any solvents to afford the desired 1,3,4-oxadiazoles 629 in good yields (6890%) (Scheme 13.200).
O R
NHNH 2 626
R 1 = H, Et, Ph
R C(OC 2 H 5) 3 627
Nafion NR50 Mw (40-140 W) (80C, 10 min.) 68-90%
N N R O 629 R1
R = Ph, p-F-C 6H 4, p-OMe-C 6 H4 , 2-furyl, 2-thienyl, 4-pyridyl, PhCH 2
Scheme 13.200
Owing to the selective absorption of catalyst, the reaction rate is strongly accelerated (10 min). Moreover, Naon NR50 is easy to handle because it involves a simple addition of Naon beads in a reaction vessel, which can be physically removed by forceps after completion of the reaction.
j1179
Electrolytic oxidation of ketone N-acylhydrazones 630 and aldehyde N-acylhydrazones 631 in methanolic sodium acetate affords, through their intramolecular cyclization, the corresponding 2-methoxy-D3-1,3,4-oxadiazolines 632 and oxadiazoles 633, respectively (Scheme 13.201) [524].
R1 N H N R3 I = 0.5A T = 15C 22-89% R
2
N N O 632
R R2
OMe R3
O 630, 631 630
R 1 = R 2 =Me, n-Pr, i-Pr, -(CH 2) 5R 3 = Ph, Me, n-Pr, i-Pr, OMe
N N R1 O 633 R3
R 1 = Me, n-Pr, i-Pr, -(CH 2 )5 631 R2 = H R 3 =Ph, Me, n-Pr, i-Pr, OMe
Scheme 13.201
The formation of heterocycles 632 and 633 has been rationalized according to a three-step process. The rst step involves the formation of a cationic intermediate generated from 630 or 631 by the loss of two electrons and one proton. In the second step, a 1,3,4-oxazolidinyl carbocation (634) is formed by an intramolecular cyclization promoted by the oxygen of the carbonyl group; and the third step consists of attack by methanol followed by expulsion of a hydrogen in the case of compound 630 or hydrogen extrusion in the case of 631 (Scheme 13.202).
ROH R1 (R = no H) R1 R2 N H N O -2e, -H R
1 2
N N O
H R3
R1 R
2
N N O
OMe R3
R3
N N O R3 R1 (R2 = H)
634
632
R2
630, 631
N N
R2 O
R3
H R
1
N N O R3
634
633
Scheme 13.202
Another method of oxidation of N-acylhydrazones 635 and 636 involves a hypervalent iodine reagent. Thus, Dai et al. have reported the synthesis of 2-alkoxy-D3-1,3,4-
1180
j 13 Oxadiazoles
oxadiazolines 639 and 2,5-disubstitued-1,3,4-oxadiazoles 641 in good to excellent yield by means of phenyl-iodine(III) diacetate (Scheme 13.203). The yields in 1,3,4oxadiazoles was improved by the use of 2 mmol of NaOAc [525].
R R2
R1 N H N O R3 PhI(OAc) 2 MeOH, or EtOH T = 0-25 C 41-100% R

2
N N O 639
O(Me)Et R3
635
R 1 = R2 = Me, n-Pr, -(CH 2 )5 -, -(CH 2 )6 R = Ph, PhCH 2

3
N N R1 O 641 R3
R 1 = Me, n-Pr, i-Pr, n-Bu, Ph 636 R2 = H R 3 = Ph, PhCH 2

Scheme 13.203
Scheme 13.204 explains the formation of these compounds.
R R2
Ph N H N O R3 PhI(OAc) 2 R1
OAc I N N O 637 H
OAc AcOH R3
Ph R1 R2
I OAc N N O 638 R3
R2
635, 636
NaOAc
R1 = H AcOH
PhI AcOH
R-OH
Ph N N R1 O 641
Scheme 13.204
I OAc N N O 640 R
3
R1 R
2
N N O
O(Me)Et R3
PhI, AcOH R
3
H R2
AcO
639
j1181
More recently, starting from 1-aroyl-2-arylidene hydrazines 644, a microwave assisted synthesis of 2,5-disubstituted 1,3,4-oxadiazoles 645 has been reported using as oxidizing agent potassium permanganate supported by montmorillonite K10. The reaction was more efcient when acetone/H2O (20 : 5) was used as solvent, and occurs in only 10 min, with a yield in the range 59100%. Interestingly, the starting hydrazines 644 have been prepared in good yields under microwave irradiation, mixing in ethanol 6 mmol of acid hydrazide 642, 6 mmol of aldehyde 643, and three drops of phosphoric acid (Scheme 13.205) [526].
R 2CHO 643 N H 642 NH2 SiO2 Mw, H 79-96% R
O R1
H
2
H N O
R1
KMnO4 SiO2 - Mw 59-100%
N N R
1
O 645
R2
644
R = Me, Ph, 4-Cl-C 6 H 4 R2 = Ph, 4-NO 2 -C6H 4, 3-NO 2 -C6H 4, 4-Cl-C 6H 4 , 3-Cl-C 6 H4 , Me, 4-I-C6 H4 , 4-Br-C 6H 4, 4-Cl-C 6H 4 , 4-Me-C 6 H4 , 4-MeO-C 6H 4, 4-CN-C 6H 4 , 4-Cl-C 6 H4 , 4-MeOOC-C 6H 4, 4-(NMe)2 -C6H 4 ,
Scheme 13.205
Semicarbazones have also been used for the synthesis of 2-amino-1,3,4-oxadiazoles, through their cyclization performed with a mixture of sodium acetate, bromine, and glacial acetic acid. In fact, this procedure was used recently to prepare some Schiff bases of 2-amino-5-aryl-1,3,4-oxadiazoles (649at) that posses antibacterial activities. In particular, semicarbazones 646 have been reacted with a mixture of sodium acetate, bromine, and glacial acetic acid, and transformed into the corresponding 2-amino-5-aryl-1,3,4-oxadiazoles 647 that in turn have been condensed with aldehydes 648 to give the expected 1,3,4-oxadiazole derivatives 649at (Scheme 13.206). The antibacterial properties of the compounds were investigated against Proteus mirabilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Bacillus subtilis, and Staphylococcus aureus. The most active compounds were 649c,649f,649m, and 649q with a MIC in the range 6268 mg ml1. Antifungal activity against Aspergillus niger and Candida albicans were also found for compounds 649g,h,i,m. The corresponding MICs are in the range 5260 mg ml1. The biocidal activities of these compounds were attributed to the toxophoric CN linkage [527]. The mixture of sodium acetate, bromine, and glacial acetic acid has also been used to prepare several antibacterial 1,2-bis(1,3,4-oxadiazol-2-yl)ethanes 651 from the corresponding diacylhydrazones 650 (Scheme 13.207) [528]. In particular, compounds 651ce show a good antibacterial activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, and Escherichia coli, with a MIC of 6 mg ml1. Another cyclization method towards the synthesis of 1,3,4-oxadiazoles involves the cyclodesulfurization of thiosemicarbazides 652 using either dicyclohexylcarbodii-
1182
j 13 Oxadiazoles
H N N NH2 O 646 Br2 /AcOH AcONa 72-80% R N N O 647 CHO 74-85% R1 648 NH2
N N R O N CH 649
a: R =OMe b: R =OMe c: R =OMe d: R =OMe e: R =OMe R1 = OMe R1 = NO2 R1 = Cl R1 = Me R1 = OH f: R = NO2 R1 = OMe g: R = NO2 R1 = NO2 h: R = NO2 R1 = Cl i: R = NO2 R1 = Me j: R =NO2 R1 = OH k: R =Cl R1 = OMe l: R =Cl R1 = NO2 m: R =Cl R1 = Cl n: R =Cl R1 = Me o: R =Cl R1 = OH p: R =Me R1 = OMe q: R =Me R1 = NO2 r: R =Me R1 = Cl s: R =Me R1 = Me t: R =Me R1 = OH
R1
Scheme 13.206
N R H C H N N O 650a-e O N H N C H O Br2/AcOH R AcONa 74-78% O R N N O
N O O R
651a-e
R = a: NO2; b: p-nitrophenyl; c: p-chlorophenyl; d: p-bromophenyl; e: 2,4-dichlorophenyl

Scheme 13.207
mide (DCC), or a mixture of I2/NaOH. By this procedure 2-amino-substituted-1,3,4oxadiazoles 653, having anti-inammatory activity, have been synthesized (Scheme 13.208) [529]. The anti-inammatory activity was investigated by determining the inhibitory effect of the oxadiazole derivatives 653ap on histamineinduced edema in rat abdomen. Compounds 653a,653c,653e,653j, and 653n proved to be more potent anti-inammatory agents at 200 mg kg1 p.o. than Ipobrufen, the standard reference drug. 2-Amino-5-aryl-1,3,4-oxadiazoles 656 have also been prepared, in good yield, by cyclodesulfurization of thiosemicarbazides 654 using 1,3-dibromo-5,5-dimethylhydantoin (655) as primary oxidant in the presence of potassium iodide (Scheme 13.209) [530].
j1183
O R NH NH S 652a-p
R1 NH
I2 /NaOH or DCC 60-77% R
N N O 653a-p NHR1
R1 R Et 652a N 653a Cyclohexyl 652b 653b Ph 652c 653c Me-C6 H4 652d 653d 652h 653h
652e 653e N 652i N Me Me Et

Scheme 13.208
652f 653f
652g 653g
652j 653j 652n 653n
652k 653k 652o 653o
652l 653l 652p 653p
653i 652m 653m
O Br N O Ar NH NH2 NH S 654 Br O 655 Ar N
N N O 656 NH2
KI, NaOH i-PrOH/CH3CN 53-97%
Ar: Ph, 4.Cl-Ph, 4-OMe-Ph, 2-Furyl, PhCH2CH2, PhCH=CH

Scheme 13.209
13.5.2.3 Ring Transformations Thermal decomposition of N-acyl-tetrazoles 657 is a common way to obtain 1,3,4oxadiazoles 659 [496]. This reaction has been easily explained by the loss of nitrogen, formation of the corresponding nitrilimines 658, and an intramolecular 1,5-cycloaddition (Scheme 13.210).
1184
j 13 Oxadiazoles
O N N N N R R N2 R N N O R R N N O R
657
Scheme 13.210
658
659
The mechanism of the process was demonstrated by labeling with 15 N the atoms N1 and N4 in 5-phenyltetrazole. Half of the 15 N was found in the 2,5-diphenyl-1-3-4oxadiazole, obtained by the breakdown of the N-benzoyl-5-phenyltetrazole. Therefore, either the atoms N1 and N2 or N3 and N4 were eliminated as N2 [531]. Scheme 13.211 shows that the thermolysis of N-aroyl-5-phenyltetrazoles 660 affords oxadiazoles 661 [532].
Ph N N N N
O
N N
91-98%
Ph
Ar
Ar 660
661
Ar = Ph, 2-Cl-C6 H4 ; 2-Br-C 6 H4 ; 4-NO 2-C6 H4 ; 4-Me-C 6 H 4

Scheme 13.211
(5-Nonyl-1,3,4-oxadiazol-2-yl)benzothiazine dioxide 664, a compound that shows anti-inammatory properties by virtue of its inhibition of arachinodate 5-lipoxygenase [533], has been prepared starting from tetrazol-5-yl derivative 662, which undergoes a Huisgen rearrangement on reuxing with decanoic anhydride 663 in toluene, followed by saponication (Scheme 13.212).
Me(H 2C)8 N N N N H N Me S O O OH 662
Scheme 13.212
O O O 663
(CH2 )8 Me OH N O N N C (CH2 )8 Me O Me
PhMe, reflux NaOH/MeOH 75%
664
j1185
By exploiting the thermal decomposition of alkoxycarbonyl tetrazoles, the 4-[5(dipyrido[3,2-a:20 ,30 -c]phenain-11-yl)-1,3,4-oxadiazol-2-yl]-N,N-diphenylaniline 668 has been prepared. Thus, the dipyrido[3,2-a,20 ,30 -c]phenazine 8-carboxyl chloride 665 in dry pyridine was reuxed for 72 h with triphenylamine tetrazole 666 to afford 668 via the corresponding alkoxycarbonyl tetrazole intermediate 667, in 60% yield (Scheme 13.213) [534].
N NH N N
N Cl N N N N O N
666
Py, reflux 60% N N N N
N N N O
665
667
N N
N N
N N O N
668
Scheme 13.213
The above compound, which contains a hole-transporting triphenylamine and an electron-transporting 1,3,4-oxadiazole unit, is an efcient light-emitting material. In particular, the absorption spectrum of 668 is extended into the visible region and shows a typical CT band around 416 nm and a broad pp transition band around 347 nm. This is the result of the extended conjugation of the phenanthroline moiety. The emission maximum of 668 is at 635 nm (red) with lex at 416 nm, and a quantum yield of 40%. Moreover, preliminary studies performed on this compound showed that it can be used as anorganic light emitting diode (OLED). Microwave methodology has also been used to prepare various 3-(1,3,4-oxadiazol2-yl)pyridines 671 in good to excellent yields, by reaction of 3-(5-tetrazolyl)pyridines 669 with different acid anhydrides (670) (Scheme 13.214) [535]. 1,3,4-Oxadiazoles can also be obtained by photo-isomerization of 1,2,4-oxadiazoles. Irradiation of 5-alkyl-3-amino-1,2,4-oxadiazoles 672 at 254 nm in methanol and in presence of Et3N, even if in moderate yields, leads to 2-amino-5-alkyl-1,3,4-
1186
j 13 Oxadiazoles
(R3 CO)2 O 670af Me N 669af MeCN; MW, 120C R1 R2 N 671af N N R3 O Me
N NH N N R1 R
2
R1 R2 R3 a: Ph H Me b: Ph H CF3a c: oC6H4(CH2)2 t-Bu d: oC6H4OCH2 MeO(CH2)2 e: (CH2)3 i-Pr f: (CH2)5 4Cl C6H4 a The reaction was performed at room temperature for 2 h.
Scheme 13.214
Yield (%) 95 100 96 80 99 68
oxadiazoles 675. A small amount of the ring-degenerate isomers 3-alkyl-5-amino1,2,4-oxadiazoles 678 (Scheme 13.215) was also obtained [536].
R N
N R O
NH2 N
h MeOH, Et3 N ex 254 nm R
N N O 22%
675
NH 2
+ H2N
N O
6%
678
672
R = C11 H23; C8 H17

Scheme 13.215
The formation of 675 has been explained according to the ring contractionring expansion (RCRE) route, while 678 originates via a competing internal cyclization (IC)isomerization mechanism, with an anionic species (673) as a common precursor (Scheme 13.216). By a similar approach, 2-amino-5-alkyluorinated-1,3,4-oxadiazoles 680 have been prepared utilizing the photochemical interconversion of 3-N-alkylamino-5-peruoalkyl-1,2,4-oxadiazoles 679 in the presence of triethylamine. A moderate yield of 5-amino-3-alkyl-1,2,4-oxadiazoles 681 was also obtained, as a rearrangement product (Scheme 13.217) [537]. In this context, the same authors have reported that 1,2,5-oxadiazoles containing an acetylamino moiety are able to photochemically interconvert into 1,3,4-oxadiazoles. Thus, irradiation of 2,2,2-triuoro-N-(4-phenyl-1,2,5-oxadiazol-3-yl)acetamide
j1187
NH N
N R O
NH 2 N
h MeOH, Et3 N R
N O
NH N
* RC R O 674 N
672
673 IC
RE
N H 2N O
R N N R N
NH 2 O R
N O
NH N N N R O 675 NH2
678
Scheme 13.216
677
676
N R O
NH2 N
h MeOH, Et3N ex 313 nm R
N N O 60% 680 NH2
+ H2N
N O
R N
25% 681
679 R = C7F15; C3F7

Scheme 13.217
682, in methanol in the presence of methylamine, produces, via 3-N-methylamino-5triuoromethyl-1,2,4-oxadiazole (683), a mixture of 2-N-methylamino-5-triuoromethyl-1,3,4-oxadiazole (684) and 1-methyl-3-N-methylamino-5-triuoro-methyl1,2,4-triazole (685) in 32% and 15% yield respectively (Scheme 13.218) [538].
O NH O N h MeOH, MeNH 2 ex 313nm F3C N O HN Me N F3C N N O NHMe + F3C 15% N
F3 C Ph N
HNMe
32%
N N Me
682
Scheme 13.218
683
684
685
The study of organic transformations within constrained media is a research topic that has received considerable attention in recent years. In this regard the
1188
j 13 Oxadiazoles
rst intrazeolite-photoinduced rearrangement of 1,2,4-oxadiazoles leading to 1,3,4oxadiazoles has been reported. Irradiation of a peruorohexane slurry of 3,5diphenyl-1,2,4-oxadiazole (686) in zeolite (NaY) at 254 nm for 24 h furnished 2,5diphenyl-1,3,4-oxadiazole (689) in 60% yield together with N-benzoyl-N0 -phenylurea (691) (4%) and unreacted starting compound (35%). The formation of 689 and 691 is unknown in solution (Scheme 13.219) [539].
O N Ph O Ph N h NaY ex 254 nm 24 h Ph N N O 60% 689 Ph + Ph N H 4% 691 O N H Ph
686 h MeOH OMe
O Ph
N Ph H 26% 692
Scheme 13.219
In fact, a photochemical study performed on 686 in MeOH afforded product 692. This dramatic difference of photo-behavior is explainable through a common intermediate (687), which in the zeolite cage leads to compounds 689 and 691, via intermediates 688 and 690, respectively, while 687 in methanol undergoes a nucleophilic addition of the solvent, giving rise to 692 (Scheme 13.220).
Ph N h MeOH Ph N O Ph N Ph N Ph N N O Ph
N Ph O
h NaY
N Ph O
687
MeOH
686
687
688
O Ph N H
OMe Ph Ph
O N H
O N H Ph
O H 2O Ph N C N Ph Ph
N N O Ph
692
Scheme 13.220
691
690
689
j1189
It was found recently that a thermal rearrangement promoted by base is also effective in the formation of 1,3,4-oxadiazoles 698 starting from 3-acylamino-1,2,4oxadiazoles 693 (Scheme 13.221) [540].
H N R O
O N N R
t-BuOK/DMF
R 150C 60-77% R = Me, Pr, Ph, 2-Thienyl O N H
N N O 698 R
693
Scheme 13.221
The reaction consists of a one-atom side-chain rearrangement that is base activated, occurs at higher temperature, and irreversibly leads to the corresponding 2-acylamino-1,3,4-oxadiazoles. The reaction mechanism has been studied in depth by computational methods, using the hybrid DFT B3LYP method and the 6-31 G(d,p) basis set. Following these computational studies, the proposed mechanism is that reported in Scheme 13.222, where the route involving migrationnucleophilic attackcyclization (MNAC) is the activated route, while the ring contractionring expansion route (RCRE) is ruled out.
Me
C NA
N O N N
O Me
695
N N C Me O Me N O
H N R O
O N N R t-BuOK/DMF R N O
O N N R
697
H Me O N N O Me R O N H N N O R
693
694
R C R E
696
698
Scheme 13.222
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j 13 Oxadiazoles
13.5.2.4 Synthesis of Mesoionic 1,3,4-Oxadiazoles (600), and 1,3,4-Oxadiazolium Cations (601) The simplest way to prepare mesoionic 1,3,4-oxadiazoles 600 is by the thermal cyclization of 1-carbonyl-substituted-1-substituted hydrazine hydrochloride and phosgene [541]. Thus, the 4,5-dihydro-3-methyl-5-oxo-2-phenyl-1,3,4-oxadiazolium inner salt 701 has been synthesized from 1-benzoyl-1-methylhydrazine hydrochloride (699) and phosgene (700) (Scheme 13.223) [541].
O O
Cl NH2
Ph
N Me 699 HCl
Cl 700
70C 46%
Me Ph
N O O
701
Scheme 13.223
In the same way, 5-(dimethylamino)-4-methylisosydnone 705 has been prepared, via the aminoisocyanate 704 intermediate, by heating at 70 C the 2,4,4-trimethylsemicarbazide 702 with trichloromethyl chloroformate (703) (Scheme 13.224) [542].
O Cl O
Cl
Me
NH2 N N Me Me 702
Cl O Cl 703
Me
N Me N C O
Me
70C 44%
N Me
N O O
Me
704
N Me
705
Scheme 13.224
1,3,4-Oxadiazolo[3,2-a]pyridylium-2-aminides 708 are available in 7591% yield by reaction, in reuxing toluene, of 1,3,4-oxadiazolo[3,2-a]pyridylium-2-olate 706 with N-aryliminotriphenyl-phosphoranes 707 (Scheme 13.225) [543].
Ph , PhMe O ArN PPh 3 707 75-91% Ar = Ph, 4-BrC 6 H4, 4-ClC 6 H 4, 4-MeC 6 H4, 4-MeOC 6H 4, -C10H 7
Scheme 13.225
Ph N N Ph O 706
N Ph
N N Ar
O 708
j1191
1,3,4-Oxadiazolium cations 601 are easily obtained by treatment of 1,3,4-oxadiazoles with several alkylating agents to give in about 100% yield the corresponding salts. A recent example is the synthesis of 2,5-diaryl-3-trimethylsilylmethyl-1,3,4oxadiazolium triuoromethanesulfonates (711) [544]. These compounds have been prepared in 99100% yield by mixing a solution of 2,5-diaryl-1,3,4-oxadiazoles 709 with trimethylsilylmethyl triuoromethanesulfonate 710 in dry CH2Cl2 at 50 C under reux condenser for 24 h (Scheme 13.226).
O Me O S CF3 Me Si O Me 710
SiMe3
N N
N N
Ar
Ar
99-100%
Ar
CF3 SO3 Ar
709
Ar = Ph; 4-Brl-C 6 H4 , 4-Me-C 6 H4 ,
Scheme 13.226
711
Another method involves the cyclization reaction of N-substituted diacylhydrazides with a mixture of HClO4Ac2O. Thus, cyclization of RCONR1NHAc 712 with HClO4Ac2O gave 4798% yields of 1,3,4-oxadiazolium salts 713 (Scheme 13.227) [545].
HN N Me
O O
R1
HClO4 /Ac2 O 47-98%
N N R O
ClO 4
R1
712
R= F, Me, Cl, NO 2, OMe
713
R1 = F, Me, NO 2, OMe, Cl, SMe, H, NH2 , SO2 Me
Scheme 13.227
13.5.2.5 Synthesis of Oxadiazolinones, Oxadiazolinethiones, and Oxadiazolimines (602) 1,3,4-Oxadiazolin5-ones are, usually, synthesized by reaction of substituted acid hydrazide with phosgene or by thermal cyclization of acylcarbazates.
1192
j 13 Oxadiazoles
5-tert-Butyl-3-(2,4-dichloro-5-isopropoxyphenyl)-1,3,4-oxadiazolin-2-one a very active herbicide, that goes under the commercial name of Oxadiazon (716, R CMe3), commonly used in rice production for controlling weeds and increasing seed yield in soya beans, containing the oxadiazolinones ring has been prepared by reaction of 1-trimethylacetyl-2-(2,4-dichloro-5-isopropoxyphenyl)hydrazide 714 with phosgene (715) in toluene at 100110 C (Scheme 13.228) [546].
Cl
+
Cl Me
O O
O R N H
H N
Cl Cl Cl 715
O /PhMe 100-110C 75% R
Me
N N O
Cl Me
O
Me 714
R = CMe3, OMe, OEt, O-n-Pr, OBu, O-sec-Bu, O-iso-Bu
Scheme 13.228
716
Similarly, 5-substituted-3-(2,4-dichloro-5-isopropoxyphenyl)-1,3,4-oxadiazolin-2ones have been prepared (R MeO, EtO, n-PrO, BuO, sec-BuO, iso-BuO). Condensation of ethyl 2-(2-chlorophenyl)hydrazine-carboxylate 717 with phosgene has furnished 5-ethoxy-3-(2-chlorophenyl)-1,3,4-oxadiazolin-2-one 718, which is active orally against gastrointestinal nematodes of domestic animals and man (Scheme 13.229) [547].
Cl O O N H H N Cl + Cl Cl O /PhMe 100-110C 75% 715 EtO N N O 718 O
717
Scheme 13.229
Cyclization of acylcarbazates has been utilized fruitfully for the synthesis of 2-(2,3dihydro-2-oxo-1,3,4-oxadiazol-5yl)benzoxazoles, a class of compounds that are potent inhibitors of anaphylactically induced histamine release from rat peritoneal mast cells and are orally active as inhibitors of IgE-mediated passive cutaneous anaphylaxis in the rat [548]. The 2-(2,3-dihydro-2-oxo-1,3,4-oxadiazol-5-yl)benzoxazole 722a (R H), chosen as an example, was synthesized by heating ethyl 3-(2-benzoxazolyl)hydrazine-carboxylate (721) in Dowtherm at 230240 C for 1 h. Intermediate 721 was prepared by treating 3-chloro-1,4-benzoxazin-2-one 719 with ethyl carbazate 720
j1193
in dioxane and triethylamine at room temperature for 4 h. In a similar manner, compounds 722bg have been prepared (Scheme 13.230).
H N R N 719 Cl O O + O N H 720 O N HN NH O 721 77% 230-240C O
H N
dioxane H Et3N, 4h, rt 63%
OEt
R = H, 5-Cl, 5-CO 2 Me(7-OMe), 6-Me, 5-CO 2 Et, 4-Me, 5-Me
O N
N NH O 722 O
Scheme 13.230
5-Imino-2-substituted D2-1,3,4-oxadiazolines 725, as hydrochloride salts, which are able to produce a profound accid paralysis in rats, have been prepared by hydrochloric reaction of 2-amino-5-aryl-1,3,4-oxadiazoles 724, in DMF/H2O or in ethanolether as solvents. These latter compounds have been synthesized by reaction of 1-acyl-3-thiosemicarbazide 723 with Pb3O4 (Scheme 13.231) [549].
O R N H Pb3O 4 NH2 S R N N O 724 HCl 80-82% N NH R O NH HCl 725 R = Ph, Me-C6 H4 , Me-C6 H 4, 2-CF 3-C6 H 4, 3-CF 3 -C6H 4,
Scheme 13.231
H N
NH2
723
Diphenylnitrilimine 728, prepared from 2,5-diphenyltetrazole (726) or by triethylamine treatment of diphenylchlorohydrazone 727, adds to CO and CN double bond of aryl isocyanate to give 2,4-diphenyl-1,3,4-oxadiazol-5-phenylimino 729, and 1,3-diphenyl-4-aryl-1,2,4-triazolin-5-ones (730) in a 2 : 1 ratio respectively (Scheme 13.232) [550].
1194
j 13 Oxadiazoles
Ph Cl Ph Ph N N N N 726 N N Ph H 727 Et3N C6H6 refluxed 150- 180 C Ph 728 ArNCO 17-80% N N Ph
Ar = Ph, p-OMe-C6H4, p-Cl-C6H4, p-NO2-C6H4 Ph N N Ph O 729

Scheme 13.232
NAr
+ Ph
Ph N N N Ar 730
5-Hydroxy-2-methyl-6-phenyl-7H-[1,3,4]oxadiazolo[3,2-a]pyrimidin-7-one (733) has been obtained in 79% yield via a solvent-free microwave cyclocondensation reaction using di(2,4,6-trichlorophenyl) 2-phenylmalonate (732) and 2-methyl-5amino-1,3,4-oxadiazole (731) in a 1 : 2 ratio under heating at 250 C for 15 min (Scheme 13.233) [551].
Cl
N N + O O O O
Cl
MW, 15 min 250C 79%
HO
N N O
Me
NH2
Me
Cl
Cl
Cl
Cl
731
Scheme 13.233
732
733
The synthetic procedure based on the ring closure of substituted acid hydrazide 734 with carbon disulde leads to 5-aryl-2,3-dihydro-1,3,4-oxadiazole-2-thiones 735 in excellent yield (Scheme 13.234). The obtained compounds have been conveniently transformed into 3,5-disubstituted-2,3-dihydro-1,3,4-oxadiazole-2-thiones 738 in 7292% yield, by reaction with dapsone (736) and aromatic aldehydes 737 in methanolic solution. Compound 738a has been shown to be very active against Mycobacterium tuberculosis H37Rv and isoniazid (INH) resistant M. tuberculosis with MIC of 0.1 and 1.10 mM respectively [552].
j1195
O R1 N H
CS 2 /KOH NH2 70-90%

R1
Ph N N
O
NH2
734
735
R 2CHO
737
O S O
NH2 72-92%
736
R 1 = Ph, 4-NO 2 -C6H 4, PhNHPh, -C10H 7-O-CH 2, -C10H7 -O-CH2 , PhOCH 2, PhCH2 R 2 = Ph, 2-furyl S O R1 N N R2 S N O N R1
HN
R2
O S O
NH
738
Scheme 13.234
O S O N O N HN O O S O
S N O N O
NH
738a
Acyclic C-nucleoside 5-(1,2-dihydroxyethyl)-3H-[1,3,4]oxadiazole-2-thione 742, containing an 1,3,4-oxadiazolinethione ring, as mimic of ribose unit, has been synthesized starting from ()-2,2-dimethyl-[1,3]dioxolan-4-carboxylic acid methyl ester 739 via reaction with hydrazine to give the corresponding hydrazide 740, followed by CS2 treatment and subsequent deacetonation with Amberlyst 15 (Scheme 13.235) [553]. The synthesis of this optical active compound has been performed by the same common route using as chiral source the D-mannitol. Furthermore, the use of D-xylose 743, via (tetrahydro-[1,3]dioxino[5,4-d][1,3]dioxin-4-yl)-methanol 744, leads
1196
j 13 Oxadiazoles
O MeO O O 739 Me Me NH2NH 2 EtOH/ 89% H 2NHN O O O 740 82% CS2 KOH, EtOH S HN N Me Me
O OH OH 742
S Amberlyst 15 82% HN N
O O O 741 Me Me
Scheme 13.235
to 5-(1,2,3,4-tetrahydroxybutyl)-3H-[1,3,4]oxadiazole-2-thione 745 in enantiomerically pure form, in 8.5% total yield (Scheme 13.236).
HO O H H H O H O OH C O H C H H C O CH2 S HN O N HO HO 745 OH OH
H C OH HO C H H C OH CH2OH
743
Scheme 13.236
744
13.5.2.6 Synthesis of (D2) (603), (D3) (604), and 2,3,4,5-Tetrahydro-1,3,4Oxadiazoles (605) The D2-1,3,4-oxadiazoline 751, which inhibits cell proliferation and binds to tubulin, has been synthesized, as reported in Scheme 13.237, according to a process that involves as the key reaction the cyclization of acylhydrazone 749 with acetic anhydride [554]. The synthesis starts from the 4-azido-3-methylbenzoic acid (746), which was reacted with tert-butylcarbazate in the presence of 1-[3-(dimethylamino) propyl]-3-ethylcarbodiimide hydrochloride (EDCI) and a small amount of 4-(N,N,dimethylamino)pyridine as base, to give, after triuoroacetic acid (TFA) treatment, 98% of 4-azido-3-methylbenzoylhydrazide (747). This compound was condensed with 3,4,5-trimethoxybenzaldehyde (748) to give in 67% yield the corresponding acylhydrazone 749, which was then cyclized to 2-(4-azido-3-methlphenyl)-4-acetyl-5(3,4,5-trimethoxyphenyl)-D2-1-3-4-oxadiazoline (750). Compound 750 was converted into the target compound 751 by reduction of the azido group with a suspension of SnCl2, thiophenol, and triethyl amine, in 80% yield (total overall yield 32%).
O O
j1197
Me
Me
N3 O
Me NH 2NHBoc, EDCI
DMF, TFA, 98% O N3
N3 O N O O O
748
NHNH 2 67%
OH
NH
746
747
749
64%
Ac 2O
125 C
Me
N N O H2 N O O O N N
Me
O O O
SnCl 2, TEA Thiophenol

80% N3
Me
Me
751
Scheme 13.237
750
The method has been exploited to prepare various 2-[4-(N,N-dimethylaminophenyl]-4-substituted-(3,4,5-trimethoxyphenyl)-D2-1-3-4-oxadiazolines 753, which present interesting antitumoral activity (Scheme 13.238)[555].
Me H2N O N O O O 752 R = H, C2H5OCO, ClCH2, CH3O 753a-d NH (a-d) 55-100% H2N Me N N O O R O O O
(a) Ac2O/HCO2H; (b) ethyl oxalyl chloride; (c) chloroacetic anhydride; (d) dimethylpyrocarbonate
Scheme 13.238
1198
j 13 Oxadiazoles
C,N-Diphenyl nitrilimine 728 reacts, by 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition, with aldehydes 754 to produce in 5075% yield 5-aryl-substituted-2,4-diphenyl-1,3,4-oxadiazolines (755) (Scheme 13.239) [555, 556].
ArCHO 754 50-75% Ph Ph N N H O Ar 755
Ph
N N Ph 728
Ar = Ph, p-OMe-C6 H 4, p-Cl-C 6 H4 , p-NO2 -C6 H 4

Scheme 13.239
N-Substituted 2,3-dihydrooxadiazoles have been prepared recently by intramolecular cyclization of protected amino-aldehydes (1,5-dipolar cycloaddition) [557]. Thus, the N,N-dibenzylated aldehyde 756 after heating at reux for 72 h, in toluene, with N1acetyl-N2-methylhydrazine 758, for 16 h, gave rise to the 2,3- dihydro-1,3,4-oxadiazole 760a (7%), through a cyclization involving the hydrazine N-acetyl group of the notisolable intermediate 759 (Scheme 13.240). 2-Benzyloxypropanal 757 gave the analogous product 760b (11%).
R = NBn 2 7% O H R MeNHNHCOMe 758 PhMe, Reflux Dean-Stark trap R = OBn 11% R Me N O N Me R N N O Me
756,757
760a,b 759
Scheme 13.240
Ylidine-N-phenylhydrazine-carbothioamides 762 react, in glacial acetic acid at reux temperature, with 2,3-diphenylcyclopropenone (761) by way of an initial [2 3] cycloaddition to give 763, which undergoes a cyclization process with extrusion of H2S to afford the pyrrolo[2,1-b]-1,3,4-oxadiazoles 764ae in 6077% yield (Scheme 13.241) [558]. D3-1,3,4-Oxadiazolines (604) can be easily prepared by oxidation of acylhydrazones (see Schemes 13.201 and 13.203) [524, 525]. Thus, the oxidation of methoxycarbonyl hydrazone of acetone (766) with lead tetraacetate (LTA) furnishes the 2-acetoxy-2methoxy-5,5-dimethy-D3-1,3,4-oxadiazoline (767) in 6072% yield (Scheme 13.242). This reaction route was further developed, transforming 767 into various D3-1,3,4oxadiazolines 768 and 769 by reaction with alcohols or phenols. Notably, these compounds have been used as a carbene source, because they fragment quite cleanly in solution at about 100 C to give as by-products acetone and N2 [559].
j1199
R H O + Ph 761 Ph Ph H N S 762 H N AcOH N R 4-8 h H Ph N H N N S 763 O H
Ph Ph
R = 2-Thienyl, Ph; 4-Cl-C 6H 4, 4-OMe-C 6 H4 , 4-OH-C 6H 4 H N O Ph 764
PhHN
N O
N Ph 765
R Ph
H 2 S 60-77%
HS PhHN
R Ph
Scheme 13.241
H N N 766
LTA (AcOH) CO2 Me 60-72%
Me Me
N N
OMe OAc O 767
ROH 67-94%
Me Me
N N O 768
OMe OR
61-68% ArOH
Me Me
N N O 769
OMe OAr
R Ar
Me Ph
Et 4-CNC6H4
Pr 4-OMeC6H4
i-Pr
Bu
t-Bu
CH2CF3
But3ynyl
Pent4ynyl
Scheme 13.242
2,3,4,5-Tetrahydro1,3,4-oxadiazoles are obtained by reaction of 1,2-disubstituted hydrazines with aldehydes. Zwanesburg et al. have reported the synthesis of a series of 2,3,4,5-tetraalkyl-1-3-4-oxadiazolidines (772) by reaction of 1,2-dimethylhydrazine (771) with aliphatic aldehydes 770. Thus, the appropriate aldehyde (2 equivalents) in 50 ml of dry ether and a few grams of MgSO4 treated drop-wise during 15 min, below 5 C, with one equivalent of aldehyde gave after 1 h the corresponding 1,3,4 oxadiazolines in 6075% yield (Scheme 13.243) [560].
1200
j 13 Oxadiazoles
O R 770 R = Me, Et, Pr, Bu
Scheme 13.243
Me
H N 771
0-5C N H Me Et 2O, MgSO 4 60-75%
Me R
N N O
Me R
772
In a similar way Zinner and Kliwing have prepared other 1,3,4-oxadiazolines (775) using different hydrazines (774) (Scheme 13.244) [561].
O R H 773 + R1 H N 18-80% R R1 R1 N N O 775 R
N H
774
R = H, Me, Et, Pr, i-Pr, t-Bu, Ph R 1 = Me, i-Pr, Cyclohexyl, -CH 2CHMeCH 2 Scheme 13.244
3,4-Diaryl substituted 1,3,4-oxadiazolidines 777 have been synthesized in moderate to good yields (1654%) by TiO2-photocatalyzed reaction of azobenzenes 776 in methanol through a uranium glass lter (lex > 320 nm). The reaction probably involves a photoreduction of azobenzenes to 1,2-diarylhydrazine, an oxidation of methanol to formaldehyde, and the subsequent cyclization to 1,3,4-oxadiazolidines (Scheme 13.245) [562].
R1
N N 776 R = H, Ph
R1
h TiO 2 -MeOH uranium filter 16-54%
N N O 777
R 1 = 4-Cl-C 6 H4 , 4-Me-C 6 H4 , 3-Cl-C 6H 4

Scheme 13.245
Tricyclic fused-1,3,4-oxadiazole systems that display in vitro fungitoxicity comparable to that of fungicide Dithane M45 at 1000 ppm concentration against Aspergillus niger and Fusarium oxysporum have been obtained starting from 2-aryl-3-thioureido-4-
j1201
thiazolidinones 778. These compounds were treated with a mixture of KI/I2 under basic conditions to afford bicyclic compounds containing the D2-1,3,4-oxadiazoline core (779) that were then converted into the target compounds by reaction with formaldehyde and various a-amino acids 780 (Scheme 13.246) [563].
S Ar N HN 778
O S NH2
KI/I 2 NaOH 76%
S Ar
O N N 779
NH2
Ar = Ph, 4-Cl-C6H 4 R = H, Me
EtOH, reflux HCHO 70-74% H 2N
R CO 2 H 780
O S Ar N N
N N R 781 CO 2H
Scheme 13.246
Another versatile method for the synthesis of 1,3,4-oxadiazolidines (605) is the 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition of azomethinimines to carbonyl compounds. In particular, thermal decomposition of 8,8a,16,16a-tetrahydro-8,16-diphenyl[1,2,4,5]tetrazino[6,1-a:3,4-a0 ]diisoquinoline (782) at 5080 C gave the 3,4-dihydroisoquinolineazomethinimine 783 that in presence of various carbonyl compounds (784) gave rise to substituted 1,3,4-oxadiazolidines 785 (79100% yield) (Scheme 13.247) [564]. The obtained compounds, at high temperature, are thermolabile and decompose to azomethinimines and carbonyl compounds. This is recognizable by a color change to reddish-brown. Moreover, the azomethinimines thus obtained can be trapped with a wide range of dipolarophiles [565]. Hydrazide 786 (R Me) and semicarbazides 787 (R NHAr) have been used for the synthesis of azomethine imines 789 that, in situ, react with methyl glyoxylate hemiacetal 788 to give the corresponding 1,3,4-oxadiazolidines 790 in good yields (6070%) (Scheme 13.248) [566]. Similarly, the cyclic hydrazine 791 reacts with ethyl glyoxylate (792) in the presence of MgBr2Et2O in THF at 65 C to give in 71% yield the bicyclic 1,3,4-oxadiazolidine 794 with a diastereomeric ratio of 46/38/16, via the azomethinimine intermediate 793 (Scheme 13.249) [567].
1202
j 13 Oxadiazoles
R R N N R1 R R H H O H NO 2 R N O N H H R1
2
N N N
50-80C
R1 H Me CCl3 CCl3 Ph p-MeO-C 6 H4 p-Cl-C 6H 4 2-pyridyl 2-furyl CO 2Et CO 2Et
R2 H H H H H H H H H H H
Yield 88 79 84 99 93 92 92 98 85 93 100
783
R 2 784
782
H H H H NO 2
785
Scheme 13.247
Scheme 13.248
j1203
Scheme 13.249
13.5.3 Reactivity
The reactivity of the 1,3,4-oxadiazole system is expressed in a series of different chemical transformations that can be amenable to (i) ring cleavage reactions, (ii) reactions due to the reactivity of heterocycle ring, and (iii) reactions of substituents.
13.5.3.1 Ring Cleavage Reactions Ring-opening reactions of 1,3,4-oxadiazoles can be achieved by the action of nucleophilic reagents; in some cases the ring opening occurs by thermolysis or photolysis. 2,5-Dialkyl-1,3,4-oxadiazoles are cleaved by water in basic or acid conditions to produce diacylhydrazines that suffer further hydrolysis under vigorous conditions to give carboxylic acids and hydrazine (Scheme 13.250).
N N R O 795
Scheme 13.250
R1
H2 O, H 70%
O R N H
H N O
R1
H2 O, H
RCO2 H + R1 CO 2 H + NH2 NH2
796
This ring cleavage is dependent on the solubility. In fact, no hydrolysis was observed for 2,5-diphenyl-1,3,4-oxadiazole, which has a solubility in water of 0.03% [568]. The presence of an electron-withdrawing group at C2 and C5 of the ring increases the reactivity towards nucleophiles. Thus, 2,5-bis(peruoroalkyl)-1,3,4-oxadiazoles 797ac are very sensitive to nucleophilic attack. They react with ammonia to give the corresponding 1-(peruoroalkylimidoyl)-2-(peruoroacyl)hydrazines 798ac (R H). The reaction occurs by attack of nucleophiles on the electron-decient oxadiazole ring carbon to afford the 798ac. The reaction with the more nucleophilic methylamine provides 1,2-bis(N-alkyl)peruoroalkylimidoyl)hydrazines 799ac via the hydrazine intermediates 798ac (R Me) (Scheme 13.251) [569]. Interestingly, thermal dehydration or deamination of these hydrazine derivatives 798 and 799 produces the corresponding 4-substituted-3,5-bis(peruoroalkyl)-4H-1,2,4-triazoles 800ac or 801ac in 8894% yield (Scheme 13.251).
1204
j 13 Oxadiazoles
N N R
1
RNH 2 R
1
O R
1
O 797a-c
75- 93%
N H
H N N
R1 R
798a-c 90-95%
R 1 = CF3 , C 2F5 , C 3F 5 R = H, Me R1 NMe N H
MeNH 2 R = Me
88-94% R
1
N N N R R1
800a-c, 801a-c H N N R
1
Me
799a-c
Scheme 13.251
In a similar fashion 3,5-bis(triuoromethyl)-1,3,4-oxadiazole 802 reacts with hydrazine in methanol at 42 C to afford the N2-(a-hydrazonotriuoromethyl)N1-(triuoroacetyl)hydrazine 803, which under heating is converted into the 4-amino-3,5-bis(triuoromethyl)-4H-1,2,4-triazole (804) (85%). Dihydrotetrazine 805 in 36% yield is, instead, obtained if the reaction is performed in ethanol at 0 C (Scheme 13.252) [570].
CF 3 N N NH NH CF 3 805 NH 2NH2 0C, EtOH 36% F3 C N N O 802 CF 3 NH 2NH2 -42C 76% H2 N F3 C 803
N N H
H N O
CF 3
AcOH 85%
N N F3 C CF 3 N NH 2 804
Scheme 13.252
2-Aryloxadiazolinethiones 806 also react with hydrazines, giving rise to triazoline thione derivatives 807 (Scheme 13.253) [571].
j1205
H N N Ar O 806
RNHNH 2 65-85% Ar
H N N N NHR 807
Ar = Ph, 4-MeO-C6 H 4 , 4-NO2 -C6 H4 , 4-Pyridyl

Scheme 13.253
R = H, Ph, Me
The ring-opening reaction promoted by hydrazine has been used by El-masry et al. to prepare, starting from 5-[2-(2-methylbenzimidazol-1-yl)ethyl-[1,3,4]-oxadiazole-2 (3H)thione (808), 1-[(1-amino-2-mercapto-1,3,4-triazol-5-yl)ethyl]-2-methylbenzimidazole 809, a biologically active compound, which possesses a moderate activity against Bacillus cereus (Scheme 13.254) [572].
N N N Me NH2NH2 EtOH, reflux O S 808
Scheme 13.254
Me
N NH
85%
H2N N HS 809
N N
The reaction of 802 with primary alkyl amines 810 in methanol at 42 C leads to complexes 811 whose structure has been elucidated by X-ray crystal analysis. These complexes can be conveniently transformed into 4-substituted-3,5-bis(triuoromethyl)-4H-1,2,4-triazoles 812 by heating in methanol. The reaction of 802 with aromatic amines 813, performed at reux, provides directly the triazole derivatives 814 in moderate to good yields (Scheme 13.255) [573]. 1,3,4-Oxadiazol-2-ones 815 react with water to form 1,5-diacylcarbohydrazides 819. The pathway of this reaction appears to be the hydrolytic ring opening to form the hydrazide 818, via either an acylhydrazinoformic acid 816 or the acyl hydrazonoformic acid 817, followed by loss of carbon dioxide to produce 818, which, in turn, attacks the remaining oxadiazolone 815 to form the observed product 819 (Scheme 13.256) [574]. Oxadiazolones 815 also react with hydrazine and amines to give semicarbazides 820 and carbohydrazides 821, respectively (Scheme 13.257) [575]. This reaction is quite general and similar to the above reported reactions. The reaction with NaOMe promotes the formation of 822 (Scheme 13.258) [575]. 3-Substituted 5-triuoromethyl-1,3,4-oxadiazolones 823ad are attacked by N and S-nucleophiles to give, as initial products, compounds deriving from the ringopening reaction. In some cases, ring-enlargement products are formed. The
1206
j 13 Oxadiazoles
N N
RNH2 810 CF 3
-42C 78-90%
R F3 C
N N H
H N O
CF 3
F3C
MeOH
802
811
R = CH 3, C 2 H5 , CH(CH 3)C2 H5
MeOH 29-76%
N N F3C N Ar
ArNH 2 813
MeOH 26-83%
CF 3
F3C
N N N R
CF 3 812
814
Ar = Ph, 4-Cl-C6 H 4, 4-Me-C 6 H4 , 3-F-C 6 H4 , 4-CF 3-C6 H4 , 4-MeO-C6 H 4

Scheme 13.255
N NH R O O
H 2O
RCONHNHCO 2 H 816 or
R
- CO 2
815
HO 2 CO
NNH 2 817
RCONHNH 2 818 22-98%

N NH R O O
815
O R R = 2-Furyl, 5-Nitro-2-furyl, Phenyl, 2-Chlorophenyl, 4-Pyridyl
Scheme 13.256
N H
H N
H N O 819
O N H R
reaction of 3-iodomethyl-5-triuoromethyl-1,3,4-oxadiazol-2-(3H)-one (823d) with thiols (827) produces 830 through a Grob-type fragmentation (Scheme 13.259) [576]. 2-Methyl-6-phenylimidazo[2,1-b]oxadiazole 831, a cyclic oxadiazolimine, is cleaved with concentrated HCl or an 8% solution of KOH to give 832 and then 833 in quantitative yield. The reaction of 831 with 48% HBr gives 834 in 40% yield. In addition, 833 has been transformed into 834 by reaction with HBr (Scheme 13.260) [577].
j1207
N NH R O O
BH
RCONHNHCOB 821
26-56%
RCONHNH 2 818
16-98%
815
R = Phenyl, 3-Pyridyl, 4-Pyridyl, 2-Furyl BH = NH3 , Isopropylamine, Piperidine, Aniline, Benzylamine, Tetrahydroisoquinoline, Phenylhydrazine, p-Nitrophenylhydrazine, p-Chloroaniline, p-Toluidine
NH2 NH2 78-80%
RCONHNHCONHNH 2 820
Scheme 13.257
X N N R O 815 O R1 R2 NH
67-93%
RCONHNCONR 1 R2
X
DMSO
MeONa 83-45%
R = CF 3 ; OEt; OPh; O- t-Butyl R 1 = R2 = Me; Et; -CH2 (CH2 )3 CH2 X = H; 2,4-Cl 2; 3-Cl; 3,4-Cl 2; 3Cl,4-F; 2-NO 2 ,4-CF 3
RCONHNCOOMe
X
822
X = H, 2-NO 2,4-CF 3 R =t -Butyl, OEt
Scheme 13.258
2,5-Diphenyl-1,3,4-oxadiazole 835 is cleaved under photolytic conditions in the presence of alcohols to yield benzonitrile imine 837 and benzoic acid esters 838 in moderate yields [578]. These compounds are produced by an initial nucleophilic attack of alcohols on the CN bond of the oxadiazole ring, followed by cycloelimination. Moreover, as expected, the benzonitrile imine 837 undergoes a 1,3dipolar cycloaddition with the unreacted 1,3,4-oxadiazole 835 to furnish the bicycloadduct 839. This compound is then transformed into benzamide (841) and 3,5diphenyl-1,2,4-triazole (842), via 4-benzamido-3,5-diphenyl-1,2,4-triazole (840) produced by ring opening of 839 and concurrent hydrogen shift (Scheme 13.261).
1208
j 13 Oxadiazoles
N N F 3C O X O
HNu
X = Cl, CH2 Br, HC F3 C
HN N
O
Nu
O
H 2O X = Cl F3 C
HN NH
O O
Nu
823
RSH, Et3 N X = I
60-89% 48-100%
824
51-65% NuH
H N H N
825
X = CH2Br
827
F3 C N N F 3C X O O
CONu
Me
Me
MeSH
828
CO2 , X
SR O
826
Grob-type fragmentation
N N F3 C
CH2
RSH 73-91%
F 3C
N NH CH2SR
SR
829
R = Me, Et, I-Pr, Bn
SR
830
Scheme 13.259
Ph
N N N O 831
H2 O /HCl
HN N Ph
Ac
O
Me
or 8% KOH
N H 832
40% 48% HBr
100% H2 O /HCl NH2 N Ph

N H
H N
Ph
N H
48% HBr
40%
834
Scheme 13.260
833
N N Ph O Ph h, 300 nm ROH 16-66% R = Me, Et, i-Pr, t-Bu Ph N NH O OR Ph Ph N NH
j1209
+ PhCO 2 R
837 835
838
835
836
Ph N N Ph N H Ph + PhCONH2 N N Ph Ph N NHCOPh N N H
N O Ph
Ph
842
Scheme 13.261
841
840
839
In the case of 2-phenyl-1,3,4-oxadiazole (843), the regioselective addition of methoxy group at C2 of 1,3,4-oxadiazole ring affords, as the only detectable compound, 1-(a-methoxybenzylidene)-2-formylhydrazine 845 in 7% yield, produced by an initial nucleophilic attack of methanol followed by a ring opening reaction (Scheme 13.262).
h, 300 nm Ph MeOH 7%
N N O 843
Scheme 13.262
N NH O 844
OMe Ph
MeO Ph
N NHCHO 845
Thione 846 forms a stable salt with p-toluidine (847), which gives rise to ring-open product 848 on heating (Scheme 13.263) [579].
H 2N H N N O O O2 N 846 Me S 847 ethanol reflux 16 h 40% O2 N O HN N H O 848 S N H Me
Scheme 13.263
Alkylhydrazine and arylhydrazines 850 react with 1,3,4-oxadiazolium bromides 849 to produce 2-methyl or 2-phenyl-4-acylamino-3-imino-6-aryl-2,3,4,5tetrahydro-1,2,4-triazines 852. These compounds are probably obtained via inter-
1210
j 13 Oxadiazoles
mediate 851, which rearranges to 852 through a ring opening reaction followed by a ring closure (Scheme 13.264) [580].
O N N R1 R2 NH2 O NR3NH2 851 R2 = Ph, 4-Cl-C6H4, 4-Me-C6H4, 4-MeO-C6H4 H2O 63-70% R2 N O N R1 NH
O N N R
1
2 NH2NHR3 Br 850 -N2H3R3 HBr
R2 NH2
O 849
N NH R3 852
R1 = Me, Et, Ph, Ph-CH2

Scheme 13.264
R3 = Me, Ph
1,3,4-Oxadiazolium salts 853 react with ethyl cyanoacetate (854) in the presence of triethylamine to yield 1,5-substituted 3-aminopyrazole-4-carboxylic esters 857. An open chain intermediate 855 was isolated and the reaction involves an initial attack at C2 of the oxadiazole ring (Scheme 13.265) [581].
CO 2 Et N N Ph 853 O X R
2
O Ph H N N
CN
854
R2 R1 CO 2 Et
R1
Et 3 N 38-78%
N C
855
N N H 2N
R2 R1
O R
1
N N
R2 R1
HN 856
CO 2Et 857 R 1 = Ph, Me, Et, i-Pr

Scheme 13.265
CO 2Et
R 2 = Ph, Et, 4-NO2 -C6H 4 , 2,4-(NO 2 )2 -C6H 3
Isosydnone 858 undergoes a ring-opening reaction by treatment with sodium hydroxide followed by addition of an ethanolhydrogen chloride mixture to give 1benzoyl-1-methylhydrazine hydrochloride (859) (Scheme 13.266) [541].
j1211
Me Ph
N O 858 O
1) NaOH 2) AcOH 3) HCl/ethanol 32% Ph
O NH2 N Me HCl 859
Scheme 13.266
13.5.3.2 Oxidative and Reductive Processes 1,3,4-Oxadiazoles are very stable to strong oxidizing and reducing agents. However, some oxidations or reductions involving atoms linked to the heterocycle ring have been performed. Thus, recently, sulfonyl derivatives 863, with antifungal activity, containing trimethoxyphenyl substituted 1,3,4-oxadiazoles have been synthesized, in 6794% yield, by hydrogen peroxide oxidation, catalyzed by ammonium molybdate in ionic liquid ([bmim]PF6), of substituted 1,3,4-oxadiazole sulde 860 [582]. In particular, 1,3,4-oxadiazole suldes 862 have been prepared, in 3193% yield, by thioetherication, catalyzed by indium tribromide, of 5-(3,4,5-trimethoxyphenyl)1,3,4-oxadiazole-2-thiol (860) with organic halides (Scheme 13.267).
RBr MeO MeO MeO N N O SH MeO MeO MeO N N O S
861
InBr3 3%NaOH 31-93%
860
862
R = Me, Et, Pr, Allyl, Bn, 2-F-C 6 H4 -CH2 , 3-F-C 6 H4 -CH 2, 4-F-C 6H 4-CH 2 , 2-Cl-C 6 H4 -CH 2, 4-Cl-C 6H 4 -CH2 , 2-MeOC6 H 4-CH 2, 3-MeO-C 6H 4 -CH2 , 4-MeO-C 6 H4 -CH 2, 3NO 2-C6 H4 -CH 2, 4-NO2 -C6H 4-CH 2 ,
67-94%
30% H 2O 2, (NH 4 )6 Mo7 O24 (1 mol%) ionic liquid [bmin]PF 6
MeO MeO MeO
N N O
O S R O
863
Scheme 13.267
The oxidation of suldes 864 with m-CPBA furnishes, in contrast, the corresponding sulfoxides 865 (Scheme 13.268) [583]. It has also been reported that the oxidation of 866 with hydrogen peroxide and no catalyst affords oxadiazolone derivatives 867 (Scheme 13.269) [584]. Oxidation of 2,5-di m- or p-tolyl-1,3,4-oxadiazoles 868 with potassium permanganate/pyridine leads to the corresponding dicarboxylic acids 869 (7894%) [585]; if the oxidation is performed with chromium trioxide/acetic anhydride, diacetoxymethyl derivatives 870 are obtained. These latter compounds can be conveniently transformed by acid hydrolysis into dialdehydes 871 (Scheme 13.270) [586].
1212
j 13 Oxadiazoles
MeO MeO MeO N N O 864 S R mCPBA 4C 2h, and then 5h rt 40-51% MeO MeO MeO N N O S R O
865
R = Me, Et, Pr, Allyl, Bn, 2-F-C 6H 4-CH 2, 3-F-C 6H 4-CH 2 , 4-F-C 6 H4 -CH 2, 2-Cl-C 6H 4-CH 2 , 4-Cl-C 6 H4 -CH 2, 2-MeOC 6H 4 -CH2 , 3-MeO-C 6 H4 -CH 2, 4-MeO-C 6H 4-CH 2 , 3NO 2 -C6H 4-CH 2 , 4-NO 2-C6 H4 -CH 2,
Scheme 13.268
N N R1 O 866 S R
30% H 2O 2, AcOH 100% R1
N NH O 867 O
R = CH2 =CHCH 2, HC C CH 2, HOH2 C C C CH 2, R1 = H, Me, Br

Scheme 13.269
N N R R1 O R R1
KMnO4 /Py 78-94% R R1
N N O R R
1 1
868
R = Me; R 1 = H R = H; R 1 = Me
869
R = CO 2 H; R = H R = H; R 1 = CO2H
5C, 4h 20-57%
CrO3 Ac2 O/AcOH
N N R R1 O R R1
H,H 2O/EtOH 2 h, reflux 60-80% R R

1
N N O R R1
870
871
R = H; R 1 = CH(OAc) 2
Scheme 13.270
R = CH(OAc) 2 ; R 1 = H
R = CHO; R 1 = H R = H; R 1 = CHO
j1213
Reduction of the nitro group linked to phenyl moiety of 1,2,4-oxadiazoles with phenylhydrazine or hydrogen/palladium has been reported to give aminoaryl 1,3,4oxadiazoles in good yield [587]. Thus, 2-phenyl-5-(p-nitrophenyl)-1,3,4-oxadiazole (872), carefully heated to 11015 C for 7590 min, gives 2-phenyl-5-(p-aminophenyl)-1,3,4-oxadiazole 873 in 84% yield (Scheme 13.271) [588]. Similar results have been obtained with nitrophenyl derivatives such as 874, which upon hydrogenation with Pd/C yields 875 [589].
N N PhNHNH 2 110-115C 84% H2 N O 873
N N O2 N O 872
O 2N
N N O 874
5% Pd-C MeOH,1 h 60%
N N H 2N O 875
Scheme 13.271
Hydrogenation, performed on 5-tert-butyl-3-(4-chloro-2-nitrophenyl)-1,3,4-oxadiazolin-2-one (876) in AcOEt, conversely, leads to a partial reduction of nitro group with the formation of the 4-chloro-2-(hydroxyamino)phenyl derivative 877 in 44% yield (Scheme 13.272) [590].
Cl
O2 N N N Me O Me O Me 876
Scheme 13.272
Cl HOHN
H 2 /Pd/C 5 h, rt N N Me O Me O Me 877
44%
It has been reported that the hydrogenation of D3-1,3,4-oxadiazoline 878, performed in ethanol over Pd/C, gives acetic acid and N-cyclohexyl-N-benzoylhydrazine (880) via the corresponding 2,3,4,5-tetrahydro-1,3,4-oxadiazole derivative 879 (Scheme 13.273) [591].
1214
j 13 Oxadiazoles
N N OAc O Ph 5% Pd-C EtOH HN NHOAc O Ph 5% Pd-C EtOH 87% H NH N AcOH + O Ph
878
Scheme 13.273
879
880
13.5.3.3 Reactions due to the Reactivity of the Heterocyclic Ring 1,3,4-Oxadiazoles are weak bases. The pKa values of 2,5-diaryl-1,3,4-oxadiazoles measured by the method of Yates and MacClelland in aqueous solution of sulfuric acid are in the range of 1.15 to 2.49. 2-Amino derivatives (pKa 2.32.7) are more basic and form stable salts. As already reported, some hydrochloride salts have been obtained by hydrochloric reaction of 2-amino-5-aryl-1,3,4-oxadiazoles, in DMF/H2O or in ethanolether as solvents, giving rise to compounds having muscle relaxant properties (Scheme 13.230) [549]. In the same context, 5-imino-2-phenyl-D2-1,3,4oxadiazoline-maleate, -citrate, -sulfate, and -nitrate, together with 5-imino-2-(p-aminophenyl)-D2-1,3,4-oxadiazoline dihydrochloride, 5-imino-2-(1-ethylpropyl)-D2-1,3,4oxadiazoline hydrochloride, 5-imino-2-(1-ethylbenzyl)-D2-1,3,4-oxadiazoline hydrochloride, and 1-ethyl-3-(5-phenyl-1,3,4-oxadiazol-2-yl)urea have also been prepared. Electrophilic substitution on the C-atoms of the ring is difcult, because protonation of the nuclear nitrogen in acidic media reduces strongly the possibility of electrophilic attack. Thus, no nitrations, sulfonations, or halogenations of unsubstituted oxadiazoles are known. Mono-substituted derivatives are not able to reactwith electrophiles because they are sensitive to acid conditions. In fact, for example, 2-phenyl 1,3,4-oxadiazole is easily hydrolyzed by acids at room temperature to give benzohydrazide and formic acid [588]. In addition, the mono- and 2,5-dialkylderivatives undergo a ring-opening reaction on treatment with acids [592]. There are several examples of reactions of alkyl halides with 1,3,4-oxadiazole derivatives. The alkylation reactions occur preferentially at the N3 ring atom, except for amino and thio derivatives, where the alkylation, essentially, occurs at the sulfur or the exo-nitrogen atom. Thus, it has been reported that the reaction of 5-(4-chloro-3-ethyl-1-methyl-1Hpyrazole-5-yl)-1,3,4-oxadiazole-2-one (881) with methyl iodide in the presence of NaOH gives rise to the corresponding N-methyl derivative 882, while alkylation of the 2-thioxo derivatives 883 with NaOH, tetrabutylammonium bromide (TBAB), and alkyl iodide leads to the corresponding thioalkylated derivatives 884 in good yield. In the same context, it has been noted that the 2-alkylthio derivatives so obtained are active against rice sheath blight, which is a major disease of rice in China (Scheme 13.274) [593]. Analogously, a series of bis-oxadiazolyl suldes 887 (R Ph, substituted Ph) have been synthesized via alkylation reaction of 5-[[2-(triuoromethyl)-1H-benzimidazol-1-yl]methyl]-1,3,4-oxadiazole-2(3)thione(2-triuoromethylbenzimidazol-1ylmethyl)-5-mercapto-1,3,4-oxadiazoles 885 with 2-aryl-5-chloromethyl-1,3,4-oxadiazoles 886. Interestingly, the relative oxidation of these suldes performed at 0 C
j1215
Cl Et
N N Me
N N O
H NaOH, MeI O 5 h, rt
Cl Et
N N Me
N N O
Me
O
73%
881
882
X
Et
N N Me
N N O
H S
NaOH,TBAB, RI 24 h, rt 87-71%
Et
N N Me
N N O S
883
884
X = H, Cl R = Me, n-Pr, n-C5H11 , n -C7H15 , n -C8H17 , CH(CH 3 )CO2 Et

Scheme 13.274
with HNO3 produces (Scheme 13.275) [594].
the
sulfoxide
derivatives
888
in
good
yield
N N N
CF3 H N N
O S
Cl
N N O R
AcONa
H 2O/EtOH 60C, 6 h
CF3 N N
O S O
885
886
66-91%
887
R
HNO 3
0C, 3 h
62-77%
R = H, Me, MeO, F, Cl, NO 2
N N
CF3 N N
O S O O
888
R
Scheme 13.275
Methylation of 5-methyl or 5-aryl-2-thioxo-2,3-dihydro-1,3,4-oxadiazoles 889 with trimethyloxonium tetrauoroborate in CH2Cl2 at room temperature furnishes, as
1216
j 13 Oxadiazoles
expected, the corresponding methyl(methylthio)oxadiazolium tetrauoroborates 890 in 8696% yield (Scheme 13.276) [595].
Me S BF 4 N N R O 890 Me S Me
N N R O
Me 3O BF 4 CH2Cl 2, rt 88-96%
889
R = Me, Ph, 4-Me-C 6 H4 , 4-MeO-C6 H 4

Scheme 13.276
The Mannich reaction of 1,3,4-oxadiazole-2-thione derivatives 891 with different secondary amines and paraformaldehyde in absolute ethanol occurs at the N3 ring atom and leads to 5-[2-(2-methylbenzimidazol-1-yl)ethyl-3-N-methylamino-1,3,4-oxadiazole-2-thiones (892) in 6065% yield (Scheme 13.277). In particular, the diethylamino derivative 892 has shown to exhibit moderate antimicrobial activity against one strain of Gram-positive bacteria (Bacillus cereus) [596].
N N Me N NH O 891 S CH2O R2NH 60-65% 892 Me N N N N O R S
R = N(C2H5)2, N(C4H8O), N(C4H8)NMe

Scheme 13.277
The 1,3,4-oxadiazole ring 893 has been, recently, used as 4p component in a DielsAlder reaction. This ring is considered an electron poor diaza-diene and reacts with extremely electron rich (aminoacetylenes) or strained dienophiles in an inverse electron demand reaction. Unfortunately, the mono cycloadduct 895 thus obtained has never been isolated, but it extrudes N2 and generates a carbonyl ylid 896, which further reacts with olen in a 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition to give the nal product 897 (Scheme 13.278). The rst example of such a cycloaddition cascade was reported by Vasiliev et al. Heating at 200220 C of the 2,5-bis(triuoromethyl)-1,3,4-oxadiazole 802 with ethylene (898) or cyclopentadiene (899) affords the oxabicycloheptane 900 in 41%, or oxatetracyclotridecane 901 in 33% yield respectively (Scheme 13.279 [597]. Other examples of this cycloaddition have been reported, giving rise to the formation of strained structures (Scheme 13.280) [598]. In some cases, the intramolecular version of this reaction is more productive and leads to bicyclic or monocyclic derivatives (Scheme 13.281) [599].
j1217
N N O 893
894
N N 895 N2
894
O 896
897
Scheme 13.278
CF3 N N F3C O 802 CF 3 898 200-220C -N2 O CF3 900 41%
200-220C -N2 899 CF3 O CF3 901

Scheme 13.279
33%
The synthetic efciency of the process can be improved through the development of domino reactions that allow the formation of complex compounds, starting from simple substrates, in a single transformation consisting of several steps. A domino reaction can be dened as a process involving two or more bond-forming transformations that take place under the same reaction conditions, without adding
1218
j 13 Oxadiazoles
N N F3C O 802 CF3 903 140C,16 h 17% F3C O CF3
905
N N EtO 2 S O 902
Scheme 13.280
904 CF3 44% F3 C
SO2Et O
906
N N N O COCF 3 907 CO 2 Me
,165-175C 18 h 71% N F3COC O 908 CO 2 Me
C N N N O COMe Ph
,165-175C 25 min 65% N COMe 909
COPh
Scheme 13.281
additional reagents and catalysts and in which the subsequent reactions result as a consequence of the functionalities obtained in the previous step. Thus, the intramolecular DielsAlder (DA)/1,3-dipolar cycloaddition (1,3-DC) cascade of 1,3,4-oxadiazoles has became a powerful tool for the rapid generation of molecular complexity. Specically, this methodology has been featured in the construction of the pentacyclic ring systems and ultimately in the total syntheses of vindoline and several structurally related natural products [600]. Vindoline (913) constitutes the most complex half of vinblastine (914), a member of the bisindole alkaloid family that is used as an antineoplastic drug. The method is based on a combination of a DA and 1,3-DC. The synthesis proceeds by a diastereoselective tandem [4 2]/[3 2]-cycloaddition of a substituted 1,3,4-oxadiazole. The reaction leading to vindoline is initiated by an intramolecular [4 2]-cycloaddition of 1,3,4oxadiazole 910 with the tethered enol ether. Loss of N2 from the initially formed
j1219
cycloadduct 911 provides the carbonyl ylid dipole 912, which undergoes a subsequent 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition across the proximal indole moiety (Scheme 13.282) [601].
O N
O N
OBn Et MeO
N Me
MeO
N Me
N N
N O N
CO2 Me
OBn CO 2 Me
910
911
- N2
O N O
O N
MeO
MeO
N OBn H Me CO 2 Me
N Me
Et OB n
MeO2 C 912
913 OH
N O N OBn H Me CO 2 Me
HN
MeO Vinblastine
914
Scheme 13.282
Some other examples of this methodology (916, 918) are reported in Scheme 13.283 [599]. The double bond of the 1,3,4-oxadiazole ring has also been used as 2p component in a [2 2] photochemical cycloaddition. Thus, it has been reported that 2,5diphenyl-1,3,4-oxadiazole (835) with indene (919), with or without benzophenone as a sensitizer, affords the bis adduct diazetidine derivative 920, while if the reaction is
1220
j 13 Oxadiazoles
O N MeO N Me 915 O N N N O N H Me CO 2Me 916 O
CO 2Me
61%
MeO
O N MeO N Me 917
Scheme 13.283
O N Et 74% MeO O N H Me CO 2Me 918
N N
CO 2Me
performed in the presence of iodine the photoreaction leads to the mono-adduct 921 (Scheme 13.284) [602].
N N Ph O 835 h, 300 nm Ph-H Ph
+ 919 I2
h, 300 nm Ph-H Ph2 CO (or none) 26% Ph
N N Ph 920
N N Ph 921
Scheme 13.284
Ph
A 1 : 1 adduct with 923 (26%) was obtained when a solution of 835 was irradiated with an excess of furan (922) in the presence or absence of benzophenone used as sensitizer. The reaction did not occur in the presence of a triplet quencher such as piperylene, indicating that the photoaddition takes place from an
j1221
excited triplet state [603]. The presence of iodine promotes a different reaction pathway, leading to the formation of 3-benzoylfuran (927) (17%). This product has been rationalized by an initial valence tautomerization of furan into cyclobutadiene oxide 924, which undergoes a [2 2] cycloaddition with a double bond of 1,3,4oxadiazole ring, leading to monoadduct 925. This compound, via ring opening and photoisomerization reaction, produces the N0 -[3-furyl(phenyl)methylene]phenylhydrazide (926) that is easily hydrolyzed with trace amounts of water to give 927 (Scheme 13.285).
Ph 2CO (or none) O h, 300 nm N N O Ph
N N Ph
Ph
922
h, 300 nm I2
Ph
835
Ph-H
923
26%
N N Ph O O 835 Ph O Ph N N O Ph
Ph O
NNHCOPh O
Ph O
924
925
926
927
17%
Scheme 13.285
13.5.3.4 Reactions with Nucleophiles Direct nucleophilic substitutions of ring C-substituents in 1,3,4-oxadiazoles are seldom. These reactions occur only for compounds containing a good leaving group, via additionelimination reaction. Thus, for example, 3-(5-phenyl-[1,3,4]oxadiazol-2yl]pentane-2,4-dione (930, R Me) and 3-(5-phenyl-[1,3,4]oxadiazol-2-yl]-dibenzoylmethane (930, R Ph) have been synthesized, in 63% and 85% yield, respectively, by nucleophilic substitution of 2-methylsulfonyl-5-phenyl-1,3,4-oxadiazole (928) with b-diketone anions, formed by the corresponding carbonyl compounds 929 with NaH (Scheme 13.286) [604].
O N N O 928 R = Me, Ph
Scheme 13.286
O 929 R N N O 930
O S Me O
R O
NaH/THF rt, 12 h 65-83%
1222
j 13 Oxadiazoles
A similar displacement reaction has been performed with 2-methylsulfonyl-5pyrazolyl-1,3,4-oxadiazole 931 that by reaction with arylamines 932 produces bioactive 2-substituted-amino-5-pyrazolyl-1,3,4-oxadiazoles 933, which exhibit moderate fungicidal activity (Scheme 13.287) [605].
ArNH2 O S Me O N N O Me 335 N N 336 Dioxane 8h, reflux 64-95% N N Me N N O 337 Ar
Ar = Ph, 4-Cl-C6H4, 3-Cl-C6H4, 4-Br-C6H4, 4-Me-C6H4, 4-MeO-C6H4,

Scheme 13.287
Nucleophilic substitution of 2-methylsulfonyl-1,3,4-oxadiazoles 934 has been reported to occur with other nucleophiles, such as sodium azide, amines, and acylhydrazines (Scheme 13.288). The compounds containing the acylhydrazine group have shown to posses strong antibacterial activity against Bacillus subtilis and Escherichia coli (2.0 104 mol l1) [606].
MeO MeO MeO N N O 934 O S Me O NaOH Dioxane NuH 25-50% NuH H N NaN3 O H N Ph O N H NH2 N O N H NH2 MeO MeO MeO N N O 935 R
N N N N H
Scheme 13.288
Recently an efcient conversion of 5-substituted-1,3,4-oxadiazolin-2-ones 936 into 2-amino-1,3,4-oxadiazoles 937, via a nucleophilic aromatic substitution, appeared in the literature (Scheme 13.289) [607]. The reaction is activated from benzotriazol-1-yloxytris(dimethylamino)-phosphonium PF6 (938), and occurs according to Scheme 13.290, using as co-reagent 2 equivalents of base. The key step of the reaction is the attack of the oxygen atom of the carbonyl group on the phosphonium salt, promoted by base. The intermediate 939 thus obtained undergoes a facile reaction with the nucleophile 940 at C2 of the oxadiazole ring, followed by extrusion of HMPA (941).
j1223
N NH R O 936 O
2 eq. DIPEA R1 NH2 or R1 R 2NH DMF, rt, 1-18 h 63-99%
N N R O 937
R2 N R1
R NH2 NH2
R1 R2 NH NH O NH2 H N
MeO H 2N N NH2 N H 2N O H 2N OH NHBoc NH2

Scheme 13.289
H N
O OMe O OMe
A nucleophilic substitution has also been reported for quaternary intermediate salts obtained by reaction of alkyl iodide with phenylalkoxyoxadiazoles. The reaction produces the corresponding 3-alkyl-5-phenyl-1,3,4-oxadiazol-2-ones via a nucleophilic attack promoted by iodine ion on the R1 group of quaternary salts (Scheme 13.291) [608].
13.5.3.5 Reactions of Substituents Electrophilic reaction can occur on diphenyl derivatives. Thus, 2,5-bis(4-nitrophenyl)-, bis(3-nitrophenyl)- and bis(2-nitrophenyl)-1,3,4-oxadiazoles have been obtained in 27%, 20%, and 40% yield, respectively, by mixing 2,5-diphenyl-1,3,4oxadiazole (835) with HNO3 at 30 C and then at 80 C for 4 h (Scheme 13.292). The addition of HNO3 to the oxadiazole in concentrated H2SO4 at 50 C and subsequent heating for 6 h at 100 C gave bis(3-nitrophenyl)-1,3,4-oxadiazole (38%) and 2-phenyl5-(m-nitrophenyl)-1,3,4-oxadiazole (31%) [609].
1224
j 13 Oxadiazoles
B N N R
936
H O BtO P (NMe 2) 3
938
BtO
N N Me 2N NMe 2 O P O NMe 2 939 R1 NH2 940
HMPA 941
+ R
N N O
937
1 N R H
Scheme 13.290
N N O
R1
R2 I 160-250C 90 min
N N O
R2 O
R1
N N 90-100% O
R2 O
942
R 1 = Et, n-pr
943
2
944
R = Me, n-pr
Scheme 13.291
N N O2N O 945 27% N N O 946 20% NO2 N N O 947 40%

Scheme 13.292
NO2
N N O 835
O2N HNO3 30-80 C
NO2
NO2
j1225
2-(4-Nitrophenyl)-5-phenyl-1,3,4-oxadiazole undergoes selective electrophilic bromination of the phenyl ring in the presence of potassium bromate to produce o-, m-, and p-derivatives in 16%, 14%, and 26% yield, respectively (Scheme 13.293) [610].
N N O2 N O 949 16% N N N N O2 N O 948 Br 2 /KBrO3 O2 N 950 O 14% N N O2 N 951
Scheme 13.293
Br
Br
O 26%
Br
A sulfonamide group directly linked to 1,3,4-oxadiazole ring has been utilized to synthesize N-(anilinocarbonyl)-5-(2,4-dichlorophenyl)-1,3,4-oxadiazole-2-sulfonamide 953 (R Cl) and N-(anilinocarbonyl)-5-phenyl-1,3,4-oxadiazole-2-sulfonamide 953 (R H) with aim of preparing potential pesticides. These compounds have been obtained by reaction of phenyl isocyanate with 5-(2,4-dichlorophenyl)1,3,4-oxadiazole-2-sulfonamide (952, R Cl) or with 5-phenyl-1,3,4-oxadiazole-2sulfonamide (952, R H) respectively (Scheme 13.294). The compounds so obtained have been tested for fungicidal activity against the fungal species Cephalosporium saccharii and Helminthosporium oryzae, and have been shown to possess a good level of activity [611].
N N S O O 952 R = Cl, H
Scheme 13.294
H 2N O
PhNCO R dioxane, rt, 6h 55-48% Ph
H N
H O N N N S O O O 953
R R
Some acetamides carrying a substituted-1,3,4-oxadiazole moiety with local anesthetic activity have synthesized by reaction of 5-aryl-2-chloroacetamido-1,3,4-oxadiazoles 956 with different secondary amines (Scheme 13.295). Compound 956 was easily prepared in 63% yield from the reaction of 5-(4-uorophenyl)-1,3,4-oxadiazol-
1226
j 13 Oxadiazoles
N N O F + Cl Cl 955 R 2NH 957 EtOH, Et3 N reflux 6 h 52-54% O N H 958
Scheme 13.295
N N PhH reflux 3 h 63% F O 956 N H
O Cl
H2 N
O 954
R = NH(CH 2CH2 OH)2 , C 6H 11 NHMe, C4 H 8ONH F
N N O
NR2
2-amine (954) with chloroacetyl chloride (955). The local anesthetic activity was investigated using the rabbit corneal reex method and guinea pigs wheal derm method, using lidocaine as standard drug [612]. Monosubstituted oxadiazoles are deprotonated at the ring carbon atom to give the corresponding anion, which has been subsequently alkylated with various alkylating agents. Thus, for example, 2-substituted-1,3,4-oxadiazoles 959 after treatment with butyllithium in the presence of MgBr2 diethyl etherate in THF, followed by the addition of N-[(1S)-1-(methylethyl)-2-oxoethyl](tert-butoxy)carboxamide (N-Boc-L-valinal) (961), affords the corresponding N-Boc alcohols 962 in 5379% yield. Similar treatment of (5-phenyl-1,3,4-oxadiazol-2-yl)lithium (963) with Boc-leucinal (964) produces [1-[(R/S)-hydroxy-(5-phenyl-[1,3,4]oxadiazol-2-yl](S)-methyl]-3-methylbutyl]carbamic acid tert-butyl ester (965) in 70% yield (Scheme 13.296) [613, 614]. In addition, the methyl group attached at carbons of 1,3,4-oxadiazoles shows a marked acidity when it is treated with strong bases. Thus, when 2,5-dimethyl- or 2methyl-5-phenyl-1,3,4-oxadiazoles 966 and 971 were treated with isopropylmagnesium bromide (967) or NaH, followed by addition of alkyl carboxylates, 5-substituted 1,3,4-oxadiazol-2-ylmethyl ketones 969, 970, and 972 were obtained. The yield in ketones has been shown to depend on the nature of substituents present in the carboxylate moiety (Scheme 13.297) [615]. Interestingly, when the lithium anion of 971 was allowed to warm from 78 C to room temperature, the N-benzoylated hydrazone 973 was isolated from the reaction mixture in 34% yield (Scheme 13.298) [616]. The formation of this latter compound is easily rationalized as the nucleophilic attack of the lithium anion to the not de-protonated 971 still present in solution. 1,3-4 Oxadiazoles containing a good leaving group at the methylene moiety are able to give nucleophilic substitutions. Thus, 2-aryl-5-chloromethyl-1,3,4-oxadiazoles 974,
N N R O H n-BuLi MgBr 2 -70C OEt 2 R Boc-L-Valinal 961 45/20C 3.5h 53-79% R
j1227
NHBoc
N N O
N N O OH
959
960
962
N N O Li O O N H O H 964
N N O NHBoc OH
963
965
R Me Me Me Me Me Me N Me Me
Me Me OMe
Me
Me O
Me
O Me
Scheme 13.296
via condensation of piperazine (975), give 1,4-bis[(5-aryl-1,3,4-oxadiazol-2-yl)methyl] piperazines 976 that in vitro displayed relatively potential antibacterial activities (Scheme 13.299) [617]. 5-(p-Cyanomethylphenyl)-2-n-nonyl-1,3,4-oxadiazole 979, useful precursor for organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDS), has been synthesized in 82% yield, by reaction of the bromide derivative 978 with tetraethylammonium cyanide. The 5(p-bromomethylphenyl)-2-n-nonyl-1,3,4-oxadiazole (978) was easily prepared by the reaction of 5-(p-methylphenyl)-2-n-nonyl-1,3,4-oxadiazole (977) with N-bromosuccinimide(NBS) (Scheme 13.300) [618]. Substituents linked to 1,3,4-oxadiazoline moiety have also been involved in the synthesis of compounds having interesting properties. Thus, the herbicide 5-tertbutyl-3-(2,4-dichloro-5-isoprooxyphenyl)-1,3,4-oxadiazol-2-one (981) has been obtained starting from 877 via 5-tert-butyl-3-(2-amino-4-chloro-5-hydroxyphenyl)1,3,4-oxadiazolin-2-one (980) (Scheme 13.301) [590].
1228
j 13 Oxadiazoles
MgBr
N N Me O Me
967
Me
N N O
AcOEt Me
N N O
O Me
966
DMF NaH 60C RCO2 Et 2h N N Me O O R
968
969
R = CO 2Et, CH(Me) 2, CH 2CO 2 Et, N N O Me O
970
N N O NaH AcOEt
971
Scheme 13.297
972
N N O
BuLi
-78C to rt 34%
N N O
Me
N
NHCOPh
971
Scheme 13.298
972
H N NaHCO3 R N N O 974 Cl N 975 H MeCN, 24 h, rt 41-81% R N N O N
O N N N
976
R =, H, Cl, F, OMe, Me, NO 2

Scheme 13.299
Some 3-acyl-1,3,4-oxadiazoline derivatives 983, having antitumoral activity, have been prepared by nucleophilic displacement of the chlorine atom in 982 (Scheme 13.302).
j1229
N N Me O 977 C 9H19
NBS, CCl4 AIBN, 10 h, reflux 51%
N N Br O 978 CH 2Cl 2 82% Et4CN rt, 5h C 9H 19
N N NC O 979
Scheme 13.300
C 9H 19
Cl HOHN N N Me Me O Me H2 SO4 20 min 70% O H2 N N N Me Me O Me
Cl OH
Cl 1) NaNO2 /H 2) CuCl2 3) NaI, K2CO 3, Me2CHBr 56% Cl N N Me Me O Me O
877
Scheme 13.301
980
981
Cl N N O N Me O O Me O O Me Nu 26-100% Me N Me
R N N O O O Me O O Me Me
982
Nu = KOAc, NaN3, Me2 NH R = OAc, N3,NMe 2
983
Scheme 13.302
13.5.3.6 Metal Complexes 1,3,4-Oxadiazole derivatives are widely used as electron-transporting groups due to their high electron deciency and good thermal stability [619]. According to these properties, compounds containing the 1,3,4-oxadiazole core have prepared and used
1230
j 13 Oxadiazoles
N N O Me 930a
Scheme 13.303
Me O O
t-BuOK/H2 O 1/3 TbCl 3 (aq) 98%
N N O
Me O Me O 3 Tb
OH2 OH 2
984
in the production of organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs). An OLED converts electrical energy into light and it is formed by an emissive chromophore, an electrontransporting group, and a hole-transporting unit. Recently, heavy metal ions have been incorporated in OLEDs as a cyclometalated ligand to increase the phosphorescence at room temperature, because these ions are able to increase the efciency of the intersystem crossing from the singlet to triplet excited state. Based on the above consideration, here are two reported examples of 1,3,4-oxadiazole metalated complexes together with their syntheses. The rst synthesis of 1,3,4-oxadiazole-functionalized terbium (III) b-diketonate for organic electroluminescence has been reported by Zheng et al. The synthesis was performed by treating compound 930 with a suspension of t-BuOK and an aqueous solution of TbCl3 (Scheme 13.303). The crystal structure of 984 was
N N Ir
O O
Me
Me F
390
O N N Ar O Ar1 1) OHCH2CH2OCH3:H2O=3:1,reflux, 24h + IrCl3 3H2O 2) OHCH2CH2OCH3,Na2CO3,acetyl acetone reflux, 24h 70-85% F F N N Ir Me
N N Ir
O O
Me
Me
389
391
O O
Me
OMe
392
Scheme 13.304
References
j1231
established by X-ray diffraction. The Tb(III) ion is surrounded by eight oxygen atoms, six of which are from the bidentate b-diketonate ligands and the other two from the coordinated water molecules. The coordination polyhedron is best described as square antiprismatic. This compound was used as an emitting material, and a bright and highly efcient green-emitting LED was fabricated [604]. An interesting series of iridium(III) complexes linked to 1,3,4-oxadiazole systems has been synthesized and utilized to prepare three organic light emitting diodes devices, which showed stable green-yellow luminescence. The synthetic procedure involved two steps. In the rst step, IrCl33H2O was allowed to react with an excess of 2,5-diaryl-1,3,4-oxadiazoles 985 in a 2-ethoxyethanolwater mixture. In the second step, the resulting iridium compounds were treated with sodium carbonate and acetyl acetone in 2-ethoxyethanol as solvent to afford the cyclometalated derivatives 986988 in 7085% yield (Scheme 13.304) [620].
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14 Thiadiazoles
Ugo Chiacchio and Giovanni Romeo
14.1 Introduction
There are four isomeric types of thiadiazoles (14).

N N N S 2 N N S 3 N N N S 4
Many biologically active derivatives of this ring system have been synthesized and incorporated into commercial drugs and pesticides. For instance, the 1,2,5-thiadiazole timolol (5), is used as maleate salt to treat glaucoma; the sulfonamide derivative, acetazolamide 6, is a diuretic.
O N N S OCH2 CHOHCH 2 NHCMe 3 N 5 Timolol 6 Acetazolamide H2 NO 2S N N S NHCOMe
14.2 1,2,3-Thiadiazoles
1,2,3-Thiadiazoles are heterocycles of great practical and theoretical interest. Most of the literature has been devoted to thermal and photochemical reactions of the 1,2,3thiadiazole ring, whose cleavage and rearrangement allow easy access to a series of functionalized compounds. Derivatives of this heterocyclic system are important in industry, medicinal chemistry, and agriculture. However, although interest in
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isomeric thiadiazoles is continuously increasing, there is a gap of knowledge in the area of 1,2,3-thiadiazoles, which still account for the fewest literature citations. A good number of reviews on the chemistry of 1,2,3-thiadiazoles are present in literature [1]: one of the most recent reports cover the literature up to the early part of 2004 [2].
14.2.1 Structure
While the 1,2,3-oxadiazole system occurs nearly exclusively as open-chain tautomers, 1,2,3-thiadiazoles are stable compounds: the neutral aromatic structure 7 is preferred with respect to a-diazothiaketone species 8.
R R S 7 N N R R S N N
However, it has been suggested that a-diazothiaketones 8 are involved as intermediates in some reactions [3]. The existence of these intermediates has been supported by the isolation of the complex of 2-diazothione 10 with iron nonacarbonyl, obtained by reaction of 1,2,3-benzothiazole (9) with Fe2(CO)9 (Scheme 14.1) [4].
N 9 S
Fe2(CO)9
80%
N CO N S (OC)3Fe Fe(CO)3 Fe S N N
10
Scheme 14.1
The parent compound is a yellow liquid with a boiling point of 157 C at atmospheric pressure, and is soluble in alcohol, diethyl ether, and water. Other 1,2,3-thiadiazoles are soluble in methylene chloride and chloroform. Benzo-fused analogues of 1,2,3-thiadiazoles 7 have also been reported [5]. Fully aromatic mesoionic compounds have been synthesized [6], but information is limited. More recently, mesoionic 1,2,3-thiadiazoles as 11 have been obtained by methylation at N3 of 1,2,3-thiadiazoles containing an oxime or phenylhydrazone function at the 5-position [7]. Very few examples of non-aromatic 1,2,3-thiadiazoles such as 12 and 13 have appeared in the literature [8].
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Ph
N N
S 11
Me N N
Ph S N N Ph
S O 13
H N N
SO2Ph
12
Theoretical studies on the structure and properties of 1,2,3-thiadiazoles are not numerous, probably due to the difculty associated with calculating sulfur-containing organic compounds [9]. Bond angles and lengths have been determined by ab initio methods for the parent compound (Table 14.1) [10, 11]. The distribution of the electronic charge density shows that the largest negative values are adjacent to the nitrogen atoms [10, 11]. The relative stabilities of 1,2,3-thiadiazolines and 1,3,4-thiadiazolines, which are formed as a mixture of regioisomers in the cycloaddition reaction of aliphatic diazo compounds to thioketones (Pechmann synthesis), have also been determined by semiempirical and ab initio [12] 1,2,3-Thiadiazoline is 0.9 kcal mol1 more stable than 1,3,4-thiadiazoline. The reverse trend has been found for alkyl-substituted derivatives. According to frontier molecular orbital theory, the reaction between diazomethane and thioformaldehyde can be classied as HOMO-CH2N2/LUMO-CH2S controlled: the formation of two regioisomeric adducts is predicted (Figure 14.1) [12]. The aromaticity of 1,2,3-thiadiazole 1,1-dioxide has been studied by ab initio calculations [13] and compared with that of isomeric thiadiazoles: the heteroaromaticity of 1,2,3-thiadiazole 1,1-dioxide is higher than that of 1,3.4-thiadiazole 1,1dioxide, but lower than that of 1,2,5-isomer.
Table 14.1 Calculated geometry of 1,2,3-thiadiazole.
Bond SC SN NN CC CH
Length (A) 1.6872 1.7357 1.2786 1.3809 1.0937
Bond CSN SNN NNC CCS SCH NCH
Angle ( ) 92.11 110.27 115.45 106.67 124.01 119.93
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j 14 Thiadiazoles
CH2 N2
+
CH2 S
N N
+ S
N N S
S C
N N C N
Figure 14.1 Frontier molecular orbital theory prediction of the reaction between diazomethane and thioformaldehyde.
14.2.3 Structural Aspects 14.2.3.1 X-Ray Diffraction Many papers related to X-ray structures of 1,2,3-thiadiazoles have been reported [14]. The thiadiazole ring is essentially at: all atoms of the ring lie in the same plane, with a very slight deviation of less than 0.02 from the plane. Table 14.2 shows the reported bond lengths and bond angles for 1,2,3-benzothiadiazole (9) and for 4-phenyl-1,2,3-thiadiazole (14). For compound 14, the N2N3 and C4C5 bond lengths show a nearly double bond character, while the bond lengths of SN2 and SC5 indicate partial double bond character for both sulfur bonds; an aromatic behavior has been ascribed to this ring. The distance between C4C6, 0.14 nm as expected for a sp2sp2 carboncarbon bond,
Table 14.2 Molecular dimensions for 1,2,3-benzothiadiazole (9) and 4-phenyl-1,2,3-thiadiazole
(14).
Ph
S 14
N N 9
N S
Compound 14 Bond lengths (nm) SN NN NC CC CS CPh 0.1666 0.1286 0.1378 0.1363 0.1670 0.1469 Bond angles ( ) CSN SNN NNC NCC CCS 93.2 111.2 114.4 112.2 109.0
Compound 9 Bond lengths (nm) SN NN NC CC CS 0.1706 0.1279 0.1384 0.1397 0.1708 Bond angles ( ) CSN SNN NNC NCC CCS 92.6 112.7 113.4 114.2 107.1
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indicates that there is a little conjugation between the two rings [15]. Similar values of bond angles and bond lengths have been reported for benzo-1,2,3-thiadiazole 9 [5]. X-Ray data have also been reported for the mesoionic 5-(methoxycarbonyl)amino3-methyl-1,2,3-thiadiazole (15) and for 4-phenyl-1,2,3-thiadiazole 3-oxide (16) [6].
N N Me Ph N N O
MeO2CN
S 15
S 16
14.2.3.2 NMR Spectroscopy 1 H NMR spectroscopy conrms the aromatic character of the 1,2,3-thiadiazole ring. Proton chemical shifts are found in the region 7.449.37 ppm. N-Alkylation of the ring shifts these signals 1.01.5 ppm downeld (Table 14.3). 13 C NMR spectroscopy is a useful tool for the elucidation of heterocyclic structures where few or no ring protons are present. For symmetrically substituted 1,2,3thiadiazoles, the carbon adjacent to the nitrogen atom resonates at lower eld than the carbon atom adjacent to the sulfur atom. The body of 13 C reported data allows us to predict accurately the chemical shift of ring carbons, assuming the tabulated incremental effects of substituents at C4 and C5 (Table 14.4) [16]. Very few references are present in the literature for the 14 N and 15 N NMR of 1,2,3thiadiazoles. One paper, regarding solvent effects on the 14 N NMR spectra of isomeric thiadiazoles, suggests that an increase in solvent polarity favors the delocalization of the lone electronic pair from the sulfur atom into the ring, thus leading to an increase of electronic charge at the nitrogen atom [17]. The 15 N NMR spectra of a series of 1,2,3-thiadiazoles reveal the strong inuence of substituents on the N2 resonance, which can be rationalized by the conjugation
Table 14.3 Proton NMR data for ring hydrogens of 1,2,3-thiadiazoles (see text for details).
N N S .
R1 Methyl Phenyl H H H H H Phenyl Phenyl
Me
R2
N N
R1 S R2 Me
N N
R1 S R2
R2 H H Methyl Phenyl Acetyl Formyl Diethylamino H H
N2
N3
d (ppm) 8.20 8.60 8.35 8.70 9.04 9.20 7.44 9.93 10.17
Methyl Methyl
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j 14 Thiadiazoles
Table 14.4
13
C NMR spectral data (ppm) for ring carbons of 1,2,3-thiadiazoles.
N N S
R1 R2
R2 H H Phenyl Phenyl C4 147.3 163.9 144.2 157.5 C5 135.8 130.9 152.2 150.8
R1 H Phenyl H Phenyl
effect. Conversely, little inuence on the chemical shifts is exerted by substituents at position 4. The 15 N chemical shifts of some mesoionic compounds have also been determined and explained by the dual effect of 5-substitution and salt formation [18].
14.2.3.3 UV and IR Spectroscopy Data on IR [19] and UV [20] spectroscopy have been reported for some 1,2,3thiadiazoles. Characteristic infrared absorptions are at 15601475 and 13501280 cm1 (ring skeletal). Simple 1,2,3-thiadiazoles show three absorption bands in the UV spectra: 211217, 249253, and 290294 nm. 14.2.3.4 Mass Spectrometry The electron-impact mass spectra of the most 1,2,3-thiadiazoles exhibit a very intense signal for the molecular ion [21]. Moreover, the predominant fragmentation is represented by the loss of N2 (M28) , which gives rise the most intense peak in the spectrum (Scheme 14.2). Other types of molecular ion fragmentations are negligible and are of some interest only for complex structures [22].
N N
R S R
R C S S
Scheme 14.2
R S
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The structure of the [MN2] fragment has been investigated and found to depend on the substitution pattern. For the unsubstituted 1,2,3-thiadiazole, the fragment shows the thioketene and the distonic . CHCHS structure, while for 5-amino1,2,3-thiadiazoles the ion exists in the thiirene form [23].
14.2.4 Synthesis
The synthetic approaches towards the 1,2,3-thiadiazole system can be classied according to ve methodologies: 1) cyclization of hydrazones with thionyl chloride: the HurdMori reaction [24]; 2) heterocyclization of a-diazocarbonyl compounds: the Wolff synthesis [25]; 3) 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition of diazo compounds 3 to isothiocyanates: the Pechmann and Nold synthesis [26]; 4) ring transformation of other sulfur-containing heterocycles; 5) elaboration of preformed 1,2,3-thiadiazoles.
14.2.4.1 HurdMori Synthesis Hydrazone derivatives, possessing a methylene moiety and an electron-withdrawing group (CO2Et, SO2R) at N2, give rise to 1,2,3-thiadiazoles upon treatment with thionyl chloride [27]. Retrosynthetically, the HurdMori reaction is a [4 1] approach where four atoms come from hydrazone and one (the sulfur atom) from the thionating agent. Thus, the reaction of 2[(ethoxycarbonyl)hydrazono]propanoic acid (17) with SOCl2 affords 1,2,3-thiadiazole-4-carboxylic acid (18) in 53% yield, accompanied by traces of 5-methyl-2H-1,3,4-oxadiazine-2,6(3H)-dione (19) (Scheme 14.3) [24].
H N H N O O 19 trace
N H3C
CO2Et
SOCl2
CO2H 17
N N
S + CO2H H3C
18 53%
Scheme 14.3
The obtainment of 1,2,3-thiadiazoles has been interpreted according to the initial formation of intermediate 21, which originates from the nucleophilic attack of 20 to the sulfur atom [28]. A fast enehydrazine tautomerism promotes the cyclization to the sulfoxide 23, which, probably through a Pummerer-type rearrangement [2], evolves towards the 1,2,3-thiadiazole system 25, with extrusion of NH3 and CO2 (Scheme 14.4). The presence of intermediate thiadiazoline-1-one 23, isolated and characterized in some cases [29], was also ascertained by the crystallographic investigation of the
1260
j 14 Thiadiazoles
N H3C H N Ar 20 CONH2 SOCl2 - 2HCl Ar H3C N CONH2 Cl S O 21 N Ar H2C N CONH2 Cl S O 22 H N
Ar = Ph, p-MeC6H4, p-OMeC6H4, p-ClC6H4 p-NO2C6H4, p-BrC6H4, p-CNC6H4, Bn N S N Ar 25 16-80%

Scheme 14.4
- CO2 - NH3
N N H
O S
CONH2
O H2N
Ar 24
N HN
Ar
23
compound 27 isolated by Kobori et al. [30] in the reaction of 26 with SOCl2 (Scheme 14.5).
CO2Et N N H C N 26
O SOCl2 - 2HCl 38% EtO
N N
O S NOMe 27
O Me
Scheme 14.5
Substituted hydrazones 29, obtained from 1,2-diaza-1,3-butadienes 28 and methylenic or methinic activated substrates, afford, in the presence of thionyl chloride as solvent-reagent, functionalized 1,2,3-thiadiazoles 30 in good yields (Scheme 14.6) [31]. Similarly, the reaction of 1,2-diaza-1,3-butadienes 28 and trialkyl phosphites, under solvent-free conditions, leads to alkyl 3,3-dialkoxy-2H-1,2,3,l5-diazaphosphole-4-carboxylates 31 that are easily converted into the corresponding (E)-hydrazinophosphonates 32 by treatment with water. Subsequent reaction with thionyl chloride affords 4 substituted 1,2,3-thiadiazoles 33 (Scheme 14.7) [32]. The HurdMori reaction is by far the most widely exploited synthetic methodology for 1,2,3-thiadiazoles. The reaction is especially suitable for alkyl- and (het)arylsubstituted 1,2,3-thiadiazoles; in the same way, fused 1,2,3-thiadiazoles have been prepared from cyclic ketones. Several substituted thiadiazoles, possessing halide [33],
j1261
R5 R1O2C N N O 28 R2 R3 CO2R4 R3 R5 R4O

2C
90-95%
N CO2R1 29
H N O
R"'
SOCl2
R1 = Me, Et R2 = Ot-Bu R3 = H, Me, Ph, CO2Et, i-Pr R4 = Me, Et, Bn R5 = CO2Me, CO2Et, CO2Bn, p-NO2Ph
R4O2C
R5 R3
CO2R1 N N
30 75-87%
Scheme 14.6
O R 2O N 28 R1 = Me R2 = Me, Et, Bn R3 = NH2 O O R1O P R1O OR2 N N N O R3
OR1 P R1O OR1 87-98%
R2O2C R1O R1O P N N COR3
31
88-95%
H2O
SOCl2 71-77%
O R O
2
S 33
Scheme 14.7
N O P OR1 OR1 32
H N O
R3
ester [34], carboxy [24], aldehyde [35], sulde [36], and amino groups [37], have also been obtained. 4,5-Diaryl and 4-aryl-substituted 1,2,3-thiadiazoles 36, with potential antithrombotic activity, have been prepared starting from aldehydes and ketones 34 (Scheme 14.8) [38].
1262
j 14 Thiadiazoles
O R1 R
2
NH2NHX R1
NNHX R2
SOCl2
R1 R2 S
N N
34
35
36
31-92%
R1 = Ph, 4-MeO-C6H4, 4-Me-C6H4, 4-NO2-C6H4, 4-NO2-C6H4, 4-MeS-C6H4, 4-Cl-C6H4,3,4-Cl2-C6H3, 3,4,5-(MeO)3-C6H2, R2 = H, Ph, 4-MeO-C6H4, 4-NO2-C6H4, 2-(C4H3S), 3,4-(-OCH2O-)C6H3
Scheme 14.8
The 1,2,3-thiadiazole ring annelated to the benzazepine ring 38 was obtained by the HurdMori reaction of hydrazonobenzazepine 37 (Scheme 14.9) [39].
H2NOCHNN MeO MeO 37
Scheme 14.9
SOCl2 N Ts
MeO MeO
N Ts 38 75%
An interesting solid-phase synthesis of 1,2,3-thiadiazoles 41 has also been reported. A Merrield type resin functionalized with sulfonhydrazide groups (39) was used to capture ketones from the reaction mixtures (Scheme 14.10) [40].
R1CH2COR2 SO2NHNH2 39 SO2NN 40 R

2
SOCl2
+ SO2NHNH2 39
N N
R1 S R2
CH2R1
41 79-100%
R1 = Me, Et, n-Bu, iso-Bu, Bn R2 = p-OMeC6H4, p-ClC6H4, pPhC6H4, o-BrC6H4, m-BrC6H4p-BrC6H4

Scheme 14.10
14.2.4.2 Wolff Synthesis Wolffs synthesis of 1,2,3-thiadiazoles is one of the earliest methods [25]; it implies the heterocyclization of a-diazothiocarbonyl compounds, which can be prepared via different routes. According to this methodology, 5-alkyl and 5-aryl-1,2,3-thiadiazoles have been prepared by reaction of 2-diazo-1,3-dicarbonyl compounds with ammonium sulde [41]. The method has been exploited to prepare various 5-amino- and
j1263
5-mercapto-1,2,3-thiadiazoles bearing different functional groups at the 4-position (Scheme 14.11) [41, 42]. Diazothiocarbonyl compounds 43, 46 and 50 may be generated: (i) by introducing the diazo group into compounds containing a CS bond, (ii) by constructing a CS group into the a-position of a diazo compound, or (iii) by simultaneous introduction of both these functions.
NC 78% H2N S
H2 N S 42 R O N2 45 R
CN NH2
HCl NaNO2 45%
N2 S 43
CN NH2
N N
44 R S N N COR S 47 R
(NH4)2S O 85% O
R N2 46
68%
R = Me, Ph Me3Si N2 48 Li + Cl S 49 NEt2 72% S N2 50 NEt2 SiMe3
N N
CSNEt2 S 51 35% NEt2 +
N N
H S 52 44% NEt2
Scheme 14.11
Thiadiazole 44 has been prepared by diazotation of 2-amino-2-cyano-thioacetamide (42) [41, 43]. The method requires the presence of two electron-withdrawing groups at the a-carbon atom, which stabilize the intermediate diazothiocarbonyl compounds 43. The same stabilization can be achieved by including the carbon atom attached to the diazo function onto an aromatic ring. In this way, benzo-1,2,3-thiadiazole 9 has been synthesized in 77% yield by reaction of ortho-aminothiophenol (53) with sodium nitrite in acetic acid (Scheme 14.12) [44].
1264
j 14 Thiadiazoles
NH2 SH 53
Scheme 14.12
NaNO2 AcOH 77% 9
S N
An alternative way to generate a-diazothiocarbonyl compounds exploits the reaction of species bearing an active methylene group such as compound 54, with azides (Scheme 14.13) [45].
CO2Ph S 55 SEt
EtS S
CO2Ph 54
TsN 3
72%
N N
Scheme 14.13
2-Diazo-1,3-dicarbonyl derivatives 45 react with thionating reagents to give diazocarbonyl intermediates that spontaneously cyclize to 4-carbonyl-5-alkyl- or 5-aryl1,2,3-thiadiazoles 47 (Scheme 14.11) [41]. As an example, 5-ethyl-4-ethoxycarbonyl-1,2,3-thiadiazole has been prepared from an a-diazoketone via its thioketone intermediates using Lawessons reagent (Scheme 14.14) [46].
Et O N2 56
Scheme 14.14
OMe O
Lawesson's reagent 95%
N N
CO2Et S 57 Et
Lithium trimethylsilyldiazomethane (48) reacts with thiocarbamoyl chloride 49 to give a mixture of 5-amino-1,2,3-thiadiazoles 51 and 52. The proposed mechanism involves the formation of a diazothioacetamide that undergoes a rapid cyclization (Scheme 14.16) [47]. Wolffs methodology has been exploited in the rst solid-phase synthesis of benzo1,2,3-thiadiazoles and related structures, starting from resin bound chloro, bromo, or iodo triazenes and using a functionalization on cleavage [48]. In particular, the synthesis was realized employing two different, synergetic methods: an anionic approach, via a halide metal exchange, and a cross-coupling approach, via an innovative palladium catalyzed CS bond forming reaction. Anilines 58 were diazotated with tert-butyl nitrite and subsequently coupled with piperazine resin 59. The resulting triazene aryl halides 60 have been converted into the corresponding thiol 61 bonded to the resin by two alternative methods: (A) reaction with n-BuLi and
j1265
TMEDA, followed by treatment with elemental sulfur; (B) reaction with triisopropylsilylthiol in the presence of palladium acetate. Cleavage from the resin with dilute triuoroacetic acid (TFA) resulted spontaneously in the desired cyclization reaction, yielding benzo[1,2,3]thiadiazoles 62 in good yields (Scheme 14.15).
NH2 X N R 58 NH 59 52-100% 1) BF3 .OEt2, t-BuONO N N N N R X
60
R = Me, OMe, NO2,CF3 N R S 62

Scheme 14.15
Method A or Method B
TFA 10-63%
N N N 61 N
SH
14.2.4.3 Pechmann and Nold Synthesis One of earliest synthesis of 1,2,3-thiadiazoles is the Pechmann and Nold synthesis [26], which involves the 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition between diazoalkanes 63 and isocyanates 64 (Scheme 14.16) [1].
R R
1
H N N 63
N C S 64 35-70% N N
R1 S NHR
65 R = Me, Et, Ph, Bn R1 = Pn, pMe-C6H4, pMeO-C6H4
Scheme 14.16
This method includes the reactions of diazo compounds with various thiocarbonyl derivatives, such as thioketones, thioesters, thioamides, and carbon disulde [49]. The reaction of diazoalkanes 67 with thioketones 66 gives a mixture of 1,2,3- 68 and 1,3,4-thiadiazolines 69[50]: the regioisomeric distribution depends on the solvent polarity and steric effects (Scheme 14.17) [12]. The reaction has been studied in detail by ab initio RHF and CASSCF calculations (3-21G , 6-31G , CAS/3-21G ) and semiempirical calculations (AM1 and MNDOPM3). In particular, ab initio calculations, in accord to experimental data, show that
1266
j 14 Thiadiazoles
H R2 S R1 N2 67 R3 R3 N N S H R1 R2 + R3 H N N S R1 R2
66
SH
68 60-85% SH = (Et)2O, MeOH
69 15-87%
R1 = Et, n-Pr, i-Pr, t-Bu R2 = Et, n-Pr, i-Pr, t-Bu R3 = H, Me, Ph

Scheme 14.17
1,2,3-thiadiazoline products are formed in higher ratio in more polar solvents and that this is explainable by the higher dipole moment (about 5 D as compared to circa 2 D) of the transition structure [12]. If the cycloaddition reaction is performed with chlorodithioformates 70 or thiophosgene (73) as dipolarophiles, the initial thiazolidines undergo elimination of HCl and form a mixture of 1,2,3- (71 and 74) and 1,3,4-thiadiazoles (72 and 75) (Scheme 14.18) [41, 50, 51].
RS S 70 R = Et, Pr Cl H N2 76-92% H N N SR + N N S 72 SR
S 71
Cl S 73
Cl
H N2
CO2Et N N S 74
CO2Et + Cl Cl
N N S 75 CO2Et
67-84%
Scheme 14.18
A variation of this method, which probably does not proceed through a concerted [3 2] cycloaddition, involves the reaction of lithium (trimethylsilyl)diazomethane (77) with thioesters or dithioesters 76 and with carbon disulde to afford various 5substituted-1,2,3-thiadiazoles 78 and 80 (Scheme 14.19) [52].
14.2.4.4 Transformations of Other Heterocycles The 1,2,3-thiadiazole ring can also be obtained by chemical transformation of other sulfur-containing heterocycles. Thus, treatment of 1,3,4-thiadiazin-2-ones 81 with tert-butyl hypochlorite gives rise to 1,2,3-thiadiazole 84, probably via the intermedis 82 and 83, as reported in Scheme 14.20 [41].
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Li R1 S 76 X = OMe, SMe R1 = Me, Et, Ph, Bn Li N2 77 N2 X 77
SiMe3 N N
R1
78 4-95%
SiMe3 N N SiMe3 S SLi RX N N SiMe3 S SR
CS2
R = Me, Et, Ph, Bn

Scheme 14.19
79
80 30-70%
HN O
N S 81
Ar R
t-BuOCl
HN O
Ar
S R O O 85
H2N HO2C
H N
Ar
S R O O 86 - CO2 - H2O
Ar = Ph, Tolyl R = Me, Et Ar N N S 84 26-55%

Scheme 14.20
- H2O R
HN HN
Ar R
S O
87
A different mechanism has been proposed for this reaction, based on the oxidation of 81 to thiadiazine dioxide 85, which undergoes hydrolysis of the imine double bond. Subsequent loss of CO2 and H2O leads to the nal product 84 (Scheme 14.21) [2]. As support, a suspension of thieno thiadiazine dioxide 88 in acid media affords thienothiadiazole 91 (Scheme 14.22) [53]. Another interesting conversion is represented by the rearrangement reaction of 1,2,3-triazoles containing a thiocarbonyl group. Thus, 1,2,3-triazolo[4,5-b]pyridin-4 (7H)-thione (92) rearranges by thermolysis into 1,2,3-thiadiazolo[4,5-c]pyridine 93 (Scheme 14.23) [41, 54].
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j 14 Thiadiazoles
HN O N S 81 Ar R t-BuOCl HN O N Ar S R O O 85 H2N HO2C O H N S Ar R O
86 - CO2 - H 2O
Ar = Ph, Tolyl R = Me, Et Ar N N S 84 26-55%

Scheme 14.21
- H2O R
HN HN
Ar R
S O
87
O S
S N H 88
O N
CO2Me S 89
SO2 COCO2Me NHNH2
- CO2H CO2Me
N N
S S 91
- H2O
HN HN
S O 90
56%
Scheme 14.22
S N H2N N H 92
Scheme 14.23
NH2 N 67% N H2N 93 N S N
N H
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14.2.4.5 Elaboration of Preformed 1,2,3-Thiadiazoles Various 1,2,3-thiadiazole derivatives have also been easily prepared by chemical modication of substituents present at C4 or C5 in a preformed 1,2,3-thiadiazole system. Thus, 1,2,3-thiadiazole carboxylic acids have been obtained by oxidation of 4- or 5-methyl-1,2,3-thiadiazole [55], or by hydrolysis of the corresponding esters [56]. The acids can be easily converted by standard procedures into the corresponding esters, chlorides, amides, hydrazides, azides, thioamides, and nitriles [36, 57]. The carbaldehyde function has been introduced by oxidation of a hydroxymethyl group [58] or by acid-catalyzed hydrolysis of the corresponding hydrazones and oximes [7, 35, 59]. 4- and 5-Amino- [1, 3, 41, 42], 5-halo- [3, 42], 5-mercapto- [36], and 5- and 4-alkenyl 1,2,3-thiadiazoles [6062] have been prepared following the same synthetic approach. In particular, different 5-substituted derivatives have been synthesized by Katritzky et al. [63] following a procedure that exploits the chemistry of the benzotriazole system. Thus, the 1-(1,2,3-thiadiazol-5-yl)-1H-1,2,3-benzotriazole 94 has been transformed into 5-[(4-methylphenyl)thio]-1,2,3-thiadiazoles 96 (X S) and 5-phenoxy-4-phenyl-1,2,3-thiadiazoles 97 (X O). The reaction mechanism includes the known ring-chain tautomerism of substituted 1,2,3-thiadiazoles, involving cleavage of 1,2-bond to afford 2-diazoethanethione tautomers 95. This intermediate then undergoes a direct nucleophilic substitution of the benzotriazole moiety and sequential ring closure to give 5-substituted 1,2,3-thiadiazoles 96 and 97 in yields ranging from 11% to 76% (Scheme 14.24).
R1 N N S N N N
R1 N N S N N N R XH NaH
2
R1 N N S 96,97 11-76% XR2
94 X = S,O
1
95 R = H, Ph, Thiophen-2-yl, Furan-2-yl
R2 = Ph, p-CH3-C6H4, 2-Naphthyl, Bn, p-Cl-C6H4, p-CH3O-C6H4
Scheme 14.24
14.2.5 Reactivity
The reactivity of the 1,2,3-thiadiazole system is expressed in a series of different chemical transformations: (i) ring cleavage reactions, (ii) base-catalyzed decompositions, (iii) rearrangement processes, (iv) oxidative and reductive processes, (v) reactions due to the reactivity of the heterocycle ring, and (vi) reactions of nucleophiles.
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j 14 Thiadiazoles
14.2.5.1 Ring Cleavage Reactions The easy ring cleavage of the 1,2,3-thiadiazole system, which produces highly reactive fragments, affords a useful synthetic access to different functionalized compounds. The most important reaction pathways are:
1) 2)
loss of the nitrogen molecule with production of a-thioxocarbene which, in turn, can rearrange to thioketenes; simultaneous loss of a molecule of nitrogen and the sulfur atom.
As an example of the rst case, compounds 98 upon thermolysis extrude nitrogen, leading to transients a-thioxocarbenes 99 and 101 and thiirenes 100, which can follow different reaction routes [6466]: (i) rearrangement to thioketenes 102, (ii) dimerization to 1,4-dithiins 103, or (iii) cycloaddition of the intermediate a-thioxocarbenes with the rearranged thioketene 102 to give 4-dithiafulvenes 104 (Scheme 14.25).
N N
R1 S 98 R2 S
R1 R2 99
R1 S
R2
R1 R2
100
101
R1 R2
C S 102
R2 R
1
S S 103 10%
R1/R2 R /R
1 2
R2 S R2 R1 S 104 10% R1
40% R1 = H, Me, Ph R2 = H, Me, Ph

Scheme 14.25
Formation of thioketenes 102 from 99 and 101 involves a 1,2-shift of the substituent at the carbon atom of the thiocarbonyl group. The structure of thioketenes has been conrmed by NMR [67] and IR spectra [68]. The intermediate four-electron systems 99101 have been trapped by reaction with acetylenes 105 [6972], affording a mixture of isomeric thiophenes 106 and 107 in a ratio of 1 : 1 (Scheme 14.26).
j1271
N N
R1 S R2
R3 R3 105 12-37%
R2 R
1
R3 + S 106 R
3
R1 R2 S 107
R3 R3
98
R1 = H, Me R2 = H, Me R3 = CF3
Scheme 14.26
The formation of the same product distribution (111113) from regioisomeric thiadiazoles supports the suggested equilibrium between the two isomeric 1,3diradicals 99 and 101 via thiirene 100 (Scheme 14.27) [73].
Me S Ph 108 Ph S Me 109
N N
N N
R1 S 99 R2
R1 S 100
R2
R1 R2 101
Ph Ph 110
Ph
Ph 110
Me Ph S 111 45%
Me + Ph
Ph Me S 112 15%
Ph + Me
Ph Me S 113 37%
Me Ph
Scheme 14.27
Capture of the thiirene intermediate by an intramolecular reaction has been reported by Katritzky et al. [74] in the thermal rearrangement of 5-benzotriazolyl1,2,3-triazoles 114 to zwitterionic 3-phenyl-[1,2,3]thiadiazolo[3,4-a]benzimidazol-9ium-4-ide 117 (Scheme 14.28).
1272
j 14 Thiadiazoles
R N N S N N N 114 60-65% R S N N N
117
R S N N N 115
R S
C N N2 116
R = Ph, 2-thienyl
Scheme 14.28
Thermolysis of 1,2,3-benzothiazole 9 gives, as main products, thianthrene (119) [64, 65] and dibenzo[1,2]dithiin (120). The formation of these compounds can be explained on the basis of the dimerization of biradical 118, formed after the nitrogen extrusion (Scheme 14.29).
S N 9
S S + S 120 12% S
118
119 7%
Scheme 14.29
When heated in the presence of sulfur, 1,2,3-benzothiadiazole 121 loses nitrogen and produces benzopentathiepine 122 (Scheme 14.30) [75]. In this way several heterocycles fused to the pentathiepine nucleus have been obtained by starting from the corresponding thiadiazoles [76].
R S N 121 S8 R S S S S S 122 20-57% R= H, Cl, CF3, OMe, N(CH3)2, Br, CF3, CN, NH2
Scheme 14.30
j1273
2-Aryl-1,2,3-thiadiazole-4H-5-imines 123, when heated in boiling pyridine, undergo extrusion of sulfur to form hydrazones 124, which by reaction with the starting thiazolidin-5-imines give 1,2,4-thiadiazoles 125 (Scheme 14.31) [77].
R R N N S Ar 123 Ar =Ph, Tolyl R = Me, Ph, Bn
Scheme 14.31
R NH N CN NH
NNHAr N R
123
Ar
N S
ArHNN 124
125 47-75%
In analogy to thermolysis, photolysis of 1,2,3-thiadiazoles proceeds with extrusion of nitrogen and leads to many products, all of which correspond with the above reported intermediates (Scheme 14.25) [78, 79]. Thus, thioketenes 102, 1,4dithins 103 and 1,4-dithiafulvenes 104 have been obtained. Photolysis of 1,2,3thiadiazole 1 in an argon matrix at 8 K produced thiirene 126, as seen by the appearance of its IR spectrum [80]. Upon further irradiation, this intermediate affords the corresponding thioketene 127. Evidence for the thiirene intermediate has been obtained during the photolysis of 5-phenyl-1,2,3-thiadiazole by 13 C NMR spectroscopy [81]. Further support of thiirene intermediates has been given by the photolysis of either 128 or 129, which in the presence of hexauoro-2-butyne (130) lead to the thiophene 131 (Scheme 14.32) [72].
N h 8K S 126 F3C Me S N N h Me 130 Me S 131 12% h 40%
S 1
S C CH2 127 CF3
CF3 CF3
128,129
Scheme 14.32
The photochemical decomposition of 1,2,3-thiadiazole 1 in the presence of amines 132 leads to thioamides 133 in yields of 6075% (Scheme 14.33) [82, 83].
1274
j 14 Thiadiazoles
N N 1 R = H, Me, Et, Bn
Scheme 14.33
R2NH S h S C CH2 127 132 R2N
S 133 55-72%
In the presence of alcohols (134), photolysis or thermolysis leads to thioesters 135 (Scheme 14.34) [64, 65, 84].
N N 1 S h ROH 134 RO 135 12-72% S
S C CH2 127
R = Me, Et, i-Pr, t-Bu, Bn

Scheme 14.34
The photochemical decomposition of benzothiadiazoles, followed by acylation of the obtained products, affords thioesters of acetic acid (138 and 139) (Scheme 14.35) [85].
R S N 136 R N 137 S R SCOMe + R 138 19-42% 139 16-56% SCOMe
R = Me, OMe, NO2, Cl, -Br

Scheme 14.35
Photolysis of substituted 1,2,3-thiadiazoles has also been used to generate highly reactive intermediates such as heterocumulenes [86]. Heterocumulenes 142 and 143 have been obtained by photolysis of quinone 140 and indandione 141, respectively (Scheme 14.36) [87, 88].
O N N S O 140 O N N S O 141
Scheme 14.36
S N
h 45%
S C C C C O
142
N2
h 50%
S C C C C S
143
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An example of the simultaneous loss of a molecule of nitrogen and the sulfur atom arises upon treatment of 4,5-disubstituted 1,2,3-thiadiazoles with strong bases, which results in ring cleavage. Thus, treatment of 4,5-diphenyl-1,2,3-thiadiazole (144) with n-butyllithium at 60 C gives 1,2-diphenylacetylene (145) with evolution of nitrogen and extrusion of the sulfur atom (Scheme 14.37) [1].
N N Ph S Ph n-BuLi 65% Ph 145 Ph + N2 + BuSLi
144
Scheme 14.37
Upon irradiation, fused compounds like 146, through the simultaneous loss of nitrogen and sulfur, give acetylene derivatives 147 (Scheme 14.38) [89, 90].
(CH2)n N S 146
Scheme 14.38
(CH2)n N 43% 147
Monocyclic 1,2,3-thiadiazoles 148, acting as heme ligands, are oxidized by cytochrome P450 and oxygen to give acetylenic derivatives 150. The formation of these compounds has been rationalized by the production of an unstable S-oxide (149), which loses nitrogen and SO (Scheme 14.39) [91].
R1 R2 S N R1 N R
2
O S N N 149
R1 150
R2 + SO + N2
148
19-65% R1 = Me, Et, i-Pr, Ph, Bn R2 = Me, i-Pr, Ph

Scheme 14.39
Pyrolysis of 1,2,3-thiadiazole 151 produces the arylethynyl sulfone 152 in satisfactory yields via N2 and S displacement (Scheme 14.40) [92].
N N S Ar SO2 H 151
Scheme 14.40
O Ar H Ar
S O H 152
H Ar
1276
j 14 Thiadiazoles
A study of the thermal decomposition of unsubstituted 1,2,3-thiadiazole has suggested the formation of alkynethiol, thioketene, and acetylene. Ab initio calculations indicate that thioketene 127 is 74 kJ mol1 more stable than ethynethiol 153 and 552 kJ mol1 more stable than thiirene 126 (Scheme 14.41) [93, 94].
N N SH 153 + S C CH2 127 + 154
S 1
S 126
Scheme 14.41
14.2.5.2 Base-Catalyzed Decompositions The ring cleavage of 4-monosubstituted 1,2,3-thiadiazoles in the presence of strong bases affords reactive alkynethiolates 157 [95, 96]. The alkynethiolate can be alkylated to give sulde derivatives 160, or acylated, reacted with nucleophiles to give 162, dimerized to 1,4-dithiafulvenes 166, cyclized with CS2 to give 1,3-dithiole-2thiones 165, which are useful intermediates towards tetrathiafulvalenes 167 (Scheme 14.42) [9799].
Ph 160 R1 = Me, Et, Bn 60- 75% N N Ph S 155 ClSiMe3 86% N N Base N N Ph S THF - 78 C Ph S SiMe3 Ph H R1X 159 S 157 CS2 57% S S Ph S 165 83% Ph H S S 167
Scheme 14.42
SR1 PhH2C 162
S Nu
Nu ( RNH2, RSH, N3 ) 60- 70% 161 H Ph H C S 158 157 82% S S 166 Ph H
Ph
156
164
S S
Ph
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Thomas and Zimmerman have trapped the anion 157 in situ, by reaction with chlorotrimethylsilane, giving rise to the formation of compound 164 [100]. In contrast to 4-monosubstituted thiadiazoles, 5-derivatives produce stable anions that can react with many electrophiles to give various 4,5-disubstitued 1,2,3-thiadiazoles. For example, the metallation of 5-phenyl-1,2,3-thiadiazole (168) with methyllithium gives 4-lithio-5-phenyl-1,2,3-thiadiazole (169), which is stable and can react with aldehydes or ketones at 70 C in tetrahydrofuran to produce 4-oxymethyl-1,2,3-thiadiazoles 170 in good yields (Scheme 14.43) [100].
N N
MeLi S 168 Ph
N N
Li S Ph
R1 R1RCO 80-95% N N
OH R Ph
169
170
R = H, Me, R1 = Me, Et, cycloexyl,cyclopentyl, Bn, n-Pr, n-eptyl

Scheme 14.43
4-(o-Hydroxyaryl)-1,2,3-thiadiazoles 171 have proven to be susceptible to relatively weak bases such K2CO3 and give, in the presence of alkylated agents, the unexpected benzofuran-2-suldes 174 instead of the O-alkylated 1,2,3-thiadiazoles (Scheme 14.44) [101, 102].
R R
1
S N N OH
S Base R X
2
R R1 OH
R R1 O
R R
1
SR2
171
R = H, OH R1 = H, OH R2 = Me, Bn, C16H33 X = Cl, Br, I
172
173
174
46-97%
Scheme 14.44
H NMR data proved that the benzofuran-2-thiolate 173 is really the intermediate of the reaction. This methodology has been exploited to produce nitrogen heterocycles: thus basecatalyzed ring cleavage of derivatives of 1,2,3-thiadiazole-4-carbonylhydrazide 175, followed by alkylation, affords the pyrazoles 178 (Scheme 14.45) [103].
1
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O O NHNHCOPh 1.1 eq t-BuOK RX HN HN O S H Ph O C S O HN NHNPh N H SR
N N
175
176
177
20-35% 2 eq. t-BuOK R = Me, C 16H 33, Bn, X = Cl, Br, I
178
O HN N S RX HN N
O O RS SR RX
O O O Ph N N R
179
Scheme 14.45
180
181
40-51%
The presence of two or more equivalents of base promotes a different reaction course that leads to the formation of the 1,3,4-oxadiazine structure 181. 5-Chloro-1,2,3-thiadiazoles 182, which are stable in the presence of weak or moderately strong bases, react with organometallic reagents to give alkyne suldes 183 as a consequence of the ring cleavage. Metallation of 182 with lithium affords the unstable 1,2,3-thiadiazol-5-yllithium 184, which loses nitrogen to give the alkynethiolate 185, which in turn can be easily transformed into 186 (Scheme 14.46) [104].
N N R1 S Cl
R2 M
R1 183
SR 2
182 Li R1 S R1
55-61%
N N
S 185
MeI
R1
SMe 186 20-88%
184
R1 = Ph, t-Bu R2 = Me, Et, n-Bu, Ph, t-Bu, PhC

Scheme 14.46
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The formation of alkynethiolates, by decomposition of the 1,2,3-thiadiazole ring in the presence of bases, has been used for the synthesis of a series of dendrimers. Thus, 1,3,5-tris(1,2,3-thiadiazolyl-4-yl)benzene 187, prepared from 1,3,5-triacetylbenzene by the HurdMori reaction, upon treatment with potassium t-butoxide gives the trithiolate anion 188, which can be coupled with dendron 189 to afford the second generation dendrimer 190 (Scheme 14.47) [105].
N S N t-BuOK 59% S N N N S N S S S O O + O O Br
187
188
189
60%
O O O O O O O O O S O O O O O O O O O S S O O O O
O O O O O O O O O O
190
O O
O O O
O O O
Scheme 14.47
14.2.5.3 Rearrangement Processes The chemistry of the 1,2,3-thiadiazole system has found extensive application in organic synthesis as a useful approach to a series of functionalized ve-, six-, and seven-membered heterocyclic systems. The reaction routes starting from 1,2,3thiadiazoles are promoted by (i) the cleavage of the weak NS bond, (ii) the
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equilibrium between 1,2,3-thiadiazole and a-diazothiocarbonyl structures, and (iii) the cyclization of these functionalities onto electrophilic and nucleophilic substituents [3].
14.2.5.3.1 Dimroth-Type Rearrangement The Dimroth rearrangement [106] has been observed in a series of heterocyclic derivatives possessing several N-atoms. In the 1,2,3-thiadiazole system, this rearrangement occurs through cleavage of the NS bond to give the corresponding diazothiocarbonyl compound 193. 5-Amino-1,2,3thiadiazoles 191 easily undergo this type of rearrangement, upon treatment with base, to form 5-mercapto-1,2,3-triazoles 194 (Scheme 14.48). In this rearrangement, the nitrogen atom of the chain at position-5 takes part in the process.
R1 R1 N H R2 R1 N R2 193 SH R1 N SH
N N
Base R2
N H
N N S 192
N N
N N
R2 194 12-37%
191 R 1 = H, COMe, COOMe R 2 = H, Ph

Scheme 14.48
The suggested mechanism is supported by the kinetics of the process and by the inuence of the solvent polarity. The acidity of the mercapto group shifts the reaction forward with the formation of thiolate salts in basic conditions. The transformation of hydrazones 195 into 1,2,3-triazoles 196 by treatment with PCl5 could proceed by the same reaction route, although the mechanism has not been perfectly elucidated (Scheme 14.49) [107, 108].
CO2 Et S NH N PCl 5/Toluene 86% Ph 196 195
Scheme 14.49
N N
N N
N N
S Ph
A double Dimroth rearrangement has been reported for the conversion of ethylene bis(thiadiazol-5-amine) (197) into the intermediate bis thiol, which undergoes an intramolecular nucleophilic substitution reaction with loss of H2S to give tricyclic triazole 199 (Scheme 14.50) [108].
N N N N CO 2 Et SH - H 2S CO 2Et N N N S
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CO2 Et
CO 2Et N N S NH
EtO 2C HN S
N N EtO 2 C
N N
N N N 199 54%
197
SH 198
Scheme 14.50
By the same reaction route, 5-halo-1,2,3-thiadiazole 200 reacts with 1,8-diaminonaphthalene (201) to afford the tetracyclic derivative 203 (Scheme 14.51) [27, 109].
COR SH
COR N N S 200 Br +
NH2 NH2
N N NH2 N
ROC HN
N N N
201
202
203 76%
Scheme 14.51
14.2.5.3.2 Cornforth-Type Rearrangement 1,2,3-Thiadiazoles, bearing a CN and or CS function at the 4-position, when treated with base, rearrange to give 1,2,3triazoles (X NR) or isomeric 1,2,3-thiadiazoles (X S). The process, in contrast to the Dimroth rearrangement, involves two atoms of the 4-substituent and is similar to the interconversion reactions of isomeric 4-acyl-substituted oxazoles via the dicarbonyl nitrile ylides discovered by Cornforth in 1949 [110]. The rearrangement has been rationalized on the basis of a 1,3-dipolar intermediate diazo compound 205 bearing two nucleophilic groups (two thiocarbonyl functions or a thiocarbonyl and an iminocarbonyl function) (Scheme 14.52).
X N N R1 S 204 R =Me, Ph, Bn R 2 = H, Me, Et, Ph, Bn X = O, S, NH

Scheme 14.52
1
X N2 S R1 R2 205 N N
S R2 X 206 40-60% R1
R2
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The example reported in Scheme 14.53 shows the different course of the Cornforth rearrangement with respect to the Dimroth reaction. Treatment of 5-amino-1,2,3thiadiazole-4-carbothioamide (207) with bases involves two atoms of the side chain to give 5-mercapto-1,2,3-triazoles 209 rather than the isomeric product 210 resulting from the Dimroth rearrangement [111].
S Dimroth NHMe N N Cornforth NMe S NH2 Acid N N S NH2 N SH
S NHMe S NH2 Base N N
N N
N H
SH
Me
210
Scheme 14.53
207
208
209 77%
14.2.5.4 Oxidative and Reductive Processes 1,2,3-Thiadiazoles are very stable to strong oxidizing and reducing agents. However, oxidation with peracetic acid gives 1,2,3-thiadiazole 3-oxides 211 and, with an excess of oxidizing agent, 1,2,3-thiadiazole 1,1,3-trioxides 212. Photolysis of 212 produces several products such as dioxazoles 213, nitriles 214, and acetylenes 215 (Scheme 14.54) [112].
R1 S R2 O R1 S R2 O R1 S O R2
N N
RCO3H 88%
N N
RCO3H 78%
N N
210 R = Me, Ph R1 = H, Me, Ph, Bn R2 = H, Me, Ph R1 N
211
212
O O O
R1CN + 214 15%
R1 215
R2
213 23%
Scheme 14.54
37%
Oxidation of 1,2,3-benzothiadiazole 9 with hydrogen peroxide leads to 1-oxo-1,2,3benzothiadiazole (216), which thermally decomposes into benzoxathiete 217 or its valence tautomer 218. Photochemical oxidation of 9 affords the benzoxathiete S-oxide 219 and biphenylene (220) (Scheme 14.55) [113].
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S N 9
H2 O2 60%
O S N N
N2
O or S
O S
216
S N 9 H2 O2
217
O S O
218
h 65%
219
220
Scheme 14.55
Reduction of benzothiadiazole 221 with hydrogen on palladium gives methyl 3amino-2-mercaptobenzoate (222) (Scheme 14.56) [114].
CO 2 Me
S N N
[H] 76%
CO 2 Me SH NH 2
221
Scheme 14.56
222
14.2.5.5 Reactions due to the Reactivity of Heterocyclic Ring Electrophilic substitution on the C-atoms is difcult, while nucleophiles prefer to attack the 5-position. 1,2,3-Thiadiazoles are weak bases and form a deliquescent hydrochloride salt that is decomposed by water. There are several examples of reactions of alkyl halides at the nitrogen atoms of 1,2,3-thiadiazoles to give salts or mesoionic compounds [5]. Alkylation reactions occur preferentially at N3 ring atom; Table 14.5 shows the effect exerted by substituents at the 4 and 5-position of the ring with the relative formation of compounds 223 and 224. The presence of a bulky group at the 4-position directs alkylation towards the preferential formation of the 2-alkyl derivative [18]. The alkylation of 1,2,3-thiadiazoles with trimethylsilylmethyl-triuoromethanesulfonate occurs at N3 to produce the corresponding thiadiazolium salts 226, which, when treated with CsF, give rise to 1,2,3-thiadiazol-3-ium-3-methanides 227 [115]. These non-stabilized azomethine ylides react in situ, via 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition, with electron-decient alkynes or alkenes to give pyrazolo-thiadiazole systems 228. The fused bicyclo compounds can in turn undergo a ring-opening reaction to form pyrazole or pyrazoline derivatives 229, depending on the nature of the dipolarophiles (Scheme 14.57). 1,2,3-Thiadiazoles are not easily halogenated. It has been reported that 5-phenylureido-1,2-3-thiadiazole 230 reacts with chlorine or bromine to give the compound 231, produced by halogenation on both the thiazole and phenyl rings (Scheme 14.58) [116].
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Table 14.5 Product distribution in the methylation of 1,2,3-thiadiazoles with Meerweins reagent.
BF 4 Me N N R4 S R5
N N
R4 S R5
(Me 3O)
BF 4
223 N N R4 S R5 224
223 (%) 96 100 19 13 92 224 (%) 4 81 87 8
Me
BF 4
R
4
H H Ph t-Bu CO2Me
H Cl H H H
N N
R2 S R1
CF 3 SO3 CF 3SO3 CH2 SiMe 3 quantitative yields Me3 Si N N R2 S R1 R3 CsF R4
H2 C
N N
R2 S R1
225
R 1 = Ph R 2 = Ph, p-OMeC 6 H4 R3 = H R 4 =CO 2Me
226
227
R4 N S R4 R2 N
R3 R3 R1 R4 N N S R2 R1
229
228
70-88%
Scheme 14.57
N N
X2 S NHCONHPh X2 = Br 2, Cl2 86%
N N
X S NHCONH(C 6 H4 )p-X 231
230
Scheme 14.58
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Mesoionic 3-phenyl-1,2,3-thiadiazoles 232 can be nitrated, formylated, and aminomethylated, as a result of the inuence of the olate moiety (Scheme 14.59) [37].
Ar HNO3 NO2 O DMF/POCl3 S Ar O S CHO 22-45%
Ar
N N
O S
N N
N N
234 36-65% Ar = Ph, Tolyl Ar
232
233
CH2O/NH(Me)2
N N
O S CH2N(Me)2 19-57%
235
Scheme 14.59
With 1,2,3-benzothiadiazoles, electrophilic substitution occurs on the benzene ring. For instance, the reaction with nitric acid leads to 4- and 7-nitro-1,2,3benzothiadiazoles [1].
14.2.5.6 Reactions with Nucleophiles 1,2,3-Thiadiazoles containing a good leaving group at the C5 atom are able to give nucleophilic substitutions. Thus 5-nitrosoamino-1,2,3-thiadiazoles 236 in presence of acid, via the intermediate diazonium salt, react with nucleophiles to give, through a nucleophile displacement, the corresponding derivatives (Scheme 14.60) [2].
N N
CO 2Et S NHNO 236
HX
N N
CO 2 Et S 237 N2
X = OH, OEt, Cl, Br
N N
CO 2 Et S X
238 60-65%
Scheme 14.60
Moreover, 5-chloro and 5-bromo-1,2,3-thiadiazoles in turn can react with different nucleophilic reagents to give a large variety of 5-substituted 1,2,3-thiadiazole derivatives [117]. For example, the reaction of the 5-chloro derivative 239 with sodium azide affords in good yield the 5-azide derivative 240 [118] (Scheme 14.61).
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N N CO 2Et S Cl N3 76% N N CO 2Et S N3
239
Scheme 14.61
240
14.2.6 1,2,3-Thiadiazoles in Medicine and Agriculture
1,2,3-Thiadiazoles exhibit various types of biological activities and some of these compounds are useful pharmacophores. This nucleus is found in some cephalosporin derivatives such as 241 (cefuzonam), which show antibiotic properties, in compounds that are antipsychotic agents, in derivatives such as 242 and 243, which exhibit activity against herpes viruses, herpes simplex viruses, varicella-zoster, human cytomegalovirus, and HIV-1 [119].
S H 2N N O N H N OMe O S N N N S S
241 Cefuzonam
Br
N N
CONH NHCSNHCH 2
S N
242
S R N
N R
N R 243
In general, it is interesting to note that the introduction of the 1,2,3-thiadiazole nucleus in molecules of known biological activity leads to an increase of their pharmacological proles. 1,2,3-Thiadiazoles are also used in agriculture as pesticides. In particular, the 5phenylureido-1,2,3-thiadiazole 244 (thidiazuron) is a very active cotton defoliant, while the S-methyl ester of 1,2,3-benzothiadazole-7-thiocarboxylic acid 245 (Bion), introduced by Novartis, has been shown to induce disease resistance in wheat,
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tobacco, melons, maize, and Arabidopsis. Moreover, compounds showing antibacterial, antiviral, and antifungal activities have also been reported.
COSMe
N N S S N H
CONHPh
244 Thidiazuron
245 Bion
The parent compound 246 was prepared in 1955 and the rst natural product containing the 1,2,4-thiadiazole system (dendroine, 247, a cytotoxic compound isolated from marine tunicate Dendrodoa grassularia) was reported in 1984 [120].
O N S N Me2N N S N 247
NH
246
The partially reduced ring systems 248250 are designated as 4,5-dihydro- (D2), 2,5-dihydro- (D3), and 2,3-dihydro-1,2-4- (D4) thiadiazole; the fully reduced ring is termed thiadiazolidine.
HN
S N N S
NH
N S
NH
248
249
250
Many synthetic 1,2,4-thiadiazole derivatives are biologically active compounds and nd use as insecticides, fungicides, herbicides, and antibacterials. As an example, 5-ethoxy-3-trichloromethyl-1,2,4-thiadiazole (ethridiazole) is used to combat or prevent fungal infestation of plants, fruit, cotton, and soil [121]. Azodyes derived from diazotized 5-amino-1,2,4-thiadiazoles are used as dyestuffs for polyester and polyacrylonitrile bers. During the last decade, very interesting therapeutic applications have been explored: the 1,2,4-thiadiazole nucleus is a fundamental constituent of several synthetic products with biological activities concerning the central nervous system (CNS), G-protein coupled receptors, cardiovascular system, or antibiotic activity. Extensive reviews have been published on 1,2,4-thiadiazoles [120, 122, 123].
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14.3.1 Structure
1,2,4-Thiadiazole is a heteroaromatic compound. It is a p-excessive heterocycle, but the presence of two nitrogen atoms exerts a considerable effect on its properties, leading to a relative p-deciency on the carbon atoms. Electrophilic substitution reactions on carbon atoms are extremely rare, while nucleophilic substitution reactions are common and take place very readily in this ring system, because both nitrogen atoms can assist in stabilizing the intermediates. An example is provided by the high reactivity of 5-chloro-3-phenyl-1,2,4-thiadiazole (251) towards nucleophiles: the compound reacts faster than many activated six-membered heteroaromatics (Scheme 14.62).
Ph Y N Ph Cl N Ph
N S 252
N S
N Y
Cl
S 251
Cl
Scheme 14.62
The inductive effect of the sulfur undoubtedly contributes to the stabilization. This effect is selective, since the 3-chlorine in 3,5-dichloro-1,2,4-thiadiazole is much more difcult to displace than the 5-chlorine. For 3-hydroxy-1,2,4-thiadiazoles three tautomeric forms are possible (253ac).
HO
N S N R O O N S 253c N H R
N R S 253b
HN
253a
UV data suggest that the lactam form 253b is the major tautomer in ethanol [120]; however, 3-hydroxy-5-phenyl-1,2,4-thiadiazole has been shown by X-ray studies to exist as the OH tautomer 253a [124]. 3-Amino and 5-amino-1,2,4-thiadiazoles exist predominantly in the amino forms (Figure 14.2), as supported by spectroscopic methods and ab initio MO calculations [125].
H2N N
N S 254
HN HN S
N 255
N N S 256 NH2
NH N S 257 NH
Figure 14.2 3-Amino and 5-amino-1,2,4-thiadiazoles exist predominantly in the amino forms.
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The IR spectrum of 5-mercapto-1,2,4-thiadiazole does not show the SH absorption of structure 258, thus suggesting the thione tautomers 259 and 260. On the same basis, IR experiments indicated that perthiocyanic acid exists as dithione 261 and not in tautomeric form 262 [120].
R N S 258 S H N S 261 N SH R N S 259 HS S N S 262 R NH S HN S 260 N S
NH
N SH
1,2,4-Thiadiazoles fused with heteroaromatic systems have also been reported: the 5,7-dimethoxy-2-(2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetylimino)-2 H-1,2,4-thiadiazolo[2,3-a ] pyrimidine (263) [126] shows interesting herbicidal properties. Bicyclic imidazo[1,2d][1,2,4]thiadiazoles 264 and tricyclic benzo[4,5] imidazo[1,2-d][1,2,4]thiadiazoles 265 have been described as compounds able to react with enzyme cysteine residues to form a disulde adduct, thus inhibiting the enzyme [127129].
O N S O N N N O 263 O Cl Cl N N 264 S N N Y 265 N
N Y
The structure of the 1,2,4-thiadiazole[2,3-a]pyridinium salts 267 (Scheme 14.63), obtained from the oxidation of N-alkyl-N-benzylthiourea or N-benzyl-N0 -(2-pyridyl) thiourea 266 with sulfuryl chloride in toluene, has been conrmed by 1 H and 13 C NMR spectroscopy [130].
N N H
S NHR
Ox 51-78%
N N
Cl NHR
266 R= Me, Et, Bn

Scheme 14.63
267
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The N-methyl-1,2,4-thiadiazolium salt 268 has been proposed as an interesting pharmacophore in the design of inhibitors targeting the cysteine residues of proteins [131].
N Ph S Ph N Me
268
As mentioned above, the partially reduced 1,2,4-thiadiazoles (1,2,4-thiadiazolines) can exist in three tautomeric forms 248250, depending on the position of the double bond. The tautomer 248, with the double bond between the a-nitrogen and the b-carbon, is the one with the lowest energy, lying 3.3 and 4.6 kcal mol1 off the other forms, and thus is the more stable geometric structure [132]. Stable N-substituted D4269 [133] and D3-thiadiazolines 270 [134] have been suggested as scaffolds for structureactivity investigation as N-S cysteine thiol trapping agents in enzyme systems [135].
N Ph S 269 O N Me Cl N N S 270 Ph N Me
The 5-amino-1,2,4-thiadiazolin-3-one 271, analog of cytosine, can exist in two stable tautomeric forms: lactam (oxo) 271a and lactim (enol) 271b. 13 C and 1 H NMR spectra and ab initio molecular orbital calculations support the idea that 271 exists in the lactam rather than in the lactim form [136, 137].
O HN HO N S 271a NH2 N S 271b N NH2
The fully saturated 1,2,4-thiadiazole system (1,2,4-thiadiazolidine) is present in a series of compounds endowed with important biological activities. Compounds 272 and 273 are characterized by interesting antibacterial, antifungal, anti-inammatory, and analgesic activities [138, 140].
R N S NMe 272 MeO C N H N S O N H 273 N R
MeN N R
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Thiazolidinones 275 have been obtained by reaction of oxathiadiazolium salt 274 with aromatic and cycloalkyl amines (Scheme 14.64). The (Z) conguration for 275 was assigned by AM1 calculations and 1 H NMR data [139].
Me N S N
NH2 O N S N R1 NH2 N Me
Scheme 14.64
N N Me N N Me
EtNCS
1
1) Cl 2 2) R 1NCO
Et Cl
R1 275a
48-72% N O R1
R = Me, Et, Ph, Bn
274
S N 275b 58-82%
Synthetic approaches towards 1,2,4-thiadiazolidine systems are reported in Section 14.3.4.1. The synthesis and chemistry of two classes of meso-ionic 1,2,4-thiadiazoles (276, X O, X SO2C6H4Me-p) have also been reported [133].
S
Ph
N
N X
Me
276
Theoretical studies on the structure and properties of 1,2,4-thiadiazoles are not numerous, because of the difculties linked to the presence of the sulfur atom. AM1 calculations have been performed on the parent compound to predict the degree of aromaticity and to calculate some energetic and magnetic parameters [141]. With the view to establishing structureactivity relationships, the charge densities of 3,5disubstituted 1,2,4-thiadiazoles have been calculated and possible conformations estimated [142]. The reactivity of the 5-position in nucleophilic substitution reactions for non-protonated 1,2,4-thiadiazoles has been supported by a molecular orbital method with the LCAO approximation [120]. Electrostatic potentials at N2 and N4 have been calculated for 3,5-dimethyl-1,2,4thiadiazole and other 5-substitued-3-methyl-1,2,4-thiadiazoles and correlated with the relative binding to cortical muscarinic receptors [143].
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Table 14.6 Equilibrium geometry parameters performed at the B3LYP with a 6-31G basis set for the 1,2,4-thiadiazoline nucleus.
Bond SN(1) SC(1) N(1)C(2) C(1)N(2) C(2)N(2) C(1)H(3) N(2)H(2)
Length (A) 1.746 1.862 1.280 1.463 1.386 1.093 1.011
Bond N(1)SC(1) SN(1)C(2) SC(1)N(2) N(1)C(2)N(2) C(1)N(2)C(2) SC(1)H(3) C(1)N(2)H(2)
Angle ( ) 93.9 108.3 101.6 121.1 112.7 110.1 117.6
Geometrical bond lengths and bond angles for the 1,2,4-thiadiazoline nucleus have been estimated by density functional theory (DFT) methods (Table 14.6) [132]. Dipole moments, ionization potentials, and electron afnities as a measure of aromaticity have also been calculated to determine the reactivity of different sites within the molecules studied. The results were compared with existing experimental evidence on thiazolidines and related compounds. Ab initio calculations performed on thiadiazoline 271 conrm that the lactam form 271a is more stable than lactim form 271b by 9.82 kcal mol1 at the HF/3-21G level. On the same basis, bond lengths and angles have been estimated (Figure 14.3) [144].
1.229 1.403 1.336
N
1.770
1.202 113.5 124.6
123.,7
H2 N
N H
1.692
1.400
N S
109.1
H2 N115.6
N H
86.6
115.4
271a
122.6
1.336
N 1.299
1.373
OH
1.337
H2 N
1.752 S 1.678
1.289
108.9 N 123.7
OH
108.9
112.2
H2 N
119.7
90.4
271b
Figure 14.3 According to ab initio calculations performed on thiadiazoline 271, lactam form 271a is more stable than lactim form 271b.
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1.366
1.313 1.707
107.7
N S
92.8
120.1
1.317
S 1.649
112.3
107.1
Figure 14.4 Bond lengths and angles determined by double resonance modulation microwave spectroscopy.
14.3.3 Structural Aspects 14.3.3.1 X-Ray Diffraction X-Ray diffraction measurements of several 1,2,4-thiadiazoles and 1,2,4-thiadiazolidines have been reported; [122, 126, 145149] bond lengths and angles have been determined by double resonance modulation microwave spectroscopy (Figure 14.4) [122]. The X-ray analysis of 5-cyano-3-phenyl-1,2,4-thiadiazole (277) shows the molecule to be almost planar with only ca 2 torsional twist about the bond linking the thiadiazole and the phenyl system. The experimental data are consistent with the presence of a formal NC double bond for the N2C3 and N4C5 linkages, though there is some evidence for delocalization that extends from S1 via C3 to C5 [150]. The pattern of bonding is similar to that observed for 1,2,4-thiadiazole-3,5-dicarbonitrile (278) [151], indicating that the nature of the substituent on C3 has little effect on the bonding within the ring.
N
Ph
S N
CN
S N
NC
NC
277
278
The X-ray structure of 5-carboxamide-3-phenyl-1,2,4-thiadiazole 4-oxide (279), the rst 1,2,4-thiadiazole N-oxide reported [150], shows that this molecule too has a nearly planar conformation, the torsional twists about the C(3)C(Ph) and C (5)C(O) bonds being only ca 8 and 5 , respectively. The conformation is stabilized by intramolecular NH. . .O and CH(Ph). . .O hydrogen bonds, with the former producing the syn relationship between the N-oxide oxygen and the amido nitrogen. The bonding in the thiadiazole ring differs noticeably from that observed in 277, where a pattern of delocalization is present extending from C3 via S1 to N4.
O H2N O N S
Ph
N
279
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More recently, the X-ray crystal structure of the bicyclic imidazo[1,2-d][1,2,4] thiadiazole 264 was obtained: some of the salient features include the C1S1 and N1S1 bond lengths of 1.730 and 1.693 A, respectively, which are slightly longer than the CS (1.707 A) and NS (1.649 A) bond lengths of monocyclic [1,2,4] thiadiazole [152]. The crystal structure of the adduct of cathepsin B and Apo501 (280), a member of a series of 1,2,4-thiadiazole analogues designed as inhibitors of cysteine proteases, clearly indicates that the cysteine thiol reacts with the NS bond of the thiadiazole moiety, thus resulting in the inactivation of the enzymes [127].
MeO
N S N H N O
CO2H
280
14.3.3.2 NMR Spectroscopy 1 H NMR spectral data on several 1,2,4-thiadiazole derivatives have been reported [126, 153, 154, 158]. In general, the resonances of protons in the 1,2,4thiadiazoles are shifted downeld with respect to benzene protons, with the proton at C3 more deshielded than the proton at C5. In 3-phenyl-1,2,4-thiadiazole, H3 resonates at 9.9 d, while H5 appears at 8.55 d [125]. The solvent effect on the 1 H NMR spectral data of a series of 1,2,4-thiadiazole derivatives has been determined by measuring the chemical shift differences observed in various solvents. For methyl and methylene groups linked to a sp2hybridized nitrogen, Dn shows a linear correlation with Hammett s constants, while the same groups attached to a sp3-hybridized nitrogen correlate with Taft s0 constants [122, 155]. 1 H and 13 C NMR data have been reported for 1,2,4-thiadiazolidines 281 [156].
R S N N N R
Ar
O
281
C NMR spectroscopy has been widely used to elucidate the structures of various 1,2,4-thiadiazoles and thiadiazolines [159163]. More recently, 13 C chemical shifts of 3,4-disubstituted-1,2,4-thiadiazole-5-ones were determined [164]. Exceptionally good Hammett correlations of 13 C chemical shifts with s were obtained. The negative r values observed indicate p-polarization of CN, and CO bonds. Unequivocal assignment of all chemical shifts (1 H and 13 C NMR) has been performed using two-dimensional experiments such as HMQC for one-bond correlations and HMBC for long distance proton/carbon correlations [171].
13
j1295
Solvent and concentration effects in 14 N NMR spectroscopy have been investigated [165, 166]. High precision 14 N NMR measurements are reported for all possible thiadiazole isomers in various solvents. Both solvent polarity and hydrogen bonding effects produce an increase in the nitrogen shielding. Analysis of the experimental data and molecular orbital studies indicates that an increase in the polarity of the solvent favors the delocalization of the lone pair electrons from the sulfur atom into the conjugated ring, thus leading to an increase in electronic charge at the nitrogen atoms. In the case of 1,2,4-thiadiazoles, nitrogen shielding ranges from 11 to 20 ppm, with the range for N3 approximately twice that for N2. The mechanism of the reaction and the formation of 1,2,4-thiazolidine N-oxide 284 by reaction of O-substituted benzamidoxime 282 with 4,5-dichloro-1,2,3-dithiazolium chloride (283) (Scheme 14.65) has been investigated by analysis of 13 C and 14 N NMR spectra of 15 N-labeled and unlabeled precursors (Scheme 14.66) [150].
Ph
NH2 NOH 282
Cl
+
Cl 64%
Ph
N S
S N S Cl 283
CN
284
Scheme 14.65
Ph Cl
NOH
15
NH3
Ph
15
NOH NH2
MeNCO
Ph
15
NOCONHMe NH2
283 Cl Ph
15 N
OCOPh Ph
15
N S
Ph CN
15 N
N S
O COPh
N N S S
Cl
N
CN
Cl
Scheme 14.66
The signal at d 110.9, corresponding to the unoxidized nitrogen atom, in the 15 N NMR spectrum of the N-oxide and the signal at d 70.7, characteristic of heterocyclic N-oxides, in the 14 N NMR spectrum clearly suggests that all the 15 N labels are on the unoxidized nitrogen atom.
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14.3.3.3 UV and IR Spectroscopy Data on IR and UV spectroscopy have been reported for some 1,2,4thiadiazoles [120]. Characteristic infrared absorptions are seen at 15601590 and 14901550 cm1 (ring skeletal vibrations), 12151270, 10801185, and 10201050 cm1 (CH in plane deformations), and 735, 795860 cm1 (CH out-of-plane deformations) [167]. 1,2,4-Thiadiazoles show an absorption band in the UV spectra at 229 nm: the presence of amino groups in the ring induces a bathochromic shift (247 nm for 5-amino- and 256 nm for 3,5-diamino-1,2,4-thiadiazole). 14.3.3.4 Mass Spectrometry The electron-impact mass spectra of 1,2,3-thiadiazoles exhibit an intense signal for the molecular ion [139]. Moreover, the predominant fragmentation pattern follows two general pathways (a and b) as reported in Scheme 14.67. 3-Aryl-1,2,4-thiadiazole5-thiones 285 and 286 fragment much less than 3,4-disubstituted compounds 287, 288 [168].
R1 R2 R CHNH a
1
N a 2 N S a1 R b S b 1
or
N S S a1
285 :R1 = Ph; R2= H 287 :R1= p.ClC6H4; R2= o.MeC6H4 286 :R = p.MeC6H4; R = H
1 2
R1
N S
or
R2N=CS
288 :R1= p.NO2C6H4; R2= n.propyl
Scheme 14.67
3-Aryl-5-alkyl- or arylthio-1,2,4-thiadiazoles 289 have been shown to exhibit rather stable M . ions and relatively simple fragmentation patterns (Scheme 14.68), which are usually dominated by the R1CNS . ion, which is even the base peak.
R
1
N a N S a1 2 b SR b 1 289
R2S R CHNH a
1
or
a1
R1SCN b
Scheme 14.68
or
R2SCN b1
j1297
The mass spectra of 1,2,4-thiadiazole 4-oxides 279 and 284 show as rst fragmentation the loss of the oxygen atom, followed by the fragmentation observed for the corresponding deoxygenated compounds, which is the usual fragmentation of the 1,2,4-thiadiazole ring [150].
14.3.4 Synthesis 14.3.4.1 1,2,4-Thiadiazolidines The most general synthetic entry to thiadiazolidinediones 292 starts from N-alkyl- or N-aryl-S-chloroisothiocarbamoyl chlorides 290, obtained by treatment of alkyl or aryl isothiocyanate with chlorine. Thus, the reaction of 290 with aliphatic or aromatic isocyanates gives the sparingly soluble 3-oxothiadiazolium salts 291, which, in the presence of moist air, hydrolyzes to 1,2,4-thiadiazolidine-3,5-diones 292 with evolution of hydrogen chloride (Scheme 14.69) [169, 170].
R1 N Cl Cl 291 S O N R2 O
R N=C=S
Cl2
N 290
SCl Cl
R2N=C=O 55-98%
R1 N S
O N R2
R1 = Et, Bu, Ph, cycloexyl R2 = Et, Bu, iso-Pr, C8H17, p-MeC6H4, p-MeOC6H4
Scheme 14.69
292
Introduction of an imino moiety at the 5-position of the thiadiazolidine framework, leading to compound 295, has been achieved by the basic hydrolysis of urea derivative 294 (Scheme 14.70). This last compound was easily obtained following a described procedure of 5-aminophenyl-1,2,3,4-thiatriazole 293 rearrangement with isocyanates and isothiocyanates [171]. Treatment of 293 with ethoxycarbonyl isothiocyanate leads to thiadiazolidine 296.
Ph N N S NCONHEt 294
N N N S
NHPh 293
EtNCO
O Et
75% EtCO2NC=S S EtO2C Ph N N S 296 NCO2Et
50% NaOH/MeOH Ph N N S 295 NH
O Et
Scheme 14.70
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Alternatively, 5-imino-3-oxo-1,2,4-thiadiazolidines 298 have been obtained in good yields by addition of arylureas to benzoyl isothiocyanate and oxidation of intermediate 2-thiobiourets 297 with hydrogen peroxide (Scheme 14.71) [172].
O Ar N H S N H 297 O Ar H N N S 298
O ArHN NH2
ArCONCS 80-92%
CONHAr
H+, H2O2 76-87%
NCOAr
Ar = Ph, Tolyl
Scheme 14.71
Similarly, amidinothioureas 300, obtained by reaction of aryl isothiocyanates with guanidines 299, have been converted into 3,5-diarylimino-1,2,4-thiadiazoles 303 by reaction with bromine in ethanol or by reaction with benzyl chloride followed by bromine treatment (Scheme 14.72) [173].
NAr ArHN NH2 299
ArNCS 21-63% ArHN
NAr S N H NHAr 300
BnCl 55-84%
NAr S ArHN N H 301 Br2 Ar Br
Bn NAr
Br2 Ar = Ph, Tolyl ArN Ar H N N S 303

Scheme 14.72
NAr
Bn NAr
43-75%
ArN
N H 302
An alternative synthesis of amidinothioureas 305 involves the reaction of a-chloroformamidines 304 with substituted thioureas: oxidation of 305 with hydrogen peroxide leads to thiadiazolidine 306 (Scheme 14.73) [174]. The 1,2,4-thiadiazolidone system has also been prepared starting from other heterocycles by a cycloadditionelimination sequence. The reaction of 5benzylimino-1,2,4-dithiadiazolidin-3-one 307 with isocyanates leads to the corresponding 1,2,4-thiadiazolidinone 308 with elimination of carbonyl sulde (Scheme 14.74) [175]. An alternative way to obtain 5-imino-1,2,4-thiadiazole-3-ones 310 is based on the reaction of 5-imino-1,2,3,4-thiatriazolines 309, as masked 1,3-dipoles, with isocyanates via a cycloadditionelimination process (Scheme 14.75) [176].
j1299
S RHN NH2
ArHN Cl
NH 22-65% 304
H N
S NH
NHAr NH
R = H, Me, Et, Bn, Ph Ar = Ph, Tolyl HN Ar N H2O2 NH 16-73% R H N Ar N NH S 305 NH2
HN S 306
Scheme 14.73
Ph
O N S S N R1 NCO O R1 N N S
Ph
N
Ph
36-97%
Ph
307
R = Ph, p-ClC6 H4, PhSO2, PhCH2
Scheme 14.74
1
308
Me N N NR1 N S
309
Me N N NR1 N S
R2NCO -N2 7-95%
O
2
Me N
N S R 310
NR1
R1 = Me, Ph,CHMe2, CMe3 R2 = Et, n-Bu, t-Bu, Ph, PhCH2, PhSO2, p-ClC6H4, p-NO2C6H4, p-MeOC6H4
Scheme 14.75
Finally, 3-(phenylimino)-1,2,4-thiadiazolidin-5-ones 312 and 313 can be synthesized by reaction of substituted guanidines 311 with chlorocarbonylsulfenyl chloride (Scheme 14.76) [177]. Bicyclic imidazo[1,2-d][1,2,4]thiadiazol-3(2H)-one (316) was prepared by condensation of 2-amino- or 2-mercaptoimidazole (314) [152] with alkyl isocyanates, to give compound 315, followed by oxidative ring closure with bromine in triethylamine at ice cold temperature (Scheme 14.77). Tricyclic benzimidazo derivatives have been obtained by a similar pathway.
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R1 Ph N N H N H Ph ClSCOCl 12-82% Ph N
1
Ph N
N S R 312
Ph
R1 N N S 313
Ph
311 R1 = Me, Et, Bu, Ph, Bn

Scheme 14.76
N N H 314 SH
n-BuNCO 93% O
N N N H 315 SH Bu
Br2 Et3N 92%
N N O 316 S N Bu
Scheme 14.77
14.3.4.2 Dn1,2,4-Thiadiazolines 14.3.4.2.1 D2-1,2,4-Thiadiazolines D2-1,2,4-Thiadiazolines 320, the so-called Hectors bases, have been synthesized in good yields by oxidation of N-arylthioureas 317, with hydrogen peroxide or other oxidizing reagents, via the intermediate dithioformamidines 318 and N-arylamidinothioureas 319 (Scheme 14.78) [178].
NH 2 S N H Ar NH S N H 318 Ar
2
H 2O2
317
ArHN
Ar N N S 320
ArHN NH 80-90% NH
Ar N S 319 NH 2
Ar = Ph, Tolyl
Scheme 14.78
Usually, the preparation of 3,4-disubstituted-1,2,4-thiadiazole-5-ones 322 includes the reaction of amidoximes 321 with chlorocarbonylsulfenyl chloride in the presence of base as a catalyst (Scheme 14.79) [179] or the reaction with thiophosgene to afford 3,4-disubstituted 1,2,4-oxadiazoline-5-thiones 323, which, in the presence of a catalytic amount of copper powder, is converted into 322 (Scheme 14.80) [180].
j1301
R1 HO N N H 321
R2 R
2
ClSCOCl Et3N
N SCl
R1 N OH
-HCl
R2 O
R1
N S O
R = Me, Et, n-Pr, n-Bu, Ph R2 = Me, Et, n-Pr, n-Bu, Ph R2 N N S 322 25-71% R2 O O R1 O R2
ClSCOCl
N S O SCOCl
R1
N Cl S O SCOCl
Scheme 14.79
R1
HO
321
N H
R2
ClSCCl Et3N
R1
R2 N N O
323 Cu0
R2 N
R1 = Me, Et, n-Pr, n-Bu, Ph R2 = Me, Et, n-Pr, n-Bu, Ph R

1
R2 N N S 322 50-80%
-Cu0
S O
R1 N
Cu1
Scheme 14.80
However, these methods require highly toxic reagents and often lead to a mixture of products. New methods have been developed from amidoximes 321 by a Lewis acid-mediated rearrangement (Scheme 14.81) [181]. The reaction of 2-hydroxylamino-4,5-dihydroimidazolium-O-sulfonate (323) with carbon disulde took two different courses, dependent on the basesolvent combination. Thus, when the reaction of 323 was performed in DMF in the presence of an equimolar amount of triethylamine, 6,7-dihydro-5H-imidazo[2,1-c][1,2,4]thiadiazole-3-thione 324 was produced in 50% yield as a result of a tandem nucleophilic additionelectrophilic amination. In the presence of an excess of triethylamine, 324 underwent subsequent reaction with a second molecule of carbon disulde to give di (5,6-dihydro-7H-imidazo[2,1-c][1,2,4]thiadiazole-3-thione-7-yl)methanethione 325. The resulting mixture contained 324 and 325 in a ratio of about 7 : 1 (Scheme 14.82) [182].
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R1 HO N NH2 321 + N N S N N -Imidazole H2N N O R1 S N N
R1 = Ph, Bn, p-OMeC6H4, p-NO2C6H4 p-MeC6H4, m-MeC6H4, o-MeC6H4
LA
R1
H N N S
-Imidazole
HN
HN S R1 AL O
LA HN
LA N HN O R1 S
LA
322 10-67%
Scheme 14.81
N 323
OSO3 H
H N CS2 Et3N N S
N S
OSO3
Et3N 2.3mole CS2 50% N S N S 325 Ac2O 74% COMe N N S N S 326 Ph N N N S S 11%
SO4-2 74% H N N S N S 324 52% N N S PhCONCS PhCH2Br 82% COPh N N N S N S 327 N S N S 328 NH S 324a
Scheme 14.82
j1303
The imidazothiadiazole 324 can exist in two likely (i.e., low-energy) tautomeric forms, the N7H tautomer 324 and the N1H tautomer 324a, which can interconvert via a 1,3-prototropic shift. Calculations [135] indicated that 324 has a relative energy 12.9 kcal mol1 below that of 324a. NMR spectroscopy showed that the low-energy tautomer 324 is also present in DMSO-d6 solution. The methylene groups of the imidazoline moiety are non-equivalent, and a NOE was observed between an upeldshifted C6H proton and the NH proton. Compound 324 reacted in the normal manner with acetic anhydride and benzyl bromide (Scheme 14.82) to afford 326 and 327, respectively. The structure of 7-benzyl-6,7-dihydro-5H-imidazo[2,1-c][1,2,4]thiadiazole-3-thione (327) was conrmed by an X-ray crystallographic study. The reaction of 324 with benzoyl isothiocyanate carried out in THF in the presence of Et3N at room temperature led to the formation of the N7-benzoyl derivative 328 [182]. Bicyclic and tricyclic [1,2,4]thiadiazolines 329 and 331, respectively, have been synthesized starting from the corresponding [1,2,4]thiadiazol-3(2H)ones 316 and 330, by an exchange reaction with cyanogen bromide at room temperature, with extrusion of alkyl isocyanate (Scheme 14.83) [152].
N N O S N 316 XCN Bu BuNCO 66-96%
N N X 329 S N
X= Br, Tos, CH 2Br,NH2 CO2Me, COPh O N N 330 X N S N Bu
BuNCO 76%
N N
S N X
331
Scheme 14.83
14.3.4.2.2 D3-1,2,4-Thiadiazolines N-(2,3-Diphenyl-1,2,4-thiadiazol-5-(2H)-ylidene methanamine 335, SCH-202676, is a D3-thiadiazoline, identied in 2001 as an inhibitor of both agonist and antagonist binding to G protein-coupled receptors [183]. The synthetic approach moves from benzamide 332, which was converted into benzimidoyl chloride 333 by reaction with thionyl chloride. Substitution of chlorine with NCS, followed by addition of methylamine, afforded thiourea 334 in good yield. Finally, oxidation with bromine led to the target 2,3-diphenyl-5-methylimino-2H[1,2,4]thiadiazole hydrobromide 335 (Scheme 14.84) [184]. More recently, a new series of 335 were synthesized with different N-imino substituents [185]. Receptorligand binding experiments and stability studies
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O SOCl2 79% N Cl NaSCN MeNH2 88% HN NH S NHMe Br2 79% N N S NMe HBr
HN
332
Scheme 14.84
333
334
335
showed that these compounds are highly reactive sulfhydryl modifying agents rather than allosteric inhibitors. Bicyclic D3-1,2,4-thiadiazolines are formed in moderate yields by treatment of cyclic amidines 336 as 2-aminopyridine, 3-aminopyridazine, 2-aminobenzothiazole, 2-aminopyrimidine, and 2-aminothiazole with chlorocarbonylsulfenyl chloride (Scheme 14.85) [186].
H N N S 337 NH2 N 336 N ClSCOCl H N O
O Cl 13-45%
N N S 338
S N H
N 15-38%
N N S 340
339
NH2 N 336
Scheme 14.85
PhN 341
Cl SCl 27-53% N
342
The products obtained depend on the mode of addition. When 336 is added to chlorosulfenyl chloride, derivatives 338 are isolated via the intermediate 337. Addition of chlorocarbonylsulfenyl chloride to 336 leads to 5-oxo derivatives 340, via the bis(intermediate) 339.
j1305
Treatment of amidine 336 with 1-chloro-1-phenylimonomethanesulfenyl chloride (341) affords 3H-1,2,4-thiadiazoles 342.
14.3.4.2.3 D4-1,2,4-Thiadiazolines The most general synthetic approach to D4 -1,2,4-thiadiazolines is based on the ring closure of thiobiourets in the presence of different oxidizing agents. In this way, 5-amino-1,2,4-thiadiazole-3-ones 344 have been synthesized from 343 via NS bond formation by treatment with hydrogen peroxide in alkaline solution (Scheme 14.86) [136, 158, 187].
O N H N H S N H O R1 N N S R2 NH
R1
R2
Ox 69-85%
343 R1 = Me, Ph, C(O)Ar R2 = H, Me

Scheme 14.86
344
Other oxidizing agents such as molecular bromine [136] or N-bromosuccinimide [188] have been used for cyclization. Analogously, the oxidation with bromine of amidinothioureas 345, derived from 2-aminobenzimidazole, afforded the tricyclic benzimidazole[1,2-b]-1,2,4-thiadiazoline 346 (Scheme 14.87) [189].
O N N H ArCONCS 36-70% N N H N H 345 S N H O Ar Br2 19-65% N N 346 S N Ar NH
NH2
Ar = Tolyl, 4-MeOC6H4
Scheme 14.87
The reaction of arylthioamides 347 with phenyl isocyanate leads to arenethiocarboxamide 348, which can be converted into 5-aryl-3-oxo-2-phenyl-1,2,4-thiadiazoline (349) by direct oxidation with bromine (Scheme 14.88) [190].
S H2N S 347 Ar = MeOC6H4, EtOC6H4
Scheme 14.88
O N H 348 N H Ph
NHAr
PhNCO 26-75%
Ar
Br2 15-70%
O Ph
N N S 349
Ar
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14.3.4.3 1,2,4-Thiadiazoles In general, 1,2,4-thiadiazoles are prepared by the appropriate intra- or intermolecular ring closure reactions, starting from different compounds containing nitrogen and/ or sulfur atoms. The main synthetic route towards 3,5-diaryl- or dialkyl-1,2,4-thiadiazoles is based on the oxidation of thioamides derivatives [170, 191]: various oxidizing agents as halogens, hydrogen peroxide, or thionyl chloride promote the oxidative cyclization in moderate yields. More recently, the condensation reactions of thioamides (as well as thionicotinamide and isothionicotinamide) have been performed in the presence of an oxidative DMSOHCl mixture to give symmetrically substituted 1,2,4-thiadiazoles 350 (Scheme 14.89) [192].
R1 N H2N SH N R1 90% N 350
S R1
1
Ox NH2
S R
1
S R1
NH R1
R1
R = Ph, 3-pyridyl
Scheme 14.89
Under oxidative cyclization conditions, N-substituted thioureas have also been converted into 1,2,4-thiadiazole derivatives [192]. Thus, 3,5-diamino-1,2,4-thiadiazoles 352 (Dosts bases) [193] have been obtained in 48% yield, as a result of isomerization, by heating a suspension of 5-imino-4-phenyl-3-phenylamino-4H1,2,4-thiadiazoline 320 (Ar Ph, Hectors base) in ammonia alcohol solution at 135 C (Scheme 14.90) [194].
Ar N N S 320
317
H 2O2 51-72%
ArHN
NH
NH3
H2N ArHN N S
NH2 NAr
ArHN 48-56%
N N S 352
NHAr
Ar = Ph, Tolyl
Scheme 14.90
351
The appropriate Hectors base has been obtained by oxidation of 1-phenyl-1phenylamidinothiourea bromohydrate 319 (Scheme 14.78) with molecular bromine (73% yield) [178] or by oxidation of phenylthiourea 317 with hydrogen peroxide (70%) [195], tert-butyl hypochlorite (46%) [196], dioxane dibromide (85%) [197], or diaryl telluroxide (97%) [198]. Compound 352 has also been synthesized by reaction of 3,5-dichloro-1,2,4-thiadiazole with boiling aniline for 100 h [199]. In comparison with all these oxidative processes needing preliminary, often laborintensive synthesis of precursors, a recent method affords 352 starting from arylthioureas 317 at room temperature by a single-step reaction [200]. The process
j1307
uses [bis(acyloxy)iodo]arenes as a more specic oxidant reagent than the traditional ones (Scheme 14.91).
NH ArHN N H 353 S N H Ar
S 2
NH2 NHAr 317
PhI(OCOCF3)
ArHN 70-75%
N N S 352
NHAr
Ar = Ph, Tolyl
Scheme 14.91
Reaction of nitrile suldes 354 with acyl cyanides 356 provides a useful access to 5acyl-1,2,4-thiadiazoles 357 [201]. The synthetic route is based on the 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition of short-life nitrile suldes 355, generated in situ by thermal decarboxylation of 1,3,4-oxathiazol-2-ones 354 [202], to strongly activated dipolarophiles such as the acyl cyanide (Scheme 14.92).
O O O S R N R1 R1 N S
2
O R2 N S N R1
CN 356
17-91%
354
1
355
357
R = Me, Ph, 4-MeC 6H 4, 2-furoyl, CH3 (CH2 )5 R 2 = Ph, Tolyl

Scheme 14.92
Analogously, the reaction of 354 with tosyl cyanide (358) leads to the key intermediate 359, which, by displacement of the tosyl group with ammonia, provides the 5-amino-1,2,4-thiadiazoles 360 (Scheme 14.93) [203].
Me
R1 N O S O
1) / Decaline 2) p.Tolyl-SO 2CN 358 85%
R1 N
S S O O
NH3 78%
R1 N
N S
NH2
354
359
360
R1 = 2,6-di-tert-butylphenol
Scheme 14.93
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5-Amino-1,2,4-thiadiazoles 362 have also been generated by thermolysis of 2thiocarbamoyl-5-phenyltetrazoles 361 (Scheme 14.94) [204].
Ph N N S NR2 N3 Ph N S NR2 - N2 Ph N N S 362 37-65%
N 361
NR2
R = Me, Et, Ph, Bn

Scheme 14.94
A more recent synthetic strategy towards 3,5-dialkyl 1,2,4-thiadiazoles 365 involves the amination-cyclization of N0 -(thioaroyl)-N,N-dimethylamidines 364 with an aminating agent such as hydroxylamine-O-sulfonic acid (HSA) or O-(mesitylenesulfonyl) hydroxylamine (MSH) (Scheme 14.95).
S R1 N NMe2 H2N R1 S N SO3X NMe2 R2 R1 N S
S R
1
NH2
MeO R2
OMe NMe2
XSO3NH2
R2 HSA: X=OH MSH: X=mesityl
R2
363 R1 = R2 = Me, Et, Ph

Scheme 14.95
364
365 19-66%
Amidines 364 are prepared by reaction of thioamides with N,N-dimethylformamide dimethyl acetal or N,N-dimethylacetamide dimethyl acetal (363) [205]. 1,2,4-Thiadiazole derivatives have also been synthesized by skeletal rearrangements of different ve-membered rings. In this way, methyl 2-(5-alkoxycarbonylamino-1,2,4-thiadiazol-3-yl)acetates 368 have been prepared by reaction of 3-amino-isoxazole 366 with isothiocyanates, following skeletal (Dimroth) rearrangement of the intermediate thiourea derivative 367 (Scheme 14.96) [206].
NH 2 MeO O N MeO O HN N NHCO 2R S MeO 2C N N S NHCO 2R
KSCN/ClCO 2 R
366
R = Me, Et
368
17-69%
367
Scheme 14.96
5-Amino-3-(a-nitroalkyl)-1,2,4-thiadiazoles 371 have been obtained by thermal rearrangements of 3-substituted 4-(3-ethoxycarbonylthioureido)-1,2,5-oxadiazole 2-oxides 370 (Scheme 14.97). The reaction was performed by reuxing a mixture of aminofuroxans 369 with ethoxycarbonyl isothiocyanate [207].
H2N N R N O O EtO2CHN S H N N R N O O R O2N N N S
j1309
EtO2CNCS
NHCO2Et
369
R = Me, Ph, COMe
370
371
40-59%
Scheme 14.97
An interesting access to 3-phenyl-5-substituted-1,2,4-thiadiazoles 374 has been exploited by the photoinduced molecular rearrangement of ve-membered heterocycles containing a NO bond. In fact, photolytic species, which originates from the ring cleavage of 1,2,4-oxadiazoles, react with sulfur reagents by forming a new NS bond. Thus, irradiation of 5-amino-3-phenyl-1,2,4-oxadiazole (372) in the presence of thiourea leads to 1,2,4-thiadiazole 374, through the intermediate 373 (Scheme 14.98) [208].
Ph
N O h
Ph
N
N O
Ph NH2
N
S N O H2N
NH2
NHR
Ph
N
NH2
N S
NHR
372
R = H, Me, Ph
373
374
45-67%
Scheme 14.98
N-Unsubstituted-N0 -chlorobenzamidines (375, R1 H), by treatment with potassium S-methyl cyanimidodithiocarbonate 376, afford 2-arylimidoyl-3-imino-5methylthio-1,2,4-thiadiazoles 378 [209]. In contrast, substituted amidines (375, R aryl and methyl) give 5-cyanimino-4,5-dihydro-3-aryl-1,2,4-thiadiazoles 380 containing in the ring both the nitrogen atoms of amidines (Scheme 14.99) [210].
NCl Ar NHR 375 R =Aryl, Me
1 1
+ KS
NCN SMe 376
R1=H HN
Ar HN S 377
SMe NCN 18-60%
HN Ar N NH
N S 378
SMe
NHR1 SMe Ar NCN N S 379

Scheme 14.99
- HSMe 15-58%
Ar N
R1 N S 380
NCN
Ar = Ph, Tolyl
1310
j 14 Thiadiazoles
At the same time, aminothiadiazole 382 has been obtained by cyclization of amidine 381 with potassium thiocyanate and bromine (Scheme 14.100) [211, 212].
NH NH2 381
Scheme 14.100
KSCN, NaOMe, Br2 19%
N S N 382
NH2
14.3.5 Reactivity
1,2,4-Thiadiazoles are aromatic in nature and are to be considered as p-excessive heterocycles with relatively p-decient C-atoms. Electrophilic substitutions at the Catoms could not be achieved. The p-electron density at the 5-position, calculated by the HMO method, is markedly lower than that at the 3-position, thus inuencing many of the properties of substituted derivatives. As an example, 5-halo derivatives are susceptible to replacement of halogen by nucleophiles, whereas 3-halo derivatives are relatively inert. Thus, 5-chloro-1,2,4-thiadiazole (383) undergoes nucleophilic substitution with silver uoride to give the 5-uoro derivative 384 (Scheme 14.101).
N F S N
F Cl
N S 383 N
F Cl
N S
Cl
384
Scheme 14.101
In the case of 3-chloro-1,2,4-thiadiazole, delocalization of the negative charge in the intermediate with involvement of both nitrogen atoms is not possible; for this reason, it does not react or reacts only slowly with nucleophiles. The parent compound 246 is quite sensitive to acid and bases, as well to oxidizing and reducing agents. It reacts rapidly with cold alkali hydroxides, undergoing ring opening with formation of ammonia, hydrogen sulde, and sulfur. Treatment of 246 with a weak base (K2CO3) in D2O gives the 5-deuteroderivative 385 (Scheme 14.102) [122]. With hydrochloric acid, hydrolytic ring-opening occurs via the 1,2,4-thiadiazolium ion. Substituents in the 3- and 5-positions of 1,2,4-thiadiazoles exert a marked stabilizing inuence: for example, the 3,5-diphenyl derivative resists the action of hot mineral acids and prolonged boiling is required for attack by alkalis [178].
j1311
N S N
D2O K2CO3 D
N S 385 N
246
Scheme 14.102
Catalytic and dissolving metal reductions usually cleave the nucleus at the NS bond by a reaction that can be considered as the reverse of its synthesis by oxidative cyclization of amidinothio-derivatives (Section 14.3.4). For example, reduction of the diamino derivative 386 affords amidinothiourea (387), from which 386 may be prepared by oxidation (Scheme 14.103).
NH2 S N H N NH S
N H2N
[H] [O]
H2N
NH2
386
Scheme 14.103
387
Reduction of 3,5-diphenyl-1,2,4-thiadiazole (388) results in the loss of sulfur and formation of benzamidine 389 (Scheme 14.104)
Ph S N
N Ph
[H]
Ph
H N NH 389
Ph
388
Scheme 14.104
14.3.5.1 Aromatic Ring Reactivity 1,2,4-Thiadiazoles are weak bases. Methylation with iodomethane occurs at N4; when trimethyloxonium tetrauoroborate is used as methylating agent, the reaction takes place at both nitrogen atoms, leading to the diquaternary salt 390 (Scheme 14.105) [213].
N S N
Me 2 [Me3O]BF4 60% N S N Me
246
Scheme 14.105
390
1312
j 14 Thiadiazoles
Methylation of 5-amino-1,2,4-thiadiazoles 360 (R H, Ph) affords the N4 derivatives 391; further methylation gives 4-methyl-5-methylimino-3H-1,2,4-thiadiazolines 392 (Scheme 14.106) [214]. On warming in ethanol, compound 391 (R H) undergoes a Dimroth rearrangement to give 393.
N H2N S 360 R N MeI HN Me N S R N MeI Me MeN R N
N S 392
391 EtOH Me EtO R N N H HN S R N
67-70%
R = H,Ph
OEt NHMe S NH
EtOH MeHN
N S 393 30-93%
Scheme 14.106
The N4 derivatives 394, obtained by reaction of phenacyl bromide with 5-amino1,2,4-thiadiazoles 360, spontaneously cyclizes to the fused imidazolothiadiazoles 395 (Scheme 14.107) [178].
R S 360 R = Me, Et, Ph, Bn
Scheme 14.107
N H 2N
PhCOCH2Br
PhOC H2 N
N S 394
R N Br
R H2O HBr N N S N 395 62-85% Ph
Reaction of 3-amino-1,2,4-thiadiazole (396) with trimethyloxonium tetrauoroborate occurs at N2 to yield the thiadiazolium salt, which, on basication, undergoes a Dimroth rearrangement to give the 5-methylamino derivative 397 (Scheme 14.108) [215].
NH2 [Me3 O]BF 4 N NH2 N Me S BF4
N S 396
NaOH MeHN
N S 397 81% N
Scheme 14.108
j1313
Analogously, the sulfonamide 398 by reaction with methyl uorosulfonate gives the N2 derivative 399, together with the mesoionic compound 400 (Scheme 14.109) [133].
NHSO2 R S 398 R = Ph, p-MeC6 H 4
Scheme 14.109
N Ph
MeOSO2 F Ph
N S
NSO 2R N Me + Ph
N S
NSO2 R N Me
399 15%
400 17%
Similar behavior has been observed for 3-hydroxy-5-phenyl-1,2,4-thiadiazole (401). The reaction with dimethyl sulfate and sodium hydroxide leads to N2 methylated derivative 402; when methylation was carried out with toluene-4-sulfonate, 402 was obtained together with the meso-ionic compound 403 (Scheme 14.110) [133].
OH S N O S N Me + Ph O S N Me
N Ph
p-MeC6H4SO3Me 19% Ph
401 Me2SO4,NaOH 16%

Scheme 14.110
402
403
The reaction of 3 substituted 1,2,4-thiadiazole-5-thiols (404) with formaldehyde and with arylsulfonyl chlorides leads to N4 derivatives 405 and 406 (Scheme 14.111) [216].
HOH2C S N S 405 R = Me, Et, Ph Ar = Ph, Tolyl
Scheme 14.111
R N
HCHO 19-43% HS
N S
R N
ArSO2Cl 23-65%
ArO2S S
N S 406
R N
404
In general, hard nucleophiles attack at the C5 carbon atom of 1,2,4-thiadiazoles, while soft nucleophiles react at the sulfur atom.
1314
j 14 Thiadiazoles
For examples, nucleophilic attack at C5 has been suggested as the initial step in many ring-opening reactions leading to linear products that, according to the substituents, can recyclize to other heterocyclic systems [120]. Thus, 3,5-diamino1,2,4-thiadiazole (386) upon treatment with hot alkali undergoes a nucleophilic attack at C5 to give the proposed intermediate 407, which affords, by extrusion of sulfur, the amidinourea (408) (Scheme 14.112). The stability of 5-alkylamino and 5-arylamino homologues is considerably higher; thus, the reaction does not occur even after several hours reuxing in 3N sodium hydroxide solution.
NH2 S N OH, HN S NH2 N S good yields H2N H N NH 408 O NH2
N H2N
H2N
H O
386
Scheme 14.112
407
2-Methyl-3,5-diphenyl-1,2,4-thiadiazolium chlorosulfate (409) is cleaved by alkoxides to give the benzimidate 410 (Scheme 14.113) [167].
Ph S N Me N O R R = Me, Et
Scheme 14.113
Ph S N Me
N Ph
RO
Ph
S 70% Ph
N OR
Ph N Me
409
410
Primary and secondary amines also function as hard nucleophiles and attack at the C5 position of 409 to yield the open-chain salts 411; when hydrazines and hydroxylamines are used, the initially formed salts cyclize to give a 1,2,4-triazole or oxadiazole 412 (Y N or O) (Scheme 14.114) [131]. A carbon nucleophile, the dicyanomethanide ion, also attacks at the C5 position of 409; the open-chain product 413 cyclizes to the dihydropyrimidine 414. On further treatment with dicyanomethanide ion or aqueous base, a Dimroth rearrangement occurs to pyrimidine 415 (Scheme 14.115) [131]. Soft nucleophiles attack at the sulfur atom. For example, 3-hydroxy-5-phenyl-1,2,4thiadiazole (402) reacts with acetic anhydride in the presence of DBU at 130 C to give thiazole 417 (Scheme 14.116) [215]. When the reaction is carried out at room temperature, acetylation occurs at the N2 position to give compound 418 in low yields (Scheme 14.117) [215]. However, the most important nucleophilic attack at the sulfur atom is related to the ability of 1,2,4-thiadiazoles to act as a class of small heterocyclic thiol trapping agents. In fact, heterocyclic compounds possessing a NS bond are cleaved by thiolates to form compounds such as 419 via a disulde intermediate (Scheme 14.118) [131].
j1315
N Ph S
Ph N Me
R1R2NH
Ph
1
N S
Ph N S Me
1 2
N Ph 411
Ph N Me H SO3X
SO3X
N R R2
R RN
409
R1 = H, (CH2)5 R2 = Ph, CH2Ph, (CH2)5 N Ph Ph Ph Ph Y HN CH3 N H -MeNH2 Ph N Y Ph N
N Me NYH H 411
SO3X
412 59-76%
Y= NH, NPh, O
Scheme 14.114
N Ph S
Ph N Me
CH(CN)2 60%
Ph Me N H
Ph CN
Ph Me N
Ph CN
SO3X 409
NH 414
413
Ph N Me
Ph CN 60%
Ph (CN)2HC N
Ph
Ph (CN)2HC Me N
Ph CN
NH 415
CN NHMe
NH
Scheme 14.115
N Ph S
OH N
Ac2O, DBU 130 C
HO
N NH S O
Ph O O
CO2
Ph
AcHN
AcHN S H2 C
N S
Ph
401
416
Scheme 14.116
417 6%
1316
j 14 Thiadiazoles
N Ph S OH N Ac2O, DBU Ph N S O N Ac
401
Scheme 14.117
418 3%
N Ph S
Ph N Me
PhS
N Ph PhS S
Ph N Me
-PhS Ph
N S
Ph N Me
H2O
H Ph
N S
Ph N Me 419 63%
409
+ PhSSPh
Scheme 14.118
It has been widely reported that three different families of 1,2,4-thiadiazoles are able to react with enzyme cysteine residues to form a disulde adduct, thus inhibiting the enzyme (Scheme 14.119) [127129].
N G S
Y N 420a Enzyme-SH
N N
N N N
Y 420b
Y 420c
N G S S
Y NH Enzyme
Scheme 14.119
The design of inhibitors based on the monocyclic 1,2,4-thiadiazole scaffold 420 involves the use of substituent G as a recognition arm for the enzyme binding, and the substituent Y for tuning the reactivity of the ring opening. The presence of a fused ring in bicyclic 420b and tricyclic 420c derivatives is preferred for the inhibition of certain enzymes such as H /K ATPase.
j1317
14.3.5.2 Reactions of 1,2,4-Thiadiazolidines 2,4-Dimethyl-1,2,4-thiadiazolidine-3,5-dithione (421) isomerizes in acid solution to 4-methyl-5-(methylimino)-1,2,4-dithiazolidine-3-thione (422): the reverse reaction occurs in alkaline media [163]. Compounds 421 and 422 are interconvertible also in the presence of electrophilic nitriles and give 1,2,4-thiadiazoline-5-thiones 424 as nal products. The interconversion has been rationalized on the basis of a cycloadditionelimination mechanism that involves hypervalent sulfur intermediates (Scheme 14.120).
Me S Me N N S S acid MeN Me N S S S
421
422
R C
Me N N
Me N S S S N C R Me MeN Me Me S S N C R N S N S S N S R Na N
Me R
N N
S S N
R Me R N N S S
CS
422
S S
R N
R
RC
CN
Me R
R C N
MeN R
S Me
N N S
S N N Me
423
N N S
N R
421
Scheme 14.120
Substituted 2,4-diimino-1,2,4-thiadiazolidines 425 isomerize under acidic conditions to 2-guanidinobenzothiazoles 427. The suggested mechanism involves the protonation of 425 at N2, followed by the NS bond cleavage to 426 and subsequent electrophilic attack of the sulfur at the aromatic ring (Scheme 14.121) [167].
14.3.5.3 Reaction of D2-1,2,4-Thiadiazolines Hectors base, 3-arylamino-4-aryl-5-imino-1,2,4-thiadiazole (320), undergoes a basecatalyzed Dimroth rearrangement to give Dosts base 352 (Scheme 14.90); the reduction of 320 under mild conditions (H2S/25 C) gives amidinothiourea 428, which hydrolyzes to diphenylguanidine (429). Compound 429 can be obtained directly from 320 by reduction under drastic conditions (Scheme 14.122) [178]. Hectors base forms a 1 : 1 adduct (430) with CS2 [217], while reaction with electron-decient alkynes gives 2-arylaminothiazoles 431 (Scheme 14.123) [120].
N aN C S
424
R = Ph
1318
j 14 Thiadiazoles
PhN Ph Ph N N S 425 NPh H PhN Ph N N S Ph H NPh
Ph N PhHN NPh
N S 427
PhN PhN
Ph N S 426
Scheme 14.121
PhHN
N N S 352 64%
NHPh
EtOH NH3
PhHN
Ph N N S 320
Ph Zn, HCl NH - HCNS PhHN NH NH 429 55% H
H2S Ph PhHN N NH 428 67%

Scheme 14.122
NH2 S
N S S N Ph
NPh NH2
CS2 68%
PhHN
Ph N N S 320 NH
X 70%
X X
N S 431
NHPh
430
Scheme 14.123
X = CO 2 Me
j1319
It has been suggested [120] that these reactions proceed via a stepwise mechanism (Scheme 14.124).
Ph N N S
PhHN
Ph N N S 320
NH
PhHN
N X
X H
X = CO2Me
- PhNHCS
X X
N S 431
X NHPh 70% Ph N N S
H X
Scheme 14.124
An analogous nucleophilic substitution pattern has been proposed for the reaction of 3,4-disubstituted 5-imino-D2-1,2,4-thiadiazolines with arylcyanamides and imidates. These reactions give rearranged products that result from bond switching at hypervalent sulfur intermediates [218]. Thus, treatment of 432 with ethyl acetimidate leads to derivative 433, which on methylation with Meerweins reagent (Me3O BF4) affords the salt 434. The structure of compounds 433 and 434 has been conrmed by X-ray analysis (Scheme 14.125) [219].
Me N N S 432 NH EtO NH Me N N S N HN Me
N N
N S N H
Me N N S MeHN 434 75%

Scheme 14.125
TFA BF 4
Me N N S
N MeN
Me 3OBF4
N N S
Me N HN
433 60%
1320
j 14 Thiadiazoles
Bond switching rearrangement using the propensity of sulfur to assume a hypervalent state has been observed in the reactions of bicyclic thiadiazolines 435 with nitriles: an exchange of nitrile units has been observed to give 436 (Scheme 14.126) [220].
RCN + R1 N N S R
1
N N N S N
R1 CN + R
N N 436
N S
435 R = Me R1 =H, Me, Ph, 4-NO2 C6 H4, 4-pyridyl, CH2OMe, 2-OHC6H4, CD3, CH=CHCN
Scheme 14.126
62-82%
The products 438 of the addition of nucleophiles (i.e., alcohols, amines) to the cyano group of 5-(cyanoimino)thiadiazolines 437 undergo a BoultonKatritzky rearrangement, followed by the elimination of a nitrile from the intermediate 439 to give thiadiazoles 440 (Scheme 14.127) [221].
R2 N N S R2 N N S N
R1
NCN
HNu
R1
Nu
HN 438
437
R 1 = Me, Et, Ph, Bn R 2 = Me, Et, Ph, Bn
Nu
N N S
R2 NH
Nu
N N S
R2 N
R1
HN 439
440 19-65%
Scheme 14.127
14.3.5.4 Reaction of D3-1,2,4-Thiadiazolines D3-1,2,4-thiadiazolines react with electrophilic reagents to give rearrangement products. As an example, treatment of thiadiazoline 441 with trichloroacetonitrile affords a mixture of tautomers 443 and 444, through the intermediacy and rearrangement of imine 442 (Scheme 14.128) [222].
j1321
R1
N S Me
NH
CCl3CN
R1
N N S
Me
CCl3
HN 442
441
R =Me, Bn
1
Cl3C
Cl3C
N
1
N N S
R N S MeHN
H N
R1
MeN 443
444 64-73%
Scheme 14.128
Thiadiazolines 441 have been acylated in the presence of triethylamine [223]. The use of diphenylketene as acylating agents leads to 445 which, by heating in polar solvents, rearranges to D2-thiazolin-4-one 446, whose structure has been conrmed by X-ray analysis. A similar rearrangement is observed when 441 is reacted with DMAD to give 447 (Scheme 14.129).
R1 N Ph Ph R1 C O N Ph Ph
N S Me 441
NH +
N S Me
N O
445
DMAD MeO2C MeO2C O N R1 Ph Ph N S
N S
R1 R1 = Ph
MeHN
MeHN 446
447 56-76% R1 = Me, Ph, p-MeC6H4, p-MeOC6H4, CH(CH3)2

Scheme 14.129
48-62%
14.3.5.5 Reaction of D4-1,2,4-Thiadiazolines Bond-switching rearrangement via hypervalent sulfur occurs when 5-anilino-2benzyl-3-oxo-D4-1,2,4-thiadiazoline (448) reacts with ketenes (or isothiocyanates or
1322
j 14 Thiadiazoles
carbon disulde) and nitriles to give the products 449 and 450, respectively (Scheme 14.130) [224].
Ph N O N S R N RCN Et3N O Bn N S 448 R = Ts, CCl 3 X = NEt, S, Ph2C, (EtO2C)2C Y = S, O, NCOPh, NCO2Et, NC6H4NO2(p)
Scheme 14.130
Y N NHPh X C Y Ph N O PhHN N 449 61% X S
NHBn 450 64-90%
2-Benzyl-5-chloro-1,2,4-thiadiazole-3-one (451) and 2-aminobenzyl cyanide (452) in ethanol containing triethylamine react to afford the intermediate 453, which, through yet another example of bond switching, gives the indolinothiadiazolone 454 (Scheme 14.131) [225].
O Bn N S
N Cl
NH2 + CN
Et3 N EtOH O HN N
N S N O
S N NH Bn
Bn 453
451
452
454 60%
Scheme 14.131
D4-1,2,4-Thiadiazolines are readily cleaved at the NS bond under very mild conditions to give thiobiouret by a reaction that is inverse to that reported in Scheme 14.86. 3-Imino-1,2,4-thiadiazoline provides example of reductive ring cleavage in which the products immediately recyclize to new heterocyclic system. Thus, the D4-1,2,4thiadiazoline 455 is cleaved with H2S to give triazines 456 and 457 (Scheme 14.132) [167].
14.3.5.6 Reactions of Substituents Owing to the lower electron density at the 5-position of the 1,2,4-thiadiazole ring with respect to the 3-position, methyl or methylene groups attached at C5 show a marked acidity, which promotes different reactions patterns, following hydrogen abstraction by bases. In fact, the resulting carbanions, stabilized by conjugation, react, for
j1323
NH2 HN HN Ph N S N SMe H 2S HN Ph NH -MeSH NH2 N Ph N 457 45%

Scheme 14.132
SMe SH
-H 2S Ph
N N
N SMe
455
456 52%
N SH
example, with aromatic aldehydes to give 5-styrylthiadiazoles 458, with CO2 to yield the carboxylic acids 459, and with carboxylic acid esters to afford the keto derivatives 460 (Scheme 14.133) [120].
1
N Ar S
R N
-H ArCHO Me
N S
R N
-H R CO 2R
2 3
R OC
N S
R N
458 36-72% R 1 = Me, Ph, Bn R 2 = Me, Ph, Bn R 3 = Me, Et HO 2C
460 35-70% -H CO 2 R S N
1
459 26-65%
Scheme 14.133
Analogously, treatment of the methyl ester 461 with triethylamine and tosyl azide leads to diazoester 462 through the formation of an intermediate carbanion (Scheme 14.134) [226]. 3-Methyl-1,2,4-thiadiazole is less acidic and will not undergo the above reported reactions.
1324
j 14 Thiadiazoles
MeO2C N S 461 Me N Et3N TsN 3 27% MeO2C N2 N S Me N
462
Scheme 14.134
According to standard procedures, 3-alkyl-1,2,4-thiadiazole-5-carboxylates 463 are transformed into hydroxymethyl derivatives 464, primary amines 465, and tertiary amines 466 (Scheme 14.135) [226].
R N S 466 55-76% Phthalamide DEAD, Ph3P N 2H 4
EtO O
N S
R N
R NaBH 4 N S
MeSO 2Cl OH Me 2NH
NMe 2
463
464
R = Me, Ph, Tolyl
R N S
NH2
465 23-69%
Scheme 14.135
3-Amino-1,2,4-thiadiazoles are alkylated at N4 by treatment with MeI, while methylation of 3-amino derivatives with trimethyloxonium tetrauoroborate produces the N4 quaternary salt (Section 14.5.5.1): the obtained compounds can undergo a Dimroth rearrangements (Schemes 14.106 and 14.108). In contrast, harder electrophiles, such as benzydryl and thrityl chlorides, alkylate 3-amino and 5-amino derivatives at the amino functionality [227]. 3-Amino and 5-amino-1,2,4-thiadiazoles are acylated under the usual conditions at the amino group. Moreover, they easily react with isocyanates, carbamates, and chloroformates (Scheme 14.136); the 5-amino derivatives 467 and 468 are used as herbicides and bactericides [120]. A bond-switching reaction, already described in the Section 14.3.5.2 (Scheme 14.120) for 1,2,4-thiadiazolidines, can occur at the p-hypervalent sulfur atom of 5-amino derivatives. In fact, when compounds 360 were reacted with aliphatic or aromatic nitriles, a mixture of 1,2,4-thiadiazoles 470 and 471 via the intermediate 469 were obtained (Scheme 14.137) [167].
j1325
R1 N S
N NH O 468 42-76% OEt
Ethyl Chloformiate
R1 N S
N NH2
RNCO
R1 N S
N NH O NHR
360
467 25-60%
R =R = Me, Ph, Bn
Scheme 14.136
N H 2N S
R N
R1CN
N N S H 224
N N H
R R1 N S
N N R1
115 R = R1 = Me, Ph, Bn
H2N 225 29-70%
R1 N S
N N R
H2N 226 32-75%

Scheme 14.137
5-Nitrosoamino-1,2,4-thiadiazoles are moderately reactive and can be converted into different functional groups by reaction with the appropriate reagents [120]. For example, the 5-hydrazino-1,2,4-thiadiazoles 473 can be easily prepared by simple reduction with LiAlH4 of the corresponding nitrosoamine 472. Compounds 473 are stable in acidic or basic conditions and can be transformed into the corresponding hydrazones by reaction with suitable carbonyl compounds. In contrast, the 3-hydrazino derivatives 474, obtained by ring closure procedures, are very sensitive to both acids and bases, giving 1,2,4-triazoles 475 by sulfur extrusion (Scheme 14.138). 5-Amino-1,2,4-thiadiazoles 360 can be diazotized, by treatment with sodium nitrite, to give the diazonium salts 476. These compounds, because of the strong electron attraction of the 1,2,4-thiadiazole ring, are particularly reactive and can even couple with the hydrocarbon mesitylene, leading to the monoazo dye 477 [227], or can be transformed into the 5-azido derivatives 478 by treatment with sodium azide (Scheme 14.139).
1326
j 14 Thiadiazoles
N ONHN S R1 N LiAlH4 56-80% H2NHN N S R1 N
472 R = Me, Ph, Tolyl N Me S NHNH2 N H or OH Me
473
N N H
NH2 N
474
S good yields
475
R =, Me, Ph, Tolyl

Scheme 14.138
N H 2N S
R1 N NaNO2 H N2
N S
R1 N 476 NaN3 R1 S N H
N N N S
R1 N
360 R1 = Me, Ph
477 48-76%
N N3
478 45-90%
Scheme 14.139
Both 3- and 5-hydroxy-1,2,4-thiadiazoles are generally acidic compounds, comparable to phenol and nitrophenol, respectively. The mercapto-1,2,4-thiadiazoles are even more acidic [178]. 3-Hydroxy-1,2,4-thiadiazoles 253 react with electrophiles either at the hydroxylic function or at N2. Normally, hard electrophiles (acyl chlorides) attack the oxygen of the hydroxyl group, giving rise to 3-acyl derivatives 479, while soft reagents (acid anhydrides) attack the N2 position, giving rise to 1,2,4-thiadiazolin-3-ones 480 (Scheme 14.140) [167]. As already reported in Section 14.3.1, 5-mercapto-1,2,4-thiadiazoles 258 do not show any SH absorption, thus suggesting that the position of the equilibrium is
j1327
O O Me N S
HO N R Ac2O 68-85% N S
N R
RCOX 56-78%
ROCO N S
N R
480 R =Me, Et, Bu, Ph, Bn X = Cl, Br

Scheme 14.140
253
479
shifted towards the thione tautomers 259 and 260. The presence of 259 at the equilibrium is conrmed by the reaction with either formaldehyde or with sulfenyl chlorides, which give rise to N4 derivatives 481 and 482, respectively. In contrast, treatment with diazomethane, methyl iodide, methyl sulfate, and bromoacetic and 3bromopropionic acids gives only the S- derivatives 483 and 484 (Scheme 14.141), so indicating that the 5-mercapto form 258 contributes to tautomeric equilibrium [227].
R N S 483 38-78% Br(CH2)nCO2H R R = Me, Ph, Tolyl N S 484 24-76%
Scheme 14.141
N SMe
CH2N2 or MeI or Me2SO4
R N S
N SH 258
R N
NH S S 259 ArSO2Cl R
HCHO
R N
CH2OH
S S 481
29-65%
N S(CH2)nCO2H
N S
SO2Ar S Ar = Ph, Tolyl
482 32-56%
The sulde derivatives 483 can be oxidized to the corresponding sulfoxides 485 and sulfones 486 using m-chloroperbenzoic acid (MCPBA) and hydrogen peroxide respectively (Scheme 14.142) [216].
R N S N S O 486 24-68% R = Me, Ph
Scheme 14.142
Me O
H 2O2 AcOH
R N S
N SMe
MCPBA
R N S
483
485 35-72%
Me S O
1328
j 14 Thiadiazoles
The 5-sulfonyl group can be easily removed by nucleophilic displacement: for example, the reaction of 486a with various amines gives 487 (Scheme 14.143) [228].
HO But N S But Me N S O 486a O RH HO But N S 487 72% But
N R
R = NH2,HNC(NH)NH2 HCl, HNC(NH)Me HCl, HNC(NH)SMe HCl

Scheme 14.143
14.3.6 Thiadiazoles in Medicine
1,2,4-Thiadiazoles constitute a distinctive class of small heterocycles exhibiting various types of biological activities and some of these compounds are useful pharmacophores. Furthermore, they have found use as dyestuffs, lubricant additives, and vulcanization agents [120]. The 1,2,4-thiadiazole nucleus is found in some compounds that show analgesic and anticonvulsant properties, such as 488490 [227]. More recently, it has been reported that 3-arylamino-4-aryl-5-(N-arylthiocarbamoyl)-4,5-dihydro-1,2,4-thiadiazoles block strychnine seizures [228].
H2N ArN R N S 488 R N NAr ArHN N S Ar N N 489 S NHMe ArHN N S 490 Ar N N H Ar N N S S NHAr
491
Anti-inammatory activity has been described for compounds 492494 [229]. In particular, several 1,2,4-thiadiazoles containing a di-tert-butyl-phenol substituent have been identied as active and selective cyclooxygenase (COX-2) inhibitors [230].
HO BnN Ar N S 492 Ar N NBn H 2N N S Ar N NBn 493 N S 494 t-Bu N R t-Bu
j1329
Cephalosporins incorporating the 1,2,4-thiadiazole system have been prepared and shown to possess good antibiotic activity. Thus, compounds of type 495 have been the subject of patent specications [167]. With the aim of developing a broadspectrum cephalosporin, new b-lactams bearing various condensed-heterocycles have been reported [231]. In particular, improvement of anti-pseudomonal and anti-MRSA (methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus) activities was obtained by introducing a 5-amino-1,2,4-thiadiazol-3-yl moiety and a hydroxyimino group as C7 substituent (as in compound 496) [231, 232].
XHN
O N S S N S N R S H2N N N
NOMe
N O O
H S N N N
CO2H 495
. HCl
N
CO2 496
The novel cephalosporin 497 showed an extremely potent activity against Grampositive and Gram-negative bacteria [233, 234]. Novel C30 condensed-heterocyclic pyridinium cephems have also been prepared to enhance the antibacterial spectrum and water solubility [235, 236].
N N
NOMe
N O O
S H2N
H S N N N N H O
CO2 497
. H SO
2
N N S
498
Thiadiazolidinediones such as 498 are the rst examples of potent and selective inhibitors of bacterial dihydroorotate dehydrogenase (DHO), a critical enzyme of the pyrimidine biosynthesis [237]. During the last decade, several 1,2,4-thiadiazoles have been reported with relevant biological activities concerning the central nervous system, G-protein coupled receptors, and cardiovascular system. Among the thiadiazoles that act on the cardiovascular system, KC 12 291 (499) has shown cardioprotective actions due to the inhibition of voltage-gated Na channels [238].
Me N S O N 499 N OMe OMe N S 500 N NSO2R
1330
j 14 Thiadiazoles
The 2-sulfonylimino-2H-1,2,4-thiadiazolo[2,3-a]pyridine derivatives 500 have been described as possessing platelet aggregation inhibitory and cardiotonic actions, although the mechanism of action at the molecular level has not been disclosed [239]. Remarkable antiplatelet and anticoagulant activities have also been observed in 1,2,4-thiadiazol-5(2H)-iminium chlorides 501 [240]. In addition, 5-oxo-1,2,4-thiadiazoles 502 have shown efcient oral bioavailability as angiotensin II receptor antagonists [241].
O Cl NH N R R 501 502 S N HO2C HN S N OEt N
Some 1,2,4-thiadiazoles have been described as potential drugs for the treatment of Alzheimers disease. Thus, 3-(thiadiazolyl)pyridine-1-oxides 503 are endowed with antioxidant and muscarinic receptor binding properties [242], while a series of 1,2,4thiadiazolidinones containing the N-benzylpiperidine fragment (504) have revealed acetylcholinesterase inhibitory activity [243]. Furthermore, it has been stated that in a series of 1,2,4-thiadiazoles bearing a mono-or bicyclic amine at C5 (505), the ring can be regarded as an ester mimic in the binding of muscarinic ligands capable of displaying high receptor afnity [143]. More recently, the thiadiazolidin-3,5-diones 506 were described as the rst non-ATP competitive inhibitors of glycogen synthase kinase 3b [171], an interesting target for the development of new promising drugs for the treatment of Alzheimers disease, stroke, cancer, and diabetes type II.
N N O S N N N R N S N
N Me
Et 503
Et 504
R N N S O
S N N N
O R
505
506
Compound 507 has been found to be a general allosteric modulator of both agonist and antagonist binding to a wide series of G-protein coupled receptors such as the human m-, d-, and k -opioid, a- and b-adrenergic, muscarinic M1 and M2, and dopaminergic D1 and D2 receptors [183, 244].
j1331
Some 2,3,5-substituted-1,2,4-thiadiazoles of general formula 508 were able to inhibit at a nal concentration of 1 mM the [3H]CCPA (2-chloro-N6-cyclopentyladenosine) agonist binding to human A1 adenosine receptors. At the same concentration, the same compounds were able to increase [3 H]DPCPX(1,3-dipropyl-8-cyclopentylxanthine) antagonist binding [184, 185].
N N S 507
N Me
HBr
N N S 508 N
HBr
Me R
Thiadiazoles with different N-imino substituents have been synthesized; the results of receptorligand binding showed that these compounds are best described as protein modiers (sulfhydryl modifying agents) rather than allosteric modulators. 4-(Diethoxyphosphoryl)methyl-N-(3-phenyl[1,2,4]thiadiazol-5-yl)benzamide (509) acts as a potent mesangial cell proliferation inhibitor [245], 6-(1,2,4-thiadiazol-5-yl)-3aminopyridazine derivatives 510 are novel angiogenesis inhibitors [246], and 2,3diaryl-5-anilino-1,2,4-thiadiazolium bromide 511 has been identied as a melacortin4 receptor agonist [247].
PO3Et2
O N S N N
S N
H N
N N
Cl
509
Me
510
MeO
N N H S N
Br Me
511
1,3,4-Thiadiazole ring systems include aromatic derivatives such as the parent compound 512, the mesoionic systems 513, the 1,3,4-thiadiazolium cation 514 and the non-aromatic forms such as the tautomeric compounds 515, the 1,3,4-thiadiazolines 516 and 517, and the tetrahydro-1,3,4-thiadiazolidines 518. All the structures are well known.
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j 14 Thiadiazoles
R N N S 512 N N S 513 X = S, O, NR R R R X R N N S 514 N NH S 515 X = S, O, NR X
N N
N N S 517
N N S
S 516
518
The chemistry of 1,3,4-thiadiazoles has attracted continued interest over the years because of the great practical importance of these compounds. Several thiadiazoles have been broadly applied in agriculture, industry, polymer chemistry, and, especially, in the pharmaceutical eld, because some compounds have shown to be active as fungicides, bactericides, herbicides, and plant-growth regulators. In particular, 1,3,4-thiadiazoles are used in medicine, as antimicrobial [248], antituberculosis [249], anti-inammatory [250], anticonvulsant [251], antihypertensive [252], local anesthetic [253], anticancer [254], and hypoglycaemic compounds [255]. This ring system has been the subject of several reviews [256258]; this chapter will be essentially devoted to the recent published reports (20002008).
14.4.1 Structure 14.4.1.1 Theoretical Aspects The structure and electronic parameters have been obtained by means of theoretical calculations using the computational methodologies of quantum chemistry [259]. Reported DFT and ab initio calculations of the molecular geometry of the parent compound 512 (Table 14.7) are in agreement with experimental data
DFT/6-31G computational method versus experimental bond lengths (A), angles ( ), and dipole moment (Debye) of 1,3,4-thiadiazole (512).
Table 14.7

Coordinates CS (A) CN (A) NN (A) CH (A) CSC ( ) SCN ( ) CNN ( ) SCH ( ) NCH ( ) m (Debye)

DFT/6-31G 1.747 1.300 1.373 1.082 85.6 114.7 112.5 122.1 123.3 3.43
Microwave spectroscopy 1.720 1.303 1.371 1.077 86.4 114.6 112.2 122.5 122.9 3.28
Electron diffraction 1.722 1.304 1.381 1.081 86.4 114.8 112.0 124.1 121.1
X-ray 1.74 1.31 1.38 0.98 87 114 113 123 123
Table 14.8 Net charges and condensed Fukui functions for 1,3,4-thiadiazole (512) obtained through BLYP-DFT calculations.
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Atom S C N H
Net charges 0.818 0.3275 0.0308 0.2673
f 0.2445 0.2153 0.0930 0.0694
f 0.2633 0.1233 0.1740 0.0711
f0 0.2539 0.1693 0.1335 0.0703
(electron diffraction, microwave spectroscopy, dipole moment, and X-ray spectroscopy) [260]. DFTmethods have also been used to calculate the net atomic charges and the Fukui functions f , f , and f 0 for 1,3,4-thiadiazole 512 (Table 14.8) [261]. The obtained data show that 512 is reactive towards nucleophiles, with the sulfur atom as the favorite position. In particular, the sulfur atom, which has the largest f value (0.2445) is the preferred site of soft nucleophiles, while the carbon atom is the preferred site of hard nucleophiles. More recently, the molecular geometry of 2-tert-butyldithio-5-methyl-1,3,4-thiadiazole (519) has been investigated by HartreeFock (HF) and density functional methods (B3LYP and BLYP), with the 6-31G(d) basis set, and compared with experimental data (Table 14.9) [262]. The best agreement with the experimental
Table 14.9 DFT/6-31G(d) and HartreeFock computational methods versus experimental bond

lengths (A) and angles ( ) of 2-tert-butyldithio-5-methyl-1,3,4-thiadiazole (519) in the ground state.

Me Me Me S
3
S2
C1 N1
Me N N C2
N2
519
Coordinate S1C1 (A) S1C2 (A) S2C1 (A) N1C1 (A) N1N2 (A) N2C2 (A) C1S1C2 ( ) N1C1S1 ( ) C1N1N2 ( ) C2N2N1 ( ) S2C1S1 ( ) S2C1N1 ( ) C3C2S1 ( ) C1N1N2C2 ( )

Experimental 1.732 1.736 1.760 1.299 1.383 1.294 86.7 107.1 119.0 109.9 127.2 125.7 122.7 0.1
HF 1.738 1.736 1.771 1.271 1.361 1.275 86.2 104.9 116.1 111.4 123.6 123.5 120.0 0.1
B3LYP 1.760 1.761 1.779 1.304 1.372 1.302 86.4 107.0 117.4 110.0 124.9 123.3 123.7 0.6
BLYP 1.741 1.741 1.779 1.309 1.378 1.313 87.1 106.3 117.7 111.1 123.0 123.8 120.1 1.3
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j 14 Thiadiazoles
values has been reached using the optimized bond lengths by HF and bond angles by DFT (B3LYP) methods. Fukui functions, the HOMO and a Mulliken population analysis of 1,3,4-thiadiazoles 520528 have been calculated by using the B3LYP functionals and a STO-3G basis set [259].
S N N 520
Me Me
S N N 521 O
Me
S N N 522
Me
S N N 523
H 2N Me
S N N 524
Me
OH S N N 525 Me
OH S N N 526 Me
SH S N N 527 Me
Cl S N N 528 Me
According to these calculations the most susceptible sites for electrophilic attacks are the N3 and N4 atoms of the thiadiazole ring. These sites present the highest values in fk with a range of 0.08390.2144. Derivatives 524, 527, and 528 show other sites susceptible to electrophilic attack, corresponding to the atoms of nitrogen, sulfur, and chlorine present as substituents in the alkyl chain. Nevertheless, in compound 527 the sulfur atom of the thiole group was demonstrated to be much more reactive than atoms N3 and N4 with a fk equal to 0.2931. In all the cases studied the site prone to nucleophilic attack was shown to be the sulfur atom of the ring that possesses the highest values of fk falling in a range 0.19830.2520.
14.4.2 Structural Aspects 14.4.2.1 X-Ray Diffraction A gas-phase electron diffraction investigation of the molecular structure of 1,3,4thiadiazole 512 has been reported by Markov et al. [263]. The compound is planar and has a C2V symmetry with the following bond lengths (A) and bond angles ( ): CH 1.081 0.028, NC 1.304 0.010, NN 1.381 0.016, SC 1.722 0.006; CSC 86.4 0.4, SCN 114.8 0.5, CNN 112.0 0.4, SCH 124.1 3.0, and HCN 121.1 3.0. The technique has been largely used to determine the structure of 1,3,4-thiadiazoles. The X-ray structure of 2-amino-5-(m-nitrophenyl)-1,3,4-thiadiazole (529) shows that this compound is also planar [264]. The single crystals are monoclinic, a 11.832 A, b 9.862 A, c 8.353 A, b 110.40(3) , V 913.6(3) A3, dcalcd 1.212 g cm3,
Table 14.10 Bond lengths (A) and angles ( ) in the structure of 2-amino-5-(m-nitrophenyl)-1,3,4thiadiazole (529).

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NO2
C(3)
C(1)
H N N(3) N C(2) H N(1) N S

N(2)
529
Bond SC1 SC2 N1C1 N1N2 N2C2 N3C2 C1C3 d (A) 1.742 1.730 1.285 1.380 1.311 1.353 1.471

Bond C1S1C2 N1C1S C1N1N2 C2N2N1 N1C1C3 C3C1S N2C2N3 N2C2S
Angle ( ) 86.8 113.7 113.6 112.0 124.5 121.8 124.7 113.9
m(MoKa) 0.253 mm1, Z 4, and space group P21/c. Table 14.10 gives the relative bond lengths and angles. The lone pairs of nitrogen and sulfur atoms are conjugated with the double bonds of the ve-membered ring. This is indicated by the N2C2 (1.311 A), N1C1 (1.285 A), and N1N2 (1.380 A) bond lengths. The lengths of two endocyclic NC bonds are intermediate between the standard lengths of the sesqui-bond and double bond. The planes of the thiadiazole and benzene rings form a dihedral angle of 27.7 . The angle between the benzene ring and the nitro group is 8.3 . The X-ray analysis of 2-triuoro-N-1,3,4-thiadiazole-2-yl)ethanethioamide (530) shows that this molecule is a dimer and exhibits intermolecular hydrogen bonds and intramolecular nonbonding 1,5-type S. . ..S interactions. The distance between the thiocarbonyl sulfur and the thiadiazole ring sulfur is 2.905 A [265].
CF3
S 2.905A S N N N H N N H S N 2.905A S
CF3
530
1336
j 14 Thiadiazoles
The crystal structure of 6-(2-chlorophenyl)-3-ethyl-[1,2,4]triazole[3,4-b]1,3,4-thiadiazole (531) has been reported recently [266]. The compound crystallizes in monoclinic space group P21/c with a cell parameters a 11.879 A, b 15.112 A, c 13.95 A, Z 8, and the nal R factor is R1 0.0524. The ve-membered and phenyl rings are planar with a maximum deviation of 0.021 A for C1. The structure exhibits both intra- and intermolecular hydrogen bonds of the type CH. . .N.
N N N N
C1
Cl
531
14.4.2.2 NMR Spectroscopy The 1 H NMR signals of 1,3,4-thiadiazoles are usually shifted downeld with respect to protons in benzene, according to the electron deciency of the heterocyclic ring. In the parent compound 512, the protons are equivalent and resonate at 9.12 ppm as singlet. The presence of alkyl or aryl substituents shifts the resonance upeld, similarly to amino and alkoxy groups. In particular, the 2-amino-1,3,4-thiadiazole (532) shows the H5 proton as singlet at 7.06 d and the NH2 protons at 8.54 ppm; for 2amino 5-triuoromethyl-1,3,4-thiadiazole (533), the NH2 resonance appears as singlet at 7.71 d [267].
N N H C2 S 532
C1
N N F3C C2 S 533
NH2
C1
N N Ph C2 S 534
NH2
C1
Ph
The 13 C chemical shift for C1, or C2 carbon, in the parent compound is at 153.1 ppm. The presence of phenyl substituents in 534 moves these carbons to 167.7 d [268]. In the case of compounds 532 and 533, the C2 signals are shifted upeld compared with C1 carbons, which, respectively, resonate in the range 144.8146.8 d and 171.2173.8 d [267]. Many fully assigned 1 H and 13 C data for disubstituted 1,3,4-thiadiazoles have been reported [269]. Table 14.11 summarizes the 1 H and 13 C NMR spectra of 2,5disubstituted-3-trimethylsilymethyl-1,3,4-thiadiazolium triuoromethanesulfonates 535537, which are useful starting materials for the preparation of 1,3,4-thiadiazolium-3-methanide species used as 1,3-dipoles [270].
14.4.2.3 UV, ESR, and IR Spectroscopy The electronic spectra of 1,3,4-thiadiazoles containing substituents with lone pairs are bathochromically shifted. Substituted alkylthio- derivatives show a greater bathochromic shift than the amino derivatives. p-Nitrophenyl groups cause large bathochromic shifts, while m-nitrophenyl groups cause hypsochromic shifts.
Table 14.11 1 H and 13 C NMR data (ppm) of 2,5-disubstituted-3-trimethylsilymethyl-1,3,4thiadiazolium trifluoromethanesulfonates (535537).
j1337
N N R S R
SiMe 3SO 3CF3
535537 R = H, Me, Ph
Salts Me3Si Me-2/Me-5 NCH2 Aromatic protons H2/H5
d 1 H ppm (CDCl3) 535 0.21 536 0.10 537 0.19 d 13 C ppm (CDCl3) Salts Me3Si 535 3.0 536 2.6 537 2.2
2.90/2.71 Me-2/Me-5 15.8/14.8
4.48 3.98 4.34 NCH2 51.0 46.9 48.9
7.5510.96 (10H) Aromatic carbons 122.1134.1 (8C)
10.63/9.78 C2/C5 158.7/158.6 171.6/166.0 170.4/168.6
Unconjugated 1,3,4-thiadiazoles have no selective absorption above 220 nm. The electronic spectra of some 2-arylazo-5-phenyl-1,3,4-thiadiazole derivatives, made in pure and mixed organic solvents with different polarities, display two bands in the UV region: the rst one at 204238 nm was ascribed to the pp transition in the benzenoid system, while the second one, at 237313 nm, was attributed to a pp transition of the 1,3,4-thiadiazole moiety [271]. Electron spin resonance (ESR) spectroscopy has also been used to study the surface complexes of CuX (X CI, Br, ClO4) on silica gel chemically modied with 2amino-1,3,4-thiadiazole (532) [272]. ESR indicated a tetragonal distorted structure with low degrees of metal loading on the silica gel. Recently, the electronic spectra of some organotin(IV) derivatives of 5-amino-3H-1,3,4-thiadiazole 2-thione 538, together with the uncoordinated thiazole-2-thione 539, have been reported (Figure 14.5) [273]. These spectra show two absorption bands, at 256 2 and 318 4 nm, which may be assigned to pp and np transitions, respectively, of the chromophore (CN) present in thiadiazole ring. These bands undergo a hyperchromic shift upon complexation, indicating the participation of CN group in coordination. The infrared spectra of these compounds have also been reported. In particular, the uncoordinated ligand 539 exhibits two bands, at 2622 and 1240 cm1, assigned to n(SH) and n(CS), indicating the coexistence of both thione and thiol forms in the solid state.
N N S 532 NH2
1338
j 14 Thiadiazoles
S S N NH2 N R R S S S N NH2 N R R
R Sn S S H2N N
Sn N N S NH2
N H
538: R =n-Pr, N-Bu N NH H 2N S 539a S H2N
N N S 539b SH
Figure 14.5 Organotin(IV) derivatives of 5-amino-3H-1,3,4-thiadiazole 2-thione (538 and 539) and the uncoordinated thiazole-2-thione (540).
In the IR spectra of the organotin(IV) compounds 538, n(SH) is not observed, indicating the deprotonation of the thiol form. The n(CS) band shifts downward by 53 13 cm1, thus indicating the coordination of thione sulfur to tin. The other signicant signals for compound 539 are at 3347 (NH2), 3244 (NH2), 3180 (N3H), 1604 (NH CN), 1547 and 1476 (CN/ring mode), 1058(NN), and 672 (CSC). Some other IR absorption spectra for 1,3,4-thiadiazoles show bands at 12301165, 11901120, 10751045, 1040, 975905, 905875, 850, and 775750 cm1 [257].
14.4.2.4 Mass Spectrometry The main fragmentation of 1,3,4-thiadiazoles is the loss of a nitrile group. Thus, 2,5diphenyl-1,3,4-thiadiazole (534) shows intense ions due to the loss of PhCN, S, and HCN (Scheme 14.144).
N N Ph S 534 Ph PhCN Ph S S
PhCN
HCN S
Scheme 14.144
PhSCN
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b a Me
N N S 540
S CCl3-nFn d S n = 0,1,2
b c a N N e S SCCl3-nFn Me S 541
Figure 14.6 Fragmentation pattern of trihalomethylsulfenyl derivatives of 5-methyl-1,3,4thiadiazole-2-thiols.
In the presence of a methylthio substituent, such as 5-(methylsulfanyl)-1,3,4thiadiazol-2-amine, the major process is the loss of . SH and the fragmentation at the heterocyclic sulfur atom. In the case of 3,5-diphenyl-2,3-dihydro-1,3,4-thiadiazole, the predominant fragment is represented by PhS. , while 1,3,4-thiadiazolidinethione 515 decomposes by fragmentation of the ring [257]. More recently, fragmentation studies of several trihalomethylsulfenyl derivatives of 5-methyl-1,3,4-thiadiazole-2-thiols 540 and 541 have been reported [274]. The diagnostic fragments are characterized by the loss of the halogenated substituents, and in all cases cleavage via fragmentation a (Figure 14.6) generated the base peak of m/z 59 Da [CH3CS] . . Other fragmentations of the substituent occur, producing Cl3C , Cl2FC , and ClF2C . Fragments and losses common to all derivatives were also [MCClnF3n] , [MSCClnF3n] , [M(SSCClnF3n)] , [CS] , and [CH3CN] . .
14.4.2.5 Thermodynamic Aspects The parent compound 512 does not show tautomerism in its fully conjugated form. Nevertheless, in the presence of some substituents tautomerism is possible.
N NH S X 515a X = O, S N N XH S 515b
1,3,4-Thiadiazolin-2-ones (X O) and -2-thiones (X S) exist, in the oxo and thione forms 515a. This result is conrmed by 13 C NMR spectra of 5-methylamino-1,3,4-3H-thiadiazoline-2-thione 542a, where the C2 signal appears at 180.6 ppm, while the oxidized species, the bis(5-methylamino-1,3,4-thiadiazol-2-yl)disulde 543, obtained from 542 with aqueous hydrogen peroxide, shows the same carbon (C2) resonating at 148.6 ppm (Scheme 14.145) [275]. Tautomeric energy differences also calculated for 515, using the HF/6-31G , B3LYP/6-311G , and B3LYP/6-311 G levels of approximation, conrm that these compounds are oxo or thione compounds rather than hydroxyl and mercapto tautomers [276].
1340
j 14 Thiadiazoles
N NH N N
MeHN
S C2 S
MeHN
542a
H2 O2 / MeOH
SH S 542b 92%
N N
N N S
MeHN
S C2 S S
NHMe
543
Scheme 14.145
2-Amino-1,3,4-thiadiazoles 532 exist in the amino form, in solution and in the solid state, while the presence of the sulfonamido group shifts the equilibrium towards the imido tautomer [256, 257]. 1,3,4-Thiadiazolidine-2-thiones 544 are in equilibrium with the open-chain hydrazone tautomers 545; under basic conditions, the hydrazone salt is the predominant form (Scheme 14.146) [277].
HN NR2
S X
R R
1
R1
N N C SH R2 S
OH
R R1
S N N R2 S
544
R = Ph, 2-pyridyl
Scheme 14.146
545a
R1 = H R 2 = Me
545b
1,3,4-Thiadiazoles are solids; some of them are soluble in water, with a solubility decreasing with increasing molecular weight.
14.4.3 Synthesis 14.4.3.1 Synthesis of 1,3,4-Thiadiazoles The parent compound, described in 1956 by Goerdeler et al., was obtained by hydrogenation of 2-bromo-1,3,4-thiadiazole with Adams catalyst in 90% yield [278]. Compound 512 was also obtained by cyclization, in the presence of hydrogen sulde, of N0 -[(dimethylamino)methylidene]-N,N-dimethylhydrazonoformamide (548), prepared in a two-step sequence by reaction of DMF with thionyl chloride,
j1341
followed by treatment with N,N0 -diformylhydrazine (547) and sodium ethoxide (Scheme 14.147) [279].
Me N Me
O
SOCl 2
Me Cl N Me Cl 546 HN NH
1) H H
(2) EtONa
O O
547
N N S 65% 512
Scheme 14.147
H2 S
N N
Me 2 N
548
NMe 2
A general procedure for the preparation of 1,3,4-thiadiazoles is the cyclization of 1acylthiosemicarbazides by cold concentrated sulfuric acid. Using this method, several 5-(5-nitro-2-furyl)-1,3,4-thiadiazoles (550) have been obtained from 549 (Scheme 14.148) [280].
O2N O O 549
Scheme 14.148
H N
S N H N H R
H2SO4 0 C 52-76%
O2N O N 550 S N NR H
A convenient procedure has been reported by Nami and coworkers for the synthesis of N-(5-phenyl-1,3,4-thiadiazol-2yl)benzamide (554), by condensing thiosemicarbazide 551 with benzoyl chloride (552) under microwave irradiation, involving as intermediate the 2-benzoylhydrazinecarbothioamide (553) (Scheme 14.149) [281]. Compound 553 can also be cyclized into compound 554 with H3PO4 under conventional heating at 120 C for 10 min [282]. This cyclization is quite general and other dehydrating agents have been used such as polyphosphoric acid [283] and phosphorus oxychloride [284]. Different 2-amino-1,3,4-thiadiazoles, screened for the antituberculosis activity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis H37Rv, have been synthesized from the reaction
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H 2N HN NH 2 + S 551 2 PhCOCl 552 30s MW HN NH H 2N Ph S O 553 85% 3m Ph O N H
N N S 554 Ph
Scheme 14.149
of various 1-acylthiosemicarbazides (556) with sulfuric acid. Compounds 556 were prepared by reaction of 4-substituted benzoic acid hydrazides 555 with different aryl isothiocyanates (Scheme 14.150). Among the tested compounds, 2-phenylamino-5-(4-uorophenyl)-1,3,4-thiadiazole showed the highest inhibitory activity (69%) [285].
O Ar N H NH 2 O RC 6H 4N=C=S 67-95% Ar N H NH S NH R
555
556
H 2SO 4 50-92% R N N Ar S 557 Ar = Ph, p-FC 6 H4 , p-ClC6 H 4, p-BrC6 H 4, p-NO2 C 6H 4, C5 H4 N R = H, F, Cl, Br, Me, NO 2
Scheme 14.150
N H
5-Hydrazinyl- and 5-amino-1,3,4-thiadiazole-2-thiols (559 and 560) have been prepared in 50% and 12% yields, respectively, starting from 2-(hydrazinylcarbonothioyl)hydrazinecarbothioamide (558), by reaction with hydrochloric acid; a better yield of both compounds was obtained starting from 2,20 -carbonothioyldihydrazinecarbothioamide (561) (Scheme 14.151) [286]. Oxidation of ethyl or butyl (2-carbamothioylhydrazinylidene)ethanoate 561 with ferric chloride leads to ethyl 5-amino-1,3,4-thiadiazole-2-carboxylates showing that the electron-donating group increases the stability of 1,3,4-thiadiazole carboxylic acids (Scheme 14.152) [287].
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HN NH H2N S S NHNH 2 558
HCl conc. H2NHN
N N S 559 12% SH
N N H2N S 560 50% N N SH + H2N S 560 75% SH SH
H 2N
HN NH S S
NH NH 561
S NH2
HCl conc.
N N H2NHN S 559 20%
Scheme 14.151
N NH RO2C S 562 R = Et, Bu

Scheme 14.152
FeCl3 NH2 40% H2 N
N N S CO2R
Oxidative cyclization has also been performed with substituted thiosemicarbazones [288]. Thus, the reaction of substituted thiosemicarbazides 563 with aldehydes yields the corresponding thiosemicarbazones 564, which by oxidative cyclization, achieved with iron(III) chloride or K3Fe(CN)6, lead to substituted 1,3,4-thiadiazoles 565 in good yields (Scheme 14.153) [289].
CHO HN NH2 R N R1 563 R = H, Me, t-Bu, Ph R 1 = H, Me R 71-94% S S 71-96% O R HN N N R1 S
O S 564 FeCl 3 EtOH
N N N R1 S 565 O S
Scheme 14.153
1344
j 14 Thiadiazoles
2-Alkoxy-2-amino-1,3,4-thiadiazoles 567 have been prepared, in good yields, by oxidation of the corresponding O-alkyl 2-carbamothioylhydrazinecarbothioate 566 with hydrogen peroxide (Scheme 14.154) [290].
HN RO NH NH2 H 2O2 /3% 52-86% H2 N N N S 567 OR
SS 566
R = Me, Et, n-Pr, i-Pr, n-Bu

Scheme 14.154
The oxidation method has also been applied to 1,2-hydrazinedicarbothioamide 568 (dithiobiurea), using iodine, ferric chloride and hydrogen peroxide, to produce 2,5diamino-1,3,4-thiadiazole (569) (Scheme 14.155) [291].
HN H 2N NH NH2 H 2O2 /26% 90-96C 96% H2 N N N S 569 NH2
SS 568
Scheme 14.155
Ammonium ferric sulfate dodecahydrate has been used to prepare, in 90% yield, 2amino-5-(5-nitro-2-thienyl)-1,3,4-thiadiazole (571), starting from 5-nitrothiophene-2carboxaldehydethiosemicarbazone (570) (Scheme 14.156) [292].
H N O 2N S 570
Scheme 14.156
H N S
NH 2
Fe(SO 4) 2NH 4,12H 2 O H2 O, 100C, 4.5h 90%
N N H2 N S 571 S NO 2
A similar oxidation has been accomplished using a mixture of sodium acetate, bromine, and glacial acetic acid, which is useful in preparing 2-amino-5-phenyl-1,3, 4-thiadiazole (573) starting from 2-benzylidenehydrazinecarbothioamide (572) (Scheme 14.157) [293].
H N N S 572
Scheme 14.157
NH2
Br 2 /AcOH AcONa rt, 2h, 62%
N N S 573 NH2
j1345
An efcient one-pot procedure for the preparation in excellent yields of 1,3,4thiadiazoles 575 in ionic liquid, as dual solvent and catalyst, has been reported recently [294]. The reaction involves a one-pot, three-component condensation of hydrazine hydrate with substituted phenyl isothiocyanates, followed by the addition of substituted benzaldehydes 574 in the presence of the ionic liquid 1-butyl-3methylimidazolium tetrauoroborate ([bmim]BF4) and in the absence of any other catalyst, under mild conditions (Scheme 14.158). The reaction workup is simple, and the ionic liquid is easily recovered from the reaction and reused.
R NH 2NH2 .H2 O ArNCS ([bmim]BF4), 4 min. O 574 R = H, Br, Cl, F, NO2 Ar = Ph, 4-NO2 C6 H4 , 4-MeC6 H4,3-MeC6 H4
Scheme 14.158
N N R S 80-90% 575 N H
Ar
1,3,4-Thiadiazoles can be also obtained from the reaction of diacylhydrazines with a sulfur source. Thus, N 0 -formyl 1-benzothiophene-2-carbohydrazide derivative 577, prepared by condensation of 3-chlorobenzo[b]thiophene-2-carboxylic acid hydrazide 576 with formic acid, reacts with phosphorous pentasulde in xylene at reux to give the corresponding 2-(3-chloro-1-benzothien-2-yl)-1,3,4-thiadiazole (578) in 63% yield (Scheme 14.159) [295].
Cl CONHNH 2 HCO2 H , 73% S 577 Xylene ,1h P2S5 63% Cl HN NH O H O
S 576
Cl N N S 578
Scheme 14.159
1346
j 14 Thiadiazoles
Moreover, some 2,5-diaryl-1,3,4-thiadiazoles have been prepared in 7491% yields using Lawessons reagent and microwave irradiation in the absence of solvent for 38 min [296]. Thus, for example, 2-phenyl-5-m-tolyl-1,3,4-thiadiazole (580) was prepared in 91% yield from of a mixture of 579 and Lawessons reagent (LR) (Scheme 14.160) [297].
HN NH Me O O 579
Scheme 14.160
Me LR MW 91% N N S 580
A series of 2-alkylthio-5-alkylamino-1,3,4-thiadiazoles have been synthesized through a new and versatile solid-phase synthesis protocol using the commercially available 2-(3,5-dimethoxy-4-formylphenoxy)ethoxymethyl polystyrene (581). This resin was treated with a range of primary amines under standard reductive amination conditions to yield the respective resin bound derivatives 582, which were transformed into resin bound benzyl-thiocarbamic acid O-pyridin-2-yl esters 583 upon treatment with di-(2-pyridyl)-thionocarbonate (DPT). These compounds were subsequently converted into thiosemicarbazides 584 by reaction with hydrazine, and then treated with 10 equivalent of DPT in dichloromethane (DCM) to give immobilized thiones 585. Alkylation of thione 585 with primary alkyl- or benzyl bromides in a mixture of 1,4-dioxanemethanol and aqueous sodium hydroxide, followed by TFA/DCM treatment, yielded 1,3,4-thiadiazoles 586 in 4582% yield (Scheme 14.161) [298]. Some benzaldehyde N0 -(5-benzoylmethyl-1,3,4-thiadiazol-2-yl)hydrazone hydrobromides 590, subsequently converted into the free bases 591 by treatment with aqueous ammonia, have been synthesized by the reaction of 1-benzylidenethiocarbohydrazones 587 with 3-bromo-1-phenylprop-2-yn-1-one (588). This reaction involves, presumably, a nucleophilic replacement of the bromine atom with the formation of benzoylethynyl sulde intermediate 589 and intramolecular cyclization of the NH2 group at the electron-decient b-carbon of the triple bond (Scheme 14.162) [299]. Varma et al. have used a green protocol to synthesize in a single step several 1,3,4thiadiazoles 594 [300]. In particular, various hydrazides 592 have been reacted with triethyl orthoalkanates or triethyl orthobenzoate (593), in the presence of phosphorous pentasulde in alumina under microwave irradiations and in the absence of any solvents, to afford the target 1,3,4-thiadiazoles 594 in good yields (6570%) (Scheme 14.163). N-alkylhydrazinecarbothiamides 595 can react with triethyl orthoformate (596) in the presence of a small amount of concentrated hydrochloric acid to yield unsubstituted alkylamino-1,3,4-thiadiazoles 597 (Scheme 14.164) [301]. Triethyl orthoformate (596) has been used to prepare in good yield 5-amino-3(methylthio)-1-(1,3,4-thiadiazol-2-yl)-1H-pyrazole-4-carbonitrile (600). Thus, starting
j1347
N O O H O N R N S O N
RNH 2 NaBH3 CN
R NH
S (DPT) 50C, 16h
582
583 NH2NH2
50C, 14h
581
R N
N NH S
DPT
50C, 16h
R N S 584
H N
NH2
585 S
1) Dioxane/MeOH/NaOH 2) R 1Br 3) TFA/DCM N N N H S S
45-82%
R = PhCH2 , PhCH2 CH2 , C 3H 5CH 2 R1 = PhCH 2, MeNH, 4-MeOC 6H 4CH 2
4-pyridyl-CH 2, C3 H 5CH2
R R1
586
Scheme 14.161
O S N R N H N H
NH2
Ph
+
Br 588
AcOH
r.t. 3h R
HBr
N N H
S N
NH2
Ph
587
63-70%
589
H N
S N N O
Ph
Aq. NH3
89-92%
H N
S N N O
Ph
591
R = Ph, 4-ClC6 H4 , 4-NO2 C 6H 4 , 4-Me 2 NC6 H4
Scheme 14.162
HBr
590
1348
j 14 Thiadiazoles
O R NHNH2 592 + R1C(OC2H5)3 593 P2S5/Al2O3 Mw (120C, 10 min.) 65-70 % R N N S 594 R1
R = Ph, p-F-C6H4, p-OMe-C6H4, 2-furyl, 2-thienyl, 4-pyridyl, PhCH2 R1 = H, Et, Ph

Scheme 14.163
S R N H NHNH 2 595
HC(OC 2 H5 )3 596
HCl 71-92%
N N S 597 NHR
R = Me, Et, nPr, PhCH 2 , t-C 8H 17, 1-Adamantyl

Scheme 14.164
from 5-amino-4-cyano-3-(methylthio)-1H-pyrazole-1-carbothiohydrazide (599), 600 was synthesized in 76% yield. Compound 599 was also used to generate 601 and 602 in 55% yield (Scheme 14.165) [302].
N N NH2
O O
S O 596 + MeS N N
H N
NH2 NH2
76%
N N MeS CN 600
599 CN O Cl 598 Cl
PhNCS 55% PhHN S 55%
Cl
N N NH2 MeS
N N NH2
N N MeS CN 601
N N CN 602
Scheme 14.165
j1349
2,5-Disubstituted-1,3,4-thiadiazoles 607, in high yields and good purity, have been prepared in a one-pot three-component condensation of aromatic aldehydes 603, hydrazine, and sulfur in ethanol under microwave irradiation (300 W, 1 h) [303]. The reaction involves as intermediates the corresponding azines 604, which can be isolated in good yield if the reaction is stopped after 15 min. The same reaction performed with aromatic aldehydes under conventional heating led to 2,5-diaryl1,3,4-thiadiazoles 607 (Scheme 14.166) [304].
O 2 R 603 H S/NH2NH2/EtOH Mw (150C, 60 min.) 75-97%% Ar N N Ar 604 H2S
N N Ar S 607 Ar Ar
HN NH S 606 Ar Ar
HN N SH 605 Ar
Ar = Ph, p-OH-C6H4, m-OH-C6H4, o-OH-C6H4, p-OMe-C6H4, o-OMe-C6H4, m-OMe-C6H4, 3-thienyl, 2-thienyl, 3-pyridyl, 2-pyridyl, p-Me-C6H4, p-Me2N-C6H4,
Scheme 14.166
2,5-Diaryl-1,3,4-thiadiazoles 610 can be also prepared in relatively good yield starting from the corresponding 1,3,4-oxadiazoles 608 by reaction with thiourea. The reaction involves an initial nucleophilic attack of the sulfur of thiourea on the carbon atom of 1,3,4-oxadiazole ring, followed by formation of an oxathiadiazepine intermediate 609, and subsequent ring contraction and extrusion of urea (Scheme 14.167) [305]. Recently, a solid-phase synthetic route using the Merrield resin (611) has been utilized to prepare various substituted-1,3,4-thiadiazoles 613, by a dehydrative cyclization of acyldithiocarbazate resins 612 with TMSCl in DCE at 60 C [306]. Acyldithiocarbazate resins 612 have been prepared by reaction of the Merrield resin 611 with carbon disulde, various hydrazides, and NaH (Scheme 14.168).
14.4.3.2 Synthesis of Exocyclic-Conjugated Mesoionic 1,3,4-Thiadiazoles (513) and of 1,3,4-Thiadiazolium Cations (514) The simplest way to prepare 2-oxo or 2-thio mesoionic 1,3,4-thiadiazoles 513 is the thermal cyclization of 1-thioacyl hydrazine with phosgene or thiophosgene. Thus,
1350
j 14 Thiadiazoles
N N R O R
1
+ H2 N
THF,120-50 NH2
24-30h R
N O
R1 S
NH2
608
609
NH2
55-69%
O H 2N R = Ph, 4-MeOC 6H 4, 3,4,5-(MeO) 3 C6 H 2

Scheme 14.167
NH 2
N N R R1 S 610
R 1 = Ph, 4-NO 2C 6 H4
Cl 611
RCONHNH 2 CS 2,NaH
S S N H
H N O
612
TMSCl in DCE at 60C
50-70%
N N S S 613 R
R = Ph, 4-t-ButylC 6H 4, 4-F 3C-C 6H 4, 3FC 6 H4

Scheme 14.168
mesoionic 1,3,4-thiadiazolium-2-olate 615 and 1,3,4-thiadiazolium-2-thiolate 616 have been synthesized from thiocarboxylic acid hydrazide hydrochloride 614 with phosgene or thiophosgene (Scheme 14.169) [307]. Potassium 2-phenylhydrazinecarbodithioate (617), warmed at 50 C in benzene for 1 h with benzoyl chloride, has afforded a 56% yield of 4,5-diphenyl-1,3,4thiadiazolium-2-thiolate 620, most probably involving as intermediates the species 618 and 619 (Scheme 14.170) [308]. Mesoionic 2-methylene-1,3,4-thiadiazole 623 has been synthesized from thiocarboxylic acid hydrazide (614) and 3,3-dichloroacrylonitrile 622, while the reaction of 614 with carbon disulde leads to 4,5-disubstituted-1,3,4-thiadiazolium 2-thiolate 624 [309]. Starting from 625, it is possible to obtain in good yield the corresponding mesoionic compounds 624 (Scheme 14.171).
j1351
S Ph N Me 614 S 56% Cl N S 616

Scheme 14.169
O NH2 Cl 70C 46% Cl Me Ph N N S 615 O
Cl
Me Ph
O S KS N H 617 NH Ph 50 C, 1 h 56% Ph Cl Ph NH HN S 618 O Ph S
Ph Ph
N N S 620
- H2O S
Ph H
N N S 619
OH S Ph
Scheme 14.170
A similar reaction performed with thiohydrazides 626 and isonitrile dichloride (627) or isothiocyanate leads to 2-amino-1,3,4-thiadiazolium salts 628 and 629, respectively [310]; treatment of 628 with a chloroform solution of anhydrous ammonia yielded the mesoionic compounds 630 (Scheme 14.172) [311]. 2-Substituted 5,7-diphenyl-1,3,4-thiadiazolo[3,2-a]pyridilyum derivatives 633 and 634 have been prepared by reaction of 1-amino-4,6-diphenylpyridine-2-thione (631) with phenyl isothiocyanate, in 65% and 78% yield, respectively. This transformation presumably involves the corresponding thioureas 632 as highly reactive intermediates, which easily undergo cyclodehydrosulfuration. Iminophosphorane 635,
1352
j 14 Thiadiazoles
NC S Ph N Me 614 NH2 Cl C CN Me Ph Cl 622 70C 46% N N S 623 CN C CN
R1 = Me
S C 621 S R1 N
R Ph
N N S 624
CS2 R = Me, Ph 94-98%

1
Ph Ph
NH2
625
Scheme 14.171
N S Ph N R 626 NH2 Cl
Ph Cl NHPh
Cl 627 70C
R Ph
N N S
65-93% Ph R= Me, Ph, PhCH2
628 NH3 67%
67%
N C S
Me Ph
N N S
Cl NHPh
R Ph
N N S 630
NPh
629
Scheme 14.172
obtained by reaction of 631 with Br2 and triphenylphosphine, alternatively produces, by reaction with carbon disulde, 5,7-diphenyl-1,3,4-thiadiazolo[3,2-a]pyridinium-2thiolate (636) in 80% yield (Scheme 14.173) [312]. Some 1,3,4-thiadiazolium perchlorates 638 have been prepared by reaction of N0 acyl-N0 arylbenzenecarbothiohydrazide 637 with acetic anhydrideperchloric
j1353
Ph R=N=C=S Ph N S NH2 631 Br2 , PPh 3 Ph
Ph 65-78% N HN S 632 S NHR Ph
Ph
N N
S NR
633, 634 R = Ph, CO 2 Et
Ph CS2 Ph N S N PPh 3 635

Scheme 14.173
Ph
80%
Ph
N N 636
S S
acid [313]. Moreover, these compounds have also been synthesized starting from benzenecarbothiohydrazide 639, by reaction with a nitrileperchloric acid mixture (Scheme 14.174) [314].
Ar H R N N O S Ph 637 Ar = Ph, Tolyl RCN S Ph 639 R = Me, Et, Ph
Scheme 14.174
Ac2O HClO4 77-94% Ph
Ar N N S 638
76-85% Ar N N NH3 R S ClO
HN N H
Ar
HClO4
Ph
3-(2,4-Dibromophenyl)-2-methylthio-5-phenyl-1,3,4-thiadiazolium methosulfate (641) can be prepared by reaction of 3-(2,4-dibromophenyl)-5-phenyl-1,3,4-thiadiazole-2-thione (640) with dimethyl sulfate in dry benzene at reux for 12 h. The
1354
j 14 Thiadiazoles
corresponding perchlorate 642 is synthesized by treatment of the methosulfate salt with a solution of sodium perchlorate in acetic acid (Scheme 14.175) [315].
Ar N N Ph
S
Me2 SO4
S
,Ph-H,12h
Ar N N Ph
S 641
MeSO4 SMe
640
96%
NaClO4 10min. AcOH r.t.

Ar =2,4-Br 2C 6H 3
86%
Ar ClO 4 N N SMe S Ph 642
Scheme 14.175
1,3,4-Thiadiazolium cations 514 are easily obtained by treatment of 1,3,4-thiadiazoles with several alkylating agents to give, in about 100% yield, the corresponding salts. A recent example is the synthesis of 3-trimethylsilylmethyl-1,3,4-thiadiazolium triuoromethanesulfonates 645. These compounds have been prepared in 7599% yields by mixing a solution of 1,3,4-thiadiazoles 643 with trimethylsilylmethyl triuoromethanesulfonate (644) in dry CH2Cl2 at 50 C under reux for 24 h (Scheme 14.176) [270].
N N R S 643 R
O Me O S CF 3 Me Si O Me 644 75-99% R
SiMe 3 N N S 645 CF3 SO3 R
R =H, Me, Ph
Scheme 14.176
j1355
14.4.3.3 Synthesis of Thiadiazolinones, Thiadiazolinethiones, and Thiadiazolimines (515) 1,3,4-Thiadiazolin-2-ones can be prepared in good yields by acidic thermal cyclization of substituted thioylhydrazinecarboxamides 647. Thus, the reaction of substituted dithioate 646 with semicarbazide gave 647, which on cyclization furnished the substituted 3-acetyl-1,3,4-thiadiazol-2-ones 648 (Scheme 14.177) [316].
NH 2CONHNH 2 R S 646 R = CONH 2 , CONHPh, CONHC 6 H 4OMe, CONHC6 H4 N=NPh, CONH- -Naftyl, CONH- -Naftyl SMe 60-70% H N S O N H 647 AcOH 50-80% NH2
Ac N N R S 648
Scheme 14.177
5-tert-Butyl-3-[2,4-dichloro-5-(2-propynyloxy)phenyl]-1,3,4-thiadiazol-2(3H)-one (651), an arylthiadiazolone herbicide structurally related to oxadiargyl and oxadiazon, has been prepared in high yield in a two-step synthesis starting from N-2,4-dichloro5-(2-propynyloxy)phenyl]-N0 -pivaloylhydrazine (649). Thus, 649 was transformed into the corresponding N-thiopivaloylhydrazine 650 by reaction with tetraphosphorus decasulde and then converted into 651 by reaction with trichloromethyl chloroformate in dioxane at room temperature for 3 h (Scheme 14.178) [317]. 1,3,4-Thiadiazol-2-(3H)-ones 655 and -2(3H)-thiones 656 can be prepared in good yield by 1,10 -carbonyldiimidazole or 1,10 -thiocarbonyldiimidazole induced cyclization of 3-mercaptopropanoic acid derivatives 654. The reaction starts from 2-oxo-Narylpropanehydrazonoyl chloride 652, which in the presence of triethylamine is converted into the corresponding nitrile imines 653, which in situ undergo a nucleophilic attack of 3-mercaptopropionic acid leading to 3-[[2-oxo-1-(arylhydrazono)propan-1yl]mercapto]propanoic acids 654 (6571% yield). These propanoic acids were then treated with 1,10 -carbonyldiimidazole (CDI) or 1,10 -thiocarbonyldiimidazole (TCDI) to afford the corresponding 1,3,4-thiadiazole derivatives 655 and 656 (Scheme 14.179) [318]. The cyclization reaction is explained as reported in Scheme 14.180, in which CO2, ethylene, and imidazole are simultaneously formed.
1356
j 14 Thiadiazoles
Cl H N Cl O N H O C(Me) 3 P4 S10 dioxane ,3h 80% Cl O 650 CCl3 OCOCl dioxane rt,3h 78% Cl H N N H S C(Me) 3
649
(Me)3 C
S N N Cl
O O Cl 651
Scheme 14.178
Cl Ac
H N Ar N 652
Et 3N 65-71%
HO 2 C Ac N N Ar 653 HS CO 2H S
Ar HN N Ac 654
Ar= Ph, MeC 6H 4, ClC6H 4
CDI 59-68% or TCDI Ar Z N N S
Ac
655 : Z = O 656 : Z = S
Scheme 14.179
5-[4-(Benzyloxy)phenyl]-3-(2-cyanoethyl)-1,3,4-thiadiazol-2(3H)-one (662) and 5[(4-benzyloxy)phenyl]-3-(2-cyanoethyl)-1,3,4-thiadiazole-2(3H)-thione (663), used as monoamine oxidase inhibitors of type B (8 and 16 mM), have been synthesized starting from ({[4-(Benzyloxy)phenyl](thiocarbonyl)}thio)acetic acid (660). In
j1357
R O
H N
S N H 664 SK
H2SO4 0 C 17-73%
S N N 665 H
R = Ph, 4-MeOC6H4, 4-ClC6H4, n-C7H15, 2-furyl, 3-pyridyl

Scheme 14.180
particular, compound 660 was treated with NaOH and (2-cyanoethy1)hydrazine in EtOH at 0 C to give 1-{[4-(Benzyloxy)phenyl](thiocarbonyl)}-2-(2-cyanoethyl)hydrazine (661), which by subsequent reaction with phosgene or thiophosgene gave the resulting 1,3,4-thiadiazole derivatives 662 and 663 in 62% and in 51% yield, respectively (Scheme 14.181) [319].
S S Ph O NaOH EtOH 660 H 2N NH Cl S S Ph O 661 38% CHCl3 , H N CO 2H N N CN O Cl CHCl3 , S Cl Cl N N S Ph O 663

Scheme 14.181
CN O
S Ph O 662 62%
N H
CN
CN S 51%
5-Substituted-1,3,4-thiadiazole-2-thiones 665 are obtained in moderategood yields from potassium 2-acyl- or 2-aroylhydrazinecarbodithioate 664 and cold concentrated sulfuric acid (Scheme 14.182) [320].
1358
j 14 Thiadiazoles
R O H N S N H 664 SK H2SO4 0 C 17-73% R S N N 665 H S
R = Ph, 4-MeOC6H4, 4-ClC6H4, n-C7H15, 2-furyl, 3-pyridyl

Scheme 14.182
Another method for preparing 5-substituted-1,3,4-thiadiazole-2-thiones is the reaction of carbon disulde with amidrazones. Thus, starting from aromatic and heterocyclic amidrazones 667, obtained from the reaction of corresponding nitriles 666 with hydrazine, a series of 5-substituted-1,3,4-thiadiazole-2-thiones (668) were obtained in excellent yields (Scheme 14.183) [321].
R C N 666 NH2NH2 68-91% 4-days, rt R NH HN NH2 667 CS2 EtOH, 2h S N N 668 H S
73-95%
R = Ph, -naphthyl, 2-pyridyl, 3-pyridyl, 4-pyridyl, 2-quinolyl, 1-isoquinolyl

Scheme 14.183
Various 5-imino-D2-1,3,4-thiadiazolines have been synthesized from activated thiocyanates and benzenediazonium chloride. The reaction has been performed in NaOAc buffered solution of EtOH to yield 5-imino-4-aryl-2-phenyl-D2-1,3,4-thiadiazolines (671) in 75% yield (Scheme 14.184) [322].
Ph NCSH2C 669 ArN2 Cl 670 EtOH, NaOAc 75% Ar HN N N S 671
Ph
Ar = Ph, ClC6H4, NO2C6H4

Scheme 14.184
4-Methyl-5-imino-2-thienoyl-D2-1,3,4-thiadiazolines (675) have also been prepared by condensation of thienylglyoxal (673) with suitable thiosemicarbazides (672) followed by oxidation of the resulting 674 with FeCl3 (Scheme 14.185) [288].
j1359
Me R N H 672
CHO N NH2 S S 673 O R
Me N H
N N S
O S 674
91-95%
R = H, Me
67-75% Me RN
FeCl3 EtOH
N N S 675 S O
Scheme 14.185
Hydrazonoyl halides offer a versatile tool in the synthesis of azoles. Thus, 5-imino4-phenyl-2-triuoromethyl-D2-1,3,4-thiadiazoline (677) has been prepared in 83% yield by the reaction of N-phenyltriuoroacetohydrazonoyl bromide (676) with potassium isothiocyanate [323]. If the reaction is performed with methyl isothiocyanate, the analogous N-methylthiadiazoline 678 was obtained, but in low yield (Scheme 14.186).
Br F3C KNCS MeOH, , 3h 83% Ph HN N N S 677
N NHPh 676 MeNCS 14%
CF3
Et3N
Ph MeN
N N S 678
CF3
Scheme 14.186
A similar reaction has been reported for the synthesis of some 5-acyl-2,3-dihydro-2imino-3-(3-phenyl)pyrazol-5-yl)-1,3,4-thiadiazoles 681. Thus, phenylpyrazolylhydrazonoyl chlorides 679 undergo cyclocondensation with potassium thiocyanate to give 681 in 8085% yield. At the same time, treatment of 681 with sodium nitrite in acetic acid, followed by heating, provided the thiadiazolones 683 in good yield (Scheme 14.187) [324].
1360
j 14 Thiadiazoles
R KNCS NH N EtOH, rt, 2h Ph 679 80-85% Ph O N S N H N Ph N NH N N HN S 681 NaNO2 AcOH O R
Cl R O
N NH
NH N 680
Ph
N NH N N O S 683 O R 89-91%
Ph
N NH N N ONN S 682 O R
R = Me, OMe
Scheme 14.187
Bi(4,5-dihydro-1,3,4-thiadiazol-5-imines) have been prepared in good yield by the reaction of N,N0 diaroyldihydrazonoyl dihalides with potassium thiocyanate. The formation of 687 is assumed to proceed via a nucleophilic attack of the thiocyanate anion to afford intermediates 685, followed by an intramolecular cyclization. Compounds 687 were also obtained from the reaction of dihalides 684 with thiourea, through the formation of the non-isolable intermediates 686, which cyclized readily via loss of ammonia (Scheme 14.188) [325].
NHAr N Cl
NH ArHN N H2N HN 686 S NH2 N NHAr S
85-90%
KSCN 65-85%
ArHN N NCS
SCN N NHAr
NH2CSNH2 Cl N ArHN 684
685
NH3 Ar HN NH
N N S 687
N N Ar
Ar = Ph, 4MeC6H4, 4ClC6H4, 2,4Cl2C6H3, 4NO2C6H4
Scheme 14.188
j1361
1,3,4-Thiadiazole derivatives 691 and 693 have been synthesized via reactions of hydrazonoyl bromide 688 with alkyl carbodithioates 689, potassium thiocyanate, or thiourea, according to Schemes 14.189 and 14.190 [326].
R2 R3
Br R
H N Ar N + 688
R3 R2
NNHCSSR1 689
Et 3N
NH N
1
N N SR Ar
690 R 1 SH R2 N N Ar R3 691
69-90% R = 4-(Me) 2CHC 6 H4 R = Me, Et, Bn R 2 = H, Me, C 4H 8, C5 H10, C6 H12 , C 9H 10

3 1
Ar, 4-NO 2C 6H 4 R
S N N
R = Ph, 4-MeC6 H 4, 4-MeOC 6 H4 , C 4H 8, C5 H10, C6 H 12, C 9H10 , 2-C 4H 3S, 2-C5 H 4 N

Scheme 14.189
NH2
S R C NH H N Ar N
H 2N H 2N
Br
R
EtOH,
N Ar
KSCN
EtOH, rt, 3h R
C N H N N Ar
694
688
692 73%
S N N
NH2 NH2 Ar
73%
S N N
NH Ar
695
693
R = 4-(Me) 2 CHC6 H 4 Ar, 4-NO2 C6 H 4
Scheme 14.190
14.4.3.4 Synthesis of 2,3-Dihydro-(D2) (516), 3,4-Dihydro-(D3) (517), and 2,3,4,5Tetrahydro-1,3,4-Thiadiazoles (518) Under ultrasonic irradiation conditions a series of 2,3-dihydro-1,3,4-thiadiazole derivatives 698 and 700 and 5,50 -bi(3H-3-phenyl-2-(1-methyl-5-oxo-3-phenyl1H,4H-pyrazol-4-ylidene)-1,3,4-thiadiazole 702 have been synthesized from reaction of 1-methyl-5-oxo-3-phenyl-2-pyrazolin-4-thiocarboxanilide (696) with different hydrazonyl halides [697, 699], or N,N0 -diphenyl-oxalodihydrazonoyl dichloride
1362
j 14 Thiadiazoles
Me N N O S N 698 93% R = Ph, Me, OEt, PhNH, 2-thienyl Ar = Ph, 4ClC6H4, 3ClC6H4, 3MeC6H4 Me N N Ph N S O 702 N Ph Ph Et3N, EtOH )))), 7 min Ph X N Ph N H 697 Ph PhHN SH 696 Me N N O Et3N, EtOH )))), 3-15 min ROC N X Ph N H 699 Ph Ar N N 700 Me N N O S COR
Ph Ph N
90-95%
Me N N Ph PhHN 696
NHPh N Cl O + Cl N PhHN 701
O Et3N, EtOH )))), 15 min 90% Ph N Ph N N Me N
SH
Scheme 14.191
(701). This technique reduces the time of reaction from several hours to minutes and increases the yields of the obtained products (Scheme 14.191) [327]. A general method for the synthesis of 1,3,4-thiadiazolines is the reaction of carbonyl compounds with substituted thiohydrazides. Thus, chiral 1,2,4-triazolo [3,4-b]-1,3,4-thiadiazoles 705 have been synthesized by the Mannich reaction of 3pyridyl-4-amino-5-mercapto-1,2,4-triazole (703) (synthetic equivalent of a thiohydrazide), with aromatic aldehydes or furaldehyde in the presence of a catalytic amount of tartaric acid. Some of the obtained products have shown signicant antibacterial activities against Staphylococcus aureus, and Escherichia coli at 500 and 100 ppm concentrations (Scheme 14.192) [328]. Another recent application of this methodology is the synthesis of 50 -phenyl-30 Hspiro[indoline-3,20 -[1,3,4]thiadiazol]-2-ones 708, compounds that are able to inhibit the aggrecanase-2 with a selectivity in the sub-micromolar range. In particular, the reaction involves a condensation between arylthiohydrazides 706 and isatins 707 (Scheme 14.193) [329]. 4,5-Dihydro-1,3,4-thiadiazole-2-carboxamides 712 have been synthesized by acylation of hydrazones of thiooxamic acid hydrazides 711, which were obtained from thiooxamic acid hydrazides 709 with different aldehydes 710. Oxidation of
j1363
N N N NH2 703
SH
RCHO L-(+)-tartaric acid 45-70C, 5h N
N N N N 704
SH R
R = Ph, 4ClC6 H4 , 4NO2 C 6H 4, 4MeOC6 H 4, 4-HO-3MeOC6 H 3, 4ClC6 H4 , 2HOC6 H 4 , 2-furyl
53-95%
N N N N N H
S R
705
Scheme 14.192
R2 S N H 706 R1 = H, OMe, Me R3 = H, n-Pr, Me, Cl,

Scheme 14.193
R3
NH2
R2 + R3 707
O N R4 O EtOH 40C 65-72% R1 S N N N R4
HO 708
R2 = H, Br, Me, Et, OCF3, Cl, NO2 R4 = H, Me, i-Pr, Bn, 2-MeC6H4, 4-ClC6H4
712 with hydrogen peroxide in acetic acid leads to 2-carbamoyl-4,5-dihydro-1,3, 4-thiadiazole 1-oxides 713 in good yields (Scheme 14.194) [330]. 2-Amino-5-aryl-5-hydrothiazolo[4,3-b]-1,3,4-thiadiazoles 715a,b have been prepared in 7880% yield by treating 2-aryl-3-thioureido-4-thiazolidines 714a,b with cold concentrated sulfuric acid. These compounds were then transformed into unnatural a-amino acids 716ad, containing the 1,3,4-thiadiazole core, by condensation with HCHO and a-amino acids (7480%) (Scheme 14.195). Fungitoxicity has also been evaluated in vitro against Aspergillus niger and Fusarium oxysporium and it was found that compounds 716c,d (Ar ClC6H4, R H, Me) displayed activities comparable with that of the commercial fungicide Dithane M45 [331].
1364
j 14 Thiadiazoles
O Ar N H S 709 RCHO H N 710 NH2 EtOH, 20 min. 50 C 60-80% Ar N H 711 Cl 47-52% O S O R1 H N N R
DMF, r.t.
Ar HN O O S
O N R1
AcOH H2O2 , 15 min 50-60%
Ar HN O S
O N R R1
R 713
712
Ar = Ph, 3,4-Cl2C6H3, 2,3-Me2C6H3, 3-MeC6H4 R = 2-Thienyl, Ph; 4-NO2C6H4, 5-methy-2-Thienyl R1 = Me, Et, Ph, 2-Thienyl
Scheme 14.194
S Ar N HN 714a,b
O S NH2
H2SO4 78-80%
S Ar
S N N
NH2 715a,b NH2CHRCO2H 74-80%
HCHO
S Ar Ar = Ph, ClC6H4 R = H, Me,
S N N N 716a-d R CO2H
Scheme 14.195
5-Benzilydene-1,3,4-thiadiazole-2,2(5H)-dicarbonitrile (718), in 28% yield, has been synthesized through the cyclization of N0 (phenylmethylidene)thicarbonohydrazide (717) promoted by tetracyanoethylene (TCNE) (Scheme 14.196) [332].
j1365
Ph
H N S 717
H N
TCNE NH2 EtOAc, rt, 2h 28%
Ph
N N CN S 718 CN
Scheme 14.196
3-Phenyl- and 3-(p-tolyl)-10bH-1,3,4-thiadiazolo[2,3-a]isoquinoline-2(3H)-thiones (720) have been prepared in 86% and 82% yield, respectively, by 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition of N-phenyl or N-p-tolylimides, obtained by sodium carbonate treatment of 2-anilino or 2-(p-toluidino)isoquinolinium chlorides 719, with carbon disulde (Scheme 14.197) [333].
Na2CO3 N N Ar
N Cl 719
N H
Ar
82-86%
CS2 48 h
Ar = Ph, 4-MeC6H4 N S 720

Scheme 14.197
N Ar S
2,3,4,5-Tetrahydro-1,3,4-thiadiazoles 722 have been prepared by treating cyclohexanones 721 with hydrazine and H2S in ethanol at reux for 12 h (Scheme 14.198) [334].
O R 721 R = H, OBz
Scheme 14.198
N2H4, H2S 85-87% R
HN NH S 722 R
Phenyl isothiocyanate in the presence of sodium hydride reacts with different phenyl hydrazones 723 to afford 1,3,4-thiadiazolidines 724 in good yields (Scheme 14.199).
1366
j 14 Thiadiazoles
R1 R
2
N NH Ph + NaH 723
1) PhNCS 2) H2O 55-97%
H R1
Ph N N S
NPh
R2
724
R1 = Me, Ph R2 = Me, Et, Ph, H

Scheme 14.199
R1 = R2 = (CH2)5
It is presumed that the anion of the hydrazones 725, formed initially, attacks the isothiocyanate and gives an intermediate ion 726 that cyclizes to 727, producing after water treatment the 1,3,4-thiadiazolidine 724 (Scheme 14.200).
R1 R2 R1 R2 S C NPh R1 R
2
N NH Ph + NaH 723
N N
Ph
N N S 726
Ph NPh
725
Ph
Ph
H R1
N N S 724
H2O NPh
R1
N N
2
R2
NPh
727
Scheme 14.200
Alternatively, the reaction of 723 with carbon disulde yields 3-phenyl-1,3,4thiadiazolidine-2-thiones 728 (Scheme 14.201) [335].
Ph
R2
N NH Ph + NaH 723
1) SCS 2) H 2O 50-80%
H R1
N N S 728
R2
R1 = Me, Ph R2 = Me, Et, Ph

Scheme 14.201
R1 = R2 = (CH2)5
j1367
14.4.4 Reactivity
The reactivity of the 1,2,3-thiadiazole system is expressed in a series of different chemical transformations: (i) ring cleavage reactions and rearrangements, (ii) reductive and oxidative processes, (iii) reactions due to the reactivity of heterocycle ring, and (iv) reactions of substituents.
14.4.4.1 Ring Cleavage Reactions and Rearrangements The 1,3,4-thiadiazole system is cleaved by bases. In particular, Goerdeler and Galinke have shown that 2-amino-1,3,4-thiadiazole (532) on heating with benzylamine gives mixtures of triazoline thione 730 and 2-benzylamino-1,3,4-thiadiazole (732) in a 1 : 1 ratio (80%) [336]. Formation of 730 most probably occurs via the ring-opened amidrazone intermediate 729 (Scheme 14.202).
N N H 2N S 532
PhCH 2-NH 2
N NHCSNH 2 H NHCH 2Ph 729
-NH3 40%
N NH S N CH2 Ph 730
N N
-NH3 40%
N N S 732 NHCH 2 Ph
H 2N S HN CH2 Ph 731
Scheme 14.202
Under the same conditions, 2-methylamino-, 2-amino-, and 2-amino-5-phenyl1,3,4-thiadiazoles 733 react with methylamine to produce the corresponding triazoline-thiones 734 (Scheme 14.203).
N NH N R 734 S
N N R N H S 733 R = H, Me R1 = H, Me, Ph
Scheme 14.203
MeNH2 R1 50-70%
1368
j 14 Thiadiazoles
2-Amino-5-chloro-1,3,4-thiadiazole (735) and 5-amino-1,3,4-thiadiazole-2(3H)thione (736) react with a large excess of hydrazine hydrate on heating to give a mixture of 3,4-diamino-1H-1,2,4-triazole-5(4H)-thione (739) and 4-amino-3-hydrazinyl-1H-1,2,4-triazole-5(4H)-thione (740). This rearrangement probably arises from the ring-opened intermediates 737 and 738 (Scheme 14.204) [337].
N N
H2N
S 735 N NH
Cl NH2NH2 H2O H2N
HN NH S O NHNH 2 737
HN + S
H N S 738
NHNH2
NHNH2
H2N
S 736
N NH H2N 45% S N NH2 739

Scheme 14.204
N NH H2NHN 45% S N NH2
740
Mesoionic thiadiazoles undergo ring ssion at C2 to give open chain compounds. Thus, 5-phenyl-4-methyl-1,3,4-thiadiazolium-2-olate (741) produces by reaction with aniline compound 742 (Scheme 14.205) [256].
Me Ph PhNH2 O 50% HN Ph H N N Me S
N N S 741
O Ph 742
Scheme 14.205
Similarly, compound 743 on treatment with alkali hydrolyzes to N-benzoyl-Nphenyldithio-carbamate 745. This compound was gently warmed on a steam bath and transformed into 746 by extrusion of CS2; subsequent reaction with p-nitrobenzaldehyde furnishes hydrazone derivate 747 in 50% yield (Scheme 14.206) [338]. Hydrazine or alkylhydrazines cleave and recyclize the 1,3,4-thiadiazolium salts 748 to 1,2- dihydro-1,2,4,5-tetrazines 749 or 1,4-dihydro-1,2,4,5-tetrazines 750, respectively, in high yields (Scheme 14.207) [339]. The action of phenylhydrazine on 748 results in an alternative cyclization to yield 4amino-1,2,4-triazolium salts 752, most probably via the ring opened intermediate 751 (Scheme 14.208).
j1369
Ph Ph
N N S 743 S
OH
Ph Ph HO
N N S 744 S HS
N N
Ph O
S Ph 745 H
Ph O
N 747
Ph N CH 50% NO2
4-NO2-C6H4CHO
Ph O
Ph NH2
746
Scheme 14.206
R3 N N R2 X 748 S R1
R4 NHNH2 70-85%
H R1
R3 N N N
or
N R1
R3 N N R4 N
R2
749
750
R2 = Ph, 4-MeOC6H4, 1-naphthyl, 2-furanyl, 2-thienyl R3 =Me, Ph, 4-BrC6H4, 4-O2NC6H4; R1 = Me, Ph, 4-MeOC6H4 R4 = H, Me, Et
Scheme 14.207
X = ClO4, 4-MeC6H4SO3
R3 N N R2 X 748 S R1
PhNHNH 2 60-70%
R3 R
2
N N
Ph
R1 N SH NH
R3 N N R
1
R2 N NHPh 752
751
R2 = Ph, 4-MeOC6H4, 1-naphthyl, 2-furanyl, 2-thienyl R3 =Me, Ph, 4-BrC6H4, 4-O2NC6H4; R1 = Me, Ph, 4-MeOC6H4 X = ClO4, 4-MeC6H4SO3
Scheme 14.208
1370
j 14 Thiadiazoles
Under mild, neutral conditions, 5-amino-2-imino-3-phenacyl-1,3,4-tiadiazolines 753, in accord with to the Dimroth rearrangement, isomerize to 5-amino-3-mercapto1-phenacyl-1,2,4-triazoles 754 in good yields (Scheme 14.209) [340].
N H2N SH
N N H2N S 753
CH2COAr NH
Et OH reflux 60-66%
N N CH2COAr 754
Ar = Ph, 4-MeOC6H4, 4-BrC6H4, 4-O2NC6H4;

Scheme 14.209
A Dimroth rearrangement is also found when a solution of 5-ethyl-3-phenyl-1,3,4thiadiazol-2(3H)-imine (755) in aqueous NaOH is heated at 80 C for 5 h, to afford the triazole derivative 757 in 45% yield (Scheme 14.210) [341].
Ph NH Et S NH 756 N S Et N H N Ph 757
N N Et S 755
OH 45%
N N Ph
Scheme 14.210
Ring cleavage has also been reported for 1,3,4-thiadiazolo[3,2-a]pyrimidines. The substituent R2 inuences the site of ring scission. Thus, isomers 758 and 760 react with 5% sodium hydroxide to give quantitative yields of methyl-thiouracil 759 by NN bond cleavage. When R2 is an alkyl group (Me, Et, i-Pr), however, the SC is broken, giving rise to 761 (Scheme 14.211) [342]. 1,3,4-Thiadiazoles, according to the substitution pattern, undergo thermal or photochemical fragmentation processes similar to that observed in a mass spectrometer. Thus, it was found that pyrolysis of 5-sulfanyl-1,3,4-thiadiazole-2 (3H)-thione (762) gave HNCS, CS2, and HCN, while the 5-methyl-1,3,4-thiadiazole-2(3H)-thione (763) yielded HCNS, MeNCS, HCN, and CS2 [343]. Analogous pyrolysis of 2-(tert-butyldisulfanyl)-5-methyl-2,3-dihydro-1,3,4-thiadiazole (764) produces, besides the expected fragmentation products, 2-methylpropene by an initial b-hydrogen elimination Scheme 14.212) [344]. 2-Alkylidene-1,3,4-thiadiazolines 765 irradiated in benzene solution at a wavelength greater than 360 nm produces a mixture of 766768 in 19%, 29%, and 11% yield, respectively. The formation of these compounds can be explained by several different reactions, all of which are amenable to an initial cleavage of the 1,3,4thiadiazole ring (Scheme 14.213) [345].
j1371
O N N R1 758 R1 = Me R2 = H O N N R1
1
O R2 100% OH HN HS N 759 Me 100% OH O
R1 N N N S 760 R2
R1 =Me R2 = H O R2 OH H2N HS N N 761 60-70% Me OH O N R1 N N S 760 R1 = Me R2 =Me, Et, i-Pr R2
S 758
R = Me R2 =Me, Et, i-Pr

Scheme 14.211
N NH HS S 762 N NH Me S 763 N N Me S 764 S S H Me CH2 Me S S
pyrolysis
HCN + HNCS + CS2
pyrolysis
HNCS + MeNCS + HCN + CS2
pyrolysis Me
N N S S
SH
Me
Me
HNCS + MeNCS + HCN + CS2 + S2

Scheme 14.212
TMS
S N N 765
t
Bu
h > 360 nm TMS
S Bu
+
t
Bu
Bu
+ TMS N N But
t
N N 766 19%
Bu
TMS
C S
767 29%
768 11%
Scheme 14.213
1372
j 14 Thiadiazoles
Thermolysis of 1,3,4-thiadiazolines 769 yields the corresponding thiiranes 770. In contrast, matrix photolysis in an organic glass at 77 K or in solid Ar at 10 K allows the detection of the thiocarbonyl ylides 772, which were characterized by intense UV maxima at l 350 nm. The thiocarbonyl ylides are formed in a stepwise manner, and not directly from the thiadiazolines, by elimination of N2. In the rst step, compounds 769 are cleaved into the thioketones 771 and diazomethane. This latter compound generates methylene as carbene that, reacting with thioketones 771, produces the corresponding thiocarbonyl ylides 772 (Scheme 14.214) [346].
O C= C ; C ; C
R R
R R
770
53-78%
R R
N N S 769
h > 360 nm
R R
S 771 R S
CH 2N2 N2
R R
S 772
CH2
Scheme 14.214
4,5-Diphenyl-1,3,4-thiadiazolium 2-thiolate (773a) is cleaved on irradiation at 253.7 nm, in acetonitrile as solvent, to give N-phenylthiobenzamide in 27% yield and sulfur 35%. Similarly, irradiation of 1,3,4-thiadiazolium 2-thiolates 773b gives Nphenylthiacetoamide and N-methylthiobenzamide in 20% and 21%, respectively, together with elemental sulfur (3540%). This fragmentation has been rationalized through an initial valence tautomerization to N-isothiocyanatothioamide 774, which undergoes homolytic ssion of NN bond to yield the radical precursor of the thioamide and isothiocyanate radicals. The latter radical loses elemental sulfur, while the former abstracts a hydrogen from the solvent and produces the corresponding thioamide (Scheme 14.215) [347].
14.4.4.2 Reductive and Oxidative Processes 1,3,4-Thiadiazoles are stable to reducing and oxidizing agents. However, some reductions have been reported. In particular, reduction with hydrogen/palladium of 2-bromo- and 2-bromo-5-methyl-1,3,4-thiadiazoles 775 produced, in about 90% yield, the corresponding debrominated 1,3,4-thiadiazoles 512 and 520, respectively (Scheme 14.216) [278].
R1 R S N N S h MeCN R R1 N N S 774
j1373
773 a,b
R = Ph, Me R 1 = Me, Ph
R R1
NH S
MeCN 20-27%
R R1
N S
N C S
35-40%
Scheme 14.215
N N R S Br 775 R = H, Me
Scheme 14.216
H2 /Pd 90% R
N N S 512, 520
2-Amino-5-phenyl-1,3,4-thiadiazole 573 has been reduced with sodium amalgam to benzaldehyde and thiosemicarbazone 776 (Scheme 14.217) [256].
N N H2N S 573
Scheme 14.217
Na(Hg) Ph 79% H 2N
HN N S 776 Ph
PhCHO
2-Acetylamino-5-benzylmercapto-1,3,4-thiadiazole (777) is reduced to 2-ethylamino-5-benzylmercapto-1,3,4-thiadiazole 778 in 41% yield by reaction with lithium aluminum hydride (Scheme 14.218) [348].
N N S S 777
Scheme 14.218
PhH2C
LiAlH4 NHCOMe 41%
PhH2C
N N S S 778 NH
Et
Lithium aluminum hydride also reduces the mesoionic compound 779 to hydrazine derivative 780 with loss of sulfur (Scheme 14.219) [256].
1374
j 14 Thiadiazoles
Me Ar N N S 779 Ar = Ph, Tolyl
Scheme 14.219
LiAlH4 O 63%
HN N Me 780
Me Ar
Oxidation of 1,3,4-thiazolidine-2,5-dione 781 with tert-butyl hypochlorite gives at 78 C thiadiazolinedione (782), which in situ undergoes DielsAlder reactions with several dienes to provide the corresponding cycloadducts 783 in good to excellent yield (Scheme 14.220) [349].
O HN NH O S 781 O N N 783: 75% O Ph S O Me N N Me 76% N N S 62% O
Scheme 14.220
Cl N N Diene O 57-76% O R N R N 783 Me N N Me O S O 75% O Ph N N 57% O S O Me Me S O O N N 50% S O
-78C
S 782 O S O
Sulfoxide 785 and sulfone 786 derivatives have been obtained by oxidation of 2(ethylsulfanyl)-1,3,4-thiadiazole- 784 with m-chloroperbenzoic acid (MCPBA) (Scheme 14.221) [350].
14.4.4.3 Reactions due to the Reactivity of the Heterocyclic Ring Electrophilic substitution on the C-atoms of the ring is very difcult owing to two main problems: (i) the presence of two nitrogen atoms in the ring, which leaves these carbons with a very low electron density, and (ii) the protonation of nuclear nitrogen in acidic media, which reduces strongly the possibility of this type of reactions. Thus, reactions such as nitration, sulfonation, acetylation, halogenation, and so on normally do not take place.
j1375
Et
N N S O S 785
Me N N
NO2
1 eq. MCPBA 70%
Et
N N S S 784
Me N N
NO2
MCPBA 80%
3 eq.
Et
N N S 786
S O O
Me N N
NO2
Scheme 14.221
However, it has been reported that the presence of amino groups linked to position2 allow the bromination reaction; thus, and 2-amino-substituted-5-bromo-1,3,4thiadiazoles 788 have been prepared in good yield, starting from 2-amino-1,3,4thiadiazoles 787 (Scheme 14.222) [351].
N N R1RN S 787 R = H, Me R1 = H, Me, NO, COMe, COPh
Scheme 14.222
Br2 /AcOH 70-90%
N N R1RN S 788 Br
The alkylation reaction occurs easily on the annular nitrogen atoms; thus, quaternary salts are formed. In the case of mono- or dialkyl-1-3,4-thiadiazoles 789, the alkylation is regioselective and the product distribution 790 versus 791 depends on the bulky group present at C2. When this carbon is substituted with a tertbutyl group, quaternization occurs almost exclusively at N4 (Scheme 14.223) [352].
Me N N R1 S 789 R2 CH3I 50C R1 Me
N N R2 S 790 2-55%
+ R1
N N
R2 S 791 45-97%
R1 = H, Me, Et, i-Pr, t-Bu

Scheme 14.223
R2 = Me, Et, i-Pr
1376
j 14 Thiadiazoles
Trimethylsilylmethyl triuoromethanesulfonate 792 is an efcient alkylating agent for 2,5-disubstituted-1,3,4-thiadiazoles. In fact, 2,5-diphenyl- and 2,5-dimethyl-1,3,4-thiadiazoles 793 react in dry dichloromethane (DCM) with 792 to give in high yield the corresponding salts 794 (Scheme 14.224) [270].
N N R S 793 R = H, Me, Ph
Scheme 14.224
TMSCH2OTf 792
dry DCM R 75-95%
Me3Si R
N N S 794 R
Other alkylating agents have been used, such as triethyloxonium tetrauoroborate, benzyl chloride, p-bromophenacyl bromide, octyl iodide, and so on (Scheme 14.225) [353].
N N S 512 R1 X 72-95% R
N N S 514
X = BF4, Cl, Br, I R = Et, PhCH2 , 4-Br-C6 H4 -COCH2

Scheme 14.225
In most cases, 2-amino-1,3,4-thiadiazoles are also alkylated at the N3 atom of the ring [354]. Thus, 2-amino-5-methyl-1,3,4-thiadiazole (733) reacts with chloroacetone to afford the N-alkylated thiadiazolimine 795 in 75% yield (Scheme 14.226).
O N N
Me Me
O N N
Cl NH2
Me
75%
733
Scheme 14.226
Me HN S HCl 795
Amino derivatives are acylated at the amino group. Thus, it has been reported that 2-amino-5-(5-nitro-2-furyl)-1,3,4-thiadiazole 796 by reaction with acetic anhydride is transformed into 2-acetylamino derivative 797 in 95% yield (Scheme 14.227) [355].
j1377
N N O S 796 NH2
Ac2O Pyridine 80-90C 95% O2 N
N N S 797 NH
O Me
O2 N
Scheme 14.227
A similar reaction is observed with chloroacetyl chloride. Thus, starting from 798, a series of 2-chloro-N-(5-aryloxymethylene/aryl-1,3,4-thiadiazol-2-yl)acetamides 799 have been synthesized in 8191% yield (Scheme 14.228) [356].
O N N R S 798 NH2 Cl Cl R r.t. 74-91% N N S NH 799 O Cl K2CO3 /DMF
R = PhOCH2, 2-ClC6H4OCH2, 2-Me-C6H4OCH2, 4-Me-C6H4OCH2, 4-Cl-C6H4OCH2, 4-MeO-C6H4OCH2, 2-MeO-C6H4OCH2, 3-Me-C6H4OCH2, 3-NO2-C6H4OCH2, 4-NO2-C6H4OCH2, 2,4-Cl2-C6H3OCH2, Ph, 2-ClC6H4, 3-MeC6H4, 3-NO2C6H4
Scheme 14.228
Owing to the strong electron-withdrawing effect of the thiadiazole ring, carboxylic acids with the carboxyl group attached to the ring are rather unstable. Thus, Holmberg, on acidication of the sodium salt of 5-phenyl-1,3,4-thiadiazole-2-carboxylic acid (800), obtained a mixture of the acid 801 (40%) and 2-phenyl-1,3,4thiadiazole (802) (60%) (Scheme 14.229) [357].
N N Ph S 800 ONa O
N N S 801 60% CO2H
N N Ph S 802 40%
Scheme 14.229
The Mannich reaction of 1,3,4-thiadiazole derivatives with different amino groups occurs at the N3 ring atom. Thus, it has been reported that 1,3,4-thiadiazolidine-2,5dithione 803 with dialkylamines and formaldehyde give N,S-aminomethylated thiadiazoles 804. With urea, thiourea, semicarbazide, or thiosemicarbazide N,Naminomethylated thiadiazoles 805 have been obtained (Scheme 14.230) [258]. Cycloaddition reactions have been reported for the 1,3,4-thiadiazole moiety. In particular, 2,5-bis(triuoromethyl)-1,3,4-thiadiazole (806) has been used as 4p
1378
j 14 Thiadiazoles
HN NH S S 803 CuCl R2NH/CH2O S R2NH/CH2O 69-70% S NR2 S N N 804 R2NH = Diethylamine, Morpholine, Piperidine 89-98% S NR2
S R2N
S N N 805
S NR2 R2NH = urea, thiourea, semicarbazide, thiosemicarbazide
Scheme 14.230
component in a DielsAlder reaction, giving rise with norbornadiene to bicycloadduct 809. The formation of this compound was rationalized via the initial cycloadduct 807, which loses molecular nitrogen to generate a thiocarbonyl ylide (808) that reacts with a second molecule of norbornadiene (Scheme 14.231) [358].
S N N F3C S 806 CF3 F3C 807 -N2
CF3 N N
S CF3 F3C 809

Scheme 14.231
CF3 29% F3C 808 S
A DielsAlder reaction has also been reported for mesoionic 1,3,4-thiadiazoles. Thus, treatment of 4,5-diphenyl-1-thia-2-thio-3,4-diazolium thiols 810 with a twofold molar excess of dimethyl azodicarboxylate (811) in benzene under reux for 12 h yields the corresponding adducts 812, which undergo subsequent sulfur extrusion to intermediates 813, which with a concomitant oxidation reaction produce the nal products 814 in 6265% yield (Scheme 14.232) [359].
j1379
Ph Ar
N N S 810
CO2Me N N MeO2C 811 Ph
S S N N Ar
CO2Me N N CO2Me
812 S
Ar = Ph, ClC6H4
S N N Ar 814
Scheme 14.232
S N N 811 Ph MeO2C MeO2C N N Ar 813 N N
Ph
2,5-Dihydro-1,3,4-thiadiazoles are able to produce under thermal conditions thiocarbonyl ylides that can be trapped with suitable dipolarophiles. Thus, as already reported [346], compound 815 gave 816 and then 2,5-dihydrothiophenes 818 by reaction with different acetylenic derivatives 817 (Scheme 14.233).
R R N N S 815 R R O C= C R1 R1 = CN, PhCO, CO2 Me R R S 818
Scheme 14.233
R R
S 816 R1 817 R1 R1
41-65%
2,3-Dihydro-[(thioacyl)methylene]thiadiazoles 819 undergo cycloaddition reaction with acetylenedicarboxylate to furnish spiro cycloadducts 820 in 5060% yield. The reaction was carried out in chlorobenzene solution under reux. Surprisingly, the reaction rates were strongly enhanced upon UV irradiation (l > 300 nm), which allowed the reaction to occur at room temperature in dichloromethane solution (Scheme 14.234) [360].
1380
j 14 Thiadiazoles
S R1 S N N R2 MeO 2 C MeO 2 C 50-60% R 819 R1 R2 R
Scheme 14.234
CO 2Me S R2 R
CO 2 Me
R1
S N N
820
Ph Ph H COMe Me H CO 2 Et Me 3,5-dimethyl
The thiocarbonyl moiety of 1,3,4-thiadiazole-2(3H)-thiones 821 reacts as 2p component in a 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition reaction with N-methyl-C-phenylnitrilimine (822) to give, via the intermediate cycloadduct 823, the rearranged products 824 and 825 in 1628% yields (Scheme 14.235) [361].
H S N N N S CH3 823 S R
Ph HN N S S 821 S R + Ph N N 822 CH3
R = Me, Et, t-Bu, Me-C6H4-CH2, Cl2-C6H3-CH2
16-28%
CH3 N N N N S Ph
Ph
+ Ph
CH3 N N S
N N H3C
S S S S 824
Ph
N N H3C
825
Scheme 14.235
1,3,4-Thiadiazolium-3-methanide 1,3-dipoles 827, generated in situ from 3-trimethylsilylmethyl-1,3,4-thiadiazolium triuoromethanesulfonates 826 with CsF at 60 C, afforded by reaction with substituted alkenes the substituted pyrrolo[2,1-b] [1,3,4]-thiadiazole systems with endo selectivity. In particular, the reaction performed with N-substituted maleimide is the rst example of bowl-shaped tricyclic
j1381
nitrogensulfur (828 and 829) analogues of the tripentagon bowl, a 3,4,10-triaza-6thiatricyclo[6,3,0,03,7]undecane ring system (endo selectivity range 6.61.1) (Scheme 14.236) [270].
Me3Si R
N N S 826 R
CsF
H2C R
N N S 827 O R
R = H, Me, Ph R1 = Me, CH2Ph, t-Bu, adamantyl, Ph, p-MeC6H4, p-BrC6H4 N R1 O
37-70%
H N N R S RH 829
Scheme 14.236
O N R1 + R
H N N S RH O
O N R1
O Exo
828
Endo
1,3,4-Thiadiazoles containing a good leaving group at the carbon atoms of the ring can undergo nucleophilic substitutions. Thus, it has been reported that 2-bromo1,3,4-thiadiazole (830), by reaction with methylamine or thiourea, affords the Nmethylamino and 2-mercapto-1,3,4-thiadiazoles 831 and 832 in 80% and 75% yield respectively (Scheme 14.237) [278].
N N S 830 NH2 Me 80% Br (NH2)2 CS/OH 75% N NH S 832 S
N N S 831
Scheme 14.237
NHMe
1382
j 14 Thiadiazoles
Some other nucleophilic reactions, involving 2-chloro-5-aroyl-1,3,4-thiadiazoles 833 (Scheme 14.238) lead to the corresponding thiadiazoles 834837 [362].
Ar O N N S 835 S Ph PhSNa 62% Ar O N N S 833 Cl (NH2)2CS/OH 75% Ar O N NH S 834 S
PhNH2 N N O S 836 NH Ph
79%
NaN3
79% Ar O N N S 837 N3
Ar
Ar = 4-ClC6H4, 4-MeC6H4, 4-NO2C6H4

Scheme 14.238
A chlorine atom can be easily displaced in reactions involving simple esters as anion. Thus, tert-butyl 2-(5-phenyl-1,3,4-thiadiazol-2-yl)acetate 839 in 79% yield has been recently prepared by reaction of 2-chloro-5-phenyl-1,3,4-thiodiazole (838) with tert-butyl acetate in the presence of sodium hexamethyldisilazide (Scheme 14.239) [363].
N N Ph S 838
Scheme 14.239
t-ButylOCOMe Cl PhMe, NaHMDS 79% Ph
N N S 839
CO2 t-Butyl
Thioalkyl or sulfonyl substituents, which are good leaving groups, can be substituted by a range of nucleophiles. Scheme 14.240 shows several examples of such reactions, leading to different 1,3,4-thiadiazoles 841, 843845, and 847 [364]. A solid-phase synthetic route, from Merrield resin, has been exploited to prepare various 2-amino-5-substituted-1,3,4-thiadiazoles (849) by nucleophilic displacement of the sulfonyl group (Scheme 14.241) [306].
14.4.4.4 Reactions of Substituents 2-Amino-1,3,4-thiadiazoles are easily diazotated using strongly acid solutions. The intermediate diazonium salts have been used to prepare various substituted 1,3,4thiadiazoles (Scheme 14.242) [278]. 2-Halo-1,3,4-thiadiazoles can be also prepared according to Sandmeyer reactions. Thus, 2-chloro-5-phenyl-1,3,4-thiadiazole (853) has been synthesized in 85% yield by reaction of 2-amino-5-phenyl-1,3,4-thiadiazole (573) with amyl nitrite in the presence of CuCl generated in situ (Scheme 14.243) [363].
j1383
H N O N N S N N N 840 S CH3 O , 55%
N S N N N 841 N
R2 Me R1NH2 85-90% R Me N N ClO4 S 842 SMe R3
NH2 N N N R S 844
Me N R2 R3
N N R
N R1 S 843
74-99%
R = C6H11, Ph R2 = Me R3 = Ph R Me N NHR1
79-96%
R1NHNH2
N N S
845 t-Bu HO t-Bu

Scheme 14.240
N N S O S
CH3 O
NaOR 56-84% R = Me, Et, Pr, I-Pr
t-Bu HO t-Bu
N N S O
846
847
N N S O O S 848 R
1,4-dioxane R R NH 100C
1 2
N N R S 849
R2 N R1
40-70% R1R2 NH = Piperidine, Isobutylamine, Morpholine, Cyclohexylamine, Dibenzylamine

Scheme 14.241
2-Chloro-N-(5-aryloxymethylene/aryl-1,3,4-thiadiazolo-2-yl)acetamides 799 treated with ammonium thiocyanate under microwave irradiation provide, in only 5 min, 2-(5-aryloxyme-thylene/aryl-1,3,4-thiadiazolo-2-ylimino)thiazolidin-4ones 854 in optimal yields (Scheme 14.244) [356].
1384
j 14 Thiadiazoles
N N R S 850 NaNO2 HBr 75-80% N N R S 852
Scheme 14.242
NaNO2 /HCl NH2 R=H 70% H
N N S 851 Cl
Br
R = H, Me
N N Ph S 573
Scheme 14.243
amylnitrite, CuCl2 NH2 MeCN, 55 C 85% Ph
N N S 853 Cl
O N N R S NH 799 O Cl NH4SCN DMF, MW 78-98% R N N S N 854 HN S
R = PhOCH2, 2-ClC6H4OCH2, 2-Me-C6H4OCH2, 4-Me-C6H4OCH2, 4-Cl-C6H4OCH2, 4-MeO-C6H4OCH2, 2-MeO-C6H4OCH2, 3-Me-C6H4OCH2, 3-NO2-C6H4OCH2, 4-NO2-C6H4OCH2, 2,4-Cl2-C6H3OCH2, Ph, 2-ClC6H4, 3-MeC6H4, 3-NO2C6H4
Scheme 14.244
A series of 5-thiosubstituted-1,3,4-thiadiazo-2-yl-2-carbamates 858 and 862 as potential antimicrobial agents has been synthesized starting from 2-amino-5-mercapto-1,3,4-thiadiazole (856), according to standard procedures. In particular, the corresponding 5-alkyl or alkenylthio derivatives 858 have been prepared via 857 by reacting 856 with alkyl or allylic halides, followed by treatment with ethyl or allyl chloroformate in 7280% yield. The butynylamino derivatives 862 have been prepared by reaction of 856 with propargyl bromide (859), via the propynylthio analog 860 (75%), followed by reaction with chloroformates to give 861 and subsequent reaction with formaldehyde and secondary amines (Scheme 14.245). Most of the thiadiazoles so obtained exhibited some activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Candida albicans. The thiadiazole containing the perhydroazepino moiety was more active against C. albicans than phenol (used as standard) [365].
j1385
N N S S NH2 857
R1X OH
N N HS S NH2 856
OH H2N 859 75% Br
N N S 860 S
72-80%
ROCOCl R1 = Allyl, Et, Pr
65-75%
ROCOCl
R1
N N S S NHCOOR 858 RO HN O CuCl HN (CH2)n = Morpholine, Piperidine, Pyrrolidine
N N S S 861 CH2O/HN 60-80% (CH2)n
N N RO HN O
Scheme 14.245
S 862
(CH2)n
5-(Benzylthio)-N-ethyl-1,3,4-thiadiazol-2-amine (864) can prepared in similar way in 100% yield by reaction of 2-ethylamino-5-mercapto-1,3,4-thiadiazole (863) with KOH and benzyl chloride (Scheme 14.246) [348].
N N
HS
S 863
NH
Et
KOH PhCH2 Cl 100%
PhH2 C
N N S S 864
NH
Et
Scheme 14.246
It was found that the methyl group attached at carbons of 1,3,4-thiadiazoles shows fair acidity when treated with a strong base. Thus, when 2-methyl-5-phenyl- or 2,5dimethyl-1,3,4-thiadiazoles 865 and 867 were reacted with butyllithium, or NaH, or lithium diisopropylamide, followed by addition of CO2, aldehydes, ketones, or acetic acid, 5-substituted derivatives were obtained (866 and 868870) (Scheme 14.247) [366].
14.4.5 1,3,4-Thiadiazoles in Medicine and Agriculture
One of the best known drugs based on a 1,3,4-thiadiazole is acetazolamide (871, acetazolam), a carbonic anhydrase inhibitor launched in 1954. Compound 871 has
1386
j 14 Thiadiazoles
N N R S 865 Me BuLi CO2 31-72% R N N S 866 CO2H
R = Me, Ph N N Me S 868 43-79% LDA (5 equiv) Me - 78 C PhCHO Ph
OH Ph
LDA (1 equiv) - 78 C PhCHO Me
N N S 867
OH
N N S
HO Ph
869
NaH (2 equiv) AcOH
41-77%
N N Me S 870 50%
Scheme 14.247
COMe
many indications, including the treatment of glaucoma, epilepsy, and congestive cardiac failure [367]. 1,3,4-Thiadiazoles exhibit various types of biological activities and some of these compounds are useful pharmacophores. This nucleus is found in some antiviral derivatives such as 872 (anti HIV-1 and HIV-2) [368] and 873 (anti HIV-1) [369], and also in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases and cancer (such as 874 [370] and 875 [371]).
H2N O N N S O S NH Me 871
N S N N NH2 O Cl 872 Me H N N S N
Me
Cl
873
Anticancer activity has also been found for 2-amino-1,3,4-thiadiazole (ATDA, NSC-4728) and related compounds (EATDA, NSC-143 019) [372]. Recently several N-substituted-2-amino-5-(2,4-dihydroxyphenyl)-1,3,4-thiadiazoles have shown
j1387
a marked antiproliferative activity in vitro. In particular, the highest antiproliferative activity was found for 2-(2,4-dichlorophenylamino)-5-(2,4-dihydroxyphenyl)-1,3,4thiadiazole (876), with an ID50 two times lower (human cell lines SW707 and T47D) than cisplatin studied comparatively as the control compound [373].
Me N N Me N N S
S N N 874
O S
O H2 N
S Cl
875
Cl HO N N S HO 876
NH
Cl
It is also used as bactericidal; compounds 877 and 878 are active against Helicobacter pylori [374].
Cl N N O2 N O S 877 Me N N 878 N N S S SEt
S O2 N
Some compounds posses muscle relaxant properties. Thus, recently, Bhandari et al. have shown that derivatives 879 and 880 have signicant anticonvulsant activity against maximal electronic shock model compared to standard drugs phenytoin, diazepam, and phenobarbital [375].
O N N N N S
Me N Me
O N N
N N S
Me N Me
NO2 879 880
Moreover many 1,3,4-thiadiazole derivatives have also been patented in the agricultural eld as pesticides, herbicides, insecticides, fungicides, and so on. Two examples are reported here: in particular compound 881, which shows fungicidal
1388
j 14 Thiadiazoles
activity against Venturia inaequalis [376], and compound 882, which is an anti-tobacco mosaic virus agent [377].
Me Cl O F3 C O S N N NH 881 Me Cl N N S N N S N N Ph
882
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15 Five-Membered Heterocycles with Four Heteroatoms: Tetrazoles

Ulhas Bhatt
15.1 Introduction
Tetrazoles are ve-membered ring aromatic compounds composed of one carbon atom and four nitrogen atoms such that the four nitrogen atoms are linked contiguously to each other. Tetrazoles have 6p electrons and exist as either the 1H- or the 2H-tautomer (Figure 15.1). In solution, the 1H tautomer is the predominant form, but in the gas phase the 2H-tautomer is more stable. Disubstituted tetrazoles can be prepared by substituting the ring hydrogen, producing both 1,5- and 2,5-disubstituted tetrazoles. Various substitutions can adorn the tetrazole ring, from heteroatoms like N, O and S, to alkyl, aryl and heteroaryl groups. In addition, the tetrazole ring can be part of a fused ring system. X-Ray structures have conrmed the planarity of the ring system with NN bond lengths being of nearly equal length. The cyclic CNN and NNN groups vibrational frequencies are observed at 10001100 cm1 in their infrared (IR) spectra. Weak to medium intensity bands occur in the 12001300 cm1 region due to NN vibrations and a strong NN stretching band can be seen at 12701300 cm1. The CN band occurs at 14501500 cm1. The 5-CH stretching frequency of tetrazole is at 3146 cm1 and in several N-alkyl compounds this is shifted to below 3138 cm1. 15 N and 13 C NMR spectroscopy are useful tools in the determination of the substitution pattern. The C5 signal in 2-substitued tetrazoles is usually up to 10 ppm deshielded when compared to the 1-substitued tetrazoles. Although tetrazoles are an important compound class in their own right, they are used extensively as surrogates for carboxylic acids in medicinal chemistry. They have similar pKa values (tetrazole has a pKa of 4.76) and generally exhibit greater metabolic stability than carboxylic acids. Tetrazoles are also weak bases, exhibiting a pKa in the range of 3. The hydrogen at position 1 (N1) can participate in intermolecular hydrogen bonding with the other pyridine-type nitrogen atoms. Tetrazoles carrying an N1 substituent are unable to create these strong hydrogen bonds and thus exhibit signicantly lower melting and boiling points than N1 unsubstituted tetrazoles. The tetrazole ring exhibits a strong electron-withdrawing inductive effect (I effect) that is more
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j 15 Five-Membered Heterocycles with Four Heteroatoms: Tetrazoles

4 5 3
N N N H
N2
1
N N R N
NH
1H-tautomer
2H-tautomer
Figure 15.1 Tautomers of tetrazoles.
effective than its weaker mesomeric effect ( M effect). The tetrazole ring thus has a deactivating effect, especially when substituted with a strong activating group. Tetrazoles are useful in various applications like pharmaceuticals, agriculture, photography, polymers and explosives (Figure 15.2). In medicinal chemistry, biphenyl tetrazoles have shown potential as stimulators of growth hormone release, metalloprotease inhibitors and chloride channel blockers. Tetrazole chemistry has been extensively reviewed and so this chapter will cover the latest advances in the eld [1]. Special attention has been paid to syntheses performed using newer technologies like solid-phase and microwaves.
15.2 Synthetic Methods
Many methods for the synthesis of tetrazoles utilize an azide as the source of three of the four nitrogen atoms. A range of compounds, like acid chlorides, amides, amidines, carbodiimides, carbonimidic dichlorides, cyanates, imines, isocyanates, isothiocyanates, isocyanides, ketones, nitriles, nitrilium salts, orthoesters, oximes, oxazolones, and thiocyanates, react with inorganic azides (e.g., sodium azide) to produce tetrazoles. This is by far the most popular and extensively studied route for
Cl N n-C4H9 N OH N N N NH O2N N N H2N N N OH H3C CH3 O N NH N N Tomelukast (anti-asthmatic) R1 Ar N N N+ N R22X-
HN N
HN N
Losartan (antihypertensive)
Fuel additive
Image stabilizer
N N N N
I I
N N N PTZ (CNS agent)
R2 N
R1 N
Fungicide
N+ N N Ar electronic display component
Figure 15.2 Useful tetrazole compounds.
j1403
the synthesis of tetrazoles. The most commonly used azide sources are sodium azide (as a suspension in DMF or acetone or under phase-transfer conditions), ammonium azide (generated in situ) and trimethylsilyl azide. Tetrazoles can also be prepared from azidoaziridines, triazoles, and triazines.
15.2.1 Amides as Substrates
Amides react with sodium azide in presence of reagents like PCl5, POCl3 or SOCl2 to generate the corresponding 5-substituted tetrazoles. This reaction proceeds through the chlorination of the amide to generate the imidoyl chloride, which reacts with the azide to produce the tetrazole. When PCl5 is the chlorinating reagent, the reaction is called the von BraunRudolph reaction, but product yields are usually moderate. This methodology has been utilized to prepare tetrazole derivatives 1 (Scheme 15.1) [2].
O R1 N H R1 R2 N N N N R2 1 Yield 3050% R N N
PCl5 pyridine R1
Cl N R2
NaN3 acetone, H2O R1
R2
R = 4-Me, 4-Cl, 2-Cl, 4-NO2 30% N NH
50% N S N OMe 40% Cl(CH3)4
Scheme 15.1 Synthesis of tetrazoles from amides [2].
In a Mitsunobu-type variation of this reaction, an amide is treated with excess triphenylphosphine, trimethylsilyl azide and diethylazodicarboxylate (DEAD) to generate the corresponding tetrazoles [3]. This methodology was utilized in the
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synthesis of a series of tetrazole-ring containing growth hormone secretagogues. It was also used successfully to prepare compound 2 (Scheme 15.2) where the cyanoethyl group does not react under these conditions with TMSN3 to produce the second tetrazole ring and can be removed later under basic conditions. When poor yields of tetrazole products are observed using this route, it may be worthwhile treating the amides with Lawessons reagent and then subjecting the resulting thioamides to Mitsunobu conditions to produce the tetrazole products. This strategy has been cleverly utilized to convert linear Nv-tritylated v-amino thiobenzylamides and Na,Nv-ditritylated polyamino mono- or bisthioamides into the corresponding tetrazole derivatives 3 [4].
O O R OH CN S Trt N H H N S NH X NH Me3SiN3 PPh3, DIAD [5075%] Trt H2N CN R NH 1. 2 eq TMSN3 PPh3, DEAD 2. OH10-60% N N N N X N N N N
N N N N R H 2
Trt
Trt
N H H N
3 X = (CH2)4, (CH2)8, (CH2CH2O)2CH2CH2, C6H4CH2C6H4
Scheme 15.2 Synthesis of tetrazoles from amides and thioamides under Mitsunobu conditions [3, 4].
In a related reaction sequence, substituted anilines are reacted with ethyl oxalate and triethylamine to produce the corresponding ketoamides (Scheme 15.3) [5]. These were treated with triphenylphosphine in reuxing carbon tetrachloride followed by reaction with sodium azide to produce the tetrazole compounds 4. Recently, the conversion of amide into tetrazole has been reported by using tributyltin chloride and sodium azide [6].
O NH2 ethyl oxalate, NEt3 R 8095% R HN O OEt 1. PPh3, CCl4, reflux 2. NaN3, CH3CN 2382%
N N N N O R 4
OEt
R = F, Cl, CN, NO2
Scheme 15.3 Synthesis of tetrazoles from ketoamides [7].
The tetrazole ring has also been proposed as a replacement of the cis-amide bond in peptides (Figure 15.3) [7]. Peptides that contain the tetrazole group in place of a
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O HN Peptide
H N R' R
O Peptide HN Peptide
N N
O Peptide
R' R
cis-amide
tetrazole analog
Figure 15.3 Tetrazole ring as a replacement for cis-amide bond [6, 7].
cis-amide bond are able to adopt most of the conformations available to the original peptide. Tetrazolyl analogs of bradykinin and scyliorhinin I were among the rst few peptides studied. More recently, quinoxaline-based antifolates, with tetrazole modied glutamate side chain peptidomimetics, have been synthesized (Scheme 15.4) [8]. The reaction of a glutamate derivative with quinoline, phosphorus pentoxide and hydrazoic acid provided the corresponding tetrazole derivative 5. The Cbz group was removed under hydrogenating conditions and the resulting amine was coupled with a pteroic acid derivative to produce the desired analogs 6. These analogs exhibited potent thiamidyl synthase and L1210 cell growth inhibitory activities. Along similar lines, an analog of thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH) containing the tetrazole
1. PCl5, quinoline 2. HN3 3. H2, Pd/C
CbzHN CO2CH3 H N H O F
H2N H
CO2CH3 N
CO2CH3
COOCH3
N N N 5
CO2H R N O HN DEPC, NEt3 H3C N N CH3 6 F O NH CO2CH3 H N N N N CO2CH3
quinazoline based antifolate CbzHN N N Bz O O NH CH3 28% OBz N Bz PCl5, HN3 quinoline O CbzHN N O 7 N N N N CH3 OBz H N NH N N H O N N N N CH3 NH2
TRH analog
Scheme 15.4 Tetrazole ring as a replacement for the cis-amide bond in peptides [9, 10].
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ring as a mimic for the cis amide bond has been prepared (Scheme 15.4) [9]. Cbz-HisAla-OBz dipeptide derivative was treated with PCl5, quinoline and hydrazoic acid to produce the tetrazole product 7 that was later transformed into the desired tripeptide TRH analog. The lack of binding for this particular analog suggests that the amide bond geometry was not a critical factor in the binding of TRH with its receptor. In a recent development, an interesting methodology was reported for the synthesis of tetrazole ring compounds starting from an amide [10]. The amide substrate was rst converted into an oxazoline and then treated with hydrazine hydrochloride in methanol to yield an amidrazone. Subsequent reaction with sodium nitrite formed the desired tetrazole via a nitrosation process. This procedure avoided the use of azides altogether and was amenable to scale-up.
15.2.2 Acid Chlorides as Substrates
Acid chlorides react with sodium azide and phosphine imide to generate tetrazoles (Scheme 15.5) [11]. This reaction proceeds through the formation of imidoyl chloride that, in some cases, can be isolated prior to its reaction with the azide source. These reactions occur by the displacement of the chlorine by the azide anion. Other leaving groups can also be displaced by the azide anion and examples of such substrates include imidates, thioimidates, and amidines. Aromatic and aliphatic acid chlorides react with Lewis acids and two equivalents of metal azide to produce 1-substituted tetrazolols. Trimethylsilylazide has been used in place of the metal azide and the Lewis acid with excellent results. This reaction proceeds via the formation of the isocyanate followed by reaction of the second equivalent of the azide anion to complete the formation of the tetrazole ring.
O R1 Cl PPh3=NR2 R2 R1 NaN3, AlCl3 or TMSN3 Cl H N N R1 N R1 N N Cl NaN3 R2 N N R1 N
O R1
HO
N N
Scheme 15.5 Synthesis of tetrazoles from acid chlorides [11].
15.2.3 Nitriles as Substrates
Nitriles react with azides to generate tetrazoles and this method is widely used as a large number of nitriles are either commercially available or easily prepared. Earlier procedures used hydrazoic acid generated in situ from sodium azide and acid, but were often slow and gave poor yields. Use of polar solvents like DMF and DME and
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the addition of ammonium chloride or alkylammonium salts tends to shorten reaction times considerably and give better yields. Various 5-substituted tetrazoles 8 have been prepared by reacting nitriles with sodium azide in an aromatic solvent like toluene in the presence of an amine salt like triethylammonium chloride (Scheme 15.6) [12]. Several different conditions have been studied, including the effect of the number of equivalents of sodium azide used, the type of salt and the solvent. Following this protocol, the synthesis and pharmacological characterization of 1- and 2-alkyltetrazolyl analogs of 2-Me-Tet-AMPA ((RS)-2-amino-3-[3-hydroxy-5(2-methyl-2H-5-tetrazolyl)-4-isoxazolyl]propionic acid), a highly potent and selective agonist at AMPA receptors, has been described recently [13]. These tetrazole derivatives (9) have been synthesized by reacting nitriles with sodium azide and triethylamine hydrochloride in DME. Similarly, tetrabutylammonium uoride has been used as the catalyst to prepare tetrazoles 10 from nitriles and trimethylsilyl azide under solvent-free conditions [14].
1. Et3NHCl toluene, reflux RCN + NaN3 2. HCl R: alkyl, aryl, heteroaryl 7095% O Pr R N NC O NaN3, Et3NHCl DME 4550% R: H, CH2CH(NBoc2)(CO2tBu) R TMSN3 (1.5 eq.), TBAF (0.5 eq.) solvent-free 8095% R: H, 4-NO2, 3-OMe, 4-COMe, 2-tolyl Other nitrile substrates include pyridine, furan, indole, benzyl, alkyl
Scheme 15.6 Synthesis of tetrazoles from nitriles and sodium azide [1214].
i
H N N N 8 OiPr R N N
N N N NH 9
CN
HN N N N
10
Bis(tributyltin) oxide has also been used as a catalyst in the reaction between nitriles and trimethylsilyl azide to produce tetrazoles 11 and 12 (Scheme 15.7) [15]. Excellent yields of both alkyl and aryl tetrazoles are usually obtained by this method, which avoids the use of hydrazoic acid and also minimizes exposure to toxic tin compounds. Sharplesss group has disclosed that the reaction of sodium azide with nitriles proceeds nicely in presence of zinc salts to give 1H-tetrazoles [16]. This has been called click-chemistry and these reactions are performed in water with or without an organic co-solvent. For example, the synthesis of compound 13 proceeded readily
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R CN TMSN3, (nBu3Sn)2O (10 mol%) toluene, reflux R: Br, CO2Me, Ph alkyl nitriles also used 6098% 11 R HN N N N
TMSN3, (nBu3Sn)2O (10 mol%) toluene 80% CN N NH N N 12
Scheme 15.7 Further syntheses of tetrazoles from nitriles and sodium azide. [15].
in water with zinc salts as catalysts (Scheme 15.8). The scope of the reaction is quite broad; various aromatic nitriles, activated and unactivated alkyl nitriles, substituted vinyl nitriles, thiocyanates and cyanamides are all viable substrates under these conditions. However, this method works best for electron-decient nitriles. The authors have extended this methodology by using a mixture of water and 2-propanol at reux to transform N-Cbz amino nitriles into the corresponding tetrazole compounds 14 using sodium azide and half-an-equivalent of zinc bromide (Scheme 15.8) [17]. This methodology has found wide acceptance [18]. For instance,
1.1 eq. NaN3 1.0 eq. ZnBr2 R N water, reflux R: Ar, Alk, Vinyl, SR, NR2 H N R N 5296% 2.0 eq. NaN3 0.5 eq. ZnBr2 water, isopropanol reflux 9098% N R2 NC R1 NaN3, cat. ZnBr2 H2O, mW, 185 C, 20 mins 7591% N N N NH 15 32 compounds; kinase inhibitors
Scheme 15.8 Synthesis of tetrazoles from nitriles and azides using zinc bromide [1619].
HN N N R N 13 HN N N N R 14 N R2 R1
Cbz
Cbz
H N
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Merck researchers have utilized this methodology under microwave conditions to prepare a small library of tetrazoylpyridines 15. These compounds were evaluated for their role as dual inhibitors of the serine/threonine kinases Akt1 and Akt2. Using the same protocol, tatrazole analogs of glycyl-L-prolyl-L-glutamic acid have been prepared. Fmoc amino acids were also converted into the corresponding tetrazole compounds where the carboxylic acid group was replaced by the tetrazole ring. Recently, nanocrystalline ZnO was also shown to be an effective heterogeneous catalyst for the [2 3] cycloaddition of azides to nitriles to afford 5-substituted-1Htetrazoles in good yields [19]. Palladium-catalyzed three-component coupling reaction of cyano compounds, allyl methyl carbonate and trimethylsilyl azide, under a catalytic amount of Pd2(dba)3CHCl3 (2.5 mol%) and tri(2-furyl)phosphine (10 mol%), gives 2-allyltetrazoles 16 in good to excellent yields (Scheme 15.9) [20]. A p-allylpalladium azide complex has been proposed as a key intermediate in this reaction. This methodology has been extended to N-cyanoindoles to produce the corresponding indole-fused tetrazoles 17. Along similar lines, palladium-catalyzed reaction between allene, trimethylsilyl azide and 2-iodo-5-bromobenzene-1-carbonitrile generates tetrazoyltetrahydroisoquinoline 18 [21].
TMSN3 cat. Pd(0) OCO2Me Pd-N3 4080% R R N CN + OCO2Me 6090% N N Allyl 17 N N N N N TMSN3 cat. Pd(0) N
RCN
N N N N 16
Br
CN + I
H H
H C H
Pd2(dba)3 CH3Cl (2.5 mol%) P(2-furyl)3 (10 mol%) KOAc (2 eq), TMSN3 DMF, 48 h, 70 C 62%
Br
18
Scheme 15.9 Synthesis of tetrazoles under palladium catalysis [20, 21].
Fused bicyclic tetrazole-piperazines 19 have been obtained in very good yields by reacting N-cyanomethyl b-amino chlorides (derived from the corresponding b-amino alcohols) with sodium azide in DMSO at 150 C (Scheme 15.10) [22]. Fused 5-heterotetrazole ring systems 20 have been obtained in high yields by the intramolecular cycloaddition reaction of organic azides and heteroatom substituted
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R3 R2 OH N R1 SOCl2 N R3 R2 Cl N R1 NaN3 DMSO, 150 C, 1 hr N 7084% R3 R3 N N N N N R1 19 CN Z heat N3 25-95% n Z = O, S, N n = 0,1 n 20 N N N Z N
R1 = Me, Bn R2 = Me R3 = Ph
Scheme 15.10 Synthesis of tetrazoles in a fused ring system [22, 23].
nitriles [23]. Cyanates, thiocyanates and cyanamides are all competent dienophiles for this reaction. Tetrazoles have also been synthesized using uorous chemistry (Scheme 15.11) [24]. A uorous tin azide reagent (21) is prepared and reacted with nitriles to produce the corresponding tetrazole compounds 22. Subsequent cleavage by concentrated hydrochloric acid gives pure tetrazole products 23 and the uorous tin chloride, which could be reconverted into tin azide. In most cases, a 25-fold excess of the uorous tin reagent is used and good yields of the tetrazole products are obtained.
R RCN (C6F13CH2CH2)3SnN3 (21) HCl 6099% 7 examples N N HN N 23 N N N N (C6F13CH2CH2)3Sn 22 R
R = aryl, alkyl
Scheme 15.11 Synthesis of tetrazoles under fluorous conditions [24].
15.2.4 Isocyanides as Substrates
Isocyanides can also be used to prepare tetrazoles. Hydrazoic acid reacts with isocyanides to produce 1-substituted tetrazoles [25]. This reaction proceeds via the attack of the azide anion on the protonated isocyanide followed by cyclization to give the tetrazole ring. To avoid the use of toxic hydrazoic acid, 1-substituted tetrazoles 24 were synthesized via the [3 2] cycloaddition between isocyanides and trimethylsilyl azide in the presence of an acid catalyst and methanol (Scheme 15.12) [26]. Various 1-substituted tetrazoles have been obtained in good to high yields under these conditions. The reaction probably proceeds through the in situ formation of hydrazoic acid, followed by a successive [3 2] cycloaddition with the isocyanide activated by an acid.
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RNC
TMSN3, cat. HCl MeOH, ether 60 C, 24 hr R
R N
N N N 24
Yield (%) 92 85 87 67 58 77 57 78 92 81
p-MeOC6H4 o-MeOC6H4 2,6-(CH3)C6H3 C6H5 p-CO2MeC6H4 p-NO2C6H4 CH3(CH3)2 C6H11 t-Bu Me3SiCH2
Scheme 15.12 Synthesis of tetrazoles form isonitriles [26].
The isocyanide can also be electrophilically activated by iodinium ion or the acylium ion. Thus, if iodine azide is used instead of hydrazoic acid, 1-substituted 5iodotetrazole can be obtained. Similarly, the reaction of an isocyanide, an acid chloride and sodium azide generates 1-substituted 5-acyltetrazole where the acylium ion activates the isocyanide to the nucleophilic attack by the azide anion. The reaction of isonitriles with azide in the presence of Mannich-type reagent (e.g., formaldehyde and piperidine) provides 1,5-disubstituted tetrazoles. This is a variation of the wellknown Ugi reaction and is discussed in more detail later.
15.2.5 Oximes as Substrates
Oximes react with an azide source and reagents like thionyl chloride, chlorosulfonic acid, phenylsulfonyl chloride or phosphorus pentachloride to give 1,5-disubstituted tetrazoles. This transformation occurs via the attack of the azide anion on the nitrilium ion intermediate followed by cyclization to produce the tetrazole ring. Oximes of methyl olenonate and methyl betulonate have been treated with sodium azide in the presence of chlorosulfonic acid to give tetrazoles 25 and 26 respectively (Scheme 15.13) [27].
15.2.6 Orthoesters as Substrates
Orthoesters (especially orthoformates) react with sodium azide and amines or anilines to produce tetrazoles. This method can be carried out conveniently with aliphatic, aromatic or heteroaromatic anilines and gives good yields of the corresponding tetrazoles. A synthesis of 1-(2-iodophenyl)-1H-tetrazole 27 has been described recently by treating 2-iodoaniline, triethylorthoformate and sodium azide in reuxing acetic acid (Scheme 15.14) [28]. This tetrazole derivative, when used as a ligand in palladium-catalyzed Heck reactions, gives the cross-coupled products in
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COOCH3 HO N NaN3, ClSO3H N N N N O
25
O NaN3, ClSO3H HO N N N N N 26 O
Scheme 15.13 Synthesis of tetrazoles from oximes [27].
excellent yields. Condensation of p-methoxybenzylamine with 2-chloro-1,1,1triethoxyethane in the presence of sodium azide in acetic acid produces the corresponding tetrazole 28 [29]. Similarly, 2-aminopyridine has been heated with sodium azide and triethylorthoformate in acetic acid to produce 2-tetrazolylpyridine [29].
N
NH2 I
HC(OEt)3, NaN3 AcOH, reflux
N N N I 27
NH2
ClCH2CH(OEt)3, NaN3 AcOH, reflux MeO
N N N N Cl
MeO
28
Scheme 15.14 Synthesis of tetrazoles from orthoesters [28, 29].
15.2.7 Ketones as Substrates
Ketones react with an azide source to generate tetrazoles in the Schmidt reaction. Mixtures of 1,5-disubstituted products are generally obtained in this reaction.
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Originally, hydrazoic acid was used for this transformation, but now several other reagents are available. A few steroidal ketones have been converted into their corresponding tetrazole derivatives when an excess of hydrazoic acid was used [30]. Undesired side products, like the corresponding amides and lactams, were also formed under these conditions. Boron triuoride etherate has been used in combination with hydrazoic acid in this type of reaction, but still both tetrazole and lactam products were observed when steroidal ketones were used [31]. In another example, using Pummerers ketone, 35% of the tetrazole product and 22% of the uncyclized azide product was obtained by the use of hydrazoic acid and boron triuoride etherate [32]. Other Lewis acids like aluminium trichloride, tin(II) chloride, tin(IV) chloride, titanium tetrachloride, tetrachlorosilane, zinc(II) chloride and trimethylsilyl azide have all been used with success. Typically, an excess of the azide is used in the presence of a Lewis acid and the ketone in this reaction. Mixtures of 1,5-disubstituted 1H-tetrazoles 29 and 30 are obtained when aliphatic or aromatic ketones are reacted with excess sodium azide in the presence of titanium chloride in reuxing acetonitrile (Scheme 15.15) [33]. The use of a large excess of sodium azide relative to the amounts of ketone and titanium(IV) chloride (i.e., 8 : 1 : 2) provides the most satisfactory results. Performing the reactions in other solvents like benzene, THF, ether or methylene chloride led to lower yield of the tetrazole products in this study.
R1 O R2 NaN3, TiCl4 acetonitrile, reflux 5090% R1 = Ph, 4-ClPh, 4-OMePh, 4-NO2Ph -(CH2)4-, -(CH2)5-, Me, PhCH=CH2 R = Ph, 4-MeOPh
Scheme 15.15 Synthesis of tetrazoles from ketones [33].
R2 R1
N N N 29
R1 N + R2
N N N 30
A series of tetrazoles 31 have been prepared by using b-keto esters with trimethylsilyl azide and zinc bromide (Scheme 15.16). These were subsequently transformed into amino acids 32 [34].
O Me Me R O OEt TMSN3 (2.5 eq) ZnBr2 (1 eq) 60 C, 18 h 5090% N N N N Me Me 31 O OEt R H2N Me R 32 O OEt
R = Et, Bn, iBu, Ph
Scheme 15.16 Synthesis of tetrazoles from b-keto esters [34].
The reactions of a few cyclic a,b-unsaturated ketones with trimethylsilyl azide in the presence of trimethylsilyl triate produce the corresponding ring-expanded tetrazole derivatives 33 (Scheme 15.17) [35].
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O TMSN3, TMSOTf N N N N 33 Me Me Me Me O Me Me O Me Me O Me Me Me O Me N N N N Me O Me 67% N N N N O N N N N 74% Me Me N N N N Yield (%) 78% Me Me
61%
Scheme 15.17 Synthesis of fused tetrazoles from cyclic ketones [35].
Triazidochlorosilane (ClSiN3) is also an excellent reagent for the conversion of ketones and a,b-unsaturated ketones into the corresponding tetrazole derivatives 34 in nearly quantitative yields (Scheme 15.18) [36].
15.2.8 Tetrazoles from Other Substrates
Tetrazoles have also been prepared from amidines, carbodiimides, carbonimidic dichlorides, isocyanates, isothiocyanates, isocyanides, nitrilium salts, oxazolones and thiocyanates; however, these substrates have been utilized on very few occasions in the recent literature and hence are not described here. Moreover, this chemistry is well-documented elsewhere. The syntheses of tetrazole compounds using methods that have rapidly evolved recently and are now being increasingly used in both academia and industry is described next. These include the solid-phase synthesis, microwave synthesis and multicomponent synthesis of tetrazoles.
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Ar O R Ketone
Triazidochlorosilane (SiCl4 : NaN3 = 1:3) R
N N
N N 34 Ar
Yield (%) 87 87 60 97 93 95 94 90 95
Acetophenone 4-chloroacetophenone 3-nitroacetophenone benzophenone 1-indanone benzalacetone benzalacetophenone 4-methoxybenzalacetophenone 4-chlorobenzalacetophenone
Scheme 15.18 Synthesis of tetrazoles from ketones [36].
15.2.9 Solid-Phase Syntheses
The synthesis of tetrazole derivatives has been reported using solid-phase conditions to produce libraries of compounds especially in the realm of pharmaceutical research. Rink amide resin has been attached to a suitably substituted benzonitrile that was then reacted with trimethylsilyl azide and a catalytic amount of bis(tributyltin) oxide for 50 h at 90 C in o-xylene to produce the corresponding tetrazole compounds 35 (Scheme 15.19 [37]. This procedure was adapted from the report by Wittenberger that promoted the use of bis(tributyltin) oxide to facilitate the reaction of trimethylsilyl azide with nitriles to produce tetrazoles. The nal products were obtained in moderate yields (2045%) and in reasonably good purity (6593%).
CN I HO O O I DIC, HOBt DMF, rt H N O O R1B(OH)2, Pd(PPh3)4 DIEA, DMF 100 C N N N NH R1 H N O OR2
CN NH2 +
CN R1 H N O OH R1 = Ph, 4-MeC6H4 4-ClC6H4, 2-ClC6H4 3-OMeC6H4 R2OH, PPh3 DEAD DMF, rt O
CN H N OR2
1. Me3SiN3, n-Bu2SnO R1 o-xylene 90 C 2. TFA, CH2Cl2
R2 = isobutyl, 2-isopropoxy-ethy 2-phenylethyl, isopropyl
35 purity: 65-95% yield: 20-45%
Scheme 15.19 Synthesis of tetrazoles under solid-phase conditions using a Rink amide resin [37].
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The use of trimethylsilyl azide in contrast to azidotrimethyltin or sodium azide makes this process less toxic. In this study, diversity was introduced at two places on the phenyl ring by (i) Suzuki coupling at the iodo atom and (ii) Mitsunobu reaction at the phenolic site. A dihydropyran carboxylic acid type linker has been attached to tetrazoylarylbromide that then underwent Suzuki coupling with two different aryl boronic acids to produce biphenyl-tetrazole products [38]. Parallel solid-phase synthesis of 5-aminotetrazoles 36 was recently achieved by the reaction of resin-bound thioureas with excess mercuric chloride and sodium azide (Scheme 15.20) [39]. The nal products were obtained in good yields (6070%) and good purity (7585%).
R1NH2 (6 eq) NaBH(OAc)3 (6 eq) CHO DMF, AcOH 99/1 N H
R2-NCS (6 eq) CH2Cl2 N R1
S N H R2
NaN3 (6 eq) HgCl2 (6 eq) DMF
N N N N N R2 R1
CF3CO2H CH2Cl2
N N N R N N H R2 36
1
Scheme 15.20 Synthesis of tetrazoles under solid-phase conditions [39].
Tetrazoles have also been incorporated into privileged structures. A series of nitrile-containing benzopyran scaffolds were prepared on selenium-tethered resin and reacted with azidotrimethylstanane to provide the corresponding stannylated tetrazoles (Scheme 15.21) [40]. The trimethylstannyl group was removed using aqueous triuoroacetic acid (TFA) and the tetrazoles were further alkylated with various alkyl halides. Finally, the resin-bound tetrazoles were cleaved under oxidative conditions to afford the substituted tetrazole products 37. MeOPEG-supported azide has also been utilized as the azide source for the reaction with activated nitriles to produce the corresponding tetrazoles 38 in excellent yields (Scheme 15.22). Subsequent acid hydrolysis provided clean tetrazole products [41].
15.2.10 Microwave Syntheses
The use of microwaves has become an increasingly important component in organic synthesis as more and more types of reactions are successfully performed in their unique environment. The synthesis of tetrazoles often requires high temperatures
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R1 O
Se Me
Me3SnN3 (5 eq) toluene, 100 C X N N
R1 O N N
Se Me Me
R2X (10 eq) NEt3 (15 eq) CH3CN, 80 C
NC
Me
R1 = H, OMe
TFA
X = SnMe3 X=H R1 Me N N O N N 37 Me
R1 O N N
Se Me
H2O2 (6 eq) THF R2
R2
N N
Me
R2 = CH2CO2Et, CH2C6H4OMe, CH2CH2CH(CH3)2 CH2C6H3(CF3)2, CH2C14H9, CH2C(O)C6H3(OMe)2
(>90% purity)
Scheme 15.21 A further example of the synthesis of tetrazoles under solid-phase conditions [40].
OMs
NaN3 DMF
R C N N3 N
N N N 38
R R = PhCO: 92% COOEt: 95% COOBn: 96% pTolSO2: 95%

Scheme 15.22 Synthesis of tetrazoles using PEG [poly(ethylene glycol)] [41].
and long reactions times under standard conditions. Microwave chemistry promises to improve yields using lower temperatures and very short reaction times. Under microwave conditions, aryl bromides were converted into the corresponding nitriles by using zinc cycanide and Pd(PPh3)4 in DMF for 2 min at 60 W. These nitriles were then reacted with sodium azide and ammonium chloride in DMF using 20 W power for 15 min to produce the corresponding tetrazoles 39 in good yields (8095%) (Scheme 15.23) [42]. The same reactions performed using conventional heating took 410 h and gave slightly lower yields of the products. The synthesis of hindered tetrazoyl pyridines has recently been described under microwave conditions [43]. Under conventional heating conditions, only one nitrile substrate could be converted into the corresponding tetrazole. Using microwave irradiation at 2450 MHz and 140 C for 8 h, substituted pyridinyl nitriles were reacted with trimethylsilyl azide and
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Br Zn(CN)2, Pd(PPh3)4 DMF, 2 min mW 60 W R CN NaN3, NH4Cl DMF, 10-20 min, mW 20 W 50-95%, 8 examples R2 R1 N N N NH 40 R HN N N N 39
R = aryl, heteroaryl R2 R1 N N R1, R2 = cyclic aryl, heteroaryl
Me3SiN3, Bu2SnO dioxane, mW, 140 C, 8 h [40-80%], 10 examples Me3SiN3:Bu2SnO:nitrile = 4:0.3:1
Scheme 15.23 Synthesis of tetrazoles under microwave conditions [42, 43].
bis(tributyltin) oxide in dioxane to generate tetrazole products 40 in decent yields (5080%). A substantial amount of the unreacted starting nitrile was recovered whenever lower yields of nal product were isolated. As microwave instruments become more common in organic laboratories, more examples of its utility in the synthesis of tetrazoles will emerge.
15.2.11 Multicomponent Reactions
It has been known since the 1960s that tetrazoles could be obtained by reacting hydrazoic acid, isonitriles, aldehydes and amines by a variation of the now wellknown Ugi reaction (Scheme 15.24) [44].
R4 R3 N R1 N N
R1 O R2 +
R3 NH R4
HN3, R5NC
N N R2 R5
Scheme 15.24 Synthesis of tetrazoles from a modified Ugi reaction.
The Ugi reaction has been increasingly employed to prepare libraries of compounds. It has especially been employed to prepare tetrazole compounds fused to a second ring system. In this regard, a four-component, two-step, one-pot reaction between an aldehyde, a primary amine, methyl-b-(N,N-dimethylamino)-a-isocyanoacrylate and hydrazoic acid has been used to prepare bicyclic pyrazole compounds 41 in moderate yields (Scheme 15.25) [45]. More recently, a ve-centre-four-component Ugi reaction that employed an aldehyde, a primary amine, trimethylsilyl azide and 2-isocyanoethyl tosylate to create tetrazoylpiperazine ring products 42 has been described [46].
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CN R1R2CO + R3NH2 + (H3C)2N
CO2R4
HN3 MeOH 3080%
R3 R1
N N R2
CO2R4 N N N 41
R1, R2 = alkyl, H, cyclic ketone R3 = alkyl, benzyl R4 = Me
MeOH R1NH2 + R2CHO + TMSN3 + TsOCH2CH2CN R1 = CH2Ph, 4-MeOOCC6H4 2-MeOOCC6H4, CH2CH(OMe)2 R2 = CH(CH3)2, 4-MeOC6H4, Ph 4-MeOOCC6H4 4070%
R2 R1 N 42
N N N
Scheme 15.25 Synthesis of fused tetrazoles using multiple components [45, 46].
A more recent report demonstrates the synthesis of a series of tetrazoles by a Ugi reaction using the universal Rink-isonitrile resin (Scheme 15.26). The resin-bound nitrile group reacts with aldehydes, secondary amines and trimethylsilylazide to produce the corresponding tetrazoles 43 [47].
R1CHO R2R3NH TMSN3 NC THF/MeOH
R1 N
R2 N R 3 N N N
15% TFA CH2Cl2
R1 HN
R2 N R 3 N N N 43 Yield 67% 76% 89% 25% 75%
R1 PhCH2CH2 PhCH2Ch2 Ph Bn 4-OCH3-Ph
R2R3NH piperidine morpholine piperidine morpholine morpholine
Scheme 15.26 Solid-phase multi-component synthesis of tetrazoles [47].
In a very interesting variation, a series of fused azepine-tetrazoles 44 have been prepared that utilize the Ugi reaction sequence (Scheme 15.27) [48]. This generated diversity at ve positions on the scaffold. Similarly, the reaction of an aldehyde, primary amine, methyl isocyanoacetate and trimethylsilyl azide in methanol at reux affords bicyclic tetrazole-ketopiperazines 45 in good yield [49]. This efcient one-step protocol creates products with four potential diversity points and has been used to generate arrays of biologically relevant small molecules for general and targeted screening. These examples demonstrate the power of multicomponent reactions to rapidly generate a diverse set of compounds sharing a common core.
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R3 MeO O Boc H N R1 O R2 R4R4NH, TMSN3 O R3 NC H N N N R1 R4 N R5 N
N 44 N N N N R4 O 45
R1 O R2 +
MeO2C R4
NC
TMSN3, R3NH2
R1 R2 R3
Scheme 15.27 Multi-component syntheses of fused tetrazoles [48, 49].
15.3 Reactions of Tetrazoles
The tetrazole ring contains a carbon atom, a pyrrole-type nitrogen atom and three pyridine-type nitrogen atoms. These atoms exhibit their own unique chemical nature and reactivity. The pyrrole-type nitrogen exerts an electron-donating effect (activating the ring) whereas the pyridine-type nitrogens exert an electron-withdrawing effect (deactivating the ring). As mentioned earlier, tetrazoles are nitrogen analogs of carboxylic acids. Tetrazolic acids (R-CN4H) are easily generated in basic medium as they exhibit a lower pKa than carboxylic acids. The nature of the R-substituent controls the reactivity electron-withdrawing groups being more acidic. These tetrazolic acids can react at either the N1 or N2 position and mixtures are often obtained in these types of reactions.
15.3.1 Reactions at C5
1-Benzyltetrazoles or 1-(para methoxybenzyl)tetrazoles have been regioselectively lithiated at the 5-position using nBuLi in TMEDA/THFat 98 C (Scheme 15.28) [50]. These conditions were necessary to obtain regioselectivity consistently. Subsequent addition of electrophiles (aldehydes, ketones, a,b-unsaturated ketones, Weinreb amides, iodine and diethylchlorophosphate) furnishes the corresponding adducts 46. The benzyl or para methoxybenzyl groups can be cleaved under acidic or hydrogenation conditions to produce 5-substituted tetrazoles in good yields. N1-protected tetrazoles can be brominated using a strong base like nBuLi and bromine to produce the C5-bromo products. These activated products can then be
j1421
N N
1. nBuLi 2. E+ X
N N
N R R = Bn, PMB
N N R
46 R = Bn, PMB, H E CH3I C6H5CH2Br O R O H R OH H O R Cl R O RO P RO I R O X CH3 C6H5CH2 OH
O RO P RO Cl I2
Scheme 15.28 Electrophilic addition to tetrazoles [50].
utilized to prepare various heterocyclic compounds. 1-Benzyl-5-bromotetrazole (47) has been conveniently prepared by lithiation of 1-benzyltetrazole with nBuLi in THF at 78 C followed by treatment with bromine (Scheme 15.29) [51]. It was then coupled with various aryl boronic acids to produce the corresponding 5-aryl derivatives 48 under standard Suzuki reaction conditions.
ArB(OH)2, Na2CO3 cat. Pd(PPh3)4 toluene, H2O, EtOH reflux 8090%
N N N N Bn
1. nBuLi 2. Br2 THF -78 C
Br
N N N N Bn 47
Ar
N N N N Bn 48
Scheme 15.29 Suzuki coupling on tetrazoles [51].
15.3.2 Reactions at N1 and N2
The 2-position of the tetrazole ring is activated and thus reacts under several different conditions.
1422

Oxidation of the commercially available sodium salt of ethyl-tetrazole-5-carboxylate using oxone in aqueous acetone at pH 7.5 forms, exclusively, N-2-hydroxytetrazole-5-carboxylate (49) (Scheme 15.30) [52]. Subsequent standard basic hydrolysis gives the corresponding acid that can be further decarboxylated to generate 2hydroxytetrazole (50).
N N CO2Et N N Na
Oxone pH 7.5
HO
N N CO2Et N N 49
1. NaOH, EtOH reflux 2. c.HCl, reflux 3. c.HCl, reflux, 90h
HO
N N N N 50
Scheme 15.30 Oxidation of tetrazoles [52].
5-Phenyltetrazole can be selectively benzylated by using O-benzyl-S-propargyl xanthate in reuxing toluene to give exclusively 2-benzyl-5-phenyltetrazole (51) (Scheme 15.31) [53]. In contrast, the use of benzyl bromide generates both 1- and 2-benzyltetrazoles. O-benzyl-S-propargyl xanthate is prepared by the reaction of the xanthate salt derived from benzyl alcohol with propargyl bromide.
S HN N N N BnO Ph toluene, reflux 97%

Scheme 15.31 Benzylation of tetrazoles [53].
Bn
N N N N 51
Ph
5-Substituted tetrazoles react with Michael acceptors having electron-withdrawing groups to produce 1,5-disubstituted and 2,5-disubstituted products 52 and 53 (Scheme 15.32) [54]. These reactions are also applicable to 1-substituted-tetrazolin-5-ones and 5-substituted-1-hydroxy tetrazoles. An asymmetric version of this reaction has recently been disclosed where 5-methyltetrazole and 5-phenyltetrazole undergo highly enantioselective catalytic conjugate addition to a,b-unsaturated ketones and imides in the presence of chiral[(salen)Al(III)] complexes [55]. Mixtures of 1,5- and 2,5-disubstituted products 54 and 55 were obtained when 5-methyltetrazole was used but 2,5-disubstituted products 55 were exclusively obtained when 5phenyl tetrazole was used. Tetrazole itself fails to react under these conditions. Tetrazoles with the C5 substituted as an aryl ether can be conveniently acylated at N2 using the corresponding acyl chlorides and triethylamine to produce products 56 (Scheme 15.33) [56]. C-Arylated tetrazoles react with tetrauoroborate aryliodinium salts using either copper or palladium catalysts to produce the corresponding C,2N-diaryl
j1423
N N N N H
Ar
NEt3 5070%
N N N N
Ar + Z Z
N N N N
Ar
Ar = Ph, 4-ClPh
Z = CN, CO2Me
52
53
N N N N H
R2 X + R1
O [S,S (salen)Al ] complex toluene, 24 h, 0 C 8090%, 9095% ee
III
N N N N R1
X R1 + O R2
N N N N
X = Me, Ph
R1 = Pr, iPr, CH2CH2OBn R2 = Me, NHCOPh
R2 O 54 55 X = Me (both 1,5- and 2,5-disubstituted products) X = Ph (only 2,5-disubstituted products)
Scheme 15.32 Michael addition reactions of tetrazoles [54, 55].
N N N N H
O OR1 ClCOR2, NEt3 R2 N N N N 56 Yield 55% 57% 70% 65% 72% 92% 94% 80% 52% OR1
R1 Ph Ph 2,4,6-Me3Ph 2,4,6-Me3Ph 4-NO2Ph 4-NHAcPh 4-BrPh 4-ClPh 4-MePh
R2 Me Et Me Et Me Me Me Me Me
Scheme 15.33 Acylation reactions of tetrazoles [56].
products 57 and 58 (Scheme 15.34) [57]. Phenyl boronic acids and aryl bismuth salts can also be used with copper catalysts to produce C,2N-diaryl tetrazoles 59 and 60, respectively, from C-arylated tetrazoles [58]. Tetrazole can displace uorine from 4-nitrouorobenzenes to produce N(4-nitrobenzene) derivatives 61 (Scheme 15.35) [59]. Tetrazoles react with epoxides readily to produce both N1 and N2 substituted adducts depending on the conditions used. When a base like potassium t-butoxide is used to deprotonate the tetrazole, both N2 and N1 adducts 62 and 63, respectively, are obtained (Scheme 15.36) [60]. In contrast, when tetrazole is reacted directly, albeit on a strained epoxide, only N2 adduct 64 is obtained [61].
1424
Br BF4I+ K2CO3, CuI (cat.) DMF Br 57 Cl

-
N N N N H N N N N
Br
N N N N H BF4 I+ Pd(pentadione) (cat.) N N N N 58 H3C CH3 Cu(OAc)2 (cat.), pyridine N N N N 59 Cl
Cl
N N N N H
(HO)2B
Ph3Bi(OAc)2, Me2NC(=NH)NMe2 Cu(OAc)2 (cat.), THF
N N N N H
N N N N 60
Scheme 15.34 Arylation of tetrazoles [57, 58].
j1425
R N N N N H O2N + F R = H, Me Na2CO3 DMF
R O2N N N N N
61
Scheme 15.35 Nucleophilic addition on activated fluorobenzenes [59].
Ph N BnS N O Ph
H N N N N tBuOK DMF, 60 C
Ph N BnS N OH Ph N N N N 62 H N N N N THF, 0 C (1:1) + Ph BnS N N
Ph
OH N
N N N 63
O O
Ph
HO N N N N O 64
Ph
Scheme 15.36 Reactions of tetrazoles with epoxides [60, 61].
15.3.3 Miscellaneous Reactions
C-Phenyltetrazoles can be lithiated at the ortho position of the phenyl ring hence the tetrazole ring is seen as an ortho-directing substituent (Scheme 15.37) [62]. These
OH N N N N H 1. sBuLi, TMEDA 2. RCHO R = CH2=CH : 85% : 95% = CH3 R HN N N N 65
N N N N H
1. sBuLi, TMEDA 2. RI
R HN N N N 66
Scheme 15.37 Tetrazole ring as an ortho-directing group [62, 63].
1426

lithiated species can be quenched with various electrophiles to produce the corresponding adducts 65 and 66 [63]. Tetrazole compounds are also used as catalysts in various reactions. They have been extensively used in nucleotide chemistry to couple individual phosphoramidite nucleotides to form long chain RNA molecules. 1H-Tetrazole itself has been prominent in this chemistry. More recently, 5-(benzylmercapto)-1H-tetrazole (67) has been shown to be an excellent activator for RNA synthesis (Scheme 15.38) [64]. Compared to routinely used 1H-tetrazole, application of a 0.25 M solution of 67 in acetonitrile allows higher coupling yields (>99%), lower coupling times (3 min) and
DMTrO O NC O O P N(iPr)2 + HO O O OTBDMS R OTBDMS S 67 CH3CN, 3 min >99% H N N N N DMTrO O NC O O P O O R O OTBDMS OTBDMS R R
Scheme 15.38 Tetrazole derivative used in nucleotide coupling [64].
N H
N HN N 68
O R1 R2 O + +
NPMP COOEt
68 R1
NHPMP COOEt R2
NO2 R
68
R NO2
O ent - 68 PhIO or Davis's oxaziridine
O OH
2050% 4050% ee
Scheme 15.39 Reactions using tetrazole compounds as catalysts [6567].
References
j1427
reduced excess of phosphoramidites in solution over the solid-phase nucleotides (eight-fold). It has been synthesized by reacting benzylthiocyanate with sodium azide and ammonium chloride in a dioxane/water mixture. The chiral tetrazole compound 68, derived from proline, has been utilized in asymmetric Mannich, nitro-aldol and nitro-Michael reactions (Scheme 15.39) [65]. It has also been successfully used in asymmetric oxidation recently [66]. Its enantiomer has been utilized in aldol, nitroso-addition and a-uorination reactions [67].
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64 65
66
67
j1431
16 Six-Membered Heterocycles: Pyridines

Concepci on Gonz alez-Bello and Luis Castedo
16.1 Introduction
Pyridine is the simplest six-membered heterocyclic aromatic compound that is structurally related to benzene with one CH group in the six-membered ring replaced by a nitrogen atom. It is a liquid, with a sh-like, putrid and sour odor, that is obtained from crude coal tar or is synthesized from acetaldehyde and ammonia. Pyridine, widely used as a solvent and reagent in organic chemistry, is a harmful substance by inhalation, ingestion or absorption through skin and it can produce cancer and reduce male fertility. Pyridine derivatives are named as pyridines, indicating the positions of the substituents as a, b or c or by numbers 2-, 3-, 4-. The radical is named as pyridyl. Some examples are shown in Figure 16.1. Some alkylpyridines are known by trivial names. For instance, methylpyridines are known as picolines, dimethylpyridines as lutidines, and trimethylpyridines as collidines (Figure 16.2).
16.1.1 Relevant Pyridine Derivatives 16.1.1.1 Natural Pyridines are rarely found in nature, being exemplied by some vitamins, cofactors and alkaloids (Figure 16.3). For example, niacin is a water-soluble vitamin that assists in the functioning of the digestive system, skin and nerves, and is also related with food metabolism. In addition, pyridoxine (vitamin B6) is an important contributor of protein metabolism. In contrast, the redox-active part of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD ) or nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP ), important cofactors for enzymatic redox processes, is a nicotinamide heterocyclic ring. Few alkaloids contain monocyclic pyridine derivatives, with the notable exceptions being the tobacco alkaloids. Of particular importance is nicotine, which is present in
1432
j 16 Six-Membered Heterocycles: Pyridines

4 5 6 3 3 2
N
1
N 3-pyridyl Cl
pyridine
NO2 N 3-Nitropyridine N Br
MeO N CO2Me
2-bromo-4-chloropyridine
Methyl 5-methoxy-2-pyridinecarboxylate
Figure 16.1 Examples of pyridine nomenclature.
dried tobacco leaves and is the active ingredient in cigarettes and other tobacco products. Nicotine produces stimulant and depressant phases of action on all autonomic ganglia and is found in many insecticides. In addition, nicotyrine and anabasine are also important pyridine derivatives of tobacco alkaloids.
16.1.1.2 Unnatural Over the last 50 years interest in pyridine derivatives has risen sharply with the discovery of many bioactive compounds containing a pyridine ring. The development of different pyridine drugs has been especially interesting for the pharmaceutical industry, as the existence of over 7000 drugs with a pyridine ring demonstrates (Figure 16.4) [1, 2]. For instance, isoniazide is an antibiotic used to treat tuberculosis; sulphapyridine is used to help control dermatitis herpetiformis; ABT-594 is a powerful analgesic many times more potent than morphine, without the serious side effects; niaprazine is an antihistamine, bronchodilator and sedative; piroxicam is a non-steroidal anti-inammatory drug used to relieve the pain, tenderness inammation and stiffness caused by arthritis; niumic acid is used as an antirheumatic
N -picoline
N -picoline
N -picoline
N 2,6-lutidine
N 2,5-lutidine
N 2,4,6-collidine
N 2,3,5-collidine
Figure 16.2 Nomenclature of some methylpyridines.
16.1 Introduction
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OH CO2H N Niacin HO N Pyridoxine CONH2 OH RO N N N O O O P P O -O -O O O HO NAD+ (R = H) NADP+ (R = OPO3-2) O N+ OH OH
N H2N
H N Me N Me
H N H N Anabasine
N Nicotine
Nicotyrine
Figure 16.3 Relevant natural pyridine compounds.
H N
NH2 N
N Isoniazide
O O S N H NH2
N H
O N ABT-594 Cl
Sulphapyridine F H N N N
O N O H N N
N O
OH Niaprazine
Piroxicam O NMe2
N HO2C N H Niflumic acid

Figure 16.4 Relevant pyridine drugs.
CF3
N Doxylamine
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Cl Cl NH2 Cl CO2H NC Cl N CN Cl Cl N CCl3
Picloram (herbicide)
Pyridinitrile (fungicide)
Nitrapyrin (bactericide)
Figure 16.5 Examples of agrochemical pyridine derivatives and their applications.
and analgesic; doxylamine is an antihistamine used for short-term treatment of insomnia and also to treat symptom soft allergy, colds and upper respiratory infections. Pyridine derivatives are also very important compounds for the agrochemical industry due to their applications as herbicides, fungicides or bactericides (Figure 16.5) [35].
16.1.2 Spectroscopic Data 16.1.2.1 NMR Data The presence of the nitrogen atom in the aromatic ring produces a strong deshielding inuence of the ring a-hydrogen and a-carbon atoms, and a similar but smaller effect on the ring c-hydrogen and c-carbon atoms. Typical 1 H NMR and 13 C NMR chemical shifts are indicated in Figure 16.6. The coupling constants of the pyridine aromatic protons are usually similar to benzenes, except in the case of the H2 proton whose coupling constant is reduced from 78 to 46 Hz. Substituent effects follow the same general trend as in substituted benzenes. The 15 N NMR signal for pyridine-type nitrogen appears at comparatively low eld (57 ppm in CCl4). Substituent effects are often considerable, particularly when electron-donating groups are present in the aromatic ring and, consequently, downeld shifts are observed. For instance, the chemical shift of N1 in 4-methoxypyridine, 4-aminopyridine and 4-nitropyridine is 90, 105 and 35 ppm (in acetone), respectively (Figure 16.7). The nitrogen chemical shift of pyridine increases up to 100 ppm when the lone electron pair is protonated. For instance, the nitrogen signal of pyridinium hydrochloride appears at 181 ppm (in water). N-Oxidation of the nitrogen also shifts the signal downeld, but only between 10 and 30 ppm. Hydrogen bonding to the nitrogen lone pair leads to a downeld shift that depends on the strength of the bonding. Shifts of approximately of 20 ppm are usually found. 16.1.2.2 UV Data Pyridine shows two absorption maxima, at 195 and 250 nm (in CCl4). The UV spectra varies with pH because of quaternary salt formation. For example, 4-tert-butylpyridine
16.1 Introduction
4 5 6 3 2
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J2,3= 4-6 J2,4= 0-2.5 J2,5= 0-2.5
J2,6= 0-0.6 J3,4= 7-9 J3,5= 0.5-2
7.75 7.38
8.59
4 PPM
130.2 122.0
148.1
150
100
PPM
50
Figure 16.6 Proton coupling constants (Hz) and 1 H and 13 C NMR spectra of pyridine.
has an absorption maximum at 262 or 255 nm in 0.1 M HCl or 0.1 M NaOH, respectively.
16.1.2.3 IR Data The pyridine IR spectrum is quite similar to the corresponding vibrations of benzene. Pyridine has CH stretching frequencies in the range 30203070 cm1 as well as CC and CN stretching frequencies at 15901660 cm1 and near 1500 cm1.
OMe
NH2
NO2 N+ H Cl 181 ppm
N 57 ppm
N 90 ppm
N 105 ppm
N 35 ppm
Figure 16.7 Examples of effect of substituents on the nitrogen chemical shift.
1436

+ N N + NN-
-N N 2.23 D
Figure 16.8 Pyridine resonance forms. The ring nitrogen atom has a negative charge.
Pyridine can be considered a benzene derivative in which an sp2-hybridized nitrogen atom replaces a CH unit. The pyridine ring is aromatic and several resonance structures may be drawn (Figure 16.8). The aromatic ring electronic structure is strongly modied by the presence of the electronegative nitrogen atom, which has a lone pair of electrons in one of the sp2 hybrid orbitals orthogonal to the p-system. Consequently, this excess electron density is localized on the ring nitrogen atom and it is not delocalized around the ring. On the other hand, the ring nitrogen atom pulls charge from the ring because the nitrogen atom is more electronegative than carbon and, therefore, pyridine is more polar than benzene, as its dipole moment (2.23 D) shows. Pyridine reactivity is based on the charge distribution within the ring, the electronic effects of ring substituents and to a lesser extent on steric effects. Pyridines are electron-decient heterocycles that have many analogies in reactivity with nitrobenzene due to their electron distribution. In both molecules, the positive charge is located at positions 2 and 4 of the ring, and the negative charge is placed in the ring nitrogen atom for pyridines or in the C1 carbon atom for nitrobenzene (Figure 16.9). The ring nitrogen atom of pyridines is a reasonable nucleophile to react with electrophiles such as alkyl and acyl halides, leading to stable quaternary salts (Scheme 16.1). In addition, pyridines are weak bases compared with the corresponding piperidines; they react with Brnsted acids such as HCl, HNO3, H2SO4 and so on, to form pyridinium ions, and with Lewis acids such as AlCl3, SnCl4, and so on to afford stable pyridinium complexes.
+ + N + + + + N+ O O
Figure 16.9 Pyridine and nitrobenzene charge distributions.
16.2 Synthesis of Pyridines
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Nu
Reactivity with electrophiles
Reactivity with nucleophiles
Nu N E N E Nu: H2N-, HO-, organometallic compounds, etc. N N and/or Nu N
E = H+, RX, RCOX, (RCO)2O, etc.

Scheme 16.1
The electron-decient nature of the pyridine ring allows nucleophiles to react with pyridines by a nucleophilic aromatic substitution mainly at the a- and c-positions. A wide range of nucleophiles can be employed, such as amide anions, hydroxyl groups, organometallic compounds, and so on, allowing the selective functionalization of the a- and c-positions of the pyridine ring with a large variety of functional groups. Pyridine electrophilicity is enhanced in the presence of electron-withdrawing groups in the ring.
16.2 Synthesis of Pyridines 16.2.1 Synthesis by Cycloaddition Reactions 16.2.1.1 [2 2 2] Cycloadditions One of the most convenient synthetic approaches to pyridines is the [2 2 2] cycloaddition of alkynes to nitriles catalyzed by transition-metals (Scheme 16.2) [610]. It is an atom-economical and extraordinarily effective method to prepare substituted pyridines. Although in principle thermal [2 2 2] cycloadditions are symmetry allowed, entropic barriers associated with the approximation of the three components and enthalpic activation energy contributions disfavor the pericyclic process [1113]. In fact, reports of purely thermal [2 2 2] cycloadditions are rare in literature. However, these energetic barriers can be circumvented by the use of metals that coordinate to the reaction partners in a step-wise process.
Metal catalyst R R = alkyl, vinyl, aryl
Scheme 16.2
+ N
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Until recently, most reported examples of co-cyclization reactions of alkynes to nitriles focused on cobalt-based catalysts. For example, Wakatsuki and Yamazaki [14, 15] reported in 1973 the rst synthesis of pyridines using stoichiometric and, later on, catalytic cobaltacyclopentadienes. The mechanistic and synthetic studies reported by B onnemann were crucial for the development of this reaction [1620]. The proposed mechanism is shown in Scheme 16.3. Thus, two alkyne moieties coordinate to the metal, and then oxidative coupling proceeds to give the Co(III)-metallacycle 1. Because nitriles are generally better s-donors than alkynes and, therefore, are better ligands for Co(III), the nitrile addition (path a) is more favored than the addition of a third alkyne (path b). Coordination of a nitrile to the metallacycle 1 takes place initially through the nitrogen to afford Co complex 2, which nally evolves by insertion of the nitrile to the metallacycle followed by reductive elimination to yield the pyridine derivative with concomitant regeneration of the CpCo catalyst. Whereas the nitriles undergo practically exclusive conversion into pyridine derivatives, the alkyne component always undergoes some degree of conversion into benzene derivatives. The ratio of pyridines to benzene products can be directed in favor of pyridines by using an excess of the nitrile. If catalysis is conducted in the
CpCo
2x
Co Cp 1 Cp "CpCo" Co
path b
R-CN path a Co N C R Cp= cyclopentadienyl
Cp 2
Scheme 16.3
j1439
presence of a permanent excess of nitrile and a stoichiometric amount of alkyne, pyridines can be obtained in yields up to 90%. The photochemical variant of the reaction provides a valuable extension of the existing methods, avoiding the harsh reaction conditions of the thermally initiated method. By irradiation of the reaction mixture with UV-Vis light (350500 nm), or, alternatively, with sunlight as the energy source for catalyst activation [21, 22], the reaction could be carried out at ambient temperature and pressure and even permits the use of water as solvent. Besides improved operational safety with respect to the thermally initiated variant, the photochemical cycloaddition bears the opportunity to improve chemoselectivity by avoiding the homocyclotrimerization of the alkyne moieties [23, 24]. For instance, a series of 2-pyridines 3 have been synthesized at 25 C in 34 hours by the photocatalyzed [2 2 2] cycloaddition of various nitriles with acetylene (Table 16.1) [25]. The co-cyclization of monosubstituted alkynes 4 to nitriles 5 usually gives a mixture of 2,4,6- (6) and 2,3,6-trisubstituted pyridines (7), with the former products being predominant (Table 16.2). The regioselectivity of the reaction is related to the electron density on the metal. Co complexes containing electron-withdrawing
Table 16.1 Examples of [2 2 2] cycloaddition of acetylene with nitrilesa).
+ N
CpCo(COD) R h, 25 C, 3-4 h N 3
Solvent Yield (%)
Hexane
90
Toluene
80
O O
OEt OEt
Hexane
81
Water 2% (v/v) toluene
85
N
O
7
Toluene
79
Toluene
80
a)
COD cyclooctadiene.
1440

ligands, for instance (C5H4COMe)Co(COD) [18, 26] (CODcyclooctadiene) or (C5H4CO2Me)Co(COT) [27], (COTcyclooctatetraene), give high yields but low regioselectivities (1.5 : 1), whereas Co complexes containing electron-rich ligands, for instance (C5Me5)Co(COD), afford higher regioselectivities (3.5 : 1) but low yields. Table 16.2 shows the effect of the type of Co catalyst on the reaction regioselectivity. The low regioselectivity of the [2 2 2] cycloaddition reactions can be circumvented by tethering two of the three reaction components. Two approaches have been employed, either reaction of dialkynes and nitriles (Scheme 16.4a) or alkynenitriles and alkynes (Scheme 16.4b). (a) Co-oligomerization of dialkynes with nitriles affords chemo- and regioselective formation of oligoheterocyclic systems in a single step. For instance, the cooligomerization of diyne 8 with various substituted nitriles 9 gives pyridines 10 in good yields and high selectivities (Scheme 16.5) [29]. Pronounced regioselectivity has been observed in the reaction of 1,7-decadiyne (11) with valeronitrile (12), affording tetrahydroisoquinoline 13 as the major regioisomer (Scheme 16.5) [29].
Table 16.2 Reaction temperature and regioselectivity for 65% propyne conversion.
R1 2 R1 4
Co complex
N R2 5
Co(I) R1 N 6
T ( C)
+ R2 R1 N 7
R1 R2
Ratio 6 : 7 (R1 Me; R2 Et) [18, 26, 28] 1.22 : 1 1.46 : 1 1.67 : 1
PhOC
Co(COD)
119 123 144
MeOC
Si
Co(COD)
Co(COD)
Co(COD)
Co(COD)
140
1.73 : 1
147
1.71 : 1
Co(COD)
180
2.50 : 1
Co(COD)
220
3.51 : 1
j1441
R (a) + N
Metal N
R (b) N
Scheme 16.4
Metal N R
R n 8 + N 9 n= 1, 2, 3
CpCo(CO)2 xylene, 43-81% n 10 N
R = alkyl, aryl, CH2OMe, CH2CO2Et
nBu + N 12
CpCo(CO)2 xylene, 13, 73% N
nBu + N 14, 4%
nBu
11
Scheme 16.5
(b) a,v-Alkynenitriles 15 are catalytically co-cyclized with alkynes 16 in the presence of CpCo(CO)2 to furnish chemo- and regioselective [b]annulated pyridines 17 (Scheme 16.6) [30]. Chiral pyridine derivatives can be obtained by metal-catalyzed cycloaddition of optically pure nitriles and alkynes. Under thermal conditions, the enantiomeric excess of the product decreases in many cases by 210%, which is attributed to the high reaction temperatures (>100 C) necessary to initiate the catalysis [3139]. However, using the photochemical version of the reaction, this problem is
+ N 15
Scheme 16.6
CpCo(CO)2 TMS 16 xylene, , h 70% N 17 TMS
1442

circumvented, affording optically pure pyridine derivatives without detectable loss of enantiomeric purity (Scheme 16.7) [40].
N BnO O
CpCo(CO)2 + 2 toluene, h 89% BnO
N O
>99% ee
N NHAc + 2
CpCo(CO)2 toluene, h 83%
N NHAc >99.5% ee
Scheme 16.7
Recently, it has been shown that by using modied chiral Co(I) complexes of the type CpCo(COD) homochiral 1-aryl tetrahydroisoquinolines 20 are obtained in 8293% ee by co-oligomerization of diyne 18 and various nitriles 19 (Scheme 16.8) [41].
R R OMe + N 19 R = Ph, Me, tBu

Scheme 16.8
*Co(I), h THF, 20 C - 3 C 74-88%
N OMe
18
20, 82-93% ee
Although many examples of Co-catalyzed [2 2 2] cycloaddition of nitriles to alkynes have been reported, the regioselective assembly of two different unsymmetrical alkynes and a nitrile, leading to a single pyridine derivative, still remains unsolved. In a few cases, a single pyridine has been obtained with the assistance of a functional group such as an ester group [42]. However, in most cases a mixture of regioisomers is obtained. This can be attributed to the two possible orientations of the nitrile during the formation of the cobaltacyclopentadiene. Therefore, the regioselectivity of the reaction is completely dependent on the substitution of the alkynes. This selectivity problem has been greatly improved with the use of other

Table 16.3 Examples of [2 2 2] cycloaddition of nitriles to alkynes mediated by diverse transition-metal complexes.
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Alkynes
Nitrile
Metal complex
Product
Yield (%)
Reference
C6H13
Ph
SO2Tol
Ti(OiPr)4/iPrMgCl
Ph N
C6H13
70 [43]
CONEt2
N
Et
N
Cp2ZrBu2 NiCl2(PPh3)2
CONEt2
TMS
TMS Hex N Et Ph
59 [44]
Hex
Ph
CN
TsN
a)
TsN
Cp Ru(COD)Cl
a)
95
[45]
CN
Cp pentamethylcyclopentadienyl.
CN
transition-metal complexes such as Fe, Rh, Ni, Ti, Ta, Ru, Zr/Ni and Zr/Cu [6]. Table 16.3 shows some examples.
16.2.1.2 [4 2] Cycloadditions Pyridine derivatives can be efciently synthesized by the [4 2] cycloaddition (hetero-DielsAlder) of an azadiene and a dienophile (Figure 16.10a and b) or a diene and an azadienophile (Figure 16.10c). Careful selection of the appropriate azadiene/diene and the complementary dienophile/azadienophile and well-dened reaction conditions can result in a good approach to substituted pyridines. In selecting an appropriate diene and dienophile it is important to understand that the DielsAlder reactions can be classied as three types: (i) normal DielsAlder
(a) N O N O N O N
(b) N
N N
(c)
Figure 16.10 Hetero-DielsAlder approaches to pyridine.
1444

NEUTRAL INVERSE LUMOdiene-controlled EWG
NORMAL HOMOdiene-controlled EDG
EWG
EDG
LUMO LUMO
LUMO LUMO
HOMO
HOMO
HOMO
HOMO
Figure 16.11 Classification of the DielsAlder reactions.
(HOMOdiene-controlled), customarily employing an electron-rich diene (increased HOMOdiene) and electron-decient dienophile (decreased LUMOdienophile); (ii) inverse electron demand DielsAlder (LUMOdiene-controlled), which is favored by employing an electron-decient diene (decreased LUMOdiene) and electronrich dienophile (increased HOMOdienophile); and (iii) neutral DielsAlder (Figure 16.11) [4648].
16.2.1.2.1 DielsAlder Reaction of Azadienes and Dienophiles Azadienes as electron-decient dienes are ideally suited for participation in inverse electron demand DielsAlder reactions [4951]. Electron-withdrawing groups in the azadiene accentuate its electron-deciency and permit the use of electron-rich, strained and even simple alkenes as dienophiles. Strong electron-donating groups in the azadiene reverse its electron-decient nature and permit the use of conventional dienophiles for normal DielsAlder reactions. The most commonly used azadienes are azabutadienes, oxazoles, 1,3-diazines, 1,2,4-triazines, and so on (Figure 16.12). Aza-1,3-butadienes Several examples of hetero-DielsAlder pyridine synthesis using aza-1,3-butadienes have been reported. For example, Boger and coworkers [52, 53] recently published the total synthesis of Piericidin A1 and B1, in which the pyridine core was synthesized by an inverse electron demand DielsAlder reaction between N-sulfonyl-1-aza-1,3-butadiene 22 and tetramethoxyethene (23) followed by Lewis acid-promoted aromatization to give pyridine 24 in good yield (Scheme 16.9).
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R R R N X R N
R O O R oxazinones R R N R N R N R N N
R N
R O R
azabutadienes R R
oxazoles
1,3-diazines
1,2,4-triazines
Figure 16.12 Examples of azadienes employed in the DielsAlder reaction.
+ EtO2C N R 21, R=OH 22, R=SO2Me
MeO MeO 23
OMe OMe
toluene, 50 C 64% from 21 EtO2C
OMe OMe OMe N OMe SO2Me
MeSOCl, Et3N
OMe EtO2C N 24
Scheme 16.9
BF3.OEt2 88%
OMe
In addition, cationic aza-1,3-butadiene 25 reacts with dialkyl acetylenedicarboxylate 26 by a tandem [4 2] cycloaddition/deamination reaction in the presence of triethylamine to give the product pyridines in satisfactory yields (Scheme 16.10) [54].
NMe2 H N H I 25
Scheme 16.10
CO2R + CO2R 26
CH2Cl2, Et3N, rt 62-66% MeS
NMe2 CO2R N H CO2R MeS N
CO2R CO2R
MeS
R= Me, Et
1446

Heating 1,3-diynyl bis(a,b-unsaturated hydrazone) 27 results in double intramolecular DielsAlder reaction to give, after aromatization by loss of dimethylamine, 2,20 -bipyridine 28 (Scheme 16.11) [55].
N Xylene, N 27 76%
N N 28
Scheme 16.11
1,3-Oxazin-6-ones 1,3-Oxazin-6-ones react with a large variety of alkynes to afford highly substituted pyridines. Table 16.4 shows some examples of this heteroDielsAlder reaction. The initial [4 2] cycloadduct 31 undergoes a retro-Diels Alder reaction with loss of carbon dioxide providing regioselectively pyridine derivatives 32 in good to high yields. Alternatively, these cycloaddition reactions can also be performed with electron-rich alkenes such as 1-ethoxy-1-(dimethylamino) ethylene (Scheme 16.12).
Table 16.4 Hetero-DielsAlder reaction of 1,3-oxazin-6-ones 29 and alkynes 30.
R3 O N R1 29 O +
O R
4
R5 30
R3
R4 CO2
R3 N
R4 R5
N R
1
R5
R1 32
31
Alkyne substituents R3 H H H H H H H H H R4 H H CO2Me CO2Me TMS TMS TMS NBn2 NEt2 R5 CO2Et CO2Et CO2Me CO2Me H TMS TMS Me Me Yield of 32 (%) 96 54 82 85 81 88 71 69 83
Oxazinone substituents R1 Ph Piperidine Pyrrolidine NMe2 CO2Et CO2Et H nPr nPr R2 CF3 CF3 CF3 CF3 Ph Ph Ph Me Me
Reference [56] [56] [56] [56] [57] [57] [57] [58] [58]
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O N R O +
EtO
NMe2
N CO2, EtOH 80-94% R
NMe2
R = iPr, iBu, tBu, CF3

Scheme 16.12
Oxazoles Oxazoles have been used extensively as azadiene in the hetero-Diels Alder synthesis of pyridine derivatives [50, 51]. The initial cycloadduct 35 is usually very stable, and even isolable in many cases, and can provide, depending of the reaction conditions, pyridines 36 (dehydratation/aromatization) or 3-hydroxypyridines 37 (elimination/aromatization) (Table 16.5). 1,3-Diazines 1,3-Diazines can undergo [4 2] cycloaddition reactions across positions C2/C5 or N1/C4. The regioselectivity of the reaction depends on the dienophile employed as well as the substituents present in the diazine nucleus. For example, diazine 38 reacts with N,N-diethyl-1-propynylamine (39) by an inverse electron demand DielsAlder reaction across position C2/C5 (Table 16.6) [64]. Diazines 38a and 38b react via the cycloadduct 40, affording exclusively regioisomers 41 in excellent yield. However, the opposite regioselectivity is obtained with diazine 38c, which gives pyridine 42 in 81% yield. A [4 2] cycloaddition reaction across N1/C4 occurs in the reaction of diazine 43 with enamine 44 to give 2-morpholino-5-nitropyridine 47 in 57% yield (Scheme 16.13) [65]. Its formation can be explained via intermediates 45 and 46.
NO2
4
O O +
1
O N N N 45 O N H N
4 1
O N 44 N
EtOH, RT 57%
NO2
N 43
NO2 N O
Scheme 16.13
N N
NO2 N 46
N 47 CN
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Table 16.5 Examples of hetero-DielsAlder synthesis of pyridines using oxazoles as azadienes.
R2 X N 33 O R1 + O X - H2O N
R3 R3 36
R2
R3 R3 34
R2 N
R3 R3
R1 35
-XH
R2 N
OH
R3 R3 37
Dienophile 33
Diene 34
Conditions
Product
Yield (%) Reference
CN N O
O O
OH
i
Pr
(1) MW, 120 C HO (2) H
OH N
CO2Et CO2Et N
80
[59]
OEt N O
CO2Et CO2Et
(1) 115 C (2) HCl, EtOH
HO
51
[60]
OEt N O
F3C
CO2H
120 C
HO
CF3
56 [61]
N
N NR O
DBNa), D
N H R=Boc
N O
N H R=Boc
NR
N 69
[62]
N
DBN , D
a)
CO2Me
76
[63]
CO2Me
a) DBN 1,5-diazabicyclo[4.3.0]non-5-ene.

Table 16.6
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R3 NEt2
Hetero-DielsAlder reaction of N,N-diethyl-1-propynylamine (39) with diverse diazines.
N
2
R3
5
NEt2
CN
N R
2
N R1 41 R3 R3 R
2
R3
5
NEt2 N +
R1 40
R1 39
38
N
2
CN
N NEt2 R1
R1
NEt2 42
R1 38a 38b 38c H H CO2Me
R2 H CO2Me CO2Me
R3 CO2Me CO2Me H
41 90 80 0
42 (% yield) 0 0 81
1,2,4-Triazines Aside from oxazoles, substituted 1,2,4-triazines constitute the most thoroughly investigated heteroaromatic azadienes in hetero-DielsAlder reactions. Two potential modes of [4 2] cycloaddition reaction can occur, across positions C3/ C6 or C5/N2 of the 1,2,4-triazine nucleus (Scheme 16.14). Regioselective inverse
Reactivity X= N O N TMSO EtS
R= EWG 6 N
3
Me
N N
X R dienophile
Regioselectivity X= N TMSO O N
R=
Me
Scheme 16.14
1450

electron demand DielsAlder reactions across positions C3/C6 can be achieved with 1,2,4-triazines substituted with electron-withdrawing groups and dienophiles substituted with electron-donating groups. Typical dienophiles are enamines, enol ethers and reactive or strained alkenes. Although the regioselectivity of the C3/C6 cycloaddition is controlled by several factors, such as the electronic and steric properties of the triazine and the dienophile [66] and the reaction conditions, it is the strong preference for the nucleophilic carbon of the dienophile to attack the C3 position of the 1,2,4-triazine nucleus that determines the regioselection outcome. Scheme 16.15 shows the established mechanism for the reaction of 1,2,4-triazines 48 and EDG-dienophiles 49, in which the rst step is the inverse electron-demand DielsAlder reaction, followed by in situ loss of nitrogen and subsequent elimination/ aromatization to give pyridine derivative 50. For instance, 1,2,4-triazines 51 and 54 react with bicyclic alkene 52 and trimethoxyethene 55 to afford pyridines 53 [67] and 56 [68], respectively, in high yields (Scheme 16.16).
R3
6
N N N X + R5 R4 49 Diels-Alder R2 N
6
R2 N
R3 R5 R
4
N 3 R1
48
Retro Diels-Alder N2 R3 N R
1
R2
R5 R4
Elimination/aromatization
R2 N
R3 X R5 R4
R1
50
Scheme 16.15
Enamines have been widely used as dienophiles in the [4 2] cycloaddition synthesis of highly substituted pyridines [6971]. For instance, diverse fused bicyclic pyridines 59 have been prepared from 1,2,4-triazines 57 and enamine 58 (Scheme 16.17). Using enamine 61 the reaction takes place with an entirely different regiochemistry, depending on the triazine substitution (Table 16.7). This approach had two main limitations: the requirement of preformed enamine and the unusual stability of the cycloadduct intermediate. Boger and coworkers [72] circumvented these difculties by the addition of 4 A molecular sieves, which allowed enamine formation to catalyze the elimination step (Scheme 16.18). Recently, Taylor and coworkers [73] reported an improved version of this method using a microwave
j1451
CO2Et R N N N CO2Et 51 R= aryl, alkyl + 52 EtOH, 72-84%
R N
CO2Et
CO2Et 53
EtO2C N
CO2Et N N CO2Et 54 MeO + OMe 55 OMe dioxane, Et3N 100 C, 30 min 85%
EtO2C N
CO2Et OMe OMe CO2Et 56
Scheme 16.16
R1 N
XR2 N N 57 N + 58 Dioxane,
R1 N
XR2
59 X = S, 91-98% X = SO, 68-92% X = SO2, 46-88%
X = S, SO, SO2 R1= Me, Ph, CH(Me)2 R2= Me, Bn

Scheme 16.17
Table 16.7 [4 2] cycloaddition of 1,2,4-triazines 60 and enamine 61.
R3 N R
1
N N
+ R2N 61
Triazine 60
XEt
R3 R N R
1 2
R3 NR2 N R1 62b
NR2
60
62a
Enamine 61 R3 H H H Ph H X O O O O S R Me Me Me Me Et
Product (% yield) 62a 81 8 82 62b 60 58 83
R1 Me Ph H Me CO2Me
R2 H H Ph H H
1452

O N N H N N N
CHCl3, 4A MS, 45 C, 96h 93% O H N R2
R2 N
n N N
R3 N R1 63 n
MW, 120-160 C 15-90 min 64-91%
R1 R = Py, CO2Et R2, R3= H, Me, Aryl

Scheme 16.18
1
n=1,2,3,4,8
(MW)-promoted procedure. Under these conditions tri-, tetra- and pentasubstituted pyridines 63 can be synthesized in good yields with relatively short reaction times. Although, addition across C3/C6 of the 1,2,4-triazine nucleus is nearly always favored, ynamines 64 react exceptionally across C5/N2 with subsequent loss of nitrile by a retro-DielsAlder reaction to form pyrimidines 65 (Scheme 16.19) [7478].
R2
R3 N R1 N N2 + NEt2 64 R1= OMe, R2= R3= H; 87% R1= SMe, R2= R3= H; 86% R1= NMe2, R2= R3= H; 91% R1= CO2Me, R2= R3= H; 100% R1= CO2Me, R2= H; R3= Ph; 100%
Scheme 16.19
Et2N N R1 N
2 5
R2 N
R2 R3 R3CN R
1
N N 65 NEt2
In addition, 1,2,4-triazines undergo intramolecular inverse electron demand DielsAlder cycloadditions to produce bicyclic pyridines. For instance, 1,2,4-triazine-5,6-dicarboxylate 66 in reuxing diglyme afforded 67 in 8 h (Scheme 16.20) [7981]. Addition of Eu(fod)3 [europium tris(6,6,7,7,8,8,8-heptauoro-2,2-dimethyl-3,5-octanedionate)] enabled completion of the reaction in only
j1453
CO2Et N N N 66 CO2Et N diglyme, 87% Eu(fod)3 (cat) 2 h No cat 8 h 67 N
CO2Et CO2Et N
N Ph 68 N
Bromobenzene, n SO2R 55%-98% Ph N 69 n SO2R
n = 1, 2 R = Aryl, NMe2, OCH2tBu, Morphyl, Pyrrolidyl

Scheme 16.20
2 h. Also, several quinoline derivatives 69 have been synthesized from acetylenic 1,2,4-triazines 68 [82].
16.2.1.2.2 DielsAlder Reaction of Dienes and Azadienophiles Pyridines can be also synthesized by DielsAlder cycloaddition of azadienophiles, such as nitriles or imines, and dienes [83, 84]. Usually, imine dienophiles need to be activated by Lewis acids such as Yb(OTf)3, Sc(OTf)3, In(OTf)3, ZnCl2, SnCl4, TiCl4, Et2AlCl, and so on. For instance, 5-alkyl-2(p-tolylsulfonyl)pyridines 72 are obtained in good yields at room temperature by [4 2] cycloaddition of 2-alkyl-1-ethoxy-1,3-butadienes 70 to p-toluenesulfonyl cyanide (71), followed by aromatization of the dihydropyridine intermediate via 1,4-elimination of ethanol (Scheme 16.21) [85].
OEt + N Ts 70 R = alkyl
Scheme 16.21
OEt R RT
N Ts H EtOH
N Ts 72, 64-89%
71
Oximino derivatives 74 undergo DielsAlder cycloadditions with dienes 73 to afford adducts 75, which can be converted into pyridines 76 in reuxing ethanol or by base-promoted elimination (Scheme 16.22) [8689]. Alternatively, oximinosulfonates derived from Meldrums acid 78 undergo DielsAlder cycloaddition reaction with dienes 77 in the presence of dimethylaluminium chloride [90]. The [4 2]
1454

+ NC 73 74 R1= H, Me, Ph X = CN, CO2Me R= Ts, Ms, COAr N OR X
N R1 75
OR CN X
EtOH, HX HOR R1 76
N CN
R1
R1 + R4 77 O O
OTs O O 1) Me2AlCl, CH2Cl2, -78 C 2) NaOMe, NCS, MeOH-THF, RT 40-77% R

2
R1 N R4 79 CO2Me
R3
R3
78 R1- R4 = H, alkyl
NCS
R1 N R4 80 OTs O O O NaOMe O CO2
R R
R1 N R4 81 OTs OMe O TsOR

2
R1 N R4 82 CO2Me
R3
R3
Scheme 16.22
cycloadducts 80 can be transformed by the simultaneous action of a nucleophilic alkoxide and suitable oxidizing agent into the corresponding pyridines 79 under treatment with NaOMe and N-chlorosuccinimide (NCS). The mechanism of this multistage reaction probably involves initial cleavage of the dioxandione ring by methoxide with concomitant elimination of acetone and carbon dioxide. b-Elimination of tosylate from the resulting ester enolate 81 then generates a dihydropyridine 82, which by subsequent chlorination with NCS and elimination of HCl provides pyridines 79. In addition, heating acyl oximes 83 under high dilution conditions leads to the corresponding cycloadducts 84, which by a double elimination reaction under treatment with caesium carbonate give pyridines 85 (Scheme 16.23) [91]. These cycloaddition reactions can also be promoted by high pressure in similar yields.
16.2.1.3 Formal Cycloaddition Reactions with Organometallic Derivatives Aumann and coworkers [92] have shown that pyridinium salts 90 and pyridines 91 can be synthesized by a formal [3 3] cycloaddition reaction of alkylnylcarbene
j1455
CO2H
O R
1
O N X
R2
CN
Toluene, or 12 kbar 35-85%
n N R
3
O O X CN Cs2CO3 DMF, RT 38-79% R1 R2
n N R3 85
R3 83
R2
X = CN, CO2Et R1, R2, R3 = H, Me, Ph n = 0, 1
84
Scheme 16.23
complexes 87 [93] and enaminoketones or enaminoimines 86 (Scheme 16.24). The reaction involves the Michael addition of the enamino derivatives 86 to the alkynylcarbene complex 87 to give 1,3,5-trienes 88 (characterized by NMR spectroscopy), which in turn spontaneously cyclize to form 1,2-dihydropyridin-2-ylidene complexes 89. Protonation of 89 takes place at the metalcarbon bond, affording the pyridinium salt 90 and the recovery of the metal complex. Treatment of the pyridinium salt 90 (RH) with base affords the corresponding pyridine derivative 91. Under these conditions pyridine 91 (XO) has been obtained in 75% yield.
R H
X 86 THF, RT
OEt (OC)5W 87
R N H EtO (OC)5W H
X EtOH R (OC)5W H N Ph 89 HBF4 CO
Ph 88
Ph W(CO)6 X = O, NMe R = H, Me N H H Ph 91 X Base (R = H) BF4-
R + N H H
Ph 90
Scheme 16.24
Pyridines and pyridinium salts can also be obtained from (amino)vinyl carbene complexes and alkynes by a formal [4 2] cycloaddition. The reaction of [(Z)b-(monoalkylamino)vinyl] carbene complexes 92, readily prepared by addition of primary amines to alkynylcarbene complex 93, with alkynes 94 involves the highly regioselective formation of 4(1H)-pyridinylidene complexes 95 (Scheme 16.25) [94].
1456

MLn OEt + 94 R3 MLn THF, 50-70 C EtOH 19-71% R2 N R1 95 R3 HBF4 83-90% R2 + N R1 96 R3 NH R1 92
R2
BF4-
R1NH2 MLn OEt R2 93
MLn = Cr(CO)5, W(CO)5 R1 = Me, iPr, Ph, Bz R2 = nBu, Ph R3 = nBu, Ph, CH2OMe
Cr(CO)5 OEt Ph NH2 97

Scheme 16.25
nBu + 98
THF, 60 C 66% Ph N 99
nBu
Protonation of 95 with HBF4 leads to pyridinium salts 96. On the other hand, heating [(Z)-b-aminovinyl]chromium complex 97 and 1-hexyne (98) gives pyridine 99 in 66% yield. In addition, organolithium derivatives 101 of 1,3-dienes, generated in situ by lithiation of their corresponding 1-iodo-1,3-dienes 100, react with arylnitriles to give N-lithioketimines 102 as the rst intermediates, which undergo an intramolecular cyclization to produce 103, which after elimination of LiH or LiTMS (R4TMS), generate pyridine derivatives 104 in good yields (Scheme 16.26) [9597].
16.2.2 Synthesis by Cyclocondensation Reactions
Pyridine ring have also been synthesized successfully by cyclocondensation reactions, of which the most important is the Hantzsch synthesis.
16.2.2.1 Hantzsch Cyclocondensation The original Hantzsch synthesis consists of a four-component reaction between two molecules of ethyl acetoacetate (105), an aldehyde 106 and ammonia to afford 1,4dihydropyridines (107), which by further oxidation afford the corresponding symmetrical pyridine derivatives 108 (Scheme 16.27). The reaction is usually carried out by warming the reagents in ethanol, and has been widely used for the preparation of diverse 1,4-dihydropyridines 107, where R could be an alkyl or an aryl group [98].
j1457
R2 R
3
R1 I R4 100 R1-R4 = alkyl or TMS tBuLi R2 R

3
R1 Li R4 101 1) HMPA, RT 2) Ar-CN, RT 75-87% R2 R3
R1
Ar NLi
R4
102
R1 R2 R3 N R
4
Ar HLi (or LiTMS)
R1 Ar NLi R H
4
R3
103
104
Scheme 16.26
R EtO2C O 105
106 O O
R CO2Et EtOH, (a) Hantzsch EtO2C N H 107 [O] CO2Et
+ NH3
105
(b) Oxidation R= Alkyl, aryl R EtO2C N
CO2Et
108
Scheme 16.27
The formation of the 1,4-dihydropyridine derivatives 111 can occur by two pathways (Scheme 16.28) [99]. The rst consists of the Knoevenagel condensation of one b-ketoester molecule 109 and the aldehyde 110 to afford a,b-unsaturated ketone 112, which undergoes a Michael addition reaction with the other b-ketoester molecule to give the 1,5-dicarbonyl derivative 114. Finally, enamine formation followed by cyclocondensation affords the 1,4-dihydropyridine nucleus 111. Alternatively, 1,4dihydropyridine derivatives 111 can be formed by reaction rst of ammonia and one
1458

R2 EtO2C O R1 109 Knoevenagel condensation R2 EtO2C R1 O 112 Michael addition + H2N O + NH3 O 110 CO2Et R1 109 enamine formation CO2Et R1 113 cyclocondensation EtO2C R1 N H R2 CO2Et R1 111
109 R2
Michael addition CO2Et R1 enamine formation R2 EtO2C R1 O CO2Et R1 NH2 115
EtO2C R1 O O 114
Scheme 16.28 Proposed mechanism for the Hantzsch synthesis of 1,4-dihydropyridines.
b-ketoester 109 molecule to afford b-enaminoester 113, which undergoes Michael addition with a,b-unsaturated ketone 112 to give also, as the rst pathway, enaminone 115. 1,4-Dihydropyridines can be oxidized using diverse oxidants, such as HNO3 [100], KMnO4 [101], quinones [102], cerium(IV) ammonium nitrate (CAN) [103], NaNO2 [104], Cu(NO3)2 [105], Mn(OAc)3 [106], Zr(NO3)4 [107], Pb(OAc)4 [108], and so on Recently, more efcient and environmentally benign methods have been developed, such as electrochemical oxidations [109], and catalytic aerobic oxidations by using RuCl3 [110], Pd-C [111], activated carbon [112], Fe(ClO4)3 [113] or N-hydroxyphthalimide [114]. Remarkable improvement of the reaction conditions has been reported, including the promotion by microwave [115], TMSCl, ionic liquid [116], Bu4NHSO4 [117] and supported reagents [118].
16.2.2.2 Variants of the Hantzsch Cyclocondensation Although the Hantzsch 1,4-dihydropyridines synthesis was discovered in 1882, it was not fully developed until 1980 with the discovery that 1,4-dihydropyridines prepared from aromatic aldehydes are calcium channel blocking agents and, therefore,
j1459
valuable drugs for heart disease with useful effects on angina and hypertension. Since its discovery, more effective and versatile variants of the original reaction have been developed, including (Scheme 16.29):
Y + R NH2
R O
COXR + O R
Y + R N + NH2
R COXR O R
NH3
X= O, S Y= CO2R, CN, COR

Scheme 16.29
+ O O
NH3
1) Replacement of ammonia and a molecule of b-ketoester by b-enaminoesters, b-enaminonitriles or b-enaminoketones. 2) Utilization of a,b-unsaturated ketones instead of an aldehyde and the b-ketoesters. 3) The use of 1,5-dicarbonyl derivatives.
16.2.2.3 From Enamines Enamines have been widely used in the cyclocondensation synthesis of highly substituted pyridines. For example, Jacobson and coworkers [119] have reported the synthesis of pyridines 119 by condensation of b-ketoester 116, aldehyde 117 and b-enaminoester 118 and subsequent oxidation of the resulting 1,4-dihydropyridines with tetrachloroquinone (Scheme 16.30). Alternatively, cyclocondensation of enamines and a,b-unsaturated carbonyl derivatives has also been achieved. For example, Wolfe and coworkers [120] have recently described the use of bicycloenamine 120 and a,b-unsaturated ketones 121 in the synthesis of pyrazolopyridines 122 (Scheme 16.31). Treatment of a,b-unsaturated ketones 121 with enamine 120, generated from 1-cyanoacetylpyrazolidine hydrochloride, followed by oxidation of the corresponding dihydropyridines afforded pyridines 122 in good yields.
1460

R3 117 O + O H2N 116 CO2R5 R4 118 1) EtOH, 80 C, 24h 2) Tetrachloroquinone, THF, R2SOC R1 R3 CO2R5 R4
R SOC R1
N 119
R1 = Alkyl, Fluoroalkyl, hydroxyalkyl, thioacetylalkyl R2 = Alkyl, Fluoroalkyl, hydroxyalkyl R3 = Alkyl, Fluoroalkyl, hydroxyalkyl, aminoalkyl, thioacetylalkyl R4 = Aryl R5 = Alkyl, Fluoroalkyl
Scheme 16.30
X O N N + NH2 O
CO2H X CO2Et 1) NaOEt, EtOH, 41-64% 2) CAN, CH3CN 66-76% 121 Y O N N
CO2H
CO2Et N 122 Y
120
X = S, O, CH=CH Y = F, CF3
Scheme 16.31
In addition, Gordeev and coworkers [121] have exploited the enamine/ a,b-unsaturated carbonyl approach to the efcient solid-phase synthesis of diverse pyridines 127 (Scheme 16.32). Treatment of O-immobilized ketoester 123 with diverse aldehydes afforded Knoevenagel derivatives 124, which by condensation with diverse b-enaminoketones 125 gave 1,4-dihydropyridines 126. Finally, oxidation and cleavage from resin yielded pyridines 127. On the other hand, Katritzky and coworkers [122] have developed a mild and highly regioselective route to diverse nicotinonitriles 131 from b-enaminonitriles 128 with a Vilsmeier-type reagent 129 (Scheme 16.33). The reaction proceeds via intermediate 130 (identied by NMR spectroscopy), which upon treatment with base induced a spontaneous electrocyclizationelimination process to furnish the pyridine core. The b-enaminonitriles 128 were synthesized by a tandem additionelimination process from b-aminocrotonitrile 132 and ketone 133. Alternatively, malononitriles have been employed as enamine synthons in the enamine/a,b-unsaturated carbonyl cycloaddition approach. For example, a,b-unsaturated ketones 135 were condensed with malononitrile (134) in the presence of NaOEt or NaOMe to yield the corresponding cyanopyridines 136 (Scheme 16.34) [123].
j1461
R1
O OH Wang or Sasrin resin
O O O 123 O O R
1
O O 124 O 125 H2N R3 DMF, R2 R2
DMAP, DCM
Piperidine (cat), iPrOH-C6H6,
R1 HO2C N 127
Scheme 16.32
O R2 R3 1) CAN, Me2NCOMe 2) TFA, DCM O
R1
N H 126
R3
R1 NC NH2 128
R2 +
N N NMe2 CH2Cl2, RT NC
R1
R2 NMe2
Cl
129
NH2 Cl 130
N H NaOH, RT Me2NH R1
TiCl4, Et3N, DCM, RT
NC NH2 132
+ O
R1 R 133
2
NC N
R2
131, 50-74%
Scheme 16.33
16.2.2.3.1 From 1,5-Dicarbonyl Derivatives A good approach to pyridine ring synthesis is the cycloaddition of 1,5-dicarbonyl derivatives and ammonia. For example, pyridine 138 has been synthesized from 1,5-diketone 137 by treatment at room temperature with ethanolic ammonia (Scheme 16.35) [124].
1462

R2 R2 R ONa, R OH O 135 R1 RT 55-85%
3 3
R2 NC
NC CN 134
NC NC O R1
R3O
N 136
R1
R1, R2 = Aryl; R3= Me, Et

Scheme 16.34
Ts Ph
CO2Me NH3 (2M in EtOH) RT, 14h
Ts Ph N H
CO2Me Ph
CO2Me
O O 137
Scheme 16.35
N 138, 83%
The 1,5-dicarbonyl/ammonia approach has been successfully applied to a solidphase synthesis of 2,4,6-trisubstituted pyridines 142 from hydroxyacetophenones 139 (Scheme 16.36) [125]. The strategy includes a ClaisenSchmidt reaction to form a,b-unsaturated ketones 140, a Michael reaction with trimethylsilyl enol ethers to form a 1,5-pentanediones 141, and cyclization with ammonium acetate to yield, after acid cleavage from resin, pyridine derivatives 142.
16.2.2.4 BohlmannRahtz Heteroannulation The synthesis of trisubstituted pyridines from b-aminocrotonates and ethynyl ketones was rst reported by Bohlmann and Rahtz in 1957 [126]. Originally, the reaction consisted of a two-step process, involving the initial conjugate addition of enamine 143 to alkynone 144 at 50 C in ethanol to generate an aminopentadienone intermediate 146, which is isolated and subsequently cyclodehydrated by heating the residue at 120160 C under reduced pressure to afford trisubstituted pyridines 145 (Scheme 16.37). Since its discovery, remarkable improvements have been reported, most notably a single synthetic step using either acetic acid, Amberlyst 15 ion exchange resin or Lewis acid catalysts, such as ZnBr2 or Yb(OTf)3 [127129]. The BohlmannRahtz heteroannulation reaction has also been successfully applied to the combinatorial synthesis of tri- and tetrasubstituted pyridines in solution [130]. Lewis acid-catalyzed methods provided the best overall yields, product ratios and library purity. 16.2.3 Synthesis by Aza-Electrocyclization Reactions
Pyridine rings can also be synthesized by aza-6p-electrocyclic reactions, which result in the formation of just one new s bond across the ends of a single conjugated
j1463
R1 HO 139
Cl Cs2CO3, NaI, DMF, 50 C
R1 O
2 RCHO, NaOMe, MeOH, CH(OMe)3
R2 R1 O R3 R3
OTMS R1 O
R2
O O 141
CsF, DMSO,
O 140
NH4OAc, AcOH, DMF, R2 R1 O 50% TFA-DCM R1 HO R2
R3
N 142
R3
Scheme 16.36
R2 + R1 143 NH2 O
R3
R3 AcOH or Amberlyst 15, Tol, 50 C or ZnBr2 or Yb(OTf)3, Tol or DCM, R

2
R4 144
R1
N 145
R4
EtOH, 50 C R
R2
1
R3 120-160 C R NH2 O 146

4
R1= alkyl, aryl; R2= CN, CO2R; R3= Me, CO2Et; R4= H, alkyl, aryl, TMS
Scheme 16.37
1464

p-system (Scheme 16.38). A good example of this approach has also been reported by Brandsma and coworkers [131, 132] in the synthesis of pyridine derivatives 154 (Scheme 16.39). Reaction of lithiated allene 149, obtained from allenes 147 or methylacetylenes 148, with alkylthioisocyanate 150 and subsequent alkylation affords adduct 151, which isomerizes via [1,5]-hydrogen shift, quantitatively, under mild reaction conditions to generate 1,3-butadienyliminoformates 152. Electrocyclization of 152 gives 2,3-dihydropyridines 153 in good to excellent yields which under acidic conditions or by heating at high temperatures eliminate methanol to produce 3-substituted 2-methylthiopyridines 154.
(a) N N (b) (a) N
(a) N X N X
(b) or (c) N
(a) aza-electrocyclization; (b) oxidation; (c) elimination

Scheme 16.38
H 147 or 1) S C N nBuLi THF-hexane R Li 149 148 R= OMe, OCH(Me)OEt, SMe, Me [1,5] H shift OMe
2) MeI
150
R MeS
N 151
H OMe
R MeS N 154
Scheme 16.39
H+ or MeOH
R MeS N 153 OMe
R MeS N 152 OMe
In addition, b-arylvinyliminophosphoranes 156 react with a,b-unsaturated aldehydes 155 to give regiospecically 3-arylpyridines 157 (Scheme 16.40) [133].
j1465
R2
R1 155 + Ph3P N 156

Scheme 16.40
R1 R2 CO2Et R1= alkyl, aryl; R2= aryl toluene sealed tube, 160 C N R2 CO2Et
R1
CO2Et
157, 30-53%
Also, intramolecular approaches have been successful. A good example is the synthesis of pyridine 159 reported by Tanaka and Katsumura [134]. It consists of the treatment of the (E)-carbonyltrienal 158 with excess of lithium bis(trimethylsilyl) amide (LHMDS), which produces, via intermediate 160, an aza-electrocyclization reaction to afford the corresponding unstable 1,2-dihydropyridine derivative 161, which upon oxidation with 2,3-dichloro-5,6-dicyano-1,4-benzoquinone (DDQ) leads to pyridine derivative 159 (Scheme 16.41).
TBSO 158
CO2Et CHO
1) LHMDS, THF 2) DDQ
N TBSO 159 CO2Et
LHMDS
DDQ
Si TBSO 160
Scheme 16.41
N CO2Et TBSO
Si
N CO2Et
161
16.2.4 Synthesis via Ring Transformation of Other Heterocycles 16.2.4.1 From Five-Membered Rings Furan derivatives 162 substituted with an acyl- or carboxylic acid functionality in the 2-position are transformed, in low to moderate yields, into 2-substituted 3-hydroxy pyridines 163 by treatment with ammonia at 150 C in a sealed tube (Scheme 16.42) [135].
1466

R2 O 162 R1 O NH3 (aq.), 150 C sealed tube 12-37% R2 H2N O R1 OH
R1= aryl; R2= H, Me
OH R2 N 163
Scheme 16.42
OH R2 R1 NH2 O
R1
16.2.4.2 From Six-Membered Rings Pyrones and pyrylium salts are six-membered heterocycles that have been successfully used as templates in pyridine synthesis. For example, 2-aminopyridines 165 have been synthesized regioselectively through nucleophilic-induced ring transformation reaction of 2H-pyran-2-ones 164 with urea (Scheme 16.43) [136].
SMe CN Ar O 164 O H2N O NH2 , py, 82-91% Ar N 165 NH2 SMe
O MeS O Ar MeS O Ar
O NH NH CO2 MeS NH Ar NH
C N NH2
Scheme 16.43
In addition, pyrylium salts 166 upon reaction with ammonia undergo ringopening/ring-closing reaction sequences to afford excellent yields of the corresponding pyridine derivatives 167 (Scheme 16.44) [137140]. If primary amines are used pyridinium salts are obtained.
16.3 Reactivity
j1467
R2 NH3 (aq.), RT R1 O X 166 R3 R1
R2
N 167
R3
R2 NH2 R3 R1
R2 R3 O H2N
R1
X= I, ClO4, BF4 R1, R2, R3 = alkyl, aryl, OR, SR, NR2

Scheme 16.44
16.3 Reactivity 16.3.1 Reactions with Electrophilic Reagents
Pyridines react easily at the nitrogen atom with a wide range of electrophiles such as, protic acids, Lewis acids, reactive alkyl and acyl halides and transition metal ions to form tertiary salts 168, complexes 169, quaternary salts 170 and 171 and coordination compounds 172, respectively (Scheme 16.45).
HX N H X 168 Lewis acid (LA)
Metal ion N
RX
RCOX
M 172
N L 169
N A N R 170 X O R 171
Scheme 16.45
1468

16.3.1.1 Reactions with Acids Pyridines form stable salts with Brnsted acids such as HCl, HNO3, H2SO4, and so on. Pyridine itself, with a pKa of 5.2 in water, is a much weaker base than saturated aliphatic amines, which have pKa values mostly between 9 and 11. In general, electron-donating groups in the pyridine ring, especially in the 4-position, increase their basicity. For instance, 2-methyl- and 4-methylpyridine are more basic than pyridine (pKa 6.0). The opposite effect is produced when electron-withdrawing groups are present in the pyridine ring, especially in the 2-position. For instance 2-nitro- and 2-chloropyridine have a lower pKas of -2.6 and 0.7, respectively. In the case of substituents such as methoxy or aryl groups, which are resonance donors as well as inductive acceptors, variable effects on pyridine basicity are observed. The position of the substituent in the ring determines which of these effects are predominant. For instance, whereas 2-methoxypyridine (pKa 3.3) is less basic than pyridine, 4-methoxypyridine (pKa 6.6) is more basic. Although steric effects are usually unimportant, very hindered pyridines such as 2,6-di-tert-butylpyridine (pKa 3.6), are usually less basic than pyridine. Some pyridinium salts are commercially available reagents that are widely used. This is the case for pyridinium perbromide 173, which is employed as brominating agent, pyridinium dichromate (174, PDC) and pyridinium chlorochromate (175, PCC), used as mild and selective oxidizing agents, and pyridinium teate (176), which is utilized as a source of teic acid, a very weakly coordinating agent (Figure 16.13). Lewis acids such as AlCl3, SnCl4, BF3, SbCl5, SO3, and so on react with pyridines to afford stable pyridinium complexes, some of which are also used as reagents. For instance, sulfur trioxide pyridinium complex (PySO3) is employed as a mild sulfonating agent. 16.3.1.2 Reactions with Metal Ions Pyridines can act as monodentate ligands in transition metal complexes. This is the case with simple complexes such as Ni(Py)4 2, Ag(Py)2 , and so on. When a-substituents, such as carbonyl groups, imines, metilenamines, heteroaryl groups, and so on, susceptible to coordination are present in the pyridine ring, chelate complexes are formed (Figure 16.14) [141144]. Based on pyridyl units, many polydentate ligands have been developed in the eld of the metallosupramolecular chemistry. A good example is the interaction of two molecules of oligopyridine with various metal ions (Fe 2, Co 2, Cu 2, etc.) to form
N H 173
Br3
N H 174
Cr2O7 2
N H 175
ClCrO3
N H 176
TeOF5
Figure 16.13 Examples of commercially available pyridinium salts used as reagents.
16.3 Reactivity
j1469
Pyrr
Pyrr Pyrr N N N Pyrr N N N
N N Ar N Cl Cr Cl Ar= aryl
Figure 16.14 Examples of pyridine chelates.
N N Cl Ar N
N Ru2+ N N
Fe2+
Pyrr
Pyrr= pyrrol
Pyrr
a double-helical complex in which the metal is bonded to a tridentate region from each ligand [145147]. Pyridines can also act as p-ligands to afford g6-complexes with transition metals such as chromium. Such complexes are usually prepared by thermolysis with hexacarbonyl chromium (Scheme 16.46) [148]. However, pyridine derivatives that lack bulky alkyl groups at the 2- and 6-positions do not afford the corresponding p-complexes. Tricarbonyl(trispyridine)chromium complexes [Py3Cr (CO)3] (177) [149] are obtained instead, in which pyridines are coordinated through their nitrogen lone pairs.
Cr(CO)6 R N TMS dioxane, 41-48% R= Me, Et, CH2CH2CH=CH2 R N
Cr(CO)3 TMS
Cr(CO)6 N N
Cr(CO)3
N OC 177
N Cr N
CO CO
Scheme 16.46
16.3.1.3 Reactions with Halides and Related Compounds Alkyl halides, tosylates, triates, and so on react readily with pyridines by an SN2 reaction to give alkylpyridinium salts (Scheme 16.47) [150]. Bulky substituents around the nitrogen ring atom, or tertiary halides or related compounds cause an
1470

OMe MeO N I CO2Me Et2O, RT 92% N CO2Me I OMe MeI Et2O, 92% N I CO2Me OMe
MeO
Scheme 16.47
increase in the competing elimination reaction giving rise to the corresponding alkene and tertiary salts. In fact, 2,4,6-collidine is often used as base in elimination reactions.
16.3.1.4 Reactions with Acyl Halides and Related Compounds Acyl and sulfonyl halides and anhydrides react rapidly with pyridines by an additionelimination reaction to form quaternary salts, which are rarely isolated, since they decompose rapidly on reaction with water, forming salts of the original pyridines. Some acyl pyridinium salts such as 180 can be obtained in good to excellent yields by treatment of pyridines 178 with acid chloride 179 (Scheme 16.48) [151].
179 R1 R2 OO O Cl TfO OO N 180 R1 R2
N 178
DCM, iPr3SiOTf 81-95% R1= H, CO2Me R2= aryl, SR3, OMe
Scheme 16.48
N-Acyl and N-sulfonylpyridinium salts are very useful acylating and sulfonating agents. Electron-donor substituted pyridines such as 4-N,N-dimethylaminopyridine (DMAP) are commonly used as catalysts in acylation reactions (Scheme 16.49) [152]. The dimethylamino function of DMAP increases both the nucleophilicity and the basicity of the ring nitrogen atom, making intermediate 181 relatively more stable than the corresponding pyridine analogue. These facts lead to a greater concentration of the acylating species 181 and, thus, speed up the reaction. This methodology dramatically enhance yields as well as reaction rates, leading to successful acylations even with the use of tertiary and sterically hindered alcohols.
16.3 Reactivity
j1471
O RO R
NMe2 R N
O O
O R
NMe2 ROH
N O R 181
RCO2
Scheme 16.49
16.3.1.5 Electrophilic Substitution Reactions Pyridines undergo electrophilic substitution reactions (SEAr) exclusively at the 3-position but much more slowly than benzene, and usually under very drastic reaction conditions. For example, nitration of pyridine with nitricsulfuric acids mixtures requires 300 C to afford 3-nitropyridine (183) in only 15% yield (Scheme 16.50). In contrast, sulfonation of pyridine affords 3-sulfonic acid 182 in 71% but only at 230 C and using HgSO4 as a catalyst [153]. The lack of pyridine reactivity in electrophilic substitution derives from protonation of the ring nitrogen. In fact, 2,6-dichloropyridine (184), which has two electron-withdrawing groups is signicantly less basic than pyridine, and undergoes nitration as the free base to give 2,6-dichloro-3-nitropyridine (185) in 64% yield [154].
1) N2O5, MeNO2 2) SO2/HSO3-, H2O SO3H N 182 H2SO4-SO3 HgSO4, 230 C 71% N HNO3, H2SO4 300 C, 15% 1) HNO3, TFAA 2) Na2S2O5 HNO3 Cl N 184
Scheme 16.50
77% NO2 N 183
83% NO2
Cl
H2SO4, 100 C 64%
Cl
N 185
Cl
1472

Bakke and coworkers [155, 156] have overcome the low reactivity of pyridines against common nitrating systems by using dinitrogen pentoxide in an organic solvent, followed by treatment with an aqueous solution of SO2/HSO3 (Scheme 16.51). Under these conditions, an N-nitropyridinium ion intermediate is formed that, when reacted with SO2/HSO3 in water, gives 3-nitropyridine (77% yield). It has been suggested that the reaction mechanism implies a [1, 5] sigmatropic shift of the nitro group. Recently, Katrizky and coworkers [157] have developed an improved method that consists of the in situ generation of dinitrogen pentoxide from nitric acid and triuoroacetic anhydride (TFAA) (Scheme 16.50).
1) N2O5, MeNO2 N O N O N 2) SO2/HSO3-, H2O N NO2 183
O NO2 H SO3 H
HSO3N NO2
NO3
SO3 N H NO2
[1,5] sigmatropic shift
Scheme 16.51
16.3.2 Reactions with Oxidizing Agents
The pyridine ring is remarkably stable towards oxidation. Because of its resistance to oxidation, pyridine can be used as a solvent in oxidation reactions, such as in the Collins oxidation with CrO3. Only under vigorous conditions, such as neutral aqueous KMnO4 in a sealed tube at 100 C, can pyridine be oxidized to carbon monoxide, and at about the same rate as benzene. In alkaline media pyridines are oxidized more rapidly than benzenes. As with other tertiary amines, pyridines react smoothly with diverse oxidizing agents, such as peracids, H2O2/AcOH, dimethyldioxirane (DMD), bis(trimethylsilyl)peroxide, oxaziridines, and so on, to give N-oxides (Scheme 16.52) [158160]. Alkylpyridines can be oxidized at benzylic positions by various oxidizing agents such as KMnO4, O2, SeO2, HNO3, and so on to afford pyridine carboxylic acids (Scheme 16.53). For instance, KMnO4 has been employed in the synthesis of niacin (187) from b-picoline (186) [161]. Selective oxidation of the methyl group of disubstituted pyridine 188 has been achieved using SeO2 as the oxidizing agent of choice to give carboxylic acid 189 [162].
16.3 Reactivity
j1473
MeO N Br
MCPBA CHCl3, 84%
MeO N O O2N H2N N O X N O Br
O2 N H2N N
NO2 NH2
H2O2, AcOH 80%
NO2 NH2
X N
O O acetone, RT 98%
X= 4-CN, 4-CF3, 4-Ph, 4-Me, 4-OMe, H, 3-Br

Scheme 16.52
KMnO4, H2O N 186 70-90 C 77% N 187
CO2H
CO2H SeO2, py N 188

Scheme 16.53
72%
N 189
The electron-decient nature of the pyridine ring allows nucleophilic reagents to attack pyridines, preferably at their 2- or 4-ring carbon atoms and less readily in the 3-position. However, only strong nucleophiles such as amide ions, hydroxides or organolithium compounds react. The reaction proceeds by an additionelimination mechanism, that is, by SNAr, which involves in the rst stage the formation of adduct 190 with concomitant de-aromatization of the pyridine ring and, once formed, loss of hydride occurs to afford pyridine derivative 191 (Scheme 16.54, ZH). Electronwithdrawing substituents on the pyridine ring, such as nitro or cyano groups, favor the reaction.
1474

N + Z Nu N 190 Z= H, leaving group
Scheme 16.54
Z Nu Z N 191 Nu
SNAr reactions with pyridines substituted with halogens or other leaving groups such as alkoxy groups, and so on are most common and proceed much faster than the corresponding unsubstituted rings (Scheme 16.54, Z leaving group). Usually, the reaction takes place with a wide range of nucleophiles at 2- or 4-positions, but not at 3-positions. Scheme 16.55 shows examples of reactions of this type [163165].
Li X N F , Et2O -40 C to 0 C 78-82% X= H, Cl, F Cl Br N NH2 O O Br S amine, dioxane, RT N Br 70-90% Br O S O N Y NaSMe 85% N NH2 SMe Br N X
Y= NHMe, piperazinyl, pyrrolidinyl

Scheme 16.55
16.3.3.1 Reactions with Amide Ions Pyridine reacts with sodium amide in toluene at 100 C to give, mainly, 2-aminopyridine (192) (75%) and a small amount of 4-aminopyridine (Scheme 16.56). At 180 C, 2,6-diaminopyridine is produced in good yield along with a small amount of 2,4,6triaminopyridine. This transformation, known as the Chichibabin reaction, is usually carried out at relatively high temperatures in an inert atmosphere or without solvent. It has been suggested that the reaction proceeds via initial formation of an adsorption complex 193 with a weak nitrogensodium coordination that increases the electrophilicity of the a-carbon ring atom. Subsequently, amide nucleophilic
16.3 Reactivity
j1475
1) NaNH2, 100 C N H NaNH2 2) H2O 75% N NH2 192 H2O
Na NH2
193
N 196
NH Na
NaH H N NH2 Na 194

Scheme 16.56
NaH
N 195
NH2
attack occurs with formation of intermediate 194, which undergoes a sodium hydride elimination followed by deprotonation to give amide salt 196. The 2-aminopyridine 192 is nally obtained after a work-up with water. More vigorous conditions are required for the amination of alkylpyridines because proton abstraction from the side-chain by the amide ion occurs preferentially, and therefore ring attack must involve a dianionic intermediate. Nonetheless, 4-alkyl pyridines 197 have been successfully aminated at 150 C to afford reasonable yields of 2-aminopyridines 198 (Scheme 16.57) [166, 167].
R NaNH2, N,N-dimethylaniline, 150 C N 197
Scheme 16.57
56-61% R= alkyl
N 198
NH2
16.3.3.2 Reactions with Hydroxide Ions Pyridines react with hydroxide ions under extreme conditions (KOH-air, 300 C) to give 2-pyridones, the stable tautomers of 2-hydroxypyridines, which are formed by oxidation of the initial adduct. As expected, the reaction is favored by electronwithdrawing substituents on the pyridine ring. The reaction proceeds much faster and under milder conditions with pyridines substituted with halogens or other good leaving groups. For example, even uoro pyridines can be transformed into pyridones with lithium hydroxide at room temperature (Scheme 16.58) [168].
1476

EtO2C LiOH, THF/H2O, RT N F 60% N H O HO2C
Scheme 16.58
16.3.3.3 Reactions with Carbon Nucleophiles Pyridines undergo nucleophilic aromatic substitutions (SNAr) with carbon nucleophiles such as alkyllithium or aryllithium derivatives, affording 2-alkyl- and 2-arylpyridines, respectively (Scheme 16.59). Grignard reagents give the same reaction products but in lower yields. The reaction requires rather vigorous conditions (e.g., xylene, 100 C) and proceeds via the dihydropyridine N-lithio salts 199, which are less basic than those formed by reaction of pyridines with sodium or potassium amide and eliminate hydride anions with relative difculty. The N-lithio salts 199 can be detected by NMR spectroscopy and in some cases have been isolated as solids [169171]. These salts are stable at room temperature for several hours but, on heating, eliminate lithium hydride to give the 2-substituted pyridines 200.
1) RLi, 100 C N 2) H2O R= alkyl, aryl

Scheme 16.59
N Li
H R 199 LiH
N 200
The SNAr reaction of 3-substituted pyridines 201 with an organolithium compound may lead to the 2,3-isomer 202, or a mixture of the latter and the 2,5-isomer 203 (Table 16.8). The rate and orientation of such nucleophilic substitution depends on steric and coordination effects. An increase in steric hindrance produces less of the 2,3-isomer 202 (Table 16.8, entry 2 vs. 4), while coordination of the lithium atom with a free electron pair on the substituent favors nucleophilic attack at the 2-position (Table 16.8, entries 6 and 7).
16.3.4 Reactions with Bases
The regiospecic exchange of one aryl hydrogen atom by a metal such as lithium, by treatment with a strong base, usually requires the presence of substituents with lone pairs on heteroatoms (directing metallation groups, DMG), which enable the formation of coordination complexes with the metal, resulting in metallation at sites adjacent to the substituent. This transformation, known as the directed orthometallation reaction, in comparison with the same reaction in p-excessive heterocycles, has an extra complication in p-decient heterocycles such as pyridines,
16.3 Reactivity
Table 16.8 Reaction of 3-susbstituted pyridines 201 with phenyllithium.
j1477
X N 201
Entry 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X
PhLi N 202
X + Ph Ph N 203
202 100 95 84 4 50 100 100
Yield (%) 69 42 39 25
203
Reference [172] [172] [172] [172] [173] [174] [174]
H Me Et tBu
5 16 96 50 0 0
N
NH2 OMe
34 25 21
because the soft alkyllithium reagents (nBuLi, PhLi) commonly used can undergo a facile nucleophilic addition to the azomethine (CN) bond (see Section 16.3.3.3) [175]. However, it is possible to achieve clean metallation reactions with alkyllithium reagents for many DMGs (NHCOR, OR, OCONR2, CONHR, Cl, F) (Scheme 16.60). For pyridines with DMG groups such as CONR2, SOR, I, Br, and so on, which are more reactive towards nucleophilic reactions or halogenmetal exchange, the harder and the less basic lithium diisopropylamine (LDA) or lithium 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine (LTMP) is normally used.
DMG H N RLi or lithium amide N DMG Li
R= nBu, Ph, sBu Lithium amide= LDA or LTMP DMG= NHCOR, OR, OCONR2, CONHR, CONR2, halogen, SOR
Scheme 16.60
The regioselectivity of the reaction is the result of mainly four effects: (i) the strength of the coordination between the DMG-heteroatom and the lithium; (ii) the inductive effect of the DMG; (iii) the electronic repulsion between the carbanion and
1478

stabilizer effects of DMG Li DMG Li DMG
coordination
induction
Thermodynamic control DMG N Li electronic repulsion 3- and 4-positions are favored
Kinetic control DMG N Li H R
2-position is favored
Figure 16.15 Factors affecting the regioselectivity of the reaction.
the lone pair of the nitrogen; and (iv) the complexation of the lithium base with the nitrogen (Figure 16.15). The reaction is usually under thermodynamic control when metal amides such as LDA or LTMP are used, leading to 3- and 4-carbanions. Conversely, alkyllithium reagents proceed under kinetic control. In this case, solvent effects become more important because of the absence of a strong DMG on the ring and because complexation with the nitrogen can occur, in the absence of a chelating solvent such as THF. Therefore, deprotonation takes place at the C2 proton. 3-Fluoropyridine (205) is a good example of a metallation substrate in which regioselectivity can be induced by choosing the appropriate base (Scheme 16.61) [176]. LDA abstracts the proton from the 4-position in 205 (thermodynamic) giving lithium derivative 204, while nBuLi in the presence of 1,4-diazabicyclo[2.2.2]octane (DABCO) affords lithium derivative 206 resulting from proton abstraction at the 2-position in 205 (kinetic).
Li F N 204
Scheme 16.61
LDA, THF -75 C, 2h N 205
nBuLi, DABCO Et2O, -60 C, 1h N 206
F Li
16.3 Reactivity
j1479
16.3.5 Reactions of C-Metallated Pyridines
Among all possible ways of introducing a pyridine moiety into a more complex structure, the use of C-metallated pyridines is probably one of the most direct. This fact makes C-metallated pyridines one of the most important and widely used pyridyl intermediates, particularly in carboncarbon bond forming reactions [177]. Basically, they are used in the following type of reactions (Scheme 16.62):
. .
(a) nucleophilic attack of lithium or Grignard derivatives to electrophiles; (b) metal-catalyzed cross-coupling reactions of: (i) halopyridines or related compounds with organometallic derivatives; (ii) metal-containing pyridines with halides or related compounds.
M (a) N
E+ N
M= Li, MgBr, MgCl
Z (b.1) N Z= Br, I, OTf
Pd(0) (cat) N
PdII
RM N
M= SnR3, B(OH)2, etc. R= aryl, alkenyl, alkynyl R N
M (b.2) N
Pd(0) (cat) RZ
M= SnR3, B(OH)2, etc. R= aryl, alkenyl, alkynyl Z= Br, I, OTf

Scheme 16.62
16.3.5.1 Reactions of Pyridyl Lithium/Grignard Derivatives with Electrophiles Pyridines can be readily functionalized upon treatment of either their corresponding organolithium or Grignard derivatives with a large variety of electrophiles. However, the difculties of preparing pyridine Grignard derivatives have limited their use in synthetic organic chemistry, resulting in their progressive displacement by the more accessible lithium derivatives [177].
1480

Pyridyl-lithium derivatives are usually prepared either by ortho-metallation using strong bases (Section 16.3.4) or by halogenmetal exchange between halopyridines, mainly bromopyridines, and an organolithium reagent such as nBuLi or tBuLi or lithium metal. The lithiated species generated by all these methods can react with a wide range of electrophiles such as N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF), carbon dioxide, iodine, acid chlorides, ketones, trimethylsilyl chloride, and so on, leading to pyridine functionalization with a large variety of functional groups in a single step (Scheme 16.63).
SiMe3 N CHO N HO R R R N
ClSiMe3 DMF Li N CO2 R
CO2H N I2
ClCOR
COR N
I N
Scheme 16.63
The great synthetic utility of this type of reaction has been demonstrated by Zhai and coworkers [178] in the synthesis of pyridine derivative 209 in three steps starting from simple 3-bromopyridine (207) (Scheme 16.64). Ortho-lithiation of 207 with LDA at 90 C followed by treatment with acrolein at the same temperature gave alcohol 208 in 75% yield. After protection of alcohol 208 as the methoxymethyl ether (MOM), reaction with nBuLi produced a brominelithium exchange, which was followed by treatment with DMF to afford an excellent yield of aldehyde 209. The direct preparation of Grignard derivatives using standard procedures, consisting of the reaction between an haloheterocycle and magnesium, is sometimes rather difcult, mainly due to the basicity of the nitrogen ring atom. In these cases, the usual procedure is the treatment of an halopyridine with commercially available aryl or alkyl Grignard reagents such as PhMgBr, iPrMgCl, EtMgBr, and so on. For instance, Madsen and coworkers [179] have employed the Grignard reagent of
16.3 Reactivity
j1481
Li Br N 207 LDA THF, -90 C N Br CHO THF, -90 C N
OH Br
208, 75%
NaH, MOMCl, THF, RT 92%
OMOM CHO N 209, 92%

Scheme 16.64
OMOM DMF THF, -78 C N Li nBuLi THF, -78 C N
OMOM Br
3-bromopyridine (211), obtained by treatment of 210 with commercially available phenylmagnesium bromide, in the 1,4-additionelimination reaction with a,b-unsaturated carbonyl derivative 212 to furnish pyridine 213 in 86% yield (Scheme 16.65).
O Me2N Br N 210 PhMgBr THF, RT 98% N 211 MgBr 212 N CO2tBu CO2tBu N 213 O N CO2tBu CO2tBu
THF, -78 C 86%
Scheme 16.65
16.3.5.2 Metal-Catalyzed Cross-Coupling Reactions In the last several years, the use of transition metals, particularly palladium, as catalysts for coupling reactions involving metallated species has increased sharply the use of heterocyclic organometallics in all kinds of organic transformations. Metalcatalyzed cross-coupling reactions have remarkably enlarged the toolbox of organic chemistry since their rst examples appeared in the late 1960s. A broad variety of substrates, good tolerance of different functional groups, mild reaction conditions,
1482

Table 16.9 Types of metal-catalyzed cross-coupling reactions.
X N N
X= halogen
Coupling Stille Suzuki Sonogashira Heck Kumada Negishi Hiyama Buchwald
Reagents RSn(nBu)3 RB(OH)2/base RC:CH/Cu(I) RCHCH2/base RMgX RZnX RSiR0 3/F R2NH/base
Z R (alkenyl, alkynyl, aryl) R (alkenyl, alkynyl, aryl) RC:C RCHCH R (alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, aryl) R (alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, aryl) R (alkenyl, alkynyl, aryl) R2N
high yields and efcient catalysis make these modern transformations the most widely used reactions for the formation of CC, CO, CN and even CS bonds. Nucleophilic attack occurs preferentially at the a and c positions of pyridines. This performance has been attributed to the electronegativity of the ring nitrogen atom, which induces a partial positive charge at these positions of pyridines. A similar trend occurs in the context of metal catalyzed cross-coupling reactions. In fact, a and c-halopyridines are more susceptible to the oxidative addition to Pd(0), relative to simple carbocyclic aryl halides [180]. Even a- and c-chloropyridines are viable electrophilic substrates for Pd-catalyzed reactions under standard conditions [175]. Although nickel, copper and, occasionally, platinum have been used as catalysts for cross-coupling reactions, palladium is the most widely employed catalyst. Table 16.9 summarizes the most important cross-coupling reactions, indicating the reagents usually employed and the type of group (Z) introduced in the pyridine ring in each case. Palladium-catalyzed cross-coupling reactions of organohalides or related compounds with organometallic reagents follow a general mechanistic cycle that involves oxidative addition, transmetallation, isomerization and reductive elimination sequences (Scheme 16.66) [181]. A Pd(0)L2 complex (Lligand, typically a phosphine such as PPh3) is assumed to be the active catalytic species in the cycle. Sometimes, these Pd(0) species are generated in situ by reduction from Pd(II) complexes, such as Pd(OAc)2, in the presence of a suitable ligand such as PPh3. The rst step of the cycle consists in the oxidative addition of R1X (Xhalogen, OTf, etc.) to form complex 214, which then undergoes a transmetallation reaction with the organometallic reagent R2M to give complex 215. Both intermediates 214 and 215 have been isolated and/or characterized by different spectroscopic methods. The intermediate 215 undergoes an isomerization reaction followed by a reductive elimination giving rise to a Pd(0) species along with
16.3 Reactivity
j1483
R1
R2 [ Pd(0)L2 ]
R1
Reductive elimination
Oxidative addition
R2
1
R Pd L L
II
L L
R1 Pd X
II
214
Isomerization
Transmetallation
R2 L
L= ligand M= metal
Scheme 16.66
R Pd R2 L
II
215
MX
the homocoupling product R1R2. When Pd(0) is regenerated the catalytic cycle starts again. The oxidative addition is often the rate-limiting step and the relative reactivity of R1X decreases in the order: I > OTf > Br ) Cl.
16.3.5.2.1 Stille Coupling This type of cross-coupling reaction consists of the Pdcatalyzed reaction between an organostannane and a halide. Typically, the stannane is sp2 or sp hybridized (aryl, alkenyl, alkynyl) but alkyl-, allyl- and benzylstannanes have also been used. The halides are usually, aryl, vinyl or acyl, bromides, or iodides (and also triates). In addition, aryl chlorides have also been employed, but they are typically much less reactive. For a Stille coupling involving a pyridine moiety, the pyridine fragment may be either the nucleophilic or the electrophilic coupling partner (Scheme 16.67). Therefore, two approaches can be employed: the reaction of (i) a pyridyl-stannane (nucleophile) and an halide; or (ii) a halopyridine (electrophile) and an organostannane. In the rst case, the pyridyl-stannane is usually prepared either by orthometallation or by lithiumhalogen exchange followed, in both cases, by treatment with a halide stannane such as ClSn(nBu)3. Procedure (i) is exemplied by derivatives 216 [182] and 218 [183, 184], respectively (Scheme 16.68). A notable example of procedure (ii) appears in the recent literature with the synthesis of the biheteroaryl derivative 221 by Stille cross-coupling using electrophilic pyridine derivative 219 and the stannane 220 [185].
1484

SnR3 (i) Py-nucleophile N + RX Pd(0) (cat) N R
X (ii) Py-electrophile N
Scheme 16.67
RSnR3
Pd(0) (cat) N
Cl N
1) LDA, THF, -78 C 2) ClSn(nBu)3, -78 C 83%
Sn(nBu)3 Cl N 216
HO I PdCl2(PPh3)2 CuI, DMF, 63%
HO Cl N
Br N X
Br
, Pd(PPh3)4, toluene, 75% N
N N
217 X= Br 218 X= Sn(nBu)3
1) nBuLi, THF, -78 C 2) ClSn(nBu)3, -78 C 96% OSiEt3 OMe 4 220 MeO2C N 221 OMe N S 4 OSiEt3
OMe OMe MeO2C N 219

Scheme 16.68
Me3Sn
N S
Br
PdCl2(PPh3)2, dioxane, 76%
16.3.5.2.2 Suzuki Coupling In this reaction, a halide is coupled with an aryl or vinyl boronic acid or boronic ester. The major advantages of the Suzuki reaction are: (i) the stability and rather low toxicity of the boron reagents; (ii) easy access to a broad variety of boronic acids, many of which are commercially available; (iii) tolerance for different functional groups; (iv) straightforward experimental procedures.
16.3 Reactivity
j1485
Similar to the Stille coupling, two approaches are possible, depending on whether the boron derivative is contained in the pyridine ring or in the reagent (Scheme 16.69). The pyridine boron derivatives are usually prepared by treatment of an organolithium or magnesium pyridine with a trialkylborate (Scheme 16.70). Recently, metal-catalyzed methods have been developed using bis(pinacolato) diboron or pinacolborane as the boron source.
B(OR)2 N Py-Nucleophile
Scheme 16.69
RX Pd(0) (cat), base R= H or alkyl N
RB(OR)2 Pd(0) (cat), base N
Py-Electrophile
M N
1) B(OR)3 2) H+ N
B(OH)2
M= MgX or Li; R= alkyl
O X N X= Halogen, OTf
Scheme 16.70
B B
O O or
H B
O O N
O B O
Pd(0) (cat), base
Scheme 16.71 shows examples of Suzuki coupling. The 2-uoropyridyl group of epibatidine analogue 224 has been introduced by Pd(0)-mediated cross coupling between uoropyridyl boronic acid 222 and vinyl triate 223 [186]. In inverse fashion, iodopyridine 225 has been transformed into 2-phenylpyridine 227 using phenylboronic cid 226 [187].
16.3.5.2.3 Sonogashira Coupling The Sonogashira reaction is the most direct approach for the synthesis of alkenyl- and arylacetylenes. It consists of the palladium-copper catalyzed coupling of terminal acetylides to arylhalides (Br, I) or triates to yield alkynylarenes (Scheme 16.72). Chloropyridines can be also used, but these compounds require much higher temperatures. Control of the reaction regioselectivity arises from the difference in electrophilicity at the a, b and c positions of the pyridine ring. For instance, mono-acetylenation of 2,5-dibromopyridine (228) with triisopropylsilylacetylene has been achieved under
1486

O O B(OH)2 + TfO 223 N Pd(PPh3)4, Na2CO3 (aq) PhMe/EtOH, 83% 224 N O O N
N 222
R F N 225 R= H, Me
Scheme 16.71
R + (HO)2B BocHN 226 Pd(PPh3)4, K2CO3 (aq) PhMe, 82-91% N BocHN 227 F
R X + N X= Br, I, OTf
Scheme 16.72
Pd(0) (cat) Cu(I) salts (cat), base N
mild conditions (0 C to room temperature, 2 h) at the more electrophilic a position of the pyridine ring to regioselectively afford pyridine 229 (Scheme 16.73) [188]. Further elaboration required much harder reaction conditions (reux for 24 h) to achieve the second coupling at the less reactive b position of the pyridine ring, which gave pyridine 230 in 78% overall yield. The use of silylated acetylene avoids the coupling at both positions of the tripe bond and, also, enables a second coupling reaction if the silyl protecting group is removed, leading to unsymmetrical ethynes. For instance, bromopyridine 231 is rst coupled with trimethylsilylacetylene to give a good yield of pyridine 232 (Scheme 16.73) [189]. Under similar reaction conditions, but in the presence of tetrabutylammonium uoride (TBAF) for the in situ removal of the silyl protecting group, pyridine 232 undergoes a second Sonogashira coupling with 3-iodophenol to afford bisarylethyne 233 in 67% yield.
16.3.5.2.4 Heck Reaction This type of cross-coupling reaction was discovered at the end of the 1960s and consists of the coupling of an alkene with an aryl(or alkenyl) halide (Br, I) or triate to afford vinylarenes (or dienes) (Scheme 16.74). Terminal
16.3 Reactivity
j1487
Br N 228 PdCl2(PPh3)2, CuI, Et3N, 0 C to RT, 2h Br N 231 PdCl2(PPh3)2, CuI, Et3N, RT, 16h 71% Br
Si(iPr)3
SiMe3
Br N 229 Si(iPr)3 N 232 SiMe3
HO
PdCl2(PPh3)2, CuI, Et3N, , 24h
OH
TBAF, PdCl2(PPh3)2, CuI, Et3N, DMF 70 C, 16h 67%
HO
N 230, 78%
Scheme 16.73
N Si(iPr)3 233
OH
X + N X= Br, I, OTf
Scheme 16.74
Pd(0) (cat) base N
alkenes are usually good substrates for the Heck reaction and react at the nonsubstituted carbon. 1,2-Disubstituted alkenes usually give product mixtures, with a preference for the less sterically hindered carbon. The mechanism of the Heck cross-coupling reaction (Scheme 16.75) differs slightly from the general scheme presented earlier (Scheme 16.66). Although the rst steps in both processes are identical, in the Heck reaction there is an absence of the transmetalation step. Alternatively, the CC bond is formed by an insertion
1488

X R1 R
2
base
II
[ Pd(0)L2 ]
R1
L Pd L H syn hydride elimination Oxidative addition
X L Pd L H R1 R2 H
L L
R1 Pd X
II
Rotation X L Pd L R2 H
alkene insertion
R2
R1 H
Scheme 16.75
process, which is followed by a b-hydride elimination to form the substituted alkene product. Examples of Heck reactions are shown in Scheme 16.76. Bromopyridine 234 can be coupled with inexpensive acrylates to give a,b-unsaturated esters 235 in good to excellent yields [190]. The tert-butyl acrylate of pyridine 237 is introduced in 236
CO2R Br CO2R EtO2C N 234 CO2Et Pd(OAc)2, PPh3, DMF, 72-92% R= iBu, iPr, tBu CHO nBu N 236
Scheme 16.76
EtO2C
N 235
CO2Et
CO2tBu [PdCl(allyl)]2, (o-Tol)3P, NaOAc, PhMe, 83% nBu N 237
CHO CO2tBu
Br
16.3 Reactivity
j1489
(in 83% yield) by Heck coupling with tert-butyl acrylate, using allyl palladium chloride dimer and tri-o-tolylphosphine [191].
Pyridines can be reduced by catalytic hydrogenation, by metal hydrides or by metals in protic media to piperidines, 1,2- or 1,4-dihydropiperidines, depending on the reducing agents employed and the reaction conditions. Pyridines are much more easily reduced than benzenes. While the catalytic hydrogenation of benzene requires high pressure and high temperatures, pyridine can be reduced at normal pressure and room temperature to afford piperidine in excellent yield [192]. This fact can be exploited for the selective reduction of pyridines in the presence of phenyl groups. For instance, benzylpyridines 238 have been converted into benzylpiperidines 239 by catalytic hydrogenation (Scheme 16.77) [193]. However, the reaction proceeds smoothly only when piperidines are obtained as ammonium salts, because free bases tend to poison the catalyst. Therefore, hydrogenation of pyridine 240 using PtO2 as catalyst and in acetic acid gave at room temperature piperidine 241 in 80% yield [194].
X H2, Pd/C, 10 bar N 238 X= F, CF3, OMe, Me PO(OEt)2 H2, PtO2 N 240
Scheme 16.77
AcOH, 60-65 C 53-95%
N H 239
PO(OEt)2
CO2iBu
AcOH, 20 C 80%
N H 241
CO2iBu
Pyridines can also be reduced with various metal hydrides, but the results depend on the type of hydride. Whereas diisobutylaluminium hydride (DIBALH) or Et2AlH reduce pyridine slowly, LiEt3BH (super hydride) efciently leads to piperidine [195]. In contrast, the reaction of LiAlH4 and pyridine results in the addition of one hydride equivalent to pyridine, yielding the complex 242, which contains two 1,2- and two 1,4dihydropyridine units (Figure 16.16) [196198]. Complex 242, also known as Lansburys reagent, has been used as a selective reducing agent of ketones, especially in the presence of carboxylic acids and esters.
1490

H H N N H H Al H N N H H H Li(Py)4
242
Figure 16.16 Lansburys reagent.
Although NaBH4 does not reduce pyridine itself, electron-withdrawing substituted pyridines areeffectively reducedto di-or tetrahydropyridines in thepresenceof NaBH4. For instance, pyridines 243 undergo reduction with NaBH4 to give mixtures of the corresponding 1,4- (244) and1,2-dihydropyridines (245) (Scheme 16.78) [199].Also,the pyridine ring of compound 246 has been fully reduced by treatment with NaBH3CN, leading to a cis-trans diastereomeric mixture of piperidines 247 and 248 [200].
RO2C N 243 CO2R RO2C N H 244 CO2R + N H 245 RO2C CO2R
NaBH4, AcOH 57-76% R= Me, Et
CO2Et N O 246 Ph Ph
Scheme 16.78
NaBH3CN AcOH, RT O Ph N H
CO2Et
+ O N H
CO2Et
247, 23% Ph Ph Ph
248, 46%
Metals in protic media, typically sodium in ethanol, reduce pyridines to piperidines. This type of reduction is considered to be similar to the Birch reduction of arenes. For instance, reduction of 2,6-diphenylpyridine (249) afforded a cis-trans mixture of diastereomers 250 and 251 (Scheme 16.79) [201]. Under aprotic conditions, reduction fails and bipyridines are produced instead (Section 16.3.7).
16.3.7 Reactions with Carbenes, Nitrenes and Radical Reagents 16.3.7.1 Reactions at the Ring Nitrogen Atom: Carbenes and Nitrenes Electrophilic carbenes can react with compounds containing free electron pairs, such as carbonyls, nitriles, ethers, alcohols, and so on to form ylides. In addition, carbenes
16.3 Reactivity
j1491
Na, EtOH, Ph N 249

Scheme 16.79
+ Ph N H Ph Ph N H Ph
Ph
250, 39%
251, 54%
react with pyridines at the ring nitrogen atom to form pyridinium ylides, which have been extensively used as trapped carbenes in studies of carbene reactions by laser ash photolysis. In some cases, pyridinium ylides have been isolated and characterized. For instance, pyridinium cyclopentadienides 254 have been obtained in yields between 17 and 81% by irradiation of diazo derivatives 252 in the presence of pyridines 253 (Scheme 16.80) [202].
R2
R N2 R1 Ph 252 R1= H, Ph R2 = H, Me Ph Ph h
253 R2 N R2
R2 R1 Ph
R2 Ph Ph
17-81%
254
R2
R2 Ph Ph
N 253
R2
Ph
Scheme 16.80
Nitrenes give similar results with pyridines to afford pyridinium iminoylides. For instance, treatment of the nitrene precursor PhI NTs with various pyridines 255 in the presence of a catalytic amount of Cu(II) affords the corresponding p-tolylsulfonyliminopyridinium ylides 256 in good yields (Scheme 16.81) [203].
Z N 255 PhI=NTs, Cu(OTf)2 (cat) CH3CN, 20 C 55-85% Z= H, Me, CN
Scheme 16.81
Z N NTs
256
1492

16.3.7.2 Reactions at the Ring Carbon Atom: Carbon and Halogen Radicals 16.3.7.2.1 Carbon Radicals Free radical substitutions in aromatic systems have long been known, but are used rarely in organic synthesis. Of greater preparative value are the reactions of nucleophilic radicals, such as HOCH2 and R2NCO, which can be easily generated under mild conditions. Minisci and coworkers [204] were the rst to report that carbon radicals can be used to regioselectively synthesize 2- and 4-alkyl and acylpyridines. These substitutions are carried out on the protonated pyridine, which provides both increased reactivity and selectivity for the 2-position, a transformation that is known as the Minisci reaction (Scheme 16.82) [204]. The radical species are generated either by oxidative silver-catalyzed decarboxylation (alkyl radicals) or by Fenton-type reaction with organic hydroperoxides and Fe(II) or Ti(III) reagents (acyl radicals) [205207].
R N H N H R H
[O] N R
alkyl radicals
RCO2H R= alkyl
AgNO3, (NH4)2S2O8 CO2
Radical generation tBuOOH, FeSO4, H2SO4
acyl radicals
RCHO
RCO
R= alkyl, aryl, NR2 Reactivity: Selectivity:

Scheme 16.82
pyridinium cation > neutral pyridine 2- > 4- >> 3-position
Scheme 16.83 shows examples of reactions of this type. Diverse alkyl radicals generated by oxidative silver-catalyzed decarboxylation of various carboxylic acids have been reacted with 4-cyanopyridine (257) to give pyridines 258 with control of regioselectivity [208]. On the other hand, 3-acylpyridines 259 have been regioselectively carbamoylated via the Miscini reaction with RHNCO radicals generated by treatment of various formamides with t-butyl hydroperoxide and Fe(II) to yield pyridines 260 [209]. Alkylmercury halides are also convenient sources of alkyl radicals that react with pyridines, attacking mainly at the a-position to give the corresponding 2-alkyl
16.3 Reactivity
j1493
CN RCO2H, AgNO3 N 257 (NH4)2S2O8, H2SO4 (aq), 24-38% R = Me, Et, Pr, iPr, nBu
CN
N 258
COR N 259
HCONH2, tBuOOH FeSO4, H2SO4 (aq) 31-91% H2NOC N 260
COR
R = Pr, aryl, tBu, CH2CH2CN, iBu

Scheme 16.83
derivatives 261 (Scheme 16.84) [210]. Reaction yields decrease from tertiary, secondary to primary alkyl groups, in accordance with decreasing radical stability.
RHgX, h N 40 C, 20 h R= nHex (50%) R= iPr (89%) R= tBu (98%)

Scheme 16.84
N 261
In contrast with alkyl and acyl radicals, aryl radicals generated from (PhCO)2O, PhI (OCOPh)2, and so on give mixtures of 2-, 3- and 4-arylpyridines with low reaction yields. Certain metals, such as Na, Zn or Ni, under aprotic conditions react with pyridines to form radical anions 262 resulting from an electron-transfer from the metal to the pyridine ring (Scheme 16.85). These radical anions dimerize to give bipyridines in a reaction considered equivalent to the pinacol reduction. At room temperature, pyridine reacts with sodium in tetrahydrofuran (THF) to afford 4,40 -bipyridine (264), mainly by coupling through the c-positions of two pyridine radicals. At higher temperatures, 2,30 -, 3,30 - and 3,40 -bipyridines are also formed. If the reaction is carried out with Zn in the presence of acetic anhydride, the dihydropyridinium intermediate 263 is trapped and 4,40 -bidihydropyridine 265 is obtained [211]. However, pyridines under dimerization conditions using Ni afford 2,20 - (266) instead of 4,40 -bipyridine (264). This has been attributed to the favored chelation of the radical anion to the metal surface.
1494

N Na, THF Na N H N 262 Na 263 2 NaH N 264 N
20 C
Zn, Ac2O N
Ac N
H H 265
N Ac
Raney Ni N N Ni
Scheme 16.85
H N N H Ni N
O2 N N 266
16.3.7.2.2 Halogen Radicals Pyridines can be halogenated via radical substitution at high temperatures where chlorine (270 C) or bromine (500 C) are appreciably dissociated into their corresponding radicals, affording mixtures of 2-halo 267 and 2,6-dihalopyridines 268 (Scheme 16.86). 2-Fluoropyridines can also be synthesized by reaction with uorine diluted in an inert gas using polyhalogenated solvents. However, these methods are rarely used in preparative synthesis due to the extreme reaction conditions required, which may be incompatible with other functional groups present in the pyridine nucleus.
reagent, N reagent: Cl2, 270 C Br2, 500 C CuBr-Br2, 350 C

Scheme 16.86
+ N 267 X X N 268 X
16.4 Pyridine Derivatives
j1495
Pyridines under photochemical irradiation undergo an intramolecular electrocyclic 4p-ring closure to afford highly strained 2-azabicyclo[2.2.0]hexadienes 269, so-called Dewar pyridines, which contain at least two new stereogenic centers. Complex structures 269 are observable spectroscopically but, usually, are unstable and revert thermally to pyridines or in the presence of water are hydrolyzed to conjugated aminoaldehydes 271 (Scheme 16.87). However, these intermediates can also be trapped by reduction with sodium borohydride to afford amines 270.
h (254 nm) N t1/2 = 2 min 269 H H N h, H2O 270 CHO NH2 271
Scheme 16.87
H NaBH4/H2O H NH
Of particular utility is the photoirradiation of 2-alkylpyridines 272 with electronwithdrawing groups on the alkyl substituent, which under base-catalyzed conditions give stable azabicycles 274 resulting from a proton shift over the initial cycloadduct 273 (Scheme 16.88) [212].
H H N 273 X Y H NH H X Y
h (254 nm) N 272 Y X NaOH (aq)
274, 13-47%
X= H, Me Y= CN, CO2Me, CO2Et

Scheme 16.88
16.4 Pyridine Derivatives 16.4.1 Oxyderivatives
The 2- and 4-hydroxypyridines exist almost entirely in the carbonyl tautomeric forms, known as 2- and 4-pyridones, respectively (Scheme 16.89). Their hydroxyl forms are
1496

OH O OH OH N H O N 4-hydroxypyridine N H 4-pyridone N 3-hydroxypyridine
2-hydroxypyridine
2-pyridone
O N H O N H N H
Scheme 16.89
detected only in non-polar solvents or in the gas phase. However, 3-hydroxypyridines behave as regular pyridines, which can also be in equilibrium with their zwitterionic forms in a ratio that depends on the type of solvent.
16.4.1.1 Reactions with Electrophilic Reagents 16.4.1.1.1 Reactions with Acids According to their structure, pyrones react mainly as unsaturated lactams whereas 3-hydroxypyridines behave as pyridines. As a consequence, 2- and 4-pyridones are protonated on their carbonyl groups (pKa 0.8 and 3.3, respectively) whereas 3-hydroxypyridines react through their ring nitrogen atom (pKa 5.2) (Figure 16.17). 16.4.1.1.2 Reactions with Acid Chlorides and Related Compounds Acid chlorides react with pyridones and 3-hydroxypyridines through their oxygen atom, affording the corresponding pyridinyl esters. For example, treatment of 4-pyridone and 2-pyridone 277 with benzoyl chlorides 275 and 278 gives, respectively, pyridines 276 [213] and 279 [214] in good yields (Scheme 16.90). Also, the reaction of 2-pyridone 280 with tosyl chloride affords an excellent yield of tosylate 281 [215].
H O H pKa 0.8 pKa 3.3 OH N pKa 5.2 H
N H
N H
Figure 16.17 The pKas of pyrones and 3-hydroxypyridine.
j1497
R1 O ClOC
R2 R3 275
O O
R1
R2 R3
N H
Py, RT 69-90%
276
R1, R2, R3 = H, Me, Br, Cl, NMe2, OMe, NO2
ClOC OMe N H 277 O Br
R1 278 R2 N O
OMe O 279 R1 R2
K2CO3, (nBu)4NBr, acetone 80-89% R1, R2 = H, Me
Br
Cl NO2 N H 280
Scheme 16.90
Cl TsCl, Et3N DCM, RT 98% N 281 NO2 OTs
16.4.1.1.3 Electrophilic Substitution Reactions Pyridones and 3-hydroxypyridines are more reactive to electrophilic substitutions than pyridines and the regioselective preference is to undergo substitution in the ortho and para positions relative to the oxygen functionality (Figure 16.18). These pyridine derivatives can be readily halogenated, nitrated or sulfonated. For example, the nitration of pyridones 282 and 284 affords regioselectively nitropyridones 283 and 285, respectively (Scheme 16.91) [216, 217]. 16.4.1.1.4 Reactions of Oxypyridine Anions with Electrophiles Pyridones are weak acids with pKas of around 11. They form mesomeric anions that readily react with electrophilic reagents at the nitrogen or oxygen atoms depending on the reaction
O
E+ N H O
E+ N
OH E+
N H
Figure 16.18 Regioselectivity in electrophilic substitutions of pyridones and 3-hydroxypyridine.
1498

O HNO3 N H 282 H2SO4(c), 100 C 38% N H 283 NO2 N H 285 O O NO2
HNO3 N H 284
Scheme 16.91
H2SO4(c), 5 C 90%
conditions (Scheme 16.92). For example, 2-pyridone 286 [218] is quantitatively O-methylated with methyl iodide using silver carbonate as base, whereas 2-pyridone 287 [219] preferentially affords N-methylation using the same alkylating agent but in the presence of sodium hydride (Scheme 16.93).
N base N H O
O E+
N E and/or
N
Scheme 16.92
MeI N H 286 Ar MeI NC N H 287

Scheme 16.93
Ag2CO3, DCM 100%
OMe
Ar NaH, DMF 76%
NC
Ar= aryl
j1499
16.4.1.2 Replacement of Oxygen Function The pyridone oxygen can be replaced by other atoms such as chloro or sulfur to afford the corresponding chloropyridines and thiopyridones, respectively. In particular, the conversion of the carbonyl group of pyridones into a good leaving group such as chloride, typically using phosphorus oxychloride, is an important reaction in pyridone chemistry, because chloropyridines are susceptible to cross-coupling reactions with organometallic reagents to form new carboncarbon bonds or additionelimination reactions with diverse nucleophiles (amines, cyanide, etc.) (Scheme 16.94). Usually, pyridones are converted into thiopyridones using Lawessons reagent [2,4bis(4-methoxyphenyl)-1,3-dithia-2,4-diphosphetane-2,4-disulde] [220].
RM Lawessons N H S reagent N H O POCl3 N Cl Nu Addition-elimination reactions OMe
N Cross-coupling reactions
MeO
S S
Nu
Lawessons reagent
Scheme 16.94
16.4.1.3 Photochemical Reactions of Pyridones Intramolecular electrocyclic 4p-ring closure represents the key photochemical reaction of 2-pyridones. This reaction has been extensively utilized in the synthesis of the carbapenem antibiotics core. Herein, photocyclization of the chiral pyridine 288 leads quantitatively to a mixture of diastereomers 289 and 290 (7 : 5 ratio, respectively) (Scheme 16.95) [221]. Furthermore, N-alkylated pyridones 291 undergo this type of reaction, affording diastereomeric bicycles 292 and 293 [222]. 16.4.2 Amino Derivatives 16.4.2.1 Reactions with Electrophilic Reagents Aminopyridines have three possible nucleophilic centers: the ring nitrogen atom, the amino nitrogen and the ring carbon atom (Scheme 16.96). As expected from their resonance forms, aminopyridines react with certain electrophiles such as proton, alkylating and acylating agents preferentially through their ring nitrogen atom.
1500

O iPr N H 288 R h N 291 O O Et R= H, CO2Me, OMe,
Scheme 16.95
h quant R= (-)-menthol
RO
O NH +
RO
O NH
H 289 (7:5)
H 290
H N H 292
O O O Et +
H N H 293
O O O Et
64-98%
NH2
NH2
NH2 N
NH2
NH2
NH2
Scheme 16.96
However, other electrophilic reagents react with aminopyridines through their ring carbon atom by an alternative electrophilic substitution pathway. In these cases, the 5- and 3-positions of 2- and 4-aminopyridines, respectively, are favored.
16.4.2.1.1 Reactions with Acids The three aminopyridines are all more basic than pyridine itself and form crystalline salts by protonation at the ring nitrogen atom. The a- and c-isomers are monobasic, because the positive charge is delocalized over both nitrogen atoms, which prevents further protonation (Scheme 16.97). This effect is stronger in the c-isomer than in the a-isomer, but it is not possible in the b-isomer. As a consequence b-aminopyridines can be further protonated using strong acids.
j1501
Monobasic aminopyridines H N NH2 N H NH2 N H NH2 H
NH2 H N
NH2
NH2 H
N H
N H
Dibasic aminopyridines NH2 N H N H NH2 H N H NH3
Scheme 16.97
16.4.2.1.2 Reactions with Alkylating Agents Aminopyridines react with alkylating agents through the more nucleophilic ring nitrogen atom to afford quaternary ammonium salts. For example, 4-aminopyridine has been alkylated with bromide 295 and chloride 296 to give quaternary pyridinium salts 294 [223] and 297 [224], respectively (Scheme 16.98).
O 3 F N 86% Cl 297 N O O F O 296 NH2
NH2
Br
SO3Na 295 DMF 62%
NH2
Cl
N SO3 294
Scheme 16.98
16.4.2.1.3 Reactions with Acylating Agents Acid chlorides and related compounds react with aminopyridines through their amino substituent to afford the corresponding amides (Scheme 16.99). The ring nitrogen atom of the aminopyridine reacts rst to give N-acylpyridinium salts 299, which then undergo a second acylation reaction
1502

O NH2 1) N O Cl Cl 2) H2O O Cl , Et3N N 298 HN
H2O O
NH2
NH2
O Cl
HN
N O 299
Cl O
Et3N O
N 300
Cl
Scheme 16.99
through the amino substituent to yield intermediate 300. Finally, aqueous work up affords amide 298. Some examples are shown in Scheme 16.100 [225, 226].
Ac2O, PhMe N NH2 77% N NHAc
NH2 MeO2C N
Ac2O, AcOH 80% MeO2C N
NHAc
Scheme 16.100
16.4.2.1.4 Electrophilic Substitution Reactions Aminopyridines undergo electrophilic substitution under milder conditions than pyridine itself. Usually, the substitution reaction takes place selectively at 5- and 3-positions of 2- and 4-aminopyridines, respectively. For example, 2-aminopyridine has been selectively sulfonated to give pyridine 301 in good yield (Scheme 16.101) [227]. Bromination of 2-aminopyridine afforded mainly 5-brominated pyridine 302, and also some dibrominated pyridine 303 [228]. In contrast, bromination of 4-aminopyridine gave an almost 1 : 1 mixture of mono- and dibrominated pyridines 304 and 305, respectively. The nitration of aminopyridines proceeds via a nitroamino derivative (306) resulting from the nitration of the amino substituent, which on further reaction
j1503
Br N NH2
Br2, NaHCO3 H2SO4-SO3 140 C HO3S N 301 N NH2 NH2 Br2, NaHCO3 CH3CN, DCM 80% N NH2 CH3CN, DCM
Br N NH2 +
Br
302, 68%
303, 23%
NH2
Br +
Br
NH2
Br
N 304, 45%
N 305, 48%
Scheme 16.101
with concentrated H2SO4 gives the corresponding nitropyridine (Scheme 16.102). Nitration of 4-aminopyridine 307 using potasium nitrate in concentrated H2SO4 gave rst the nitrated amino derivative 308 in 73% yield, which was followed by treatment with concentrated H2SO4 to, nally, afford 3-nitropyridine 309 in good yield [229].
NH2 N N 306 NH2 KNO3, H2SO4(c) N 307
Scheme 16.102
H N NO 2
O2N N
NH2
HN F N 4 C to RT, 1.5 h 73%
NO2 H2SO4(c) F RT, 24 h 87% F
NH2
NO2 F
N 309
308
16.4.2.2 Diazotization of the Amino Group Similar to anilines, treatment of aminopyridines with nitrites affords the corresponding diazonium salts, which easily decompose and react with diverse nucleophilic reagents such as HBr, HCl, HF, and so on (Scheme 16.103). The diazonium salts of 2- and 4-aminopyridines decompose particularly fast and immediately react with the aqueous solvent to give the corresponding 2-and 4-pyridones, respectively. For example, diazotization of 2-aminopyridine 310 in the presence of 10% H2SO4 gave 2-pyridone 311 in 72% yield (Scheme 16.104) [220]. However, under controlled conditions, these diazonium salts are susceptible to reaction with diverse nucleophilic reagents. By carrying out the diazotization of aminopyridines 312 and 314 in 50% HI and HF-pyridine solution, respectively, good
1504

H2O NH2 N N X= halogen
Scheme 16.103
Pyridones
N2 HX N X
CF3 HNO2, H2SO4(10%) N 310 NO2 N 312 NH2 NaNO2, HF-Py N 314
Scheme 16.104
CF3 0 C to 70 C 72%
NH2
N H 311
KNO2, CuI DMSO, HI, 60 C 63% N 313 F 0 C to RT 81%
NO2 I
NH2
N 315
and excellent yields of iodo- 313 [230] and uoropyridines 315 [231] can be obtained. The diazonium salts of 3-aminopyridines are reasonably stable, affording similar substitution reactions and coupling reactions.
16.4.3 Alkyl Derivatives
Similar to alkylbenzenes, alkylpyridines undergo special reactions at the side-chain such as halogenations and oxidations (Scheme 16.105) [232, 233]. Of particular interest is the deprotonation reaction with strong bases, such as LDA, nBuLi, NaNH2, and so on, which occurs 105 more rapidly with alkylpyridines than with the corresponding alkylbenzenes (Scheme 16.106). The 2- and 4-isomers are considerably more acidic than the 3-isomer due to the nitrogen stabilization, with the 4-isomer being the most acid. The resulting alkylpyridines anions can react with mild electrophilic reagents to afford a large variety of derivatives. For example,
j1505
Cl Cl N Cl2, CCl4 h, 72% CrO3, H2SO4(c) N N 0 C to 75 C 90%
Cl Cl N HO2C N N CCl3 CO2H
Scheme 16.105
1) Base N N
2) E N
Acidity : N N N
N
Scheme 16.106
functionalization of the methyl group of pyridines 316 and 318 by proton abstraction of the corresponding methyl groups with nBuLi followed, respectively, by reaction with formaldehyde and primary bromide leads to pyridines 317 [218] and 319 [234], respectively (Scheme 16.107). 3-Alkylpyridine also undergoes this type of reaction but the yields are usually lower. Side-chain hydrogens of alkylpyridines are sufciently acidic to undergo condensation reactions with aldehydes or acetals. For example, c-picoline has been condensed with various benzaldehydes to give reasonable yields of heterostilbenes 320 (Scheme 16.108) [235]. Furthermore, treatment of dimethylpyridine 321 with dimethylformamide dimethyl acetal (322) in the presence of catalytic CuI and microwave acceleration at 180 C affords an excellent yield of dienamine 323 [236].
1506

1) nBuLi, THF, 0 C MeO N 316 2) (CH2O)n, RT 60% MeO N 317 Z AcHN MeO N 318
Scheme 16.107
OH
1) nBuLi, THF, -78 C 2) ZCH2Br, -50 C Z= Me (73%), Ph (75%)
AcHN MeO N 319
Y OHC N Ac2O, Y= H (47%), NO2 (58%) O2N N 321

Scheme 16.108
320
(MeO)2CHNMe2, CuI (322) DMF, MW, 180 C 95% Me2N
O 2N N 323 NMe2
16.4.4 Pyridine Aldehydes, Ketones, Carboxylic Acids and Derivatives
In general, these types of compounds behave similarly to the corresponding benzene derivatives. In the case of pyridine carboxylic acids, the presence of the ring nitrogen atom favors the existence of their zwitterionic forms in aqueous solution(Figure 16.19).
CO2
CO2 N H nicotinic acid decreasing acidity N H CO2
N H isonicotinic acid
picolinic acid
Figure 16.19 Zwitterionic forms of pyridine carboxylic acids in aqueous solution.
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All three isomers are more acidic than benzoic acid with the 4-isomer (isonicotinic acid) being the most acidic. On heating, pyridine carboxylic acids readily undergo decarboxylation to afford the corresponding protonated derivatives. This reaction occurs more easily with pyridine carboxylic acids than with benzoic acids, decreasing in the reactivity order a > c ) b isomer according to the inductive stabilization of the generated carbanions (Scheme 16.109). If the reaction is carried out in the presence of an electrophile such as an aldehyde or a ketone, the resulting carbanion can be trapped to form the corresponding alcohol in a process know as the Hammick reaction [237, 238]. Pyridylacetic acids also undergo a facile b-decarboxylation reaction to afford the corresponding picolines [239, 240].
R N H O O CO2 R N H R N PhCHO Hammick reaction R N O N H O CO2 N H N Ph OH
Scheme 16.109
16.4.5 Quaternary Pyridium Salts 16.4.5.1 Nucleophilic Additions The reactivity of quaternary pyridinium salts is explained by the increased electrophilicity of a and c ring carbon atoms, which allows them to react easily with a large variety of nucleophiles (Scheme 16.110).
H Nu Nu N R
Scheme 16.110
N R
H Nu
and/or N R
1508

Usually, organometallic reagents react at both a and c positions; however, selective c-addition can be achieved using cuprates and also when bulky alkyl groups are present on the ring nitrogen atom. For example, treatment of pyridinium salt 324 with nBuLi gave an almost 1 : 2 mixture of 1,2- 325 and 1,4-tetrahydropiperidines 326 (Scheme 16.111) [241]. Selective addition at the 4-position of pyridinium salt 327 was obtained with phenylmagnesium chloride in the presence of catalytic copper(I) iodide to yield 1,4-tetrahydropiperidine 328 in excellent yield [242].
Ph nBuLi, Et2O Ph N Me 324 Ph ClO4 Ph
Ph Ph N nBu Me 325, 25% Ph CO2Me PhMgCl, CuI(cat) THF, RT I 91% N 328 R1 N CO2Et 330 CO2Me + Ph
Ph nBu
N R
Ph
326, 48%
N 327 R1 N 329 R1= H, Me

Scheme 16.111
R2
1) ClCO2Et THF Cl
2) ArCH2MgBr CuI(cat), -78 C N
R1
331, 21-62%
R2= H, 2-Me, 4-Me, 4-OMe, 4-tBu
The stronger reactivity of pyridinium salts compared with pyridines with nucleophiles has been exploited to achieve more effective nucleophilic additions to pyridines by in situ generation of pyridinium salts that are hydrolyzed during the workup. For example, formylation at the ring nitrogen atom of pyridines 329 with ethyl chloroformate generates pyridinium salts 330, which react with Grignard reagents selectively at the 4-position to afford pyridines 331 in good yields [243]. By a related mechanism, pyridinium salts can be oxidized at the a position using potassium ferrocyanide in basic media to afford the corresponding N-alkyl-2-pyridones (Scheme 16.112). The reaction involves initial a-nucleophilic attack of hydroxide to afford hydroxy derivative 332 which is then oxidized by potassium ferrocyanide [244].
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K3Fe(CN)6 N R NaOH(aq) N R
H OH 332
N R
N
Scheme 16.112
N I Me
K3Fe(CN)6 NaOH(aq), 5 C 52% N
N Me
16.4.5.2 Reductions The reduction reactions of pyridinium salts are of particular interest because of their relation to important biological processes, such as the enzymatic NAD /NADH or NADP /NADPH oxidation/reduction reactions. The pyridinium salts are more easily reduced than pyridines to give N-alkyl piperidines, 1,2-dihydropiperidines or 1,2,3,4-dehydropiperidines depending on the reducing agents and the reaction conditions. N-Alkyl piperidines are usually obtained by catalytic hydrogenation whereas metal hydrides and active metals give partially unsaturated piperidines. For example, catalytic hydrogenation of pyridinium iodide 333 affords selective and complete reduction of the pyridinium ring, giving N-methylpiperidine hydroiodide 334 in 63% yield (Scheme 16.113) [245]. Conversely, treatment of pyridinium iodide 335 with sodium borohydride gives, mainly, 3,4dehydropiperidine 336 together with a small amount of 4,5-dehydropiperidine 337 [246].
O N H N I 333
OnHex H2, PtO2 60psi, EtOH 63% N H
O N H I 334
OnHex
3 OTBS N 335 I
NaBH4 MeOH-H2O 74% N 336
3 OTBS
+ N 337
3 OTBS
336/337 (90:10)
Scheme 16.113
1510

16.4.5.3 Reactions at the Alkyl Side Chain As with pyridines, a and c-alkyl substituted pyridinium salts can be functionalized at the side chain via the intermediacy of enamine 338, which is generated by treatment with base. Further reaction of 338 with an electrophile such as an aldehyde or ketone would lead to derivatives 339 (Scheme 16.114).
base N R H N R 338
Scheme 16.114
N R 339
For example, reaction of porphyrin 340 with either 1,4-dimethyl- or 1,2-dimethylpyridinium iodides in the presence of K2CO3 gives condensation products 341 and 342, respectively (Scheme 16.115) [247]. In addition, triple Knoevenagel condensation of collidine salt 343 with aldehyde 344 affords conjugated pyridinium salt 345 (Scheme 16.116) [248].
I N CHO N Ph 340 K2CO3, THF/MeOH, 30 C 65% Ph N Cl N
Ph N Ph N H H N
Ph
Ph N H H N N
Ph
Ph
341
Ph N I N Ph N H H N N
Ph N Cl Ph 342
K2CO3, THF/MeOH, 30 C 60%

Scheme 16.115
16.4.5.4 a-Cyclizations Intramolecular free radical substitution of pyridinium salts 346 gives good yields of bicyclic compounds 347 (Scheme 16.117) [249]. Also, compounds 349 have been synthesized by intramolecular cyclization of pyridinium radicals generated from 2bromo-N-alkylpyridinium salts 348 [250].
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N N N F3CSO3 343
Scheme 16.116
CHO 344 N N F3CSO3 345 N
piperidine, nBuOH, 68%
nBu3SnH I N n n= 1,2 1) nBu3SnH AIBN, PhMe N F3CSO3 348

Scheme 16.117
AIBN, PhMe 60-65%
N n 347
346
2) H2, PtO2, MeOH n n= 1,2 F3CSO3
N n 349, 53-74%
16.4.6 Pyridine N-oxides
Pyridine N-oxides are stable dipolar species with the oxygen electrons delocalized throughout the pyridine ring (Scheme 16.118). These N-oxides are particularly useful in pyridine synthesis because the usual pyridine reactivity is enhanced by the presence of a positively charged ring nitrogen atom, even more than in quaternary pyridinium salts due to the electron release of the oxygen. This fact is shown in their dipole moment, which is almost twice the value of corresponding pyridines.
-N O 4.25 D
Scheme 16.118
N O
N O
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16.4.6.1 Reactions with Electrophilic Reagents Pyridine N-oxides react with electrophilic reagents through their oxygen atom. Of particular interest is the reaction with alkylating agents such as Me2SO4 because it affords N-alkyloxypyridinium salts 350, which are susceptible to further nucleophilic attack at the 2- and 4-positions of the pyridine ring (Scheme 16.119). Subsequent elimination of alcohol ROH gives 2- and 4-substituted pyridines, with the latter usually being the major regioisomer. This transformation has been used for the synthesis of cyanopyridines, the so-called ReissertHenze reaction, which affords, usually, low reaction yields and mixtures of both 2- and 4-cyanopyridines. However, using an improved method developed by Fife [251], which consists of the use of acid chlorides instead of alkylating agents, permits cyanation exclusively at the 2-position of the pyridine in excellent yields. For example, cyano-derivative 352 has been synthesized from bipyridine N-oxide 351 in 90% yield (Scheme 16.120) [252]. Similarly, diverse aryl and alkyl groups have been introduced successfully at the 6-position of protected pyridoxal N-oxide 353 to give derivatives 354 [253].
H Nu Nu N O RX or Nu X Z= alkyl, acyl X= halogen
Scheme 16.119
N and/or ROH or RCO2H
N O
RCOCl
and/or
N O 350
Z N O Z
H Nu
Nu
Me2NCOCl, TMSCN, DCM N 351 EtO tBuCO2 N O N O 90% N
CN
352 EtO ClCO2iBu, RMgBr, THF -78 C to RT 60-85% R= vinyl, phenyl, benzyl tBuCO2 N 354 R
353
Scheme 16.120
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In consistent fashion, chloropyridines can be obtained directly from pyridine N-oxides by treatment with PCl5, POCl3 or SOCl2 (Scheme 16.121). The chlorinating agent (i.e., PCl5) reacts with the N-oxide through its oxygen atom and the evolved chloride adds to the 2- or 4-position of the pyridine ring. Finally, elimination of POCl3 gives the corresponding chloropyridine. For example, chloropyridines 356 and 358 have been synthesized from N-oxides 355 and 357, respectively [254].
H Cl PCl5 N O N Cl4PO Cl N Cl4PO H Cl +
POCl3 HCl
N + Cl
Cl
N Cl4PO
N POCl3, iPrO 355 N O 63% iPrO N 356 Cl
POCl3, N O 64% N 358 Cl
357
Scheme 16.121
Electrophilic substitutions to the neutral pyridine N-oxides occur selectively at the 4-position; however, if the reaction is carried out through the protonated N-oxides typical pyridinium reactivity is found and 3-substitution is observed (Scheme 16.122). Whereas nitration proceeds by electrophilic addition to the neutral pyridine N-oxide to give 4-nitroderivatives, sulfonation goes through the protonated form and 3-substitution is normally achieved. For example, nitration of pyridine N-oxide 359 affords 4-nitroderivative 360 in good yield [255]. Sulfonation of pyridine N-oxide yields 3-sulfonated derivative 361 [153].
16.4.6.2 Reactions at the Alkyl Side Chain Consistent with the alkylpyridines, a and c alkyl pyridine N-oxides undergo important alkyl side chain reactions such as halogenation, condensation or oxidations. In addition, acyl rearrangement reactions may occur to introduce oxygen functionalities into the side chain, via the so-called Boekelheide reaction. The procedure consists of treatment of pyridine N-oxides with acetic anhydride, which initially produces oxygen
1514

F N O N O N OH 359 SO3-H2SO4 N O HgSO4, 220-230 C 71% N O 361
Scheme 16.122
HNO3 H2SO4, 80 C 72%
NO2
N O 360 SO3H
acylation, followed by proton lost from the alkyl side chain to give an uncharged intermediate 362, which nally undergoes a [3, 3] sigmatropic rearrangement to afford acetate 363 (Scheme 16.123).
OAc N O H O N O 362
Scheme 16.123
Ac2O N O
[3,3] N O 363 OAc
Under these conditions, pyridine N-oxide 364 is efciently transformed into alcohol 365 by a two-step procedure involving an initial Boekelheide reaction followed by basic hydrolysis of the resultant acetyl derivative (Scheme 16.124) [256].
OBn OBn N O 364
Scheme 16.124
OBn 1) Ac2O, 2) NaOH (2M), 81% N 365 OBn OH
16.4.6.3 Deoxygenation Reactions Several pyridine N-oxide deoxygenation procedures have been developed, including phosphorous trihalides, catalytic hydrogenation over Raney-Ni or Pd-carbon, SmI2, NaBH4/AlCl3 or Fe/AcOH. Many of these methods are limited by side reactions such
16.5 Appendix
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as substituent reductions. Recently, a milder and highly efcient deoxygenating method has been developed, based on the transfer of oxygen from the N-oxide to PPh3 catalyzed by Re(V) [257] or Mo(VI) [258] complexes. Scheme 16.125 shows some examples of the deoxygenation reaction [254, 257].
NO2 PBr3 N O Cl EtOAc, 70 C 82%
NO2
Cl
OMe PPh3 N O
Scheme 16.125
OMe THF, RT 93%
16.5 Appendix 16.5.1 Synthesis of Pyridines by Cycloaddition Reactions
A new review on [2 2 2] cycloaddition reactions catalyzed by transition metal complexes has appeared [259] that includes recent progress in the synthesis of aromatic and heterocyclic compounds such as pyridines, pyridones, and so on. In this context, two novel variants of the cobalt-catalyzed intramolecular [2 2 2] cycloadditions have recently been published, allowing the formation of highly functionalized pyridines. Both approaches deal with the co-cyclotrimerization of nitrilediynes. Snyder and coworkers [260] have reported the microwave-promoted cobalt-catalyzed [2 2 2] cyclization of dialkynylnitriles A1 to afford tetrahydronaphthyridines A2 (n 1) and related pyridine derivatives in moderate to excellent yields (Scheme 16.A.1). Alternatively, Cheng and coworkers [261] use the CoI2(dppe)/ Zn system to achieve the efcient synthesis of tetra- and pentacyclic pyridine derivatives A4 even with highly substituted nitrilediynes A3 having steric conjunction at the a and b positions to the nitrile group and a bulky substituent at the terminal carbon of alkyne (Scheme A.1). Also important has been the extensive study reported by Yamamoto and coworkers on the scope of the substrate as well as the reaction mechanism of rutheniumcatalyzed [2 2 2] cycloaddition of 1,6-diynes and nitriles to afford bicyclic pyridines [262].
1516

R3 O N N A1 CpCo(CO)2 R1 W, 180 C, 15 min 71% (n= 0) 83-99% (n= 1) 25% (n= 2) R2 N n N A2 R1 O R3
R2
R1 = H, Me, Et, nBu, Ar, CH 2OPh, CH2 OH, TMS, Ph R2 = H, Me, iBu, i Pr, CH 2CH2 OPh R3 = Me, CH2 OC 6H 4OPh n= 0, 1, 2
R X Z R1 A3 N
R2
CoI2 (dppe)/Zn 80 C, CH 3 CN, 16h 46%-94%
Z R2 X R1 A4 N R2
R1 = Ph, Ar, H, TMS, Me R2 = H, Me; R2 +R2 = (CH 2) 2, (CH2 )5 X= O, NTs, CH 2, (CH 2 )2 Z= H, O
Scheme 16.A.1
16.5.2 Reactivity of Pyridines
The use of pyridines as monodentate ligands in transition metal complexes has recently been exploited in the development of novel, efcient Pd-NHC complex A5 (Figure 16.A.1) [263], which is very useful as catalyst in the carboncarbon
R N R N R
R Cl Pd Cl N Cl A5 R= iPr
Figure 16.A.1 A useful new catalyst in carboncarbon cross-coupling reactions.
References
j1517
R2 R1 + N O A6 2 TfO A7 R 1 = H, Me, CN R 2 = F, OMe, alkyl R1 N O

Scheme 16.A.2.
TMS
R2
4 CsF MeCN, RT, 24 h
R1 N OH A8
R1 R2 H N O R2
R1 N
R2
cross-coupling reactions [263265], particularly in the formation of sp3-sp3 carboncarbon bonds [263, 264].
16.5.3 Pyridine Derivatives
An interesting application of the reaction of pyridines N-oxides with electrophilic reagents has been reported recently. Various substituted hydroxyphenylpyridines A8 have regioselectively been prepared in one step by reaction between pyridine Noxides A6 and arynes generated from silylaryl triates A7 in the presence of caesium uoride in acetonitrile at room temperature (Scheme 16.A.2) [266]. This transitionmetal-free, mild, coupling reaction proceeds in good yield through what appears to be a series of rearrangements.
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j1527
17 Six-Membered Heterocycles: Quinoline and Isoquinoline

Ram on Alajarn and Carolina Burgos
17.1 Quinoline 17.1.1 Introduction
Quinoline (1) is a benzo-fused pyridine heterocyclic compound and is also known as 1-azanaphthalene, 1-benzazine, or benzo[b]pyridine. Formally, quinoline is derived from naphthalene by replacement of one of its a-CH units by nitrogen. Quinoline (1) is a colorless, high-boiling liquid with a sweetish odor. Important derivatives include quinaldine (2), lepidine (3), 2- and 4-quinolones (4, 5), and the quinolinium cation (6). The numbering system of this heterocycle, as treated in this chapter, is shown on structure 1 [1].
5 6 7 8 4 3
CH3
N
1
CH3
Quinoline 1
Quinaldine 2 (2-methylquinoline) O
N Lepidine 3 (4-methylquinoline)
N H
N H
N R
2 and 4-quinolones (4 and 5) (1H-quinolin2-one and 1H quinolin-4-one, respectively)
Quinolinium cation 6
1528
j 17 Six-Membered Heterocycles: Quinoline and Isoquinoline

17.1.2 General Reactivity 17.1.2.1 Relevant Physicochemical Data, Computational Chemistry, and NMR Data The presence of nitrogen in this structure produces an irregular distribution of the electron density in both heterocyclic and carbocyclic rings, a situation that alters the physicochemical properties and reactivity. The electronegative nitrogen causes inductive polarization, mainly in the s-bond framework but also affecting the p-electron system, and also stabilizes those polarized canonical structures in which nitrogen is negatively charged. Consequently, there are fractional positive changes, mainly located on the C2 and C4 pyridine positions, but the local p-deciency also increases in the benzene ring [2, 3]. The localization energies and total electron densities (s p) calculated by ckel theory (EHT) [2] correlate quite conclusively with the experimenextended Hu tally observed data. The values of atomic charges in the quinoline structure are shown here [4].
+0.011 -0.003 +0.016
+0.068 -0.009 +0.104
-0.002 +0.043 -0.013 -0.216
Quinoline 1
Additionally, it has been demonstrated that the positional selectivity in electrophilic attack on this heterocyclic molecule can be explained according to the magnitude of the HOMO electron density of each atomic center. The calculated values predict that electrophilic substitution of quinoline will occur at C5 and C8 in agreement with the experimental data [5]. Other relevant UV and NMR data are compiled in Tables 17.117.3
Table 17.1 1 H NMR chemical shifts (ppm) and selected coupling constants (Hz) for quinoline (1) [6].
d (ppm) H2 H3 H4 H5 H6 H7 H8
1
JHH 4.18 8.24 8.20 6.92 8.53 H2H4 H5H7 H6H8
JHH 1.78 1.44 1.23
8.80 7.22 7.96 7.66 7.41 7.59 8.10
H2H3 H3H4 H5H6 H6H7 H7H8
H NMR Spectra recorded at 100 MHz in CCl4.
17.1 Quinoline
Table 17.2
13
j1529
C NMR chemical shifts (ppm) for quinoline (1) [7]. d (ppm) 150.2 120.9 135.7 127.6 126.4 C7 C8 C4a C8a 129.2 129.4 128.2 148.3
d (ppm) C2 C3 C4 C5 C6
13
C NMR spectra recorded at 20 MHz in CDCl3.
17.1.2.2 General Reactivity and Tautomerism Taking into consideration the physicochemical and structural data outlined above, quinoline, in a similar way to pyridine, undergoes a range of simple electrophilic additions involving donation of the nitrogen lone pair to an electrophile to give quinolinium salts 6. This donation does not destroy the aromatic sextet and the quinolinium salt 6 remains aromatic. Concerning electrophilic substitution on the C-positions, quinoline (1) has a benzene ring annelated to the pyridine ring and comparisons with naphthalene chemistry must be considered. For example, SEAr reactions occur on the carbocyclic ring, preferentially on those of the more activated benzene moiety, and the positional selectivity is C8 > C5 > ) other positions. In general, the SEAr process occurs preferentially via the conjugate acid, that is, the quinolinium ion, which prevents attack on the heterocyclic ring. The electron-deciency of the C-heterocycle in quinoline (1), in particular on the C2 and C4 positions, makes nucleophilic addition reactions very important in quinoline chemistry. The nucleophilic substitution of quinoline usually proceeds through addition of a nucleophile and then elimination of a negatively charged entity such as H or, more favorably, Hal. The SNAr process proceeds more rapidly in quinoline than pyridine because the fused benzene ring stabilizes the addition product through conjugation. Quinolinium salts 6 are highly resistant to electrophilic substitution but are very susceptible to nucleophilic additions. Annular tautomerism does not occur in quinoline (1) but this system does have some substituent tautomers. 1H-Quinolin-2-one (4) and 1H-quinolin-4-one (5), 2and 4-quinolones, respectively, could exist in equilibrium with the corresponding
Table 17.3 UV data for quinoline (1) in H2O [8].
UV (H2O) l (nm) 226 275 299 312 log e 4.36 3.51 3.46 3.52
1530

hydroxy derivatives. However, the tautomeric equilibrium lies completely over to the carbonyl tautomeric form [9]. All aminoquinoline derivatives exist predominantly as amino tautomers and their polarized resonance contributions are shown here for the 2-substituted derivatives.
N H
N H
OH
OH
N H
NH
N H
NH
NH2
NH2
Quinoline (1) is mainly used as a building block for other chemical compounds. For example, 8-hydroxyquinoline is a chelating agent and a precursor for pesticides, whereas 2- and 4-alkylquinolines are precursors of cyanine dyes. Quinoline was rst extracted from coal tar in 1834 by Friedlieb Ferdinand Runge. Several years later, this compound was also observed as a pyrolytic degradation product of cinchonamine, a Cinchona alkaloid closely related to quinine (7). The name quinoline comes from the term quinine, an antimalarial agent isolated from cinchona tree bark by Pelletier in 1820 [10].
H HO H H N H3CO N (-) Quinine 7 HO H H N H OCH3 N N OCH3 O O O Toddaquinoline 10 OH
H3CO
N (+) Quinidine 8
-Fagarine 9
In contrast to isoquinoline, there are comparatively few naturally occurring quinolines. In addition to Cinchona alkaloids [11] pairs of diastereomeric compounds such as quininequinidine (7 and 8), dihydroquininedihydroquinidine, as well as cinchonidinecinchonine some remarkable members of these families are the biologically relevant quinoline alkaloids from rutaceous plants, such as c-fagarine (9), which was isolated from stems of Glycosmis arborea. This compound showed inhibitory activity toward the induction of EpsteinBarr virus early antigen (EBV-EA) in Raji cells by the tumor promoter 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol 13-acetate, and is thus potentially useful as a chemoprotective agent in chemical carcinogenesis [12]. Additionally, 9 showed useful cytotoxicity towards the murine leukemia P-288 cell line [13]. c-Fagarine (9) and related furoquinolines also inhibited human phospho-
17.1 Quinoline
j1531
diesterase 5 (hPDE5A), a hydrolytic enzyme that regulates the intracellular levels of cGMP and inuences vascular smooth muscle tone [14]. In 1993 Chen and coworkers [15] reported the isolation of toddaquinoline (10), a benzo[h]quinoline alkaloid that is a constituent of many Asian folk medicines. The alkaloid was extracted from the root bark of Formosan Toddalia asiatica another rutaceous plant [16]. Pyrroloquinoline-based alkaloids have attracted signicant interest due to their intriguing structures and biological activity. The best known example is camptothecin (11), a novel alkaloid isolated from the stem wood of the Chinese tree Camptotheca acuminate, and its analogues. These compounds are collectively known as captothecins and they have potent antitumor activity. Since the isolation of camptothecin (11) in 1966 and the elucidation of its structure by Wall and coworkers [17] this compound has been the subject of numerous syntheses [18]. Recently, camptothecin has also shown potent anti-retroviral activity at dose levels that are well tolerated by cells. This compound may therefore represent a new direction in AIDS chemotherapy. Derivatives of camptothecin have a unique mechanism of action: they kill cells by binding to and stabilizing a complex of DNA and the enzyme topoisomerase I [19].
O H2N H N NH CH3 O O N H Martinelline 12 H N HN N CH3 CH3 H N H N NH
N N
O H3C OH O
CH3 CH3
Camptothecin 11
In 1995 Witherup et al. [20] reported the isolation of martinelline (12) from an extract of Martinella iquitosensis roots. This new alkaloid was found to possess antibacterial activity as well as afnity for adrenergic, muscarinic, and bradykinin receptors. The structure of martinelline has attracted considerable attention and several research groups have reported approaches for the preparation of this compound [21].
N
N N CH3 Cryptotackieine 13
N CH3 Cryptosanguinolentine 14
In 1996 two groups [22] independently reported the isolation of cryptotackieine (13) and cryptosanguinolentine (14), two new alkaloids extracted from Cryptolepis sanguinolenta, a shrub indigenous to tropical West Africa. Cryptotackieine 13 displays a strong antiplasmodial activity against Plasmodium falciparum chloroquine-resistant strains, and both compounds display various interesting biological properties [23].
1532

H3C O CH3 OH CH3 O H3C O CH3 CH3 H3C CH3 OH O OH O N CH3 Huajiaosimuline 16 O O N CH3 17
O N CH3 Simulenoline 15
H3C
Zanthodioline
Pyranoquinoline alkaloids are another important group of quinoline derivatives. Simulenoline (15), huajiaosimuline (16), and zanthodioline (17) are representative examples of these natural products isolated from root bark of Zanthoxylum simulans, a shrub found in Taiwan and mainland China. These novel monoterpenoid pyranoquinolines are potent inhibitors of platelet aggregation. While simulenoline (15) and zanthodioline (17) are not cytotoxic, huajiaosimuline (16) is toxic toward several human culture cell lines, especially the estrogen receptor-positive breast cancer cells [24]. An important group of quinoline derivatives are those obtained from fungal and microbial sources. The prototypical example is thiostrepton (18), a thiopeptide antibiotic that contains a 7,8-dihydroquinoline core [25].
O S N N S N O NH HO HN O N S H N O HO OH Thiostrepton 18 S HN N S N N H O O OH O N H H N O O N O H N H N O NH2 O OH N H H H N
As far as synthetic quinoline derivatives are concerned, there are a large group of heterocyclic compounds that display interesting medicinal, agricultural, or some other industrial utility. Quinoline derivatives provided the rst photographic lm sensitizer: the cyanine dye ethyl red (19) [26]. However, some of the most important examples are the pharmacologically active compounds, including several antimalarial drugs based on the quinine parent, for example, chloroquine (20) [27]
17.1 Quinoline
j1533
and meoquine (21) [28], and some antibacterial uoroquinolones such as ciprooxacin (22) [29].
CH3 N +N CH3 Ethyl red 19 Cl CH3 HN H3C N H3C N Chloroquine 20 N CF3 Mefloquine CF3 HN 21 HO O N H H F N N CO2H
Ciprofloxacin
22
In recent years some quinoline derivatives have attracted considerable interest for various pharmacological targets. For example, irinotecan (23) is an anticancer drug marketed by Pzer [30], whereas L-689,560 (24) is a strong NMDA receptor antagonist identied by the Merck group. Overactivation of the NMDA subtype of excitatory amino acid receptors is implicated in several neurodegenerative disorders, including epilepsy, stroke, and Alzheimers disease [31]. In conclusion, a great number of biological, pharmacological, and biocidal activities have been fully described in the reviews and monographs published on the compounds treated in this chapter.
N CH3 O O O N N O O OH CH3 Irinotecan 23 Cl N H CO2H N Cl HN
O NHPh
L-689,560 24
17.1.4 Ring Synthesis of Quinolines 17.1.4.1 Classical Syntheses 17.1.4.1.1 Anilines Plus 1,3-Dielectrophiles Combes Synthesis Condensation of a 1,3-dielectrophile, in the simplest case a 1, 3-dicarbonyl derivative, with an aniline furnishes a b-aminoenone, which can evolve to an aromatic derivative by treatment with concentrated acid [32]. The cyclization step can be viewed as an electrophilic substitution by the aniline derivative on the O-protonated aminoenone 25 (Scheme 17.1). Quinolinophanes 26 (Scheme 17.2) have been prepared using this method, starting from the appropriate aniline and the 1,3-dicarbonyl derivative [33].
1534

R + O NH2 O
1 1
O R R
2 1
OH
N H
R R
1
N H 25
2
HO R
N H
Scheme 17.1
R + O NH2 O EtOH CH3 93-95% N
O R CH3 PPA 120C 75-80%
CH3
26
Scheme 17.2
3-Cyanoquinolines are prepared by condensation of anilines with 3,3-dimethoxy-2formylpropanenitrile [34]. In an unconventional approach to the classical Combes reaction, Tom and Ruel [35] have reported an efcient synthesis of functionalized 3-formylquinolines 27 from substituted anilines and vinamidium salts 28. The cyclization was followed by hydrolysis of the masked aldehydes 29 to provide the desired products (Scheme 17.3).
H3C
+ +
2BF4R
1
+ NH2
H3C H3C
CH3 EtOH R
1
H3C
+ CH3
O R
1
H+/H2O N 29
N CH3 28
CH3
H N 27
reflux
Scheme 17.3
ConradLimpachKnorr Synthesis Primary arylamines and b-ketoesters condense in the presence of strong acids to form 2-quinolones (Knorr synthesis) via the corresponding b-ketoanilides (e.g., 30, Scheme 17.4), whereas a thermal reaction involving b-anilinoacrylic esters (e.g., 31, Scheme 17.4) yields 4-quinolones (ConradLimpach synthesis). The formation of the 2-quinolone is due to an SEAr process, analogous to a Combes synthesis, whereas formation of the 4-quinolone, especially in cases where
17.1 Quinoline
j1535
O H2SO4 N H 30 O R
R + O NH2 O OEt diphenyl ether 260C
N H O OEt
N H 31
N H
Scheme 17.4
the benzene ring carries an electron-withdrawing group, is probably due to an electrocyclic cyclization [36]. 4,2-Triuoromethyl-substituted 2- or 4-quinolinones have been prepared by condensation of anilines with ethyl triuoroacetate under different reaction conditions [37]. Recently, Zewge et al. [38] discovered that Eatons reagent (7.7/92.3 wt.% P2O5/ MeSO3H) could be used to promote the cyclization of aniline derivatives to give substituted 4-quinolones. The use of microwave technology in this kind of synthesis continues to gain in popularity. A microwave synthesis of 4-hydroxy-2-quinolinones 32 (Scheme 17.5) under solvent-free conditions has been developed. The quinolinones are easily obtained in a one-pot procedure as a result of the formal amidation of a malonic ester derivative with an aniline and subsequent cyclization of the intermediate malondianilide [39].
R R
2 1
O N H O N H R
2 1
OH R
1
EtO2C + EtO2C NH2
Microwave
R R N H 32
15 min, 500 W
Scheme 17.5
Skraup and DoebnerMiller Syntheses [40] Construction of the quinoline system by the Skraup [41] and DoebnerMiller [42] methods is based on the reaction of an aromatic amine, containing at least one free ortho position, with a reagent that is the source of a three-carbon fragment. In the classical Skraup method, the aromatic amine, in the simplest case aniline, is heated with glycerol, sulfuric acid (which catalyzes the dehydration of glycerol to acrolein), and an oxidizing agent, such as nitrobenzene, which transforms the initially formed 1,2-dihydroquinoline into the
1536

fully aromatic heterocycle. The DoebnerMiller synthesis was originally limited to the reaction with crotonaldehyde to give quinaldines, but this name is increasingly used as a generic term for this type of reaction. The sequence of this reaction was established by different methods; the rst step being the Michael addition of the amine to the enal system, to supply the b-aminocarbonyl derivative. These systems cyclize, via the protonated carbonyl derivative, to give 33. Subsequent dehydration and dehydrogenation affords quinoline 34 (Scheme 17.6).
R NH2 R N H R N 33 H
Scheme 17.6
O H R
HO
OH OH R
H2SO4 H OH
H + O N H
NO2Ph N H
R N 34
A modication of the Skraup synthesis, using InCl3 on silica gel and microwave irradiation under solvent-free conditions, has been reported by Ranu et al. [43] starting from anilines and alkyl vinyl ketones (Scheme 17.7).
4
O R
1
R R
3
NH2
Scheme 17.7
InCl3 /SiO2 microwave 5-30 min
R N 45-78%
Furthermore, 2,2,4-trisubstituted 1,2-dihydroquinolines have been prepared by a Skraup synthesis in the presence of a lanthanide catalyst and microwave irradiation [44]. The vapor phase synthesis of quinoline from aniline and glycerol in a single step has been investigated over ZnO-Cr2O3, CuO-ZnO/Al2O3, MoO3-V2O5/Al2O3, and NiO-MoO3/Al2O3 catalysts in the presence of air at 623723 K at atmospheric pressure. Among the catalysts investigated, the CuO-ZnO/Al2O3 combination effectively performed this reaction with high activity and selectivity [45]. A related process is the reaction of anilines with the iminium triate 35 to yield triuoromethylquinolines 36 (Scheme 17.8) [46]. Matsugi et al. [47] have reported an improved version of the DoebnerMiller cyclization. The reaction was carried out in a two-phase solvent system. The method
17.1 Quinoline
j1537
H3 C R + NH2
CH3
TfOTfO 35 CF3
N 36
CF3
Scheme 17.8
proved to be advantageous in terms of the yield and ease of the work-up process (Scheme 17.9).
R
1
H3C NH R
4
CHO R
Toluene/ 6M HCl reflux, 2h
Scheme 17.9
The double condensation of nitroarenes with substituted cinnamyl phenyl sulfones in the presence of DBU/silane or DBU/Lewis acid is a procedure that exploits the opposite polarity used in the Skraup reaction (Scheme 17.10) [48].
SO2Ph + NO2
Scheme 17.10
SO2Ph DBU, BTMSA
Ph
MeCN
Ph
17.1.4.1.2 o-Acylanilines Plus Carbonyl Compounds Friedlander Synthesis and Related Processes o-Acylanilines condense with enolizable carbonyl compounds through a base- or acid-catalyzed process to give quinolines. The outcome of the condensation was found to be dependent on the type of catalyst used, with acid catalysis leading predominantly to formation of the thermodynamic product 37 and base catalysis giving mostly the kinetic derivative 38 (Scheme 17.11) [49]. One of the more common ways to synthesize quinolines is through the Friedlander synthesis and, as a result, several variations and improvements have been published for this reaction. For example, in the Friedlander synthesis of quinolines the use of bases such as 1,3,3-trimethyl-6-azabicyclo[3.2.1]octane (TABO) can lead to an increase in the overall yield and the regioselectivity of process. The reaction has been carried out using o-aminobenzaldehydes and unactivated methyl ketones to furnish the corresponding substituted quinolines in excellent yields and ratios (6 : 1) (Scheme 17.12) [50].
1538

R H2SO4, AcOH Reflux R O + NH2 O CH3 CH3 KOH, EtOH 0C
Scheme 17.11
CH3 HO CH3 N 37
CH3 CH3
CH3 R
CH2
N 38
CH3
O H R R1=
2
CH3 + O
1.1 equiv TABO 1 0.05 equiv H2SO4 R R

3
R N R
3
R N
NH2
65-70C
+ R
2
CH3
90-93% ratio (6:1)
Cl, Br R2= H, Br R3= n-Pr, CH2CO2Et

Scheme 17.12
In the same way, the use of 2-aminobenzophenones and lactones has enabled a mild and scalable synthesis of 4-aryl-quinolin-2-ones (Scheme 17.13) [51]. Additionally, other Friedlander variations and improvements have been published for the synthesis of quinoline analogues that were regiospecically functionalized on both the pyridine and benzo-fused rings [52, 53]. A new methodology has been described that employs ionic liquids as green solvents and involves o-acyl anilines and various ketones to produce the desired quinolines in high yields and under very mild conditions [54].
R R
3
R O O LiHMDS, THF 0C-rt R

1
O NH2
O N H 65-96%
Scheme 17.13
17.1 Quinoline
j1539
Wang et al. have reported a solvent-free method for the Friedlander quinoline synthesis; this involved the reaction of o-acyl anilines with various b-ketoesters, using p-TsOH and microwave conditions (Scheme 17.14) [55].
O R NH2
1
R CO2Et O R
2
p-TsOH, Mw 15-60 s N
CO2Et R
2
Scheme 17.14
In addition to this work, the same authors reported a water-mediated Friedlander quinoline synthesis, in this case using hydrochloric acid and conventional heating [56]. A direct preparation of selectively protected derivatives of 3-hydroxyquinoline-2carboxylates 39 was discovered in a modied version of this process, which employed the readily accessible O-methyloxime 40 (Scheme 17.15) [57].
O H
2
R R
OBn + a) KOH, EtOH N OCH3 40 CO2Et
OBn N 39 CO2CH3
NH2
b) NaH CO3, CH3I R
Scheme 17.15
Yus et al. [58] have reported a Friedlander synthesis of polysubstituted quinolines 41 under solvent-free conditions, using in this case RuCl2(dmso)4 (Scheme 17.16).
O R
1
+ NH2 HO
R R
RuCl2(dmso)4 t-BuOK, Ph2CO 100 C, 48 h R

1
R N R
41, 65-99%
Scheme 17.16
Various other environmentally friendly strategies or methods that utilize mild conditions for the preparation of quinoline derivatives by Friedlander synthesis have also been reported [5963]. A modication of the Friedlander synthesis of quinolines has been published for the conversion of o-nitrobenzaldehydes into quinolines in the presence of ketones or aldehydes. This process occurs through a concomitant nitro reduction in the presence of SnCl2/ZnCl2 [64] or, alternatively, in the presence of iron and a catalytic amount of HCl [65].
1540

A modied version of this strategy has been reported in which the formyl group is introduced in situ by directed ortho-metallation onto a N-tert-butoxycarbonylanilide 42 (Scheme 17.17) in the presence of s-BuLi and DMF. The addition of an enolizable carbonyl compound furnished the corresponding substituted quinoline derivative 43 [66].
a) s-BuLi b) DMF NH t CO Bu 2 42
Scheme 17.17
CHO NH t CO2Bu
a) PhCH2CHO b) KHSMDA c) NH4Cl N 43
Ph
The use of organometallic reagents has also been successful in a modied version of this approach. Thus, 2-aminobenzyl alcohol was oxidatively cyclized with various ketones in the presence of several Ru catalysts to afford 2-substituted quinolines in good yields [67]. Other variations of the process related to the Friedlander synthesis have also been reported. For example, cyclization of Schiff base 45, derived from 2-(triuoromethyl) aniline and a methyl naphthone, mediated by lithium 2-(dimethylamino)-ethylamide 44 (Scheme 17.18), furnished a series of substituted 2-(2-naphthyl)quinolines designed to target triplex DNA [68].
CH3 CF3 N 45 CH3
CF3
+ O NH2 NHLi
H3C
N CH3 44 THF
HN
OR CH3 N CH3
OR
N OR
Scheme 17.18
The reaction of a-aroylketene dithioacetals with esters of o-aminobenzoic acid under different conditions afforded quinoline and quinolone derivatives [69], whereas silylketene dithioacetal 46 (Scheme 17.19) reacted with 2-aminobenzaldehyde in the presence of a Lewis acid to produce quinoline 47 [70]. A one-pot quinoline synthesis has also been described from 2-aminobenzyl alcohol and carbonyl derivatives, using ruthenium-grafted hydrotalcite as the heterogeneous catalyst. In this approach molecular oxygen was used for the oxidation of the ruthenium species [71]. In a project devoted to the a-alkylation of ketones by alcohols
17.1 Quinoline
j1541
CHO + NH2
Si(CH3)3 BF .OEt 3 2 EtS 46 SEt N EtS + SEt H2
N H
Scheme 17.19
SEt SEt
SEt N 47, 40%
in the presence of [Ru(dmso)4]Cl2, Yus et al. found that the reaction between 2-aminobenzyl alcohol and aryl alkyl ketones gave 2,3-disubstituted quinoline derivatives in good yields [72].
17.1.4.2 Other Processes 17.1.4.2.1 From Ynones, Enones, and Related Substrates: Formation of Bond 12 Ynones and related substrates are frequently used as starting materials for quinoline compounds. For example, a,b-ynone derivatives 48 (Scheme 17.20) can be converted into 2,4-disubstituted quinolines through tandem nucleophilic addition annulation reactions [73].
O R NH2 NuNO H2
Nu
H R
Nu
48
Scheme 17.20
In a related study, the synthesis of functionalized 4-alkylquinolines was developed using electrogenerated carbanions derived from nitroalkanes. In this approach, the desired 4-alkylquinolines were prepared through a sequential alkylation/heterocyclization of a,b-ynone derivatives 49 (Scheme 17.21). This method avoids the use of metal and base catalysts and is performed under solvent-free conditions [74].
H3C NO2 electrolysis H3C NO2 F + F NH2 O OCH3 F H3C NO H2 NO2 H F N O CH3 F H3CO H3C NO2
49
Scheme 17.21
1542

When the o-nitrochalcones 50 (Scheme 17.22) were treated with low-valent titanium (prepared from TiCl4 and Sm powder in THF), the intramolecular reductive coupling products were obtained in moderate yields [75]. Similar results were obtained starting from substituted o-nitroacrylonitriles [76].
O R R
1
R NO2 50
Sm/TiCl4/THF RT
R R
R N 54-72%
Scheme 17.22
Comparable results have been obtained by Barros and Silva [77] in the preparation of 2-(2-hydroxyaryl)quinolines from 20 -hydroxy-2-nitrochalcones induced by stannous chloride in an acidic medium or ammonium formate/PdC in methanol. The development of environmentally friendly methods that exploit these approaches has attracted considerable attention. For example, Ahmed and van Lier have prepared 2,3-dihydroquinolin-4-ones 51 (Scheme 17.23) under solvent-free and thermal conditions starting from 2-aminochalcones supported on silica gel and TaBr5 as a catalyst [78]. A similar process has been reported by Kumar and Perumal [79] on using microwaves irradiation.
O Ar R
1
O TaBr5-SiO2 140-150 C, 3-5 min R

1
NH2
N H 51
Ar
Scheme 17.23
Bakers yeast reduction of o-nitrocinnamaldehydes affords quinolines directly [80]. Similarly, other o-nitrocinnamic derivatives undergo reduction of the aromatic nitro group followed by cyclization with Zn in near-critical water at 250 C [81]. The reaction of the BaylisHillman adducts of o-nitrobenzaldehydes 52 and triuoroacetic acid at 6070 C gave unexpected cyclization products 53, 3-ethoxycarbonyl-4-hydroxyquinoline N-oxide derivatives, in good to moderate yields [82]. However, compounds 52 furnished 3-carboalkoxyquinolines 54 by acylation with AcCl and cyclization by carbon monoxide, catalyzed by [Cp Fe(CO)2]2 [83], or 2-quinolones 55 by treatment with iron in acetic acid (Scheme 17.24) [84]. In a related study, reported by Batra et al. [85], the synthesis of highly functionalized quinolines, derived from BaylisHillman adducts, was accomplished using SnCl2 to mediate tandem reactions. As part of ongoing efforts to develop methods for the generation of quinoline libraries, titanium alkylidene reagents 56 have been treated with resin-bound esters
17.1 Quinoline
j1543
OH CF3CO2H R 60-70C OH R
1 1
CO2R N O
+
53
CO2R 52 NO2 AcCl/py
OAc R
1 2 CO2R [Cp*Fe(CO)2]2 1 R CO 6atm NO2 150C Fe/AcOH 39-89%
OH CO2R N 54
2
71-99%
OAc O N H R1=H, R2= Me, 71% 55
Scheme 17.24
followed by acid-mediated cleavage to give arylammonium salts (Scheme 17.25). Oxidation with MnO2 gave quinolines of high purity and in moderate yields [86].
TiCp2 O O R
1
O R MnO 2 R
2 1
a) R
2
56 N(TMS)Boc b) 10%TFA NH3

+
TFA-
Scheme 17.25
The synthesis of quinoline derivatives using metal-catalyzed, and particularly palladium-catalyzed, chemistry has become of interest for this type of approach. For example, acetylenic acetals (e.g., 57, Scheme 17.26) or ketals have been reacted with various aryl or vinyl halides in a palladium-catalyzed process to afford alkenes 58
OEt OEt NH 57 Ac
Scheme 17.26
OEt OEt HN R 58 N 59 R
R-X, Pd(OAc) 2 DMF
Ac
1544

in good yield. Cyclization to quinolines 59 was performed in the presence of TsOH/EtOH [87]. A related process has been reported in which a palladium-catalyzed hydrogenation/heterocyclization gave the quinoline derivative 60 (Scheme 17.27) [88].
O R NH2
Scheme 17.27
Pd(OAc)2-L2 HCO2H/R13N
N 60
In a similar way, o-iodoanilides reacted with terminal acetylenic carbinols in a palladium-catalyzed process to yield o-substituted anilides, the starting materials for the synthesis of quinoline or 4-quinolone derivatives [89]. In another metal-catalyzed quinoline synthesis NiBr2(dppe) was used to catalyze the reaction of o-iodoanilines with aroylalkynes in acetonitrile to give 2,4-disubstituted quinolines in good yields [90].
17.1.4.2.2 From Alkynes, Propargyl Amines, and Related Systems: Formation of Bond 44a Internal and terminal alkynes have been coupled and cyclized to N-aryl triuoroacetimidoyl chlorides 61 (Scheme 17.28) in the presence of catalytic Rh(I) complexes to afford 2-triuoromethylated quinolines 62. Various alkynes were applied to this cyclization coupling and high levels of regioselectivity were achieved [91].
R [RhCl(cod)] 2 phosphine ligand base, toluene, 110C R N 62
Scheme 17.28
2 1
R N CF3
N CF3 R
2
+ Cl 61
R
1
R R
Rh(III)Cl R
3
CF3
N-(1,1-Disubstituted propargyl)anilines can be cyclized to 2,2-disubstituted 1,2dihydroquinolines by heating under reux in toluene containing CuCl (Scheme 17.29) [92]. A new and general method has been developed for the preparation of 2-quinolinones by intramolecular hydroarylation of alkynes. Various aryl alkynanilides undergo rapid intramolecular reaction at room temperature in the presence of a
17.1 Quinoline
j1545
R N H
Scheme 17.29
R R
2
CuCl PhCH3, refl.
R N H R R
2 1
catalytic amount of Pd(OAc)2 in a mixed solvent containing triuoroacetic acid. This process affords 2-quinolinones in moderate to excellent yields with turnover numbers (TONs) of more than 1000 with respect to Pd (Scheme 17.30) [93].
R R
Pd(OAc)2
N H O
TFA/CH2Cl2
N H
50-91%
Scheme 17.30
Campos et al. have reported the synthesis of 3-haloquinolines 63 by irradiation of amino haloalkenimines 64 (Scheme 17.31) [94].
R X Ph NH NH Ar 64
Scheme 17.31
R h, THF X Ph N 63 R
1
Variations of the FriedelCrafts reaction are also of interest for the synthesis of quinolines. For example, Saito et al. [95] have described a novel method to synthesize a quinoline backbone by incorporating allenyl cations into a catalytic intramolecular FriedelCrafts reaction. The initial products were isomerized and aromatized upon treatment with acid and base, respectively, to give quinoline derivatives (Scheme 17.32).
Ph OTMS LA X N Ts
Scheme 17.32
Ph Ph
Ph C
Ph Ph a) acid X N
X N Ts
b) base
1546

Quinolines substituted in the 3-position by an iodo- or phenylseleno-group are readily prepared by an electrophilic cyclization from propargylic anilines with appropriate electrophiles under mild reaction conditions. This method can be followed by palladium-catalyzed substitution reactions to provide further elaboration of the 3-position of the quinoline core (Scheme 17.33) [96].
F F F
ICl, CH2Cl2 N Ms Ph -78C 80% N Ms
I NaOH, EtOH 50C 92% N
B(OH)2 Ph N
PdCl2(PPh3)2 K2CO3, DMF-H2O 100C 73%

Scheme 17.33
In a similar way, Hajra et al. have prepared a series of tetrahydroquinoline derivatives from allyl anilines using a Lewis acid-catalyzed halocyclization [97].
17.1.4.2.3 From Oximes, Azadienes, and Related Derivatives: Formation of Bond 18a Oxime derivatives are also suitable intermediates for the synthesis of quinolines. Several papers concerning intramolecular cyclization involving some classes of oximes and oxime derivatives have been published [98103]. Scheme 17.34 shows an example of this methodology.
NOR O O
Scheme 17.34
CH3
Bu4NReO4, CF3SO2H chloranil
O O N CH3
Campos et al. [104] have reported that the irradiation of azadiene 65 in the presence of HBF4 furnishes 4-aminoquinoline derivatives in excellent yields (Scheme 17.35). Quinoline derivatives have been prepared by Quideau et al. [105] from nitrogentethered 2-methoxyphenols. Oxidative acetoxylation in the presence of phenyl iodide (III) diacetate, followed by an intramolecular Michael addition, gave the desired quinoline derivatives (Scheme 17.36).
17.1 Quinoline
j1547
HN
Ar CH3 HBF4, Et2O, MeOH h, 25 C, 5 min 95%
HN
Ar CH3
HN
Ph
Ph
65
Scheme 17.35
O OCH3 NH2 O OBn O OCH3 N OH a) CO2/ Et3N, TIPS-Otf b) H2, Pd/C c) Phenyl iodide (III) diacetate O
O OAc OCH3 NH2 O
TBAF
80%
Scheme 17.36
17.1.4.2.4 Other Processes Involving Metal-Catalyzed Methods Palladium-catalyzed coupling of o-allyl or o-isopropenyl-N-tosylanilides with vinyl halides or triates produces dihydroquinolines (Scheme 17.37) [106110].
CH3 CH2 NH Ts
Scheme 17.37
CH3 + Br R Pd(AcO)2, Na2CO3 Bu4NCl/ DMF N Ts R
A palladium-mediated multicomponent domino reaction involving ethynylarylamines 66, aryl iodides, primary amines, and carbon monoxide has been reported to give various substituted quinolines (Scheme 17.38) [111]. Intramolecular addition of anilines to methylenecyclopropanes proceeds smoothly in the presence of catalytic amounts of Pd(PPh3)4 to afford the corresponding hydroamination products, which ultimately gave quinoline derivatives 67 (Scheme 17.39) [112]. The BuchwaldHartwig palladium-catalyzed aryl-amino coupling reaction has also been applied successfully to the synthesis of functionalized N-phenyl 2-quinolinones [113]. Additionally, arylN-bond formation can be used to prepare quinoline
1548

HN I + NH2 66
Scheme 17.38
R + R1 NH 2
CO
Pd(OAc)2/P(o-tol)3 THF N R
Pd(PPh3)4 NH2 P(O)n-Bu3 120C 70-86%
N H 67
Scheme 17.39
derivatives by intramolecular coupling of amines or amides with an aryl bromide [114]. A successful ruthenium-catalyzed oxidative coupling and subsequent cyclization has beenreported between 2-aminobenzylalcohol and secondaryalcohols inthe presenceof KOH and 1-dodecene to give 2-substituted quinolines (Scheme 17.40) [115].
[Ru], KOH CH3 OH + HO Ph dioxane, 80C NH2 1-dodecene
Scheme 17.40
Ph
Functionalized zinc reagents derived from readily available o-iodoaniline derivatives and obtained by a straightforward iodinemagnesium exchange followed by transmetalation with zinc bromide can be used to prepare a wide range of nitrogen heterocycles. For example, treatment of the benzylimine-protected iodoaniline 68 in the presence of a Grignard reagent and subsequent Negishi cross-coupling leads to the quinoline derivative 69 (Scheme 17.41) [116].
a) i-PrMgBr b) ZnBr2 c) Pd(dba)2 Ph OTf CO2Et
Scheme 17.41
EtO2C
I N 68
EtO2C N O H 69 74%
17.1 Quinoline
j1549
Various diallylanilines have been shown to undergo cobalt-carbonyl-catalyzed rearrangement to quinolines, with the diallylaniline acting as a source of the allyl group in these transformations (Scheme 17.42) [117].
CH2 N CH2
Scheme 17.42
Co2(CO)8 CO N
CH3
CH3
InBr3 promotes the dimerization of 2-ethynylaniline derivatives 70 to give polysubstituted quinolines in good yields (Scheme 17.43) [118].
CH3 R
1
R R
R InBr3/MeOH 70 NH2 56-89% R
N H2N
Scheme 17.43
o-Halo-N-triuoroacetylanilines 71 (Scheme 17.44) undergo sequential Wittig and Pd reaction under a CO atmosphere to supply 4-quinolone derivatives [119, 120].
O R X N H 71
Scheme 17.44
O CF3
X N H
CO2Et Pd(OAc) /Ph P 2 3 CF3 CO
R N H
CO2Et CF3
3-Aryl 2-quinolinones have been prepared by a convergent one-pot cascade sequence involving palladium-catalyzed cross-coupling reactions of 2-bromobenzaldehydes with phenylacetamides in the presence of caesium carbonate and xantphos (Scheme 17.45). Final products 72 were obtained by cyclization of the resulting amide intermediate [121].
CHO Br H2N O Ph Pd2(dba)3/Xantphos Cs2CO3 N H 72 Ph O
Scheme 17.45
1550

A novel and efcient route to 4-triuoromethyl-substituted quinoline derivatives through the Zn(II)-mediated alkynylation/cyclization of o-triuoroacetylanilines 73 has been described by Jiang et al. (Scheme 17.46) [122].
CF3 R
1
CF3 ZnX 2 Et3N R

1
O 73 NH2 R
2
CF3
Scheme 17.46
Palladium(0)-catalyzed termolecular queuing processes involving oxidative addition to o-iodoanilides followed by low-pressure carbonylation, allene insertion, and capture of the resulting p-allyl palladium(II) species by the internal N-nucleophile affords 3-methylene quinolones in good yields (Scheme 17.47) [123].
CH2 C CH2 O Pd[II] NHTs O CH2 N Ts
O I NHTs Pd(PPh)3 CO, K2CO3 PhMe, 45 C

Scheme 17.47
Pd[II] NHTs
Gold-catalyzed intramolecular hydroarylation of allenic anilines offers an efcient route to dihydroquinoline derivatives under mild reaction conditions. The reaction has been carried out in the presence of [2-(di-tert-butylphosphino)-1,10 -biphenyl]gold (I) chloride (74) and silver(I) triate (Scheme 17.48) [124].
P(tBu)2AuCl N CO2CH3 74
R dioxane or AcOH N rt-reflux CO2CH3
Au(I)AgOTf
Scheme 17.48
In the same way, Che and coworkers have devised an efcient method to prepare substituted 1,2-dihydroquinolines and quinolines by Au(I)-catalyzed tandem hydroaminationhydroarylation under microwave irradiation [125]. The rst enantioselective synthesis has been reported of the martinelline core, a new alkaloid (12) that shows antibacterial activity as well as an afnity for adrenergic, muscarinic, and bradykinin receptors, [21c]. The synthesis proceeded in seven steps and gave 23% overall yield through a modication of the palladium-catalyzed carbonylative cyclization procedure reported by Negishi.
17.1 Quinoline
j1551
17.1.4.2.5 Cycloaddition Processes DielsAlder and Aza-DielsAlder (Povarov) Reactions The preparation of quinoline derivatives by cycloaddition processes is an important method for the synthesis of this class of compounds. Several cyclization/elimination reactions that formally correspond to DielsAlder or hetero-DielsAlder cycloaddition could proceed by a SEAr mechanism and are usually catalyzed by Lewis acids. For example, the [4 2] cycloaddition reaction of N-arylaldimines 75 is effectively catalyzed by ytterbium(III) triate to give quinoline derivatives (Scheme 17.49) [126].
OEt R N 75
Scheme 17.49
CH2 Ph
Yb(OTf)3 MeCN, RT R N Ph
Pyrrolo[3,4-b]quinolines can be formed through the coupling of anilines with N-propargylic-substituted heterocyclic aldehydes in the presence of mild Lewis acid catalysts. The coupling proceeds through sequential imine formation and a formal intramolecular aza-DielsAlder (Povarov) reaction. This approach has been applied in a total synthesis of luotonin A and a formal synthesis of camptothecin (Scheme 17.50) [19a].
O + NH2 R2 X R 76
Scheme 17.50
1
H N O Dy(OTf)3 N X R
2
O R
1
N N X
O R R
2 1
Menendez and colleagues [127] have reported another aza-DielsAlder reaction between aromatic imines and methacrolein dimethyl hydrazone in the presence of InCl3. The treatment of azadiene 77, obtained in situ from the carbonate 78, in the presence of dienophiles produced tetrahydroquinolines 79 (Scheme 17.51) [128]. Reaction of the same azadiene with C60 gave a quinoline-fused fullerene [129]. Hetero-DielsAlder reaction of 1,2,3-benzotriazine in the presence of dienophiles produces quinoline derivatives after extrusion of N2. 1,2,3-Benzotriazine intermediate 80 can be obtained by oxidative rearrangement of 1-aminobenzotriazole (Scheme 17.52) [130]. Liu and coworkers [131] have developed an efcient synthetic method for the preparation of 4-functionalized-quinoline derivatives 81. Ethynyl ketene-S,S-acetals 82 can react in a one-pot procedure with various arylamines and aldehydes under
1552

O CO2Et OMe
NH CO2Et 78
Scheme 17.51
N CO2Et 77
N DCB, 180 C EtO O 79 OMe
Ph N N N N 80 N N - HN -N2 N Ph
N NH2
Scheme 17.52
mild conditions through consecutive arylimine formation, regiospecic aza-DielsAlder (Povarov) reaction, and reductive amination (Scheme 17.53).
S S R
1
S NH2 + 82
R + R2-CHO
S CF3SO3H CH2Cl2, RT R
1
N 81
CH3
Scheme 17.53
Takasu and coworkers [132], using cascade and one-pot reactions, have carried out an inverse electron demand hetero-DielsAlder reaction and oxidative aromatization to synthesize substituted quinolines starting from aryl aldimines and allylsilanes (Scheme 17.54). The construction of hetero-polycyclic aromatic compounds has been addressed by intermolecular cycloaddition reaction of a dihalogenated heteroarene with zircona"Si" R
1
"Si" CH2 Tf2NH N Ar R

1
"Si" Tf2NH N H Ar imine or DDQ R

1
Ar
Scheme 17.54
17.1 Quinoline
j1553
cyclopentadiene. For instance, 2-bromo-3-iodopyridine was reacted in the presence of a zirconacyclopentadiene, CuCl, and 1,3-dimethyl-3,4,5,6-tetrahydro-2-pyrimidinone (DMPU) to give the corresponding quinoline in 85% yield (Scheme 17.55) [133].
Et + Cp2Zr N Br Et Et Et CuCl N Et 85%
Scheme 17.55
Et Et
Et DMPU 50C, 3 h
Other Pericyclic Processes Enolizable vinyl quinone mono- and diimide substrates 83 (Scheme 17.56) yield protected 6-aminodihydroquinolines by thermal 6p-electrocyclization. Aromatization provides the corresponding quinolines in quantitative yields [134].
O NR R
1
OCH3
O NR R
1
OCH3 electrocyclic closure R
O RN
1
OCH3
enolization 83
NR K2CO3 DMF
NHR H2SO4 N O OCH3 RT H2N
NHR
RHN
N O
OCH3
R= SES, trimethylsilylethanesulfonyl
Scheme 17.56
A series of substituted 3H-quinolin-4-ones have been synthesized from N-{[2(alkyl- or arylthio)carbonyl]phenyl}ketenimines 84 by means of a [1,5]-sigmatropic migration followed by 6p-electrocyclic ring closure (Scheme 17.57) [135].
O SR N 84
Scheme 17.57
2
[1,5]-SR2 R
3
C N
O R
3
Ph
6 -ERC R
Ph N
C Ph
1554

Indenoquinoline has been obtained by a formal [4 1] cycloaddition process from o-phenylprop-1-ynyl benzoisonitrile in the presence of t-BuOK/t-BuOH. The starting material was prepared in two steps from o-iodoformanilide. However, only poor yields were obtained when the method was applied to other related systems (Scheme 17.58) [136].
C t-BuOK/ t-BuOH rt 51%
Scheme 17.58
H N I H
N-Methylformanilides 85 reacted with various electron-rich alkenes in POCl3 solution to supply N-methylquinolinium salts in good yields. The mechanism of the cyclization was elucidated and was shown to involve an electrocyclic p6s process (Scheme 17.59) [137].
R + Cl N CH3 EDG
3
H O N CH3 85
POCl3
R N+ CH3
Scheme 17.59
17.1.4.2.6 Radical Reactions As far as radical chemistry is concerned, a series of annulated quinolines are readily available from thioamides, thiocarbamates, or thioureas in the presence of tris(trimethylsilyl)silane (TTMSS) and hn irradiation (Scheme 17.60) [138].
S N H X
TTMSS Ph-H, hv N 44-88% X
Scheme 17.60
The intramolecular 6-endo-dig cyclization of an aryl bromide onto a silylated acetylene using Bu3SnH/AIBN provides dihydroquinoline derivatives (Scheme 17.61) [108].
17.1 Quinoline
j1555
Br N H
Scheme 17.61
SiMe3 Bu3SnH/AIBN N Ac N H N Ac
Similarly, the cyclization of an aryl radical onto a pyrrole allows the synthesis of either the spiropyrrolidinyloxindole or the pyrrolo[3,2-c]quinoline skeleton, depending on the nature of the protecting group at the N-pyrrole atom [139]. Toddaquinoline (10) has been obtained by Harrowven and coworkers by a radical cyclization onto a pyridine ring [16a] and by a cobalt-mediated radical addition to a pyridine derivative [16b]. Free radical cyclization reactions of alkylsulfonyl- and alkylthio-substituted aromatic amide derivatives have been described. These radicals undergo either six- or ve-membered ring cyclization onto the aromatic ring and provide synthetically useful methods for the preparation of quinolinones among other heterocyclic derivatives [140]. A formal synthesis of martinelline (12) has been accomplished by Naito and coworkers using two types of radical reactions as the key steps [141]. Schmittel et al. have reported that the thermolysis of enyne carbodiimides 86 (Scheme 17.62) produces the biradical intermediates 87, which can evolve to quinoline derivatives 88 [142, 143].
R Ph N C 86 Ph
.
N 87
Ph
. Ph
R N 88 Ph Ph
Scheme 17.62
17.1.4.2.7 Ring Transformations of Heterocycles Leading to Quinolines An efcient and practical method for the preparation of 4-hydroxyquinolinone esters and amides has been developed by Beutner and coworkers. Compounds 89 were synthesized in good yields and on a kilogram scale from substituted isatoic anhydrides (Scheme 17.63) [144].
O R
1
O N H O
a) R2-Br DIPEA DMAc b) CH2(CO2Me)2 NatBuO DMAc
OH R
1
O OCH3
N 2 R 89
Scheme 17.63
1556

Previously, in a related study, Igglessi-Markopoulou et al. [145] described an efcient route to 3-aryl-4-hydroxyquinolin-2-ones through cyclization of the b-ketoesters produced by reaction of arylacetic ester enolates with 2-alkoxy-3,1benzoxazin-4-ones. A new one-step methodology has been introduced for the synthesis of quinoline 2,4-diones. The reaction is based on a modication of the Mukaiyama aldol condensation and makes use of the high reactivity of benzoxazin-4-ones 90 in the presence of ketene silyl acetals 91 (Scheme 17.64) [146].
O O N 90
Scheme 17.64
H3C
OTMS
H3C 91 OCH3 R TiCl4 N H
CH3 CH3 O
Substituted 2,4-quinolines can be obtained by a novel synthesis that involves cyclization and thermal extrusion of sulfur. The method starts from ortho-thioaniline (92) and acetylenic ketones 93 and proceeds through the benzo[b][1,4]thiazepine 94 (Scheme 17.65) [147]. The same methodology was applied for the preparation of enantiomerically pure 2,4-disubstituted quinoline derivatives [148].
EtO a) THF O 93
Scheme 17.65
EtO SH NH2 92
OEt S N
OEt a) PhCH3, refl. CF3 b) HCO2H
CHO
CF3
b) PPTS
CF3
94
17.1.4.2.8 Other Notable Methods A convenient method for the preparation of highly functionalized quinolines in the presence of Vilsmeiers reagent has been reported (Scheme 17.66) [149].
R R
Ar O
DMF/POCl3 R 80C R
Ar O
N H
SMe
SMe
Scheme 17.66
17.1 Quinoline
j1557
A microwave preparation of 2-quinolinone derivatives obtained by cyclization of the corresponding o-vinyl-substituted isocyanate has been described. The method provides access to cryptotackieine (13) and cryptosanguinolentine (14) [23]. A new method for the synthesis of phenanthridine and related compounds has been developed using the condensation of o-phenylaniline and its homologues with cyclic ketones under hydrothermal conditions (Scheme 17.67). The method has been extended to the reaction of 2-isopropenylanilineHCl to obtain quinoline derivatives.
NH2
+ O 250C 24 h N C5H11 84% ratio (86:14) N C5H11
Scheme 17.67
The product yields and side product distributions were found to be strongly dependent on the reaction temperature [150]. A novel metal free approach for the synthesis of substituted quinolines has been reported from imines and enolizable carbonyl compounds under aerobic conditions (Scheme 17.68). A catalytic amount of HCl in DMSO activated the carbonyl compounds, which reacted with benzylidenanilines to supply quinolines 95 [151]. This simple and practical method is applicable on a large scale. Other related metalfree conditions in the presence of iodine have also been communicated [152].
R
5
H R
2
O R
1
R R
HCl (5 mol %) R DMSO
R N 95
Scheme 17.68
Cyclohexanones have been converted into 8-chloroquinolines and other quinoline or dihydroquinoline derivatives through a series of reactions involving imination, a-alkylation with N,N-disilyl-protected v-bromoamines, transimination, a-chlorination of the resulting bicyclic imines, dehydrochlorination, and/or dehydrogenation [153]. A versatile alternative approach to the synthesis of 2-quinolones has been developed by Arcadi and coworkers that involves galvanoplastic electrolysis and subsequent intramolecular cyclization of alkynes and malonyl moieties [154]. Ogura and coworkers found that the reaction of 2-(arylamino)-1-(methylthio)-1tosylethenes 96 (Scheme 17.69) with hydrogen iodide in reuxing toluene gave 3tosyl-2-(tosylmethyl)quinoline derivatives 98 in good yields. In this reaction,
1558

MeS R
1
Ts
HI
Ts R
1
Ts R
1
N H 96
Scheme 17.69
N H 97
N 40-87% 98
Ts
hydrogen iodide not only reductively removes the methylthio group but also serves as a protic catalyst for the subsequent dimeric cyclization of 97 to give the quinoline derivatives 98 [155]. Movassaghi et al. [156] have described a exible procedure for the synthesis of polysubstituted quinolines by direct condensation of aryl amides and p-nucleophiles (Scheme 17.70).
O N + c-Hex O Tf2O, 2-ClPy CH2Cl2, -78 to 0C H3CO N c-Hex O O N
O H3CO N H
Scheme 17.70
O O
Finally, several examples of intramolecular Schmidt reactions of azides and carbocations have been reported for the synthesis of quinoline and other heterocyclic derivatives. In this way, gephyrotoxin, a naturally occurring substance isolated from the secretions of the poison-dart frog Dendrobates histrionicus, was prepared [157].
17.1.5 General Reactivity: Useful Reactions 17.1.5.1 Addition to Nitrogen As in pyridine, the nitrogen in quinoline undergoes protonation, alkylation, acylation, N-amination [158], and with peroxyacids or in the presence of other oxidative systems, such as O2/2-methylpropanal [159], oxidation to the N-oxide. These reactions involve donation of the nitrogen lone pair to electrophiles. The pKa for N-quinoline is 4.94, which shows a similar basicity to pyridine. 17.1.5.2 Reactions with Electrophilic Reagents at Carbon 17.1.5.2.1 Nitration In contrast to pyridine, and according to the above comments, SEAr reactions occur on the carbocyclic ring, preferentially on the more activated positions of the benzene ring, with a positional selectivity in the order C8 > C5 > ) other positions. In general, the SEAr process occurs preferentially through the conjugate acid, that is, quinolinium ion, which prevents attack on the heterocyclic
17.1 Quinoline
j1559
ring. Nitration takes place in the presence of a nitrating agent under mild conditions: mononitrations occur exclusively at the C5 and C8 positions to furnish compounds 99 and 100, respectively (Scheme 17.71).
NO2 HNO3, H2SO4 N 25C N +
99
Scheme 17.71
N NO2 100
17.1.5.2.2 Sulfonation Sulfonation of quinoline produces different products depending on the reaction temperature. At 90 C the 8-sulfonic acid is formed predominantly; raising the temperature increases the proportion of 5-sulfonic acid [1]. Reactions at higher temperatures produce other isomers under thermodynamic control. 17.1.5.2.3 Halogenation As expected, quinoline in the presence of Br2 in H2SO4 yields 5- and 8-monosubstituted products by attack of the halogen on the corresponding salt. However, the introduction of a halogen atom onto the heterocyclic ring occurs through a non-electrophilic process, by reaction of quinoline hydrochloride with excess Br2 and catalytic Br in PhNO2, to supply the 3-bromo derivative (Scheme 17.72) [160].
Br Br2, PhNO2 N H
+
Br Br H Br H Br N H Br H
Br Br N
N H
Br H
N H
Scheme 17.72
17.1.5.2.4 Substitution in Quinolines Bearing Activating Nitrogen and Oxygen Substituents Electrophilic substitution at carbon on the heterocyclic ring can be effected more readily on oxy- and aminoquinolines than in quinoline itself, and this reaction generally occurs ortho and para to the activating functionality. For example, acylation of 4-dimethylaminoquinoline with 1-triuoroacetyl-4-dimethylaminopyridinium triuoroacetate (101) proceeded cleanly to give 3-triuoroacetyl-4-dimethylaminoquinoline, which can undergo NN exchange with various amines to furnish 3-triuoroacetyl-4-aminoquinolines in excellent yields (Scheme 17.73) [161].
1560

H3C N CH3 CF3CO2N 101 COCF3 Xylene, reflux
+
H3C
CH3
H3C
CH3 COCF3
COCF3 N
N
Scheme 17.73
R1R2NH
17.1.5.3 Reactions with Oxidizing Reagents Oxidation of the quinoline system can affect the pyridine ring, the carbocyclic ring, or both. As a result, oxidation can supply the quinoid derivative or the dihydrodiol. In addition, alkyl derivatives can be converted into the corresponding carboxylic acids. Degradation of the benzene ring to generate pyridine dicarboxylic acids, in an alkaline potassium permanganate medium, can be considered the most common oxidative reaction [162]. A series of quinoline-bearing substituents on the pyridine ring have been oxidized electrolytically in sulfuric acids to the corresponding quinolinic acids [163]. Oxidation of 2- and 3-haloquinolines in the presence of either ozone/H2O2 or catalytic ruthenium tetroxide gave the corresponding 5- and 6-halopyridine, 2,3-dicarboxylic acids [164]. The conditions have been developed to oxidize 5,8-dimethoxy-2-methylquinoline to 2-methylquinoline-5,8-dione (102) using NBS, H2O, and H2SO4 without bromination (Scheme 17.74) [165].
OCH3 NBS/H2O/H2SO4 N OCH3

Scheme 17.74
CH3 THF, RT
N O 98% 102
CH3
The pyridine ring can be oxidized enzymatically to give various oxygenated derivatives. As part of an earlier study on the bacterial metabolism of bicyclic azaarenes using Pseudomonas putida, cis-dihydroxylation of quinoline was observed to occur at the carbocyclic ring to yield cis-dihydrodiols along with 3-hydroxyquinoline and anthranilic acid [166]. In contrast, hypervalent iodine reagents have also been used in the oxidative transformation of tetrahydro-derivatives into full aromatic quinoline derivatives [167]. In addition, tetrahydroquinolines undergo anodic oxidation with the incorporation of cyanide in the 2-position to supply 2-cyanoquinolines [168].
17.1 Quinoline
j1561
17.1.5.4 Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions As expected, nucleophilic substitution of quinoline occurs in the heterocyclic ring at the C2 and C4 positions. In general, SNAr reactions proceed more rapidly in quinoline than in pyridine because the fused benzene ring stabilizes the reaction intermediate. 17.1.5.4.1 Nucleophilic Substitution with Hydride Transfer Arylation and Alkylation Reactions These processes occur almost exclusively at the C2 position. In these cases the nucleophilic reagent is an aryl- or alkyllithium or a Grignard reagent. The reaction seems to proceed in two steps: Addition at the C2 position, to give a dihydroquinoline N-lithio 103 or N-magnesium salt, which can be hydrolyzed to furnish a 2-substituted-1,2-dihydroquinoline 104. This derivative can be handled and spectroscopically characterized but can also be oxidized in the presence of an oxidant to afford the full aromatic heterocycle (Scheme 17.75).
n-BuLi N PhNO2 N
Scheme 17.75
Et 2O, RT
N + Li 103 n-Bu
H n-Bu
H2O N H 104
H n-Bu
Chichibabin Amination In a similar way to pyridine, the Chichibabin amination on quinoline proceeds with alkali metal amides in liquid ammonia. Quinoline rst reacts with the amide to give the 2-amino-1,2-dihydroquinolinide ion (kinetic product), which subsequently rearranges to the more stable 4-amino-1,4-dihydroquinolinide ion (thermodynamic product) at higher temperatures. Thus, oxidative trapping of the quinoline adducts at different temperatures provides 2- or 4aminoquinoline [169]. Hydroxylation In contrast to pyridine, quinoline can be hydroxylated directly with potassium hydroxide at high temperature. The formation of 2-quinolone can be regarded as a SNAr process that proceeds with the evolution of hydrogen [170]. 17.1.5.4.2 Nucleophilic Substitution with Displacement of Good Leaving Groups The SNAr reactions of quinoline take place in the presence of leaving groups such as halogen when located at the C2 or C4 positions. The reaction works well with a wide range of charged or neutral nucleophiles. A novel synthesis of 4-quinolyl isothiocyanates from 4-chloroquinoline in the presence of silver thiocyanate in reuxing anhydrous toluene has been reported [171]. The method did not seem to proceed through a classical SNAr process but rather through a radical pathway.
1562

17.1.5.5 Reactions with Bases C-Deprotonation of quinoline usually requires bases such as n-BuLi and this is not a preparative method. Simple lithioquinolines are generally prepared by metal halogen exchange. However, the presence of ortho-directing substituents, such as chloro, uoro, methoxy, methylthio, and various carboxamides, makes the process straightforward and such derivatives have been widely used [172]. 17.1.5.6 Reactions of C-Metallated Heterocycles Although Lihalogen exchange reactions are important methods for the preparation of lithioquinolines, the competitive nucleophilic addition at activated positions could constitute an additional problem. Consequently, in recent years several groups have devoted some of their effort to the development of selective methods for the preparation of lithioquinolines. For example, Queguiner and coworkers have reported methods for the selective exchange of lithium for bromide followed by electrophile quenching in the preparation of substituted quinolines at benzene ring positions [173]. Comins et al. [174] have reported a regioselective lithiumhalogen exchange in 2,4-dibromoquinolines to furnish 2-bromo-4substituted derivatives. Additionally, Marull and Schlosser [175] have studied the functionalization of polyhalogenated quinolines through organolithium intermediates and used trimethylsilyl entities and iodo-substituents as the sole auxiliary substituents. In these cases, the organolithium intermediates could be generated and the protective groups removed without impairing the bromo-substituent present in the starting materials. A study of the direct lithiation of unprotected quinoline-carboxylic acids with lithium 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidide (LTMP) has also been reported [176]. As far as magnesium derivatives are concerned, Knochel and coworkers [177] used halogenmetal exchange reactions to prepare a wide range of polyfunctionalized quinolines by regioselective magnesiation reactions using appropriate Mg reagents (Scheme 17.76).
Br Br N
Scheme 17.76
Regioselective Br/Mg exchange N
Br MgX
E+ N
Br E
The application of Pd, Zn, Cu, or Ni-mediated coupling reactions was shown to be particularly effective in most examples with quinoline derivatives. Several reports concern cross-coupling reactions and substitution reactions of halo-substituted quinolines. For example, Sonogashira conditions have been applied to 2-chloroquinoline and para-substituted phenylethynes to supply uorescent compounds as bluegreen emitters (Scheme 17.77) [178]. Alkynylation of 2-quinoline triate with TMS-acetylene by Pd-catalyzed crosscoupling methods, and their application for a dynemicin A model, has been reported (Scheme 17.78) [179].
17.1 Quinoline
j1563
Cl + R
PdCl2(PPh3)2, CuI Et3N, THF, reflux
Scheme 17.77
+ N
Scheme 17.78
TMS
"Pd" N TMS
OTf
Treatment of 5-iodoquinoline with bromoenoate 105 in the presence of Pd(OAc)2, tri-2-furylphosphine, norbornene, and Cs2CO3 provided benzoxepine derivatives. This methodology is based on a palladium-catalyzed aromatic substitution followed by an intramolecular Heck sequence (Scheme 17.79) [180].
EtO2C I + Br O 105 CO2Et Pd(OAc)2, TFP norbornene Cs2CO3 MeCN, 85 C N 72%
Scheme 17.79
Strategies for controlling the regiochemistry of the addition reaction between organozinc reagents and 2,4-dichloroquinoline have been developed [181]. Similarly, the palladium-catalyzed carbonylation of quinolyl bromides and triates has been described [182]. In the same way, the regiochemistry of the palladium-catalyzed carbonylation of 4,7-dichloroquinoline was evaluated [183]. Kappe et al. [184] have developed two general microwave methods for the synthesis of symmetrical heterobiaryls from 4-chloroquinolin-2-one in the presence of either Pd(0) or Ni(0). Buchwald et al. [185] have communicated a general and efcient copper-catalyzed method for the amidation of 3-bromoquinoline using copper iodide, a diamine ligand, and K2CO3. Margolis and coworkers [186] have reported a convenient alternative to the SNAr process for the formation of the CN bond in 4-aminoquinolines, an approach that involves a Pd-catalyzed methodology starting from 4-haloquinolines.
17.1.5.7 Reaction with Reducing Agents Quinolines are reduced to 1,2,3,4-tetrahydroquinolines with zinc borohydride and dimethylaniline under sonication conditions [187] or with indium metal in
1564

ethanol [188], NiCl22H2Olithium arene [189], NiCl2NaBH4 [190], lithium N,Ndialkylaminoborohydrides [191], in the presence of an Ir catalyst [192197], and Hantzsch DHP and an organophosphate derivative [198]. Hydrogenations of quinolines to tetrahydroquinolines or decahydroquinolines have also been described [199, 200]. A method to prepare amino-substituted 5,6,7,8-tetrahydroquinolines by catalytic hydrogenation in the presence of PtO2 of the corresponding acetamido-substituted quinolines followed by acetamide hydrolysis has been described [201]. Some of these derivatives were synthesized in an enantioselective manner.
17.1.5.8 Reaction with Radical Reagents Concerning intermolecular processes, quinoline derivatives have been substituted by nucleosides in radical substitution reactions [202]. Russell and coworkers have reported the homolytic radical aromatic tert-butylation of quinolinium salts and quinoline N-oxides [203]. Harrowven et al. [204] have studied the intramolecular radical additions of aryl radicals to C2, C3, and C4 quinoline positions. In each case the formation of heteroaromatic products, rather than dihydroquinolines, was observed (Scheme 17.80).
O O I N H2N-NHTs, NaOAC THF-H2O I N

Scheme 17.80
O O
Bu3SnH/AIBN PhMe N
O
O O Bu3SnH/AIBN PhMe N
17.1.5.9 Other Reactions A metal-free method involving the use of a new thiourea catalyst (106) has been reported for the preparation of 1,2-dihydroquinolines 107. The catalyst 106 activates organoboronic acids to facilitate the enantioselective Petasis transformation of quinolines to give substituted 1,2-dihydroquinolines 107 with a high degree of stereocontrol (Scheme 17.81) [205]. Collis and coworkers [206] have reported the transient existence of the hetaryne 7,8-quinolyne and its reaction with furan through a DielsAlder process (Scheme 17.82).
17.1 Quinoline
j1565
R R
1
B(OH)2 R
1
R N
R N H
PhOCOCl H2O, NaCO3H CH2Cl2 CF3 S F3C

106
R
107
N N H H HO
CH3
Scheme 17.81
RLi, THF Br OTs

Scheme 17.82
O N O
-78C
17.1.6 Some Quinoline Derivatives 17.1.6.1 Reactions of Quinolones N-Unsubstituted quinolones are acidic derivatives and can be deprotonated using the appropriate base. These ambident anions can react with different electrophiles and the selectivity is strongly dependent on the solvent, cation, and alkylating agent. The N- versus O-alkylation of quinolinone derivatives has been investigated extensively [207]. In addition, the reaction of 4-hydroxy-2-quinolones with alkyl halides in the presence of Ag2CO3 afforded 2,4-dialkoxyquinolines in moderate to excellent yields [208]. Electrophilic substitution at carbon in 2- and 4-quinolones can be effected more readily than in quinoline itself, and this reaction generally occurs ortho and para to the activating functionality. However, experimental conditions play an important role and the process is highly dependent upon pH [209]. Several research groups have studied alternative methods of carrying out this type of process. The orthodirecting effect of the amide function in the regioselective lithiation of 2-quinolinone was studied by Avendano and coworkers. Subsequent electrophilic substitution can furnish 3-substituted derivatives in good yields (Scheme 17.83) [210]. A series of 3-(N-substituted)-aminoquinolin-2-ones have been synthesized by palladium-catalyzed CN coupling reactions starting from 3-bromoquinolin-2-ones.
1566

a) BuLi N H
Scheme 17.83
R N H O
b) RX
Various nucleophiles, including amines, amides, sulfonamides, carbamates, and ureas, have been used successfully [211]. Some examples of cycloaddition reactions have been reported for the quinolone system. For example, phenanthridone derivatives were prepared by DielsAlder reactions from 2-quinolones and butadiene compounds [212]. On the other hand, the rst total syntheses of the novel pyranoquinoline alkaloids simulenoline (15), huajiaosimuline (16), and ()-7-demethoxyzanthodioline have been described. The key feature of these concise total syntheses is the formal [3 3] cycloaddition reaction using a,b-unsaturated iminiums and 4-hydroxy-2-quinolones [24a]. Intermolecular [2 2] photocycloaddition of 4-alkoxy-2-quinolones such as 108 (Scheme 17.84), in the presence of chiral lactams such as 109a or 109b, proceeds with excellent enantioselectivity (8198% ee) and gave high yields (6189%) [213].
O H3C H3C
H N O N CH3 109a H3C H3C
H N O N O CH3 109b
CH2 109b O N H
H H O
N H 108
Scheme 17.84
h, PhMe -60 C
87%, >90% ee
The 3-aza-Grob fragmentation of THF-protected 3,4-dihydro-2-quinolinone analogues in the presence of hydride reagents gave products 110 and demonstrates that various hydride reagents can reduce this class of aromatic lactam (Scheme 17.85) [214].
17.1 Quinoline
j1567
OH
H H H N O O N O M= metal
Scheme 17.85
H OM
+
NH OM
O H
NH OH 110
17.1.6.2 Reactions of Alkylquinolines Protons on alkyl groups at the 2- and 4-positions of quinoline are sufciently acidic for deprotonation by strong bases and are more acidic than alkyl groups at other positions. The main feature of the reactivity of alkylquinolines is deprotonation of such alkyl moieties and reaction with electrophiles [215]. In this context, several 2-ketomethylquinolines have been synthesized by heating 2-methylquinolines with acyl chlorides in a conventional microwave oven and in the presence of silica gel (Scheme 17.86) [216].
1
R N
+ R
O
2
Silica gel Cl Mw, 4 min N H
CH3
Scheme 17.86
On the other hand, the aerobic oxidation of methylquinolines to carboxylic acids has been achieved by using N-hydroxyphthalimide (NHPI)/Co(OAc)2/Mn(OAc)2 as a catalyst in the presence of small amounts of nitrogen dioxide as an initiator (Scheme 17.87) [217].
NHPI Co(OAc)2, Mn(OAc)2 H3C + N O2 AcOH HO2C N
Scheme 17.87
17.1.6.3 Reactions of Quinolinium Salts 17.1.6.3.1 Nucleophilic Additions and Related Processes Nucleophilic additions to quinoline occur readily after quaternization of the nitrogen and are often the key step in preparatively useful reactions. For example, N-protected quinolin-4-ones
1568

undergo 1,4-addition of organolithium or Grignard reagents by conversion into the 4-silyloxyquinolinium triate (Scheme 17.88) [218].
Pro O a) TIPSOTf N Cbz
Scheme 17.88
i
Si
Pro i Pro TfO-
b) PhLi c) H+
N Cbz
Ph N Cbz
Other related studies into this type of process include the use of arylzinc reagents in the presence of chlorotrimethylsilane and rhodium-catalysis, as reported by Hayashi et al. [219]. In this case the reaction is conducted in an enantioselective fashion. Addition of allylsilane to the 2-position of quinolinium salts acylated by chloroformate derivatives can be accomplished in the presence of AgOTf (Scheme 17.89) [220, 221].
Br N CO2R
+
Br N
a) ClCO2R b) H2C Si AgOTf
Br N CO2R CH2
Scheme 17.89
A similar Ir-catalyzed addition of ethynyl(trimethyl)silane to the 2-position of quinoline was also reported [222]. Other examples of functionalization of the quinoline at the 2-position to yield 2-substituted 1,2-dihydroquinolines, by activation with ethyl chloroformate or diethyl pyrocarbonate, have also been reported [223225]. A regioselective route to cyanomethyl-1,2-dihydro-N-methylquinolines has been published and this process starts from methylquinolinium iodide and tris(trimethylsilyl)acetonitrile in the presence of uoride [226]. A novel one-step synthesis of pyridoquinolines from quinolinium salt derivatives 111 (Scheme 17.90) under FriedelCrafts conditions has been described [227].
17.1.6.3.2 Cycloadditions of Quinolinium Salts and Related Processes Concerning the ring expansion of N-acyl derivatives, Yadav et al. [228] have reported a new process to give easy access to benzoazepine derivatives 112 (Scheme 17.91). Treatment of a quinoline N-acyl derivative with a-diazoketones in the presence of catalytic CuOTf in 1,2-dichloroethane (DCE) under reux gave the target compounds in excellent yields.
17.1 Quinoline
j1569
Cl2CHCOCl N AlCl3 Cl
N O Cl
Cl OH
O Cl 111
Scheme 17.90
N+ O OEt
N2
R O
CuOTf DCE, reflux N EtO 112 O O R
Scheme 17.91
Quinolinium salts, obtained from the corresponding 1-substituted-4-quinolones, have been used in cycloaddition reactions with silyloxy-1,3-butadienes to give acridine compounds [229].
17.1.6.3.3 Reissert Reaction Takamura et al. [230] have reported an enantioselective version for quinoline derivatives of the Reissert-type reaction with trimethylsilyl cyanide and acyl chlorides in the presence of binaphthols and diethylaluminium chloride. Chiral dihydroquinoline carbonitriles 113 (Scheme 17.92) were obtained with up to 91% ee.
1 1
R R
TMSCN/RCOCl N R
3
R R
N R O 113
CN
O Al Cl O R
Scheme 17.92
3
The same authors have published the development and application of this method to the synthesis of the potent NMDA receptor antagonist ()-L-689,560 (24) [31]. A new safety-catch linker for solid phase organic synthesis that is based on a quinoline moiety has been developed. Cleavage from the resin proceeds in two steps: oxidative aromatization leading to an activated quinolinium derivative and nucleophilic displacement of the quinoline resin (Scheme 17.93) [231].
1570

Ph Ph Ph XN H DHQ-resin O N R
1
N O
+ 1
Stable form
Nu
Scheme 17.93
17.1.6.4 Reactions of Quinoline N-Oxides Quinoline reacts with peracids to give the N-oxide. In a similar way to pyridine, the presence of the N-oxide serves to facilitate both electrophilic and nucleophilic additions to the C2 and C4 positions. In some cases, electrophilic substitution is dependent on the experimental conditions. For instance, nitration of quinoline N-oxide in mixed acids takes place at the C5 position, via the O-protonated species, but with a lower acid strength the reaction occurs at C4 [232]. Numerous methods are available for the reduction of the NO bond in N-oxides. In this context, bakers yeast is also a useful reagent for the reduction of N-oxides to the respective quinoline [233]. Rearrangements are important processes in the case of quinoline N-oxides. For example, 2,3-dichloroquinoline has been prepared in three steps from 3-bromoquinoline through N-oxide formation and subsequent rearrangement [234]. More recently, a simple and novel approach for the direct conversion of quinoline N-oxides into 2-amidoquinolines has been described [235]. The treatment of primary amides with oxalyl chloride yielded an acyl isocyanate, which reacted in the presence of quinoline N-oxide, via intermediate 114, to give 2-amidoquinolines 115 in good yield (Scheme 17.94). This methodology is complementary to the Abramovich reaction, which is limited to the introduction of secondary amides via imidoyl chlorides [236].
b) O a) Oxalyl chloride NH2 O N C O N O

+
O N O
Scheme 17.94
O N O 114 N H N 115
17.2 Isoquinoline
j1571
17.2 Isoquinoline 17.2.1 Introduction
Isoquinoline (116) (b-quinoline, 2-azanaphthalene, benzo[c]pyridine), a structural isomer of quinoline, is a low-melting solid with a penetrating smell. It was rst isolated from coal tar in 1885 by Hoogewerff and van Drop by fractional crystallization of the acid sulfate [237]. This compound was also isolated from the same source in 1914 by Weissgerber through selective extraction [238]. The structure, properties, reactivity, synthesis, and applications of isoquinoline have been reviewed extensively [1, 3, 5, 239242].
5 6 7 8 4 3
4a
8a
N
1
116
The presence of the nitrogen sp2 lone pair makes 116 basic and it will react with protons, or other electrophilic species, at nitrogen by electrophilic addition to give isoquinolinium salts 117, which in many instances are isolable [243, 244]. Protonation, alkylation, acylation, and oxidation with peroxy acids take place on the nitrogen. The basicity and N-nucleophilicity are enhanced by electron-releasing substituents and diminished by electron-withdrawing groups. Moreover, steric interference of substituents at either or both C1 and C3 positions will slow the rate of N-alkylation [245]. Isoquinoline is a p-decient heterocycle as a consequence of conjugation of the p-electron pair on the nitrogen. Hence, aromatic electrophilic substitution will take place at a slower rate than in naphthalene [246]. Another major difference is that SEAr reactions occur through 117, a more p-decient heterocycle, which reacts on the benzene ring rather than the electron-poorer pyridine ring, through a high-energy doubly charged Wheland-type intermediate 118, to give the 5-substituted derivative 119 as the major product [247].
E E+ N 116 117 N E+ H -H + N E
+ +
118 E
+
119
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Aromatic nucleophilic substitution is a very important process for p-decient heterocycles such as 116 [248250]. This process involves a two-step sequence: addition of a nucleophile species to give a Meisenheimer complex (120) is followed by elimination of a good leaving group (usually halide or nitrite). The reaction takes place when the leaving group is located at C1, since the negative charge resides largely on the nitrogen, and at a much slower rate when it is located at C3, due to the higherenergy intermediate 1200 . Thus, the SNAr reaction of 1- and 3-chloroisoquinolines with ethoxide is about 104 times faster in the former [251]. Quaternization greatly increases the rate of nucleophilic substitution [252].
Nu N X X Nu N X 120 X Nu N120' -XN NNu -XN Nu Nu
Another important feature in the reactivity of 116, with no counterpart in the chemistry of aromatic carbocycles, is nucleophilic substitution with hydride transfer by means of strong nucleophilic reagents such as organolithiums, Grignard reagents, or sodium amide to give stable intermediate addition products 121, which can be characterized as such. These intermediates can be oxidized to afford the substitution products. In this case, only attack at C1 has been observed [253255].
Nu N Nu - : RLi, RMgX, NH2H NNu H H2O NH Nu [O] N Nu
121
17.2.2.1 Relevant Physicochemical Data, Computational Chemistry, and NMR Data Isoquinoline is a hygroscopic solid that crystallizes as platelets that have low solubility in water but dissolve in common organic solvents. This compound is as basic (pKa 5.4) as pyridine and quinoline (pKa 5.2 and 4.95, respectively) and 116 is also soluble in dilute acids (Table 17.4).
Table 17.4 Physical properties of 116.
Mp ( C) 24.25
Bp ( C/Torr) 242.5/760
Density (g cm3) 1.096
pKa 5.4
m (D) 2.52
17.2 Isoquinoline
Table 17.5
1
j1573
H and
13
C NMR chemical shifts (ppm) of 116 (in CDCl3). d4 7.50 120.4 d4a 135.7 d5 7.71 126.5 d6 7.57 130.6 d7 7.50 127.2 d8 7.87 127.5 d8a 128.8
d1
1
d3 8.45 143.1
13
H C
9.15 152.5
Isoquinoline shows structural and spectroscopic similarities to pyridine and naphthalene. Both the proton and carbon chemical shifts (Table 17.5) are related to the electron density, at a given position, as a result of the mesomeric and inductive electron-withdrawing effects of the nitrogen. As a result, the H1/H3 and C1/C3 signals are shifted to lower eld than the other signals in the heterocycle or than the corresponding signals in naphthalene (dH1: 7.8, dH2: 7.5, dC1: 128, dC2: 126 ppm). The UV spectrum of 116 (Table 17.6) resembles that of naphthalene [lmax (nm)/ log e: 311/2.39, 275/3.75, and 219/5.10]. The spectrum contains three long wavelength bands that correspond to the p ! p transitions. However, as the heteroatom has a lone pair, n ! p transitions are possible but they are overlapped by the much more intense former bands. Molecular mechanics have been used by Allinger and coworkers, through their MM3 force eld program, but they were unable to estimate the vibrational spectra for 116 with accuracy. However, they did reach a good match for the heat of formation (calculated 49.94 kcal mol1; experimental 48.2 kcal mol1) and the dipole moment (calc. 2.30 D; expt. 2.532.75 D), with the resonance energy also estimated (25.68 kcal mol1) [256]. The observed and calculated vibrational spectra were in good agreement when density functional theory (DFT) calculations were performed with the B3LYP functional and 631G basis set [257]. Bond orders were calculated at the HartreeFock and the secondorder MllerPlesset (MP2) levels for 116 and other heteroatomic rings [258]. The p-electron charge distribution was calculated by the LCAO method and gave good agreement with experimental data [259]. Aromaticity shows a signicant collinearity with magnetic susceptibility, as calculated at the (DFT) B3LYP level with the 6-31G basis set [260]. Polarizability was calculated using accurate ab initio studies at the HF/6311 G(3d,2d) and BLPY/6-311 G(3d,2p) levels of theory [261]. As regards other physicochemical parameters estimated by computational chemistry methods, the proton afnity of 116 calculated at the 3-21G and 3-21G ab initio levels and at the MNDO and AM1 semiempirical levels gave, after inclusion of diffuse ckel theory functions, good agreement with experimental data [262]. The extended Hu (EHT) was applied to localization energies and total electron densities (s p), which correlate quite conclusively with the experimentally observed site of predominant nucleophilic attack by an amine ion in the Chichibabin reaction (Table 17.7) [2].
Table 17.6 Ultraviolet data (p ! p transitions) for 116 (in hexane).
lmax (nm) 317
Log e 3.49
lmax (nm) 266
Log e 3.61
lmax (nm) 217
Log e 4.57
1574

ckel theory (EHT). Table 17.7 Electron densities (Q) in 116 obtained using extended Hu Position p s sp 1 0.78 2.87 3.65 2 1.45 4.49 5.94 3 0.91 2.86 3.77 4 1.03 3.12 4.15 4a 0.90 2.98 3.88 5 1.02 3.12 4.14 6 0.96 3.11 4.07 7 1.01 3.11 4.12 8 0.97 3.11 4.08 8a 0.97 2.99 3.96
Calculation of the proton and carbon chemical shifts relative to tetramethylsilane, with accuracies of about 2.62 ppm (13 C) and 0.32 ppm (1 H) can be performed using a linear regression formula that converts magnetic shielding constants calculated at common ab initio and DFT levels [263].
17.2.2.2 Tautomerism In a similar way to oxypyridines, oxyisoquinolines also show tautomerism. The benzo-fusion to the pyridine ring involved in tautomerism has the effect of shifting the equilibrium towards the tautomer that retains full aromaticity of the benzene ring. Thus, isoquinolin-1-ol (122) completely tautomerizes to 2H-isoquinolin-1-one (123) whereas isoquinolin-3-ol (124) remains in the equilibrium with 2H-isoquinolin-3-one (125) in a proportion signicantly greater than in the corresponding unfused heterocycle.
OH N OH 122 O 123 NH 124 N 125 O NH
Tautomerism also arises in the case of 1-phenacylisoquinolines 126 (X O) and their corresponding ketenimines 126 (X NH). The enol and the enamine are reported to exist as a single tautomer due to intramolecular hydrogen bonding [264].
MeO MeO N H X
C6H5 126 (X = O, NH)
Isoquinoline plays an important role as a secondary metabolite in a large number of alkaloids that have different biogenetic origins. Many isoquinoline alkaloids occur as 1,2,3,4-tetrahydroderivatives, which can be considered as being derived from
17.2 Isoquinoline
j1575
b-phenylethylamines [265]. The synthesis, reactions, and biological activities of isoquinoline natural products have been reviewed extensively [266]. The asymmetric synthesis of these alkaloids has been the focus of signicant efforts by both academic and industrial research groups seeking stereochemically modied traditional methods and new advances using the C1-Ca connectivity approach [267], and the use of a-amino acids as excellent chiral building blocks [268]. Diverse biological activities have been reported for isoquinoline natural products and these include anti-inammatory [269], cardiovascular [270], and antimalarial [271] among others. Isoquinoline marine compounds are also of interest [272]. Some examples of isoquinoline alkaloids are given below and include papaverine (127), an opium poppy alkaloid, berberine (128), an isoquinolinium alkaloid found in several Korean and Chinese medicinal plants, mimosamycin (129), one of the simplest isoquinoline quinones of marine origin, and maritidine (130) a chiral tetrahydroisoquinoline alkaloid.
MeO MeO N OMe MeO OMe OMe N + O O Me MeO O N O O Me MeO MeO N OH
127
128
129
130
In recent years, several reports have been published on new isoquinoline-based materials with interesting properties. Recently, some studies have highlighted iridium(III) complexes bearing isoquinoline-derived ligands as chemiluminescent materials [273, 274], and some of these can be applied as red or white OLEDs (e.g., 131) [275, 276]. On the other hand, a new type of donorspaceracceptor based on bis(isoquinoline-N-oxide) (e.g., 132) has proved to be an efcient dual channel uorosensor that acts as a pincer for lithium, magnesium, and calcium cations [277].
O N Me O Ir O Me Me 131 N 2 O + O O O O
O + N
132
17.2.4 Synthesis of Isoquinolines
Synthetic methods for the isoquinoline skeleton are constantly being updated. Starting from conveniently substituted benzenes, these methods can be classied into two major categories: those that create the fully aromatic heterocyclic ring, which
1576

are covered in this chapter, and those that build the fully or partially reduced pyridine ring [278, 279], which will not be considered here, but are important for the preparation of many isoquinoline natural products [267], such as the classical BischlerNapieralski and PictetSpengler syntheses.
17.2.4.1 Classical Methods 17.2.4.1.1 PomeranzFristsch Synthesis This two-step method involves the initial condensation of an aryl aldehyde with a 2-aminoaldehyde acetal [280] or, conversely, a benzylamine with glyoxal diethyl acetal if C1-substituted isoquinolines are desired [281] to give an aldimine. The second step involves the cyclization of the aldimine by treatment with a strong acid. For example, 116 has been prepared by condensation of aminoacetal 133 with benzaldehyde to give imine 134, which was cyclized with sulfuric acid. For C1-substituted isoquinolines, benzylamine 135 was condensed with glyoxal diethyl acetal to give imine 136, which then cyclizes to 137 (Scheme 17.95).
EtO OEt NH2 133 EtO PhCHO 100 C 134
OEt N
H2SO4 100 C (45%) EtO OEt 75% H2SO4 N Me 136 10 C (50%) MeO 137 N Me 116 N
MeO
NH2 Me 135
Scheme 17.95
(EtO)2CHCHO 140 C (75%) MeO
This synthesis works well when the aryl component bears electron-donating groups, preferably para to the position of ring closure. However, the overall yield is limited by imine hydrolysis during the cyclization. Two solutions have been developed to overcome this drawback: (i) the use of triuoroacetic acid/boron triuoride [282] and (ii) carrying out the cyclization at the amine level instead of the imine. For example, imine 138 was reduced to amine 139, which can be cyclized directly with chlorosulfonic acid to give 140 [283] or tosylated to give 141 before treatment with HCl (Scheme 17.96) [284]. Tosylamides can be prepared by benzylating the sodium salt of 2-tosylaminoethanal acetal [285], or by Mitsunobu reaction of a benzylic alcohol with N-sulfonyl-aminoacetals [286, 287].
17.2.4.1.2 PictetGams Modification of the BischlerNapieralski Synthesis Although the BischlerNapieralski synthesis provides access to 3,4-dihydroisoquinolines or
17.2 Isoquinoline
j1577
N
MeO ClSO3H, r.t. MeO MeO MeO N 138 OMe N NaBH4 or H2, Pt MeO MeO MeO N 139 TsCl, pyr OMe NH (48%) (81%) MeO 140 6N HCl dioxane, reflux MeO N 141
Scheme 17.96
MeO MeO
OMe NTs
3,4-dihydroisoquinolin-1-ones, the PictetGams modication allows the preparation of fully aromatic isoquinolines starting with unsaturated or potentially unsaturated arylethanamines. Thus, amides from 2-aryl-2-hydroxyethanamines 142 led to isoquinolines 143 when treated with phosphoryl chloride or phosphorus pentoxide (Scheme 17.97) [288291].
OH Me X HN 142
Scheme 17.97
POCl3 or P2O5 reflux (62-80%)
Me X R 143 N
R O
X = H; 6,7-diOEt; 5,8-diOMe. R = Me; o-ClC6H4; 1-naphthyl
In addition, cinnamic esters substituted with an acetamido group at the C2-position can be converted into isoquinolines. In this way 144 was cyclized to isoquinoline carboxylate 145. The cinnamic ester derivative was prepared by photocycloaddition of 5-methoxy-2-methyloxazole (146) with benzaldehyde to give the oxetane 147, which under acidic conditions gave rst 148 and then 144 (Scheme 17.98) [292].
h OMe PhCHO (87%) Me H N O 147 POCl3 (78%) 145 N Me CO2Me Ph O OMe H+/H2O (70%) HO AcNH Ph CO2Me 148
N Me O 146 H+/H2O (80%)
Ph AcNH
H CO2Me 144
Scheme 17.98
1578

Milder conditions with triuoromethanesulfonic anhydride in the presence of 2-chloropyridine have been described for the synthesis of isoquinoline and b-carboline derivatives through electrophilic amide activation [293]. Isoquinolines 149 were prepared from sensitive (Z)-N-vinylamides 150 in good to excellent yields (Scheme 17.99). Moreover, condensation reaction conditions proved to be far more efcient than phosphoryl chloride, oxalyl chloride/FeCl3, or Tf2O/DMAP.
1
R R R O 150
Tf2O/2-ClPyr NH R
2
R R
TfO - R + H
R Cl - TfOH - TfOH,2-ClPyr (40-99%) R R 149
CH2Cl2 - 78 to 140 C
N + H N R TfO 2
N R
2
R = H, OMe R1 = H, Ph R2 = cHx, Ph, 4-MeOPh
Scheme 17.99
17.2.4.2 Modern Methods 17.2.4.2.1 Electrophilic Cyclization-Based Methods Methods based on electrophilic cyclization reactions have been developed using different starting materials. Iminoalkynes 151 prepared by reaction of tert-butylamine with o-(1-alkynyl)benzaldehydes 152 have been cyclized in the presence of electrophiles such as I2, ICl, PhSeCl, PhSCl, and p-O2NC6H4SCl to give the corresponding halogen-, selenium-, and sulfur-containing isoquinolines 153 at the C4-position in moderate to excellent yields (Scheme 17.100). Furthermore, silver-catalyzed ring-closure of 151 provides an entry to C4-unsubstituted isoquinolines 153 [294, 295].
R t-BuNH2 CHO 152
Scheme 17.100
R N 151
E E+ R N 153
r.t.
t-Bu
E = I, ICl (30-68%); SePh (18-96%); SC6H4-p-NO2 (25-46%); SPh (40-45%); H (45-100%) R = Aryl; 1-Cyclohexenyl; isopropenyl; cyclohexyl
A copper(I)-catalyzed domino four-component couplingcyclization method using 2-ethynylbenzaldehydes 154, paraformaldehyde, a secondary amine, and tert-butylamine has been reported to give 3-(aminomethyl)isoquinolines 155 in high yields (Scheme 17.101) [296]. This method is efcient when either electron-donating or electron-withdrawing substituents are present in the benzene ring.
17.2 Isoquinoline
cat CuI DMF NR2 R
1
j1579
N NR2
(HCHO)n R2NH
t-BuNH2 (60-87%)
154
Scheme 17.101
155
Related to the former method, 2-alkynylbenzaldoximes 156 give C3-substituted4-iodoisoquinoline-N-oxides 157 in good to excellent yields when treated with iodine [297]. Silver(I)- and gold(I)-catalyzed procedures have also been reported to afford C4-unsubstituted-N-oxides 158 (Scheme 17.102) [298].
I R N + O 157 I2/EtOH r.t. (65-92%) N 156 OH R AgOTf or Au(IMes)OTf CH2Cl2 r.t. (21-97%)
R N + O 158
R = H; Alkyl; Aryl; Heteroaryl; Cyclohexyl; Benzyl; 1-Cyclohexenyl; O-Alkyl

Scheme 17.102
Iodine-mediated electrophilic cyclization of 2-alkynyl-1-azidomethyl benzenes leads to highly substituted isoquinolines [299]. Azides 159 react with iodine, Py2BF4HBF4 (Barluenga reagent) or NIS as iodium donors to give iodoisoquinolines 160, via a cyclic iodonium ion 161 followed by nucleophilic cyclization of the azide and subsequent elimination of nitrogen (Scheme 17.103). Electron-neutral or electron-donating substituents at the alkyne terminus are favored. This methodology was applied to the synthesis of norchelerythrine.
I R N R 160
1
R I2, K3PO4 or NaHCO3 N3 159 CH2Cl2, r.t., 24 h (58-95%) R

3
I + N3 R 161
1
- H+, - N2
R R
R = Aryl, heteroaryl, alkyl, H, alkenyl, CH2TMS R1 = Phenyl, alkyl, cycloalkyl, H R2 = H, OMe R3 = H, NO2, OMe R2-R3 = OCH2O
Scheme 17.103
1580

17.2.4.2.2 Nucleophilic Cyclization-Based Methods Ring-uorinated isoquinolines 162 have been prepared by means of nucleophilic intramolecular cyclization of o-isocyano-b,b-diuorostyrenes 163 with organometallic reagents via intramolecular sp2 nucleophiles, which cyclize by substitution of the vinylic uoride (Scheme 17.104) [300].
R CF2 N 163
Scheme 17.104
R R'M (62-88%) R' CF2 N 162
R F N R' R'M = alkylMgCl, alkylLi, PhLi, HAl(alkyl)2
In a similar way, 1,4-disubstituted isoquinolines 164 were obtained by reaction of a-substituted 2-lithio-b-methoxystyrenes 165 with nitriles (Scheme 17.105) [301]. This process has also been carried out starting from o-cyano-b-methoxystyrenes 166 [302]. When lithium dialkylamides were used as nucleophiles, 1-dialkylaminosubstituted isoquinolines 167 were obtained.
2 2 2 2
OMe Br
n-BuLi Et2O, 0 C
OMe Li
R3CN 0 C or rt (36-73%)
OMe NR
3
165
Ph OMe CN LiNR2 THF - 78 C to rt (29-67%)
164
Ph N
166
Scheme 17.105
167
NR2
17.2.4.2.3 Condensation Reaction-Based Methods The heteroaromatic ring in isoquinoline can also be obtained by ring closure through a condensation reaction on appropriate ortho-substituted benzenes. Reaction of nitriles 168 with ammonia, or primary or secondary amines, in the presence of catalytic amounts of TFA leads to 3-aminosoquinolines 169 [303]. Primary amines, as opposed to ammonia or secondary amines, give the aldimine and this slowly dissociates to add to the cyano group (Scheme 17.106). In a similar fashion, 2-acylphenylacetonitriles react with primary amines by acid-catalyzed condensation to give 1-substituted-3aminoisoquinolines [304].
17.2 Isoquinoline
j1581
1
X 168
CN O
HNR1R2 cat TFA EtOH Reflux (20-89%) X O
R N NH
R N X 169 N
X = H; Cl
Scheme 17.106
Aromatic 1,2-dialdehydes 170 react with protected phosphonoglycine 171 derivatives using DBU as base to give methyl isoquinoline-3-carboxylates 172 in good to high yields (Scheme 17.107) [305]. This method allows the preparation of isoquinolines bearing electron-withdrawing groups.
X X P(O)(OMe)2 X X O CO2Me NHCOR X X N
O O
DBU CH2Cl2 0 C to r.t. (78-92%)
- RCO2H
CO2Me
RCONH
CO2Me
170
X = H; OMe, Cl
171
R = Me; OBn
172
Scheme 17.107
2-Benzopyrilium salts 173, prepared by FriedelCrafts acylation of benzyl ketones, are converted into isoquinolines 174 by treatment with aqueous ammonia through a Schiff base intermediate (Scheme 17.108) [306].
Ph aq. NH3 (86%) Ph O NH 174 Ph N
Ph O + BF4173 Ph
Ph
Scheme 17.108
More recently, isoquinolines 175 have been prepared by a one-pot procedure from o-alkynyl-benzamides, -benzoates, -benzaldehydes, or -benzophenones 176. The twostep procedure, which proceeds via the 2-benzopyrilium salt 177, proved to be equally efcient (Scheme 17.109) [307]. Unexpectedly, isoquinoline-3-carboxylate 178 was obtained when the N-acetylphenylalanine methyl ester derivative 179 was treated with HMTA/TFA. This process occurred through the formyl intermediate 180, which then cyclizes and dehydrogenates to give 178 (Scheme 17.110) [308].
17.2.4.2.4 Metal-Catalyzed Ring Closing Methods Larocks group has reported a series of isoquinoline syntheses based on palladium-catalyzed annulation processes. The reaction of tert-butylimines of o-iodobenzaldehydes 181 with internal acetylenes
1582

R R O 176 R
1
HX CH2Cl2 177 R
1
O+
X-
X = TfO; BF4
(21-74%)
NH3(g) CH2Cl2 R R = Ph, p-MeC6H4; p-(n-C10H21)OC6H4 R1 = NMe2; OEt; H; Ph
a) TfOH b) NH3(g) CH2Cl2 175
N R
1
Scheme 17.109
Me MeO OH HN
CO2Me Me O
HMTA/TFA reflux (40%)
Me MeO OH HN CHO
CO2Me Me O
-AcOH -H2
Me MeO OH N
CO2Me
179
Scheme 17.110
180
178
182 in the presence of catalytic Pd(OAc)2 gave various 3,4-disubstituted isoquinolines 183 in moderate to excellent yields (Scheme 17.111) [309, 310]. When a relatively unhindered diyne and enyne, or an electron-rich imine, are employed mixtures of stereoisomers are obtained with high selectivity. The use of trimethylsilyl-containing acetylenes produced 3-substituted isoquinolines. These compounds were also available using terminal acetylenes as substrates and the methodology has been applied to the total synthesis of decumbenine B [311]. A nickel(II) catalyst proved to be efcient to give 3,4-disubstituted isoquinolines by this method in a highly regioselective manner [312]. In addition, 3-substituted 4-uoroalkylated isoquinolines were prepared using a Pd(0) catalyst [313].
R1 I X N t-Bu
R1
R2
cat Pd(OAc)2/PPh3 Na2CO3 DMF, 100 C (11-100%)
R2 X N
X = H, OR, CHO, NMe2 R1, R2 = H, alkyl, alkenyl, Ph, CH(R)OH, CO2Et
181
182
Scheme 17.111
183
The former methodology was subsequently expanded to the synthesis of 3-substituted-4-aroylisoquinolines 184 by palladium-catalyzed carbonylative cyclization of 2-(1-alkynyl)benzaldimines 185 and aryl halides (Scheme 17.112) [314, 315]. The reaction is useful for both electron-rich and electron-poor aryl halides. Benzaldimines 185 are also versatile starting materials for the synthesis of isoquinolines
17.2 Isoquinoline
R1 R N Method A cat PdBr2, Cu(OAc)2 NaOAc, DMSO, 70 C Method B cat PdBr2/CuCl2, O2 NaHCO3, DMSO, 70 C R R1
j1583
Ar O R N
+ +
t-Bu
ArX
cat Pd(PPh3)4 (n-Bu)3N, CO (1 atm) DMF, 100 C (28-84%)
186
(27-89%)
185
R1X Pd(PPh3)4, K2CO3 DMF, 100 C (13-80%) R1 R N
184
187
Scheme 17.112
186, by palladium-catalyzed cyclization followed by a Heck reaction with olens [316, 317], or isoquinolines 187 by cross-coupling with aryl, vinyl, alkynyl, allyl, or benzyl halides [318, 319]. Rhodium(I)-catalyzed tandem ortho-alkenylationcyclization of aromatic N-benzylketenimines 188 with alkynes has been applied to the synthesis of mixtures of isoquinolines 189 and 190 [320]. The 1-phenethyl substituted compound 190 is postulated to be formed by the intermolecular migration of the benzyl group in the vinylated ketenimine intermediate 191. The one-pot tandem process from aromatic ketones 192 was also performed more efciently (Scheme 17.113). The reaction
R CH3 188 Ph NBn Ph cat Rh(PPh3)3Cl toluene, 150 C Ph (55-73%) 191 R Ph CH3 NBn cat Rh(PPh3)3Cl toluene, 170 C (82-89%) 192 H2N O R CH3
+
Ph
+
Ph Ph
Ph R N 189
Scheme 17.113
Ph Ph R Ph N 190 CH2CH2Ph R = H, CF3, OMe
CH3
1584

works well when either electron-donating or electron-withdrawing groups are present in the benzene ring. A Suzuki cross-coupling/reductive debenzyloxycarbonylation sequence has been reported for the synthesis of [c]annulated isoquinolines [321]. The reaction of boronic acid 193 with cyclic iodoenones 194 catalyzed by palladium(0) gave intermediates 195 that then cyclized to isoquinolines 196 under reductive conditions (Scheme 17.114). This method has been applied to the synthesis of pancratistatin-like isoquinolines.
X X
R R
B(OH)2 NHCbz
O ( )n X X cat Pd(PPh3)4 benzene/EtOH R R
( )n X X NHCbz
cat Pd(OH)2/C R H2, 1 atm (82-92%) R N
( )n
193
194
195
196 R = H, OCH2O
X = H, Me n = 1, 2
Scheme 17.114
17.2.4.2.5 Electrocyclic Ring Closing Methods Hetero-DielsAlder processes have been widely used to build nitrogen-containing six-membered rings from azadienes. 1,3-Disubstituted isoquinolines 197 can be prepared by electrocyclic ring-closure when aldehydes react with N-vinylic phosphazenes 198 through a [4 2] cycloaddition [322]. Phosphazenes 198 are obtained by an aza-Wittig [2 2] process between phosphoranes and nitriles (Scheme 17.115). The reaction can be performed with isolation of the aza-diene 199 or in a one-pot procedure.
R 140 C R Ph3P N
1 199 R
R1
(70-83%)
140 C R N
198
140 C 197 R
1
Scheme 17.115
This methodology has been used in the synthesis of a derivative of the marine alkaloid renierol [323]. Thus, phosphacene 200 was reacted with trimethylsilylketene to give the ketenimine 201, which was then converted into the isoquinoline 202 (Scheme 17.116).
17.2 Isoquinoline
OMe Me MeO OMe N CO2Et PPh3 TMS-CH=C=O toluene rt Me MeO OMe N OMe CO2Et 1) toluene, 160 C 2) silica gel (85%) Me MeO
j1585
CO2Et N
OMe
OMe
200
Scheme 17.116
201 SiMe3
202
Interestingly, a strong-base-induced [4 2] cycloaddition of homophthalic anhydrides, such as 203, with enolizable enones 204 has been reported to build a key isoquinoline intermediate (205) of the antitumor antibiotic fredericamycin A (Scheme 17.117) [324]. Notably, as opposed to the main strategy in the syntheses of isoquinolines, that is, the building of the pyridine ring, in this case it is the benzene ring that is created. The reaction is accelerated in the presence of base to give diene 206, which cyclizes to the proposed cycloadduct 207 followed by elimination of phenylsulnic acid and carbon dioxide.
-
OMe O N Me O O
O S Ph +
O O ( )n NaH 1,4-dioxane Me reflux N
OMe OH O
O O ( )n
203
OMe O N Me O O Ph S + O O
204
205
- Ph OMe O O +S N Me
O O
n = 2 (58%) n = 3 (40%)
-PhS(O)H -CO2 -
206
Scheme 17.117
207
Aryne [4 2] cycloaddition reactions have been expanded to the synthesis of isoquinolines. Thus, when aryne 208, prepared from a silyl aryl triate (209), is reacted with an enamide (210), a [4 2] addition reaction takes place followed by a dehydrative aromatization to give diversely substituted isoquinolines 211 (Scheme 17.118) [325]. Similarly, the reaction of 2-amidoacrylate esters 212 with silyl aryl triates 209 using CsF as a uorine source yields mixtures of isoquinoline-3carboxylates 213 and benzocyclobutanes 214 (Scheme 17.118) [326].
17.2.4.2.6 Ring Expansion- and Ring Contraction-Based Methods o-Quinodimethanes are highly reactive diene systems in DielsAlder reactions. In view of this, a traceless solid-phase synthesis based on a benzocyclobutanyl ether resin 215, a precursor of solid-supported o-quinodimethane, has been reported for the heteroDielsAlder reaction with trichloroacetonitrile to give isoquinoline 216 in low
1586
R R

TABT R R3 THF, r.t. HO R R R R3 R2 N R1 R (51-87%) R1 R3 R N R2
SiMe3 OTf
209
+
O R1 N H
208
R2
211
210
R = H, Me, OMe, OCH2O, F R1 = Alkyl, Bn, CF3, CO2Me, CH2OMe R2 = Alkyl, CO2Me R3 = H, Alkyl
R R
SiMe3
CsF N H CO2Me R MeCN r.t.
R N R1
CO2Me
O NH
R1
+
OTf
+R
CO2Me
209 (R = H, Me, OMe, 212 (R1 = H, Alkyl, ArCH2,

OCH2O, F) ArCH2O, Ph)
213 (41-69%)
214 (11-27%)
Scheme 17.118
yield [327]. Resin 215 was prepared from a hydroxymethyl resin via the trichloroacetimidate 217 (Scheme 17.119).
1) NaHDMS, THF OH 2) Cl3CCN (90%) O
NH CCl3
HO TfOH CH2Cl2-hexane O
Cl3CCN
CCl3 N
217
215
toluene 105 C (13%)
216
Scheme 17.119
Related to the above method, 3-substituted isoquinolines 218 have been obtained through zirconocene/copper-mediated coupling of benzocyclobutadiene with nitriles (Scheme 17.120) [328]. 1-Bromobenzocyclobutene (219) was used as a synthon and was readily converted into Cp2Zr(g2-benzocyclobutadiene)(PMe3) (220), which couples with nitriles to give ve-membered-zirconacycles 221. Subsequent treatment with CuCl gave isoquinolines 218 in high yields.
Br 1) Mg 2) Cp2ZrMeCl 3) PMe3 PMe3 ZrCp2 R R-CN N ZrCp2 2 CuCl THF (85-89%) N R
219
220
221
218 R = t-Bu, Ph
Scheme 17.120
An unprecedented rearrangement of a 1H-benzazepine (222) to 1,3-disubstituted isoquinolines 223 has been reported to occur in good yields by treatment with silica
17.2 Isoquinoline
j1587
gel under normal or UV light, but the mechanism of this process has not been disclosed (Scheme 17.121) [329].
CO2R R N H 222
Scheme 17.121
1 1
silica gel hv, rt (72-82%)
CO2R N CO2R 223

2
R, R1, R2 = Alkyl
CO2R
17.2.4.2.7 Photochemical Methods Irradiation of substituted a-dehydrophenylalanine 224 in acetonitrile with Pyrex-ltered light has been found to give a mixture of isoquinoline 225, azetine 226, and (E)- and (Z)-227 in low yields (Scheme 17.122) [330]. Compound 225 was proposed to occur through a 1,5-acetyl migration from (Z)-227, and 226 by a 1,3-acetyl shift from (E)-227.
CONHBu NHAc h MeCN Cl 224 Cl N Me 225 (32%) CONHBu CONHBu NHAc
Me
CONHBu
+
Cl 226 (19%)
+
Cl 227 (49%)
Scheme 17.122
Photocyclization of 2-azadienes 228 in a neutral medium using Pyrex-ltered light has been reported to give 1,3-disubstituted isoquinolines 229 (Scheme 17.123) [331]. When 228 bears a phenyl group at the 4-position this group was involved in the cyclization.
MeO R1 = H R1 MeO R N Ar 228 R1 = Ph H (38-69%) MeO R N Ar h - MeOH R 229 (R = OMe, Ph, Me) - H2 N N Ar h Ar
Scheme 17.123
1588

17.2.5 Reactivity of Isoquinolines 17.2.5.1 Reactions with Electrophilic Reagents 17.2.5.1.1 Addition to Nitrogen Like pyridine, isoquinoline reacts as a base (pKa 5.4) by protonation or as a nucleophile by quaternization through the electron lone pair on the ring nitrogen to form an aromatic isoquinolinium cation (Scheme 17.124). For instance, O-(2,4-dinitrophenyl)hydroxylamine (230) has proven to be a more efcient aminating reagent than hydroxylamine-O-sulfonic acids like HOSA or MSH to give 231 [332]. Nitrogen atom oxidation, as for pyridine, can be performed with peracids to afford isoquinoline-N-oxides. Other mild procedures to prepare 232 have been reported and these involve the use of oxygen in the presence of ruthenium trichloride [333], or hydrogen peroxide in the presence of molecular sieves as a catalyst [334]. N-Alkylisoquinolinium salts like 233 are obtained using alkyl halides, sulfonates [335], or methyl salicylate [336]. Stable salts of N-acylisoquinolinium cations such as 234 can be prepared in the presence of SbCl5 [337]. On the other hand, a large number of transition metal complexes bearing isoquinoline units as ligand have been prepared. Isoquinoline usually links to the metal center through the nitrogen lone pair, except when this is hindered, in which case p-bonded complexes are obtained [338].
E+ N N + E
233 FSO3Me benzene r.t. + O RuCl3, O2 (CH2Cl)2 (60%)
FSO3 + N Me
quant.
ONH2 NO2
NO2
230 N 231 +
- ODNP NH2
N 232
N 116
MeCN, 40 C, 24 h (99%)
PhCOCl SbCl5
N 234
Scheme 17.124
SbCl6 O
Ph
17.2 Isoquinoline
j1589
17.2.5.1.2 Substitution at Carbon Protonation N-Protonated isoquinoline gives facile protonation of the carbocyclic ring, as observed in the kinetic study of its reaction with deuteriosulfuric acid at high temperatures [339]. The protonation occurs at positions C5 (235) > C8 > C7, but at lower acid strength the isoquinolinium cation 236 exchanges a to the nitrogen at C1 to give the zwitterion 237 (Scheme 17.125).
H + N + H 235 Higher acid strength
Scheme 17.125
H + H+ N + H - H+ N H - + 237 Lower acid strength
236
Energies of the LUMO (ELUMO), the square of the coefcients on carbon atoms at the LUMO, NBO charges on CH groups, and total and relative energies of dications have been calculated by the DFT method. The results predict 238 to be the most favorable dication and C6 and C8 to be the electrophilic reaction centers for this dication. Thus, when isoquinoline was activated under superacidic conditions (CF3SO3H-SbF5, HBr-AlBr3-CH2Br2, or HBr-AlBr3) and then reacted with cyclohexane or benzene, ionic hydrogenation and electrophilic substitution were observed to give 239 and 240, respectively (Scheme 17.126) [340].
+ H+ N 116 N + H 238
Scheme 17.126
C6H12 N + H N 239 Ph N Ph 240
superacidic C6H6 +
Nitration Nitration of 116 with fuming nitric acid and concentrated sulfuric acid gives 5-nitroisoquinoline (241) with high regioselectivity (Scheme 17.127) [341]. Nitration using dinitrogen pentoxide in liquid SO2 yields 241 regioselectively in low yield [342]. Sulfonation Isoquinoline (116) has been sulfonated using 50% oleum under icecold conditions to afford isoquinoline-5-sulfonic acid (242) (Scheme 17.128) [343].
1590

NO2 HNO3, H2SO4 N 116
Scheme 17.127
0 C, 80% 241
+
9:1 NO2
SO3H H2SO4, H2O N 116

Scheme 17.128
0 C, 48 h, r.t. (72%)
N 242
Halogenation Isoquinoline (116) has been brominated using bromine in the presence of aluminum chloride [344], or N-bromosuccinimide in sulfuric acid, to give 243 (Scheme 17.129) [345, 346]. Halogenation at the pyridine ring to yield 244 occurs at C4 through a different mechanism, which involves the following steps: (i) protonation at nitrogen to give the isoquinolinium cation, (ii) nucleophilic addition of bromide at C1 to yield an enamine; (iii) electrophilic addition of bromine at C4 to produce a b-brominated enamine, and (iv) aromatization through HBr elimination [160].
Br NBS, H2SO4 (72%) N 243
Scheme 17.129
Br 1) HCl N 116 2) Br2, PhNO2, 80 C (40%) 244 N
or Br2, AlCl3 (78%)
FriedelCrafts chlorination gives polychloroisoquinolines [347, 348]. Chlorination of 6-aminoisoquinoline with NCS affords 6-amino-5-chloroisoquinoline [349].
Acylation FriedelCrafts acylation or alkylation reactions on isoquinoline are not possible due to the nucleophilic nitrogen, which rapidly forms the corresponding Nacyl or N-alkylisoquinolinium salts. However, a few examples of intramolecular FriedelCrafts acylation have been reported, such as the preparation of cyclopenta[ f ] isoquinoline derivatives 245 (Scheme 17.130) [350] and the synthesis of dinapsoline [351]. 17.2.5.2 Reactions with Oxidizing Reagents Although isoquinoline is rather stable to oxidative conditions except for peracids, which cause N-oxidation to give isoquinoline N-oxide both benzene and pyridine
17.2 Isoquinoline
j1591
O OH OEt Me N HSO3F (75%) Me
O OEt N 245
Scheme 17.130
rings can be degraded by ozonolysis followed by oxidative cleavage [352], treatment with alkaline potassium permanganate [353], or fuming nitric acid [354] to give a mixture of phthalic acid (246) and cinchomeronic acid (247) (Scheme 17.131). During the oxidation of 116 in neutral media the benzene ring is not affected and phthalimide is formed [237, 355].
Oxidant N 116 CO2H CO2H 246 HO2C HO2C N 247 ([O] = O3; 44%) ([O] = HNO3; 69%)
Scheme 17.131
17.2.5.3 Reactions with Nucleophilic Reagents 17.2.5.3.1 Nucleophilic Substitution with Hydride Transfer place faster at C1.
These reactions take
Alkylation and Arylation Isoquinoline selectively undergoes addition of organolithium reagents at C1 to give 1,2-dihydroderivatives [356]. The addition product can be aromatized using an oxidant. Thus, 116 was treated with 248 to give, after quenching with H2O, 1,2-dihydroisoquinoline 249 which was rearomatized to 250 by oxidation in reuxing nitrobenzene (Scheme 17.132) [253]. Direct CC coupling of ferrocenyllithium (251) with 116 by nucleophilic substitution of hydrogen, using DDQ as an oxidant in the aromatization step, has been performed [357]. Interestingly, coupling was reported to take place at C3 to give 1-(isoquinolin-3-yl)ferrocene (252) (Scheme 17.133).
Li N
+
248
OMe Et2O
NLi OMe
H2O
NH OMe
PhNO2 reflux
N OMe
116
249
Scheme 17.132
250
1592

N Li Fe 1) Et2O, r.t., 15 min N 116 2) DDQ, 15 min (60%) 252 Fe
251
Scheme 17.133
Indirect benzylation at C4 has been carried out by addition of 116 to lithiated N,Ndiethyl-o-toluamide 253 to give the adduct 254, which was then treated with benzyl chlorides to afford, in the basic reaction conditions, anion 255. This ion further eliminates anion 253 to give the 4-benzylisoquinolines 256 (Scheme 17.134) [358].
CH2Ar O N N H (60-78%) CH2Ar N
+
253
NEt2 CH2Li
THF - 78 C Et2NOC
Li
ArCH2Cl -78 C to r.t. Et2NOC
116
254
Scheme 17.134
255
256
1-Methylisoquinoline, isolated as its hydrochloride 257, can be easily prepared from 116 with a catalytic amount of sodium hydride in dimethyl sulfoxide and ultrasound activation (Scheme 17.135) [359].
1) DMSO, cat. NaH 2 h, r.t. N 116
Scheme 17.135
2) HCl, Et2O (74%) 257
NH Me
Cl -
Amination and Nitration Isoquinoline reacts with potassium amide in NH3 to give, after hydrolysis, 1-aminoisoquinoline (258) (Scheme 17.136) [254]. A lower yield was obtained for 258 (20%) when 116 was treated with sodium amide in liquid ammonia under modied Oppenauer oxidation conditions using 9-uorenone as the hydrogen acceptor [360]. In cases where the isoquinoline ring bears a nitro group, the reaction, in the presence of potassium permanganate, takes a different course. For example, 5-nitroisoquinoline (241) was aminated to give the 6-amino derivative 259 (Scheme 17.137) [361]. In contrast, when 1-nitroisoquinoline (260) was aminated
17.2 Isoquinoline
j1593
KNH2, NH3 N 116

Scheme 17.136
- 33 C, (60-75%) 258
N NH2
NO2 KMnO4, NH3 N 241 KMnO4, MeNH2 N 260 NO2 - 33 C, (86%) H2N
NO2 N 259
N NHMe 258a
Scheme 17.137
with a liquid methylamine solution of potassium permanganate, displacement of the nitro group occurred to give 258a (Scheme 17.137) [362]. 1-Nitroisoquinoline (260) can be easily prepared from 116 using potassium nitrite, dimethyl sulfoxide, and acetic anhydride [363]. In this case, attack of the nucleophile takes place on an intermediate isoquinolinium cation (Scheme 17.138).
KNO2, DMSO, Ac2O N 116

Scheme 17.138
+ NO2N + S OAc N -Me2S, - AcOH 260 NO2
r.t. (88%)
Hydroxylation Hydroxylation of 116 to give 123 can be performed directly at high temperature by potassium hydroxide [170], or cupric sulfate [364], or at room temperature by biotransformations (Scheme 17.139) [365, 366].
Conditions N NH
116
Scheme 17.139
123 O
NaOH-KOH (98%) CuSO4, H2O (25%) Streptomyces viridosporus T7A (ATCC 39115) (14%) Pseudomonas putida UV4 (78%)
1594

17.2.5.3.2 Nucleophilic Substitution with Displacement of Halide Halogens on the pyridine ring are only prone to nucleophilic displacement when the halogen atom is located at C1 or C3, with the halogen at C1 being far more reactive. Halogens on the benzene ring are inert and behave in the same way as halobenzenes. Thus, 1,3dichloroisoquinoline (261) reacts with sodium methoxide to give the monosubstitution product 262 (Scheme 17.140) [367]. Several nucleophiles can displace the halogen atom. For example, reactions on 1-chloro or 1-bromo-substituted isoquinolines with water [368], sodium hydroxide [368], alkoxides [369371], thioalkoxides [372], trimethylsilanolate [373], ammonia [374], amides [375], amines [376], potassium cyanide [377], and phosphorus ylides [378] have been reported.
Cl N 261 Cl
MeONa, MeOH 100 C (60%) 262 N OMe
Cl
Scheme 17.140
Phenylacetonitrile, unlike other active methylene compounds, reacts with 4-bromoisoquinoline (244) by halogen displacement, in the presence of sodium hydride, to afford 263, whereas 3-haloisoquinolines 264 react at C1 to give naphthalene derivative 265 (Scheme 17.141) [379].
Br PhCH2CN, NaH N
244
Ph
CN
THF, reflux, 10 h (62%)

263
CN X N
264
PhCH2CN, NaH THF, reflux, 14-16 h
NH2 Ph
265
(X = Br, 71%; X = Cl, 66%)
Scheme 17.141
Although 3-haloisoquinolines react slowly, their reactions with sodium amide are unusual and do not follow SNA but, rather, an ANRORC (addition of nucleophile, ring opening and ring closure) mechanism [380]. By means of this mechanism, the endocyclic nitrogen in the reaction product 266 comes from the nucleophile and the exocyclic nitrogen comes from the starting isoquinoline 267 (Scheme 17.142).
17.2 Isoquinoline
j1595
Br N 267
NaNH2 NH3 (liq), - 33 C (90%) H
Br N NH2 H N-
Br
- Br -
NH2
N H NH2
NH NH 266 N
NH2
Scheme 17.142
17.2.5.4 Reactions with Bases 17.2.5.4.1 Direct Metallation Isoquinoline cannot be directly lithiated with organolithium reagents since they are strong nucleophiles. Interestingly, 1-(halophenyl) isoquinolines 268 are lithiated by n-butyllithium, in the position ortho to the halogen, under kinetic control, to give 269 without nucleophilic addition on the isoquinoline ring (Scheme 17.143) [381].
1) n-BuLi THF, -75 C 2) Electrophile R (66-86%)
N E R 269
E = D, I R = F, Cl
268
Scheme 17.143
Direct metallation with a less active metal has also been carried out by reaction of the complex [Ru3(CO)10(NCMe)2] (270) with 116 in tetrahydrofurane. In this way the isomeric ortho-metalated complexes [HRu3(CO)10(C9H6N)] 271 and 271 have been prepared (Scheme 17.144) [382].
[Ru3(CO)10(NCMe2)] 270 N 116 THF, r.t. N Ru(CO) 3 (OC)3Ru H Ru(CO)4
Ru(CO)3 N H Ru(CO) 4 Ru(CO)3
271 (25%)
272 (40%)
Scheme 17.144
Isoquinoline magnesium derivatives 273 have been prepared with high regioselectivity using mixed Mg/Li amides of the type R2NMgClLiCl as bases
1596

(Scheme 17.145) [383]. Subsequent reactions with electrophiles such as iodine, benzoyl chloride, or iodobenzenes give 1-substituted isoquinolines 274.
(i-Pr)2N-MgCl.LiCl R-I N THF, r.t., 2 h (82-92%) N R = I, PhCO, 4-EtO2CC6H4
116
THF, r.t., 12 h (> 90%)
273
Scheme 17.145
MgCl.LiCl
274
17.2.5.5 Reactions of C-Metallated Isoquinolines 17.2.5.5.1 Lithium Derivatives Metalhalogen exchange at low temperature is the method of choice to prepare lithioisoquinolines while avoiding competing nucleophilic addition. Thus, 1-isoquinolyllithium (275), prepared from 1-bromoisoquinoline (276), was reacted with benzophenone to give alcohol 277. Furthermore, 4-isoquinolyllithium (278), obtained from 244, reacted with dry ice to give 4isoquinaldic acid (279) (Scheme 17.146) [384]. These types of metallation at C1 [385] and C4 [386, 387] have recently been used as intermediate steps in the preparation of bovine amine oxidase and B-Raf kinase inhibitors [388, 389].
n-BuLi N Br 276 Et2O, - 50 C 275 N Li
1) Ph2CO 2) satd. aq. NH4Cl Ph N Ph OH 277 CO2H N 279
Br n-BuLi N 244
Scheme 17.146
Li 1) CO2, -100 C N 278 2) 10% aq. NaOH (46%)
Et2O, - 50 C
On the other hand, the telluriumlithium exchange reaction on 1-isoquinolyl telluride 280 has proven useful in the preparation of 1-isoquinolyllithium (275) (Scheme 17.147) [390]. Only one example of an isoquinoline derivative lithiated at C3 (281) has been reported [391]. C1 must be substituted, otherwise nucleophilic addition takes place as in 3-bromoisoquinoline (282) (Scheme 17.148).
17.2.5.5.2 Zinc Derivatives 1-Isoquinolylzinc salt 283 has been efciently prepared by direct insertion of zinc into 284, a process that is mediated by the addition of
17.2 Isoquinoline
BuTeLi N Br THF N - 78 C 1) Me3CCHO, - 78 C N 2) H3O +, r.t. (36%)
j1597
N Me3C OH
BuLi
280
Te-Bu
275
Li
Scheme 17.147
Br N Br Li N 281 SMe E N SMe E = H, Alkyl, CHO, COMe, CO2Me (19-85%)
MeSNa N SMe
Br
n-BuLi THF, < - 70 C
Electrophile
Br N 282
n-BuLi
Br NH Bu
THF, < - 70 C
Scheme 17.148
lithium chloride [392]. Subsequent reaction with benzoyl chloride in the presence of Cu(II) yields 285 (Scheme 17.149).
N Zn I Cl 283 Li + 1) [Cl2CuCN]2-2Li+ 5 min, 0 C 2) PhCOCl - 20 C; 1h, r.t. (90%) N Ph O 285
1) LiCl, Zn, 10-20 min. 150-170 C N I 284 2) cat. I2, cat. Me3SiCl cat. BrCH2CH2Br, THF 3) NH4Cl, H2O (96%)
Scheme 17.149
4-Isoquinolylzinc bromide 286, prepared in situ from dihaloisoquinoline 287, provides the substrate for a palladium-catalyzed Negishi coupling step with 7-isoquinolyl triate 288 to give the key intermediate 289 in the synthesis of B-kinase inhibitors (Scheme 17.150) [389].
17.2.5.5.3 Boron Derivatives 1-Isoquinolyl and 4-isoquinolyl boronic acid derivatives have been prepared from the corresponding halides. Thus, 4-isoquinolylboronic acid derivative 291 was obtained from 4-bromoisoquinoline derivative 290 and reacted under Suzuki conditions to give the kinase inhibitor 292 (Scheme 17.151) [389, 393]. 4-Isoquinolylboronic acid (293) is also a nucleophilic substrate in palladiumcatalyzed SuzukiMiyaura reactions [394396]. Reaction of 293 with iodo derivative 294 gives the KDR kinase inhibitor 295 (Scheme 17.152).
1598

N ZnBr N Cl 286
N
Br
1) n-BuLi, THF, hexane 10 min, -70 C N 2) ZnBr , THF, - 70 C 2
CF3SO3
288
NH4Cl H2O (52%) 289 Cl N
Pd(PPh3)4, THF, 0C to r.t.
287
Cl
Scheme 17.150
Br N HN
1) n-BuLi, THF. hexane 1 h, -74 C 2) B(Oi-Pr)3, 4.5 h, -74 C 3) HCl, H2O, r.t. t-Bu (73%)
B(OH)2 N HN TfO N N HN
K2CO3, PdCl2(PPh3)2 DMF, 2 h, 100 C t-Bu (65%)
290
291
292
t-Bu
Scheme 17.151
N I B(OH)2 N N 293 S Na2CO3, Pd(PPh3)4 NH2 294 NH2 H2O, (CH2OMe)2, 90 C (70%) S N NH2 295 NH2
Scheme 17.152
17.2.5.5.4 Tin Derivatives Trialkylstannylisoquinoline derivatives at the C1, C3, and C4 positions have been prepared and reacted with electrophiles in both noncatalyzed and palladium-catalyzed processes. The reaction of chloro- or bromoisoquinolines 296 with trimethylstannylsodium generated in situ from chlorotrimethylstannane and sodium provides stannylisoquinolines 297. Acylation, alkoxycarbonylation, and iodination reactions were subsequently performed on 297 [397399]. For example, 1-trimethylstannylisoquinoline (298) reacts with iodine to give 299 (Scheme 17.153). The palladium-catalyzed Stille reaction has been carried out on both 3-stannylisoquinoline N-oxide 300 [400] and 4-stannylisoquinoline [401]. N-Oxide 300 was
17.2 Isoquinoline
j1599
N 296
Me3SnNa N 297 I2
SnMe3
N 298 SnMe3
Scheme 17.153
(96%) 299 I
prepared from 3-tri-n-butylstannylisoquinoline (301) and m-chloroperbenzoic acid (MCPBA). The Stille reaction of 300 with 5-bromopyrimidine (302) yields 303 (Scheme 17.154).
Br Sn(n-Bu)3 N 301
Scheme 17.154
N N
N N N + O 303
MCPBA CHCl3 (80%)
Sn(n-Bu)3 N + O 300
302
Pd(PPh3)4 toluene (58%)
17.2.5.5.5 Palladium-, Nickel-, and Manganese-Catalyzed Reactions Numerous metal-catalyzed reactions on haloisoquinolines have been reported. Both Suzuki Miyaura and Stille reactions provide high yields of coupling products on diversely substituted boronic acids [402404] and stannanes [375, 404, 405]. Nickel-catalyzed processes using both Grignard reagents [404, 406, 407] or lithium borides [404] have been performed and also lead to interesting homocoupling products [408, 409]. Based on the differential reactivity of the carbonchlorine bonds in 261, several carboncarbon bond forming cross-coupling reactions have been exploited (Scheme 17.155) [404]. Under palladium catalysis, arylboronic acids regioselectively couple at C1 to give 1-aryl-3-chloroisoquinoline derivatives 304. Further coupling with aryl boronic acids, 2-trimethylstannylpyridine (palladium catalyzed) or arylmagnesium bromides (nickel-catalyzed) gives 1,3-diarylisoquinolines 305. Furthermore, 304 furnishes 3,30 -bis-isoquinolines 306 under nickel-catalyzed zinc-based Colon reaction conditions. Recently, a manganese-catalyzed cross-coupling reaction of heterocyclic chlorides with aryl- and alkylmagnesium halides has been developed [410]. Thus, 1-chloroisoquinoline (307) yields 1-n-butylisoquinoline (308) under these conditions (Scheme 17.156). Heck and Sonogashira couplings have also been performed on haloisoquinolines. 4-Bromoisoquinoline (244) couples to 1,5-hexadiene under solid-phase conditions to
1600
Cl N

ArB(OH)2, CsF Cl Coupling conditions N N Ar Ar
2
261
Cl
Pd(PPh3)4, DME, 6 h
304
NaI, Zn, NiCl2, PPh3 THF, reflux, 3 h
305
Ar
Ar N N Ar
Coupling conditions: Ar2MgBr, NiCl2(dppf), THF, 0 C to r.t., 1 h or Ar2B(OH)2, Cs2CO3, Pd(PPh3)4, DMF, 100 C, 18 h or 2-(Me3Sn)C5H4N, Pd(PPh3)4, DMF, 100 C, 18 h
306
Scheme 17.155
1) n-BuMgCl, MnCl2 THF, 0 C, 2 h N 307 Cl 2) NH4Cl 308 N n-Bu
Scheme 17.156
give 309 as result of a three-component process (Scheme 17.157) [411]. 1-Chloroisoquinoline (307) couples to 1-hexyne to yield 310 (Scheme 17.157) [412].
NH Br O N 1) DIPEA, Pd(OAc)2, DMF N 244 2) 25% TFA/CH2Cl2 (86%) 309 H2NOC N
H N
N 307 Cl
n-Bu
CuI, DIPEA, PPh3 PdCl2(PPh3)2 (81%)
310 n-Bu
Scheme 17.157
Negishi couplings have been performed in the synthesis of ferrocenyl-QUINAP (311), a planar P,N-ligand for palladium-catalyzed allylic substitution reactions. Directed ortho-lithiation of chiral ferrocenyl sulfoxide 312 with LDA and subsequent
17.2 Isoquinoline
j1601
addition of zinc(II) bromide yields organozinc 313, which is treated with 1-iodoisoquinoline (299) under Negishi conditions to give chiral complex 314. This compound was then converted into 311 in three steps (Scheme 17.158) [413].
Fe
O S 1) LDA, THF p-Tol -78 C, 30 min 2) ZnBr2 - 78 C to r.t. 60 min
Zn Fe
O S p-Tol
N 299 I Pd(dba)2, 60 C, 20 h (78%)
312
313
Fe
NO S p-Tol
N 3 steps Fe (69%) PPh2
314
Scheme 17.158
311
17.2.5.6 Reactions with Reducing Reagents Selective reduction of the pyridine ring in 116 to the tetrahydroisoquinoline 315 can be achieved with sodium cyanoborohydride in acid solution [414], sodium borohydride in the presence of nickel(II) chloride [415], or zinc borohydride (Scheme 17.159) [187]. The dihydride ruthenium complex RuH2(PPh3)2 yields 315 with low conversion [416], while hydrosilylation of 116 catalyzed by [Rh(cod)(PPh3)2] PF6 afford 315 in high yield [417].
1) NaBH4, cat. NiCl2 MeOH (86%) N 116 1') Zn(BH4)2, cat. PhNMe2 DME (75%) NH 315
Scheme 17.159
Catalytic hydrogenation reduces the pyridine ring in 116 to give 315 when performed on cupric chromite [418], Raney nickel [419], platinum oxide [420], platinum [421], rhodium [422], or palladium [423]. The benzene ring can be hydrogenated in triuoroacetic acid solution to provide 316 (Scheme 17.160) [424]. This product can also be obtained by ionic hydrogenation with cyclohexane through superacidic activation, as mentioned in Section 7.2.5.1.2 ) (Protonation) [340].
1602

NH 315 Ru/Al2O3 N
H2 (200 atm) CuCr2O4 200 C, EtOH (100%) H2 (50-100 atm) 135-170 C N 116 H2, Pd TFA
316 H NH NH H H
315
318
Ru/C NH 315 N 316
NH H 317
Scheme 17.160
Full hydrogenation using ruthenium leads to cis- and trans-decahydroisoquinolines 317 and 318. When the catalyst is supported on carbon the hydrogenation proceeds via 315. If ruthenium is supported on alumina there is competition between the two tetrahydro intermediates 315 and 316 [425]. The metal hydride complex Mo(PMe3)H4 can also be used to perform the catalytic hydrogenation of 116 to 315 [426]. Dihydroisoquinolines can be produced using either sodium in liquid ammonia (3,4-dihydro, 319) [427] or lithium aluminum hydride (1,2-dihydro, 320) [427429]. The dihydroisoquinolines can be oxidized back to 116 with chloranil or disproportionate in acid solution to give a mixture of 1,2,3,4-tetrahydroisoquinoline (315) and 116. Tetrahydroisoquinoline 315 can be obtained directly from 116 by reduction with sodium in a non-protic solvent or from 319 using sodium in liquid ammonia (Scheme 17.161).
17.2.5.7 Reactions with Radical Reagents The replacement of hydrogen at C1 through homolytic processes is also possible in 116, with the Minisci reaction being by far the most important approach [430]. Since 116 is a p-decient heterocycle, nucleophilic free radicals such as hydroxymethyl, alkyl, and acyl give better results. Moreover, acidic conditions are essential to promote N-protonation because this makes C1 more reactive towards the nucleophilic radical [431]. Formylation [432] and carbamoylation [433] reactions have been performed on 116 to give 321 and 322, respectively, in a selective manner (Scheme 17.162). tert-Butyl peroxide, hydrogen peroxide, or N-hydroxyphthalimide were used as free radical promoters. Acetylation gives mixtures of acetylated and methylated products [434].
17.2 Isoquinoline
j1603
LiAlH4 NH 320 Et2O 116 N
1) Na, NH3 liq - 70 C 2) NH4Cl NH N H
1) Na, (CH2OMe)2 1) [Ru(cod)(PPh3)2]PF6 r.t. SiH4, toluene, r.t. 2) MeOH (87%) 1) Na, NH3 liq, - 50 C NH 315
Scheme 17.161
2) NH4Cl
N 319
(CH2O)3 t-BuOOH, FeSO4 N 321 CHO TFA, MeCN 116
HCONH2 CAN, NHPI N TFA, 6 h, 70 C (78%) 322 N CONH2
Scheme 17.162
Alkylation of 116 has been carried out with alkyl iodides [435, 436] or alkyl xanthates to give 323 selectively or a mixture of 324 and 325 (Scheme 17.163) [437].
O N 325 X
SMe i-PrI, DMSO N 116 H2O2, 50 C 88% 323 N i-Pr
+
N
(PhCO2)2, TFA PhCl, reflux (CH2OH)2 (NH4)2S2O8, AgNO3 TFA, H2O, 3 h, reflux (58%)
324
N 326
Scheme 17.163
CH2OH
1604

Hydroxymethylation carried out by persulfate oxidation of ethylene glycol can be performed regioselectively to give 326 [438].
17.2.5.8 Electrocyclic and Photochemical Reactions The greater tendency of isoquinolinium salts towards nucleophilic addition at C1 in comparison to isoquinoline is demonstrated by the number of cycloaddition reactions reported to date. Isoquinoline itself does not undergo cycloaddition processes and this reaction always occurs through an isoquinolinium intermediate. Nevertheless, a theoretical G3(MP2) study regarding the concerted cycloaddition reaction between ethylene and 116 has been published and concluded that 1,4-cycloaddition is the most favorable in terms of both transition state energy barrier and NBO atom charges [439]. Isoquinoline reacts with dimethyl acetylenedicarboxylate to give quinolizinetetracarboxylate 327 [440]. When isocyanate is present in the reaction mixture, pyrimidoisoquinoline 328 is obtained [441]. A four-component reaction with dibenzoylacetylene, diketene, and amines to give pyrroloisoquinolines 329 [442], or water to give 1,2-dihydroisoquinolines [443], has been reported. Isoquinoline also gives the cycloadduct 330 with benzonitrile oxide (Scheme 17.164) [444].
Ph
330
Ph + N O
O (60%)
N RNHCO Ac OH Ph O
Ph
diketene dibenzoylacetylene RNH2, CH2Cl2, r.t. (R = s-Bu, 78%) N
DMAD, MeOH - 10 C to r.t.
N MeO2C
CO2Me
116
(59%)
CO2Me CO2Me
329
DMAD, PhNCO, CH2Cl2 - 5 C to r.t.; (99%)
327
N Ph N
CO2Me CO2Me
328
Scheme 17.164
Stable isoquinolinium salts and ylides give cycloadditions with several dienophiles. Thus, both N-alkyl- [445] and N-arylisoquinolinium [446] salts react with electron-rich
17.2 Isoquinoline
j1605
dienophiles such as vinyl suldes or ethers through the Bradsher cycloaddition reaction. N-Methylisoquinolinium iodide (331) and ethyl vinyl ether give adduct 332 (Scheme 17.165). Isoquinolinium methylides bearing one or two electronOEt OEt N 331 + IMe MeCN, r.t. (83%) N 332 DMAD CO2
+ IMe
333
Et3N + Cl N CH2CO2H PhMe 334
N MeO2C O 335 CO2Me
(77%)
337
+ IN NH2
K2CO3 DMF, r.t. 336
1) + N NH -
O 338 H HO2C N N
2) TFA, CH2Cl2, r.t. (15%)
339
Scheme 17.165
withdrawing substituents at the ylide undergo cycloadditions with aryl- and alkylsubstituted electron-rich olens [447] or dimethyl acetylenedicarboxylate [448, 449]. This reaction has been exploited in the synthesis of pyrrolo-isoquinolines related to the lamellarins [450]. The reaction of the salt 333 with DMAD in the presence of triethylamine occurs via methylide 334 to yield pyrroloisoquinoline 335. Quaternary isoquinolinium ylides such as isoquinoline azomethine imine 336, generated in situ from 2-aminoisoquinolinium iodide (337), react with polymer-bound alkyne 338 to give pyrazoloisoquinolines 339 after cleavage from the resin [451]. There is very little literature concerning photochemical reactions for isoquinolines when compared with electrocyclic methods. Photochemical free-radical alkylation [452, 453] and phenylation [454] reactions have been reported on 116. Ethanol or propanoic acid can act as the source of ethyl radicals under light irradiation to give 340. Phenylthallium bis-triuoroacetate (341) allows selective substitution at C1 under acidic conditions to afford 342 (Scheme 17.166).
PhTl(OCOCF3)2 341 N 342 Ph hv, CF3CO2H (81%) N 116 1) EtCO2H, C6H6, hv (20%) 1') EtOH, HCl, hv (22%) N 340 Et
Scheme 17.166
1606

Photolysis of isoquinoline N-oxides leads to different products depending upon the reaction conditions and the substitution pattern on the heterocycle. Irradiation of 343 (R, R1 H) furnished isoquinolone (123) via the S1 state through a radicalion-pair mechanism, as concluded from magnetic-eld effect experiments [455]. However, irradiation of the 1-cyano derivative 343 (R CN; R1 H) affords 1,3-oxazepine 344 (R1 H), via the S1 state, through oxaziridine intermediates (Scheme 17.167) [455, 456]. 1-Cyanoisoquinoline N-oxides substituted at C3 can give two consecutive photochemical reactions, resulting rst in oxazepine 344 (R1 Me) and then in benzofuroazete 345 (Scheme 17.167) [457].
Me R1 = Me O N CN
R1 N O O
R N CN
R1 O
R1 N CN
NC R = CN R1 + N O hv EtOH R=H
344
345
343 R
S + N - 1 O R HOEt
+ N . O EtOH .
+ N OH EtO
+ N OH EtO -
NH
123
Scheme 17.167
17.2.5.9 Isoquinoline Derivatives 17.2.5.9.1 Oxyisoquinolines The main feature of hydroxy-substituted isoquinolines is the tautomerism shown by some members of this family. With the exception of 1-hydroxy- and 3-hydroxy-substituted isoquinolines, the others are true phenols; they are in equilibrium with their zwitterions such as, for instance, 346 and 347, and they behave as naphthols [458461]. In contrast, isoquinolin-1-ol (122) completely tautomerizes to 123 (1-isoquinolone, 2H-isoquinolin-1-one) since the hydroxyl tautomer 122 lacks a stable polarized resonance contribution, in contrast to 123 [462]. Isoquinolin-3-ol (124) remains in an intermediate situation since 125 (3-isoquinolone, 2H-isoquinolin-3-one) is of comparable stability. The less polar tautomer 124 (colorless) predominates in low polarity solvents such as diethyl ether, whereas the more polar 125 (yellow) dominates in water or ethanol [463, 464]. The similar stability of these two systems is due to two opposite factors. In 124 the stability relies on the complete benzene ring, whereas in 125 the amide unit is the major contributor to stability.
17.2 Isoquinoline
j1607
N OH 346 O -
NH + 347
N OH 122
N + OH OH N 124 125
NH O O NH 123 O
NH + -
Classical reactions of isoquinolin-1-ones are N- and O-alkylation. Deprotonation of 123 with base and reaction of the resulting bidentate anion with alkyl halides or tosylates are reported to result in alkylation exclusively at nitrogen to give products like 348 (Scheme 17.168) [465], although traces of the corresponding O-alkylated products are also obtained [466]. Harder electrophiles, such as triic anhydride and silylating agents, react at the exocyclic oxygen, although the nucleophile may be the neutral molecule in these cases [467, 468]. These O-substituted products have also been prepared by displacement of halides from 1-halo-substituted isoquinolines by alkoxides, but harsh conditions are necessary for this to occur. Regioselective Oalkylation to give 349 can be achieved using the Mitsunobu reaction with benzylic electrophiles under mild conditions (Scheme 17.168) [469]. A classical reaction of isoquinolones is their conversion into haloisoquinolines with phosphorus halides. For example, 123 reacts with phosphoryl chloride to give 307 (Scheme 17.168) [470].
POCl3 N 307 Cl (100%) O 123 PhCH2OH PPh3, DEAD THF, r.t. (39%) NH KOH, EtOH PhCH2Cl (99%) N 348 O Ph
N 349
Scheme 17.168
Ph
1608

17.2.5.9.2 Aminoisoquinolines The whole family of aminoisoquinolines, in contrast to hydroxyisoquinolines, exists only as amino tautomers and all are protonated on the ring nitrogen. Dissociation constants for aminoisoquinolines 350 have been determined by potentiometric titration [471] or spectrophotometry [472]. The most basic aminoisoquinoline bearing the amino group on the benzene ring is the 6-isomer 351; the high basicity is due to its most stable resonance contribution, that is, a para-quinoid structure. When the amino group is located on the pyridine ring, the most basic isomer is 1-aminoisoquinoline (258) since this is the only system that retains the aromaticity of the benzene ring in its most stable resonance contribution. The basicity of aminoisoquinoline derivatives has been studied and it was found that the steric effects of bulky substituents neighboring the protonated ring nitrogen atom inuence electron transfer in such arrangements [473].
5.59 7.17 N 6.20 6.06 7.62 NH + NH2 NH 258 + NH2 6.28 5.05 NH2 H2N NH + + H2N NH 351
pKa values for unsubstituted aminoisoquinolines 350
17.2.5.9.3 Alkylisoquinolines Heterobenzylic hydrogen atoms of the side chain in the 1-position of isoquinoline are acidic. These protons may be abstracted with strong bases such as n-butyllithium, lithium diisopropylamide, or sodium amide to give metalated intermediates that can condense with various electrophiles. Heterobenzylic hydrogens at the 3-position are much less acidic and thus regioselective deprotonation in 1,3-dialkylisoquinolines is possible [264, 474]. Condensation products can also be prepared in acidic media, where the nucleophilic species is an enamine and the acidity of the heterobenzylic hydrogens is enhanced by the prior formation of an isoquinolinium cation [475]. Treatment of 1,3-dialkylisoquinoline 352 (R Me, R1 H) with n-butyllithium regioselectively gives the 1-isoquinolylmethyllithium derivative 353 (R Me, R1 H). Heterobenzyllithiums derivatives 353 react with benzophenone or benzenenitrile to afford 354 and 355, respectively (Scheme 17.169). When 352 (R R1 H) is heated with benzaldehyde in the presence of a Lewis acid such as zinc chloride, the reaction proceeds via the enamine 356 to afford 1-styrylisoquinoline (357) (Scheme 17.169). It is possible to oxidize alkyl side-chains while leaving the ring intact [476]. The oxidation of 358 with manganese dioxide affords mainly a mixture of 359 and 360. Selective oxidation of 1-methyl groups, as in 361, can be achieved with selenium dioxide, in the presence of other methyl groups in both the benzene and pyridine rings, to give 362 (Scheme 17.170).
17.2 Isoquinoline
j1609
Me N
PhCOPh THF, 1 h R R
1
R N Me 352 ZnCl2 100 C
n-BuLi THF, hexane 30 min
R R
R N CH2Li 353
(R = Me, R1 = H) (75%) PhCN THF, 30 min
HO
Ph
Ph
354
MeO = OMe) (R = H, (85%) R1 MeO 355 N NH2 C 6H 5
R R
R NH CH2 356
PhCHO 100 C, 20 h (R, R1 = H) 357 Ph N
Scheme 17.169
MnO2 N Me Me 358 Me Me SeO2 N Me Me 361

Scheme 17.170
benzene HO O O
NH
+
Me O
NH
359 (46%) Me dioxane (43%) Me N Me CHO 362
360 (34%)
17.2.5.9.4 Isoquinoline Carboxylic Acids These derivatives behave as typical aromatic acids. The main difference arises in isoquinoline- and N-alkylisoquinolinium1-carboxylic acids, which can decarboxylate via an ylide intermediate that can be trapped by electrophiles such as aldehydes, diazo compounds, or diazonium ions [477, 478]. Isoquinoline-1-carboxylic acid (363) affords 285a when heated under reux with benzaldehyde. Betaine 364 yields the corresponding ylide 365 when heated (Scheme 17.171). 17.2.5.9.5 Quaternary Isoquinolinium Salts Although some reactions in this chapter are performed by means of a quaternary isoquinolinium salt, here the high
1610

PhCHO N CO2H 363 Heat N + Me CO2 364
Scheme 17.171
NH + CO2
reflux (57%)
NH - + HO 237
N Ph
285a
N Me - + 365
versatility of these compounds will be discussed in more detail. One of the most characteristic features of these compounds is their ease of nucleophilic addition at the 1-position, as compared with isoquinolines, to give relatively stable neutral 1,2dihydroisoquinolines, which in some cases may disproportionate or be oxidized. Nucleophiles such as organometallics add to different isoquinolinium salts. Organolithiums, for instance, react with isoquinoline-N-borane (366, R H3B) as precursors of substituted tetrahydroisoquinolines 367 [479]. Grignard reagents give 1,2-dialkyl-1,2-dihydroisoquinolines (368) when reacted with N-alkylisoquinolinium salts (366, R Me) [480]. N-Acylisoquinolinium salts (366; R CO2Me) add benzylstannanes to yield dihydroisoquinoline 369 (Scheme 17.172) [481]. Both stannanes
N 367 Me
CO2Me
(67%) (R = H3B - ) THF, (100%) N 370 Me Me (R = Me) (X = BMe4) (56%) (R = CO2Me)
1) MeLi 2) DIBAH 3) ClCO2Me 4) H3O+ MeMgBr (R = Me) 368 N Me Me
N 366
+ (X-) R
PhCH2SnMe3 CH2Cl2
369
Scheme 17.172
CO2Me CH2Ph
17.2 Isoquinoline
j1611
and Grignard reagents add to chiral isoquinolinium salts in a diastereoselective manner [482, 483]. In addition, Zinckes salt of isoquinoline [366; R 2,4(NO2)2C6H3] may be transformed into chiral isoquinolinium salts [484] by reaction with chiral amines and the products are then reacted with Grignard reagents to afford 1,2-dihydroisoquinolines diastereoselectively [485]. N-Alkylisoquinolinium tetraalkylborates (366; R Me, X BMe4) transfer alkyl groups efciently under thermal or photochemical activation to give 370 (Scheme 17.172) [486]. On the other hand, the enantioselective addition of chiral allylsilanes activated by silver salts to an Nacylisoquinolinium cation has been reported to give 1-allyl-1,2-dihydroisoquinolines [487]. These compounds may also be prepared using allyl bromides in the presence of indium [488]. Softer nucleophiles also add to isoquinolinium cations (Scheme 17.173). Silyl enol ethers 371 react with isoquinolinium salts (366, R CO2Me) to give dihydroisoquinolines 372 [489]. A diastereoselective version of this approach has been applied to the synthesis of ()-homolaudanosine [490]. N-Methylisoquinolinium salts (366, R Me) undergo oxoalkylation with ketone enolates under ultrasound (US) activation to give 373 [491]. When the N-alkyl chain bears an aldehyde, as in 366 [R ( CH2)4CHO], an organocatalytic cyclic oxoalkylation reaction has been performed to give 374 in a high diastereomeric ratio [492]. Active methylene compounds react with
N Me
CO2Me
CO2H
372
OSiMe3 Me
(R = CO2Me ) (56%)
371
OSiMe3
CH2Cl2, 0 C to r.t. HCBr3, MeCN, H2O, KOH r.t. 45 min N CH2Ph (R = Bn); (89%) N acetone, NaOH, US (R = Me); (70%)
Ph
+ XR
Ph
376 CBr3
(R = CH=N-t-Bu) H2O, 70 C, 12 h (79%)
O HN O
366
O NH N H
Me Me
373
Et3N, CH2Cl2 - 20 C
(R = (CH2)4CHO) (94% conv.)
N O HN O NH
t-Bu H O
374
375 O
Scheme 17.173
1612

intermediate N-formylisoquinolinium imines (366, R CH N-tert-butyl), produced by reaction of isocyanides with isoquinoline, to yield dihydro derivatives 375 through a three-component one-pot reaction [493]. N-Benzylisoquinolinium salt 366 (R Bn) reacts with tribromomethylsodium (generated in situ from bromoform) to give the addition product 376 (Scheme 17.173) [494]. The cyanide anion also adds to N-acylisoquinolinium salts to give so-called Reissert compounds such as 377 (Scheme 17.174). These compounds can be prepared using conventional phase-transfer catalysis [495], or accelerated with ultrasound [496], as well as crown ether catalysis [497]. Thus, 116 reacts with benzoyl chloride to give the intermediate N-benzoylisoquinolinium salt 378, which in the presence of potassium cyanide affords the dihydroisoquinoline 377 under phase-transfer catalysis conditions. Reissert compounds are useful materials in preparing 1-alkyl- and 1-cyanoisoquinolines. Deprotonation of 377 with NaH followed by alkylation and further removal of the acyl and cyanide groups gives rise to 379 [498]. Furthermore, the N-sulfonyl analogues, such as 380, are prone to eliminate an arylsulnate to yield 381 [499]. The solid-phase Reissert reaction has also been performed using benzoyl chloride resin through solid-supported intermediate 382 [500]. A highly enantioselective version of the Reissert reaction has been reported using a chiral substituted BINOL catalyst [501].
TsCl, KCN, r.t. PhCOCl N N
NTs
Cl O
KCN CH2Cl2, H2O, r.t. (69%) N O Ph
380
CN DBU, 0 C (58%)
116
1) COCl 2) TMSCN 3) LDA, THF, -78 C 4) PhCH2Cl, THF, r.t. O N CN Ph KOH, THF
378
Ph
377
CN
1) NaH, DMF 2) PhCH2Cl
NaOH, H2O N reflux, (70%) Ph N O CN Ph
381
CN
382
Scheme 17.174
reflux (50%)
379
Ph
Reduction of quaternary isoquinolinium salts gives stable N-substituted 1,2dihydro- or tetrahydroisoquinolines. Hydrides such as sodium hydride or lithium tetrahydroaluminate react under mild conditions. Isoquinoline-N-borane 383 (R H3B; R1 H) adds NaH to give a dihydroisoquinoline that is further transformed into tetrahydroisoquinoline 384 [479]. Lithium tetrahydroaluminate reacts with Nalkylisoquinolinium salts 383 (R Me; R1 H) to give the corresponding dihydroderivatives such as 385 [480, 502]. On the other hand, hydrogenation of isoquinolinium salts can also be performed. The iridium-catalyzed asymmetric hydrogenation of 383 (R CO2Me; R1 Me) affords 386 (Scheme 17.175). This procedure has been applied to the synthesis of naturally occurring alkaloids [194].
17.2 Isoquinoline
j1613
CO2Me
384
(68%) (R = H3B - ) (R1 = H) [(IrCl8(cod))2]/ (S)-segphos H2, LiCO3, LiBF4, THF N Me (R = CO2Me); (R1 = Me) (80%) N
1
1) NaH/ DIBAH 2) ClCO2Me 4) H3O+
+ (X-) R
LiAlH4, Et2O, r.t. (R = Me; R1 = H) (70%) N Me
386
Me
383
385
Scheme 17.175
As mentioned earlier in this chapter, isoquinoline gives electrocyclic reactions through isoquinolinium intermediates. Thus, 116 reacts with dimethyl acetylenedicarboxylate (DMAD) through a Huisgen process [503] to give the 1,4-dipolar intermediate 387, which can be trapped by benzoquinones or activated alkenes to give highly functionalized polycyclic adducts [504, 505]. For example, adduct 388 has been obtained using p-benzoquinone (Scheme 17.176).
DMAD N 116 (CH2OMe)2, r.t. 387 N + CO2Me CO2Me
O 6 h, (75%)
H O
CO2Me CO2Me
388 O
Scheme 17.176
17.2.5.9.6 Isoquinoline N-Oxides The chemistry of isoquinoline N-oxide (232) differs from that of pyridine through the ability to undergo electrophilic substitution at the C5-position of the benzene ring. For example, 389 is prepared by nitration of 232 with mixed acid (Scheme 17.177) [506]. Compound 232 has been shown to be less reactive than the corresponding pyridine- and quinoline N-oxide towards electrophilic substitution through base-induced deprotonation [507]. Treatment of 232 with lithium 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidide (LTMP) and subsequent reaction with benzaldehyde affords a mixture of mono- and disubstituted N-oxides 390 and 391. Although there are several deoxygenation methods by which to convert 232 into 116, recently the molybdenum pentachloride/sodium iodide system has proven to be a mild and efcient process [508].
1614

NO2 N + O
389
HNO3 H2SO4 60 C MoCl5, NaI N MeCN, r.t. (86%) N OH 1) LTMP, Et2O TMEDA, -78 C 2) PhCHO HO N + O
(85%)
+
HO
+ O
+ O
Ph
116
232
Ph
Ph
390 (28%)
391 (17%)
Scheme 17.177
Some reactions performed on N-oxides, such as deoxygenation with phosphorus pentahalides, take place with both Ca-substitution and elimination of an oxygen atom as part of a good leaving group. A base is usually necessary to promote the elimination. As an example, the reaction of 232 with ethyl chloroformate and ethanol leads to 392 [509]. Similarly, treatment of 232 with diethyl cyanophosphonate or trimethylsilyl cyanide gives 1-cyanoisoquinoline (381) (Scheme 17.178) [510, 511].
ClCO2Et, Et3N N 392 OEt EtOH, (73%) 232 (EtO)2P(O)CN, Et3N (80%) N 381 CN
+ N O
Scheme 17.178
Isoquinoline N-oxide compounds can also be interesting catalysts and reagents. QUINOX (393), a chiral isoquinoline N-oxide, performs asymmetric allylation of aldehydes to give allylic alcohols 394 in good enantiomeric excess (Scheme 17.179) [512].
N + O OMe 393 CH2Cl2, - 40 C, 12 h (68%; 87% ee)
Scheme 17.179
O Ph H
OH Ph 394
SiCl3
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and Yohannes, D. (1984) The Journal of Organic Chemistry, 49, 4056. Lorsbach, B.A., Bagdanoff, J.T., Miller, R.B., and Kurth, M.J. (1998) The Journal of Organic Chemistry, 63, 2244. Funabashi, K., Ratni, H., Kanai, M., and Shibasaki, M. (2001) Journal of the American Chemical Society, 123, 10784. Gensler, W.J. and Shamasundar, K.T. (1975) The Journal of Organic Chemistry, 40, 123. Huisgen, R., Morikawa, M., Herbig, K., and Brunn, E. (1967) Chemische Berichte, 100, 1094. Nair, V., Sreekanth, A.R., Biju, A.T., and Rath, N.P. (2003) Tetrahedron Letters, 44, 729. Nair, V., Devi, B.R., and Varma, L.R. (2005) Tetrahedron Letters, 46, 5333. Ochiai, E. and Ikehara, M. (1953) Journal of the Pharmaceutical Society of Japan, 73, 666. Tagawa, Y., Hama, K., Goto, Y., and Hamana, M. (1995) Heterocycles, 40, 809. Yoo, B.W. and Park, M.C. (2008) Synthetic Communications, 38, 1646. Hayashida, M., Honda, H., and Hamana, M. (1990) Heterocycles, 31, 1325. Harusawa, S., Hamada, Y., and Shiorii, T. (1981) Heterocycles, 15, 981. Miyashita, A., Matsuda, H., Iijima, C., and Higashino, T. (1992) Heterocycles, 33, 211. Malkov, A.V., Ramirez-Lopez, P., Biedermannova, L., Rulisek, L., Dufkova, L., Kotora, M., Zhu, F., and Kocovsky, P. (2008) Journal of the American Chemical Society, 130, 5341.
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18 Six-Membered Rings with One Oxygen: Pyrylium Ion, Related Systems and Benzo-Derivatives
Javier Santamara and Carlos Vald es
18.1 Introduction
Six-membered oxacycles are a family of compounds that are widely present in natural products as well as in pharmaceuticals and other useful compounds and materials. The parent member of the family is the pyrylium cation 1, which is the oxa-analog of benzene. Other important unsaturated derivatives are 2H-pyran (2) and 4H-pyran (3), which can be seen as the result of the addition of a hydride to the pyrylium cation. Carbonyl-containing pyran-2-one (4) and pyran-4-one (5) are prominent derivatives of pyrans. Moreover, the benzo derivatives of all these structures also constitute important types of heterocycles. Some of the more common structures, including their usual names are presented in Figure 18.1. Owing to the structural variety of pyrylium and pyran derivatives, this chapter will concentrate mostly on the parent pyrylium salt, as well as on the important oxa derivatives pyranones and benzopyranones.
18.2 Pyrylium Cation and Benzo-Derivatives 18.2.1 Pyrylium Salts: General Considerations
The pyrylium cation (1) is the ring system in which a CH of benzene is replaced by an oxygen atom. It is a cationic and highly perturbed aromatic ring, as a result of the high electronegativity of the oxygen atom. The aromaticity of pyrylium salts is supported by the physical properties of these cations, such as magnetic properties, vibrational spectra, and electronic absorption spectra, and also by their structural parameters [1]. Nevertheless, some of the more common aromaticity indexes indicate that pyrylium salts are less aromatic than most of other aromatic six-membered rings [2]. Figure 18.2 presents the structural parameters of the equilibrium geometry of the pyrylium cation obtained from calculations at different levels of theory [3].
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j 18 Six-Membered Rings with One Oxygen: Pyrylium Ion, Related Systems and Benzo-Derivatives
O O 1 pyrylium O 2 2H-pyran O 3 4H-pyran O O O 4 5 2-pyrone 4-pyrone (2H-pyran-2-one) (4H-pyran-4-one)
O 6 chromylium (1-benzopyrylium) (benzo[b]pyrylium)
8 7 2H-chromene 4H-chromene
O 10 chromone (4H-1-benzpyran-4-one)
9 Coumarin (2H-1-benzopyran-2-one)
O 11 isochromylium (2-benzopyrylium) (benzo[c]pyrylium)
O 12 13 isochromene isocoumarin (1H-2-benzopyran) (1H-2-benzopyran-1-one)
Figure 18.1 Most common six-membered ring oxacycles.
Pyrylium salts are stable but highly reactive species. The nature of the counterion of pyrylium salts depends on the method of preparation, and the most common salts are derived from multi-atomic anions, typically perchlorates, tetrauoroborates, and hexauorophosphates. Owing to their easy accessibility and high reactivity,
Figure 18.2 Calculated structural parameters of the pyrylium cation.
18.2 Pyrylium Cation and Benzo-Derivatives

Table 18.1 Selected anthocyanidines.
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R1 Cyanidine Delphinidin Pelargonidin Malvidin Peonidin Petunidin OH OH H OCH3 OCH3 OH
R2 OH OH OH OH OH OH
R3 H OH H OCH3 H OCH3
R6 H H H H H H
Color Magenta Purple, blue Orange, salmon Purple Magenta Purple
pyryliums have found widespread applications as synthetic intermediates, mainly for the synthesis of other heterocycles or carbocycles through attack by nucleophile ring openingring closure (ANRORC) sequences. An early review on the synthesis and applications of pyryliums salts is recommended [4]. Moreover, pyrylium compounds are constituents of materials with various interesting applications such as photographic materials, photosensitizers in electrophotography, laser dyes, optical recording material, uorescent probes, anticorrosion agents, and polymerization initiators. A particularly important type of pyrylium salts is the avylium salts (2-phenyl-1benzopyrylium salts), which constitute the aglycon part of anthocyanines, a family of natural pigments present in owers, fruits, and leaves. The sugar-free part of anthocyanines, which are called anthocyanidines, are polyhydroxylated avylium salts, which are used as food additives [5]. Table 18.1 presents some common anthocyanidines.
18.2.2 Synthesis of the Pyrylium Ring
The main strategies for the synthesis of pyrylium salts are based on intramolecular condensations of 1,5-dicarbonyl compounds, according with the scheme presented in Figure 18.3. The cyclocondensation of a penten-1,5-dione 14 gives directly the pyrylium salt. On the other hand, if the reaction involves the condensation of a pentane-1,5-dione (15), after the formation of 4H-pyran 16 a hydride abstraction step is required. The different variations of these methodologies differ in the way in which the 1,5-dicarbonyl compounds are accessed.
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O H OH OH O O O 14
O 17
O 16
OH O
O O 15
Figure 18.3 Retrosynthetic analysis of the pyrylium cation.
A classical example is the preparation of 2,4,6-trimethylpyrylium perchlorate (17) by acylation of pentenone 18 by an anhydride or an acid chloride under strong acidic conditions (Scheme 18.1) [6].
Ac2O O HClO4 18 O 17
ClO4
O O HO
O O
Scheme 18.1 Synthesis of pyrylium salts by acylation of pentenone 18.
Closely related with this reaction is a very versatile methodology, namely, the classical Balaban synthesis, which involves the diacylation of an alkene. Usually, the alkene is generated in situ from the corresponding halide or alcohol [7]. Scheme 18.2 provides a recent application of this methodology leading to the pentasubstituted pyrylium salt 19. 2,6-Diaryl substituted pyrylium salts 21 can be efciently synthesized by another variation of this method, which consists of the reaction of methyl ketones 20 with triethyl orthoformate in the presence of perchloric acid (Scheme 18.3) [8]. A synthesis of pyrylium salts 24 through the pentenone intermediate includes the reaction of enolizable ketones 22 with 1,3-dicarbonyl compounds 23 under strong acidic conditions (Scheme 18.4) [9]. A recent variation of this procedure involves the synthesis of trisubstituted pyrylium salts 29 by reaction of acetophenones 25 with benzoic acids or benzoyl esters 26. The reaction proceeds through the addition of the enol of the acetophenone
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Scheme 18.2 Classic Balaban synthesis of pyrylium salts.
H(OC2H5)2 + Ph
O 20
1. 15 min,rt 2. HClO4, 30 min,0C 60 min,rt 89 % Ph O 21 Ph
ClO 4
OC2H5 OC2H5 O Ph
O Ph H+
C2H5O Ph Ph
O O
Scheme 18.3 Synthesis of 2,6-diphenylpyrylium salt from acetophenone and an orthoformate.
Scheme 18.4 Synthesis of pyrylium salts from 1,3-dicarbonyl compounds and enolizable ketones.
to the ester, to give dicarbonyl compound 27, followed by aldol condensation of another molecule of acetophenone with the dicarbonyl to give pentenedione 28, and nal cyclization to provide the pyrylium salt 29 (Scheme 18.5) [10]. A similar synthetic route, although in a multistep procedure, has been employed to prepare the chiral C2-symmetric bis-camphorpyrylium salt 34, taking camphor 30 as starting material (Scheme 18.6) [11]. In this case, the key pentenedione 33 is prepared by Michael addition of the enolate of camphor to chloropentenone 32, which was obtained by condensation of camphor with methyl benzoate. Regarding the reactions that consist of the cyclization of saturated diones, one of the most popular strategies is the reaction between a chalcone (35) and a methyl
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Scheme 18.5 Synthesis of pyrylium salts from acetophenones and benzoyl esters.
Scheme 18.6 Synthesis of chiral pyrylium salts 34 from camphor.
ketone (36) (Scheme 18.7) [12]. The reaction must be carried out with two equivalents of chalcone 35. It has been proposed that the second equivalent serves as hydride abstractor to generate the pyrylium salt from the 4H-pyran 38 (Scheme 18.8). This modular approach allows for the synthesis of pyrylium salts 39 with three different aryl substituents [13]. An extension of this strategy consists of a one-pot reaction in which the chalcone is generated from acetophenones and an aromatic aldehyde. In this case the reaction is restricted to symmetrical pyrylium salts such as 41 (Scheme 18.9). Nevertheless, taking into account that the reaction is compatible with several functionalities and the starting materials are very easily available, this reaction is one of the most often employed methods for the preparation of pyrylium salts [14]. Pyrylium salts can also be prepared by the oxidation of cyclopentadienes with silver salts [15] or by the action molecular oxygen in the presence of perchloric acid [16]. In the
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Scheme 18.7 Synthesis of pyrylium salts from chalcones.
Scheme 18.8 Mechanism of the synthesis of pyrylium salts from chalcones.
Scheme 18.9 One-pot synthesis of pyrylium salts from aromatic aldehydes and methyl ketones.
latter case, presented in Scheme 18.10, the oxygen insertion on the cyclopentadiene 42 can be explained by a mechanism that implies auto-oxidation to give 43, followed by an acid-promoted rearrangement that leads directly to the pyrylium salt 44.
18.2.3 Synthesis of the 1-Benzopyrylium Ring
The synthesis of 1-benzopyrylium salts 45 is closely related to the procedures for the synthesis of pyryliums. As presented in Figure 18.4, most of the methodologies rely
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R R 42 O2 R R O OH 43 R H R R R -H2O O OH2 R R R O R R R R H R R O2,HClO4 Tol, CH3CN 3-8h, rt R = Ph, Me R R O 44 R R
R R
R R
Scheme 18.10 Pyrylium salts by oxidation of cyclopentadienes.
R' R R' R O 45 R'' R OH R'' 46 R' O O H OH + R O + OH O O or R'' R''
R'
Figure 18.4 General strategies for the preparation of 1-benzopyrylium salts 45.
on the intramolecular cyclizations of properly substituted phenols 46. These cyclization precursors can be prepared by the reactions of phenols with 1,3-bidentate electrophiles, such as 1,3-dicarbonyl compounds or a,b-unsaturated carbonyl compounds. Alternatively, the intermediate phenol 46 can be generated by reaction of salicyl aldehydes or o-hydroxyketones with enolizable ketones. One of the most classical synthesis of avyliums 50 (2-aryl-1-benzopyryliums) is the Robinson condensation of salicylaldehydes 47 or 48 with acetophenones 49 [17]. Scheme 18.11 presents a recent application of this methodology oriented to the preparation of ligands to brain GABA-A receptors [18]. Flavylium ions such as 53 (Scheme 18.12) are also efciently prepared by the condensation of activated phenols with 1,3-dicarbonyl compounds. The presence of additional activating groups in the aromatic ring is essential to facilitate the initial electrophilic aromatic substitution reaction. Scheme 18.12 presents a recent example of the reaction of m-methoxyphenol (51) with benzoylacetone (52) catalyzed by gaseous HCl [19].
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R2 R
1
R3
O H R4 + R
5
O HPF6 (50%water) AcOH,rt R6 49 O BF3Et 2O rt R6'
R3 R4 PF 6 R5
47
OH O H OH
R1 50
O R
6
R4' + R5'
O R
6'
R4' BF 4 R5'
48
R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R6 = H, OH, OMe
Scheme 18.11 Classical synthesis of flavyliums from salicyl aldehydes and methyl ketones.
+ MeO 51 OH
HCl(g) Ph EtOAc, 2h, rt 82 % MeO 53 O
Cl Ph
52
Scheme 18.12 Synthesis of 1-benzopyryliums from 1,3-dicarbonyl compounds and phenols.
18.2.4 Synthesis of the 2-Benzopyrylium Ring
Figure 18.5 presents the main retrosynthetic routes to the 2-benzopyrylium cation 54. The classical strategy involves the cyclization of dicarbonyl compounds 55 [20]. The most general approach to the dicarbonyl intermediate is the Friedel Crafts acylation of the benzylic carbonyl compound. Another alternative, which has gained in popularity in recent years, is the electrophilic cyclization of o-alkynylbenzaldehydes 56, which are readily available through Pd-catalyzed cross-couplings.
Figure 18.5 General strategies for the preparation of 2-benzopyrylium salts 54.
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Many examples have been disclosed over the years of the rst route. For instance, acylation of ketone 57 with acetic anhydride in acidic media gives directly the corresponding pyrylium salt 58 (Scheme 18.13). Nevertheless, this particular reaction is generally restricted to carbonyls that bear activating substituents in the aromatic ring, to facilitate the FriedelCrafts acylation [21].
MeO O OMe 57 Ac2O, CH2Cl2 HClO4 or HBF4 76 or 82 % MeO O 58 MeO O OMe
Scheme 18.13 Synthesis of 2-benzopyryliums.
OMe X : ClO4,BF4
As noted, the cycloisomerization of o-alkynylbenzaldehydes has emerged recently as an alternative for the preparation of 2-benzopyryliums. The reaction can be promoted by different electrophilic reagents [22], but gold salts have been found to be the best catalysts to promote this type of transformation [23]. For instance, o-alkynyl aldehyde 59 is quantitatively converted into benzopyrylium salt 60 in just 1 min (Scheme 18.14) [24].
Scheme 18.14 Cycloisomerization of o-alkynylbenzaldehydes.
18.2.5 Reactivity of Pyrylium Salts
Pyrylium cations are extremely p-decient heterocycles, and therefore they are highly reactive towards nucleophilic systems. Moreover, pyrylium salts are totally unreactive towards electrophiles. The chemical behavior of pyrylium cations towards nucleophiles can be rationalized by considering the resonance forms depicted in Figure 18.6. Addition and substitution reactions can take place at the electron-decient positions 2, 4, and 6. The particular type of reaction and the regioselectivity depend on the nature of the nucleophile and the substituents of the pyrylium ring.
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O R4 Nu H
R2
R3
Figure 18.6 General reactivity of pyrylium cations.
18.2.5.1 Reactions with Nucleophiles The reactivity of the pyrylium ion is similar to that of a protonated carbonyl compound. Therefore, nucleophiles attack preferentially position 2. In 4-unsubstituted pyryliums, the addition of the nucleophile can take place regioselectively at position 4 (Figure 18.6). The reaction with hydroxides (Figure 18.7) serves as a model of a nucleophilic addition on the pyran ring. Attack at position 2 gives hemiketal 61, which can evolve through ring opening to the pent-2-en-1,5-dione 62. The equilibrium can be shifted back to the pyrylium under acidic conditions. When the pyrylium salt features an enolizable alkyl group at position 2, a phenol (63) can be formed through an intramolecular aldol condensation. These two reactivity patterns can be extended to C, N, S, and P nucleophiles and offer numerous opportunities in the synthesis of heterocyclic and carbocyclic systems through ANRORC cascades, as will be shown below. 18.2.5.1.1 Synthesis of Other Heterocyclic Systems Following a similar mechanism, different heterocyclic systems 64 can be prepared from pyrylium salts, employing N, P, S, and other heteroatom-based nucleophiles. Indeed this is a very powerful transformation for the synthesis of certain classes of heterocycles (Figure 18.8).
Figure 18.7 Reactivity of pyrylium cation with nucleophiles.
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Figure 18.8 General strategy for the synthesis of other heterocycles from pyryliums.
Pyryliums can be transformed into pyridines by treatment with NH4OAc. This method is an alternative for the preparation of pyridines with some particular substitution patterns. In the example presented in Scheme 18.15 a pyridine carrying a benzo-15-crown-5 (67), which is a uorescent sensor for Mg(II), is prepared through a straightforward two step sequence that involves: (i) formation of the pyrylium perchlorate 66 by the classical reaction of an aromatic aldehyde (65) with acetophenone and (ii) treatment with ammonium acetate to give the desired pyridine 67 (Scheme 18.15) [25].
Scheme 18.15 Synthesis of pyridine 67 from the corresponding pyrylium salt.
The same reaction can be applied to 2-benzopyryliums, to provide isoquinolines. In the example of Scheme 18.16, the presence of an electron-withdrawing group in the pyrylium nucleus of 68 enables the transformation into isoquinoline 69 under milder conditions [26]. The reactions of pyrylium cations with primary amines give rise to pyridinium cations [27]. This transformation is continuously employed to build molecular structures with interesting properties that are inaccessible through other methodologies. One example application of this methodology is the synthesis of 71, a molecule that features a tridentate ligand domain and the pyridinium substructure,
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Scheme 18.16 Synthesis of isoquinoline 69 from 2-benzopyrylium salt 68.
and is the monomer of a photosensitized supramolecular assembly, by condensation of triphenylpyrylium salt with 4-aminopyridine (70) (Scheme 18.17) [28]. Other recent examples include the synthesis uorescent probes for hydrogen abstraction [29], molecular wires based on oligomeric pyridinium chains [30], calixarenebased tricyclic assemblies [31], and the preparation of pyridinium based lipophilic oligomers for gene delivery [32]. Moreover, the reaction can be also applied to 2-benzopyrylium salts to obtain isoquinolinium salts [33].
Scheme 18.17 Synthesis of a pyridinium salt from a pyrylium salt.
Pyrylium salts are the simplest source of phosphinines, the phospha analogs of benzene. The O P exchange can be carried out employing P(CH2CH2OH)3 or P[Si (CH3)]3. This reaction has been utilized recently in the preparation of phosphinines with some particular substitutions, to be used as ligands in transition metal catalyzed reactions [34]. As an example, the wide bite-angle diphosphinine 73 has been prepared by this methodology (Scheme 18.18) [35]. The bis-pyrylium derivative 72 is prepared by employing the typical condensation of chalcones with acetophenones.
Ph O O Ph HBF4Et2O O O 72 Ph 73 Ph Ph O Ph 2 BF4 Ph P(SiMe3)3 CH3CN P Ph P Ph Ph
Scheme 18.18 Synthesis of phosphinine 73 from pyrylium salt 72.
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Analogously, thiopyrylium salts are synthesized by reaction of the corresponding pyrylium salts with Na2S in acidic media. To illustrate this transformation, Scheme 18.19 shows the synthesis of the thiopyrylium Hg2 and Cu2 sensor 75 from the corresponding pyrylium salt 74 [36].
O S N O S S N
O S
Na2S/acetone HClO4 Ph O 74 Ph Ph S 75
ClO 4
Ph
Scheme 18.19 Synthesis of thiopyrylium 75 from pyrylium salt 74.
18.2.5.1.2 Synthesis of Carbocycles The reactions of pyryliums with certain nucleophiles can lead to a ring opening/ring closure sequence that gives rise to the formation of benzene derivatives. For this type of process to occur it is necessary that the acyclic intermediate 76 (Figure 18.9), which is formed upon addition of the nucleophile, has active hydrogens to permit the CC bond forming cyclization. There are several variations of this reaction depending on the nature of both the pyrylium salt and the nucleophiles. For instance, the reaction of secondary amines with trialkylpyrylium salts gives rise to N,N-dialkylanilines 78 through the formation of an intermediate enamine (77) (Scheme 18.20) [37]. Nevertheless, most of the reactions of synthesis of carbocycles from pyrylium salts rely on the second equation presented in Figure 18.9 and employ of C-nucleophiles.
Figure 18.9 General strategy for the synthesis of carbocycles from pyryliums.
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H N BF 4 O
Et3N, CH3CN - 40 C 95 %
N 78
R2 R1 N R1
R2 N
O 77
Scheme 18.20 Synthesis of anilines from pyryliums.
Classical examples are the reactions of pyrylium salts with nitroalkanes in the presence of mild bases, which lead to the corresponding nitroaromatic derivatives [38]. Scheme 18.21 shows a recent application of this reaction. Treatment of pyrylium salt 79 with nitromethane gives trisubstituted nitrobenzene 80, which has been employed in the preparation of 2,4,6-trisubstituted aniline 81 [39].
Scheme 18.21 Synthesis of carbocycles from pyryliums and nitromethane.
Another interesting synthetic application is the annulation of sodium cyclopentanedienide with pyrylium salts [40]. In this case, the intermediate cyclopentadienyl anion 82 undergoes intramolecular cyclization to produce azulene derivatives 83 (Scheme 18.22). Pyrylium salts can also react under specic conditions with species that feature weak CH acids such as anhydrides, esters, or ketones [41]. From a synthetic point of view, an important transformation in this context is the reaction of pyrylium salts with phenylacetates to give o,o-disubstituted biaryl systems [42]. Modern applications of this reaction take advantage of the availability of the starting pyrylium salts, and the possibility to include halogens in the aromatic rings, to build complex polyaromatic molecules combining pyrylium chemistry and Pd-catalyzed cross-coupling
1646
Scheme 18.22 Synthesis of azulenes 82 from pyryliums and cyclopentadiene.
reactions [43]. In the example of Scheme 18.23 the pyrylium salt 84 is the starting material to the preparation of dibenzo[ fg,op]naphthacenes 87 [44]. The key step of the synthesis is the formation of the aromatic dibromide 86 by reaction of pyrylium salt 84 with the corresponding sodium arylacetate 85.
Scheme 18.23 Pyrylium salt 84 as staring material for the synthesis of naphthacene 87.
18.2.5.1.3 Reactions with Organometallic Reagents Addition of organometallic reagents can take place at positions 2 or 4 depending on the substitution of the pyrylium salt. Organolithium and Grignard reagents add to the 2 position, giving rise to an intermediate 2H-pyran 88, which undergoes an electrocyclic ring opening to give dienones or dienals 89 with retention of the conguration of the double bonds (Scheme 18.24). This reaction has found widespread applicability for the stereocontrolled synthesis of polyenes in natural products synthesis [45, 46]. On the other hand, organocuprates add to 4-position of pyrylium salts, leading to 4-substituted-4H-pyrans 90, which can be subsequently converted into the corresponding 4-substituted pyrylium salts 91 by oxidation with trityl hexauorophosphate (Scheme 18.25) [47]. An alternative to the preparation of 4-substituted pyrylium salts is the benzotriazole-mediated reaction developed by Katritzky. In a rst step, the 4-unsubstituted
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Scheme 18.24 Stereocontrolled synthesis of dienals from pyrylium salts.
Bu ClO4 O Bu2CuLi O 90 Ph3CPF 6 45 %
Bu PF 6 O 91
Scheme 18.25 Synthesis of 4-substituted-4H-pyrans by addition of organocuprates to pyrylium salts.
pyrylium salt 92 undergoes addition of benzotriazole to the 4-position to give 4Hpyran 93. Then, deprotonation by treatment with n-BuLi produces an 8p-electron heterocyclic anion that can be trapped with an electrophile to give intermediate 94, which is not isolated and releases the benzotriazole unit upon treatment with a mineral acid to produce the 4-substituted pyrylium salt 95 (Scheme 18.26). The
Bt BtNa O BF4 92 Bt Ph HClO4 O 94 Bt: N N N OMe - BtH 90 % O ClO4 95 O OMe 93 Ph OMe 1. n-BuLi 2. PhCH2Br
OMe
Scheme 18.26 Benzotriazole mediated substitution in the pyrylium ring.
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overall transformation can be envisioned as an indirect electrophilic aromatic substitution in the pyrylium ring. The reaction can be applied to pyrylium and 1-benzopyrylium salts [48]. Pyrylium salts can also react as electrophiles in FriedelCrafts-like electrophilic aromatic substitutions on electron-rich aromatic rings. For instance, 2,6-diphenylpyrylium perchlorate (96) reacts with anilines 97 to furnish the corresponding 4substituted pyrylium salts 98 (Scheme 18.27) [49].
Scheme 18.27 Pyrylium salts as electrophiles in FriedelCrafts reactions.
18.2.5.2 Cycloaddition Reactions Pyrylium and benzopyrylium salts can participate in several types of cycloaddition reactions. 18.2.5.2.1 [2 1] Cycloadditions Benzopyrylium salt 99, generated in situ from chromone (10), undergoes cyclopropanation with ethyl diazoacetate to give the cyclopropanation adduct 100, which leads ultimately, after acid-promoted ring opening, to the corresponding benzoxepine 101 (Scheme 18.28) [50].
Scheme 18.28 Synthesis of benzoxepine 101 by a cyclopropanation/ring expansion sequence on a pyrylium salt.
18.2.5.2.2 Dienophiles in [4 2] Cycloadditions 4-Silyloxypyrylium triate 102, which is readily prepared from 4-pyrone (5), reacts in a domino sequence with
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2-silyloxydienes 103 to give polyfunctionalized pyran derivatives 105. The reactions are triggered by a stepwise [4 2] cycloaddition between the electron-rich diene and the C2C3 bond of the pyrylium salt. Upon formation of intermediate 104, the attack of a second molecule of silyloxydiene produces polycyclic structure 105 with total diastereoselectivity (Scheme 18.29) [51].
Scheme 18.29 Example of a pyrylium salt as dienophile in a [4 2] cycloaddition.
18.2.5.2.3 Dienes in [4 2] Cycloadditions Pyrylium and benzopyrylium salts can also react as the 4p-component in [4 2] cycloadditions. Scheme 18.30 presents the synthesis of pyridinium salt 108 by reaction between triphenylpyrylium perchlorate and dihydroisoquinoline 106. The mechanism proposed involves a [4 2] cycloaddition between the pyrylium salt and the iminic CN bond, which gives intermediate adduct 107 and provides pyridinium salt 108 after subsequent ring opening and expontaneous oxidation. A similar reaction has been observed with 2-benzopyrylium derivatives [52]. Of particular interest are processes in which the pyrylium salts are generated in situ during the annulation of alkynyl aldehydes. For instance, the benzannulation reaction of 3-alkynylpyrrole-2-carboxaldehydes 109 with alkenes, promoted by iodonium ions, yields indoles 110 with a high level of substitution and functionalization in the benzene ring (Scheme 18.31) [53]. Scheme 18.32 shows the mechanism proposed for this unusual transformation. Interaction of the iodonium ion with the triple bond of 109 would promote the formation of 4-iodopyrylium salt 111. Nucleophilic attack of the alkene to the
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Scheme 18.30 A pyrylium cation as diene in a [4 2] cycloaddition.
R1
i) IPy2BF4 / HBF4 CH2Cl2, 0C
R1 R2
N Tos
109
ii)
R2
R3
N Tos
110
R3
Ph Ph
Ph
R1 N
N Tos
72%
N Tos
42%
N Tos
n-C6H13
43%
Scheme 18.31 Synthesis of indoles 110 from in situ generated pyrylium cations.
electrophilic carbon of 111, followed by intramolecular cyclization, would provide 112. The simple loss of a proton to give a conjugated double bond yields 113. Finally, aromatization by elimination of HI gives the indoles 110. This proposal is supported by detailed mechanistic and spectroscopic studies that allowed the isolation of analogues of the cationic intermediates 111 and 112 [54]. Related reactions have been reported in which the formation of the intermediate pyrylium salt is mediated by transition metal catalysts such as Cu and Au [55].
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R1 I +BF 4R3 R2 N Tos
R1 R2 R3
N Tos 109 I+BF 4BF4 I R1
110 HI R1 O I H R2 R3 113 HBF4
N Tos
N Tos
BF4 N Tos
I O
I R
1
R R2 R3 N Tos O R
3
R3 N
R2
H I O
BF4 R2
R1 BF4
Tos
111
112
Scheme 18.32 Mechanism proposed for the formation of indoles 110.
Moreover, Pt-bound pyrylium ions generated in situ through the benzannulation of alkynylaldehydes react as dipoles in intramolecular [3 2] cycloadditions [56].
18.2.5.2.4 [5 2] Cycloadditions A particularly interesting derivative is the 3-oxidopyrylium betaine 114 that can participate in [5 2] dipolar cycloadditions with the proper dipolarophiles. This reaction has found wide applicability in organic synthesis and a recent review is available [57]. An intermolecular example is the cycloaddition with indene to give polycycle 115 (Scheme 18.33) [58]. Moreover, higher order [6 3] reactions with pentafulvenes have also been reported [59]. This methodology is particularly useful in the intramolecular version, and has been extensively employed in the total synthesis of natural products. The interested reader is encouraged to revise the abundant literature cited in Reference [60]. In the example presented in Scheme 18.34, the intramolecular [5 2] cycloaddition on the betaine generated from 116 is the key step towards the synthesis of daphnetoxins. This reaction highlights the synthetic power of this cycloaddition reaction in the preparation of structurally complex molecules with a high level of stereocontrol. The structures TS-92 and TS-93 correspond to the proposed transition states for the formation of each diastereoisomer.
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Scheme 18.33 [5 2] dipolar cycloaddition with 3-oxidopyrylium betaine (114).
AcO O AcO OAc DBU, CH3CN OAc OBn 80C, 2h OBn 79% 117:118 = 5:1 O O H
OBn OBn + O
AcO
OBn H OBn
Me 116
OAc 117
H O O OAc OBn OBn
118
OAc
OAc O O OBn OAc OBn
TS-92
TS-93
Scheme 18.34 Intramolecular dipolar cycloaddition with a 3-oxidopyrylium betaine.
Related reactions employing in situ generated 2-benzopyrylium-4-olates have also been described, including catalytic asymmetric versions [61].
18.2.5.3 Side Chain Reactions Alkyl substituted pyrylium salts feature relatively acidic hydrogens and, in turn, can react with electrophiles in a similar way to enolizable carbonyl compounds. Therefore, homologous to aldol condensations, Mannich additions and Michael additions can be carried out employing pyrylium salts. In contrast to the reactions with nucleophiles, substituents at C4 react in preference to substituents at C2 (Figure 18.10).
Figure 18.10 General reactivity of the side chain of pyrylium salts.
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Thus, alkylpyrylium salt 120 reacts with aromatic aldehydes 119 to give the new polyconjugated pyrylium salts 121. This reaction nds application in the synthesis of pyrylium dyes (Scheme 18.35) [62].
Scheme 18.35 Aldol-like condensation of a pyrylium salt.
Similar reactions can be carried out with benzopyrylium salts, such as in the reaction of 5-hydroxy-4-methylavilium salts 122. In this case, subsequent intramolecular cyclization of the initial adduct 123 gives rise to the pyranoavylium derivative 124 (Scheme 18.36). A charge-transfer complex has been proposed as initiator of this reaction [63].
Scheme 18.36 Synthesis of a pyranoflavylium through the condensation of a flavylium with an aldehyde.
An interesting application of a Michel-type addition is the reaction of 4-methylpyrylium salt 125 with 3-dimethylaminoacrolein to furnish 4H-pyranylidene 126, which has nonlinear optical properties (Scheme 18.37) [64].
Scheme 18.37 Michael-type addition with a pyrylium salt.
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18.2.5.4 Reactions with Reducing Agents The addition of metal hydride complexes such as NaBH4 to pyrylium salts takes place preferentially at C2, giving rise to 2H-pyrans 127, which undergo ring opening under the reaction conditions to produce dienones 128 (Scheme 18.38). Under more intensive reaction conditions (NaBH4/AcOH) further reduction takes place and D3-dihydropyran derivatives 129 can be isolated. Nevertheless, the regiochemistry of the hydride addition is strongly dependent on the substitution of the pyrylium ring [65].
1 NaBH4 O ClO4 EtOH O 16 + : 8 O 128 O O 15
O 127
NaBH4 O ClO4 AcOH 78% O 129
Scheme 18.38 Reduction of pyrylium salts with NaBH4 under different reaction conditions.
Catalytic hydrogenation of alkyl substituted pyryliums leads to the saturated pyran derivatives 130 (Scheme 18.39) [66]. Depending on the reaction conditions and the particular substrates, different types of ring-open compounds can be isolated from pyrylium salts. A review on this subject is available [67].
Scheme 18.39 Catalytic hydrogenation of pyrylium salts.
On the other hand, catalytic hydrogenation in the presence of a primary amine leads to piperidine derivatives such as 131 (Scheme 18.40), in a reaction that could be considered a reductive amination of the pyrylium salt [68].
18.3 2H-Pyrans and 4H-Pyrans
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Scheme 18.40 Reductive amination of pyrylium salts leading to piperidines.
The most relevant compounds featuring the 2H-pyran and 4H-pyran structures are the corresponding carbonyl systems, 2H-pyran-2-one and 4H-pyran-4-one, respectively. Each family of compounds is discussed in a separate section. A brief commentary is dedicated here to the ring synthesis of 2H-pyrans and 4H-pyrans.
18.3.1 2H-Pyran Ring Synthesis
The most characteristic property of 2H-pyran derivatives is their ability to undergo reversible electrocyclic ring opening to the oxatriene (Figure 18.11). The equilibrium distribution between 2H-pyrans and 1-oxatrienes is greatly inuenced by the substituents on the ring [69]. Therefore, the main strategies for the preparation of 2Hpyran derivatives are directed to the synthesis of the acyclic precursors. The most classical approach is the Knoevenagel condensation of 1,3-diketones with a,b-unsaturated aldehydes [70]. The reaction between 5-methyl-1,3-cyclohexanedione (132) and aldehyde 133 gives rise to pyran 136 (Scheme 18.41) [71]. The reaction proceeds more efciently in the presence of a secondary amine, through the formation of an iminium salt 134, which reacts readily with the 1,3-dicarbonyl compound to provide the oxatriene 135. Electrocyclic ring closure then leads to the pyran 136. Several approaches have been devised for the preparation of the oxatriene precursor, such as the oxidation of dienols [72] or Wittig olenation [73]. In a recent approach, monocyclic functionalized 2H-pyrans 140 can be synthesized from propargyl vinyl ethers 137 (Scheme 18.42). The cascade process involves a metalcatalyzed Claisen rearrangement to give allene 138, base-promoted isomerization to oxatriene 139, and nally the 6p-electrocyclization [74].
Figure 18.11 Equilibrium 2H-pyran$oxatriene.
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O + 132 O O 133 Ac2O R H Piperidine, Ac2O Toluene, 90C 70% O 136 R O
N H
electrocyclic ring-closure O R
O + H OH
Knoevenagel condensation R
O 135
134
Scheme 18.41 Synthesis of 2H-pyrans by Knoevenagel condensation.
Me O Et 137 [Ag+] Me O Et 138
CO2Et i) AgSbF6 (5 mol %) ii) DBU (5 mol %) Ph Et
Me O 140 electrocyclization Me CO2Et Ph
CO2Et Ph
DBU isomerization
O Et 139
CO2Et Ph
Scheme 18.42 Synthesis of 2H-pyrans by metal-catalyzed isomerization of propargyl vinyl ethers.
Bicyclic 2H-pyrans 143 have been prepared by a ruthenium-catalyzed cycloisomerization of diyneols 141, which gives rise to oxatrienes 142 that undergo subsequent electrocyclization (Scheme 18.43) [75]. Another unconventional synthesis is the Pd-catalyzed cycloisomerization of enynols 144 through a 6-endo-dig cyclization that leads to 2H-pyran 145 (Scheme 18.44). The presence of the electron-withdrawing CF3 substituent is essential. Otherwise, the formation of a furan, through a more favorable 5-exo-dig cyclization, occurs [76].
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E E 141
OH TMS
5 mol% [CpRu(CH3CN)3]PF6 acetone, water 60C 94%
E E 143
O TMS
Ru-catalyzed cycloisomerization
E E 142
O TMS
electrocyclization
Scheme 18.43 Synthesis of 2H-pyrans by metal-catalyzed cycloisomerization of diyneols.
Scheme 18.44 Synthesis of 2H-pyrans by Pd-catalyzed 6-endo-dig cyclization of enynols.
18.3.2 4H-Pyran Ring Synthesis
The main approach for the preparation of the 4H-pyran ring is the intramolecular condensation of 1,5-dicarbonyl compounds (Figure 18.12). The cyclization proceeds in the presence of either protic or Lewis acids. A review that covers the different variations of this reaction is available [77]. In many cases, the dicarbonyl compound is prepared in situ by Michael addition of an active methylene or an enolate to an a,b-unsaturated carbonyl compound [78].
Figure 18.12 General strategies for the synthesis of 4H-pyrans.
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If the methylene group is activated by the presence of a nitrile, such as malononitrile, intramolecular cyclization of the intermediate adduct 146 takes place at the CN group, giving rise to 2-amino-4H-pyrans 147 (Scheme 18.45) [79].
Scheme 18.45 Synthesis of 2-amino-4H-pyrans.
Gold-catalyzed cyclization of alk-4-yn-1-ones affords different oxygen heterocycles depending on their structure. Alkynones with one substituent at C3 undergo a 5-exodig cycloisomerization to substituted furans. However, a 6-endo-dig cyclization to 4Hpyrans 149 is observed with alkynones 148 bearing two substituents at C3 (Scheme 18.46) [80].
Scheme 18.46 Synthesis of 4H-pyrans by gold-catalyzed 6-endo-dig cyclization of enynones.
The hetero-DielsAlder cycloaddition of alkynes with a,b-unsaturated compounds is also a methodology that has been widely employed in the synthesis of 4H-pyrans. Owing to the low reactivity of alkynes, highly electron-rich alkynes, typically ynamines, are generally required. Scheme 18.47 presents the reaction between ethylidenemalonate 150 and ynamine 151 to produce polysubstituted pyran 152 [81].
Scheme 18.47 Synthesis of 4H-pyrans by inverse-electron-demand [4 2] cycloaddition.
Some of the limitations of this disconnection for the synthesis of 4H-pyrans have been overcome recently by the development of a Ni-catalyzed process [82]. Under these conditions, neutral alkynes 153 can be employed in formal [4 2] cycloadditions with a,b-unsaturated compounds 154 to give pentasubstituted 4H-pyrans 156 (Scheme 18.48). It has been proposed that the reaction proceeds through initial the
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Scheme 18.48 Synthesis of 4H-pyrans by a Ni-catalyzed formal [4 2] cycloaddition.
formation of an oxa-nickelacycle 155, which enables the cycloaddition with the alkyne. An organocatalyzed [4 2] annulation between 3-formylchromones 157 and electron-poor alkynes 158 gives rise to 4H-pyrans (Scheme 18.49). The reaction takes place under catalysis by phosphines or tertiary amines [83]. The mechanism involves addition of the nucleophile to the alkyne to give an intermediate zwitterion 159 that adds to the formylchromone through a conjugate addition to afford the intermediate adduct 160. Ring closure with release of the nucleophile gives the nal pyran 161.
O R O 157 R Nu CO2R Nu C O OR 159 O R Nu: PPh3 O RO2C O R 160
Scheme 18.49 Synthesis of 4H-pyrans by an organocatalyzed formal [4 2] cycloaddition.
R O + CO2R 158 Nu Tol, rt R
O O O 161 R CO2R
O Nu
+
R O RO2C
ONu+ R
The reaction also proceeds with acyclic oxadienes 162; however, the 4H-pyran cycloadduct 163 undergoes a Claisen rearrangement to give 2H-pyran 164 (Scheme 18.50).
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Scheme 18.50 Synthesis of 2H-pyrans by an organocatalyzed formal [4 2] cycloaddition.
The intramolecular version of the [4 2] cycloaddition can be performed with neutral alkynes in the presence of transition metal catalysts. For example, the bicyclic 4H-pyran 166 is obtained from readily available precursor 165 in a copper-catalyzed intramolecular cycloaddition (Scheme 18.51) [84]. It has been postulated that the reaction proceeds through the formation of a Cu-acetylide, and therefore is limited to terminal alkynes. Analogous adducts 168, derived from internal alkynes 167, can be obtained by a Ru-catalyzed reaction that operates through a totally different mechanism [85].
Ts N CuI(10%) NEt3 CH2Cl2 83-67% R O 166 Ts RuCp(MeCN)3PF6 acetone, 4h. 89% Ph O 168 N N
Ts
R = H, Me, Ph 165 Ts N
Ph
O 167
Scheme 18.51 Synthesis of bicyclic 4H-pyrans by metal-catalyzed intramolecular [4 2] cycloadditions.
18.4 Pyrones, Coumarins, and Chromones
This section is dedicated to the family of oxygenated six-membered rings with the structure of unsaturated lactones. The properties, synthesis, and reactivity of 2Hpyran-2-ones (a-pyrones) (4), 4H-pyran-4-ones (c-pyrones) (5), and the corresponding benzofused analogues such as coumarins (2H-1-benzopyran-2-ones) (9) and chromones (4H-1-benzopyran-4-ones) (10) are compiled (Figure 18.13).
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O 4
O 5 9
O 10
Figure 18.13 Structure of a-pyrone (4), c-pyrone (5), coumarin (9) and chromone (10).
Figure 18.14 Resonance structures for 2H-pyran-2-one.
18.4.1 a-Pyrones (2H-Pyran-2-ones)
The structure of 2H-pyran-2-ones can be presented as a resonance hybrid between two structures: an enol-lactone and a zwitterionic aromatic structure (Figure 18.14). However, a-pyrones present an absorption frequency in their infrared spectra at around 1730 cm1 [86], which is characteristic of a ketone function. This value indicates low participation of the zwitterionic structure and, as the result, low aromaticity [87]. On the other hand, NMR spectra indicate the location of positive charges at positions 4 and 6 as a downeld shift in proton [88] and carbon [89] spectra relative to positions 3 and 5. As an indication of the interest of these compounds it is worth noting that the a-pyranone structure can be found in several natural compounds [90], some of which exhibit biological properties. As an example, compounds of the family of gibepyrones (6-substitued-3-methyl-2-pyrones) (169, 170) (Figure 18.15) have demonstrated inhibitory activity against some types of bacteria [91]. In addition, while several other examples have been reported related to the properties of a-pyrones, their benzofused derivatives (coumarins) have found greater applicability. These compounds are analyzed in Section 18.4.2.
Figure 18.15 Compounds of the family of gibepyrones.
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Figure 18.16 Retrosynthetic analysis for the formation of 2H-pyran-2-one (4) from 5-ketoacid derivative 171.
18.4.1.1 Synthesis of a-Pyrones The most common methodology for the formation of 2H-pyran-2-ones involves ring closure from isolated, or in situ synthesized, 1,5-ketoacid derivatives. This procedure has been followed by many authors and can be achieved by three different approaches:
(a) from ester enolates, (b) from ketone enolates, (c) through acylation of ester dienolates (Figure 18.16). The use of malonates or b-ketoesters is a classic procedure for the rst approach. In this sense, Scheme 18.52 shows an example following this methodology by using dialkyl malonate 172 and an a,b-unsaturated ketone 173 [92]. The procedure involves the formation of the 5-ketoester 174, which is transformed, through an ester exchange under acidic treatment, into pyranone 175.
Scheme 18.52 Synthesis of a-pyrone 175 from malonate 172.
This methodology, starting from malonates, is still described in numerous publications. As an example, Scheme 18.53 shows an a-pyrone formation from a cyclic malonate ester (176) and a propionaldehyde (177) [93]. After the initial attack,
MeO K2CO3,TMMEA THF MeO OMe 177 65 - 90% R O O 178 OMe
O O O R 176 R = Me,Et,Ph O O +
Scheme 18.53 Synthesis of a-pyrone 178 from cyclic malonate 176.
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the reaction evolves towards the formation of the pyranone 178 through a diol deprotection and ester decarboxylation. Among the numerous electrophiles that follow this methodology, allenyl ketones have also been reported. Thus, Scheme 18.54 describes the synthesis of polysubstituted 2H-pyran-2-one 180 from the reaction of substituted allenyl ketone 179 and malonic ester or other activated methylene groups [94]. The reaction takes place in the presence of a catalytic amount of base and involves a double bond isomerization to form the corresponding 5-ketoester, which suffers an in situ cyclization to the pyranone 180.
Me RO
1
O
+
Bu
O H 179
Bu Base (10% mol) 39 - 88% Me O O 180 Me
R2
1
R = Me, Et R2 = CO2Me, CN
Scheme 18.54 From allenyl ketone 179 to a-pyranone 180.
On the other hand, several approaches to 2H-pyran-2-ones from 5-ketoesters have been reported following route (b) (Figure 18.16). This methodology can be considered as the complementary to that of route (a). As an example, Scheme 18.55 shows a procedure that involves a Michael-type addition of the enolate of ketone 181 to the propionic ester 182 [95].
Scheme 18.55 Synthesis of 2H-pyran-2-ones 183 through via route (b) in Figure 18.16.
Finally, route (c) (Figure 18.16) implies the acylation of an ester enolate to form the corresponding 5-ketoacid derivative that can be isolated, or in situ cyclized, to the corresponding a-pyrones. Thus, Stille coupling of vinyltin 184 affords the 5-ketoester intermediate 185. This intermediate suffers in situ transformation into the corresponding 2H-pyran -2-one 186 (Scheme 18.56) [96].
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O Bu3Sn OSnBu3 184 O R 185 Pd(PPh3)4 dioxane, 50C 48 - 85% O OSnBu3 R O O 186
R = Ph, 4-MeO-C6H4, 2-Br-C6H4, (Z)-CH=CHMe, CMe=CH2,CH=CMe2, (Z)-CH=CHPr (Z)-CH=CHPh, i-Pr, i-Bu, (CH2)3-Cl, Bn
Scheme 18.56 Synthesis of 2H-pyran-2-ones 186 though via route (c) in Figure 18.16.
In a similar approach, carbonylation of the alkenyl ketone 187, under palladium catalysis, followed by O-enolate cyclization affords pyranone 188 (Scheme 18.57) [97].
Scheme 18.57 Synthesis of a-pyrones 188 via carbonylationcyclization.
In addition to synthesis through the formation of 5-ketoacid derivatives, many alternative methodologies for synthesis of 2H-pyran-2-ones have also been reported. Among of them, several examples of lactonization of (Z)-2-en-4-ynoate derivatives can be found. Scheme 18.58 describes two examples: an iodolactonization and an
Scheme 18.58 Lactonizations for the synthesis of 2-pyranones.
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intermolecular Stille coupling, followed by the corresponding lactonization. Thus, iodine or N-iodosuccinimide (NIS) addition to the (Z)-2-en-4-ynoic acid 189, in a basic media, induces its cyclization to the a-pyrone 190 [98]. On the other hand, the (Z)-2-en-4-ynoic derivative is in situ generated from an alkynyltin 192 and a 3-iodoacrylate 191 to undergo further cyclization [99].
18.4.1.2 Reactivity of a-Pyrones As already mentioned, a-pyrones can be described as hybrids between two resonance structures: an aromatic pyrylium salt and a lactone (Figure 18.14). Although, some reactions can be associated to the aromaticity, most of the reactive patterns are related to a 1,3-diene or a lactone structure. Participation of a-pyrones as 1,3-dienes in DielsAlder reactions was described as early as 1931 [100]. In this sense, pyran-2-one (4) reacts with maleic anhydride (193) to give the corresponding adduct 194 (Scheme 18.59).
Scheme 18.59 DielsAlder cycloaddition of a-pyranone (4).
This reactivity pattern has also found application in the modern organic synthesis as several structures have been accessed starting from a-pyrones and dienophiles. Scheme 18.60 describes the DielsAlder reaction of a-pyrone 195 and vinyl ether 196 in the route to biologically active compounds [101]. Examples of enantioselective DielsAlder reactions with 2H-pyran-2-one have also been reported [102].
O O Br 195 + OTBS 196
Scheme 18.60 DielsAlder reaction of pyranone 195 in the synthesis of ()-crinine.
O O O Toluene 100C 71% Br O O O OTBS (+/-)-Crinine
Interestingly, a-pyrones also participate in DielsAlder reactions as dienophiles. Thus, reaction of the pyran 2-one 198 and cyclopentadiene 197 produces the bicyclic
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lactone 199 (Scheme 18.61) [103]. This dienophilic capability of pyranone 198 is facilitated by the presence of an electron-withdrawing group.
Scheme 18.61 a-Pyrone 198 reacting as a dienophile.
Taking account of their dienone structure, 2H-pyran-2-ones are also reactive towards nucleophiles [104]. This reaction can occur at three different electrophilic sites: C4, C6, and the carbonylic carbon C2. Scheme 18.62 shows two examples of nucleophilic attacks to C4 and C2 positions, respectively. In the rst example, nucleophilic substitution of the halogen atom has been achieved at the C4 carbon of the pyran-2-one 200 [105]. In the second example, addition of two equivalents of a Grignard reagent to pyranone 201 furnishes 2,2-disubstituted pyrans 202 [106].
Scheme 18.62 Nucleophilic attacks on a-pyrones at C4 and C2.
Transformation of 2-pyranones into other heterocycles through nucleophilic additions at C2 is also possible. Scheme 18.63 shows the transformation of 3-amino-2-pyranone 203 into pyridazines 204206 [107], initiated by a nucleophilic attack of hydrazine on the carbonylic carbon followed by a ring closure. This reaction yields tetrahydropyridazine 204 along with different amounts of dihydropyridazine 205 and pyridazine 206. Further transformations allow the formation of 206 as the sole product. C6-attack is also very common, and the reaction usually evolves to the formation of aromatic structures. These reactions begin by a nucleophilic attack, followed by an
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R2
O NH2
N2H4H2O 71- 84%
R2
CONHNH2 NH
R1 203 R2 N
R1 H N
R1
1
R2 NH + NHNH2 CONHNH2
R2 + CONHNH2
N CONHNH2
R1 205
R1 206
204 R = H, Me R2 = Ph, 2-Py, t-Bu
Scheme 18.63 Transformation of 2-pyranone 203 into pyridazine derivatives.
intramolecular cyclization and decarboxylation. Scheme 18.64 reports one such example in which the bicyclic aromatic derivative 209 is formed. This reaction is initiated by the nucleophilic attack of the enolate of ketone 208 on the C6 position of a-pyrone 207 followed by ring opening, decarboxylation, and recyclization [108].
SMe CO2Me KOH DMF, rt 72 - 76% R ( ) n 209
SMe CO2Me R O 207 O +
( )
208
SMe O R H ( )
CO2Me R n
SMe OH O ( ) OMe R n
SMe CO2Me OH ( ) n
R = 1-naphthyl, 2-naphthyl n = 1,2

Scheme 18.64 Transformation of a-pyrone 207 into arene 209.
In a less general approach, a-pyrones also react with electrophiles through the C3 position. In this sense, 2H-pyran-2-ones bearing a hydroxy or alkoxy group at C4 have been described as useful intermediates for accessing natural compounds with the skeleton of 4-hydroxy-3-substituted-2-pyranones [109]. Scheme 18.65 shows the
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Scheme 18.65 a-Formylation of pyranone 210.
reaction of the 4-methoxy-2-pyranone (210) with an electrophile, in the presence of titanium tetrachloride, to give the 3-formylpyranone 211 [110]. Finally, other reactions such as photochemical reactions [111], hydrogenations [112], and palladium-catalyzed couplings [113] can also take place at the a-pyranone structure.
18.4.2 Coumarins (2H-Chromen-2-ones or 2H-1-Benzopyran-2-ones)
Coumarins (2H-benzopyran-2-ones) are nearly planar compounds and are also considered as enol-lactone systems in a similar way to the corresponding a-pyrones. As noted above, coumarins (1,2-benzopyrones) have been widely reported in the scientic literature in respect of their important applications. Pharmacological properties are good examples of this, such as warfarin (212, Figure 18.17), a coumarin derivative that has found application as anticoagulant for preventing thrombosis [114]. Owing to its anticoagulant activity it has also found application as pesticide to eradicate rats and mice plagues [115]. Figure 18.18 shows the structure of ensaculin (213), another interesting coumarin. It is a 3,4-dimethylcoumarin, with a tethered piperazine moiety, that has demonstrated potential activity against dementia [116].
Figure 18.17 Structure of warfarin.
Figure 18.18 Structure of ensaculin.
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Figure 18.19 Fluorescent coumarin 214 is used in laser devices.
In addition to their use in pharmacology, coumarins can also be found in other elds such as material science. For instance, coumarin 214 has found applicability as part of laser devices, due to its uorescent properties (Figure 18.19) [117]. Perhaps one of the easiest ways to access to the coumarin structure consists in an intramolecular lactonization, as several examples of the synthesis of coumarins following this methodology have been reported. In the reaction shown in Scheme 18.66, coumarin 216 has been synthesized through an acidic and basic deprotection/transesterication sequence from the acetoxy compound 215 [118].
OH OH
R1
CO2R3
3
HCl, MeOH EtONa, EtOH 54 - 83%
R1
R3 O
R
1
CO2R OAc 215
R2
O 216
R = H, Me, Cl R2 = H, Me, OMe R3 = Me, Et

Scheme 18.66 Synthesis of coumarin 216 through an intramolecular lactonization.
Salicylaldehydes are often used as staring materials for the intramolecular lactonization. These compounds can be transformed, following simple procedures such as Wittig [119] or Knoevenagel reactions [120], into intermediates that in situ cyclize to the corresponding coumarins. Scheme 18.67 describes the Wittig reaction of phosphorane 217 with salicylaldehyde derivative 218 to form an a,b-unsaturated ester that lactonizes in situ to give furanocoumarin 219 [121].
OHC EtO2CHC PPh3 217 + HO 218 O R xylene
O 219
O R
Scheme 18.67 Synthesis of the furanocoumarin 219.
One of the most extended procedures for coumarin synthesis consists of a Pechmann condensation, an acid-catalyzed condensation of phenol with a b-ketoester. The reaction mechanism is initiated by an electrophilic aromatic substitution
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and involves a nal step of lactonization. Among the different reaction conditions reported, Scheme 18.68 describes a coumarin synthesis, in the absence of solvent, through a Pechmann condensation catalyzed by titanium tetrachloride [122].
Scheme 18.68 Pechmann condensation for the synthesis of coumarin 220.
Propionic acids [123] or propionic esters [124] are also used as 1,3-dicarbonyl synthetic equivalents for this reaction. Other intramolecular reactions such as condensations [125], ring closing metathesis [126], or transition metal catalyzed arylation of aryl alkynoates [127] have also been reported. Finally, it is worth noting an interesting procedure that involves a transition metal catalyzed carbonylation. Thus, Scheme 18.69 describes a coumarin synthesis from ortho-alkynylphenols [128]. Rhodium-catalyzed carbonylation followed by lactonization furnishes coumarin 221, along with certain amount of a benzofuranone.
Scheme 18.69 Synthesis of coumarin 221, involving a carbonylation step.
Related to their reactivity, coumarins follow similar reaction patterns to those described for a-pyrones. In this sense, reactions with nucleophiles [129], electrophiles [130], and also DielsAlder cycloadditions [131], with the participation of the lactone ring, are common examples. Only a few procedures involving the benzene fused ring, such as selective nitration of the aromatic ring [132], differ from the reactivity of a-pyrones.
18.4.3 c-Pyrones (4H-Pyran-4-ones)
4H-Pyran-4-ones, similarly to 2H-pyran-2-ones, can be presented as resonance hybrids between a cross-conjugated cycloenone and a zwitterionic aromatic structure (Figure 18.20).
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Figure 18.20 Mesomeric structures for 4H-pyran-4-one.
O 5
O 222
Figure 18.21 Retrosynthetic approach to c-pyrones.
Taking account of the absorptions in the infrared spectra, c-pyrones are also mainly considered as lactones instead of aromatic compounds. To support this theory an absorption at the IR spectra around 1660 cm1 is observed [133], similarly to the CO stretching seen in cyclohexadienones. However, this value is slightly lower than the absorption observed for a-pyrones. These values, in addition to their higher basicity compared to enones, indicate a greater contribution from the aromatic structure [134].
18.4.3.1 Synthesis of c-Pyrones The most commonly accepted methodology for the synthesis of 4H-pyran-4-ones (5) lies in the cyclocondensation of 1,3,5-tricarbonylcompounds (222), usually performed under acidic conditions (Figure 18.21) [135]. As an example of this approach, Scheme 18.70 shows a high yield, multi-gram scale (10 g) synthesis of c-pyrone (5) from diketalic bis-aldehyde 223 [136].
Scheme 18.70 Large-scale synthesis of c-pyranone (5).
The main differences in the reported methodologies for the synthesis of c-pyrones usually occur in the procedures involved for accessing the 1,3,5-tricarbonyl compound or analogues. Thus, use of the enolate of diketone 224, in the reaction with carboxylic esters, yields triketones 225 that cyclize under acidic conditions to give 2,6disubstituted c-pyrones 226 (Scheme 18.71) [137]. As another example of this approach, c-pyrones can also be obtained from a-pyrones. Thus, a-pyrones, after acidic treatment, are cleaved and transformed into a 1,3,5-triketone that in situ undergoes recyclization to the corresponding c-pyrone [138].
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Scheme 18.71 4-Pyranone 226 from diketone 224.
The synthesis of 4H-pyran-4-ones has also been reported involving a totally different approach. As an example, Scheme 18.72 describes a hetero-DielsAlder reaction between the ethoxyethyne (228) and ketoketene 227 to form the corresponding substituted c-pyrone 229 [139]. In a similar way, the use of enol-esters gives rise to 6-unsubstituded pyranones, after elimination of ethanol.
MeO2C R C O 227 O + OEt 228 Hexane, rt 80% O MeO2C R O 229 OEt
Scheme 18.72 Hetero-DielsAlder cycloaddition to form c-pyrone 229.
18.4.3.2 Reactivity of c-Pyrones c-Pyrones can be easily transformed into a-pyrones upon irradiation. This evolution is proposed to involve an initial step of electrocyclization to form the intermediate 230, which can evolve to the formation of the epoxycyclopentenone 231. Finally, oxygen migration followed by ring expansion leads to the 2H-pyran-2-one (4) (Scheme 18.73) [140].
O O O O 231 4 O O
O 5
O 230
Scheme 18.73 Photochemical transformation of c-pyrone (5) into a-pyrone (4).
The reactivity of 4H-pyran-4-ones shows great similarity to that of 2H-pyran-2ones. Thus, cycloadditions with the participation of one or both pyranone double bonds are good indications of the low aromaticity of c-pyrones. Scheme 18.74 shows the participation of c-pyrone 233 as a dienophile in a DielsAlder reaction with Danishefskys diene (232) to form the bicyclic pyranone 234 [141]. On the other hand, c-pyrones can be transformed into medium-sized rings through cycloadditions that involve the participation of both unsaturations. In this sense, several intermolecular [5 2] cycloadditions have been reported [142].
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OMe + TMSO 232
O Toluene Ph 54% TMSO
BuO2C O 233
BuO2C O MeO
O H 234
Ph
Scheme 18.74 c-Pyrone 233 as a dienophile.
Among of them, the optically active 8-oxabicyclic[3.2.1]octane 236 has been produced from optically active b-silyloxy-c-pyrone 235 (Scheme 18.75) [143].
TBSO O O
: S p-Tol O
X Toluene 95 - 98% 82 - 94% dr
O TBSO O X H H : S p-Tol O 236
235 X = C(CN)2, C(CO2Et)2, S
Scheme 18.75 Intramolecular [5 2] cycloaddition of c-pyrone 235.
4H-Pyran-4-ones, similarly to 2H-pyran-2-ones, react with nucleophiles, involving an openingreclosing of the six-membered ring. Nucleophilic attack on c-pyrones can occur in two different ways: 1,2-addition at the carbonyl group and 1,4-conjugated additions. Scheme 18.76 shows two representative examples that describe this regioselectivity. Thus, 1,2-addition followed by double bond formation is observed in the reaction of the reactive methylene group of the cyanoacetamide (238) and c-pyrone 237 [144]. On the other hand, c-pyrone 239 has been transformed into the
Scheme 18.76 Nucleophilic attacks on 4-pyranones.
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O OMe HO O OMe 241 242 O O O O O OH O O O O OH
Figure 18.22 Structures of khellin (241) and cromoglicic acid (242).
pyridone 240 by a nucleophilic 1,4-addition upon ammonium hydroxide treatment [145].

18.4.4 Chromones (4H-Chromen-4-ones or 4H-1-Benzopyran-4-ones)
As described above for coumarins, several examples of natural occurring compounds with the structure of chromones (4H-1-benzopyran-4-ones) have been described. As an example, khellin (241) is a natural biologically active chromone that has been widely used in traditional Egyptian medicine for the treatment of renal colic and it is known that it can also act as a vasodilatator (Figure 18.22) [146]. However, due to the important secondary effects of khellin, resulting headaches or intestinal disorders, other synthetic analogues such as cromoglicic acid (242) have been developed. The sodium salt of 242 has found application in the treatment of allergic rhinitis or asthma [147]. Flavones (2-phenylchromones) are also natural occurring compounds, widely found, usually as glycoside derivatives, as pigments in plants. Compounds of this type are luteolin (243), which is present in celery, green pepper, and camomile tea, which shows antioxidant properties [148], and apigenin (244), a component of parsley and celery with important potential biological [149] and industrial properties as a dye for wool (Figure 18.23). In addition, 3-hydroxyavones, also known as avonols, form
Figure 18.23 Structures of luteolin (243), apigenin (244), and myricetin (245).
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another interesting family of biologically active chromones. As an example, myricetin (245), found in grapes and other plants, has demonstrated antitumor activity [150]. The most extensive methodology for the synthesis of 4H-1-benzopyran-4-ones (chromones) involves the formation of the pyranone ring starting from orthohydroxyarylketones or related compounds. As a general example, Scheme 18.77 shows the synthesis of isoavone 247 through the treatment of ortho-hydroxyphenone 246 with a mixed anhydride (of acetic and formic acids) and further dehydration [151].
R1 O Ar HO 246 R1 = H,OH R2 = H,HCO Ar = 4-NO2-C6H4
Scheme 18.77 Formation of chromone 247 from o-hydroxyarylketone 246.
OR1 O Ac2O HCO2H 70 - 90% R2O O 247 Ar
OH
The intramolecular cyclization followed by dehydration of o-hydroxyacetophenones can be achieved using different experimental conditions. Scheme 18.78 shows a procedure promoted by iron trichloride [152]. The phenols 248 also cyclize under copper treatment and microwave irradiation [153] to form chromones 249.
Scheme 18.78 Iron-promoted formation of chromone 249.
The synthesis of chromones starting from o-hydroxyketones or related compounds has also been reported through an intramolecular cyclization of aryl ethynylketones [154] or 2-acetoxy- [155], benzyloxy- [156], or hydroxychalcones [157], followed by oxidation. In addition to the procedures reported here, it is worth mentioning an interesting example involving a carbonylation step. This reaction is described in Scheme 18.79: chromone 252 is synthesized through a palladium-catalyzed carbonylation of o-iodophenol 250, in the presence of a terminal alkyne (251) [158].
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R1 I OH 250 + R2 251 PdCl2 /PPh3 NEt3 /H2O CO 35-95% R1 O O 252 R2
R1 = H, Me, t-Bu, Ph, Cl, CO2 Et R2 = n-Bu, t-Bu, n-C6H13,TMS

Scheme 18.79 Synthesis of chromone 252 through a palladium-catalyzed carbonylation.
Finally, chromones can also be synthesized starting from other heterocycles. Scheme 18.80 shows the transformation of benzofuran 253 into chromone 254 upon treatment with osmium tetroxide followed by hydrolysis [159]. The reaction involves a double bond oxidation followed by opening of the furan ring and a nal recyclization to form a six-membered ring.
Scheme 18.80 Transformation of benzofuran 253 into chromone 254.
Finally, no section is specically dedicated to compiling reported examples of the reactivity of chromones because, in addition to the typical aromatic substitution at the arene ring and similar behavior to coumarins, their reactivity follows a similar pattern to the non-benzofused compounds, the c-pyrones.
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References Igglessi-Markopoulou, O., and Markopoulos, J. (2004) Synthesis, 1775. Shockravi, A., Valizadeh, H., and Heravi, M.M. (2003) Phosphorus Sulfur and Silicon and the Related Elements, 178, 501. Bigi, F., Chesini, L., Maggi, R., and Sartori, G. (1999) The Journal of Organic Chemistry, 64, 1033. Lee, Y.R. (1995) Tetrahedron, 51, 3087. Valizadeh, H. and Shockravi, A. (2005) Tetrahedron Letters, 46, 3501. Jia, C., Piao, D., Kitamura, T., and Fujiwara, Y. (2000) The Journal of Organic Chemistry, 65, 7516. Trost, B.M., Toste, F.D., and Greenman, K. (2003) Journal of the American Chemical Society, 125, 4518. Dolly, Batanero, B., and Barba, F. (2003) Tetrahedron, 59, 9161. Nguyen, V.T., Debenedetti, S., and De Kimpe, N. (2003) Tetrahedron Letters, 44, 4199. Shi, Z. and He, C. (2004) The Journal of Organic Chemistry, 69, 3669. Yoneda, E., Sugioka, T., Hirao, K., Zhang, S.-W., and Takahashi, S. (1998) Journal of the Chemical Society, Perkin Transactions 1, 477. Hamdi, M., Cottet, S., Tedeschi, C., and Speziale, V. (1997) Journal of Heterocyclic Chemistry, 34, 1821. Halland, N., Hansen, T., and Jorgensen, K.A. (2003) Angewandte Chemie International Edition, 42, 4955. Bodwell, G.J., Pi, Z., and Pottie, I.R. (1999) Synlett, 477. Lei, L., Yang, D., Liu, Z., and Wu, L. (2004) Synthetic Communications, 34, 985. Yamada, K. (1962) Bulletin of the Chemical Society of Japan, 35, 1323. Bird, C.W. (1986) Tetrahedron, 42, 8992. Dornow, A. and Ische, F. (1955) Angewandte Chemie, 67, 653. Hobuss, D., Laschat, S., and Baro, A. (2005) Synlett, 123. Light, R.J. and Hauser, C.R. (1960) The Journal of Organic Chemistry, 25, 538. (a) Harris, T.M. and Wachter, M.P. (1970) Tetrahedron, 26, 5255; (b) Sato, M., Oda, T., Iwamoto, K.-I., and Murakami, E. (2003) Tetrahedron, 59, 2651.
139 Stadler, A., Zangger, K., Belaj, F., and
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Kollenz, G. (2001) Tetrahedron, 57, 6757. (a) Barltrop, J.A., Day, A.C., and Samuel, C.J. (1979) Journal of the American Chemical Society, 101, 7521; (b) For other photochemical transformations of substituted c-pyrones see, Amann, C.M., Fisher, P.V., Pugh, M.L., and West, F.G. (1998) The Journal of Organic Chemistry, 63, 2806. Groundwater, P.W., Hibbs, D.E., Hursthouse, M.B., and Nyerges, M. (1996) Heterocycles, 43, 745. ~ o, A., (a) Rumbo, A., Castedo, L., Mourin ~ as, J.L. (1993) The Journal of and Mascaren Organic Chemistry, 58, 5585; (b) ~ as, J.L., Rumbo, A., and Mascaren Castedo, L. (1997) The Journal of Organic ~ as, J.L., Chemistry, 62, 8620; (c) Mascaren P erez, I., Rumbo, A., and Castedo, L. (1997) Synlett, 81; (d) Rodr guez, J.R., ~ as, Rumbo, A., Castedo, L., and Mascaren J.L. (1999) The Journal of Organic Chemistry, 64, 4560. ~ as, L opez, F., Castedo, L., and Mascaren J.L. (2000) Organic Letters, 2, 1005. VanAllan, J.A., Reynolds, G.A., and Maier, D.P. (1968) The Journal of Organic Chemistry, 33, 4418. Patt, W.C. and Massa, M.A. (1997) Tetrahedron Letters, 38, 1297. beda, A. and Villar, A. (1989) The Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, 41, 236. Schwartz, H.J., Blumenthal, M., Brady, R., Braun, S., Lockey, R., Myers, D., Manseld, L., Mullarkey, M., Owens, G., Ratner, P., Repsher, L., and van As, A. (1996) Chest, 109, 945. Jang, S., Kelley, K.W., and Johnson, R.W. (2008) Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 105, 7534. Si, D., Wang, Y., Zhou, Y.-H., Guo, Y., Wang, J., Zhou, H., Li, Z.-S., and Fawcett, J.P. (2009) Drug Metabolism and Disposition: The Biological Fate of Chemicals, 37, 629. Zhang, Q., Zhao, X.-H., and Wang, Z.-J. (2008) Food and Chemical Toxicology: An International Journal Published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association, 46, 2042.
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151 Liu, D.F. and Cheng, C.C. (1991) Journal 152 156 Kawamura, Y., Maruyama, M., Tokuoka,
153 154
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of Heterocyclic Chemistry, 28, 1641. Zubaidha, P.K., Hashmi, A.M., and Bhosale, R.S. (2005) Heterocyclic Communications, 11, 97. Kabalka, G.W. and Mereddy, A.R. (2005) Tetrahedron Letters, 46, 6315. Nakatani, K., Okamoto, A., Yamanuki, M., and Saito, I. (1994) The Journal of Organic Chemistry, 59, 4360. Bose, G., Mondal, E., Khan, A.T., and Bordoloi, M.J. (2001) Tetrahedron Letters, 42, 8907.
T., and Tsukayama, M. (2002) Synthesis, 2490. 157 Ahmed, N., Ali, H., and van Lier, J.E. (2005) Tetrahedron Letters, 46, 253. 158 (a) Miao, H. and Yang, Z. (2000) Organic Letters, 2, 1765; (b) Liang, B., Huang, M., You, Z., Xiong, Z., Lu, K., Fathi, R., Chen, J., and Yang, Z. (2005) The Journal of Organic Chemistry, 70, 6097. 159 Ishikawa, T. and Miwa, C. (1997) Heterocycles, 45, 2273.
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19 Six-Membered Heterocycles: 1,2-, 1,3-, and 1,4-Diazines and Related Systems

Mara-Paz Cabal
19.1 Introduction
Diazines are aromatic six-membered heterocycles that contain two sp2-hybridized nitrogen atoms in the ring. The three diazine isomers are pyridazine (1,2-diazine) [13] (1), pyrimidine (1,3-diazine) [4] (2), and pyrazine (1,4-diazine) [5] (3). They are stable, colorless compounds that are soluble in water. Being rather expensive, and not readily available, these parent compounds are rarely used as starting materials for the synthesis of their derivatives.
4 5 3 5 6 1 N2 N Pyridazine 1 4 N3 5 6 6 1 2 N Pyrimidine 2 4 N
1 2 N Pyrazine 3
Four types of bicyclic variants in which a benzene ring is fused onto the diazine include cinnoline (benzo[c]pyridazine) (4), phthalazine (benzo[d]pyridazine) (5), quinazoline (benzo[d]pyrimidine) (6), and quinoxaline (benzo[e]pyrazine) (7). In addition, pteridine (8) and the diazanaphthalene system phenazine (dibenzopyrazine) (9) are also important derivatives.
N N Phthalazine 5 N N Quinazoline 6 N N Quinoxaline 7 N N N N N N Phenazine 9
N Cinnoline 4
Pteridine 8
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j 19 Six-Membered Heterocycles: 1,2-, 1,3-, and 1,4-Diazines and Related Systems

19.2 General Reactivity 19.2.1 Physical and Spectroscopic Properties [6]
As 6p-electron heteroaromatic compounds diazines are electron-decient due to the inductive effects of the nitrogen atoms that induce a partially positive charge on the carbon atoms. The calculated p-electron density [7] distributions for each ring, compared to pyridine (Figure 19.1), are consistent with the observed reactivities towards electrophiles, which are notably lower than those towards nucleophiles. Pyridazine and pyrimidine have a planar, slightly distorted hexagonal geometry, while pyrazine is planar with D2h symmetry. Each of these heterocycles can be regarded as aromatic in character, and, consequently, the bond lengths and internal bond angles (Figure 19.2) are also very similar to those in benzene (1.39 A), based on X-ray diffraction, gas-phase electron diffraction and microwave spectroscopy studies [8]. However, the resonance energies of pyrimidine (110 kJ mol1) and pyrazine (100 kJ mol1) are signicantly lower than those of benzene (150 kJ mol1) or pyridine (117 kJ mol1), which means that these compounds are less aromatic. Another way to measure the degree of aromaticity is by the structural index of aromaticity that is calculated based on the bond lengths; in such set of values the aromaticity is expressed as a percentage of that of benzene (Table 19.1). The NN bond in pyridazine has signicant single bond character, supporting theoretical calculations suggesting that canonical form 1a, having double bonds
0.965 0.795 N N 1.240 Pyridazine 1.051
0.734 N N 1.449 0.584
0.942 N 1.029 N 1.368 Pyrazine 0.816 0.787 N 1.426 Pyridine
Pyrimidine
Figure 19.1 Calculated p-electron density distributions for each ring, compared to pyridine.
1.37
1.39
1.39 116.8
1.36 115.5
N
121.8
1.34 118.4 1.39
1.39 1.39 123.8 116.9
117.1 123.7 119.3 1.34
N
1.33
122.3 127.6 116.3 1.34
1.34
N Pyrazine

1.34
Pyridazine
Pyrimidine
Pyridine
Figure 19.2 Bond lengths (A) and internal bond angles ( ) of pyridazine, pyrimidine, pyrazine, and pyridine.

Table 19.1 Aromaticity index (%).
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Benzene Pyridine Pyridazine Pyrimidine Pyrazine
100 82 65 67 75
Table 19.2
H NMR chemical shifts (ppm) of diazines compared with pyridine. H2 9.26 8.60 8.52 H3 9.17 8.60 7.16 H4 7.52 8.78 7.55 H5 7.52 7.36 8.60 7.16 H6 9.17 8.78 8.60 8.52 C2 158.4 145.9 149.5 C3 153.0 145.9 125.6 C4 130.0 156.9 138.7 C5 130.3 121.9 145.9 125.6 C6 153.0 156.9 145.9 149.5 Solvent CDCl3 CDCl3 CDCl3 CDCl3
Compound Pyridazine Pyrimidine Pyrazine Pyridine
between the nitrogens, contributes less to the resonance hybrid than the NN single bond structure 1b.
N 1a
N 1b
The 1 H and 13 C NMR spectra of the diazines show close similarities with pyridine (Table 19.2). The additional nitrogen atom in the ring is responsible for a greater downeld shift of the ring protons and C-atoms at the 3- and 6-positions in pyridazine, the 2-, 4-, and 6-positions in pyrimidine, and in all the carbons in pyrazine. The symmetrical 1,4-diazines structure, of course, is reected in the 1 H and 13 C NMR spectra, showing one signal for the four ring protons and C-atoms. The vicinal coupling constants of ortho protons on the rings vary considerably, depending on the type of heterocycle, and are typically smaller for those protons located closer to the heteroatoms (Figure 19.3). The magnitude of the coupling constants in effect reects the degree of double bond character in the particular CC bond. 15N NMR spectroscopy has also been used to estimate the hybridization of the nitrogen atoms [9].
8.0-9.6 H
5.1 H
5.0 H
H N N N N H 1.8-2.1 H
6.8-9.1 H H 4.0-5.7 N H
Figure 19.3 Vicinal coupling constants (Hz) of ortho protons.
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Table 19.3 UV absorption bands of the diazines versus pyridine.
Compound Pyridazine Pyrimidine Pyrazine Pyridine
p ! p 241 251 238 243 261 267 195 251
Log e 3.02 3.15 3.48 3.50 3.81 3.72 2.65 3.30
n ! p 340 272 301 270
Log e 2.56 2.62 2.88 3.87
Solvent Hexane H2O H2O Hexane
Table 19.3 lists the principal bands in the UV spectra of the three monocyclic systems. The six-membered aza-aromatic compounds possess the 6p-electron system of benzene, and have non-bonding electron pairs on the nitrogen atoms. These electron pairs are responsible for n ! p electronic transitions at longer wavelengths. These absorptions are weak in comparison to the p ! p transition of the ring electrons and are frequently difcult to locate in spectra except when the two nitrogen atoms are adjacent. Thus, the n ! p bands are more obvious features of the UV spectra of compounds such as pyridazine (1) and cinnoline (4). The introduction of a nitrogen atom into a benzene ring tends to make a derivative more crystalline and less volatile; this effect is even greater for the diazines, especially pyridazine and pyrazine. Pyridazine, in contrast, is a colorless liquid, soluble in water and alcohols but insoluble in hydrocarbons. The high boiling point of pyridazine, 8090 C higher than the other two diazines (Table 19.4) is attributed to the polarizability of the NN unit, which results in extensive dipolar association in the liquid state. Alkyl groups attached to ring carbon atoms usually increase the boiling points by 2060 C, while hydrogen bonding groups such as carboxylic acids, amides, amino, and hydroxy substituents afford solids. Methoxy, methylthio, and dimethylamino derivatives are often liquids, while chloro compounds have boiling points similar to those of the corresponding ethyl derivatives, and approximately 25 C lower than their bromo analogues.
Table 19.4 Physical properties of pyridazine, pyrimidine, and pyrazine versus pyridine.
Property Mp ( C) Bp ( C/760 mmHg) pKa Dipole moment (m, D) DH (kJ mol1)
Pyridazine 8 208 2.3 4.22 4397.8
Pyrimidine 22.5 124 1.3 2.33 4480.2
Pyrazine 57 116 0.4 0 4480.6
Pyridine 42 115 5.2 2.22
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The basicities of the diazines are sharply reduced from that of pyridine and, consequently, they are more difcult to protonate on the nitrogen centers. This is reected by the signicantly lower pKa values the protonated species have compared to pyridinium cation (pKa 5.2): 2.3 for protonated pyridazine, 1.3 for protonated pyrimidine, and 0.4 for protonated pyrazine. The dipolar moment of pyridazine is higher than that of pyrimidine, while pyrazine is symmetrical and has no dipole moment. The calculated enthalpies of formation for the diazines show that pyridazine is 83 kJ mol1 more stable than pyrimidine and pyrazine.
19.2.2 Tautomerism
Table 19.5 summarizes the tautomeric features of hydroxy-, mercapto-, and aminosubstituted azines for dilute solutions in water at 20 C. For systems having X O or S, the non-aromatic tautomer form(s) in general is favored over the aromatic species,
Table 19.5 Tautomeric equilibria of some monofunctional azines.
Entry 1
Compounds
XO
XS B>A
XN A>B
XH N A N N B
X
X NH
B>A
XH
B>A
B>A
A>B
N A
3
N B
N H
N N A XH
NH N B
X NH N B N XH N H X B N H
N N H
X N
B/C > A
B/C > A
A > B/C
X C
B/C > A B/C > A A > B/C
XH N N A
C
B>A B>A A>B
N N A
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although in the vapor phase the thiol predominates over the thione. For 4-hydroxypyrimidine (entry 4), which can exist as three different tautomers, the general tendency favors amide B over the vinylogous amide C. For X N, the aromatic structure is consistently favored over the other tautomers B and C.
19.3 Relevant Natural/Biological Compounds 19.3.1 Pyridazines (1,2-Diazines)
Unlike other heterocycles found in many important natural products, pyridazines were discovered only after 1970, and relatively few pyridazines have thus far been isolated from natural sources. The rst representative examples include some fungal metabolites from Streptomyces species. These are now a big group of over 15 related compounds. Monomycin X [10] (10, from Streptomyces jamaicensis) is just one example of cyclohexadepsipeptide antibiotics. Antrimycins [11] (11, from Streptomyces xanthocidiens) are tuberculostatic peptides that also contain nonribosomal amino acids. The quaternary salt pyridazinomycin [12] (12, from Streptomyces violaceoniger) is an antifungal antibiotic whose amino acid side chain can be viewed as L-ornithine with its terminal nitrogen atom as part of the pyridazine ring.
H N N (S) H (R) H O O N N(S ) N Me O O R2 O O O N N H( ) N S (S ) 1 R O N H H( ) N S CO2H O OH
(R ) O O (S ) N O NH
H2N
H (S ) N N (S ) H O OH OH H2N
(R)
R1 = Me, Et, n-Pr, i-Bu R2 = Me, Et 11 Antrimycins
10 Monomycin X H2NOC N N Cl
NH2 CO2H
12 Pyridazinomycin
As synthetic compounds, pyridazines constitute an important pharmacophoric moiety present in many drugs acting on various pharmacological targets. Minaprine (13) [13] is a synthetically-derived aminopyridazine possessing dopaminergic, serotoninergic, cholinergic, and GABA-ergic activities, while SR 95103 (14) [14], an
19.3 Relevant Natural/Biological Compounds
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analog of c-aminobutyric acid (GABA), serves as a powerful inhibitor of monoamine oxidase and acetylcholine esterase [15, 16].
Me H N N NH O Ph 13 Minaprine N N COOH
Me
Ph
14 SR 95103
Several pyridazines are selective plant growth regulators and are used as herbicides. Pyridate, 15, and 3-hydroxy-6(1H)-pyrazinone, 16, are two examples currently used in commercial lawn weed killers.
n-C8H17SO2 Ph N N Cl O N H N OH
15 Pyridate
16 3-Hydroxy-6(1H)-pyrazinone
19.3.2 Pyrimidines (1,3-Diazines)
The most important naturally occurring diazines are the pyrimidine bases uracil, thymine, and cytosine, which comprise the fundamental nucleoside building blocks in deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA) [17]. These compounds exist as tautomers in which the hydroxypyrimidines adopt the lactam form [uridine (17) and thymidine (18)] whereas aminopyrimidines prefer the enamine structure (cytidine, 19).
O Uracil N HO O OH OH 17 Uridine NH O HO O Thymine
O NH N O HO O Cytosine
NH2 N N O
OH OH 18 Thymidine
OH OH 19 Cytidine
In addition, several pyrimidine nucleoside analogues have been developed as antiviral agents [18]. Idoxuridine, 20, is used in the treatment of herpes infections of
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the eye; AZT (21) is the most widely used anti-AIDS drug; stavudine, 22, is effective in the treatment of HIV infections and AIDS, and lamivudine, 23, is used to treat both hepatitis B and AIDS.
O I N Me NH O HO O OH 20 Idoxuridine N3 21 AZT 22 Stavudine 23 Lamivudine O N O NH O HO O S Me N O NH O HO O N NH2 N O
HO
Barbituric acid, 24, and orotic acid, 25, a key compound in the biosynthesis of naturally occurring pyrimidine derivatives, are also important pyrimidine derivatives. 5,5-Diethylbarbituric acid was the rst therapeutic barbiturate (E. Fischer 1903, veronal or barbital, 26), and other derivatives are still used as sedatives, antiepileptic drugs, and anesthetics. Sedative barbiturates have toxicity and dependency problems and have now been replaced by other drugs.
O NH N O H 24 Barbituric acid O HOOC N H O NH O O NR3 N H O
R1 R2 O
25 Orotic acid
26 Veronal (Barbital) R1 = R2 = Et R3 = H
Vitamin B1 (thiamine), 27, occurs in yeast, rice husk, and various cereals, and represents another well-known naturally-occurring pyrimidine essential in our daily lives. A deciency of vitamin B1 causes beriberi and damage to the nervous system (polyneuritis).
NH2 N Me N Cl N S OH
27 Vitamin B1
Several pyrimidine-containing antibiotics, especially those isolated from Streptomyces, possess potent antitumor properties, such as the structurally complex bleomycins. Trimethoprim, 28, an antibacterial agent widely used in combination with sulfamethoxazole, and the antimalarial pyrimethamine, 29, are examples of synthetic 2-amino-substituted pyrimidines in the pharmaceutical area.
19.4 Synthesis of Pyridazines (1,2-Diazines)
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NH2 H3CO H3CO OCH3 28 Trimethoprim N N NH2
Cl
NH2 N Et N NH2
29 Pyrimethamine
Bensulfuronmethyl, 30, a sulfonylurea derived from 4,6-dimethoxy-2-aminopyrimidine, acts as a powerful plant growth regulator and is an active herbicide. 7-Hydroxy-5-methyl-1,2,4-triazolo[1,5-a]pyrimidine, 31, serves as an emulsion stabilizer in various photographic materials.
H N O H N N Me OCH3 30 Bensulfuronmethyl 31 N OH N OCH3 N N N
S O2
19.3.3 Pyrazines (1,4-Diazines)
Alkylpyrazines occur frequently as constituents in foodstuffs and are responsible for their avor and strong aroma. Although being present in very small amounts, they are highly odiferous and can be detected at extremely low concentrations (105 ppm). 3-Isobutyl-2-methoxypyrazine, 32, is a simple natural derivative isolated from green peas and wine, and 2-methyl-6-vinylpyrazine, 33, is an aromatic component of coffee. Several polyalkylpyrazines such as 2-ethyl-3,5-dimethylpyrazine, 34, also act as alarm pheromones in ants. Several pyrazin-2(1H)-ones and 1-hydroxypyrazin-2(1H)-ones (35) have antibiotic properties.
N N 32 O N N 33 Me Me N N 34 pheromone Me Et R1 N R2
O N 35 OH antibiotic
Food aroma components
The rst pyridazines were rst synthesized as early as 1886 by Fischer [19], but their chemistry has only been explored since the 1950s. This is likely because pyridazines do not occur as natural products despite having a nitrogennitrogen linkage that
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could conceivably be obtainable from biochemical transformation of dinitrogen. However, since many pyridazines possess potential therapeutic or plant growth inhibitory effects, a wide variety of new syntheses have been developed more recently.
19.4.1 Synthesis by Ring-Closure Reactions 19.4.1.1 Three-Component Couplings Although the assembly of pyridazines from three discrete coupling units is relatively uncommon, three-component reactions do represent a useful method for the preparation of 1,2-diazines (Scheme 19.1).
Z Z O + O H2N
Scheme 19.1
three-component coupling N
O NH2
As an example (Scheme 19.2), a 1,2-diketone, a cyanoacetate, and hydrazine combine under basic alcoholic conditions to afford 5,6-disubstituted pyridazine-3 (2H)-ones 36 bearing a nitrile group at position 4 [20], a versatile precursor to fused pyridazines [21, 22]. Similarly, the reaction of 1-aryl-2-nitroprop-1-enes with an acetoacetate ester and hydrazine offers 3,6-dimethylpyridazines 37 bearing an aryl group at position 5 and a carbohydrazide at position 4 [23, 24].
R2 R1 CN O + O NC O OR3 H2NNH2.H2O NaOEt, reflux R1 = R2 = Ph R3 = Et R1 N R2 O NH
36 (44%) CONHNH2
Me Ar + NO2 O CO2Et
H2NNH2.H2O NaOEt, reflux
Ar Me N N
Me
37 (68-78%)
Scheme 19.2
19.4.1.2 Two-Component Couplings Two different strategies can be considered for the assembly of pyridazines by a twocomponent coupling (Scheme 19.3).
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O + O H2N N N N
O + O H2N NH2
Scheme 19.3
A more common route to 1,2-diazines involves a coupling of formal [4 2] cyclocondensation precursors to create the six-membered ring in one step. Examples are illustrated below.
19.4.1.2.1 [C-C-C-C] [N-N] The condensation of hydrazine or substituted hydrazines with appropriate four-carbon synthons represents one of the most widely used approaches to pyridazines and pyridazinones (Scheme 19.4) [25a]. Carbons 1 and 4 of these building blocks must bear functional groups that are susceptible to nucleophilic attack by a hydrazine nitrogen atom (usually followed by elimination of a small molecule like water, an alcohol, etc.). Depending on the degree of saturation of the C2C3 bond, fully aromatic or partially saturated pyridazines are obtained, in which case various methods for oxidation/aromatization are available (Br2/AcOH; CuCl2/ CH3CN, etc.).
two component reaction N N
O + O H2N NH2
Scheme 19.4
A long-established method to prepare 3,6-disubstituted pyridazines is the condensation of saturated 1,4-dicarbonyl compounds with hydrazine, semicarbazide, or similar hydrazine derivatives (Scheme 19.5). The fully aromatic pyridazines can often be obtained by spontaneous oxidation of the dihydro intermediates [25b]. When saturated 1,4-diketones are used, the reaction is carried out in the presence of mineral acids to prevent the competing formation of N-aminopyrroles.
R1 O O R1
Scheme 19.5
H2NNH2.H2O AcOH R1 N N
R1
[O] R1 N N
R1
R1 = tBu 91%
One interesting alternative is the use of Meldrums acid derivatives 38, which are easily available and readily cyclize with hydrazine at room temperature, with subsequent decarboxylation, to provide the 4,5-dihydropyridazin-3(2H)-ones 39 (Scheme 19.6) [26]. 4-Oxoalkanoic acids where R3 alkyl/aryl/heteroaryl residues, with or without further substituents R1 and R2, have been employed for condensation reactions with
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O R1 R2 O O O O 38
Scheme 19.6
R1 H2NNH2.H2O R2 39 N O NH
hydrazine (Scheme 19.7) [27]. Whereas in most cases the free carboxylic acids (R4 H) are employed, esters are also frequently used [28]. For the latter case, a protocol suitable for high-throughput organic synthesis has been developed that is based on construction of the oxo ester precursor by silver(I)-catalyzed addition of zirconocenes to epoxy esters [29].
R1 O R3 R2
Scheme 19.7
R1 O [O] 52-95% R2 R3 N O NH
CO2R4 R1
H2NNH 2.H2O heat 66-100%
R2 R3 N
NH
When 4-oxoalkanoic acids with a 2-hydroxy group are employed for cyclization with hydrazine spontaneous dehydration of the initial intermediate occurs to give pyridazine-3(2H)-ones 40 (Scheme 19.8). In some cases, the 4-hydroxydiazinone intermediate can be isolated [30].
R1 H2NNH2 .H2O R2 R3 N R1 OH O NH -H2O R2 R3 N O NH
O R
3
CO 2R R2 R1 OH
40
Scheme 19.8
A useful one-pot protocol based on this route has been developed by Coates (Scheme 19.9) [31] that employs substituted acetophenones with glyoxylic acid monohydrate in the presence of ammonium hydroxide, in which the initial aldol adduct is converted into the pyridazin-3(2H)-one 41 with hydrazine. The reported yields are, however, highly variable.
O Ar OHCCO2H.H2O H2O, NH4OH Ar O Ar N 41 NH
CO2 NH4 OH
H2NNH2.H2O -H2O (33-86%)
Scheme 19.9
j1695
Lam and Lee have devised a solid-phase procedure for the synthesis of various 3,6disubstituted pyridazines (Scheme 19.10) [32]. Sodium benzenesulnate resin was treated sequentially with a-bromoketones in two steps to give immobilized diketo sulfones, from which a library of substituted pyridazines could be prepared by condensation with hydrazine. Release of the adducts from the resin occurs by spontaneous elimination driven by ring aromatization.
O 1. Br R1 OO S R1 O O R2 NH2-NH2 ethanol/1,4-dioxane R1 N N R2 (10-40%)
KI, NBuI, DMF, r.t. SO2Na 2. Br O R2
K2CO3, DMF, r.t.
Scheme 19.10
Unsaturated 1,4-dicarbonyls likewise undergo cyclization with hydrazine to afford directly the pyridazine product 42 (Scheme 19.11) [33]. While (Z)-alkenyl diketones react readily with ethanolic hydrazine hydrate at room temperature, cyclization of the corresponding (E)-isomer also occurs but requires higher reaction temperatures [34].
R1 O O R1 H2NNH2.H2O ethanol R1 N N R1
R1 = Me, Ar
42
Scheme 19.11
The unsaturated 1,4-dicarbonyl compound can be generated electrolytically from polymer-bound furans [35]. The initial oxidation product 43 can be hydrolyzed in aqueous acid and, through condensation with hydrazine and concomitant hydrazinolysis of the ester linkage, pyridazines 44 are obtained in 5065% overall yield (Scheme 19.12). The use of maleic acid derivatives with substituted hydrazines is a general method for the preparation of 6-hydroxypyridazin-3(2H)-ones 45, bearing various substituents at the 2, 4, or 5 positions (Scheme 19.13). These serve as versatile intermediates to other pyridazines since the oxo/hydroxyl groups at C3 and C6 can be easily converted into chloro substituents for nucleophilic replacement [36]. 3-Formylpropenoic acids and their hydroxylactone tautomers react with hydrazine to afford pyridazin-3(2H)-ones 46 in a single step (Scheme 19.14). Thus, the
1696

Me O Bu4N Br Me MeOH-1,4-dioxane C-electrodes j = 15 mA/cm2 MeO O O OMe O Me H2SO4 aq. 1,4-dioxane O H2N-NH2 HCl Me O O N N O O O
O O
43
Me HO N N
44
Scheme 19.12
R1 O
R2 H2NNH2.heat O O R1 = H, Me R1 = H, Me,Cl
R2 R1 HO N O NH R1 O
R2 OH N H N
(81-94%)
45
Scheme 19.13
R2 OHC HO2C R1 HO
R1
R1 R2 O O H2NNH 2.H2O R1 = R 2 =Cl 95% R1 = R 2 =Br 98% R2 N O NH
46
Scheme 19.14
condensation of 2,3-dichloro-4-oxobut-2-enoic acid (mucochloric acid, R1 and R2 Cl) or its bromo congener with hydrazine gives the corresponding 4,5-dihalopyridazin-3(2H)-ones [37]. The same precursors have been used for the preparation of 6-aryl-4,5-dihalopyridazin-3(2H)-ones 47, via an intermediate lactone resulting from the FriedelCrafts reaction of an arene with the 3-formyl acid (Scheme 19.15) [38].
O Cl O Cl Ar H2NNH2.H2O Cl Ar
Cl O N 47 NH
Scheme 19.15
j1697
a-Amino-c-cyanopropenoate esters can be used to obtain the corresponding 3,5diaminopyridazines (Scheme 19.16) [39].
NHCOR O H2N N NH
NC
CO2Me
H2NNH2.H2O EtOH, rt, 2 h
HNHCOR
R = Me 62% R = Ph 81%
Scheme 19.16
An interesting variation of this reaction has been described by Ohta and coworkers in the synthesis of the pyridazine-fused isopropylidene norbornadiene 51 (Scheme 19.17). The cyclization was carried out by hydrolysis of diethyl acetal 50 with formic acid followed by condensation with hydrazine hydrate [40]. Compound 50 was prepared by the DielsAlder cycloaddition of propargylic aldehyde 48 with dimethylfulvene 49.
CHO + CH(OEt)2 tol., reflux CHO CH(OEt)2 1. formic acid 2. NH2NH2.H2O N N (40%)
Scheme 19.17
48
49
50
51
As an alternative to hydrazine-based cyclizations, Elassar has reported a Japp Klingemann type reaction of aryldiazonium salts to produce pyridazines 52 (Scheme 19.18) [41].
CN X X = CO2Et, CN
Ar N N Cl X
N NAr NH 52
Scheme 19.18
19.4.1.2.2 [N-N-C-C] [C-C] Reaction of Methylene-Activated Hydrazides with 1,2-Dicarbonyl Compounds The two-component reaction of 1,2-dicarbonyl compounds with hydrazides possessing an active methylene group, such as cyanoacetohydrazide [20], heteroaryl-substituted
1698

acetohydrazides [42], or similar derivatives of 2-nitroacetic acid [43, 44], gives pyridazin-3(2H)-ones in fairly good yields (Schemes 19.19 and 19.20). Glyoxal, a-keto aldehydes, and a-diketones can all be employed as 1,2-dicarbonyl units for these cyclizations, thereby affording a wide range of substituted pyridazines.
O + N N O H2 N N
Scheme 19.19
R3 O H2N NH R3 R2 R1 N O NH
base R1 R2 O O H2N N NO2 R3
NO2 R2 R1 N R3 NH
base
Scheme 19.20
Reaction of 1,2-Dicarbonyl Monohydrazones with Methylene-Activated Compounds An alternative method for the construction of pyridazin-3(2H)-ones 53 is the use of monohydrazones of 1,2-dicarbonyl compounds in combination with esters or nitriles possessing reactive a-methylene groups (Scheme 19.21) [4547]. As for the above method, an assortment of substitution patterns can be introduced through selection of suitably substituted starting materials.
R3 O OEt base R
2
R2 R1
O + N NH2
R3
O N NH
R1
53
Scheme 19.21
Reactions of 1,2-Diaza-1,3-Dienes with Alkyl 2-Acetylacetoacetate Derivatives In addition to their use as dienes in hetero-DielsAlder reactions, 1,2-diaza-1,3-dienes 54 with an electron-withdrawing group at N1 can be coupled with acetyl acetoacetates 55
j1699
under mildly basic conditions to give pyridazine products 57 (Scheme 19.22). Mechanistically, this sequence involves a 1,4-addition of the carbanion generated from the acetyl acetoacetate, followed by attack of the NH nitrogen atom on the oxo function and subsequent elimination of acetic acid and loss of the carbamoyl residue [48, 49]. These N-unsubstituted-1,4-dihydropyridazines 56 can be aromatized to pyridazines using, for example, a solid-phase supported brominating agent [50].
O O R1 N N CONH2 + R2 O K2CO3 THF N NH CONH2 CH2N+Me3Br3N CH2Cl2 R2 R1 N NH H R1 R2 O R1
O R2 OH N N CONH2
54
R2 R1 N
55
57
-AcOH -CONH2
56
Scheme 19.22
19.4.1.3 One-Component Couplings 19.4.1.3.1 [N-N-C-C-C-C] The conceptually simplest route to pyridazines is the cyclization reaction of a hydrazone onto a suitably positioned carbonyl functionality (Scheme 19.23).
O N N N NH2
Scheme 19.23
There are two different strategies for the synthesis of pyridazines using a onecomponent reaction for the ring closure.
Cyclization of Hydrazones of 4-Oxoalkenoic Acid Derivatives The intramolecular ringclosure reactions of the hydrazones of 4-oxoalkenoic acid derivatives, such as esters or nitriles, occur under various reaction conditions to afford pyridazinones or iminopyridazines (Scheme 19.24) [51]. In most cases, arylhydrazones [52] have been used as the cyclization substrates, being conveniently available by electrophilic substitution of methylene-activated precursors with arenediazonium salts [53].
1700

CO2Et
EtO 2C
Ph NC
CO2Et
ArN2 Cl NaOAc, EtOH, rt (64-68%)
CO2Et Ph NC N NHAr
NaOAc, EtOH reflux (58-62%)
Ph NC
CO2Et O N NAr
Scheme 19.24
Reductive Cyclization of Diazo(vinyl)methanes Bearing a Carbonyl Group 4-(Triuoromethyl)pyridazine-3-carboxylate esters 60 bearing an alkyl or alkoxy group at C6 can be prepared in two steps from the triuoroacetyl-substituted diazo esters 58 (Scheme 19.25). First, the ketone is olenated with stabilized Wittig reagents to afford the (E)-congured alkoxycarbonylvinyl diazomethane 59, which undergoes ring closure under very mild conditions by treatment with triphenylphosphine. Mechanistically, a diaza-Wittig reaction of an intermediate phosphazine has been suggested [54].
CF3 CF3 O N2 CO2Et + R1 CF3 PPh3 O Et2O, rt (56-88%) R1 O N2 CO2Et Ph3P R1 O N PPh3 -Ph3PO N CO2Et
58
59
CF3 CO2Et R1 N N
(57-83%)
60
Scheme 19.25
One of the most versatile methods for synthesizing functionalized pyridazines lies in the use of cycloaddition reactions between suitable dienes and dienophiles.
19.4.2.1 [4 2]-Cycloaddition Reactions of 1,2,4,5-Tetrazines A reaction that has been used extensively for the synthesis of a wide variety of substituted pyridazines is the inverse-electron-demand (LUMO diene-controlled) DielsAlder reactions of 1,2,4,5-tetrazines with alkene- or alkyne-type dienophiles, followed by elimination of dinitrogen to give the 1,2-pyrizadine (Scheme 19.26) [55]. This process works best when the tetrazine has electron-withdrawing substituents
j1701
R3 R1 N N R2
Scheme 19.26
N N
R4
N 1 N R R3 N R2 R4 -N2
R1 R3 R4 R2 N N
and the dienophile is electron-rich, thereby decreasing the energy gap between the respective frontier molecular orbitals (LUMOdieneHOMOdienophile) [56]. Commonly used dienophiles are mono- and disubstituted alkynes such as ynamines, but also a wide range of substituents, including nitro, trimethylsilyl and trimethyltin, can be incorporated onto the acetylene. Alternatively, electron-rich alkenes such as enamines, enol ethers, and ketene acetals can be employed to provide routes to substituted pyridazines not easily available by other methods [57]. Wan and Snyder have applied this strategy to the inverse-electron demand cycloadditions of 2-substituted imidazoles 61 with 1,2,4,5-tetrazine-3,6-dicarboxylate, 62, to afford imidazo[4,5-d]pyridazines 63 in high yields (Scheme 19.27) [58].
CO2Me Me2N N N N H
61
Scheme 19.27
CO2Me THF Me2N N N N H N N CO2Me
N N
N N CO2Me
62
(86%) 63
This methodology has been extended to solid-phase synthesis for the rapid assembly of pyridazine compound libraries (Scheme 19.28). A resin-bound aminotetrazine with a functional group at the C6 position (64) has been used in combination with a wide range of electron-rich dienophiles to give pyridazines 65 after cleavage from the solid support [59].
HO O O N N X 64
Scheme 19.28
Boc R1 N N + R2 2. 20% TFA/Cl2CH2 3. K2CO3 MeOH/THF (2:1) R

2
NH 1. dioxane, reflux R1 N N X 65
1702

19.4.2.2 [4 2]-Cycloaddition Reactions of Azodicarboxylic Esters Tetrahydropyridazines 66 can alternatively be produced by a DielsAlder reaction of substituted 1,3-butadienes with azodicarboxylic esters (Scheme 19.29). The usual stereochemical and substituent effects of these reactions follow according to WoodwardHoffmann considerations.
R2 + R1
COOR N N COOR
R2 R1 N N COOR COOR
66
Scheme 19.29
19.4.2.3 Cycloaddition Reactions with N-Phenyltriazolinedione Thiophene S,S-dioxides with bulky 3,4-disubstitution (R adamant-1-yl) react with N-phenyltriazolinedione by a DielsAlder reaction to give 1:2 adducts, followed by hydrolysis to afford 4,5-disubstituted pyridazines (Scheme 19.30) [60].
R -N2 N N N R N
R + S O2 O
R N N N Ph O 1. tol. reflux 2. KOH, air MeOH, rt R N N
(56%)
Scheme 19.30
19.4.2.4 Hetero-DielsAlder with Electron-Rich Alkenes A convenient method for the preparation of various pyridazines is the inverseelectron-demand hetero-DielsAlder reaction of 1,2-diaza-1,3-dienes bearing at least one acceptor group with electron-rich alkenes such as enol ethers or enamines [61]. These [4 2]-cycloaddition reactions show a high degree of regio- and stereochemical control [62, 63]. The primary reaction products are tetrahydropyridazines but they can be oxidatively transformed into the fully aromatic compounds (Scheme 19.31) [64].
R3 R2 R1 N EWG
Scheme 19.31
R2 R4 Y R3 R4 Y N N EWG R1
R3 R4
R2 R1 N N
j1703
19.4.3 Synthesis by Ring Enlargement 19.4.3.1 From Furan Derivatives Several examples of this reaction have been shown already (Section 19.4.1.2.1). Aromatic furans have been reported to undergo synthetically useful ring transformation into pyridazines in two steps [65]. First, the furan is converted into 2,5-dialkoxy2,5-dihydrofuran by oxidative addition of two moles of an alcohol, followed by an acid-promoted ring expansion in the presence of hydrazine (Scheme 19.32) [66].
R2 [O] R1 O R3 R4OH R1 R3 R4O O OR4 R2 H2N-NH 2 H 3O
R2 R1 N N
R3
(40-85%)
Scheme 19.32
19.4.3.2 From c-Bicyclic Lactams Bicyclic lactams have been used as precursors for the synthesis of chiral 4,5-dihydro2H-pyridazin-3-ones 67 through thermal ring expansion reaction with hydrazines (Scheme 19.33) [67].
Ph O R1 R2 N O Ph R3 R4 PhNHNH 2, HCl dioxane:H 2O, 1:1 85 C N N Ph R3 R4 O
(65-89%)
67
Scheme 19.33
19.4.3.3 From Bromocyclopropenes Under mild conditions a-diazoesters undergo 1,3-dipolar cycloadditions with di, tri-, and tetrahalocyclopropenes, leading to unstable cyclopropane-fused pyrazolines, which readily rearrange to pyridazines with loss of hydrogen halide (Scheme 19.34) [68].
H N2CHCO2Et Br Br Et2O, rt Br N EtO2C N H H H Br Br EtO2C H N H N Br (52%) EtO2C N N Br
Scheme 19.34
1704

19.4.4 Synthesis by Ring Atom Exchange 19.4.4.1 Rearrangement of 1,2,4-Triazines This elegant method is based on ring transformation of an appropriate 6-aryl-3chloro-1,2,4-triazine, 68, to give 3-amino-6-arylpyridazines 69 with an electronwithdrawing substituent (R1 cyano, aryl, phenylsulfonyl or ester) at C4 (Scheme 19.35) [69].
R1 N Ph N N Cl + R1 CN DMF t-BuOK Ph N N NH2
68
Scheme 19.35
69 (50-73%)
In the mechanism, a nucleophile [phenylacetonitrile, ethyl cyanoacetate, malonitrile, or (phenylsulfonyl)acetonitrile anions] attacks the C5 position of the 1,2,4triazine, inducing a ring-opening, ring-closing process that leads to the diazine (Scheme 19.36).
CN R1 Ph N N N Cl R1
CN N base N N R1
CN N N Ph
R1
CN N N N 1. H3O+ 2. - CO2 Ph
R1 NH2 N N
Ph
Ph
Scheme 19.36
19.4.5 Synthesis by Ring Contraction 19.4.5.1 From 1,2-Diazepines Pyridazines can be synthesized by contraction of 1,2-diazepines by two different mechanisms. Acid hydrolysis of 5-carboalkoxydihydroazepines with hydrochloric acid in ethanol affords pyridazinones in high yields (Scheme 19.37) [70].
EtO2C CN HCl / EtOH Ph N N Ph Ph N N H O H Ph Ph EtO2C EtO2C
CN
CN O
PhCOCH2
CN O N NH
N Ph NH2
Ph
87%
Scheme 19.37
j1705
Using a second strategy, the C5 carbon can be extruded by halogenation of the dihydroazepine through a diazanorcaradiene 70 intermediate (Scheme 19.38). The products in these reactions were found to be strongly dependent upon the nature of C5 substituents as well as the reaction conditions [71].
R1 Br2 Ph N N Ph MeOH Ph
R1 Br N N Ph - HBr R1
HH Ph N
Ph N Ph
CH2R1 Ph N N
R1 = CO2Et, CN
70
Scheme 19.38
On the other hand, 1,2-diazepines, consisting of a seven-membered, ring can undergo ring contraction through loss of one of the ring atoms as a stable entity upon thermolysis. As an example, 3,7-diphenyl-5,6-dihydro-4H-1,2-diazepines bearing strong electron-withdrawing substituents at C5 (CN, CO2Et) have been reported to be unstable and undergo thermal ring contraction at the temperature of boiling xylene, to afford the 3,6-diphenylpyridazine (Scheme 19.39) [72]. No mechanism has been suggested for this reaction.
R1 CN Xylene Ph N N Ph reflux Ph N N Ph
(40%)
Scheme 19.39
19.4.5.2 From Hetero-1,2-Diazepines Similarly to the above transformation, 1,2-diazepines containing an additional heteroatom at the C5 position (71) undergo ring contraction to afford pyridazines 72 (Scheme 19.40). The heteroatom unit can be nitrogen [73], sulfur [74], or selenium [75]. The reaction conditions involve either halogenation or heating in an inert solvent.
S R2 O O R1
H2NNH2.H2O TsOH, EtOH reflux R2
S N N
71
R1 HOCH 2CH2OH R1 reflux R2 N N
72 (70-94%)
Scheme 19.40
1706

The mechanism suggested for this process presumes a thermal tautomerization to an enamine, followed by ring opening and electrocyclic ring closure with loss of hydrogen sulde (Scheme 19.41).
H S R2 N N R1 R2 S N N H R2 R1 S R2 N N R1 N N H SH R1 - SH2 N R1 R2 N
Scheme 19.41
19.5 Synthesis of Pyrimidines (1,3-Diazines) 19.5.1 Synthesis by Ring-Closure Reactions 19.5.1.1 Three-Component Couplings There are two main strategies for the synthesis of pyrimidines by a three-component coupling (Scheme 19.42).
O N 2 C N N O
O C NH2 HN
Scheme 19.42
19.5.1.1.1 [C-C] [C] [N-C-N] The Biginelli reaction, a three-component condensation reaction between an aldehyde, a urea or thiourea, and an easily enolizable carbonyl compound, was originally described by the Italian chemist Pietro Biginelli in 1893 [76]. This multi-component reaction provides a straightforward approach to functionalized 3,4-dihydropyrimidine-2-(1H)-ones 73 (Schemes 19.43 and 19.44) [77].
N N
Scheme 19.43
O C O HN
NH2
19.5 Synthesis of Pyrimidines (1,3-Diazines)
j1707
R1 O R1 + H H 2N NH2 X = O, S X + R2 O EWG R2 N H cat. EWG NH O
73
Scheme 19.44
In recent decades, many efforts have focused on the preparation of optically active 3,4-dihydropyrimidine-2-(1H)-ones. In this context, the enantioselective version of the Biginelli reaction was achieved using chiral phosphoric acids as catalysts (Scheme 19.45) [78].
Ar O O P O OH
R1 R 2 O 2C
O R
1
X + H H 2N NH2 X = O, S +
O R2
Ar
NH N H X
10 mol% CH2Cl2, 25C 6 d.
(88-97% ee)
Scheme 19.45
Eynde and coworkers [79] have reported a three-component [80] coupling of a b-keto ester, aryl aldehyde, and guanidine to obtain 1,4-dihydropyrimidines 74 in good yields (Scheme 19.46).
EtO2C + Ph O ArCHO + H 2N NH NH2 NaHCO 3, DMF 75-85% Ar H EtO2C Ph N H N NH2
74
Scheme 19.46
Typically, this tandem Michael additioneliminationcyclodehydration requires reuxing in a high-boiling solvent under acid catalysis. In this same manner, microwave irradiation proves to be an effective alternative in giving excellent yields of pyrimidine-thiones [81] without the need for a solvent or long heating periods (Scheme 19.47).
Ar EtO 2C + Me O H2N NH2 S + H Ar O w EtO2C Me N H NH S
Scheme 19.47
1708

Molteni and coworkers [82] likewise have reported that microwave irradiation promotes the conversion of enaminoketones, formed in situ from formamide acetals and active b-diketones in water, into pyrimidines by reaction with amidines (Scheme 19.48). The method offers short reaction times and facile purication by precipitation of the product in aqueous media.
O MeO + n O MeO Me N Me w H2 O n O O OH R NH NH 2 n N (54-68%) O N R
Scheme 19.48
ller has reported the three-component coupling of acid chlorides with terminal Mu alkynes under Sonogashira conditions, with trapping of the intermediate alkynyl ketone with an amidine, as a one-pot procedure for synthesizing 2,4-di- and 2,4,6trisubstituted pyrimidines 75 (Scheme 19.49) [83].
R1 O H2N R3 Cl + NH2 Cl R2 [2% Pd(PPh3)2Cl2, 4% CuI] Et3N, THF, r.t., 1 h Na2CO3 10H2O, heat R1 N N R3 R2
75 (26-82%)
Scheme 19.49
The same author [84] has used the methodology for the one-pot, three-component synthesis of 2,4-disubstituted pyrimidines 76 (Scheme 19.50), using TMS-acetylenes in the Sonogashira coupling.
1. O R1 Cl 2. R2 TMS Pd/Cu, Et3N NH NH2 R1 N N R2
76
R1 = heteroaryl R2 = various
(30-81%)
Scheme 19.50
19.5.1.1.2 [C-C] [C-N] [C-N] The reaction of aliphatic and alicyclic ketones with triic anhydride (Tf2O) under mild conditions in the presence of a nucleophile such as an aliphatic or aromatic nitrile leads to the formation of pyrimidines 77 and condensed pyrimidines 78 [85] where the substituents at C2 and C4 of the ring are identical (Schemes 19.51 and 19.52). As an extension, Fern andez and coworkers have
j1709
O N N
Scheme 19.51
C N
Me N N 78 Me
O Me 2 CH3CN
Me N N 77 Me
Tf2O/Cl2CH2, rt 24 h, 85% O O
Tf2O/Cl2CH2, rt 24 h, 90%
Me
Tf2O/Cl2CH2, rt 24 h, 75%
OEt Me Me N 79
Scheme 19.52
N Me
reported the preparation of biologically interesting 4-alkoxypyrimidines 79 by the condensation and cyclization of readily available aliphatic esters [86]. The reaction is postulated to take place via a (triyloxy)carbenium intermediate 80 [87], which in the presence of another molecule of the nitrile is trapped to give sequential resonance-stabilized nitrilium intermediates before cyclizing to the pyrimidine (Scheme 19.53).
OTf R1 R2
R3-CN
R1
R2
OTf N
R3
R3-CN
R1
R2
3 OTf R
R3 N
80
R2 R1 R3
Scheme 19.53
N N
R3
- H+
R2 R1 R3
N N
R3
- TfOH
Lejon and coworkers have optimized the production of 4-substituted pyrimidines using Pd(0) or Pd(II) catalysts in the Leuckart reaction between formamide and a-methyl or a-methylene ketones (Scheme 19.54) [88].
1710

O H2NCHO Pd(OAc) 2/Ph 3P 160C, 8 h.
Scheme 19.54
N Ph N (80%)
19.5.1.2 Two-Component Couplings There are several two-component strategies for the synthesis of pyrimidines (Scheme 19.55).
NH2 + NH2
N + RNH 2
NH
N N
N O
+ HN
NH2
+ NH2
Scheme 19.55
NH
19.5.1.2.1 [C-C-C] [N-C-N] The most general pyrimidine ring synthesis involves the combination of a 1,3-dicarbonyl component with an amidine as source of the requisite [N-C-N] unit (Scheme 19.56). The [N-C-N] component can also be formamide or an orthoester in the presence of ammonia, a guanidine, a urea, or thiourea, affording pyrimidines with different substitution at C2.
N N
Scheme 19.56
O O
+ HN
NH2 (R, O, N, S)
The following modications are noteworthy: the amidine can be replace by guanidine [89], or urea [90], affording to 2-amino- or 2-hydroxypyrimidines, respectively. Replacement of one of the carbonyls by a cyano group leads to 4-aminopyrimidines (Scheme 19.57). When thiourea used instead of an amidine [91], 2-thiopyridazines are obtained. In this case, 1,1,3,3-tetramethoxypropane can be also used as a synthon for the dicarbonyl unit (Scheme 19.58) [92].
j1711
NH H2 N OEt O N H2N O NH2 H2N NH2 H2N
O NH N (87%) NH2
EtONa EtOH, reflux
OH N N (85%) OH
EtONa EtOH, reflux

Scheme 19.57
OEt CH(OMe) 2 N S N H (66%)

Scheme 19.58
O S H2N NH2 O MeONa MeOH, reflux
OH N N (80%) SH
CH(OMe) 2 HCl,EtOH reflux
In addition, an orthoester in the presence of ammonia can be used as an in situ amidine source, although the yield is low (Scheme 19.59) [93].
Ph O + O OEt EtO EtO OEt Me NH 3 /EtOH 100 C, 11h O Ph N N Me H (25%)
Scheme 19.59
If one or both of the carbonyl groups in the 1,3-dicarbonyl is replaced with a carboxylic ester, 4-pyrimidinones and 6-hydroxy-4-pyrimidinones are formed (Scheme 19.60) [94]. The widespread use of pyrimidine-containing compounds as anticancer drugs has led to the development of numerous pyrimidine preparations using this basic approach. One of these is illustrated here, involving the opening of butyrolactone esters with guanidine to give pyrimidinone 81 (Scheme 19.61) [95]. Use of an a,b-unsaturated carbonyl compound as the addend gives a dihydropyrimidine framework, which can be oxidized to the saturated heterocycle
1712

OH CO 2Et CO 2Et
+
H 2N
NH 2Cl H
EtONa
N O N H (80%)
EtOH , rt
Scheme 19.60
COCH3 O + O H2N
HO NH NH2 Et3N.EtOH (69%) O
CH3 N N H 81 NH2
Scheme 19.61
(Scheme 19.62). This methodology has been developed into a solution-phase parallel synthesis of 4,6-diarylpyrimidine-2-ylamines with polymer release being executed via a rearrangement reaction [96].
1. EtOH 50% aq. KOH reflux, 1-3 h 2. 30% aq. H2O2
Ar 1 O
Ar2 + H 2N
NH NH2
Ar 1 N N NH 2 (40-60%)
Ar 2
Scheme 19.62
The same protocol has been used by Almansa and coworkers, in the search for COX-2-selective inhibitors, who synthesized various pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyrimidines 82 (Scheme 19.63) by condensing 3-aminopyrazoles and various enones in the presence of zinc chloride [97].
F R1 R2 O R3 + H2N ZnCl2 N N H SO2Me 70% R2
R1 N N R3 N H
SO2Me
82
Scheme 19.63
j1713
Enaminones (vinylogous amides) also react with guanidines to produce 2-aminopyrimidines by a conjugated addition followed by ring closure and aromatization (Scheme 19.64) [98].
O Ar CN NMe 2 + H 2N
H NH NH2 Ar O
CN NMe 2 NH - H 2O NH 2 - NHMe 2 NC
Ar N N (80%) NH 2
HN
Scheme 19.64
Molina and coworkers have used this reaction in their synthesis of the biologically active marine natural products meridianins C, D, and E (Scheme 19.65) [99].
H2N N R R2 R3 R4 N Ts
1
O DMF-DMA DMF, 110C R2 R3
R1
NMe 2 H2N
NH NH2 R2 R3
R4
N Ts
MeO(CH 2)2OH K2CO3
R4
N Ts
R1, R 2, R3, R4 = H, OBn, Br
(41-83%)
(72-82%) Meridianin C, D, E
Scheme 19.65
This methodology has been used to prepare several new chiral ligands that contain pyrimidine rings (83), through the bis-condensation of a chiral amidine with a,b-unsaturated carbonyl compounds, in high yield (Scheme 19.66) [100].
Me2N O
N O +
NMe2 N EtONa/EtOH 88% N
N N N
HCl HN H2N
83
Scheme 19.66
Other dicarbonyl synthons can be used as well, such as 1,1,3,3-tetramethoxypropane [92] (for malonodialdehyde), nitriles, and tosyl isocyanates [101], to prepare pyrimidine derivatives in good yields. Fomum and coworkers have reported a novel
1714

synthesis of biologically active pyrimido[1,2-a]benzimidazole 84 by the cycloaddition of different aminobenzimidazoles with allenic nitriles (Scheme 19.67) [102].
R2 R1 H N NH 2 + N R2 R1 R3 N N N NH2
R4 R
3 C C CHCN
84
Scheme 19.67
R4
Certain alkynes can be also be implemented as dicarbonyl synthons for these cyclizations. In this context, conjugated addition of amidines to cyanoalkynes followed by subsequent ring closure of the resulting amidate nitrogen onto the pendant nitrile affords 4-iminopyrimidines with nearly complete regioselectivity [103]. Moreover, product regioselectivity can be reversed by the use of sodium hexamethyldisilazide (NaHMDS) as a base (Scheme 19.68).
H N R1 Ar NH Ar CN R2 N R1 No base 98 1 N + N R
1
NH
Ar N
NH R2
R2
5% MeCN/THF RT (5-65%)
NaHMDS (2eq)
Scheme 19.68
2 99
One-pot syntheses of pyrimidines continue to be developed as efcient routes to pyrimidines. For example, pyrimidines can be prepared in a single step from propargylic alcohols by in situ oxidation to the aldehyde with o-iodoxybenzoic acid (IBX) or manganese dioxide, which reacts with amidines to yield the pyrimidines (Scheme 19.69) [104]. The heteroannulation can be executed under either thermal or microwave-assisted conditions, although the latter affords higher yields.
NH R HO Ph NH 2 R N N Ph
oxidant, MeCN heat (30-69%) wave (61-84%)
R = Me, Ph
Scheme 19.69
Highly reactive diacetylenic ketones react smoothly with amidines to yield a range of alkynyl-substituted pyrimidines 85 in high yields (Scheme 19.70) [105]. Notably,
j1715
NH.HCl O R1 R2 CO2Et NH2 N R1
R2 N CO2Et (75-92%)
MeCN, K2CO3
85
Scheme 19.70
the pyrimidine compounds were obtained as single regioisomers, which is attributed to the acetylenic carbon bearing the ester group being the most electron decient, making this the preferential site for nucleophilic attack of the amidine. Microwave irradiation is now an established tool in organic synthesis, and its use in pyrimidine syntheses is particularly valuable. In this context, a microwave-assisted synthesis of 2,4-disubstituted and 2,4,6-trisubstituted pyrimidines in high yield has been reported from amidines and a range of readily available alkynones described (Scheme 19.71) [106].
R1 R1 O R2 + NH.HCl R3 NH 2 MeCN, Na2CO3 120C (90 W) wave, 40 min R3 N N R2
(82-100%)
Scheme 19.71
Solid-phase syntheses of pyrimidines continue to appear at a rapid pace. A versatile solid-phase approach for the synthesis of a series of pyrimidinone derivatives has been described (Scheme 19.72) [107]. In the key step, a polymer-bound thiouronium salt is condensed with different b-ketoesters by adding an excess of Ca(OH)2 in aqueous ethanol solution.
O EtO NH.Br S NH2 Ca(OH) 2 H2O/EtOH O R2 O R1 HN S N R2 R1 Oxone H2O or MeOH HN RO N O R2 R1
R = OH or OMe (60-90%)
Scheme 19.72
1716

The use of iminophosphoranes has been emerging as a valuable tool for the construction of nitrogen-containing heterocycles [108]. The aza-Wittig reaction of iminophosphorane 86 with acyclic a,b-unsaturated aldehydes has been reported by Rossi and coworkers as a means to produce 1,6(1,4)-dihydropyrimidines 88 through electrocyclic ring closure of 1,3-diaza-1,3,5-triene intermediate 87 (Scheme 19.73) [109].
Ph N
NH + PPh3 OHC
R1 R2
Ph xylene heat N
NH Ph R R2
1
H N N
R1 R2
Ph HN
R1 R2
86
Scheme 19.73
87
88
Molina has used this methodology in the last step of his synthesis of the tricyclic ring system 90, which is present in the marine natural products variolins (Scheme 19.74) [99]. In this case the aza-Wittig reaction takes place between the iminophosphorane 89 with several aromatic isocyanates in dry THF at room temperature to give directly the desired pyrimido annelation products in high yields.
OMe R1NCO N N H CO2Et N PPh3 THF, r.t. (90%) N N N CO2Et OMe
R1HN
89
Scheme 19.74
90
19.5.1.2.2 [C-C-N] [C-C-N] 2,4,6-Trisubstituted pyrimidines 92 can be obtained from an interesting reaction of a-chloro oxime ethers 91 with Grignard reagents (Schemes 19.75 and 19.76). This methodology presents the advantage that alkyl and aryl groups can be easily introduced at the 2-position of the pyrimidine core [110].
+
N
Scheme 19.75
NH
NH2
j1717
R2 OMe N R1
91
Scheme 19.76
LDA, R2MgBr THF, -78C to r.t. R1
N R1
92
Cl
(22-84%)
The authors propose a plausible mechanism (Scheme 19.77) involving deprotonation of a-chloro oxime ether 91 to generate a carbenoid species, which then undergoes Neber-type cyclization [111] to provide a reactive chloroazirine 93. Nucleophilic addition of a second molecule of the oxime to the azirine intermediate, and subsequent intramolecular cyclization, is believed to yield 2-chloro-1-azabicyclo [1.1.0]butane 94. Halide displacement by the Grignard alkyl group triggers ring opening to an imino oxime, which undergoes electrocyclization and methanol elimination to the pyrimidine 92.
N N R
1
OMe Cl Li R1 Cl MeO N N R1 R2 Cl
OMe base Cl R1
OMe Cl Li R1 N Cl
R1
91
OMe N R1 N Cl R1 94
Scheme 19.77
93
R
2
R2MgBr
MeO N R1 N R1 - MeOH R
1
N R1
92
19.5.1.2.3 [C-C-C-N] [C-N] Fused pyrimidones can be synthesized from the cyclization of vinylogous carbamates with isocyanates, isothiocyanates, or thiomethyleneglycinates in acetic acid (Schemes 19.78 and 19.79) [112].
N + N
Scheme 19.78
NH 2
1718

O X C N CO2Et Bn N N N X H (69-82%) O Bn N N (69-82%)
Scheme 19.79
CO2Et
X= O, S Bn N CO 2Me NH 2 MeS N CO2Et SMe
CO2Et SMe
In related fashion, Kumar and coworkers [113] have reported the conversion of 2-amino-3-cyanopyridines into aminopyrimidinethiones 95 in good yield by cyclization with thiourea (Scheme 19.80).
R1 CN R
2
S H 2N NH2 R
2
R1
NH2 N
NH2
(67-75%)
N H 95
Scheme 19.80
19.5.1.2.4 [C-C-C-N-C] [-N-] Uracil derivatives can be prepared by addition of primary amines to 3-ethoxyacryloylisocyanate [114], methoxyacryloylisothiocyanate [115], or acryloylcarbamates [116] by addition and intramolecular displacement of the vinylic alkoxy group (Schemes 19.81 and 19.82). This method is suitable for complex amines and has found applications in recent years in the synthesis of nucleoside analogues as potential anti-viral agents [117].
N N N
Scheme 19.81
O O HO HO NH2 + EtO NCO 49% HO EtO HO HN NH O 2N H2SO4 heat 57% HO HO N O NH O
+ NH2
Scheme 19.82
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19.5.1.2.5 [N-C-C-C-N] [-C] The RemfryHull synthesis based on cyclocondensations of 1,3-diaminopropene or 1,3-diaminopropanes with carboxylic esters has been adapted to the use of malonamides to afford 6-hydroxypyrimidin-4(3H)-ones 96 (Schemes 19.83 and 19.84).
N N
Scheme 19.83
NH2 + NH2
CH
O R1 O NH2 NH2 + R2 O OR HO NaOR R1
O NH N
96
R2
Scheme 19.84
19.5.1.3 One-Component Couplings 19.5.1.3.1 [N-C-N-C-C-C] From Cyanoacetylureas Condensation of an N-substituted urea with cyanoacetic acid yields cyanoacetylureas, which when heated in the presence of HMDS/TMSCl (hexamethyldisilazane/trimethylchlorosilane) affords 6-aminouracil derivatives. The reported mechanism (Schemes 19.85 and 19.86) involves activation of the cyano functionality with TMSCl, which triggers the cyclization [118]
N N
Scheme 19.85
N HN
O R2 O N NH R1 C
N HMDS/TMSCl
O R2 O N C N TMS R1
TMS NaHCO 3 R2 O N
N R1 (16-92%)
NH 2
Scheme 19.86
1720

19.5.2 Cycloaddition Reactions 19.5.2.1 [4 2]-Cycloaddition Reactions of 1,3,5-Triazines Boger [119] has described a simple pyrimidine annulation process based on the regiospecic, inverse electron demand cycloaddition of 1,3,5-triazine with an alkyne. This reaction presumably proceeds via formation and retro-cyclization of a bridged cycloadduct with loss of hydrogen cyanide (Scheme 19.87).
N N N R2 R2 R1 -HCN R1 N R2 N
R1 N N N +
Scheme 19.87
This process can also utilize various acetylene synthons such as pyrrolidine enamines (Scheme 19.88), wherein the initial [4 2]-cycloadduct loses pyrrolidine, which enables rearomatization through expulsion of HCN [120].
N N N N N + dioxane, 95 5h N N
N H
N N N (72%)
Scheme 19.88
N -HCN N
Highly electron-decient triazines such as 2,4,6-tris(ethoxycarbonyl)-1,3,5triazine react with ynamines or amidines (via the a-aminoenamine) to afford excellent yields of amino-substituted 1,3-pyrimidines 97 and 98 respectively (Scheme 19.89) [121].
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CO2Et Me NBn2 Bn2N CH3 N N CO2Et
CO2Et N EtO2C N N CO2Et
dioxane, 101C 21 h, 97%
97
NH.HCl NH2 DMF, 100C 72 h, 80% H2N CH3
98
CO2Et N N CO2Et
Scheme 19.89
19.5.2.2 Other [4 2] Cycloaddition Reactions Pyrimidine nucleosides 99 have been prepared by [4 2]-cycloadditions of glycosyl isothiocyanates with diazadienium iodide as a cationic heterodyne (Scheme 19.90) [122]. The advantages of this methodology are the ready availability of starting materials, good yields in the cycloaddition, high diastereo- and regioselectivity, and experimental simplicity of the procedure. These types of N-nucleosides have important applications as antiviral and antitumor drugs.
S S C N Sugar H2N + I N S Cl2CH2, Et3N r.t., 3 h N Sugar N S
(72-84%)
99
Scheme 19.90
19.5.3 Synthesis by Ring Enlargement 19.5.3.1 From Isoxazolidin-5-ones Besides well-established strategies for the preparation of pyrimidines, some new pathways have been developed. Weinreb and Keen [123] have reported a novel route to pyrimidones from an isoxazolidin-5-one by treatment with phenyl chloroformate to
1722

give the N-acylation product. Ammonolysis and aromatization give the pyrimidone product. Isoxazolidin-5-one can be obtained as a 1:1 mixture of diastereoisomers, from the reaction of a,b-unsaturated ester and N,O-bis-(trimethylsilyl)hydroxylamine (a convenient source of hydroxylamine) (Scheme 19.91).
H OMOM TMS CO 2Me EtOH, heat 68% HN O NOTMS OMOM O 1. PhOCOCl THF, NEt 3 2. NH 4OH i-PrOH 65% OMOM O N NH OH
OMOM O HO N O
Scheme 19.91
TsCl, DMAP ClCH 2CH2Cl reflux, 21 h 81%
NH
19.5.4 Synthesis by Ring Atom Exchange
Similarly to the rearrangement of 1,2,4-triazines in the presence of a nucleophile to afford 3-aminopyridazines (Section 19.4.4.1) [69], 1,3-oxazin-6-ones are converted by amines into 4-pyrimidinones 100 (Scheme 19.92). The reaction occurs via a nucelophilic cleavage of the ester followed by cyclocondensation to close the ring.
O R3 R2 N O R1 R4NH2 R3 R2
O NR4 N 100 R1
Scheme 19.92
The same methodology can be applied to prepare pyrimidines from 2-bromopyridines (Scheme 19.93).
NaNH 2 / NH 3 R
1
N R1 N Me
Br
Scheme 19.93
19.6 Synthesis of Pyrazines (1,4-Diazines)
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19.6 Synthesis of Pyrazines (1,4-Diazines) 19.6.1 Synthesis by Ring-Closure Reactions 19.6.1.1 Two-Component Couplings Four strategies have been devised for the synthesis of pyrazines by two-component couplings (Scheme 19.94).
NH ROC N H COR
O NH2
H 2N + O
N N
O + O
H 2N H 2N
2
Scheme 19.94
H C N C
19.6.1.1.1 [C-C] [N-C-C-N] The most common way to construct the pyrazine ring is the cyclocondensation of 1,2-dicarbonyl compounds with 1,2-diaminoethanes (with double imine formation) to afford 2,3-dihydropyrazines, which are conveniently oxidized to pyrazines by CuO or MnO2 in KOH/ethanol (Schemes 19.95 and 19.96). Symmetrical starting compounds yield the best results using this straightforward approach [124].
N N
Scheme 19.95
O + O
H2N H2N
R1 R1
O + O
H 2N H 2N
R2 R2 -2 H 2O
R1 R1
N N
R2 R2
[O] -2 H
R1 R1
N N
R2 R2
Scheme 19.96
1724

McKervey and coworkers [125] have used N-protected a-amino glyoxals from diazoketones 101, as 1,2-dicarbonyl components, to condense with simple 1,2diamines to form dihydropyrazines (Scheme 19.97). These adducts can be dehydrogenated to pyrazines 102 by treatment with manganese dioxide in the presence of potassium hydroxide.
NHCbz R1 O OH
CbzNH R1 O
R2 N2 H CbzNH R1 O O H 1. H2N NH2
CbzNH R1 N R2 N (28-60%)
2. MnO2, KOH
101
102
Scheme 19.97
Similarly, the pyrazine moiety of pyrazine-fused-isopropylidene norbornadiene 103 has been prepared by condensation of a 1,2-diketone and ethylenediamine, followed by dehydrogenation in the presence of nickel peroxide (Scheme 19.98) [40].
H2N O
NH2 N N
NiO2 N N 103 (41%)
p-TsOH O
Scheme 19.98
Using this methodology, Kamitori has reported a new procedure to synthesize uorinated pyrazines 106 (Scheme 19.99). Dialkylhydrazones 104 were treated with triuoroacetic anhydride (TFAA) followed by hydrolysis with H2SO4 to afford a-diketohydrates 105, which react readily with diamines such as diamino succinonitrile to afford pyrazines 106 in good yields [126].
NC R1 N N Me R2 1. TFAA 2, 6-lutidine 2. H2SO4 O R2 OH OH CF3 105 NC NH2 NC NH2 NC N R2 N CF3
104
Scheme 19.99
106
Direct synthesis of aromatic pyrazines requires a 1,2-diaminoalkene but simple examples of such compounds are rare; however, diaminomalononitrile can condense
j1725
with 1,2-diketones [127] or b-keto sulfoxides [128] to yield 2,3-dicyanopyrazines (Scheme 19.100).
R1 R1 O O R1 R1 R1 R2 NC NC N N R1 R2 N N CN CN
-2 H2O H 2N H 2N CN O CN Me S O
ethanol, reflux
(35-77%)
Scheme 19.100
a-Amino malonamides 107 are also unsaturated diamine synthons from which pyrazinones 108 can be formed (Scheme 19.101) [129].
Me H
O + O
H2N H2N 107
O CONH 2
NaOH, NaHSO 3 80C (45%)
Me
H N N 108
O CONH 2
Scheme 19.101
To avoid the need to isolate the highly reactive 1,2-dicarbonyl intermediates, Taylor has developed a novel methodology for the conversion of a-hydroxyketones into pyrazines in fair to good yields, via a tandem oxidation procedure with in situ trapping using 1,2-diamines (Scheme 19.102) [130].
MnO 2, CH 2Cl 2 reflux 0.4 M KOH/MeOH R1
OH + R1 O
H2N H2N
R2 R2
N N
R2 R2
(33-66%)
Scheme 19.102
Functionalized pyrazines have been prepared in excellent yields (6999%) from common 1,2-diketones and 1,2-diamines under microwave irradiation, which
1726

suppresses the formation of the polymeric by-products characteristic of conventional thermal heating (Scheme 19.103) [131].
R2 R1 O + O S NH 2 NH 2 MeOH: HOAc (9:1) 60C, 5 min w N S N R1 R2
Scheme 19.103
19.6.1.1.2 [C-C-N] [C-C-N] Cyclodimerization of a-Amino Carbonyl Compounds An important preparation of pyrazines involves the self-condensation of a-amino ketones to give 2,5-dihydropyrazines that subsequently oxidize to the corresponding pyrazines (Schemes 19.104 and 19.105). The required a-amino aldehydes or ketones are usually prepared in situ because of their instability, and can be obtained from a-hydroxycarbonyl compounds and ammonium acetate or by catalytic reduction of a-oximino- or a-azidocarbonyl compounds.
N N
Scheme 19.104
O + NH2
H2N O
R1 R2
NH 2 + O
O H 2N
R2 R1 -2 H 2O
R2 R1
N N
R1 R2
[O] -2 H
R2 R1
N N
R1 R2
Scheme 19.105
Cyclodimerization of a-Amino Acids Correspondingly, cyclodimerization of a-amino acids or their esters gives 2,5-dioxopiperazines 109 (Scheme 19.106), which by treatment with trialkyloxonium salts followed by oxidation with DDQ (2,3-dichloro5,6-dicyano-1,4-benzoquinone) provides 3,6-dialkoxypyridazines 110 [132].
O R1
OR 2 + NH 2
H 2N R2 O
R1 O -2 HOR 2
O R1
H N N H
R1 O
1. (R 3O)BF 4 2. DDQ
RO R1
N N
R1 OR
109
110
Scheme 19.106
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Meier has described a new and efcient synthesis of trisubstituted 1H-pyrazin-2ones 111 and tetrasubstituted pyrazines by coupling Boc-protected amino acids with a-amino ketones or with a-amino alcohols and subsequent oxidation (Scheme 19.107). These syntheses afford the advantage of the use of readily available starting materials yielding various products in high yield [133].
R1 R2 NH2 + OH HN Boc R3 O OH HBTU, DIPEA Cl2CH2, r.t. then [O] (70-97%) O R2 R1 R3 N H Boc R1 R2 H N N
H N O
1. HCl, MeOH 2. Py, 80C
O R3
(76-99%)
111
Scheme 19.107
Cyclodimerization of a-Phosphazinyl Ketones An alternative synthesis of pyrazines utilizes an aza-Wittig cyclization of a-phosphazinyl ketones, which are accessible from a-azido ketones and triphenylphosphine (Scheme 19.108).
R1 2 R2 O N3 R1 2 R2 O R2 -2 Ph3PO R1 R1 R2
Ph 3P -N2
PPh3
N N
Scheme 19.108
Metal-Assisted Reactions A series of a-diazo-b-ketoesters have been reacted with Boc-protected a-amino amides in the presence of rhodium octanoate catalyst, and the resulting N-H insertion products were treated with acid to provide pyrazine-6ones 112 after air oxidation of the intermediate 1,4-dihydropyrazines. These products were further derivatized to tetrasubstituted pyrazines 113 by N-alkylation or by conversion into the arylpyrazines using sequential bromination and Suzuki coupling reactions (Scheme 19.109) [134]. The authors have shown that this methodology is amenable to the synthesis of compound libraries using solid-phase procedures.
O O EtO N2 O R1 + H2N O NHBoc Rh 2Oct 4 ClCH 2CH 2Cl EtO HN
R1 N Suzuki EtO
R1 N N R2
O (65-83%)
(72-90%)
112
Scheme 19.109
113
1728

19.6.1.1.3 [C-N-C] [C-N-C] Cyclodimerization of Nitrile Ylides In an interesting approach, Chandrasekhar has used a thermal Beckmann rearrangement to construct fully substituted pyrazines from dimerization of oximes (Schemes 19.110 and 19.111). The starting oxime hydrochloride 114 was thermally dehydrated and deprotonated to the nitrile ylide 115, which dimerizes to form, after air oxidation, the corresponding tetrasubstituted pyrazines 116 [135].
N 2 N
Scheme 19.110
H C N C
N Bn
OH .HCl Bn
Ph 110 C 20 h 115 N C Bn
Bn C N Ph
Ph Bn
N N
Bn Ph
[O]
Ph Bn
Bn
114
Scheme 19.111
Ph N (67%) 116
Similar methodology was used for the synthesis of tetrasubstituted pyrazines containing two phosphonate groups by the thermal treatment of 2H-azirine-2phosphonate (Scheme 19.112) [136].
N R1
O P(OEt) 2
80C
R1 C N
O P(OEt) 2
R1 (EtO) 2OP
N N
PO(OEt) 2 R1
(53-97%)
Scheme 19.112
19.6.1.1.4 [C-C-N-C-C] [N] Pyrazines are obtained by oxidative ring closure of bis (acylmethyl)amines with ammonia (Scheme 19.113).
O R
H N
O R
NH 3
N N
Scheme 19.113
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19.6.1.2 One-Component Couplings 19.6.1.2.1 [N-C-C-N-C-C] Electrocyclic Ring Closure Alkylpyrazines are obtained regioselectively from a-hydroxyimino ketones that condense with allylamines followed by olen isomerization, O-acylation, and electrocyclization with loss of CO2 and CH3OH (Schemes 19.114 and 19.115) [137].
N N
Scheme 19.114
N N
R1 R2
OH N O
NH2
R1 R2
OH N N O
KOtBu
R1 R2 O
OH N N
CH3
R1 R2
N N
CH3
heat - CO 2 - CH 3OH
R1 R2
O N N
OCH 3 CH3
Cl
OCH3
Scheme 19.115
19.6.2 Cycloaddition Reactions 19.6.2.1 [4 2]-Cycloaddition Reactions of a-Diimines The cycloaddition reaction of a-diimines and ketenes yields tetrahydropyrazinones 117 (Scheme 19.116).
NPh + NPh Ph C C O Ph [4+2] Ph N N Ph 117 Ph Ph O
Scheme 19.116
Another pyrazine preparation is the [4 2]-cycloaddition of electron-rich dienophiles with 1,4-diaza-3-oxa-2-ones 118 to produce lumazines 119 (Scheme 19.117) [138], which are of the same class of compounds as many natural pteridines of biological importance.
1730

O Me O N N Me N N O O Me + R O N N Me OO O N N R
118
-CO2
O Me O N N Me N N R
(13-74%)
119
Scheme 19.117
19.7 Reactivity of Diazines
The reaction chemistry of diazines has very little in common with that of benzene and its derivatives. The notable reactivity differences already existing between benzene and its nitrogen variant, pyridine, are further accentuated by having a second nitrogen atom in the ring. Some of the general features of diazine chemistry can be summarized as follows. 1) Owing to the presence of the two nitrogen atoms in the ring, the energies of the p-molecular orbitals are lowered, particularly those with large coefcients on nitrogen. As a result, this makes electrophilic attack on the ring carbon atoms rather difcult while facilitating nucleophilic addition onto the ring. All the ring carbon atoms in the diazines, with the exception of C5 of pyrimidine, are ortho or para to at least one ring nitrogen atom. Intermediates formed by nucleophilic attack onto the ring, or by deprotonation at these positions, are well stabilized. This provides selective activation of specic positions in each of the three diazine ring systems as shown below (a indicates a propensity for nucleophilic attack, while reects an even greater degree of reactivity).
N N N N N N
2)
3)
The availability of nitrogen lone pair(s) is also reduced, making each of the diazines less basic that pyridine. Cations derived from these heterocycles by electrophilic attack on nitrogen are less stabilized due to the electron-withdraw-
j1731
ing inuence of the second nitrogen, thereby making the heterocycles more difcult to N-alkylate or N-oxidize.
19.7.1 Thermal and Photochemical Reactions 19.7.1.1 Pyridazines (1,2-Diazines) Pyridazine can be regarded as a cyclic bis-hydrazone and the mutual proximity of the nitrogen atoms is reected in different physical properties and reactions compared to those of pyrimidine and pyrazine. The reactivity of 1,2-diazines under thermal and photochemical conditions are particularly noteworthy (Scheme 19.118). Pyridazine (1,2-diazine) is converted into pyrimidine (1,3-diazine) upon heating to 300 C, most likely via a diazabenzvalene intermediate. Conversely, photolysis yields mainly pyrazine (1,4-diazine), where, presumably, a transient intermediate similar to Dewar benzene is involved in the process [139]. Thus, in this way, pyridazine can undergo isomerization to either of its other two diazine forms.
heat
N N
N N
N h
N N
N N
Scheme 19.118
19.7.1.2 Pyrimidines (1,3-Diazines) Pyrimidines experience a similar fate under photochemical conditions, reverting to a Dewar pyrimidine species [140]. In the case of 4-amino-2,6-dimethylpirimidine, photoisomerization yields an acyclic aminoimine by ring-opening of the Dewar pyrimidine intermediate (Scheme 19.119).
N C N
NH2 N N
Scheme 19.119
NH2 h N N
NH2
H2N
CN C C C NH
19.7.2 Reactions with Electrophilic Reagents
Owing to the electronegativity of the two nitrogen atoms, all of the diazines are electron-decient heterocycles that fail to react with most electrophiles. Electrophilic
1732

substitution at one of the carbon centers of the ring must rst break the aromaticity of the p-system, giving an intermediate that is further deactivated by the two electronegative nitrogen atoms. This is exemplied in Scheme 19.120 by the case of pyrimidine (top pathway). The electrophilic susceptibility of pyrimidine is comparable to that of 1,3-dinitrobenzene or 3-nitropyridine. Consequently, the kinetically preferred pathway for electrophilic addition is at nitrogen (bottom pathway). Activation of the diazine ring by attachment of one or more electron-donating substituents promotes electrophilic substitution on the ring, as will be illustrated in examples below.
H E E+ N N C-attack E+ N-attack + N E
Scheme 19.120
N + N N
19.7.2.1 Electrophilic Addition at Nitrogen Diazines behave as tertiary amines in their reactions with a wide range of electrophiles (Scheme 19.121): protic acids (to give salts), Lewis acids (to form coordination compounds), transition metal ions (to form complex ions), alkyl halides (to give quaternary salts), halogens (to form halo adducts), and oxidizing agents (to yield amine oxides) [141]. The facility of these reactions depends on two major factors: the nucleophilicity of the nitrogen atom and the degree of steric hindrance. Although the pKa of a protonated nitrogen is a convenient measure of thermodynamic basicity of the free amine, it is not a reliable indicator of
E+ N N N E+ N N + N E
Scheme 19.121
+ E
N N N N
+ E N
E+
j1733
kinetic nucleophilicity where steric effects of nearby substituents on the ring (particularly at the a-carbon) are likely.
19.7.2.1.1 Protonation Pyridazines (pKa 2.3 for protonated form) are much weaker bases than pyridine (pKa 5.2 for pyridinium cation) due to inductive withdrawal by the second ring nitrogen. The a-effect of the two nitrogen electron pairs is not sufciently strong to overcome the electron-withdrawing effect of the NN bond. N,N0 -Diprotonation has only been observed in very strong acidic media (pKa(2) 7.1 for the dicationic species). Predictably, electron-donating substituents on the ring enhance the nitrogens basicity, with protonation of 3-substituted pyridazines occurring on N2. In 4-substituted pyridazines, where steric and inductive effects are less important factors, protonation occurs at N1 for electron donor groups, and at N2 for electron acceptor substituents. In 3,6-disubstituted pyridazines, protonation occurs a to the less bulky and more powerful electron-donating substituent. 19.7.2.1.2 Metal Ions As a monodentate ligand in transition metal complexes, pyridazine forms tetrahedral and octahedral structures [e.g., Co(II) salts], and as a bidentate ligand it gives polymeric complexes. Pyrazine can replace three of the carbonyl groups in group VI metal hexacarbonyls to form compounds of the type Cr (CO)3Py3. The other diazines are known to also form metal complexes. 19.7.2.1.3 Alkylation Diazines react with activated alkyl halides by SN2 displacement to give the anticipated mono-quaternary salts. Unsymmetrically-substituted diazines can give rise to two isomeric quaternary salts. Pyridazines are the most reactive of the diazines towards alkylation due to the a-effect. Substituents inuence the orientation mainly by steric and inductive effects, rather than mesomeric effects. For example, methylation of 3-methoxy-6-methylpyridazine takes place adjacent to the methyl substituent, at N1, although mesomeric release would have been expected to favor attack at N2 (Scheme 19.122) [142].
OMe MeI Me N N Me N Me
Scheme 19.122
OMe N I
Pyrimidines react with alkyl halides to give mono-quaternary salts. Dialkylation can be achieved with trialkyloxonium tetrauoroborate (Scheme 19.123) [143].
Et 2BF4
-
N N Et
Et3O+BF4 Cl(CH2)2Cl 86% N
MeI MeOH, rt 85%
N N Me I
Scheme 19.123
1734

2,4-Disubstituted pyrimidines undergo selective alkylation at the less sterically hindered N1. Kumar and coworkers have reported the coupling of 2,4-bis(silyloxy) pyrimidine with benzyl bromides in the presence of iodine to yield one regioisomeric bis-adduct (120) (Scheme 19.124) [144]. This was a key intermediate in their synthesis of heterocalixarenes 121, which were use in subsequent biological cation binding studies.
OTMS N N + OTMS Br R
1
R2 I2 60-90% Br O
H N N
R2 O O N R
1
H N
120
R2
O N N R1 O O R4 N N
R3 121
Scheme 19.124
19.7.2.1.4 Oxidation Pyridazines react with peracids to give N-monoxides [145]. For substituted diazines, the regiochemistry of N-oxidation is governed by the same factors as alkylation, thus 3-aminopyridazine gives mainly 2-oxides, but 3-methylpyridazine provides the 1-oxide as the main (3:1) product (Scheme 19.125) [146]. The acidity of the medium can also inuence the regiochemistry of oxidation; for example, 3-cyanopyridazine reacts at N1 with peracetic acid, but under strongly acidic conditions oxidation occurs at N2, presumably due to the heterocycle existing as its N1-protonic salt [147].
Me N N
m-CPBA CHCl3, r.t. N O N
Me + N (3:1) N
Me O
Scheme 19.125
j1735
Pyrimidine and its simple alkyl derivatives can be converted into N-oxides 122, although the yields are usually low due to the relative instability of the products under the acidic conditions (Scheme 19.126) [148].
N N m -CPBA CHCl3, rt + N O 122
Scheme 19.126
Pyrazine and its benzo derivatives are easily converted into both the mono-N-oxide (major) and di-N-oxides (minor) (Scheme 19.127) [145], although di-N-oxides have also been reported for pyridazines and pyrimidines.
O N N O Me
Me
N N Me
H2O2 AcOH, 60C
Me
N N O
Me + Me 86% (5:1)
Scheme 19.127
19.7.2.2 Electrophilic Substitution at Carbon The SEAr reaction at the ring C-atoms of diazines is difcult to carry out due to deactivation by the second nitrogen. Nitration or sulfonation of a diazine or alkyldiazine has been reported to take place only in the presence of multiple strong electron-donating substituents [149]. In addition, it should be noted that N-oxidation facilitates the substitution in some cases [150]. 19.7.2.2.1 Nitration Pyridazines (1,2-Diazines) 4-Amino-3,6-dimethoxypyridazine undergoes nitration to afford the 5-nitro compound. However, the less highly activated 3-methoxy-5methylpyridazine requires more vigorous conditions, yielding a complex mixture of 4-nitro, 6-nitro, and 4,6-dinitro derivatives [151]. Pyridazine 1-oxide and many of its substituted derivatives undergo nitration with nitric and sulfuric acid to form the corresponding 4-nitropyridazine-1-oxide 123 (Scheme 19.128) [152]. If the 4-position is occupied nitration can occur at the 6-position. Pyrimidines (1,3-Diazines) Notably, C5 in pyrimidine is the only position, in all three diazines, that is not in a a- or c-relationship to a ring nitrogen, and in effect is equivalent to a b-position in pyridine, which is susceptible to electrophilic substitution. Nevertheless, electrophilic substitution at carbon is not observed in the parent compound. Electron-donating substituents (OH, NH2) increase the SEAr reactivity in
1736

NO2 R1 R2 N O N HNO3 H2SO4 R2 N O N R1
R1, R2 = H, alkyl, alkoxy, chloro

Scheme 19.128
123
the pyrimidine system and thus enable nitration, nitrosation, aminomethylation, and azo-coupling to take place at the 5-position [153]. Two or more electron-releasing substituents make nitration of pyrimidines relatively easy; 2,4-dihydroxy-6-methylpyrimidine, for instance, yields the 5-nitro compound 124 (Scheme 19.129).
OH HNO3/HOAc OH 20C O2 N Me N N OH 124
Scheme 19.129
OH N Me N
O O2N Me N H NH O
19.7.2.2.2 Halogenation Pyridazines (1,2-Diazines) Pyridazines undergo electrophilic substitution only with difculty, and thus direct halogenation is not expected to be a method of wide application. Nevertheless, dehydrochlorinations of pyridazines are known. 3,6Dichloropyridazine can be converted by means of PCl5 into 3,4,5,6-tetrachloropyridazine [152]. Simultaneous introduction of chlorine (or bromine) followed by dehydrohalogenation and substitution of the potential hydroxyl with chlorine has been performed with several 3(2H)-pyridazinones using a mixture of POCl3 and PCl5. The halogen atom always enters at the C4 position. Thus, 1-methyl-2-phenyl3,6-pyridazinedione (125) adds bromine or chlorine to give the 4,5-dihalo adduct 126, which is stable in neutral media, but dehydrohalogenation occurs in the presence of base to give solely the 4-halogenated product 127 (Scheme 19.130) [154].
Cl O O N N Ph Me 125
Scheme 19.130
Cl O O O N N Ph Me 127
Cl2 AcOH
Cl O 126
N N Ph Me
j1737
Perchlorinated pyridazines 129 (Scheme 19.131) can be prepared in good yields via chlorination of pyridazone 128 using phosphorus oxychloride [155].
Cl Cl O N H 128
Scheme 19.131
Cl Cl N POCl3 no solvent 81% Cl Cl N 129 N Cl
Pyrimidines (1,3-Diazines) As with nitration, pyrimidine undergoes halogenation under vigorous conditions to give the 5-substituted product; bromination occurs at 230 C. When the diazine has one or more activating groups the reaction proceeds much more easily (Br2 or Cl2 in H2O, AcOH, or CHCl3, 20100 C). Sometimes 5,5dihalo products are formed, however (Scheme 19.132).
O NH HO N H O Br2/H2O Br HO N H O NH O + O NH N H O
Br Br O
Scheme 19.132
As strong donor substituents, amino groups activate the heteroarene towards ortho- and para-substitution. However, other substituents may alter the substitution pattern.
Pyrazines (1,4-Diazines) Chlorination of 2-methylpyrazine occurs under such mild conditions that it is almost certain that an addition/elimination sequence is involved, rather than a classical electrophilic aromatic substitution (Scheme 19.133) [156].
N N Me N N (67%)
Scheme 19.133
Cl2 CCl4, 40C
Cl Me
Also in this case, the halogenation reaction depends on the presence of other substituents on the diazine ring (Scheme 19.134). For instance, 2-aminopyrazine readily undergoes ring halogenation to give 3,5-dibromo-2-aminopyrazine 130, but 3aminopyrazine-2-carboxylic acid 131 is too electronically-deactivated on the heterocycle and, instead, the amino group is halogenated [153].
1738

N N NH2 Br2, AcOH Br N N 130 Br NH2 N N 131 CO2H NH2 Cl2, AcOH N N CO2H NHCl
Scheme 19.134
Diazines are considerably more reactive toward nucleophilic addition than are pyridines due to the presence of an extra nitrogen atom. There are still only a few synthetic approaches to inducing substitution on this electron-decient ring and, therefore, more diverse methods for functionalization of these heterocycles continues to be of interest.
19.7.3.1 With Replacement of Hydrogen 19.7.3.1.1 Alkylation and Arylation The diazines readily add alkyl and aryllithiums and Grignard reagents to give dihydro-adducts that can be rearomatized by oxidation with reagents such as potassium permanganate or 2,3-dichloro-5,6-dicyano-1,4benzoquinone (DDQ). Pyridazines (1,2-Diazines) Reactions with carbon nucleophiles occur at the C4 center (Grignard reagents) [157] or at C3 (organolithium compounds) (Scheme 19.135).
R 1. RMgX N N 2. H2O N N 1. RLi 2. H2O N N R
Scheme 19.135
Alternatively, O-acylation of 3-substituted pyridazine 1-oxides gives a cationic species that reacts with nucleophiles such as cyanide by analogy to a Reissert reaction, functionalizing the C6 position (Scheme 19.136).
R + N N O
Scheme 19.136
PhCOCl
R + N N OCOPh
-CN
-HO2CPh NC N N
Ohsawa has reported a three-step procedure to regioselectively introduce an alkyl sulfone substituent (and thus potentially other groups) to position C4 of 3-substituted pyridazines (Scheme 19.137) [158]. First, pyridazine is reacted with tetracyanoethy-
j1739
lene oxide to form a dicyanomethylide zwitterion 132 (with subsequent loss of hexauoroacetone), in which the existing C3 substituent blocks formation of the ylide at N2 in favor of N1. This species then undergoes base-promoted alkylation by an a-halosulfone, which the authors propose as occurring by a vicarious nucleophilic substitution (VNS) process, and cleavage of the dicyanomethylene group to afford exclusively the 4-alkylated pyridazine 133.
O OEt N N NC NC CN CN N N OEt ClCH 2SO 2-p -Tol KOt -Bu/ THF 0C (75%) CH2 SO2 p-Tol OEt N N
0C, 2-5 h (94%)
C(CN) 2 132
C(CN) 2 (NH4 )2 S2O 8 (100%) MeOH, reflux CH2 SO2 p-Tol OEt N N
133
Scheme 19.137
Pyrimidines (1,3-Diazines) Nucleophilic attack on pyrimidine may occur at the 2-, 4-, or 6-position; although only a few such examples are known for pyrimidine itself, the addition of organometallic compounds gives the 4-alkylated pyrimidine 134 upon air oxidation of the dihydro adduct (Scheme 19.138).
H R N N RM M = Li, Mg N N M H2O N H R NH -2H N 134
Scheme 19.138
R N
Interestingly, 2-chloropyrimidine does not undergo nucleophilic substitution at the halogenated carbon, but instead gives the halogen-retained product with the new substituent at C4 (Scheme 19.139) [159].
N + N Cl S Li N N S N Li Cl N DDQ aq. THF, r.t. N S (83%) N Cl
Et2O, -30C
Scheme 19.139
1740

Another example of the regioselective addition of a nucleophile to an unsubstituted position on the pyrimidine ring, with C4 typically being the site of addition, has been reported by Fort and coworkers (Scheme 19.140); addition of 2-chloro-6-lithiopyridine to pyrimidine forms the coupled adduct 135 after rearomatization, albeit in low yield [160].
Cl N N N N (25%) 135
Scheme 19.140
Li
Cl N
Electron-donating substituents enhance the nucleophilicity of pyrimidines and thus increase the effectiveness of electrophilic attack on the ring. As an example, the reaction of ethyl cyanoacetate with an aryl aldehyde produces a three-component coupling adduct 136, by the conjugated addition of stabilized cyanoacetate carbanion to the initial Knoevenagel condensation adduct (Scheme 19.141) [161].
R1
R1
O NH H2N N +
CHO NCCH2CO2Et 65-70% R1 HN
O NH N 136 OMe NC O N H
O NH N OMe
OMe
Scheme 19.141
The process shown in Scheme 19.142 is thought to proceed by an analogous mechanism [162]. The authors noted that this tandem Nef reaction/Michael addition produced the nal product 137 in a single step with sonication.
NH2 N H2N N NH2 CHO + R ultrasound CH3NO2 O2N
Ar
NH2 N 1. NaOH NH2 2. H2SO4
Ar
NH2 N N H N 137 NH2
H2N
Scheme 19.142
j1741
19.7.3.1.2 Amination The Chichibabin reaction of diazines is less general than that for pyridines due to the diminished aromaticity of the diazine p-system. However, the initial addition is quite easy, while the subsequent loss of hydride (rearomatization) is difcult, but high yields of 4-aminopyridazine 138 (Scheme 19.143), 4-aminopyrimidine, and 2-aminopyrazine can be obtained by in situ oxidation of the dihydroadduct with potassium permanganate [163].
NH2 KNH2/NH3 N N N H N KMnO4 N N NH2
138 (91%)
Scheme 19.143
Pyrimidines (1,3-Diazines) Pyrimidine is converted into pyrazole when heated with aqueous hydrazine by a process that involves nucleophilic addition as a rst step, which triggers ring opening and subsequent reclosure to the ve-membered aromatic ring (Scheme 19.144).
NHNH2 N N aq. N2H4 130C N NH
NHNH2 NH N H+ HN N
NH H NH NH N (75%)
Scheme 19.144
Amination can be achieved by direct lithiation of pyrimidine derivatives with LDA, or sec-BuLi, and in situ quenching with nitroso electrophiles (Scheme 19.145) [164].
O NH N O Sugar 1. LDA 2. BuN=O
t t
O NH Bu N OH N O Sugar
(45-59%)
Scheme 19.145
19.7.3.2 With Replacement of Good Leaving Groups All the halodiazines, except 5-halopyrimidines, react readily with nucleophiles (amines, thiolates, malonate anions) with substitution of the halide. The relative reactivity is summarized here.
1742

X N N > N N X > N X N > N X N > N X N
19.7.3.2.1 Pyridazines (1,2-Diazines) Nucleophilic aromatic substitution (SNAr) reactions with an assortment of anionic nucleophiles proceed smoothly with pyridazines having a halogen leaving group at C3 (Scheme 19.146).
CN Cl N N PhCH2CN, NaNH2 PhH, reflux N N Ph
(65%)
Scheme 19.146
Methoxy groups can also serve as leaving groups that can be exchanged by carbanions via an addition/elimination process (Scheme 19.147) [165].
OMe CH2(CN)2/ NaH N N dioxane, reflux
CH(CN)2 N
(62%)
Scheme 19.147
Unsymmetrical 3,6-disubstituted pyridazines 139 can be prepared in a mild, efcient manner from commercially available 3,6-halopyridazines through stepwise nucleophilic mono-substitution followed by palladium-catalyzed coupling with an arylboronic acid (Scheme 19.148) [166].
I I N N
NaOMe/ MeOH reflux, 12 h (92%) I
OMe PhB(OH)2, Pd(PPh3)4 Na2CO3, PHME N heat N Ph (76%)
OMe N N
139
Scheme 19.148
j1743
Grignard reagents can be prepared efciently from halopyridazines followed by quenching with electrophiles such as acetaldehyde, ethyl cyanoformate, DMF, or phenyl sulde to give 140 in acceptable yields (Scheme 19.149) [167].
I OMe RMgX MeO N N MeO N N MgX OMe E
+
E OMe MeO N N
35-70%
140
Scheme 19.149
19.7.3.2.2 Pyrimidines (1,3-Diazines) Remarkable differences in reactivity with nucleophiles exist for halopyrimidines and triate derivatives, which depend on the location of the leaving group on the ring. Leaving groups at the C4 and C6 positions are much more prone to SNAr processes than the C2 center due to the stabilizing effect of the nitrogen centers. The facility of SNAr displacement for halopyrimidines follows a predictable order, as shown here.
X N N > N X N >> N N X
Nucleophilic aromatic substitution reactions have also been commonly applied to the transformation of pyrimidines into introduce a wide variety of new hetero and carbon ring substituents, as illustrated in Scheme 19.150 [168].
OMe O Cl N N OMe BnHN CO2Me (82%) CO2Me
Scheme 19.150
OMe O BnN N N OMe
Et3N, CHCl3
An intramolecular version of this reaction has been reported by Volovenko, where pyridine or other nitrogen-containing heterocycles can nucleophilically cycloadd to chloropyrimidines to produce various condensed pyrimidines (Scheme 19.151) [169]. The following reaction exemplies the difference in reactivity of polychloropyrimidines with aliphatic nucleophiles (Grignard reagents, organolithiums, organo-
1744

N O Cl Et3N, dioxane, reflux CN N N SO2CH3
Scheme 19.151
NC O N
96%
N SO2CH3
sodiums, and thiolates) (Scheme 19.152), which predominantly yield 4-substituted pyrimidines 141 [170], versus heteroaromatic nucleophiles, which afford the 2-substituted pyrimidines 142 [171].
R3 R1=Cl R2=alkyl R1 R2 Cl N N Cl R5 R1=NHR4 R2=Cl N Cl Cl N 142

Scheme 19.152
R3MgCl THF, -78C (87-93%)
R Cl
N N 141 Cl
R1 N
Cl + N R5
toluene, reflux (37-90%)
Generally, all nucleophilic substitution reactions on halodiazines go by a conventional additionelimination pathway. However, some transformations are not as straightforward, such as the reaction of 2-chloro-4-phenylpyrimidine with potassium amide in liquid ammonia, which gives 2-amino-4-phenylpyrimidine 143 (Scheme 19.153). Although this process appears to be an additionelimination, radiolabeling experiments have revealed that a nucleophilic ring openingring closure mechanism is involved [172].
Ph N* KNH2, NH3 N * Cl -33C H2N
Ph N* * N Cl HN
Ph N* Cl HN *
Ph N* N H
* NH
Ph N* N 143 * NH2
Scheme 19.153
j1745
When the corresponding chloride fails to provide the desired substitution compound, triazoles are also often used as leaving groups in CN bond formation. This procedure has been utilized by Leumann in the synthesis of deoxynucleosides 144 (Scheme 19.154) [173]. Other leaving groups, such as sulfonate, have also been reported for the introduction of N-substituents onto pyrimidines [174].
N O R
1
N N N H N N R
1
N N R NH2
2
NHR2 R1 N N O Sugar 144
N O Sugar
POCl3, TEA
N O Sugar
Scheme 19.154
2-Chloropyrimidine can be displaced by alcohols through the use of sodium methylsulnate as a catalyst (Scheme 19.155). Signicant rate enhancements as well as improved yields have been reported with this method [175].
OMe N MeO N Cl MeSO2Na, base ROH MeO N OMe N SO2Me 66-83% MeO N OMe N OR
Scheme 19.155
Iodopyrimidines could be converted into their Grignard derivatives by the action of i-PrMgCl, which then react with various electrophiles [167]. Qu eguiner and coworkers have reported the synthesis of pyrimidines 145 bearing alcohols, aldehydes, and esters through this methodology (Scheme 19.156).
Y N N X E (Y) N N 145 E (X)
1. i-PrMgCl 2. E+ 27-69%
X = I, Y = OCH3 X = SCH3, Y = I
Scheme 19.156
Fluorinated pyrimidones 147 are also of general interest as building blocks in agrochemicals and because of their antitumor activity. The selective substitution of the 4-uoro substituent of 2,4,6-triuoropyrimidine 146 by a hydroxyl group was
1746

realized by the reaction with [Ni(cod)2] in the presence of triethylphosphine followed by caesium hydroxide oxidation of the aryl nickel intermediate (Scheme 19.157) [176].
F F N F N 146
Scheme 19.157
Et3P Ni PEt3 [Ni(cod)2], PEt3 F (72%) F N N F 1. CsOH 2. HCl F
O NH N 147 F
19.7.3.2.3 Pyrazines (1,4-Diazines) Pyrazine is more reactive than pyridine towards nucleophilic attack. The Chichibabin amination of pyrazine itself is unsatisfactory, but substitution of the halogen in 2-halopyrazine occurs readily using ammonia, amines, amides, cyanide, alkoxide, and thiolate anion. In the example shown in Scheme 19.158, primary amines react with pyridazine to rst yield the corresponding 3-amino derivatives, which subsequently added to the carbonyl group to give the ringclosed aminal [177]. The products prepared are all of interest as potential pesticides.
O H NC NC N N Cl R1NH2 83-95% NC NC N N O NHR1 NC NC N N N OH R1
Scheme 19.158
Halo- and methoxy-substituted pyrazines (Scheme 19.159) can likewise be displaced by various carbon and hetero-nucleophiles [148].
OK N N Cl DMF, 0C 34% N N O N N CH2(CN)2, NaH OMe THF, reflux 46% N N CH(CN)2
Scheme 19.159
Sato and Narita have provided an improved synthesis of halopyrazines 149 in which hydroxypyrazines 148 were activated with TMSCl to give silyl ethers [178]. Subsequent treatment with the appropriate phosphorus-based halogen source provided halopyrazines in 4694% overall yield (Scheme 19.160). This two-step
j1747
R3 R2
N N
OH R1
R3 HMDS TMSCl R2
N N
OTMS R1
PBr3 or PCl5 46-94%
R3 R2
N N
X R1
148
Scheme 19.160
X = Cl, Br, I 149
process was accomplished without isolation of the siloxyl intermediate and provides a milder, more convenient approach than the traditional heating of hydroxypyrazines with PXn directly. Pyrazines undergo Grignard formation from halopyrazines and subsequently react with certain electrophiles to produce pyrazine derivatives 150 (Scheme 19.161) [167].
N N X I 1. RMgCl 2. E+ N N X E
150 (11-59%)
Scheme 19.161
All the diazines with electron-withdrawing substituents undergo inverse-electron demand DielsAlder additions with electron-rich dienophiles [179].
19.7.4.1 Pyridazines (1,2-Diazines) The inverse electron demand DielsAlder of pyridazines continues to be a commonly explored topic. The adjacent nitrogen atoms of pyridazines not only help create an electron-decient heteroatomic diene but the NN bond also functions as a good leaving group in a subsequent retro-DielsAlder reaction. Intramolecular reactions of this type occur very rapidly, without even the presence of activating substituents. The immediate products of the initial [4 2]-cycloaddition usually lose dinitrogen (N2) through rearomatization to generate benzene products (Scheme 19.162) [180].
CO2 Me N Cl N N
N N
Cl -N2 Cl (91%)
230C inverse e--demand [4+2]-cycloaddition MeO2C N
CO2 Me N
Scheme 19.162
1748

Intermolecular variants of this cycloadditive route to functionalized fused benzene derivatives are also readily executed, as shown for 4,5-dicyanopyridazine 151 with N-methylpyrrole (Scheme 19.163). The reaction occurs thermally at 150 C to give a DielsAlder adduct (152), which goes on to provide the indole heterocycle 153 upon expulsion of H2 and N2 [181]. Numerous examples of both the intramolecular and intermolecular processes similar to these have been described in the literature and applied to natural products total synthesis.
CN N xylene N 151
Scheme 19.163
NC N + N Me
NC N NC N Me 152
NC loss of N2 and H2 NC N Me (20-62%) 153
150C
19.7.4.2 Pyrimidines (1,3-Diazines) The corresponding [4 2]-cycloadditions of pyrimidines with electron-rich alkynes takes place to give regioselective substituted pyridine products, through loss of hydrogen cyanide (Scheme 19.164) [182].
EtO2C N EtO2C Et2N Me (90%)
Me heat
NEt2 N EtO2C
N Me NEt2
-HCN
Scheme 19.164
Intramolecular inverse-electron demand DielsAlder reactions of pyrimidines with a dienophilic side chain have received considerable attention during the last few years. The broad scope and relatively mild conditions of these reactions make them fruitful. (Scheme 19.165) [183].
R2 R
1
R1 N O 200 C 4h R
2
O N (66- 87%)
R2
R1 = H, Ph, Cl R2 = H, Me
Scheme 19.165
j1749
Following the earlier studies by van der Plas, Dehacen and coworkers have illustrated how the electron-decient pyrimidine ring 154 can be exploited in the intramolecular inverse electron demand DielsAlder reactions to obtain 2-chloropyridines 155 under thermal conditions (Scheme 19.166) [184].
O Cl N N 154
Scheme 19.166
O O Cl Y
PhNO2, 180 C 48 h - ClCN Y = CH2 45% Y = CMe2 95%
Cl N
O Y
155
In a novel application, pyrimidine enediynes 156 have been prepared and subjected to Bergman cyclization to give tricyclic pyrimidines 157 (Scheme 19.167), which were shown to cleave dsDNA [185].
X OMe N Cl N OMe 156 X = H, OH X=O
Scheme 19.167
OMe N N OMe hv or heat 82-93%
OMe N N 157 OMe
19.7.4.3 Pyrazines (1,4-Diazines) Likewise, pyrazines can be employed as electron-decient dienes to prepare substituted pyridines, as shown in the following example [186]. A mixture of 8H-5,6dihydropyrano[3,4-b]pyridine 159 and 1H-3,4-dihydropyrano[3,4-c]pyridine 160 are obtained (Scheme 19.168). In the formation of the intermediate cycloadduct 158 considerable steric hindrance develops between the trimethylsilyl group and the C N bridge, and the fact that product 159 is favored over 160 implies that loss of hydrogen cyanide from cycloadduct 158 indicated by route a is faster than of that indicated by route b. 19.7.5 Reactions with Reducing Agents
Owing to the lower degree of aromaticity, diazines are more easily reduced than are pyridines. All the diazines can be reduced to tetrahydro derivatives with in situ
1750

TMS via a N a TMS N 195C O [4+2]adduct 158
Scheme 19.168
TMS b N N O undecane
159 (40%) -HCN via b N O 160 (23%) TMS
carbamation on nitrogen, which aids in stabilization and thus allows isolation [187]. Yields, however, are generally not very high (Scheme 19.169).
NaBH3 CN MeOH, r.t. (37%)
N N
ClCO2Bn
NCO2Bn N CO2Bn
Scheme 19.169
Caution must be exercised in carrying out these conversions for pyridazines, however, since over-reduction to the hexahydro derivative may lead to subsequent cleavage of the NN bond. As an example, reduction of pyridazine with sodium metal in hot ethanol affords tetramethylenediamine (via NN bond cleavage) as well as partially hydrogenated ring products (Scheme 19.170). Under these conditions pyrimidines and pyrazines are normally reduced to hexahydro derivatives [6].
Nao N N hot EtOH N H NH H2N
NH2
Scheme 19.170
Reductive ring contraction of pyridazines is an efcient methodology to produce densely functionalized pyrrole derivative, capitalizing on the versatility of the azadiene DielsAlder cycloaddition route to 1,2-diazines (Scheme 19.171) [188].
Ar N N MeO2C N N CO2Me Ar [4+2] Ar MeO2C N N CO2Me Ar Zn MeO2C N H CO2Me Ar
Ar
Scheme 19.171
j1751
In this sense, activated pyridazines 161 have been converted into the corresponding functionalized pyrroles 163 by nitrogen extrusion by electrochemical reduction process, proceeding through 1,2-dihydro intermediate 162 (Scheme 19.172) [189].
R1 R2 MeO2C N N CO2Me 2e + 2H C.P.R.
+
R1 R2 MeO2C N H CO2Me NH 2e + 2H
+
R2 MeO2C
R1 N H 163 CO2Me
60-70%
161
162
Scheme 19.172
19.7.6 Reactions with Oxidizing Agents
Diazines are generally resistant to oxidative attack at the ring carbons, although alkaline oxidizing agents (H2N-NH2, heat) can afford degradation via intermediates produced by initial nucleophilic addition (Section 19.7.3.1.2). Alkyl substituents and fused aromatic rings [190] can be oxidized to carboxylic acid residues without affecting the heterocyclic ring (Scheme 19.173).
KMnO4 90 C 75%
N N
Scheme 19.173
HO 2 C HO2 C
N N
Some bacteria such as Pseudomonas putida (ATCC 33 015) can be used as biocatalysts for the selective oxidation of a methyl group in the 2,5-dimethylpyrazine to the corresponding mono-carboxylic acid 164 (Scheme 19.174) [191].
N Me N
Me
P. putida pH 7, xylene, r.t. (90%) Me
N N 164
CO2H
Scheme 19.174
Similarly, other bacteria such as Agrobacterium can selectively C-hydroxylate unsubstituted C2 and/or C4 positions of pyrimidines without altering side chains on the ring (Scheme 19.175) [192].
1752

O N Me N
Agrobacterium sp, DSM 6136
NH Me N H (78%) O
aq DMF, r.t.
Scheme 19.175
The rst oxidative cleavage of the pyrimidine ring has been reported by Soai and coworkers [193]; thus RuO4 (prepared in situ from RuCl3 and NaIO4),provides a new route for the transformation of acetates of chiral pyrimidylalkanols into chiral a-acetoxy-N-acetylamides 165 and a-acetoxyamides 166, which are synthetic equivalents of chiral a-hydroxy carboxylic acids, without racemization (Scheme 19.176).
R1 AcO N N Me RuCl3, NaIO4 H2O, CCl4, MeCN R1
OAc NH O O 165 59-80% 89-95% ee + R1
OAc NH2 O 166 11-17% 91-95% ee
Scheme 19.176
19.7.7 Reactions of Metallated Pyridazines
Qu eguiner and coworkers have reviewed the directed deprotonation (ortho- metalation) of azines and diazines [194]. In general, diazines are more difcult to orthometalate than are pyridines, due to having sufciently lower LUMO energies, which makes them prone to nucleophilic additions and electron-transfer processes. For this reason, non-nucleophilic lithium 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidide (LiTMP) is a more efcient ortho-metalating agent than are alkyllithiums, but the resulting heteroaryllithium species are very unstable and can easily dimerize. These by-products can often be avoided by using very short lithiation times or by in situ trapping with a compatible electrophile (Scheme 19.177) [195].
4 LiTMP THF, -75C 6 min. PhCHO N N (31%) CH(OH)Ph
Scheme 19.177
j1753
19.7.7.1 Pyridazines (1,2-Diazines) Queguiner and coworkers [196] have reported the ortho-lithiation of pyridazine with subsequent trapping with chiral sulnate esters, affording chiral sulfoxides 167 with high enantiomeric excesses (% ee) (Scheme 19.178). These sulfoxide adducts can then be subjected to a second ortho-lithiation-electrophile trapping sequence with aldehydes to provide fully-substituted pyridazines 168 with high diastereoselectivities (% de).
O* STol OMe 1. LTMP MeO N N 2. (S) or (R)-menthyl MeO p-toluenesulfinate (76-77%) N N OMe 1. LTMP or LDA 2. RCHO (76-80%)
O* OH STol R * MeO N N OMe
167 (97%ee)
168 (93 - 99%de)
Scheme 19.178
A surprising result is obtained for pyridazine thiocarboxamides (Scheme 19.179), which undergo metalationelectrophilic attack regioselectively meta to the thiocarboxamide group [197].
t-BuNH
S N N 1. LiTMP, THF -75C 2. E+
t-BuNH
S N N
(14-63%)
Scheme 19.179
19.7.7.2 Pyrimidines (1,3-Diazines) For pyrimidines, ortho-lithiation occurs selectively at C4, not at C2, despite the enhanced electronegativity of C2 due to its two electron-withdrawing nitrogens (Scheme 19.180).
TMS N N Me3SiCl THF LiTMP -75C N (54%)

Scheme 19.180
1754

Metalation of diazines bearing directing groups (chloro, uoro, methoxy, methylthio, and carboxamides) has been widely reported [198]. Interestingly, pyrimidines can be lithiated either by deprotonation or by halogen exchange (Scheme 19.181). Deprotonation is favored at higher temperature (10 C) using lithium diisopropylamide (LDA), while lithiumhalogen exchange occurs at low temperature (100 C) with n-BuLi. The presence of ring substituents at the C2 and/ or C4 centers help to stabilize the resulting lithiated pyrimidines [199].
LDA Br N N Et2O, -10C n-BuLi Et2O, THF -100C

Scheme 19.181
Br Li Li N N
E+
Br E N
E+
E N
5-(Pyrimidinyl)magnesium chloride and 5-(pyrimidinyl)cerium dichloride reagents 169, prepared from bromopyrimidines via metalhalogen exchange, react with aldehydes and ketones to give high yields of alcohols 170 (Scheme 19.182) [200].
OtBu Br N N OtBu BuCeCl2 Cl2Ce
OtBu N N 169 OtBu 1. R

1
O R
2
OH O R
1
R2 N H
NH O
2. HCl
170 (79-96%)
Scheme 19.182
Similarly, lithiation of 5-bromopyrimidine and reaction with enantiomericallypure chiral sulnate esters gives chiral sulfoxides 171 with high enantioselectivities (Scheme 19.183) [196].
O Br N N BuLi Li N N (S) or (R)-menthyl p-toluenesulfinate (22 - 47%, 99%ee) TolS * N 171

Scheme 19.183
j1755
19.7.7.3 Pyrazines (1,4-Diazines) Directed metalation of pyrazines has been reported as well, and can be used to prepare ortho-halogenated derivatives (Scheme 19.184).
N LiTMP N THF, -75C I2 (44%) N N I
Scheme 19.184
Ortho-metalation of 2,6-dichloropyrazine 172 with lithium 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidide (LTMP) followed by quenching with a lactone produces the C-heteroaryl glycoside 173 (Scheme 19.185) [194].
Cl
N Cl N 172
Scheme 19.185
Cl 1. LTMP Cl 2.
BnO
N N
BnO O
O OBn
OH OBn
OBn OBn
173 (72%)
It is reported that pyrazine thiocarboxamides undergo lithiation at the para position (Scheme 19.186), although the ortho product could be selectively generated under certain conditions [201].
N N S
Scheme 19.186
R1 N
1. LTMP R2 2. E+
N N
R1 N
R2
S 35-100%
19.7.8 Palladium-Catalyzed Reactions
Organopalladium chemistry is a rapidly growing eld with wide application to heterocyclic synthesis [202]. This section shows representative types of palladiummediated transformations of diazine derivatives.
19.7.8.1 Coupling Reactions 19.7.8.1.1 Pyridazines (1,2-Diazines) New developments in the eld of palladiumcatalyzed cross-coupling reactions have included halodiazines and diazene triates.
1756

Rival and coworkers reported what is described as being the rst Suzuki crosscoupling for the synthesis of 3-amino-6-arylpyridazines [203]. Electron-donating substituents on the arylboronic acid provided optimal yields (Scheme 19.187).
NH2 NH2 Cl N N + R1 B(OH)2 Pd(PPh3)4 Na2CO3 (30-60%)
Scheme 19.187
R1 N
Aldous and coworkers have reported similar studies on palladium-catalyzed Stille and Suzuki coupling reactions of pyridazinyl triates 174 with electron-rich arylstannanes and aryl boronates, respectively (Scheme 19.188). In general, Suzuki couplings were found to be more efcient than the corresponding Stille couplings [204].
OTf Me N 174
Scheme 19.188
Pd(PPh3)4 X S X = Sn(n-Bu)3 (77%) X = B(OH)2 (84%) Me N N
In the absence of palladium catalysts, the direct amination of 3-chloropyridazines with primary amines requires drastic conditions with difcult work up procedures, giving poor yields of the desired product and low reproducibility. For this reason the formation of a carbonnitrogen bond via palladium cross-coupling reactions represents a powerful synthetic tool. Hibert [205] has developed an operationally simple and efcient palladium-assisted procedure for the amination of 3-iodo-6-arylpyridazines 175 (Scheme 19.189).
H N Ph N N N Bn
I Ph N 175 N +
H2N N Bn
PdCl2(dppf), dppf t-BuONa, 80C, 6 h (75%)
Scheme 19.189
Palladium-catalyzed alkynylations have also been studied with pyridazines. As an illustration, several 6-phenyl-3(2H)-pyridazinones (Scheme 19.190) bearing different alkynyl groups at position 5 have been prepared by Sonogashira cross-coupling [206].
j1757
R1 R1 Br Ph O N N MOM Pd(PPh3)2Cl2 CuI/Et3N/DMF 60C Ph O N N MOM Ph CH(OH)Ph Pd(PPh3)2Cl2 CuI/Et3N/DMF 55C/ 12h Ph O N N MOM O
Scheme 19.190
When 1-phenyl-2-propyn-1-ol was used, the (E)-chalcone adduct was isolated in excellent yield. An efcient one-pot bis-functionalization of the 4,5-positions of the 3-pyridazinone ring has been performed using Suzuki, Sonogashira, and Stille cross-coupling reactions assisted by a retro-ene fragmentation (Scheme 19.191) [207]. This route allows quick access to several pharmacologically useful novel 3(2H)-pyridazinonebased antiplatelet agents [208].
X X O N H X = Br, Cl N CH2O reflux O HO N X N Pd-catalyzed reactions O H O N X R N Retro-ene HN N - CH2O R O R
R (80-90%)
Scheme 19.191
This same methodology has been applied to a traceless solid-phase synthesis of 3 (2H)-pyridazinones 176, employing a dihydropyran-functionalized resin and cleavage conditions that promoted a retro-ene fragmentation (Scheme 19.192) [209]. In the case of 1,2-diazines, the lithiopyridazines prepared by ortho-lithiation have been converted by reaction with zinc chloride into the more stable zinc compounds for use in palladium-catalyzed cross-coupling reactions [210]. The use of sonication, for the rst time in a Negishi reaction, lowered the reactions times signicantly and improved the yields (Scheme 19.193).
19.7.8.1.2 Pyrimidines (1,3-Diazines) Palladium-catalyzed cross-coupling reactions have also been reported for pyrimidines. The increased stability of organozinc reagents compared to lithium or magnesium organometallics allows the Negishi reactions to be carried out at high temperature. In this way, ortho-lithiation of
1758

X X R N HO N O O Y O N N Suzuki Coupling O O O N N R Ar Ph
Y O
PPTS, C2H4Cl2 60C
O THP 20% TFA/ DCM
R = H, Ph Y = H, Br, Cl X = Br, Cl
Ar Ph O N H N 60C O
Ar Ph N N OH
176 (91-93%)
Scheme 19.192
OMe MeO N N
1. n-BuLi - 70C, THF, 10 min 2. ZnCl2 -70C to 20C MeO
ZnCl2 OMe N N
Ph Ph-I Pd(PPh3)4 / THF 65C, 3 h sonication MeO N N OMe
(90%)
Scheme 19.193
4-chloro-2-methylthiopyrimidine 177 using LTMP and subsequent treatment with ZnCl2 led to organozinc reagent 178, which was then cross-coupled with iodobenzene to furnish the 5-arylpyrimidine 179 (Scheme 19.194) [210].
Cl N MeS N 177
Scheme 19.194
Cl 1. LTMP, THF, -75C, 1.5 h 2. ZnCl2,-75 to 20C MeS N N 178 ZnCl
I N Pd(Ph3P)4 , THF 65C, 20 h, 52% MeS
Cl Ph N 179
Although alkyl halide substrates are prone to b-hydride elimination in these reactions, alkylzinc or alkylboron reagents can take part in Negishi or Suzuki coupling without detectable b-hydride elimination to produce alkylpyrimidines (Scheme 19.195) [211]. The cross-coupling reaction of methylthiopyrimidines 180 with organozinc compounds in the presence of palladium was found to produce substituted pyrimidines 181 in good to excellent yields (Scheme 19.196) [212].
j1759
N N OTf
n-BuZnBr Pd(Ph3P)4, THF, 50C N
N Bu
(71%)
Scheme 19.195
R1 R
2
R1 N ArCH2ZnBr SMe Pd(PPh)4 R

2
N N 181 (71-90%) Ar
180
Scheme 19.196
The traditional Stille-type cross coupling of stannanes with bromopyrimidines has been reported to provide chlorobiaryls 182 in good yields (Scheme 19.197) [160].
Br + Bu3Sn N Cl N
Pd(PPh3)4 80%
Cl
N 182 N
Scheme 19.197
A modular synthesis of functionalized pyrimidinones via a selective sulde versus halide cross-coupling protocol has been reported (Scheme 19.198) [213]. The exchanges are complementary and depend solely on the experimental conditions.
O Pd(PPh3)4 O Br N N CH2CO2But + SR1 ArB(OH)2 or ArSn(n-Bu)3 CuTC or CuMeSal THF 25-60C Br N N CH2CO2But Ar
(59-89%) O
Pd(PPh3)4 THF or dioxane + base 80-95C

Scheme 19.198
Ar N
CH2CO2But SR1
(65-80%)
1760

In the same way, 2-amino-6-iodo-4-tosyloxypyrimidine (183, which is easily prepared from commercially available material, is a key intermediate for the preparation of differentially substituted 2-aminopyrimidines by means of sequenced Suzuki and/or Sonogashira reactions (Scheme 19.199) [214].
R2 OTs N N R1 NH2 1. ii 2. ii I N 183 1. i 2. ii Ar N N R1 R1 = Ph NH2 N NH2 1. i 2. i Ar 2 N Ar1 N NH2
R2 = TMS
Ar1 = Ph, PMP
(i) : ArB(OH) 2,Pd(PPh 3 )4, Na 2 CO 3 , DMF-H 2 O, MW (ii) :R

Scheme 19.199
, CuI, PdCl 2 (PPh 3 )2 , NEt 3 , MW
Microwave activation is becoming a very popular and useful technique in organic chemistry. The combination of solvent-free reaction conditions and microwave irradiation leads to signicantly reduced reaction times, enhanced conversions, and, sometimes, higher selectivity, with the advantage of an eco-friendly approach (green chemistry). In this context, Botta has described a microwave-assisted Sonogashira coupling of pyrimidinones with alkynes to give the corresponding 5-alkynyl derivatives 184, or furano-fused pyrimidines 185 when using propargyl alcohol (Scheme 19.200) [215].
19.7.8.1.3 Pyrazines (1,4-Diazines) Chloropyrazines and their N-oxides both undergo a wide range of palladium-catalyzed carboncarbon bond-forming reactions. The oxidative addition of chloroarene to Pd(0) occurs using sterically hindered, electronrich phosphine ligands, as reported by Reetz [216], Fu [217], and Buchwald [218]. In 1981, Otha et al. [219] introduced a cyano group by reuxing chloropyrazine 186 with KCN in DMF in the presence of a catalytic amount of Pd(Ph3P)4 to give cyanopyrazine 187 (Scheme 19.201). Palladium-catalyzed coupling reactions between chloropyrazines and organometallic reagents without b-sp3-hydrogens are straightforward and generally proceed in
j1761
R3 R3 R2 I O N NH X OH PdCl2(PPh3)2 Et3N, CuI, DMF MW, 5 min (50-80%) O
R2 NH N 184 X
R2 N PdCl2(PPh3)2 Et3N, CuI, DMF MW, 5 min (80-85%) HOH2C O 185 N X
Scheme 19.200
N N 186
Scheme 19.201
1.5 eq. KCN 5 mol% Pd(Ph3P)4 Cl DMF, reflux, 2.5 h (77%)
N N 187 CN
good yields. Stille coupling of chloropyrazines and their N-oxides has been carried out with tetraphenyltin [220] and aryl-, heteroaryl-, allyl-, and alkylstannanes [221]. Acylation of pyridazines by Stille reactions of bromopyrazines with 1-ethoxyvinylstannanes (Scheme 19.202) has been accomplished by Sato et al., using a copper cocatalyst [222]. They found that the copper additive increased the yields from 31% to 93%. The Cu-induced acceleration was most prominent for electron-decient pyrazines, which are more reactive in Pd-catalyzed reactions.
O R3 R2 N N Br + R1 EtO Bu3Sn R = H, Me
Scheme 19.202
4
1. Pd-cat, CuX 2. aq. HCl (77-96%)
R3 R2
5
N N R1
R5
R = Me, Et
Suzuki couplings have likewise been conducted using halopyrazines and boronic acids. In this way (Scheme 19.203), bromopyrazine 188 and 2-thiopheneboronic acid have been coupled to deliver the desired thienylpyrazine 189 [223]. In addition, some pyrazine derivatives can be coupled with aryl halides through a Negishi reaction (ortho-lithiation and transmetalation with ZnCl2) [210]. In this case, sonication has a great inuence on the yield and reaction time (Scheme 19.204).
1762

N Br N 188
Scheme 19.203
NH2 COPh
B(OH)2
N N S
NH2 COPh
PdCl2 (dppb) 1 M Na2CO3 EtOH-PhMe
189 (96%)
N N
R1
1. LTMP, THF, -75C, 1.5 h 2. ZnCl2,-75 to 20C
N N
R1 ZnCl
I Pd(Ph3P)4, THF 65C, 20 h, 52% sonication
N N
R1
R1 = Cl, OMe
(88-99%)
Scheme 19.204
Palladium-catalyzed alkylation reactions of chloropyrazines with alkyl organometallic reagents bearing b-sp3-hydrogens have sometimes proven to be difcult [224]. In addition to coupling, dehalogenation may also take place. In comparison, when trialkylaluminium or dialkylzinc reagents are used low yields of the alkylated product are obtained, while trialkylboranes give the best results (Scheme 19.205).
N N Cl
EtnM, Pd(0)
N + N 23% 25% 74%
N N 49% 49% 5%
AlEt3, Pd(Ph3P)4, 1,4-dioxane ZnEt2, Pd(Ph3P)4, K2CO3, DMF BEt3, Pd(Ph3P)4, K2CO3, DMF
Scheme 19.205
Akita and Otha disclosed one of the earliest Sonogashira reactions of chloropyrazines and their N-oxides [225]. Under standard cross-coupling reaction conditions [Pd(Ph3P)2Cl2, CuI, Et2NH], many alkynylpyrazines have been synthesized [226], among them being some natural products (Scheme 19.206) [227].
N I N OMe
OH Pd(Ph3P)2Cl2 CuI, Et3N, 2 h HO
N N OMe
N 5 steps H2N 66% H N NH Arglecin N O
(90%)
Scheme 19.206
j1763
Heck reactions of 2-chloro-3,6-dimethylpyrazine 190 with styrene in the presence of Pd(Ph3P)4 and KOAc provides a convenient route to vinylpyrazine derivatives 191 (Scheme 19.207) [228]. This methodology was also extended to 2-chloropyrazines N-oxides, although the yields were considerably lower (2838%) [229].
N N 190
Scheme 19.207
N Cl Pd(Ph3P)4, KOAc DMA, 100C, 15 h (95%) H N H 191 Ph
Ohtasgroup hasadvancedthis methodology toHeckreactions ofhalopyrazineswith both p-electron-rich and p-electron-decient heteroarenes (Scheme 19.208) [230].
N R1 N
R1 Cl
X Pd(Ph3P)4, KOAc DMA, 100C, 6-12 h X = O, S, NH, NMe R1
N N
R1 X
R1 = Me, Et, i-Bu

Scheme 19.208
( 25-75%)
A stereospecic Heck-cross-coupling reaction of an iodo-substituted diaminopyrazine has been reported by Townsend in which a glycal serves as the acceptor, giving exclusively the b-conguration of the C-glycosidic bond [231]. It was not necessary to protect the two amino groups of the pyrazine due to the relatively weak basicity of the amino nitrogens on the electron-decient pyrazine ring (Scheme 19.209).
I TBDMSO O H2N N N Cl NH2 1. TBAF/THF 2. NaB(OAc)3H CH3CN, 0C HO H2N O OH N
NH2 Cl
TBDMSO
Scheme 19.209
Pd(OAc)2/AsPh3, Et3N CH3CN, 50C
19.7.8.2 Carbonylation Reactions Alkoxycarbonylation reactions of halo-substituted diazines can be carried out with carbon monoxide and palladium acetate in an alcohol solvent, providing an effective route to pyrimidine esters (Scheme 19.210) [232].
1764

OMe N MeO N Cl CO, ROH Pd(OAc)2, dppf AcONa MeO N OMe N CO2R
(54-90%)
Scheme 19.210
Similarly, pyrazine-carboxylic esters 192 and pyrazine carboxamides can be synthesized in excellent yield from chloropyrazines by Pd-catalyzed carbonylation in the presence of either an alcohol or dialkylamine (Scheme 19.211) [233].
N N Cl CO (40 Kg.cm-2)/MeOH Et3N/Pd(dba)2/Ph3P 150C, 16 h (>85%) N N 192 CO2Me
Scheme 19.211
19.8 Important Derivatives 19.8.1 Diazines N-Oxides
Pyridazine N-oxides and pyrazine N-oxides can be prepared by selective N-oxidation of the parent heterocycles, but pyrimidine N-oxides are more difcult to obtain in this way and are best prepared by ring synthesis [234, 235]. Pyridazine N-oxides and pyrazine N-oxides give electrophilic aryl substitution and nucleophilic displacement (Scheme 19.212). Interestingly, the nitro group can be removed readily either at the b- or c-position to the N-oxide function.
NO2 MeONa/MeOH N O N 64% N O N OMe
N O
HNO3/H2SO4 140C 22%
Scheme 19.212
All three diazene N-oxide systems are prone to nucleophilic substitution by halide, cyanide, enamines, or acetate with loss of the oxide function [236]. Depending on the types of substituents present on the ring, the site of introduction of the nucleophile is not always a to the N-oxide as would be predicted by analogy with pyridine chemistry (Scheme 19.213).
19.8 Important Derivatives

Me N N O Me POCl3 80% Me Cl N N O Me H2N N N O TMSCN DMF, 100C 80% NC H2N N N O
j1765
Scheme 19.213
The N-oxide group can also serve as an activating substituent to allow regioselective metalation (ortho-lithiation) and further reaction with electrophiles, as shown in Scheme 19.214. The N-oxide can be removed with phosphorus tribromide [237].
s-Bu N N O s-Bu s-Bu H O N O N s-Bu H O N N s-Bu
LiTMP THF/TMED -78C
DMF 73%
PBr3 s-Bu EtOAc, heat 70%
Scheme 19.214
19.8.2 Aminodiazines
Aminodiazines exist in the fully aromatized amino form but signicant anionic charge character is built up on the ring nitrogen by resonance (a shown below), making protonation occur on the anionically-enriched ring nitrogen. The order of preference for protonation of a ring nitrogen is c > a > b to the amino group.
N N NH2 N N
NH2
The presence of an amino group facilitates electrophilic substitution, as illustrated for halogenation (Scheme 19.215). Predictably, two amino groups further activate the ring to enable attack by weaker electrophiles.
Br N 41%
Scheme 19.215
N N NH2
Br2, H2O 80C
N NH2
Often, it is difcult to regioselectively alkylate 2-aminopyrimidines without producing a mixture of endo- and exocyclic N-alkylation products. Alvarez-Builla and coworkers [238] have reported methodology for selectively preparing 2-alkylaminopyrimidines 194 with high regioselectivity, after reductive removal of the pyridine moiety from the N-alkylated product (Scheme 19.216). The reaction is
1766

N N N 193
Scheme 19.216
H N
R-Br acetone R
N N N
H N
Br Zn / AcOH 65-76%
RHN N
194
thought to proceed through formation of an intramolecular hydrogen bond between the pyridine and pyrazine rings, which prevents alkylation of the ring nitrogens. Similar methodology can be applied to 2-aminopyrazines. Various biologically important natural products contain the 2-aminopyrimidine moiety in their structure, and various reactions involving these substituted heterocycles have been reported (condensation with aldehydes and ketones [239], Michael additions [240]). For example, Grubb has employed the cyclocondensation of an a-bromoaldehyde with diaminopyrimidone in a total synthesis of quinine (Q Base), found in tRNA (Scheme 19.217) [241].
O O HN H2N N + NH2 H
Br
Ns N O O
1. NaOAc 2. deprotection HN H2N
H N O O
N H
Scheme 19.217
19.8.3 Alkyldiazines [242]
Alkyldiazines undergo condensations that involve deprotonation of the pendent alkyl group. The intermediate anions are stabilized by mesomerism involving one or both nitrogens. Thus, pyrimidines system shows side-chain reactivity; CH3 groups at the C2, C4, or C6 undergo aldol or Claisen condensations with marked preference at C4 (Scheme 19.218).
OH CH3 N Cl3CCH=O N py, 95C 60% N N CCl3
Scheme 19.218
j1767
The regioselectivity of the side chain reactions on disubstituted pyrimidine can be controlled by adjusting the reaction conditions (Scheme 19.219). Thus, in the bromination of 4,5-dimethylpyrimidine (195) under ionic conditions (Br2, HOAc) substitution at the C4 methyl group 196 is favored, but under radical conditions (NBS, CCl4) the halogenation occurs at the C5 methyl group (197) [243].
Br2, AcOH Me Me N 195 NBS, (PhCO2)2 h, CCl4, reflux 77%
Scheme 19.219
Me BrH2C N 196 BrH2C Me N 197
80C 75%
Like the other diazines, alkylpyrazine can undergo base catalyzed CC bondforming reactions of the CH groups adjacent to the heteroatom. Thus, 2-methylpyrazine (198), after deprotonation with NaNH2 in liquid NH3, can be alkylated, acylated, and nitrosated (Scheme 19.220).
N N 198 CH3 NaNH2, NH3 (l) R-X N N R
Scheme 19.220
19.8.4 Hydroxydiazines
All the mono-oxygenated diazines, except 5-hydroxypyrimidine, exist predominantly as carbonyl tautomers and are thus categorized as diazinones. The dioxydiazines do not obey a straightforward rule, for where both oxygens are a or c to a nitrogen both are expected to exist in carbonyl form but one remains in the hydroxyl form, as seen in the case of maleic hydrazide. The preference for the mono-oxo tautomer is likely due to the favorable interaction between two adjacent, oppositely charged nitrogen atoms as opposed to dual cationic nitrogens in the di-oxo form (Scheme 19.221).
+ OH O + N N H O O + NH N + H
Scheme 19.221
1768

On the other hand, uracil, 199, thymine, 200, and cytosine, 201, all exist in the dione form and most of their reactions can be interpreted on this basis [244]. Similarly, barbituric acid, 24, prefers the tricarbonyl tautomer.
O NH N H Uracil 199 O Me N H O NH O N H NH2 N O O N H 24 O NH O
Thymine 200
Cytosine 201
Barbituric Acid
Diazinones are highly susceptible to nucleophilic attack, generally via Michael-type addition rather than by direct attack at a carbonyl center (Scheme 19.222). There are, of course, exceptions to this general trend. Grignard reagents add to the ring to give dihydro-compounds and good leaving groups can be displaced [245].
OSO2Ar N N O Sugar
Scheme 19.222
MeMgCl THF (53%) Me
OSO2Ar NH N O Sugar
For certain synthetic transformations it is often convenient to use halo- or alkoxysubstituted diazines to enhance solution solubility, or product yield, compared to the underivatized compound. Oxydiazines with the oxygen a to nitrogen can be converted into halo- and thio-compounds using the same reagents used for 2- and 4pyridones, including N-bromosuccinimide with triphenylphosphine or phosphorus oxyhalide (Scheme 19.223) [246].
OH N Me N Me PPh3 / N-halosuccinimide dioxane / reflux Me N X N Me
X = Br (84%) X = Cl (74%)
Scheme 19.223
This same transformation can be effected via generation of the O-silylated pyrazinones with phosphorus(III) halide or phosphorus(V) chloride under mild conditions and without the need for isolation of the silyl intermediate (Scheme 19.224) [247]. The iodo adducts were obtained in low yield. Diazinones 202 can be converted into aminodiazines 204 by various processes, including the use of 1,2,4-triazole intermediate 203 (Scheme 19.225) [248].
j1769
Ph Me
N N
OH
TMSCl HMDS
Ph Me
N N
OTMS
PX3 or PX5
Ph Me
N N
X = Cl (46-94%) X = Br (62-81%) X = I (15-20%)

Scheme 19.224
N O NH N S Sugar 202
Scheme 19.225
N + N H N
POCl3 / Et3NH MeCN, 0C to r.t. (93-99%)
N N NH3 / MeOH r.t. (93-97%)
NH2 N S N Sugar 204
S N Sugar 203
Owing to the importance of light-induced mutagenesis, photochemical transformations of the double bond in oxypyrimidines have been investigated in depth. From this comes useful [2 2] cycloaddition methodology, as illustrated in the reaction of uracil with vinylene carbonate to prepare a 5-alkylated derivative (Scheme 19.226) [249].
O HN O N H O + O O Me2CO aq. light HN O
O O O N H O Et3N, DMF 40% HN O
O H N H O
Scheme 19.226
Uracils also undergo radical additions (Scheme 19.227), which are of possible relevance to mutagenesis mechanisms [250].
O R1 = H O Me O N N Me R1 (PhCOO)2 hexano R1 = CH3 Me O N N Me Me O N N Me O CH2 Me O N N Me OCOPh Me O N N Me O CH2OCOPh O OCOPh
Scheme 19.227
1770

19.8.5 Halodiazines
Most of the chemistry concerning halodiazines derivatives has been discussed above in the context of various nucleophilic sing substitutions (Sections 19.7.3.2 and 19.7.8).
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Qu eguiner, G. (1999) The Journal of Organic Chemistry, 64, 4512. Fruit, C., Turck, A., Pl e, N., Mojovic, L., and Qu eguiner, G. (2002) Tetrahedron, 58, 2743. Qu eguiner, G., Marsais, F., Snieckus, V., and Epszajn, J. (1991) Advances in Heterocyclic Chemistry, 52, 187. Turck, A., Pl e, N., Mongin, F., and Qu eguiner, G. (1990) Journal of Heterocyclic Chemistry, 27, 1377. Shimura, A., Momotake, A., Togo, H., and Yokoyama, M. (1999) Synthesis, 495. Fruit, C., Turck, A., Pl e, N., and Queguiner, G. (1999) Heterocycles, 31, 2407. Li, J.J. and Gribble, G.W. (2000) Palladium in Heterocyclic Chemistry, Pergamon Press, New York, p. 355. Guery, S., Parrot, Y., Rival, C., and Wemuth, G. (2001) Tetrahedron Letters, 42, 2115. Aldous, D., Bower, S., Moorcroft, N., and Todd, M. (2001) Synlett, 150. Parrot, I., Ritter, G., Wermuth, C.G., and Hibert, M. (2002) Synlett, 1123. ~ a, E. Coelho, A., Sotelo, E., and Ravin (2003) Tetrahedron, 59, 2477. Sotelo, E., Coelho, A., and ~ a, E. (2003) Tetrahedron Letters, Ravin 44, 4459. Sotelo, E., Fraiz, N., Y anez, M., Terrados, ~ a, E. V., Laguna, R., Cano, E., and Ravin (2002) Bioorganic and Medicinal Chemistry, 10, 2873. ~a, E. (2003) Synlett, Sotelo, E. and Ravin 1113. Turck, A., Pl e, N., Lepretre-Graquere, A., and Qu eguiner, G. (1998) Heterocycles, 49, 205. Sandosham, J. and Undheim, K. (1994) Heterocycles, 39, 501. Angioletti, M.E., Casalnuovo, A.I., and Shelby, T.P. (2000) Synlett, 905. Kusturin, C., Liebeskind, L.S., Rahman, H., Sample, K., Schweitzer, B., Srogl, J., and Neumann, W.I. (2003) Organic Letters, 5, 4349. jo, J.X. Jr., Benderitter, P., de Arau Schmitt, M., and Bourguignon, J.-J. (2007) Tetrahedron, 63, 12465.
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215 Petricci, E., Radi, M., Corelli, F., and 233 Takeuchi, R., Suzuki, K., and Sato, N. 216
217
218
219 220 221 222 223 224 225 226
227
228 229
230
231
232
Botta, M. (2003) Tetrahedron Letters, 44, 9181. Reetz, M.T., Lohmer, G., and Schwickardi, R. (1998) Angewandte Chemie International Edition, 37, 481. Littke, A.F. and Fu, G.C. (1998) Angewandte Chemie International Edition, 37, 3387. Buchwald, S.L. and Wolfe, J.P. (1999) Angewandte Chemie International Edition, 38, 2413. Akita, Y., Shimazaki, M., and Otha, A. (1981) Synthesis, 974. Otha, A., Otha, M., and Watanabe, T. (1986) Heterocycles, 24, 785. Nakamura, H., Takeuchi, D., and Murai, A. (1995) Synlett, 1227. Sato, N. and Narita, N. (2001) Synthesis, 1551. Jones, K., Keenan, M., and Hibbert, F. (1996) Synlett, 509. Otha, A., Itoh, R., Kaneko, Y., Koike, H., and Yuasa, K. (1989) Heterocycles, 29, 939. Akita, Y. and Ohta, A. (1982) Heterocycles, 19, 329. Nakamura, H., Wu, C., Takeuchi, D., and Murai, A. (1998) Tetrahedron Letters, 39, 301. Turck, A., Pl e, N., Dognon, A.D., Harmony, C., and Qu eguiner, G. (1994) Journal of Heterocyclic Chemistry, 31, 1449. Akita, Y., Inoue, A., and Ohta, A. (1986) Heterocycles, 24, 2093. Akita, Y, Noguchi, T., Sugimoto, M., and Ohta, A. (1986) Journal of Heterocyclic Chemistry, 23, 1481. Aoyagi, Y., Inoue, A., Koizumi, I., Hashimoto, R., Tokunaga, K., Gohma, K., Komatsu, J., Sekine, K., Miyafuji, A., Cono, J., Honma, R., Akita, Y., and Ohta, A. (1992) Heterocycles, 33 257. Walter, J.A. II, Chen, J.J., Hinkley, J.M., Wise, D.S., and Townsend, L.B. (1997) Nucleosides & Nucleotides, 16, 1999. Bessard, Y. and Crettaz, R. (1999) Tetrahedron, 55, 405.
(1990) Synthesis, 923.

234 Yamanaka, H., Sakamoto, T., and
235
236 237
238
239
240
241 242
243
244
245 246 247 248
249 250
Niitsuma, S. (1990) Heterocycles, 31, 923. Kocevar, M., Mlakar, B., Perdih, M., Petric, A., Polanc, S., and Vercek, B. (1992) Tetrahedron Letters, 33, 2195. Sato, N. (1989) Journal of Heterocyclic Chemistry, 26, 817. Aoyagi, Y., Maeda, A., Inoue, M., Shiraishi, M., Sakakibara, Y., Fukui, Y., and Otha, A. (1991) Heterocycles, 32, 735. Martinez-Barrasa, V., Delgado, F., Burgos, C., Garc a-Nav o, J.L., Izquierdo, M.L., and Alvarez- Builla, J. (2000) Tetrahedron, 56, 2481. Laneri, S., Saachi, A., and Abignente, E. (2000) Journal of Heterocyclic Chemistry, 37, 1265. Insuasty, B., P erez, A., Gonz alez, D., Quiroga, J., and Meier, H. (2000) Journal of Heterocyclic Chemistry, 37, 193. Barnett, C.J. and Grubb, I.M. (2000) Tetrahedron, 56, 9221. Abu-Shanab, F.A., Wakeeld, B.J., and Elnagdi, M.H. (1997) Advances in Heterocyclic Chemistry, 68, 181. Strekowski, L., Wydra, R.L., Janda, L., and Harden, D.B. (1991) The Journal of Organic Chemistry, 56, 5610. Wanhoff, H., Dzenis, J., and Hirota, K. (1992) Advances in Heterocyclic Chemistry, 55, 129. Bischofberger, N. (1989) Tetrahedron Letters, 30, 1621. Sugimoto, O., Mori, M., and Tanji, K.-I. (1999) Tetrahedron Letters, 40, 7477. Sato, N. and Narita, N. (1999) Journal of Heterocyclic Chemistry, 36, 783. Reese, C.B. and Varaprasad, C.V.N.S. (1994) Journal of the Chemical SocietyPerkin Transactions 1, 189. Bergstrom, D.E. and Agosta, W.C. (1974) Tetrahedron Letters, 15, 1087. Itahara, T. and Ide, N. (1992) Bulletin of the Chemical Society of Japan, 65, 2045.
j1777
20 Six-Membered Heterocycles: Triazines, Tetrazines and Other Polyaza Systems

Cristina G omez de la Oliva, Pilar Goya Laza, and Carmen Ochoa de Ocariz
20.1 Introduction
Triazines and tetrazines have been the subject of previous surveys. Reference textbooks include Comprehensive Heterocyclic Chemistry I [14], Comprehensive Heterocyclic Chemistry II [59] and The Chemistry of Heterocyclic Compounds [10]. In addition, Progress in Heterocyclic Chemistry [11] which appears annually and always includes a chapter with these ring systems. In other heterocyclic series, such as Advances in Heterocyclic Chemistry, several chapters have dealt with 1,2,3-triazines [12], dihydrotriazines [13, 14], reaction of triazines with nucleophiles [1517] and 1,2,4triazine-N-oxides [18]. Some of the references cited therein have been considered in the present chapter and the reader is referred to them for additional details. Among the three triazine isomers the 1,2,3-triazines (1) are the least studied in comparison with their 1,3,5- (3) and 1,2,4- (2) isomers, because of the well known fragility of chains and rings with contiguous nitrogen atoms [19].
4 5 6 4
N
1
N N
3 2
5 6
N N
1
4 3 5
N
6
N N
1
3 2
Several reviews on the chemistry of 1,2,3-triazine, also called n-triazine, have been published [12, 2026]. Study of the reactivity and stability of the unsubstituted ring systems has been possible only since 1981 when the rst synthesis of the parent compound 1 was reported [27]. 1,2,4-Triazines, also called a-triazine or as-triazine, are well-known compounds and a wide variety of synthetic methods for the preparation of substituted derivatives are available. Compounds containing the 1,2,4-triazine moiety are found in natural materials and some of them show biological activity. Several reviews dealing with 1,2,4-triazines have appeared, particularly on account of their biochemical properties [16, 18, 24, 26, 2832]. The parent compound 2 was prepared for the rst time by Paulder and Barton in 1966 [33].
1778
j 20 Six-Membered Heterocycles: Triazines, Tetrazines and Other Polyaza Systems

5N 6
N N 9
1
5 6
N N 10
1
N2
N N
3 2
N
6
N
1
N N
3 2
11
Figure 20.1 Numbering of the three possible isomers of tetrazine.
1,3,5-Triazines have been known for almost 200 years. Originally, they were called the symmetric triazines, usually abbreviated to sym-triazine. Like many heterocyclic compounds, 1,3,5-triazines are often referred to by trivial names such as cyanuric acid (4), cyanurates (5), cyanuryl chloride (6), isocyanurates (7) and melamines (8).
OH N HO N 4 N OH RO N N 5 OR N OR Cl N N 6 Cl N Cl O O R N N R 7 N R N O H2N N 8 NH2 N NH2
Therehavebeenmanystudiesdealingwiththechemistryof1,3,5-triazine[26,3441]. Triazine 3 was rst isolated in 1895 by Nef [42]. An incorrect molecular weight determination led Nef to assign a wrong structure. This incorrect assignment was accepted by other workers, but in 1954 a correct cryoscopic molecular weight determination established the structure of 3 [43]. Tetrazines have been less studied than triazines since there are fewer known examples [44]. The three possible isomers of tetrazine are known and numbered as indicated in Figure 20.1. There are more examples of 1,2,4,5-tetrazines (9), also named s-tetrazines and sym-tetrazines, than of the other two isomers. 1,2,3,4Tetrazine (10) is also known as n-tetrazine. 1,2,3,5-Tetrazines (11), also named as-tetrazines, are the least studied class. The parent compound of the 1,2,4,5-tetrazine series (9) was rst synthesized by Hantzsch and Lehman in 1900 [45].
20.2 1,2,3-Triazines 20.2.1 Relevant Computational Chemistry, Physicochemical and Spectroscopic Data
Few monocyclic 1,2,3-triazines are known, so knowledge of the structure of these compounds is poor. 4,5,6-Tris(4-methoxyphenyl)-1,2,3-triazine was the rst monocyclic triazine to be studied by X-ray crystallographic analysis [46]. This work showed the planarity of the triazine ring, as expected for a molecule with some degree of electron delocalization. The X-ray analysis of the parent compound 1 has been performed and the results fully agree with the planar and aromatic nature of the ring system [4749]. X-Ray crystallographic analyses with alkyl and aryl substituents of
20.2 1,2,3-Triazines
j1779
1,2,3-triazines 12 [50], 13 [50], 14 [51] and triazinium salts 15 [50], 16 [50], 17 [50] and 18 [52] have been described.
R4 R5 R6 N N N 12 R4 = Ph, R5 = H, R6 = Me; 13 R4 = Ph, R5 = R6 = (CH2)4 4 6 5 14 R = R = Ph, R = NEt2 15 R4 = Ph, R 5= H, R6 = Me, X = O-; 16 R4 = R6 = Me, R5 = H, X = O17 R4 = R5 = R6 = Me, X = NH-; 18 R4 = R6 = Ph, R5 = H, X = CH3
In 2004, Fabian and Lewars described a computational study of the stability, homodesmotic stabilization energy, electron distribution and magnetic ring current of triazines [53]. The proton afnity of 1 has been calculated [54]. The results suggest that 1,2,3-triazine has almost the same basicity as pyrazine and 1,2,4-triazine, but it is more basic than 1,3,5-triazine [54]. The electronic absorption spectrum of 1,2,3triazine has been obtained [55, 56]. In addition, the excited state geometries and vibrational spectra of 1 have been calculated using different levels of ab initio theory, with the results being in agreement with experimental studies [55, 57]. Harmonic [58] and anharmonic [58, 59] frequencies have also been calculated. Solvent effects on the lowest excitation of 1,2,3-triazine have been studied using a method developed for estimating solvent shifts of triazines that have strong specic interactions with the solvent [60]. The heat of formation has been calculated for 1,2,3-triazine [61]. Most known 1,2,3-triazines are stable at room temperature. The parent compound 1 can be obtained as colorless plates from ether and it undergoes slow thermal decomposition at room temperature, but is stable for several months when stored under vacuum at 20 C. Table 20.1 gives the melting points, 1 H and 13 C NMR data of various 1,2,3-triazines. The relatively high melting point of 1 suggests the tight stacking of the unsubstituted triazine ring, which was shown in X-ray data [48]. The low-eld chemical shifts of the ring protons are consistent with deshielding by a ring current of p-electrons; thus the triazine ring is aromatic. The 13 C NMR data show the aromatic nature of the triazine ring. Figure 20.2 shows the 15 N-signals of 1,2,3-triazines 1 [48], 19 and 20 [72] and those obtained recently for 21 and 2729 [67]. 15 N NMR spectra of 1,2,3-triazines derivatives havebeenrecordedinCDCl3 solution,usingnitromethaneasinternalstandard.Insaltsall nitrogen signals are shifted to higher eld compared to the corresponding 1,2,3-triazines. Mass spectrometry of 1,2,3-triazine affords a characteristic fragmentation. The general fragmentation pattern of monocyclic 1,2,3-triazines shows peaks for [M N2], and for an acetylene and a nitrile, which is in accordance with the results of thermolysis and photolysis. The mass spectrum of the parent triazine 1 shows peaks at 81 (M , 47%), 53 (M N2, 69%), 27 (HCN, 13%), 26 (C2H2, 100%) [62]. The presence of alkyl and/or aryl substituents diminishes the molecular ion peak [67].
To date, no compound containing the 1,2,3-triazine system has been isolated from natural sources. Derivatives of 1,2,3-triazine are an important class of heterocyclic
1780

Table 20.1 Melting point and 1 H and
13
C NMR data of 1,2,3-triazines.
R4 R5 R6 N N N
1 R4 = H, R5 = H, R6 = H; 19 R4 = Me, R 5 = R6 = H; 21 R4 = R6 = H, R5 = Ph; 23 R4 = R6 = Me, R5 = CH2COPh; 25 R4 = R6 = Me, R5 = CONH2;

1
14 R4 = R6 = Ph, R5 = NEt2 20 R4 = R6 = Me, R5 = H 22 R4 = R6 = H, R5 = Me 24 R4 = Ph, R5 = OH, R6 = Me 26 R4 = R6 = Me, R5 = CH2SO2Ph

13
mp ( C) 1 14 19 20 21 22 23 70 216 30 87 145 67 130
H NMR (CDCl3) d (ppm)
C NMR (CDCl3) d (ppm)
9.06 (2H, d, J 6.0 Hz), 7.45 (1H, t, J 6.0 Hz) [62] 7.208.00 (10H, m), 2.68 (4H, q, J 7.0 Hz), 0.90 (6H, t, J 7.0 Hz) [63] 8.92 (1H, d, J 6.0 Hz), 7.33 (1H, t, J 6.0 Hz), 2.70 (3H, s) [64] 7.11 (1H, s), 2.68 (6H, s) [66] 9.95 (2H, s), 7.697.63 (2H, m), 7.577.51 (3H, m) [67] 8.93 (2H, s), 2.40 (3H, s) [64] 8.088.06 (2H, m), 7.727.68 (3H, m), 7.557.59 (2H, m), 2.44 (2H, s), 2.59 (6H, s) [68] 8.128.25 (2H, m), 7.317.41 (3H, m), 2.41 (3H, s), 2.17 (1H, bs) [69] 6.60 (2H, bs), 2.72 (6H, s) [70] 7.367.92 (5H, m), 4.44 (2H, s), 2.52 (6H, s) [71]
149.7, 117.9 [62] 153.0, 137.0, 129.4, 128.7, 128.4, 46.1, 12.8 [63] 159.7, 148.8, 117.8, 21.4 [65] 158.8, 117.6, 21.1 [65] 147.4, 131.4, 131.1, 130.1, 127.3 [67] 146.9, 137.4, 123.5, 17.4 [65] 193.1, 158.8, 135.7, 134.3, 129.1, 128.2, 124.9, 37.2, 19.6 [68] 164.1, 156.4, 147.7, 132.3, 129.5, 127.9, 127.7, 15.5 [69] 166.1, 154.8, 126.5, 17.5 [70] 159.6, 138.2, 134.9, 129.9, 128.2, 118.8, 54.9 [71]
24
182
25 26
210 136
N = 13.7 1 Ph
= 13.7 N N = 80.8
N = 12.5 19
= 3.6 N N = 79.9
N = 3.8 Ph 20 N N = 8.32
= 83.14
= 3.8 N N = 78.6
N = 71.48 21
Figure 20.2
N N = 10.62
= 71.48
Ph
= -17.49 N = -81.46 N BF4 N = -17.49
Ph
N = 83.14 28
N = -21.46 29
= -21.46 N = -69.93 N BF
27
15
N NMR data of some 1,2,3-triazines.
j1781
compounds that are useful in organic synthesis, their importance being due to the fact that they can react as diene in inverse-demand DielsAlder cycloadditions with electron-rich dienophiles. The use of 1-t-butyl-3-ethyl-2-methylhexahydro-1,2,3-triazine as a corrosion inhibitor for steel is mentioned in the literature [73]. For several other compounds containing the 1,2,3-triazine system, claims for biochemical or technical applications have been made, but these seem to have been mostly for the purposes of obtaining patents on the compounds involved, and it appears that no signicant uses are yet known. Reports on the medicinal chemistry of 1,2,3-triazine have appeared [7482].
20.2.3 Synthesis 20.2.3.1 From Tricycles The rearrangement of cyclopropenyl azides 30 (Scheme 20.1) is a method used for the synthesis of monocyclic 1,2,3-triazines [8390]. This method is limited to the synthesis of trisubstituted triazines, because only trisubstituted cyclopropenyl azides have been rearranged.
R R 30 R
Scheme 20.1
N3
R R R
N N
R N R R
R N N N R R N N N
Diphenylchloroazine 31 and diazomethane yield 4,5-diphenyl-1,2,3-triazine 32 (Scheme 20.2) [91].

Ph N 31 Ph N N N Ph Ph N 32
Ph Cl
CH2N2
Ph Cl
N N
Scheme 20.2
Matsumoto et al. have reported the preparation of 5-amino-4,6-dialkyl-1,2,3triazines 35 from the corresponding dialkylcyclopropenones 33 [63, 92, 93] (Scheme 20.3).
R' HN SO3F R6 R R R4 R' BF4 R6 NaN3 R' R N R
6
O R4 R6
EtSO3F R4
OEt
R4 N N
33
34a
34b
N 35
Scheme 20.3
1782

20.2.3.2 From Pentacycles The more general synthetic method to obtain various mono-, di- and tri-substituted alkyl- and aryl-triazines, besides the parent triazine 1, is by oxidation of N-aminopyrazoles 36 with lead(IV) acetate (LTA; Pb(C2H3O2)4), nickel peroxide or sodium perchlorate [27, 48, 64, 66, 94, 95] (Scheme 20.4). The amino nitrogen is incorporated into the triazine ring as the central nitrogen N2, probably via insertion of the nitrene moiety to the NN bond of the pyrazole ring [72].
R5 R6 R4 N N NH2 36 R4 N N
R5 R6
Scheme 20.4
Butler et al. have reported that 2,5-dihydro-1,2,3-triazine derivatives are obtained by the 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition of 1,2,3-triazole N-oxide and dimethylacetylene dicarboxylate (DMAD) [96, 97]. The same group have reported another synthesis in which pyrrolo[2,3-d]-1,2,3-triazoles thermally rearrange to 2,5-dihydro derivatives [98].
20.2.3.3 Cycloaddition of [3 3] Fragments Another 1,2,3-triazine system (39) has been obtained by the reaction of triazenes 37 with chloroformylketones 38 (Scheme 20.5) [99].
O N N R
NH R
O C
R5 O 38 Cl
R5 O
37
Scheme 20.5
N R 39
20.2.3.4 Cycloaddition of [5 1] Fragments The cycloaddition of [5 1] fragments has also been used indirectly for the synthesis of one monocyclic 1,2,3-triazine. Compound 40 (Scheme 20.6) is cyclized with
NH H2N H2N N Cp 40 Cp = Cyclopentyl
Scheme 20.6
NH2 N HNO2 N N N N N Cp 41 H2N CpHN
NH2 N N
N 42
j1783
nitrous acid to give 4-aminoimidazo[4,5-d][1,2,3]triazine 41, which affords 4,5diamino-6-cyclopentylamino-1,2,3-triazine 42 [100].

20.2.3.5 Cycloaddition of [6 0] Fragments Cyclization of triazenes 43 affords 1,3-disubstitued-3,4,5,6-tetrahydro-1,2,3-triazinium salts 44 [101] (Scheme 20.7).
N N R
N R 43
3 Br
N R 44
Scheme 20.7
20.2.4 Reactivity 20.2.4.1 Thermal and Photochemical Reactions Flash vacuum thermolysis (FVT) of 1,2,3-triazines affords nitriles 45 and 46, alkyne 47 and nitrogen (Scheme 20.8). With unsymmetrically substituted triazines, fragmentation proceeds selectively. The results indicate that a bulky substituent at C4(6) makes the adjacent CN bond break more easily than the opposite CN bond. The photolysis of triazines (Scheme 20.9) gives the fragments nitriles 45 and 46, alkyne 47 and nitrogen, as under FVT conditions [83, 85, 102104]. In contrast to the FVT, unsymmetrical triazines also give the other possible alkyne 48.
R4 N N
R5 R6
630 C 10-5 mmHg
R4 45
R6
46
R4
47
R5
N2
Scheme 20.8
R4 N N h R4 45 N R6 46 N R4 47 R5 R6 48 R5 N2
R6
Scheme 20.9
FVT has been applied to the synthesis of uorinated alkynes, such as peruoro-3methyl-1-butyne (50) and diuoroethyne (51) [105, 106] (Scheme 20.10). Seybold et al. have obtained the rst isolable unfused azete 54 by FVT of tris(dimethylamino) triazine (53) [87] (Scheme 20.11).
1784

F (F3C)2FC 50 F 700 C 10-2 mmHg R = CF(CF3)2 R F N 49 N N 700 C 10-2 mmHg R=F F 51 F N 52 F
Scheme 20.10
Me2N Me2N
NMe2 N N 527 C 10-4 mmHg
Me2N Me2N N 54
NMe2
N 53
Scheme 20.11
20.2.4.2 Reactions with Electrophilic Reagents Electrophilic reaction on ring carbon C5 of 1,2,3-triazines cannot proceed because of the intensive p-electron deciency of the ring system. Protonation of alkyl and/or aryl substituted 1,2,3-triazines is difcult due to the low basicity of the ring nitrogen, and only when 4-phenyl (28) and 5-phenyl-1,2,3triazines (21) are treated with tetrauoroboric acid is the isolation of protonated 1,2,3-triazinium salts 55 possible [67]. The N2 substituted isomer is the most stable (Scheme 20.12).
R4 N N HBF4 R4 N NH BF4 N 55
R5
N 21 R4 = H, R5 = Ph 28 R4 = Ph, R5 = H
Scheme 20.12
However, 4,6-diamino-1,2,3-triazines have relatively high nucleophilicity at N2 and undergo various kinds of reactions with electrophiles [107] (Scheme 20.13). Other electrophilic reactions proceed on the ring nitrogen of substituted 1,2,3triazines (Scheme 20.14). The reaction with methyl iodide takes place easily to give 2-methyl derivatives 62 [63, 68, 92, 108]. Ethylation of substituted 1,2,3-triazines occurs when these compounds are treated with triethyloxonium, and so derivatives 63 have been obtained [67, 109]. Both N-amination and N-dicyanomethylidation of triazines also occurs and the corresponding 2-substituted isomers 64 [70] and 65 [109] are obtained in good yields. The N-phenylated 1,2,3-triazinium 66 has been obtained from copper-catalyzed reaction between 1,2,3-triazines and diphenyliodonium hexauorophosphate [67]. Treatment of triaryl-1,2,3-triazines with aqueous hydrochloric
j1785
BF4
X R2N
NR2 NR2 N 2ClHO4 NR2 58 NR2 X N I N R2N N 61 N N
Cl ClO4 R2N NR2 X IMe NR2 N N HBF4
X R2N
NR2 N NH
N 59 NR2
R2N N 56 X = NR2 ClCO2Me 57 X = Cl
X R2N
N N Cl N CO2Me 60
Scheme 20.13
R4 N N
R5 R
6
R4 N N R Et X R
5
R4 N N
R6 NH2 H CN Ph 68a NH2 Ph H 68b CN R5 R

6
N 62 I
N 63
N 64
NH
IMe R4 = R6 = H, R5 = Ph R4 = Ph, R5 = R6 = H HOSA O H3O R4
Et3O X R4 N N NC NC R5 R6 SO3NH2 R5 CN O CN R4 N N R
6
R5 R
6
R4 N N CN CN
PhI2 PF6
N 65
O 67 R = R = R6 = Ar
4 5
N Ph 66 PF6
Scheme 20.14
acid at higher temperatures leads to hydrolysis of the ring and formation of 1,3dicarbonyl compounds 67 [83]. The reaction of monosubstituted 1,2,3-triazines with hydroxylamine-O-sulfonic acid gives 3-amino-2(3)-phenylacrylonitriles 68a,b [109].
20.2.4.3 Reactions with Nucleophilic Reagents 1,2,3-Triazines are highly p-electron decient and are readily attacked by nucleophiles. The reaction site is almost exclusively at the C4 position, even in the presence of a substituent at C4 [69, 110, 111]. Gompper et al. [107] have reported that 4,5,6-trichlorotriazine undergoes substitution reactions with amines and alcohols. The rst reaction site was the C4 position, and successive displacement(s) occur, depending on the nature of the nucleophile (Scheme 20.15).
1786

NiPr2 Cl Cl N 70 N N
i
OR Pr2NH Cl Cl N 69 N N MeONa, heat or EtSNa, rt MeONa, rt or PhOH, Et3N Cl RO N N N R = Me 71 R = Ph R N N
NR Cl RN N N
Cl Me2NH or piperidine
R R
N 57 R = Me2 R = [CH2]5
N R = OMe 72 R = SEt
Scheme 20.15
Therefore, the 1,2,3-triazine ring system has been shown to have insufcient stability for direct introduction of substituents. For example, the parent triazine slowly decomposes in methanol at room temperature, which suggests that nucleophilic attack of methanol occurs in the solution. Also, softer nucleophiles undergo a redox reaction with triazine (1) to give 2,5-dihydro derivatives 73 without ring substitution [112] (Scheme 20.16).
R N N RMgX or RLi R N 73 N NH R H O
N 1
Scheme 20.16
On the other hand, 4-methyl-1,2,3-triazine (19) reacts with sodium amide in ammonia to give 5-amino-4-methyl-2,5-dihydro-1,2,3-triazine (74) [48] (Scheme 20.17).
N 19
N N
NaNH2 NH3 R = Me
H2N N 74
N NH
Scheme 20.17
The introduction of nucleophiles at the C5 position of 1,2,3-triazine has been carried out for ring activation of N2, that is, addition of nucleophiles was successful when 1,2,3-triazinium salts were used as substrate. The dicyanomethylene group is a good activator, whose removal was simultaneously effected under the reaction conditions. Makosza [113] has developed a method named vicarious nucleophilic substitution of hydrogen to transform 1,2,3-triazinium 2-dicyanomethylylides 65
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into 5-benzenesulfonylmethyltriazines 75 [71, 114] by a radical reaction (Scheme 20.18). Radical nucleophilic carbamoylation, which was developed by Minisci [115], has been applied to triazinium dicyanomethylides to form 5-carbamoyl-1,2,3-triazines 76 [70, 116].
R4 Ph R4 N N 1. PhSO2CH2Cl/NaH 2. HCl CN CN (NH4)2S2O8 HCONH2 H2N R6 N 76 S O O R6 O N N CN CN N N (NH4)2S2O8
i
R4 Ph S O O R6 N N
N R4
R6
N 65
PrOH
N 75
Scheme 20.18
However, this procedure was limited to these two reactions because of the instability of the dicyanomethylene group toward other nucleophiles. Ohsawa et al. [68, 117] have found an alternative method for ring activation ketene silyl acetals or silyl enol ether react with 1,2,3-triazine in the presence of 1-chloroethyl chloroformate to give 2,5-dihydro adducts 77, which upon aromatization with ceric ammonium nitrate (CAN) give the corresponding 5-substituted triazines 78. 2,5Dihydro-1,2,3-triazine 79 has been obtained by hydrolysis in acetonitrile/water under reux (Scheme 20.19).
O O R R6 N 77 R'' 4 R R' N N O O Cl CH3CN H2O 1. CAN 2. CH3CN H2O R R6 O R R6
Scheme 20.19
R'' 4 R R' N 78 R'' 4 R R' N 79 N N H N N
R4 N N 1. Cl 2. R R'
O O
Cl
R6
OSiMe3 R''
Hydrolysis of 5-amino-1,2,3-triazinium salt 62 with aqueous sodium hydroxide affords 1,2,3-triazin-5-ones 80 [63, 92, 93] (Scheme 20.20). 2-Methyltriazinium quaternary salts are highly reactive to nucleophiles; the reactive site is the 5-position, giving 2,5-dihydro derivatives 81 and 82 [118]. When 2-ethyl-1,2,3-triazinium salts are allowed to react with C-nucleophiles the expected attack occurs in the case of the 4-alkyl triazinium salt to obtain 83
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R4 R R4 O R
6
N 80
N N
NaOH aq MeOH R5 = NRR'
R5 R6
R4 N N N I 62
RMgX R5 = H EtO2C
N 81
N N R4 N N
(EtO2C)2HC R6 N 82
CO2Et
Scheme 20.20
(Scheme 20.21); however, 5-alkyl-1,2,3-triazinium salts did not react [67]. Reactions with these C-nucleophiles suffer from poor yields due to the weak nucleophilicity. Reaction of 63 with compounds with acidic protons allows one to obtain 84 in good yields.
R' R'' R X N N R'''
Y X
R4
Y R' R''
R4 N N X N Et 63 R R' Na R
R'
R4 N N
R'''
N 83
Et
N 84
Et
Scheme 20.21
In addition, other nucleophiles can react with 1,2,3-triazines while keeping the aromaticity of the ring. Consequently, reaction between 4,6-dimethyl-1,2,3-triazine with halogenating reagents yields 5-halotriazine [119]. The use of interhalogen reagents affords 5-halotriazines derived completely or mainly from the more electronegative halogen. Monocyclic 1,2,3-triazine 2-oxides are quite stable and unreactive toward reagents such as Grignard reagents, alkyl- and aryllithiums and other organometallic compounds. This fact suggests that the N-oxide moiety back-donates electrons to the triazine ring, thus making the a- and c-positions less reactive toward nucleophiles.
20.2.4.4 Cycloaddition Reactions 1,2,3-Triazines are useful compounds that participate in cycloaddition reactions [120]. These compounds behave as p-decient dienes and undergo inverse-demand DielsAlder cycloadditions with electron-rich dienophiles [121]. Several reactions of 1,2,3-triazines with ynamine or enamine have been reported to afford pyridines 85 [48, 122] or 86 [94, 123] respectively (Scheme 20.22). This approach has been successfully employed for the total synthesis of pyridine alkaloids [124, 125], such as fabianine (87) [48, 126] and fusaric acid (88) [127, 128]. The mechanisms proposed for these reactions are described in Scheme 20.23.
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CH3 R 1. C4H9 C4H9 HO2C N 88 CO2H R = H, Me N R N N R=H N 85 NEt2 NEt2 R' N ZnBr2, 90C R = Me Me N 86 R'
H3C
2. SeO2, pyridine R = Me N N
N
Scheme 20.22
87
R N N R' NEt2 R N N N H N N R'' N R' R N N N
H H R' N2 R N
R' NEt2
N R
NEt2 H R''
R'' NH N2 R N R'
N R'
Scheme 20.23
4,6-Dimethyl-1,2,3-triazine (20) also reacts as diene with enamines under microwave irradiation [129, 130] (Scheme 20.24). The presence of alkyl substituents in the triazine ring diminishes the electron deciency of the ring and increases the steric hindrance experienced in the cycloaddition. For these reasons, cycloaddition reactions are scarce and reaction conditions are very energetic, therefore microwave irradiation in solvent-free conditions is used. To date, DielsAlder reactions of 4,5,6trimethyl-1,2,3-triazine have not been reported.
N 20
N N
microwave 150 C N NH N2 N
Scheme 20.24
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In 2004 [109] the rst report was made of a 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition reaction between 1,2,3-triazonium N-ylides 65 and electron-decient dipolarophiles, affording a new class of bicyclic heterocycles (89) (Scheme 20.25).
5
R4 N CN N CN N 89 CO2Me
R5
R4 N N CN CN
O O 100 C
O O
N 65
MeO2C
Scheme 20.25
20.2.4.5 Reactions with Reducing Reagents Sodium borohydride reduction of 4,6-disubstituted triazines in methanol afforded 2,5-dihydrotriazines 90 in good yields [66]. 4,5,6-Triaryltriazines have been reduced with LiAlH4 to give also the corresponding 2,5-dihydro compounds 91 in moderate yields [48] (Scheme 20.26).
R4 N NH NaBH4 R5 = H R4 N N LiAlH4 R5 = H R5 R6 R4 N NH
R5 R6
R6
N 90
N 91
Scheme 20.26
Reduction of the 2-oxide 92 with NaBH4 gives tetrahydro derivatives 93 (Scheme 20.27) in good yields [131]. Reduction of the triazine 1-oxide 94 affords 2,5-dihydrotriazines 90.
R4 N N NaBH4 O MeOH R6 R4 NH N N O 93 R4 N N NaBH4 MeOH R6 N 90 R4 N NH
R6
N 92
R6
N O 94
Scheme 20.27
20.2.4.6 Reactions with Oxidizing Reagents 2-Oxides 92 and/or 1-oxides 94 have been obtained by treatment of monocyclic 1,2,3triazines with MCPBA or AcOH/H2O2 (Scheme 20.28). Triazines with bulky aryl groups on C4 and C6 give predominantly 2-oxides 92, while with alkyl groups on C4 and/or C6 it is possible to obtain 1-oxides 94 [48]. There are no reported 1(3)-oxides without substituent on the adjacent carbon.
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R5 R6
R4 N N MCPBA or AcOH/H2O2
R5 R6
R4 N N + O
R5 R
6
R4 N N
N 92
N O 94
Scheme 20.28
5-Halo-1,2,3-triazines 95 react with superoxide to give 1,2,3-triazin-5(2H)-ones 96 [69, 111] (Scheme 20.29). The 5-oxo forms are predominant rather than the 5-hydroxy tautomers.
R4 X R6 N 95
Scheme 20.29
R4 N N superoxide CH3CN X = Br, Cl O R6 N 96 N NH
The reactions of triazinium salts 62 [111, 118] and 2,5-dihydrotriazines 97 [132] with superoxide give 5,50 -bi(2-methyl-2,5-dihydrotriazinyls) 98, which are formed by one-electron reduction with superoxide followed by dimerization (Scheme 20.30).
R4 N N KO2 CH3CN R6 N 98 R4 N N 2 KO2 CH3CN R6 N 97 R4 N N
R6
62 I
Scheme 20.30
2,5-Dihidrotriazines 90 slowly oxidize in air to give the corresponding triazines (Scheme 20.31), whereas oxidation with MCPBA affords 2-oxides exclusively 92; NR4 R4 O R6 N 80 N N R = Me MCPBA R6 N R4 N N O2 R=H R MCPBA R6 N 92 N N
R6
N R4
90 R = H 97 R = Me
N N
Scheme 20.31
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methyl derivatives 97 are oxidized with MCPBA to afford 5-oxo-2,5dihydrotriazines 80 [133].
20.2.4.7 Relevant Examples Direct DielsAlder reactions of 1,2,3-triazine with fullerene C60 should be unfavorable because 1,2,3-triazines behave as p-decient dienes with inverse-electron demand and the 6-6 junction double bond of C60 acts as an electron-decient dienophile. However, the reaction took place to give an azacyclohexadiene fused derivative such as 99 by extrusion of N2 [134, 135] (Scheme 20.32)
N 20
N N
C60
1. o-dichlorobenzene 180 C 2. H2O Si2O 99
Scheme 20.32
Much detailed data on the structure of 1,2,4-triazine have been published. Two Kekul e structures can be drawn for this molecule (2a and 2b,Scheme 20.33). Theoretical calculations suggest that structure 2a gives a higher contribution to the ground state of the molecule. This is supported by X-ray crystallographic structure determinations. It is explained by the fact that structures with a formal NN double bond are energetically unfavorable; they are destabilized and so tend not to be formed [136].
H H N N 2a N H H H N N 2b N H
Scheme 20.33
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Several theoretical methods have been used to study 1,2,4-triazines. Thus, the ckel method was used to calculate the p-electron energies [137, 138], the electronic Hu excitation energies and intensities were calculated by the RPAC molar properties program [139], the electronic state of 1,2,4-triazines were obtained [140] and the ionization energies were calculated by the outler valence Green function technique (OVGF) [141]. The CNDO/2 method has been used to calculate the sites of protonation and alkylation [142]. The acidities and basicities of 2 have been calculated by the MOSP method [143]. The proton afnities have been calculated by the 321 G, 3-21G, MNDO, and AM1 methods [54], the tautomeric equilibrium by the AM1 and MNDO-PM3 methods [144] and the lithium-triazine binding energies by the 6-31G method [145]. A computational study of the stability, homodesmotic stabilization energy, electron distribution and magnetic ring current of 1,2,4-triazines has been conducted [53]. The geometry and vibration spectra of 1,2,4-triazine have been obtained [57]. Harmonic [58] and anharmonic [58, 59] frequencies have also been calculated. The heat of formation of 1,2,4-triazine have been reported [61, 146]. Investigations employing the semi-empirical AM1, MNDO and MINDO/3 in the program package AMPAC to calculate both electronic charge distribution and structure optimization on compounds containing a 1,2,4-triazine ring demonstrate that these methods are not useful in studying heteroaromatic compounds containing nitrogennitrogen ring bonds [147]. The relative stability of the nine possible dihydro-1,2,4-triazines and three dihydrotriazinium cations has been studied at HF, MP2, generalized gradient approximation DFTand CBS-4 levels of theory. The quantum chemical calculations support that the most stable isomer is the 2,5-dihydro-1,2,4-triazine [148]. Most 1,2,4-triazines are crystalline compounds, the melting points depending on the structure and the substituents present. Alkyl-substituted 1,2,4-triazines are yellow and melt at low temperatures, or a few cases are liquid at room temperature and they are reasonably stable. Aryl-substituted 1,2,4-triazines have melting points around 100 C, while all heterosubstituted 1,2,4-triazines have melting points in the 200 C region these compounds are thermally very stable. Several X-ray crystallographic studies have been reported for 1,2,4-triazines derivatives [149161]. The X-ray studies on two Lamotrigine analogs, 3,5-diamino-6-(2-uorophenyl)-1,2,4-triazine methanol solvate and 3,5-diamino-6-(2methylphenyl)-1,2,4-triazine monohydrate, show that these compounds contain two conformers of the triazine molecule, each conformer with signicant, distinct dihedral angles between their respective phenyl and triazine rings [162, 163]. The reader is referred to the Cambridge Structural Database for further structure determinations. NMR spectra of 1,2,4-triazines are well documented. The parent compound 2 shows three signals in the 1 H NMR spectrum: d 9.88 (1H, d, H3), 8.84 (1H, d, H5), 9.48 (1H, dd, H-6) ppm [33]; coupling between H3 and H5 is never observed in simple 1,2,4-triazines. The 13 C and 15 N NMR data of 1,2,4-triazine and some derivatives are gathered in Table 20.2. 15 N NMR data for 101 and 102 have only been measured with the addition of Cr(acac)3.
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Table 20.2
13
C and 15 N NMR [164] data of 1,2,4-triazines.
R5 R6
N N N
R3
R5 R6
N N X 101 N
R3
R5 R6
2, 100
N N X 102
Substituent
13
C NMR (DMSO-d6) (d, ppm)
15
N NMR (DMSO-d6)a) (d, ppm)
R3 R5 R6 H (2) R3 SCH3, R5 OCH3, R6 H (100a) R3 OCH3, R5 SCH3, R6 H (100b) R3 SCH3, R5 SCH3, R6 H (100c) R3 SCH3, R5 SCH3, R6 CH3 (100d) R3 SCH3, R5 OCH3, R6 CH3 (100e) R3 OCH3, R5 CH3, R6 H, X O (101a) R3 SCH3, R5 CH3, R6 H, X O (101b) R5 OCH3, R6 CH3, X CH3 (102)
158.3, 150.7, 149.2 [165] 170.9, 161.1, 138.6, 54.1, 13.1 [164] 167.8, 163.8, 143.4, 55.1, 11.3 [164] 171.1, 165.1, 144.3, 13.0, 11.3 [164] 168.7, 164.4, 151.5, 18.0, 13.1, 11.7 [164] 168.8, 160.3, 146.5, 54.8, 16.1, 13.1 [164] 168.1, 166.3, 135.7, 49.8, 54.1 [164] 174.6, 163.5, 136.5, 49.7, 12.6 [164] 163.8, 153.6, 134.8, 39.3, 54.5, 15.5 [164]
d (N1) 39.24 33.3 27.1 23.0 14.6 23.0 140.5 122.6b) 28.61
d (N2) 4.89 56.1 79.0 50.0 52.3 58.3 123.3 123.1 142.4
d (N3) 80.34 140.0 129.4 108.5 108.2 141.3 153.7 125.1 142.4
a) Nitromethane as reference. b) Assignment of nitrogen ascertained by HMBC exponent.
Palmer has determined the 1,2,4-triazine 14 N quadrupole coupling constants from a joint study by microwave spectroscopy and ab initio calculations [166]. The mass spectra of 1,2,4-triazines have been extensively studied since they can be used for structure determination. The fragmentation pattern depends on the structure of the 1,2,4-triazine system (2) and on the substituents [2, 6]. Detailed studies on 1,2,4-triazines substituted with oxygen or sulfur in the 3- and 5-position have shown that ve distinct fragmentation patterns can be observed upon electron impact, but none involve initial loss of nitrogen [167]. Information on the IR spectra of 1,2,4-triazines can be found [168171]. UV spectra have been used to determine tautomeric structures in 1,2,4-triazin-3-ones [172174], 1,2,4-triazin-5-ones [175, 176], 1,2,4-triazin-6-ones [177], 1,2,4-triazinethiones [178] and amino-1,2,4 triazines [179]. Unsubstituted 1,2,4-triazine [180] 2 has two absorption bands in methanol, at 374 (e 400) and 247.8 nm (e 3020). The UV spectra of the different 1,2,4-triazines have been reviewed [168]. For many 1,2,4-triazines of varied structure the pKa values have been determined and, depending on their structure, they range from 1.5 to 10.3 [181186].
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20.3.2 Tautomerism
As mentioned already, UV spectra have been used to determine the predominant tautomeric forms of 1,2,4-triazinones, 1,2,4-triazinethiones, and amino-1,2,4-triazines. In most cases, 1,2,4-triazines with oxygen or sulfur substituents exist predominantly in the oxo form (103 [172, 173], 104 [168, 175], 105 [187], 106 [178]) or thioxo form (106 [178], 107, and 108), while 1,2,4-triazines with a nitrogen substituent occur predominantly as the amino tautomer (109 [179], 110).
R5 R6 N N 103 R5 R6 N N 107 S NH S R6 O NH O R6 H N N H N N R O R6 H N N O NH S R6 H N N H N N N 110 O NH
104 S R5 R6
105 N N N 109 NH2 O R6
106 NH2
NH N 108
On the other hand, 1 H NMR spectroscopy shows that 5-alkyl-1,2,4-triazine-3-ones 111 [173] and 5-alkyl-1,2,4-triazine-3-thiones 112 [188] (Scheme 20.34) with a proton at C1 of the alkyl group can occur in two tautomeric forms, the alkylidene group (111a or 112a) and the structure with an alkyl form (111b or 112b). The ratio of the two tautomers depends on the solvent.
R R' R6 R O N R2 R' R6 N N N O R2 R' R6 R R S R' R6 N S N 2 N R 112b
H N N
H N
111a
Scheme 20.34
111b
N 2 R N 112a
Azido-1,2,4-triazines may exist also as tetrazolo-fused tautomers. 3-Azido-1,2,4triazines 113 spontaneously cyclize to give the tetrazolo[1,5-b][1,2,4]triazines 114 (Scheme 20.35), if cyclization to N2 is possible; no cyclization to N4 has been observed [189, 190]. 5-Azido-2H-1,2,4-triazin-3-ones 115 also cyclize to give 116 [191, 192]. In contrast, when the 6-azido tautomer 117 is stirred for a few minutes in a polar solvent it is quantitatively transformed into the tetrazole tautomer 118 [193].
1,2,4-Triazines are biologically very active compounds. Many have been tested for use in agrochemistry or medicine. Amino-1,2,4-triazin-5-ones are, biochemically, highly
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R5 R
6
N N N
N3
R5 R6 O N3 N N
N N
N3 R6 O N
N N
O NH
N N N N R6
113
N N N 114 NH2 NH
115 NH2 N N N N NH 118
NH N 116
117
Scheme 20.35
active substances and are used as herbicides [168]. Some potent herbicides are 4-amino-6-tert-butyl-4,5,-dihydro-3-methylthio-1,2,4-triazin-5-one (119) (Metribuzin, Sencor, Lexone), 6-tert-butyl-4,5,-dihydro-4-isobutylideneamino-3-methylthio-1,2,4triazin-5-one (120) (Isomethiozin), 4-amino-4,5,-dihydro-3-methyl-6-phenyl-1,2,4triazin-5-one (121) (Metamitron, Goltix) and 6-tert-butyl-4,5,-dihydro-3-dimethylamino-4-methyl-1,2,4-triazin-5-one (122) (Amibuzin).
NH2 N S N N 119 N N N N 120 NH2 N N N 121
O But
O But
O Ph
O But
N N N 122
Two reviews on the role of uncondensed 1,2,4-triazine derivatives as biocide plant protection and therapeutic agents appeared in 2001 [194, 195]. Several 1,2,4-triazines show pharmacological properties (123125). Compound 123 has been tested for its antibacterial and tuberculostatic activity [168]. 3,5-Diamino-6-(2,3-dichlorophenyl)-1,2,4-triazine (124) (Lamotrigine), a sodium channel blocker, is the active component of Lamictal and is in clinical use as an anticonvulsant therapy. Cefriaxome (125) [196, 197], a semi-synthetic parenteral cephalosporin, is a leading injectable antibiotic in hospital use.
CO2 Na H2N N O2N O N N Cl Cl 124 NH2 N N N NH2 O Na O N N N S S O N R
123
125
Several 1,2,4-triazines have been tested as analgesic and anti-inammatory agents [198202]. Signicant activity towards leukemia, ovarian cancer and antiHIV were observed in vitro for some 3,5,6-trisubstituted-1,2,4-triazines [203208]. 1,2,4-Triazine-N-oxide derivatives have been studied as potential hypoxic cytoxins [209211]. Recently, the pyrrolotriazine nucleus has been identied as a potent and selective inhibitor of the tyrosine kinase [212214].
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Dihydro-1,2,4-triazine derivatives have been described as antimalarials due to their ability to inhibit multiple mutants of Plasmodium falciparum dihydrofolate reductase [215]. Many 1,2,4-triazines form complexes with metal ions and can be used for their determination [168, 216219]. Other metallic complexes of 1,2,4-triazine have been also reported [220224].
20.3.4 Synthesis
The 1,2,4-triazine ring can be synthesized by cycloaddition reactions of several different fragments [3 3], [4 2], [5 1] or by cyclization of a chain containing the necessary six carbon and nitrogen atoms. However, in many cases, reaction occurs in more than one step starting from smaller fragments. Other examples, starting from different heterocycles, have also been described. A review dealing with the synthesis of 1,2,4-triazine mono-N-oxide appeared in 2002 [18].
20.3.4.1 From Other Heterocycles There are some examples of preparation of 1,2,4-triazines by transformation of different heterocycles. For example, treatment of diaziridinone with a-metallated isocyanides yields 5-substituted 1,2-dihydro-6-hydroxy-1,2,4-triazines [225]; the reaction of 3-benzoyl-1,2,4-oxadiazoles with hydrazine furnishes the (Z)-oxime of 1,4dihydro-6-phenyl-1,2,4-triazin-5-ones [226]; cyclization of 2,6-diuorphenylpyruvic acid with 2-aryl-5,5-dimethyltriazolidinine under acidic conditions affords the 6-(2,6diuorbenzyl)-2-aryl-1,2,4-triazine-3,5-dione [227]; the reaction of arenediazonium salts with 5-methyl- and 5-ethylpyrimidine-4,6-diones yields 2,4-dihydro-6-alkyl-2aryl-1,2,4-triazin-5-ones [228]. N-Aminoimidazolidinone 126 undergoes acid-catalyzed rearrangement to yield 1,2,4-triazinone 127 (Scheme 20.36). This product is also formed by reacting the aziridinone with hydrazine followed by cyanogen bromide [229]. On the other hand, 1,4-dinitroimidazole 128 reacts with hydrazine to give the product of imidazole ring expansion 129 [230].
But But N O N NH 2 NH 126
Scheme 20.36
t Bu NH N
R H O
N H 127
O2N
NO2 N NH2NH2 R2 N 128
N N R2
R5 N
HN NH
R2 N N
R5 129
The transformation of 1-benzohydrazonoyl-1,2,3-triazoles 130 into 1,2,4-triazines 131 by heating with a slight excess of sodium hydride in dry benzene has been
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described recently [231]. This process can be considered to proceed via the formation and decomposition of aryl(1,2,3-triazol-1-yl)diazomethanes I by a BamfordStevens reaction, followed by the ring enlargement of the resulting carbenes II as shown in Scheme 20.37 [231].
Ar R5 R6 N N
NNHSO2Ph NaH -PhSO2Na R5 R6
Ar N N I N
N2
Ar R
5
N N II
R5 N R6
N N N 131
Ar
N 130
R6
Scheme 20.37
The transformation of 1,2,3-triazolium salts 132 to yield substituted 2,3-dihydro1,2,4-triazines 134 has been achieved on treating 132 with different bases via 1,2,5triazahexa-1,3,5-trienes 133 [232234] (Scheme 20.38).
R6 N R5 N ClO4 Ar 132 X = H, TMS N X Base
R5 R6
N N N Ar
R5 R6
N N N Ar
133
134
Scheme 20.38
Some examples of the preparation of 1,2,4-triazines by transformation of 1,2,4,5tetrazines are considered in Section 20.5.4.2. Treatment of 1,3,5-triazine-2,4,6tricarboxylic acid triethyl ester 135 with arylhydrazines provides 5-amino-6-oxo1,6-dihydro-1,2,4-triazine-3-carboxylic acid ethyl esters 136, after intramolecular rearrangement, in moderate to good yields [235237] (Scheme 20.39).
CO2Et N EtO2C N 135 N CO2Et ArNHNH2 H2N N N N Ar 136 CO2Et
EtOH, rt
Scheme 20.39
In 1996 Morioka reported the reaction of 137 with diethyl ether-boron triuoride (1/1) to give 1,2,5,6-tetrahydro-1,2,3-triazine derivatives [238, 239]. Nevertheless, in 1998 X-ray crystallography analysis demonstrated the uncorrected assignment of this structure. The product obtained was established as 2,3,4,5-tetrahydro-1,2,4-triazine 138 [240] (Scheme 20.40).
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R N Ar1 137
R N Ar NNHZ BF3OEt2 Z = NH2CO, Ts Ar N N
Ar1 Z
138
Scheme 20.40
20.3.4.2 Cycloaddition of [3 3] Fragments Few examples have been reported of this method. Among them, the reaction of a-amino ketones with thiosemicarbazides affords 3-amino-4,5-dihydro-1,2,4-triazines and dihydrotriazine-3-thiones [241]; and the cyclocondensation of nitrilimines with a-amino esters gives 1,4-dihydro-1,2,4-triazin-6-ones [242]. 20.3.4.3 Cycloaddition of [4 2] Fragments As for other six-membered rings, cycloadditions of [4 2] fragments are the most frequently used methods to obtain 1,2,4-triazines. Several examples of combinations of [4 2] atom fragments are known [243]. Of all possible [4 2] fragment combinations, [N(1)N(2)C(3)N(4) C(5)C(6)] (A), [C(3)N(4)C(5)C(6) N(1)N(2)] (B), [N(4)C(5)C(6)N(1) N(2)C(3) (C), [C(5)C(6)N(1)N(2) C(3)N(4)] (D), C(6)N (1)N(2)C(3) N(4)C(5)] (E) and [N(2)C(3)N(4)C(5) C(6)N(1)] (F), many examples have been reported save for combination (F) which is unknown to date. The following examples of the more frequent combination (A) are now considered. The reaction of symmetrical 1,2-dicarbonyl compounds 139a with derivatives 140 is the method most suitable to synthesize trisubstituted 1,2,4-triazines [180, 244, 245] (Scheme 20.41). Thus, this procedure has been used to obtain the parent 1,2,4triazine and for the synthesis of compounds containing more than one 1,2,4-triazine nucleus [246]. When dione 139a is an asymmetrical compound the reaction often leads to a mixture of regioisomeric triazines. Also, reactions of semicarbazide 141a or thiosemicarbazide 141b with 139a afford the corresponding 1,2,4-triazin-3-ones 103 or 3-thiones 107 [247] (Scheme 20.41). Furthermore, the reaction of compounds 141 with monosubstituted glyoxal oxime 139b (R5 H) is a suitable method to obtain 6-substituted-1,2,4-triazin-3-ones 103 (R5 H) and 3-thiones 107 (R5 H) [248]. However, reaction of monosubstituted glyoxal 139a (R6 H) with semicarbazide (141a) affords mainly 5-substituted-1,2,4-triazin-3-ones 103 (R6 H) [248].
H2N H2N R3 N R3 R5 R6 Y H2N H2N X NH R5 R6 N N X NH
R5 R6
N N N
R3
140 a = R, Ar b R3 = NHR c R3 = NHNH2 d R3 = SMe
O 139 aY=O b Y = NOH
141 aX=O bX=S
103 X = O 107 X = S
Scheme 20.41
1800

Substitution of 1,2-dicarbonyl compounds by acylcyanides 142 affords 5-amino1,2,4-triazines 143 and 144 [249] (Scheme 20.42). The condensation/cyclization of aminoguanidine (141c) with the acylnitrile 142 leads to Lamotrigne (124) (Scheme 20.42).
H2N R6 N N 143 N R3 H2N H2N N R3 H2N H2N X NH H2N R6 N N 144 X NH
O R6 CN 142 NH 141c N
140 H2N
141
NH H2N H2N R6
NH2
N N 124 R6 = 2,3-dichlorophenyl
Scheme 20.42
3-Amino-4,5-dihydro-1,2,4-triazine 146 can be synthesized by the reaction of a-haloketones 145c and 140b (Scheme 20.43), whilst reaction of a-hydroxy 145a, a-methoxy 145b, a-halo 145c or a-amino ketones 145d with semicarbazide (141a) affords 4,5-dihydro-1,2,4-triazin-3(2H)-ones 147 [250] (Scheme 20.43).
H2N NH2 H2N N NH2 R H2N R H2N O NH R H
H N N N 146
O Y 145 a Y = OH b Y = OMe c Y = Halo d Y = NH2
H N N 147
O NH
140b
141a
Scheme 20.43
Reaction of 149 with a-ketocarboxylic acids 148 is a suitable way to obtain 4-amino1,2,4-triazin-5-ones 150 [251] (Scheme 20.44). On the other hand, carbonohydrazide (151a) or thiocarbonohydrazide (151b) yields the 4-amino-3,5-diones 152a and 4amino-3-thioxo-1,2,4-triazin-5-ones 152b respectively. Cyclization of 148 with N-aryl thiosemicarbazide 141c affords the 3-thioxo-1,2,4-triazin-5-one 153 [227] (Scheme 20.44). Another literature method for obtaining 1,2,4-triazin-5-one involves the cyclization of a-ketoamide 154 with 140d to give 3-methylthio-1,2,4-triazin-5-one 155 [252]; similarly, 156 can react with 2-methylsemicarbazide (157) to afford 6-hydroxy-2methyl-3-thioxo-1,2,4-triazin-5-one (158) [196] (Scheme 20.45).
j1801
O R6
NH2 N R3 N 150 N
H2NHN H2N N
R3 O R6 CO2H 148 S 141c Ar N
H2NHN H2N
X NH O R6
NH2 N X NH N 152 aX=O bX=S
149 ArHN H2N
NH O R6 S
151 aX=O bX=S
NH N 153
Scheme 20.44
O Ar O 154
Scheme 20.45
H2N NH2 H2N N
SMe
O Ar
H N N 155 N
SMe MeO
O Cl O 156
H2N H2N N
O HO
H N N N
140d
157
158
A recent example of the reaction between an a-ketocarboxylic acid and derivatives 140a has been developed to obtain a ring-open isofervenulin analog 160 through triazine 159 [253] (Scheme 20.46).
H2N O EtO2C CO2Et H2N N O EtO2C
O H N N N 159 Cl O NH2 Cl HN H N O N N 160 N
140a
Scheme 20.46
The combination [C(3)N(4)C(5)C(6) N(1)N(2)] listed as (B) above is also a much used method to prepare 1,2,4-triazines. In this method, hydrazine, its derivatives or different diazo compounds are used as starting materials. Thus, a-acylamino 161a and a-thioacylamino ketones 161b react with hydrazine to yield 4,5-dihydro-1,2,4-triazines 162, which can be oxidized to 1,2,4-triazines [254] (Scheme 20.47). Since, compounds 161 can be obtained by acylation of a-aminoketones or thioketones, this procedure can also be considered as a [3 1 2] combination method. Similarly, hydrazine or substituted hydrazines react with N-alkyl(N-acyl) a-aminoester [255], malonamide [256], a-imidoyl esters [177], a-isocyano esters [257], and
1802

NH2 O R3 X R5 R6 H N R3 O 161 aX=O bX=S X Y aX=O bX=S NH2NH2 R5 H R6 H N N 162 N R3 oxid R5 R6 N N N R3
R5 R6
Scheme 20.47
N-(cyanomethyl)-imidates [258, 259] to give 1,2,4-triazin-ones, diones, thioxo and amino derivatives. Another method to introduce the [N(1)N(2)] fragment is the reaction of diazonium salts or other diazo compounds with activated methylene groups to obtain 1,2,4-triazin-3,5-dione [260]. The reaction of imidate ester 163 with substituted hydrazines is a known reaction for the preparation of 1-substituted 4,5-dihydro-1,2,4-triazin-6(1H)-one 164 [177, 261, 262]. This synthesis has also been studied in the solid phase [263] (Scheme 20.48). Another procedure for the solid-phase synthesis of functionalized 4,5-dihydro-1,2,4-triazin-6(1H)-ones 166 has been developed from thioamide 165 and hydrazine [264, 265] (Scheme 20.48).
N R3 O OEt 163
R1NHNH2 O
H N N R1 164 N
R3
R5 HN R3 S O 165 O NH2NH2
R5 O
H N N N H 166
R3
Scheme 20.48
Cycloaddition of 2-azabutadienes 167 with azo compounds 168 affords 1,2,3,6tetrahydro-1,2,4-triazines 169 [259, 266268] (Scheme 20.49).
N
N R 167
Scheme 20.49
N N R 168
N R 169
Frequently, ve-membered heterocyclic systems have provided the [C(3)N(4)C(5)C (6] fragment used in this method, as mentioned in Section 20.3.4.1. The combination [N(4)C(5)C(6)N(1) N(2)C(3) listed as (C) above has been used in the synthesis of 1,2,4-benzotriazines but for monocyclic 1,2,4-triazines there are no examples.
j1803
An interesting case of the combination [C(5)C(6)N(1)N(2) C(3)N(4)] listed as (D) above has appeared in the literature in which the rst solid-phase synthesis of 3-amino-1,2,4-triazin-5-ones are described. The polymer-bound isothiourea 170, which supports the C(3)N(4) fragment, reacts with a stoichiometric amount of 2,3diaza-3-pentenoic anhydride 171, the C(5)C(6)N(1)N(2) fragment, to give 3-amino1,2,4-triazin-5(4H)-ones 172 [269] (Scheme 20.50).
O NH2 Cl R 170 N Ar N N H 171 O O O Ar N N NH2 S H N
O Ar
H N N 172 N
H N
Scheme 20.50
Another reported combination (D) involves the reaction of aryl bromomethyl ketone phenylsulfonylhydrazones with benzylideneaniline to give 6-aryl-3,4-diphenyl-2-phenylsulfonyl-2,3,4,5-tetrahydro1,2,4-triazine [270]. 1,2,4,5-Tetrazines are the main starting material to use combination (E), C(6)N(1)N (2)C(3) N(4)C(5), since they are reactive dienes in DielsAlder reactions with inverse electron demand and can react with both CC and CN multiple bonds (Section 20.5.4.2).
20.3.4.4 Cycloaddition of [5 1] Fragments Many of the methods discussed in this section can be considered as a combination of more than two fragments, since the fragment with ve atoms usually is obtained previously from shorter chains. Only C(3) and N(4) atom-fragments are found in the literature for the synthesis of 1,2,4-triazine derivatives using cycloadditions of [5 1] fragments. Compounds that provide the C(3) include aldehydes [271274], isothiocyanates [275], nitriles [276], imidates [276, 277], thioimidates [276], ketones, orthoesters [278281], carbon disulde, phosgene, and thiophosgene [282]. Some examples are shown in Scheme 20.51. The reaction of hydrazono-2-oximinoethane 178 with pyridine-2,6-dicarboxaldehyde led to 179 [283], however, in the presence of Pb3O4 yields 4-oxide-1,2,4-triazines 180 [284] (Scheme 20.52) Compounds reported to date that provide N(4) are ammonia or its derivatives [285289] (Scheme 20.53). 20.3.4.5 Cycloaddition of [6 0] Fragments Most reactions dealing with the cyclization of a six-membered chain can also be considered as a synthesis of 1,2,4-triazines from more than one fragment since, usually, the chain is obtained from two or more fragments. Several of these cyclizations occur by photochemical or thermal processes, the latter carried out in many cases in basic or acid conditions.
1804

NH2 HCO2H H N N Ph EtOH H R5 O H N N Ph N H 173 EtO Ar1 O R3CN R3CO2H R C(OEt)3 X R3
Scheme 20.51
3
R5 O
O R5 S N Ar2 R6 NOH NNH2 R C(OEt)3

3
R5 R
3
O N N 176a O N N N 176b R4 N R6 N R1 N
R3 R3 H
EtO Ar1 O
NH Ar2CONCS H N N Ar2
N N
R5 R6
R3
174 R4 O NH H N 2 R6 N R 2 1 R X Cl Cl O R
6
H N N R1
R4 NH2
R4 N N N 1 R 175
R3
X N R2
X=O, S
OEt
177
R6
N N
N N
N N
R6
R6
NH2
CHO N Pb3O4
R6
N N O
N N 180
N N O
R6
179 R6 = Ar
Scheme 20.52
N OH 178
CHO
O R6
R5 R3 N
NH3
R5 R6
H N N N 181
R3
NH
Scheme 20.53
Photolysis of 1,6-diazido-2,5-diphenyl-3,5-diaza-2,4-hexadiene afforded 3,6-diphenyl-1,2,4-triazine [290], photochemical cyclization of thiosemicarbazones 182 yields 3-thioxo-1,2,4-triazin-5-ones 183 [291] and photolytic cyclization of 184 gives 5-amino-1,2,4-triazine 185 [252] (Scheme 20.54).
R4 HN Me O R4 N H2N S N Ar SMe N 184 N h PrOH H2N N N N 185 SMe
N 2 MeOH N R 182
N 2 R N 183
Scheme 20.54
j1805
Basic cyclization of hydrazonomalonic diamides 186 yields 3,5-dioxo-1,2,4-triazine-6-carboxylic acids 187 while their thermal cyclization gives carboxamides 188 [292] (Scheme 20.55).
O HO2C H N O O base EtO N H O O O OEt EtO2C H N O O H N N H N O R2
N 2 R N H 187
N H N NHR2 186
188
Scheme 20.55
20.3.4.6 Synthesis from More than Two Fragments Many of the above-mentioned examples could be considered under this section. The synthesis of 1,2,4-triazines, via the condensation of 1,2-diketones 139a with acyl hydrazides 189 and ammonium acetate under traditional thermal [293] and dry media microwave-assisted reaction conditions [294], has been reported (Scheme 20.56). The extension to hetaryl acyl hydrazides 190 and diaryl 1,2-diketones using the microwave assisted-method on a Smith synthesizer has allowed the synthesis of a 48-membered library of 1,2,4-triazines 191 in very high yields [295].
O R5 O 139a O Ar O
Scheme 20.56
O R3 NHNH2 189
NH4OAc, HOAc 6-24 h
or
R5 R6
N N N
R3
NH4OAc, SiO2, Et3N MW 5-15 minutes NH4OAc (10 eq) HOAc 180 C, MW 5 minutes Ar Ar
Ar
O Ar X NHNH2 190
N N 191 N
Ar
20.3.5 Reactivity
The most reactive position of the 1,2,4-triazine ring is position 5. This position is easily attacked by nucleophilic agents and many times this attack is followed by an electrophilic attack at positions 4 or 2. Most 1,2,4-triazines are less stable toward bases than toward acids. The reactivity of 1,2,4-triazine mono N-oxides was reviewed in 2002 by Chupakhin et al. [18].
20.3.5.1 Thermal and Photochemical Reactions Since most 1,2,4-triazines are thermally very stable, only a few examples of thermal reactions have been described [296300].
1806

Photochemical hydration of the C(6)N(1) bond of 1,2,4-triazines has been described for 1,2,4-triazine-3,5-dione and 5-amino-1,2,4-triazin-3-ones to yield 6-hydroxy-1,2,4-triazine-3,5-dione and 5-amino-6-hydroxy-1,2,4-triazin-3-ones, respectively [301]. Chemical and photochemical induced reduction of some dihydro-1,2,4-triazines and aromatic 1,2,4-triazines have been described [302305]. The [2 2] cycloaddition reactions of 1,2,4-triazine-3,5-diones 192 with alkenes 193 involve a photochemical addition of the alkene to the C(6)N(1) double bond of 1,2,4-triazines to give azeto[2,1-f ][1,2,4]triazinediones 194 [306308] (Scheme 20.57).
R4 N N N
O R6
R4 N N 192 N
O R2
R X 193
R' R''
O R6 R R'
O R2
X R'' 194
Scheme 20.57
20.3.5.2 Reactions with Electrophilic Reagents The salts of simple 1,2,4-triazines are obtained by addition of dry acids to a solution of the triazine in organic solvents. Addition of concentrated hydrochloric acid to a solution of 5,6-diphenyl-1,2,4-triazine in sulfuric acid leads to the precipitation of the crystalline hydrochloride [309]. Alkylation and acylation of 1,2,4-triazine systems have been extensively studied. Alkylation of 1,2,4-triazines with methyl iodide gives mainly 1-methyl-1,2,4-triazinium iodides 195a and in few cases the colorless 2-methyl isomers 195b. The formation of 195a or 195b depends on the substituents on the triazine ring [175, 176, 310312]. Alkylation and acylation of 1,2,4-triazin-3-ones 103 yield 2-alkyl(acyl)-1,2,4triazin-3-ones 196 [173, 313, 314] (Scheme 20.58).
R5 R6 N N N R3 IMe R5 R6 N N N I Me 195a R3 R5 R6 N N R3 R5 R6 N N 103 N O H RX R5 R6 N N 196 N O R
N Me I 195b
Scheme 20.58
When 1,2,4-triazin-5-ones are methylated with diazomethane, 2-methyl-, 4-methyland 5-methoxy- derivatives are obtained in different ratios depending on the solvent used [311, 312]. Alkylation of 1,2,4-triazine-3,5-diones with methyl iodide affords the N(2)-methyl derivative while dimethyl sulfate or diazomethane yield rst the N(4)-methyl derivative. In all cases, the 2,4-dimethyl derivative is obtained on further alkylation [315]. Acylation of 1,2,4-triazine-3,5-diones yields mainly 2-acyl derivatives.
j1807
The results of alkylation of 3-amino-1,2,4-triazines depend on the alkylating agent and the nature of the 5- and 6-substituents. Reaction of 3-amino-5,6-diphenyl-1,2,4-triazines with ethyl iodide [316] or halo-acetic acid [317] yields 2-alkyl-3imino-5,6-diphenyltriazine. However, alkylation with dimethyl sulfate affords 3-amino-1-methyl-1,2,4-triazinium salts and other authors have reported the isolation of a mixture of 1-methyl and 4-methyl-3-amino-1,2,4-triazinium salts on treating 3-amino-1,2,4-triazine with methyl iodide [318]. Direct halogenation of the parent 1,2,4-triazine (2) has not been reported, and any electron-donating substituents present will not necessarily counteract the inherent resistance of the ring to electrophilic substitution [319, 320]. An oxo substituent at the 5-position is sufciently activating to permit the 6-bromination of some 1,2,4-triazin5-ones and -3,5-diones [183]. Although the presence of an N-oxide function proved insufcient to allow chlorination and bromination, both the 3-amino- and 3-methoxy1,2,4-triazine 1- or 2-oxides gives 6-halogeno derivatives [321323].
20.3.5.3 Reactions with Nucleophilic Reagents Nucleophilic attack on the carbon atoms of the 1,2,4-triazine ring is well known [324]. 1,2,4-Triazines and some of its 3-methoxy, 3-methylthio or 3-aminoderivatives 197 react with potassium cyanide to give two products, the 1,2,4-triazine-5-carboxamide 198 and the bis-1,2,4-triazin-5-yl derivatives 199 [325, 326] (Scheme 20.59).
O KCN H2N R6 N N 198 N R6 R6 N 199 N
N R6 N 197 N
R3
R3
N N R3
N N R3
Scheme 20.59
Guillaumet has studied the control of relative positions 3, 5 and 6 of the 1,2,4triazine ring with Grignard reagents. Indeed, the most active position is C5 and the least active is C3 [327]. As expected, the addition of aryllithium to 3-thiomethyl-1,2,4triazine 200 led to 5-substituted compounds and a further oxidation step gave 5-aryl1,2,4-triazine 201 [327] (Scheme 20.60). However, when palladium-catalyzed the reaction of 200 with different organoboron compounds in the presence of copper(I) 3-methylsalicilate affords the corresponding 3-substituted 1,2,4-triazines 202 in good yields [328]. Addition of arylmagnesium bromide to 201 occurs at the 6-position [327].
Ar
N N 201 N
SMe
1. ArLi 2. DDQ
N N N 200
SMe
R-B(OH)2, CuMeSal Pd(PPh3)4
N N N 202
Scheme 20.60
1808

Most leaving groups in the 3-, 5-, or 6-positions of 1,2,4-triazines can be substituted by carbon nucleophiles prepared from aldehydes, malonates, acetonitrile, malonodinitrile, and other CH acidic compounds [329333]. Carbanions bearing leaving groups at the carbanionic centers react with 1,2,4triazines by replacement of hydrogen atoms in the 5-, 6-, and 3-positions with the carbanionic moiety and loss of the leaving group. Carbanions of nitroalkanes, chloromethyl, phenylsulfones, chloromethane, sulfonomorpholides and acetonitriles and 4-pentenyl iodide have been used in this vicarious nucleophilic substitution [334339]. There are many examples of exchange of a heterosubstituent in the 3-, 5-, or 6position by another heterosubstituent. This class of exchange has been widely used for the preparation of 3-, 5-, or 6-alkynyloxy-, alkynylthio- and alkynylamino-1,2,4triazines [340344]. 1,2,4-triazin-5-ones react with electron-rich heterocycles in acetic anhydride to yield 6-aryl-1,2,4-triazin-5-ones [345]. An easy access to 3- or 5-heteroarylamino-1,2,4-triazines by selective nucleophilic substitution of 1,2,4-triazines has been reported recently. In reactions of 3-amino1,2,4-triazine (203) with different halo-heterocycles using palladium acetate as catalyst and xantphos as ligand, an SNAr process takes place and 3-heteroarylamino-1,2,4-triazines 204 are obtained [346, 347]. In contrast, the use of bases such as 2,20 ,6,60 -tetramethylpiperidine/tBuOK/nBuLi (KTMP) in the reaction of 3-methylthio-1,2,3-triazines (200) and aminoheterocycles leads regioselectively to 5-substituted 1,2,4-triazines 205 via SNH substitution [347] (Scheme 20.61).
N N 203 N N N 200
Scheme 20.61
NH2 N SMe Het NH2 Het X X = Cl, Br
Pd(OAc)2/xantphos K2CO3/dioxane H N
N N 204 N N 205 N N
H N
Het
KTMP THF
Het
SMe
1,2,4-Triazine is converted in high yield into 5-amino-1,2,4-triazine on treatment with liquid ammonia and potassium permanganate [348]. Similar reactions have been reported for 3- and 6-substituted 1,2,4-triazine. The substitution of chlorine by amino groups using potassium amide in liquid ammonia has been studied by Rykowski and Van der Plas [349351]. In the reactions of 5-unsubstituted-1,2,4-triazines 206, with a good leaving group at C3, and a-chlorocarbanions 207, ring contraction into a pyrazole 208 is preferred to vicarious nucleophilic substitution at C5 and displacement of the C3 substituent [352] (Scheme 20.62). In contrast, the reaction of 206a with a carbon nucleophiles bearing a cyano substituent yields the corresponding 3-aminopyridazines 210 via an
j1809
N Ph
N N 206 a X = Cl bX=F Cl N N N
O R Cl S O 207
Cl O S O Ph CN
N N N
X N N N X X
Cl O S O Ph CN
N N N
H2O Ph
SO2R NH N 208 R NH2 Ph N N 210
CO2 HCl N N N
Ph
CN 209
R Ph
R Ph
H3O CO2
206a
Scheme 20.62
ANRORC mechanism involving addition of the nucleophiles at position 5, ring opening with cleavage of the N4C5 bond and intramolecular ring closure of the resulting open-chain intermediate [353]. Nucleophilic attack at the 5-position of 1,2,4-triazin-4-oxides is often accompanied by ring-opening reactions [32, 354356]. However, ammonia addition at the 5position of 6-aryl-3-pyrrolidin-1,2,4-triazine-4-oxides 211 is followed by a [1,5]sigmatropic hydrogen shift to give intermediate II followed by ring-opening with cleavage of the C3N4 bond. In this case, this ring opening is a reversible process that allows the cyclic dihydro intermediates to be aromatized with elimination of the dialkyamino group, to give 5-amino-1,2,4-triazine-4-oxide 212 [357] (Scheme 20.63).
O N Ph N 211 N OH R H N N N Ph N I N R N OH H N N N II N R N OH N N N III N R N O N N 212 N
N HNR2
Ph
Ph
Ph
Scheme 20.63
Nevertheless, reaction of 6-aryl-3-dimethylamino-1,2,4-triazine-4-oxide with the cyanide anion causes a similar [1,5]sigmatropic hydrogen shift-ring-opening, followed by recyclization into 3-amino-4-nitrosopyrazoles (according to the ANRORC mechanism) [358]. Reaction of hydroxylamine at the 3-position of 6-aryl-5-amino-1,2,4-triazine-4oxide leads to 6-aryl-5-hydroxylamino-1,2,4-triazines [359]. Cyanation of 3,6-disubstituted-1,2,4-triazine-4-oxide has been achieved with acetone cyanhidrine in the presence of triethylamine to afford 3,6-disubstituted-5-cyano-1,2,4-triazine [284]. 1,2,4-Triazine 4-oxides can be hydrolyzed by bases, affording 2-acylhydrazono oximes. [354] In this case, initial attack occurs at the 3-position.
20.3.5.4 Cycloaddition Reactions DielsAlder reaction with inverse-electron demand is the most extensively studied reaction of 1,2,4-triazines. Triazines behave as reactive electron-decient dienes and
1810

so are able to react with dienophiles such as electron-rich alkenes and acetylenes among others. Some reviews on inter- and intramolecular DielsAlder reactions have appeared [30, 120, 360, 361]. 1,2,4-Triazines participate as electron-poor dienes in inverse type DielsAlder reactions with electron-rich dienophiles such as dienes [120, 244], enamines [362 372] or methoxyethylene [373] to yield pyridine derivatives 213 (Scheme 20.64). Cycloaddition of 1,2,4-triazines with ynamines to yield pyrimidines 214 [374376] has also been studied. It has been demonstrated that this type of reaction is a [4 2] cycloaddition to N2 and C5 and not a [2 2] cycloaddition to the N(4)-C(5) bond [377]. If the 5-position is substituted, dienophile attack occurs at the 3-position [375, 377, 378]. A tethered imine-enamine methodology has been developed for the direct conversion of 1,2,4-triazines into highly substituted pyridines [379].
R6 R5 N 213 R3
N2 X XH N2
R5 R6
N N N
R3
NR2 RCN
R6 R5 N 214
N R3
Scheme 20.64
Several examples of a new and simple LEGO system to obtain 2,6-oligopyridines 216 [244, 246, 283, 284, 380385] from 1,2,4-triazines have been described (Scheme 20.65).
R6 R5 N N N N N N N R6 R5 R6 R5 N N N R6 R5
N R5
N N R6 215
N R5 R6 216
Scheme 20.65
Ethynyltributyltin cycloadds to 3,5-disubstituted-1,2,4-triazine to furnish mainly 2,4-disubstituted-4-tributylstannylpyridine [386, 387]. A DielsAlder reaction has been employed to obtain 4,5-dihydroazocines from 3-(ethoxycarbonyl)-5-phenyl1,2,4-triazines, cyclobutanone and secondary amines [388]. In addition, the intermolecular DielsAlder reaction has been studied and used to obtain condensed pyrimidines, pyridines [339, 370, 389, 390] and b-carbolines [391], tetrahydro-1,5-naphthyridines and related heterocycles [392].
j1811
Reaction of the unsubstituted 1,2,4-triazine 1-oxides 217 with benzyne gives the 1,3-benzoxazepidines 218 via 1,3-dipolar cycloadducts [393] (Scheme 20.66).
R5 N N N O 217
Scheme 20.66
R3
R5 N N2 R3 O 218
20.3.5.5 Reactions with Reducing Reagents Treatment of 1,2,4-triazines and their 3-oxo derivatives with reducing agents such as Raney nickel, sodium borohydride, titanium(III) chloride, hydrogen and palladium catalyst, or electrochemical reduction affords dihydro and further tetrahydro-1,2,4tetrazine derivatives [290, 310, 394, 395]. In the case of oxo derivatives reduction occurs in the triazine ring, affording dihydrotriazinones that can further yield tetrahydotriazinones or imidazoles [395, 396]. 1-Methyl-3,5,6-triphenyl-1,2,4-triazinium iodide reacts with zinc in acetic acid to yield 2,4,5-triphenylimidazole and methylamine, probably through 1,2-dihydrotriazine [310]. Deoxygenative versus vicarious nucleophilic substitution of hydrogen in reactions of 1,2,4-triazine-4-oxide with a-halocarbanions has been described [397]. 20.3.5.6 Reactions with Oxidizing Reagents Oxidation of 1,2,4-triazines can follow different ways, yielding several derivatives. Thus, oxidation at nitrogens of the heterocyclic ring affords mainly 1- or 2-N-oxide derivatives, whereas oxidation at the triazine ring occurs rst at the 5-position and then at 6-position, affording 5-oxo or 5,6-dioxo derivatives. Dihydro-1,2,4-triazines can be oxidized to the corresponding aromatic derivatives; p-benzoquinone is one of the best reagents for this purpose. 20.3.5.7 Relevant Examples A metallation and intramolecular inverse DielsAlder strategy may open up a short pathway for the synthesis of various uorenones; in this way, 1,2,4-triazine 219 (Scheme 20.67) reacts with LiTMP, followed by addition of several 2-bromobenzalSiMe3 R5 R6 N 1. LiTMP R
5
OH N N N R
Br R5 R R6 N N 221 N
R6 R5 N O 222
R R
N 2. R N 219 R Br
R6 CHO
R R
220
Scheme 20.67
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dehydes to give 220. Several transformations led to 221, which upon intramolecular DielsAlder reactions in triisopropylbenzene and desilylation under TBAF-conditions resulted in 1-azauorenones 222 [398]. A DielsAlder reaction takes place when 3-(2-pyridyl)-5,6-diphenyl-1,2,4-triazine (223) reacts in a thermal liquid-phase with fullerene C60 to afford aza open-cage fullerene derivative 224, which has an eight-membered-ring orice in the fullerene cage [399] (Scheme 20.68).
Ph Ph
N Py Ph Ph N N N Py
C60
o-dichlorobenzene 180 C
223 224
Scheme 20.68
1,3,5-Triazines have been studied extensively both theoretically and experimentally. The 1,3,5-triazine ring is known as an important conjugated heterocycle whose electronic properties are expected to show subtle differences from those of benzene due to the alternate replacement of CH groups by nitrogen atoms. The IR and Raman spectra of 1,3,5-triazine have been determined [400407]. Likewise, different approaches for the calculation of a force eld for this molecule have been accomplished [407412]. The analysis gave: CN bond length 1.338 A, CH 1.106 A, CNC bond angle 113.9 , NCN 126.1 , HCN 116.9 . The geometries of 3 and its protonated form have been fully optimized at STO-3G, 3-21G levels [413]. Ab initio calculations of the electronic spectra of 1,3,5-triazine have been determined via the complete active space method (CASSCF). This method describes the major features in the electronic structure of the excited state of 3 [414]. More recently, the molecular structure of 1,3,5-triazine (12 C3 14 N3 H3 ) and its isotopomers (12 C3 15 N3 H3 , 13 C3 14 N3 H3 , 13 C3 15 N3 H3 and 12 C3 14 N3 D3 ) in gas, solution and crystal phases and by ab initio calculations (6-31G , 6-311G ) has been studied. By combining gas- and solution-phase data in a single analysis a very precise structure has been obtained, with nal parameters values (ra ) of r(CN) 133.68(1) pm,
j1813
r(CH) 108.9(2) pm, and <(CNC) 113.82(9) [415]. The photodissociation of symtriazine has been widely studied [416424]. A computational study of the stability, homodesmotic stabilization energy, electron distribution and magnetic ring current of 1,3,5-triazines has been described [53]. Recently, density functional theory has been used to study the geometries, electronic structure, harmonic vibrational frequencies and high energy density material properties of 1,3,5-triazines [425]. The heat of formation of 1,3,5-triazine has been calculated [61, 146]. The calculated energies for the addition of one equivalent of hydrogen suggest that 1,3,5-triazine has lower resonance energy than benzene, pyridine, pyrazine and pyrimidine, which have essentially the same resonance energy [426]. Photoelectron spectra of 1,3,5-triazines have been recorded [427] and the parent compound 3 shows ve major bands [428]. Creuzet and Langlet have employed ab initio and semi-empirical calculations in a comparative study of the structural parameters for 1,3,5-triazine and amino derivatives [429]. The results showed that the introduction of amino groups at the 2- and 4-positions did not distort the ring, AM1 revealed that 2- and 4-aminosubstituents affect the bond lengths but the bond angle remains unchanged. Ab initio computations of bond dissociation energies of hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX) [430] and an ab initio study of RDX decomposition mechanisms [431, 432] have been described. Theoretical predictions for 2,4,6-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine have been carried out [433]. Most 1,3,5-triazines are solids at room temperature. Cyanuric acid (4), thiocyanuric acid and melamine (8) melt above 300 C due to strong intermolecular hydrogen bonding. 1,3,5-Triazines decompose to hydrogen cyanide under thermal (T > 600 C) and photochemical conditions. X-Ray crystallographic studies have been used to obtain the molecular dimensions of 1,3,5-triazines. The CN bond length has been reported as 1.319 A with CNC and NCN bond angles of 113.2 and 126.8 , respectively. The presence of substituents has little effect on the bond lengths or bond angles [434]. Cyanuric acid (4) has CN, CO and NH bond lengths of 1.37, 1.22 and 0.9 A respectively. The CNC and NCN bond angles have been reported to be, respectively, 124.6 and 115.4 . An X-ray analysis conrms the predominance of the triketo form. The molecule is hydrogen bonded and the bond lengths are 2.772.80 A [435]. 2,4,6Trihydrazino-1,3,5-triazine molecules are hydrogen bonded; the shortest hydrogen bond is particularly close, 2.83 A [436]. An X-ray crystal structure determination of 2,4-diphenyl-6-(2-hydroxyphenyl-4methoxyphenyl)-1,3,5-triazine has been carried, out together with absorption and emission spectra and 1 H and 13 C NMR studies, as this compound can be employed to inhibit the photodegradation of polymers. These studies have established the intramolecular hydrogen bond in this type of 1,3,5-triazines for the solid state [437]. The reader is referred to the Cambridge Structural Database for further structure determinations of 1,3,5-triazines. The 1 H NMR spectra of 1,3,5-triazines are quite simple, as expected [438444]. The chemical shifts of the ring protons are 1 to 2 ppm downeld from benzene protons, due to the effect of the ring nitrogens. The presence of electron-releasing substituents
1814

leads to slight upeld shifts. The parent compound 3 shows one signal in the 1 H NMR spectrum at 9.25 ppm [438]. 1 H NMR of dihydrotriazines has been used to examine the position of the NH protons [445]. Structural determination and a study of the dynamic behavior of 2-chloro-4,6-bis(pyrazolylamino)-1,3,5-triazines have been carried out by means of 1 H and 13 C NMR dynamic studies [446]. The 13 C chemical shifts of ring carbon atoms of some 1,3,5-triazine derivatives are gathered in Table 20.3. The 13 C NMR spectrum of 3 shows a peak at 166.1 ppm. The introduction of a methyl group at position 2 results in a deshielding of 10 ppm. The 13 C NMR spectrum of cyanuric acid (4) shows only one signal whilst the spectrum of 230 shows two broad signals at 165.32 ppm and 157.19 ppm with a sharp peak at 160.09. This indicates a keto-enol tautomeric exchange process [442]. The room temperature proton decoupled spectrum of 227 displays three distinct signals for the triazine ring, indicating non-equivalence of C(2) and C(4) due to the hindered rotation of the C (6)NHEt bond at room temperature [447]. The 15 N NMR spectrum of the parent compound 3 shows a unique signal at 98.5 ppm (relative to nitromethane) [454, 455], which reects the high p-electron density at the nitrogens. This chemical shift ranges from 95.3 to 106.1 ppm, depending on the solvent used [456]. Table 20.4 shows 15 N chemical shifts of some 1,3,5-triazine derivatives.
Table 20.3
13
C NMR data of 1,3,5-triazines (CDCl3).
R4 N R6
4 6
O N HN R2 Me2N
4 6 2
O R5 N NMe2 X N
4 6
N
2
R3 R5 X
6
N A
N B
N R1 C
N N R1
R3 N
2
D
C4 (d, ppm) 166.1 149.8 172.5 165.8 166.3 170.8 161.6 166.6 157.2 148.3 143.0 77.8 74.7 C6 (d, ppm) 166.1 149.8 172.5 165.8 166.3 165.4 164.0 168.9 165.3 149.0 177.8 70.2 74.7
Compound A A A A A A A A B C C D D R2 R4 R6 H (3 [446]) R2 R4 R6 OH (4 [442]) R2 R4 R6 Cl (6 [442]) R2 Me, R4 R6 H (225 [446]) R2 Ph, R4 R6 H (226 [446]) R2 R4 Cl, R6 NHEt (227 [447]) R2 R4 CF3, R6 CCl3 (228 [448]) R2 R4 CF3, R6 NH2 (229 [449]) (230 [440]) R1 Me, R3 R5 H, X O (231 [450]) R1 Ph, R3 R5 H, X S (232 [451]) R1 tBu, R3 R5 Me, (233 [452]) R1 R3 R5 iPr, (234 [453])
C2 (d, ppm) 166.1 149.8 172.5 176.7 171.2 169.2 161.6 166.6 160.1 149.0 177.8 70.2 74.7
Table 20.4
15
j1815
N NMR data for 1,3,5-triazinesa). Compound N(1) N(2) N(3) (d, ppm) 98.5c) 110.6c) 168.8c) 173.9d) 158.2d) 160.3d) 157.0d)
Ab) A A A A A A
R2 R4 R6 H (3 [455]) R2 R4 R6 Cl (6 [457]) R2 R4 R6 F (235 [457]) R2 R4 R6 1-pirazolyl (236 [458]) R2 R4 R6 1-imidazolyl (237 [458]) R2 R4 R6 1-triazolyl (238 [458]) R2 R4 R6 1-benzaimidazolyl (239 [458])
a) Referenced to NO2CH3. b) See Table 20.3 for structure. c) CDCl3 as solvent. d) CF3CO2H as solvent.
N NMR spectroscopy has been used to study internal rotation and structural information in the solid state of 2,4,6-tris(amino)-1,3,5-triazines [459], thione-thiol tautomerization in the solid state and acetone solution of 6-[(4-vinylbenzyl)propylamino]-1,3,5-triazine-2,4-dithione (VBATDT) [460] and 15 N 1 H couplings in natural abundance in the nematic phase [461]. Some 35 Cl NMR [462] and 19 F NMR [463] studies in halogen derivatives of 1,3,5-triazine have been carried out. Mass spectra of 1,3,5-triazine (3) show the molecular ion (m/z 81) as base peak. The major fragments (m/z 54 and 27) are formed by the stepwise loss of two molecules of hydrogen cyanide. Aryl-1,3,5-triazines show molecular ions with base peaks of the aryl cyanide ions [464, 465]. The spectra of cyanuric chloride (6) and other chloro1,3,5-triazines are characterized by either loss of a chlorine atom or ring cleavage with elimination of cyanogen chloride [466]. The UV spectrum of 1,3,5-triazines has been reported in a review [37]. The UV absorption of the parent 3 shows two bands, at 272 and 222 nm, assigned as n-p and pp transitions, respectively. The UV spectra of 1,3,5-triazine derivatives that contain p-electron donors have also been studied [467]. The presence of substituents that can conjugate with the triazine ring results in the expected bathochromic shift and the band may be very intense [468].
20.4.2 Tautomerism
15
The tautomerism of 1,3,5-triazines has been reviewed [469]. 1 H NMR, IR, UV, and X-ray studies have shown that cyanuric acid exists in the trioxo form. Although the cyanurates 5 and isocyanurates 7 are the two major derivatives, compounds with both types of functional groups present in the same molecule are possible (Scheme 20.69). In general, triazine derivatives bearing oxygen or sulfur atoms at 2-, 4-, and/or 6-positions exist in the oxo/thioxo instead of the OH/SH form. In contrast melamine (8) exists mainly in the triamino form.
1816

OR N RO N 5
Scheme 20.69
OR N OR RO N N O R 240 R O N
OR N N O R 241 R O N
O N N R 7 R O
The hydroxy tautomer of 2,4,-diamino-6-hydroxy-1,3,5-triazine predominates in the gas phase. Ab initio calculations found the hydroxyl tautomer to be 4.82 kcal mol1 lower in energy than the carbonyl one [470]. Prototropic tautomerism of dihydro-1,3,5-triazines has been studied by means of 1 H NMR, UV, and IR techniques [445]. The existence of the two possible tautomers, 1,2-dihydro (242a) and 1,4-dihydro (242b) (Scheme 20.70), in an equilibrium mixture of both tautomers, with a ratio of 2 : 1 in favor of the 1,2-dihydro form, has been conrmed by 1 H NMR spectroscopy.
R4 N R6 N R2 R
6
R4 N N
N H 242a
N R2 H 242b
Scheme 20.70
One of the most important applications of 1,3,5-triazines is in the agricultural eld as fungicides, insecticides and herbicides. Some representative examples include Anilazine (243) as fungicide, Menazon (244) [471]and N-oxydihydrotriazines (245) [472] as insecticides and Simazine (246), Atrazine (247), Hexacinone (248), Chlorsulfuron (249a), Metsulfuron (249b) [473], Dipropetryn, Prometon, Prometryn, Propazine, Simetryn, Thifensulfuron-methy, Trietazine and Cyanazine as herbicides.
Cl S HN N Cl N N 243 Cl H2N N N N 244 S OCH3 P OCH3 NH2 N N Cl N N H N 246 N N H N H N N 247 Cl N N H O N N O R3 R R1 O N H N N 245 O H N N 248 N N OMe O S N H O R R2 N N H R
249a R = Cl 249b R = CO2Me
j1817
1,3,5-Triazines are also important as pharmaceuticals [474477] and are claimed as antibacterial (5-Azacytidine, Sulfasymazine), antimalarial (Cycloguanil), antiprotozoal (Melarsoprol), antispasmodic (Hydramitrazine), antitrypanosomal (Antiprotozoal), antiulcerative agents (Irsogladine), antineoplastic (Triethylenemelamine; Altretamine) and to possess diuretic properties (Amanozine, Chlorazanil). 5-Azacytidine (250a) exhibits cancerostatic, bacteriostatic and mutagenic properties. It is incorporated into both RNA and DNA, and it disrupts protein synthesis, probably through its incorporation into RNA [478]. It has proved particularly effective against myelogeneous leukemia [479, 480] but the full clinical use of the drug has been limited by its facile hydrolysis. The dihydro derivative 250b is more stable and shows potential as an antitumor drug [481].
NH2 N O HO OH OH 250a N HO OH OH 250b N Cl HN O N NH2 NH
Almitrine (251), which is useful in respiratory problems, served as the lead compound to develop triazine derivatives as potent modulators of multidrug resistance in cancer therapy [482]. On the other hand, Melarsoprol (252) (Mel B, Arsobal, Aventis), another derivative of melamine, is one of the drugs licensed for the treatment of sleeping sickness [483]. An extensive range of 1-aryl substituted 2,4-diamino-1,6dihydro-6,6-dimethyl-1,3,5-triazines have shown potent antimalarial activity, such as Cycloguanil (253) [484]. Triazinetriones are an important class of molecules with pharmaceutical [485487] and agricultural utility [488490]. An example of such biologically interesting derivatives is toltrazuril (254). Compound 255 (TPT) is a new and mild esterication agent for the preparation of penicillin and cephalosporin ester [491]. This esterication procedure has been successfully applied to the industrial production of diphenylmethyl 6b-(4-toluamido)penicillate, an important intermediate for the production of Shionogi b-lactam antibiotics Lactamoxef, Flomoxef and Ceftibuten. The use of 255 is safer and more economical on a large scale with a better product yield than other known esterication procedures. 1,3,5-Triazine-2,4-dithione derivative 256 (VBATDT) is an important dental material [460].
NH N N H N 251 H2N N 252 F NH2 N N N F HN N N
S As
OH S Cl N H2N N 253 N NH2
1818

O N O N NH O N N O SCF3 N 3 Cl N N N S N N NH
255 (TPT)
254
N S H 256 VBATDT
1,3,5-triazine derivatives are important reagents for the synthesis of peptides [492495]. High-loading resins functionalized with 1,3,5-triazine dendrimers can be used as scavenger resins for combinatorial chemistry [496, 497]. 1,3,5-Triazines have been used to form new classes of star-shaped discotic liquid crystals (LC) for potential nonlinear optical applications [498502]. Substituted 1,3,5-triazines have been used as chiral solvating agents for chiral discrimination [503506]. For the separation of ( ) and () isomers of amino acids by HPLC, bis[carbamoyl](alkyl)methylamino]-6-chloro-1,3,5-triazine derivative can be used as stationary phase [507]. Transition metal complexes of 2,4,6-trimercapto1,3,5-triazine (TMT) can be used as precursors of nanoparticulate metal suldes [508]. Melamines are an important class of organic compounds since they have shown a wide range of biological activities such as anti-angiogenesis [509], anti-tumor activity for breast [510, 511] and ovarian [475] cancer treatment, effective treatments for menopausal symptoms and postmenopausal osteoporosis [512, 513] and anti-metastatic activities [514]. Melamine and its polymers have application in many industrial elds. The major uses of the resins are in the formation of highpressure laminates for home furniture, as moldings for crockery and in nishing textiles, to improve crease resistance, and as coatings for wet strength paper. Polymer gels containing melamine derivatives are stable catalytic systems [515]. Melamine derivatives bearing a guanidinium ion can recognize nucleotides through hydrogen bondings [516]. Melamine derivatives bearing thiourea and thiouronium ions have been prepared as avin receptors [517]. Trichloromelamine is a useful reagent for the selective oxidation of alcohols to the corresponding carbonyl compounds [518]. Cyanuric chloride (6) is the precursor of many ber-reactive dyes [519, 520]. The ber-reactive dyes are prepared by nucleophilic displacement of one or two chlorines with a dye or dyes, then the product is bound on to the textile by displacement of the third chlorine with the hydroxyl group in cellulose ber or with amino functions in polyamide, silk and wool. Cibacron blue 3GA (257) and Procion scarlet MXG (258) are typical examples of reactive dyes.
j1819
SO3 NH N Cl N N N H 257 O3S N H O NH2 O Cl N N Cl N N H 258 SO3 OH O3S OMe
SO3
Cyanuric chloride has been loaded on different types of NH2-functionalized resins [521, 522]. This reagent has been used for the solution-phase synthesis of different amides [521, 522] and dipeptides [522, 523]. Cyanuric chloride is used as a coupling reagent in the formation of macrocyclic lactones [524] and b-lactams [525, 526]. In addition, it has been employed as condensing agent in several reactions to utilize mild conditions such as Beckmann transformation of ketoxime into amides and aldoximes into nitriles [527]; the transformation of carboxylic acids to alcohols [528], to Weinreb amides [529] or to diazoketones [530]; the oxidation of alcohols to carbonyl compounds [531, 532]; the selective conversion of primary alcohols into the corresponding esters [533]; and the preparation of sulfonyl chlorides from sulfonic acids [534] or to prepare pyrazoles from ketones [535]. 2,4-Dichloro-6-methoxy-1,3,5-triazines have been used to prepare afnity chromatography adsorbents; these compounds are valuable for the purication of enzymes [536]. 2-Chloro-4,6-dimethoxy-1,3,5-triazine has been used as reagent for the synthesis of aldehydes [537], esters [538], amides [539, 540] or oxazolines [541] from carboxylic acids; as coupling agents for cephalosporin derivatives [542]; and to separate an enantiomeric mixture of amides or dipeptides [543]. 4-(4,5-Dimethoxy-1,3,5-triazin-2-yl)-4-methylmorpholinium chloride has been employed as condensing agent for the preparation of amides or esters by coupling between carboxylic acids and amines [544546] or alcohols [547]. Triallyl cyanurate is used as a minor comonomer with a range of monomers and performed polymers, imparting heat resistance, solvent resistance, adhesion and strength to the polymers. It is particularly valuable for the preparation of high temperature electrical insulation components. It is also used in curing uoro polymers such as Vinton. Triallyl isocyanurates may be used similarly. 1,3,5Trichloroisocyanurate is used as a disinfectant of swimming pools. Substituted perhydro-1,3,5-triazines have shown utility as corrosion inhibitors [548], biocides [549], crosslinking agents for the manufacture of polyurethanes [550, 551], stabilizers for natural rubber latex foam and scavengers for the removal of sulde gases from petroleum fuels.
20.4.4 Synthesis
This section is divided according to the nature of the compounds to be synthesized and not to the class of reactions used.
1820

20.4.4.1 Synthesis of 1,3,5-Triazines and Mono-, Di- and Tri- 2-, 4-, 6-Substituted Derivatives The best method to obtain the parent compound 1,3,5-triazine (3) is the reaction of ammonium acetate and triethyl orthoformate described by Maier and Bredereck in 1979 [552] (Scheme 20.71). Various imino derivatives 259 have been used in the synthesis of 1,3,5-triazine (3) via a cyclotrimerization reaction.
N N 3 N NH 3 X 259 X = OEt, Cl, NH2, SH, OCH2Ph
HC(OEt3)
AcONH4
Scheme 20.71
Melamine (8) is synthesized from cyanimide on heating above its melting point or by fusing dicyanamide [553] (Scheme 20.72). Substituted cyanamides 260 react to afford either the expected 1,3,5-triazine derivative 261 [554, 555] or their imino isomers 262 [554]. On the other hand, nucleophilic displacement of chlorine atoms of cyanuric chloride is the most useful method to obtain symmetrical 2,4,6-trisubstituded-1,3,5-triazines. Thus treatment of 6 with different amines [556558] or arylamine 263 [558561] affords 2,4,6-trisubstituded-1,3,5-triazines 261.
NH2 3 NH2CN NH R HN N N N R 262 R NH N H2N N 8 N NH2 N RHN N N 261 NHR 3/2 H2N NHR NH2R(263) Cl N N 6 NH NHCN Cl N Cl
RNHCN 260
Scheme 20.72
Trimerization of cyanogen chloride in the gas phase on activated charcoal is probably the most useful industrial route to obtain cyanuric chloride (6) [562]. Trimerization of isocyanates, isothiocyanates and carbodiimides lead to isocyanurates (7), isothiocyanurates and NR derivatives of compound 262, respectively [563]. Cyanuric acid (4), cyanurates (5) and thiocyanuric acid can be synthesized by treatment of cyanuric chloride (6) with acetic acid, alcohols in basic medium or sodium sulde, respectively. The reaction of cyanuric chloride with hydroxyaryl(alkyl) compounds affords 2,4,6-triaryl(alkyl)oxy-1,3,5-triazines (5) [557, 564, 565]. Cyclotrimerization of aryl [555, 566, 567] or alkyl [555, 557] nitriles 264, thiocyanates [555] 265, ethyl cyanoformate [237] 266, triuoroacetonitrile 267 [568], or imidates 268 [569] yields symmetrical 2,4,6-trisubstituted-1,3,5-triazines (Scheme 20.73).
j1821
R 3 RCN 264 R = Aryl, Alkyl 265 R = SMe 266 R = CO2Et 267 R = CF3
Scheme 20.73
N R N
N R
R 268
NH OR1
The use of solvent-free reactions is an alternative in organic synthesis to eliminate substances hazardous to human health and environment [570]. In the literature, methods of synthesis of tris(aryl)-1,3,5-triazines by cyclotrimerization of aromatic nitriles in solvent-free conditions have been described [566, 571]. Unsymmetrical 2,4,6-substituted 1,3,5-triazines are formed in different ways. The condensation of imidates or acylamidines with amidines proved an excellent route to obtain 6-substituted 2,4-dialkyl-1,3,5-triazines. 2,4,6-Substituted 1,3,5-triazines are synthesized conveniently by the reaction of acylamidines 269 with amidines 270 [572] (Scheme 20.74).
R4 N 269
Scheme 20.74
O R6
NMe2
R2 270
NH NH2
R4 dioxane R6 N N N R2
In general, the best routes available to obtain trisubstituted 1,3,5-triazines are substitution reactions of chlorine atoms of cyanuric chloride with different nucleophiles [207, 497, 522, 556, 565, 573583]; it is possible to substitute one, two or three selectively (Section 20.4.5.3). 2-Amino-1,3,5-triazines can be obtained by treatment of 1,3,5-triazine (3) with 1-amidinopyrazole. However, they are best prepared by reaction of triformamidomethane with formyl guanidine [38]. 2-Amino-4,6-bis(disubstituted-amino)-1,3,5triazines can be obtained in one pot from disubstituted cyanamindes and formamides [584]. 6-Substituted 2,4-diamino-1,3,5-triazines 271 have been prepared by reaction of dicyandiamide with nitriles 264 under microwave irradiation [585587]. This method can be considered as a green procedure due to the reduction in the use of solvents during synthesis and purication (Scheme 20.75). Various aldehydes 272 reacted with iodine in ammonia/water to give the nitrile intermediates 264, which have been trapped by addition of dicyandiamide to produce 271 [588]. Aldehyde 272 also reacts with guanidine to give diaminotriazine 271 [589]; this method was employed to protect aldehydes. Diamino-1,3,5-triazines 273 have been synthesized from amidines 270, which are readily prepared from the corresponding phenylacetonitriles, and isoureas 274 [577] or from carboxylic acid ester 275 with biguanidine 276 [444, 590, 591] (Scheme 20.75).
1822

R6CN 264 NH R
6
NH N H CN O H H2N NH NH2
H2N CN N R6 NH2 N 271 NH2 N NH2
I2
H2N R CN 264 R' N N 274

6
N H
R6 272
272
H NH3/H2O
NH R6 NH2
PhO NC
R R6
N N
N 273 N R' R R6
O OEt 275
NH R N R'
NH
270
Scheme 20.75
N NH2 H 276
There are several ways of obtaining unsymmetrical trisubstituted 1,3,5-triazines from other heterocycles, with pyrimidines being the most used starting material. Photosensitized oxygenation of 5-aryl 2,4-diaminopyrimidines 277 in protic solvents affords 4-amino-1,3,5-triazin-2-yl ketones 278 [592] (Scheme 20.76).
NH HN R
6
NH2 O2 NH2 R6 N O O N Ar NH2 R6 N
NH2 N Ar O R
6
NH2 N N 278 N COAr
N Ar 277
O NH2
Scheme 20.76
The reaction of chloroacetamidine and phosgene followed by treatment of POCl3 and then H2/Pd has been used to obtain 2,4-dimethyl-1,3,5-triazine [593]. Muchowski has reported a specic way to prepare 2-dimethylamino-4-trichloromethyl-1,3,5-triazine from trichloroacetonitrile and 4-dimethylamino-4-trichloromethyl-1,3-diaza-1,3-butadiene [594]. Phenyl-1,3,5-triazine [595] and triphenyl-1,3,5-triazine [596] have been obtained by irradiation or electroreduction of 5-phenyl-1,2,4-thiadiazole and 3,4-diphenyl-1,2,5thiadiazole respectively. With respect to monosubstituted 1,3,5-triazines, 2-alkyl(aryl) derivatives 279 are prepared by the reaction between 1,3,5-triazine (3) and imidates 268 [597, 598] (Scheme 20.77). Triazine has elicited considerable interest as an ideal combinatorial library scaffold due to its ease of manipulation andthe lowprice of thestarting material, resulting inthe publication of several triazine libraries [575, 578, 599605]. All of the reported library synthesis procedures utilize the reactivity differences of the three reaction sites.
j1823
N N 3
R1
NH OR2 268 N NH
OR N 2 R N R2OH HCN
N N 279 R2
Scheme 20.77
20.4.4.2 Synthesis of 1,3,5-Triazinones and 1,3,5-Triazinthiones Known synthesis of 4(6)-amino-1,3,5-triazin-2-ones include: cyclocondensation of N-carbamoylguanidine hydrochloride with orthoesters 281 [606] (Scheme 20.78); reactions of biguanidines 282 with diethyl azodicarboxylate [607]; reactions of cyanoguanidines with carboxylic acid [608, 609], cyclizations of N-acyl-N-cyanoguanidines [610], cyclization of isobiurets with ethyl orthoformate [610, 611], reactions of guanylureas with dimethylformamides dimethylacetal [610] and sequential displacements of two chlorine atoms followed by hydrolysis of the third chlorine in cyanuric chloride [556]. More recently, Katritzky and coworkers have described a new method to prepare 4(6)-amino-1,3,5-triazin-2-ones 286 and 289 and 2-thiones 287, consisting in the reaction of 1-acyl derivatives of 1H-benzotriazole-1-carboxamides 283 with ureas 284 or thioureas 285 in the presence of potassium tert-butoxide [612] (Scheme 20.78).
NH2 O H2N N NH2 NHCl R C(OR )3 281
6 2
N R6
N N H 280 O R6
NH
NH EtO
O N N O OEt
N NH3 H 282
R R R4 R N t-BuOK, t-BuOK, R N AMDS Ph THF, rt NH THF, rt N N N N N N N O O N X N R R Ph N X R1 N N O N O Ph R4 O H NH N 1 4 NH N 2 2 R R R R H H 283 288 289 1 284a 286 X = O R = H, Alk 287 X = S 284 X = O 285 X = S R4
Scheme 20.78
Triazapentadienium iodides react with arylisocyanates or isothiocyanates to give 1,3,5-triazinones and triazinethiones [613]. Cyclization of N-acyl-N-carbamoyl-Smethylisothioureas affords 1,3,5-triazin-2-ones [572]. Cycloaddition reactions of 2,4-diphenyl-1,3-diazabuta-1,3-dienes 290 with aryl isocyanates 291, alkyl isocyanates 292 and isothiocyanates 293, in a sealed tube
1824

under nitrogen atmosphere without solvent, afford various 1,3,5-triazin-2-one and 2-thione derivatives 294 [614] (Scheme 20.79).
Ph N Ph R1 N 290 Ph R3 R3 N N2 N N C Ph X N X R1 291 X = O, R3 = Aryl 294 292 X = O, R3 = Alkyl 293 X = S
Scheme 20.79
Hexahydro 1,3,5-triazin-2-thione 295a can be prepared by aminomethylation of thioureas 285 with formaldehyde and aromatic/heterocyclic amines 263 [615] (Scheme 20.80). This reaction can be performed under microwave irradiation [616]. 1,3,5-Triazin-2-ones 295b can be obtained by a multi-component condensation of substituted ureas 284, aqueous formaldehyde and substituted amines 263 under microwave irradiation [616, 617] (Scheme 20.80).
R5 N H R1 CH2O R5NH2 263
X H2N
NH
285 X = S 284 X = O
Scheme 20.80
N X R1 295a X = S 295b X = O
In general, hexahydro 1,3,5-triazine-2,4-dione derivatives 298 are obtained by cyclocondensation of biurets 296 with aldehyde acetals 297 in the presence of boron triuoride etherate [618] (Scheme 20.81). The reaction of carbomethoxy O-methylisoureas with isocyanates is another general way to obtain 1,3,5-triazinediones [619].
O N N N R1 298
R1
H N
R3 N O O 296
H N
R5
R6CH(OR)2 297
BF3OEt2
R5 R6
R3 O
Scheme 20.81
Metal complex 299 reacts with two equivalents of alkyl isocyanates 292 to yield complex 300. Reaction of 300 with triic acid (HOTf) cleanly gives demetallated 1,3,5triazine-2,4-diones 301 [620] (Scheme 20.82)
O Re N Ph 292 299 [Re] = [Re(CO)3(bpy)] Ph RN C O Re N Ph NR Ph O Re N Ph NR RNCO R N Ph O Re O R HOTf N Ph Ph N 300
j1825
O R O N N N H 301 R Ph Ph
Scheme 20.82
A novel route to synthesize 1,3,5-triazin-2,4-diones consists in the desulfurization of thiocarboamides, such as 1,3-disubstituted 2-thioureas, trisubstituted thioureas and N-substituted thioamides, by silver cyanate [621]. A new synthetic method to afford 6-aryl-1,3,5-triazine-2,4-diones lies in the reaction of N-t-butylbenzamidines with diphenyl imidodicarboxylate [622]. Several papers have described the solid-phase synthesis of 6-amino-1,3,5-triazine2,4-diones. Scheme 20.83 shows two approaches to employ the resinbound guanidine, 302 and 304. 6-Amino-1,3,5-triazine-2,4-dione 303 was synthesized utilizing chlorocarbonyl isocyanates [623] while 305 was synthesized via intramolecular cyclization of guanidine 304 with potassium ethoxide [624].
HN HN R1 O 302
Scheme 20.83
R N R' O
O R' N N R N R1 O 303 NH O O R HN N H O
O N H N O 304
R3 KOEt R N H
O N N N H 305
R3 O
ClCONCO THF, rt, 2h
1,3,5-Triazine-2,4-diones 307 have been obtained unexpectedly by intramolecular aza-Wittig reaction of 306 with aryl isocyanate 291 followed by attempted heterocyclization by use of primary amines 263 [625] (Scheme 20.84). Another unexpected reaction was found in the reduction of the methylpyridinium salt 308, which afforded the piperidine spiro 6-thioxo-1,3,5-triazin-2-one derivative 309 [626].
CO2Me 1. R3NCO 291 2. RNH2 263 N PPh3 3. HCl 306 N R
Scheme 20.84
O N N H O 307 N
R3 O N Me
Et N S N Pr 308
O O BH4Na Pr N N Et S
N H N Me 309
1,3,5-Triazine-2,4,6-triones can be prepared by cyclotrimerization of isocyanates with several catalysts, such as Lewis bases [627], anions [628] and metallic
1826

compounds [629, 630]. However, the best catalysts are CsF or tetrabutylammonium uoride (TBAF). Trimerization of aryl isocyanates 291 with CsF or TBAF as catalyst at room temperature yields triazinetrione 310 [628] (Scheme 20.85). Phenyl isocyanate trimerized in the reaction with (C5Me5)2Nb(O)H [631]. Zirconacyclopentanes react with p-chlorophenyl isocyanate to give the trimerization product [632].
O 3 ArNCO 291 CsF/n-TBAF rt, 20 min Ar O N N Ar 310
Scheme 20.85
Ar O
The electrochemical approach of Carelli et al. is also a useful procedure to obtain 1,3,5-triazinetriones [633]. This method consists of the cyclotrimerization of aryl isocyanates in the presence of the anionic species generated in situ by electrochemical reduction of catalytic amounts of a-bromoesters in dipolar aprotic solvents. 1,3,5-Trihydroxycyanuric acid 314 (THICA) and its alkoxy derivatives can be prepared by several methods [634637]. Butula and Takac [638] have reported an alternative synthesis of THIC in three steps using 1-benzotriazolecarboxylic acid 311 as a key compound (Scheme 20.86). Recently, a new synthetic route to THICA using benzyloxycarbamic acid phenyl ester 312, synthesized from O-benzylhydroxyamine and phenyl chloroformate, has been developed [639].
N N N N ROHN
N O
RONH2
N O O BnO O N N OBn H2/Pd HO O N O N OH
Cl 311 H N
Ph
OPh
312 O
Scheme 20.86
DMAP 120 C
Ph
O N C O
O N OBn 313
O N OH 314
Symmetrical 1,3-disubstituted triazinetriones can be prepared by condensation of two molecules of isocyanates with a metal isocyanate in a dipolar aprotic solvent [640]. There are few literature reports on the synthesis of asymmetric triazinetriones with two or three different substituents. Kappe and coworkers have synthesized 1-(benzimidazol-2-yl-methyl)-3-phenyl-s-triazine-2,4,6-trione from the corresponding urea and N-ethoxycarbonyl isocyanate [641]. Biouret 296a cyclized with NaOEt in EtOH with diethyl carbonate to give 1-aryl-1,3,5-triazine-2,4,6-trione 315 [642]
j1827
(Scheme 20.87). Recently, a one-pot synthesis of asymmetric 1,3,5-triazine-2,4,6triones 316 was developed by loss of an equimolar amount of isocyanate 291/292 and primary amine 263 in dichloromethane, followed by addition of N-chlorocarbonyl isocyanate [643].
H N H N O O 296a O NH2 NaOEt O EtO OEt HN O N Ar 315 NH O R1NCO 291 R1 = aryl 292 R1 = alkyl R2NH2 263 1. CH2Cl2 HN 2. ClCONCO O O N N R1 316 R3 O
Ar
Scheme 20.87
An efcient parallel solid-phase synthesis of 1,3,5-trisubstituded 1,3,5-triazine2,4,6-triones 319 from chlorocarbonyl isocyanate with resin-bound urea 317 has been reported [644]. Triazinetrione 318 was cleaved from the resin using HF (Scheme 20.88).
R N O O O N N H 318 R HF O C H2N O O N O N N H 319
H N O
R N H 317
O N H
R3 ClCONCO 65 C, 7h, Toluene
H N
R3 O
R3 O
Scheme 20.88
20.4.4.3 Synthesis of Hydro-1,3,5-Triazines Acid-catalyzed reaction between the corresponding biguanidine and carbonyl compounds is an effective route to obtain 4,6-diamino-1,2-dihydro-1,3,5-triazine [645]. This method has been used to synthesize a solution-phase combinatorial library of 1-aryl-4,6-diamino-1,2-dihydro-1,3,5-triazines 322 from a set of carbonyl compounds 321 and arylbiguanidines 320 (Scheme 20.89) [646, 647].
NH HN HN NH2 O R R' 321 H H2N N NH2 R N R' Ar 322 N
NH Ar 320
Scheme 20.89
Microwave assisted parallel synthesis of a library of 20 aryl dihydrotriazines 323 was successfully achieved from dicyandiamide, acetone and primary amines [648]
1828

(Scheme 20.90). This reaction can be considered as a cycloaddition of [4 1 1] fragments. This method decreased the reaction time from an average of 22 h to 35 min in comparison to conventional parallel synthesis.
NH2 NCHN HN NH2 MeCOMe RNH2 MW H2N N N
R Me Me
N Cl H 323
Scheme 20.90
Wakeeld and coworkers have described the formation of triphenyl dihydrotriazines by the reaction of 2,4,6-triphenyl-1,3,5-triazine with lithium reagents [649]. Lappert and coworkers have reported the facile synthesis of monosubstituted dihydrotriazines 325 from parent triazine (3) and alkyllithium reagent and subsequent protonolysis of the presumed lithio(alkyl)triazines 324 [650, 651] (Scheme 20.91).
R4 N N 3
Scheme 20.91
R4 N H2O N N N H 325
LiR4
N Li 324
Reaction of aziridines 326 with cesium uoride and HMPA, followed by treatment of intermediate 327 with water, yields triazines 328 [652] (Scheme 20.92).
CsF, HMPA rt TMS 326
Scheme 20.92
N CO2R 327
RO2C
H2O
RO2C
N N
CO2R
CO2R 328
The reaction of aniline derivatives with 1,3,6,8-tetrazatricyclo[4.4.1.13,8]dodecane affords 1,3,5-triaryl-hexahydro-1,3,5-triazines 329 [653] (Scheme 20.93). Nitroimino-1,3,5-triazine derivatives 331 are formed via Mannich condensation of nitroguanidine 330, formaldehyde and the appropriate primary amine 263 [654, 655] (Scheme 20.94). A general way to obtain 1,3,5-triazinetriimines is the co-trimerization of amines with cyanogen bromide [656, 657].
j1829
N ArNH2 N
N N
Ar AcOH 15 min
N N Ar
Ar
329
Scheme 20.93
R1
N N H
NO2 NH2
CH2O
R5NH2 263
H2O rt, 80 C
R5
NH N R1 331 N NO2
330
Scheme 20.94
20.4.4.4 Synthesis of N-Amino and N-Oxide 1,3,5-Triazines N-Amino-1,3,5-triazine derivatives 332 have been synthesized from ethoxycarbonylhydrazones 333 and two equivalents of aryl or methyl isocyanates followed by hydrolysis of intermediate triazine 334 [658] or by transformation of sodium salts of 1,3,4-oxadiazol-2-ones 335 with two equivalents of aryl or ethyl isocyanates and hydrolysis of intermediate 336 [659] (Scheme 20.95).
R1 O 2 RNCO Et3N R O N N N 334 O N N R1 O 335
Scheme 20.95
N R2 NH EtO2C 333
R O R1
H H2O R O N
O N R
R2
Ph NH O
O R 2 RNCO NaH O N N HN 336 R1 N R O O
H H2O
O N NH2 332
With respect to the preparation of N-oxide derivatives of 1,3,5-triazines, Shaw has described the oxidation of triazines with peracetic acid and the preparation of 2,6diamino-4-methyl-1,3,5-triazine N-oxides from potassium dicyanoacetamide and hydroxylamine [660]. Formation of triazine N-oxides by reaction of amidooxime with ethyl orthoacetate gives poor yields [661].
1830

20.4.5 Reactivity
The reactivity of 1,3,5-triazine (3) has been thoroughly reviewed [26, 39, 41, 474, 662] and the chemistry of melamine, cyanuric acid and cyanuric halides has also been reviewed [34, 35, 120, 663]. In general, many of the reactions of 1,3,5-triazines reect the chemistry of the ring substituents.
20.4.5.1 Thermal and Photochemical Reactions The parent compound 3 decomposes to form three molecules of hydrogen cyanide on heating above 600 C. The thermal decomposition of hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5triazine has been studied [664]. Thermal isomerization of cyanurates and thiocyanurates to isocyanurates and thioisocyanurates, respectively, is also known [665, 666]. A novel reversible thermal electrocyclic reaction of chiral 1,2-dihydro-1,3,5-triazines has been described [667]. Photodissociation of 1,3,5-triazine to yield hydrogen cyanide is also known [419, 421, 422]. Photolysis of 2-azido-4,6-dichloro-1,3,5-triazine, in a low temperature argon matrix, yields a cyclic carbodiimide containing four nitrogen atoms in a sevenmembered ring [668]. Consecutive photolysis of triazido-1,3,5-triazine, in a low temperature nitrogen matrix, has been studied [669, 670]. 2,2,4,6-Tetraphenyldihydro-1,3,5-triazine undergoes photochemical reactions to yield a mixture of six products, among which 2,4,5-triphenylimidazole and 2,4,6-triphenyl-1,3,5-triazine could be identied [671, 672]. The S-chlorination reaction of isothiocyanuric affords 1,3,5-triazine-2,4,6acid under UV-irradiation at 45 C trisulfenyltrichloride [673]. 20.4.5.2 Reactions with Electrophilic Reagents Chlorination and bromination of 1,3,5-triazine occur only under vigorous conditions, bromination being rather more successful. The reactions are probably not electrophilic [35, 39, 43, 320, 674]. Treatment of 1,3,5-triazine with chlorine or bromine at room temperature gives rise to perhalides [43]. Melamine has been halogenated to form products containing one to six halogens, depending on the reaction conditions [35]. Sulfonation or nitration preferentially leads to the ring hydrolysis [39]. Alkyl side chains of 1,3,5-triazine are quite readily a-halogenated by what are believed to be ionic mechanisms [675]. Some examples on the preparation of nitro derivatives of 1,3,5-triazine are found in the literature. Thus, when 1,3,5-triazine is allowed to react with dinitrogen pentoxide, at 0 C, and quenched with methanol the cis and trans isomers of 2,4,6-trimethoxy1,3,5-trinitrohexahydro-1,3,5-triazine 337 and 338 can be isolated in equimolar ratio [676] (Scheme 20.96). Alkylation of thiocyanuric has been described [565]. Phase-transfer has been employed to catalyze polycondensation of 6-dialkylamino-1,3,5-triazine-2,4-dithiols with 1,10-dibromodecane [677]. Carboxylic acids have been condensed with 1,3,5-triazine by activation of the triazine ring. Thus, chlorotriazine 339 is activated with amine, to give the salt 340 that
j1831
N N 3
1. N2O5 CH3NO2 0 C 2. MeOH
OMe O2N MeO N N NO2 O2N MeO N
OMe N NO2
OMe N NO2 337
OMe N NO2 338
Scheme 20.96
reacts with a carboxylic acid to generate the ester 341 [522, 539, 543, 544] (Scheme 20.97).
R4 N R6 N N 339 Cl R N R'' R' R N R4 N N 340 R'' R' N R Cl RCOOH R N R4 N N 341 O O R
Scheme 20.97
N-Alkylation of 1,3-disubstituted 1,3,5-triazine-2,4,6-triones is well documented [643, 644]. Silylation of the amino groups of melamine and 2,4-diamino-6substituted-1,3,5-triazines is achieved by reaction with chlorotrimethylsilane and triethylamine in reuxing acetonitrile to give the monosilylated amino derivatives [678].
20.4.5.3 Reactions with Nucleophilic Reagents 1,3,5-Triazines are extremely sensitive to nucleophilic substitution, particularly hydrolysis in the presence of even trace atmospheric water [35]. Nucleophilic attack at the aromatic 1,3,5-triazines results in ring cleavage in most cases. The reaction of 1,3,5-triazine 3 with a primary amine is an example of this fact [39] (Scheme 20.98).
N N 3 N RNH2 N 263 N H N NHR N N NH2 RNH2 263 NHR N N NH2 NHR NHR NR NHR NH2 N NH
Scheme 20.98
In the Gattermann aldehyde synthesis, 1,3,5-triazine can be used as a substitute for hydrogen cyanide [679]. On treatment of triazine (3) with aryl Grignard reagents the corresponding aryl aldehyde is obtained. Several nucleophilic substitutions of halogen derivatives of 1,3,5-triazines can be found in the literature. The more common method is displacement of chlorine atoms of cyanuric chloride with different nucleophiles. It is possible to obtain mono-, di- or tri-substituted-1,3,5-triazine by controlling the nature of the nucleophiles or the reaction temperature. Thus, 2-amino-1,3,5-triazine 342, 2,4-diamino-1,3,5-triazine
1832

343, or 2,4,6-triamino-1,3,5-triazine 344 can be obtained by sequential addition of amines [497, 558, 577, 578, 580582, 680, 681] (Scheme 20.99). 2,4-Diamino-1alkoxy-1,3,5-triazine [565, 578, 579], 2-amino-4-alkoxy-1,3,5-triazine [576, 577], 2-amino-4,6-dialkoxy-1,3,5-triazine [207, 544, 682], 2,4-dialkoxy-1,3,5-triazine [573, 574], and 2,4,6-triaryloxy-1,3,5-triazines [564] have also been described.
Cl N N N 6 Cl RNH2 O C Cl N Cl N N 342 NHR R'NH2 25 C Cl N NHR' N N 343 NHR R''NH2 80 C R'HN N NHR' N N 344 NHR
Cl
Scheme 20.99
Reaction of cyanuric chloride with 1-benzylpyrazole under solvent-free conditions and microwave irradiation yielded, within 10 min, tris-2,4,6-(pyrazol-1-yl)-1,3,5-triazine by a quaternizationdequaternization procedure [683]. This compound has been employed as a 5-connecting building-block for innite nets [684]. Organometallic alkylations of cyanuric acid (6) [577] or 2-chloro-4,6-dimethoxy1,3,5-triazine (345) [685] have been described to afford alkyl-1,3,5-triazines 346 (Scheme 20.100). Alkynyl-1,3,5-triazines 347 have been synthesized by reaction of cyanuric chloride 6 with Grignard reagents [583] or by Pd-catalyzed cross-coupling between alkynes and 345 [686, 687].
Cl N Cl N 6 N Cl RMgX N R N RSnBu3 Pd(PPH3)2Cl2 MeO N Cl N N 345 OMe
Y Y N Y = Cl, OMe 346 R
Cl N Cl N 6 N Cl R MgX N N R Pd/C, PPh3, CuI MeO N
Cl N N OMe 345
N Y Y Y = Cl, OMe 347
Scheme 20.100
A new synthetic route, via the Suzuki cross-coupling of resin-bound 2,4-diamine-6chlorotriazines, using various arylboronic acids and palladium catalysts has been developed to prepare a 2,4-diamine-6-aryl-1,3,5-triazine library [604]. Reaction of 2,4,6-triuoro-1,3,5-triazine and hexauoropropene yields peruoro(isopropyl)-1,3,5-triazines, which react with a range of oxygen nucleophiles [688].
j1833
There are other similar reactions to obtain 2,4,6-tris(peruoroalkyl)- and peruoroalkylether-1,3,5-triazines from 2,4,6-trihalotriazines [689]. Other substituents than halogen at 2-, 4- and 6-positions may be displaced by nucleophilic reagents. Thus, reactions of 2,4,6-tris[di(t-butoxycarbonyl)nitromethyl]1,3,5-triazine with nucleophiles have been reported [690]. Substitution of an OMe group by a hydrazino group in a methoxyribosyltriazinone has been accomplished [691]. N-Methyleneamine equivalents can be generated in situ from hexahydro-1,3,5triazines 348 (Scheme 20.101) in the presence of a Lewis acid (LA) and reacted with various nucleophiles for the synthesis of aziridine 349 [692, 693], azetidin-2-ones 350 [694, 695], anilines 351 [696, 697], tetrahydroquinolines 352 [697], 5-aminomethyl-dihydrofuran-2-ones [698], and anilinomethylazides [699]. Synthetic applications of N-methyleneamine equivalents were reviewed in 2002 [700].
R1 O N 350 R CO2R2 R R= Me Me N H Me
LA R N 349 R LA CO2R1 N2CHCO2R1 N
R1 N
LA HCCCH2SiMe3
N R 348 R=
LA, NaOH, I2, N2 Cl 351
Cl
Cl
Cl
N H 352
Scheme 20.101
20.4.5.4 Cycloaddition Reactions 1,3,5-Triazines may also undergo inverse electron demand cycloaddition reactions, although in to minor extent compared with 1,2,4-triazines, to yield heterocyclic compounds such as substituted [120] or condensed [701707] pyrimidines. Theoretical studies [708, 709] of an inverse-electron demand DielsAlder reaction between amino-substituted heterocycles and 1,3,5-triazines have been described. Scheme 20.102 show the mechanism proposed for this reaction.
1834

R N N R H2N X N R1 Y N R RH N Y N R H N N X 2 NH3 R1 R N R R Y N N Y N X X R N N R N RCN R1 R1 353
N R
Scheme 20.102
An isocyanurate-containing fullerene has been obtained by [3 2]-cycloaddition of 5-[50 -azidopentyl)]-1,3-diallyl-1,3,5-triazine-2,4,6-trione to C60 [710].
20.4.5.5 Reactions with Reducing Reagents A few examples of reduction reactions of 1,3,5-triazines can be found in the literature. 2,4,6-Tricyano-1,3,5-triazine 354 (TCT) undergoes an irreversible one-electron reduction with Na or K to form 355 [711] (Scheme 20.103). Chemical reduction of TCT with strong reducing agents, such as bis(mesitylene)chromium(0), affords the dimerized compound 356 (TCBT) [712, 713] (Scheme 20.103)
N N N N N 355 Na or K N N N 354 TCT N N N Cr(mes)2 N N N N N N 356 TCBT N N N
Scheme 20.103
20.4.5.6 Reactions with Oxidizing Reagents There are few oxidation reactions on the ring of 1,3,5-triazines. Study of the kinetics and energies of one-electron oxidation of 1,3,5-triazines has been published [714]. Oxidation of a substituent cyano group to the corresponding amide has been described recently. One-pot preparation of triazinyl amide 358 via a sequential SNAr substitution and oxidation has been achieved using diethylaminoacetonitrile as amide synthon. An important advantage of this process is that the oxidation of the intermediate 357 occurs under mild conditions using NiO2H2O in THF at room temperature [715] (Scheme 20.104).
OMe N MeO N 345

Scheme 20.104
OMe NC Cl NaHMSD NEt2 THF N MeO N 357 N NiO2/H2O NEt2 TMSO-OTMS CN MeO N
OMe N N 358 O NEt2
20.5 Tetrazines
j1835
Reactions of substituted 1,3,5- triazines with peroxides [716] and peracids [717] afford the corresponding oxygenated substituents. Dihydro-1,3,5-triazines are aromatized to triazines on oxidation with potassium permanganate [718].
20.4.5.7 Reactions of Metallated 1,3,5-Triazines Metallated triazines react with electrophiles to give different substituted derivatives. Chloro-1,3,5-triazines are lithiated using lithium powder and naphthalene in the presence of various electrophiles such as aldehydes and ketones to give, after hydrolysis, the expected substituted triazines. The reaction presumably takes place through the organolithium intermediate [719]. 1,3,5-Triazine reacts with lithium alkyl to give 1,4-adducts, which on hydrolysis yielded the rst simple 4-substituted 1,4-dihydrotriazines [650]. The reaction of 1,3,5triazines and lithium amidinate, alkyl- or 1-azaallyllithium affords substituted 1,3,5triazines [651].
20.5 Tetrazines
Tetrazine chemistry has been extensively reviewed in Comprehensive Heterocyclic Chemistry I [4] and Comprehensive Heterocyclic Chemistry II [9]. A whole chapter is devoted to 1,2,4,5-tetrazine in Comprehensive Heterocyclic Chemistry II [8]. The chemistry of 1,2,3,4-tetrazines has recently been updated in Chemical Reviews [44]. Therefore, only the most important relevant data that have appeared since these publications is considered here.
20.5.1 Relevant Computational Chemistry, Physicochemical and Spectroscopic Data
Theoretical calculations of the 1,2,3,4-tetrazine [53] and 1,2,3,5-tetrazines [53, 720] system have been published. The 1,2,4,5-tetrazine system is the only stable isomer of the three possible tetrazines. Most theoretical studies have dealt with the 1,2,4,5-tetrazine isomer. Fabian and Lewars have described a computational study of the stability, homodesmotic stabilization energy, electron distribution and magnetic ring current of tetrazines [53]. Harmonic [58] and anharmonic [58, 59] frequencies have also been calculated. The electronic spectrum [721725] and density functional calculations [57, 726728] have been published. Heats of formation of tetrazines have been calculated [61]. The coordination chemistry of 1,2,4,5-tetrazines and its 3,5-disubstituted derivatives has been described [729]. The X-ray crystallographic analysis of 1,2,4,5-tetrazines derivatives recently reported include: trans-3,6-dibenzyl-1,2,4,5-tetrazine 3,6-diphenyl-1,2,4,5tetrazine [730]; diphenyl 3,6-bis(4-chlorophenyl)-1,2-dihydro-1,2,4,5-tetrazine-1,2dicarboxylate [731]; 3,6-diphenyl-1,4-bis(p-tolylsulfonyl)-1,4-dihydro-1,2,4,5-tetra-
1836

zine [732]; dipropyl 3,6-diphenyl-1,2-dihydro-1,2,4,5-tetrazine-1,2-dicarboxylate [733]; 1-acetyl-3,6-diphenyl-1,4-dihydro-1,2,4,5-tetrazine [734]; ethyl 3,6-diphenyl-1,4-dihydro-1,2,4,5-tetrazine-1-carboxylate [735]; 1-acyl-3,6-disubstituted phenyl-1,4-dihydro1,2,4,5-tetrazines [736]; 3,6-bis(2-chlorophenyl)-1,4-dihydro-1,2,4,5-tetrazine [737]; 3,6-bis(2-pyridinio-1,2,4,5-tetrazine) diperchlorate [738]; 3,6-bis(2-pyridinyl)-1,2,4,5tetrazine [739]; hexahydro-1,2,4,5-tetrazines [740]; and 1,5-dimethyl-1,2,4,5-tetrazinane-3,6-dione [741].
20.5.2 Tautomerism
Unexpected azido-tetrazolo tautomerizations and irreversible tetrazolo transformation have been studied in a report dealing with 3,6-diazido-1,2,4,5-tetrazine (DiAT), for which an improved synthetic pathway is also provided [742]. DiAT undergoes azido-tetrazolo equilibria in CD3OD, (CD3)2CO and CD3CN and transforms into tetrazolo isomer 359 in DMSO (Scheme 20.105). The transformation from 359 into 360 only occurs when the temperature is at least 80 C.
N N N N 359 N3 N N N N 359
Scheme 20.105
N3
N N N N DiAT
CD3OD (CD3)2CO CD3CN N3 DMSO
N3
N N N N N N N N N N N N 360
N N
80 C DMSO
Recent reports have dealt with the antitumor activity of the 1,2,4,5-tetrazine skeleton [736, 743751]. On the other hand, 1,2,4,5-tetrazines have demonstrated powerful synthetic utility through their ability to participate in inverse electron demand DielsAlder reactions, providing access to a wide range of other heterocycles and natural products [30, 752] (Section 20.5.4.2). The 1,2,4,5-tetrazine ring system displays unique material properties as well. This electroactive, colored ring system typically exhibits high electron afnity, low lying p orbitals and n-p transitions in the visible light region attractive properties for optical and electroactive materials applications [753]. Furthermore, tetrazines also posses high positive heats of formation and crystal densities, properties important in energetic material applications [754, 755].
20.5 Tetrazines
j1837
3,6-Diethyl-1,2,4,5-tetrazine has been employed as unique solvatochromic probe in the Solvent Acidity Scale [756]. 3,6-Diazido-1,2,4,5-tetrazine has been synthesized for the preparation of carbon nanospheres and nitrogen-rich carbon nitrides [757].
20.5.4 Synthesis of 1,2,4,5-Tetrazines
Only recent synthetic methods of tetrazines are commented on here. Kaszynski has developed an alternative route to obtain 3,6-diphenyl-1,2,4,5thiatriazine 362 in a one-pot reaction from a nucleophilic double substitution on dichloride 361 [758] (Scheme 20.106).
Ph Cl N N Ph Cl 1. NaN3/TEBA 2. PrSH/Et3N Ph N N N 362 N S Pr Ph
361
Scheme 20.106
3,6-Bis(phenanthrolin-2-yl)-1,2,4,5-tetrazine has been synthesized from the reaction of 2-cyanophenanthroline with hydrazine followed by oxidation with nitric acid in acid acetic [759]. Hydrazine reacts with 4-hydroxybenzimidic acid methyl ester followed by oxidation with sodium nitrite to give 3,6-bis(4-hydroxyphenyl)-1,2,4,5tetrazine [760]. Aryl nitriles react with hydrazine to form 1,2-dihydro-3,6-diaryltetrazines [761], which are oxidized to 3,6-diaryl-1,2,4,5-tetrazines [753]. Imidate 363 reacts with hydrazine hydrate to afford 1,4-dihydrotetrazine 364. Deliberate oxidation of 364 has been accomplished by treatment with ferric chloride to provide tetrazine 365 [762] (Scheme 20.107).
OH Ar N FeCl3 N Ar OH N N N OH Ar
OH Ar 363
Scheme 20.107
OEt NH2 Cl
NH2NH2
N Ar OH
H N N H
364
365
New 1,2,4,5-tetrazines derivatives has been synthesized from substituted nitrilimines and different hydrazines [763765] or hydrazones [765, 766]. A new neutral oxoverdazyl radical conjugated with the corannulene system has been designed and synthesized for the rst time as a stable solid in air [767]. The radical 367 was synthesized by the condensation of aldehyde 366 with
1838

2,4,-dimethylcarbonohydrazide at room temperature followed by treatment with PbO2 (Scheme 20.108).
NH2 NH2 N N RCHO 366 O R = corannulene

Scheme 20.108
HN R
N N H N
PbO2 R
N N N 367
The synthesis of 1,5-diisopropyl substituted 6-oxo-verdazyls has been accomplished starting from 2,4-diisopropylcarbonohydrazide bis-hydrochloride. The introduction of isopropyl groups results in free radicals more stable and soluble than their methyl counterparts [768]. 6-(4-Substituted-phenyl)-2,4-diphenylverdazylium salts have been prepared by the reaction of 3-(4-substituted-phenyl)-1,5-diphenylformazans with formaldehyde and different organic and inorganic acids in a two-phase chloroform/water medium by brief and gentle heating [769].
20.5.5 Reactivity of 1,2,4,5-Tetrazines
Some examples of the reactivity of 1,2,4,5-tetrazines published since 1995 are described here.
20.5.5.1 Reactions with Nucleophilic Reagents The electron-decient aromatic ring of tetrazine and its reactivity towards nucleophiles have been utilized in the preparation of non-symmetrically substituted tetrazines by substitution of leaving groups, such as chloro [770, 771], methylthio [770, 772775] or dimethylpyridazolyl [755, 757, 776, 777] with nitrogen, oxygen or sulfur nucleophiles. The use of carbon nucleophiles, such as organolithium or Grignard reagents, with 3,6-disubstituted 1,2,4,5-tetrazines 368 led to the addition of an organic group onto a ring nitrogen atom to afford 1,4-dihydrotetrazines 369 [778] (Scheme 20.109).
N N N N 368 R3-M R2 N NH R3 N N 369 R1
R2
R1
Scheme 20.109
The rst cross-coupling reactions in tetrazines have been described: a series of substituted chlorotetrazines 370 were reacted with different terminal alkynes under Sonogashira or Negishi coupling conditions to furnish alkynyl-tetrazines 371 [779] (Scheme 20.110).
20.5 Tetrazines
N N N N 370 5 % (PPh3)PdCl2 5 % CuI 2 eq. TEA DMA N N N N 371
j1839
R1
Cl
R2
R1
R2
Scheme 20.110
20.5.5.2 Cycloaddition Reactions A simple, yet non-obvious method for the construction of pyrazol-4-ols 374 by a consecutive series of condensationfragmentationcyclization extrusion reactions of thietanone 372 with 1,2,4,5-tetrazine 373 has been described [780] (Scheme 20.111).
Ar N Ph 374 N Ar
Ph S 372
O Ar
N N N N 373
Ar
KOR/ROH THF
H RO
Scheme 20.111
Inverse electron demand DielsAlder reaction of 1,2,4,5-tetrazines are well known in the literature. Cycloadditions with electron-rich alkynes [759, 762, 774, 776, 781788] or alkenes [602, 762, 772, 773, 781, 784, 789792] afford the expected donor-substituted pyridazines (Scheme 20.112). Fusedpyridazines have also been obtained[269,770, 775, 784, 793802].
N R2 N R3 N N R1 R4 R3 N
R3 N R2 N N N R3 X R4 R1
R4
R4 N2 R1
R2
N R2 N R3 N N R4 R1 X XH N2
R4 R1
R3 N
R2
Scheme 20.112
1,2,4-Tetrazine 377 can be obtained the from reaction of thioimidate 375 with 1,2,4,5-tetrazine 376 [762] (Scheme 20.113). Zhou et al. have described an alternative DielsAlder route to the well-known C,C cycloaddition (CarboniLindsey reaction). Quantum mechanical calculations showed that N,N cycloaddition of alkenes and alkynes to s-tetrazines is possible.
1840

NH Ar X 375 R N N N N R Ar R N N N 377 R 376
Scheme 20.113
The formation of 1,2,4-triazole derivatives (formal product of N,N cycloaddition) along with the pyrazole (formal product of C,C cycloaddition) corroborates this theoretical prediction [803]. Thermal DielsAlder reactions between C60 and electron-decient 3,6-diaryl1,2,4,5-tetrazines yielded monoadducts possessing a diaryldihydropyridazine function nested atop the fullerene [804]. However, when 3,6-diaryl-1,2,4,5-tetrazines and C60 react upon irradiation with visible light, the four membered ring-containing C62 derivatives were obtained [805].
20.5.5.3 Reactions with Oxidizing Reagents 1,4-Dihydrotetrazines have been aromatized to tetrazines by exposure to nitrous gases [784]. 1,2,4,5-Tetrazines have been oxidized by DBU to obtain a novel azepine derivative [806]. In contrast, 1,2,4,5-tetrazines have been oxidized by methyl(triuoromethyl)dioxirane to form the N(1)-oxide isomer [807].
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746 Wang, Y.F., Lambert, P., Zhao, L.X., and
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j1865
21 Seven-Membered Heterocycles: Azepines, Benzo Derivatives and Related Systems

Juan J. Vaquero, Ana M. Cuadro, and Bernardo Herrad on
21.1 Introduction
The replacement of a carbon atom by a heteroatom in a seven-membered carbocycle leads to the corresponding seven-membered heterocyclic ring system. Different types of heterocycles can be formed depending on the nature of the carbocycle. In a cycloheptatriene the replacement can involve any of the six sp2 hybridized carbons or the sp3 carbon atom, whereas in cycloheptane all carbon atoms are equivalent and replacement affords exclusively the fully saturated heterocyclic systems. Partially saturated seven-membered heterocycles can be viewed as derivatives or related systems of these two main seven-membered heterocyclic units arising from carbon replacement in cycloheptatriene and in cycloheptane. Replacement of the sp3 hybridized carbon atom in cycloheptatriene by a nitrogen leads to an azacycloheptatriene known as 1H-azepine (1) and the corresponding 2H-, 3H-, and 4H-azepines (24) are the tautomeric forms generated by the replacement of the sp2 carbons. 1H-Azepine is an unstable red oil that is prone to rearrange to the also unstable 3H-azepine in the presence of acids and bases. However, this tautomer seems to be more stable than both 4H- and 2H-azepine. The structures related to 1H-azepine that bear an oxygen or sulfur atom are known as oxepine (5) and thiepine (6) (thiepin is favored by Chemical Abstracts Service). Oxepine is much more stable than thiepine and has been synthesized, isolated, and characterized at room temperature while thiepine has not been detected to date. Stable monocyclic thiepines were prepared and characterized in the 1980s. Azepines, oxepines, and thiepines that are constrained to planar or almost planar conformations should be antiaromatic molecules with negative resonance energy and, as a consequence, these compounds are unknown. The fully saturated seven-membered heterocycle containing one nitrogen is azepane (7) (hexahydroazepine or perhydroazepine); the oxygen and sulfur analogues are known as oxepane (8) and thiepane (9). All of these compounds are stable and show typical behavior of secondary amine, ether and thioether, respectively. Two
1866
j 21 Seven-Membered Heterocycles: Azepines, Benzo Derivatives and Related Systems

other interesting systems are the sulfur-oxidized forms of 6 and 9, which are known as thiepine 1,1-dioxide (10) and thiepane 1,1-dioxide (11), respectively.
N H 1H-Azepine
N 2H-Azepine
N 3H-Azepine
N 4H-Azepine
O Oxepine
S Thiepine
N H Azepane
O Oxepane
S Thiepane
Thiepine 1,1-dioxide Thiepane 1,1-dioxide
10
11
Annelation of all these seven-membered heterocycles to aromatic and heteroaromatic rings leads to a great variety of heterocyclic systems. The most widely studied are those generated by fusion of one or two benzene rings to the fully unsaturated nuclei. There are three possible ways for this annulation of a benzene ring to heterocycles 111 and four isomeric possibilities result from the fusion with two benzene rings (1232). In general, the resulting benzo derivatives and dibenzo derivatives are more stable than the parent monocyclic systems.
6 7 8 9 5 4 3 7 8 9 1 6 5 4 3 6 7 8 9 1 5 4
X
1
X3
2
X2
12: X = NH: 1H-1-Benzazepine 13: X = O: 1-Benzoxepine 14: X = S: 1-Benzothiepine

9 8 7 6 10 11 1 2
9 8 7
10
11
1 2
X
5
3 4
X
5
3 4
21: X = NH: 5H-Dibenz[b,d]azepine 22: X = O: Dibenz[ b,d ]oxepine 23: X = S: Dibenz[ b,d ]thiepine
24: X = NH: 5H-Dibenz[b,e]azepine 25: X = O: Dibenz[ b,e]oxepine 26: X = S: Dibenz[ b,e]thiepine

9 10 11 1 2
9 8 7
10
11
1 2
8 7 6
X
6 5
X
5
3 4
27: X = NH: 5H-Dibenz[b,f ]azepine 28: X = O: Dibenz[ b,f ]oxepine 29: X = S: Dibenz[ b,f ]thiepine
30: X = NH: 5H-Dibenz[c,e]azepine 31: X = O: Dibenz[ c,e]oxepine 32: X = S: Dibenz[ c,e]thiepine
21.2 Relevant Natural and Useful Compounds
j1867
The chemistry and properties of most common seven-membered heterocycles have been reviewed in previous surveys, mainly in Comprehensive Heterocyclic Chemistry I [1, 2], Comprehensive Heterocyclic Chemistry II [35] and Comprehensive Heterocyclic Chemistry III [68]. Other reviews on azepines have been published [911] and benzazepines have been covered in a reference series [12]. The synthesis of oxepines and oxepanes has been reviewed elsewhere [1316], as have the synthesis and applications of some dibenzoxepines [17]. Earlier studies on the chemistry of thiepines and thiepanes have been reviewed [18, 19] and, more recently, these heterocycles have been described in Houben-Weyls Science of Synthesis [20]. A review of dibenzo[b,f ]thiepine has also been published [21]. In addition to these general surveys, annual accounts on seven-membered heterocyclic ring systems are given in Progress in Heterocyclic Chemistry [22].
21.2 Relevant Natural and Useful Compounds
The seven-membered lactam 33 (e-caprolactam or hexahydroazepin-2-one) is probably the most relevant azepine derivative to date. This compound has been isolated from natural sources and has biological properties such as growth-inhibiting activity [23] and allelopathy [24]. However, its most relevant use is as an intermediate in the synthesis of nylon 6 through a polymerization process [25, 26]. The structural fragment of e-lactam is incorporated into various naturally occurring products such as the bacterial translocase 1 inhibitor 34 isolated from Streptomyces griseus SANK 50 196 [27] and the azepinone bengamides Z (35) and Q (36) isolated from a Jaspis species [28]. Muscaavin (37) has been isolated from the poisonous mushroom Amanita muscaria and is one of the few examples of simple monocyclic azepine derivatives found in nature [29]. The most useful compounds based on the azepine system are fused-ring derivatives that exhibit a wide range of pharmacological activities. Examples of benzazepine derivatives with pharmacological interest are the 1H-2-benzazepine derivative 38, which is an inhibitor of acetylcholinesterase [30], and the potential anti-HIV agent 39 [31]. Examples of dibenzazepines include imipramine (40) and clomipramine (41), two 10,11-dihydrodibenz[b,f ]azepine alkaloids that have been used for the treatment of depressive disorders [32], perlapine (42), a dibenzo[b,e]azepine with antipsychotic and sedative activities [33], and azapetine (43), an antiadrenergic dibenzo[c,e]azepine [34]. The instability of most monocyclic oxepines precludes any signicant commercial application, although they do play a remarkable role as intermediates in the biosynthesis and metabolism of natural products and xenobiotics [35]. It has been assumed that oxepines such as 44 and 45 are involved in the biosynthesis of tyrosine [36] and gliotoxin [37] and that the formation as intermediates of oxepines 46 and 47 occurs in the conversion of cinnamic acid into ortho- and para-coumaric acid, respectively [38]. Methyl-substituted oxepines 48 have also been postulated as intermediates in the metabolism of arenes by liver enzymatic systems [39]. Some
1868

OH O H N O OH HO O H2NOC O O HO N OH O O N H N Me H N O O OMe OH OH OR O HN Me
N H
33
34
35: R = H 36: R = CO(CH2)12Me

Bu N
t
Me2N OHC O
O NMe BuO O
H N O
HO2C
N H
CO2H
38
NO2
37
39
S O
N N
Pr
R N NMe2 N Me
N CH-CH=CH2
40: R = H 41: R = Cl
42
43
annelated oxepines are found in nature and these include bauhiniastatin (49) [40], janoxepin (50) [41], and perillosin (51) [42], and some relevant pharmacological activities have been described for some dibenzoxepine derivatives inter alia anxiolytic activity for 52 [43] and anti-inammatory action for artocarpol (53), a natural product isolated from the root bark of Artocarpus rigida [44]. Oxepanes and partially reduced oxepines are of considerable interest, with oxepan2-one (54) (e-caprolactone) being an important monomer used in the synthesis of poly-e-caprolactone, a polymer with a wide range of relevant applications [45]. A remarkable number of natural marine products contain oxepane or a reduced oxepine in their structure [46]. Representative examples are isolaurepinnacin (55) [47] and lobatrienetriol (56) [48], both of which are structurally based on a monocyclic tetrahydrooxepine, armatol A (57) [49], with two oxepane and one tetrahydrooxepine rings, and ciguatoxin 3C (58), which is one of the most powerful polyether neurotoxins [50]. Signicant applications of simple monocyclic thiepines and thiepanes and their monobenzo derivatives have not been reported to date. On the other hand, interesting biological activities have been described for some dibenzo derivatives especially those belonging the dibenzo[b,f ]thiepine and dibenzo[b,e]thiepine series. Dibenzo[b,f ] thiepine derivatives of the general structure 59 display a wide range of pharmacological activities, including antischizophrenic, anti-inammatory, antidepressant, antihistaminic, anti-bradykinin, neuroleptic, and as 5-HT2A/2C inhibitors [51, 52].
21.3 Relevant Computational Chemistry, Physicochemical, and Spectroscopic Data

HO2C CO2H O NH2 O NH2 CO2H CO2H O O
j1869
Me O
44
45
Me OH
46
HO Me Me O O
47
48
NMe2 O O X O X = F, Cl, Br, OMe
MeO Me O OH O N
Me O NH Me Me
OMe
49
Me Me Me O
50
51
Me
52
OH Me Me O O
Et Br
Me O Cl Me O Me
54
55
HO H H O H H O H H HO O H H H O H H
56
H O H O H
HO
OH
53
HO O O O OH O H OH H O
OH O
O OH
58
57
The activity of dibenzo[b,e]thiepines is represented by 60, which has antidepressant activity [53], tiopinac (61), an anti-inammatory agent [54], and 62, a calcium antagonist [55]. Apart from these applications, liquid crystals based on the dibenzo[c,e]thiepine scaffold have been reported and the enantiomerically pure compound 63 shows axial chirality [56].
1H-Azepine (1) was rst obtained in 1963 [57] by hydrolysis and decarboxylation of ethyl 1H-azepine-N-carboxylate, but it was not characterized until 1980 [58]. This azepine isomer is stable for only a few hours in solution even at 78 C [it polymerizes and tautomerizes to the 3H-tautomer (3)]. 3H-Azepine (3) is less
1870

NMe2 R O CO2H
59
60
61
HNCO(CH2)3
H25C12O
O O
Me
Me O O-C12H25
62
63
prone to polymerization than 1 and it can be distilled under vacuum. N-Substituted 1H-azepines are oils or stable solids with well-dened melting points. Azepane (7) was rst obtained in 1963 and is a typical secondary amine with a pKa of 11.29 [59]. Oxepine (5) is a heterocyclic compound that at room temperature is in equilibrium with its valence bond isomer, the benzene oxide, but it has been synthesized, isolated, and characterized. Thiepine (6) is a highly unstable structure and this compound remains unknown. Oxidation of the sulfur atom to form the thiepine 1,1-dioxide (10) stabilizes the thiepine ring system. Table 21.1 gives the bond lengths for some of these seven-membered heterocycles.
Table 21.1 Bond lengths (A) for some representative seven-membered heterocycles.

Heterocycle
HetC1
C1C2
C2C3
C3C4
Method
Reference
N H
1.420
1.347
1.466
1.350
SCF-MO
[60]
1 5
1.434 1.284 1.444 1332 Ab initio [61]
1.791
1.347
1.466
1.450
HMO
[62]
6
1.723
O
1.344
1.429
1.333
X-ray
[63]
10
1.781 1.321 1.448 1.308 X-ray [64]
14
Het Heteroatom.
j1871
The conformation of these fully unsaturated seven-membered heterocycles has made them the focus of enormous interest since a planar structure would involve an overlap of the nitrogen lone pair with the cyclic triene system, leading in turn to the formation of an antiaromatic 8p electronic system [60, 65]. Theoretical calculations carried out on 1H-azepine (1) have demonstrated that this tautomer is not a planar molecule; instead the results suggest that this heterocycle has a boat conformation with a signicant contribution (22%) of the chair conformation. Consequently, this out-of-plane conformation allows the destabilizing overlap of the nitrogen lone pair to be avoided and the p-delocalization of the cyclic triene is at a similar level to that found in a linear polyene (Scheme 21.1). Comparative molecular-orbital-based molecular mechanics (MOMM) calculations carried out on 1H- and 3H-azepine (3) show that the p-electronic system is highly localized in both systems and the geometry of 1H-azepine is better represented for a dened boat conformation. Similarly, a boat conformation is the preferred geometry for 3Hazepine, which is predicted to be 4.7 kcal mol1 more stable than the planar conformation and 17 kcal mol1 more stable than 1H-azepine [66]. Recent studies [67] using DFT methods (B3LYP6-31G and B3LYP/6-311 G ) and MP2/6311 G calculations show that destroying the antiaromaticity of 1 results in a reward of 10.8 kcal mol1.
X X
X = NH, O, S
Scheme 21.1
Extensive 1 H NMR studies have been carried out to establish the energy barriers for the ring inversion between the two stable boat conformations of the azepine ring. The barrier for boat-to-boat inversion depends on the number and nature of the substituents and the azepine tautomer. For simple substituted azepines it has been established that the barrier is below 5 kcal mol1. Semiempirical and ab initio studies have shown that both oxepine (5) and thiepine (6) also adopt a boat-type conformation similar to that found in 1H-azepines, with four carbons (C2, C3, C6, and C7) arranged in the same plane and the heteroatom and the remaining two carbons (C4 and C5) out of the main plane (Scheme 21.1). Barriers for the ring inversion of thiepine have been obtained at different levels of theory [68] and range from 5.8 to 11.4 kcal mol1. From nucleus-independent chemical shift (NICS) values the planar structure is antiaromatic and the boat-like conformation appeared to be nonaromatic. Experimental evidence for the boat-like conformation in azepines [69], oxepines [70], and thiepines [71] has been obtained by X-ray crystallography. These studies conrmed the boat-like conformation for the seven-membered rings of derivatives 6466, with bond lengths for C2C3, C4C5, and C6C7 very close to those of the C(sp2)C(sp2) single bond and the Cheteroatom lengths very similar to the distance of a single bond.
1872

R N R
4 1
O R
2
S R
2
4 3
Bu Bu 66
t
R 64
R 65
Conformational analyses of azepane (7) [72], oxepane (8) [73] and thiepane (9) [74] using different force elds have been described. Such compounds show a complex pseudorotational equilibrium between the chair, twist-chair, boat, and twist-boat forms, with the twist-chair conformations generally the most abundant conformers (Scheme 21.2). When a double bond is introduced into the ring, the number of conformations present in the pseudorotational equilibrium is reduced and the twistboat or chair forms are usually stabilized.
X X
Boat
Twist-boat X = NH, O, S
Twist-chair
Chair
Scheme 21.2
The potential structural diversity of benzo and dibenzo fused seven-membered heterocycles and the lack of systematic conformational studies make it difcult to establish general conclusions for the preferred conformations of these systems. It is clear that the annelation of a benzene ring results in an increase in the barriers to ring inversion and that chair conformations appear to be preferred in benzo derivatives of the fully saturated systems 79 [75]. However, analysis of the benzoannelated system involving the fully unsaturated heterocycles 16 is much more complex because of the potential whole range of aromatic, antiaromatic, and nonaromatic situations and valence tautomerism (detailed below) that can be found. NMR data for azepines, oxepines, and thiepines have also been very valuable in establishing their preferred conformations and provide detailed information about the ring inversion energies of these ring systems. The nonplanar character of the seven-membered nuclei results in the chemical shifts of the protons and carbons lying in the polyene region of the spectra. Tables 21.2 and 21.3 give 1 H NMR and 13 C NMR data for some representative compounds. 1 H and 13 C NMR data for monocyclic thiepines also provide relevant structural information. In the 1 H NMR spectra the ring proton signals clearly appear in the alkene region, with coupling constants consistent with a nonplanar seven-membered triene structure. This nding conrms the nonaromatic character of the nucleus. Chemical shifts in the 13 C NMR spectra are also consistent with the triene structure.

Table 21.2
1
j1873
H NMR data (ppm) for some representative seven-membered heterocycles. H1 H2 H3 H4 H5 H6 H7 H8 H9 Reference
Heterocycle
N H
5.22
4.69
5.57
5.57
4.69
5.22
[58]
1
3.61 5.69 6.35 6.74 6.60 7.84 [76]
2
6.26.7 2.42 5.35 6.26.7 6.26.7 7.55 [58]
5.7
5.7
6.3
6.3
5.7
5.7
[77]
N Me
5.62
4.47
2.32
2.32
4.47
5.62
[78]
CO2Me
6.9
6.4
6.5
5.8
5.9
[79]
CO2Et
Bu
t
6.76
7.43
6.40
[80]
Bu
13 14
S
6.21
5.45
6.01
6.63
6.897.22
[81]
5.86
6.40
6.40
7.06
7.167.28
[81b,82]
20
6.72
5.89
5.89
6.72
7.107.18
[82]
MS, IR, and UV spectroscopic methods seem to be considered less signicant for the structural elucidation of seven-membered heterocycles except for some isolated cases and systematic studies have not been reported. The UV data for some stable monocyclic derivatives have been used to conrm the nonplanar structure of the trienic ring. The UV spectra of 1H-azepine derivatives show three bands at 210215, 240247 and 285330 nm, with the latter being the strongest absorption band [84]. The simplest stable compound 2,7-di-tert-butylthiepine shows three bands at 226, 252 and 362 nm with log e values of 4.02, 3.35 and 2.51, respectively [85]. Notably, the mass spectrum of 2,7-di-tert-butylthiepine does not show ions generated by the loss of sulfur, an observation that is unexpected.
1874

Table 21.3
13
C NMR data (ppm) for some representative seven-membered heterocycles.. C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 C9 Reference
Heterocycle
N H
138.0
113.0
132.3
132.2
113.0
138.0
[58, 83]
1
50.9 126.7 129.3 136.7 130.8 158.5 [76, 83]
2
136.4 34.3 113.3 127.3 117.5 141.0 [58, 83]
3
141.8
CO2Et
117.6
130.8
130.8
117.6
141.8
[77b]
126.0
Bu
t
127.0
134.0
140.0
151.0
158.2
[80]
Bu
146.74
115.09
126.68
132.55
121.01
13
124.5 130.5, 133.9 136.9
24.61, 128.97
130.10
[81b]
127.9, 128.7, 130.1, 132.0
[81b,84]
14
Tautomerism in azepines via an allowed 1,5-hydrogen shift has been studied for different azepine isomers and it was found that the ratio of azepine tautomers is related to their relative thermal stabilities [69d, 86]. For instance, when heated in toluene both 2H- and 3H-azepines 2 and 3 are converted into mixtures containing the 2H-, 3H-, and 4H-azepine tautomers in similar ratio (about 10: 50: 1). A similar result has been found in the demethoxycarbonylation of the 3H-azepine derivative 67, which upon heating in toluene in the presence of DBU affords a mixture of 67 and the 2H- and 4H-tautomers 68 and 69, respectively. However, under the same conditions the methyl 2,5-di-tert-butyl-3H-azepine-1-carboxylate 70 gave only the 3H-tautomer 71 (Scheme 21.3).
21.4 Valence Tautomerism in Seven-Membered Heterocycles
An interesting structural feature of fully unsaturated seven-membered heterocyclic systems is the possibility of valence tautomerism [87]. Early studies based on X-ray analysis discarded the azepinebenzeneimine equilibrium (Scheme 21.4) for simple 1H-azepines in the solid state, and 1 H NMR data obtained at different temperatures were also consistent with the azepine structure [58]. However, other NMR studies [88]
j1875
N 2
t
N 3 Xylene DBU
t
N 4
t
Bu
Bu + N CO2Me 67
Bu
Bu N 68
Bu
Bu N 69
Bu
Xylene DBU
Bu
t N Bu CO2Me
N 71
Bu
70
Scheme 21.3
X X
X = NH, O, S
Scheme 21.4
demonstrated the existence of the azepinebenzeneimine equilibrium in densely substituted 1H-azepines such as 72, where the bicyclic isomer 73 is present at a level of 310% in the equilibrium mixture (Scheme 21.5). Further theoretical studies (MINDO/3) showed that the benzeneimine is a nonplanar bicycle in which the aziridine ring is 72.6 out of the plane of the six-membered ring. Moreover, the stability of the tautomers was calculated from their heats of formation, which showed that 1H-azepine 73 is much more stable than the benzeneimine form (43.10 versus 8.50 kcal mol1) [61]. Valence tautomerism studies on 4H-azepines proved that 4H-azepine can also be in equilibrium with its bicyclic tautomer, the 3-azanorcaradiene. Early studies showed that 4H-azepine was the most stable isomer [89]. However, in some substituted derivatives such as 74 the equilibrium is displaced towards the bicyclic isomer 75 and it is necessary to heat the sample to 178 C to detect the 4H-azepine form in the 1 H NMR spectrum [90]. With regard to 3H-azepines, it was found that acid treatment of some 7-amino-3trityl-3H-azepines (76) led to the stable azanorcaradiene salts 77, which reverted to 76 when treated with potassium carbonate (Scheme 21.5) [91]. Moreover, the selective formation and isolation of 2-methoxy-2H-azepine 79 from 3,6-di-tert-butyl-3H-azepine (78) probably via an azatropylium cation has been reported. The isolated compound 79 did not revert into its valence isomer at room temperature [92].
1876

R R
3 4
R N R
1
R R
N-R R
3
72
73
R1 = p-Ts, Ac, CO2Me; R3 = H; R4 = CO2Me R R

3 4
R R
3
N 74
N 75
R2 = CO2Me; R3 = Ph; R4 = Me CPh3 R2N N 76 Bu MeO

t
HBF4 K2CO3/acetone R2N N+ H BF4 77
CPh3
Bu
Bu N 78
1. Br2/CH2Cl2 2. MeOH
Bu N+ H BF4 79
Scheme 21.5
The parent oxepine (5) is in spontaneous equilibrium with the valence isomer benzene oxide at room temperature (a thermal disrotatory electrocyclic reaction according to WoodwardHoffmann rules). Different NMR and UV studies have been carried out to investigate this equilibrium. At room temperature the 1 H NMR spectrum of 5 contains three multiplets at d 5.20, 5.65, and 6.10 ppm, which correspond to H4, H3, and H2, respectively, involved in a fast exchange process. At lower temperatures (134 C) both the oxepine and the benzene oxide are distinguishable in the 1 H and 13 C NMR spectra [77b]. UV spectroscopy has also proven to be very valuable in detecting both isomers since the oxepine tautomer shows an absorption band at 305 nm whilebenzene oxideabsorbsat271 nm (e 900and1430,respectively). Studies on monosubstituted oxepines 80 also support the existence of two enantiomers in equilibrium with the oxepine (Scheme 21.6) [93]. The oxepinebenzene oxide ratio depends on temperature, solvent, and substitution of the oxepine ring. The oxepine form seems to be favored in less polar solvents [94] while at low
j1877
OCOPh O O 80
Scheme 21.6
OCOPh O
OCOPh
temperatures the benzene oxide is the preferred form. As a general remark, substituents at the C3 position favor the benzene oxide tautomer and substitution at C2 and C4 the oxepine form. Recent theoretical studies (ab initio) have also being carried out on the tautomerization oxepine benzene-oxide of substituted oxepines [95]. Theoretical studies at a high level of theory dealing with the stability of thiepine and its valence tautomer have shown a signicant preference for the valence tautomer benzene sulde, which was estimated to be 7.02 kcal mol1 more stable than the parent thiepine [96]. A remarkable difference with azepines or oxepines is that valence isomers in simple thiepines are prone to extrude the sulfur atom in an irreversible process (Scheme 21.7). It is assumed this loss of sulfur precluded the isolation of the parent thiepine (6). Monocyclic thiepines can be stabilized by steric effects. For example, the presence of bulky substituents at C2 and C7 produces derivatives that are very stable at high temperatures (130 C) with long half-lives (>250 h) [85]. Recent theoretical studies show how steric effects can favor thiepines over their benzene sulde tautomers [97].
R R -S S
Scheme 21.7
Azepines, oxepines, and thiepines fused with benzene rings are stabilized by electronic effects and may also be in equilibrium with their corresponding valence isomers. Resonance energies have been calculated for the three possible isomeric benzoxepines 13, 16, and 19 as 19.55, 1.15, and 18.77 kcal mol1, respectively [98]. These data support experimental evidence that benzo derivatives 13 and 19 are relatively stable compounds while the formation of 16 from the 1,2-naphthalene oxide would involve a signicant loss of resonance energy since one of the benzene nuclei in this valence tautomer retains aromatic character [99]. Aromatic ring annelation of thiepine (6) can lead to quite stable derivatives [100]. Resonance energy calculations for benzothiepines 14 ( 6.14 kcal mol1), 17 (5.90 kcal mol1), and 20 ( 7.13 kcal mol1) have been used to predict that 14 and 20 should have nonaromatic character whereas 17 should be a highly unstable molecule [101]. As was the case with the oxepinearene oxide equilibrium, electronic
1878

effects could also strongly affect the thiepineepisulde equilibrium of naphthalene. Benzothiepine 14 only exists in the thiepine form and has been characterized by X-ray analysis [64]. The higher stability of the valence tautomer of 17 explains why this thiepine has not been isolated (Scheme 21.8).
X X = O, S
Scheme 21.8
21.5 Synthesis 21.5.1 Synthesis of Azepines 21.5.1.1 From Acyclic Compounds The formation of the seven-membered ring of an azepine from an appropriate acyclic compound through a cyclization reaction has been extensively used for the synthesis of azepine fused-ring derivatives but had rarely been used for monocyclic azepine derivatives until the advent of the metathesis reaction [102]. The power and utility of the ring-closing metathesis (RCM) reaction (Scheme 21.9) for the preparation of different tetrahydroazepines using Grubbs I and Grubbs II catalysts is exemplied in Table 21.4.
RCM (CH2)m (CH2)n N R n = 1-3 m = 1-3
Scheme 21.9
Catalyst
(CH2)m (CH2)n N R
Table 21.4 Synthesis of tetrahydroazepines by ring-closing metathesis (RCM) reactions.
Diene
Conditions
Azepine
Yield (%) Reference
N R
CH2Cl2, 4050 C
R
3
N R
O
R = Ts, SO2CH2Br
100
[103]
O N 1 R R
2
CH2Cl2, heat
N 1 R
9099
[104]
R1 = Boc, CBz, (2-Py)SO2 R2 = H, Me

2
R N 1 R Cbz
R
2
ClCH2CH2Cl, reux
R N 1 R Cbz
R1 = H, Me R2 = Ph, Me
7589
[105]
R
CO2Me
CH2Cl2
N 1 R
CO2Me R1 = Bn, Boc R2 = H, CH2OTBS
8290
[106]
N 1 R
N 1 R
CH2Cl2 or ClCH2CH2Cl, r.t./40 C/90 C
N 1 R
N
8892
[107]
R1 = Bn
R3 = NHBoc
BzHN O N DMB F
CH2Cl2, 10 C
BzHN O N DMB F
58
[108]
O Ph O
X HO N SO2 N O
O
N Boc
N O
CH2Cl2, reux
Ph O
X O
N O
N Boc
97
[106b]
CH2Cl2, reux
HO N SO2 N
75
[109]
Ph
Ph
C6H6, reux
O N Me
P(Cy)3 Cl Ru Cl Ph P(Cy)3 N N Grubbs II Ph
87
O N Me
[110]
Grubbs I
Cl Ru Cl P(Cy)3
1880

Other alternatives to the ring-closing metathesis reaction to access tetrahydroazepine derivatives through cyclization include the different approaches shown in Scheme 21.10. The intramolecular insertion of nitrenes by thermolysis of the corresponding azides (the Staudinger reaction) [111] is an efcient route to cyclic imines [112] that has been applied to the synthesis of the tetrahydroazepine derivative 81, an intermediate in the synthesis of ( )-croomine [113]. The reaction of a bromoallene in the presence of Pd(Ph3)4 afforded the tetrahydroazepine derivative 82 in good yield [114]. Azepinones can also be obtained from substituted allenes, which on deprotection followed by reux in acetonitrile gave the azepinone derivative 83 in excellent yield [115]. Simple substituted azepine derivatives 84 have been obtained by ruthenium-catalyzed intramolecular hydroamination of an aminoalk-
O O
R N3
PPh3 THF
O O
R N (+)-Croomine
81 Br Me Me OMe N Ts 82 BnO2C C 1. TFA 2. MeCN reflux 95% O Me N Me H 83 CO2Bn Me
Me Me
C NHTs
Pd(Ph3)4 MeOH, NaH 76%
HNBoc Me O Me
Ph
(CH2)5
NH2
Ru3(CO)12 140 C 60% N 84 Ar Me Me O N Ar 86 Ph
Ar
Me Me Ar HCl (aq.) CHCl3 86%
NH Ar 85
Boc
Scheme 21.10
21.5 Synthesis
j1881
yne [116]. A more classical cyclization leading to azepine derivatives is exemplied by the formation of azepinone 86 by acid treatment of 85 [117]. N-Substituted dihydroazepines 87 and 88 can be obtained by lithium-promoted electrocyclization of imine-dienes followed by N-alkylation or N-acylation. Yields are poor to moderate depending on the R1 substituent [118]. A carbanion-promoted 1,7-electrocyclization of 89 led to the antiaromatic azepine anion 90, which loses methylthiolate to generate the thienyl-substituted 3H-azepine 91 (Scheme 21.11) [119].
1. LDA, THF, -78C 2. R2-X, 40C R
1
6-45%
N 2 R
R1 = Ph, 2-Furyl R2 = Et, Bu, ArCO, ROCO
87
1. LDA, THF, -78C 2. R1-X, 40C Ph N Ar 27-54% N 1 R Ar Ph Ar = p-Tolyl R1 = CHO, PhCO, CO2Me, CO2Et
88
Me S N Me
t-BuOK DMSO Me S N MeS
-SMe Me 45% Me S N
Me
Me
MeS
91
89
Scheme 21.11
90
A novel synthesis of azepinone derivatives 92 has been reported and a key step in this process is an intramolecular cycloaddition of a nitrone followed by rearrangement through NO homolysis and subsequent electrocyclic recyclization. On heating 92a (R1 R2 Ph) in toluene an isomerization was observed to the azepinone isomer 93a, although the latter is present in the equilibrium at a level of only 3% (Scheme 21.12) [120].
+ Me N R
1
O R
2
MeNHOH.HCl NaOAc/CH2Cl2 28-94%
R N Me
92
Toluene, reflux
Ph Ph N Me
93a
92a : R1 = R2 = Ph (94%) 92b : R1 = Me; R2 = H (28%)

Scheme 21.12
1882

The parent 2H-azepine (2) and the enantiomerically pure derivatives 94 were obtained for the rst time by cyclization of an N-protected e-amino aldehyde or ketone [76]. The ring formation involves deprotection with TFA followed by treatment with a base (Scheme 21.13). Although the yield of 2 was only 1%, this isomer was stable enough at 25 C to allow its characterization. 2H-Azepines 94 were obtained in yields in the range 4572% but are prone to isomerize to the more stable 3H-isomers [121].
AcO R
1
O H NH Boc
1. TFA/CH2Cl2 2. DMAP or Et3N 45-72% R

2
2: R1 = R2 = H (1%) 94: R1 = Me, Bn, RCO2CH2 R2 = Me, n-Bu

Scheme 21.13
The formation of the azepine nucleus by processes involving the formation of two bonds is exemplied by a few cases such as the [4 3] annulations of Fischer chromium carbene complexes with azadienes [122]. Thus, the reaction of 95 and 96 affords the dihydroazepine 97 through the formation of an aziridine followed by an aza-Cope rearrangement and 1,3-proton shift (Scheme 21.14). The dihydroazepine derivatives 98 have been obtained by reaction of ylides generated in situ from styryldiazoacetates and imines [123] (Scheme 21.14).
H t N-Bu R
1
NH 95 +
THF or hexane OMe 20 C
MeO HN R
1
R 57-93%
H t NBu
(CO)3Cr
MeO
N 97
NBu H
96
R1 = Ph, Me R2 = PH, SiMe3, t-Bu Ph
Ph N2
CO2Me
Rh2(OAc)4 CH2Cl2 73%
Ph R N Ar 98
+
Ph R N Ar
CO2Me Ar = p-NO2C6H4
Scheme 21.14
21.5 Synthesis
j1883
21.5.1.2 From Cyclic Compounds 21.5.1.2.1 From Carbocycles The rst approach to fully unsaturated azepines was reported by Wolff in 1912 and involves the thermal decomposition of a phenylazide in aniline, although it was Huisgen in 1955 who assigned the structure of 7-anilino-2Hazepine to the reaction product, which had remained unknown. On the basis of 1 H NMR data, this initial structure assignment subsequently had to be modied in favor of the 3H tautomer 101. This procedure is considered to be the most useful method for the synthesis of 3H-aminoazepines [124] and some related compounds since nucleophiles other than amines have been successfully used [125]. The mechanism of the formation of the 3H-azepines is shown in Scheme 21.15 and involves the intermediacy of a benzazirine (99) via the initial generation of a nitrene. The attack of the nucleophile on the azirine ring promotes an electrocyclic ring opening to give the 1H-azepine 100, which rearranges to the more stable 3H-tautomer. Nitroso and nitroarenes have also been used as alternatives to azides as the source of nitrenes. In this case the nitrene is generated by treatment with phosphines or phosphites. The aryl nitrene generated by photochemical decomposition of the corresponding azide is trapped with tetracyanoethylene and this leads to the formation of spiroazepine 102 (Scheme 21.15) [126]. Based on this approach to the azepine system, Hafner [57] and Lwowski [127] reported independently the most synthetically useful procedure for the synthesis of 1H-azepines. They discovered that some nitrenes were able to react with arenes to afford azanorcaradienes (the valence isomers of azepines), which rearrange to give stable azepines (Scheme 21.16). The nitrene is usually generated by thermal or photolytic decomposition and, in general, the reaction is more appropriate for
N3 Heat or hv N Nu Nu N H
99
N H 100 NC Me NC
Nu
N 101 NC NC Me CN N+ CN Me
Nu
Me
N3
CN CN
Me Me Me N NC CN CN CN
Me
hv MeCN Me
102
Scheme 21.15
1884

N-substituted azepines 103 bearing electron-withdrawing substituents. The reaction of the nitrene with substituted benzenes usually has poor regioselectivity and mixtures of 1H-azepines are formed, a fact that limits the scope of this method (Scheme 21.16) [128].
R-N3
hv or heat
R-N
Ar-H
N-R
60-70%
N R 103 R = CO2R, CN, SO2R
Scheme 21.16
4,5-Dihydroazepines have been synthesized using cyclopropane derivatives in a multicomponent reaction that also involves primary amines and dimethyl acetylenedicarboxylate (DMAD). Initial formation of the corresponding cyclopropylimines followed by a rhodium-mediated [5 2] cycloaddition afforded substituted 4,5-dihydroazepines 104 in good yields (Scheme 21.17) [129].
R
4
O R
2
H2N-R
R [Rh(CO)2Cl]2 Toluene, 60C MeO2C MeO2C N 1 R 104 R1
R R
2
+
CO2Me
MeO2C
up to 99%
= n-Bu, Bn, n-C6H11 R2 = Ph, cyclopropyl R3 = H, i-Pr R4 = H, Me
Scheme 21.17
21.5.1.2.2 From Heterocycles 2H-Azirines react with cyclopentadienones in a [4 2] cycloaddition reaction to give polysubstituted 3H-azepines 106 by loss of carbon monoxide from the endo adduct 105 [130]. Aziridines have also been transformed into dihydroazepine or azepine derivatives 107 [78, 131] and 108 [132] by a Cope-type rearrangement on warming or at room temperature. Studies on these rearrangements show that the trans isomers are less prone to cyclization than cis isomers and higher temperatures are needed to produce the rearrangement (Scheme 21.18). Five-membered heterocyclic rings can also be converted into azepine systems by cycloaddition and rearrangement reactions. One example of the rst process is the 1,3dipolar cycloaddition of heterobetainic compounds with cyclobutenes to yield the 4,5dihydro-1H-azepines 109 through the loss of carbon dioxide from the initially formed cycloadduct (Scheme 21.19) [133]. Rearrangements leading to azepines from ve-membered rings are illustrated by the examples shown in Scheme 21.19. In the rst case
21.5 Synthesis
2
j1885
R
3
R N
Ph + R
3
Ph R O
3
O Toluene Heat Ph Ph R
3
Ph Ph
-CO 55-90% R
1
N R
2
106
R1 = H, Me, Ph R2 = Ph, CH2Ph R3 = Me, Et, Ph
105
R N t Bu R Heat 40-50% N t Bu R R
R = H, Me
107
90C N t Bu Sealed tube C6H6 N t Bu
108
Scheme 21.18
cycloadducts 110,obtainedfromDMADandpyrroles,arephotochemicallyconvertedinto thermally unstable azaquadricyclanes, which rearrange to the substituted 1H-azepine derivatives 111 [134]. The other two examples concern the synthesis of the 1-phenyl-1Hazepine 113 by thermal decomposition of the triazole derivative 112 [135] and the preparation of azepinones 115 by ring expansion of the dioxopyrrole derivatives 114 [136]. The ring expansion of six-membered heterocycles is one of the main strategies for the formation of 4H-azepines. 4-Chloromethyl-1,4-dihydropyridines can be transformed into the 4H-azepine derivatives 116 in the presence of various nucleophiles, including alkoxides, amines, cyanide, thiolates, and enolates [137]. On the other hand, the 4H-azepine derivatives 117 are obtained by sequential DielsAlder reaction of 1,2,4-triazines and cyclopropenes [138] followed by N2 extrusion and ring enlargement (Scheme 21.20). In both cases the isolated 4H-azepines are prone to isomerization to the more stable 3H-isomers. A substituted 2-pyridone has also been transformed into the 3H-azepinone 118 by treatment with LDA (Scheme 21.20) [139].
21.5.2 Synthesis of Oxepines 21.5.2.1 From Acyclic Compounds As with azepines, ring-closing metathesis (RCM) has become the main strategy for the synthesis of dihydro- and tetrahydrooxepines through a CC bond forming reaction as this approach is simple and allows the easy identication of the target acyclic precursor of the desired oxepine. Although most of the RCM strategies have been applied to benzo and other fused azepine derivatives, one of the rst examples of the application of the RCM to simple oxepines was reported by Nicolaou during the
1886

O Ac2O 95 C O O R
3
R R
3
+ N O +
2 1
R N
CN 76-93%
R
3
NC NC N R
CN
N 1 R
109
R CO2Me CO2Me MeO2C
R1 = H, Me R2, R3 = Me, Ph, CH2Ph R4 = CN, CO2Me
N CO2Me CO2Me h CH2Cl2 or C6H6
CO2Me
10-95%
N R
110
111
R = Ar, Ac, CO2Me, CONH2 p-Tosyl, Mesyl
N Ph N N
C6D6 150 C N Ph 36% N Ph
112
MeO2C O O Ph Ph N H
1. SnCl4/CH2Cl2 2. HCl/THF-H2O 60%
CO2Et Ph Ph N OH O
113
114
Scheme 21.19
115
total synthesis of the complex polyethers ciguatoxin and brevetoxin. Different 4,5,6,7tetrahydroazepine derivatives 119 were obtained in a tandem reaction involving the metathesis of an alkene and a vinyl ether promoted by a titanium catalyst [140]. An alternative approach to tetrahydroazepine 120 involved RCM reactions of two alkenes (Scheme 21.21) [141]. The reaction was carried out in the presence of Grubbs secondgeneration catalyst (G-II) and H2 (5%) to facilitate the double bond migration through the formation of a ruthenium hydride species. The 2,5,6,7-tetrahydroazepine 122 has been reported by van Boom and was synthesized by RCM of 121 in 68% yield using Grubbs rst-generation catalyst (G-I) [142]. This catalyst was also employed successfully in the synthesis of the more complex 2,3,6,7-tetrahydroazepine derivative 124, which was obtained in 95% yield from 123 [143] (Scheme 21.22). In an example of a double RCM reaction, the bistetrahydrooxepine 126 has been obtained from the tetraene derivative 125 [144]. An ene-allene carbocyclization reaction mediated by rhodium(I) has been reported to give 2,3,4,5-tetrahydrooxepines 127 in moderate yields (Scheme 21.23) [145]. Complete decomposition of the same substrates was observed depending upon their substitution pattern.
21.5 Synthesis
H CH2Cl R Me N H R Me NaOMe/MeOH EtO R Me N H R Me EtOH Heat 83% R Me N R Me
j1887
116
R = CO2Me R R6 R
2 7 5
R N R
R N N
1
N R
5
+ R
4
N N R
1
R R
5 6
R 17-87%
R R
4
117
= CO2Me R2 = Me, Ar R3 = Me, Ph R4, R7 = H, Me, Ph R5 = H, Me R6 = H, Ph R1
Ph LDA Ph Ph N Me O THF -78C Ph
Ph O Ph Me
Ph O 16% Ph N H Ph Me
118
Scheme 21.20
O O R O
RCM, G-II 32-78% O 119 R = Me, Ph R
Ph
G-II CH2Cl2 45-70 C Ph O 54%
Ph
G-II CH2Cl2 45-70 C Ph O 50%
Ph
O 120
Scheme 21.21
Formation of the oxepine ring through CO bond formation has been achieved by exploiting the nucleophilicity of the oxygen towards an appropriate electrophilic carbon. Several different strategies leading to tetrahydrooxepine derivatives based on this bond formation have been described. The cyclization of 1,6-diols is one of the classical approaches to oxepane and oxepane derivatives. It was also found that hexane-1,6-diol cyclizes to give 4,5,6,7-tetrahydrooxepine (128) in the presence of
1888

BnO BnO OBn 121
i
G-I Toluene 68%
BnO BnO BnO O 122

i
Pr Et BnO H O
Pr O O G-I CH2Cl2, 40C 95% Et BnO H O
N O
N O O
123
124
G-I C6H6, rt 50% O 126 O
125
Scheme 21.22
O C
Me
R [Rh(CO)2Cl]2 Toluene, 90 C 40-55% O 127
Me
R = C6H13, t-Bu
Scheme 21.23
Cu-Cr catalyst at high temperature (250 C) [146]. Substituted derivatives 129 are obtained from acyclic hydroxy-acetals (Scheme 21.24) [147]. 2,7-Dimethyl-4,5-dihydrooxepine (131) has been synthesized by the cyclization of diester 130 upon treatment with hydrochloric acid [148]. The intramolecular version of the Nicholas reaction [149] has been employed to obtain oxepine derivatives by attack of the oxygen of an alcohol to propargylic carbocations, which are stabilized by alkynyl-dicobalt complexes. The decomplexation is carried out under reducing conditions or with cerium ammonium nitrate (CAN). Two different arrangements of the carbocation and the oxygen, leading to the 2,5,6,7-tetrahydrooxepine and 2,3,6,7-tetrahydrooxepine derivatives 132 and 133, respectively, are shown in Scheme 21.25. The rst approach has been used in the synthesis of ciguatoxin [150] and the second one in the preparation of 2,7-disubstituted oxepines similar to isolaurepinnacin [151]. The transition metal-mediated cycloisomerization of alkynols, which is extensively used for ve- and six-membered rings, has also been expanded to the synthesis of
21.5 Synthesis
j1889
Cu-Cr O O H H R Heat H O O O OH 38% O

128
HO
MeO
OMe
OMe
O
129
OAc
Mg
Br
HCl O O Ac Ac
130
Me
Et2O
68%
Me
O
131
Me
Scheme 21.24
Co2(CO)6 Co2(CO)6 O OH 79-90%
R HO OH
1. Co2(CO)6 2. Lewis acid CH2Cl2
R +
132
R = alky, alkenyl
1. Co2(CO)6 2. Lewis acid HO HO R 3. CAN HO + Co2(CO)6 R O Co2(CO)6 R 68-79% O
133
R = H, Me, n-C5H11, CH2OBn
Scheme 21.25
some 4,5,6,7-tetrahydrooxepines such as 134 and 135 from furanose-derived alkynols (Scheme 21.26) [152]. The cycloisomerization to the corresponding seven-membered cyclic enol ethers under tungsten carbonyl catalysis proceeds with good yields and virtually complete regioselectivity for all diastereomers, favoring the product resulting from endo-mode cyclization. The unexpected regioselectivity may be dependent on the presence of the dioxolane structure tethering the terminal alkyne and diol functional groups. Palladium-mediated CO bond formation via a cationic p-allylic palladium complex has proven its utility in the cyclization reaction of bromoallenes through intramolecular attack of an oxygen nucleophile. Appropriate allenes can
1890

Base H M(CO)5 R OH C M(CO)5 R O R O M(CO)5
OH
HO O O
OH H
1. W(CO)5, Et3N THF, h 2. Ac2O, DMAP 61%
O AcO O
134
HO O O Me OH H 1. W(CO)5, DBACO THF, h 2. Ac2O, DMAP 69% O AcO O O
135
Scheme 21.26
lead to seven-membered rings that, in the presence of a second nucleophile, afford substituted 3,4,5,6-tetrahydrooxepines [153] 136 and 137 (Scheme 21.27). A mechanistically related reaction is the cyclization of allenyl sulfoxides and sulfones, which under basic conditions afford the corresponding 1-methyl-2-sulnyl- and 1-methyl-2sulfonyl-tetrahydro-oxepines 138a and 138b in goods yields [154].
21.5.2.2 From Cyclic Compounds 21.5.2.2.1 From Carbocycles Three-, four-, and seven-membered carbocycles have been employed as starting materials for the construction of the oxepine ring system, although the most synthetically useful procedures involve cyclopropanes and cyclohexenes as starting carbocycles. The most efcient method for the synthesis of dihydro- and tetrahydrooxepines involves the ring expansion of alkenylcyclopropylcarbinols. These cyclopropane derivatives are transformed into the corresponding aldehydes under controlled oxidation conditions (Swern or DessMartin periodinane). Subsequent hetero-Cope rearrangement affords substituted 2,5-dihydrooxepines 139 (Scheme 21.28) [155]. MP2/6-31G studies on vinylcyclopropane carbaldehyde as a model show that the aldehyde and the oxepine are almost isoenergetic and the activation energy is about 25 kcal mol1 [156]. The ring expansion of a four-membered ring is illustrated by the formation in low yield of oxepine (5) from bicyclo[2.2.0]hexa-2,5-diene (Scheme 21.29). The method involves epoxidation of the bicyclobutene ring followed by rearrangement of the resulting tricycle [157]. The method has also been applied to the formation in low yield of peruorinated dihydrooxepines 140 from peruorobicyclo[2.2.0] hexanes [158].
21.5 Synthesis
OH C Br R OH C PdBr R Nu O PdBr
j1891
O Nu
Pd(0)
O OH O O C Br NaH/Pd(Ph3)3 BnOH/THF 72% O OBn
136
Me Me
Me Me
OH C Br
NaH/Pd(Ph3)3 MeOH/THF 72%
OMe
137
OH C R KOtBu HOtBu O R Me
138a: R = SOPh (81%) 138b: R = SO2Ph (82%)
Scheme 21.27
(COCl)2 DMSO/Et3N or Dess-Martin
R O
R 90-97%
R R
1
OH
O 139
R1 = H, alkyl, CH2OH, CO2R R2 = OTBS R3, R4 = H, Me

Scheme 21.28
The formation of the oxepine ring from six-membered carbocycles is one of the most useful routes to monocyclic oxepines. The method is based on the epoxidation and bromination of 1,4-cyclohexadienes. The dibromoepoxides, when subjected to dehydrohalogenation conditions, afford the corresponding oxepinebenzene oxides and these tautomerize to oxepines (Scheme 21.30). The electronic nature of the substituents in the cyclohexadiene ring determines which of the two possible substituted azepines is formed and this depends on which of the two double bonds are initially involved in the epoxidation or bromination reactions [159]. 2-Vinylox-
1892

O 115 C O
5
F F F F
Scheme 21.29
F O h n-C5F12 F
F F
F F
O
140
Br2 O
Br
Br
R Base O R O O 41-80% O
RCO3H
O R O
R=H
R O
Br2
Base 75%
Br
Br
R = Me, vinyl
Scheme 21.30
epine, one of the less stable oxepines, has been synthesized using this approach [160], which has also been used for the synthesis of disubstituted oxepines such as 2,7diphenyloxepine [70a]. Arene oxides can also be formed by the acid-catalyzed dehydration of some substituted cyclohexene-1,4-diols. The subsequent ring expansion produces relatively stable polysubstituted oxepines 141 (Scheme 21.31) [161].
R
4
OH TFA
R + R
4
17-70% R
2
R R
2
OH
OH
R R
3
141
R1 = Ph, Ar; R2 = tBu R3 = Ar
Scheme 21.31
21.5 Synthesis
j1893
21.5.2.2.2 From Heterocycles Oxiranes have been used as extensively starting heterocyclic compounds in the preparation of oxepanes. Some oxirane derivatives have also been employed in the synthesis of oxepine derivatives. The two examples shown in Scheme 21.32 lead to 2,6- and 2,3-disubstituted-4,5-dihydrooxepines 142 and 143, respectively [162].
O
CO2Me
Heat Quantitative
OHC O 142 CO2Me
O O
CO2Me
Heat Quantitative O 143
CHO CO2Me
O
Scheme 21.32
The parent oxepine (5) can be prepared by a short and efcient route starting from 7-oxanorbornadiene as the ve-membered heterocycle. Isomerization of this bicyclic compound into the monocyclic oxepine is promoted photochemically and this is followed by thermal rearrangement [163]. Several di-, tri-, and tetrasubstituted oxepines 144 have been prepared using the same approach, which is based on a DielsAlder reaction of substituted furans with alkynes to give the corresponding 7-oxonorbornadienes (Scheme 21.33) [164].
O h Me2CO O Heat O
5
R R
2 3
O R
3
O h R
2 1
O R
1
+ R
3
R R R
3
C6H6 or Toluene Heat 36-95%
R O R
1
144
R1, R2 = H, Me, Br R3 = CO2Me
Scheme 21.33
A 2,3-dihydrofuran is the starting material in a [2 2] cycloaddition reaction with alkynyl or alkenyl compounds to give bicyclic adducts, which in turn give 2,3dihydrooxepines 145 by thermolysis or acid Lewis catalysis (Scheme 21.34) [165].
1894

In a similar approach the substituted oxepine 146 can be obtained from a bicyclic furan derivative under thermolysis conditions [166].
CO2Me H CO2Me Heat or Lewis acid 65-85% R CO2Me O
145
CO2Me CO2Me R
+ CO2Me O
R = H, Me, alkenyl H Me O Me CO2Me CO2Me CO2Me CD3CN 70% Me O

146
Scheme 21.34
CO2Me Me
An alternative procedure for the synthesis of 4,5-dihydrooxepine (148) involved the use of the fused sulfolane 147. This tricyclic system under ash vacuum pyrolysis produces the cis-2,3-divinyloxirane, which by a Cope rearrangement affords 148 in 55% yield (Scheme 21.35) [167].
O 2S 147
Scheme 21.35
FPV
55%
O 148
Six-membered O-heterocycles have also been used as starting materials in different approaches to oxepines. One of the most efcient routes starts with pyrilium salts, which are converted into the 4-diazomethyl-4H-pyrans. A ring enlargement promoted by allylpalladium chloride as a catalyst affords the corresponding substituted oxepines 149 in almost quantitative yield (Scheme 21.36) [168]. Another route to dihydrooxepinones involves the reaction of 2,3-dihydropyran derivatives with carbenes. The intermediate bicycles undergo a similar ring expansion process to that shown in Scheme 21.37, giving the corresponding tetrahydrooxepinones 150 [169] and 151 [170]. Alkynylpyranosides have also been used as starting heterocyclic compounds for the synthesis of oxepines. Examples of this strategy are shown in Scheme 21.38 for the synthesis of tetrahydrooxepines 152 and dihydrooxepine 153. The synthetic route starts with the formation of the cobalt complexes and this is followed by a
21.5 Synthesis
j1895
Me
R Li
N2
1
Me
N2 O R
1
Me
(C3H5PdCl)2
O + F4B
92-98%
149
R1 = Me, tBu R2 = CO2Me, P(O)(OMe)2, Ph(O)OMe, P(O)Ph2
Scheme 21.36
1.HCCl2Me/BuLi 2. MeOH, heat O
Me Cl OTMS 60% O
Me O
150
OTMS :CBr2 O Br Br OTMS O Br O HP(O)(OEt)2 Et3N 75% O O
151
Scheme 21.37
AcO O OR
1
AcO O R
2
TfOH Co2(CO)6
1
OAc AcO
OR
OR
OAc
BnO O
OR
I2
BnO O
OR H
Co2(CO)6 R
2
R1 = TBDPS R2 = TMS
2
152
AcO O AcO
20-35% OH O OTBDMS OAc OAc
153
Scheme 21.38
1896

ring-opening reaction catalyzed by TfOH. Recyclization of the resulting ring-opening products followed by decomplexation affords the corresponding oxepine derivatives [171].
21.5.3 Synthesis of Thiepines 21.5.3.1 From Acyclic Compounds Although cyclization reactions have been used extensively for the synthesis of thiepane derivatives, the use of acyclic compounds as starting materials in thiepine synthesis is very limited. One of the few examples was reported in 2001 for the synthesis of the 2-tosyl-4,5,6,7-tetrahydrothiepine (155), which was obtained by cyclization of the hexane derivatives 154 in the presence of sodium iodide in DMF (Scheme 21.39) [172]. It was suggested that cyclization of the chloride and methanesulfonate takes place via the iodo derivative.
NaI X MeS Ts DMF 55-62% S Ts
154
X = I, Cl, OSO2Me R R
4 3
155
2 1
Li2S/Al2O3 THF 66-82%
R R
4
R Cl Cl
R S
156
157
R1, R2, R3, R4 = H, Cl, tBu
t
Me Me Me Me
Bu
S2Cl2 Bu
t
Me Me Me Me
Bu
Me Me Me Me
Bu S S Bu
Me Me 99% Me Me
Bu S Bu
SSCl Bu
t
Cl
158
Scheme 21.39
159
Based on a reported method for the synthesis of the parent thiepane by a double nucleophilic substitution, the reaction of the dienic dichlorides 156 with Li2S gave the corresponding 2,7-dihydrothiepines 157 in moderate or good yields (Scheme 21.39) [173]. An excellent yield has been reported for the reaction of decadiyne 158 with S2Cl2 to afford the 4,5-dihydrothiepine 159 [174] through the mechanism shown in Scheme 21.39.
21.5 Synthesis
j1897
21.5.3.2 From Cyclic Compounds 21.5.3.2.1 From Heterocycles A similar thermal rearrangement to that used for the synthesis of 4,5-dihydrooxepine from divinyloxirane has been reported for the preparation of the corresponding 4,5-dihydrothiepine 160 from cis-1,2-divinylthiirane (Scheme 21.40) [175].
Heat H S H 100% S 160
Scheme 21.40
Stable monocyclic thiepines have been obtained from thiophene derivatives, which react with DMAD in a cycloaddition reaction to afford the corresponding bicyclic adduct. Subsequent thermal isomerization gave the rst monocyclic thiepine 161, which has been fully characterized (Scheme 21.41) [176].
Me S
DMAD -30C
Me S
CO2Me CO2Me Me
CO2Me CO2Me S 161
Scheme 21.41
The ring expansion of thiopyrans has been used as the main strategy to synthesize monocyclic thiepines, although moderate or low yields have usually been obtained. For example, one of the most widely studied thiepines, 2,7-di-tert-butylthiepine 163, was obtained in 30% yield from the thiopyran derivative 162 by treatment with acetic acid in the presence of sodium acetate and acetic anhydride at 90 C. The formation of the seven-membered ring is assumed to take place via the carbenium ion intermediate under the solvolysis conditions (Scheme 21.42) [71].
OMs AcOH/NaOAc Bu
t
+ Heat Bu 30%
S
162
Bu
Bu
Bu
S
163
Bu
Scheme 21.42
1898

Six-membered thiopyrylium salts have also been used as starting heterocycles in the synthesis of other stable monocyclic thiepines. For example, salts 164 react with ethyl lithiodiazoacetate to give the corresponding thiopyrans, which in the presence of palladium or under acidic conditions are able to generate the corresponding substituted thiepines 165 via a carbene intermediate (Scheme 21.43) [177].
EtO2C Me N2
t
Me Li Bu
t
CO2Et N2
EtO2C Pd Me : 100% Bu
t
Me
CO2Et
S + F4B
Bu
CHCl3
Bu
Bu
Bu
Bu
Bu
165
164
Scheme 21.43
21.5.4 Synthesis of Azepanes, Oxepanes, and Thiepanes
Most of the synthetic methodologies based on cyclization reactions used for the preparation of monocyclic azepine, oxepine, and thiepine derivatives can also be applied to the synthesis of fully unsaturated seven-membered systems 79, especially given that hydrogenation of dihydro-, tetrahydro-, or even fully unsaturated seven-membered heterocyclic rings is an easy process that can be carried out under very mild conditions. A RCM reaction followed by hydrogenation of the resulting dihydro derivative is one of the most successful approaches to azepane systems. Several examples of this strategy are represented in Scheme 21.44 [109, 178]. Several densely functionalized chiral azepanes have been prepared by multistep sequences starting from carbohydrates. In a typical example, an appropriate carbohydrate is transformed into a suitable amine or azide, such as 170 [179] or 172 [180], and this is cyclized to the corresponding azepane derivatives 171 and 173 under the conditions shown in Scheme 21.45. Two classical synthetic approaches are useful in the synthesis of azepin-2-ones and these include the industrial synthesis of hexahydro-1H-azepin-2-one (33) (e-caprolactam). One is the Beckmann rearrangement of oximes generated from cyclohexanones [181] and the other is the Schmidt reaction applied to cyclohexanones [182]. The main problem associated with these reactions as synthetic strategies for some azepinone derivatives is that unsymmetrically substituted cyclohexanones can give two isomeric products (Scheme 21.46). In a similar strategy to that used for the synthesis of azepane, dihydro- and tetrahydrooxepines have been transformed into oxepane (8) by catalytic hydrogenation under standard conditions, such as those used on the conversion of 2,3tetrahydrooxepine into oxepane (Scheme 21.47) [183].
21.5 Synthesis
RCM EtO2C N Boc G-I or G-II 90-97% Et2OC N Boc H2, Pd/C 90% Et2OC
j1899
N Boc
166
R RCM G-II 75-88% N Boc O N N Boc O Ph
1
R R
1
H2, Pd/C 50 psi, AcOH 74-100%
N Boc
N H
R1 = Me, Et, Ph R2 = H, Me, OEt
167
O O RCM Ph G-I 97% 1. LiOOH 2. H2, Pd/C 87% N Boc OH O
N N Boc Xc O
168
Xc O OH RCM G-I 75% O Xc = O N Ph N SO2 Py HO 1. LiOOH 2. H2, Pd/C 89% N SO2 Py
O OH
O OH
N SO2 Py
169
Scheme 21.44
Another of the most widely used approaches to oxepane (8) and oxepane derivatives such as 174 is the intramolecular cyclization of 1,6-hexanediols using various dehydrating agents (Scheme 21.48) [184]. Other similar cyclization reactions of 1,6-disubstituted hexanes involving different leaving groups in the presence of various catalysts have also been employed in the synthesis of oxepane derivatives (Scheme 21.49) [185]. One of the most interesting versions of this cyclization is the regioselective intramolecular ring-opening reaction of epoxyalcohols catalyzed by acidic or basic conditions, a strategy that has been successfully used in the total synthesis of polyethers [16, 186]. Careful control of the ring-opening process is necessary to avoid the formation of the tetrahydropyran derivative. The BaeyerVilliger oxidation [187], a typical transformation of cyclic ketones into lactones, has been used in the synthesis of seven-membered lactones (e-caprolactones) from cyclohexanone derivatives in the presence of typical peracids
1900

HO H2N HO HO 170 N3 O O OBn OH N3 172
Scheme 21.45
OH O OH OH NaHCO3/THF 40 C 83% HO HO HO N H 171 Me O Me Ph3P/MeCN 50 C then H2O O 29% N H 173 OBn NH2 OH OH OH OH
Me Me
NH2OH N R
PPA N H 33 R PPA N N H OH O and/or N H O O R
O R NH2OH
OH
H+ OH
N3 HO N + N N N H 33 R and/or N H O N H O R O
H+ N3 O
Scheme 21.46
21.5 Synthesis
j1901
H2/Pt O 89% O 8
Scheme 21.47
-H2O HO OH 28-72% O 8 PtCl2/AgSbF6 Ph O O H H Ph ClCH2CH2Cl 75% Ph O 174 Ph
Scheme 21.48
(Scheme 21.50). Some recent developments include oxidation by urea/hydrogen peroxide and triuoroacetic anhydride [188], and aqueous hydrogen peroxide with diaryl diselenides [189] or tin zeolite [190]. Additionally, some biocatalytically driven methods include monooxygenase [191] and genetically modied yeasts [192] as well as the combination of hydrogen peroxide and myristic acid catalyzed by lipases [193]. The use of oxygen as an oxidant catalyzed by mixtures of Fe(II) and Ni(II) or with MnO2 or RuO2 in the presence of benzaldehyde has also been reported [194]. The use of chiral metallic complexes gave lactones in high ee yields [195]. Some representative examples of these oxidations are shown in Scheme 21.50 for lactones 179181. Thiepane (9) was rst obtained by a radical cyclization reaction of 5-hexenethiol under photolysis conditions (Scheme 21.51) [196]. It has also been prepared by a double nucleophilic substitution from 1,6-dibromohexane either using sodium sulde (59%) [197] or, better still, by in situ generated lithium sulde (from hexamethyldisilathiane and methyllithium in a polar aprotic solvent) (Scheme 21.51) [198]. Chiral thiepane derivatives such as 182 and 183 have been synthesized by a thioheterocyclization method involving bis-epoxides and a sulde salt [199]. This approach is based on an initial regioselective ring opening of one of the epoxides followed by attack of the resulting thiolate to the other epoxide to form the sevenmembered thiepane ring (Scheme 21.52). Thiepan-2-one (184) has been prepared by a similar strategy to that employed for 9 by cyclization of 6-bromohexanoic acid chloride using lithium sulde generated in situ (Scheme 21.53) [200]. The synthesis of thiepan-3-one (185) was described initially by a Dieckmann-type cyclization [201] and later by reaction of the thiacyclohexan-3-one with diazomethane [202], a procedure also employed for the preparation of the thiepan-4-one (186) [203] (Scheme 21.53).
1902

R X R O R = H (28-70%) O H
Base or Lewis acid O OH
(CH2)n O H MeO O O 1 R2 R H
O n=1,2
Base or Lewis acid O
OH
and/or
OH
La(OTf)3 80-90% O R
2
OMe OH R
1
R1, R2 = H, Me
175
Zn(OTf)2 83-98% O H OH OBn
O OH OBn
176
(Bu3SnO)2/Zn(OTf)2 85% OH OMPM
O BnO
BnO
OBn OH
177
Scheme 21.49
21.5.5 Synthesis of Benzo Derivatives 21.5.5.1 Synthesis of Benzazepines The three isomeric parent benzazepines are not known, although stable derivatives of 12, 15, and 18 have been prepared using many of the synthetic strategies employed in the preparation of monocyclic azepines. 1H-1-Benzazepine derivatives 187 have been obtained by cyclization reactions [204, 205]. An unusual ring expansion of quinolinium salts also afforded N-substituted derivatives 188 in good yields [206], and the ring-closing metathesis reaction is an important method for the preparation of stable dihydro derivatives [207] (Scheme 21.54).
21.5 Synthesis
j1903
R-CO3H HO O O R
F3C Se F3C 2
H2O2/CF3CH2OH 56%
O 54
Ph
O Ph
O Ph OH 178 O
1. Urea-H2O2 (CF3CO)2O CH2Cl2 2. NaHCO3/H2O 96%
Ph O O 179 O R 180 O
O O Ph OH Ph
Engineered bakers yeast Yield: 15-82% ee: 49->98%
R = Me, Et, n-Pr, i-Pr, allyl, n-Bu O O2/RuO2/PhCHO ClCH2CH2Cl 54-95% 181 R O R
1
O
2
R1 = H, Me R2 = H, Me, (CH2)6Me, i-Pr, t-Bu, CH2CH2COMe

Scheme 21.50
1904

hv S H S.
Na2S 59% S 9
Br
Br
Li2S/THF 61%
Scheme 21.51
PO O
OP O
PO S2 HO S
OP O HO
PO
OP OH S
P=Protecting group
O O
O O
Na2S, EtOH reflux 90%
O HO S 182
O OH
BnO O
OBn O
Na2S, EtOH reflux 75%
BnO HO S
OBn OH
183
Scheme 21.52
2H-2-Benzazepine (15) is unknown and only a few 1H-, 3H-, and 5H-derivatives have been prepared. The examples shown in Scheme 21.55 include a ring expansion of dihydroisoquinolines 190 [208], the ring-closing metathesis reaction of diene 193 [209], the acid-catalyzed cyclization of phenylsulfanylacrylamides 195 [210], and the transformation of nitrones 197 into the 1H-2-benzazepin-3-ones 198 by a complex mechanism [211]. 3H-3-Benzazepines are known as 1H-tautomers or N-substituted derivatives but the parent compound 18 remains unknown. As is the case for 2H-2-benzazepines,
21.5 Synthesis
j1905
Li2S Br COCl THF 13% S 184 CO2Et NaOEt/EtOH 75% S O O
CO2Et CO2Et S
H2SO4 Reflux 85% S 185 CH2N2
O CH2N2 S BaO 42% S 186
O S
Scheme 21.53
OH O OBu NO2
t
1. Pyridine/CH2Cl2 2. K2CO3/DMF 3. SnCl2/MeOH 62% N H 187
CO2Me
+
Et2OC NO2 N2 N+ CO2Et
CO2Me
R O N EtO2C 188
Cl
CuOTf, DCE reflux 82-98%
R O
R = OEt, Ar, alkyl RCM/G-I N COPh Toluene 86% N COPh 189

Scheme 21.54
1906

R
2
Me N R 190
1
OMs OEt
t-BuOK DMSO
Me OEt N and/or
Me OEt N
191 (69-71%)
192 (15-90%)
R1 = H, Ph R2 = H, Me OPr MeO
i
Me Ts N
G-I, Toluene Quantitative
OPr MeO
193
R R
2
194
R
1
Ts
SPh O N Me p-TsOH 15-77% R R

2
1. PhS NH2 R
4
CO2Ar
R R
2. MeI
O N R
4
Me
195
3
196
R N
2
R R
+R
R1, R2, R3, R4 = H, OMe O
N O R
2
NaOMe/MeOH 24-93%
R R
197
198
R1 = Me, Ph, t-Bu R2 = H, Me, Br, Ar, SiMe3 R3 = H, OMe
Scheme 21.55
the number of known derivatives is limited and only a few procedures are synthetically useful for the preparation of such compounds. These methods include the synthesis of derivatives 200 from 199 [212], the insertion of nitrenes generated in situ from thermolysis of azidocinnamates such as 201 and 202 [213], and the ring expansion of isoquinolinium salts 204 [214] (Scheme 21.56).
21.5.5.2 Synthesis of Benzoxepines The parent 1-benzoxepine (13) was rst obtained from a tetrabromoepoxide precursor (207), which under basic conditions is transformed into the corresponding arene oxide 208. The valence tautomerization of 208 yields a mixture of 13 and the bicyclic oxepine 209 [215]. The reaction of pyridazine N-oxide with benzyne produced 13 (and some derivatives from pyridazines) in moderate yield, via a 1,3-cycloadduct [81b]. An intramolecular Wittig reaction on 210 also afforded 13 in 25% yield
21.5 Synthesis
j1907
Ph NH
H N MeO MeO 199 O
Ph OH
1. H3PO4/PPA, 100 C 2. DDQ, C6H6, heat 91%
MeO MeO 200
CO2Et N3 Ph 201 CO2Et N3 203 R = Me (21%) R = Ph (37%) 202 HCBr3 MeCN/H2O/KOH Heat Toluene CO2Et N R
N Br 204
+ Bn
AgNO3/MeOH N CBr3 205 Bn 44% OR 206
N Bn O
89%
R = H, Me
Scheme 21.56
(Scheme 21.57) [216]. The RCM reaction of enynes 212 has also been used in the synthesis of dihydro-1-benzoxepines 213 with yields ranging from 61% to 99% depending on the reaction conditions [217]. 2-Benzoxepine (16) has not been prepared to date and only a few derivatives are available. For example, the dihydro derivatives 214 have been obtained by the cyclization of allene ethers in the presence of palladium catalysts [218]. 2-Benzoxepin-5-ones 215 have been prepared in a multistep synthesis from phthalides (Scheme 21.58) [219]. 3-Benzoxepine (19) has been prepared in 55% yield from phthalaldehyde and an appropriate bis-phosphonium salt by a double Wittig reaction (Scheme 21.59) [220].
21.5.5.3 Synthesis of Benzothiepines The parent 1-benzothiepine (14) and various substituted 1-benzothiepines 218 have been obtained from 2H-1-benzothiopyrans 216. This precursor reacts with n-BuLi/ CH2Cl2 and the intermediate anions formed by quenching with electrophiles afford
1908

Br Br KOH/EtOH O Br 207 Br O 208 Br + PPh3 CHO OH O O 211 O N+ 60% O 13 209
CHO O 210
Ph3P.HBr
25%
O 13
RCM O R 212
Scheme 21.57
61-99% R
213 R = H, Me, OMe, NO2
C Br O
PdCl2(PPh3)2 K2CO3/EtOH-DMF 214 R = H (75%) R= Me (61%) O
O O R R
O Me O R R 215 R = H, Me, Et, Pr, i-Pr, vinyl, Ph
Scheme 21.58
21.5 Synthesis
j1909
CHO CHO
Br
+ Ph3P
Br NaOMe/MeOH + 55% PPh3 19
Scheme 21.59
the tetracyclic compounds 217, which under mild conditions in the presence of a Rh (I) catalyst isomerize to the corresponding 1-benzothiepines (Scheme 21.60) [221]. An alternative route to 14 has been described from the 1-benzothiepinone 219 in a four-step sequence that involves isomerization of the double bond in the presence of Et3N, reduction of the ketone with CeCl3/NaBH4, formation of the tosylate, and elimination with potassium tert-amylate [81b] (Scheme 21.60).
R S R S R Rh(I) 57-100% S
n-BuLi/CH2Cl2
216
O
217
HO
14: R = H 218: R = 2-Cl, 3-Me, 4-Me, 4-Cl, 4-CHO, 5-Me

1. KH/TsCl 2. KOAmt 80%
1. Et3N/CH2Cl2 2. CeCl3-NaBH4 89%
14
219
Scheme 21.60
The ring expansion method shown in Scheme 21.43 for the preparation of monocyclic thiepines has also been employed in the synthesis of ethoxycarbonylsubstituted 1-benzothiepines 220 from benzo-1-thiopyrilium tetrauoroborate [222]. The reaction of dibromostyrene with alkynes in the presence of a palladium catalyst leads to the formation of the corresponding enynes in good yields. These enynes can be transformed into 2-alkyl-1-benzothiepines 221 in moderate or low yields by metalation with tert-butyllithium followed by reaction with sulfur and ethanol (Scheme 21.61) [223]. Although 2-benzothiepane and some derivatives have been described, the parent 2-benzothiepine (17) and stable simple derivatives remain unknown. However, 3-benzothiepine (20) has been prepared from phthalaldehyde [224] under the conditions shown in Scheme 21.62. Among the few simple 3-benzothiepine derivatives known, the dicarboxylic acid was the rst 3-benzothiepine derivative obtained from phthalaldehyde by a double Knoevenagel condensation (Scheme 21.63) [225]. The 2-tert-butyl-4,5-dihydrobenzothiepine (223) is reported to be obtained by cathodic reduction [226].
1910

N2 N2LiCCO2Et CO2Et or S S N2 1. t-BuLi/THF, -80C 2. S, -80C 3. EtOH, 55 C Br R SH R 5-25% S R CO2Et Allylpalladium choride dimer CHCl3 19-31% S CO2Et THF-Et2O
F4B
S +
220
R Br Br PdCl2(Ph3P)2/CuI Benzene 80-90%
221
R = Me, Bun, But, n-Hex, c-Hex, n-Oct
Scheme 21.61
CHO CHO (PhSO2)2S 15%
+ BrCH2PPh3 Br t-BuOK 90% S 20
Br Br
t-BuLi/Et2O
Li Li
Scheme 21.62
CHO CHO S S Bu
t
EtO2C
CO2Et
1. NaOH 2. H3O+ 51% 222
CO2H S CO2H
e 8% 223
S Bu
t
Cl
Scheme 21.63
21.6 Reactivity of Azepines
j1911
21.6 Reactivity of Azepines 21.6.1 Reactivity of Azepines and Benzofused Derivatives
As stated above, the azepine systems occur in four tautomeric forms, and the derivatives of the 1H- and 3H-tautomers are the most widely studied. The parent heterocycle 1H-azepine (1) is a red oil that rearranges in the presence of acid or base to the more stable 3H-azepine (Scheme 21.64). The 1H-azepine tautomer is unstable [83, 227] and, as a consequence, only N-substituted derivatives of 1H-azepine exist in the 1H-tautomeric form. The 4H-azepine can be isolated and stored but in basic solution also isomerizes to the 3H-azepine.
OH N CO2Et -CO2 N H 1 Isomerization N 3 H H
Scheme 21.64
The stability of the 1H-azepine is enhanced by the presence of electron-withdrawing substituents, particularly at the 1-position, because they decrease the electron density in the 8p antiaromatic ring system. Consequently, reduced and partially reduced azepines are particularly common, together with the benzo derivatives. The increase in ring size constrains these compounds and they are nonplanar so as to decrease the ring strain. The lack of planarity, however, affects aromaticity, and so the reactivity of unsaturated azepines is similar to that of cyclic polyenes. In general, the reactions of these compounds involve neutral molecules. Although stable as anions, the cations or radicals derived from azepines are less common, but some processes have been described as occurring through these species, particularly for partially saturated systems. Thus, anions derived from 1H-, 3H-, and 4H-azepines are difcult to obtain because they would lead to the formation of antiaromatic 8p species; however, annulation increases the stability and in 2004 the generation of the rst azepinium ion reported [228]. Recently, attention has been drawn to the role of azepinium ions as intermediates in different reactions.
21.6.1.1 Cycloaddition Reactions The polyenic structure of an azepine and its bicyclic tautomer both determine its reactivity in cycloaddition reactions [9]. Thus, azepines can participate in cycloaddition reactions as 2p, 4p, or 6p components (Scheme 21.65). Cycloaddition reactions of N-substituted azepines with various dienophiles have been studied. For example, 1-alkoxycarbonyl-1H-azepines undergo [4 2] p DielsAlder reactions with most dienophiles at the C2C5 positions, as exemplied in Scheme 21.66 with tetracyanoethylene (TCNE) [229]. On the other hand, asymmet-
1912

N R N R [6+2] [2+2] [2+2] N R [6+6] [6+4] N R N R N R [2+2] [2+4] N R N R z
[4+2]
[4+2]
[2+4]
N R
N N R
Scheme 21.65
CN R NC CN N CO2Et R=H R = CH3 CN NC CN N Me CO2Et NC Me N CO2Et CN Toluene CN C6H6, rt CN NC R
NC
CN CN N CO2Et
R = H (60%) R = CH3 (65%) NC NC CN CN N Me CO2Et CN CN NC Me low yield NC NC CN CN N CO2Et + NC CN CN
Me N CO2Et
66%
Scheme 21.66
j1913
rically substituted 1H-azepines can undergo addition at C4C7 or a mixture of isomers can result from C2C5 and C4C7 addition [230]. However, the presence of sterically bulky substituents at C3 and C6 makes the azepine function as a triene-[6 2] p-system; this is the case even with unsubstituted azepines when the reaction is performed in the presence of tricarbonylchromium(0) to produce the homotropane as a single diastereomer in 77% yield (Scheme 21.67) [231].
CO2Et EtO2C N CO2Et
Scheme 21.67
N CO2Et 77%
NpCr(CO)3 (9 mol%) Np = naphthalene
The ability of alkyl-1H-azepine-1-carboxylate to participate simultaneously as a diene and dienophile in cycloaddition reactions can be exemplied by the reaction of methylpyrone-3-carboxylate (Scheme 21.68) and the 5-isomer [232]. The 3-substiO O CO2Me Toluene, 80 C, 68 h 2+4 O O CO2Me N CO2Et N EtO2C Azepine 6+4 dimer N CO2Et
224a (5%)
N CO2Et O O O Toluene, 80 C, 57 h MeO2C O N
224b (11%)
O 2+4 + CO2Et MeO2C MeO2C N O 6+4
MeO2C
225a (25%)
-CO2
225b (20%)
N CO2Et EtO2C
226
Scheme 21.68
1914

tuted pyrone adducts 224a and [6 4]-type dimer 224b were obtained in low yield. Under similar reaction conditions, 5-substituted pyrone gave adducts 225a and 225b. The former, on prolonged heating, lost carbon dioxide to form benzo[d]azepine 226. The reaction of 1-ethoxycarbonyl-1H-azepine with 3,4,5,6-tetrachloro-1,2-benzoquinone [233] acting as a heterodiene gave a [6p 4p] and two regioisomeric [2p 4p] adducts. This behavior is representative of the dual character of azepine in cycloaddition reactions. Furthermore, interestingly, the [6p 4p] adduct rearranges to the [2p 4p] isomer on heating in toluene (Scheme 21.69).
Toluene
Cl
Cl Cl Cl
O O
(63%) Cl Cl Cl Cl 6+4 CO2Et N O O 46% Cl + Cl Cl 16% Cl O N CO2Et O Cl Cl + Cl 2+4 Cl EtO2C O O 8% N
N CO2Et
Toluene, rt
Scheme 21.69
The reported examples of 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition to azepines are limited to diazomethane and N,a-diphenylnitrone. Thus, the reaction of 1-ethoxycarbonyl-1Hazepine with N,a-diphenylnitrone afforded exo- and endo-cycloadducts in similar distributions through a concerted process (Scheme 21.70) [234].
Ph + Ph N O Ph Ph N O H N CO2Et H
N CO2Et
Scheme 21.70
21.6.1.2 Reaction with Metal Carbonyl Complexes In contrast to cycloheptatriene, the metal complex chemistry of azepine has received hle [235] reported the formation of rather limited attention. In 1965 Fisher and Ru iron carbonyl complexes of several azepines, including the parent system 1Hazepine. The isolated azepine is very unstable and was generated in the complexed state from the N-ethoxycarbonyl derivative. The tricarbonyl chromium, molybdenum, and tungsten complexes of azepine 1-carboxylate have also been prepared by treating the azepine 1-carboxylate with the metal tricarbonyl tris-acetonitrile complex in THF solution. The tricarbonylruthenium complex has also been reported (Scheme 21.71) and this undergoes interesting cycloaddition reactions with electron-decient alkenes and ketones.
j1915
N R
CO Fe CO CO R1 = H, CO2Et
Scheme 21.71
CO CO
M CO
M = Cr, Mo,
The synthesis, structure, and dynamic behavior of some cyclopentadienyl- and pentamethylcyclopentadienyl-cobalt complexes of N-methoxy- and N-ethoxycarbonylazepines or N-methylazepine have been carried out by Wadepohl [236]. Cyclopentadienylcobalt complexes of N-ethoxy- and N-methoxy compounds were obtained by treatment of the 1-ethoxycarbonyl-1H-azepine with Jonas reagent [(CpCo(C2H4)2]. Subsequent reaction with excess NaOMe in methanol gave approximately 50% conversion to the N-methoxy derivative, although these compounds could not be separated by column chromatography (Scheme 21.72).
(Jonas reagent) R Co Light Petroleum, 50 C, 3h R=H R Co NaOMe ex 50% conversion R Co N CO2Et N CO2Me
227a ( 84%)
CO2Et N CO2Et R Co Toluene, reflux, 2h R = Me Me Co LiAlH4 Et2O Me Co N Me N
227b ( 92%)
Scheme 21.72
227c (82%)
The complexes undergo a degenerate valence tautomerization, which is more facile in pentamethylcyclopentadienylcobalt[2-5-g-(N-methyl)azepine] (227c) than in cyclopentadienylcobalt[2-5-g-N-ethoxycarbonyl)azepine] (227a) and pentamethylcyclopentadienylcobalt[2-5-g-(N-ethoxycarbonyl)azepine] (227b). At low temperatures,
1916

compound 227a has restricted rotation around the amide bond, which leads to the presence of two diastereomers. Tricarbonyl(N-cyanoazepine)metal(0) complexes of chromium (228a), molybdenum (228b), and tungsten (228c) are formed when tricarbonyl-tris(acetonitrile)chromium(0), -molybdenum(0) and -tungsten(0), respectively, are treated photochemically with N-cyanoazepine at room temperature in toluene (Scheme 21.73) [237]. The resulting complexes take part in [6 2] cycloadditions with alkynes (see next section).
N N CN M(CO)3(CH3CN)3 h , toluene, r.t. CO M CO
CN M= Cr, Mo, W
CO
228a, M = Cr (84%) 228b, M = Mo (74%) 228c, M = W (60%)

Scheme 21.73
21.6.1.3 Reactions through Metal Carbonyl Complexes The ease with which 1H-azepines form transition metal carbonyl complexes has led to interesting reactions. For example, tricarbonyl(2-5-g-1H-azepine)iron, which is unstable, reacts with the tropylium cation and several electrophiles to give derivatives that, after decomplexation with trimethylamine oxide, afforded 3-(2,4,6-cycloheptatrienyl)-3H-azepine. This compound is stable but undergoes a facile 1,5-hydrogen migration in benzene to give 6-(2,4,6-cycloheptatrienyl)-3H-azepine in 97% yield after purication [238] (Scheme 21.74).
Fe(CO)3 NaOMe N CO2Et MeOH N H Fe(CO)3 + _ BF4 Fe(CO)3
Me3NO acetone 73% N
80 C C6 H 6 97% N
46%
Scheme 21.74
Chromium(0)-mediated higher-order cycloaddition reactions have emerged as an important method for the rapid assembly of structurally elaborate polycyclic systems. Rigbys group have been particularly active in this area, using both thermally and photochemically activated cycloadditions of chromium(0) complexes of azepines with alkenes and alkynes. A successful route to the tropane alkaloid ( )-ferruginine by reaction between tricarbonyl N-(methoxycarbony1)azepinechromium(0) and ()-8-phenylmenthyl acrylate provided the desired diastereomerically homogeneous homotropane endo adduct as the major product with high diastereomeric excess
j1917
(Scheme 21.75) [239]. Furthermore, [6p 2p] cycloaddition reactions mediated by solid-supported Cr(0) [240] have also been described for azepines with yields comparable to those obtained in photochemical and thermal versions.
O Cr(CO)3 O Ph h N CO2Me
Scheme 21.75
H CO2R*
(58%)
CO2Me
R* = (-)-8-phenylmenthyl
Other examples of [6p 2p] cycloadditions with alkynes through the Cr(0) complex have been reported. The decomplexation can be performed either thermally or oxidatively, depending on the nature of the substituent (Scheme 21.76).
CN Toluene, reflux CN N Cr(CO)3 R-C N CN h C-R R R Cr CO CO R = Ph, SiMe3 CN N SiMe3 SiMe3 66%
Scheme 21.76
Ph Ph
71%
(NH4)2Ce(NO3)6
21.6.1.4 Pericyclic Reactions The nonplanar polyene nature of azepines allows them to take part in a wide variety of intra- and intermolecular pericyclic processes. Irradiation of 2-methyl-1H-azepine selectively gives a 4,7-ring closure product due to the steric interaction between the methyl group and the N-substituent. In contrast, the 3-methyl and 4-methyl derivatives give two four-membered products in a 1 : 1 ratio (Scheme 21.77) [221].
1918

h N Me CO2Me Me N CO2Me
Scheme 21.77
4,7-closure Me h
Me N CO2Me
N CO2Me
Me N CO2Me
The orbital symmetry-allowed disrotatory processes of 2-substituted 3H-azepines could yield both 3-substituted- and 5-substituted 6-azabicyclo[3.2.0]hept-2,6-dienes. However, the reaction is selective and gives only the 3-substituted derivative through a 4,7-closure rather than a 2,6-closure (Scheme 21.78) [241].
h N X 2,6-closure N X h 4,7-closure N
X= NMe2, NH2, OEt
X = NMe2 (70%) X = NH2 (50%) X = OEt (60%)
Scheme 21.78
Different photochemical behavior for 3,6-di-tert-butyl-3H azepines and 2,5-di-tertbutyl-3H-azepines has been observed [242]. For example, photoisomers were not detected upon photoirradiation of the 3,6-isomer in hexane through a Pyrex lter. In contrast, irradiation through a quartz lter in hexane gave the 4,7-di-tert-butyl-2azabicyclo[3.2.0]hepta-2,6-diene along with the azepine 68 (Scheme 21.79). Irradiation of 2,5-di-tert-butyl-3H-azepine (71) through a Pyrex lter gave the 2,5-di-tertbutyl-6-aza-bicyclo[3.2.0]hepta-2,6-diene through a 2,6-closure, as conrmed by formation of the methanol addition product (Scheme 21.79). These results indicate that the regioselectivity for photoelectrocyclization is not exclusively caused by the steric hindrance of the product. It is known that the four tautomeric monocyclic azepines are interchangeable to the more stable derivative by 1,5-sigmatropic hydrogen shift, and the accepted order of stability of the azepines is 3H > 4H > 2H > 1H. The 1H-azepine isomerizes under thermal catalytic (acid/base) and non-catalytic conditions and 2H-azepines isomerize easily to the thermodynamically more stable 3H derivatives by 1,5-sigmatropic hydrogen shift [121, 238, 243]. This rearrangement occurs on standing in organic solvents at room temperature or on warming. Thus, (S)-2-methyl-6,7,8,9-tetrahydro2H-l-benzazepine undergoes a thermally allowed suprafacial [1,5]-sigmatropic H-shift (Scheme 21.80) in tert-butyl methyl ether at 30 C to give the optically active 3H-azepine derivative 229a in low yield, which exhibits a high optical rotation and supports a stereoselective mechanism for the rearrangement. At elevated
j1919
h Pyrex
Bu
Bu N
- :CH2
Bu
Bu N 8%
Bu
Bu N 78
H h quartz Bu
t
Bu N
Bu +
Bu N 68 (12%)
H 26%
H N Bu
Bu
Bu h
h N 71 Bu
t
OMe N H
Bu
Pyrex hexene
Pyrex MeOH
Bu
Unstable
Scheme 21.79
80%
temperatures a second, reversible hydrogen migration occurs and this establishes an equilibrium with the achiral 3H-azepine 229b.
30C H3C N t-BuOMe H3C N 229a (18%)
Scheme 21.80
55C t-BuOMe H3C N 229b
Recently, Satake and co-workers [244] have described an unusual competitive reaction between a [1,5]-sigmatropic alkylthio shift and a [1,5]-sigmatropic hydrogen shift in a 2H-azepine ring, to afford 7-propylthio- and 3-propylthio-3H-azepines 230a and 230b, respectively, in a 1 : 1 ratio (Scheme 21.81). Kinetic measurements revealed that the observed [1,5]-propylthio shift proceeds through a concerted mechanism. On the other hand, when 2-methoxy-2H-azepine 231 was heated in chloroform a hydrogen shift was observed exclusively to give a mixture of 5-tert-butyl- (231a) and 4-tert-butyl-2,7-dimethoxy-3H-azepine (231b) in a 1 : 8 ratio (Scheme 21.82). The thermal [1,5]-sigmatropic hydrogen shift was studied by 1 H NMR spectroscopy and the spectrum of the isomerization of 4-tert-butyl-2,7-dimethoxy-2H-azepine (231) in CDCl3 showed that 231a and 231b were formed in a 1 : 8 ratio with a simultaneous decrease in 231, suggesting that the [1,5]-hydrogen shift from 231a and 231b is very
1920

Bu
t
Bu Heat
Bu H + H
SPr N OMe
SPr
OMe
N SPr
OMe
230a (51%)
Scheme 21.81
230b (43%)
Bu
Bu Heat
Bu H H MeO
H N MeO 231
OMe
CDCl3
MeO
N 231a
OMe
N 231b
OMe
Scheme 21.82
fast. These results indicate that the rapid equilibrium between 231a and 231b is reached as soon as the isomerization of 231 occurs. The [1,5]-methoxy shift was not observed in the thermal isomerization of 231. The same group has described the formation of 4H-azepines (232c) for the rst time from the 2-methoxyazepiniun ion and its sigmatropic isomerization. This process apparently occurs as a two-step reaction from 232c to initially give 232d, which is then converted into the most thermally stable 232e (Scheme 21.83) [245]. The absence of a substituent at position 5 in the azepinium ring offers a good example of the reactivity and electrophilic character and allows the formation of rare 4Hazepines.
TiCl4 iPrO N OMe
+ N
C6H6 OMe Ph N
+ OMe N
Ph + OMe
Ph
OMe
232
Ph K1 N OMe N OMe Ph
232a (49%)
232b (3%)
232c (43%)
Ph K2 N OMe K3
Ph
OMe
232c
Scheme 21.83
232d
232e
j1921
The dimerization of 1H-azepines [246] involves a temperature-dependent cycloaddition process, which in turn depends on substitution. N-Methylazepine undergoes dimerization at 0 C to give a [6 6] dimer. On the other hand, the N-cyano- and N-ethoxycarbonyl derivatives dimerize at higher temperature through a [6 4] process. The initially formed [6 4] adducts rearrange to the [6 6] adducts on heating at high temperature (Scheme 21.84).
R [6+4] [6+6] N R R = Me R = CO2Me R= CN > 200C 0 C N R N
R R = CO2Me (130 C) R = CN (25 C)
R= Me
R = CO2Me R = CN
Scheme 21.84
In contrast to N-substituted 1H-azepines and their 3- and 4-methyl derivatives, which readily undergo dimerization at elevated temperatures, in cases where the positions directly involved in the dimerization process (2-, 4-, and 7- positions) are substituted the dimerization process is hindered and a valence tautomerization reaction takes place [247]. Thus, 2-methyl-, 4,5-dimethyl-, and 3,6-dimethyl derivatives (233) at 200 C were converted into the aromatic carbamates (Scheme 21.85). This behavior is not shared by the 2,7-dimethyl derivative, which is stable even at 250 C, probably due to steric hindrance.
R R
2
MeO2C R
2
200C R
3
2 1
MeCO2N R R
3 2
H R
2 1
R R R
1
3 N R CO2Me
233 a: = H, CH3 b: R1 = CH3, R2 = R3 = H c: R1 = R3 = H, R2= CH3 R 2= R3 =

Scheme 21.85
(64-68%)
R1
1922

Recently McNab and co-workers [248] have identied a new thermal ring contraction of dibenzo[b,f ]azepines by controlled ash vacuum pyrolysis (FVP) of N-allylor N-benzyldibenzo[b,f ]azepine at temperatures (750950 C). When the N-benzyl derivative was subjected to FVP at 750 C, four products were identied from the reaction mixture (Scheme 21.86).
Me FVP
N R R= CH2Ph R = CH2CH=CH2
Ph
Ph
750C (when R= CH2Ph) 20%
N H 27 20%
+ N
2%
35%
Scheme 21.86
The formation of bibenzyl (20%) provided conrmation that radical generation had been successful. Cleavage of N-benzyl or N-allyl groups led to recovery of 5Hdibenzo[b,f ]azepine (20%) and, in addition, two ring-contraction products were obtained. One of them, 9-methylacridine (2%), is likely to be formed by ring contraction of 5H-dibenzo[b,f ]azepines (by the 1,5-shift, electrocyclization, ring cleavage, hydrogen shift sequence mechanism indicated in Scheme 21.87) and the major product is pyrrolo[3,2,1-jk]carbazole (35%). However, under more vigorous conditions (950 C) this process gave 9-methylacridine as the sole product in 60% yield.
H H
Me
N H
27
Scheme 21.87
The temperature of the pyrolysis proved to have a dramatic effect on the product distribution, because the N-allyl derivative at 950 C gave 63% yield of pyrrolocarbazole (Scheme 21.88).
Me 900 C N 63%
Scheme 21.88
900 C N R R = CH2Ph N 60%
R = CH2CH=CH2
j1923
Although several N-substituted derivatives of 5H-dibenzo[b,f ]azepines are known to give [2 2] cycloadducts photochemically to form a cyclobutane (Scheme 21.89), the parent compound and its N-alkyl derivatives are photochemically inactive [249].
R N [2+2] N R1 R1 = Ac, COMe, COPh, CO2Et; CONH2
Scheme 21.89
N R
A structural analysis by 1 H NMR spectroscopy of the photoproducts of N-acyl derivatives of 5H-dibenzo[b,f ]azepines proved the presence of two stereoisomers (Scheme 21.90), probably due to restricted rotation of the amide bond [250].
R N [2+2] N R R = COMe R = COEt O O N R
R N
N R N R Z O R E N O
Scheme 21.90
21.6.1.5 Reactions with Electrophiles The conjugated azepines and their partially unsaturated derivatives are unstable in acidic media and undergo either rearrangement or ring contraction to an aromatic system. 1H-Azepines with N-alkyl substituents are unstable in acidic solutions and afford resinous products. However, N-acyl- or N-ethoxycarbonyl derivatives lead rapidly to N-phenylcarbamate under acidic conditions (Scheme 21.91). For example, the 3,6-dimethyl-1H-azepine (233c) on standing in 10% sulfuric acid at room temperature for 2 h yields 82% of the corresponding carbamate [247]. Similar treatment of the 2,7-dimethyl derivative for 4 h led only to recovery of unreacted starting material, probably due to steric hindrance. However, when the same mixture was heated under reux for 1 h, the 2,7-dimethylazepine 234 was completely transformed into a viscous brown oil. The major identiable component of this oil was the 2,6-dimethyl-N-methoxycarbonylaniline (16%) in addition to 3,4- and 2,6dimethylphenols, with the remainder being polymeric material (Scheme 21.91).
1924

R N CO2Me R = H, CH3 H3 C NHCO2Me CH3 + 16% NHCO2Me CH3 CH3 1%
Scheme 21.91
NHCO2Me CH3
OH H3 C 6% OH + CH3 1% CH3
H Me N Me CO2Me 234
H 2O
CH3
The acid-catalyzed rearrangement of dibenzo[b,f ]azepines to 9-methylacridines was rst described by Schindler and Blattner [251] (Scheme 21.92).
H HBr 48 % N O CH3 30 min. +N H +N H
Me
N 73%
Scheme 21.92
In general, the alkylation of azepines is effected by alkyl halides or tosylates in the presence of base. Quaternization of 2-dialkylamino-3H-azepine with methyl iodide takes place at the exocyclic nitrogen and its hydrolysis provides a useful path to 3Hazepinones [252]. The N-alkylation of some 5H-dibenzo[b,f ]azepines (and 10,11-dihydro derivatives) has been studied extensively under classical conditions and under phase-transfer catalysis (PTC) [253], although the method is less successful with 10,11-dihydro derivatives [254]. The alkylation can be effected with an alkyl chloride, bromide, or tosylate, using a wide range of bases and reuxing in toluene. N-Methyl-, N-ethyl-, and N-propyl derivatives, for example, can be prepared in good yield under mild conditions from the iminostilbene and the corresponding alkyl iodide using thallium ethoxide as base (Scheme 21.93) [255].
j1925
MeI/ EtOH/ Tl N H DMF-Et2O N R R = Me, Et, Pr

Scheme 21.93
C-Alkylation, described by Streef and van der Plas [256], is achieved through reaction of the anion of 2-diethylamino-5-phenyl-3H-azepine with different electrophiles to give azepines substituted at C3 (Scheme 21.94).
Ph H H N NEt2 LDA Ph _ N H NEt2 Ph R-X N H R NEt2 R = CH3, SCH3, CH2Ph (60-65%)
Scheme 21.94
Satake and co-workers reported the specic formation of 2-methoxy-2H-azepine derivatives 235ae by sequential reaction of 3H-azepines with bromine, methanol, and aqueous potassium carbonate (Scheme 21.95). Studies on the mechanism of the reactions of 3H-azepines with bromine and NBS [243, 257] suggest the 1,4-addition of an electrophile and subsequent 1,2-dehydrobromination.
R R
2 2
R R N R
3 1
1. Br2 (1.0 equiv.) 2. MeOH 3. aq. K2CO3
R N 235a-e R
3
MeO
a: R1 = R2 = H; R3 = OMe (46%) b: R1 = H; R2 = tBu; R3 =OMe (52%) c: R1 = H; R2 = Me; R3 = OMe (30%) d: R1 = tBu; R2 = R3 = H (43%) e: R1 = H, R2 = R3 = tBu (52%)
Scheme 21.95
On the other hand, the sequential reaction of 235b with half an equivalent of bromine and aqueous potassium carbonate (Scheme 21.96) gives the 7-bromo-3Hazepine derivative 236 (12% yield) and the ether 237 (82% yield). An alternative attempt to understand the mechanism of the previously described conversion of 3H-azepines into 2H-azepines has been carried out by replacing bromine with NBS (Scheme 21.97). In the presence of methanol, quantitative conversion of 3H-azepines 235a,b into 2-methoxy-2H-azepines was observed, although the reaction with 235c produced both 2-methoxy-2H-azepine (66% yield) and the 2-succinimido-2H-azepine (33% yield). In the absence of methanol the 3Hazepines 235ac and efciently gave 2-succinimido-2H-azepines in good yields
1926

Bu
t
1. Br2 (0.5 equiv.) N OMe 2. aq. CO3K2 Br
Bu
Bu +
Bu
OMe
OMe
235b
Scheme 21.96
R
2
236 (12%)
237 (82%)
Br + N OMe O N
R NBS N OMe R3N, N2 -98C
R NBS/MeOH, N2 N OMe R3N, -98C MeO
OMe
O a: R2 = H (19%) c: R2 = Me (22%) a: R2 = H (81%) b: R2 = t-Bu (100%) c: R2 = Me (73%)
235a: R2 = H, 235b: R2 = tBu 235c: R2 = Me

NBS (0.5 equiv) aq. K2CO3 , rt R
2 2
a: R2 = H (99%) b: R2 = t-Bu (100%) c: R2 = Me (66%)
O N O N O N OMe
238 (84%)
Scheme 21.97
together with the brominated products (1922%). Replacing bromine by NBS led to improved yields due to the chemoselectivity of the reagent as well as the lower concentration of HBr [258]. Reaction of 235b and NBS in a 2 : 1 molar ratio at room temperature produced the ether 238 in 84% yield. Acylation of 2-amino-3H-azepines under SchottenBaumann conditions did not afford the azepine derivative but the 2-(benzamido)diphenylamine through the intermediacy of an azanorcaradiene [259] (Scheme 21.98). However, benzenesulfonylation proceeds normally at the exocyclic nitrogen.
R2 -CO-X N NHR
1
N COR
NHR
2
NHR H
NHR
N 2 COR
COR
Scheme 21.98
Treatment of the densely substituted 3H-azepines 239 with benzoyl chloride in the presence of DABCO gave the 2-methylene-3H-azepine derivatives 240
j1927
(Scheme 21.99) [260]. When the 2-methyl group was replaced by a phenyl group, there was no reaction even under forcing conditions. Attempts to isomerize the exomethylene azepine 240 to the conjugate 1H-isomer 241 failed, both by treatment with weak or strong bases. In the latter case the starting 3H-azepine was obtained.
RCH2 Ph H N 239 R = H, Me, Ph
Scheme 21.99
Ph Ph H CH2R Ph -CO-Cl DABCO
RCH2 Ph H
Ph Ph H N CHR COPh 240 //
RCH2 Ph H
Ph Ph N CH2R COPh 241
R = H, Me
R = H, Me
The reaction of 2-amino-3H-azepine with either trityl tetrauoroborate or dimethyl (methyl)sulfonium tetrauoroborate [91] has been reported to give the product substituted at C6 (Scheme 21.100). In the former case, the corresponding azanorcaradiene was isolated.
_ + Ph3C BF4 K2CO3 +N H NH2
Ph3C BF4 _
Ph3C N NH2
NH2 _ Me2S+ -SMeBF4 MeS N NH2
Scheme 21.100
21.6.1.6 Reactions with Nucleophiles Satake and co-workers have reported the formation of the azepinium ion from the reaction of a 2-methoxy-2H-azepine derivative and titanium tetrachloride (TiCl4) (Scheme 21.101) [243,257b]. In contrast to analogous tropylium systems, which have poor reactivity [261], the azepinium ions are quite reactive [249, 262] as shown in Schemes 21.102 and 21.103. The results indicate that the azepinium ion is a strong electrophile. In the reaction with aromatic compounds these systems undergo nucleophilic substitution primarily at position C7 and, less frequently, at position C3. An interesting
1928

Bu + Bu TiCl4
t t
+ H H + N OMe Bu
t
Bu
+ N R R = OMe
H2O HO
Bu
MeO R=
N
tBu,
R OMe
CDCl3, rt
MeO- TiCl4 iPrNH2
N
t
OMe 45%
OMe 24%
Bu
iPrHN H
OMe
85%
Scheme 21.101
Bu
t
N R
OMe
CDCl3 reflux
t
Bu
Bu N OMe +
R N OMe R = H (5%) R = OMe (3%) R = OH (3%)
Bu
R= H, OMe, OH Lewis acid
MeO
OMe CDCl3, rt X X= O, S, NH X 1,5-H shift Bu

t
R R = H (49%) R = 4-OMe (47%) R = 2-OMe (28%) R = 4-OH (33%) R = 2-OH (30%) Bu

t
Bu + N OMe
X N OMe X = S (5%) X = O (2%) X = NH (12%)
X = S (52%) X = O (14%) X = NH
X = NH
N X
OMe
Bu
tBu OMe N H 37%
X = S (14%) X = O (11%) X = NH (11%)
HN N
OMe
Scheme 21.102
j1929
result was obtained in the reaction with pyrrole, which gave a ring-contracted product.
OH H2O Citric acid MeO2C N H 89% OMe MeOH MeO2C N CO2Bu
t
O PDC DMF
CO2Bu
MeO2C
t N CO2Bu H 32%
MeO2C
t N CO2Bu H 99% CN
1.TMS-CN/Pd(OAc)2 2. H2O + MeO2C N H 43%

Scheme 21.103
CO2Bu
4H-Azepine-2,7-dicarboxylic esters undergo 1,4-addition of nucleophiles [263] catalyzed by either acid or Pd(II) (Scheme 21.103). Although it is known that the alkoxy group of the 2-alkoxy-3H-azepine derivative is displaced by alkylamines or carbanions from active methylene compounds, Satake and co-workers have explored the reactivity of 3H-azepines having an imidate conjugation with various alkoxy groups at the 2-position (Scheme 21.104). Thus, the nucleophilic reaction of 5-tert-butyl-2-methoxy-3H-azepine 235b with an appropriate alkoxide [264] took place effectively at the 2-position of the ring. When a bulky alkyllithium was used as a nucleophile, a similar displacement occurred to give the 2-alkyl-3H-azepine derivative as a single product. In contrast, the reaction of 235b with methyllithium gave not only 2-methyl-3Hazepine 242, but also 2,2-dimethyl derivative 243 (37%) and methylenedi-3H-azepine 244, which tautomerized into the thermodynamically more stable vinamidine or 5-tert-butyl-2-(5-tert-butyl-2,3-dihydro-1H-azepin-2-ylidenemethyl)-3H-azepine 245 (25%).
21.6.1.7 Reactions with Oxidants To investigate similarities and differences in the chemical behavior of 3H-azepines and the isoelectronic 1,3,5-cycloheptatriene, Kimura and co-workers [265] have studied the oxidative ring cleavage of dialkyl-3H-azepines on treatment with selenium dioxide. Thus, the oxidation of 2,5-di-tert-butyl derivative 71 afforded, inter alia, 4-oxo-octa-2,5-dienal by a new ring cleavage along with the 2-azatropone 246
1930

Bu
t
NaOR/ROH reflux R = Et, Pr, i-Pr Bu

t
OR Bu
t
R = Et (94%) R = Pr (95%) R = i-Pr (92%)
t-BuLi Et2O, rt N OMe Bu MeLi Et2O, rt N Me

t
N 44%
Bu
Bu
235b
MeLi
N H
Me Me Bu
243 (37%)
Bu
t
242 (12%)
N N _ CH2
OMe
Bu
NH
Bu
Bu
Bu
245 (25%)
Scheme 21.104
t
244
Bu
Bu SeO2
Bu
Bu
Bu N Bu
t
+
O 36% Bu
t
NH O
NH
H O
+
O N Bu
t
71
t
t Bu dioxane/H2O (9:1) 65C, 7h
Bu
(13%)
(12%)
246 (6%)
Bu
Bu N
SeO2 dioxane/H2O (9:1) 65C, 17 h
N (55%)
Bu OH
Bu
Bu N (5%)
78
Scheme 21.105
(Scheme 21.105). Under the same conditions the isomeric 3,6-di-tert-butyl-3Hazepine 78 gave pyridylpropanol as the major product. The putative reaction course for the formation of 246 from 71 is indicated in Scheme 21.106. Compound 71 gave the dihydroxy derivative I, which rearranged to

SeO2 Bu
t
j1931
t
H2O SeO(OH)2 Bu
OH
Bu
OH
-NH3
t
Bu
OH
Bu
71
Bu
HO
Bu
H2N
II
Bu
III
1
Bu
Bu
246
R a SeO2 R R
2 1
R HO
R N R
1
HO R
2
R N
Bu
OHC
Bu
H2O R N R
1 2
SeO(OH)2
R R
2
R1 = tBu, R2 =H R
2
R1 = tBu, R2 =H
71, R1 = tBu, R2 = H 78, R1 = H, R2 = tBu
1 N R Se O OH
R1 = tBu, R2 = H R1 = H, R2 = tBu R
2
R b
R OH N R1 = H, R
1
R N R1 = R H,
1
Bu
OH =
tBu
N (55%)
Bu OH
R2 = tBu
R2
Scheme 21.106
the 2-amino-2H-oxepine II. Subsequent elimination of ammonia was followed by Claisen rearrangement to 246, On the other hand, the formation of pyridinecarbaldehyde or pyridylpropanol can be explained in terms of electrophilic attack of selenous acid on the CN double bond in 3H-azepine 71 or 78 and subsequent nucleophilic attack by the carbonyl group of selenous acid on the methylene proton in the 3-position (Scheme 21.106). After this attack, the intermediates are formed with an NSe bond, and this leads to intermediates through a [2,3]-sigmatropic shift. Finally, the intermediates are converted into the 2-azanorcardienes, which ultimately give the nal products. A different type of behavior has been described for N-methoxycarbonyl-2,7dimethyl-1H-azepine in dioxane, which by oxidation with SeO2 gave N-methoxycarbonyl-1H-azepine-2,7-dicarboxaldehyde (Scheme 21.107) in moderate yield [266].
SeO2 Me N Me CO2Me dioxane/H2O (9:1) reflux OHC N CHO CO2Me (56%)
Scheme 21.107
1932

In this case, as expected, oxidation of the alkyl groups is faster than oxidation of the aromatic ring. The reaction of benzazepines with m-CPBA [267] proceeds through N-oxidation and double bond epoxidation (Scheme 21.108). On the other hand, the oxidative behavior of N-substituted dibenzo[b,f ]azepines 248 is complex because several products were obtained depending on the nature of the N-substituents. N-Alkyl derivatives, with the exception of N-methyl, afford mixtures of diphenylamines and acridones (Scheme 21.108). The N-methyl derivative 248d gave the N-oxide along with ring-opening and ring-contracted products (Scheme 21.108). The N-acyl deri-
Ph N PH Me Ph m-CPBA rt
Ph
O N+
_ m-CPBA reflux
Ph
Ph
247
Ph (59%)
PH R Ph
PH R Ph Ph O (55%) O HO H N R a: R= C3H7 ( 32%) b: R= CH2CH2CH2OH (48%) c: R= CH2Ph (23%)
O N+
O N R m-CPBA N R
+
O
248
a: R= C3H7 b: R= CH2CH2CH2OH c: R= CH2Ph
N R O HO H N Me 10% +
a: R= C3H7 ( 25 %) b: R= CH2CH2CH2OH (12%) c: R= CH2Ph (18%) O
N Me
m-CPBA
248d
Scheme 21.108
+ N _ O Me 66%
N Me 1%
vatives undergo epoxidation of the C1011 bond and the N-aryl derivatives are hydroxylated at the phenyl ring [268]. Electrochemical oxidation [269] by ring contraction of N-alkoxycarbonyl-1H-azepine leads to N-alkoxycarbonylaniline by initial oxidation of the carbamate to give the radical cation, followed by electrocyclic rearrangement and CN cleavage (Scheme 21.109).
21.6.1.8 Hydrogenation and Hydrogen Transfer Complete reduction of the azepine ring in the monocycles and in their benzo derivatives is readily achieved with hydrogen and the appropriate metal or metal oxide
j1933
N H CO2R
Pt, - e , 2.0 V N CO2R R = Me, Et CH3CN TBAP N O
OR
. + OR
TBAP: tetra-n-butylammonium per-ruthenate

Scheme 21.109
R = Me (79%) R = Et (62%)
catalyst. Extensive use of Raney nickel, palladium charcoal [270] and platinum oxide [271] has been reported. With 2-aminobromoazepine 249 [12a, 72], partial reduction is accompanied by hydrodebromination. Initially, the hydrogenation in aqueous dimethylformamide in the presence of potassium bicarbonate or in dioxane containing triethylamine in the presence of a 10% palladium-charcoal catalyst was unsuccessful, but in ethanol, in the absence of a base, reduction occurred rapidly through a hydrogen-transfer reaction. However, only the saturated amidine hydrobromide could be isolated (Scheme 21.110). Partial reduction of 2-dimethylamino-3H-azepine can be effected in the presence of 5% Pd/C to give 4,5-dihydro- and 4,5,6,7-tetrahydro-3H-azepine derivatives [273].
Pd/C (10%) Br N 249 Pd/C (5%) N NH2 N NH2 EtOH N
_ Br + NH3
+ NH2 N NH2 30%
70%
Scheme 21.110
The similarity of keto derivatives of azepines and tropones has prompted some studies on the reactivity of the former systems. As shown here, there are three types of azepinones aza analogues of tropone corresponding to the three isomeric parent compounds, 2H-azepin-2-one, 3H-azepin-3-one, and 4H-azepin-4-one.
O O O N 2H-azepin-2-one N 3H-azepin-3-one N 4H-azepin-4-one
1934

The chemistry of these systems has been reviewed. Examples of all three types have been synthesized, although the parent compounds themselves are unknown. By far the most common are derivatives of 2H-azepin-2-one. Among them, 2H-azepin-2one and 4H-azepin-2-one have been obtained from azepinediones with trimethyl- or triethyloxonium tetrauoroborate in acceptable yields [274]. These compounds undergo facile hydrogenation to the perhydro-derivatives and acid hydrolysis (Scheme 21.111).
O (C2H5)3O+BF4H 2O H3C N 5% MeO H3 C H3 C N H CH3 R O CH3 O 2H2, Pd/C H3 C N OEt CH3
CH3
H3 C O H3C H3C
O CH3 R
OEt
62% MeO 3H2, Pd/C H3C H3C N H 65% O CH3
(Me)3O+BF4H2O
N H
R = H, CH3
R = H (51%) R = CH3 (63%)
Scheme 21.111
Although these compounds do not exhibit special chemical reactivity, the 3-hydroxy-2H-azepin-2-one derivative 250, described for rst time in 1990 by Sano and co-workers [275], is extremely reactive in protic solvents, undergoing a ring contraction to give the pyridine-2-carboxylate 251 (Scheme 21.112). This result demonstrates that the azatropolone nucleus has a strongly electrophilic character.
CO2Et OH Ph N 250
Scheme 21.112
CO2Et O Ph N H O
CO2Et O Ph NH2 O OMe Ph N 251
CO2Et CO2Me
21.6.2 Reactivity of Partially Reduced Azepine Derivatives 21.6.2.1 Dihydroazepines Although there are references on this group of compounds, we have restricted the discussion of reactivity to those cases in which the starting materials are stable or have
j1935
similarities with the azepine reactivity considered previously (some examples are given here).
N R
N R
N R
N R
2,3-Dihydro-1H-azepine
3,6-Dihydro-2H-azepine 5,6-Dihydro-2H-azepine4,5-Dihydro-3H-azepine 3,4-Dihydro-2H-azepine
Among these compounds, the 2,3-dihydro-1H-azepines are relatively stable due to the conjugated dienamine structure. Protonation takes place at the C4 position [276]. Thus, Paquette has described the preparation of 6,7-dihydroazepinium 252a by reaction of 252 with perchloric acid (Scheme 21.113).
Me Me N Me Me 252
Scheme 21.113
Me HClO4 Me + N Me Me 252a
The [4 2] cycloaddition reaction occurs readily even with DMAD [277], which ordinarily reacts with enamines in a [2 2] manner following a ring expansion process [278]. However, the 6,7-dihydro-1H-azepine reacts with DMAD to give the tetrahydroindole derivative 253 [279]. The rst step is the formation of a [2 2]p adduct, which undergoes ring expansion and subsequent recyclization (Scheme 21.114). Alternatively, the reaction in polar solvents [280] proceeds due to the enamine character of the dihydroazepine, generating a heterobetainic intermediate that, depending on the solvent, affords different products. Dihydroazepines and tetrahydroazepines can undergo several rearrangements that generally involve a ring contraction. As an example, oxidation of 6,7-dihydro-1Hazepine 254 [281] with DDQ (2,3-dicyano-5,6-dichoro-para-benzoquinone) (Scheme 21.115) gives the arylurethane 255. 4,5-Dihydro-1H-azepines are sensitive to many reagents. The N-alkyl derivatives of 4,5-dihydro-1H-azepines appear to be rather reactive [78,132b,282] because they contain a double enamine moiety, but the N-acyl derivatives are more easily handled. Electron-withdrawing groups at C2, C3, C6, and C7 have an effect on the stability. Catalytic hydrogenation of these materials affords azepanes [283].
1936

MeO2C CO2Me N N=PPh3 Tos Tos N CO Me 2 CO2Me DMAD MeO2C CO2Me CO2Me N N=PPh3 Tos MeO2C MeO2C CO2Me CO2Me N N=PPh3 Tos MeO2C CO2Me CO2Me N Tos N CO Me 2 Ph3P
MeO2C
MeO2C
N PPh3 CO2Me
253
CO2Me CO2Me N N=PPh3 CH2Ph
CO2Me DMAD MeO2C N CH2Ph MeO2C
CO2Me CO2Me N MeO C 2 CH2Ph
CH3CN MeO2C
CO2Me CO2Me N CO2Me CH2Ph
MeO2C MeO2C
MeOH
CO2Me CO2Me
MeO2C
+N
CH2Ph
CO2Me
Scheme 21.114
NC Ph
R CO2Me N NH2 CO2Me DDQ Ph
NC
R CO2Me N NH2 CO2Me Ph
NC
R CO2Me N NH2 CO2Me R NC
CO2Me NH2 NHCO2Me
Ph
254
R = H, CO2Me
255
R = H, CO2Me (48%,)
Scheme 21.115
In the case of 2,3-dihydro-1H-azepines, protonation occurs at the d-position and for 4,5-dihydro-1H-azepines protonation occurs at the electron-rich b-position. For example, the rearrangement of 5-cyano-4,5-dihydro-1H-azepine 256 to the furo[2,3-b] pyridine 257 with sodium nitrate in acetic acid in aqueous ethanol proceeds by initial protonation of C3 or C6 (Scheme 21.116) [284]. The synthesis of derivatives of 4,5-dihydro-1H-azepines fused with thiophene and pyrazole rings has also been reported [284] from b-chlorovinyl aldehydes with 2-mercaptoacetate or phenylhydrazine, respectively (Scheme 21.117).

CN MeO2C Me N H CO2Me Me AcOH MeO2C Me CN CO2Me H2O MeO2C Me O H2 N CN CO2Me Me MeO2C Me
j1937
CO2Me O Me N
N H
Me
256
Scheme 21.116
257
N Ph
N R
N N Ph
PhNHNH2 AcOH
HOC Cl N R
COH Cl
HSCH2CO2H Et3NH2/Py
N R
R = CH2Ph (82%) R = Ph (83%)

Scheme 21.117
R = CH2Ph, Ph
R = CH2Ph (83%) R = Ph (68%)
21.6.2.2 Tetrahydroazepines The 2,3,4,5-tetrahydro-1H-azepines are enamines and are fairly reactive compounds, particularly those that are unsubstituted on the N atom. Alkylation or acylation on the N atom produces more stable compounds, which react mostly as enamine derivatives (Scheme 21.118) [285].
O
R N=C=O
O
R N=C=O
N SCH3 CH3
N CH3
N H SCH3
N N H3C R (54-71%) N O
R= H, CH3, Cl, Br
Scheme 21.118
2,3,4,5-Tetrahydro-1H-azepines also undergo ring contraction reactions by treatment with bromine followed by water/triethylamine. The enamino ester 258 was converted into the formyl ester 259 in quantitative yield. A similar reaction on the enamino aldehyde 260 gave the aldehyde derivative 261a as the major product. In this case, the formation of about 5% of the minor isomer 261b was observed (Scheme 21.119) [286]. Palladium-catalyzed cross-coupling reactions have been carried out by reaction of triate 262 with alkoxydienylboronates 263 (Scheme 21.120) to afford azepine derivative 264 in 45% yield after chromatography. Subsequent acid-catalyzed
1938

Br R +N Ph CO2Me R Ph N Br CO2Me R +N Ph CO2Me OH OH R Ph N CHO CO2Me
CO2Me Br2 N R Ph H2O/Et3N
R = C5H11 CHO N Ph Br2 R Ph N CHO CH(OMe)2
258
259
MeOH/Et3N
CH(OMe)2 CHO
+ 95:5
R Ph
260
Scheme 21.119
261a
261b
N OTf Cbz
(Ph3P)4Pd (3%) N Cbz OEt
Amberlyst N Cbz O 41%
OEt Toluene, EtOH, K2CO3 45%
N Cbz 13%
262
263
Scheme 21.120
264
265
266
hydrolysis over Amberlyst gave the fused azepines 265 in 41% yield together with a smaller amount of azepine unsaturated ketone 266 (13%) [287]. Although the functionalization of lactams to substituted heterocycles via the corresponding enol triates has been reported, they are rather unstable and the triate reagent is expensive. In contrast, lactam-derived phosphate [288] intermediates present remarkable stability. Thus, N-Boc or N-CO2Ph protected lactams, via their potassium enolates, gave the diphenyl phosphate derivatives 267 and the reactions with appropriate partners under Stille or Sonogashira coupling conditions and carbonylation (Scheme 21.121) have been tested.
21.6.2.3 Dihydroazepinones This section describes only several relevant examples of all the possible derivatives. 21.6.2.3.1 Dihydroazepin-2-ones The most extensive research on 1,5-dihydroazepin-2-ones has been carried out by Sano and co-workers [275]. The chemistry is essentially based on their relationship with azatropolones and azatropones by dehydrogenation. For example, dehydrogenation of 268 with DDQ yielded the corresponding azatropolones, but the reaction is affected by the nature of the substituents. The oxidation of 6-OEt and 6-H derivatives gave the corresponding azatropolones in moderate yields (65% and 50%, respectively) but with the other derivatives the yields were lower (217%) (Scheme 21.122).
j1939
N CO2Me CO2Ph 72% CO (1 atm) Pd(OAC)2, PPh3 MeOH, Et3N, DMF (Me3Sn)2 N Boc 77% SnMe3 Pd(PPh3)4, LiCl, THF N R O O P Bu3SnCH=CH2 (OPh)2 Pd(PPh3)4, LiCl, THF N Boc 85%
267 R = Boc, CO2Ph Me3SiC CH Pd(PPh3)4, CuI, Et2NH-THF
N Boc 84%
Scheme 21.121
O Cl Cl O CN CN (DDQ) R Ph N H CO2Et OH O DDQ R N CO2Et OH O
TMS
CO2Et X Ph N X H O OH O
269(60%)
X = Cl, CN ; Y= Cl, CN
Toluene, R = vinyl
Benzene, 100 C sealed tube (5-45 min.) Ph
268
R = H, Ph, OEt, OAc, SPh, Et , vinyl R = H, Ph, OEt, OAc, SPh, Et
Scheme 21.122
The vinyl derivative of 268, when heated with DDQ in toluene, underwent a DielsAlder reaction to give the adduct 269 in 60% yield rather than the dehydrogenation product (Scheme 21.122). Methylation of 1,5-dihydro-2H-azepin-2-ones 268 with diazomethane takes place at the enolic 3-OH and gives the corresponding compound 270, and the reaction with triethyloxonium tetrauoroborate occurs at the lactam oxygen to afford the azepine 271. Treatment of the methyl ether 270 with DDQ in benzene at 100120 C gave the dehydrogenated product or azatropolone 272 in moderate yield. Dehydrogenation of 271 (R H) and (R OEt) occurred in a few
1940

minutes while for the rest of compounds longer reaction times were required (Scheme 21.123). These results indicate that the rate of dehydrogenation is affected by the electronic character and the bulk of the substituent in C6 position.
CO2Et R Ph N O OEt DDQ
CO2Et R Ph N OH OEt
CO2Et Et3OBF4 R Ph N H OH O CH2N2 R Ph N H
CO2Et OMe O DDQ R Ph N
CO2Et OMe O
273
Ph, 8 min. 77% OEt, <2 min. 43% H, <2 min. 62% OAc, 20 min. 60%
271
268
R = H, Ph, OEt, OAc, SPh, Et
270
Ph, 120 min. 40% OEt, 30 min. 50% H, 3 min. 50% OAc, 90 min. 40% SPh,120 min. 48% Et, 90 min. 45%
272
Scheme 21.123
Treatment of 1,3-dihydroazepin-2-ones 274 with HCl yielded the lactone [289] 275. O-Alkylation is achieved using triethyloxonium tetrauoroborate and the hydrolysis of 276 (X O) in dilute acid gives the lactone 275. Further transformation of dihydroazepinones 274 with P2S5 led to the thio analog 277, which can also react with triethyloxonium tetrauoroborate to give the corresponding derivative 276 (X S) (Scheme 21.124).
CH3 H3C N N piperidine CH3 H3C EtX N
CH3 Et3OBF4 CH3 CH3 H3C S N H CH3 H3C O N H
CH3 HCl CH3
O H3C O
CH3 O
X= O, S Et3OBF4
276
274
P2S5
275
277
Scheme 21.124
Although treatment of compound 274 [290] with maleic anhydride or N-phenylmaleimide failed to produce the corresponding adduct, the DielsAlder reaction with DMAD did proceed upon heating without solvent at 120130 C to give the adduct 278 in a poor yield (20%). In contrast, 274 reacted readily with tetracyanoethylene (TCE) in tetrahydrofuran to afford a quantitative yield of the adduct 279 (Scheme 21.125). The photochemical behavior of dihydroazepin-2-ones has also been studied. For example, compound 274 (R H) in THF or methanol and its N-methyl derivative give in each case a single photoisomer in 70% yield (Scheme 21.126) [276b, 291].
j1941
H O
NC NC NC Me
CN Me N
Me H O Me TCE N H 274 CH3 O DMAD
MeO2C MeO2C Me
Me N
Me 279
Me
278 (20%)
Scheme 21.125
Me Me Me N R O h Me Me H N R
Me O
R = H, CH3 274 Bu HO Bu
t t
H N Me O h C 6H 6 Bu
t
Bu OH
Bu H N Me O
h MeOH
Bu
OH
N Me
O Bu H
t
Bu
Bu
Bu
Bu
281
Scheme 21.126
280
282
Irradiation of derivatives functionalized in position-7 of dihydroazepin-2-ones (280) gave different products depending on the solvent. For example, in ether or benzene the ketoamide-annelated cyclobutene 281 was obtained by intramolecular 2p 2p cycloaddition. In contrast, irradiation in MeOH gave the cyclopentenone derivative 282 (Scheme 21.126) by a ring contraction (1,3-acyl shift) and subsequent doublebond migration [292].
21.6.2.3.2 Dihydroazepin-3-ones A summary of the more important aspects of the reactivity of these compounds is given here [293]. The 1,2-dihydroazepin-3-ones 283 (R Me, Ph) are smoothly protonated with triuoroacetic acid and the solutions are stable for several weeks. The azepinium derivative 284 has been obtained by treatment of 283 with triethyloxonium tetrauoroborate in DCM (dichloromethane) (Scheme 21.127).
OEt Et O+ BF4 3 O N R R= Me, Ph 283 CF3CO2H N R
OH
OH
N R
N R
284
Scheme 21.127
1942

The reaction of 283 (Scheme 21.128) with one equivalent of N-chlorosuccinimide in methanol at 0 C gave the 4-chloroderivatives, which are stable in the solid state but not in solution. Further chlorination led to the 4,6-dichloroderivative. Treatment of 1-methylazepinone with either one or two equivalents of N-bromosuccinimide gave the 4,6-dibromo derivative as the only product in 8% and 60% yield, respectively (regardless of the amount of reagent).
O O N-Cl O N R O 1 equiv. N R R = Me (51%) R = Ph (41%) Cl O O N-Cl O 1 equiv. Cl N R R = Ph (44%) Cl O
Br Br N CH3 O
N-Br O
283 R = Me, Ph
Scheme 21.128
1,2-Dihydroazepin-3-one 283 reacts with dienophiles to give [4 2] adducts, many of which are important intermediates in ring transformation products. Cycloaddition of 283 with maleic anhydride at room temperature in benzene gave the adducts 285 in 64% (R Ph) and 81% (R Me) yield. However, the cycloaddition with DMAD or ethyl propiolate yielded benzoic acids 286 by a sequential DielsAlder, retro Mannich, and decarbonylation process (Scheme 21.129) [294].
CO2R CO2Et CO2R R

1 2
O O O O O N R
-CO - MeN=CH2 N Me
O N R
O 48 h, rt , benzene
R= Me
286
R1 = H, R2 = Et (80%) R1 = CO2Me, R2 =Me (73%)
283
R = Ph R = Me
285
R = Ph (64%) R = Me (81%)
Scheme 21.129
In contrast, the cycloaddition of the more reactive 7-dimethyl derivative 287 with two equivalents of methyl propiolate gave a 1,3,4-trisubstituted pyrrole in 91% yield. The mechanism for this unexpected transformation is shown in Scheme 21.130 [295]. Photolysis of azepinone 283 (R Ph) by an electrocyclization process gave the expected product 288 in 64% yield. The bicycloheptanone is stable at room temperature or below, but this compound reverts to the starting material on thermolysis in
21.7 Reactivity of Oxepines

MeO2C CO2Me O NHMe CO2Et CO2Me O N Me
j1943
O (Me)2N N Me
CO2Et CH3CN, rt
H O
Me2N
N(Me)2
287
N Me
Me2N
CO2Me CO2Me N Me Me2N
CO2Me
(91%)
Scheme 21.130
toluene [294]. Treatment of the azepinone 283 with sodium methoxide in methanol led to a ring contraction to give 2-aminophenol (Scheme 21.131) [296].
ON+ Ph
h R = Ph
+ Ph
N Ph 288 (64%) H
O N R
283
MeO N R O O N R
H N R
O H
N R
OH
OH NHR
Scheme 21.131
Monocyclic oxepines exist in equilibrium with isomeric benzene oxides and the existence of a rapid oxepinebenzene oxide equilibration does not allow oxepines to be treated as separate entities, thus helping to interpret their reactivity because some reactions can involve the benzene oxide tautomer (Scheme 21.132).
1944

5 6 7 4 3 6 1 O 2 5 4 3
O
1
5a/5b
Scheme 21.132
The spontaneous oxepinebenzene oxide isomerization [297] proceeds as a thermally allowed disrotatory process according to the WoodwardHoffmann rules. Oxepine and substituted derivatives are highly reactive compounds due to ring strain present in the benzene oxide tautomer. Furthermore, the oxepinebenzene oxide equilibrium position depends on the nature and position of the substituent [61, 298]. Generally, substitution at position-2 with electron-acceptor groups favors the oxepine ring while substitution at position-3 favors the benzene oxides. This effect has been explained in terms of the maximum number of alternative resonance contributors. Some examples are shown in Scheme 21.133.
O Me O Me
O_ Me O O _
O Me O O Me
X _
Me O
+
O
O
Scheme 21.133
Me
Owing to their structure and functionality, the reactivity of oxepines encompasses those reactions expected for a conjugated cyclic triene or those reactions of vinyl ethers, starting from reactions of annular oxygen. Consequently, two main groups of reactions can be considered in general terms: addition and cycloaddition reactions and the cleavage of the oxepine ring. This reactivity has been covered extensively in Comprehensive Heterocyclic Chemistry, I, II and III [2, 4, 7] and the present section is intended to provide only a summary and update.
21.7.1 Reactivity of Oxepines and Benzofused Derivatives 21.7.1.1 Thermal and Photochemical Reactions Thermal ring closure reactions are thermally allowed disrotatory process. An illustrative example is the oxepinebenzene oxide equilibrium in which the oxepine tautomer is favored at high temperatures (Scheme 21.132).
j1945
The oxepinebenzene oxide (5a/5b) system is also attractive for photochemical studies, because the equilibrium varies with the solvent polarity and, to some extent, with the temperature. The photochemical rearrangement of the system (5a/5b) using UV light has been described by Holovka and Gardner [299] and gives the corresponding cyclobutene, via an excited singlet state, when the reaction was carried out in diethyl ether at l >310 nm, which allows only the excitation of 5a. By contrast, irradiation of (5a/5b) at a shorter wavelength (254 nm) at 80 C produces mainly phenol (triplet), minor amounts of the cyclobutene, and benzene (singlet), indicating that these products come from 5b. Irradiation at 254 nm in acetone produces phenol (Scheme 21.134).
h O 100% >310 nm O ether O 5b
h 254nm - 80C OH 74%
+ 15%
+ O 11%
5a
D O
D O 5b-d6
h D
acetone-d6
D O
D O
5a-d6
R
1
5c-d6
R
1
R O
h >310 nm
R O
Scheme 21.134
The photolysis of (5a/5b) has been reexamined [300] using isotopically labeled compounds (D at the 3- and 6-positions). Thus, irradiation at 254 nm (acetone-d6 and room temperature) gave (NMR-analysis) phenol (40%) along with 12% of the isomeric oxepine 5c through an oxygen-walk or circumambulatory [301] rearrangement of arene oxides. The photoreactions of benzoxepines are analogously dependent on the wavelength and the yields are higher on using wavelengths up to 310 nm (Scheme 21.134) [302].
21.7.1.2 Cycloaddition Reactions Oxepines undergo cycloaddition reactions with unsaturated molecules due to their cyclic polyenic character. This structure possesses different reaction centers and can behave as an ene, diene, and triene according to the kind of dienophile and considering the oxepinebenzene oxide (5a/5b) system. The cycloaddition reaction proceeds more readily on the benzene oxide form (5a/5b) in which the diene is closer to planarity. Thus, with dienophiles such as
1946

DMAD or maleic anhydride [88] the [4 2] cycloadducts were obtained as indicated in Scheme 21.135.
O
O O O O
Scheme 21.135
O O
DMAD O 5a/5b O
MeO2C
CO2Me
The reaction of 4,5-disubstituted oxepines [303] with azo compounds gives similar adducts to those indicated above (Scheme 21.136), whereas 2,7-disubstituted oxepines afforded an adduct from the oxepine valence isomer that is not stable but undergoes Claisen rearrangement to a cyclopropyl ketone (Scheme 21.136) [304].
O R1 = R2 = CH3 CO2Me CO2Me R

2
MeO2C N Me N Me
CO2Me
O 79%
N N
MeO2C O R
1
O H H Me Claisen
MeO2C
N Me N O
Me H N N Me 60%
R1 = R2 = CH3
Scheme 21.136
Similar behavior has been described by Boyd and Berchtold [305]. In this case, the reaction of 1-(trimethylsilyl)benzene oxideoxepines 289 with 4-methyl-1,2,4-triazoline-3,5-dione is also affected by substituents and affords the expected DielsAlder adducts 290a and 290c from the benzene oxide valence isomer, and the adduct 290b (100%) from reaction of the oxepine valence isomer (Scheme 21.137). More recently, Golding and co-workers [306] have described the reaction of benzene oxideoxepine (5a/b,292a/b) with 4-phenyl-1,2,4-triazoline-3,5-dione (291a) in acetone at 80 C. This gave a single adduct 294b,295b, whose structure
j1947
OSiMe3
O Me O N N Me N O SiMe3
O SiMe3 R
2
SiMe3 R
2
N O R
2
O R
1
O R
1
N N
290b
289 a: R1 = R2 =H b: R1 = Me, R2 = H c: R1 = H, R2 = Me
290a,c
Scheme 21.137
was validated by NMR and X-ray diffraction, showing that the dienophile approaches the diene anti to the epoxide moiety of the diene. These data are consistent with the previous adducts of benzene oxide obtained with other dienophiles [307, 308] and with other studies carried out recently by Harper and co-workers [35c]. The reaction of 293a/b with 291a gave two adducts, one of which is the expected [1 1] adduct 296b (derived from 293b) and shows again the preference for anti addition (dienophile versus epoxide) and the second adduct arises from two molecules of dienophile 291a and one molecule of 293a/b (Scheme 21.138). Formation of 297 requires molecular rearrangement and its structure has been elucidated by NMR and X-ray diffraction analysis.
O Ph N O N N
Me O
Me O N N Ph
O 2
Ar N N N -80 C
R O
R
2
291a= Ar= Ph 291b= Ar = C6F5 Ar N O O O N N -80 C
R 2 R N N
a/b
297
5a/b: R1 = R2 =H 292a/b: R1 = H, R2 = Me 293a/b: R1 = R2 = Me
N Ar O 294a/b: R1 = R2 =H 295a/b: R1 = H, R2 = Me 296a/b: R1 = R2 = Me
Scheme 21.138
Oxepines also undergo cycloaddition reactions at the C4C5 bond, where they participate as a dienophile in [2 4] cycloaddition with cyclopentadienone [270] and with 1,2,4,5-tetrazine or 1,2,4-triazine derivatives [309] bearing electron-withdrawing groups (Scheme 21.139). The benzo derivatives also undergo cycloaddition reactions. For example, reaction with tetracyanoethylene (TCE) [82, 310] affords the corresponding adduct 298 (Scheme 21.140).
1948

O E1= E2= CO2Me -N2 1,3-H shift E1 X N E2 X= N X= C-CO2Me E1= CO2Me, E2= CN N N Ph Me O 80C R= H O Me 65% Ph Me Ph Ph O R O R R= H R O R Me
CO2Me N HN CO2Me MeO2C HN CN CO2Me O
Scheme 21.139
Ph TCE O
NC NC
CN CN Ph
O 298
Scheme 21.140
21.7.1.3 Reactions with Electrophiles The protonation of oxepinebenzene oxides takes place at the ring oxygen atom and generally results in CO ring cleavage with the formation of several carbocations before conversion into phenol (Scheme 21.141). The acid-catalyzed isomerization has been studied extensively [311]. Deuterium and tritium labeling experiments have established a sequence that involves a 1,2-shift of the hydrogen isotope (X 2 H, 3 H) and an enolization step. This process has been described as the NIH-shift1) (Scheme 21.141).
H O X X= 2 H, 3 H H OH X
Scheme 21.141
H O X
X OH
H OH X
H X + OH
1) The NIH-shift, named after the National Institute of Health, Bethesda, USA, where it was discovered in the context of biosynthetic studies.
j1949
The acid-catalyzed isomerization is dependent on the nature and position of the substituents relative to the ring oxygen atom. The sequence observed in the NIH-shift was also found for Cl, Br, Me, and CO2R substituents. Potential reaction pathways are indicated in Scheme 21.142 at C2 in the acidcatalyzed process and these include: (a) loss of R, (b) loss of X, (c) 1,6-migration and retention of X, and (d) 1,3-migration and retention of X.
1
R O
O X
3 4 1
X R
2
X R
d 1,3c
R + OH X b -X
a -R
2
OH X R
1
OH
R= 1H or 2H
1,6R
2
X= CO2H, CHO, CH2OH
OH OH X
Scheme 21.142
The parent compound 5 has been halogenated by successive addition of bromine [312] and the resulting compound reacted with cyclopentadienylmagnesium to give 299, which upon treatment with triethylamine gave fulvalene derivatives (Scheme 21.143).
Br2 O 5 Br O Br
MgBr
Et3N O
299
Scheme 21.143
21.7.1.4 Reactions with Nucleophiles The arene oxide valence tautomer of oxepines could react with nucleophiles as a simple epoxide. However, the oxepinebenzene oxide is quite unreactive towards
1950

nitrogen nucleophiles such as NH3, NH2, and RNH2 although it reacts with the azide anion to give cyclohexadiene derivatives (Scheme 21.144) [313].
N3 H2O N3 OH
O 5a/b
Scheme 21.144
The reactivity of benzene oxideoxepine has also been studied with carbon, oxygen, and sulfur nucleophiles, affording in most instances 1,2-dihydroaromatic products. The reaction with methyllithium gave only cis-6-methylcyclohexa-2,4-dien-1-ol in 67% yield by 1,6-addition (Scheme 21.145). On the other hand, reaction with dimethylmagnesium gave a mixture of alcohols consisting of 37% cis isomer by 1,6-addition and 63% trans isomer by 1,2-addition. The mechanistic rationale was established by reactions with benzene-oxide oxepin-3,6-d2.
CH3 OH trans OH OH
+
cis H2O
CH3 OH
(CH3)2Mg Et2O
O
4 3 2
CH3Li Et2O cis OH OR R= Me, Et
CH3 OH
MeOH, MeO or EtOH
epoxide hydrolase
Na2S S OH
NaSR
SR OH R= Et, Ac
HO
Scheme 21.145
Alcohols add only with difculty, and the addition of water occurs in the presence of epoxide hydrolase enzyme [314]. Sulfur nucleophiles readily attack the oxepine ring as soft nucleophiles to produce the corresponding trans derivative as a result of direct 1,2-opening (Scheme 21.145). The reaction of the 3-benzoxepine (19), which appears to exist exclusively in the oxepine form, with methyllithium was much slower and resulted in ring-opening to give the propenylphenylpropanol 300 (Scheme 21.146). The reaction of intracellular glutathione with benzene oxideoxepine gave an initial metabolite of benzene, presumed to give 1-[S-glutathionyl]-cyclohexa-3,5-dien-
j1951
CH3Li O OH ether
19
Scheme 21.146
300
2-ol, which underwent dehydration to S-phenylglutathione, the precursor of S-phenylmercapturic acid. In an effort to validate the proposed route to S-phenylglutathione, reactions of benzene oxideoxepine with glutathione and other sulfur nucleophiles have been studied by Golding and co-workers [35b]. The data obtained conrm that benzene oxideoxepine can be captured by glutation to give (1R,2R) and/ or (1S,2S) products as indicated in Scheme 21.147. Further dehydration leads to the S-phenylglutathione. The process at pH 7 is relatively inefcient but is accelerated at higher pH.
R Glutathione pH= 7-10 HO
OH H N N H O O
HO
O NH2
OH H N N H O O
HO
O NH2
R S O
+
HO
S S O
Scheme 21.147
Herrad on and co-workers have reported the opening of dibenzo[c,e]oxepin-5,7dione (301) with amino acid and peptide derivatives to give peptide-biphenyl hybrids that are calpain inhibitors (Scheme 21.148) [315]. The method has also been applied in the solid phase [316].
O O O 301
Scheme 21.148
R1-NH2 2,4,6-collidine DMF, rt HO
O O
NHR
R2-NH2 HOBt/ EBC Et3N, DMAP; DMF, rt
O N H 79-94% O
NHR
87-99%
21.7.1.5 Reactions with Oxidants The reactions of oxepine with NBS/H2O or m-CPBA gave only stereoisomers of muconaldehyde (Scheme 21.149) [317]. The epoxides are assumed to be intermediates.
1952

Br NBS/H2O DMSO rt OH O O O CHO E, E CHO
O O O m-CPBA C6H6 O
CHO CHO E,Z
Reflux m-CPBA C6H6, 0C or air/C6H6, -3C 36 days

Scheme 21.149
O O CHO CHO Z,Z
However, in 2004 Nauduri and Greenberg [318] described the rst unambiguous observation of an oxepine-2,3-oxide, as determined by 1 H-NMR spectroscopy (Scheme 21.150). 3-Benzoxepine (19) reacted with deuterated dimethyloxirane (DMDO) at 50 C in acetone-d6 to give the corresponding 2,3-oxide, which at 510 C rearranged rapidly to its isomer 1H-2-benzopyran-1-carboxaldehyde. In contrast, 2,3oxides of monocyclic oxepines rearrange to stable ring-opened dialdehydes or diketones as occurs, for example, with 2,7-dimethyloxepine.
O O 19 Me O Me O O Me O Me O Me E,E Me DMDO O Z,Z
CHO CHO O CHO
Scheme 21.150
j1953
21.7.2 Reactivity of Partially Reduced Oxepines 21.7.2.1 Dihydrooxepines Rovis and Nasveschuk [319] have described an interesting ring contraction reaction from 2,5-dihydrooxepins to cyclopentenes, which involved a diastereoselective 1,3rearrangement promoted by ethylaluminium dichloride as a Lewis acid. The scope of the 1,3-ring contraction was evaluated with various substituents in different positions. The reaction provides access to cis- and trans-cyclopentene carboxaldehydes with good selectivities and can lead to tetrasubstituted cyclopentenes in high enantiomeric excess and with high diastereoselectivity (Scheme 21.151).
R EtAlCl2 R
2
CH2Cl2 r.t, 10 min.
O H R
2
52-89% R1= Ph, p-Tol, p-C6H4CF3 R2= Me, Ph(CH2)2-, TBDPSO(CH2)2Scheme 21.151
2-Triuoromethyl-substituted 4,5-dihydrooxepines 302 have been obtained by palladium(0)-mediated cross-coupling reactions from boryl, silyl, and stannyl dihydrooxepines (Scheme 21.152) [320].
Ph
Ph R-X O M Pd2(dba)3(2.5 mol%) P(t-bu)3 (10 mol %) O , TMS R= Ph (80%) R= vinyl (75%) R= Ph (78%) CF3 O 302 R
CF3
M= SnMe3, B O
a: iodobenzene, CsF, dioxane, 100C b: vinyl bromide, KOH, THF, r.t c: bromopphenylacetylene, KOH, THF, r.t
Scheme 21.152
2-Triuoromethyl-2,5-dihydrooxepine 303 has been hydrogenated to the fully saturated 304 and oxidized to oxepine 305 (Scheme 21.153).
1954

R H2 (1 atm) DDQ CF3 O E Toluene, 100 C F3C O SiMe2Bu
t t
F3C
SiMe2Bu
Pd/C, MeOH, r.t
304 (93%)
cis/trans =90: 10
303
E= t-BuMe2Si
305 (93%)
Scheme 21.153
The photochemical behavior of 3,30 -dimethyl-3H-oxepin-2-ones has been reported [321]. The method efciently proceeds through cyclization to give exclusively compound 306. However, reexamination of this photoreaction also found small amounts of the product arising from a 1,2-acyl shift (2.55%). A study of the photochemical process showed that the product distribution is greatly affected by the reaction temperature and that the yield of the 1,2-acyl shift product may be increased up to 28% at 70 C (Scheme 21.154).
O O Me + Me O O
Me Me
O O h Sensitizer rt
Me Me
306
R O
Me O O h Sensitizer or direct
Me
O O R O heat
Me
O O R O R= Me (42%) R= Ph (unstable) h
O Me H O R O
307
R= Me, Ph Me O O Me O O h CH3CN 10-15C O O
R= Me (24%) R= Ph (63%)
Scheme 21.154
Other photochemistry studies have been carried out on 3-acetyl and 3-benzoyl 3-methyloxepine-2-ones (307), which efciently undergo a 1,5-acetyl or 1,5-benzoyl shift (Scheme 21.154) followed by double bond isomerization [322]. Cyclization of 1,5-products by a second photoreaction to give the bicyclic systems is a common reaction, but this process can be suppressed completely when the photolysis is carried out at 60 C (6 h, R Me) and the reaction mixture is allowed to stand at room temperature overnight, yielding only the 1,5-acethyl product in 80%.
j1955
Oxepine-2,7-diones [323] also undergo photochemical ring closure to the corresponding bicyclic anhydrides (Scheme 21.154). Pterulone a, a chlorinated benzoxepine derivative that has potent antifungal activity, has been synthesized from 4,5-dihydro-2H-benzoxepin-3-one in a sequence of three reactions (Scheme 21.155). The rst step is an oxidation to generate the double bond and this was carried out by radical bromination with NBS. This was followed by elimination of HBr to give the 3(2H)-oxepinone in 67% yield. The keto group was transformed into a chlorovinyl group by a Wittig reaction to afford only the (Z)-isomer in 76% yield. Finally, a FriedelCrafts acetylation with silver triate and acetyl chloride in DCM yielded a 1: 3 mixture of peterulone a and its(Z)-isomer in 60% overall yield [324].
+ Ph3PCH2Cl , Cl tBuOH, THF, -78C O 76% AcCl, AgTf, CH2Cl2 O O Peterulone a 1:3 60% overall Cl + O Peterulone b O Cl Cl
O O
NBS/ Bz2O2 CCl4, reflux O 67%
Scheme 21.155
21.7.2.2 Tetrahydrooxepines Several syntheses of acyclic and carbocyclic natural products are based on the use of (Z)-4-hexenolide (4,7-dihydro-3H-oxepin-2-one) and substituted derivatives. This lactone reacts with allyltrimethylsilane [325] in the presence of trimethyloxonium tetrauoroborate in a ring-opening process to give methyl 4,8-nonadienoate with exclusive (Z)-conguration in 87% yield (Scheme 21.156).
SiMe3 + Me3O BF4 O O CH2Cl2, rt, 94 h 87%
Scheme 21.156
OMe
To understand the role of the heteroatom on the rate of hydroboration, Brown and co-workers [326] undertook a study of representative heterocyclic olens in comparison with the corresponding carbocyclic analogues. The results showed that
1956

Table 21.5 Relative reactivity of olefins towards 9-BBN in THF at 25 C (1-hexene 100).
Hetero and related olefins 1-Hexene Cycloheptene 1-Methyl-1-cyclopentene 2,5-Dihydrofuran 2,3,4,5-Tetrahydrooxepin
Relative rates 100 6.9 1.59 1.54 2.31 101
2,3,4,5-tetrahydrooxepine reacts 30 times slower than cycloheptene (Table 21.5), and the hydroboration with 9-borabicyclo[3.3.1]nonane (9-BBN) is exclusively directed to the 3-position, which is probably controlled by a strong mesomeric contribution of the oxygen (Table 21.5, Scheme 21.157).
9-BBN X 25 C X
X= O, 0.034 X= CH2, 100

Scheme 21.157
Another type of reactivity that has been studied [327] is the metallation of 2,3,4,5tetrahydrooxepine with n-BuLi or t-BuLi to afford 7-lithio-2,3,4,5-tetrahydrooxepine by vinylic deprotonation (Scheme 21.158).
O n-BuLi O 128
Scheme 21.158
Li
37%
OH Me Me
Under standard silylation [328] conditions (LDA, t-BuMe2SiCl, THF, 70 C) lactone 308 gave 309 in 97% yield and this rearranged to give cyclopropane carboxylic acids (e.g., the cis-chrysanthemic ester) by ClaisenIreland rearrangement (Scheme 21.159). Although seven-membered a,b-unsaturated lactones can be used as dienophiles, they are less reactive than their acyclic counterparts and the DielsAlder reaction is not a general approach to complex polycyclic systems. In an effort to overcome these synthetic problems, Taguchi and co-workers [329] have developed an efcient Lewis
j1957
O O 308
Scheme 21.159
OTBDS LDA, t-Bu(Me)2 SiCl THF, -70C 309 (97%) O
H CO2 R H cis-chrysanthemic ester
acid by mixing Tf2CH2 and Me3Al for the DielsAlder reaction with cyclopentadiene (CP), which in the case of c- or e-methylated seven-membered lactone derivatives preferentially reacted with CP by the syn face (Scheme 21.160).
O O "Tf2CH2 + Me3Al"
endo/exo a, b 80%
+
30 equiv
DCM 60 C, 4 h
+
H endo-cis O H H endo-trans H O
+
H exo H O
17:1 (1: 1.8)
O O
70% 19:1 (1:3.8)
+
34 equiv
"Tf2CH2 + Me3Al" Toluene 60 C, 8h H endo-cis
+
H endo-trans
+
H exo
a: Determined by 1H NMR b: Ratio endo-cis/endo-trans isomers in parentheses
Scheme 21.160
The 1,3-cycloaddition reaction of nitrones to olens is an effective tool for the preparation of isoxazolidones. In particular, the adduct from the cycloaddition of cyclic nitrones to a,b-unsaturated lactones [330] such as 6,7-dihydro-5H-oxepin-2one was converted into the corresponding piperidyl (and pyrrolidyl) oxepinone by reduction of the nitrogenoxygen bond (Scheme 21.161) [331].
X + n N + O n= 1, 2
X H O N O O H O
Zn/HCl 50-100%
X HO
HN H O
n=1; X= H, OAc, SPh, SAc n=2; X=H, Br, OTs, OAc, SPh, SAc
Scheme 21.161
1958

21.8 Reactivity of Thiepines
The development of the chemistry of thiepines is linked to their theoretical and biological interest. The theoretical interest concerns the question of whether thiepines with 8p electrons are nonaromatic or antiaromatic. Research in this eld has focused on simple derivatives that could provide information to increase our understanding of the nature of thiepines while the biological interest is linked to the pharmacological activity of this system. Since simple thiepines are generally very reactive, the chemical reactivity has been studied on polycyclic systems. On the other hand, the reactivity of this system can be considered separately from the bicyclic isomer thiirane, which on desulfurization and ring contraction yields arenes (Scheme 21.7). Thiepine thus appears to exist exclusively in this valence isomer. The stability of thiepines is enhanced by the presence of bulky substituents [332] at the C2 and/or C7 positions and electrondonating or -withdrawing groups. Additional stability is achieved in the transformation to S,S-dioxides (sulfones) and thiepinium salts.
21.8.1 Reactivity of Thiepines and Benzofused Derivatives
As simple thiepines are thermally unstable, the reactivity of these heterocycles has been studied with either monocyclic structures stabilized by tert-butyl groups at the 2,7-positions or annulated thiepines, 1,1-dioxide derivatives, or as transition metal derivatives.
21.8.1.1 Reactions with Metal Carbonyl Complexes The capacity of transition metals to stabilize labile species by complexation allows the isolation of unstable conjugated molecules such as, for example, norcaradiene [333] among others. In the eld of thiepines, the transition metal complexation strategy has been used to synthesize and isolate thermally unstable compounds. Thiepine-1,1dioxide has been isolated as a stable crystalline compound, but the 1-oxides are considered to be extremely unstable [18]. In relation to the benzo-derivatives, 1-benzothiepine and its 1,1-dioxide are well characterized but the 1-benzothiephine 1-oxides are referred to polysubstituted derivatives. Consequently, efforts have been directed to the unstable 1-benzothiepine-1-oxide and thiepine and its 1-oxide. The rst synthesis and characterization of thiepine-iron tricarbonyl (310) was carried out by Nishino and co-workers [177a] from thiepine 1,1-dioxide with Fe2(CO)9, a process that gave (thiepine 1,1-dioxide)iron tricarbonyl in 99% yield. Subsequent treatment of this complex with p-toluenediazonium tetrauoroborate promoted by ultrasound irradiation led to the corresponding tolyloxysulfoxonium tetrauoroborate as a mixture of stereoisomers, which were reduced by reaction with samarium diiodide/THF complex without affecting the 6,7-double bond to produce 310 in 38% yield (Scheme 21.162). Other complexes of thiepine 1,1-dioxide with Cr-, Mo-, and W-carbonyls have also been described [334].

Fe(CO) 3 _ + p-CH 3C6H5-N2 BF4 )))))) 5 min. O + S
j1959
CH3
Fe(CO) 3
1.5 equiv. Fe 2(CO) 9 S THF, 50 C, 12 h O S 99%
10
21% 15 equiv. SmI 2 THF, 0 C Fe(CO) 3
(MeCN) 3Cr(CO) 3 THF, N 2, rt, 12 h S 86%
Cr(CO) 3
O S
310 (38%)
Scheme 21.162
Application of the transition metal strategy to 1-benzothiepine (14) gave the complex 311 in 41% yield, which on oxidation with m-CPBA was converted into monoxide 312 in 98% yield [335]. This compound, under analogous reaction conditions, gave the 1,1-dioxide complex (Scheme 21.163).
Large excess F e2(CO)9 Hexene <15 C, 3 d, S Fe(CO)3 m-CPBA CHCl3 -40 C, 1 h S Fe(CO)3 m-CPBA CHCl3 -40 C, 2 h S Fe(CO)3
14
Scheme 21.163
311 (41%)
312 (98%)
61%
21.8.1.2 Cycloaddition Reactions One of the essential characteristics of conjugated polyenes is their capacity to undergo cycloaddition reactions and, as a consequence, this reaction has been studied with different thiepines. For example, the cycloaddition of 2,7-di-tertbutylthiepine (163) with tetracyanoethylene (TCNE) produced only the [4 2] cycloadduct, although the steric repulsion of tert-butyl groups could promote a [2 2] process (Scheme 21.164) [336]. The reaction in toluene at 60 C under
NC TCNE Bu
t
CN CN Bu
t
NC
S 163
Bu
Toluene, 60 C High pressure, 3 d
Bu
S 46%
Scheme 21.164
1960

high pressure for 3 days gave the adduct in 46% yield as the major product and the same reaction in acetonitrile at atmospheric pressure over two weeks gave 49% yield. In an analogous way to azepine derivatives, the higher-order cycloaddition reactions (i.e., 6p 4p, 4p 4p, and 6p 2p) have emerged as a powerful method for the construction of stereochemically and structurally complex polycyclic systems. Rigbys group have been particularly active in this area, using both thermally and photochemically activated cycloadditions of chromium(0) complexes of azepines and thiepines. Scheme 21.165 shows selected examples [337].
CO2Me H O O S X H
R H
O O S
1) R
CO2Me h 2) O2, Et2O, rt
1)
X h
2) O2, Et2O, rt Cr(CO)3 313a: X= OAc (78%) 313b: X= OTMS (65%)
a: R= H (38%) b: R= Me (21%)
Scheme 21.165
Photolysis of decomplexed cycloadduct 313a afforded the all-(Z) cyclodecatetraene in 54% yield through a chelotropic reaction (Scheme 21.166). Extension of the reaction with alkynes [338] afforded substituted cyclooctatetraenes. The two-step process involves consecutive [6p 2p] cycloaddition and the elimination of sulfur dioxide (Scheme 21.166).
O O S OAc H h quartz OAc 54% O + Cr(CO)3 R
1
DCM: hexane, 1:1 rt, 15 min. 313a

O O
h U-glass
R R
2
O h U-glass -SO2
R1 = Me, n-Pr, n-Bu, Ph R2 = TMS, Et
42-78%
85-95%
Scheme 21.166
A complementary application of the cycloadditionchelotropic extrusion sequence is the benzannulation (Scheme 21.167) in which the elimination of SO2 occurs as part of a RambergB acklund (R-B) rearrangement process [339]. This protocol includes the simultaneous formation of two rings. The overall process takes place with a high level of convergency, with all of the carbon atoms comprising the arene substructure introduced in a single step through the thiepine
j1961
-SO2
O S O
+ Cr(CO)3
[6 + 4]
O O S
R-B -SO2
Scheme 21.167
dioxide triene system (a good example of atom economy [340]). Scheme 21.168 shows a typical benzannulation process.
O S O + Cr(CO)3 h [6 + 4]
S
O O
1) t-BuOK,THF (-105 C) 2) NCS, THF 3) t-BuOK, THF
75%
75%
Scheme 21.168
Modications through a multicomponent reaction [341] have been described that involve three-components, that is, a Cr(0) complex in combination with two terminal alkyne units to give cycloadducts in good yields in a process that can be viewed formally as two consecutive Cr(0)-mediated [6p 2p] cycloadditions (Scheme 21.169).
TMS O S O TMS [6 + 2] h U-glass Cr(CO)3 S O O Cr(CO)3 TMS [6 + 2] h U-glass TMS S O O 85%
TMS
Scheme 21.169
An extension of this concept has been applied to four-component chromium(0)mediated cycloaddition processes involving thiepine 1,1-dioxide/tricarbonylchromium(0) and various tethered diyne reaction partners. In a typical example of this process, photocycloaddition of the complex with excess 1,7-octadiyne in dichloroethane afforded the pentacyclic triene sulfone 314 in 45% yield (Scheme 21.170) [342]. A similar reaction with 1,8-nonadiyne gave the corresponding product in 38% yield. The reaction with 1,6-heptadiyne afforded only the three-component cycloadduct. The adduct is formally derived from a sequential [6p 2p]/[6p 2p]/[2s 2p] process. The rst two steps involve a similar transformation to the pathway observed
1962

O S O + Cr(CO)3 h (pyrex) ClCH2CH2Cl O S O (CH2)4
314 (45%)
Scheme 21.170
in the three-component process [6p 2p]/[6p 2p] and the third cycloaddition [2s 2p] takes place with the cyclopropene unit and the additional alkyne component. The role of chromium(0) in promoting the critical [2s 2p] process is not yet clear.
21.8.1.3 Thermal and Photochemical Reactions The most common thermal reaction of thiepines is the extrusion of a sulfur atom [343]. A similar reaction occurs with thiepine 1-oxide and 1,1-dioxide, which lose sulfur monoxide and sulfur dioxide, respectively (Scheme 21.171).
+ S +
SO
S O
S O + SO2
Scheme 21.171
The relative stability of fused benzo derivatives of thiepine [344] is assessed by the temperature at which sulfur extrusion occurs: 47 C for compound 14, 250 C for 29, and 380 C for the tribenzo derivative 29b [345].
S 14
S 29
S 29b
j1963
Thermolysis of stable monocyclic thiepines such as 2,7-di-tert-butylthiepines 163 gave the sulfur-extruded benzene derivative as the major product, together with the thienothiophene derivative 315, the structure of which was conrmed by X-ray diffraction [346]. The formation of 315 can be explained by addition of extruded sulfur, which is in a highly reactive monomeric form, to the thiepine to produce different intermediates that can be transformed into 315 by 1,3-shifts, as indicated in Scheme 21.172.
R R Heat Bu
t
+
Bu
t
Bu
R Bu R S
t
S Bu 163, R = H, 163a, R = Me, 163b, R = CO2Et

t
Bu
315 < 5%
R S R 1,3 Bu R R
t
S R S S
Bu
R Bu
t
R 1,3 Bu
t
R S 1,3 Bu
t
Bu
+
"S"
Bu
Bu 1,3
Bu
R Bu R S
t
R S t Bu
315
Bu
Scheme 21.172
On the other hand, it is worth noting that the reactivity of benzo[b]thiepine derivatives depends on the substituent at position-5 and this can occur by either sulfur extrusion or rearrangement to 4-mercapto-1-naphthol (Scheme 21.173), probably via the thianorcaradiene as an intermediate [347].
N CO2Me CO2Me R=
R N S
CO2Me CO2Me R = OH
OH CO2Me CO2Me
SH
Scheme 21.173
Other benzothiepine derivatives undergo the same transformation, depending on the solvent [348]. Thus, heating in cyclohexene gives the usual desulfuration
1964

products, whereas in carbon tetrachloride or nitromethane the benzothiepine isomerizes to the thionaphthol as indicated in Scheme 21.174.
MeO
OMe R
1
Heat S
+ OMe R
S R1 = OMe, R2 = Ph R1 = OAc, R2 = Ph R1 = H, R2 = Ph R1 = R2 = H
C6D12 OMe R
CCl4 or CD3NO2
OMe
2
R
Scheme 21.174
R SH
The photochemical reactivity of benzothiepine and substituted benzothiepine derivatives is similar to that found with benzoxepines and the valence tautomeric cyclobutene is formed by a concerted disrotatory ring closure mechanism (Scheme 21.175) [349]. Under prolonged irradiation [221], compound 316 (R3 OH, R1 R2 CO2Me) was converted into another isomer (316a). This transformation proceeds by rupture of the CS bond to give a stabilized diradical with subsequent formation of a new CS bond.
2
R S
R S
R S R
2
14, R1 = R2 = R3 = H
316
c: R1= R2 = CO2Me, R3 = OH
3
316a
R1 = H, R2 = Ph, R3 = OMe R1 = R2 = CO2Me, R3 = OH R1 = OAc, R2 = Ph, R3 = OMe R1 = R3=H, R2 = Me R1 = R2 = H, R3 = OAc R1 = R2 = H, R3 = OMe
Scheme 21.175
In general, 1-methylbenzothiepinium salts are more stable than the corresponding benzothiepines and the thermolysis of such salts gives the naphthyl thioethers 317 (Scheme 21.176) [350]. However, thermolysis of 1,2-dimethyl-4-phenyl-1-benzothiepinium salts gives sulfur-free reaction products [351].
j1965
R Heat R
2
Ph R SMe 317 R
2 1
Ph R
1
R= H
R1 = R2 = OMe (85%) R1 = OAc, R2 = OMe (55%) R1 = R2 = OAc (50%)
Y _ _ _ Y = TNBS, FSO3
S+ R Me
Heat R= Me Me
Ph R
1
R1 = R2 = OAc R1 = R2 = OMe
Scheme 21.176
21.8.1.4 Reactions with Electrophiles 4H-Thiepinium ions have been generated by treatment of thiepines with uorosulfuric acid (FSO3H/CD2Cl2/SO2) solution at 70 C or sulfuric acid at room temperature [352]. The 1 H NMR analysis showed that these ions possess a homothiopyrylium structure. Protonation occurs regiospecically at position-5 in thiepines to give the 4H-ions (Scheme 21.177).
1 2
H H Bu
t
H Bu
t
R
R
1
Bu
+ S
H
t
Bu
163, R1 = R2 = H, R1 = Me, R2 = H R1 = R2 = Me
Scheme 21.177
R1 = R2 = H, R1 = Me, R2 = H R1 = R2 = Me
Both 5H- and 3H-1-benzothiepinium ions have been generated under analogous conditions (FSO3H/CD2Cl2/SO2) and have been characterized by 1 H and 13 C NMR spectroscopy. The former ion can be regarded as having a benzohomothiopyrylium ion structure whereas the 3H-benzothiepinium has a localized ion structure rather than a delocalized one (as shown here).
H + H H H S +
S +

Bromination of 2,7-di-tert-butylthiepine [353] (163) directly with bromine at 78 C or with pyridinium hydrotribromide at room temperature in dichloromethane
1966

gave compound 318 in low yield along with several unidentied products (Scheme 21.178).
Br2 / CH2Cl2 (18% yield) Bu
t
O Bu
t
S 163
Bu
PyHBr3/CH2Cl2 (6% yield) Br Br
S 318
Bu
Br
O
t
Br S Bu
t
Bu
S + H2O
Bu
Bu OHS
t
Bu Bu
HS
Bu
Bu
Scheme 21.178
Although reaction of thiepine 163 with a dioxane/bromine complex in CH2Cl2 at 70 C produced a complex mixture in a nucleophilic solvent (AcOH/CH2Cl2, 3 : 1) at 0 C, the bromo acetate 319 was obtained in 10% yield. However, when the reaction was carried out with pyridinium hydrotribromide in AcOH at room temperature compound 319 was obtained in 71% yield (Scheme 21.179).
AcO Br
Dioxane-Br2/AcOH-CH2Cl2 (10% yield) Bu

t
S 163
Bu
PyHBr3/AcOH (71% yield) Br AcOH
Bu
S 319
Bu
Bu
Scheme 21.179
S +
Bu
Alkylation of 2,7-di-tert-butylthiepine with methyl iodide/silver tetrauoroborate in CH2Cl2 at room temperature did not give the expected 1-methylthiepinium derivative, but the reaction afforded compounds 320a and 320b in 17% and 77% yield, respectively; compound 320a is an intermediate, as demonstrated by the fact that further identical treatment of 320a gave 320b in 75% yield (Scheme 21.180). Methyl uorosulfonate, methyl 2,4,6-trinitrobenzosulfonate, and trimethyloxonium tetrauoroborate have been used as methylating agents for the formation of S-methylthiobenzothiepinium salts (Scheme 21.181).
j1967
MeI, AgF4B MeI, AgF4B Bu

t
S 163
Bu
ClCH2CH2Cl, rt
ClCH2CH2Cl, rt 75% + + SMe2 SMe t t Bu Bu 320b (77%) 320a (17%)
H
t Bu + S Me
Bu
t Me Bu S+ Me Me
Scheme 21.180
Ph R S R
3 2
R FSO3Me _ FSO3
NO2
Ph R
2
+S Me
R1 = OAc, R2 = H, R3 = H R1 = OMe, R2 =OAc, R3 = H R1 = OMe, R2 =OMe, R3 =H R1 = OAc, R2 = OAc, R3 = Me R1 = OMe, R2 = OMe, R3 = Me R1 = OMe, R2 = OAc, R3 = Me
Ph R S
2
O 2N
SO3Me NO2
Ph R
2
TNBS _ + Me3O BF4 S

Scheme 21.181
+ S _ Me
R1 = OMe, R2 = H R1 = OAc, R2 = OAc
+S Me
_ BF4
21.8.1.5 Reactions with Oxidants While thiepine 1-oxide has not been prepared, the 1,1-dioxide is a stable crystalline compound. In relation to benzo derivatives, the oxidation of benzothiepine to 1-benzothiepine 1-oxide failed, as indicated previously, but its 1,1-dioxide has been synthesized by direct treatment with two equivalents of m-CPBA. On the other hand, oxidation of 2,7-di-tert-butylthiepine (163) has been tested with o-benzylmonoperoxycarbonic acid in an NMR tube. Signals consistent with the structure of
1968

2,7-di-tert-butyl-thiepin-1-oxide were observed, but when the mixture was allowed to warm up to 15 C the compound gradually transformed into o-di-tert-butylbenzene. The 1-oxide was not further oxidized to the sulfone, probably because the two bulky tert-butyl groups sterically hinder the approach of the second equivalent of the peracid (Scheme 21.182).
Ph O O O-OH Bu
t
Ph
O O-OH Bu
t t S Bu O O
S 163
Bu
Bu
S O
Bu
//
- 15 C
- SO
Bu
t
S O
Bu
Bu
Bu
Scheme 21.182
Oxidation of substituted benzothiepines [354] with m-CPBA afforded the corresponding 1-oxides and 1,1-dioxides, respectively (Scheme 21.183).
MeO Ph R S R = OAc R= OMe
Scheme 21.183
MeO m-CPBA S O
Ph R m-CPBA
MeO
Ph R
S O O
21.8.2 Reactivity of Partially Reduced Thiepine Derivatives
In this section the reactions are classied into several categories: reactions on the sulfur atom, reactions of the substituents on the sulfur atom, reactions that occur in other parts of the molecule that are able to form adducts, at the carbons, or reactions of substituents attached to ring carbon atoms.
21.8.2.1 Dihydrothiepines S-Chloro and S-bromo derivatives of dihydrobenzothiepines [355] have been synthesized by treatment with NCS or NBS at room temperature. The chlorosulfuranes
j1969
are more thermally stable than bromosulfuranes during the recrystallization process. To investigate the covalent nature of these species, the corresponding thiepinium salts were synthesized (Scheme 21.184) and their physicochemical data compared with those of sulfuranes. Furthermore, the sulfurhalogen bond was studied by 1 H NMR spectroscopy, MS, and X-ray diffraction analysis.
R
2
OH R
1
NCS or NBS CH2Cl2 S
O R
1
R Ag Y S +
O R
1
R 70% HClO4 S O
OH R
1
S R1 = H, R2 = Ph R1 = R2 = Me
X X= Cl, Br
Y= ClO4 , BF4
Scheme 21.184
As indicated previously, the oxidation with m-CPBA is readily conducted and the dihydrodibenzo[b,f ] thiepine is transformed into the sulfoxide in quantitative yield. This process usually has to be conducted carefully to avoid over-oxidation to the sulfone [356]. However, this was not the case with 321 because it did not react under various oxidizing conditions, probably due to the electron-withdrawing nature of the uoro-substituents (Scheme 21.185).
MeO OMe m-CPBA S F 321
Scheme 21.185
MeO
OMe
DCM F
S O 99%
A 1-benzothiepine fused to a pyridine ring has also been oxidized to the corresponding sulfone using m-CPBA in DCM containing 35 equivalents of methanesulfonic acid to avoid pyridine N-oxide formation (Scheme 21.186) [357].
O m-CPBA N DCM CH3SO3H N COR
Scheme 21.186
S N
N COR
1970

The reaction of suldes with diazo compounds bearing electron-withdrawing groups to give stabilized sulfonium ylides is a well known process. The reaction of dihydrobenzothiepine 322 with dimethyl diazomalonate and dibenzyl diazomalonate in the presence of 5 mol.% Rh2(OAc)4 gave the ylides 323a and 323b in 75% and 65% yields, respectively (Scheme 21.187) [325].
MeO MeO + N2 S 322 CO2R CO2R R= Me R= Bz 5 mol % Rh2(OAc)4 DCM +S _ CO R 2 RO2C 323a: R= Me (75%) 323b: R= Bz (63%)
Scheme 21.187
OMe
OMe
Flash vacuum thermolysis of dihydrobenzothiepine dioxide 324 (550 C/0.2 mmHg) led to 9,10-dimethyl-9,10-dihydrophenanthrene 325 in 86% yield with loss of SO2. When the product was subjected to more extreme conditions (730 C/1 mm Hg) 9,10-dihydrophenanthrene 326 was obtained as the major product. Labeling studies indicate that the mechanism of dihydrophenanthrene formation involves a biradical as an intermediate, which undergoes ring closure to 325 followed by loss of two methyl radicals to give 326 (Scheme 21.188) [358].
O O 324
Scheme 21.188
. .
325 326
Cycloaddition of dihydro benzothiepines 327a with DMAD gave the nine-membered ring compound at room temperature through a ring-opening reaction. The initially formed adduct, with a cis,trans conguration of the resulting butadiene, isomerized to the cis,cis-isomer by heating under reux in toluene for 4 h. The initial cyclobutene adduct was not obtained [359]. However, the reaction of 327b with DMAD yielded an equilibrium mixture of the cyclobutene and its cis,trans cyclooctadiene valence isomer, which was irreversibly transformed into the cis,cis isomer (Scheme 21.189) [360]. Nucleophilic attack at the carbon can occur on the 4,5-dihydrothiepinium ion, generated by treatment of alcohol 328 with FSO3H/CD2Cl2/SO2 in an NMR tube under nitrogen at 78 C, by subsequent reaction with methanol in the presence of
j1971
S DMAD R 327a R= 327b R=

N O
S E
S heat E toluene N O E E
R E= CO2Me
Scheme 21.189
sodium hydrogen carbonate (Scheme 21.190). Delocalization of the charge is indicated by the proton chemical shifts in the homothiopyrylium ion (average d 7.9 except for H4a,b), which demonstrates that the C-atoms at 2, 3, 5, 6, and 7 are part of a six-membered ring. Retention of the seven-membered ring was conrmed by quenching the solution of homothiopyrylium with methanol [361].
H4b HO + H S 328
Scheme 21.190
H
6 4 5
H4a MeOH NaHCO3
MeO
+ S
3 2
H H
The reactivity of carbanions depends on the capacity of the substituents to stabilize a negative charge. Thus, the reaction of 329 with n-butyllithium in hexane/ether generates a carbanion that undergoes a rearrangement to the stable thiolate anion. On the other hand, the carbanion can be generated with sodium hydride in DMF followed by treatment with electrophiles (Scheme 21.191) [362].
_
n-BuLi
_ S
+ E H2O or ClCH2CH2NMe2
SR R= H R= CH2CH2NMe2
329
NC NaH DMF S S NC _ + E BrCH2CH2Br
NC R
S R= CH2CH2Br (21%) R= CH2= CH2 (50%)
Scheme 21.191
1972

Although organolithium compounds can be prepared through a wide range of methodologies [363], the last few years have witnessed their use as reagents for the reductive opening of heterocycles [364]. This method has been applied to the transformation of dihydrobenzothiepines and dihydrodinaphthothiepines [365]. For example, the reaction of 5,7-dihydrodibenzo[c,e]thiepine (329) with excess lithium in the presence of a catalytic amount of 4,40 -di-tert-butylbiphenyl (DTBB, 5 mol%) in THF at 78 C followed by treatment with different electrophiles (e..g, with carbonyl compounds) led, after hydrolysis, to the corresponding hydroxymercaptans in 4782% yield (Scheme 21.192) [366].
t t
Bu
Bu
i) DTBB (5 mol %) Li, THF, -78 C ii) R1R2CO -78 C iii) HCl-H2O , -78 C to rt R
1
SH OH R
2
329
47-82%
R1R2CO = t-BuCHO, Ph(CH2)2CHO, PhCHO, Me2CO, (n-C5H11)2CO, (CH2)5CO, (CH2)7CO, (-)menthone
Scheme 21.192
An interesting sequential reductive lithiation has been described. The lithium derivative I is generated from 329 and reacts with a rst electrophile (i.e., a carbonyl compound) to give II, which instead of being hydrolyzed was further lithiated to III and reacts with a second electrophile to afford IV. Scheme 21.193 gives some examples [366].
21.8.2.2 Tetrahydrothiepines Bridged bicyclic sulfolenes can be easily converted into the corresponding 1,3-dienyl carbocycles in good yield by direct thermolysis (Scheme 21.194) [367] or by treatment with lithium aluminum hydride at room temperature [368]. Tetrahydrothiepines such as 330 are easily oxidized with m-CPBA in dichloromethane (Scheme 21.195) or with sodium periodate in methanol [350] to give the corresponding sulfoxide or sulfone. Oxidation with two equivalents of m-CPBA yields the sulfone. Attempts to achieve ring expansion processes [369] by heating a methanolic solution of 5-methylene-2,3,4,5-tetrahydrothiepine 331 and silver nitrate under reux in the presence of iodine gave a benzothiophene derivative as a consequence of intramolecular attack by sulfur at the initially formed halomethyl group (Scheme 21.196) [370]. No evidence for the formation of ring expansion products was found. In general, the treatment of sulfoxides that have a-hydrogens with electrophiles such as carboxylic acid anhydrides affords products in which sulfur is reduced and

R SLi Li R I Bu
t 3
j1973
SLi OH
1
Li OLi R III
1 2
R OLi OLi R
2
R IV
II Bu
t
i) DTBB (5 mol %) Li, THF, -78 C ii) R1R2CO -78 C R

1
E OH R
2
329
iii) -78 C to rt iv) E v) HCl-H2O , -78 C to rt
35-46%
R1R2CO = Me2CO, (n-C5H11)2CO, (CH2)5CO, (CH2)7CO, (-)-menthone E= Me2CO, Et2CO, (CH2)5CO, ClCO2Et Bu
t
HO
R R R
2
1 2
Bu
OH R 31-57%
1
i) DTBB (5 mol %) Li, THF, -78 C ii) R1R2CO -78 C iii) HCl-H2O , -78 C to rt
i) Li, THF, -78 C ii) R1R2CO -78 C iii) HCl-H2O , -78 C to rt 36-64% R
1
E OH R
2
R1R2CO = Me2CO, Et2CO, (CH2)4CO, (CH2)5CO,
Scheme 21.193
O O
-SO2 R 85-90% R
R= Me, Et, t-Bu

Scheme 21.194
OAr m-CPBA S 330

Scheme 21.195
OAr
DCM
S O
1974

Cl MeO i) AgNO3, I2, MeOH I MeO MeO S _ ONO2 S S
ii) HCl-MEOH
331
Scheme 21.196
S +
ONO2
the adjacent carbon is oxidized (Pummerer reaction). This reaction has been applied to the sulfoxide 332 [371], although the conversion was carried out under modied nigs base or N,N-diisopropylethylamine in DCM Pummerer conditions using Hu and trimethylsilyl iodide under nitrogen (Scheme 21.197).
Hnigs base TMS-I
S O
CH2Cl2
332
Scheme 21.197
160 (56%)
O O X S i) NaH, DMSO X ii) ClCH2COCH3 S X= H (23%) X= Cl (8%) O
333a, X= H 333b, X= Cl
O i) NaH, THF S ii) BrCH2CH=CH2 I O IPy2BF4 S CH2Cl2 S 90% O
HO Red-Al, THF S S i)
O2N
CO2H
DIAD, PPh3, THF
333a
HO
ii) LiOH R N HNR1R2 CaO/THF, heat S O

1
334
a: NR1R2 = NMe2 b: NR1R2 = c: NR1R2 =
N N N
Scheme 21.198
References
j1975
21.8.2.3 Thiepinones Reported examples of the reactivity of thiepinones are typical of cyclic ketones. Some examples are shown in Scheme 21.198 [372]. The transformation of 333a into the biologically active dibenzo[b,f ]thiepine 334 involves several transformations of ketone, alcohol, olen, and iodide. The dibenzo[b,d]thiepine 336 has been obtained from the benzo[b]thiepinone 335 by sequential conjugate addition/elimination and Claisen-type condensation (Scheme 21.199) [373].
O O SMe S 335
Scheme 21.199
O O SMe S SMe p-TsOH C6H6, reflux
HO SMe S 336 (62%)
NaH, DMF, rt
On the other hand, thiepinone dioxide 337 reacts with aromatic aldehydes to produce the Knoevenagel condensation products 338 in moderate to good yields (Scheme 21.200) [374].
X CHO Pyridine, 100 C, 4h X
O S O
O S
O 337
Me
Me
338
X= H; 4-Cl; 4- NO2; 4-NMe2; 4- OMe; 3,4,5- (OMe) 3; 3,4- OCH2O-; 2- OH
Scheme 21.200
References
1 Smalley, R.K. (1984) Azepines, in 3 Le Count, D.J. (1996) Azepines and
Comprehensive Heterocyclic Chemistry I, vol. 5 (eds A.R. Katritzky and C.W. Rees), Pergamon Press, Oxford, p. 491. 2 Boyd, D.R. (1984) Oxepanes, oxepins, thiepanes and thiepins, in Comprehensive Heterocyclic Chemistry I, vol. 5 (eds A.R. Katritzky and C.W. Rees), Pergamon Press, Oxford, p. 547.
their fused-ring derivatives, in Comprehensive Heterocyclic Chemistry II, vol. 9 (eds A.R. Katritzky, C.W. Rees, and E.F.V. Scriven), Pergamon Press, Oxford, p. 1. kii, L.I. (1996) Oxepanes and 4 Belen oxepines, in Comprehensive Heterocyclic Chemistry II, vol. 9 (eds A.R. Katritzky,
1976

5
10 11 12
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nther, H. (1967) 297 Vogel, E. and Gu Angewandte Chemie (International Edition in English), 6, 385. (a) Hayes, D.M., Nelson, S.D., Garland, W.A., and Kollman, P.A. (1980) Journal of the American Chemical Society, 102, 1255; (b) Boyd, D.R. and Stubbs, M.E. (1983) Journal of the American Chemical Society, 105, 2554. Holovka, J.M. and Gardner, P.D. (1967) Journal of the American Chemical Society, 89, 6390. Jerina, D.M., Witkop, B., McIntosh, C.L., and Chapman, O.L. (1974) Journal of the American Chemical Society, 96, 5578. (a) Childs, R.F. (1982) Tetrahedron, 38, 567; (b) Boyd, D.R., Agarwal, S.K., Balani, S.K., Dunlop, R., Gadaginamath, G.S., OKane, G.A., Sharma, N.D., Jennings, W.B., Yagi, H., and Jerina, D.M. (1987) Journal of the Chemical Society. Chemical Communications, 1633. Hofmann, H. and Hofmann, P. (1972) Tetrahedron Letters, 13, 971. Rastetter, W.H. and Richard, T.J. (1978) Tetrahedron Letters, 19, 2995. Rastetter, W.H. and Richard, T.J. (1978) Tetrahedron Letters, 19, 2999. Boyd, D.R. and Berchtold, G.A. (1979) The Journal of Organic Chemistry, 44, 468. Henderson, A.P., Mutlu, E., Leclercq, A., Bleasdale, C., Clegg, W., Henderson, R.A., and Golding, B.T. (2002) Chemical Communications, 1956. Gillard, J.R., Newlands, M.J., Bridson, J.N., and Burnell, D.J. (1991) Canadian Journal of Chemistry, 69, 1337. Nojima, K., Isogami, C., and Hirobe, M. (1993) Chemical & Pharmaceutical Bulletin, 41, 2106. Rajkumar, D., Waltraud, H., Thomas, K., Wolfgang, O., and Gunther, S. (1983) Chemische Berichte, 116, 97. Hofmann, H. and Hofmann, P. (1975) Annalen der Chemie-Justus Liebig, 571. Jerina, D.M., Yagi, H., and Daly, J.W. (1973) Heterocycles, 1, 267. Schweikert, O., Netscher, T., McMullen, G.L., Knothe, L., and Prinzbach, H. (1984) Chemische Berichte, 117, 2006. Jeffrey, A.M., Yeh, H.J.C., Jerina, D.M., DeMarinis, R.M., Foster, C.H., Piccolo,
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328 Funk, R.L. and Munger, J.D. Jr. (1985) The
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329 Yanai, H., Takahashi, A., and Taguchi, T. 330 de March, P., Figueredo, M., Font, J.,
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344 Mock, W.L. (1967) Journal of the American 345 361 Yamamoto, K., Yamazaki, S., and Murata,
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362
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366 367 368 369
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I. (1985) Angewandte Chemie International Edition, 24, 214. (a) Sindelar, K., Holubek, J., Ryska, M., Koruna, I., and Protiva, M. (1986) Collection of Czechoslovak Chemical Communication, 51, 2848; (b) Sindelar, K., Budesinsky, M., Vanek, T., Holubek, J., Svatek, E., Matousova, O., Rees, C.W., and Protiva, M. (1987) Collection of Czechoslovak Chemical Communication, 2281. (a) Gray, M., Tinkel, M., and Sniekus, V. (1995) Comprehensive Organometallic Chemistry II, vol. 11 (eds E.W. Abel, F.G.A. Stone, G. Wilkinson, and A. McKillop), Pergamon, Oxford, pp. 192; (b) Clayden, J. (2002) Organolithiums: Selectivity for Synthesis, Pergamon, Oxford. (a) For reviews, see: Yus, M. and Foubelo, F. (1997) Reviews on Heteroatom Chemistry, 17, 73; (b) Yus, M. and Foubelo, F. (2002) Targets in Heterocyclic Systems, 6, 136; (c) Yus, M. (2003) Pure and Applied Chemistry, 75, 1453. (a) Foubelo, F., Moreno, B., and Yus, M. (2004) Tetrahedron Letters, 45, 8983; (b) Yus, M. and Foubelo, F. (2001) Tetrahedron Letters, 42, 2469. Foubelo, F., Moreno, B., Soler, T., and Yus, M. (2005) Tetrahedron, 61, 9082. Chou, T.S. and Chang, C.Y. (1991) The Journal of Organic Chemistry, 56, 4560. Gaoni, Y. (1977) Tetrahedron Letters, 18, 947. Hossini, M.S., McCullough, K.J., McKay, R., and Proctor, G.R. (1986) Tetrahedron Letters, 27, 3783. Patra, R., Ghosh, R., Maiti, S.B., and Chatterjee, A. (1989) Tetrahedron Letters, 30, 4279. Crumbie, R.L. and Ridley, D.D. (1981) Australian Journal of Chemistry, 34, 1027. Pesic, D., Landek, I.O., Mercep, M., and Mesic, M. (2006) Journal of Heterocyclic Chemistry, 43, 749. Barun, O., Nandi, S., Panda, K., Ila, H., and Junjappa, H. (2002) The Journal of Organic Chemistry, 67, 5398. Nikolae, A., Fl orea, S., Rudorf, W.-D., and Perjessy, A. (2005) Revista de Chimie (Bucharest), 56, 524.
j1989
22 Heterocycles Containing a Ring-Junction Nitrogen

Juan J. Vaquero and Julio Alvarez-Builla
22.1 Introduction
In addition to the biologically important purines and pteridines and the major benzofused heterocycles such as indole, many other aromatic, fused heterocyclic ring systems are known and the most important of these are ones that contain a ringjunction nitrogen, that is, where a nitrogen is common to two rings. The vast majority of these systems do not occur naturally, but they have been the subject of numerous studies from the theoretical viewpoint or in the preparation of potentially biologically active analogues and for other industrial uses. For brevity, only combinations of veand six-membered rings are considered here, although many other combinations are possible and are known.
N 3H-Pyrrolizine N Indolizine N 4H-Quinolizine N
Quinolizinium
Of the parent systems that have the ring-junction nitrogen as the only heteroatom, only indolizine (often called pyrrocoline in the older literature) has a neutral, fully conjugated ten-electron p-system, consisting of four pairs of electrons from the four double bonds and a pair from nitrogen, much as in indole. Another such system is pyrrolizine, which is already aromatic in being a pyrrole (with a Q-vinyl substituent). Similarly, 4H-quinolizine is not aromatic as a saturated atom interrupts the conjugation. However, the cation (quinolizinium) formed by the formal loss of hydride from quinolizine does have an aromatic 10p-electron system. This system is isoelectronic with naphthalene and the positive charge results from the higher nuclear charge of nitrogen versus carbon. Replacement of a carbon atom and its attached hydrogen by heteroatoms either in ve- and/or six-membered rings leads to a wide variety of heterocycles. Coverage of these systems is, however, beyond the scope of this book. Figure 22.1 shows some of the general structures for combinations of ve- and sixmembered rings.
1990
j 22 Heterocycles Containing a Ring-Junction Nitrogen

(a) 6 7 8 1 N 5 4 3 1 2 6 7 8 1 N 5 4 3 2 H N N N H 4 N 5 N 6 2 7 6 5 4 3 2 N 8 1 3
(b)
8 7 6 5
8a 1
_
2
N
4 3
N +
N _ +
7 N N N Imidazo[1,2-a]pyridine 10
N N Pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine 8
Imidazo[1,5-a]pyridine 9
N N N N N N Pyrrolo[1,2-a]pyrazine 13
6 7 5 4 3 2
Pyrrolo[1,2-b]pyridazine 11 N N Pyrrolo[1,2-a]pyrimidine 14
Pyrrolo[1,2-c]pyrimidine 12
8 9
N
1
Indolizidine or 1-azabicyclo[4.3.0]nonane 15
Figure 22.1 General structures for combinations of five- and six-membered rings: (a) pyrrolizines; (b) indolizines; (c) quinolizinium (16), quinolizines (1719), quinolizidine (20) and azaquinolizinium isomers (2124); and (d) benzoquinolizinium salts and related systems.
22.2 Pyrrolizines
j1991
(c)
9 8 7
9a
1 2 3 4 8 7
1 2
6 5
N +
N
6 5 4
16
8 7 9 1
17
2 3 9 8 7 1
18
5 4
19
3
20
5 6 7 4 3 2
N N +
4
N2
6 5
6 7
6 5
N +
3 4
N N 2 + 8 9 1
N + N 8 9 1
Pyrido[1,2-a]pyrimidin-5-ium
Pyrido[1,2-a]pyrazin-5-ium
Pyrido[1,2-c]pyrimidin-9-ium
Pyrido[1,2-b]pyridazin-9-ium
21
Figure 22.1 (Continued )
22
23
24
22.2 Pyrrolizines 22.2.1 General Structure and Reactivity
The trivial name pyrrolizine [1] is applied to the fused C5-C5 bicyclic system having a bridgehead nitrogen, which is systematically named as pyrrolo[1,2-a]pyrrole. There are two possible tautomeric pyrrolizidines and it has been demonstrated that 3Hpyrrolizine (1) is more stable than the 1H-tautomer (2). The partially hydrogenated structure, which retains aromaticity, is considered as a dialkyl pyrrole derivative while hexahydro-1H-pyrrolizine is known as pyrrolizidine or 1-azabicyclo[3.3.0]octane (3). The inclusion of a second heteroatom produces a diverse range of structures (18 basic heterocycles) due to the different arrangements that the double bonds can adopt in the bicyclic system. Pyrrolo[1,2-b]pyrazole (4), pyrrolo[1,2-a]imidazole (5), and pyrrolo[1,2-c]imidazole (6) are representative structures with two nitrogen atoms, all of which can exist as four tautomeric systems. The literature on pyrrolizines is compiled in two reviews [2, 3] and a chapter in the Comprehensive Heterocyclic Chemistry II, 1996 [4]. Pyrrolizidines have also been reviewed [5, 6], although their chemistry and that of natural pyrrolizidines is beyond the scope of this book.
Pyrrolizine and pyrrolizidine derivatives occur as natural secondary metabolites in a large number of plants. The alkaloids based on the skeleton of these two heterocycles appear to have a function in protecting the plants from predators and some of these alkaloids are toxic to animals and to humans, causing liver disease and in some cases cancers. However, some of these plants have been used in folk medicine to treat
1992

(d)
9 8 7 6 2 10 11 1 2 1 11 10 9 8 7 3 10 2 4
N +
5 4
N5 +
6
9 8
N
5 6
Benzo[b]quinolizinium
Benzo[a]quinolizinium
Benzo[c]quinolizinium
25
26
27
N+
N + Naphtho[2,3-b]quinolizinium
N + Dibenzo[b,g]quinolizinium
Naphtho[2,3-a]quinolizinium
28
29
30
+ N + Dibenzo[a,g]quinolizinium N + Naphtho[1,2-b]quinolizinium
Naphtho[2,3-c]quinolizinium
31
+ N Dibenzo[b,f]quinolizinium + N
32
33
N + Naphtho[2,1-a]quinolizinium
Naphtho[2,1-b]quinolizinium
34
35
36
N+ N + N + Naphtho[2,1-c]quinolizinium Naphtho[1,2-a]quinolizinium
Dibenzo[a,f]quinolizinium
37
38
N
39
N+
+N
Dibenzo[a,h]quinolizinium
Naphtho[2,1-c]quinolizinium
Dibenzo[c,f]quinolizinium
40
41
42
N+
N+
N+
Pyrido[1,2-f]phenantridinium
Naphtho[2,1,8-ija]quinolizinium
Quino[8,1,2-cde]quinolizinium
43
44
45
Figure 22.1 (Continued )
tumors [7], menstrual disorders [8], and as emetic and diuretic compounds [9]. The pyrrolizidine nucleus is widespread in nature in pyrrolizidine alkaloids [10]. Examples of these alkaloids are the family of mitomycins (46) [11], which exhibit important antitumor activity, and the family of polyhydroxylated pyrrolizidine
22.2 Pyrrolizines
j1993
alkaloids represented by alexine (47) and casuarine (48), which are glycosidase inhibitors [12]. 3,5-Dioxopyrrolizidine (49, Rolziracetam) is a cognition activator of the nootropic class [13].
OCONH2 R OMe N N Me O HO HO OH H N H HO H N
O X
HO
OH
OH OH O 49 N O
Mitomycins 46
Alexine 47
Casuarine 48
22.2.3 Relevant Computational Chemistry and Physicochemical and Spectroscopic Data
3H-Pyrrolizine (1) is an oil that has a high boiling point (6870 C/15 Torr). The resonance energy (REPE) of 1 has been obtained from HMO calculations and clearly indicates that this tautomer is more stable than 2 (0.0107b versus 0.0153b) [2, 14]. This nding is consistent with the results of 1 H NMR studies, which show 3Hpyrrolizine (1) to be more stable than the 1H-tautomer (2) which could not be detected at all. The pKa of 1 (29) has been estimated by measuring the rate of exchange of the protons with 5 M D2O in DMF containing triethylamine (1 M). This high value is attributed to the aromaticity of the pyrrolizine anion [15]. However, attempts to explain the acidity of 1 by the HMO theory met with limited success [15]. Table 22.1 shows 1 H NMR data for 1, its anion, and some simple derivatives. It is worth nothing the shielding of H2 and H7 in 1 and the deshielding of H1 and H5. The main coupling constants are J1,2 6.2 Hz and J2,3 2.2 Hz and long-range coupling constants are observed between H1 and H3, H1 and H5, and H3 and H7. H1 and H3 are strongly modied in the spectrum of the anion, with H3 appearing strongly deshielded while H5 and H6 have similar displacements in both compounds. The UV abortion spectra of compound 1 and simple alkyl derivatives show two major bands at 210220 nm and 285295 nm of similar intensity and little difference can be observed between the spectrum of 1 and its anion [8]. The IR spectrum of 1 is not particularly characteristic and the common feature of the few published mass spectra of 3H-pyrrolizines is a strong M or (M 1) peak [2]. Monosubstituted pyrrolizines can exist as four tautomers (1ad). For simple derivatives, and in the absence of strong substituent inuences, 3H-isomers 1b and 1c are more stable than 1H-pyrrolizines 1a and 1d. In the parent compound 1 (R H) the 1H-tautomer could not been detected in the 1 H NMR spectrum. However, in the attempted preparation of 5-methyl-3H-pyrrolizine (R 5-Me) the formation of a mixture of 1a, 1c, and 1d in a 44 : 66 : 10 ratio was observed [22]. In pyrrolizines substituted in the C2(C6) position, the tautomeric equilibrium
1994

Table 22.1
1
H NMR chemical shifts (ppm) of 3H-pyrrolizine (1), its anion, and some simple
derivatives. Compound (solvent) H1 H2 H3 H5 H6 H7 Reference
6.20
5.63
3.75
6.54
6.08
5.77
[16]
1 (neat)
N
4.75
6.03
7.62
6.43
6.03
4.75
[17]
(THF)
N Me
6.40
4.18
6.0
5.92
5.50
[18]
CDCl3
N COMe
6.1
4.6
7.2
6.9
6.2
[19]
CDCl3
CO2Me
7.05
4.69
7.44
6.24
6.36
[20]
CDCl3
N
EtS
6.6
6.25
4.26
6.4
5.96
[21]
Acetone-d6
depends on the electronic nature of the substituent. For example, tautomer 1b is the stable form for 2-methyl- and 2-phenylpyrrolizine [22, 23] whereas when R 2-COPh or 2-CO2Me the tautomeric form 1c is more stable [24].
R N 1a N 1b R N 1c R N 1d R
In terms of reactivity, 3H-pyrrolizines are vinylpyrroles and a predominant reactivity towards electrophiles can be expected. However, the instability of pyrrolizines limits the application of electrophilic substitution.
22.2.4 Synthesis of Pyrrolizines
All of the synthetic methodologies reported for the construction of the 3H-pyrrolizine system are based on a pyrrole ring, which is used as a template to build up the second
22.2 Pyrrolizines
8 1 1
j1995
N 1,8-Bond formation
1 2 3
2 3
N
4
1,2-Bond formation
2,3-Bond formation
3,4-Bond formation
1
8 2
N
4 3
1,8/2,3-Bond formation
Figure 22.2 Cyclization and [3 2] approaches for building up the pyrrolizine nucleus.
pentacyclic ring. Cyclizations and [3 2] approaches are the most representative synthetic strategies for building up the pyrrolizine nucleus (Figure 22.2).
22.2.4.1 By Cyclization Reactions Formation of the second pentacyclic ring by a cyclization reaction involving 1,2-bond formation has been widely employed for the preparation of pyrrolizine and different derivatives. The synthesis of the parent heterocycle 1 is based on an intramolecular Wittig reaction of the vinylphosphonium salt 50, which is obtained from formylpyrrole and vinyltriphenylphosphonium bromide in the presence of sodium hydride [25]. Numerous substituted pyrrolizines have been prepared by this strategy from 2-acylated pyrroles [24, 26]. The same 1,2-bond formation to give the bicyclic system is also employed with appropriate 1,6-dicarbonyl compounds to prepare some derivatives. For example, diketone 51 has been used to obtain a mixture of pyrrolizines 53 and 54 under basic conditions [27]. A similar mixture (55/56) is obtained from the 2-formylpyrrole derivative 52 (Scheme 22.1) [27]. Several derivatives (6062) have been obtained from pyrrolyl carboxylic acids [28], nitriles [29], and nitroenamines [30] under acid or basic conditions through a strategy based on NC bond formation (3,4-bond). This approach exploits the nucleophilic character of the pyrrole nitrogen, which can be enhanced by deprotonation with appropriate bases (Scheme 22.2). Cyclizations involving 2,3- and 1,8-bond formation [2] have also been used in the synthesis of various derivatives. Representative examples of 1,8-bond formation include the HoubenHoesch cyclizations of 1-cyano-b-ethylpyrroles. For example, nitrile 63 in the presence of hydrogen chloride yields the 3H-pyrrolizine derivative 64 [31] or 1-oxo-2,3-dihydropyrrolizines (65) if the nitrile is hydrolyzed to the corresponding acid prior to reaction. Malonic acid derivative 66 in the presence of phosphorus pentachloride gives pyrrolizin-1-one 67 under very mild conditions [32] (Scheme 22.3). 1,2-Diacylated pyrroles have been used as appropriate substrates for the cyclization reaction involving 2,3-bond formation. The synthesis of the 2,3-diphenylpyrrolizin-1-one (69) from 68 is the only representative example of this strategy [33] (Scheme 22.4).
1996

CHO NH Br + PPh3 NaH N 50 O Me N Me 51 CHO N 52
Scheme 22.1
CHO PPh3
NaH Et2O N 1 (87%) Me
Me Et3N Me O N Me 53 (23%) COMe
N Me
COMe
54 (11%)
HNa OEt O Et2O N
CO2Et
N 56
CO2Et
55 (43%)
R NH
R Ac2O 20-37% N 60 O
CO2H
57 R1=H, Me R2=H, CO2H R CN NH 58 HO N H NO2 O 59 CN
Ph Base R=CH2Ph 90% N 61 NH2 NO2 Ph HCl/i-PrOH reflux 80% 62 N Ph OPr

i
CN
Scheme 22.2
22.2 Pyrrolizines
j1997
O HCl/Et2O N 64 R1= R2 =H 31% N R

2
O CN R
1
BF3.Et2O 20-80% N R
2
63 O N 66
Scheme 22.3
65a: R1 = R2 = H 65b: R1 = H; R2 = Me 65c: R1 = H, R2 = CH2CO2H COCl
CO2H CO2H
PCl5 CH2Cl2 42% N 67
O Ph N Ph 68
Scheme 22.4
K/Toluene 23% N
O Ph Ph 69
22.2.4.2 By [3 2] Approaches The most useful syntheses based on a [3 2] strategy are those involving 1,2/3,4bond formation, with 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition being one of the representative reactions of this approach. Vilsmeier bases of pyrroles such as 70 react with electron-decient olens [34] and ketenes [35] to yield substituted dihydropyrrolizines 71 and the 2-phenylpyrrolizin-3-one (72), respectively. Reaction of pyrrole carboxaldehyde 73 with alkenes is also a good example of this type of strategy, which allows the synthesis of 2-substituted derivatives 74 [36]. Vinylsulfones react to give 2phenylsulfonyl-3H-pyrrolizine (75). Keteniminophosphoranes react to form 3Hpyrrolizin-3-imines (76) (Scheme 22.5) [37]. Another example of a [3 2] strategy with the formation of 1,8/3,4-bonds is the reaction of pyrrole with malonic acid derivatives to give 1-pyrrolizin-3-ones (77) in the presence of phosphorus oxychloride [38] (Scheme 22.6). 22.2.5 Reactivity of Pyrrolizines 22.2.5.1 Electrophilic Attack Electrophilic substitution on pyrrolizines is similar to that on 1,2-disubstituted pyrroles in terms of reactivity and orientation of the electrophile. The C5 position
1998

X Ph-CH=C=O Et3N 7% X = C4H8O N 70 (EtO)2OP SO2Ph SO2Ph NaH/Et2O 85% N H 73 CHO R
1
R 90-100% X = C4H8 N
N R
N O 72
Ph
71 R = CN, COMe, CO2Et

2
C NR
N 75
20-50%
N 76 NR
2
HNa 25-85% R N 74 R = CO2Et, Ph

Scheme 22.5
2
R1 =
PO(OEt)2, P(O)Ph2
R1 = H, Me R2 = Et, Ph
R2 = Ph, CO2Et, PO(OEt)2 R
R R
1
R N H
CO2Et CONR2 POCl3 Heat 24-31% R

2
NR2 N
O 77
R = Me, Et R1 = R 2 = H R1 = Me; R2 = Et
Scheme 22.6
is usually the most reactive, although most electrophilic reactions give mixtures of products on C5 and C6 and/or C7 positions, with the product composition depending on the conditions. Most pyrrolizines are unstable in dilute acids but pyrrolizine (1) is protonated in concentrated sulfuric acid to give stable derivatives 78 and 79 in 45% and 55% yields, respectively (Scheme 22.7) [24]. The Vilsmeier reaction of 1, by treatment with
22.2 Pyrrolizines
j1999
N Cl3COC 84
N + Me2N + 80 + Me2N ClO4
Cl3CCOCl 56% K2CO3/Et2O POCl3 DMF, THF High yield
H2SO4
N + 78
+ 45:55
N + 79
N 1 C5H11ONO
NMe2
DMF NH3 (for 83)
Ac2O Me2NCHS
ON
N +
N N O H H
N X 82: X = CH (46%) 83: X = N (39%) Me2N + N + NMe2 + 81 (86%) + 1,3- and 1,5 isomers
Scheme 22.7
74%
N HON 85
dimethylformamide and phosphoryl chloride at low temperature (60 C), affords the Vilsmeier salt 80 while from the reaction with dimethylthioformamide and acetic anhydride derivative 81 was obtained as the main reaction product [39]. The syntheses of cyclazine (82) [40] and azacyclazine (83) [39] have also been reported from the reaction of 1 with appropriate iminic dienes. Acyl Derivatives of 1 are formed by a reaction with ketenes. Good yields of acylated derivatives 84 are obtained from the reaction of acyl chlorides in ether in the presence of anhydrous potassium carbonate, although the 2-acetyl derivative can not be obtained from acetyl chloride under these conditions [41]. The reaction with amyl nitrite affords the oxime 85, which is probably formed by an electrophilic attack [24] according to the mechanism detailed in Scheme 22.7. Deprotonation of 1 is an easy process due to its high pKa and the aromatic character of the pyrrolizine anion 86. The anion is usually formed with lithium bases and its behavior resembles that of reactive carbanions towards electrophiles such as carbonyl compounds. For example, the reaction with benzophenone gives the fulvene-like product 87 (Scheme 22.8) [42].
2000

n-BuLi N 1 THF, -78C N 86 Ph2CO 55% N Ph 87
Scheme 22.8
Ph
22.2.5.2 Cycloaddition Reactions The 1,2-double bond of 3H-pyrrolizine can be involved in cycloaddition reactions. An example of such reactivity is the reaction of 1 with the carbene generated from dichloromethane and n-butyllithium. The addition of the carbene to 3H-pyrrolizine gives a 3-pyrrolizinyl carbene 88 and subsequent addition to the C1C2 bond affords the tetracyclic pyrrolizine derivative 89, which evolves to indolizine (7) [43] by a ring expansion process (Scheme 22.9). Tricyclic derivatives 90 and 91 are obtained in low yield by [2 2] cycloadditions with DMAD and dichloroketene generated from trichloroacteyl chloride and activated zinc in ether, respectively [22, 44].
MeO2C
CO2Me DMAD Cl3CCHCOCl N 1 CH2Cl2 n-BuLi Zn/Et2O N 91 5%
Cl Cl
N 90
. .CH
N 89
41%
N 7
88
Scheme 22.9
22.2.5.3 Reduction Reactions The 1,2-double bond of 3H-pyrrolizine is much more easily reduced than the pyrrole ring. Thus, 1 can be reduced to the dihydro derivative 92 with hydrogen at atmospheric pressure and room temperature using a rhodium on carbon catalyst in ether without affecting the pyrrole ring (Scheme 22.10). The same catalyst yields the fully hydrogenated derivative (pyrrolizidine) if the reaction is carried out in ethanol [25a]. The pH of the reaction medium is important for hydrogenation using platinum oxide as catalyst, with acidic conditions promoting the total reduction and neutral media favoring partial hydrogenation [33a].
22.2 Pyrrolizines
j2001
Rh/C N 92
Scheme 22.10
Rh/C N 1 EtOH 83% N 3
Et2O 81%
22.2.5.4 Ring-Opening Reactions Ring-opening reactions are known in pyrrolizine and some related derivatives. Lithium dicarbenoid species react with 1 to give an anionic intermediate 93, which was converted into indolizine (see Scheme 22.9) and butenyne 94 [45], presumably by the mechanism shown in Scheme 22.11. Benzoylpyrrolizines such as 95 can also be converted into pyrroles 96 by treatment with dilute aqueous sodium hydroxide. Initially, the pyrrolizine isomerizes to the 1H-isomer, which after two sequential hydrolysis steps gives the pyrrole derivative 96 (Scheme 22.11) [24].
n-BuLi/CH2Cl2 THF, -20C N N
. .CHCl
Cl H
31%
N H
93
O
94
N H
NaOH aq. PhOC N PhOC HO N PhOC N H CHO 5%
Ph
95
Scheme 22.11
96
22.2.6 Derivatives
Among the 3H-pyrrolizine derivatives only oxo-derivatives warrant further consideration. These derivatives are represented by 1-oxo- and 3-oxopyrrolizinones 97 and 98, both of which have high resonance energies (REPE 0.0110b and 0.0155b, respectively) that account for the high stability of these compounds [1]. The natural product pyrrolizin-3-one (98) has been synthesized as shown in Scheme 22.12 from 2-pyrrolecarboxaldehyde [46]. Electrophilic additions have been reported for 98 with dry hydrogen chloride to give the 1-chloro-1,2-dihydro derivative 99 [47]. The halogen is readily displaced by O-nucleophiles to give methoxy, hydroxy, or acetoxy derivatives 100 in good yields. Derivative 98 can also be brominated by Nbromosuccinimide (NBS) under free radical conditions to give 2-bromopyrrolizin-3one (102) (Scheme 22.12) [47]. Wittig reactions on the parent 98 to give azafulvenes such as 101 are also known [22].
2002

Cl HCl O 1. O Me Me N 2. Pyrolysis 74% 98 O 101 R = CO2Et NBS CCl4/(PhCO)2O 55%
Scheme 22.12
Nu Nu N O 100 Nu = MeO, OH, OAc
CH2Cl2 93%
N O 99
87-100%
N H
CHO
Ph3PCH2R Base N R
Br N 102 O
Examples of the above reactions for 98 have not been described for 97, which has been prepared [32] from 66 as shown in Scheme 22.13. Examples of its reactivity are Michael additions with some derivatives such as the 2-chloro derivative 97 [32] (Scheme 22.13). Examples of reduction with hydride donors such as sodium borohydride have also been described for derivatives of 97 and these reactions afford the corresponding alcohol [48].
O N PCl3 CO2H CH2Cl2 42% CO2H 66 OH N Ph 97 Ph NaBH4/EtOH R1=R2=Ph N O R

1
O COCl H+ Toluene Heat 3% N 97
N 67
O Nu R1 = Cl R2 = H 40% N Nu Nu = CH(CN)2 Cl
Scheme 22.13
22.3 Indolizines
j2003
22.3 Indolizines 22.3.1 General Structure and Reactivity
Indolizine (7) possesses a delocalized 10p-electron system resulting from the combination of a p-excessive (pyrrole-like) and a p-decient (pyridine-like) ring. The aromatic character of indolizine is expressed by three main mesomeric contributors, two of which incorporate a pyridinium moiety; other forms that incorporate neither a complete pyrrole nor a pyridinium are less important (Figure 22.1b). Aza-indolizines of general structure 814 are the most representative and interesting C5-C6 heterocycles bearing and extra heteroatom (Figure 22.1b). The fully unsaturated heterocyle 15 is known as indolizidine or 1-azabicyclo[4.3.0]nonane. The chemistry of these bicyclic C5-C6 systems with one ring junction nitrogen atom has been the subject of previous surveys. Reference textbooks on this subject include Comprehensive Heterocyclic Chemistry I [49] and Comprehensive Heterocyclic Chemistry II [50]. Heterocyclic series such as Advances in Heterocyclic Chemistry have also dealt with indolizines [51] and the other signicant heterocycles included in this chapter. Additionally, a review covering the chemistry of pyridines containing a ring-junction nitrogen [52] and the excellent text from Joule and Mills [53] and some of the references cited therein have been considered in this chapter and the reader is referred to them for further coverage of this topic.
Aromatic indolizines are very rare in nature but the fully reduced (indolizidine) nucleus is widespread, particularly in alkaloids. These compounds belong to two main classes: the amphibian and the polyhydroxy indolizidine alkaloids. The rst family belongs to a large class of compounds isolated from the skin of neotropical brightly colored frogs and they have attracted interest in recent years for their numerous biological properties, including neurotoxicity, potentiation of muscle contraction, and immunomodulatory activity [54]. This interest has resulted in the development of numerous total syntheses of these alkaloids and several reviews have been published on the subject [55]. Most of the compounds that contain the perhydroindolizine ring with substituents in positions C3, C5, C6, and C8 belong to the class of gephyrotoxins. The structures of some relevant compounds (103107) are detailed below and relevant references can be obtained for 103a [56]. The polyhydroxyndolizidine alkaloids (sugar mimetics), the most important examples of which are castanospermine (108), lentiginosine (109), and swainsonine (110), are interesting due to their potent glycosidase inhibitory activity [57]. Glycosidases play a crucial role in many important biological processes, opening up the possibility of these compounds to behave as therapeutic targets for the treatment of diseases like diabetes, cancer, and viral diseases. Therefore, a great deal of interest in
2004

the synthesis of this class of natural compounds has been shown in recent years and relevant references related to their synthesis can be found for 108 [58].
H N R
2
H3C
H N
H N
H3C H3C
R1 103a H 103b n-C4H8OH 103c COOEt
R2 n-C3H7 n-C4H9 n-C4H9
R1 104 R1 R2 105a n-C5H11 CH3 105b n-C3H7 n-C3H7 105c 4-pentenyl CH3 HO CH3 N CH3 R3 H (+)-15-(S)-Pumiliotoxin A OH (+)-Pumiliotoxin B OH (+)-Allopumiliotoxin 339B
R1
HO CH3 N
H OH H3C R 107a 107b 107c R1 H H OH

3
R 2 R
R R1 106a H 106b H 106c OH
CH3
CH3 R2 H H H
R2 n-C3H7 (+)-Pumiliotoxin 215D CH2OH (+)-Pumiliotoxin 225F n-C3H7 Allopumiliotoxin 267A
OH HO HO
H OH
H N
OH OH
OH
H OH OH
(+)-Castanospermine 108
(+)-Lentiginosine 109
(-)-Swainsonine 110
Other natural products bearing the indolizidine nucleus have been isolated. Some representative structures (111115) are shown and relevant references concerning the synthesis of these products can be seen for 111 [59]. Other important compounds include A-289 099 (116), an orally active antimitotic agent against various cancer cell lines that acts through inhibition of tubulin polymerization by binding at the colchicine site [60]. A series of indolizidinones of general structure 117 has been designed and synthesized to evaluate their inhibitory effect on Factor VIIA (FVIIa) in comparison to thrombin [61]. The bicyclic 2-pyridone derivative 118 has been described as a 3CP (human rhinovirus 3C protease) inhibitor and exhibited potent antirhinoviral activity in cell cultures when tested against different human rhinovirus (HRV) serotypes [62]. The synthesis and cytotoxicity of septicine (119) and several analogues has been reported [63].
22.3 Indolizines
H OAc H2N N HO (-)-Ipalbidine 113 MeO MeO O N Stelettamide B 115 116 N Me OMe 112 Me Me O H N
+
j2005
H N
H N (-)-Coniceine 111
H3C
H N H3C
5
(-)-Slaframine
Piclavine 114
Me Me
N H
Me
MeO R
2
H N O
CH3 Me
O O O N N H N O 118 O N H
H N
OMe MeO
H2N 117
H N 1 R
O OEt MeO OMe
N 119
22.3.3 Relevant Physicochemical Data, Computational Chemistry, and NMR Data
The reactivity of the system is characterized as outlined above: the ve-membered ring undergoes electrophilic substitutions whereas the six-membered ring shows reactivity similar to that of a pyridine ring. Recent density functional theory (DFT) calculations (B3LYP/6-31G ) showed that the pyrrole-like ring has an extended highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO), whereas the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) is mostly located on the pyridine ring, a distribution that is not appreciably varied by the introduction of an electron-withdrawing group at the C6 position [64]. Moreover, another study performed on substituted indolizines (DFT, B3LYP/6-31G) indicated that C3 is always the carbon atom with the highest electron density and with the largest atomic coefcient in the HOMO and is, therefore, the preferential site of attack by an electrophile [65]. The NMR spectra of indolizidine derivatives have already been extensively described [54]. More recently, the use of mono- and bidimensional 1 H and 13 C NMR spectra has allowed the structural assignment of natural compounds possessing an indolizidine nucleus [66]. Table 22.2 gives typical 1 H and 13 C NMR chemical shifts of the indolizine nucleus.
2006

Table 22.2
1
H and 13 C NMR chemical shifts for indolizine (7).
7 6
8a 1 2 3
N 5 4 7
Proton chemical shifts (d, ppm) H1 6.28 H2 6.44 H3 7.14 H5 7.75 H6 6.31 H7 6.50 H8 7.25
Reference [67] [68] 2.8 0.0 6.8 1.0 3.5 0.0 7.8 8.9 [69] C7 117.16 C8 119.56 C8a 133.35
Coupling constants, J (Hz) 1.2 3.9 3.8 0.5 1.3 1.2 5.6 6.8 1.5 1.0 5.7 1.0 2.3 2.7 5.8 1.2 2.7 0.0 6.7 6.4
Carbon-13 chemical shifts (d, ppm) C1 99.44 C2 114.07 C3 113.01 C5 125.61 C6 110.44
22.3.4 Synthesis of Indolizidines 22.3.4.1 Intramolecular Condensation: Approaches Related to the Chichibabin Synthesis The most general approach to indolizines is the Chichibabin synthesis (Scheme 22.14) [70]. This route involves quaternization of a 2-alkylpyridine with an a-haloketone followed by base-catalyzed intramolecular cyclization by deprotonation of the pyridinium o-methyl group, which is easier when the alkyl group is further activated. A representative process is the synthesis of 2-phenylindolizine (120) [71].
O Ph CH3 N EtOH, rt 73% Br N + Br CH3 O Ph aq. NaHCO3 heat 96% N 120 Ph
Scheme 22.14
The synthesis of indolizines by the Chichibabin reaction has been revisited and some variations have been proposed. The process can be simplied by using the pyridine as a basic catalyst, thus producing the indolizine in one step. Indolizine 121
22.3 Indolizines
j2007
(Scheme 22.15) bears a triazole moiety that has proved useful in the construction of benzo-annulated indolizines [72].
1
CH3 N
Cl
N N N
DMF/reflux 15 min 62-66%
N 121 N N N
R1, R2 = H, Me
Scheme 22.15
A process related to the Chichibabin approach has been described in which cyclic iminium ylides like 122 can generate, after solvolysis, intermediates 123, which can afford the corresponding indolizin-2-ones 124 through a Dieckmann process (Scheme 22.16) [73].
O N + O _ MeOH, 60C, 90 min 95% O N + O OMe OH OMe OMe N + O OMe N OMe O
O OMe
122
Scheme 22.16
124
123
Another related process has been described by Sun and co-workers and involves the preparation of 3-acylated indolizines 126 (Scheme 22.17) from picolinium salts 125 and an iminium salt. This is a straightforward process with short reaction times, low cost, and easy isolation of the products [74].
MeO Me N+ O 125
Scheme 22.17
+ Me N Me Et3N, rt - 40 C 63-91%
Me N + O
Me N Me + N Ar
Ar
Ar
O 126
22.3.4.2 By a [3 2] Approach: 1,3-Dipolar Cycloaddition Another useful method involves the intermediacy of a pyridinium ylide as a 1,3-dipole in a cycloaddition. The 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition of pyridinium ylides such as 128 with
2008

MeO2C N + CN CO2Me H N NC H CO2Me CO2Me 51% N CN CO2Me CO2Me
N + CN
NaH/DMF 90C
129
127
128
Et3N, toluene MnO2 90C, 2h N + CH2 N
1
O N + OH
+
R
2
R R
2
57-92 %
130
131
R1 = CO2Et, CN R2 = CO2Et, H, Ph
Scheme 22.18
electron-decient alkenes and alkynes has long been used. Scheme 22.18 shows an example of the synthesis of substituted indolizine derivative 129. More recently, this reaction has been applied to the synthesis of 3-unsubstituted indolizines 131 using (carboxymethyl)pyridinium halides, which underwent decarboxylation upon cycloaddition [75]. The reaction was performed using electron-decient alkenes together with a mild oxidant such as MnO2 to obtain the fully conjugated product (Scheme 22.18). A recent method for the synthesis of the indolizine skeleton is represented by a three-component reaction between a-bromoketones, pyridine, and ethyl propiolate or diethyl acetylenedicarboxylate. These three reagents, under microwave irradiation and catalysis by basic alumina, afford a wide variety of 3-arylindolizines 132 (Scheme 22.19) [76]. Another variation of this procedure is provided by the use of N-(silylmethyl)pyridinone analogues 133, which through 1,4-silatropy and subsequent 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition afford the corresponding indolizines 134 (Scheme 22.20) [77]. A useful method for the synthesis of 1-unsubstituted 2-arylindolizines 136 is provided by the 1,5-dipolar cyclization of pyridinium ylides in the presence of the oxidant tetrakis(pyridine)cobalt(II) dichromate (TPCD), which oxidizes the intermediate dihydroindolizine 135 (Scheme 22.21). The study demonstrated that the presence of an aryl group on the double bond was necessary for the reaction to occur [78].
R N
2
+ X
R O
+
R
1
Al2O3 Microwaves
R N _ + O R N R
R R
1
61-94%
N R
132 R = Ar R1= H, CO2Me R2= CO2Me
Scheme 22.19
22.3 Indolizines
Toluene DMAD SiMe3 110 C OSiMe3 N + CH2 SiMe3 O N CO2Me CO2Me
j2009
CO2Me N CO2Me
O N
-Me3SiOH 69%
133
Scheme 22.20
134
Ar N
Br N + R
Ar
Et3N Toluene N R
Ar
TPCD 19-54% N
Ar
136 R
135
Scheme 22.21
22.3.4.3 Organometallic Processes Alkenyl and alkynyl Fischer carbene complexes 137 react with pyrrole imine 138 to give, through a 1,2- and 1,3-metal migration, respectively, indolizine derivatives 140 at a different level of unsaturation [79] (Scheme 22.22).
nPr N OMe
(CO)5Cr
+
Ph
Hexane rt N H 138 93%
nPr + N MeO
Cr(CO)5 N Ph
Toluene reflux 6h 84%
HN MeO
nPr
N Ph 140
137
Scheme 22.22
139
22.3.4.4 Rearrangement of Acetylenic Derivatives Allene-substituted lactams or cyclic imines are useful intermediates in the synthesis of indolizine derivatives. The former are stable and require a Pd(0) catalyst and the presence of phenyl iodide to react [80], whereas the latter are produced in situ and react immediately [81]. On the other hand, the substituted pyridine 141 was proposed to undergo a base-induced propargyl allenyl isomerization. Allene 142 underwent the transformation into 143 [81] through the mechanism proposed in Scheme 22.23. Variations on the above scheme have been studied in recent years. For example, 2pyridyl-substituted propargylic acetates 144 offer an efcient route to C1 oxygenated indolizines 145 [82] according to mechanism shown in Scheme 22.24. A similar
2010

CuI, Et3N DMA C N nPr Cu N nPr
+
nPr Cu nPr
110 C
N +
N +
Cu nPr
141
142
91%
N nPr
143
Scheme 22.23
process has been described with the use of iodine in dichloromethane, which produces the corresponding 2-iodoindolizine [83]. Further variations on the strategy described in Scheme 22.24 have allowed the synthesis of indolizin-1-ones 147, starting from 2-pyridyl-substituted propargyl alcohols 146 (Scheme 22.25) [84]. The same process was simultaneously described [85] with the use of either Pt or InCl3. Furthermore, the same process has also been described without the need for a catalyst by the use of microwaves in ethanol [86].
OAc N 144 R= H, nBu R
CuI, Et3N MeCN rt N
OAc
Cu R
OAc N + Cu R H N
OAc Cu R 82-97% OAc N R 145
Scheme 22.24
A related process, mediated by organocopper reagents, has been described. In this approach propargyl mesylates 148, when treated with an organocopper reagent, undergo a cascade involving addition and cyclization to give the indolizine 150 [87] via the allenic intermediate 149 (Scheme 22.26).
22.3 Indolizines
j2011
R N R
1 2
R OH N 146 R1= H, nBu, Ph R2= Me, Et, Ph R

1
CuI, Et3N MeCN reflux
OAc
Cu N R
1
R N
OAc Cu R
1
O Cu
71-92 % R N R 147
1 2
Scheme 22.25
OMs R N 148 R1= Me, n-Pent, Ph, R2= Me, n-Bu, t-Bu, n-Hex
1
CuR1, Et3N MeCN reflux N
R C R
1
H 51-90 % N R 150
1
149
Scheme 22.26
22.3.5 Reactivity of Indolizidines
Indolizine is an electron-rich system and the easiest reactions for this system are mainly electrophilic substitutions, which occur as readily as for indole and preferentially at C3. Indeed, only when this position is blocked does the attacking electrophile enter at C1. Consistent with their similarity to pyrroles, indolizines are not attacked by nucleophiles and there are no examples of nucleophilic displacement of halide.
22.3.5.1 Reactions with Electrophilic Reagents Indolizine (pKa 3.9) [88] is much more basic than indole (pKa 3.5) and the implied relative stability of the cation makes it less reactive and thus resistant to acid-catalyzed polymerization. Indolizine protonates at C3, but 3-methylindolizine protonates mainly at C1; other derivatives such as 1,2,3-trimethyl- and 3,5-dimethylindolizines protonate exclusively at C3 (Scheme 22.27).
2012

HCl N pKa= 3.9 N 151 HCl N CH3
Scheme 22.27
+
H H N 152
+
CH3
The nitration of indolizines with nitric acid and with nitric and sulfuric acids [89] produced mixtures. The major product was l-nitro-derivative 153 (Scheme 22.28), when the process was performed at 0 C, and 1,3-dinitroindolizines 154 when higher temperatures were used. Borrows, Holland, and Kenyon have also studied the effect of acetic anhydride and nitric acid on 2-methylindolizine but were unable to isolate any solid product, while Scholtz [90] reported that indolizine cannot be nitrated because of its sensitivity to oxidizing agents. Treatment of indolizine and 2-methylindolizine with nitric acid in excess acetic anhydride at 70 C gave moderate yields of the corresponding 3-nitroindolizines 155 and other isomers were not detected (Scheme 22.28) [91]. Thus, indolizines fall into the category of aromatic substrates that show a wide variation in the proportion of isomers according to the conditions of nitration. By analogy with other reactive aromatic species, it appears possible that the nitronium ion is the effective electrophile in both instances, whereas the substrate varies with the solvent. In the case of acetic anhydride the substrate is presumably the free indolizine, which is nitrated at C3 that is, the position commonly susceptible to electrophilic attack. With nitric or sulfuric acid as solvent, however, where 1-nitration predominates, the species that is attacked should be a 3-protonated indolizine. In any
HNO3 or HNO2/ H2SO4 N

+
H NO 2 R H H N
+
NO2 65% N 153 19-22% R
R H
N R=H, Me, Ph
R HNO3 Ac2O -70 C N

+
NO2 H NO2 28% N 155 NO2 N 154 NO2 R
Scheme 22.28
22.3 Indolizines
j2013
case, the low yields obtained in most of the examples are due to extensive decomposition of the heterocyclic ring associated with oxidation. The process based on the use of nitric acid/acetic anhydride at low temperature has been used to nitrate functionalized indolizines such as 8-nitro derivatives [92]. The use of nitric/sulfuric acid to produce 1,3-dinitro derivatives 154, as indicated in Scheme 22.28, has been described in relation to the development of new antimicrobial agents (Scheme 22.29) [93].
NO2 N NO2 OMe 17 % N NO2 156
Scheme 22.29
HNO3 N OMe H2SO4
OMe
Reaction of 1- and 3-substituted indolizines with HNO2 gave ipso-substituted nitro derivatives 157 (Scheme 22.30). An electron-transfer process has been proposed for the initial step, ultimately yielding nitro derivatives either at the 1- or 3position [94].
CH3 N O H CH3 N
+
NaNO2 AcOH
CH3 N NO2 157
NO H
Scheme 22.30
A similar process to obtain 3-nitrosoindolizines, using sodium nitrite and hydrochloric acid, has been described by Hickman and Wibberly [95] along with diazocoupling [96]. These reactions occur at C3 in all cases. Acylation of indolizines was initially described by Scholtz [90] but the process has been extensively applied by simply heating the substrate with the acyl halide or anhydride in a nonpolar solvent. In certain cases the use of a base improves the nal yield. As in other electrophillic substitutions, acylation occurs at C3, but if this position is occupied then C1 is acylated. A classical paper describes acylation of 2-phenylindolizine using oxalyl chloride (Scheme 22.31) [97]. Related processes with oxalyl derivatives have been described with essentially the same procedure and results [98]. A similar procedure has been performed using pyridine as a base at 78 C [98b]. A very simple method has been described for the functionalization of indolizines 159 to afford the acyl derivative 160 [99] in excellent yield (Scheme 22.32). Very
2014

O N Et2O/Benzene 4h, rt Cl O 75% N O O Cl 158
Scheme 22.31
+ Cl
CH3 O N 159 O Ac2O/NaOAc 7h, reflux 97% O
CH3 O N O 160 CH3
Scheme 22.32
similar results are described in other papers as part of the synthesis of differently functionalized indolizines [100]. Another representative method has been described by Babaev and Bobrovskii [101], who studied the acylation of indolizines with aliphatic and aromatic halides. Small percentages of the 1-isomer 162 were detected on acylation of 2-methylindolizine (Scheme 22.33).
Ac2O/Et3N reflux N CH3 N O 161 (87%)
Scheme 22.33
O CH3 CH3
CH3 CH3
162 (1.5%)
Ethyl chloroformate has recently been used to generate the corresponding diester 163 from 6-ethoxycarbonylindolizine and, as expected, this reaction occurs in the 3position (Scheme 22.34) [102]. A similar process involving thermal treatment using b-oxoesters as acylating agents has been described [103]. Similarly, acylation has been performed using isocyanatophosphoryl chloride [104] to yield the amide 164, which can be transformed further (Scheme 22.35).
22.3 Indolizines
j2015
EtO O
O Cl OEt
Reflux, 17 h 87% EtO O 163 N O OEt
Scheme 22.34
CH3
O P Cl N C O Cl
Heptane 10 min, rt 89% N O 164 CH3 H N P O Cl Cl
Scheme 22.35
Mannich bases such as 165 have been prepared from indolizine derivatives, following the general pattern of reactivity, with selective attack on C3 [105] as indicated in Scheme 22.36. Other papers have been published concerning different medicinal activities of these compounds [106].
O O O
OMe
O H NH H
+
O
H2O/dioxane 72 h, rt 38% N +
OMe N O
OMe
H N
N 165
Scheme 22.36
Vilsmeier formylation has also been used in the eld of indolizines to generate aldehydes, mostly in the 3-position of the ring (Scheme 22.37) [107]. Depending on
O Cl Cl P O H O
O H 3C N
H CH3
POCl3
N H3C H CH3
N H O
N H O
166
Scheme 22.37
167
2016

the substrate and the reaction conditions, formylation does not stop at aldehyde 166 but continues to give 167.
22.3.5.2 Reactions with Oxidizing Agents Indolizines are special in terms of their electronic structure in that they have a bridgehead nitrogen atom, which causes a large dipole moment in the molecule, making the pyridine electron decient and the pyrrole electron rich. This structure makes the system and its derivatives sensitive to light and to aerial oxidation, which leads to destruction of the ring system. Despite the instability associated with the system, several groups have published processes that involve the use of different oxidants. As a representative example, Tielmann and Hoenke [108] have described the oxidation of 8-aminoindolizine 168 to form, in DMSO solution and in the presence of air, the quinonoid structure 169 (Scheme 22.38).
N N 168
Scheme 22.38
DMSO air, rt Cl
HO
N N O 169 Cl
Similarly, Xu and co-workers [109] have described the photooxygenation of indolizines like 170, which gives mixtures of products with a pyridine structure through ring-opening reaction of the pyrrole moiety (Scheme 22.39).
O N CH3
MeCN/MeOH, O2 mercury lamp 9h
Ph Ph
Ph O OMe
HO
Ph
O O Ph
N CH3 22%
OMe
N CH3 23%
Ph
N CH3 40%
170
171
Scheme 22.39
172
173
22.3.5.3 Reactions with Nucleophilic Reagents On considering the structure of indolizine, one would expect that C5 of the system would be the most suitable for nucleophillic attack based on the earliest statements by
22.3 Indolizines
j2017
Coulson [110] and Fukui [111]. Nucleophillic attack, however, has only been conrmed for indolizines with an additional electron-withdrawing group at the C6 or C8 position. For example, 8-nitroindolizines have been described to undergo amination at position C5 (SNH substitution) under the action of secondary amines [112]. In addition, substitution of the chloro-substituent in 5-chloro-6-cyanoindolizine derivatives 174 has been studied by Babaev and co-workers [113], who described the process with oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur nucleophiles to give derivatives 175178 (Scheme 22.40). The reactivity of simple 5-haloindolizines remains unclear [114].
H3C NaOMe MeOH reflux, 8h (NH3)2CS H3C NC HN N S NH2 HCl R n-BuOH reflux H3C NC Cl N NC 74% R
NH
N O
H3C
175 (R = Me)
174
Neat rt 99%
MeOH 1 or EtOH HS(CH2)nR NaOH, rt H3C NC S N R H3C NC N S R

1
H3C NC N N
176 (R = F)
178
177a : R = Me, R1 = CH2OH (71%) 177b: R = F, R1 = CO2Et (70%)

Scheme 22.40
22.3.5.4 Reactions with Bases 2-Phenylindolizine can be lithiated at C5 and the resulting lithium derivative has been reacted with ClSiMe3 and other C-electrophiles [115]. The same process has been optimized by Babaev and co-workers [116], using the lithium derivative to prepare the corresponding 5-iodoindolizine. This group also described the same lithiation to obtain, using parallel chemistry, the corresponding 5-bromo- and iodo derivatives, which were later used as substrates in Pd-catalyzed reactions (Scheme 22.41) [117]. In addition, 5-methylindolizine undergoes lithiation at the methyl group [118]. 22.3.5.5 Reactions with Reducing Agents Catalytic reduction in acidic solution of the indolizinium cation in the presence of Pd/ C has been described as giving a pyridinium salt [119]. Complete saturation, affording indolizidines, has been achieved with reductions over platinum [120].
2018

C2F4Br2 N R n-BuLi THF, TMEDA -78C Li N R I2 N I Br R 179a: R = t-Bu (97%) 179b: R = Ph (80%)
R 180a: R = t-Bu (95%) 180b: R = Ph (76%)
Scheme 22.41
The most recent results concern a study into the reduction of substituted pyrroles, with the reduction of indolizine 181 to the corresponding indolizidine 182 [98b] (Scheme 22.42). As indicated by related examples, the carbonyl group is reduced before the indolizine system.
OTBS N O 181
Scheme 22.42
H2, 10 atm. 5% Rh/Al2O3 EtOH, rt 91%
H N HO
OTBS H
O OEt
O OEt
182
Kim and Gevorgyan [121] have described recently the Birch reduction of indolizine derivatives. As a result, the simpler indolizines yielded 5,6-dihydro derivatives.
22.3.5.6 Electrocyclic Reactions Despite being a ten-electron aromatic p-system, indolizine apparently participates in reactions with activated acetylenes such as DMAD. When the reaction was carried out in the presence of a noble metal catalyst, the initial adduct 183 was converted into an aromatic cyclazine 184 (Scheme 22.43) [122].
DMAD toluene N Pd/C, reflux
N O OMe 183 OMe O
-H2 68% O
N OMe OMe 184 O
Scheme 22.43
22.3 Indolizines
j2019
A similar process has been studied by Babaev and co-workers [117] starting from a 5-bromoindolizine derivative. In this case, the dihydro analogue to 183 aromatizes, not by oxidation, as indicated in Scheme 22.43 (so the Pd catalyst is not necessary), but by HBr elimination, which produced higher yields.
22.3.5.7 Reactions of C-Metallated Indolizines A classical paper from Renard and Gubin concerns the preparation of 5-Li-indolizines and the reactions with different electrophiles [115]. However, the most recent advances in the chemistry of metallated indolizines concern the chemistry of palladium-catalyzed reactions. For example, Gevorgyan and co-workers [123] have described a Heck arylation of indolizines (Scheme 22.44). A combination of kinetic and computational studies indicates an intermediate like 185 in the mechanistic proposal for the formation of 186.
PdCl2(PPh3)2 KOAc, H2O NMP, 100 C N +
+
R
2
Br
R H Pd-Ar
185
186a: R1 = COOEt, R2=NO2 (91%) 186b: R1 = Me, R2 =OMe (73%)
Scheme 22.44
As indicated above, Babaev and co-workers [117] have described a halogenation method to prepare 5-haloindolizines and a Suzuki arylation performed in parallel to obtain 187 (Scheme 22.45). The use of the iodo analogues as starting materials usually led to higher yields.
N X X = Br, I
+
R
2
B(OH)2
PdCl2 1,4-dioxane/H2O K2CO3 80 C, 24h R

2
187a: R1= t-Bu, R2=OMe (70%) 187b: R1= Ph, R2=OMe (64%)
Scheme 22.45
The most recent addition to this eld has been the dimerization of 188, which was described by You and co-workers [124], through homocoupling using a combination
2020

of palladium and copper acetates (Scheme 22.46). The synthesis has been carried out on a wide variety of functionalized indolizines and has also been used as a key step in the preparation of a macrocyclic compound.
O O OMe Pd(OAc)2 Cu(OAc)2 K2CO3, DMF 60 C 99% MeO 189

Scheme 22.46
OMe
N N
N 188
22.3.6 Derivatives
Only a few functional derivatives of this system are available at present. To give a general view, it is necessary to bear in mind the easy cleavage of carboxyl and acyl groups on heating with aqueous acid and the instability of amino indolizines, which are unstable to oxidation and cannot be diazotized, but which can be converted into stable amides.
22.4 Quinolizinium Salts 22.4.1 General Structure and Reactivity
The C6-C6 fused bicyclic ring systems containing a bridgehead nitrogen atom are represented by different heterocycles depending on the oxidation state of the system. The representative heterocycle of the fully aromatized structure is the pyrido[1,2-a] pyridinium, which is known as quinolizinium (16, Figure 22.1c), an approved name that has the advantage of simplicity but is not consistent with the rules of nomenclature, which assign this name to any of the cations formed by protonation of a quinolizine. The quinolizines themselves (1719) are the archetypes of partially unsaturated C6-C6 fused bicyclic systems. None of the three possible isomeric quinolizines have been isolated although 4H-quinolizine (17) is documented as
22.4 Quinolizinium Salts
j2021
having a transient existence. Quinolizidine (20) is the representative heterocycle of the C6-C6 fully saturated system containing a nitrogen ring-junction. Replacement of a carbon atom and its attached hydrogen by heteroatoms in quinolizines leads to various heterocycles. The aza analogues of 16 are known as azaquinoliziniums, a simple and convenient name that is not used for the rest of these systems, probably because the presence of other heteroatoms may lead to some confusion. Of the four possible azaquinolizinium isomers (2124, Figure 22.1c), the 3-azaquinolizinium system 23 is currently unknown. A detailed discussion of the chemistry and properties of non-aromatic and non-cationic systems is beyond the scope of this chapter. Likewise, an exhaustive discussion of the benzo derivatives of these systems is not undertaken, although a brief survey of the properties and chemistry of tricyclic and polycyclic cations having a bridgehead quaternary nitrogen is included at the end of this chapter. The rst review covering the literature on these polycyclic aromatic nitrogen cation systems appeared in 1961 [125] and in 1965 the chemistry of quinolizinium salts was reviewed by Thyagarajan [126]. Jones [127] published a review covering the chemistry of quinolizinium and its benzo derivatives, and a fourth review is devoted to polycyclic aromatic nitrogen cations [128]. Two more reviews appeared [129, 130] before a chapter in Comprehensive Heterocyclic Chemistry in 1984 [131] and another chapter in the updated version in 1996 [132], which provided a comprehensive treatment of these cationic heterocycles. A more recent review has been published by Ihmels [133].
The quinolizinium cation is present in the structure of relevant natural alkaloids such as the berberine family. Berberine (190) is one of the most widely distributed of all alkaloids, having been found in plants of the nine botanical families [134, 135]. Berberine and related protoberberine alkaloids such as palmatine (191) [136] and jatrorrhizine (192) incorporate the dihydro form of the quinolizinium system. Berberine has been used extensively in folk medicine [137] and exhibits a wide range of pharmacological activities [138]. Coralyne (193), the rst reported compound containing the fully aromatic quinolizinium nucleus was described by Schneider and Shroeter in 1920 [139]; it is another important member of this group of alkaloids and possesses signicant antitumor activity [140] and interacts with DNA through intercalation [141]. Many relevant alkaloids are based on a betainic structure (neutral conjugated molecules that can be represented only by dipolar structures in which both the negative and the positive charges are delocalized within the p-electron system) [142]. Quinolizinium ylides are well-known conjugated heterocyclic mesomeric betaines (CMBs) that are present in different families of alkaloids such as those based on the indolo[2,3-a]quinolizinium system represented by sempervirine (194), avopereirine (195), afrocurarine (196), neooxygambirtannine (197), and avocarpine (198), among others [143].
2022

O OMe O OR MeO N + OMe 191 Palmitine: R=H 192 Jatrorrhizine: R=Me MeO N + Me Coralyne 193 MeO N OMe OMe
MeO OMe
N + Berberine 190
MeO
+
N
+
Et Et Me N HO H
+
Et
N Sempervirine 194
Flavopereirine 195
N N H O
+
N H
+ N
Et O
N Me +
MeO2C Neooxygambirtannine 197 198
O Flavocarpine
Afrocurarine 196
The quinolizidine alkaloids are also widely distributed in nature; nearly 30% of all known alkaloids belong to the quinolizidine-indolizidine family. Some representative members of this group of alkaloids are the structurally simple lupinine (199) and nupharidine (200). Tetracyclic and tricyclic systems are exemplied by the Lupinus alkaloid sparteine (201) and the Lythrceae alkaloid vertaline respectively (202) [144].
O Me N HO Lupinine 199 N + O Nupharidine 200 H N H H O O H N O
H N
Me
Sparteine 201
Vertaline 202
Different pharmacological properties have been described for quinolizinium derivatives. For example, 2-aminoquinolizinium compounds are anthelmintic agents [145], nolinium bromide (203) possesses antispasmodic and antisecretory
j2023
properties [146], 6-hydroxybenzo[c]quinolizinium (204) is a potent protein kinase CKII inhibitor [147] and the azaquinolizinium derivatives 205 and 206 exhibited DNA intercalating properties and antiproliferative activity [148], acridizinium derivative 207 has been described as a uorescent probe for DNA and protein detection [149] and the cyanine dyes 208 are based on a benzo[a]quinolizinium system [150]. Many quinolizidine derivatives also show pharmacological activities and remarkable afnity towards various receptors. For example, the ortopramides 209 show good gastric prokinetic properties [151]. ( )-Butaclamol (210) is a potent neuroleptic agent [152], emetine (211) is an antitumor and amoebicidal agent [153], and the quinolizine derivative 212 is an inhibitor of the angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) [154].
Et H N N + 203 H N N + Br Cl Cl OH 204 Cl N H 205 N H N + ClO4 208 MeO H N H HO 210 Bu
t
Br
Et N N+ MSTS
N + N MSTS 206
Ar
Br
Ar
N O 209
207
Ar
OH N H N Et O OH O 212 OMe OMe 211 N CO2H
MeO
22.4.3 Relevant Computational Chemistry, and Physicochemical and Spectroscopic Data
The structures of quinolizinium hexauorophosphate [155] and some benzo[b] quinolizinium derivatives [156] have been determined by X-ray diffraction analysis. As expected, the quinolizinium ring is planar; the maximum deviation from the best
2024

plane through the non-H atoms is for atom C1, which deviates by only 0.010(1) A. The most signicant structural differences between this aromatic cation and naphtha lene [157] are contractions of the NC bond lengths in 16, by 0.04 A for N5C9a and by 0.03 A for N5/C9aC1. Quinolizinium and related heterocyles are isoconjugate with the corresponding aromatic hydrocarbons and the delocalization energy or resonance energy of the heteroaromatic cations is nearly the same as for the parent hydrocarbon [142], as shown by the calculated values for quinolizinium and benzoquinolizinium (Table 22.3). Electronic densities of quinolizinium and benzo derivatives have been calculated ckel molecular orbital theory using different molecular orbital methods [(Hu (HMO) [142] and the PariserParrPople method (PPP) [158]] and results for 16 are summarized in Table 22.4. Perturbation theory supports the idea that the azonia nitrogen gathers electronic density from the carbon atoms of opposite parity. In the 1 H NMR spectrum of quinolizinium bromide [159] the signals due to H2 and H3 appear in the aromatic region at lower frequencies (d 8.43 and 8.14 ppm, respectively) than those of H1 and H4 (d 8.69 and 9.58 ppm, respectively). The H4 and H6 protons appear to be strongly deshielded by the effect of the positive charge of the nitrogen, an effect that can also be observed in benzo- and naphthoquinolizinium cations. Table 22.5 shows the chemical shifts and coupling constants for quinolizinium and some simple quinolizinium derivatives [160]. Table 22.6 shows the 13 C NMR resonances of the quinolizinium cation and some simple derivatives [161]. In quinolizinium the chemical shifts of the C1 and C3 atoms appear at lower frequencies than those of the C2 and C4 atoms, an observation that is consistent with data reported for electron densities and electrophilic reactivity, which is predicted to occur preferentially at the C3 and C7 positions. The 13 C 14 N coupling is responsible for the broadening of C4 and C6 signals. The 1J(CH) values for these two carbons are also higher than those for the other carbon atoms. Substitution leads to either shielding or deshielding of the carbon to which the substituent is bonded. This effect is particularly signicant in the case of the hydroxy group. Quinolizinium, azaquinolizinium, and polycyclic cations that have a quaternary bridgehead nitrogen are chromophoric molecules that absorb light by a transition of
Table 22.3 Delocalization energies (DE) for aromatic hydrocarbons and azonia heteroaromatic

cations. Compound Naphthalene Quinolizinium (16) Anthracene Benzo[b]quinolizinium (25) Phenanthrene Benzo[a]quinolizinium (26) Benzo[c]quinolizinium (27) DE 3.68 3.89 5.32 5.53 5.45 5.66 5.67

Table 22.4 Electron densities of the quinolizinium cation (16).
j2025
Method HMO PPP
C1 1.005 1.010
C2 0.916 0.976
C3 1.011 1.013
C4 0.856 0.940
N5 1.550 1.185
C9a 0.874 0.940
Table 22.5
H NMR chemical shifts (ppm) of quinolizinium and some derivatives (in DMSO-d6). H1 8.65 7.68 9.07 8.49 8.26 8.79 H2 8.42 8.16 8.46 8.59 H3 8.15 7.62 8.36 7.89 8.34 H4 9.49 9.23 9.42 9.56 H6 9.49 9.06 9.51 9.50 9.54 9.69 H7 8.15 7.63 8.13 7.96 8.12 8.25 H8 8.42 7.99 8.41 8.24 8.36 8.52 H9 8.65 8.23 8.54 8.53 8.56 8.74
Substituent H 2-OH 2-Br 3-Me 4-NMe2 4-Br
the electronic state of the aromatic p-electron system. The absorption spectrum of quinolizinium iodide [162] shows well-dened absorption bands in the near-UV and visible regions at 226 (log e 4.25), 272 (3.42), 283 (3.47), 310 (4.03), 316.5 (3.98), and 323.5 (4.23) nm. Comparison with naphthalene shows a bathochromic shift due to the presence of the cationic nitrogen. Noncovalent interactions between these heteroaromatic chromophores and biomolecules such as DNA causes changes in the UV absorption spectra of the chromophore (usually hyperchromic and bathochromic effects), which in turn provide information about whether an interaction takes place. The benzo[b]quinolizinium chromophore exhibits pronounced emission properties [163]. Chromophores based on the quinolizinium ion are colored solids that have high melting points, which usually increase with the molecular weight of the compound (Table 22.7). Changes in the counter anions can signicantly modify the melting points of these cationic compounds and in some cases these salts can even become hygroscopic. Some derivatives of these polycyclic cations are uorescent at room temperature.
Table 22.6
13
C NMR chemical shifts (ppm) of quinolizinium and some derivatives (in DMSO-d6). C1 127.9 108.9 130.1 126.1 137.8 C2 138.0 164.4 133.2 139.0 126.5 C3 125.0 117.0 128.4 134.6 131.5 C4 137.0 139.2 137.4 134.0 128.0 C6 137.0 135.5 137.4 135.1 136.7 C7 125.0 120.8 125.2 123.6 129.8 C8 138.0 135.9 139.2 135.7 138.7 C9 127.9 125.7 127.1 126.6 128.8 C9a 143.0 145.9 143.4 140.5 146.6
Substituent H 2-OH 2-Br 3-Me 4-Br
2026

Table 22.7 Physical properties of some quinolizinium cations.
Counterion Iodide Picrate Perchlorate Bromide
Mp ( C) 220230 (dec) 180181 285288 260261
Solvent EtOH/EtOAc EtOH EtOH EtOH
Appearance White crystals Yellow needles Yellow needles White crystals
The low volatility and thermal degradation of quinolizinium and related cations precludes the gathering of useful information from the mass spectra of these cations using the electron impact ionization (EI) technique. It is necessary to use fast atom bombardment (FAB) and eld desorption (FD) techniques to obtain information about molecular ions of the cations.
22.4.4 Synthesis of Quinolizinium Salts
All of the synthetic methodologies reported for the construction of the quinolizinum cation are based on a pyridine ring, which is used as a template to build up the second heterocyclic ring. Depending on the number of atoms of the pyridine or pyridine derivative involved in the formation of the bicyclic system, there are different general approaches to the quinolizinium nucleus and the most relevant are summarized here.
1 1 1 2 3 4 2 3
N
2
+
3
1 2
+
3 3
6 1 5 4 3
3 4 5 6
N
2
N
1
22.4.4.1 By [3 3] Approaches In 1920 it was reported that treatment of the natural alkaloid coralyne (193) in a strongly alkaline solution led to a new compound that in an acidic medium generated coralyne once more (Scheme 22.47) [139]. It is assumed that this is the rst example of cyclization leading to the quinolizinium moiety and this inspired Woodward in his quinolizinium synthesis used in the total synthesis of the methochloride of sempervirine (194). The Woodward method is the rst [3 3] approach to the quinolizinium system [164] involving a 1,3-dicarbonyl equivalent and a 2-methylpyridine (picoline) (Scheme 22.47).
j2027
OMe OMe MeO MeO N + Me Cl 193 O Me N R

1
OMe OMe HO H+ MeO MeO Me R CH2Li

2
N O
R R
R5O
R N R
1
OH R
3
N R
1
OR
R H+ N R
1
OH R
3
R 21-60% R
1
O 213
N + R 214
R1,R2,R3,R4 = H, alkyl, Ph
Scheme 22.47
The drawbacks of this method are the limited variety of substituents accessible (only alkyl and phenyl substituents are reported), the low yields obtained in the preparation of most of the substituted quinolizinium compounds (2160%), and the parent quinolizinium itself, which is reported to be obtained in very poor yield. Moreover, the presence of at least one substituent at the C2 position seems to be critical for the success of this reaction. In a variant of this method the carbonyl group is protected as an acetal or ketal, with compound 213 also being an intermediate. The acidic conditions were achieved with ethanolic picric acid, acetic anhydride with a few drops of sulfuric acid, or dry hydrobromide in acetic anhydride, with the latter being the best conditions [161b, 165]. Boekelheide and Gall described the rst synthesis of the parent quinolizinium salt (16) using the same [3 3] strategy [166]. In this case the reaction of 2-picolyllithium with b-ethoxypropionaldehyde gives the corresponding alcohol, which by consecutive treatment with hydroiodic acid and potassium carbonate is converted into the tetrahydroquinolizinium alcohol. Dehydration followed by dehydrogenation yields 16 in an overall yield close to 5%, although yields obtained in the nal dehydrogenation step of the dihydroquinolizinium derivative 215 have thus far been low (Scheme 22.48). A more useful [3 3] approach to 16 and some derivatives involves the reaction between 2-cyanopyridine and 3-ethoxypropylmagnesium bromide [167] to give the
2028

H n-BuLi Et2O N O CH2Li OEt 57% N OEt OH Ac2O 98% I 215
Scheme 22.48
Me N
OH
1. HI 2. K2CO3 61%
N +
1. Pd/C n-BuOH N + 2. Picric acid 15%
N + OC6H2(NO2)3 16
corresponding ketone after hydrolysis of the resulting imine. Cleavage of the ether with hydrobromic acid allows the formation of the bromide, which cyclizes to the bicyclic ketone 216 by heating in chloroform. This ketone is the common intermediate to produce 16 by heating under reux in acetic anhydride [168] and can also give 1-hydroxy-, 2-hydroxy- and 2-bromoquinolizinium derivatives (217219) using simple reagents [169]. Ketone 216 can be obtained in better yield by reaction of 2ethoxycarbonylpyridine and c-butyrolactone in the presence of NaH followed by treatment with hydrobromic acid to produce decarboxylation, bromination, and cyclization (Scheme 22.49) [170]. The mechanism of the aromatization of 216 to 16 is thought to occur via the enol acetate 220, which rearranges to the 1,4-dihydro derivative 221. Elimination of acetic acid affords the fully aromatized quinolizinium cation (Scheme 22.50). The 3-bromoquinolizinium derivative 222 is obtained by reaction of 5-bromo-2ethoxycarbonylpyridine and c-butyrolactone [170]. This method also allows the preparation of the 2-, 3-, and 4-methylquinolizinium salts (223225) by using 3ethoxypropylmagnesium bromides with the appropriate substitution [168]. 1-Methylquinolizinium picrate (226) can be obtained by reaction of 3,3-diethoxypropylmagnesium chloride with 2-acetylpyridine [165c] (Scheme 22.51). 4-Bromo- and 4-hydroxyquinolizinium salts are also prepared by a [3 3] approach involving the reaction at 180 C of ethyl 2-pyridylacetate and diethyl ethoxymethylenemalonate [171]. The quinazolone 227 initially formed on heating under reux in hydrochloric acid yields the 4-hydroxyquinolizinum derivative 228, which was converted into 4-bromoquinolizinium bromide (230) by reaction with phosphorus tribromide (Scheme 22.52) [160b]. NMR studies have shown that 4quinazolone (229) is the main component in the equilibrium of the tautomeric species [172]. Malondialdehyde (and its acetal) and malonic acid derivatives have also been successfully used in the reaction with 2-pyridylacetonitrile to form 1-cyanoquinolizinium derivatives, although the 1-cyanoquinolizinium perchlorate 231a was only obtained in 8% yield [173] (Scheme 22.53).

O Et2O 54% OEt N OEt 1. HBr 2. Na2CO3 3. CHCl3, heat 79%
j2029
CN N +
BrMg
Ac2O CO2Et N + O O O NaH 69% N O O HBr 82% N + Br O
96% Br2 BrH 91%
N + Br 16 O N + Br PhNMe2 78% OH Br Br
216
BrH 89% O Ac2O 74% N + Br Br
OH AgOAc N + Br AcOH 90% N + Br
Br
N + Br
218
Scheme 22.49
217
219
H+ OAc 216 Ac2O N + 220

Scheme 22.50
H N +
OAc 16 H
Br
Br
221
22.4.4.2 By [4 2] Approaches The Westphal reaction was described in 1961 [174] and is the representative [4 2] approach to a wide variety of substituted quinolizinium salts and some polycyclic cations based on this system. The partners for this synthesis are a pyridinium salt (232) bearing active methylenes attached directly to the N1 and C2 positions (1,4dinucleophile) and a 1,2-dicarbonyl compound (233) (1,2-dielectrophile). In the presence of a base (usually a secondary or tertiary amine or NaHCO3) a double condensation reaction occurs to give the quinolizinium system. Nowadays, the Westphal condensation can be viewed as a general process involving different types of pyridinium (or azinium) salts, namely, CC, NC, NN, and CN substrates, and different 1,2-dicarbonyl partners (Scheme 22.54) to afford quinolizinium and aza- and diazaquinolizinium cations [175]. While CC,
2030

1. NaH 2. HBr 3. Ac2O O O 26% N + Br Br +
CO2Et Br N
222
1. Addition 2. H3O+ 3. HBr 54-65% N EtO R
3
CN N +
BrMg EtO
R R
O R R
Ac2O heat Br R1 R2 N +
3
R R
223 : = Me; = R3 = H (65%) 224 : R1 = R3 = H; R2 = Me (100%) 225 : R1 = R2 = H; R3 = Me (65%)

HO Me THF 48% OEt N EtO OEt 1. HBr, heat 2. Ac2O, heat 3. Sodium picrate 54% Me N + OC6H2(NO2)3
O Me + N
ClMg EtO
226
Scheme 22.51
CO2Et O N OEt CO2Et + OEt CO2Et Heat 52% N O

227
CO2Et
HCl N + Cl N OH
229
PBr3 45% O Br
230
N +
Br
228
Scheme 22.52
NC, and NN substrates are well represented in Westphal-like reactions, attempted condensations involving CN substrates have been unsuccessful to date. The rst example of this reaction involved the synthesis of various substituted quinolizinium salts 234 by reaction of N-alkyl-substituted 2-picolinium salts and 1,2diketones in the presence of an organic base (Scheme 22.55) [174]. The reaction was
j2031
CN CN NH + ClO4 COR + COR

2 1
HClO4 N + ClO4
2
231a: R1 = R2 = H (8%) 231b: R1 = R2 = Me (46%) 231c: R1 = COEt; R2 = Me (77%)

Scheme 22.53
Y N + Z Base
R R 233
Base
Y N + Z
R R
X 232
RCOCOR Y N + Z C N + N N + Y N + Z N N N N+ C C-N Substrates
Y N+ Z N +
C C
C-C Substrates
Scheme 22.54
N-C Substrates
N-N Substrates
successful with different alkyl- and aryl-diketones and quinones and pyridinium salts bearing electron-withdrawing substituents at N1 to facilitate ylide formation. The condensation of 1-ethoxycarbonylmethyl-2-hydroxymethylpyridinium and diacetyl and benzyl led to 1-hydroxyquinolizinium derivatives 235a,b in 5% and
R N Br
1
R BrCH2EWG N+
R R2COCOR2 Base 68-80% Br N +
R R EWG
EWG
234
R1=H R2=alkyl, aryl EWG=CN, CO2R, COR, CONHPh
Scheme 22.55
2032

60% yields, respectively. 1-Amino- and 7-aminoquinolizinium salts 236 were also obtained from appropriate picolinium salts bearing protected amino groups and 2,3butanedione and 3,4-hexanedione, in ethanol, using di-n-butylamine as the base (Scheme 22.56).
OH N+ Br OH R R 1. n-Bu2NH/EtOH 2. BrH Br N + R R CO2Et
O O
CO2Et
235a: R=Me (5%) 235b: R=Ph (60%)

R N+ Br
1
O O
R R
R 1. n-Bu2NH/EtOH 2. BrH 41-88% R

2
R N + R CO2Et
CO2Et
Br
R1=NHCOMe; R2=H R1=H; R2=NHCOMe
236
R1=R2=H, NH2; R3=Me, Et
Scheme 22.56
As a result of the large number of studies and applications for this useful reaction [175] the following conclusions have been established: 1) 2) The choice of base, solvent, and reaction conditions play a signicant role in the success of the reaction. The reactivity of the 1-methylene is mainly inuenced by the nature of the stabilizing group, whereas the reactivity of the a-alkyl substituent strongly depends on the heterocyclic moiety and the presence or absence of further substituents (methyl or alkyl/arylmethyl groups), which could eventually stabilize canonical forms without charge separation (anhydrobases) and these would predominate in the resonance hybrid and make the intermediate less reactive. The presence of a carbonyl moiety in the group attached to the quaternary nitrogen usually results in lower yields of the quinolizinium cation due to the competitive Chichibabin reaction, which involves a cyclization leading to 2indolizin-2-one derivatives. In the reaction of azinium salts bearing N-ethoxymethylcarbonylmethyl substituents and 1,2-diketones the ester group was lost in most of the isolated quinolizinium salts. It was proved that hydrolysis and decarboxylation was an easy process if the resulting quinolizinium salt is partially soluble in the reaction medium, otherwise the ester group remained in the condensation product.
3)
4)
The regioselectivity of this condensation has also been investigated for CC and NC substrates with different unsymmetrical 1-aryl-2-propanediones under basic conditions [176]. Deprotonation of the starting salt produces the more stable N-ylide
j2033
intermediate 237. The reaction of this ylide with the diketone should produce the intermediate 239 under kinetic control whereas the more conjugated intermediate 240 should be the thermodynamic control product. The molar ratio of 241/242 is highly dependent on the electronic character of the aryl group (phenyl or heteroaryl) in the starting diketone (Scheme 22.57).
CH3 N + CO2Et
NaOAc Acetone rt N +
CH3 N + CO2Et 237 O R O CH3
CH2
238
CO2Et
CH3 O N + CO2Et 239
CH3 R
CH3 O N + CO2Et 240
R CH3
CH3 N + R CO2Et N +
R CH3 CO2Et 242
241 R Et Ph S N
Scheme 22.57
Yield (%) 88 67 88 81
241/242 Ratio 50:50 100:0 40:60 100:0
The results show how kinetic control predominates with 1-(4-pyridyl)- and 1-phenyl-1,2-propanediones, which produce only 2-methyl derivatives 241. In contrast, p-excessive aromatic systems such as 1-(2-thienyl)-1,2-propanedione produced signicant amounts of regioisomer 242 as a consequence of the higher stability of the
2034

more conjugated intermediate. When 2,3-pentanedione was used as a representative example of a diketone without electronic effects to differentiate between carbonyls, 1 : 1 mixtures of the two regioisomers were formed. The Westphal process has also been useful for the preparation of resins for ion exchange [177]. The polymeric substrate 243, bearing 2-methylpyridine, reacted with ethyl 2-bromoacetate to give the corresponding salt, which condensed with 2,3butanedione in the presence of di-n-butylamine to afford the 2,3-dimethylquinolizinium 244 incorporated in the resin (Scheme 22.58).
Me O O
Me N n 243
Scheme 22.58
BrCH2CO2Et n
Me + Br CO2Et
Me
Me N + Br Me
n-Bu2NH EtOH
244 (25%)
Based on this precedent, the CC Westphal reaction has been described in the solid phase [178]. The appropriate substrate 245 is prepared in two different ways (Scheme 22.59) using Wang resin as the solid support. A study of the reaction conditions was reported and shows that the optimal yields were obtained
O OH Wang resin HO Br O O Br N R
1
CH3
HOBt, DIC DCM/DMF
CH3
CH3 N
1. BrCH2CO2Et nBu4NI, Toluene 2. HBr, 100 oC
CH3
OH HOBt, DIC DCM/DMF
N _+ Br O 245
N _+ Br CO2H
O R
2
R O
R R O
R
2
Et3N, THF
N _+ Br O
R CO2
HO
N _+ Br O
R OH
N _+ Br
246a: R1 = H; R2 = Me (80%) 246b: R1 = H; R2 = Ph (64%) 246c: R1 = H; R2 = 2-pyridyl (95%) 246d: R1 = R2 = Me (95%) 246e: R1 = Me; R2 = Ph (82%) 246f: R1 = Me; R2 = 2-pyridyl (90%)
Scheme 22.59
j2035
with three equivalents of triethylamine as base in THF at 70 C. Under these reaction conditions, the initial Westphal condensation product is not stable and spontaneously undergoes hydrolysis of the ester and decarboxylation of the resulting acid. This hydrolysis/decarboxylation sequence has also been observed in the conventional Westphal reaction, as stated earlier. A small library of nitrogen bridgehead azinium and azolium compounds has been synthesized with high yields and purities. Some examples of quinolizinium derivatives (246af) are shown in Scheme 22.59. The reaction of 2-ethoxycarbonyl-1-methylpyridium salts with acrylonitrile is also a synthetically useful [4 2] approach for building up bicyclic quinolizinium and simple derivatives, although in this procedure the pyridine derivative 247 behaves a nucleophileelectrophile substrate [179]. The initial product of this reaction is the heterobetaine 248. Removal of the cyano substituent by acid hydrolysis and decarboxylation affords the ketone 216, which through the same treatment as shown in Scheme 22.49 afforded 16 or 2,7-dibromoquinolizinium bromide 249 [160b] under the conditions shown in Scheme 22.60.
O
CO2Et R BF4
+ Me
CN
Et2iPrN CH2Cl2 51-58% R
CN
N N Br Ac2O 16 R=H 96% 1. BrH/Br2 Br Br N + 249
247 R = H, Br OH N +
248 HBr
51% O N + 216
Br
2. Ac2O R = Br 37%
Br
Br
Scheme 22.60
22.4.4.3 By Cyclization Reactions Quinolizinium syntheses based on cyclization methods are represented by a few examples involving different bonds to form the second ring. For example, formation of a bond in the b-position with respect to the heteroatom is represented by the reaction of 2-picolinaldehyde with benzyl phenyl ketone to form the corresponding aldol, which is acetylated and quaternized with phenacyl bromide to afford the pyridinium salt 250 [180]. Treatment with di-n-butylamine then generates the quinolizinium derivative, which undergoes debenzoylation to afford 2,3-diphenylquinolizinium bromide (246b) (Scheme 22.61).
2036

OH Ph O Ph Ph N + Ph NaOH N O Ph Ph
CHO N
1. AcCl/Py 2. PhCOCH2Br Br
OH Ph N+ O O Ph Ph
Bu2NH 74% Br
250
246b
Scheme 22.61
An example involving the formation of a bond d to the heteroatom represents the most efcient route to prepare 3-hydroxyquinolizinium bromide [181]. This derivative is obtained by reaction of bromoacetone with 2-piconaldehyde acetal followed by acid deprotection and intramolecular condensation to give a 77% overall yield of 251 (Scheme 22.62).
O CH(OEt)2 Br N 80% Me Br
CH(OEt)2 N+ O Me
HBr 96% Br N + 251 OH
Scheme 22.62
Diketones 252 are obtained by quaternization of 2-acetylpyridines with phenacyl bromides and these are cyclized under basic conditions to the 1-hydroxyquinolizinium hydroxides, which are converted into the salts 253 by treatment with hydrobromic acid. This cyclization involves the formation of a bond c to the heteroatom and allowed the synthesis of a series of 1-hydroxyquinolizinium bromides with yields ranging from 47% to 84% (Scheme 22.63) [182]. A similar approach starting from an oxime quaternary salt has been used to prepare 1-hydroxy-2-methylquinolizinium salt (254) in moderate yield. Thus far the most general and efcient method for the preparation of the dihydroquinolizinium system by a cyclization strategy is a recently reported procedure based on a ring-closing metathesis (RCM) reaction of 1-butenyl-2-vinylpyrinium salts (255) in the presence of a second-generation Grubbs catalyst [183]. In this case the construction of second ring also involves the formation of a d bond to the nitrogen. These reactions afford various heteroaromatic cations in good overall yield from readily available starting materials (Scheme 22.64). The dihydroquinolizinium salts (256ad) obtained by this method are oxidized to the corresponding quinolizinium salt 16 and quinolizinium derivatives 257bd with Pd/C in acetic acid in 6789%
j2037
R Ar
O R N
O Br MeCN 39-90% Ph Br
O R N+ O Ar
1. HO 2. HBr
OH N + Br
252 Et N + O O NOH HBr 51% Br N + 254 OH Me
253a: R = H; Ar = Ph (80%) 253b: R = Me; Ar = Ph (47%) 253c: R = Et; Ar = Ph (84%)
Br
Scheme 22.63
+
OTf
CCl4 rt
R TfO
RCM Grubbs II N _+ 255

Mes N N Mes
CH2Cl2, rt
R TfO _
N +
C/Pd (10%) AcOH or 200 C
R TfO
N _ +
256a: R = H (83%) 256b: R = 9-Br (80%) 256c: R = 7-Me (82%) 256d: R = 7-Br (80%)
Cl Ru Cl PCy3 Ph Mes= C6H2-2,4,6-(CH3)3
16: R = H (79%) 257b: R = 1-Br (83%) 257c: R = 3-Me (89%) 257d: R = 3-Br (67%)
Scheme 22.64
Grubbs II Catalyst
yield by improving a reported oxidation method [184]. This metathesis reaction leads to various quinolizinium triates in 1054% overall yields, thus making this procedure one of the most efcient and general to date to obtain quinolizinium cations. Pyridinium enynes can also be employed as suitable substrates in this type of metathesis reaction using the HoveydaGrubbs catalyst in combination with high dilution and an atmosphere of ethylene to prevent the intermolecular process and/or polymerization of the enyne. Two versions of this enyne RCM reaction allow the synthesis of 1-vinyl- and 2-vinyl-substituted 3,4-dihydroquinolizinium salts in good yields [185]. 1-Vinyl-3,4-dihydro-quinolizinium salts (259) were obtained by the RCM of 1-(3-butenyl)-2-ethynylpyridinium salts (258) under the optimized conditions
2038

found for this reaction. The substrates 258 for the metathesis reaction are obtained by N-alkylation of 2-ethynylpyridines with 3-butenyl triate (Scheme 22.65).
R N + CCl4, rt TfO Hoveyda-Grubbs R N + 258 CH2=CH2 ClCH2CH2Cl reflux, 0.001M N + R
TfO
TfO
259a: R = Me (86%) 259b: R = OTBS (93%) 259c: R = Ar (87-90%) 259d: R = 2-thyenyl (94%) Hoveyda-Grubbs R N + 260 TfO CH2=CH2 ClCH2CH2Cl reflux, 0.001M N +
N + TfO
Me
CCl4, rt TfO
261a: R = H (38%) 261b: R = Me (66%) 261c: R = Ph (81%)

Mes N N Mes Cl Ru Cl
Hoveyda-Grubbs Catalyst
Scheme 22.65
2-Vinyl-3,4-dihydroquinolizinium derivatives (261) have prepared from 1-(3-butynyl)-2-vinyl-3,4-dihydroquinolizinium substrates (260) under the same conditions as used for the synthesis of 259. In this case the reaction does not seem to be as general because both the enyne and the dihydroquinolizinium derivative are prone to polymerization under the reaction conditions. Pyridinium substrates bearing substituents inboth theethynyl andethenyl moieties were also tested but only in one case was the metathesis reaction successful and in this case the 3,4-dihydroquinolizinium compound was obtained in only 19% yield.
22.4.5 Reactivity of Quinolizinium Salts
The key feature of the quinolizinium ion (16) is its aromatic cationic nature along with the partial iminic character of the carbonnitrogen double bond. For this reason
j2039
this heterocycle behaves as an electron-poor aromatic system, lacks reactivity towards typical electrophiles used in electrophilic heterocyclic chemistry, and offers a potential site for the attack of nucleophilic reagents. On the other hand, the high symmetry of the quinolizinium cation only allows the existence of four monosubstituted isomers for any given substituent.
22.4.5.1 Reactions with Electrophilic Reagents As stated earlier, the most activated positions towards electrophilic substitution in the quinolizinium cation are C3 and C7, but an unequivocal case of electrophilic substitution on the unsubstituted cation has not been reported. Bromine reacts in a reversible process with quinolizinium bromide to form the perbromide salt, which when heated at high temperature (>200 C) is converted into the 1-bromoquinolizinium bromide (262) (Scheme 22.66) [160b, 186]. The high temperature needed for this process is consistent with a radical reaction but an electrophilic mechanism can not be ruled out despite the fact that the C1 position is not the preferred site for the entry of the electrophile.
Br Br2 N + Br
Scheme 22.66
200 C N + Br3 69% Br N + 262
Acetone
Electrophilic aromatic substitution on the quinolizinium cation requires strongly electron-donating substituents such as hydroxy or amino groups for the success of this reaction [169, 181]. 1-Hydroxyquinolizinium salts (219) undergo electrophilic substitution preferentially at the C2 position [187]. Nitration is carried out with nitric acid but this gives a yield of only 31% of the 2-nitrated betaine. In contrast, a much better yield (80%) is obtained with bromonation using bromine and hydrobromic acid (Scheme 22.67). Under the same conditions of bromination as for 219, the 2-hydroxyquinolizinium (218) gives the 1-bromo derivative 266 in 67% yield. Quinolizin-4-one (229) [the most stable tautomeric form of the 4-hydroxyquinolizinium (228)] yields the 1,3-dinitro derivative 267 when the nitration is carried out with nitric acid in acetic acid. Mononitration can be achieved using cupric nitrate in acetic anhydride to yield a mixture of the 1- and 3-nitro isomers (Scheme 22.68) [187b]. 1-Amino- and 2-aminoquinolizinium salts behave in a similar way to the hydroxy derivatives in promoting electrophilic substitution at the C2 and C1 positions, respectively. In the only reported example of activation by amino groups, substituted 1-amino quinolizinium salts give 2-bromo- or 4-bromo-substituted derivatives 270 and 271 while 8-amino-2,3-dimethylquinolizinium bromide undergoes bromination at the C1 position (Scheme 22.69) [188].
2040

O HNO3 OH X = NO3 N + 31% NO2 1. H2, C/Pd, EtOH 2. HBr/NaNO2 42% Br N + OH + N N Br
265
N + X
263
OH Br2/HBr X = Br Br N + 80% Br
219
264
Scheme 22.67
Br OH Br2/HBr N + 218 NO2 HNO3 43% N O N O 229 Cu(NO3)2.3H2O Ac2O 267 NO2 N O 268
Scheme 22.68
OH N + Br 266
67%
Br
NO2
+ NO2
N O 269
22.4.5.2 Reactions with Nucleophilic Reagents: Ring-Opening Reactions The lability of the quinolizinium cation towards nucleophiles is a key feature of its reactivity, although substitution can modify this reactivity, depending on the nature and position of the substituents. Theoretical calculations predict that the reaction of nucleophiles should take place at C4 although the resulting product (pseudobase) 273 is an intermediate that evolves to the most stable ring-opened compound 274 (Scheme 22.70).
j2041
NH2 R=H NH2 N + Br 52% R Me R = Me 90% Br2/acetone
Br
N Me + Br 270 NH2 N + Br Br 271 Br Me Me
Me Me N + Br
NH2
Br2/acetone 90%
Me Me Br 272 N +
NH2
Scheme 22.69
Nu N + N X Nu 273
Scheme 22.70
N Nu 274
Early in the study of the chemistry of natural alkaloids having a quaternary bridgehead nitrogen it was observed that treatment of tetracyclic coralyne 193 with an alkaline solution gave the corresponding isoquinoline derivative (see Scheme 22.47), which is presumably formed by nucleophilic attack of the hydroxide anion followed by ring opening to form the enol and tautomerization to the most stable ketone [164]. This is the rst and only example of the isolation of the carbonyl compound by reaction of the hydroxide ion with a quinolizinium system. Treatment of the parent quinolizinium iodide (16) with 10 M NaOH leads to decomposition and both rings lose their aromaticity. When 16 reacts with Nnucleophiles such as aniline a complex mixture of fragmentation products is also formed [189] but good yields of trans,trans-1-piperidinyl-4-(2-pyridyl)butadiene (275) have been obtained from the reaction of 16 with secondary amines such as piperidine [190]. 1-Methyl-4-(2-pyridyl)-1,3-butadiene (276) is also isolated when Grignard reagents are reacted with 16 although in this case the main product is the cis,trans isomer (Scheme 22.71) [191].
2042

NH EtOH 68% N + N 275 N
MeMgBr THF 15%

N 276 Ph
Scheme 22.71
Although the reaction with stabilized carbanions is exemplied with benzoquinolizinium salts, examples with quinolizinium itself have not been reported. Similarly, the reaction with the cyanide anion has not yet been described.
22.4.5.3 Reactions with Reducing Reagents Quinolizinium iodide is fully hydrogenated in the presence of Adams catalyst to give quinozilidine hydroidide (277). This reaction with ve moles of hydrogen was initially used to prove the structure of the quinolizinium cation [171]. Partial reduction can be accomplished with sodium borohydride in ethanol to give a mixture of the tetrahydro and hexahydro products. However, the attempted reduction with a stronger hydride donor such as lithium aluminum hydride in THF affords 1-(2-pyridyl)-1,3-butadiene (279) with cis stereochemistry, presumably via the 4Hquinolizine (278) (Scheme 22.72) [192].
NaBH4 H2 PtO2 N + X EtOH H4LiAl THF N H H 278
Scheme 22.72
N +
N+ H 277
16
65%
N 279
22.4.5.4 Cycloaddition Reactions A common reaction of some benzo[b]quinolizinium cations is as dienes in the DielsAlder cycloaddition. However, neither quinolizinium nor 2,3-dimethylquinolizinium react with typical electron-poor or electron-rich dienophiles such as maleic anhydride or 1,1-diethoxyethylene. The only quinolizinium derivative known to
j2043
undergo the DielsAlder reaction is the anhydride of the quinolizinium 2,3-dicarboxylic acid (280), which reacts with styrene to yield the adduct 281 across the C1 and C4 positions (Scheme 22.73) [193].
Ph O N + O X O + O Ph MeNO2 N + X 281 O O
280
Scheme 22.73
22.4.6 Quinolizinium Derivatives 22.4.6.1 Alkyl Derivatives The four most common substituents on the quinolizinium nucleus (methyl, hydroxy, amino, and bromo) usually enhance the reactivity of the substituted quinolizinium cation. Hydrogens of the methyl groups attached to the quinolizinium cation are acidic, particularly those at the C2 and C4 positions. The acidity of the methyl protons can be theoretically estimated on the basis of the resonance stabilization energy. Perturbation theory suggests that this energy is highest for methyl groups in positions C2 and C4. In addition, the values for p energy carbanion formation predict that methyl groups in the a- and c-positions to the nitrogen are the most reactive in benzoquinolizinium salts. Experimental results are in good agreement with these theoretical expectations [160f,194]. For example, in the presence of a base the methyl groups at C2 are easily deprotonated and the resulting anion behaves as a reactive stabilized carbanion towards different electrophiles such as aldehydes or nitroso compounds to afford styryl and anyl derivatives 282 and 283 in moderate yields (Scheme 22.74) [165b]. The 2,4,6-trimethylquinolizinium salt reacts selectively at the 2-methyl-substituent [165a]. The activation of these methyl groups makes 2-methyl- and 4-methylquinolizinium salts good substrates for the OrtolevaKing reaction, forming dications 284 in the presence of iodine and pyridine. Reaction of these salts with nitrosoarenes produces the expected nitrones 285 (Scheme 22.75) [195]. The electronic effect on these two positions also facilitates the oxidation of alkyl substituents and this can be used to achieve selective oxidation in the presence of other substituents in the C1 and C3 positions. In an example of this behavior the reaction of 1-acetylamino-2,3-dimethylquinolizinium (286) with selenium dioxide affords a mixture of the aldehyde 287 and the acid 288 as result of the oxidation of the 2-methyl substituent while the 3-methyl remained unaltered (Scheme 22.76) [196].
2044

N(CH3)2 N +
282
Py/EtOH
(CH3)2N
CHO
CH3 N +
Base +N
CH2 N
CH2
X (CH3)2N N=O
224
N(CH3)2 N N + X 283
Scheme 22.74
R N +
I2/Py N + X
+ CH2 N
O=N Piperidine/MeOH 90% N +
+ CH=N O X 285
R = 2-methyl, 4-methyl
Scheme 22.75
284
NHAc Me N + Me
SeO2 BuOH/Py
NHAc CHO N + Me
NHAc CO2H N + Me
286
33% 287
35% 288
Scheme 22.76
j2045
22.4.6.2 Hydroxy and Amino Derivatives Hydroxy and amino substituents clearly enhance the reactivity of the quinolizinium cation towards electrophiles. In fact, most of the electrophilic substitution reactions on the quinolizinium nucleus are facilitated by the presence of this type of strongly electron-donating substituent. Although substituted 1-, 2-, and 3-aminoquinolizinium derivatives are known, only the parent 1-aminoquinolizinium cation (290) has been obtained, from ketone 216 (Scheme 22.77) [197]. Examples of 4-aminoquinolizinium derivatives have not been described.
NOAc NH2OH Br N + 216
Scheme 22.77
O NaOAc EtOH 43% N +
HCl/ HOAc/Ac2O 43% N +
NHAc HBr heat Br
+ NH3 N + 2Br 290
Br
289
The four isomeric hydroxyquinolizinium derivatives are known and their acidities have been determined by UV spectroscopy and calculated using both a resonance effect and a solvation effect. The calculated pKa (Table 22.8) largely depend on solvation effects rather than on resonance effects [198] and they are in good agreement with those experimentally determined for hydroxyl groups at the C1 and C3 positions. Calculated values predict that hydroxyl groups in the C1 and C4 positions (d and a to the nitrogen, respectively) should be more acidic than those in the C2 and C3 positions (c and b to the nitrogen, respectively) but experimental values show that the most acidic hydroxyls are located at C2 and C4, which is in better agreement with reactivity results. Notably, all of these hydroxyl derivatives are much more acidic than the corresponding naphthols, and the hydroxyl at C4 is so acidic that this derivative loses HBr very easily to form the uncharged covalent structure 4-quinolizone (229). 2-Quinolizone 291 is also obtained from a 2-hydroxyquinolizinium salt in moderate yield by treatment with potassium carbonate (Scheme 22.78). 1-Hydroxy- and 3-hydroxyquinolizinium salts 219 and 251 can also be easily deprotonated to generate the corresponding dipolar structures. In these isomers both the negative and the positive charges can be delocalized within the common p-electron system but, in contrast with the 2- and 4-hydroxyquinolizinium derivatives
Table 22.8 pKa values for monohydroxyquinolizinium bromides.
Position Calculated Observed
C1 4.94 5.03 0.69
C2 5.76 4.14 0.66
C3 5.34 5.06 0.47
C4 3.43 <2
2046

-HBr Br N + N + OH O N O 229 O N + N 291 218
Scheme 22.78
228 OH K CO 2 3 N + Br 49%
in which at least one uncharged covalent structure can be drawn, 292 and 293 can not be represented by one uncharged covalent structure. As a result, both compounds are classied as conjugated mesomeric betaines that are isoconjugate with the a-naphthylmethyl anion and the b-naphthylmethyl anion, respectively [142].
O N + 292 N + 293 O
As stated above, electrophilic substitution only occurs in quinolizinium systems bearing electron-donating substituents such as hydroxy and amino groups. Diazotization is a typical reaction of 1-amino- and 3-aminoquinolizinium derivatives and this leads to the hydroxy derivative when carried out with pentyl nitrite in ethanol. However, if diazotization is carried out under classical aqueous conditions (dilute HCl/NaNO2) unexpected compounds can be formed. For example, [1,2,3] triazolo[1,5-a]pyridylacrolein (294) is isolated as the main reaction product from the diazotization of 1-aminoquinolizinium [199]. It was proposed that the formation of this product involves a ring-opening reaction by attack of water on the C4 position followed by cyclization of the resulting intermediate. This ring-opening reaction is not a general process in the diazotization of all 1-aminoquinolizinium systems in aqueous solution. As an example, 1-amino-2-hydroxyquinolizinium bromide is diazotized (HBr/NaNO2) and affords the diazonium bromide, which decomposes on heating to yield 1-bromo-2-hydroxyquinolizinium bromide (295) (Scheme 22.79) [200]. In contrast, the amino groups attached at the C2 and C4 positions are weakly basic due to the delocalization of the nitrogen electrons across the heterocyclic cationic system. As a consequence of this low basicity the attempted diazotization of 2-amino7,8-dimethylquinolizinium (296) with HCl/NaNO2 failed and nitrozation at the C1 position to form 297 was followed by condensation of the nitroso group with the methyl group at C7 of 296, a process that explains the isolation of 298 as the main
j2047
1. Pentyl nitrite EtOH 2. Picric acid NH2 N + X 289 HCl/NaNO2 60%
OH N + 219
OC6H2(NO2)3
N N N 294 Br
CHO
NH2 N + Br
OH
1. HBr/NaNO2 2. 130 C 56% N + Br 295
OH
Scheme 22.79
reaction product (Scheme 22.80). An increase in the basicity of the C2 amino group by the presence of other strong electron-donating substituents in the quinolizinium ring can promote the normal diazotization reaction, for example, in the transformation of 2-amino-1-hydroxyquinolizinium bromide (299) into the 2-bromo-1hydroxyquinolizinium picrate (300) (Scheme 22.80) [188].
Me NH2 N + Me
NO Me Me X N + NH2 NaNO2/H3O+ Me Me
296
X
Me +N N NH2 N+ X NH2
296
OH NH2 N + Br 1. HBr/NaNO2 2. DMF/heat 3. Picric acid 56%
297
OH Br N + OC6H3(NO2)3
298
299
Scheme 22.80
300
Phenolic-type reactions are produced on 1-hydroxy- and 3-hydroxyquinolizinium salts [169a]. Thus, 219 can be acetylated and alkylated under conventional conditions to yield the corresponding quinolizinium derivatives 301 and 302, albeit in low yields (Scheme 22.81). An example of a quinone within the quinolizinium system by
2048

OAc Ac2O/H2SO4 36% OH Na2CO3 N + Br 219 PhCH2Br 22% Br
Scheme 22.81
N + Br 301 OCH2Ph N + 302
oxidation of 1- or 4-hydroxy derivatives has yet to be described, although some examples involving the benzo[b]quinolizinium system have been reported [201]. The betainic compound 293 is obtained from 3-hydroxyquinolizinium 251 and reacts with ethyl propiolate in boiling nitrobenzene in a 1,3-cycloaddition reaction to give the tricyclic cycloadduct 303. This compound has been transformed in a four-step sequence into the azonia derivative of acenaphthylene 304 (Scheme 22.82) [202].
K2CO3 N + OH N + O
HC CO2Et C6H5NO2 EtO2C N + 75% O Br
N +
251
293
304
303
Scheme 22.82
Quinolizin-2-one (291) and quinolizin-4-one (229) are useful intermediates in the synthesis of some quinolizinium derivatives [169b, 203], as shown in Schemes 22.49, 22.52, and 22.83.
22.4.6.3 Halo Derivatives Quinolizinium systems bearing halogens (Br, Cl) in all four possible positions [160b] are prone to react with nucleophiles at the position to which the halogen is attached. However, the reactivity of such compounds has not been studied systematically. Nucleophilic substitutions are common reactions on these types of quinolizinium derivatives. One of the most extensive applications of haloquinoliziniums has been their conversion into aminoquinolizinium salts 308 by reaction with primary or secondary amines [145]. Silver acetate or hot water has been used to obtain the
j2049
PBr3 27% OH N + Br 218 K2CO3 49% N 291 O 1. P2S5 2. MeI Br
Br N + 217
SMe N + I 305
PBr3 1. POCl3 2. HClO4 N + ClO4 Cl 306 93% N O 229 45% Br
N +
Br
1. P2S5 2. MeI 55%
230
N I 307 SMe
Scheme 22.83
hydroxy analogues [169b]. The 4-chloroquinolizinium 309 also reacts with secondary amines such as piperidine, to give 310, although less satisfactory results were obtained. Other nucleophiles that have been employed include sodium sulde and the sodium salt of diethyl malonate, with quinolizine-4-thione 311 and diethylquinolizin-4-ylidene malonate 312 obtained, respectively, in good yields (Scheme 22.84) [204]. Dehalogenations by hydrogenolysis have been achieved with Pd/H2 but this does not appear to be an efcient process [200]. One of the most recently described applications of bromoquinolizinium derivatives is their use as electrophilic partners in palladium-catalyzed cross-coupling reactions. It has been demonstrated that the four isomers of bromoquinolizinium bromide can be involved in the catalytic cycle of the well-known palladium-promoted CC bond forming Stille and Suzuki reactions. This palladium methodology provides an easy and efcient procedure for the functionalization of quinolizinium cations [205], which is otherwise very difcult or impossible by classical methods in heterocyclic chemistry. The coupling process of the four bromoquinolizinium salts has been tested with tributylvinyl-, alkenyl-, alkynyl-, phenyl-, and heteroaryl-stannanes and boronic acids. In a comparative study, the Stille reaction proved to be more general than the Suzuki reaction and also gave better yields of derivatives 313 in those cases in which both reactions were used to afford the same coupling products (Scheme 22.85) [206].
2050

NR1R2 HNR1R2 N + Br 217 Na2S NH 72% N + PO2Cl2 309 Br 42-100% AgOAc/AcOH or H2O/220 C 90% Br OH N + 218
N + Br 308
R1 = H; R2 = alkyl R1 = alkyl; R2 = aryl
N 311 S
N + PO2Cl2 310
25% N
Cl
NaCH(CO2Et)2 88% N EtO2C 312 CO2Et
Scheme 22.84
Y N + X 217: Y = 2-Br 230: Y = 4-Br 222: Y = 3-Br 262: Y = 1-Br
R SnMe3 P(PPh3)4/CuI/DMF X 313 N +
X = Br, picrate
Ph3C (10-55%) O (52-57%) (10-60%)
N N
(13-96%)
Ph
(35-91%) N Me (57-85%) S (48-85%) N (35-83%)
Scheme 22.85
In relation to the reactivity of the different bromo-derivatives and the yields of the coupling products, a correlation was established between the halogenated position of quinolizinium and the efciency of the Stille process. Thus, with deactivated positions C1 and C3, the transfer of groups with different electrodonicity did not have a large effect on the yield. However, for 2-bromoquinolizinium there was a
j2051
correlation between the electronic effect on the transfer ligands on tin and the electron-decient position at C2, although this behavior is surprising with electrondecient stannanes such as 2-tributylstannyl-pyridine in the decient position at C4. The above methodology, however, failed to transfer alkyl groups on using trialkylbutylstanannes. More recently it has been demonstrated that organotriuoroborates can be used as efcient partners for the Suzuki coupling reaction with the four isomeric bromo quinolizinium bromides [207]. This cross-coupling reaction allows the synthesis of new quinolizinium derivatives 313 that were not achieved by the Stille reaction or clearly improves the yields of those previously obtained by this reaction. Moreover, the ease with which these potassium organotriuoroborates reacted with quinolizinium salts in water (greener procedure) and the fact that the coupling products can be isolated are further advantages of this procedure (Scheme 22.86).
X N + Br 217: X = 2-Br 230: X = 4-Br 222: X = 3-Br 262: X = 1-Br MeO (39-67%) (52-57%) (24-93%) S (56-98%) 1. Pd(OAc)2 R N + PF6 313
K2CO3/H2O R-BF3K 2. H4NPF6
(53-71%) N Me
Scheme 22.86
(63-93%)
F3C
(40-91%)
The four isomeric bromoquinolizinium bromides also react with various aryl- and heteroarylacetylenes under Sonogashira conditions [208]. The reactions proceed with moderate-to-high yields, particularly at the C2 and C3 positions, to afford aryl- and heteroarylethynyl quinolizinium cations 314 and 315. The coupling reactions at the C1 and C4 positions give lower yields of 316 and 317 because of the lower stability of these substrates under the reaction conditions (ring-opening products are observed in the reactions of 1-bromo- and 4-bromoquinolizinium salts) (Scheme 22.87). Another interesting aspect of the bromoquinolizinium salts is their ability to participate in palladium-promoted homocoupling processes to give biquinolizinium dications. The homocoupling reaction was achieved by forming in situ the trialk-
2052
R

R = OMe (61%) R = CF3 (50%) 50-80%
R N Br
N X
316
+
N X
N Br
+
43-82%
314
X = Br, PF6
+
R = OMe (47%) R = CF3 (40%)
Conditions: 10% CuI 5% Pd2Cl2(PPh3)2 Et3N (1.5 equiv.) DMF, 60 C
N X
+
315
R = TIPS, Ar, 2-pyridyl
317
Scheme 22.87
ylquinolizinium stannane 318 from bromoquinolizinium and slow addition of one further equivalent of the bromoquinolizinium. The 1,10 -, 2,20 -, and 3,30 -biquinolizinium cations (319321) were formed in low or moderate yields but the reaction failed to give the 4,40 -biquinolizinium (322) [209]. The homocoupling from 2-bromoand 3-bromoquinolizinium, which have different electronic character, gave the same yields; by contrast, the low yield of 1,10 -biquinolizinium, the formation of which involves a position that is electronically similar to C3, is explained by the steric hindrance around the coupling positions. Steric considerations along with a strong charge repulsion are the likely reasons for the failure of the homocoupling of 4bromoquinolizinium. Theoretical calculations predict a rotational energy barrier of 44 kcal mol1 for the 1,1-carbon bond and as a consequence 319 can adopt two nonconvertible conformations at room temperature (atropoisomers) (Scheme 22.88).
22.4.7 Benzoquinolizinium Salts and Related Systems
In a simple way quinolizinium and related cations can be envisaged as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in which the bridgehead carbon (or one of the bridgehead carbons) is replaced by an azonia nitrogen. When the quaternary nitrogen replaces C4a in naphthalene, the resulting heterocycle is quinolizinium. Similarly, replacements in anthracene and phenanthrene lead to benzo[b]-, benzo[a]-, and benzo[c] quinolizinium salts (2527) (Figure 22.1d). A total of 18 heteroaromatic cations can be envisaged from the six possible tetracyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and the number

Br + N
j2053
220 N Me3Sn SnMe3 10% CuI 5% Pd(PPh3)4 DMF 319 (15%) Br N + Br 320 (56%) Br + N N + Br
SnMe3 N
217 N + Br
Br
217: X = 2-Br 230: X = 4-Br 222: X = 3-Br 262: X = 1-Br
Br
318
222 N +
Br
+
N
Br
321 (56%)
322
Scheme 22.88
of azonia cations increases to 83 when the 15 possible pentacyclic hydrocarbons are considered, although only 17 of these pentacyclic cations have been synthesized to date. Most of the synthetic strategies developed for 16 can be applied to the synthesis of the three benzoquinolizinium cations, their derivatives, and other polycyclic systems containing a bridgehead quaternary nitrogen. However, in some cases these systems have been obtained by procedures specically developed to build up the tricyclic system. This is the case for the benzo[a]quinolizinium cation (26) prepared by four different routes based on a cyclization reaction as the key step. In one of these routes 26 is obtained by photocyclization of a styrylpyridinium salt (322) in the presence of iodine. It is assumed that under UV irradiation the trans-styryl salt is isomerized to the cis conguration, which is the appropriate isomer to produce the cyclization followed by loss of hydrogen [210]. The salt 323, prepared from 2phenylthiopyridine and the oxime of bromoacetaldehyde, is cyclized to the thiazepinium salt 324 with PPA or boiling hydrobromic acid (Scheme 22.89). The salt 324, upon exposure to hydrogen peroxide in acetic acid, is oxidized to the corresponding sulfoxide and this led to ring contraction through loss of sulfur with the formation of 26 [211]. The cyclodehydration method to produce 26 requires quaternization of 2phenylpyridine with bromoacetaldehyde and acid treatment of the resulting pyridinium salt 325 [130]. The most recent synthetic route the ring-closing metathesis
2054

OH Ph Br
OH Br N +
PhCOCl reflux Br N + 322 60%
O H Br
hv EtOH/I2 HBr Br N + 35% CHO Hoveyda-Grubbs ClCH2CH2Cl, heat N + TfO 83% H2O2 MeCO2H S N +
325 Br N PhSH
O Br
N+ X 26
3 Steps 45%
63%
Et3N
326
S N
PPA/160 C
S N + 324
Br
CHO 323
Scheme 22.89
reaction of the pyridinium salt 204 also allowed the formation of 26 in good yield [212]. These procedures have also been used for the preparation of a large number of derivatives. There are three other methods for the preparation of benzo[a]quinolizinium systems using isoquinoline derivatives as starting materials. Of the three only one of them enabled the isolation of the parent compound 26 while the two other are useful for the synthesis of derivatives. The same strategy used for the synthesis of the ketone 216 (Scheme 22.49) when applied to 1-cyanoisoquinoline, afforded the tricyclic ketone 327, which under the aromatization conditions gave 26 in 66% yield (Scheme 22.90) [168]. The Westphal reaction between 1,2-diketones and the appropriate isoquinolinium salts 328 yields 9,10-disubstituted derivatives 330 [213] while the 8,10-dimethyl derivative is also obtained by reaction between isoquinoline perchlorate (329) and mesityl oxide [214]. The benzo[b]quinolizinium salt 25 is obtained by different classical synthetic methods based on the cyclodehydration of the appropriate 1-benzylpyridinium salt under acidic conditions. The rst synthesis of this system gave a 60% yield by reaction of 2-pyridinecarboxaldehyde with benzyl bromide in the presence of hydrobromic

O N CN EtO(CH2)2MgX Et2O 86% O
1
j2055
Ac2O 66% 26
OEt
HBr 75% Br N + 327
O R
2
R1COCOR1 Br + CO2Et 47-60% N Me 328
R R
Me N + 120 C 35%
NH + ClO4 329
Br
330 R1 = Me, Ar R2 = Me
Scheme 22.90
acid (48%) [215]. Modication of this procedure using oximes and acetals instead of the aldehyde allowed the synthesis of benzo[b]quinolizinium derivatives (333) using different acidic media (PPA, HCl, HF, H2SO4) [216]. Alternative methods that produce 25 and alkyl- and phenyl-derivatives 333 in poor yields involve cyclization of 2-(2-picolyl)benzonitrile and 2-(2-picolyl)benzaldoxime (Scheme 22.91) [217]. Treatment of the ketone 334, obtained in a similar way to 327, with boiling acetic anhydride also furnished 25 in 62% yield [168] while cyclization of 2-benzylpyridine with acetic acid/sulfuric acid is also a convenient procedure for the preparation of the
R PhCH2Br N X = O, NOH, -O(CH2)2OH+ 1. R2 -MgX 2. HCl, 100 C 3. H2SO4 CN N Low yield R 333 R1 = Me, Bu, CH2Ph R2 = Me, Ph 1. NaNH2 2. R1-X 3. HCl, 100 C 4. HClO4 N 41-61% X N
1
R X
+
331
H+ R1 = H 60%
+
25
1. HCl, 100 C 2. HClO4
+ 2
N CH NOH 332
Scheme 22.91
2056

6-methyl derivative 337a (Scheme 22.92) [218]. Two more recent methods have also allowed the synthesis of the 6-phenyl-derivative 337b and the parent 25 using different strategies. In the rst case the use of an organopalladium compound (335) that can react with 3-phenylpropiolate afforded the 6-phenylbenzo[b]quinolizinium salt, albeit in low yield (17%) [219]. In the last approach to 25 the metathesis reaction developed for the synthesis of the quinolizinium system shown in Scheme 22.64 has been adapted to the preparation of 25 from isoquinolinium substrate 336. This approach gave good yields under the same conditions employed for the synthesis of 16 [183].
MeCN
Pd
N NCMe
335 Ph CO2Et 17% 1. Grubbs I or II CH2Cl2, rt 2. Pd/C, EtOH N + 60% 336 N +
Ac2O N H2SO4
R 25: R = H 337a: R = Me 337b: R = Ph
Ac2O 62% O N + 334

Scheme 22.92
The benzo[c]quinolizinium system 27 has been prepared by ve different methods and these resemble those employed for the other two benzoquinolizinium cations. Quinoline derivatives are used as starting materials in the synthesis of the precursor ketone 338 [168] and in the Westphal substrate 339 [174]. From methylpyridine two similar approaches have been developed to construct the cationic tricycle by reaction with 2-chlorobenzaldehyde and 2-chlorobenzonitrile. In the rst case the reaction product, the trans-chlorostilbazole 341, is isomerized under UV irradiation to the cis
j2057
isomer 342, which cyclizes to 27 on heating [220]. In a closely related cyclization the imine 343 or the ketone 344 (obtained by hydrolysis of 343) are cyclized by heating to form the corresponding 6-amino- and 6-hydroxybenzo[c]quinolizinium chlorides 345a,b [221]. Finally, 1,3-disubstituted derivatives 346 have been synthesized by the reaction of pyrilium salts and 2-aminobenzaldehyde (Scheme 22.93) [222]. Most of the synthetic methods developed for systems 2527 have been slightly modied for the preparation of currently known polycyclic cations. Table 22.9 gives some representative examples of the synthesis of parent tetracyclic and pentacyclic cations.
EtO(CH2)2MgX NC N O N OEt Me Me Br +N MeCOCOMe 28% EtO2C Br +N Me 338 Ac2O 63% Cl HBr Br +
EtO2C 339 340
27 170 C 50% hv N Li CN Cl N Cl XH 345a: X = NH (58%) 345b: X = O (84%) Me 71% + N Ph 341 X Cl + Cl N 342 Cl
CHO Cl Me
195-200 C
343: X = NH 344: X = O Ph + Me O + Me CHO NH2
346
Scheme 22.93
2058
Table 22.9
Representative examples of the synthesis of parent tetracyclic and pentacyclic cations. Conditions Polycyclic cation Yield (%) Reference
Precursor
Cyclodehydration of azinium salts HBr

Br N +
CHO
N +
23
[223]
29
OHC
HBr
N + Br
52
[224]
N +
31
72 [225]
CHO
HBr
N + Br
N +
35
Br + N
+ N
HBr
52
[223]
CHO
36
CH=NOH
HBr
N+
N+
74
Br
[226]
40
Thermal cyclization of arylvinyl azines

Cl
Cl
180 C
+ N
[227]
34
Cl N
180 C
N + Cl
75
[227]
38
N Cl
200 C
N + Cl
70
[227]
38
Cl
180 C
Cl + N
50
[227]
42
Photocyclization of arylvinyl azinium salts

N+
N +
hn
45
[228] (Continued )
j2059
39
2060
Table 22.9
(Continued ) Conditions Polycyclic cation Yield (%) Reference
Precursor
N +
hn
N+
24
[228]
Westphal reaction
40
Me
N +
O O
N +
75
[174, 213, 229]
Br
CO2Et
NaOAc/acetone
O O OH OH
+ N Br
Br
N+
33
[230]
Br Me
EtOH/Et3N
O O OH
OH
+ N Br
55
[231]
N + Br
Me
EtOH/Et3N
Ring-closing metathesis (RCM)
N+
_ OTf
HoveydaGrubbs catalyst (5 mol.%), ClCH2CH2Cl, 83 C

N
+ _ OTf
82
[212]
38
N+ _ OTf
HoveydaGrubbs catalyst (5 mmol.%), Cl2CHCHCl2, 130 C.

N
53
+ _ OTf 40
[212]
OTf
+_ OTf
HoveydaGrubbs catalyst (10 mol.%), ClCH2CH2Cl, 83 C.
68
[212]
39
j2061
2062

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j2071
23 Phosphorus Heterocycles
Franois Mathey
23.1 Introduction
The ofcial start of phosphoruscarbon heterocyclic chemistry took place in 1915 with the description of 1-phenylphosphinane (1) [1], but the actual development of the eld began only in the 1970s. As with nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur, the two most signicant heterocycles in this category are the fully unsaturated ve- and sixmembered species, that is, phospholes and phosphinines. The other P-C heterocycles are briey considered in Section 23.4.
P 1 Ph
23.2 Phospholes 23.2.1 History and Nomenclature
The story of phospholes started in 1959 with the discovery of the pentaphenyl derivative 2 [2]. The unstable parent system was characterized by NMR spectroscopy at low temperature in 1987 [3]. As initially shown by Quin and coworkers [4], phospholes are pyramidal at P. The reason lies in the intrinsically high inversion barrier of trivalent phosphorus, which overcomes the aromatic stabilization of the planar state. As a result, phospholes are poorly aromatic and their chemistry is widely different from that of pyrroles. Several reviews describing phosphole chemistry are available [5].
2072
j 23 Phosphorus Heterocycles
Ph Ph Ph Ph 2 P Ph
Three isomers of the phosphole system are known, namely, the 1H-, 2H-, and 3Hphospholes (A, B, C, Figure 23.1) but, in practice, the 2H and 3H systems incorporating dicoordinate P-centers are unstable except when fully substituted by bulky groups and mainly intervene in the chemistry of phospholes as reactive intermediates. Conversely, the phospholide ion (D), isoelectronic with thiophene, is highly stable and aromatic.
23.2.2 Spectral, Structural and Theoretical Studies
Phospholes have been characterized mainly by 1 H, 13 C, 31 P NMR spectroscopy and X-ray crystal structure analysis and thoroughly studied from a theoretical standpoint. Broadly speaking, the NMR spectra of phospholes do not show any exceptional features, for example, d 31 P (1-methylphosphole) 8.7 ppm [6] (85% H3PO4 as external reference, d positive for downeld shifts). Extensive tabulation of data is available from the reviews of Quin [5]. The data for the simplest species are quoted in Reference [3]. In contrast, whereas phosphide ions resonate around 0 ppm (Ph2P d 19 ppm in THF with Na as the counterion [7]), the parent phospholide (Li ) resonates at 77.2 ppm in THF [3], and resonances at much lower elds can be observed according to the substitution scheme (e.g., with 2,5-dibenzoyl-3,4-dimethyl, d 209.6 ppm [8]). This deshielding has been explained by the presence of the inplane P-lone pair, which is only weakly coupled to the ring and induces a large downeld paramagnetic shift of the 31 P resonance [9]. X-Ray structural studies of phospholes show a somewhat attened P-pyramid and some shortening of the PC ring bonds. The alternation between single and double CC ring bonds is higher than in the corresponding pyrroles, thiophenes and furans. The structure of 1-benzyphosphole is given as an example [4]: ring PC, 1.783 A; CC, 1.343 A; CC, 1.438 A; internal <CPC, 90.7 ; S < CPC, 302.7 . These data reect the low aromaticity of the phosphole ring. Sizeable variations have been observed in the pyramidality of the phosphole phosphorus. Presently, the most pyramidal structure has been recorded for 1-cyano-3,4-dimethylphosphole: S < CPC 290.3 [10], and the attest for 1-(2,4,6-tri-t-butylphenyl)-3-methylphosphole: S < CPC 331.7 [11]. As a general trend, the cyclic delocalization increases when the pyramidality decreases but other factors also play a role, as
P (A) H
P (B)
P (C)
(D)
Figure 23.1 The three isomers of the phosphole system (AC) and the phospholide ion (D).
23.2 Phospholes
j2073
shown with 1-alcoxyphospholes, which are relatively at with a negligible delocalization [12]. Contrary to phospholes, the structure of phospholide ions reects their high aromaticity. For example, the planar 2,3,4,5-tetramethylphospholide with Li(TMEDA) as the counterion displays the following parameters [13]: PC, 1.715 A; CC, 1.396 A; CC, 1.424 A; <CPC, 90.5 . Theoretical studies have mainly dealt with two problems, the aromaticity of the ring and the equilibrium between 1H-, 2H-, and 3H-phospholes. It is now well established that the phosphole ring is poorly aromatic, the most recent estimate of its aromatic stabilization energy being 3.2 kcal mol1 for the parent ring [14]. Conversely, the planar transition state is even more aromatic than pyrrole [15]. As a result, the pyramidal inversion barrier of phospholes is quite low, ca. 1617 kcal mol1, conrming early NMR measurements [16]. As expected, the aromaticity of the phospholide ion is of the same order of magnitude as that of the cyclopentadienide ion [15]. A recent study has shown that 2H-phosphole is more stable than 1H-phosphole by 6.0 and 3H-phosphole by 3.3 kcal mol1, thus conrming earlier calculations [17, 18]. The barrier between 1H- and 2H-phospholes is very low at 19.6 kcal mol1 but much higher between 2H- and 3H-phosphole at 30.7 kcal mol1. Whereas hydrogen migrates very easily from phosphorus to the a-carbon, the migrating ability varies widely for other groups. Some groups such as alkyl or alkoxy do not migrate under conditions that are compatible with the stability of the phosphole ring, while others migrate under acceptable heating such as aryl, alkynyl, CN, SR, and so on, and others migrate even below room temperature, such as acyl and silyl. These trends have been discussed in a recent review [19]. Another recent study has given an interpretation of the characteristic UV absorption band of alkylphospholes (280290 nm, e 3.33.9), of their PES spectra and correlated the low basicity of phospholes with their strained cyclic structure [20].
23.2.3 Synthesis 23.2.3.1 Synthesis of Phospholes There are three main syntheses of the phosphole ring. The rst involves the cycloaddition of primary phosphines with substituted 1,3-diynes. The reaction is catalyzed by strong bases (in general BuLi) and provides a convenient access to 1,2,5trisubstituted phospholes [16, 21]. (Scheme 23.1) This method has been used to prepare a phosphole with two optically active ()-menthyl substituents at the 2,5-positions [22]. Another interesting application concerns the synthesis of phospholes bearing bulky substituents (such as tert-butyl)
PhLi or BuLi THF-benzene, RT
RPH2 + R'C C C CR'
R'
R' P R 30-89%
Scheme 23.1
2074
at the a-positions of the ring [23]. These groups stabilize otherwise unstable g5phospholyl complexes. The second method relies on the dehydrohalogenation of diene-dihalophosphine cycloadducts [24]. The postulated mechanism is depicted in Scheme 23.2 [25].
- HX R P X R P X H [1,5]-shift P R X H - HX P R
Scheme 23.2
In most cases, the initial cycloadduct is obtained via the well-known McCormack reaction of conjugated dienes with dihalophosphines at, or near, room temperature. Recently, a bicyclic phosphole 3 [26], which can serve as a precursor of g5-3,4-benzophospholide complexes, has been prepared by this route. Alternatively, it is also possible to use the addition of bromine onto trivalent phosphol3-enes. This variant has been used to prepare a 2,20 -biphosphole (4) [27], 2-aryl- or heteroarylphospholes such as 5 [28] and a attened phosphole (6) with a bulky substituent at P [11].
Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me P But Me
P Ph 3
P Ph 4
P Ph
P Ph
S 5
P Ph
6 But
But
Generally, the base used in the process is a tertiary amine such as a-picoline. However, recently, the much stronger LiHMDS has been used to prepare 1aminophospholes (Scheme 23.3) [29].
R P R R R
iPr N 2
Cl
P+ AlCl4-
-20oC to RT CH2Cl2
(Me3Si)2NLi -78oC to RT THF

i
iPr N 2
Cl
P Pr2N R = Me 68% R = Ph 84%
Scheme 23.3
Both the cycloaddition and the dehydrohalogenation reactions proceed much faster than in the usual process. The third method relies on a zirconium to phosphorus exchange upon reaction of dihalophosphines with zirconacyclopentadienes (Scheme 23.4) [30]. The starting zirconacyclopentadienes are prepared by [2 2 1] cycloaddition between two molecules of alkynes and a zirconocene unit. Numerous persubstituted
23.2 Phospholes
j2075
RPX2 Zr Cp2
Scheme 23.4
pentane, RT
P R
R = Cl 85%
phospholes have been recently prepared by this route, most of them for applications in the eld of molecular materials. 1-Halophospholes are also accessible from phosphorus trihalides. Some representative examples are compounds 710 [3134].
Me Me3Si Me SiMe3 7 Me Me P Me Me Me Me 8 Me Me
P Cl
P Ph
N 9
P Ph
S 10
Several other syntheses of phospholes have been reported in the literature but their applicability seems to be rather limited.
23.2.3.2 Synthesis of Phospholide Ions In most cases, phospholide ions are synthesized from preformed phospholes by cleavage of the exocyclic PR bond by alkali metals (Scheme 23.5). The rst report was published by Braye [35].
M P Ph
Scheme 23.5
THF, RT
M = Li, Na, K
The driving force behind this selective cleavage of the exocyclic PC bond is, of course, the high aromaticity of the phospholide ion. The reaction involves the initial formation of a radical anion that collapses to give the phospholide ion and a phenyl radical [36]. In some cases, it is advantageous to use a variant relying on the baseinduced dealkylation of 1-(b-ethoxycarbonylethyl)phospholes, thus avoiding undesired side-reactions due to the radical process. A striking illustration is provided in Scheme 23.6 [37]. Finally, in one instance, a phospholide ion has been directly synthesized from acyclic precursors by a process similar to the synthesis of phospholes from primary phosphines and diynes (Scheme 23.7) [38].
2076
Me Me Br P CH2CH2CO2Et
Scheme 23.6
tBuOK
Me P
Me Br K+
THF, 0oC
[(Me3Si)2
P]-M+
+ PhC C C CPh
toluene RT, 10-12 h
Me3Si Ph P
SiMe3 Ph M = Ca 82%
M = Ca, Sr
Scheme 23.7
23.2.4 Reactivity
Since phospholes are not aromatic, their chemistry is completely different from that of their nitrogen, oxygen or sulfur analogues. The classical electrophilic substitution reactions are unknown and the ring can behave either as a phosphine or as a cyclopentadiene. It is quite convenient to divide the reactions of phospholes between those taking place at P, at the diene, the [1,5]-sigmatropic shifts, the functionalization reactions, the ring openings and the ring expansions. A few words on the rich and diverse complexation chemistry will close this survey.
23.2.4.1 Reactions at Phosphorus The reactivity of the phosphole phosphorus is essentially normal although both the basicity and the quaternization ability are somewhat reduced [6] as a result of both the slight delocalization of the P-lone pair and the increase of cyclic strain occurring upon the P(III) into P(IV) conversion. The P-H salts are only stable when the counterion (e.g., TaCl6) does not display any coordinating ability [39]. Otherwise they evolve to give phospholene oxides via a pentacoordinate intermediate and a [1,5]-shift of H [25]. The oxides tend to dimerize via a [4 2] DielsAlder reaction and display a limited life time at room temperature [40] except when heavily substituted on the ring. The suldes are more stable as monomeric species, although they also dimerize upon prolonged heating at high temperature. The most specic reaction of phospholes at P is the exocyclic PC bond cleavage by alkali metals that has been discussed already (Scheme 23.5). All of the chemistry of the resulting phospholides takes place at phosphorus. Among the various electrophiles that have been allowed to react with these ions, one of the most interesting from a practical standpoint is cyanogen bromide (Scheme 23.8) [41]. The resulting 1-cyanophospholes display a high electrophilicity at P and provide a convenient access to 1-alkoxy- and 1-amino-phospholes by reaction with the appropriate anions.
23.2 Phospholes
j2077
Me P
Me BrCN, AlCl3 cat. toluene-THF -50oC to reflux
Me
Me P CN
73%
Scheme 23.8
23.2.4.2 Reactions at the Diene The reactivity of the dienic system is somewhat reduced by the cyclic delocalization and several dienophiles such as dimethyl acetylenedicarboxylate tend to react at the Plone pair. This is the reason why most of the initial studies were performed with phosphole suldes or phosphole complexes. From this standpoint, the most studied sulde has been the 1-phenyl-3,4-dimethylphosphole sulde 11. This species can behave either as a diene or a dienophile according to the nature of the reaction partner [42]. One of the most spectacular applications of this chemistry is the synthesis of a phosphinine shown in Scheme 23.9 [43].
Me P
Me + tBuC P S 11 110C
Me Me P
tBu
+ [PhP=S]
Ph
61%
Scheme 23.9
The diene reactivity tends to increase upon complexation of the P-lone pair. If the dienophile also contains a coordinating group, intramolecular [4 2] cycloadditions become extremely easy (Scheme 23.10). This kind of chemistry has been developed by the group of Nelson [44].
Me P M Me X R Me Me P M X
X = R2P, PhS, PhS(O), 2-pyr., etc. M = Mo(0), Fe(II), Ru(II), Ni(II), Pd(II), Pt(II)
Scheme 23.10
The same general approach has served to prepare a range of optically active chelating ligands [45]. Whereas the adducts of phosphole suldes with dimethyl acetylenedicarboxylate are unstable, those with selected phosphole complexes are stable and can serve as useful precursors of electrophilic terminal phosphinidene complexes (Scheme 23.11) [46].
2078
Me P (OC)5M Me + MeO2CCCO2Me R (OC)5M Me Me P R CO2Me CO2Me
M = Cr, Mo, W
R
Scheme 23.11
M(OC)5
These transient species display a rich carbene-like chemistry that has been the subject of several reviews [47]. Phosphole complexes also undergo reactions other than the DielsAlder cycloadditions. With nickel derivatives, a reductive CC coupling is observed in high-boiling alcohols (Scheme 23.12) [48].
Me P Ph
Me cyclohexanol NiCl2, 140C
Me P
Me Me P
Me
Ph
Ni Cl2
Ph 29%
Scheme 23.12
The dienic system of molybdenum carbonyl complexes can be used to perform the electrophilic FriedelCrafts alkylation of electron-rich arenes or heteroarenes (Scheme 23.13) [49].
Me P Me + ArH Mo(CO)5 AlCl3 CH2Cl2 R P Me Me Ar Mo(CO)5
ArH = anisole, furan, thiophene, ferrocene

Scheme 23.13
Without activating and protecting groups at phosphorus, tervalent phospholes behave as rather poor dienes. The rst clear-cut example of dienic behavior is depicted in Scheme 23.14 [50]. Electronegative substituents at P such as CN or OR enhance the dienic reactivity of phospholes [10]. A spectacular consequence of this fact is the spontaneous intramolecular [4 2] cycloaddition taking place within 1-allyloxyphospholes (Scheme 23.15) [51].
23.2 Phospholes
j2079
Me P
Me
O NPh O 40C Me Me
P Ph O O N Ph
Ph
CH2Cl2
50%
Scheme 23.14
Me
Me
Me
Me
OLi
P CN P O
25oC
Me Me
P O 85%
Scheme 23.15
Finally, in another vein, the reaction of phospholes with diazomethane is worth mentioning (Scheme 23.16) [52].
Me P Ph
Scheme 23.16
Me CH2N2 H2O
Me
Me N P
Me h Ph
Me
Ph
23.2.4.3 [1,5]-Sigmatropic Shifts As a result of the pyramidal structure of phospholes, there is a signicant overlap between the s-orbital of the exocyclic PR bond and the p -orbitals of the dienic system. This situation favors the [1,5]-sigmatropic shifts of the R-substituent from phosphorus to the a-carbons of the ring. Migrations to the b-carbons are also possible but far more difcult. The overall picture is depicted in Scheme 23.17.
R R[1,5] P R P R H[1,5] H[1,5] P H
Scheme 23.17
R[1,5] P
R (E)
P (F)
2080
It must be stressed that the P-to-aC migrations in the phosphole ring need, in the general case, far less energy than the corresponding migrations in the cyclopentadiene ring. In practice, the 2H-phospholes resulting from these migrations are far more reactive than the starting 1H-phospholes, so that the equilibrium mixtures can serve to investigate the chemistry of pure 2H-phospholes of type (F). This chemistry has been reviewed recently [53]. Two points must be stressed. The migration ability varies widely according to the nature of R. Some R-substituents migrate below room temperature, such as H, acyl or silyl groups. This explains why the parent phosphole has been so difcult to characterize [3]. Some others migrate upon heating, such as phenyl, thienyl, SR, CN, alkynyl groups. Some others do not migrate, such as alkyl or alkoxy groups. Since these migrations are concerted, the migrating substituent remains attached to the ring by the same atom both before and after the migration. This fact has numerous useful consequences. When no trapping reagent is added to the equilibrium mixture of Scheme 23.17 and when the reaction takes place around or below room temperature, 2H-phosphole (F) evolves to give a [4 2] PP bonded endo-dimer. One such dimer has been characterized by X-ray crystal structure analysis (Scheme 23.18) [54]. This dimer equilibrates with its exo stereoisomer around 100 C.
Me P H Me T < 0C P Me Me Me P P Me Me
Scheme 23.18
Me
When the equilibrium mixture of Scheme 23.17 stands at around 200 C, a dehydrogenative dimerization takes place, probably at the expense of phosphole (E), to give a 1,10 -biphosphole (Scheme 23.19) [55].
Ph Ph - H2 Ph P Ph Ph Ph P H Ph 10 days 230oC Ph Ph Ph
Scheme 23.19
P P
Ph Ph 64%
Upon further heating, if the two a-positions carry hydrogen, the nal evolution leads to PP bonded tetramers (Scheme 23.20) [56]. One such tetramer has been characterized by X-ray crystal structure analysis [57].
23.2 Phospholes
j2081
Me Me P Ar Me Me Ar P H Me Me P H Me Me , - H2 Ar P P
Me Ar Ar Me P Me Me P Me Ar
Me Me , - H2 Ar Ar Ar Me P P Me Me Me Me P P Me Ar Ar Me
Ar = phenyl, 2,2'-bithienyl, 2-phosphininyl

Scheme 23.20
When a trapping reagent (inert toward phosphorus lone pairs) is added to the equilibrium mixture of Scheme 23.17, then 2H-phosphole (F) is efciently trapped before any further evolution. These reagents include MeOH, non-activated alkynes, conjugated dienes [58], alkenes [59] and aldehydes (Scheme 23.21) [60]. This cycloaddition chemistry is extremely effective. It has served to prepare a new series of efcient bicyclic phosphorus ligands for enantioselective catalysis [61]. All these ligands are characterized by a chiral bridgehead phosphorus that cannot racemize.
Me MeOH Me Me P Ph Me ca 150C Ph P Me Me Me Me Me Me Ph RCCR Me Ph ArCHO Me Ph
Scheme 23.21
Me P
Ph Me
O Ph Me P Me Me
P Me P Me P O R R Ar
2082
23.2.4.4 Functionalization Reactions Since phospholes are not aromatic, their chemistry is normally devoid of the electrophilic substitution and a-metallation reactions that characterize the chemistry of pyrrole, furan and thiophene and serve to prepare most of their functional derivatives. Electrophilic substitutions become possible to a limited extent with attened phospholes carrying a very bulky group at phosphorus [11]. In practice, only two reliable and versatile methods exist that allow functionalization of a preformed phosphole ring. The rst relies on the existence of 2-bromophospholes, which can be prepared from their non-bromo precursors by a classical sequence involving protection, bromination, dehydrobromination and deprotection. These 2bromophospholes are readily transformed into 2-lithiophospholes at low temperature (Scheme 23.22) [62].
Me Me P Ph Br
nBuLi,
Me THF
Me P Ph Li Z
Me
Me P Ph Z
-100C, 30 min
Z = CO2H,CO2R,CHO,C(O)Ph,SiMe3, C-C bridge, CCR

Scheme 23.22
This chemistry has served to prepare a-alkynyl derivatives [63], an a-connected tetraphosphole [64] and a tetraphosphole macrocycle [65]. The second method relies on the 1H $ 2H-phosphole equilibrium. The function is rst grafted onto P, then the equilibrium is established and the resulting 2functional-2H-phosphole is deprotonated by a base (Scheme 23.23) [6671].
Me Me Z+ P P Z Z = Ph,CO2H,CO2R, C(O)R,SiR3, 2-pyridyl, 2-pyrrolyl, etc.
Scheme 23.23
Me
Me , [1,5]
Me
Me Z - H+
tBuOK
Me
Me Z
Two conditions must be met by the functional group: it must be compatible with the base and able to migrate. This last condition excludes alkyl and alkoxy groups. This chemistry has served to prepare the rst easily accessible 2,5-difunctional phospholes [Z CO2H, CO2R, C(O)R].
23.2.4.5 Ring Openings and Expansions The best documented ring-opening reaction takes place upon hydrolysis of phospholium salts (Scheme 23.24) [72, 73].
23.2 Phospholes
j2083
X R'
OH R P O R'
Scheme 23.24
In the transient hydroxyphosphorane, the phosphole ring probably occupies a axialequatorial position, leading to cleavage of the elongated axial PC bond. The best documented ring expansion reaction also relies on the hydrolysis of intermediate phospholium salts. It takes place during the reaction of phospholes with aromatic acid chlorides in the presence of water and triethylamine (Scheme 23.25) [7476].
+ ArCOCl R H2O Et3N Ar = Ph, furyl, thienyl, pyridyl, etc.
Scheme 23.25
P R
Cl C(O)Ar H2O O P R CAr O R P O Ar OH
This reaction is the rst step of a route transforming phospholes into 2-arylphosphinines.
23.2.4.6 Phospholes and Phospholides in Coordination Chemistry Phospholes and phospholides give a large range of complexes. The possible structures are shown in Figure 23.2. Several reviews deal with all or some of these complexes [77, 78]. In the rst complexes (G in Figure 23.2), phospholes behave as normal phosphine ligands. As we have seen earlier, the reactivity of the diene is enhanced [4446].
M R P M R P R P M M'
1 2e complex (G)
4 4e complex (H)
1,4 6e complex (I)
M" P M M P M' M P M'
M P 5 5e complex (M)
M P M' 1,5 7e complex (N)
1 1e complex (J)
2 3e complex (K)
2,4 7e complex (L)
Figure 23.2 Possible structures phospholes and phospholide complexes.
2084
The second type (H) is extremely rare. One g4-Fe(CO)3 complex has been studied in some depth [79]. The third type (I) is more frequent. The most spectacular example incorporates a chain of four cobalt atoms sandwiched between two phospholes acting as 6e-ligands [80]. The variety of phospholide complexes is even larger. The g1- complexes (J) can be viewed as organometallic phospholes. Since the transition metal substituent is, in general, rather bulky they tend to be more planar than usual. In a g1-W(CO)3Cp complex [81], the sum of the angles around phosphorus has been found to be as high as 319.6 . Otherwise, their chemistry is remarkably similar to that of normal phospholes. The m2-complexes (K) are completely devoid of aromaticity. Their dienic system is rather reactive and easily gives p-complexes (L). One of the most spectacular complexes of this type incorporates a heptanuclear Mn4Pd3 core surrounded by four phospholyl rings [82]. By far the most important phospholyl complexes are the g5 species (M). They are known for almost all of the transition metals of the periodic table, including rare earths [83] and uranium [84]. Most of them are 18e species but, recently, a 16e phosphachromocene [85], a 17e phosphaferricinium [86], a 19e phosphacobaltocene [87] and a 20e phosphanickelocene [88] have been described. They are also known for some main group metals such as gallium [89], germanium, tin, and lead [90]. From an organic standpoint, the most interesting chemistry is that of phosphaferrocenes. These species display a complete range of electrophilic substitution reactions (acylation [91], formylation [91] and carboxylation [92]) and thus occupy a unique position among phosphorus heterocycles. Their complexes at phosphorus (N) also play an interesting role in asymmetric catalysis (Section 23.5).
23.3 Phosphinines 23.3.1 History and Nomenclature
The discovery of 2,4,6-triphenylphosphinine (12) by M arkl in 1966 was a landmark of phosphorus chemistry [93]. It proved simultaneously that simple compounds containing dicoordinate phosphorus could be stable and that phosphorus could participate in a cyclic delocalization. The somewhat less stable parent system 13 was characterized ve years later by Ashe [94]. Since phosphorus is less, whereas nitrogen is more, electronegative than carbon, the heteroatom is electron-poor in phosphinines and electron-rich in pyridines. Thus, although both systems are highly aromatic, their chemistry is completely different. Several reviews describing phosphinine chemistry are available [95].
Ph
Ph
12
Ph
13
23.3 Phosphinines
j2085
The ring has been called phosphabenzene, phosphorin or phosphinine. The latter, the ofcial (IUPAC) name, is now prevalent. Two Dewar phosphinines, 14 and 15, stabilized by bulky substituents, have been described [96]. Besides trivalent phosphinines, the so-called l5-phosphinines 16, incorporating a tetracoordinate phosphorus atom, display a distinct chemistry resulting from their delocalized ylidic structure [97].
But But But P 14 CO2R
tBu tBu
But But P 15
CO2R
tBu
16
23.3.2 Spectral, Structural and Theoretical Studies
Phosphinines have been extensively characterized by 1 H, 13 C, and 31 P NMR spectroscopy. The data for the parent compound 13 are given hereafter [98] (d in ppm): d31 P 211, d13 Ca 154.1, 1 J C-P 53 Hz, d13 Cb 133.6, 2 J C-P 14 Hz, d13 Cc 128.8, 3 J C-P 22 Hz, dHa 8.61, 2 J H-P 38:0 Hz, dHb 7.72, 3 J H-P 8:0 Hz, dHc 7.38, 4 J H-P 3:6 Hz. Phosphinines display the characteristic low-eld shifted 31 P resonances of phosphaalkenes. The huge 1 J C-P coupling is also noteworthy. Conversely, l5-phosphinines show more conventional ylid-like resonances. The 1,1-dimethyl derivative 16 (R Me) displays a 31 P resonance around 0 ppm and shows highly shielded Ha and Ca resonances at 3.98 and 67.5 ppm, respectively [99]. High-eld shifts are also observed for c-CH: dHc 4.62, d13 Cc 94.0. These data are in line with the high concentration of negative charge at the a- and c-positions of 16. The structure of parent phosphinine has been established by a combination of electron diffraction and microwave data [100]. The ring is planar, the PC bonds are short (1.732 A) and the CC bond alternation is minimal (1.413 and 1.384 A). The intracyclic CPC angle is relatively acute at 101 (vs. 116.9 for CNC in pyridine). All these data are compatible with a high electronic delocalization within the ring. The theoretical data on phosphinines have been summarized in a review [101]. The most important points are selected hereafter. The computed aromatic stabilization energy lies in a range from 88 to 97% of that of benzene. The NICS(1) value at 10.8 is very close to that of benzene (11.3). The best computed structures indicate a negligible alternation of the CC bond lengths (less than 0.01 A). Also of interest is the order of the occupied orbitals. Whereas the lone pair corresponds to the HOMO in pyridine, it corresponds to the third occupied level in phosphinine. More recently, a careful evaluation of the proton afnity and the pKa of the protonated form has been carried out [102]. At 195.8 1.0 kcal mol1, the PA of phosphinine is substantially smaller than that of pyridine (219.4 kcal mol1). The pKa of C5H5PH has been evaluated at 16.1 in water, vs. 5.2 for pyridinium. The drastic differences between the chemistry of pyridines and phosphinines are already quite visible.
2086
23.3.3 Synthesis
There is a wealth of synthetic methods for making phosphinines and discriminating between those which, ultimately, will prove the most useful is difcult. The initial method of M arkl relying on the O to P exchange in pyrylium salts is still a method of choice due to its simplicity (Scheme 23.26).
P(CH2OH)3 (or [PH3]) O pyridine, reflux [PH3] = P(SiMe3)3, PH4I

Scheme 23.26
P 2084%
The source of PH3 can be either P(CH2OH)3 [93], P(SiMe3)3 [103] or PH4I [104]. The synthesis of the parent phosphinine by Ashe [94] relies on a tin to P exchange in a 1,4-dihydro-stannabenzene (Scheme 23.27). A detailed description of the procedure is available [95c].
PBr3 Bu DBU 45oC, 30 min.
Scheme 23.27
+ Bu2SnH2
Sn
Bu
0 to 45oC, 2 h tetraethyleneglycol dimethyl ether (26%)
P Br
This route has been generalized by M arkl for the preparation of 4-substituted phosphinines [105]. The parent phosphinine is more easily obtained by pyrolysis of vinyldiallylphosphine (Scheme 23.28) [106].
, 700C P 6 - H2 P 40%
Scheme 23.28
The mechanism of this reaction sequence has been studied recently from a theoretical standpoint [107]. Various specialized routes start from phosphacyclohexenones and end with the thermolysis of 1,2-dihydro- or l5-phosphinines. Two examples are given in Scheme 23.29 [108, 109].
23.3 Phosphinines
j2087
Ph P
tBu
iPr
Ph
2NLi,
Me3SiCl P tBu
Ph OSiMe3 1) , 250oC 2) MeOH Cl P Cl Ph P P
OH 95% Cl 52%
Ph P
PCl5
Ph But
, 220oC
tBu
Scheme 23.29
Phospholesarealsoversatile starting points forthe synthesisofphosphinines. Several examples are depicted in Schemes 23.3023.33 (see also Scheme 23.9) [110113].
R P R + ArCOCl H2O Et3N R R PhCH2 P O Ar OH P4S10 R PhCH2 P S Ar R Ni R P Ar R
CH2Ph
R = H, Me
Ar = Ph, furyl, thienyl, pyridyl
2895%
Scheme 23.30
Me P
Me
Me N2CHCOOEt S P
Me CO2Et SMe P(OPh)3
Me Me CO2Et P 75%
SMe
160C, 20 h
Scheme 23.31
Ph
P Ph
Ph
Ph[1,5]
Ph Ph P R Ph Ph RCCR' Ph P
Ph R R'
(> 200oC) - [CPh2]

Scheme 23.32
Ph
R'
R = Ph, R' = H, Me, Ph R = R' = Et (R = R' = Ph 80%)
Azaphosphinines constitute another versatile starting point for the synthesis of phosphinines. The rst illustration of this approach was described by M arkl [114]. The 1,3-azaphosphinines are rst synthesized from 1,3-azapyrylium salts. Then, they are reacted with alkynes (Scheme 23.34).
2088
Me P Me RC(O)Cl Li+
tBuOK
Me
Me CH2Br2 P + C(O)R K CH2 R = Me, Ph
Me
Me C(O)R P CH2Br C(O)R
tBuOK
Me P
Me Me P
C(O)R
R = Ph 22%
Scheme 23.33
Ph N Ph P + RCCR' Ph
R R' Ph P Ph N Ph - PhCN Ph
Ph R P R' 876%
R = CO2Me, R' = H, CO2Me R' = PPh2, R = Me, Ph, PPh2 R' = H, R = PPh2
Scheme 23.34
A more versatile approach starts from 1,3,2-diazaphosphinines which are prepared in situ from the corresponding titanacycles (Scheme 23.35) [115].
R R 1) PCl3 R N P N R = tBu, Ph R2 R3 P R4 885% R
N N Ti Cp Cp R1CCR2 , toluene (-RCN) 8090oC

Scheme 23.35
2) Et3N (excess) +70C toluene R N P R2 R1
R3CCR4
, toluene (-RCN) R1 110130oC
The most spectacular application of this approach is the synthesis of macrocycles incorporating three or four phosphinine units [116]. Another group of methods involve the [4 2] cycloaddition of a conjugated diene with a phosphaalkyne or a precursor of phosphaalkyne. An example is given below in Scheme 23.36 [117].
1) tBuCP Me3SiO O O 2) MeOH HO P
tBu 80%
Scheme 23.36
23.3 Phosphinines
j2089
The simplest application of this approach is the one-pot synthesis of 2-halophosphinines from dihalomethyldihalophosphines and conjugated dienes (Scheme 23.37) [118].
R X2CH-PX2 Et3N THF, 50C - 2 HX Et3N, 80oC, 5 h
Scheme 23.37
R X X P
[X2C=PX] R P R = H, Me X = Cl, Br
3360%
The most difcult part of the scheme concerns the preparation of the starting dihalophosphines. A detailed procedure is available [95c]. Finally, a zirconium route has been described recently (Scheme 23.38) [119].
Me3SiCHClLi Zr Cp2
Scheme 23.38
PCl3 Zr SiMe3 Cp2 P
-30oC,
THF
Numerous other approaches have been described but they are either cumbersome or of very limited generality.
23.3.4 Reactivity 23.3.4.1 Reactions at Phosphorus As we have already pointed out, the reactivity of the phosphorus lone pair in phosphinines is extremely low. As a result, phosphininium salts remained unknown for a very long time. However, recently, the preparation and full characterization of such species has proved possible (Scheme 23.39) [120].
R Me3Si P
R SiMe3
1) MeLi 2) C2Cl6 R = Me, Ph
GaCl3
R Me3Si P Me
R SiMe3 [GaCl4]-
Me3Si P SiMe3 Me Cl
Scheme 23.39
2090
The 31 P resonance of the salts occurs at about 160 ppm, that is, about 100 ppm at lower elds by comparison with the l5-phosphinine precursors. The Ca and Cc resonances are similarly shifted to low elds. The structure of the salt for RPh shows a very short PC bond at 1.697 A and a widened CPC angle at 117.7 . The most signicant reaction of these salts takes place with alkynes at room temperature to give phosphabarrelene derivatives (Scheme 23.40).
Pr R Me3Si P Me R SiMe3 PrCCPr Pr P Me3Si Me R R SiMe3
Scheme 23.40
The P-oxides are unstable and immediately add water upon formation (Scheme 23.41) [121].
Ph H2O2 Ph P Ph Ph O P Ph OH Ph
Scheme 23.41
The P-suldes can be detected in solution by 31 P NMR spectroscopy [122], but none has been completely characterized until now [123]. Upon further sulfurization, polycyclic structures are formed (Scheme 23.42) [124].
Me Me P Ph S8 (excess) C6H6 reflux N-methylimidazole Me Ph S P Me P S S Me Ph Me Me S P S S Ph
Me
S P
Me Me
Ph
Scheme 23.42
When the a and c positions are substituted, halogens add onto phosphorus under UV irradiation (Scheme 23.43) [125].
R X2 R P R h X = Cl, Br R X P X R R
Scheme 23.43
23.3 Phosphinines
j2091
The 1,1-diuoro-l5-phosphinines are obtained by metathesis (SbF3 or AgBF4) from the corresponding chloro or bromo derivatives. Oxidative addition of alcohols, amines, and so on is also possible (Scheme 23.44) [126128].
+ 2 AH P
Scheme 23.44
Hg(OAc)2 A P A
A = RO, ArO, R2N
Modied crown ethers have thus been prepared from poly(ethylene glycol)s. Diarylation at P is observed with diarylmercury derivatives (Scheme 23.45) [129].
HgAr2 P
Scheme 23.45
Ar
Ar
The reaction of strong nucleophiles such as organolithium or organomagnesium compounds also takes place at phosphorus. A delocalized dihydrophosphinine carbanion is thus formed (Scheme 23.46) [130132].
C(O)Ar
ArC(O)Cl R P P R H R'X R
Scheme 23.46
P R P R P R'
The X-ray crystal structure analysis of several such carbanions has been reported recently [133]. The lithium counterion is g5-coordinated to the C5 delocalized unit and DFT calculations indicate a high concentration of negative charge on the a-carbons. These anionic species react with hard electrophiles at the a- or c-carbons to give dihydrophosphinine derivatives and with soft electrophiles at phosphorus to give l5-phosphinines. Another point of interest concerns the reduction of phosphinines. This study has been carried out using sodium naphthalenide, potassium mirror or electrochemistry
2092
as the reduction techniques and a monophosphinine (17), a bis-phosphinine (18) and a bis-phosphinine macrocycle (19) as substrates. The reduction products have been characterized by EPR, 31 P NMR, and X-ray analysis whenever possible. DFT calculations have completed the study [134, 135].
Ph Ph Ph Me2 Me2 Si Si O P Me3Si P 17 SiMe3 Me3Si P 18 Si Me2 P SiMe3 19 Ph P Ph Ph
Ph
O Si Si Me2 Me2
In all cases, the overall scheme appears identical. The monoelectronic reduction product reacts with another neutral phosphinine ring to give a dimeric structure with a one-electron PP bond. Then, a second reduction takes place to give a dianionic dimeric structure with a normal two-electron PP bond. The process is shown for the macrocycle in Scheme 23.47. In this case, the one-electron PP bond has a computed length of 2.763 A.
P P
eNa-naphthalene THF, RT Bridges: -Me2Si-O-SiMe2-
P P
e-
P P
Scheme 23.47
23.3.4.2 Substitution and Functionalization Reactions Since most nucleophiles and electrophiles tend to attack at P, only a few substitution and functionalization reactions at the ring carbons are known and it is impossible to develop a classical aromatic chemistry with phosphinines. Whenever a a or c position is unsubstituted, it is possible to brominate it via a Br2-addition-HBr-elimination sequence (Scheme 23.48) [136].
Br Me P Br Br2, Et3N CH2Cl2 Br P Me Br 70%
Scheme 23.48
23.3 Phosphinines
j2093
This formal substitution reaction must be compared with the addition reaction depicted in Scheme 23.43. In the same vein, the reaction with PBr3 ultimately affords the Br2P-substituted phosphinines (Scheme 23.49) [137].
Me Me P + PBr3 Br (neat) O2 cat. 25C Me Br
Me P(CH2CH2CN)3 P Br PBr2 CH2Cl2, 25C Me
Me
PBr2 P (75% overall)
Scheme 23.49
A few nucleophiles react with halophosphinines to give the substituted products. This is the case with lithium amides [138], trimethylstannylsodium [139] and lithium phospholides [140]. Since most of the reagents attack phosphinines at phosphorus, one obvious way to redirect the attacks at the carbons of the ring is to protect phosphorus. This has been done using l5-phosphinines or phosphinine complexes. Examples of the two approaches are given hereafter in Schemes 23.5023.52 [141143].
C(O)tBu Ph But P Cl
tBuC(O)Cl
C(O)tBu Ph P
Ph But P Cl
Scheme 23.50
CH3 MnO2 Ph Ph P MeO OMe KMnO4 Me2SO4 Ph Ph P MeO OMe
CHO
Ph Ph P MeO OMe CO2Me 1) LiI 2) HSiCl3 Ph
CO2Me
Ph
Scheme 23.51
Of course, it is far better to avoid these protectiondeprotection steps. Two methods achieve this aim. Both rely on the activation of the CX bonds of 2-halophosphinines, either by Pd(0) [144, 145] or by zirconocene [146, 147] (Schemes 23.53 and 23.54).
Me
PhLi
Me Li P W(CO)5
Me P Z W(CO)5
Br THF, -80C P W(CO)5 Me [Ph2PCH2-]2 P

Scheme 23.52
Z = I, SiMe3, PPh2, CO2Et
Br Me Br P Br [PdL2] Br
Br Me P ZMMe3 Br
Br Me P Z
PdL2Br M = Sn, Si Br Me Z P
1) [PdL2] 2) ZMMe3
Scheme 23.53
Z = furyl, thienyl, pyrrolyl Z alkynyl, PPh2....
Me Me P + [Cp2Zr] X Me Me P Cp2Zr Me Me R2CO ZrCp2 P Me
Me MeLi ( -CH4) Me P X = Cl, Br ZrCp2X
Me ZrCp2 PMe3 Me Me P ZrCp2 PMe3
RCCR
1) Ph3PS 2) H+ Me Me R Me P SH
Me Me P H+ Me Me
Cp2 Zr O R R
Me P H+ Me Me P
Cp2 Zr
H R R
OH P
Scheme 23.54
23.3 Phosphinines
j2095
The phosphabenzyne dimeric complex has been characterized by X-ray crystal structure analysis [147]. As expected, the formal C:C triple bond is rather long at 1.361 A. This value is similar to those found in benzyne-zirconium complexes. This dimeric complex reacts exclusively via its CaZr bond. An interesting application of this zirconium chemistry is the synthesis of 2,20 -biphosphinines, which are very interesting ligands for transition metals (Scheme 23.55) [148].
R R P NiCl2(dppe) ZrCp2X R R P Ph2P
Scheme 23.55
R P PPh2 R C2Cl6 R
R P P
R R
Ni
R = H, Me (50%)
23.3.4.3 Cycloaddition Reactions Due to their aromaticity, phosphinines are unreactive as dienophiles and poorly reactive as dienes. In practice, they only react with highly activated (electron-poor) alkynes (Scheme 23.56) [149].
R R P + RCCR R = CF3, CN... P
Scheme 23.56
The reactivities as dienes or dienophiles are sharply enhanced upon P-complexation [150153] or sulfurization [122, 154, 155]. Some examples are depicted in Schemes 23.5723.59. Activation by sulfur has served to devise the rst known access to 2,20 biphosphinines [155].
Me Me P
Me
Me
Me Me P Me Me Ph W(CO)5 80%
Ph 150C, 18 h
W(CO)5
Scheme 23.57
2096
Ph P W(CO)5
Scheme 23.58
Ph
PhC=N-NPh
Ph P Ph N N
Ph
W(CO)5 Ph
Ph Ph P W(CO)5
Scheme 23.59
Ph
2 RCH=N2 R = H, Me
Ph HN N P R
R W(CO)5
23.3.4.4 Phosphinines in Coordination Chemistry Phosphinines give mainly four types of complexes (O to R in Figure 23.3). By far the most common are those of type O. Among them, the most noteworthy are a series of homoleptic complexes of the parent phosphinine (13) prepared by the group of Elschenbroich, NiL4, FeL5, CrL6 [156158]. In this type of complexes, phosphinines behave as relatively weak s-donors and strong p-acceptors, somewhat resembling CO. The ability of phosphinines to stabilize low oxidation states has been spectacularly demonstrated with 2,20 -biphosphinines (P-P). These complexes are either prepared from neutral 2,20 -biphosphinines or from their dianions (Scheme 23.60) [159].
2e M P P P M
Scheme 23.60
MX2 P P P
P M 1 2e complex (O)
M'
P M'
2 2e complex (P)
6 6e complex (Q)
6,1 8e complex (R)
Figure 23.3 Types of phosphinine complexes.
23.4 Other P Heterocycles
j2097
A series of homoleptic complexes derived from metals in negative oxidation states has thus been prepared, such as [M(P-P)3]2 (MTi, Zr, Hf) [160]. Another illustration of this phenomenon is the stabilization of a gold(0) complex by a tetraphosphinine macrocycle [161]. Even though the g6-coordination mode (Q) is much less common, it has produced some interesting species such as the bis(g6-phosphinine)vanadium (0) sandwich complex,the structure of which has been established by X-ray analysis [162].
The heterocyclic chemistry of phosphorus is now so vast a domain that it is impossible to cover all of its aspects in the limited space available. Two books have been specically devoted to the subject [163, 164]. This brief survey is restricted to the three-, four-, and ve-membered phosphoruscarbon heterocycles containing a single heteroatom. Phospholes and phosphinines are, of course, excluded.
23.4.1 Three-Membered Rings: Phosphiranes and Phosphirenes
A review on this topic is available [165]. The saturated ring (phosphirane) was discovered by Wagner in 1963 (but was not reported in the literature until 1967) [166] and its synthesis is remarkably simple (Scheme 23.61).
R'
ClCHR'-CH2Cl + RPHNa
liq. NH3
[ClCHR'-CH2-PHR]
RPHNa - RPH2
P R R = R' = H 74% R = Ph, R' = H 60%
Scheme 23.61
The unsaturated ring (phosphirene) was discovered in 1982 via a trickier approach [167] (Scheme 23.62).
[RP=M(CO)5]
R'C CR'
110oC toluene
R' (OC)5M P
R' 1) I , RT R' 2 R 2) N P NMe
R'
R R = R' = Ph overall yield ca. 40%
Scheme 23.62
2098
The terminal phosphinidene complexes that are used in this synthesis are generated by cycloreversion from the appropriate 7-phosphanorbornadiene complexes. As expected, both rings have a very small CPC internal angle (phosphirane 47 [168], phosphirene 42 [169]) and display a high ring strain (phosphirane DE 22 kcal mol1) [170]. Their more characteristic spectral feature is their 31 P resonances at very high eld (parent phosphirane 341 ppm [171], 1,2,3-triphenylphosphirene 190 ppm [169]). The chemistry of these rings is controlled by their strain. They tend to cleave upon oxidation. The phosphiranium salts are marginally stable and can be used as efcient precursors of phosphenium cations (Scheme 23.63) [172].
RCCR Ph P Me RT R Ph P R Me
P Ph
CF3SO3Me RT
Scheme 23.63
Phosphirenium salts are more stable than their saturated counterparts due to some aromatic stabilization [173]. In the same vein, a highly reactive dicoordinate phosphirenylium cation has been characterized in liquid SO2 at low temperature [174]. Most of the reactions of these species involve ring opening or ring expansions. A few representative examples are depicted in Schemes 23.6423.66 [175180].
H2O Me 5 min. Ph
Ph
P O Me Ph
Ph (OC)5W P Ph
Nu
THF
(OC)5W
P Nu Ph
Nu = RO, RNH, R2N R1 P R

Scheme 23.64
R1 + R2Li
R1 THF - 70C R1 R P
R2
Since both phosphiranes and phosphirenes are heavily stabilized by complexation with [M(CO)5] (MCr, Mo, W), a lot of work concerning these rings has been carried out in the coordination sphere of these transition metals. The phosphirane complexes are directly obtained from the reaction of terminal phosphinidene complexes and alkenes (Scheme 23.67) [181].
j2099
X (OC)5W P R
110C X = Cl, Br (OC)5W P X R
, h or cat. P R
Scheme 23.65
P R
R' (OC)5W P R
R' + ZCCH
[PdL2] 100C
R' R' (OC)5W P R
Z = Ph, OEt, CO2Et

Scheme 23.66
[RP=M(CO)5]
a b
c d M = Cr, Mo, W
a b R
c d P M(CO)5
a b R
c d P M(CO)5
Scheme 23.67
The corresponding work has been summarized in two reviews [182, 183]. A surprisingly simple synthesis of phosphirenes has also been devised (Scheme 23.68) [184, 185].
CH2Cl2 25C R' R P R" Cl AlCl4 Bu3P CH2Cl2, 0C R' P R R = R' = R" = Ph 40% overall R"
RPCl2, AlCl3 + R'CCR"
Scheme 23.68
Of interest too is the synthesis of phosphirenes from titanacyclopropenes (Scheme 23.69) [186].
R' R" RPCl2 R' R"
Ti X X X = Cp, OiPr
P Et2O, -50oC to RT, 1 h R R = R' = R" = Ph 80% overall
Scheme 23.69
2100
23.4.2 Four-Membered Rings: Phosphetanes, Dihydrophosphetes and Phosphetes
A review on phosphetanes is available [187]. The ring was discovered by McBride in 1962 [188]. Its initial synthesis relied on the condensation of halophosphines with polymethyl-substituted olens in the presence of AlCl3 (Scheme 23.70).
Me Me Me 1) PCl3, AlCl3 2) H2O Me Me O P Me Me Cl 62%
Me Me Me
Scheme 23.70
The mechanism involves a methyl 1,2-migration (Scheme 23.71).

Me Me Me Me Me Me Cl P Me Me Cl
Me Me
Me
Me Me PCl2
[1,2] Me
Me Me PCl2
Scheme 23.71
Owing to its simplicity, this route to phosphetanes is still a method of choice today. The structure of a tervalent phosphetane shows a CPC intracyclic angle of 76.9 , with relatively long intracyclic PC bonds at 1.8631.887 A [189]. According to a theoretical study, the ring strain of phosphetane is relatively low at 17.9 kcal mol1 [190]. Apart from a classical chemistry at phosphorus (oxidation, quaternization, complexation, etc.), the phosphetane ring undergoes several ring openings and ring expansions. Some examples are collected in Scheme 23.72 [191193]. Besides the McBride synthesis, the most convenient access to phosphetanes relies on the reaction of primary phosphines with 1,3-diol derivatives (Scheme 23.73) [194, 195]. The 1,2-dihydrophosphete (phosphetene) ring was unambiguously characterized for the rst time in 1985 [196]. A review is available [197]. The intracyclic angle in 1,2,3-triphenylphosphet-2-ene is 74.0 , the PCsp2 bond length is normal at 1.821 A, and the PCsp3 bond length is long at 1.886 A [198]. 1-Phosphadienes and 1,2-dihydrophosphetes are connected by a cyclization cycloreversion equilibrium that has been studied from a theoretical standpoint [199]. When appropriately substituted, a phosphetene ring can be used as a masked 1-phosphadiene as shown in the following example (Scheme 23.74) [200]. Two interesting ring expansion reactions have also been described (Schemes 23.75 and 23.76) [201, 202]. The most straightforward synthesis of phosphetenes relies upon a titaniumphosphorus exchange in titanacyclobutenes (Scheme 23.77) [198].

tBu
j2101
But
NuNu = OR, NR2, PR2
But But
Nu
tBu
But
1) MeLi 2) PhCHO
But But
Ph
Ph IH2C P
OH Ph P O Ph P O
Ph O P
MCPBA O Ph P O
Scheme 23.72
O R'
O2 S
O R'
+ RPH2
base
R R'
R'
Scheme 23.73
EtO (OC)5W P Ph
Scheme 23.74
EtO Ph (OC)5W P Ph Ph
Ph PhCHO 80oC EtO Ph P Ph O W(CO)5
R Ph P
R + PCl3 R = Et, Ph
R Cl P P Ph
R Li THF, 25C
R P P Ph
R P P
Li
Scheme 23.75
The ring can also be obtained by cyclization of 1-phosphadienes [203, 204] and by [2 2] cycloaddition between electron-poor phosphaalkenes and electron-rich alkynes [205].
2102
R P R' R'
Scheme 23.76
45C, 4 d.
R P
R P
R'
Ph Cp2Ti
Ph
RPCl2 benzene, RT
Ph R P
Ph R = Ph 66%
Scheme 23.77
As expected, the phosphete ring is antiaromatic and is only known as stable g4transition metal complexes [206].
23.4.3 Five-Membered Rings: Phospholenes
Saturated phospholanes were discovered as early as 1916 [207]. Neither their synthesis nor their chemistry show some specicity by comparison with their acyclic counterparts. Conversely, unsaturated phospholenes, discovered in 1953 by McCormack [208], can be considered as the genuine starting point of phosphoruscarbon heterocyclic chemistry. Their synthesis, via the so-called McCormack reaction, has no equivalent in nitrogen or arsenic chemistry (Scheme 23.78).
RT R P X X
RPX2 +
X = Cl, Br R = alkyl, aryl, X

Scheme 23.78
This original cycloaddition reaction and its various applications have been reviewed in some depth in the book of Quin [163]. As a general rule, the reaction takes place slowly at room temperature. Heat cannot be used because the cycloadducts are thermally unstable, but high pressure accelerates the process [209]. Hydrolysis of the adducts gives the phospholene oxides [210], magnesium reduction the tervalent phospholenes [210] and dehydrohalogenation the phospholes [24]. A lot of classical and non-classical chemistry has been performed with phospholene oxides. Ring expansion has been observed upon dichlorocarbene addition (Scheme 23.79) [211]. Another ring expansion occurs upon metallation and reaction with aromatic nitriles (Scheme 23.80) [212].
23.5 Applications of Phosphorus Heterocycles
j2103
Me P
Me
CHCl3, NaOH phase transfer
Cl Me P
Cl Me Et3N,
Cl Me RO P O Me
RO
RO
Scheme 23.79
Me P
Me
BuLi THF, - 78oC
Me P
Me ArCN
Me P
Me Ar O N H+
Me Me NH P R O Ar
Scheme 23.80
23.5 Applications of Phosphorus Heterocycles
The use of phosphoruscarbon heterocycles as ligands for homogeneous catalysis was considered very early on [213]. It was soon noticed that 1,2,5-triphenylphosphole (20) is an excellent ligand, both for the cobalt- and rhodium-catalyzed hydroformylation of olens. A curious feature of the Rh/(20) system is that its catalytic activity does not depend on the Rh/P ratio [214]. The active species appears to be [RhH(CO) (20)2] [215]. In the same vein, both the 1-phosphanorbornadiene (21) [216] and its water-soluble version (22) [217] are efcient ligands for alkene hydroformylation, the second one in the rhodium biphasic Rh^ one-Poulenc process converting propene into butyraldehyde. More recently, it has been shown that 2,4,6-triarylphosphinine (23) is exceptionally efcient for the rhodium-catalyzed hydroformylation of polysubstituted alkenes [218]. The low-lying LUMO of the phosphinine would favor the reductiveelimination steps.
Ph Ph Ph (20) Ph P (21) Ph NaO3S-Ph Ph Ph P Ph Me Me Ph-SO3Na P (22) Ph-SO3Na Me P Me Me Ph
(23) Me
In a different vein, a series of C2-, C3-, C4-bridged bis-(2,3,4,5-teramethylphospholes) have been shown to give remarkably active catalysts for the palladiumpromoted copolymerization of ethylene and CO [219]. But the most spectacular applications of heterocyclic phosphines are in the eld of enantioselective catalysis. To cite only the best known examples, the phospholane-based DuPHOS (24) [220], phosphetane-based FerroTANE (25) [221, 222], phosphanorbornane-based PennPhos (26) [223] and the phosphanorbornadiene-based BIPNOR (27) [224] all display
2104
impressive efciencies in the rhodium- or ruthenium-catalyzed asymmetric hydrogenation of dehydroamino-acids or ketones.
R P
R P RR DuPHOS (24) P
R Fe R P R Me FerroTANE (25) Me Ph P P Ph Me BIPNOR (27) R P P R R R
PennPhos (26)
Ph Ph Me
Phosphorus heterocycles are also showing some promise in the eld of molecular materials. A low-molecular weight polymer (up to 7800) has been obtained by cationic polymerization of a phosphirane (Scheme 23.81) [225].
CH3OTf, cat. CD2Cl2, 50C Ar P Me P CH2CH2 n Ar
P Ar
Ar = 2,4,6-tBu3C6H2
Scheme 23.81
Based on the chemistry described in Scheme 23.64, the anionic polymerization of a phosphirene has yielded a much higher molecular weight polymer (up to 60 000) (Scheme 23.82) [226].
Me P Ph
Scheme 23.82
Me
Buli, cat. THF
Me Me Ph P Bu
Me Me P C C n Ph
More is certainly to come, since a careful theoretical study has predicted that phosphetanes are better candidates than phosphiranes for radical polymerization [227]. Theoretical studies have shown that a-connected polyphospholes would be better substrates for the preparation of molecular electroconducting materials than the well-known polypyrroles or polythiophenes [228230]. However, the synthesis of oligophospholes is difcult and only a tetraphosphole is presently known [231].
23.6 Addendum
j2105
Interesting results have, nevertheless, been obtained by R eau with mixed thiophene-phosphole and pyridine-phosphole systems. This work has been reviewed [232]. As an illustration, it has been possible to manufacture powerful light-emitting diodes based on phosphole (28) [233]. In a completely different vein, a highly potent gold-phosphole inhibitor (29) of human glutathione reductase has been described [234].
S P Ph (28)
S N P Ph AuCl N (29)
It is, thus, quite clear that phosphoruscarbon heterocyclic chemistry is on the eve of major applications in the elds of homogeneous catalysis, molecular materials and biology.
23.6 Addendum
By far the most signicant advances that have taken place in phosphorus heterocyclic chemistry during the last ve years (20062010) deal with phospholes and phosphinines. Of special interest is the discovery that phospholes are extremely versatile building blocks for the manufacture of optoelectronic materials and that phosphinines display very specic properties as ligands for homogeneous catalysis. These applications are, of course, outside of the scope of this addendum but numerous recent papers and reviews cover these aspects [235237].
23.6.1 Phospholes
Undoubtedly, the most spectacular results concerning phosphole chemistry have been obtained by the group of Matano while working on the synthesis of phosphaporphyrins. This work has been summarized in a review [238]. A milder variant of the zirconium route to phospholes (Scheme 23.4) using titanium is rst used to synthesize phosphole 2,5-diesters (Scheme 23.83) [239].
CO2 Et CO2 Et
Ti(O iPr)4 2 Et2O, -50 oC

iPrMgCl
CO 2Et Ti(OiPr)2 CO2 Et
PhPCl2
CO 2Et PPh CO2 Et
Scheme 23.83
2106
After reduction and acidic condensation with pyrrole, the phosphatripyrrane thus obtained is allowed to react with a heterocyclic 2,5-diol to give the corresponding porphyrinogen, whose oxidation with 2,3-dichloro-5,6-dicyano-1,4-benzoquinone (DDQ) affords the heteroporphyrin (Scheme 23.84) [240].
H N
iBu AlH 2
EtO2 C
P Ph
CO2 Et
HO
P Ph
OH
F3 B-OEt2 NH
P Ph HN
Ph(HO)HC 1) 2) DDQ
CH(OH)Ph F3 B-OEt2 N (X = NH, S)
P Ph N X Ph Ph
Scheme 23.84
Several variations around this basic scheme lead to phosphole-containing calixpyrroles, calixphyrins, and sapphyrins. The use of a peruorophenyl substituent at phosphorus enhances the yields and the stability of these rings [241]. Extensive 18p cyclic delocalization in these structures has been demonstrated by NMR and DFT calculations. The coordination chemistry of these new macrocycles has been studied extensively [242244]. We have previously mentioned the synthesis of a a-connected tetraphosphole [64]. Unfortunately, higher oligomers were not accessible by this route. Very recently, the group of Matano has demonstrated that this impossibility is a consequence of the 3,4-dimethyl substitution preventing the coplanarity of the phosphole rings. Indeed, when using the less demanding cyclopentane annulation, a polyphosphole oxide can be efciently obtained (Scheme 23.85) [245].
[Pd(0)], Fu 3P, CuI
Bu 3Sn
Ar
SnBu3
Ar
NMP, rt, 49 h
Ar
Ar = p-dodecyloxyphenyl
Scheme 23.85
The dodecyloxy substituent is used for solubility. The polymer is obtained as a deep-blue solid in 51% yield with an average molecular weight of 13 000.
23.6 Addendum
j2107
The polyphosphole oxide displays a very narrow band gap and an absorption maximum at 655 nm signicantly redshifted by comparison with polythiophene. Matano has also reinvestigated the synthesis of a-substituted alkynylphospholes using his titanium route [246]. This has led to the synthesis of an original terphosphole (Scheme 23.86).
PhPH 2 nBuLi Ph Ph P P Ph Ph THF-toluene Ph Ph P
Ph P
Ph
Ph
Scheme 23.86
The three phosphole rings are coplanar, contrary to what was previously observed in the quaterphosphole [64]. Finally, the group of Mathey has described the synthesis of phosphole isomers whose nucleophilicity is similar to that of tris(tert-butyl)phosphine as a result of the destabilizing overlap between the lone pair and the HOMO of the diene (Scheme 23.87) [247]. These ligands look promising for catalytic applications.
Me Me CF3CO2 H S P
t
Me
CH 2 1) NiCp 2/MeI 2) KCN
Me
CH2
Bu
CH3 CO 2H reflux, 2 h
Bu
tBu
Scheme 23.87
23.6.2 Phosphinines
A conversion of phospholes into phosphinines via 1-phosphanorbornadienes has been described in Scheme 23.32. Its drawback is that the extrusion of the carbene bridge works only for the diphenyl-substituted species at high temperature (230 C). To generalize this potentially useful route, a selective oxidation of the PC bridge bond has been carried out. The non-concerted extrusion of the triplet diphenylcarbene is replaced by the concerted extrusion of singlet formaldehyde. The aromatization takes place at lower temperature (180 C) and the reaction is compatible with several functionalities (Scheme 23.88) [248]. A potentially versatile transformation of furans into phosphinines has also been devised. All the steps are performed at or below room temperature. Protection of the
2108
Me
Me
P
Me
Me
R1 R2 P
Me Ph
P
Me
R1
H2O2 in xs
Me Ph
O
O P
Me
R1
Ph
R2
80oC, 2d
R2
Ph Me Ph
S O P
Me
P4 S10 (0.3 eq)
R1
Me
dppe (0.6 eq) xylene, 180o C, 1820 h
70o C, 4h, xylene
R2
Me Ph
P
R1 R2
R1 = R, Ar R2 = H, R, Ar, CO 2Et, SiMe 3

Scheme 23.88
OH group is necessary to avoid a ring expansion into 1,2-oxaphosphepines (Scheme 23.89) [249].
O H2 C P Cl O 0 o C, 2 h P Cl W(CO) 5 BBr 3 -15 o C
W(CO)5 Br HO (OC) 5W
Scheme 23.89
1) OH protection P Cl 2) Et3 N, rt, 0.5 h O O P W(CO) 5
The main advance in the chemistry of phosphinines is the description of the rst protonated species. The protonation of 2,4,6-tris(tert-butyl)phosphinine at phosphorus is carried out with a carborane superacid H[CHB11Me5Cl6] [250]. The resulting salt gives a 31 P resonance at 60 ppm with a 1 JPH coupling of 625 Hz. The X-ray crystal structure analysis shows a strictly planar ring with short PC bonds (1.6961.698 A). In the same vein, stable phosphinine suldes have been fully characterized by NMR spectroscopy and X-ray crystal structure analysis. Their electronic structure has been studied by DFT [251]. Finally, another noteworthy result concerns the synthesis of the rst enantiopure atropisomeric phosphinines using the original synthesis of M arkl (Scheme 23.26) [252]. The enantiomers are separated by HPLC on a chiral stationary phase. The barrier to racemization has been determined: DG298 109.5 0.5 kJ mol1.
References
j2109
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j2111
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24 The Chemistry of 2-Azetidinones (b-Lactams)

Benito Alcaide, Pedro Almendros, and Amparo Luna
24.1 Monocyclic Derivatives 24.1.1 Introduction
The large number of recent reports on b-lactam chemistry demonstrates the increasing interest in this important class of compounds. Monocyclic b-lactams frequently serve as precursors for the synthesis of classical bicyclic b-lactam antibiotics. The cyclic 2-azetidinone skeleton has been extensively used as a template on which to build the heterocyclic structure fused to the four-membered ring, using the chirality and functionalization of the b-lactam nucleus as a stereocontrolling element. The discovery of nonclassical b-lactam antibiotics, such as monobactams and nocardicins, coupled with ever-growing new applications such as enzyme inhibition has triggered a renewed interest in the building of new monocyclic b-lactam derivatives. Besides the utility of b-lactams as biologically active agents, they are used as intermediates in a- and b-amino acid synthesis, as well as building blocks for alkaloids, heterocycles, taxoids and other types of compounds of biological and medicinal interest.
24.1.2 Physicochemical Data 24.1.2.1 Computational Chemistry Theoretical studies show that b-lactams are weaker bases, in the gas phase, than acyclic amides [1]. The attenuation of basicity upon cyclization is stronger than that found for cyclic ketones of similar size due to the existence of a negative hyperconjugation effect that is present in b-lactams but not in cyclic ketones. Ab initio calculations indicate that both b-lactams and acyclic amides are oxygen bases, but the gap between the oxygen and nitrogen intrinsic basicities is much smaller in the former due to the aforementioned cyclization effects. This decrease of the oxygen
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j 24 The Chemistry of 2-Azetidinones (b-Lactams)

intrinsic basicity of b-lactams with respect to the aliphatic amides of the same size is a direct consequence of the hybridization changes undergone by the carbonyl carbon and is very well described by a topological analysis of the corresponding electronic charge densities. The topological analysis of bond activations upon protonation reveals that for 2-azetidinones these effects are not dramatic when protonation takes place at the oxygen atom, whereas they are quite signicant if protonation takes place at the ring nitrogen. Model chiral b-lactam molecules, (3S)- and (4R)-uoro-2-azetidinone, have been calculated at the B3PW91/aug-cc-pVTZ level to be hydrogen bonded with achiral HX molecules (X F, Cl, Br) [2]. Two stable structures of the complex are possible: a cyclic or a bent H-bond, in which the HX molecule interacts with the CO group and is either close to NH or CH2 (CHF) moiety, respectively. The VCD effect of these two forms differs in several respects; however, the main difference is the sign of the VCD rotational strength of the n(HX) stretching vibrations, revealing the geometry of the hydrogen bond complex. A related report on halogenoazetidinones has considered in the inuence of the halogen atom, at the C4 position of the 2-azetidinone ring, on the geometry, IR, Raman and vibrational circular dichroism spectra [3]. The vibrational spectra were calculated for the chiral (4R)-X-2-azetidinone (X F, Cl or Br) molecules at the B3PW91/aug-cc-pVTZ level. It was shown that the geometry of the molecules studied do not change much upon changing the halogen atom. In case of the vibrational spectra, the position and, even more so, the intensities depend strongly on the kind of halogen substituent. Ab initio MP2/6-31G(d,p) and 6-31 G(d,p) calculations have been performed to investigate the intramolecular hydrogen-bonding in two model monocyclic b-lactams: monobactams and nocardicins [4]. It was found that the intramolecular CO HOS hydrogen bond stabilizes a monobactam, while a nocardicin is destabilized by CO HOCO hydrogen bond formation. This observation suggests that monobactams could block themselves by the intramolecular bond and, therefore, could be less active towards a receptor active site than nocardicins. The effect of an ancillary water molecule on the neutral and alkaline hydrolysis mechanisms of a simple b-lactam molecule (N-methylazetidinone) has been studied at the HartreeFock and MP2 levels using the 6-31G and 6-31 G basis sets [5]. Solvent effects have been also considered by means of a polarizable continuum model. In neutral hydrolysis, the additional water molecule diminishes the freeenergy barriers only when correlation energy is taken into account, Concerted and stepwise mechanisms have been described. The corresponding barriers are close, and the actual mechanism could be conditioned by the molecular environment, solution, protein, and so on. Using the results of a molecular dynamics simulation of N-methylazetidinone in aqueous solution, it has been shown that the stepwise process is more likely to occur in such conditions. In alkaline hydrolysis, the rst reaction step consists of the formation of a tetrahedral intermediate that requires a desolvation of the hydroxyl anion, which is difcult to reproduce by calculation. Afterward, the hydrolysis reaction proceeds through either concerted or stepwise mechanisms for ring opening and proton transfer. The concerted channel presents a very low energy barrier, and the species involved are dependent on the calculation
24.1 Monocyclic Derivatives
j2119
level. The stepwise mechanism is virtually the same as that previously reported for the unassisted hydrolysis, the relative energy of all the points along the path being diminished and the energy barriers remaining essentially unaltered. Kinetic experiments have been performed to characterize the reactivity of aztreonam against amine nucleophiles relative to that of penicillin compounds (6-APA) [6]. The magnitude of the experimentally determined kinetic constants (k1, k2 and k3) shows that aztreonam is slightly more reactive than 6-APA, despite common assumptions that the amide bond should be less activated in monobactams. Interestingly, these kinetic results are consistent with the experimentally determined rate for aztreonam covalent linkage to the e-amino groups of lysine residues in HSA plasma proteins (70% of the initial aztreonam xed to HSA after 24 h of reaction), which is higher than that reported for benzylpenicillins (3% after 48 h). Furthermore, the kinetic inuence of substitution on the attacking nucleophile was also investigated. Most remarkably, for ethanolamine in reaction with either aztreonam or 6-APA, the corresponding rate law has a kinetic term proportional to [RNH2][RNH3 ], in contrast with previous reports on the reaction between benzylpenicillin and ethanolamine. To gain a better understanding of the various effects controlling the rates of the reactions between b-lactams and amines, the molecular details of the reactive processes have been investigated by quantum chemical calculations. The APA and MONO model systems were considered to compute the rate-determining DGsolution barriers corresponding to various reaction mechanisms, all involving bifunctional catalysis by water, a second amine molecule or the N-sulfonate groups of monobactams. The theoretical results conrm the ability of the water-assisted (k1) and amine-assisted (k2) mechanisms to explain experimental data on the aminolysis of b-lactams. Thus, the computed DGsolution barriers have moderate values ranging from about 26 to about 34 kcal mol1. For the aminolysis of monobactams, the previously proposed N-SO3-assisted mechanism turns out to be 5.2 kcal mol1 less stable than the water-assisted route. Moreover, the theoretical calculations undertaken in this study satisfactorily reproduce several experimentally observed kinetic trends: the prevalence of the amine-assisted mechanism (k2 term in the rate law) over the water-assisted route (k1) and the higher reactivity exhibited by the monobactam. Nevertheless, the most interesting prediction made by these calculations is that the kinetic term in the experimental rate law proportional to [CH2OHCH2NH2][CH2OHCH2NH3 ] can be interpreted in terms of the bifunctional catalysis performed by the hydroxy group of the protonated amine molecule. Finally, from comparison between experimental and theoretical data, it was concluded that a combination of standard DFT gas-phase calculations with SCRF solvation methodologies can yield relative DGsolution barriers with semiquantitative accuracy and give valuable insights into the various factors controlling the rate of chemical processes in the condensed phase.
24.1.2.2 Experimental Structural Methods The analysis of b-lactams by X-ray diffraction indicates that the four-membered ring is planar. Several 2-azetidinone derivatives, for example, b-lactam pseudopeptides [7],
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4-aryl-substituted b-lactams [8], 3,3-dichloro-N-p-methoxyphenyl-4-(2-phenylstyryl)2-azetidinone [9], 4-(2-oxoethylidene)azetidin-2-ones [10], isoxazolidinyl- and pyrrolidinil-b-lactams [11], 4-(1-hydroxy-3-oxobutyl)-b-lactams [12] and an oxiranylb-lactam [13], have been recently studied by X-ray crystallography. The method most useful for the determination of the relative stereochemistry of b-lactams is 1 H NMR spectroscopy. The assignment of the cis-stereochemistry to b-lactams is based on the observed coupling constants of about 5.0 Hz for methine protons H3 and H4, whereas trans-stereochemistry is consistent with methine coupling constants of about 2.0 Hz in their 1 H NMR spectra [14]. The 13 C NMR spectra of 2-azetidinones show the carbonyl resonance between 160 and 167 ppm. Interestingly, the carbonyl resonances of c- and larger-membered lactams appear between 170 and 180 ppm. The infrared CO absorption frequency for the monocyclic 2-azetidinone ring is about 1745 cm1.
24.1.3 Biologically Relevant Monocyclic b-Lactams
The word antibiotic refers to a chemical agent that either kills or prevents the growth of microorganisms and is itself derived from a microorganism. Although the term antimicrobial is better and more precise because it includes the synthetic agents that have been commonly employed for several decades to treat infections, for ease of use the prevalent term antibiotic will be kept herein. The minimum structural features believed to be essential for antimicrobial activity in the b-lactam antibiotics have undergone considerable revision. Since in recent years several natural monocyclic b-lactams have been shown to exhibit high antibacterial activity, it now appears that the minimum requirement for biological activity is a suitably substituted monocyclic 2-azetidinone ring. The most representative examples of these monocyclic b-lactams exhibiting antibiotic activities are the naturally occurring nocardicins 1 [15], and monobactams 2 [16].
H N O O H CO2 H 1 2 N H R2 N O O N SO3 H
OH
R1
The common structural feature of these monocyclic b-lactams is the absence of substitution at the C4 carbon of the 2-azetidinone ring. The antibiotic activity of this type of b-lactams has stimulated considerable activity in this area. As a consequence, aztreonam (3) [17] and carumonam (4) [18], both with a monobactam structure but bearing substituents at C4, have been synthesized. The relevant feature of these compounds is the b-lactam nucleus, but the nature as well as the sterical arrangement of the substituents also play an important role in the antibiotic activity.
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CO2H O N N H 3N S O O 3 N SO3 O N N H 3N S
CO2H
H H H Me N
H H H N N O 4
OCONH2 SO3
Recent discoveries have shown other biological properties of these compounds apart from their antibacterial action. Some of the more notable advances concern the use in gene activation as well as the development of mechanism-based serine protease inhibitors of elastase, cytomegalovirus protease, thrombin, prostate specic antigen, and cell metastasis and as inhibitors of acyl-CoA cholesterol acyl transferase [19]. The cholesterol-lowering agent ezetimibe (5) [20], as well as the irreversible inhibitor of glutamine synthetase tabtoxinine-b-lactam (6) [21], are representative example of these trends.
OH F OH NH 2 HOOC N O 5 F O 6 N H OH
24.1.4 2-Azetidinone Nucleus Synthesis
The vast number of syntheses of b-lactams amply illustrates the ongoing vitality of 2-azetidinone chemistry. Obviously, this chapter cannot offer a comprehensive description of all the aspects of the various types of b-lactam syntheses emanating from research groups active in this area, and so we have concentrated our efforts on the more relevant aspects. Major synthetic routes, for example, the cycloaddition of ketenes and imines, cannot be covered completely and readers are advised to consult reviews on this topic for more details.
24.1.4.1 Ketene-Imine Cycloaddition (Staudinger Reaction) [2 2] Cycloaddition reactions between ketenes, bearing amino-, oxy-, or halogroups, and imines are recognized as being among the most important and direct routes to b-lactams [22]. Alkyl-substituted ketenes also furnish the corresponding b-lactams upon reaction with activated imines (iminoesters). In general, ketenes are generated from the appropriate acid chloride and a tertiary amine. The major or sole product of the cycloaddition is usually the cis-b-lactam, although a few exceptions showing trans selectivity are known. In this way b-lactams with a widely varying
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substitution pattern at the C3 and C4 positions of the ring are constructed stereoselectively. The diastereoselection of the cycloaddition process can be controlled with variable success from chiral groups attached to either the ketene or the imine component, or alternatively to both. More recently, chiral catalysts have been used in the asymmetric Staudinger reaction. Staudinger-like cycloaddition between proline-derived formaldehyde hydrazones and functionalized ketenes constitutes an efcient methodology for the stereoselective construction of 4-unsubstituted b-lactams 7 (yield: 8096%, dr up to 99 : 1) (Scheme 24.1) [23]. Enantiopure N,N-dialkylhydrazones react with N-benzyloxycarbonyl-N-benzyl glycine as an aminoketene precursor to afford trans-3-amino-4alkylazetidin-2-ones 8 as single diastereomers [24a]. Oxidative NN bond cleavage of cycloadducts 7 and 8 afforded free N-H-azetidinones in high yields [24b].
OMe
N H O
R R
N H
Et3 N, toluene Cl reflux
BnO
O N N
R R
CbzBnN OMe
O N
R N
OBn
Scheme 24.1
Lectka and colleagues have reacted achiral ketenes with achiral imines to achieve asymmetric induction in the synthesis of cis-b-lactams through the use of a bifunctional catalyst system consisting of a chiral nucleophile (benzoylquinine) and an achiral Lewis acid [25], while a catalytic, highly diastereoselective process for the synthesis of trans-b-lactams has been reported based on a phosphonium uoride precatalyst that both activates the nucleophile and directs the reaction process for high yield and diastereoselectivity [26a]. It has been demonstrated as well that a planar-chiral azaferrocene derivative of 4-(pyrrolidino)pyridine is an excellent catalyst for the enantioselective Staudinger reaction, providing b-lactams 9 with very good stereoselection and yield (Scheme 24.2) [26b].
R 2N R3 O 9 R2 N R1 Ts
R1 H
N Ts +
R2 R3
C O
10% catalyst
N Fe R R R
R R
Scheme 24.2
More recently, azolium salts that belong to the extraordinary class of N-heterocyclic carbenes (NHCs) have been found to be efcient catalysts for the enantioselective
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synthesis of b-lactams through Staudinger reaction of ketenes with N-tosyl, N-benzyloxycarbonyl, N-tert-butoxycarbonyl, or N-(4-nitrobenzenesulfonyl) imines [27]. The rapid development of solid-supported combinatorial chemistry has increased in a spectacular way the complexity and the diversity of reactions by using solid support. Among others, the Staudinger reaction has found various uses in polymerassisted synthesis [28]. Sasrin, preloaded with an Fmoc-protected (Fmoc 9-uorenylmethoxycarbonyl) amino acid, has been used by Gallop as the starting material 10 (Scheme 24.3) [29]. After deprotection, the resin yields a free primary amine, which can be reacted with aldehydes, in the presence of trimethyl orthoformate as a desiccant, to afford the desired polymer-bound imines 11. These, in turn, are treated with an acid chloride in the presence of triethylamine to produce the polymersupported b-lactams 12, which are liberated from the resin to give in good yields 2azetidinones 13 by treatment with CF3COOH. The polymer-bound lactams can be further derivatized by Suzuki and Heck coupling reactions, upon selection of properly functionalized aldehydes, to form the imines. The Staudinger reaction on a solid phase has also been accomplished using imines obtained from commercially available uorinated a-amino acids. Thus, the b-lactam formation on a solid phase can be monitored by 19 F NMR spectroscopy [30].
R2 N
O O
NHFmoc 10
R1
i) 30% Piperidine in NMP ii) R CHO, HC(OMe) 3, CH2Cl 2 NMP = N-methylpyrrolidone

2
R1 11 R 3 CH2COCl, Et 3N, CH2 Cl2
R3 N
R2 O
3% CF3 COOH in CH2Cl 2
R3
R2 O N O
13
R1
OH
5897%; d.e. = 10100% R1 = alkyl; R 2 = alkyl, aryl; R3 = alkyl, O-alkyl, O-aryl, N-phthalimidoyl
12
R1
Scheme 24.3
The stereochemical selectivity of this procedure, through the effect of chiral ketenes and chiral imines, has also been investigated [31]. In both cases only cisdiastereomers are observed. The diastereoselectivities of the b-lactams produced were in a range of 8 : 1 to greater than 25 : 1 when using a ketene bearing a chiral oxazolidinone moiety, and a range of 2 : 1 to greater than 25 : 1 when using chiral aldehydes to form the imines. In the previous examples, the imine intermediate is generated from a polymerbound amine, but it may also be generated from a polymer-bound aldehyde [32]. The use acetoxyketene [33] allows further modications to give carbamate products. This
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chemistry has been extrapolated to the synthesis of enantiomerically enriched b-lactams starting from a polymer-bound version of Garners aldehyde [34]. A polymer-supported Mukaiyama-type reagent has been used for the preparation of b-lactams, using the Staudinger reaction. The products were obtained by generating the ketene from a carboxylic acid under sonication with the resin followed by reaction with the imine [35]. These approaches also exclusively produce the cis-diastereomers of the lactams. The solid-phase synthesis of trans-3-alkyl-b-lactams from non-activated acid chlorides has been reported recently [36]. Lectka has devised a method in which a polymer-bound base, used as a packing material for a jacketed column cooled to 78 C, effects the dehydrohalogenation of acyl halides to generate ketenes [37]. When a solution of the acid chloride is added to the top of the column, a solution of the ketene percolates at the bottom and can be either trapped by another reagent or eluted through another column packed with a different polymer-bound reagent/scavenger for further transformations. The use of a polymer-bound cinchona alkaloid as both the nucleophilic catalyst and the base effecting the dehydrohalogenation has been reported [38]. This polymeric reagent was regenerated in situ with K2CO3 or sodium hydride in a rather unusual solid-gel shuttle deprotonation between a solid and a gel. Although this b-lactam formation involves a single step, the presence of a regenerating base seems to induce some scrambling in its stereoselectivity. All of the polymers can be recycled by simply eluting washing solutions through the columns, which seems to have only a marginal effect on the reaction results.
24.1.4.2 Metalloester Enolate-Imine Condensation The metalloester enolate-imine condensation represents one of the most popular entries to b-lactams [39]. Various ester types and imine types can be utilized in this one-pot reaction between imines and metal ester enolates (or their synthetic equivalents, the silylketene acetals). The reaction can be promoted by various metals, including aluminium, boron, indium, lithium, titanium, zinc and zirconium. The Reformatsky addition reaction to imines has been employed as a method to synthesize b-lactams. For example, in the presence of Zn/Cp2TiCl2 (cat.), a-bromoacetates, or c-bromocrotonates, react with imines in one-pot to form b-lactams, at room temperature without the need for pretreatment of the solvent and Zn [40]. Reformatsky reactions between enolizable and non-enolizable aldimines and a-bromoesters of differing steric demands, in the presence of zinc dust and a catalytic amount of iodine in dioxane under high intensity ultrasound (HIU) irradiation afford short reaction times and high yields of b-lactams 14 (Scheme 24.4) [41]. In a similar way, indium can mediate the synthesis of 3-unsubstituted b-lactams [42].
N R1 R2 + H R
3
OEt Br
Zn, I2 (cat.) dioxane, HIU, 20 o C 7294%
R3 O
R3 N
R1 R2
R3
14
Scheme 24.4
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The use of silyl enolates or S-thioester, instead of carboxylic ester, metal enolates in the condensation with imines provides a mild route to 2-azetidinones. 2,20 -Dibenzothiazolyl disulde is a versatile reagent that provides a convenient and efcient route for the synthesis of b-lactams from Schiffs bases and alkoxy/aryloxy acetic acids. The process involves the formation of thioester of the corresponding acid. Finally, condensation of titanium enolates, derived from these esters, with imines completes the synthesis of 2-azetidinones [43]. Highly substituted b-lactams have been synthesized by addition of air-stable ethyl(trimethylsilyl)acetate derivatives to N-(2-hydroxyphenyl)aldimine sodium salts [44]. The asymmetric version of the metalloester enolate-imine condensation route has been explored using a chiral enolate. The diastereoselectivity of the reaction of the lithium enolate of menthyl isobutyrate with imines has been improved by the addition of a catalytic amount (5 mol%) of a chiral tridentate aminodiether ligand to give the corresponding b-lactams in high enantioselectivities [45a]. Matching and mismatching phenomena were observed by the reaction of L- and D-menthyl isobutyrates. The asymmetric Reformatsky-type reaction of ()-menthyl bromodiuoroacetate with imines in the presence of RhCl(PPh3)3 affords (S)diuoro-b-lactams in moderate to good yields and high diastereoselectivities through spontaneous removal of the auxiliary [45b]. A systematic investigation of chiral ligand mediated addition of imines to lithium ester enolates to give b-lactams has been carried out to study the effects of the variation of the alkoxy group in the latter reagent [46]. A maximum of 93% ee was obtained. The ester enolate-imine condensation route to b-lactams via an immobilized ester enolate has been achieved [47]. The key reaction in the synthesis is the cyclization of the resin-bound ester dianion and an imine. Traceless cleavage from the T1-triazene linker system yields the desired b-lactams (Scheme 24.5).
N N
i) 2.2 equiv. LHMDS, THF, 78 C ii) 3 equiv. R2 CH=NPh, 78 C to RT
H Me N O O N
Me
O N H
OMe
O
iii) 5% CF3COOH in CH 2Cl 2 iv) THF/DMF (5/2), 60 C 5371%; d.e. = 5096%
15
Scheme 24.5
24.1.4.3 Isocyanate-Alkene Cyclocondensation The reaction of isocyanates with alkenes to give b-lactams requires activation of the isocyanate moiety by electron-withdrawing substituents or activation of the alkene partner by electron-donating groups. 4-Aryl-2-azetidinones have been prepared by reacting N-chlorosulfonyl isocyanate with styrene and 4-methylstyrene [48]. The reaction between the same isocyanate with an enantiopure (E)-vinyl sulde gives a 2.5 : 1 diastereomeric mixture of phenylthioazetidinones [49]. The facial selectivity
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in the cycloaddition is explained by the conformational preference of the allylic groups in the transition structure. The [2 2] cycloaddition of chlorosulfonyl isocyanate (CSI) to alkoxyallenes derived from ethylidene and benzylidene erythritols and threitols proceeds with a moderate asymmetric induction in the case of the erythritols (Scheme 24.6) and with a very low induction in the case of threitols. This indicates that the erythritol derivatives may exist in solution in one predominant conformation while the threitol derivatives behave as a conformational ensemble [50].
H O
R1
O O R 2O
i) CSI, Na 2 CO 3, toluene, 78 C ii) Re Al, toluene, 78 C 6687%; d.e. = 5065%
R1
O O R 2O
HN 16
Scheme 24.6
24.1.4.4 Chromium Carbene-Imine Cyclization The preparation of 2-azetidinones through the photochemical reaction of chromium carbene complexes with imines is a convenient method [51]. A vast array of imines, including simple imines, a-iminoketones, a-diimines, iminodithiocarbonates, and ferrocene imines [52], can be used. The asymmetric version of this route can be accomplished on using enantiopure chromium carbenes, such as the (R)-phenylglycine derivative 17, which allowed the preparation of optically active b-lactams 18 (Scheme 24.7) [53]. A theoretical-experimental approach to the mechanism of the photocarbonylation of chromium(0) (Fischer)-carbene complexes and their reaction with imines to give b-lactams has been published [54].
O N R1 R
3
O +
h , CH2Cl 2, RT Ph
2091%; d.e. = 7097%
R2
(OC)5 Cr 17
N H
H O
N N
Ph R2 R1
R3
18
Scheme 24.7
24.1.4.5 Cyclization of b-Amino Acids and Derivatives The cyclization of b-amino acids to give b-lactams can be achieved through the use of a numerous reagents and conditions [55]. Interesting examples include the preparation of C3 unsubstituted b-lactams by using tert-butylmagnesium chloride [56], the synthesis of 2-azetidinones bearing a C4 quaternary stereocenter by using 4-pyrrolidinopyridine [57], the preparation of the key b-lactam precursor in the total synthesis of lankacidin C [58], the preparation of the chartelline framework by simple heating [59], the LHMDS-promoted cyclization of an aspartic acid derivative to
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provide a carbapenem PS-6 precursor [60] and the preparation of the spirocyclic b-lactam 19 by sequential base and acid treatment (Scheme 24.8) [61].
PMP +
H O H
L-Proline
O H
HN
PMP CO 2 Et
EtO 2C
DMSO, RT 94%; e.e. = 98%
i) NaClO 2 , NaH 2PO4 , t-BuOH-H 2O (5:1), RT ii) 1 equiv. NaOH (1M), 80% EtOAc, RT iii) 1.1 equiv. HCl (1N), EtOAc, RT
CO 2Et
O N
PMP
19
Scheme 24.8
24.1.4.6 Hydroxamate Cyclization The cyclization of a b-hydroxyhydroxamate derived from an amino acid is a straightforward approach to 2-azetidinones [62]. The stereoselective synthesis of 3,4-substituted b-lactams by bromine-induced oxidative cyclization of O-acyl b,c-unsaturated hydroxamic acid derivatives is a classical example [63]. The intramolecular Mitsunobu reaction of a b-hydroxy hydroxamic acid derivative has been used for the preparation of the b-lactam precursors in the preparation of cobactin analogs and in the total syntheses of pateamine A and sitagliptin [64]. A related contribution is the cyclization of b-hydroxy-a-thioalkylhydroxamates in the presence of AgClO4 [65]. The hydroxamate synthesis of b-lactams carried out on solid phase has been reported [66]. The strategy chosen was to link the amino acid derivative to a polystyrene-supported hydroxylamine, and nally carry out the cyclization under Mitsunobu conditions. This approach is particularly suitable for solid-phase synthesis as the supported b-lactam can be easily separated from the by-products of the Mitsunobu reaction. The linker employed was a polystyrene resin carrying a O-tritylhydroxylamine linker. The cyclization occurred in THF using freshly distilled DEAD and PPh3. The resin was treated with a commercially available solution of SmI2 in THF, and free 2-azetidinones 20 were recovered from the solution after hydrolytic workup and passage through a short silica gel column (Scheme 24.9). 24.1.4.7 Metal-Catalyzed Insertions of Diazo Compounds In recent years, metal-catalyzed intramolecular CH insertion has emerged as a general strategy for the construction of numerous cyclic and heterocyclic
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HO
O H N O
Scheme 24.9
i) 5 equiv. DEAD, 10 equiv. PPh 3 , THF, RT, 24 h
CbzHN
O
NHCbz ii) SmI 2 0.1 M in THF, RT, 4 h 4552%
NH 20
compounds, among which b-lactams are especially noteworthy [67]. The success of this approach is related to the level of regio- and stereocontrol and, in some cases, to the high enantioselectivity of the CH insertion process. It has been recently demonstrated that water is an efcient solvent for the Rh2(OAc)4-catalyzed intramolecular CH insertion of a range of diazo substrates to yield 2-azetidinones 21 without competitive water insertion (Scheme 24.10) [68]. Owing to the high solubility and stability of the catalyst in water, the catalyst can be efciently reused.
O X N2 N 1 mol% Rh 2(OAc)4, H 2O, 80 C
X O N
7375%
21
Scheme 24.10
An operationally simple catalytic system based on [RuCl2(p-cymene)]2 has been developed for the stereoselective cyclization of a-diazoacetamides by intramolecular carbenoid CH insertion, and b-lactams 22 have been produced in excellent yields and >99% cis-stereoselectivity (Scheme 24.11) [69a]. The Ru-catalyzed reactions can be performed without the need for slow addition of diazo compounds and inert atmosphere. The stereoselectivity of the related polymer-supported rutheniumcatalyzed intramolecular carbenoid CH insertion of a-diazoacetamides to yield b-lactams has been shown to be similar to the analogous reactions with the homogeneus [RuCl2(p-cymene)]2 catalyst [69b].
O O N2
Scheme 24.11
EtO
N R2
2.5 mol% [RuCl 2 (p-cymene) 2 ], toluene, 70 C
R1 O N
22
CO 2Et
R2
1299%
Aryl tosylhydrazones are converted into b-lactams in good yields and remarkable cis selectivity (up to 99%) using a ruthenium porphyrin-catalyzed stereoselective intramolecular carbenoid CH insertion [70].
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24.1.4.8 Multicomponent Reactions Multicomponent reactions (MCRs) have recently emerged as a highly valuable synthetic tool in the context of modern drug discovery. The atom economical and convergent character, the simplicity of a one-pot procedure, the possible structural variations, the accessible complexity of the molecules, as well as the very large number of accessible compounds are among the described advantages of MCRs. Thus, for example, the reactivity of transition-metal catalysts can be exploited to design one-step methods to convert readily available building blocks directly into a diverse array of products, including b-lactams [71]. A multicomponent reaction of b-aminothiocarboxylic acids, aldehydes and 3-dimethylamino-2-isocyanoacylate has been used for the preparation of b-lactams 23 (Scheme 24.12) [72]. During this reaction two heterocyclic moieties, a thiazole and a 2-azetidinone ring, are formed simultaneously and under mild conditions. The increase in molecular complexity here is dramatic as two CN, two CS and one CC bonds are formed in a new onepot multicomponent reaction.
N R1 CHO + R2 +
R3 H2 N
R3
COSH
MgSO4, MeOH, RT 3669%

O
NC
N R1 S
R2
23
Scheme 24.12
A tandem PetasisUgi multicomponent condensation strategy and 1,3-diisopropylcarbodiimide condensation reaction can be used to prepare aza-b-lactams containing two to four elements of diversity [73a]. Although the yields are only moderate, the methods provide rapid entry into this interesting structural class of molecules. The creation of the b-lactam ring by Ugi reaction with b-keto-acids is unknown in organic solvents, as exemplied by the complete failure of the reaction in MeOH, THF or CH2Cl2. However, this reaction proceeds well in water to give 2-azetidinones 24 (Scheme 24.13) [73b]. A library of 32 b-lactams has been created by Ugi reaction in water. The HPLC purity of the crude reactions products was 7099%, and the yields of these products were 7189%.
R1
HO 2C
R2
NH 2
+ R 3CHO + R4 NC
LiCl (aq 2.5 M), RT
R1 O N
R2
O N H
7189%
R4
24
Scheme 24.13
R3
2130

24.1.4.9 Coupling of Terminal Alkynes and Nitrones (Kinugasa Reaction) The Kinugasa reaction is a convergent route to b-lactams through the reaction of a copper acetylide with a nitrone [74]. Appealing features of this process include the ready availability of the starting materials and its high functional group tolerance. The Kinugasa reaction has been used for the asymmetric synthesis of b-lactams 25 via cycloaddition between chiral oxazolidinyl propynes (or related chiral ynamides) and nitrones, in the presence of cuprous iodide (Scheme 24.14) [75].
R1 O N O R1 + O R2 H N+ Ph O CuI, Et 3N, DMF, RT 6270%; d.e. = 2050% O O N N R2
Ph
25
Scheme 24.14
Recently, asymmetric Kinugasa reactions have been accomplished using enantioselective catalysis. Thus, 3-exomethylene b-lactams have been obtained via Cu(I)mediated cycloaddition between propargyl alcohol and nitrones in the presence of Lproline [76a], while 3,4-diaryl b-lactams have been observed for the asymmetric intermolecular Kinugasa reaction using P,N-ligands [76b]. A chiral bis(oxazoline)/ Cu(OTf)2 derivative, a chiral tris(oxazoline)/Cu(II) system, and a chiral i-Pr-trisoxazoline/Cu(ClO4)26H2O complex under air atmosphere catalyzed the coupling of terminal alkynes and nitrones to afford b-lactams with reasonable enantioselectivities [77]. A versatile system for the copper-catalyzed asymmetric coupling of alkynes with nitrones to form cis-b-lactams has been developed using a bis(azaferrocene) ligand [78].
24.1.4.10 Photochemical and Radical Methods a-Oxoamides 26 undergo c-hydrogen (with respect to the benzylic carbonyl) abstraction under photochemical treatment in the crystalline state, leading to b-lactams 27 in which a new chiral center is generated at the benzylic carbon (Scheme 24.15) [79]. It has been shown that the crystal lattice preorganizes the reactant molecules towards a single diastereomer of the b-lactam and prevents large motions of the 1,4-diradical intermediate that would result in the loss of stereochemical memory.
O O O R* O 26
Scheme 24.15
R* N h O
OH N 27
j2131
Photosensitized decomposition of oxime oxalate amides and a-oxoamides is a useful new route to carbamoyl radicals that may cyclize to afford b-lactams [80]. The kinetics of the 4-exo cyclizations of these carbamoyl radicals onto CC and CNO bonds, leading to b-lactam-containing species, have been studied by EPR spectroscopy [81]. Similarly, b-lactams have been prepared via ring closures of unsaturated carbamoyl radicals derived from 1-carbamoyl-1-methylcyclohexa-2,5dienes [82]. The free-radical mediated stannylcarbonylation of azaenynes provides a 4-exo annulation approach leading to a-stannylmethylene b-lactams 28 (Scheme 24.16) [83]. The stereochemical results of b-lactam formation with respect to newly formed CC double bonds depend strongly on the substitution pattern at the propargylic position. Thus, if the substituent is anything other than hydrogen, the tributyltin group tends to be disposed syn to the carbonyl group to avoid strain.
Bu 3Sn
N
28
R N
Bu3SnH, AIBN, CO, C6 H 6, 90 oC 4084% E/Z = 032:10068
Scheme 24.16
24.1.4.11 Synthesis from Carbo- or Heterocycles The regioselectivity and efciency of the ring opening of aziridines has been exploited for the synthesis of b-lactams through carbonylation of the aziridine nucleus in the presence of a catalytic amount of [Rh(CO)2Cl]2 [84a], or using a four-component reaction [84b]. The carbonyl insertion is regio- and stereospecic, occurring at the most substituted carbonnitrogen bond in the aziridine ring, and proceeding with retention of stereochemistry of the substituents linked to the aziridinic carbon atoms. The four-component reaction for the rapid synthesis of 1,3,4,4-tetrasubstituted b-lactams from methyleneaziridines consists of a sequence that involves aziridine opening, C-alkylation, and Staudinger [2p 2p] cycloaddition. cis-Aziridines 29 have been employed in the carbonylation reaction by treatment with Co2(CO)8, giving rise to trans-b-lactams 30, which were obtained as single diastereo- and regioisomers in good yields (Scheme 24.17) [85a]. Nucleophilic ring opening of the cis starting material results in inversion of conguration, thus leading to the trans-b-lactam. The exclusive formation of the 2-azetidinones 30 is a consequence of the completely regioselective ring opening of the aziridine [85b].
R1 N R3
Co2(CO) 8, CO (500psi). DME, 100 oC

R2
R2 O N
R3 R1
4295%
29
30
Scheme 24.17
2132

A theoretical investigation of the related Co2(CO)4-catalyzed carbonylative ring expansion of N-benzoyl-2-methylaziridine to b-lactams has been performed [85c]. The synthesis of 3-unsubstituted 4,4-disubstituted b-lactams by silver-induced ring expansion of the corresponding 2,2-disubstituted N-chloro-1-hydroxycyclopropylamines is, according to theoretical calculations, a very efcient process that yields a regio- and stereoselective product [86]. This process presents a two-step mechanism proceeding through a nitrenium intermediate. The rate-determining step corresponds to the extrusion of AgCl. This pathway could be an interesting new synthetic route for obtaining the useful 3-unsubstituted 4-alkoxycarbonyl-4-alkyl-2azetidinones. A single-pot, mild conversion of b-lactones into N-benzyloxy-b-lactams has been accomplished by a ring opening/Mitsunobu sequence [87]. The transformation proceeded with high stereochemical delity, with the Mitsunobu reactions proceeding as expected with inversion of conguration at the b-carbon. In contrast to what nchones) 31 with was expected, the reaction of 1,3-thiazolium-4-olates (thioisomu aromatic aldehydes yielded b-lactams 32 bearing a sulfur-containing side chain (Scheme 24.18) [88]. In every case, b-lactams 32 were formed as a mixture of cis and trans isomers (with respect to the orientation of aryl substituents at C3 and C4). Individual diastereomers were separated either by fractional crystallization or preparative chromatography. A plausible rationale to account for the formation of nchones play the b-lactams involves rst a [3 2] cycloaddition in which thioisomu role of the dipole to produce a transient cycloadduct that undergoes a spontaneous CN bond cleavage, followed by a rearrangement under the reaction conditions.
Bn Ar
O
1
Me N Bn
Me
S H N
Bn Ar2 Ar1
O +
Me
S Ar2 H N
N S +
+ Ar CHO
C6 H 6
reflux
Ph
O
Ph
O
Ph 31
Scheme 24.18
Ar1
cis-32 (2954%)
trans-32 (2034%)
1,3-Dipolar cycloaddition of nitrones to bicyclopropylidene or uoroalkenes gives the corresponding cycloadducts [89]. Catalytic hydrogenolysis of the NO bond of the uorinated isoxazolidine derivatives leads to a-triuoromethylated b-lactams, while treatment of the bis-spirocyclopropanated isoxazolidines 33 with triuoroacetic acid in acetonitrile furnishes the corresponding 3-spirocyclopropanated b-lactams 34 in good yields. Thus, this new method affords compounds with a 5-azaspiro[2.3]hexan4-one skeleton in 6894% overall yield in two simple steps (Scheme 24.19). 1-(o-Nitrobenzyl)-2-acylpyrazolidin-3-ones upon irradiation through Pyrex and then through Vycor yield 1-(acylamino)azetidin-2-ones. Removal of the acyl residue from the extraannular nitrogen produces 1-aminoazetidin-2-ones. The suggested mechanism for this tandem photochemical synthesis of b-lactams involves initial
j2133
R2 +
+ N 1 71100% O R
2060 oC
C 6H 6
R2 R1 N O
TFA, MeCN
R2 O N R1
33
Scheme 24.19
70 oC 7596%
34
removal of the N1 o-nitrobenzyl substituent, followed by ring contraction via a diazabicyclo[2.1.0]pentane intermediate [90]. Highly enantioselective photocyclization in the solid state of 1-alkyl-2-pyridones has been achieved in inclusion crystals with optically active host compounds to give cyclobutene fused b-lactams, which after sequential treatment with ozone and sodium borohydride afford the corresponding monocyclic b-lactams [91].
24.1.4.12 Miscellaneous The asymmetric synthesis of 4-alkyl-4-carboxy-2-azetidinones 35 has been achieved through base-mediated intramolecular cyclization of the corresponding N-a-chloroacetyl derivatives bearing ( )- or ()-10-(N,N-dicyclohexylsulfamoyl)isoborneol as chiral auxiliary (ee up to 82%) [92]. More recently, it has been noted that the asymmetric induction observed during cyclization of N-alkyl-N-chloroacetyl amino acid derivatives to b-lactams 35 may be ascribed to chirality memory, being dependent on the substituents on the starting material, and can be controlled by the appropriate choice of the base and solvent (Scheme 24.20) [93].
R3
CO 2R 1
N R
2
base (Cs 2CO 3 , BTPP, NaOH), solvent (MeCN, DMF, CH2 Cl 2) RT O
R3
Cl
O
CO 2R1
N
35
R2
Scheme 24.20
Cycloaddition of lithium ynolates to N-sulfonyl imines has been reported to afford 2-azetidinones [94]. Unactivated imines such as N-4-methoxyphenyl imines are, however, much less reactive in this reaction. The benzylic lithiation of substituted acrylamides bearing a b-electron-withdrawing group, followed by 4-exo-trig cyclization, has yielded b-lactams in modest yields [95]. Iridium-catalyzed reductive coupling of acrylates and imines provides trans b-lactams 36 with high diastereoselection (Scheme 24.21) [96]. The optimal catalyst allows for the synthesis of trans b-lactams bearing aromatic, alkenyl and alkynyl side chains. This reaction appears to proceed through a reductive Mannich additioncyclization mechanism. Examination of substituent effects reveals a linear Hammett correlation for both the N-aryl group on the imine and the aryloxy group on the acrylate, thereby pointing to ratedetermining cyclization in the reaction mechanism.
2134

R N
PMP
+ O
OC 6 F5
2.5 mol % [(cod)IrCl] 2 , 10 mol % P(OPh) 3 , Et 2MeSiH, 60 oC
Me
O N
5880%
36
PMP
Scheme 24.21
Allyl halides of different structures, under CO pressure, undergo a [2 2] cycloaddition with imines in the presence of Pd(OAc)2, PPh3, and Et3N to afford 2-azetidinones [97]. The PdCl2-catalyzed cyclocarbonylation of propargylic amines with CuCl2 and benzoquinone affords (E)-a-chloroalkylidene-b-lactams 37 in moderate to good yields (Scheme 24.22) [98]. Formation of the corresponding (Z)-isomers or ve-membered products was not observed. The stereoselectivity in this reaction is different from that observed with propargylic alcohols.
5 mol % PdCl 2, 2 equiv. CuCl 2, 1 equiv. benzoquinone, CO (300 psi), THF, 40 oC
R1
NHR 3
R2
R1
Cl
R2 N
37
3280%
R3
Scheme 24.22
The electrochemically induced synthesis of b-lactams by C3C4 bond formation has been accomplished [99]. 4-Alkylidene gem-diuoro b-lactams have been synthesized through intramolecular hydroamination reaction of diuoropropargyl amides via a Baldwin disfavored 4-exo-digonal cyclization using palladium acetate as the catalyst [100a], while 4-alkylidene b-lactams have been obtained by Cu(I)-catalyzed intramolecular CN coupling of amides with vinyl bromides, revealing that the 4-exo ring closure is preferred over other modes (5-exo, 6-exo, and 6-endo) [100b]. A coppercatalyzed skeletal rearrangement of O-propargyl arylaldoximes has produced the corresponding 4-arylidene-2-azetidinones in good yields [101]. It was found that the thermal rearrangement of aminocyclobutenones in the presence of an appropriate amine produced either cis- or trans-b-lactams with high selectivities [102].
24.1.5 Reactivity of the 2-Azetidinone Ring 24.1.5.1 Nucleophilic Attack at Carbon The functionalization of 4-acetoxy-b-lactams at the C4 position is a key step in the synthesis of 1-b-methylcarbapenems. Most of these efforts have been devoted to the stereoselective introduction of different moieties on the commercially available
j2135
4-acetoxy-b-lactam 38, including a highly diastereoselective condensation between the titanium enolate of 20 -hydroxypropiophenone with 2-azetidinone 38 followed by ozonolysis of the resulting ketone to the carboxylic acid [103], the synthesis of 4-(2oxoethylidene)azetidin-2-ones by a Lewis acid mediated reaction of acyldiazo compounds with 4-acetoxy derivative 38 [104], the reaction of 38 with organoindium reagents generated in situ from indium powder and c-substituted propargyl bromides in the presence of KI in DMF to selectively produce 4-allenyl-2-azetidinones 39 in good to excellent yields, the reaction of 4-acetoxy-2-azetidinones with organoindium reagents generated in situ from indium and 1,4-dibromo-2-butyne in the presence of LiCl in DMF to selectively produce 2-azetidinones that contain a 1,3butadienyl-2-yl group at the C4-position in good yields [105], the reaction of 4-acetoxyb-lactams with organoindium reagent generated in situ from indium and 1,6dibromo-2,4-hexadiyne in the presence of LiCl in DMF to selectively produce 2-azetidinones possessing 1,2,4,5-hexatetraen-3-yl group on the C4-position [106], as well as the coupling with a-substituted propargyl bromides to give 4-propargyl-2azetidinones 40 selectively (Scheme 24.23) [107].
TBSO
H H
2 equiv. In, 3 equiv. KI, DMF, RT
Br TBSO
+ O
H H OAc
NH
6995%
NH
39
38
2 equiv. In, R2 R 2 Br 3 equiv. KI, TBSO H H R1 DMF, RT R1 + NH 8193% O
40
Scheme 24.23
The stereoselective anti SN20 attack of NaN3 to 3-alkenyl-3-bromo-azetidin-2-ones gives a mixture of diastereomeric azides in rapid equilibrium. The [3,3]-sigmatropic rearrangement of allylic azides occurs with complete stereocontrol, allowing the equilibrium to be directed preferentially toward the (E)- or (Z)-isomer, which are useful precursors of 3(20 -amino)-b-lactams [108]. Azetidine-2,3-diones 41 and various stabilized organic halides undergo coupling under Barbier-type conditions in the presence of different metals (indium, tin, zinc) and additives [ammonium chloride, hydrobromic acid, bismuth(III) chloride, hafnium(IV) chloride]. The regiochemistry of the processes (carbonyl-allylation [109], bromoallylation [110], 1,3-butadien-2-ylation [111], propargylation [112] or allenylation [112] reactions) are generally excellent. Similarly, the reaction of various activated vinyl systems, including 2-cyclopenten-1-one, with enantiopure azetidine-2,3-diones 41 has been promoted by DABCO to afford the corresponding optically pure BaylisHillman adducts without detectable epimerization [110]. In addition, the reactions of enantiopure azetidine-2,3-diones with unmodied ketones or nitromethane were catalyzed by proline and N-methylephedrine, respectively, to give the corresponding aldol and nitroaldol adducts [113]. On this basis, simple and fast protocols for the synthesis of the bioactive 3-substituted 3-hydroxy-b-lactam moiety have been developed (Scheme 24.24).
2136

OH
N R2 R1 2 equiv. In, X THFH 2O (1:1), RT O + O H N R2 + R1 50 mol% DABCO, EWG MeCN, 20 oC
HO EWG
O N
R2 R1
3862%
X
4090%
41
Scheme 24.24
24.1.5.2 Electrophilic Attack at Carbon Using a halogenlithium exchange reaction on 4-aryl-3,3-dichloro-2-azetidinones 42, followed by treatment with alkyl halides as electrophiles, the synthesis of cis-3-alkyl-3chloro-4-arylazetidin-2-ones 43 has been accomplished (Scheme 24.25) [114].
R2 R2
Cl
O
Cl
N
42
i) n-BuLi, THF, 78 o C R1 ii) R3X, THF, 78 oC to RT 2357%
Cl
O
R3 H N
43
R1
Scheme 24.25
It has been reported that the achiral bis(trimethylsilyl)methyl group acts as an efcient stereochemical determinant of the a-alkylation reaction in b-branched a-phenyloxazolidinyl-b-lactams 44 and provides stereocontrolled access to syn-a-amino-a,b-dialkyl(aryl)-b-lactams 45 (Scheme 24.26) [115], which are readily transformed into type II b-turn mimetic surrogates [116]. In situ generated organozinc reagents of 3-alkenyl-3-bromoazetidin-2-ones react with aromatic and aliphatic aldehydes to give the corresponding alcohol derivatives, which could be of interest on account of their structural similarity with known cholesterol adsorption inhibitors [117].
Ph
O O O N H N R1 i) LDA, THF, 78 o C O O O N
Ph
R2 N R1
44
Scheme 24.26
o SiMe3 ii) R2X, THF, 78 C to RT 5892% SiMe3 syn:anti = up to 98:2
SiMe 3 SiMe3
45
24.1.5.3 Electrophilic Attack at Nitrogen Conventionally, an alkyl or acyl side chain is introduced at the N1 position by basemediated N-alkylation or N-acylation of the nitrogen atom with the appropriate alkyl
j2137
or acyl halide [118]. A representative example is shown in Scheme 24.27 for the preparation of 2-azetidinone 46 [119]. However, some unexpected results have been reported. For example, in a tentative acylation reaction of the b-lactam nitrogen atom of (E)- and (Z)-4-alkylidene-b-lactams with acetic anhydride under basic conditions it was found that the (E) isomer is readily acylated, whereas the (Z)-isomer reacted sluggishly, rearranging to the corresponding oxazin-6-one. The N-acylation of (Z)isomers has been successful, though, with oxalyl- or malonyl chlorides in benzene at reux [120]. The treatment of NH-b-lactams with aldehydes under heat or sonication formed the corresponding N-hydroxyalkyl-2-azetidinones [121].
BrCH2 CO 2Et, OBOM KOH, THF, 0 oC
O N H
OBOM
O N
46
84%
CO 2Me
Scheme 24.27
The copper-catalyzed couplings of NH-b-lactams with aryl and vinyl halides have been developed as an efcient procedure for the preparation of unsubstituted N-aryl and N-vinyl-2-azetidinones [122]. This protocol has been fruitful for the synthesis of the spiro-b-lactam 47, which contains the enamide moiety of natural chartellines (Scheme 24.28) [123].
O N N Me
Scheme 24.28
Ph
H + I H
5 mol% CuI, (CH 2NHMe) 2, K2 CO 3
O N OH N 1 R 47
Ph Cl
Cl
toluene, reflux 76%
24.1.5.4 Radical Transformations The treatment of 4-thiophenyl-2-azetidinones with tributyltin hydride in the presence of AIBN initiator yields the corresponding C4-desulfenylated b-lactam [124]. The generation of radicals at C4 has been used for the synthesis of C4-unsubstituted b-lactams 48, which are conveniently prepared using as the key step a radical reductive decarbonylation of 4-carboxy derivatives through their phenyl selenoesters (Scheme 24.29) [125]. 3,3-Dibromosubstituted b-lactams can be dehalogenated or C3-functionalizated by treatment with methyl acrylate under radical conditions [126]. Upon using triethylborane as the radical initiator, b-lactamido N-sulfonyl radicals could be allylated and added onto electron-rich olens [127]. The radicals do not undergo desulfonylation and are electrophilic in nature.
2138

R2 O N O
SePh
R1
Bu3 SnH, AIBN, C 6H 6, reflux 4585%
R2 O N R1
48
Scheme 24.29
24.1.5.5 Reduction Reactions The application of metal hydrides in the search for general and efcient methods for the one-step conversion of b-lactams into different building blocks has been examined. The reaction of different b-lactams with diborane gives rise to c-amino alcohols [128]. Lithium aluminium hydride (2 molar equiv) in diethyl ether under reux for 716 h converted 1,4,4-trisubstituted b-lactams into azetidines 49 in good yields 6382% yield (Scheme 24.30) [129]. By contrast, treatment of 4-(1-chloroethyl)b-lactams with two molar equivalents of lithium aluminium hydride in diethyl ether at 0 C for two hours afforded 3-chloropyrrolidines [130], while various novel syn-2alkoxy-3-amino-3-arylpropan-1-ols, easily converted into antimalarial cis-5-alkoxy-4aryl-1,3-oxazinanes, have been prepared through LiAlH4-promoted reductive ring-opening of cis-3-alkoxy-4-aryl-b-lactams in Et2O [131].
R2 N
R 3 LiAlH , Et O, reflux 4 2 R1
R2 N
49
R3 R1
6382%
Scheme 24.30
Attempted reduction by BH3.THF (22 h in reuxing dioxane) and NaBH4AlCl3 (3.5 h in reuxing ether) resulted in a complete recovery of the starting 2-azetidinone. The reduction with LiAlH4, LiBEt3H or LiB-sec-Bu3H in THF at room temperature gave exclusively the corresponding c-amino alcohol through 1,2-bond ssion. It was found that the reduction of various 2-azetidinones with DIBAL-H in THF affords the corresponding azetidines in reasonable yields, although a small amount of c-amino alcohols was also produced. The use of alane (AlH3) for the reduction of the azetidinone nucleus results in the formation of a mixture of compounds, with the four-membered heterocycle and the c-amino alcohol being the minor and major component, respectively [132]. Examination of the reactivities of monochloroalane (AlH2Cl) and dichloroalane (AlHCl2) toward b-lactams has revealed that AlH2Cl and AlHCl2 prepared in situ from LiAlH4 and AlCl3 in ether converts 2-azetidinones 50 into azetidines 51 in quite high yields (5097%) without being accompanied by c-amino alcohols (Scheme 24.31) [133]. The reduction of 2-azetidinones by metal hydrides to afford azetidines is not compatible with the presence of ester groups. Reduction with diphenylsilane and catalytic amounts of tris(triphenylphosphine)
j2139
R2 O
50
R3 N R1
LiAlH 4, AlCl3 , Et 2O, reflux 5097%
R2
R3 N
51
R1
Scheme 24.31
rhodium(I) carbonyl hydrides is a chemoselective method for the transformation of b-lactams into the corresponding azetidines [134].
24.1.5.6 Cis/Trans Isomerization Regarding the stereochemical outcome of the routes to prepare b-lactams, a very strong preference for cis-b-lactam formation, a kinetic control product, is observed. Consequently, the development of different strategies to access to trans-2-azetidinones is of interest. Isomerization of cis-b-lactams to trans-b-lactams usually requires as starting materials 2-azetidinones bearing acid or basic sensitive moieties (e.g., aldehyde, ketone, ester, amine, amide) at the position susceptible to epimerization. Epimerization at C3 and/or C4 is effected by different reagents, such as CF3COOH [135], Me3SiOTf [136], DBN [137], DBU [138] and NaOH/ BuLi [139]. A more recent report involves Na2CO3-promoted regiospecic C4epimerization of cis-4-formyl-b-lactams 52 into trans-4-formyl-b-lactams 53 (Scheme 24.32) [14b].
R2 O
H H N
CHO
R1
Na2 CO 3, MeCN, RT 5892% d. r. up to 100:0
R2 O
H H N
CHO
R1
52
Scheme 24.32
53
A thermal conversion method for switching the stereochemistry of the 4-arylb-lactam ring from cis to trans involving a homolytic cleavage of the C3C4 bond has been reported (Scheme 24.33) [140]. These results are the only available examples of isomerization in b-lactams induced by heat.
R2 O
H H N
R 3 Toluene, 230 o C R1
R2 O
H H N
54
R3 R1
4467%
Scheme 24.33
2140

24.1.5.7 Ring-Opening and Rearrangement Reactions In recent years many 2-azetidinone-based methods for the synthesis of nitrogencontaining compounds of biological relevance have appeared [141]. b-Lactams are precursors to a- and b-amino acids. They have been used to introduce the C13 sidechain of the anticancer compound paclitaxel (taxol) and related analogues [142]. The ring expansion of a-hydroxy b-lactams 55 through a regioselective BaeyerVilliger rearrangement of an in situ generated azetidine-2,3-dione by means of sodium hypochlorite and a catalytic amount of TEMPO, affords N-carboxy anhydrides (NCAs) 56, which after coupling with amines or alcohols produces a-amino acid derivatives 57 (Scheme 24.34) [143]. A related one-pot procedure starting from azetidine-2,3-diones has been documented [144].
NaOCl, K2 HPO4 , TEMPO (cat), R 2 CH2 Cl2 H2O, 0 o C
HO
O
H H N
OP
O O O
H N
OR 1
R
2
Bn
9196%
Bn
O OR1 R3 XH, CH2Cl 2 , H RT R3 X R2 7080% NHBn
55
56
57
X = NH, O
Scheme 24.34
Palladium-catalyzed hydrogenolysis of 4-aryl-b-lactams 58 proceeds exclusively to give a-amino acid derivatives 59 (Scheme 24.35). The ring strain of the 2azetidinone nucleus greatly accelerates the cleavage of the N1C4 bond, rather than the more usual N1C2 bond breakage, when an aryl substituent is attached to the C4 position [145]. Addition reaction of 2-(trimethylsilyl)thiazole to cis- or trans4-formyl-b-lactams has been reported to give enantiopure a-alkoxy-c-keto acid derivatives [146]. Also, the rst organocatalytic N1C4 bond breakage of the b-lactam skeleton has been uncovered, providing a direct method for the preparation of enantiopure 5-arylimino-pyrrolidin-2-ones as well as pyrrolidin-2,5-diones (succinimides) from 4-(arylimino)-methyl-azetidin-2-ones [147]. In addition, a single-step catalytic ring expansion approach from 4-oxoazetidine-2-carbaldehydes to enantiopure succinimides has been achieved by the use of a base (DBU) and a thiazolium salt precatalyst [148], and its mechanism has been studied using DFT methods [149].
X O N
58
Ar Ph
PdH 2 , AcOEt, RT 6299%
Ar
Y
59
NHPh
X = N3 , OBn Y = NH2, OH
Scheme 24.35
j2141
The stereoselective synthesis of different sized heterocycles has been accomplished from conveniently functionalized 2-azetidinones. Ring sizes from three through to complex macrocycles have been synthesized using b-lactams. For example, indolizidine type-alkaloids 60 have been prepared using b-lactams as chiral building blocks by an aza-DielsAlder reaction of 2-azetidinone-tethered imines combined with amide bond breakage and rearrangement reactions on the b-lactam ring (Scheme 24.36) [150].
TBSO
2H H
N H H N R1
NaOMe, MeOH, RT up to 100%
R 1HN R
2
H N
OTBS
60
Scheme 24.36
The synthesis of medium-sized azalactams 61 fused to a benzene ring via a tandem copper-catalyzed CN bond formationb-lactam ring-expansion process has been accomplished recently (Scheme 24.37) [151]. Starting from b-lactam cyanohydrin hybrids, two concise, complementary stereocontrolled routes to optically pure orthogonally protected anti,anti-4-amino-3,5-piperidine diols have been achieved [152]. In addition, molecular iodine (10 mol.%) efciently catalyzes the ring expansion of 4-oxoazetidine-2-carbaldehydes in the presence of tert-butyldimethyl cyanide to afford protected 5-cyano-3,4-dihydroxypyrrolidin-2-ones with good yield and high diastereoselectivity, through a novel C3C4 bond cleavage of the b-lactam nucleus [153]. A new one-pot approach, which relies on the regiocontrolled cyclization of b-allenamine intermediates derived from the ring opening of 2-azetidinone-tethered allenols, to both racemic and enantiopure densely substituted pyrroles has been developed from b-lactams [154]. The total synthesis of several
5 mol% CuI, K2 CO 3, 10 mol% N,N'-dimethylethylenediamine, R2 toluene, reflux O N H
() N O
nN
() X
nN
H +
R R2
R1
8892%
( )n N
R1 O
n = 0, 1
Scheme 24.37
N R2 H 61
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natural products such as biotin [155], cribrostatin 4 [156], and himandrine [157] has also been carried out using 2-azetidinones as important building blocks. The syntheses of pyrrolizidines [158], fused prolines [159], oxazinones [160], amino glycals [161], aminocyclobutanes [162], bicyclic c-lactams [163], medium-sized heterocycles [164], and complex macrocycles [165] deserve to be mentioned as well.
24.1.5.8 Reactions of Substituents Attached to Carbon Atoms The oxidation of a-ethylidene b-lactams is a useful method to prepare azetidine-2,3diones [166]. A general and efcient synthesis of cis and trans b-lactams bearing a quinone moiety at N1, C3 or C4 positions, which can be regarded as hybrids of the pharmacologically relevant subunits of b-lactam and quinone, has been developed. The target molecules 62 are smoothly prepared via oxidative demethylation of the appropriate 2,5-dimethoxyphenyl substituted-b-lactams using ceric ammonium nitrate (CAN) in aqueous acetonitrile (Scheme 24.38) [167].
CH3 O
R O
1
OCH 3
N R2
CAN, MeCNH 2O (3:1), RT
O R O
1
O N
62
4498%
R2
Scheme 24.38
A stereoselective synthesis of 1,2,3-trisubstituted b-lactam-1,3-dienes 63 has been developed from 2-azetidinone-tethered a-allenols just by treatment with a methanesulfonyl chloride/tertiary amine system. This transformation might be tentatively explained through a migration of the methanesulfonyl group in the initially formed a-allenic methanesulfonate to give the corresponding mesyloxy-diene via [3,3]sigmatropic rearrangement (Scheme 24.39) [168]. Mesylates of 2-azetidinone-tethered homoallylic alcohols by gentle heating in benzene or toluene in the presence of DBU have been used for the stereoselective preparation of 4-butadienyl-2azetidinones [169].
OH
R2 O N R
1
CH3SO2Cl, EtN3 , CH2Cl2 , RT 4696%
MsO
R2 O N R3 R1 63
Scheme 24.39
The benzylidene moiety of b-lactam 64 is cleaved by ozonolysis and reductive treatment with NaBH4 to afford the primary alcohol, which is then activated as the tosylate. After replacement of the benzyl group with the TBS group, a four-step sequence including SN2 reaction of caesium thioacetate, methanolysis of the
j2143
thioacetate, chloromethylation of the thiol, and SN2 reaction of N-hydroxyphthalimide sodium salt, gives the protected N-alkoxyamine 65 (Scheme 24.40), which bears the side chain required for the construction of the oxathiazepin ring of natural eudistomins [170]. N-Terminal chain elongation on amido substituents at the C3position of the b-lactam moiety has been achieved using conventional peptide synthesis (saponication, activation as pentauorophenyl esters and subsequent cleavage of the N-terminal Boc-protecting group) [171]. The olen cross metathesis of a-methylene-b-lactams [172] and the selective Diels-Alder reaction of a-dienylb-lactams [173] have been developed. Vinylic halogenation and halodecarboxylation reactions of 4-alkylidene-b-lactams have been performed [174]. It has been reported that, by adopting Pd(II)-catalyzed conditions, the cycloisomerization/dimerization ratio of 4-buta-2,3-dienoyl-azetidin-2-ones is controlled by the substitution of the allene moiety: unsubstituted allenones mainly afford dimerization, whereas allenones bearing an internal substituent favor the formation of cycloisomerization products [175].
i) O 3 , CH2Cl2MeOH, 78 oC, then NaBH 4, 78 oC to RT ii) TsCl, pyridine, CH2Cl 2, RT iii) Pd/C, HCO 2NH4 , MeOH, reflux iv) TBSCl, imidazole, DMF, RT v) AcSH, Cs 2CO 3, DMF, 60 oC vi) NaOMe, MeOH, 0 oC vii) ClCH2Br, KOH, BnEt 3NCl (cat.), CH 2Cl 2H2 O, RT viii) NaH, N-hydroxyphthalimide, DMF, RT
BnO O
H H N
Ph
TBSO O
H H S N O
NPhth
OMOM
OMOM
64
Scheme 24.40
65 (34%)
24.1.5.9 Reactions of Substituents Attached to Nitrogen Atom A three-step synthesis of N-vinyl-2-azetidinones starting from a- or b-amino ester imines has been developed [176]. Enolate formation on the amino ester moiety of the 2-azetidinone 66, selenylation and nally MCPBA treatment affords N-vinyl-2azetidinones 67 in good yields (Scheme 24.41).
R3 O N
R4 R2
i) LHMDS, THF, 78 oC ii) PhSeBr, THF, 78 oC iii) MCPBA, CH2Cl 2, 78 oC
R3 O N
R4 R2
66
5591%
67
Scheme 24.41
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The selective N-oxidation of the most nucleophilic amino nitrogen atom of the hydrazide moiety in 1-dialkylamino azetidin-2-ones is central for the cleavage of their NN bonds under oxidative conditions by treatment with peracids such as magnesium monoperoxyphthalate hexahydrate (MMPP6H2O) or meta-chloroperbenzoic acid (MCPBA) [177]. A Grubbs carbene catalyzed isomerization of N-allyl b-lactams into N-vinyl b-lactams affords, after RuCl3NaIO4 treatment, the corresponding NHb-lactams [178]. It has been shown that N-(4-methoxy or 4-ethoxyphenyl) groups can be oxidatively removed by silica gel supported ceric ammonium nitrate under mild conditions in solution and on column [179]. The cis-2-azetidinones 68 have been reacted with PhI(CF3CO2)2 and NaHCO3 and the crude reaction products puried by column chromatography on silica gel to give a diastereomeric mixture of hemiketals, which was quantitatively converted into the lactones 69 by oxidation with PDC (Scheme 24.42) [180].
R1 O
H H N R2 O
68
Ph
i) PhI(CF3CO 2) 2, NaHCO 3 , CH3CNH 2 O (85:15), RT
R1 O
H H N O
69
Ph
R2 O
CH(SEt) 2 ii) PDC, CH 2 Cl 2, RT 5475%

O
Scheme 24.42
24.2 Penicillins and Cephalosporins 24.2.1 Introduction
The antibacterial effect of b-lactam antibiotics such as penicillins (70) and cephalosporins (71) is due to their capacity to disrupt bacterial cell wall biosynthesis [181]. This is achieved by the antibiotics acting as inhibitors of penicillin binding proteins (PBPs), which are membrane bound serine peptidases. PBPs recognize D-alanyl-Dalanine peptide termini and the structural and conformational similarity of the b-lactam antibiotics to these natural peptide substrates for PBPs is believed to ensure their acceptance by the target proteins. The high reactivity of the fused b-lactam ring towards nucleophiles then results in the formation of a covalent PBPantibiotic complex that prevents the PBPs from taking further part in bacterial cell wall synthesis.
24.2 Penicillins and Cephalosporins
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R O
H N N O
Me
R O
H N N O 71
S CH2 OAc CO 2H
Me H CO2H 70
b-Lactamase hydrolytic enzymes are the most common, and growing, form of bacterial resistance to their normally lethal action [182]. b-Lactamases catalyze the hydrolysis of the b-lactam antibiotic to give the ring opened and bacterially inert b-amino acid (Scheme 24.43). The problem of b-lactamases became critical in 1960 when widespread use of penicillin G led to an alarming increase of Staphylococcus aureus infections. These problem strains had gained the lactamase enzyme and had thus gained resistance to the drug. At one point, 80% of all Staphylococcus aureus infections in hospitals were due to virulent, penicillin-resistant strains. Alarmingly, these strains were also resistant to all other available antibiotics.
O S N
R O
H N O
-lactamase
NH S R HO 2C HN CO 2 H
CO 2 H
Scheme 24.43
Two main therapeutic strategies have been adopted to counteract bacterial resistance to b-lactam antibiotics. One strategy consists of modifying the structure of the b-lactam antibiotic, aiming to render it insensitive to the b-lactamase attack. Recently, trinems antibiotics (Figure 24.1) have been the subject of considerable study owing to their broad spectrum of antibacterial activity, resistance to b-lactamases and stability to renal dehydropeptidases [183]. As a result of their impressive biological activity, tricyclic b-lactams have become interesting targets for synthesis. A second approach uses a reagent, typically a b-lactam derivative, which incapacitates the b-lactamase, in synergy with the b-lactam antibiotic. Clavulanic acid (Figure 24.1) is the archetype of b-lactamase inhibitors [184]: in synergistic mixture with amoxicillin (Figure 24.1), under the name augmentin, it arrived at the practice some years ago. Both
HO H H
N
NH2 OMe CO 2H
O
H N O N
Me Me CO 2 H
O N
OH
HO
trinems
CO 2H
clavulanic acid
amoxicillin
Figure 24.1 New generation b-lactam antimicrobials: trinems and augmentin.
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approaches have produced results and a new generation of antibiotics has been developed.
24.2.2 Physicochemical Data 24.2.2.1 Computational Chemistry The calculated STO-3G energy of formamide in a penicillin-like geometry is only 2.8 kcal mol1 higher than the planar geometry [185]. In addition, the geometrical parameters associated with the 2-azetidinone nucleus generally suffer a slight variation with changes in the hybridization at nitrogen. However, the CN bond length becomes longer as the nitrogen atom becomes pyramidal. Two penicillin derivatives, the active penamecillin and the inactive penamecillin1b-sulfoxide, have been used to study the relationship between their charge density and their activity [186]. Single crystals of both compounds have been measured at the synchrotron beamline F1 at the HASYLAB/DESY, at 100 K and up to resolutions of around 0.4 A. Experimental charge densities have been obtained by using the HansenCoppens multipole formalism. The cleavage of the amide bond in the b-lactam ring is of paramount importance in the mechanism of action of penicillins. Topological analysis of this bond in terms of Baders AIM theory showed that its strength is equal in both compounds; therefore, a direct inuence of bond strength on the activity can be ruled out. However, the two derivatives differ signicantly in their experimental electrostatic potentials. These differences provide further insight into the chemistry and activity of penicillins. Theoretical results have been reported on the conformational properties of benzylpenicillin, which are characterized by means of quantum chemical calculations (MP2/6-31G and B3LYP/6-31G ) and classical molecular dynamics simulations (5 ns) both in the gas phase and in aqueous solution [187]. In the gas phase, the benzylpenicillin conformer in which the thiazolidine ring has the carboxylate group oriented axially is the most favored one. Both intramolecular CH O and dispersion interactions contribute to stabilize the axial conformer with respect to the equatorial one. In aqueous solution, a molecular dynamics simulation predicts a relative population of the axial : equatorial conformers of 0.70 : 0.30 in consonance with NMR experimental data. Overall, the quantum chemical calculations as well as the simulations give insight into substituent effects, the conformational dynamics of benzylpenicillin, the frequency of ring-puckering motions, and the correlation of side chain and ring-puckering motions. The mechanisms of antibiotic resistance have been studied using a combined quantum mechanical and molecular mechanical (QM/MM) modeling of the acylation reaction of a class A b-lactamase with benzylpenicillin [188]. Hybrid Car Parrinello QM/MM calculations have been used to investigate the reaction mechanism of hydrolysis of a common cephalosporin-type substrate (cefotaxime) by the monozinc b-lactamase from Bacillus cereus [189]. Theoretical studies on the conformational similarity of penicillins and cephalosporins to X-D-alanyl-D-alanine and correlation of their structure with activity has been examined by stereochemical
j2147
criteria, concluding that the conformation of these b-lactam antibiotics is similar to X-D-alanyl-D-alanine due to the presence of the lactam ring [190].
24.2.2.2 Experimental Structural Methods The degree of coplanarity of the b-lactam nitrogen atom in b-lactam antibiotics can be expressed either by the perpendicular distance, h, of the nitrogen from the plane of its three substituents or by the sum of the bond angles about nitrogen. The former is easier to visualize and the nitrogen ranges from being essentially in the plane of its three substituents in monocyclic b-lactams to being 0.5 A out of the plane in bicyclic systems [191]. There is no direct correlation between h values and chemical reactivity. In non-planar penicillins and cephalosporins there is a general trend for the CN bond length to increase as the CO bond length decreases. However, this trend is by no means linear. Bond lengths for CO vary from 1.17 to 1.24 A and for CN from 1.33 to 1.46 A. There is also a tendency for the CN bond length to increase with h. It is difcult to discern reasons and reactivity consequences of these differences in bond length. Penicillin V (70 R PhOCH2) shows the longest CN bond length of 1.46 A and yet the CO bond length (1.21 A) is identical to that commonly found in planar monocyclic b-lactams. In monocyclic b-lactams the nitrogen is coplanar with its three substituents and yet the bond length differences are also in the direction predicted by inhibition of amide resonance. The degree of non-planarity in penicillin V and ampicillin [70 R PhCH(NH2)] is similar (h 0.40 and 0.38 A, respectively) and yet the CN bond length in the former is 0.10 A longer than in the latter. Structural data have also been used to support the suggestion that enamine resonance is important in cephalosporins and that this also reduces amide resonance [192]. However, there is no signicant difference in the CO and CN bond lengths in cephalosporins from the general trend exhibited by penicillins. It became apparent that variations in bond lengths within penicillins and cephalosporins are due to the nature of substituents and the minimization of unfavorable strain energies caused by the geometry of the molecule rather than to the inhibition of the amide resonance. The 13 C NMR spectra of bicyclic b-lactam antibiotic show the carbonyl resonance at about 165 ppm. The 2-azetidinone carbonyl carbon in penicillins resonates around 10 ppm to lower eld than that in cephalosporins. The chemical shifts for the biologically active D3- and the inactive D2-cephalosporins are similar. The 15 N NMR spectra show an upeld shift of 30 ppm in the b-lactam nitrogen on going from nonplanar penicillins to planar 2-cephems [193]. The infrared CO absorption frequency for the bicyclic b-lactam antibiotics is in the 17601780 cm1 range. The frequency in cephalosporins increases by about 5 cm1 when the ring sulfur is substituted by oxygen but decreases by a similar amount when the 7-a-hydrogen is replaced by a methoxy group. Structural studies conrm that N-fused b-lactam systems generally have a higher CO stretching frequency than the C-fused structures, indicating a greater amount of ring strain and chemical reactivity toward nucleophiles [194]. N-Fused lactams are highly respondent to the geometric constraints imposed by the second ring to which it is fused, as evidenced from the increase in the infrared absorption frequency for the lactam carbonyl as the size of the second ring is decreased. 13C NMR spectroscopic data for third-generation cephalosporins, such as
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cefotaxime, cexime, cefdinir, and cefpodoxime proxetil, have been assigned by combination of one- and two-dimensional experiments; the effect of the substitution at C3, C7, and C4 acid group positions on the chemical shifts of the cephem nucleus is discussed [195].
24.2.3 Synthesis of Penicillins and Cephalosporins 24.2.3.1 Classical Syntheses Sheehan published in 1957 the rst total synthesis of a natural penicillin, penicillin V (Scheme 24.44) [196]. At the time of this synthesis it was believed that the instability of penicillin was due to the presence of the strained four-membered b-lactam ring. Therefore, the creation of the 2-azetidinone nucleus was postponed for as long as possible in the synthetic sequence. t-Butyl phthalimidomalonaldehydate (72) was condensed with D-penicillamine 73 to afford the thiazolidine 74 as a mixture of two of the four possible stereoisomers. The conguration of one of the isomers
O N CHO O t-BuO2 C +
HS HCl H 2N
Me Me CO 2H
O NaOAc, EtOHH 2 O (1:1), RT 54% N S O t-BuO2 C N H Me Me CO 2H
72
73
74
i) NH2 NH2, dioxaneH 2 O (106:1), from 13 oC to RT ii) AcOH, HCl (conc), RT 56% iii) PhOCH 2COCl, Et3 N, CH2Cl2, from 0 o C to RT O PhO HN HO 2 C N H iv) HCl (g), CH2Cl 2, 0 oC v) Pyridine, acetoneH 2O (1:2), RT 100% O PhO HN t-BuO 2C N H
Me Me CO 2H
Me Me CO 2H
76
75
vi) KOH (0.5 N), dioxaneH 2O (96:60), RT 1012% vii) DCC (4 equiv), dioxaneH 2O (96:60), RT PhO O H N O N S Me Me CO 2K
(+)-penicillin V potassium salt
Scheme 24.44
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corresponded to the stereochemistry found in natural penicillin. The other stereoisomer could be epimerized into the required isomer by simple heating in the presence of pyridine. Sequential hydrazinolysis of the phthalimido group and acylation of the free amine with phenoxyacetyl chloride gave the phenoxyacetamide 75. The t-butyl ester was then cleaved with dry hydrogen chloride to produce the diacid 76. The b-lactam formation, the nal step of the synthesis, was achieved through the use of a reagent introduced by Sheehan for amide bond formation, the dicyclohexylcarbodiimide. Another masterly synthesis of b-lactam antibiotics is Woodwards total synthesis of cephalosporin C (Scheme 24.45) [197]. Complete stereocontrol was afforded by starting from enantiopure L-cysteine 77, which was protected and activated at its methylene group as the cyclic thiazolidine 78. Oxidative cleavage using lead tetraacetate gave the corresponding acetate accompanied by a small amount of its cis epimer, which could be separated. Transesterication liberated alcohol 79, which was transformed into aminoester 80 by sequential mesylation, azide displacement with inversion, and nal reduction with aluminium amalgam. Triisobutylaluminium
i) Acetone, reflux ii) t-BuOCOCl, py, RT iii) CH2N 2, CH2Cl 2, RT
H HOOC
NH2 SH
Boc N
iv) Pb(OAc) 4 , C 6H6 , reflux v) NaOAc, MeOH, reflux
Boc N
H CO2Me
OH H CO 2Me
77
78
79
vi) MsCl, (i-Pr) 2EtN, DMF, RT vii) NaN 3, H2 O, RT viii) AlHg, MeOH, 15 o C OHC Boc N H O S H N H CHO
82
Boc N H O S H N H Boc N S H H toluene MeO2 C NH 2 RT i-Bu 3Al
OH
CO 2 CH2CCl3
n-octane, 80 o C
CHO CO 2CH2 CCl3 CF 3COOH RT
81
80
83
ix) TECAAA, DCC, THF, RT x) B 2H 6, THF xi) Ac 2O, py, RT, then py, RT, 3 days xii) Zn, AcOH, 0 oC
H 2N O N
S CHO CO 2 CH2CCl 3
HO 2C
H NH2 O
H N O N
S CH 2OAc CO 2H
84
(+)-cephalosporin C
TECAAA = N-,,-trichloroethyloxycarbonyl-D- acid adipic-amino
Scheme 24.45
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effected smooth conversion of aminoester 80 into the bicyclic 2-azetidinone 81, which is a key intermediate containing the basic structural features common to both penicillins and cephalosporins. Conjugate addition of the b-lactam nitrogen atom to ester 82, which was obtained through the condensation between malondialdehyde and trichloroethyl glyoxylate, generated compound 83. All the functionalities required for the cephem skeleton formation are present in fused 2-azetidinone 83. Treatment of 83 with triuoroacetic acid induced cyclization with concomitant deprotection of both the amino and mercapto groups to give bicycle 84. The total synthesis of cephalosporin C was completed after acylation with a protected Nb,b,b-trichloroethyloxycarbonyl-D-a-amino adipic acid, followed by aldehyde reduction with diborane, acetylation, isomerization of the olen under basic conditions, and treatment with zinc in acetic acid. This last step was the rst use of the trichloroethyl moiety as protecting group in synthesis.
24.2.3.2 Industrial Production of b-Lactam Antibiotics The industrial production of b-lactam antibiotics by fermentation over the past 50 years is one of the outstanding examples of biotechnology [198]. Today, b-lactam antibiotics, particularly penicillins and cephalosporins, are the worlds major biotechnology products with worldwide dosage form sales of $US$ 15 billion or $65% of the total world market for antibiotics. Over the past ve decades, major improvements in the productivity of the producer organisms, Penicillium chrysogenum and Acremonium chrysogenum (syn. Cephalosporium acremonium) and improved fermentation technology have culminated in enhanced productivity and substantial cost reduction. Major fermentation producers are now estimated to record harvest titers of 4050 g L1 for penicillin and 2025 g L1 for cephalosporin C. Recovery yields for penicillin G or penicillin V are now >90%. Chemical and enzymatic hydrolysis process technology for 6-aminopenicillanic acid (6-APA) 85 or 7-aminocephalosporanic acid (7-ACA) 86 is also highly efcient ($8090%), with new enzyme technology leading to major cost reductions over the past decade.
H 2N N O S Me H2 N N O 86 S CH 2OAc CO 2H
Me CO 2H H
85
24.2.3.2.1 Commercial Production of Penicillins The fermentation production of penicillin-G or -V is a fed-batch process carried out aseptically in stainless steel tank reactors of 30 000100 000 gallon capacity. The fermentation usually involves two to three initial seed growth phases followed by a fermentation production phase having a time cycle ranging from 120 to 200 h. High dissolved oxygen levels are critical, especially during peak growth periods that often occur at the 4050 h time-period of the cycle. The fermentation mode is fed-batch and crude sugar and precursor are fed throughout the cycle. Current penicillin fermentations are highly computerized and automated. Temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen, carbon dioxide, sugar,
j2151
precursor, ammonia, and so on are closely monitored and controlled for optimal antibiotic production [199]. Various carbon sources have been adopted for the fermentation, including glucose, sucrose and other crude sugars. About 65% of the carbon is metabolized for cellular maintenance, 2025% for growth and 1012% for penicillin production [200]. Sugar and precursor are fed continuously and the sugar is also used to help regulate the pH of the fermentation to between 6.46.8 during the active penicillin production phase. Corn steep liquor and cottonseed or soybean meal, ammonia and ammonium sulfate represent major nitrogen sources. The essential precursor substances are phenylacetic acid (for penicillin G) or phenoxyacetic acid (for penicillin V) that are either fed or batched. Mini-harvest protocols are often used in penicillin fermentations. This batch-ll and withdraw system involves the removal of 2040% of the fermentor contents with replacement with fresh sterile medium. This procedure can be repeated several times during the fermentation without yield reduction and, in reality, can enhance the total penicillin yield per fermentor. Penicillin is excreted into the medium and is recovered at the end of the fermentation. Whole broth extraction is usually performed at acidic pH by most manufacturers and has resulted in a 25% improvement in overall extraction efciency by the elimination of the rotary vacuum ltration step. Solvent extraction of chilled acidied broth is carried out with amyl, butyl or isobutyl acetate. Multiple back-extractions into buffer and solvent at varying pH using countercurrent contactors has led to considerable penicillin concentration in the early recovery stages of the purication process. Pigments and other broth impurities are removed by the use of activated charcoal. The penicillin is crystallized upon the addition of potassium acetate and is isolated as a crystalline potassium salt. Additional carbon treatments and solvent washes result in a highly puried nal product. Approximately 75% of the total bulk penicillin volume produced in 1995, $33 000 tons, was used for the production of semi-synthetic penicillins and cephalosporins. The penicillin nucleus (6-APA) has enabled researchers to develop many excellent semi-synthetic penicillins. 6-APA can also be chemically ring-expanded to 7-ADCA to generate several important orally-active cephalosporins (cephalexin, cephradine, cefadroxyl, etc.). 6-APA has now grown to be the worlds largest selling b-lactam bulk intermediate.
24.2.3.2.2 Commercial Production of Cephalosporin C High-yielding strains of A. chrysogenum are used in large-scale, fed-batch fermentations. Major fermentation producers of cephalosporin C obtain harvest titers in the range of 2025 g L1. Production-scale fermentations are fed-batch with carbon supplied as simple or complex carbohydrate feeds during the growth phase of the fermentation. As the fermentation progresses, sugar feeds are reduced and are usually replaced by higher energy oils such as soybean oil or peanut oil. Energy conservation from oil as a substrate is considerably less efcient and leads to slower growth, with the vegetative mycelium becoming largely transformed into multicellular arthrospores. The arthrospore stage leads to greater oxygen availability to the organism and results in rapid cephalosporin production. DL-Methionine addition, which also results in the onset of arthrospore formation, is often added to the medium during the early growth
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phase of the fermentation. The formation of arthrospores is also correlated with improved dissolved oxygen concentration in the broth and is critical for maximal expression of the important biosynthetic cyclase and expandase enzymes. Organic nitrogen is often supplied as a combination of soybean and cottonseed meals supplemented with ammonium sulfate and ammonia that is also used to help control the pH throughout the fermentation. Corn steep liquor is also supplied as a cheap nitrogen source and is rich in amino acids, vitamins, organic acids and trace elements. The pH of the fermentation is maintained between 6.2 and 7.0 and the temperature range is controlled between 24 and 28 C. A major problem associated with cephalosporin C fermentation is the inherent chemical instability of the cephalosporin C molecule. This is probably one of the major reasons why long-cycle cephalosporin C fermentations often result in reduced cephalosporin production compared to typical long-cycle penicillin fermentations. Cephalosporin C is readily degraded to 2-(D-4-amino-4-carboxybutyl)thiazole-4-carboxylic acid, which can account for as much as a $40% loss of the cephalosporin C produced [201]. The biosynthetic precursor molecules of cephalosporin C, deacetylcephalosporin C and DAOC have much more chemical stability. Strains of the yeast Rhodosporidium toruloides possess a potent acetyl esterase and, when the organism is added to active cephalosporin C fermentations, result in increased levels of deacetylcephalosporin C with an increase in total cephalosporin nucleus levels of $40%. Over the past decade, the cloning of many of the genes involved in the biosynthetic pathway of cephalosporins has resulted in more productive strains. The purication and recovery of harvest cephalosporin C broth begins with the rapid chilling of the active broth to 35 C followed by removal of the mycelial solids either by ltration or by centrifugation. The active broth contains not only the desired cephalosporin C component but also small quantities of the biosynthetic precursors penicillin N, DAOC, deacetylcephalosporin C and the degraded cephalosporin C product, 2-(D-4-amino-4-carboxybutyl)-thiazole-4-carboxylic acid. Two major strategies can be used for the recovery and purication of cephalosporin C. One strategy involves the use of activated carbon or the use of a non-ionic resin. Because of the high selectivity of the resin, cephalosporin C is preferentially adsorbed over penicillin N or the contaminating biosynthetic precursor molecules. Most of the penicillin N is removed in the pH 2.0 acidication step. An additional anion- and cation-exchange step usually results in high quality cephalosporin C. A large fraction of the cephalosporin C is converted into 7-ACA and derivatized to semi-synthetic cephalosporins. A second purication strategy involves the substitution of the amine moiety on the a-aminoadipyl side-chain at C7. Two substituted derivatives, N-2,4-dichlorobenzoyl cephalosporin C and tetrabromocarboxybenzoyl cephalosporin C, can be crystallized from acidic aqueous solution. Alternatively, salts can be formed between the N-substituted derivatives, and an organic base such as dicyclohexylamine or dimethylbenzylamine results in cephalosporin salts that are solvent extractable. Bristol-Myers Squibb uses a solvent-extractable process resulting in the isochlorobutylformate (ICBF) ester of cephalosporin C, termed cephalosporin D. Several extraction steps are usually necessary to achieve the nal desired purity.
j2153
N-Substituted cephalosporin C salts containing small amounts of contaminants can be effectively converted into 7-ACA. Efcient enzymatic processes are now utilized for the conversion of cephalosporins into 7-ACA, which has resulted in a dramatic cost reduction for this important bulk intermediate. Two key genetically engineered enzymes are involved. The initial step is reaction of the a-aminoadipyl group with D-amino acid oxidase to produce glutaryl-7-ACA. This reaction proceeds through a keto-7-ACA intermediate that undergoes an oxidative decarboxylation in the presence of hydrogen peroxide. A glutaryl acylase is used to remove the glutaryl side-chain to produce 7-ACA. Two-thirds of the commercial cephalosporins are derived from 7-ACA that is produced from cephalosporin C by either chemical or enzymatic deacylation. In the chemical process, after protection of the amino and carboxyl groups, reaction with potassium pentachloride in the presence of base forms an iminochloride derivative. The iminoether is formed on the addition of alcohol. The iminoether is hydrolyzed to form 7-ACA.
24.2.4 Reactivity of Penicillins and Cephalosporins 24.2.4.1 Basicity of b-Lactam Nitrogen If amide resonance in penicillins is inhibited because of the pyramidal nature of the b-lactam nitrogen, penicillins should show enhanced basicity compared with normal amides. By contrast, penicillins appear to show reduced basicity and cannot be detectably protonated even in 12 M hydrochloric acid [202]. Another indication of increased nitrogen basicity would be a large binding constant of penicillin to metal ions. The equilibrium constant for metal-ion coordination between the carboxyl group and the b-lactam nitrogen in penicillins is about 100200 M1 for various metal ions [203], which is the same order of magnitude expected for coordination between a normal amide and a carboxyl group. Therefore, it became evident that there is not a substantial enhancement for the electron pair donating ability either to a proton or to a metal in penicillins. 24.2.4.2 Hydrolysis The bicyclic system in penicillin consists of a four-membered ring and a vemembered ring. As a result, penicillin suffers large angle and torsional strains. Ring opening relieves these strains by cleavage of the more highly strained four-membered lactam ring (Scheme 24.46).
R O H 2O
H N O N
Me Me CO 2H
H+
R O
H N O HO N
O S
Me Me CO 2 H
HN HO 2C HN
Me Me CO 2 H
H+
Scheme 24.46
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The carbonyl group in the b-lactam ring is highly susceptible to nucleophiles and as such does not behave like normal tertiary amides, which are usually quite resistant to nucleophilic attack. This difference in reactivity is due mainly to the fact that stabilization of the carbonyl is possible in the tertiary amide but impossible in the b-lactam nucleus. The b-lactam nitrogen is unable to feed its lone pair of electrons into the carbonyl group since this would require the bicyclic rings to adopt an impossibly strained at system. As a result, the lone pair is localized on the nitrogen atom and the carbonyl group is far more electrophilic than one would expect for a tertiary amide. The acyl side chain can actively participate (neighboring group participation) in a mechanism to open up the 2-azetidinone moiety (Scheme 24.47). Thus, penicillins have a built-in self-destruct mechanism. However, if a good electron-withdrawing group is attached to the carbonyl group, then the inductive pulling effect should draw electrons away from the carbonyl oxygen and reduce its tendency to act as a nucleophile.
H N O O N
Me Me CO 2 H
H+
N O O N
Me Me CO 2H Me Me CO 2H +
N O O HN
Me Me CO 2H
H+ HS
steps HO 2C N R N
N H R O O
Me Me CO 2H
penicillenic acids
penillic acids
Scheme 24.47
Enzyme-catalyzed hydrolysis of the b-lactam ring uncovers the thiazolidine-ring nitrogen as a nucleophile that drives a rapid intramolecular displacement on the side chain. Attachment of 7-hydroxy-4-methylcoumarin as the releasable group of this side chain generates a penicillin structure that can function as a uorescence-based reporter substance/diagnostic for the presence of low levels of b-lactamase enzyme in solution [204]. The major structural differences between penicillins and cephalosporins are that the ve-membered thiazolidine ring of penicillins is replaced by a six-membered dihydrothiazine ring in cephalosporins and that the degree of pyramidalization of the b-lactam nitrogen is generally smaller in cephalosporins. In addition, many cephalosporins bear a potential leaving group at the C30 position (pyridine, acetate, or thiol), which is expelled during the hydrolysis of the 2-azetidinone nucleus to give an exo-methylene cyclic imine (Scheme 24.48). Experimental observations have led to the conclusion that b-lactam CN bond ssion is not concerted with the departure of the leaving group, and that the tetrahedral intermediate breaks down by proton
j2155
R O H 2O
H N O N
S CH 2X CO 2 H
H +
R O
H N O HO N
S CH2X CO 2H
H+
O R
HN HO2 C N
S CH2 CO 2 H
O +X
HN HO 2C HN
S CH2X CO 2H
Scheme 24.48
transfer to generate an intermediate enamine, which subsequently, in a separate step, expels the leaving group [205]. The similarity in the second-order rate constants for the hydroxide-promoted hydrolysis of penicillins and cephalosporins points to an absence of inuence of the leaving group at C30 in cephalosporins. The hydrolysis of an acetoxy ester side chain at C3 in cephalosporins is competitive with the hydrolysis of the b-lactam ring. It may be due to the comparable reactivity of the 2-azetidinone nucleus of cephalosporins and a simple ester such as ethyl acetate. No signicant spontaneous hydrolysis is observed in the pHrate prole for the hydrolysis of penicillins, but the b-lactam moiety does undergo an acid-catalyzed degradation. By contrast, the hydrolysis of cephalosporins shows a spontaneous pHindependent hydrolysis and is less reactive by a factor of about 104 towards acid than are penicillins [206]. Penicillins undergo an acid- and a base-catalyzed hydrolysis, but there is no signicant uncatalyzed reaction, the pH minimum being around 7 for spontaneous or water-induced degradation. However, cephalosporins often exhibit a signicant pH-independent reaction in the pH range 37. The evaluation of different glutaryl acylase mutants to improve the hydolysis of cephalosporin C in the absence of hydrogen peroxide has been reported [207].
24.2.4.3 Alcoholysis, Thiolysis, and Aminolysis The reactions of b-lactam antibiotics and their derivatives with nucleophiles have been studied extensively. For example, nucleophilic substitution at the b-lactam carbonyl center of penicillins occurs, in water, with amines [208], alcohols [209], and thiols [210] in competition with that by hydroxide ion. These are acyl transfer processes involving covalent bond formation between the carbonyl carbon and the nucleophile and CN bond ssion of the b-lactam. In general, covalent bond formation to the incoming nucleophile occurs before b-lactam CN bond ssion, resulting in the reversible formation of a tetrahedral intermediate. The rate-limiting step in these reactions is thus commonly ring opening and breakdown of the tetrahedral intermediate. Formation of the tetrahedral intermediate also changes the basicity of the leaving group amine, as amide resonance in the b-lactam is lost and
2156

proton transfer to nitrogen changes from an unfavorable to a thermodynamically favorable process. Thus, many of these reactions require general acid catalysis and protonation of the amine nitrogen leaving group to facilitate CN bond ssion and avoid amine anion expulsion. Although the release of strain energy, which accompanies ring opening, could possibly decrease the need for protonation, CN ssion in penicillins appears to require some form of catalysis. For example, the alcoholysis and thiolysis of penicillins occur with rate-limiting breakdown of the tetrahedral intermediate facilitated by proton transfer from solvent water to the departing amine. Exceptionally, the thiolysis of some cephalosporins appears to involve the breakdown of the tetrahedral intermediate by the expulsion of an enamine anion [211]. Unlike the strongly base catalyzed aminolysis of b-lactam antiobiotics, such as penicillins and cephaloridines, the rate law for the aminolysis of N-aroyl b-lactams is dominated by a term with a rst-order dependence on amine concentration in its free base form, which is indicative of an uncatalyzed aminolysis reaction that proceeded by a concerted mechanism [212]. The relative sequence of bond making and breaking between heavy atoms in the aminolysis of b-lactam antibiotics is a result of subtle effects that often involve proton transfer. A step-wise process for aminolysis occurs through the formation of a tetrahedral intermediate, resulting from the attack on the carbonyl center by an amine, which gives rise to a large change in the pKa of the amine NH as a result of covalent bond formation. Proton transfer from the amine nucleophile to a base catalyst thus occurs after full covalent bond formation, as it changes from a thermodynamically unfavorable to a favorable process. Hence aminolysis usually requires general base catalysis to remove a proton from the attacking amine and this is the dominant term in the rate law in fact it is experimentally difcult to determine the rate constant for any uncatalyzed reaction. With penicillins and cephalosporins this proton transfer occurs after initial CN bond formation in a rate-limiting step that is diffusion controlled. The aminolysis of b-lactam antibiotics also requires b-lactam CN bond ssion and expulsion of an amine. The rate of aminolysis of benzylpenicillin and cephaloridine by hydroxylamine, unlike other amines, shows only a rst order dependence on amine concentration [213]. The rate enhancement compared with that predicted from a Brnsted plot for other primary amines with benzylpenicillin is greater than 106. This is much more than an a-effect and is compatible with rate-limiting formation of the tetrahedral intermediate due to a rapid intramolecular general acid catalyzed breakdown of the intermediate. For cephaloridine, the rate enhancement is greater than 104, which demonstrates that b-lactam CN bond ssion and expulsion of the leaving group at C30 are not concerted.
24.2.4.4 Destruction of b-Lactam Antibiotics by b-Lactamases b-Lactamases hydrolyze the four-membered b-lactam ring in both penicillin and cephalosporin classes of antibiotics (Scheme 24.49). They thereby destroy the antibacterial activity by deactivating the chemical warhead in the molecule [182], the strained b-lactam that is the chemically reactive acylating group for modifying the active-site serine side chains in the penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs) (the transpeptidases and carboxypeptidases in peptidoglycan [PG] crosslinking).
j2157
R O
H N O N
O S Me Me CO 2 H -lactamase H2 O O S N CH2X CO 2 H -lactamase H2 O R R
HN HO 2C HN
Me Me CO 2 H
R O
H N O
HN HO 2 C HN
S CH2X CO 2H
Scheme 24.49
b-Lactamase activity was detected a few years before clinical use of penicillins in humans, indicating its presence in soil bacteria that combat the natural product penicillins, and to date more than 190 b-lactamases have been described [214], and categorized into class A, B, C and D lactamases [215]. The A, C and D classes are active-site serine enzymes, with architectural and mechanistic similarities to the PBPs [216], suggesting evolution from PBPs. In the A, C and D classes of b-lactamases the same type of penicilloyl-O-Ser enzyme covalent intermediate is formed as in the catalytic cycle of PBPs that attack and open the 2-azetidinone ring and become self-acylated. There is no such covalent penicilloyl enzyme intermediate in the catalytic cycle of the zinc-dependent class B b-lactamases, which has consequences for the failure of class B b-lactamases to be inhibited by certain drugs, because direct attack by water is carried out (Scheme 24.50).
R O
H N O H N
Me Me CO 2 H
O serine -lactamase R
HN
O
Me Me CO 2 H
H 2O
Enz-Ser-O
HN O Ser Enz
R O
H N O N
Me Me CO 2 H
O zinc -lactamase R
HN
O
Me Me CO 2 H
H 2O H O H Zn Zn
Scheme 24.50
HN OH
A simple, novel gold nanoparticle based colorimetric method has been developed for efcient screening of class A b-lactamase activity and inhibitors in vitro and in
2158

bacterial strains [217]. A novel protein labeling system that combines a genetically modied, noncatalytic b-lactamase variant and specic mechanism-based uorescent probes has also been developed [218]. BcII is a B1 metallo-b-lactamase that is found in both mononuclear and dinuclear forms. Despite very elegant studies, there is still controversy over the nature of the active BcII species. A non-steady-state study of the hydrolysis of penicillin G catalyzed by Co(II)-substituted BcII has been carried out, and the modications occurring at the active site of the enzyme have been followed. Working at different metal/enzyme ratios it has been demonstrated that both mono-Co(II) and di-Co(II) BcII are active metallo-b-lactamases. In addition, evidence has been presented that during penicillin G hydrolysis catalyzed by mono-Co(II) BcII the metal is localized in the DCH site (the Zn2 site in B1 enzymes) [219]. To probe the role of the Zn(II) sites in metallo-b-lactamase L1, mononuclear metal ion containing and heterobimetallic analogues of the enzyme have been generated and characterized using kinetic and spectroscopic studies. Mononuclear Zn(II)-containing L1, which binds Zn(II) in the consensus Zn1 site, was shown to be slightly active; however, this enzyme did not stabilize a nitrocen-derived reaction intermediate that had been previously detected. Mononuclear Co(II)- and Fe(III)-containing L1 were essentially inactive, and NMR and EPR studies suggest that these metal ions bind to the consensus Zn2 site in L1. Heterobimetallic analogues (ZnCo and ZnFe) analogues of L1 have been generated, and stoppedow kinetic studies revealed that these enzymes rapidly hydrolyze nitrocen and that there are large amounts of the reaction intermediate formed during the reaction. These studies demonstrate that the metal ion in the Zn1 site is essential for catalysis in L1 and that the metal ion in the Zn2 site is crucial for stabilization of the nitrocen-derived reaction intermediate [220].
24.2.4.5 Conversion of Penicillins into Cephalosporins The chemical relationship of the penicillin (thiazolidine) and the cephalosporin (dihydrothiazine) skeletons was established in the early 1960s, when it was demonstrated that penicillin sulfoxides could be rearranged to form 3-methylated cephalosporins [221]. Treatment of phenoxymethylpenicillin sulfoxide methyl ester 87, which can be obtained from phenoxymethyl penicillin via periodate oxidation followed by esterication with diazomethane, with a trace of p-toluenesulfonic acid in xylene at reux temperature gave the cephalosporin derivative 88. A plausible pathway for this acid-catalyzed ring-expansion involves a sulfoxide elimination to intermediate 89, subsequent addition of the sulfenic acid to the double bond with the sulfur becoming attached to the primary carbon and the loss of a proton to yield 88 (Scheme 24.51). Eventually, a more efcient process was developed using silyl protection during the ring expansion rearrangement. Silyl protection chemistry has led to efcient chemical production of 7-ADCA and has led to highly efcient production of the oral cephalosporins, cephalexin and cephradine. Cephadroxyl is synthesized after silylation of 7-aminocephalosporanic acid (7-ACA) followed by acylation with a mixed anhydride prepared from a salt of p-hydroxyphenylglycine and ethylchloroformate.

H N O O N O S + Me H N O O N
+
j2159
PTSA (cat.)
OH H S CH 2 Me CO 2Me
R O
H N O N
OH S CH3 CO 2Me
Me CO 2Me
xylene, reflux
87
H N O O N H N O O N H H N O O
89
H2O
H+ OH
H+
S N H
+
H2 O
88
R = PhOCH 2
CH3 CO2Me
CH 3 CO 2 Me
CH3 CO 2Me
Scheme 24.51
Amoxicillin is synthesized using a similar process. An important Lilly product, cefaclor, involves a ring enlargement of a penicillin V ester to an expanded cephalosporin-S oxide with an exocyclic double bond. The product is a useful intermediate in that it can be converted into 3-substituted cephalosporins and into cefaclor, a highly prescribed oral cephalosporin with chlorine on the C3 position.
24.2.4.6 Reactions for the Transformation of Functional Groups in Side Chains This chapter cannot give a complete overview of all the possible transformations for penicillins and cephalosporins at a specic position, because of the enormous variety of reactions involved. We focus instead on some of the most relevant reactions [181, 222]. The most important transformation for the amino function in penicillins and cephalosporins is the protection, which is introduced in general as amide by acylating the 6-APA or 7-ACA [223]. In a recent contribution, 6-aminopenicillanates 90 have been N-acylated in a three-component reaction with an aldehyde and Ph3PCCO to give the corresponding 6-[(E)-20 -alkenoyl]amides 91 via a domino additionWittig alkenation sequence (Scheme 24.52) [224]. In addition to the amide group, several different protective groups are used for the transformation of the amino moiety of penicillins and cephalosporins. The amine can be converted into a carbamate group, to give the corresponding Boc [225], Cbz [226] or Teoc [227] derivatives. The Dane protecting group is very suitable for penicillins and cephalosporins, because the
H2 N O N
Me Me CO 2 R1
Ph3 P=C=C=O, R2 CHO, THF, 60 oC 5077%
R2 O
H N O N
Me Me CO 2R 1
90
Scheme 24.52
91
2160

proton remaining on the nitrogen is stabilized by hydrogen bonding with the ester carbonyl group, which allows reactions that are normally possible only in doubly protected derivatives [228]. Double protection of the amino group is desirable in many operations, particularly with strongly basic reagents, and imines are often used [229]. The amino moiety of penicillins and cephalosporins can be transformed into different heteroatomic groups, as shown in Scheme 24.53. 6-Hydroxypenicillanic acid (92) has been synthesized by treatment of a solution of 6-APA in aqueous perchloric acid with sodium nitrite [230], while 6,6-dibromopenicillanic acid 93 has been prepared on reacting 6-APA with bromine [231]. A regiospecic methodology for the preparation of penicillate derivatives 6a-(1R-hydroxyoctyl)penicillanic acid and 6b-(1R-hydroxyoctyl)penicillanic acid which will be valuable tools in the investigation of mechanistic and structural details of class D b-lactamases has been described from 6,6-dibromopenicillanic acid 93 [232]. Esterication of 7-ACA followed by sequential treatment with excess triethylamine and triuoromethanesulfonic anhydride gives an imine, which can then be hydrolyzed to generate the 7-oxo-cephalosporanate 94 [233]. A carbenechromium(0)-containing tether may be incorporated into penicillin G or cephalotin by using a (bromopropylamino) carbenechromium(0) complex to give metalla-penicillin and-cephalosporin derivatives, stable compounds which can be transformed into antibiotic derivatives bearing tripeptide side-chains [234].
HO
O N
Me Me CO 2H
HClO4 (aq), H2N NaNO 2,

H2 O, 0 oC 32% O N
Me
Br2 , NaNO 2, 2.5 N H 2SO4

o
Br
O
Br
N
Me Me CO 2H
Me CH2 Cl2 , 5 C CO 2 H 80%
92
H2N O N S i) Ph2CN2 , MeOH, CH2 Cl2 , RT ii) Et3N, Tf 2 O, CH2Cl2,78 oC O O N S
93
OAc CO 2H
iii) HCl (aq), RT 40%
OAc CO 2CHPh2
94
Scheme 24.53
6-Aminopenicillanic acid and two of its derivatives, 6-APA benzyl ester and penicillin G, have been evaluated as catalysts for use in direct cross-aldol reactions in different solvents and mixtures [235]. A thermal decarbonylation of penam b-lactams has been reported [236]. With the exception of monobactams, a carboxylic acid function a to the b-lactam nitrogen is essential for good antibacterial activity, and it is nearly always necessary to protect this carboxylic acid function during the preparation of derivatives. The rst esterication of the carboxylic acid of penicillins was achieved on preparing penicillin G benzhydryl ester [237]. For penicillins and
j2161
cephalosporins, the most often used protective groups are functionalities that can be removed under acidic conditions, such as benzhydryl [238], tert-butyl [239] and p-methoxybenzyl [240]. A procedure that has been employed for some time to improve the absorption of penicillins and cephalosporins after oral administration is the use of special esters that readily undergo enzymatic hydrolysis in vivo, with liberation of the active drug. These esters, which are mostly bis-acyl derivatives of formaldehyde or acetaldehyde, can also provide protection for carboxylic acid functions during derivatization and synthetic transformations [222]. Transformations of 3-acetoxymethyl cephalosporins are of central importance. The cleavage of the acetyl residue can be carried out both enzymatically [241] and chemically [242] under mild conditions. Oxidation of alcohols obtained in this way allows preparation of the corresponding 3-formylcephalosporins, which can suffer further transformations such as the Wittig olenation [243] or Barbier-type allylation [244]. 3-Halomethyl cephalosporins can be synthesized via substitution reactions in 3-acetoxy(hydroxy)methyl cephalosporins [245]. These 3-halo derivatives usually act as building blocks for more complex derivatives. For example, the cephalosporin derivative 96, which has been conrmed as a novel uorogenic substrate for imaging b-lactamase gene expression, has been prepared from the 3-chloromethyl cephalosporin 95 (Scheme 24.54) [246]. A practical route to the preparation of nitrocen from a 3-chloromethyl cephalosporin related to 95 has been reported using a similar synthetic sequence [247]. Employing a multivalent approach to drug discovery, vancomycin and cephalosporin synthons have been chemically linked to yield heterodimer antibiotics, which simultaneously target the principal cellular targets of both glycopeptides and b-lactams [248].
H H H S N O O N O i) NaI, acetone, RT H H H S N O O N O O O O
Bn
Bn
OHC PPh 3I OCHPh2

iii) 1M NaOH, CH2Cl 2, RT iv) MCPBA, CH2Cl 2, RT
Cl OCHPh 2
ii) PPh3, EtOAc, RT
95
H H H O S+ N O O N O TFA, anisole, CH2 Cl 2, 0 oC H H H O S+ N O O N O
Bn
Bn
17% OH
96
OCHPh 2
Scheme 24.54
The sulfur in penicillins and cephalosporins can be oxidized, leading to sulfoxides or sulfones [224, 231, 246, 249]. This oxidation is usually accomplished for one of three reasons: (i) sulfoxide formation to obtain reactive intermediates for further transformations; (ii) sulfoxide formation with subsequent reduction in cephems to shift the double bond from position 2 to position 3; (iii) preparation of sulfones as b-lactamase or elastase inhibitors.
2162

Abbreviations
AIBN 7-ACA 6-APA Bn Boc BOM BTPP CAN Cbz Cp CSI DABCO DBN DBU DCC DEAD DIBAL-H DMAP DMF DMSO de dr ee Fmoc HIU HMDS HPLC IR LHMDS LDA MCPBA MCR MOM MM MMPP MS NCA NMP NMR PBP PDC Phth PMB
a,a0 -azoisobutyronitrile 7-aminocephalosporanic acid 6-aminopenicillanic acid (6-APA) benzyl tert-butyloxycarbonyl benzyloxymethyl phosphazene base P1-t-Bu-tris(tetramethylene) ceric ammonium nitrate benzyloxycarbonyl cyclopentadienyl chlorosulfonyl isocyanate 1,4-diazabicyclo[2.2.2]octane 1,5-diazabicyclo[4.3.0]non-5-ene 1,8-diazabicyclo[5.4.0]undec-7-ene N,N0 -dicyclohexylcarbodiimide diethyl azodicarboxylate (diisobutyl)aluminium hydride 4-dimethylaminopyridine dimethylformamide dimethyl sulfoxide diastereomeric excess diastereomeric ratio enantiomeric excess 9-uorenylmethoxycarbonyl high intensity ultrasound hexamethyldisilazane high-performance liquid chromatography infrared lithium hexamethyldisilazane lithium diisopropylamide meta-chloroperoxybenzoic acid multicomponent reaction methoxymethyl molecular mechanical magnesium monoperoxyphthalate mass spectrometry N-carboxy anhydride N-methylpyrrolidone nuclear magnetic resonance penicillin binding protein pyridinium dichromate phthalimidoyl p-methoxybenzyl
References
j2163
PMP PPTS PTSA QM RCM RT TBDPS TBS TES TFA THF TIPS TEMPO Ts
p-methoxyphenyl pyridinium p-toluenesulfonate p-toluenesulfonic acid quantum mechanical ring closing metathesis room temperature tert-butyldiphenylsilyl tert-butyldimethylsilyl triethylsilyl triuoroacetic acid tetrahydrofuran triisopropylsilyl 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine 1-oxyl tosyl
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25 The Chemistry of Benzodiazepines

Carlos Vald es and Miguel Bayod
The discovery of the psychotropic activity of 1,4-benzodiazepine derivatives (Figure 25.1) [1] opened a whole new area of activity in the treatment of mental diseases associated with depressive processes and affective alterations. More recently, compounds featuring the basic structure of 1,4-benzodiazepine, and exhibiting non-psychotropic biological activity, such as anti-cancer [2], anti-HIV [3], and anti-Alzheimer [4] activities have been discovered. Prominent examples are the benzodiazepinic alkaloids circumdatin A, B, and C, 13, which are employed in the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders [5], and the naturally occurring pyrrolo[2,1-c] [1,4]benzodiazepines (4), which are potent antitumor antibiotics isolated from various species of Streptomyces (Figure 25.2) [6]. Currently, the structure of 1,4-benzodiazepine represents one of most important privileged structures in medicinal chemistry, a term coined by Evans to dene a single molecular framework able to provide ligands for diverse receptors [7]. In fact, the development of benzodiazepines chemistry has been directed to the search for new and more active compounds. The introduction of chlordiazepoxide (5) (Figure 25.3) in clinical medicine, in 1961, can be regarded as the starting point of the benzodiazepine era. Since then, thousands of these compounds have been synthesized through conventional and combinatorial techniques. Currently, over 50 benzodiazepines nd clinical application in different regions of the world. Most of the benzodiazepines that have reached the market were selected due to their high anxiolytic potency due to their depressing function of the central nervous system. Most of them feature some sedative hypnotic properties to various extents, and therefore also nd clinical application as sleep promoters. Moreover, their low tendency to induce lethal depression of the CNS has
2176
j 25 The Chemistry of Benzodiazepines

9 8 7
R1 N
1 6 5
R2
2 3
R5
N
4
R3
R4
Figure 25.1 General Structure of 1,4-benzodiazepines.
O O N R O N N H
OMe O N HO O 3 Circumdatin C 4 Pyrrolo[2,1-c] [1,4]benzodiazepines N NH Me R1 R2 O N N H R3
1 R = OMe, Circumdatin A 2 R = H, Circumdatin B
Figure 25.2 Some compounds that feature the basic structure of 1,4-benzodiazepine and exhibit non-psychotropic biological activity.
ensured that benzodiazepines have replaced almost completely the barbiturics as sedative hypnotics. Over the last decade it has been shown that the effects of most of the 1,4benzodiazepines with clinical application result from benzodiazepines modulation of c-aminobutyric acid (GABA), the main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system, by inuencing the GABAA receptor complex [8]. Benzodiazepines bind to the GABAA receptor, reducing the quantity of GABA required to open the chloride channel, hyperpolarize the neuron, and inhibit neurotransmission [9]. Benzodiazepines are lipo-soluble substances that are easy to crystallize and have basic character. The common characteristic of benzodiazepines is a bicyclic structure composed of a benzene ring fused to a diazepine (a seven-membered ring with two nitrogen atoms). In addition, most of the biologically active benzodiazepines feature substitution at C5 with an aromatic ring. Each particular benzodiazepine is derived
N Cl N
NHCH3
5 Chlordiazepoxide
Figure 25.3 Structure of chlordiazepoxide (5).
25.2 Relevant Benzodiazepines
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Ha N
1 2 5 4 3
b c
H N N 1H-1,5-benzodiazepine N N
1H-1,4-benzodiazepine N NH 3H-2,3-benzodiazepine
3H-2,4-benzodiazepine
Figure 25.4 Basic structures of benzodiazepines.
by the incorporation of different substituents at the different positions of the basic structure [10].
25.1.2 Structural Classification of Benzodiazepines
Depending on the position of the two nitrogen atoms in the seven-membered heterocyclic ring, the benzodiazepines can be classied in four main different groups (Figure 25.4):
. . . .
1,4-benzodiazepines 1,5-benzodiazepines 2,3-benzodiazepines 2,4-benzodiazepines.
By far, 1,4-benzodiazepines are the most interesting derivatives, due to their clinical applications. In addition, some examples of therapeutic applications of 1,5and 2,3-benzodiazepines exist. Thus, this chapter will focus mainly on the chemistry of 1,4-benzodiazepines, and in particular on the biologically more active members of this family. Nevertheless, 1,5- and 2,3- derivatives are covered in Sections 25.7 and 25.8, respectively.
25.2 Relevant Benzodiazepines 25.2.1 Most Common 1,4-Benzodiazepines
Table 25.1 gives the particular structures of some of the most important 1,4benzodiazepines with clinical applications. Variations on the substituents denoted by R1, R2, R3, R4, and R5 are responsible for the different biological activity of 1,4-benzodiazepines.
2178

Table 25.1 Chemical structure of the most common 1,4-benzodiazepines.
8 9
R N
1 5
R2
2 3
R5
7 6
N
4
R3
R4
Compound 6 7 8 9 5 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
a) b)
Name Bromazepam Camazepam Clonazepam Clorazepate Chlordiazepoxideb),c) Demoxepamc) Diazepam Fletazepam Flunitrazepam Flurazepam Fosazepam Halazepam Lorazepam Lormetazepam Medazepam Metaclazepam Nimetazepam Nitrazepam Nordazepam Oxazepam Pinazepam Prazepam Quazepam Temazepam Tetrazepam Tiuadom Uldazepamb)
R1 H Me H H H Me CH2CF3 Me (CH2)2NEt2 CH2POMe2 CH2CF3 H Me Me Me Me H H H CH2CCH CH2 CH2CF3 Me Me Me
R2 O O O O NHMe, H O O H, H O O O O O O H, H CH2OMe, H O O O O O O S O O
e) f)
R3 H OCONMe2 H CO2K H H H H H H H H OH OH H H H H H OH H H H OH H H H
R4
a)
R5 Br Cl NO2 Cl Cl Cl Cl Cl NO2 Cl Cl Cl Cl Cl Cl Br NO2 NO2 Cl Cl Cl Cl Cl Cl Cl H Cl
H Cl H H H H F F F H H Cl Cl H Cl H H H H H H F H
d)
F Cl
2-Pyrido as substituent at C5. Double bond between N1 and C2. c) Oxygen at N4. d) 1-Cyclohexenyl as substituent at C5. e) Thieno-2-carbonylaminomethyl. f) Allyloxiamino.
Regarding the benzene ring, only substitution at C7 (R5) presents pharmacological interest. Moreover, usually anionic derivatives are more interesting than cationic forms. Substitution at positions 6, 8, and 9 diminishes substantially the activity or even makes the benzodiazepines biologically inert.
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Alterations in the substituent attached at C5 render some compounds pharmacologically interesting. For instance, bromazepam (6) with anxiolytic activity, features a 2-pyridyl substituent, and the muscle relaxant tetrazepam (29) a cyclohexenyl group. Modications in the diazepinic ring give rise to most of the benzodiazepines with pharmacological activity. For example, methylation of the amide nitrogen of position 1 (R1 Me; R2 O) is found in diazepam (11), while the addition of longer alkyl chains is detrimental to the anxiolytic activity. Other variations of R1 determine the formation of compounds with a high sedative effect: urazepam (14, R1 (CH2)2 NEt2), anticonvulsant; halazepam (16, R1 CH2CF3), with activity similar to chlordiazepoxide (5); and pinazepam (25, R1 CH2C:CH) and prazepam (26, R1 CH2cyclopropyl) with diazepam-like activity. The introduction of modications at position 2 leads to chlordiazepoxide (5), metaclazepam (20), and uldazepam (31). The 2-acylaminomethyl derivatives do not have afnity for the same receptor, and therefore lack anxiolytic activity. However, these type of derivatives act selectively on the opiaceous receptors. This is the case for tiuadom (30), which has shown K-selective agonist activity, with a potential of action over this subgroup of receptors 25-fold superior than that of morphine [11]. The introduction of functionality at position 3 leads to a new family of benzodiazepines, with camazepam (7), clorazepate (9), lorazepam (17), and oxazepam (24) as the most distinguished members. Camazepam (7) has shown excellent anxiolytic activity, with low sedative and relaxant effects. Reduction of the lactam of camazepam leads to etazepam (12) and medazepam (19), compounds with lower pharmacological activity. The structural variants in which the benzene ring is replaced by a heterocycle hold great interest, since they exhibit similar pharmacological properties to the classic benzodiazepienes, and extend the therapeutic scope of these drugs. In this context, thienodiazepines, such as brotizolam (32), clotiazepam (33), and bentazepam (34) (Figure 25.5) have been extensively studied.
25.2.2 1,4-Benzodiazepines with a Heterocycle Condensed at sides a or d
Another interesting variation of pharmacological interest is present in systems that feature an additional ve- or six-membered nitrogenated heterocycle condensed at
N N S Br N Cl N Cl 34 Bentazepam N N S O N S N
32 Brotizolam
33 Clotiazepam
Figure 25.5 Thienodiazepines brotizolam (32), clotiazepam (33), and bentazepam (34), which have been studied extensively in terms of their pharmacological properties.
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R X
N
N N
N X
R N Cl
N N Cl N N F
O N O 2N N
N N
Cl
N X B
Cl C
A R=Me, CH 2 NMe 2,CH 2Cl X= O, H2
35 R=H, X=H; Estazolam 36 R=Me, X=Cl, Triazolam 37 R=Me, X=H, Alprazolam
38 Midazolam
39 Loprazolam
Figure 25.6 Benzodiazepines with a heterocycle condensed at the a face.
the a face of the benzodiazepine. Triazino-, triazolo-, and imidazobenzodiazepines (A,B, and C respectively in Figure 25.6) have been studied thoroughly. Triazinobenzodiazepines (A) have shown an effect similar to diazepam (11) (with the exception of the anticonvulsant effect), but the derivatives featuring a nitrogenated ve-membered ring have attracted more interest in the pharmaceutical industry. Figure 25.6 shows some of the most relevant members of this type of benzodiazepines. Triazolam (36) is the most active triazolo-benzodiazepine. Both triazolam and estazolam (35) have exhibited excellent action as hypnotic agents. Of particular interest is alprazolam (37), which features rapid and strong anxiolytic activity, and antidepressive effects [12]. Regarding the imidazobenzodiazepines C, worth noting is midazolam (38), a benzodiazepine with relatively short action, which holds anxiolytic, hypnotic anticonvulsive, amnesic, and muscle relaxant effects [13]. Among the cyclofunctionalized 1,4-benzodiazepines, another interesting subgroup is formed by structures that feature a fused heterocycle at the d face (N4C5) of the diazepine ring (Figure 25.7). In particular, oxazolobenzodiazepines and oxazinobenzodiazepines have been studied extensively. Representative members of these families of heterocycles are oxazolam (40), cloxazolam (41), and mexazolam
H N X O Y N
N Cl N O
Ph
40 Oxazolam X = Cl, Y = H, R = Me 41 Cloxazolam X, R = H, Y = Cl 42 Mexazolam X = Y = Cl, R = Me
43 Ketazolam
Figure 25.7 Benzodiazepines with a heterocycle condensed at the d face.
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(42) for the oxazolobenzodiazepines, and ketazolam 43 for the oxazinobenzodiazepines. The latter is an analog of diazepam (11) that features good anxiolytic activity with low secondary effects.
25.2.3 Other Benzodiazepines with Clinical Application
Although 1,4-benzodiazepines represent the vast majority of benzodiazepines with pharmaceutical applications, some other examples exist of benzodiazepine drugs that feature the nitrogen atoms in different positions. This is the case of tosopam (44), a 2,3-benzodiazepine with anxiolytic properties, and clobazam (45), a 1,5benzodiazepine employed in the treatment of several psychotic disorders (Figure 25.8).
25.2.4 Naturally Occurring Benzodiazepines
Many years after the discovery of synthetic 1,4-benzodiazepines as biologically active substances, several natural alkaloids featuring the basic 1,4-benzodiazepine substructure have been discovered. The benzodiazepine-quinazoline scaffold is found in several alkaloids with interesting biological activity. The simplest member is sclerotigenin, isolated from the sclerotia of Penicillium sclerotigenum [14]. More complex structures are found in benzomalvins AC, isolated from the fungus Penicillium sp. [15], asperlicins [16] (Figure 25.9), and circumdatins AG (Figure 25.2), isolated from the fungus Aspergillus ochraceous [5, 17]. Another important class of natural products that contains the 1,4-benzodiazepine structure are pyrrolo[2,1-c][1,4]benzodiazepines (PBDs). These compounds are a family of naturally occurring of antitumor antibiotics that have attracted great attention in recent years. Section 25.6 provides more detailed coverage of these systems.
O O N N Cl
N N
O 45 Clobazam
44 Tofisopam
Figure 25.8 Tofisopam (44), a 2,3-benzodiazepine with anxiolytic properties, and clobazam (45), a 1,5-benzodiazepine used in the treatment of several psychotic disorders.
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O N N H NMe O Benzomalvin A O Benzomalvin B O N N NMe O Benzomalvin C O N N O NMe
O N
N NH
O N
HN N O
NH HO O Asperlicin
O Sclerotigenin
Figure 25.9 Compounds containing the benzodiazepine-quinazoline scaffold.
25.3 1,4-Benzodiazepines: General Synthetic Methods 25.3.1 1,4-Benzodiazepines Ring Synthesis: Introduction
Since 1960, when the rst benzodiazepine with clinical applications (chlordiazepoxide, 5) was introduced onto the pharmaceutical market, several methods have been developed for the preparation of a large variety of members of this family of products. With the advent of parallel and combinatorial techniques, the solid-supported synthesis of 1,4-benzodiazepines has been thoroughly developed. The synthetic strategies applied are common to both solution- and solid-supported synthesis. For this reason, the different methodologies will be presented regardless of whether they are employed in solution or solid support. This section is divided in two parts, dedicated to the most important members of this family, namely, 1,4-benzodiazepin-2-ones and 1,4-benzodiazepin-2,5-diones (Figure 25.10).
25.3.2 Ring Synthesis of 1,4-Benzodiazepin-2-ones 25.3.2.1 Quinazoline N-Oxide Route: Sternbachs Classical Synthesis The synthesis of chlordiazepoxide (5) was reported by Leo Sternbach back in 1961 [18] by treatment of quinazoline N-oxide 48 with amines, followed by ring expansion of
25.3 1,4-Benzodiazepines: General Synthetic Methods
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R1 N
1 5
O
2 3
R1 N R2
1 5
O
2 3
R2
N
4
N
4
R3
R3
1,4-benzodiazepin-2-one
1,4-benzodiazepin-2,5-dione
Figure 25.10 The two most important members of the 1,4-benzodiazepine family.
the piperazine ring formed (Scheme 25.1). Hydrolysis of the amidine function of chlordiazepoxide gives rise to the corresponding lactam demoxepam (10) and further reduction of the N-oxide provides nordazepam (23) (Scheme 25.1). The discovery of the rst benzodiazepine by Sternbach is a fascinating example of a serendipitous discovery that turned out to have an enormous impact in our society. Readers are encouraged to read Sternbachs own version [1]. Chlordiazepoxide (5) had been prepared inadvertently and its structure had been wrongly assigned in 1955 during a synthetic project aimed at substituted quinazoline N-oxides (Scheme 25.1). Treatment of quinazoline N-oxide (48) with methylamine led to chlordiazepoxide (5) through an unexpected nucleophilic addition/ring-opening/ring-closure sequence, instead of the desired SN2 reaction. The crystals of chlordiazepoxide, which had remained in a ask in the bench for two years, were discovered during a laboratory
H N Cl N O
NH2 Cl O ClCH 2CHO NH2OH
Cl
N MnO 2 Cl N O
Cl
46
H NHCH 3 N Cl N O
47
N Cl N NHCH 3 Cl OH
48
N Cl N NHCH 3
CH3NH 2
Cl
Hydrolysis Cl
H N
O reduction N O Cl
H N
Chlordiazepoxide
Demoxepam
10
Nordazepam
23
Scheme 25.1 Sternbachs synthesis of chlordiazepoxide (5).
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clean-up operation and then submitted for pharmacological testing. The unparalleled properties found for that compound triggered the development of this important type of drugs in pharmaceutical industry. Demoxepam (10) can be directly obtained from 2-chloromethylquinazoline Noxide 48 by treatment with base [19]. In addition, reaction with anhydrides or acid chlorides leads to 3-acyloxy derivatives through the Polonovsky rearrangement [20], which upon hydrolysis gives 3-hydroxybenzodiazepines. This route has been employed for the synthesis of highly active benzodiazepines such as lorazepam (17) [21], lormetazepam (18) [22], oxazepam (24), and temazepam 28, which are marketed as anxiolytic, anticonvulsants, or hypnotics (Scheme 25.2).
N Cl N
Cl O
H N NaOH Cl
O O(COR )2 N O Cl
1
H N
O OR N
48
Demoxepam
10
R=COR 1 Hydrolysis
R=H 24 oxazepam
Scheme 25.2 Synthesis of 3-hydroxy-1,4-benzodiazepines from 2-chloromethylquinazoline Noxide 48.
25.3.2.2 2-Aminobenzophenone Route Scheme 25.3 presents the typical disconnections for the synthesis of 1,4-benzodiazepine-2-ones: (i) formation of an amide bond between N1 and C2; (ii) imine condensation between N4 and C5. Thus, the most straightforward strategies for the preparation of 1,4-benzodiazepin-2-ones are based on the condensation of 2-aminobenzophenones and a-functionalized carboxylic acid derivatives. Scheme 25.4 depicts the most typical synthetic routes.
NHR1 R1 N
1 5
Y H 2N
O R2
O
2 3
R1 N R2 R3
O R O NH2
2
O R
3
R3
NHR1 O R
3
Y X NH3
O R2
Scheme 25.3 Retrosynthetic analysis of 1,4-benzodiazepines.

O Br
4 49 R
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Br R2
R1 N
O X O R4 R3 NH3 R2
R1 N
O NH2 O R4 R3 R1 N R2 N O R4
R1 NH R2 O R3 O EtO
46
NH3+Cl-
50
R4
R3
piridine,
Scheme 25.4 Synthesis of 1,4-benzodiazepin-2-ones from o-aminobenzophenones.
The rst procedure consists in the treatment of the aminobenzophenone 46 with a bromoacetyl bromide 49 followed by reaction with ammonia [23]. Then, intramolecular condensation occurs easily in the reaction media to provide the 1,4-benzodiazepine without the need to isolate the open chain intermediates. The second approach implies the treatment of the o-aminobenzophenone (46) with the hydrochloride of an amino ester 50 in pyridine, which leads directly to the nal benzodiazepine. This procedure is particularly useful for the introduction of different substituents (R4) at C3 [24]. Typical examples of this procedure are the classical syntheses of bromazepam (6) [25]. This methodology has been adapted to the preparation of 3-amino-1,4-benzodiazepines. A very convenient methodology employs a-benzotriazol-1-yl-N-(benzyloxycarbony1)glycine (51) as synthetic equivalent of a-aminoglycine [26]. After acylation of the NH2 group of 2-aminobenzophenone 52, treatment with ammonia yields the open chain derivative 54, which features a free NH2 and undergoes cyclization to the 3-aminobenzodiazepine 55 (Scheme 25.5). The condensation of 2-aminobenzophenones with a-amino acids was also applied by Ellman in one of the rst examples of solid-supported synthesis of benzodiazepines (Scheme 25.6) [27]. To the aminoketone attached at the polymeric support (56) is coupled a Fmoc-protected amino acid. Deprotection of the Fmoc group followed by treatment with acid leads to the solid supported benzodiazepine 58. Additional diversity is achieved by alkylation of the N1 nitrogen to give solid-supported benzodiazepines 59. Final cleavage from the resin gives rise to the free benzodiazepine 60 featuring four points of diversity. A different strategy for the solid supported synthesis of 1,4-benzodiazepine-2-ones was reported by DeWitt et al. in 1993 (Scheme 25.7) [28]. Reaction of 2-aminobenzophenone imines 61 with solid-supported amino acids 62 renders the intermediate imine 63, which provides the benzodiazepine upon cyclization. Interestingly, the cyclization-release strategy allows for the obtention of the benzodiazepines 64 with very high purity.
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NH 2 O R O NH O Ph NH3 NHCBz N NHCBz NHCBz N N N (COCl) 2 ClOC N NHCBz N N
HO 2C
52 Ph
N-Methylmorpholine THF
51
H N O
53 R = Benzotriazole 54 R = NH 2
NH 4OAc, AcOH 73 % overall
55
Scheme 25.5 Synthesis of 3-amino-1,4-benzodiazepin-2-ones.
R3 O R2 support NH2 O R1 N-Fmoc-amino acid fluoride R2 support R1 i) LiN O O R3 ii) X-R

4
NH-Fmoc NH O piperidine AcOH
56
R2 support N R1 H N O
57
Ph support N R1 R2 R4 N O R3 cleavage R2 R4 N N R1 O R3
58
59
60
Scheme 25.6 Ellmans solid-phase synthesis of 1,4-benzodiazepine-2-ones.
25.3.3 Synthesis of 1,4-Benzodiazepine-2,5-diones 25.3.3.1 Standard Synthesis: from Anthranilic Acid and a-Amino Acid Derivatives Among the different classes of structures featuring the benzodiazepine structure, 1,4-benzodiazepine-2,5-diones hold a prominent position, not only because they are direct precursors of 1,4-benzodiazepine-2-ones, but also due to the diverse of biological properties that they feature. The retrosynthetic analysis of 1,4-benzodiazepine-2,5-diones is very obvious, as they are generally prepared by the condensation of an anthranilic acid and an a-amino acid. Finally, treatment with an alkylating
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NHR 4 R3
61
NH R2
1 + R
O O NH2TFA
62
Cl
Cl R3
NHR 4 N
O R1
R2 63
TFA / R4 N R
3
O R1
N R2 64
Scheme 25.7 DeWitts solid-phase synthesis of 1,4-benzodiazepine-2-ones.
reagent introduces the substitution at N1 (Scheme 25.8). Most modern advances regarding the preparation of such molecules have concentrated on the development of high-throughput methodologies that could be adapted to combinatorial techniques.
R3 N O R1 N O R2 O H N O R N R2
1
R3 NH 2 CO 2H RO 2C HNR
2
R1
Scheme 25.8 Retrosynthesis of 1,4-benzodiazepine-2,5-diones.
In the following schemes are represented two different synthetic routes that employ isatoic anhydride (65) as synthetic equivalent of anthranilic acid. Treatment of 65 with an aniline gives rise to o-amino amide 66. Alkylation of the amino group, followed by acylation with methyl malonyl chloride gives 68, which is treated with a brominating agent to produce the intermediate 69, which undergoes cyclization by treatment with base to produce the benzodiazepine-dione 70 (Scheme 25.9) [29]. The 1,4-benzodiazepine-2,5-dione 71 can be constructed in a single step by reaction of isatoic anhydride 65 with an a-amino ester (Scheme 25.10). Further substitution at both nitrogens to obtain 73 can be achieved by sequential alkylation. Notably, the N1 nitrogen on 71 can be selectively alkylated to form 72 by taking into account the higher acidity of the anilide nitrogen. Microwave irradiation promotes the cyclization between isatoic anhydride and a-amino acids very efciently, as represented by the solvent-free synthesis of pyrrolo
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Cl OMe H N O O 65 O H2N DMF, 78% NH 2 H N O NH H N OMe OMe PMP THF, 72%
PMP
66
OMe OMe
67
O Cl
O OCH 3 N H N O O OCH 3 PMP O PyHBr 3 O N O OCH 3
THF, 0C, 96%
O OMe
H Br N PMP
68
69
NaOtBu DMF, 86%
O CO 2CH3 PMP
N O
70
Scheme 25.9 Synthesis of 1,4-benzodiazepine-2,5-diones employing isatoic anhydride (65).
[2,1-c][1,4]benzodiazepine-5,11-diones 75 from isatoic anhydride and a proline derivative 74 (Scheme 25.11) [30]. o-Nitroacyl chlorides 76 and o-azidoacyl chlorides 79 [31] can be employed as starting point for the preparation of 1,4-benzodiazepine-2,5-diones. Condensation with an amino ester provides the N-acylated precursors 77 and 80, respectively, that can be cyclized directly into the benzodiazepine-1,3-diones 78 and 81 upon reduction of the masked amine functionality (Scheme 25.12).
25.3.3.2 Ugi 4CC Reaction in the Synthesis of 1,4-Benzodiazepines-2,5-diones A particularly appealing advance in the synthesis of benzodiazepines was the incorporation of the Ugi four-component condensation reaction to prepare the intermediate that ultimately leads to the benzodiazepine upon cyclization. The Ugi four-component condensation (4CC) consists of the reaction of a carboxylic acid, an amine, a carbonyl compound (ketone or aldehyde), and an isocyanide to provide an a-acylamino amide 82 (Scheme 25.13), and has been extensively employed in diversity oriented synthesis [32].

H N O O O ClH 3N CO2Me CO2Me H N O Br K2CO 3 85% Bn O N NH
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CO2Me
CO2Me
pyridine,120C 60%
NH
65
O N Li Br OMe
71
72
Bn O N N O
CO2Me
THF, DMF, -78 to 70C, 6h 68%
73
OMe
Scheme 25.10 One-step synthesis of the 1,4-benzodiazepine-2,5-dione ring from isatoic anhydride (65).
H N O O 65
O +
HOOC HN OH 74
H N MW 3 min 80%
O H N OH
O 75
Scheme 25.11 Microwave-promoted synthesis of 1,4-benzodiazepine-2,5-diones.
Ar NO2 Cl 76 O N H
R1 CO 2Me NO2 N O 77 R1 Ar CO2Me i) Zn, HCl ii) p-TsOH
H N N O 78
H N
O R1 Ar
Et3N, THF, rt
N3 Cl O 79
ClHH 2N Ph
CO2Me
N3
O NH Ph
Et 3N, THF, rt
H N
CO2Me
NaI, AcOH reflux,12 h 78% O 81
O Ph 80
Scheme 25.12 Synthesis of 1,4-benzodiazepine-2,5-diones employing o-nitroacyl chlorides 76 and o-azidoacyl chlorides 79 as anthranilic acid equivalents.
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R1 CO2H + R2-NH2 R1 R -CHO
3
O N R2
R3
H N O
R4
+ R -NC
82
Scheme 25.13 The Ugi four-component condensation (4CC).
The mechanism proposed for the Ugi reaction (Scheme 25.14) involves formation of an imine I by condensation of the amine with the aldehyde, followed addition of the carboxylic acid oxygen and the imino carbon across the isocyanide carbon. The resulting acylated isoamide II then rearranges by acyl transfer to give the nal product.
R2 H
O R3 H
NH2 R2
N R3 I
N R3 H R
1
R2 H R2 H + HO
O R1
H R3 R2HN R
3
R2 H + O
O R1 O
O O
R4 N C
R1
R2HN R
3
O O
R1 R1
O N R2
R3 O
H N
R4
R4
N II
82
Scheme 25.14 Plausible mechanism of the Ugi 4CC.
When the Ugi reaction is conducted employing an anthranilic acid derivative (83) as carboxylic acid component, the resulting a-acylamino amide 84 suffers an intramolecular cyclization in acidic media that leads to the 1,4-benzodiazepine2,5-dione 85 (Scheme 25.15) [33]. Several modications of this synthetic route have been adapted to combinatorial solid-phase synthesis [34].
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R1
CO 2H
83
NH 2 MeOH, 25C 73% R1
O N PMB O NH2 84
PMB-NH 2 i-Pr-CHO NC
H N
AcCl MeOH 55 C 52% R1 O N N H PMB
O 85
Scheme 25.15 Synthesis of 1,4-benzodiazepine-2,5-diones employing the Ugi 4CC.
A completely different approach to the synthesis of 1,4-benzodiazepin-2,5-diones relies on an intramolecular transition metal catalyzed arylation of o-iodoamides 86 The cyclization reaction is carried out employing either Pd [35] or Cu [36] catalysts, depending on the nature of the starting iodoamide [37]. This strategy allows for the preparation of structurally diverse 1,4-benzodiazepines-1,5-diones, as the starting amides are readily prepared through the Ugi 4CC reaction. Copper-catalyzed cyclizations of iodoamides 86 lead to typical benzodiazepine-diones 87 (Scheme 25.16). A similar approach employing o-bromobenzoic acids has been reported recently [38].
R1CHO +
R 2NH 2 + MeOH 45-85%
R3
NC
HO 2C I
Ugi 4CR
1
R3 I X CuI, S CO 2H N X O 87 O R1
R3
H N O
O N R2
86
K2CO 3, DMSO 110 C, 15h 50-99%
N R2
Scheme 25.16 Synthesis of 1,4-benzodiazepine-2,5-diones by Cu-catalyzed intramolecular amidation.
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In contrast, the Pd-catalyzed reaction of diamides 88, which feature two iodosubstituted benzene rings, provides the benzodiazepine containing tetracycles 89 (Scheme 25.17).
R1CHO + I NC MeOH 45-85% I H N O 88 R 2NH 2 HO 2C + I
Ugi 4CR R1 N R2 O I Pd(OAc) 2, DMSO KOAc, 120 C 70-91% O 89 O R1 N R2
Scheme 25.17 Palladium-catalyzed intramolecular amidation in the synthesis of 1,4benzodiazepine-2,5-diones.
The cyclization reaction to build the seven-membered ring of benzodiazepines has been also accomplished by a SNAr reaction on the corresponding uoro-substituted amides 92. Again, a diverse range of the acyclic precursors 92 can be prepared employing the Ugi 4CC, consisting of in this case 2-uoro-4-nitrobenzoic acid (90), a N-Boc-protected amino aldehyde 91, a primary amine, and the isonitrile. The SNAr cyclization occurs upon deprotection of the Boc group. Interestingly, the whole sequence has been performed employing solid-supported scavenging reagents, and, thus, the benzodiazepines 93 are isolated without the need of further purication. An 80-member library has been synthesized employing this methodology (Scheme 25.18) [39]. The intramolecular Ugi 4CC reaction has been employed in the preparation of pyrrolobenzodiazepines 95 and structurally related systems. Thus, employment of the bifunctional pyrrole 94, which features both the carboxylic acid and the aldehyde functionalities in the Ugi condensation, leads directly to the benzodiazepines with the pyrrole fused at the a side (Scheme 25.19) [40].
25.3.4 Other 1,4-Benzodiazepines
An intramolecular aza-Wittig reaction is the key step for the preparation of 1,4benzodiazepine-5-ones 97 from azido esters 96 [41]. Scheme 25.20 presents an example that employs a solid supported equivalent of triphenylphosphine and allows for the very easy isolation of the pure benzodiazepines [42].
25.4 Modifications of the 1,4-Benzodiazepine Ring

F H 2N R2 O2N CO2H F CN R3 Boc + OHC Ugi 4CR MeOH NH R1 rt, 48h PS-tosylhydrazine PS-diisopropylethylamine THF, CH 2Cl2, 24h O2 N
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O N H R1 R3
R2 N
92
O BocHN
90
91
H N 80-member library O2 N O
i) 20% TFA, CH2Cl2 4h ii) PS-morpholine THF, 36h R1 N O
HN R3 R2
93
Scheme 25.18 Synthesis of 1,4-benzodiazepine-2,5-diones by a Ugi 4CC/SNAr sequence.
O CO 2H Cl OHC 94 N R NH2, R NC MeOH, 40 C, 4-18 h 75 - 85% Cl N

1 2
R1
O NHR 2
95
Scheme 25.19 Synthesis of a 1,4-benzodiazepine-5-one through an intramolecular Ugi condensation.
R1
N3 O N R3 CO2Me R2 PPh 2 Toluene 1 h, rt then 18h 100C N R1 N O
OCH 3 R3 R2
96
97
Scheme 25.20 Synthesis of 1,4-benzodiazepine-5-ones.
25.4 Modifications of the 1,4-Benzodiazepine Ring 25.4.1 Introduction
Modications on the 1,4-benzodiazepine skeleton have led to the discovery of new therapeutic agents with diverse functions. As presented in Figure 25.11, the
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alkylation acylation H N O H N N X Halogenation Triflation O nucleophilic addition reduction oxidation electrophilic amination acylation [3+2], [2+2] cycloadditions
NH O
nucleophilic addition Pd-catalyzed cross-couplings (X = Hal, OTf)
Figure 25.11 General picture of the modifications of the 1,4-benzodiazepine basic skeleton.
diazepine ring in 1,4-benzodiazepin-2,5-diones and 1,4-benzodiazepin-2-ones can be subjected to several different types of reactions oriented to the preparation of more elaborated drug candidates. Amide NH groups can be acylated and alkylated employing conventional chemistry. Several examples have been shown in the previous sections, see for instance Scheme 25.10, and will not be further discussed. The carbonyl groups can undergo nucleophilic additions, reductions, and, moreover, can also be transformed into imidoyl halides or triates and subjected to nucleophilic additions and crosscoupling reactions. The C3 methylene can be acylated, oxidized to introduce an oxygen functionality, or subjected to electrophilic amination to introduce a nitrogenated function. Finally, the iminic double bond can be reduced and also participate in [2 2] and [3 2] cycloaddition reactions.
25.4.2 Reactions of the C2 Carbonyl Group
The C2 carbonyl of benzodiazepines is fairly unreactive, and therefore it requires activation prior to any type of reaction. Formation of thiolactam 98 is one of the most frequent solutions for the activation of position 2 of benzodiazepines, because it is a very reactive functional group towards nucleophilic attack. This transformation is carried out employing phosphorous sulde as thiolating agent (Scheme 25.21). The original procedure developed by Sternbach [43], which employed phosphorous
H N Cl N O P4S10 NaHCO3 CH3CN, reflux 94% Cl H N N S
98
Scheme 25.21 Formation of a thiolactam of a 1,4-benzodiazepine-2-one.
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sulde in pyridine as solvent, can be modied to employ more environmentally benign solvents, for instance, reux of acetonitrile in the presence of sodium bicarbonate [44]. An example of nucleophilic addition on the thiolactam is the hydrazination reaction, which gives rise to the important triazolobenzodiazepines after intramolecular cyclization of intermediate 99. This route has been employed in the synthesis of triazolam, alprazolam, estrazolam, and more elaborated triazolobenzodiazepines (Scheme 25.22) [45].
H N Cl N
S RCONHNH 2 EtOH, X Cl
COR HN H N N N X 99 Cl
R N
N X
X=R=H: Estazolam 35 X=H; R=Me: Alprazolam 37 X=Cl; R=Me: Triazolam 36
Scheme 25.22 Hydrazination of C3 thiolactam en route to the synthesis of [1,2,4]triazolo[4,3-a][1,4] benzodiazepines.
On the other hand, reduction of the thiolactam by treatment with Ni/Raney represents the classical route for the synthesis of medazepam (19) from diazepam thiolactam (Scheme 25.23) [46]. Other methods for the activation of the C2-carbonyl include the formation of imidoyl chlorides and imidoyl phosphates (examples of these transformations are provided in Section 25.5.1, Scheme 25.30).
CH3 N Cl N
S Ni/Raney, H 2 Acetone, Cl
CH3 N N
19 medazepam
Scheme 25.23 Thiolactam reduction in the synthesis of medazepam.
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25.4.3 Functionalization at C3
The standard way to introduce a hydroxy functionality at C3 in 1,4-benzodiazepines is by oxidation of the 4-nitrogen to obtain the N-oxide, followed by treatment with acetic anhydride, leading to the 3-acetoxy compound via a Polonovsky rearrangement (Scheme 25.2). Recently, a new direct acetoxylation procedure has been developed that uses catalytic amounts of iodine (2050 mol.%) and K2S2O8 as the stoichiometric oxidant. This method has been reliably scaled up for the synthesis of oxazepam and lorazepam, with overall yields of 83% and 64%, respectively (Scheme 25.24) [47].
40% mol I2 0.8 eq. K 2S2O8 2 eq. KOAc, HOAc 65-70 C, 8-10 h R1 = H, 91% R1 = Cl, 73% 101 AcO Cl
H N Cl N
H N N
O OAc
2.2 eq. NaOH EtOH-H 2O 5 C, 1h Cl
H N N
O OH
R1
R1
R1 R1 = H, 91% oxazepam 24 R1 = Cl, 73% lorazepam 17
H N Cl N
OH
H N Cl N
R1
I2
HI
100
R1
K 2 S 2 O8
K2SO4
Scheme 25.24 Hydroxylation of 1,4-benzodiazepines.
The reaction most likely involves the formation of the 3-iodobenzodiazepine 100, which undergoes nucleophilic substitution to give the acetoxy derivative 101. The 3-amino-1,4-benzodiazepine structure is present in several pharmacologically relevant molecules. 3-Amino-1,4-benzodiazepines can be prepared through two different approaches: from 2-aminobenzophenones and a-aminoglycine derivatives (previously discussed see Scheme 25.6) or by electrophilic amination of a 1,4benzodiazepin-2-one (102). The amination takes advantage of the acidity of the hydrogens at C3, and can be carried out by, among other methods [48], azidation with trisyl azide under basic media to form 3-azidobenzodiazepine 103, followed by reduction by treatment with triphenylphosphine to furnish 3-aminobenzodiazepine 104 (Scheme 25.25) [49]. Carbon substituents at can be introduced at C3 by treatment with the corresponding electrophile under basic media. For instance, acylation of diazepam (11) to obtain

CF3 N N O KOtBu, Trisyl azide THF CF3 N N O N3 PPh3, THF, H 2O 86% (two steps) CF3 N N O
j2197
NH2
102
103
104
Scheme 25.25 Synthesis of 3-amino-1,4-benzodiazepines.
ethoxycarbonyl benzodiazepine 105 is performed by reaction with ethyl chloroformate in the presence of KOtBu (Scheme 25.26).
O i) KOtBu ii) ClCO2Et DMF, -30C to rt 55% Cl O CO2Et
N Cl N
N N
11
105
Scheme 25.26 Synthesis of 3-ethoxycarbonyl-1,4-benzodiazepines.
25.4.4 Substitutions at C5
In the standard methods for the synthesis of 1,4-benzodiazepin-2-ones the substituent at C5 is established in the initial condensation step and cannot be further modied. However, it is possible to introduce different substituents on 1,4-benzodiazepin-2,5-diones 106 upon transformation into imidoyl chloride 107 by treatment with phosphorous oxychloride [50]. A patent by Sano [51] describes the formation of different 5-substituted 1,4-benzodiazepin-2-ones 108 by nucleophilic addition of organomanganese derivatives to the imidoyl chlorides (Scheme 25.27).
O POCl 3, Me 2NH NH Toluene
N N Cl 107
O RLi or RMgX MnX 2 X = Cl, Br R = Bu, Ph, Cy
N N R 108
O 106
Scheme 25.27 Synthetic strategy for the introduction C-substituents at C5.
2198

More recently, the imidoyl chlorides 109 have been employed as substrates for Pdcatalyzed Suzuki, Negishi, and Sonogashira cross-couplings leading to the corresponding 5-aryl substituted benzodiazepines (Scheme 25.28) [52].
B(OH) 2 H N O POCl 3, Me 2NH NH O Toluene Cl H N N O R Pd(PPh 3)4, Na 2CO3 DME-H 2O, 80 C 99-66% R 109 110 H N N O
Scheme 25.28 Suzuki reactions on imidoyl chlorides derived from 1,4-benzodiazepine-2,5-diones.
25.5 1,4-Benzodiazepines with a Fused Heterocycle
The introduction of a heterocyclic ring fused with the seven-membered ring of a benzodiazepine is a type of modication that renders in many examples new benzodiazepines with enhanced or modied biological activities. For this reason, since the beginning of the benzodiazepine era much effort has been devoted to the preparation of benzodiazepines featuring additional heterocyclic rings fused at different positions of the original structure.
25.5.1 Benzodiazepines with a Heterocycle Fused at the a Side (N1-C2 Position)
Estazolam (35) [53], triazolam (36) [54], and alprazolam (37) (Figure 25.12), which bear an additional triazole ring fused at the N1-C2 positions of the benzodiazepine,
R N Cl N X 35 R=H, X=H, Estazolam 36 R=Me, X=Cl, Triazolam 37 R=Me, X=H, Alprazolam N N N Cl N F 38 Midazolam F O N N N CO 2Et
111 Flumazenil
Figure 25.12 Benzodiazepines with a heterocycle fused at the a side.
j2199
H N R1 R2 A N
O path a R1
c N
a path b
c N R1 R2 B
a X
N R2 path c c N b a
R1 R C
2
Figure 25.13 General strategies for the synthesis of benzodiazepines with a heterocycle fused at the a side.
feature interesting anxiolytic properties, and are among the most commonly prescribed benzodiazepines. The imidazole-containing midazolam (38) possesses sedative and hypnotic properties, and is employed in the treatment of insomnia. Another important benzodiazepinic drug is umazenil (111) [55], an analog of 1,4-benzodiazepines-2,5-diones, which features an imidazole ring at the N1-C2-positions, and is employed as a benzodiazepine antagonist and also as a cognitive enhancer in Alzheimers patients. These classes of benzodiazepines can be synthesized through three different general strategies: (i) incorporation of the ve-membered ring by modication of a preformed benzodiazepine (A) (Figure 25.13, path a); (ii) formation of the benzodiazepine ring from an appropriate benzophenone (B) that contains the additional heterocycle (Figure 25.13, path b); (iii) intramolecular dipolar cycloaddition on an appropriate acyclic precursor (C) that creates simultaneously both the ve- and the seven-membered rings (Figure 25.13, path c). The most general approach is path a. This route requires the activation of the C2 carbonyl group, which is usually achieved by formation of the corresponding thiolactam (Scheme 25.22) followed by the addition of the appropriate nucleophiles (Section 25.4.2) [5662], Of particular interest is the transformation into N-nitrosoamidines 113, which are prepared from benzodiazepines in a sequence that includes (i) activation of C2 by formation of a thiolactam, (ii) conversion into amidine 112 by treatment with methylamine, and (iii) nitrosation with NaNO2 in acetic acid (Scheme 25.29). Nitrosoamidines 113 have been employed extensively since the mid-1970s in the preparation of heterocycle fused benzodiazepines [63]. For instance, in some recent examples, reaction with acetylhydrazine gives rise to [1,2,4] triazolo[4,3-a][1,4]benzodiazepines 114, treatment with aminoacetaldehyde dimethyl acetal yields imidazo[1,2-a][1,4]benzodiazepines 115 [64], and reaction with TosMIC
2200

H N O N R2 i) P2S10 , CH 3CN, reflux ii) MeNH2 aq., CH 3CN N R1 N R2 NHMe
R1
112
NaNO 2, AcOH N R1 N R2 N N i) H2NCH 2CH2(OCH 3)2 ii) TsOH, 80% R
1
N NO N R2 Ac-NHNH 2 TsOH, 81-87% R1 N
N R2
115
113
68-82 % BuLi/ Tos -78C to rt N N R1 N R2 Tos NC
114
116
Scheme 25.29 Synthesis of [1,2,4]triazolo[4,3-a][1,4]benzodiazepines and imidazo[1,5-a][1,4] benzodiazepines.
(tosylmethyl isocyanide) [65] leads to imidazo[1,5-a][1,4]benzodiazepines 116 (Scheme 25.29) [66]. The C2 position can be also activated by formation of an imidoyl phosphate 117 or an imidoyl chloride 119, as illustrated in two different syntheses of umazenil derivatives (Scheme 25.30). In the rst case, the enol phosphate is reacted with the anion of an isonitrile to build the imidazole moiety of 118 [67, 68]. In the second example, amidine 120 is employed as an efcient synthetic equivalent of the isonitrile to build the imidazolebenzodiazepine [69]. The strategy sketched in Figure 25.13, path b usually requires multistep synthetic sequences, and the employment of protecting groups. Scheme 25.31 presents one example of this approach, taken from a 1998 patent for the synthesis of midazolam [7070b]. The synthesis starts with benzophenone 122, then, after protection of the ketone functionality as thioacetal 123, the 2-carboxaldehydeimidazole 125 is built via amidine 124. The intermediate 127 required for the cyclization is obtained by

H N R O N O NaH, (EtO) 2 POCl THF, DMF R O N N N OP(OEt) 2 NaH, CN CO 2Et R O N N
j2201
CO 2Et
117
H N F O N O POCl 3 N,N-dimethyl-p-toluidine toluene/100 C, 2h F O 119 Et2N N CO 2Et LiHMDS, THF, -30C N,N-dimethyl-p-toluidine N N Cl AcOH reflux F
118
N N N O 98% CO2Et
121
120
Scheme 25.30 Synthesis of flumazenil derivatives from enolphosphates and imidoyl chlorides.
NH2 NH2 Cl F 122 N CHBr(CHO) 2 AcOH, NEt 3, iPrOH reflux, 6h 83% Cl F N S S CHO NH2OHHCl EtOH 30 min, rt 96% Cl F N S S O HS SH Cl F 123 N CH=NOH NH2 S S N S Cl F 124 S
CH3CN, AlCl 3 reflux, 48 h 50%
TiCl 4, (CH2Cl)2 55 C, 8h 75%
125 N NaBH 3CH, NH 4OAc TiCl 3, MeOH 83% Cl F
N NH2 CAN
126 N Cl
S S
CH3CN, H 2O 80%
N F 38
127
Scheme 25.31 Multistep synthesis of midazolam (38).
2202

formation of an oxime 126 and reduction with NaBH3CN. Cyclization to form midazolam 38 occurs upon cleavage of the thioacetal with ceric ammonium nitrate (CAN). A more convergent approach is path c in Figure 25.13, since both the ve- and seven-membered rings are built in a single synthetic operation. This pathway is particularly useful for the preparation of [1,2,3]triazolo[5,4-a][1,4]benzodiazepines 130, by application of the alkyne azide dipolar cycloaddition [71]. In the example presented in Scheme 25.32 the azido alkyne 129 required for the cyclization is easily prepared from the amino alkyne 128, which results from the reaction of isatoic anhydride and N-methylpropargylamine (Scheme 25.32). Diazotization followed by substitution with NaN3 gives intermediate 129, which suffers intramolecular dipolar cycloaddition to form 130. Notably, the transformation from 128 into 130 occurs in a one-pot process without the isolation of the intermediates.
H N R O O
HN dioxane, reflux R 44-54%
NH 2 N O 128
NaNO 2/HCl AcOH R
N2 N O N
N3 NaN 3 Et2O R O 129 N R
N N
N O 41-55% 130
Scheme 25.32 Synthesis of [1,2,3]triazolo[5,4-a][1,4]benzodiazepines by intramolecular azidealkyne [3 2] cycloaddition.
Interestingly, this approach has been combined with the Ugi 4CC to implement a multicomponent synthesis of [1,2,3]triazolo[4,3-a][1,4]benzodiazepines 132. To this end, the alkyne and azide functionalities have to be incorporated in the amine, aldehyde, or carboxylic acid components. In the example presented in Scheme 25.33 the Ugi 4CC conducted employing propargylamine and o-azidobenzaldehyde gives the azido alkyne 131, which undergoes thermally induced cyclization to form the triazolobenzodiazepine 132 [72]. The intramolecular dipolar cycloaddition has been also applied to prepare pyrazolo [1,5-a]pyrrolo[2,1-c][1,4]benzodiazepines 136, employing a nitrilimine as dipole [73]. The intermediate 135 that suffers the intramolecular cycloaddition is generated in situ from hydrazonyl chloride 134 (which is easily prepared employing conventional chemistry) (Scheme 25.34).

O N N benzene N O O reflux 96% HN N
j2203
NH 2 MeOH 24 h 51% CO 2H H N
N3
N3 NC
N OO
131
132
Scheme 25.33 Multicomponent synthesis of [1,2,3]triazolo[5,4-a][1,4]benzodiazepines by a Ugi 4CC/intramolecular azide-alkyne [3 2] cycloaddition sequence.
NO2 + HN X COCl X O NO2 Fe, AcOH N EtOH, reflux X O N NH2
133
Cl CO2Me N NH CO2Me N N X X O N O N N N CO2Me H H
i) NaNO2/HCl/MeOH ii) O CO2Me Cl X O
NEt3/Toluene reflux, 24 h
134
135
136
Scheme 25.34 Synthesis of pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyrrolo[2,1-c][1,4]benzodiazepines by intramolecular alkene-nitrilimine [3 2] cycloaddition.
Many naturally occurring alkaloids feature a benzodiazepine ring fused at the a face with a quinazoline ring (Section 25.2.4). The benzodiazepine-quinazoline skeleton has been constructed following different strategies. The synthesis of asperlicins C and E was rst achieved by Bock et al. in 1987. In their approach, the quinazoline ring was prepared from the corresponding 1,4-benzodiazepine-2,5dione and methyl anthranilate (Scheme 25.35). To activate the C2 position, the benzodiazepinedione was converted into the methyl imino thioether 137 [74].
CO2Me H N O NH O R (i) Lawesson's reagent (ii) CH3I, (n-Bu 4)NHSO 4 N SCH 3 NH O 137 R NH2 135C, 1h 83%
O N
N NH R
O R= CH 2Indole (asperlicin C)
Scheme 25.35 Synthesis of asperlicin C.
2204

A different approach from 1,4-benzodiazepine-2,5-diones involves an intramolecular aza-Wittig reaction as key step. Selective acylation of the more acidic anilide nitrogen of the corresponding 1,4-benzodiazepine-2,5-dione 138 with o-azidobenzoyl chloride gives the acylated benzodiazepine 139. Then, aza-Wittig cyclization promoted by Bu3P [75] leads to the benzodiazepine-quinazoline hybrids (Scheme 25.36) [76]. A similar procedure has been applied for the preparation of a library of circumdatin analogs employing a solid-supported phosphine [77].
N3 H N O NH O 138 R COCl N3 NEt3, DMAP O 139 O N O Bu3P, benzene NH 60 C O R= CH 2Indole (asperlicin C) 66% R= Me (circumdatin F) 69% R= H (sclerotigenin) 43% O N N NH R
Scheme 25.36 Synthesis of quinazolobenzodiazepine alkaloids through an aza-Wittig reaction.
Circumdatins C and F have been synthesized by the stepwise dehydration of tripeptidic acyclic precursors 140 following the disconnections depicted in Scheme 25.37 [78].
R O N N R1 N R
2
R O O N H O N H 140 R
MeO O OMe R O CbzHN Me N H O
O NHCbz
N H
Scheme 25.37 Synthesis of circumdatins by condensation of an acyclic tripeptide.
Finally, a very direct synthesis of quinazolinobenzodiazepines has been recently disclosed by condensation of two molecules of anthranilic acid with one molecule of a N-Boc protected amino acid 141. This one-pot domino process takes place in only 20 min under microwave heating (Scheme 25.38) [79].
25.5.2 Benzodiazepines with a Heterocycle Fused at the d Side (N4-C5 Position)
The presence of a heterocycle at the N4-C5 positions also renders biologically active benzodiazepines with therapeutic application. The most important structures are
j2205
O OH NH 2 (2 eq.)
R1 + HO2C N 141 H (1 eq.) Boc
O P(OPh) 3 MW, 230 C 20 min N R1 55%, R 1= H 32%, R 1= Me 20%, R 1= CH 2Indole 23%, R 1= Bn N NH O
O N N R1 N H O
Scheme 25.38 Microwave-promoted synthesis of quinazolobenzodiazepines.
oxazolam (40) [80], cloxazolam (41) [81], and mexazolam (42) [82] that incorporate an oxazolidine, and ketazolam (43), which features an oxazino ring (Figure 25.7) [83]. As shown in Scheme 25.39, the oxazolo derivatives are generally prepared N-(2bromoacetyl)benzophenones 142, generated by reaction of benzophenones with bromoacetyl bromide. Reaction with the appropriate amino-alcohol gives rise to the tricyclic systems 4042 upon cyclization of the intermediate iminium cation 143 (Scheme 25.39) [8486]. Variations of this methodology include the reaction of 1,4benzodiazepines with the carbonate of 1,2-propylene [87] or epoxides [88]. An alternative route is the cyclization of a conveniently substituted 2-aryloxazolidine 144 with bromoacetyl bromide (Scheme 25.40) [89].
OH H N Cl R1 O O Br R2 R NH 2
3
H N Cl N
O OH R3 R2 H+
-
H N Cl N O
142
R1 HO
R1
R3
143
R2
R1=Ph, R 2=Me, R 3=H oxazolam, 40 R1=o-Cl-C 6H4, R 2=R3=H cloxazolam, 41 R1=o-Cl-C 6H4, R 2=H, R 3=Me mexazolam, 42
Scheme 25.39 Synthesis of oxazolo[3,2-d][1,4]benzodiazepines.
The same strategy can be applied to the incorporation of different heterocycles. For instance, the reaction of 142 with ethylenediamine gives imidazolino[1,4]benzodiazepine derivatives 145 (Scheme 25.41) [43].
2206

O H N O N R1 O O heat O acid cat. Cl R1 H N N O R2 O Br O Br R1 NH 2 H N O R2
Cl
R3
R3
144
Scheme 25.40 Other synthetic routes to oxazolo[3,2-d][1,4]benzodiazepines.
H N Cl Ar 142 O
O Br H2N(CH 2)2NH 2 EtOH, rt Cl
H N N
R1 HN 145
Scheme 25.41 Synthesis of imidazolino[1,4]benzodiazepines 145.
25.5.3 Cycloaddition Reactions in the Synthesis of 1,4-Benzodiazepines with Fused Heterocycles
The presence of the imine functionality at the N4-C5 positions in 1,4-benzodiazepines makes them viable substrates for cycloaddition reactions. In fact, many examples have been described of [2 2] and [3 2] cycloadditions.
25.5.3.1 [3 2] Cycloadditions The reaction of 1,4-benzodiazepin-2-ones with nitrile imines 147 generated in situ from hydrazinoyl chlorides 146 gives rise to new benzodiazepines 148 incorporating an additional 1,2,4-triazolino ring, in a process that proceeds with total regioselectivity (Scheme 25.42) [43, 90, 91]. Analogously, the reaction with nitrile oxides 149 give rise to [1,2,4]oxadiazolo[4,5-d] [1,4]benzodiazepine derivatives 150, again as single regioisomers (Scheme 25.43) [92]. Thelesscommon1,4-Benzodiazepin-5-ones 153 and 1,4-benzodiazepin-3-ones [93] also react with nitrilimines. In this case the N1-C2 imine acts as dipolarophile, to provide [1,2,4]triazolo[4,3-a][1,4]benzodiazepines 154 [94]. Interestingly, the initial 1,4-benzodiazepin-5-ones 153 are prepared in a sequence that includes formation of an unstable [1,2,3]triazolino[3,4-a][1,4]benzodiazepine 152 through an intramolecular [3 2] cycloaddition of the azide 151, followed by N2 extrusion (Scheme 25.44). The nitrone moiety, a typical dipole, is present in 1,4-benzodiazepine N-oxides 155 (Figure 25.14); these systems react as dipoles in [3 2] cycloadditions with electrophilic dipolarophiles such as a,b-unsaturated carbonyl compounds and sulfones [95], maleimides, and alkyl isocyanides [96].
j2207
ArHN Cl
N CO2Et 146
Base
Ar
N N C CO2Et 147
ArHN N N Ph O Cl
N CO2Et N N Ph N N Ar 148
Et3N, toluene 80 C, 17 h 96-74%
CO2Et
Scheme 25.42 Synthesis of tetrahydro-1H-s-triazolo[4,3-d][1,4]benzodiazepin-2-ones.
HO Cl
N Ar
Base
O N C Ar 149
HO N N Ar
1
N Ar2 Ar1 N N N 150 O
Cl
Et3N, toluene 80 C, 17 h 94-82%
Ar2
Scheme 25.43 Dipolar cycloaddition of nitrile oxides with the N4 C5 benzodiazepine double bond.
NO2 H N O R
N3 N O 151 R
Toluene
N N
N - N2 N R
O 152 MeO2C N N N O 154
N N O 153
Ar N N C CO2Me R
N Ar
Scheme 25.44 Dipolar cycloadditions of 1,4-benzodiazepine-5-ones with nitrilimines.
2208

N N Ar 155 O Z O Ar Z N N O
Figure 25.14 1,4-benzodiazepine-N-oxides as dipoles for [3 2] cycloadditions.
The generation of the 1,4-benzodiazepine N-oxide 157 and the cycloaddition can be carried out in a one-pot sequential process from the acyclic oxime 156. In the example presented in Scheme 25.45, intramolecular dipole formationintermolecular cycloaddition with N-phenylmaleimide gives rise to the corresponding isoxazolobenzodiazepinone 158 as a single diastereoisomer [97].
H N O O H H N O CO2Et
H N N 156
O CO2Et OH
Ph N
xylene, reflux 89%
H N O Ph 158
H N N
CO 2Et
157
Scheme 25.45 Dipolar cycloadditions of 1,4-benzodiazepine N-oxide.
25.5.3.2 [2 2] Cycloadditions The rst reaction between ketenes and 1,4-benzodiazepines was carried out in 1970, employing diazepam 11 and acetyl chloride in the presence of triethylamine. The reaction furnished the oxazinobenzodiazepine 43, commercially known as ketazolam [98]. The reaction is the result of the addition of diketene to the iminic bond of diazepam, instead of the expected [2 2] adduct (Scheme 25.46). The rst example of the synthesis of 1,4-benzodiazepines fused with b-lactams was reported by Gunda and Eneb ack in 1983 [99]. The azetidino[1,2-d][1,4]benzodiazepines 159 were prepared by reaction of 1,4-benzodiazepine-2-ones with the ketene generated from glycine Dane-salt, phosphorous oxychloride, and triethylamine (Scheme 25.47).
j2209
O 2 Cl 2 NEt 3 Me N Cl Ph 11 N Cl O + O O [2+2] Cl
Me N N
Ph Me N
O O N O
Ph
43 Ketazolam
Scheme 25.46 Synthesis of ketazolam by reaction of diazepam with diketene.
N Cl Ph N
O +
RHN
CO2Et
NEt3, POCl 3 0 C to rt 54% R= CO 2Et Cl
Me N N
O TsOH Cl O
Me N N
Ph RHN 159
Ph TsH 3N
Scheme 25.47 Synthesis of 1-amino-azetidino[1,2-d][1,4]benzodiazepin-2-ones 159.
More recently, the cycloaddition of ketenes with 1,4-benzodiazepines has been conducted under the typical conditions of Staudinger-type reactions, in which the ketene partner is generated in situ by the dehydrohalogenation of an acid chloride with triethylamine as base. The reactions proceed with high stereoselectivity, leading to 1-heterosubstituted and 1-spiro azeto[1,2-d][1,4]benzodiazepin-2,5-ones 160 and 161, respectively [100]. In all cases the heterosubstituent coming from the ketene is placed cis to the aromatic substituent of the benzodiazepine (Scheme 25.48). For the preparation of the N-H analogs of 160 an alternative Staudinger reaction has been developed, employing derivatives 162 that have the a bond amide group of the 1,4-benzodiazepine masked as a thioimidate. The NH-derivatives 164 are obtained after treatment of the intermediate adduct 163 with Amberlyst (Scheme 25.49). The [2 2] cycloaddition of benzodiazepines with ketenes has also been employed as key step in the preparation of b-amino acids containing the benzodiazepine substructure 166, as potential antagonists of the endothelin receptor. The [2 2] cycloaddition with the ketene derived from benzylacetic acid occurs with very high yield and stereoselectivity under Staudinger conditions, leading to adduct 165 (Scheme 25.50). Interestingly, after derivatization, the b-lactam can be selectively hydrolyzed to obtain b-amino acid derivatives 166 [101].
2210

AcOCH 2COCl O N Ph CBz N COCl NEt3, CH2Cl2 0 C to rt 80% Cl NEt 3, CH 2Cl2 Cl 0 C to rt 93% Me N N O 160 O N O NCBz 161
Scheme 25.48 Staudinger reaction of the N4 C5 imine of 1,4-benzodiazepines with ketenes.
N Cl
Ph AcO
Me N
Ph
N Cl Ph 162 N
SEt RCH 2COCl NEt 3, CH 2Cl2 Cl 0 C to rt Ph
N N R 163
SEt Amberlyst rt O
H N Cl N
Ph R 164
R=OAc (88%) O R= N O (89%)
Scheme 25.49
The [2 2] reaction can be also applied to introduce modications to 1,4benzodiazepines with a heterocycle fused at the a side, such as midazolam (38), alprazolam (37), and triazolam (36). Following the typical conditions of Staudinger reactions the b-lactams 167 are obtained with moderate yield and cis stereoselectivity (Scheme 25.51).
25.6 Pyrrolo[2,1-c][1,4]Benzodiazepines (PBDs)
Pyrrolo[2,1-c][1,4]benzodiazepines (PBDs) are a class of DNA-interactive potent antitumor agents that are produced by various species of Streptomyces [102]. Figure 25.15 shows some examples [103]. These compounds exert their cycotoxic effect due to the covalent union between the iminic C11 (or the carbonylamino equivalent) of the PDB and the NH2 group of
25.6 Pyrrolo[2,1-c][1,4]Benzodiazepines (PBDs)

N Cl Ph N O BnOCH2COCl NEt3, CH2Cl2 Cl 0 C to rt 92% H N Cl N O N O N R Ph BnO O 0.2 M LiOH THF, MeOH, H 2O 45 C, 2h 75% N N O O H2, Pd/C THF, EtOH, AcOH 50 C, 18 h 74% Cl Ph HO H N Cl O NH O N CO2H N R N N O O
j2211
165
MsO
N N
K2CO3, DMF, 50 C 88%
Ph
Ph
166
Scheme 25.50 Synthesis of azetidino[1,2-d][1,4]benzodiazepines as intermediates in the synthesis of b-amino acids.
N N Cl Ar N
Y XCH2COCl NEt3, CH 2Cl2 Cl rt,17 h Ph
N N N
Ar
O
167
Scheme 25.51 Synthesis of heterocycle[a]azeto[1,2-d][1,4]benzodiazepines.
the guanine base [104], in the minor groove of the DNA double helix, with preference to the purine-guanine-purine sequences (Figure 25.16) [105]. The PBDs have also been employed as scaffolds to attach different organic substituents, mainly attached at C2 and C8, in the search for new conjugates with enhanced biological properties, such as sequence-selective DNA-cleaving or crosslinking activity, and enhanced DNA-binding afnity and selectivity [106]. The key step in the synthesis of PBDs is the formation of the carbinolamino or imino N10C11 bond, which is usually incorporated in the last step of the synthetic sequence, due to its lability. Nevertheless, there are in the literature numerous methods for the synthesis of these systems [107]. Most of the methodologies share the retrosynthetic analysis shown in Scheme 25.52 and, thus, the pyrrolobenzodiazepine ring 169 is prepared from an acyclic precursor 168 that has both amino and aldehyde (X O) functionalities, and which is accessible, for instance, from 2nitrobenzoic acid and a proline derivative [108]. The different methodologies differ in the way the amino and the aldehyde groups are masked along the synthesis. A widely used method implies the intramolecular cyclization of the readily available amino dithioketals 170, promoted by mercury chloride, to yield the nal
2212
HO

H N N OMe H HO CONH 2 H N N O Mazethramycin X Y O Chicamycin, X=OH, Y=OMe Abbeymycin, X=Y=H H 2C O MeO R O DSB-120 N N
2
OMe H CONHMe
HO
H N
OR H
O Anthramycin X Y O Tomamycin, X=OH, Y=OMe Prothracarcin, X=Y=H N N O N N
N CONMe 2 O Porothramycin A (R=H) Porothramycin B (R=Me) MeO O OMe H N N O Sibiromycin OH H
N N
HN
O HO OH
HO MeO
N O HN O HO OH O N
H Et
Neothramycin, R=OH DC-81, R=H
Sibanomycin
Figure 25.15 Some naturally occurring pyrrolo[2,1-c][1,4]benzodiazepines (PBDs).

O HN H2N R1
8 9
N N N DNA R R
1
O HN H N HN H N O R3 N N N DNA
H N
11
10 5
OH H
1 2
-H2O R3
R R
N N O
H R3
R2 7
N
3
Figure 25.16 Possible mechanism for the formation of the PBD-DNA adduct.
iminic derivatives. This strategy has been applied to the preparation of DC-81 (171) (Scheme 25.53) [109]. A different cyclization methodology, which provides the carbinolamino functionality is based on the Swern oxidation of a N-protected amino alcohol such as 172 (Scheme 25.54), to give N-protected PBD 173. In the example featured in Scheme 25.54, after some chemical transformations to give 174, cleavage of the Troc protecting group at N10 leads to the imine-containing PDB 175 [110, 111].
R2 R1 O 169 H N N OH R2 R1 NH 2 N O 168 X R2 R1 NO 2 CO 2H HN Y
Scheme 25.52 General approaches for the synthesis of pyrrolo[2,1-c][1,4]benzodiazepines (PBDs).
25.7 1,5-Benzodiazepines
j2213
R H3CO
NO 2 + COCl HN
CH(SEt) 2
R H3CO
NO2 CH(SEt) 2 SnCl , MeOH 2 N O R H3CO O 171 N N reflux, 80-85%
R H3CO 170
NH2 CH(SEt) HgCl 2, CaCO 3 2 N O CH 3CN-H 2O 55-61%
Scheme 25.53 Synthesis of PBDs from amino dithioketals.

OH H3CO H3CO NO2 CO2H + HN OH
steps Troc NH N O 172 Troc OH N H N O 174 CO2Me O Troc OH N H N O 173 O steps
H3CO H3CO
OH (COCl)2, DMSO, NEt3 CH2Cl2, -60 C 55%
H3CO H3CO
H3CO H3CO
10% Cd-Pb THF, NH 4OH 90%
H3CO H3CO
N N O 175
H CO2Me
Scheme 25.54 PBDs synthesis triggered by Swern oxidation.
The discovery that certain 1,5-benzodiazepines indeed produced similar pharmacological effects to the 1,4-derivatives fostered considerable interest for their synthesis. In addition to their known psychotropic potential, the biological interest of 1,5benzodiazepines has been expanded to other therapeutic applications in diseases
2214

such as cancer [112], viral infections (non-nucleoside inhibitors of HIV reverse transcriptase) [113], and cardiovascular disorders [114]. Moreover, the 1,5-benzodiazepine scaffold is found in compounds that are active against various peptidic hormones such as CCK [115], interleukin-converting enzymes [116], and potassium blockers (IK) [117].
25.7.1 General Methods of Synthesis of 1,5-Benzodiazepines
Most of the methods of synthesis of 1,5-benzodiazepines are based on the condensation of a benzene-1,2-diamine or a synthetic equivalent with a 1,3-dielectrophile such as a dicarbonyl or dicarboxy compound (Figure 25.17). Clobazam 45, which has been marketed as an anxiolytic since 1975 and is the most representative compound of 1,5-benzodiazepines, is prepared by a variation of this route. The ring is synthesized by intramolecular cyclization of ethyl N-phenyl-N-(2nitro-5-chlorophenyl)malonate 177. The regioselectivity of the reaction is determined by employing a starting material that features two nitrogenated functionalities of different nature, such as 3-chloro-6-nitro-N-phenylaniline (176). Reaction of 176 with ethyl 2-(chlorocarbonyl)acetate, followed by reduction of the nitro group of 177 gives amino ester 178, which undergoes cyclization to 1,5-benzodiazepine 179 by treatment with dilute acid. The synthesis of clobazam 45 is completed by nal methylation of the amide NH (Scheme 25.55) [118]. Several variations of this methodology have been developed [119], but most of them rely on the employment of o-nitroanilines 180 as synthetic equivalent of the ophenylenediamine that acts as double nucleophile. The starting o-nitroanilines can be easily obtained, for instance, from N-unsubstituted o-nitroanilines 181 or by nucleophilic aromatic substitution on o-halonitrobenzene derivatives 182 (Scheme 25.56). This methodology has also been adapted to solid-phase organic synthesis. As presented in Scheme 25.57 the solid-phase anchored benzodiazepine 183 is prepared following the methodology discussed in Schemes 25.55 and 25.56. Then, a high degree of diversity can be generated by the incorporation of different substituents R2
X
N N H N N R O
NH 2 NH 2
X Y X O
NH 2 NH R
Figure 25.17 General method for the synthesis of 1,5-benzodiazepines.
NO2 Cl 176 NH Ph H N Cl N Ph 179 O MeI O Cl O Cl C CH2CO2Et Cl 177 NO2 CO2Et reduction Cl 178 O NH2 CO2Et
j2215
N Ph O
N Ph O
aqHCl
N N Ph 45
Scheme 25.55 Synthetic route to clobazam (45).
Hal R2 CuI, K 2CO 3 NO2 R1 NH R2 180
NH2 R2
NO2 R1 181 NH2
NO2 R1 182 F
Scheme 25.56 Approaches to o-nitroanilines, the direct precursors of 1,5-benzodiazepines.

O HN F NO2 H2 N R1 CO 2H HN NO2 N H O R1 CO 2H
NH 2
HO2C
F NO 2
HATU, DIEA DMF, rt, 8h O 2M SnCl 22H2O DMF, rt, 24h HN NH 2 N H R1
0.5M, NaHCO 3 acetone 1 : 1 70 C, 24-72h O
DECP, DIEA DMF, rt, 8h
HN NH HN R
1
R2
CO 2H
DMF, 50 C 24-48h
183 O
O HN N HN X R3 R2 Lithiated 4-Bz2-oxazolidinone R1 THF/DMF rt, 1h O HN N R3 N O R1 R2 TFA/DCM rt, 0.5h R3 H2N O
R2 N N O R1
184
185
186
Scheme 25.57 Solid-supported synthesis of 1,5-benzodiazepines.
2216

and R3, by selective alkylation of the aniline NH to obtain 184, followed by alkylation of the anilide NH, which gives 185. The nal 1,5-benzodiazepine-2-one 186 is obtained after cleavage from the solid support [120]. 1,5-Benzodiazepines featuring an amino group at C3 are particularly interesting, due to the biological activity of some of their members. They are synthesized by a similar strategy, by condensation of the diacid chloride 187 with an o-phenylene diamine 188. Final reduction of the hydrazone functionality of 189 yields the 3amino-1,5-benzodiazepine 190 (Scheme 25.58) [121].
O O HO O PhNHNH 2 EtOH, H 2O, HCl O NNHPh HO O PCl 5, CCl 4 O NNHPh Cl O 187
HO
HO
Cl
NHR 2 NH 188
R1
R2 N N
O NNHPh
Zn dust AcOH
R2 N N
O NH2 O R1
THF, 50 C, 3h
O R1
189
Scheme 25.58 Synthesis of 3-amino-1,5-benzodiazepines 188.
190
Derivatives of 1,5-benzodiazepines 192 have also been prepared by condensation of o-phenylene diamines with two equivalents of an enolizable ketone (191) (Scheme 25.59). Numerous reagents, such as BF3-etherate, polyphosphoric acid, SiO2, MgO/POCl3, Yb(OTf)3, Sc(OTf)3, Al2O3/P2O5, AcOH under microwave and ionic liquids, and NBS [122] have been utilized to promote this condensation reaction. In the example shown, ceric ammonium nitrate is employed to promote
NH 2 NH 2 + R1
R2
CAN (10% mol) MeOH, rt 65-95%
H N N 192
R1 R2 R2 R1
191
Scheme 25.59 1,5-Benzodiazepines from o-phenylenediamine and ketones.
j2217
the condensation [123]. Obviously, this three-component reaction is limited to the incorporation of two identical ketone subunits.
25.7.2 1,5-Benzodiazepines with a Fused Heterocycle
Similar to the analogous 1,4-benzodiazepines, the incorporation of an additional fused ring renders interesting biological properties to 1,5-benzodiazepines. For instance, s-triazolo[4,3-a][1,5]benzodiazepines 193 [124], imidazo[1,2-a][1,5]benzodiazepines 194 [125], and also thiazolo[3,2-a] derivatives 195 [126] show moderate anticonvulsant and SNC depressor properties in animals (Figure 25.18). These types of benzodiazepines can be readily prepared by 1,3-dipolar cycloadditions on one iminic double bond. For instance, cycloaddition of the imine of a 1,5benzodiazepinone (196) with a nitrilimine leads to triazolo-1,5-benzodiazepines 197 [127129]. Analogously, the dipolar cycloaddition reaction with nitrile oxides provides oxadiazolo-1,5-benzodiazepines 198 [130] (Scheme 25.60).
The chemistry of 2,3-benzodiazepines has attracted great attention since the discovery that some members of this family serve as orally active anticonvulsant and noncompetitive antagonists of the AMPA subtype of glutamate excitatory amino acid receptors [131]. Tosopam (44) and talampanel (199) (Figure 25.19) are the most representative 2,3-benzodiazepines. Tosopam (44) possesses anxiolytic properties [132] and is prescribed in the treatment of anxiety and alcohol withdrawal. Talampanel (199) has been studied to treat epilepsy, multiple sclerosis, and Parkinsons disease, and also in the treatment of brain tumors and traumatic brain injuries [133].
R N Cl N
R2 N N N F 3C N S
O X
O X
R = H, Me X = H, Cl CF 3 193
R1 = H, Me; R 2 = H X = Cl, CF 3; Y = H, F 194 195
Figure 25.18 Tricyclic 1,5-benzodiazepines.
2218

N Cl Ph N Ph THF H Ph N N H 197 Ph N N N N Ph Me O
NEt3, N N H 196 Me
O Cl
OH Ph
O Me
NEt 3, THF
N O H 198
Scheme 25.60 Synthesis of [1,2,4]triazolo[4,3-a][1,5]benzodiazepines and [1,2,4]oxadiazolo[4,5-a] [1,5]benzodiazepines by 1,3-dipolar cycloadditions with nitrilimines and nitrile oxides, respectively.
25.8.1 2,3-Benzodiazepine Ring Synthesis
The obvious strategy for the construction of the 2,3-benzodiazepine ring involves the double condensation of a proper dielectrophile with hydrazine or a hydrazine derivative (Figure 25.20). The rst strategy is exemplied by the synthesis of GYKI 52 466 (201), a direct precursor of talampanel. The 2,3-benzodiazepine is constructed by condensation of hydrazine hydrate with benzophenone derivative 200, which features a carbonyl and a ketal functionalities in the appropriate positions (Scheme 25.61) [134]. 1-Aryl-3,5-dihydro-4H-2,3-benzodiazepin-4-ones 206 are prepared by reaction of hydrazines with ketoacid 205. The ketoacid 205 is prepared in two steps from phenethyl alcohols 202 and aromatic aldehydes 203. Condensation in hydrogen
O O N N
O O
CH3 H N N COCH3
H2N 199 Talampanel
44 Tofisopam
Figure 25.19 Important 2,3-benzodiazepines.
j2219
Y N N X +
NH 2 NH 2
NH N
Y X +
NH 2 NH 2
Figure 25.20 Benzodiazepine ring synthesis.

Me O Me N OMe O OMe OMe O N2H4H2O EtOH, HCl O O N N
Me O O Br OMe i) BuLi, THF OMe ii) O
Ph2CN
Ph 2CN
H2 N
200
201
Scheme 25.61 Synthesis of GYKI 52 466 (201).
chloride saturated dioxane gives rise to 1-arylisochromans 204. Then, oxidation with CrO3 provides the ketoacid, which is further condensed with hydrazine (Scheme 25.62) [135].
MeO MeO R OH +
1
CHO
HCl(g) dioxane reflux, 1h R2
R 202
203 O OH O
204
R2
CrO 3 35% H 2SO 4 acetone
MeO R
H2N-NH 2H2O or H2N-NHMe EtOH, reflux 3-4h
MeO R
O N H(Me) N
R1 205
R2
R1 206
R2
Scheme 25.62 Synthesis of 2,3-benzodiazepines from a ketoacid and hydrazine.
2220

Alternatively, precursor ketoester 208 can be prepared by FriedelCrafts acylation of phenylacetic acid derivative 207 (Scheme 25.63) [136, 137]. Notably, a solidsupported version of this strategy has been also developed [138].
O O CO2Me O H2N-NH2H2O EtOH, reflux 3-4h 24-62% O O O N H N
O O
207
4-R-C6H4-COCl SnCl4, CH2Cl2 CO2Me or 4-R-C6H4-CO2H P2O5, ClCH2CH2Cl 18-63%
208 R
Scheme 25.63
Talampanel (199) features a chiral center in the seven-membered ring. Chirality can be introduced by selective reduction of the N3-C4 iminic double bond from a 5H2,3-benzodiazepine (201) [139]. Otherwise, the stereocontrolled synthesis of this molecule can be achieved by cyclization through an intramolecular SN2 reaction of enantiomerically pure mesylate 213. The synthesis starts from ketone 209, which is biocatalytically reduced to alcohol 210 in 99.9% ee (Scheme 25.64) [140]. Condeni) Z. rouxii XAD-7 resin O O 2N O O ee: 99.9% OH HCl, Toluene ii) air, 50% NaOH DMSO/DMF 85% CHO O O O OH
O O
209
210
211
O H2N-NHAc EtOH/HCl 91% O OH N CH3SO2CI, Et 3N NHAc CH 2Cl2 87% O 2N O O OMs N NHAc
NO 2
LiOtBu, THF 91% 99.9% ee
O 2N
212
Me O O N COCH 3 N O H2, Pd/C EtOH 91% O
213
Me N COCH 3 N
O2 N
214
H2N
199
Scheme 25.64 Synthesis of talampanel (199).
j2221
sation with p-nitrobenzaldehyde followed by air autoxidation gives hemiketal 211. The substrate for the intramolecular cyclization is then generated by formation of hydrazone 212 followed by mesylation of the alcohol to give 213. The intramolecular SN2 reaction proceeds with total inversion of conguration, leading to 214. Finally, reduction of the nitro group gives talampanel (199). A modication of this strategy has been applied to the preparation of analogs with diverse substitution at N4 [141]. Very recently, it has been shown that 2,3-benzodiazepine 220 derivatives can be obtained from benzocyclobutenones 215 and lithiated diazo compounds 216. The process involves nucleophilic addition of the lithiated diazo compound 216 to the carbonyl group of 215, to give alkoxide intermediate 217, which easily undergoes an oxy-anion-accelerated ring opening to generate o-quinodimethane 218. Then, a formal 8p-electrocyclic ring closure recovers the aromaticity of the benzene ring to form 220 via its enolate form 219 (Scheme 25.65).
O R1 R2 215 O + R N2 Li 216 THF, -78 C to rt 69 - 82% R1, R2 = H, OMe R = TMS, CO 2Et R1 R2 220 R N NH
R R
O N2 217 electrocyclic ring-opening R1 R2 218 O R N N
O R1 R2 219
R N N
8-electrocyclization
Scheme 25.65 2,3-Benzodiazepines from benzocyclobutenones and lithiated diazo compounds.
25.8.2 2,3-Benzodiazepines with a Fused Heterocycle
In the search for new 2,3-benzodiazepines with enhanced pharmacological properties, derivatives featuring a condensed heterocyclic ring have been prepared. A heterocycle has been attached at the C1-N2 face by dipolar cycloaddition. For instance reaction of 3,5-dihydro-4H-2,3-benzodiazepin-5-ones 221 with benzonitrile oxide leads to new benzodiazepines 222 with an oxadiazole ring condensed at the C1-N2 face (Scheme 25.66) [142].
2222

MeO X O NH N Cl Ph N OH Et3N, CH 2Cl2 20-24 h, rt MeO X O R O NH N N Ph X = R = H, 58% X = OMe; R = H, 45% X = OMe; R = Cl, 52%
222
221
Scheme 25.66 [3 2] Dipolar cycloadditions of 2,3-benzodiazepines.
A fused heterocycle can be incorporated at the N3-C4 position through stepwise procedures similar to those described for 1,4-benzodiazepines. In a rst step 3,5dihydro-4H-2,3-benzodiazepin-5-ones 223 are activated by thiolation with Lawessons reagent [143]. Reaction of 224 with ethyl carbazate affords 11H-[1,2,4] triazolo[4,5-c][2,3]benzodiazepin-3(2H)-one derivatives 225. Moreover, condensation of 224 with hydrazine gives rise hydrazinyl derivatives 226, which are converted into 2,12-dihydro-[1,2,4]triazino[4,3-c][2,3]benzodiazepine-3,4-dione derivatives 227 by treatment with oxalyl chloride (Scheme 25.67) [144].
MeO MeO O NH N Lawesson's reagent Toluene, 90-120 min MeO MeO S NH N H2NNHCO 2Et n-BuOH, 24 h MeO MeO N N N NH O
223
H2NNH 2H2O THF,rt,1h MeO MeO
224
225
N NH N
NH 2
(COCl) 2
MeO
N NH N N O O
Toluene, rt MeO 2h
226
227
Scheme 25.67 Synthesis of benzodiazepines with a fused-heterocycle at the N3-C4 side.
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Keana, J.F.W., Woodward, R.M., and Ca, S.X. (1998) Journal of Medicinal Chemistry, 41, 2621. Zappala, M., Postorino, G., Micale, N., Caccamese, S., Parrinello, N., Grazioso, G., Roda, G., Menniti, F.S., De Sarro, G., and Grasso, S. (2006) Journal of Medicinal Chemistry, 49, 575. Bevacqua, F., Basso, A., Gitto, R., Bradley, M., and Chimirri, A. (2001) Tetrahedron Letters, 42, 7683. Ling, I., Podanyi, B., Hamori, T., and Solyom, S. (1995) Journal of the Chemical Society-Perkin Transactions 1, 1423. Anderson, B.A., Hansen, M.M., Harkness, A.R., Henry, C.L., Vicenzi, J.T., and Zmijewski, M.J.J. (1995) Journal of the American Chemical Society, 117, 12358.
141 Anderson, B.A., Ham, N.K., Hansen,
M.M., Harkness, A.R., Lodge, D., and Leander, J.D. (1999) Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry Letters, 9, 1953. 142 (a) De Sarro, G., Chimirri, A., De Sarro, A., Gitto, R., Grasso, S., Giusti, P., and Chapman, A.G. (1995) European Journal of Pharmacology, 294, 411; (b) Bruno, G., Chimirri, A., Gitto, R., Nicol o, F., and Scopelliti, R. (1999) Acta Crystallographica C, 55, 685. 143 Jesberger, M., Davis, T.P., and Barner, L. (2003) Synthesis, 1929. 144 Gitto, R., Orlando, V., Quartarone, S., De Sarro, G., De Sarro, A., Russo, E., Ferreri, G., and Chimirri, G. (2003) Journal of Medicinal Chemistry, 46, 3758.
j2231
26 Porphyrins: Syntheses and Reactions

Venkataramanarao G. Anand, Alagar Srinivasan, and Tavarekere K. Chandrashekar
Porphine (1) is the parent form of porphyrin (Figure 26.1). Porphyrin is a tetrapyrrolic pigment (24) with various substitutions on the macrocycle. Based on the substitution, they are known as octaethyl porphyrins (OEPs), tetra phenyl porphyrins (TPPs) and octaethyl tetra phenyl porphyrins (OETPPs). It is recognized chiey for the role of its metal complexes in oxygen transport/storage in animals and for the conversion of carbon dioxide into oxygen in plants, apart from a multitude of diverse functions that it executes in various other biological processes [1, 2]. This has led it to acquiring the sobriquet Pigment of Life [3]. From a chemists point of view, it has been fascinating to study the properties of this macrocycle to understand its role in biology. From an organic perspective, it has four pyrrole sub-units that are interlinked through four methine (or meso) carbons in a cyclic fashion. Its stability is attributed to the aromatic character due to the delocalization of p electrons. The conjugated pathway accounts for a formal 18p system, which satises Huckels 4n 2 rule for aromaticity. Owing to this conjugation, porphyrin absorbs strongly in the visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum. A characteristic porphyrin spectrum has an intense absorption band around 420 nm, also known as the Soret band, followed by weak absorptions in the region 500650 nm [1]. Its ability to absorb visible light and to carry out energy/ electron transfer has been the backbone of photosynthesis in plants. Based on this natural phenomenon, several attempts are being directed towards articial photosynthesis to harness solar energy. From the inorganic viewpoint, the core of the porphyrin ring is an excellent binding site for various metal ions due to the presence of imino and amino type nitrogen of the pyrrole rings [2]. Porphyrin complexes, with biological signicance, of Fe, Mg, and Co are found abundantly in nature.
2232
j 26 Porphyrins: Syntheses and Reactions

Ar Ar Ar N Ar N H H N Ar TPP (3) N Ar N Ar OETTP (4) N N N Ar
NH N
N HN
NH N
N HN
Porphine (1)
OEP (2)
Figure 26.1 Tetrapyrrolic pigments.
In fact, it is a versatile ligand for complexing not only metals, but also for a few metalloids [4] in the periodic table. With such diverse functionality, porphyrin has attracted many researchers across the globe, who have explored its role in various applications. New synthetic strategies have evolved to ne-tune the properties of the macrocycle for applications ranging from microelectronics [5] to medicine [6]. The outcome of this process has led to new derivatives such as contracted porphyrins [7], expanded porphyrins [8], confused porphyrins [9], and core-modied porphyrins [10]. In this chapter, we highlight recent advancements in the synthesis of porphyrin and porphyrinoids (porphyrin-like macrocycles) and their reactions with various reagents.
26.1.2 System Isomers 26.1.2.1 Tetrapyrrolic Systems Isomers of porphyrin have the same number of pyrrolic subunits but with altered links between the heterocyclic units. One of the ways to name porphyrin and its isomers is through numbering the meso carbons and the manner in which the heterocyclic units are linked to each other. Each meso carbon is identied by one (1) and each direct link between two adjacent heterocyclic units is given a zero (0). For example, porphine (1) and its isomer porphycene (5) [11] are recognized as [1.1.1.1] and [2.0.2.0] 18p tetrapyrrolic systems, respectively (Figure 26.2). Similarly, 68 are identied as [2.1.0.1], [2.1.1.0], and [3.0.1.0] 18p tetrapyrrolic systems. Their trivial names are corrphycene [12], hemiporphycene [13] and isoporphycene [14], respectively.
N H N
N H N
NH N
N HN
NH N
N HN
NH N
N HN
Porphycene (5)
Corrphycene (6)
Hemiporphycene (7)
Isoporphycene (8)
Figure 26.2 Examples of isomers of porphyrin.
26.1 Introduction
j2233
Ar N HN N Ar
Ar NH N Ar
Ar
Ar N N H H N
Ar
Ar HN
Ar HN N Ar
Ar N Ar
HN Ar
N Ar Ar
Ar
n-Confused TPP (9)
Trans-Doubly nConfused TPP (10)
Cis-Doubly n-Confused TPP (11)
n-Fused TPP (12)
Figure 26.3 Pyrrole inverted systems.
26.1.2.2 Pyrrole Inverted Systems In some cases, a pyrrole sub-unit exhibits a and b connectivity leading to, for example, N-confused porphyrin 9 (Figure 26.3) [15]. Instead of two alpha connectivities, a beta and an alpha carbon become part of the conjugated framework. Furuta and Latos-Grazynski independently reported the formation of such porphyrins, wherein a sp2 carbon replaces one of the nitrogens in the core of the macrocycle. The skeleton structure is similar to that of porphyrin, except for the inversion of a pyrrole ring. Possible isomers with more than one confused pyrrole ring were reported later and these are called doubly confused porphyrins. Depending on the location of the confused pyrrole rings with respect to each other, they are identied as trans-doubly N-confused porphyrin (10) [16] and cis-doubly N-confused porphyrin (11) [17]. Depending on the location of hydrogen on the pyrrolic nitrogen atoms, different tautomeric structures have been identied through proton NMR. N-Confused porphyrin 9 is also found to form a fused structure known as N-fused porphyrin, 12. Some expanded porphyrins with confused pyrrole rings have also been reported. 26.1.2.3 Core-Modified Porphyrins Another kind of porphyrin isomer is known as core-modied porphyrins [10]. Here, one or more pyrrole rings in porphyrins can be replaced by other heterocyclic units such as furan/thiophene/selenophene/tellurophene. Depending on the number of heteroatoms in the macrocycle they are named as mono or di-oxa/thia/selena porphyrins [18, 19] (13 and 14, Figure 26.4). Some representative examples are shown below. Porphyrins can also have a confused non-pyrrolic heterocyclic ring.
Ar X N H N Ar
X = S/Se/O/Te 13
Ar N Ar
Ar X N Y Ar
X = S/Se/O
Ar N Ar 14 Y = S/Se/O
Ar X NH Ar
X = S/Se/O
Ar N Ar
Ar N Ar
Ar N
H N Ar 16
X = S/N-Me/O
N 15
Core Modified TPP
Core Modified n-Confused TPP
Figure 26.4 Core-modified porphyrins.
2234

O Me NH N HN NH Et N R Oxybenziporphyrin (17) R p-Benziporphyrin (19) N HN Et Ar Oxypyriporphyrin (18) O Ar Me N N H N Ar Ar
Figure 26.5 Examples of a six-membered ring within the porphyrin framework.
In some macrocycles, pyrrole or the other heterocyclic ring have a and b links in the macrocycle. They are known as core-modied N-confused porphyrins (15 and 16) [20, 21]. They all exhibit properties similar to that of porphyrin and can bind metal ions in a few cases. Since elements like S/Se are considered as poor donors, they are ideal ligands to stabilize metal ions in lower oxidation states. Apart from ve-membered heterocycles, six-membered rings such as benzene [22] and pyridine can also replace pyrrole in the porphyrin framework. Some examples are oxybenziporphyrin (17) [23], oxypyriporphyrin (18) [24] and p-benziporphyrin (19) [25] (Figure 26.5). Larger carbon rings such as a seven-membered cycloheptatrienyl ring and fused cyclic derivatives such as indene and azulene can also replace a pyrrole ring to form, for example, tropiporphyrin (20) [26], azuliporphyrin (21) [27] and benzocarbaporphyrin (22) [28] (Figure 26.6). They exhibit interesting features in terms of p electron delocalization and their effect on diatropic ring currents. In some cases they are found to be aromatic and in others the ring current is disrupted based on the nature of the six- or ve-membered ring present in the conjugated pathway. A six-membered cyclic sub-unit and a non-pyrrolic heterocycle can also be a part of the porphyrin framework. Macrocycles such as core-modied oxybenziporphyrin (23) [29], azuliporphyrin (24) [30] and dithiadiazuliporphyrin (25) [31] represent a combination of ve- and six-membered cyclic sub-units within a porphyrin framework (Figure 26.7).
N H N NH N HN
Me NH Et N R R HN
Me Et
Tropiporphyrin (20)
Azuliporphyrin (21)
Benzocarbaporphyrin (22)
Figure 26.6 Inclusion of larger carbon rings in the porphyrin framework.
26.1 Introduction
j2235
Ar X Ar N H N
Ar N X N
Ar S
Ar
S Ar Ar Ar
X = S/O
Core Modified Oxybenziporphyrin (23)
Core Modified Azuliporphyrin (24)
Dithia Diazuliporphyrin (25)
Figure 26.7 Combinations of five- and six-membered cyclic sub-units within a porphyrin framework.
In the case of telluraporphyrin (26) [32], the carbontellurium bond can be broken, leading to the formation of vacataporphyrin (27) [33] (Figure 26.8).
26.1.2.4 Expanded Porphyrins The delocalization of p electrons in porphyrin can be extended either by increasing the number of heterocyclic units or meso carbons linking them in a cyclic fashion. Molecules synthesized based on this concept are called expanded porphyrins [8]. Even though this was not realized by any forethought, the serendipitous discovery of a 22p ve pyrrolic macrocycle by Woodward and coworkers [34] generated a new trend towards the design and synthesis of giant conjugated macrocycles. Expanded porphyrins synthesized through an increased number of meso carbons are called vinylogous porphyrins. The groups of Markl [35] and Franck [36] have independently synthesized tetraoxa and tetrapyrrolic vinylogous porphyrins with multiple methine bridges between four heterocyclic rings (Figure 26.9). Expanded porphyrins with more heterocyclic rings have attracted attention for their potential in various applications [8]. Synthetically, they challenge chemists to create large, at conjugated macrocycles. To date, a maximum of 24 pyrrole units have been linked to each other in a cyclic fashion [37]. Unlike the parent porphyrin, these macrocycles have a combination of meso carbon bridges and direct carboncarbon bonds between two or more heterocycles as bridges to link each other in a circular fashion. They have been studied extensively for their potential in applications such as molecular recognition [38], nonlinear optics [39] and as sensitizers for photodynamic
Ar Te N H N Ar N
Ar
Ar N N
Ar
Ar N
Te N Te
Ar
H N
Ar
Ar
Ar
Ar
Ar
Telluraporphyrin (26)
Vacataporphyrin (27)
Ditelluraporphyrin (28)
Figure 26.8 Tellurium-containing porphyrins and one of their derivatives (27).
2236

n O N + + HN n (n = 0,1...) O N + + O 2 ClO4 N 2 ClO4 N N
NH N
Figure 26.9 Examples of expanded porphyrins.
therapy. Their photo-physical properties can be altered by replacing pyrrole rings with other heterocyclic units such as furan/thiophene/selenophene/tellurophene and even other six-membered cyclic sub-units such as benzene and pyridine. Even though various macrocycles have been described above, their synthesis is mainly dependent on either acid-catalyzed condensations or oxidative coupling reactions under acidic conditions [8]. But most of them are made in poor to moderate yields due to the tendency of pyrrole to polymerize under acidic conditions. An overview of the synthesis of these macrocycles along with interesting examples is discussed below.
26.2 Synthetic Chemistry of Porphyrins and Expanded Porphyrins
The Rothemund reaction [40] of pyrrole and benzaldehyde in reuxing propionic acid is the simplest way to synthesize porphyrin in general and TPP (3) in particular (Scheme 26.1). Most porphyrin isomers such as porphycene, corrphycene, hemiporphycene and isoporphycene have substituents on the b positions of the pyrrole rings. In general, the synthesis of b-substituted porphyrins is a multi-step process. Vogel and coworkers [11] were the rst to synthesize porphycene (5) through a McMurry coupling of bipyrrole dialdehydes in 1025% yield depending on the nature of the substitutent on the pyrrole ring. Corrphycene (6) has also been synthesized by a McMurry-type coupling of a tetrapyrrolic dialdehyde in 1520% yield (Scheme 26.2) [12]. The next isomer, hemiporphycene (7) was discovered by Callot [41] and coworkers through a ring contraction of homoporphyrin through a demetallationmetallation sequence as shown in Scheme 26.2. Later, Vogel and Sessler developed a rational synthesis for 7 through a McMurry coupling of a tetrapyrrole dialdehyde in 25% yield. Isoporphycene (8) has also been synthesized, through Pd-catalyzed condensation of tetrapyrrole vinylogousaldehyde in 3% yield (Scheme 26.3) [14]. This molecule is thermally stable, but can undergo interconversion at the double bounds upon exposure to light.
j2237
CHO N H +
Propionic Acid
NH N
N 3 HN
R1 OHC
R2 R2 N H N H
R1 R1 CHO TiCl4 Zn/Cu, THF R1
R2 R2 N H N N H N
R1 5
R2 R2
R1
Scheme 26.1
Owing to similar 18p conjugation, all the porphyrin isomers described above display physical characteristics comparable to the parent porphyrin system. They also exhibit intense Soret-like absorption in the vicinity of 400 nm along with relatively intense Q-type bands in the lower energy region 500700 nm. Owing to these
R2 NH R3 R4 N 6 R2 N HN R4 R3
R1
R2 R2 N H NH CHO N H HN OHC
R1 1. TiCl4 R3 R4 Zn/CuCl, THF 2. FeCl3
R1
R1
R3 R4
NH HN NH HN CHO OHC
Scheme 26.2
1. TiCl4 Zn, THF 2. FeCl3 N
NH
N HN 7
2238

NH HN
NH
HN
PdCl2
N N Pd
N N
N N Pd
N N
OHC
Scheme 26.3
characteristics they appear attractive as sensitizers for their use in photodynamic therapy (PDT). The synthesis of porphycene led to many reports on core-modied porphycene isomers [42] by replacing some or all pyrrole rings by other heterocyclic systems such as furan, thiophene or selenophene (Scheme 26.4). Most of them were synthesized through low-valent titanium coupling of appropriate dialdehyde precursors.
OHC
TiCl4 CHO Zn
O O
O O
1. Br2 2. HClO4
O O
O O
OHC
TiCl4 CHO Zn
S S
S S
+ 2 e-
S S
S S
OHC
Se
N H
TiCl4 CHO Zn
Se H N
N H Se
DDQ
Se N
N Se
Scheme 26.4
The N-confused porphyrins 912 and analogues are recent entries into the growing list of porphyrin isomers. The rst synthesis of 9 was reported simultaneously and independently by the groups of Furuta and Latos-Grazynski (Scheme 26.5) [15]. Both groups were able to isolate the novel isomer under different reaction conditions depending on the nature of the acid catalyst and the time required to complete the reaction. In either case, the product yield was very low (47%). Subsequently, Lindsey and coworkers [43] performed a detailed study on modied Rothemund reaction conditions to optimize the yield of N-confused porphyrin and were able to improve
j2239
N H
CHO N H + t-BuOH/CH2Cl2 HBr
Ar N Ar
Ar N H H N Ar 9 N BF3. OEt2 p-Chloranil
CHO +
Scheme 26.5
the yields up to 39%. These porphyrinoids were also prepared in a stepwise manner using MacDonald-type [2 2] condensation by Dolphins group in 25% yields [49], respectively. Furuta and coworkers have developed the chemistry of N-confused porphyrins further by the synthesis of doubly N-confused porphyrins 10 and 11 (Scheme 26.6). They are synthesized in a step-wise manner from modied dipyrromethanes, in which one of the pyrrole rings has a b link to the meso carbon. In the cis case, the two inverted rings are adjacent [17], while they are diagonally opposite in the trans case [16].
C6F5 NH O NH C6F5 1. NaBH4 2. acid 3. DDQ Ar NH N Ar N Ar N Ar KOH ROH Ar Ar NH N Ar
HN Ar OR
N 10
C6F5 NH NH + C6F5CHO acid oxidant
C6F5 N C6F5
NH
C6F5 N
H N 11
OEt C6F5
Scheme 26.6
The inverted pyrrole ring, in 9, can be dibrominated with N-bromosuccinimide (NBS) under ambient conditions. It undergoes a transformation, under basic conditions, by losing HBr, leading to the formation of N-fused porphyrin 12 (Scheme 26.7) [44]. This is the rst report of the formation of covalent bonds between nitrogen and carbon inside the core of porphyrin; 12 can be converted back into 9 upon treatment with a strong base such as NaOMe in 72% yield. All the macrocycles described above have 18p electron conjugation and show physical characteristics similar to that of the parent porphyrin.
2240
N

Br Ar NBS Ar NH Ar N Br N Ar Ar Br Ar Inversion Ar Br NH N Ar Ar N HN Ar Fusion Ar N N N Ar 12 Ar HN Br Ar
Ar NH N Ar 9
HN
HN
Scheme 26.7
Porphyrin 9 can have different isomers depending on the location of hydrogen on the nitrogen of the pyrrole rings. This enables it to act as a ligand for stabilizing either 2 or 3 oxidation states of transition metal ions. Latos-Grazynski and coworkers [15] were the rst to report the formation of a metalcarbon bond in a porphyrin macrocycle. Porphyrin 9 forms a Ni(II) metal complex with a metal carbon bond in the core of the porphyrin ring (Scheme 26.8). Furuta and coworkers [17] have isolated the Ag(III) complex of 9, with a metalcarbon bond in the core of the porphyrin ring. Metal complexes of 911 have been reported, with some having coordination with metal ions both inside and on the periphery of the macrocycle [45].
NH NH N N
Ar N Ar
Ar N Ar
Ar NH N Ar
Ar
Ar NH N Ar
Ar
Ar N
Ar N Ar
M N
N Ar 9
HN Ar 9 Ar
M N
M = Ni(II)
M = Ag(III)
Scheme 26.8
In porphyrins, one or more pyrrole rings can be replaced by other heterocyclic units such as N-methylpyrrole, furan, thiophene, selenophene, and tellurophene [10]. This can accommodate other elements such as O, S, Se, and Te, leading to a modied core of the porphyrin ring. Therefore, they are called coremodied porphyrins (e.g., 13 and 14). They can be synthesized easily from 2,5diols of heterocyclic units under acid-catalyzed conditions (Schemes 26.9 and 26.10). The diols of such heterocycles are synthesized in good yields by bis-lithiation at the 2- and 5-positions of the heterocyclic units followed by addition of aryl aldehydes. Porphyrins with a single non-pyrrolic unit can be synthesized in two different ways (Scheme 26.9) [46]. With the same approach, two similar or different non-pyrrolic units can replace two pyrroles in a porphyrin. Such compounds can be synthesized by a one-pot synthesis or from modied tripyrrane precursors depending on the kind of the coremodication desired in the porphyrin [47].

HO Ar X + N H OH Ar 1. BF3. OEt2 2. p-Chloranil + Ar-CHO Ar Ar N Ar X H N N Ar 1. BF3. OEt2 2. p-Chloranil HO Ar X OH + Ar
j2241
Ar NH HN
X=O S Se Te 13a 13b 13c 13d
Scheme 26.9
HO Ar X + N H
OH Ar 1. acid 2. oxidant
Ar N
Ar X N X Ar
Ar N
Ar X N Y Ar 1. acid 2. oxidant
HO Ar Ar NH X + Y
OH Ar Ar HN
Ar X=O S Se 14a 14b 14c
Ar
X=O S Se Y = S/Se O/Se O/S
Scheme 26.10
N-confused porphyrin 9 is also a core-modied porphyrin, since one of the four nitrogens is replaced by carbon. In N-confused porphyrins, one of the normal pyrrole rings can also be replaced by other heterocyclic units, such as furan, thiophene or selenophene, giving rise to core-modied N-confused porphyrins (e.g., 15). Our group has reported three different core-modied N-confused porphyrins bearing oxa, thia or selena (15ac) derivatives [21]. They can be synthesized in moderate yields by condensing N-confused tripyrrane with 2,5-diols of heterocyclic units followed by oxidation (Scheme 26.11).
N
Ar NH NH
Ar HN + HO Ar X OH Ar
Ar p-TsOH p-Chloranil Ar N X
Ar X = O S Se 15a 15b 15c Ar
HN
15
Scheme 26.11
The confused pyrrole ring can also be replaced by another inverted non-pyrrolic heterocyclic ring. Latos-Grazynski and coworkers have synthesized S-confused and O-confused porphyrins, 16, bearing an inverted thiophene ring (16a) and furan ring (16b) (Scheme 26.12) [20]. They were synthesized by condensing the 2,4-diol of thiophene or furan, respectively, with pyrrole and benzaldehyde in 45% yields.
2242

O Ar OH + + Ar-CHO 1. BF3. OEt2 2. p-Chloranil Ar 16a O H R Ar R= NH N Ar 16b Ar HN N H R = OEt (in Presence of EtOH) N S Ar N Ar DDQ Ar NH N Ar 16a (Oxd) Ar S Ar HN
Ar HO S N H
Ar
H N
Ar HO OH + O Ar N H + Ar-CHO 1. BF3. OEt2 2. p-Chloranil
Ar
Scheme 26.12
They are highly susceptible to further oxidations or substitutions on the free alpha position of the confused ring. A pyrrole is added to the furan ring in 16b under the reaction conditions employed, but can be altered to an ethoxy derivative by changing the solvent system from dichloromethane to ethanol. The thiophene keto derivative 16a (Oxd) is obtained upon prolonged oxidation. The possibility of replacing the pyrrole ring in a porphyrin by ve- or six-membered cyclic p sub-units has been explored extensively. In this process, many aromatic units like pyridine, benzene, azulene and similar such units have successfully replaced one or more pyrrolic units in the macrocycle. Earlier attempts by Breitmaier and coworkers [48] yielded only the non-aromatic form of a benziporphyrin. This was attributed to the fact that the thermodynamically more stable 6p aromaticity of benzene could not be disrupted to be part of an 18p system. Therefore, early reports suggested that benzene and porphyrinoid aromaticity were mutually exclusive in benziporphyrin-type macrocycles. Lash and coworkers were also unsuccessful in their attempts to synthesize aromatic pyriporphyrins, and could isolate only nonconjugated meso-meso dimers or meso-keto derivatives (Figure 26.10).
N N H N N NH N Pyriporphyrin HN NH
N HN N
O NH N N HN H H NH N N HN
Benziporphyrin
keto Pyriporphyrin
meso-meso Pyriporphyrin dimmer
Figure 26.10 Examples of porphyrins containing a six-membered cyclic p sub-unit.
j2243
However, they were successful in the synthesis of oxybenziporphyrin (17) [23] and oxypyriporphyrins (18) [24], wherein the benzene or the pyridine ring was substituted with a keto group upon the formation of the macrocycle. The synthesis involved condensation of tripyrrane dicarboxylic acid and 2,4-diformylphenol or 3-hydroxy2,6-diformylpyridine under acidic conditions, with yields up to 44% and 86%, respectively (Scheme 26.13). These macrocycles were found to be aromatic, as analyzed by NMR spectroscopy, since the 6p conjugation of the benzene or the pyridine could be disrupted by the exocyclic keto group, thereby favoring stabilization of the 18p system over the benzenoid aromaticity.
R Et Me NH N H R OH Et HN Me CHO + X CHO R H
+
O Me N Et X H N HN Et Me
[O]
X = CH N 17 18
COOH HOOC
Scheme 26.13
In both the macrocycles 17 and 18 benzene is connected by two meta links within the porphyrin ring. Latos-Grazynski and coworkers [25] have reported an isomer of benziporphyrin (19) by changing the nature benzene ring incorporation within the porphyrin framework. When the benzene ring was connected by a 1,4 (para) link it exhibited aromatic features indicating the ow of 18p conjugation through the benzene ring. Compound 19 was synthesized by acid-catalyzed reaction of a 1,4-diol of benzene with pyrrole and benzaldehyde in 1% yield (Scheme 26.14). 1 H NMR studies showed that the benzene ring rotates very rapidly at room temperature but is stable at low temperatures. Two doublets seen at 7.68 and 2.32 ppm at 168 K are indicative of a diatropic ring current, which deshields protons outside the ring and shields the protons inside the ring.
Ar N Ar 19 Ar N Ar
Ar Ar HO Ar OH + + Ar-CHO 1. BF3. OEt2 2. DDQ Ar N N
Ar
Ar
N H
H N
H N
Scheme 26.14
The ow of conjugation in such systems is of great interest and porphyrins with different cyclic units have been the targets of synthetic chemists. This has led to the formation of a new class of macrocycles called carbaporphyrinoids, wherein a
2244

carbon acts as a coordinating site for metal ions inside the cavity of the porphyrin ring. Even though some of them were envisaged as probable macrocycles they were not realized due to lack of easy and efcient synthetic routes. Tropiporphyrin (20) is one successful example synthesized by Lash and Chaney. After the initial attempts of Breitmaier and coworkers [48], they were able to synthesize aromatic tropiporphyrin (20) with modied reaction conditions in 23% yield (Scheme 26.15) [26]. Unlike benziporphyrin, interestingly, the meta link of cycloheptatriene-1,6-dicarboxaldehyde is attuned to accommodation into the 18p conjugated network of the macrocycle.
Et Et Me NH N H
Et Et HN + Me OHC CHO HN N Et HN 20
Me Et HN NH Et N
Me Et
DDQ Me
COOH HOOC
Et Et
Me
Et Et
Scheme 26.15
Azuliporphyrin (21) [27] and benzocarbaporphyrin (22) [28] are remarkable examples of incorporating ve-membered carbon rings inside the 18p aromatic porphyrin ring. Compound 21 can be synthesized by reacting azulene-1,3-dicarboxaldehyde with tripyrrane in a MacDonald-type condensation (Scheme 26.16). With triuoroacetic acid (TFA) as the catalyst, Lash and Chaney isolated 21 in 28% yield. The azulene unit interrupts the 18p aromaticity of the macrocycle, and hence it would seem that the molecule cannot be aromatic. However, the observed aromatic nature of 21 is attributed to its dipolar resonance contributor, which allows both the porphyrinoid and tropylium aromaticity to be attained simultaneously.
Me Et N N Et HN Et Et
Et Et Me NH N H
Et Et HN + Me OHC CHO N N Et 21 HN
Me
H+ DDQ Me
COOH HOOC
Et Et
Me
Et
Scheme 26.16
Breitmaier and coworkers had carried out the same reaction with HBr as the acid catalyst and obtained 21 along with various benzocarbaporphyrins in low yields [49]. Subsequently, Lash and Hayes established a rational synthetic route for 22, by
j2245
reacting 1,3-diformylindene with tripyrrane using TFA as the catalyst, with yields of up to 43% (Scheme 26.17) [28]. Upon protonation, the carbon is protonated, leading to an altered 18p conjugated pathway.
Et N H NH Et HN + Me OHC CH OH HN NH Et 22 N Et Me Et H+ Et Me Et + NH HN + HN Et Me Et
Et Et Me
H+ DDQ Me
COOH HOOC
Et
Scheme 26.17
These molecules have different isomers depending on the location of the proton on the nitrogen of the pyrrole rings. Owing to this, they display interesting solution state dynamics in free base and in protonated form, too. We have also noted such an interesting observation in core-modied oxybenziporphyrin (23) [29] and coremodied azuliporphyrin (24) [30]. They were synthesized under similar conditions as described above using diformylphenol and diformylazulene, respectively, and modied meso aryl tripyrrane in 28% and 51% yield, respectively (Scheme 26.18). Compound 23 forms palladium metal complexes, with metalcarbon bonds in the center of the macrocycle, in 77% yield.
Ar X NH + OHC HN
Ar
1. TFA 2. DDQ Ar
N X 23
HN Ar
PdCl2 C6H5CN Ar
Pd X Pd. 23
N Ar X=O
CHO OH
X=O/S
Ar X NH OHC + HN
Ar
1. TFA CHO 2. DDQ Ar
N X 24
N Ar
H+ - H+ Ar X = S / Se
NH X
+ HN Ar
Scheme 26.18
2246

When two azulene rings are incorporated inside a porphyrin framework, the macrocycle cannot be oxidized to obtain an aromatic macrocycle alone. LatosGrazynski and coworkers [31] have reported the synthesis of dithiadiazuliporphyrin 25 in moderate yields (Scheme 26.19). Upon oxidation, however, 25 forms a mixture of its radical cation and its dication. The authors employed successfully NMR characterization under controlled conditions and also single-crystal crystallography to conrm the exact structure of the macrocycle.
p-Tol + S BF3. OEt2 OH p-Tol p-Tol S S
p-Tol DDQ
p-Tol S p-Tol S
p-Tol
HO p-Tol
p-Tol
p-Tol 25
Scheme 26.19
Of all the core-modied porphyrins, telluraporphyrins, both mono and ditellura derivatives, show remarkable traits in terms of reactivity and structural features. Latos-Grazynski and coworkers have reported the synthesis a telluraporphyrin (26, Scheme 26.20) [32]. It can undergo transformation to form mono-oxa porphyrin. But of more interest is its interaction with acids like HCl. The macrocycle loses the tellurium atom owing to a weak CTe bond under acidic conditions. This gave rise to a new macrocycle, named vacataporphyrin 27 (vacata, meaning vacancy, in the place of N in porphyrin) [33]. It was found to be aromatic in nature as determined by proton NMR spectroscopy.
Ar HO Ar Te OH + Ar 1. BF3. OEt2 2. p-Chloranil Ar N
Ar Te H N 26 N Ar HCl
Ar N Ar 27 N
Ar
N H
+ Ar-CHO
H N
Ar
Scheme 26.20
Latos-Grazynski and coworkers reported the rst ditelluraporphyrin (28) (Scheme 26.21) [50]. The most interesting feature was the ring inversion of a tellurophene ring such that the tellurium atom was outside the core of the porphyrin ring. This differs from 9, in the sense that the heterocyclic ring undergoes a complete

Ar HO Ar Te OH + Ar 1. BF3. OEt2 N H 2. p-Chloranil Ar 28 N Te Ar Ar Te N Ar HCl Ar
j2247
Te Ar + HN H N Ar
+ NH
Scheme 26.21
inversion for both b carbon atoms to be inside the core of the ring. Upon protonation with TFA, the tellurophene ring ips back to a regular structure. This is the rst observation of ring inversion in an 18p porphyrin macrocycle. So far we have seen only one or two non-pyrrolic heterocyclic rings in an 18p porphyrin ring. Vogel and coworkers [51] reported the rst ever non-pyrrolic porphyrin-like macrocycles bearing four furan, thiophene or selenophene rings. In freebase form they account for a 20p conjugated pathway, but can be oxidized by perchlorates or perchloric acid to obtain an aromatic 18p dication. Tetraoxa- and tetrathia-porphyrinogens are synthesized from 2-hydroxymethyl-3,4-diethylthiophene/furan, which upon further oxidation forms the aromatic tetraoxaporphyrin, 29a, and tetrathiaporphyrin, 29b, dications (Scheme 26.22).
X X CH2OH H
+
X X [O] HClO4 X X X= O S 29a 29b X
X X
X=O/S
Scheme 26.22
Interestingly, the tetraoxa-porphyrinogen acts as a precursor to generate tetrathia (30) or tetraselena (31) derivatives by treating it with H2S or H2Se under acidic conditions (Scheme 26.23) [52]. Apart from modifying the core of the porphyrin ring, periphery modications in terms of extended conjugation is attracting considerable attention due to the photophysical properties of the products. Owing to their strong absorption in the red region of the visible spectrum, they are potential chromophores for sensitizers in photodynamic therapy (PDT). Various porphyrins with extended conjugation on the pyrrole rings have been synthesized in this regard. A few representative examples, which have the maximum redshifted absorption with respect to the 18p porphyrin
2248

S H2S / H+ O O O H2Se / H+ Se Se 31
Scheme 26.23
S S [O] HClO4 S S 32 Se Se [O] H2SO4 Se Se 33 Se SO4 S (ClO4)2
S S
30 Se
system, are described below. In addition, the group of Kopranenkov [53] and Rein and Hanack [54] have explored the synthesis of zinc tetra-(2,3-naphtho)porphyrin (34) by employing zinc acetate (Scheme 26.24).
CH2COOH
HO HN CH2COOH NH O
M(OAc)2
N M N 34
N N
( Zn
c) 2 OA
Zn (O Ac )
H2C HN O
Scheme 26.24
Lash and Novak [55] have demonstrated the synthesis of tetraphenanthropoprhyrin (35) by self-condensation of phenanathropyrrole carbinol under modied Rothemund conditions (Scheme 26.25). Its solubility in freebase was poor in common organic solvents compared to its diprotonated derivative. Further, Lash and coworker [56] were able to synthesize meso-aryl tetracenaphthoporphyrin, 36, by condensing acenaphtho[1,2-c]pyrrole with aryl aldehydes under Lindsey conditions (Scheme 26.26) [57]. The corresponding meso-free tetracenaphthoporphyrin was highly insoluble, whereas 36 is deep violet in chloroform, which is indicative of extended conjugation. It displayed a record-breaking bathochromic
j2249
N H
CH2OH
BF3. OEt2
NH HN NH HN
DDQ
NH N
N HN
35
Scheme 26.25
shift, with an intense Soret-like absorption at 556 nm and Q-like bands at 638, 705, and 790 nm. By incorporating chromophoric groups on the pyrrole ring or on meso carbons, the photophysical properties can be tuned to make the porphyrin absorb light of lower energies. A similar effect can be achieved by increasing the conjugation pathway to more than 18p electrons. This can be carried out by either adding more carbon bridges between the heterocyclic rings or by increasing the number of heterocyclic units in the porphyrin ring. Such molecules are known as expanded porphyrins. The concept of expanded porphyrins is directly linked to the serendipitous discovery of sapphyrin, a pentapyrrolic 22p system, by Woodward and coworkers [34] during their attempts to synthesize the naturally occurring corrin ring. Expanded porphyrins provide novel insights into extended conjugation and their effect on aromatic behavior in general. Several expanded porphyrins, from 22p to 96p systems, are known in the literature [8]. Further, they exhibit properties such as binding anions, cations and neutral guests, in some cases, which are unknown to porphyrins. Most of them are synthesized by similar methodologies employed for various porphyrin systems. A brief description based on common methods engaged in the synthesis of expanded porphyrins and their interesting structural features with specic examples is given below. The one-pot synthesis discovered by Osuka and Furuta and coworkers [58] is the simplest way to generate expanded porphyrins, 3742, with ve to ten pyrrolic units
Ar NH HN Ar NH HN Ar Ar NH Ar N
Ar N Ar HN Ar 36
N H
+ Ar-CHO
BF3. OEt2
DDQ
Scheme 26.26
2250

(Scheme 26.27). They all exhibit different structural features, contrasting sharply with the parent porphyrin system (3). The macrocycles with seven or more pyrrole rings (3942) were non-planar.
F F F F F F F CHO F BF3.OEt2 DDQ F F F F F F
Scheme 26.27
F F NH N N HN F F F
N H
+ F
F n
n=2 n=3 n=4 F n=5 n=6 F n=7 F
37 38 39 40 41 42
The synthesis of expanded porphyrins with 22p and 26p electrons is well established and various isomers have been reported in the literature [59]. They can be classied as aza macrocycles and core-modied macrocycles. In the case of aza macrocycles, the porphyrinoid has only nitrogen in the core, while the core-modied macrocycles can have other chalcogens such as O, S, or Se, too, apart from carbon. They are exclusively synthesized by acid-catalyzed condensation of bi-heterocyclic or heterocyclic diols with appropriate precursors. Scheme 26.28 shows representative syntheses for various expanded porphyrins.
OHC
N H + CO2H NH H N
N H
CHO H
+
N H N 22 H N
N H N
Ar N
NH
N H N N H 44 Ar
Ar
H+ [O]
CO2H HN
[O]
N H + CHO
43
Ar
Scheme 26.28
Sapphyrin is the most studied 22p pentapyrrolic systems. The b substituted sapphyrin 43 and the meso phenyl sapphyrin [60] 44 are structurally different. In free base, 44, the pyrrole ring opposite to bipyrrole is inverted and undergoes a ring inversion protonation. Hence all the nitrogens point towards the center of the
j2251
Ar
Ar S
N H
N S N Ar 45
Ar
Ar O Ar
N H
N O N 46 Ar
Ar
Ar N
S N S Ar
Ar
Ar 47
Figure 26.11 Core-modified sapphyrins.
macrocycle, as in 43. A few core-modied sapphyrins [61] show ring inversions both in freebase and in protonated forms. Depending on the nature of the heteroatom, some macrocycles are planar and others exhibit inverted structures. For example, dithia-sapphyrin (45) is planar, while dioxa-(46) and trithia-(47) sapphyrins display inverted ring systems (Figure 26.11). Rubyrins are 30p macrocycles with six heterocyclic rings and are aromatic in nature. Sessler and coworkers [62] reported the rst example of a hexapyrrolic 26p rubyrin, 48, by a [4 2] condensation of a tetrapyrrole and diformyl-bipyrrole under acidic conditions (Scheme 26.29).
N H OHC N H N H + CHO NH CO2H
N H HN HO2C
N H H+ [O] N H N
N H N H N
48
Ar S + S Ar OH N H Ar OH H
+
Ar N Ar
S N
Ar N NH Ar Ar
Ar Ar HN N H
+
N H H N
[O]
[O]
S Ar
S 49
S 50 Ar
Scheme 26.29
Other kinds of hexapyrrolic systems are also known in the literature [8]. Rubyrins with non-pyrrolic rings show interesting structural diversity, in comparison to all-aza isomers. Our group has synthesized two different kinds of rubyrins, 49 and 50,
2252

having two or four non-pyrrolic rings [63] by an acid-catalyzed condensation of bithiophene diols with pyrrole or by oxidative coupling reactions of thia-tripyrranes. Even furan and selenophene derivatives of such macrocycles are synthesized under similar reaction conditions. They are 26p aromatic macrocycles and exhibit different structures depending on the nature and the number of heteroatoms present in the macrocycle. Further, aromatic 30p heptaphyrins have been synthesized by MacDonald-type [3 4] or [5 2] condensation of appropriate precursors [64]. Even though several seven-membered macrocycles are known, very few of them are aromatic. We have employed terthiophene diol or bithiophene diol with dithia-tetrapyrranes or trithiapentapyrrane to obtain core-modied heptaphyrin 51 (Scheme 26.30). Analogous macrocycles with bifuran and biselenophene are also synthesized under similar reaction conditions.
Ar OH
S HO
S Ar H+ [O] Ar S Ar N S S 51
Ar N [O]
Ar H+
S NH
S HN
Ar
+ NH Ar S HN S
+ OH HO S S Ar Ar
Ar
Ar
Scheme 26.30
Octapyrrolic macrocycles are known as octaphyrins. Invariably porphyrinoids with seven or more heterocyclic rings undergo a twist and hence are non-planar. Sessler and coworkers were the rst to identify such a twisted conformation for turcasarin, a decapyrrolic system. Subsequently, various research groups across the globe have reported various octapyrrolic macrocyclic systems that are nonplanar. Their aromatic behavior is strongly dependent on the topology of the macrocycle. A 4n 2p system was found to be non-aromatic in nature due to the non-planar geometry [65]. Only two macrocycles 52 and 53 stand out prominently for displaying a at structure and aromatic characteristics. We have reported a series of at core-modied 34p octaphyrins with thiophene, selenophene or furan, in which two heterocyclic rings are inverted [66]. The 34p tetrathiaoctaphyrin, 52, is synthesized by the oxidative coupling of dithia-tetrapyrrane (Scheme 26.31) (cf. 26p dithia-rubyrin, 50). To date, 52 and its analogues of furan and selenophene are the largest aromatic molecules to be characterized in the solid state. Later, Sessler and coworkers reported a at 30p octapyrrolic macrocycle, 53, with no meso-carbon bridges between the heterocyclic rings [67]. b-Substituted bipyrrole

Ar S S Ar N H H H N
+
j2253
Ar N HN
Ar Ar NH N S Ar 52 S S S N HN N NH Ar Ar Ar S
[O]
Ar
Scheme 26.31
can be coupled under acidic conditions to form the at eight-membered macrocycle in over 70% yield (Scheme 26.32). Owing to the b-substitution, the pyrrole rings do not undergo ring inversion, thereby allowing all the nitrogens to face the center of the macrocycle. The cavity was found to bind a molecule of sulfuric acid upon protonation of 53.
Et NH NH . H2SO4 NH Et Et N Et HN Et 53 Et HN Et Et N HN
Et Et Et Et Et N H N H Et 0.1 M FeCl3 1 M H2SO4 Et Et
Et Et Et Et
Scheme 26.32
Expanded porphyrins with more than eight rings generally show a gure-of-eight conformation. Figure 26.12 shows the structures for some of them (5456). Setsune and coworkers have reported a one-pot synthesis for the largest expanded porphyrin to-date [37, 68]. It contains 24 pyrrole rings with a twisted conformation and accounts for 96p electrons. The 64p hexadecaphyrin 56 is the largest expanded porphyrin to be characterized in the solid state [37]. The synthetic methodologies described above do not give an exhaustive account of the synthesis of porphyrin isomers or expanded porphyrins. It is a glimpse of the current trend in heterocyclic chemistry, towards the generation of large macromolecules so far unknown in the literature. It paves the way to understanding the fundamental concept of aromaticity with respect to conjugation in giant macrocycles.
2254

N H N H N H N NH N 32 54 N HN N H N N NH N NH N 48 55 N HN N H N N H N N NH N NH N NH N 64 56
Figure 26.12 Expanded porphyrins showing a figure-of-eight structure.
N HN N H N N H N N H N
26.3 Reactivity of Porphyrins
Porphyrins undergo series of electrophilic and nucleophilic reactions. One or two double bonds on the periphery can undergo addition reactions, without losing the aromaticity, to form chlorins (57), bacteriochlorins (58) and isobacteriochlorins (59) (Figure 26.13). The electrophilic aromatic substitutions can occur either at the four meso or the eight b-pyrrolic positions with concomitant loss of a proton. In some cases, the substitution occurs by an alternative mechanism such as addition followed by elimination, or via oxidation with formation of intermediate p-cation radicals. Porphyrins readily form complexes with various metals. The central metal ions have an inductive effect with the p-electron of the macrocycles, which greatly inuences the chemical reactivity and biological functions. Metalloporphyrins containing electrophilic metals such as Fe(III) and Sn(IV) favor substitution at
NH N
N HN 57
NH N
N HN 58
NH N
N HN 59
Figure 26.13 Examples of partially saturated porphyrins.
j2255
the b-pyrrolic positions, while divalent metals such as Mg, Zn, Ni, Cu, and Pd tend to facilitate substitution at the meso positions. Most of the electrophilic substitutions occur in the presence of divalent metal complexes since these are more stable to electrophilic attack. Steric effects are also an important consideration for electrophilic substitution, especially if bulky electrophiles are involved in the reaction, in which case substitution occurs at the b-positions. In contrast, directive effects, which are the combination of both steric and electronic effects of the substituents, affect the electron distribution of the macrocycle. For example, diformylation of metallo-octaalkyl porphyrin furnishes 5,10- and 5,15-regioisomers, whereas the 5-nitro and/or 5-halo derivatives of octaalkyl porphyrins favor the formation of 5,15-disubstituted products rather than the 5,10-disubstituted regioisomers. Here, we describe a series of electrophilic substitution reactions, such as formylation, halogenation, nitration, acylation and cyanation reactions. The rst two are the most widely studied reactions and have been used as potential starting materials for many derivatives. Finally, we discuss nucleophilic substitution reactions. This is often the chosen methodology for direct functionalization of readily oxidizable macrocycles.
26.3.1 Electrophilic Reactions 26.3.1.1 Formylation A formyl group was rst introduced in the meso position of the metallo b-substituted porphyrin by Inhoffen and his group, affording high yields of corresponding formylated products [69]. The formylation reactions generally utilize DMF/POCl3 to produce the reactive Vilsmeier complex, which undergoes basic hydrolysis of the iminium salt intermediate, by using NaOH or Na2CO3 or NaOAc. As the free base porphyrin (1) was easily protonated under acidic conditions, metallated complexes, such as with Cu(II), were used for the formylation reactions. The Cu(II) complexes of 1 were treated with one equivalent of Vilsmeier reagent to form meso-substituted 5-formylporphyrin (60) in excellent yield, suggesting the higher reactivity of the mesopositions [70]. The Ni(II) and Cu(II) complexes of metallo-b-octa substituted porphyrins, under Vilsmeier reaction conditions, afford the corresponding metallo-5-formyl derivatives (61), while increasing the Vilsmeier reagents to two equivalents gives the metallo-meso-5,10- and metallo-5,15-formylated regioisomers (62, 63) in good yield (Scheme 26.33). All four meso-positions are formylated (64) by prolonged treatment with excess Vilsmeier reagent [71]. The Cu(II) complex usually gives higher yields than the corresponding Ni(II) derivatives. The electron-rich Mg(II) and Zn(II) complexes are easily demetallated under Vilsmeier conditions, while trivalent complexes such as Mn(III) and Fe(III) are less reactive towards electrophilic formylation reactions, affording lower yields of the formylated products. In contrast, metallo-meso-tetra-aryl porphyrins under Vilsmeier conditions form the 2-formyl derivative (65) in good yield [72].
2256

R1 Ph N Ni N R2 61. R1: CHO; R2, R3: H 62. R1, R2: CHO; R3: H 63. R1, R3: CHO, R2: H 64. R1, R2, R3, R4: CHO Ph R N N M N N Ph N R R4 N
N N M
N N
60. M: Cu or Ni; R: CHO
R3
Ph 65. M: Cu or Ni; R: CHO
Scheme 26.33
26.3.1.2 Reactions of Formyl Porphyrins The metal-free 5-formylporphyrin (66) can be easily converted into a wide variety of functional groups (Scheme 26.34). For example, 66 gives predominantly the oxime acetate (67), which on heating with acetic anhydride forms the 5-cyano (68) and 5formamido (69) derivatives [73]. Dehydration of 68, in the presence of phosgene and base or in reuxing acetic anhydride, affords isocyanoporphyrin (70).
R NH N N HN 66. R: CHO 67. R: CH=NOAc 68. R: CN 69. R: NHCHO 70. R: NC N N Ni R N N 71. R: CH=CH2 72. R: CH(OH)Ph 73. R: CH(OH)CH3 74. R: CH2CH3 75. R: CH=CHBr 76. R: CH CH
Scheme 26.34
The metallo-vinyl porphyrins (71) are easily obtained by the Wittig reaction, by using Ph3PCH2 and metallo-formyl porphyrins (61) [74]. Compound 61 further reacts with Grignard and aryllithium reagents to produce the corresponding alcohol derivatives, such as phenyl hydroxy methyl (72) or methyl hydroxy methyl (73) derivative [75]. Dehydration of 73 in the presence of p-TSA gives the vinylporphyrin (71), which is further converted into the ethyl derivative (74) by catalytic hydrogenation. Selective bromination of 71, using pyridinium hydrobromide, gives a mixture of trans- (major) and cis-2-bromovinyl derivatives (75), which undergo dehydrobromination, by using sodium hydride in reuxing 1,2-dimethoxyethane, to form the ethynyl compound (76) [75]. Reduction of 61 with NaBH4 gives the corresponding hydroxy-methyl derivatives (77), whereas reduction with NaBH4 in acetic acid directly affords to meso-methyl derivatives (Scheme 26.35) [76]. In the presence of conc. H2SO4, 77 dimerizes to produce a dimer linked by a CH2-CH2 bridge (78), which on further heating with acetic acid yields the trans-ethylene-bonded porphyrin dimer (79) [77]. A similar dimer was also obtained by treating 61 with an excess of TiCl3(DME)1.5 in the
j2257
N N Ni
N N R
Conc.H2SO4
N N Ni
N N
N N Ni
N N
R: CH2OH 77 NaBH4 THF
78 CH3CO2H
N N Ni
N N R
TiCl3(DME)1.5 Zn-Cu.DME
N N Ni
N N
N N Ni
N N
R: CHO 61
Scheme 26.35
79
presence of a Zn-Cu couple. Apart from the trans-dimer, the kinetically stable cisdimer was also formed, which was further converted into the thermodynamically stable trans-dimer by heating or irradiation [78]. Under similar reaction conditions, Ni(II)formylheptaethylporphyrin (80) produced a hydroxymethylene-bridged dimer (81) by loss of one of the formyl groups (Scheme 26.36) [78].
H OH R N N Ni N N TiCl3(DME)1.5 Zn-Cu.DME N N Ni N N N N Ni N N
R: CHO 80
Scheme 26.36
81
26.3.1.3 Halogenation Porphyrins can undergo a series of halogenation reactions, such as uorination, chlorination, bromination and iodination; the latter is less favored due to steric and electronic factors. The site of the halogenation is determined by the size and reactivity of the halogen.
2258

R1 82. R1: F; R2, R3, R4: H NH R4 N R N HN
3
F F N Ph F F N
Ph N Zn N
F F Ph F
R2
83. R1, R2: F; R3, R4: H 84. R1, R2, R3: F; R4: H 85. R1, R2, R3, R4: F
Ph 86
Figure 26.14 Examples of fluorinated porphyrins.
26.3.1.3.1 Fluorination The electrophilic uorination of 2 using caesium uoroxysulfate in dioxane gives a mixture of mono-, di-, tri- and tetra-uorinated (8285, Figure 26.14) compounds [79]. Better yields of uorinated 2 were obtained by using an excess of N-uoropyridinium triates in hexauorobenzene [80]. In the presence of a metal uoride (CoF2 or AgF2), under an inert atmosphere, a reuxing solution of the Zn(II) complex of meso-tetra-aryl porphyrin in CHCl3 affords the octauorinated derivative 86 [81]. 26.3.1.3.2 Chlorination Chlorination of 2 with HCl/H2O2 in aqueous THF affords the 5-mono- (87) and 5,15-dichloro products (88), while the meso-tri (89) and mesotetra chlorinated products (90) have been obtained by using HCl/H2O2 in acetic acid (Figure 26.15) [82]. In the presence of N-chlorosuccinimide (NCS) and AIBN, only the 5- and 5,15-dichlorinated products (87, 88) were produced [83]. Metallated derivatives [Ni(II) or Cu(II) complex] of 2 react with PhSeCl or PhSeCl3 in CHCl3 to form mesomono-, di-, tri- and tetra-chlorinated products (9194) [84]. Octa-chlorination and octa-bromination of meso-tetraarylporphyrins are achieved by reuxing solution of metalloporphyrin [Ni(II) or Cu(II)] in CH3OH or CCl4, in the presence of an excess NCS and NBS (95) [85]. Similarly, mono-chlorination and -bromination has been
R1 NH R4 N N HN R3 87. R1: Cl; R2, R3, R4: H 88. R , R : Cl; R , R : H 89. R1, R2, R3: Cl; R4: H 90. R , R , R , R : Cl
1 2 3 4 1 3 2 4
R1 X R2 N R4 N M N N R2 Ph X R3 M: Ni(II) or Cu(II) 91. R1: Cl; R2, R3, R4: H 92. R1, R3: Cl; R2, R4: H 93. R1, R2, R3: Cl; R4: H 94. R1, R2, R3, R4: Cl
X N N X
Ph N M N
X X Ph X
Ph
M: Ni(II) or Cu(II) 95. X: Cl or Br
Figure 26.15 Examples of chlorinated porphyrins.
j2259
achieved by using one equivalent of NCS or NBS, although dihalogenated products are also formed in lesser yield. Furthermore, chlorine gas in the presence of FeCl3 or bromine in CH3OH, CHCl3 or in a 1: 1 CHCl3CCl4 mixture have also been used for the chlorination or bromination of meso-tetra-aryl-metallo-porphyrins. Under these conditions, halogenation mainly occurs at the b-position [85].
26.3.1.3.3 Bromination Lango and coworkers have discussed the bromination of free-base porphyrin (1), where 1 was brominated predominantly at the meso positions in the presence of NBS in CHCl3, or pyridinium bromide perbromide, or bromine in CHCl3 or acetic acid, to give the 5-mono- (96), 5,15-di- (97), and 5,10,15-tribromoporphyrins (98), respectively (Scheme 26.37) [86]. In contrast, the Mg(II) complex of 1 affords the meso-tetrabromoporphyrin (99) in the presence of an excess of N-bromoacetamide [70].
R NH N 1
Scheme 26.37
R N HN 96. Br R1 97. Br 98. Br
R1 H H Br
R2 H Br Br R N N
R N Mg N R
N HN
NBS CHCl3
NH N
R2
R 99. R: Br
Meso-bromination of 2 does not occur, due to overcrowding at the pyrrolic b-positions [87], while the metallated-OEP [Cu(II) or Ni(II)] complexes react with PhSeBr or PhSeBr3 in CHCl3 to form the meso-mono bromo derivative (100) as a major yield [84]. 5,15-Diphenylporphyrin, in contrast, when treated with two equivalents of NBS in CHCl3, furnishes the meso-tetra-substituted porphyrin (101) (Figure 26.16) [70].
26.3.1.3.4 Iodination Iodination of 2 has not been reported, due to the size of the atom to be introduced at the sterically crowded meso-positions. However,
Br N N M N N Br NH N Ph N HN Ph 101 Br NH N Ph N HN Ph 102 I
100. M: Ni or Cu;
Figure 26.16 Examples of brominated and iodinated porphyrins.
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5,15-diphenylporphyrin reacts with bis(triuoroacetoxy)iodobenzeneiodine to form the mono iodo derivative (102), while the diiodo porphyrin was also formed, where the second iodo group occupies the b-position instead of the readily available other meso-positions [88]. Metallobromoporphyrins undergo nucleophilic substitution reactions with CuCN in quinoline and with thiolate ions to form the corresponding metallo-cyanoporphyrins and thiol-substituted macrocycles [89]. Metallated mono-bromo and monoiodo porphyrins also undergo a Pd-catalyzed Heck-type reaction with various terminally substituted acetylenic derivatives [89, 90]. With aryl- and alkyl-boronic acids, the b-bromo tetra-aryl porphyrins undergo a Suzuki cross-coupling reaction to form the b-substituted aryl or alkyl derivatives [91]. This is the most suitable method for the synthesis of b-octasubstituted tetra-aryl porphyrins.
26.3.1.4 Nitration Electrophilic nitration can be achieved with a mixture of nitric acid in acetic or sulfuric acid, PhSeNO2 in THF or with nitrate salts in acetic anhydride. Like halogenation reactions, nitration also occurs in the 5,15-positions of the H2(OEP) derivatives. In the presence of nitric acid in sulfuric acid, porphyrin (1) is exclusively nitrated at the meso positions to form, predominantly, the meso-5-nitro (103) and 5,10-dinitro derivatives (104), instead of the meso-5,15-dinitro derivatives [92]. The meso-mononitro derivative of 2 is formed by using nitric acid in acetic acid (105), whereas meso-di (106, 107), and tri- (108) derivatives are formed by using nitric acid in sulfuric acid at 0 C. The meso-di-substituted products (both 106 and 107) are formed roughly in 1: 1 ratio (Figure 26.17). The meso-tetra-substituted product (109) is not formed under this methodology [93]. Extensive nitration of 2 is achieved by using Zn(NO3)2 in acetic anhydride, affording the Zn(II) complexes of 5-mono, 5,15-di, 5,10,15-tri and 5,10,15,20-tetra-meso-nitrated derivatives. Under these reaction conditions, 5,15disubstituted products are formed predominantly as compared to the 5,10-disubstituted derivative [94]. The room temperature reaction of meso-aryl-N-confused porphyrin 4, in contrast, with aqueous NaNO2/HCl or with aqueous 30 wt% nitric acid without sulfuric acid affords the inner C-nitrated derivative of 4 in moderate to excellent yields (110, Scheme 26.38) [95].
R1 NH N N HN R
2
R1 105. R1: NO2; R2, R3, R4: H NH R

4
N HN R3 R
2
106. R1, R2: NO2; R3, R4: H 107. R1, R3: NO2; R2, R4: H 108. R1, R2, R3: NO2; R4: H 109. R1, R2, R3, R4: NO2
103. R1: NO2; R2: H 104. R1, R2: NO2
Figure 26.17 Nitro derivatives of porphyrins.
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Ph N NH Ph N HN Ph 4
Scheme 26.38
Ph N Ph aq. NaNO2 / HCl NH Ph N R HN Ph
Ph 110. R: -NO2
Meso-tetra-nitro substituted H2(OEP) (109, R NO2) undergoes aromatic nucleophilic substitution reactions with HCl and HBr, where the nitro groups are replaced by the respective halide ions. Under bromide reaction conditions, a side reaction was also observed that furnishes a lesser amount octaethylxanthoporphyrinogen (111). The yield can be improved by treating 109 with acetic acid in sodium acetate or with acetic acid in sulfuric acid (Scheme 26.39) [96].
R1 NH R4 N N HN R3 109
Scheme 26.39
O CH3CO2H/ NaOAc NH O NH HN HN O
R2
O 111
The 2-nitro substituted meso-tetra-aryl porphyrin undergoes reduction with tin (II)chloride in conc. HCl [93] or with NaBH4 and 10% Pd-C in methanol [97] to afford the corresponding amino derivative, which can be further functionalized. For example, with sodium nitrite in the presence of acid the corresponding diazonium salts are formed [98] that react with aldehydes to afford the corresponding Schiff base complexes [99]; in addition, they react with acetic anhydride and pyridine to produce the respective acylated derivatives [93]. In contrast, metallated 2-nitro-meso-tetraphenyl porphyrin undergoes reduction with NaBH4 to form the nitrochlorins, which further react with tributyltin hydride in the presence of AIBN to afford denitrated chlorins or are converted into porphyrins upon heating on silica [100]. In addition, metallated derivatives react with Grignard and organolithium reagents, yielding b-alkyl-tetraaryl porphyrins [101], and with a-isocyanoacetic esters, malonates and malononitriles in the presence of base to form b-fused pyrroloporphyrins, cyclopropanochlorins and functionalized trans-chlorins [102].
2262

R NH N N HN 112. R: COCH3 113. R: CH(OH)CH3 114. R: CH=CH2
Figure 26.18 Products derived from the acylation of 1.
26.3.1.5 Acylation FriedelCrafts acylation of 2 is usually unreactive due to the presence of two ethyl groups near the meso positions. The Ni(II) and Cu(II) complexes of unsubstituted b-pyrrolic porphyrins are normally used for the electrophilic acylation reactions, to form the 2-acylated derivative (112), while the Fe(III) and V(II) complexes also undergo FriedelCrafts acylation in the presence of stonger Lewis acids. The peripheral acetyl derivative 112 undergoes reduction reaction with NaBH4 to form the 2-methyl hydroxy methyl derivative (113), which further reacts with p-TSA in 1,2-dichlorobenzene, or with DMF and benzoyl chloride, to afford the corresponding vinylporphyrins (114) (Figure 26.18) [103]. 26.3.1.6 Cyanation The electrophilic cyanation of metalloporphyrins is accomplished by FriedelCrafts cyanation boiling under reux the metalloporphyrin in a CHCl3 solution of cyanogen bromide and AlCl3 or SnCl4 results in moderate yields after demetallation [104]. More practical methods of cyanation reactions have been introduced. Some of them are: (i) Vilsmeier formylation, converted into oxime, followed by dehydration, (ii) nucleophilic displacement of bromoporphyrins, and (iii) reaction of cyanide ion with metalloporphyrin p-cation radicals. 26.3.2 Nucleophilic Reactions 26.3.2.1 Reactions of p-Cation Radicals The p-cation radicals of the metalloporphyrins, particularly 2, are usually formed by various oxidizing agents such as iodine, thallium(III) nitrate, tris(p-bromophenyl)ammonium hexachloroanitimonate (TBAH) and N-chlorobenzotriazole, which are stable in methanolic solution but do react with various nucleophiles such as cyanide, thiocyanate, chloride, imidazole, acetate, azide, pyridine and triphenylphosphine to produce the corresponding meso-substituted macrocycles [105]. For example, the Mg(II), Zn(II) and Co(II) complexes of 2 react with N2O4 in CH2Cl2 to produce the corresponding meso-nitro derivatives in good yield [106]. The Zn(II) complex of 3 is oxidized into its p-cation radical by using iodine/silver perchlorate or dibenzodioxin/sodium dichromate and, analogously, reacts with nitrite ion to form the b-substituted [107] as well as the meso-substituted ring-opened
j2263
products [106]. Selective meso-nitration of 5,15-diphenylporphyrin is accomplished by using the same methodology [108].
26.3.2.2 Substitution Reactions. Reactions with H2(OEP) H2(OEP) (2) and several of its metal complexes undergo nucleophilic substitution reactions by using alkyl- and aryl-lithium reagents at low temperatures, to form the corresponding meso-substituted alkyl or aryl porphyrins (115) by oxidation via porphodimethene intermediates (Scheme 26.40). By using this methodology, mono-, di-, tri- and tetra-meso-substituted H2(OEP) can be obtained [109].
NH N
N HN
PhLi, -78 C DDQ
NH N
N HN R
2
Scheme 26.40
R: Ph 115
Nucleophilic attack of organolithium reagents with Rh(III)-OEP (116) occurs in two stages: initially at the Rh atom and subsequently at the meso-position via the Rh(III)phlorin complex, which undergoes further oxidation to form the corresponding meso-substituted product (117, Scheme 26.41) [110].
X N Rh N N N 116
RLi; Et2O / THF NH4Cl / H2O
R N Rh N N
117. R: n-Bu or Ph
Scheme 26.41
Most detailed studies on Ni(II)-OEP (118) with n-BuLi showed that the porphyrin had undergone a meso-alkylation reaction (119) (Scheme 26.42) [109]. Comparative investigations with other metal complexes such as Zn(II), Co(II), and Cu(II) also showed similar results, with the yield ranging from 40% to 90%, while a similar reaction was not successful with the Fe(II) complex due to degradation of the porphyrin unit. The reaction was further extended to various organolithium reagents, including those yielding porphyrins suitable for subsequent chemical transformations and CC coupling reactions [111]. Except for t-BuLi, the organolithium reagents
2264

R N N Ni N N n-BuLi, -80 C THF H2O, DDQ N N Ni N N
118
Scheme 26.42
119. R: n-Bu (95%)
gave good to excellent yields. In contrast, Ni(II)-OEP gives a lower yield with aryllithium reagents than with alkyllithium reagents, while the reaction of free-base porphyrins with aryllithium reagents afford better yields. Thus, alkyllithium reagents with metalloporphyrin give higher yields, while the aryllithium reagents with freebase porphyrin afford better yields. Under similar reaction conditions, meso-mono-alkyl metalloporphyrin 119 forms the meso-di-5,10- (120) and -5,15-dialkyl (121) derivatives, with 120 as the predominant product (Scheme 26.43) [109, 111]. Both 120 and 121 further react with n-BuLi at 100 C to afford the meso-tri-substituted derivative (122), which under similar reaction conditions forms the meso-tetra-substituted product (123) in 50% yield.
R N N Ni N N n-BuLi, -80 C THF H2O, DDQ N N Ni R N N R + N N Ni R N N
119. R: n-Bu
120. R: n-Bu (70%)
R 121. R: n-Bu (15%) n-BuLi, -100 C THF H2O, DDQ
R N R N Ni N N R n-BuLi, -100 C THF H2O, DDQ N R N
R N Ni N R
R 123. R: n-Bu (50%)

Scheme 26.43
122. R: n-Bu (>95%)
j2265
As expected, gradual introduction of meso-butyl residues led to a bathochromic shift of the absorption bands, suggesting an increase in macrocyclic distortion [112]. Using this methodology, various meso-aryl and -alkyl residues of dodecasubstituted derivatives have been synthesized with over all yields of 2040% [113].
26.3.2.3 Reactions with 5,15-Disubstituted Porphyrins Krattinger and Callot have reported that the reaction of meso-tetra-aryl porphyrin with n-BuLi and t-BuLi leads to both the meso- and b-alkylated products [114]. Unlike mesotetra-aryl porphyrin, meso-5,15-diaryl metallated porphyrins (124), in the presence of a linear alkyllithium, afforded the A2B type porphyrins (meso-tri-substituted products) (125) in good to excellent yields, showing complete regioselectivity towards the meso-position (Scheme 26.44) [115].
Ph N N Ni N N n-BuLi, THF H2O, DDQ N N Ph N N
Ni
Ph 124
Scheme 26.44
Ph 125. R: n-Bu
Treatment of meso-5,15-diaryl- (124) and dialkyl-metallated (126) porphyrins with n-alkyl or aryl-lithium, under similar reaction conditions, followed by hydrolysis of excess RLi and addition of alkyl iodides gives A2BC (127130) type porphyrins in good to excellent yield (Scheme 26.45). This simple two-step, one-pot reaction is suitable for the synthesis of three different meso-substituted porphyrins [116].
R N N Ni N N R1Li, -70 C THF H2O, R2I Air N R
2
R N Ni N R
1
R 127. Ph 128. Ph 129. Ph 130. Ph
R1 n-Bu Ph n-Bu Ph
R2 n-Bu n-Bu (CH2)4I (CH2)4I
Yield 92% 90% 79% 71%
R 124: R: Ph; 126: R: n-Bu

Scheme 26.45
In contrast, meso-5,15-dialkyl- (131) and diaryl- (132) substituted free-base porphyrins under similar reaction conditions as mentioned above, but omitting the nal hydrolysis step afforded the meso-meso linked bisporphyrins in good yields (133, 134) (Scheme 26.46) [117]. The dimerization proceeds via oxidation of the initial
2266

R N NH R
1
R NH N
R N HN NH N R N HN R
1
R 133. Ph 134. Ph
R1 n-Bu Ph
Yield 75% 79% 55%
R1Li DDQ
HN
N R
135. n-Bu Ph
R 131. R: n-Bu; 132. R: Ph
Scheme 26.46
intermediate of the p-stabilized radical, followed by radical dimerization. Apart from the bisporphyrins, meso-5,10,15-tri-substituted and meso-5,10,15,20-tetra-substituted porphyrins are also formed. Under similar reaction conditions, the Ni complex of 124 and 126 afforded only meso-substituted products, instead of the bis-porphyrin derivatives. This method gives convenient access to bisporphyrins with mixed substituents by using simple starting materials and complements Ag(I)-promoted coupling of Zn(II) porphyrins, which is a facile method for the synthesis of unsubstituted bis- and oligoporphyrins [118].
26.3.2.4 Reactions with H2TPP In 1996, Callot reported the nucleophilic substitution reaction of the Co(III) complex of meso-tetra-aryl porphyrins (136) [119]. In the presence of n-BuLi at
Ph N Ph N M N N Ph Ph Ph R NH N HN HN Ph Ph Ph R NH N N HN
Ph R
Ph 136. Co(III)Ar; 3. 2H 137. Zn(II)
Ph 138. R: n-Butyl
Ph 141. R: t-Bu
Ph N Ph N M N N Ph THF n-BuLi -40 C H2O DDQ R N Ph NH
Ph R HN N Ph 139 Ph + Ph
R N NH
Ph HN N Ph 140 Ph
Ph 137: Zn(II)
Scheme 26.47
R: n-Butyl
j2267
0 C, apart from the axial ligand exchanging product he observed numerous other products, such as mono-, di- and tri-b-butylated porphyrins and chlorins, with <3% yield [120]. Reaction of the free-base H2TPP (3), under similar reaction conditions, forms phlorin 138 (28% yield) and chlorin 139 (18%) [114, 120], while the Zn(II) complex (137) gives mono- (139) and di-butylated chlorin (140) (Scheme 26.47) [109, 111]. The use of s-BuLi, instead of n-BuLi, leads to similar chlorins, among other products, while the more hindered t-BuLi produces a mixture of b-alkylated chlorins and 5,10-di-tert-butylated porphyrins (141) in <5% yield [121]. Thus, H2TPP and other meso-aryl porphyrins can undergo both mesoand b-addition reactions. In contrast to metal-free meso-tetra-aryl porphyrins, the Ni(II) 142 reacts with n-BuLi to form in quantitative yield the porphodimethene, which is further oxidized at the meso- and ipso- positions to produce the novel 5,50 -didehydroporphodimethenes (143) with an exocyclic double bond (Scheme 26.48) [109, 111]. Depending on the steric bulk of the meso-alkyl substituents, the macrocycle
R N R N Ni N N R N R N Ni N N R
THF, n-BuLi, -40 C H2O, DDQ
R 142
Scheme 26.48
R: n-Butyl
R R 143: 80%
R NH N N HN R 144. n-Bu (48%) 145. n-Hexyl (48%) 146. Ph (17%)
THF, xRLi, 30 min H2O, DDQ NH N 1 N
R HN THF, xRLi, 30 min H2O, DDQ NH N N HN R R 147. n-Bu (>95%) 148. n-Hexyl (61%) 149. Ph (43%)
Scheme 26.49
2268

conformation varies from planar to highly rufed [122]. Similar results are observed, with porphyrins bearing iso-butyl, 1-ethylpropyl or tert-butyl residues. Thus, meso-alkyl porphyrins react with sterically unhindered organolithium reagents to form exclusively the meso-substituted product. This is a further indication of the higher reactivity of the meso-position toward nucleophilic attack.
26.3.2.5 Reactions with Porphine Porphine (1) reacts with n-alkyl or aryl-lithium reagents to form 5-monosubstituted (144146) and 5,10-disubstituted porphyrins (147149) in low to excellent yields, depending on the number of equivalents of RLi used in the reaction (Scheme 26.49) [123].
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91 Zhou, X., Tse, M.K., Wan, T.S.M., and
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Simpson, D.J. (1985) Journal of the American Chemical Society, 107, 4946. Smith, K.M., Barnett, G.H., Evans, B., and Martynenko, Z. (1979) Journal of the American Chemical Society, 101, 5953. (a) Johnson, E.C. and Dolphin, D. (1976) Tetrahedron Letters, 17, 2197; (b) Gong, L.-C. and Dolphin, D. (1985) Canadian Journal of Chemistry, 63, 401; (c) Fanning, J.C., Mandel, F.S., Gray, T.L., and Datta-Gupta, N. (1979) Tetrahedron, 35, 1251; (d) Catalano, M.M., Crossley, M.J., Harding, M.M., and King, L.G. (1984) Journal of the Chemical Society, Chemical Communications, 1535. Shine, H.J., Padilla, A.G., and Wu, S.-M. (1979) The Journal of Organic Chemistry, 44, 4069. Arnold, D.P., Bott, R.C., Eldridge, H., Elms, F.M., Smith, G., and Zojaji, M. (1997) Australian Journal of Chemistry, 50, 495. Kalisch, W.W. and Senge, M.O. (1998) Angewandte Chemie (International Edition in English), 37, 1107. Setsune, J.-I., Yazawa, T., Ogoshi, H., and Yoshida, Z.-I. (1980) Journal of the Chemical Society-Perkin Transactions 1, 1641. Senge, M.O., Kalisch, W.W., and Bischoff, I. (2000) Chemistry - A European Journal, 6, 2721. (a) Barkigia, K.M., Chantranupong, L., Smith, K.M., and Fajer, F. (1988) Journal of the American Chemical Society, 110, 7566; (b) Senge, M.O., Renner, M.W.,
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27 New Materials Derived From Heterocyclic Systems

Javier Santamar a and Jos e L. Garc a- Alvarez
27.1 Introduction
The understanding and applicability of the properties exhibited by natural and synthetic compounds has long been an important target for the chemical community. Heterocycles, due to their special structure, have contributed greatly to this purpose. In this sense, this chapter briey summarizes the different properties induced, enhanced or simply modied by the participation of heterocyclic systems in a material. Some of them have fullled important gaps in terms of applicability and are now in common use in modern society.
27.2 Color and Fluorescent Agents 27.2.1 Heterocyclic Pigments and Industrial Applications
There are numerous natural pigments, as expressed by the wide range of colors we can nd in nature [1]. In the vast majority, the presence of organic compounds with one or more heterocycles in the skeleton is largely responsible for their colorful properties. Remarkable examples are the red iron complex heme (1) in hemoglobin and the green chlorophyll (2), a magnesium complex present in green plants. Both these compounds belong to the porphyrin family (Figure 27.1) [2]. Another family of heterocycles usually present in a large variety of plants and involved in their color is the avonoids, which contain a benzopyran skeleton. Figure 27.2 shows the structure of avone (3) and its derivative avonol (4). These natural products are compounds with almost no light absorption in the visible region but are responsible for the white color of the splendid spring postcards of owered apple and cherry trees [3]. Among the avonoids with intense color are anthocyanidin derivatives. Several examples of anthocyanidins are present in nature such as the brilliant red
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j 27 New Materials Derived From Heterocyclic Systems

Me Me
N N R1 R2 N N
Me
Fe
N N
Mg Me
N N
Me
Me
R3O2C
Me
O
HO2C
1
CO2H
MeO2C
2
Figure 27.1 Structures of the porphyrins heme (1) and chlorophyll (2).
pelargonidin (5), responsible for the color of geranium petals [4], and the crimson cyanidin (6) found in apples [5] and raspberries [6]. Other examples are blue to dark purple delphinidin (7), which colorizes some types of grapes [7], and dark purple malvidin (8) as the main pigment of red wines (Figure 27.3) [8]. A combination of different anthocyanidins results in a wide range of colors in owers such as tulips [9]. Other natural pigments, not belonging to the avonoid family, are pterins. These are present in some insects, such as butteries, as part of the coloration of their wings. Figure 27.4 shows the structures of yellow xanthopterin (9) (2-amino-1,5dihydro-4,6-pteridinedione) and white leucopterin (10) (7-hydroxyxanthopterin) the two rst pteridine pigments isolated and characterized from buttery wings [10]. Other pterin pigments are 7-methylxanthopterin, a yellow pigment known as chrysopterin (11), and red erythropterin (12) [11]. Humanity has taken advantage of the presence of pigments in nature, from paints in prehistoric caves to the modern ages. Nowadays it is difcult to imagine life without the use of pigments. Notable examples of famous pigments extracted from nature, and slightly modied for use as a dye, are the indole derivatives indigo (13) [12] (blue) and its derivative tyrian purple (14) [13] (Figure 27.5). However, extracting pigments from nature suffers from a major inconvenience: the usually very low availability of some of them. In some cases, a very large amount of plants or animal parts need to be processed to obtain just a few milligrams. This is why cloth dyed with a particular pigment was originally considered as a symbol of power. Tyrian purple 14 (also known as Royal purple), discovered by the
Ph
Ph OH
O 3
O 4
Figure 27.2 Flavone (3) and flavonol (4).
27.2 Color and Fluorescent Agents
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OH OH HO O OH OH 5 OH OH HO O OH OH 7 OH 8 OH HO O OH OH 6 HO O OH OH
OMe OH OMe
Figure 27.3 Examples of pigments belonging to the anthocyanidin family.
O HN H2N N 9 O HN H2N N 11
H N N
O O H HN H2N N 10
H N N H
O O
H N N
O O Me HN H2N N 12
H N N H
CO2H
Figure 27.4 Examples of pigments belonging to the pterin family.
O N H 13
H N O Br
O N H 14
H N O
Br
Figure 27.5 Structures of indigo (13) and tyrian purple (14) (6,60 -dibromoindigo).
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Phoenicians [14], is perhaps the most representative example of this, as it was restricted to dye coats for kings, emperors and popes. In some periods tyrian purple (14) was worth 1020 times its weight in gold. Additionally, some natural pigments lack the necessary thermal, chemical and photochemical stability to be commonly used as dyes. These two major limitations of natural pigments began to be overcome with the development of modern organic chemistry, allowing the preparation of synthetic pigments in large quantities and at low cost. Synthetic indigo (13) and its derivatives are good examples. Scheme 27.1 shows the rst synthetic procedure for commercial indigo (13), accomplished by BASF in 1897. Consequently, although the purple color of the tyrian purple (14) is considered by tradition to be a symbol of power it has, in fact, lost such signicance.
O H2SO4
HgSO4 15
O
NH3
16 NaOCl
NH
O
CO2H NH2 18
17 CO2H
N H 19 O H N O
ClCH2CO2H
KOH / NaNH2
20 N H
CO2H
"air oxidation"
N H
13
Scheme 27.1 BASF synthesis of indigo (13).
Slight modications in the structure of pigments can be used to modulate their physical or chemical properties, affecting not only their stability but also the coloration. With these two premises in mind, it is easy to imagine that almost every color of pigment can be obtained for use as a dye for most purposes.
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The rst unnatural pigment synthesized in an organic laboratory a few years before the synthesis of indigo was the phenazine derivative mauveine (23) [15], used to incorporate mauve coloration to some textile bers such as silk. Scheme 27.2 shows the original, serendipitous, synthesis of mauveine, accomplished by Perkin in 1856, from aniline (21) and different toluidines 22.
NH2 + Me 21 22 NH2
K2Cr2O7 H2SO4
Me H2N 23
N N NHTol
Scheme 27.2 First reported synthesis of mauveine (23).
In modern industry, there are many synthetic pigments that can be used as a dye. Of the heterocyclic synthetic dyes, the family of the quinolinium blue dye cyanine 24 is worth mentioning (Figure 27.6). A cyanine dye usually consists in a cationic molecule with a bridge of conjugated bonds between two rings, at least one of them heterocyclic in nature. One side of the system, the cationic ring, acts as acceptor and the other side, a neutral heterocycle or an aromatic ring with a heteroatomic substituent, as donor. This electronic delocalization is mainly responsible for the coloration of the cyanine dyes. Figure 27.7 shows the structure of two quinolinium salts commonly used as dyes, namely, pseudocyanine (25) [16] and pinacyanol chloride (26) (quinoline blue) [17]. The family of cyanines is not restricted to quinolinium compounds, as different types of heterocycles can appear in the molecule. As selected examples, Figure 27.8 shows the structures of indolinium cyanines Basic Yellow 21 (27) [18], benzothiazolium Basic Blue 41 (28) [19] and triazolium Basic Red 46 (29) [20]. Additionally, the bridge chain is not restricted to carbon atoms as carbocyanines, they can also be nitrogen atoms (azamethines) or the two rings can even be directly connected (apocyanines) [21].
I N N
24
Figure 27.6 Structure of cyanine.
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Et N
I N N Et N Et
25
Et
Cl
26
Figure 27.7 Quinolinium salts as dyes.
Other types of dyes, very commonly used in laboratories as stains of bacteria or blood cells, are azine, oxazine or thiazine dyes. The structure of these dyes consists of two six-membered rings containing amino or imino groups and bridged by nitrogen, oxygen or sulfur atoms, respectively. These systems are cationic dyes with the positive charge delocalized on both nitrogen atoms at the ends of the molecule, and on the nitrogen, oxygen or sulfur atoms of the bridge. Azine neutral red (30), oxazine brilliant cresyl blue (31) and thiazines thionin (32) and methylene blue (33) are characteristic examples of these compounds, used for DNA detection [22] (Figure 27.9). Of great importance for the synthetic dye industry was the accidental discovery by De Diesbach in the late 1920s of a family of phthalo-derivatives named phthalocyanines (34) (Figure 27.10) [23]. These compounds are not related to the cited cyanines but have been named as cyanines due to its blue color. In fact, these compounds are structurally related to porphyrins. Their main structural characteristics are the presence of benzene rings fused to the pyrrole b-positions and a porphyrin core where the carbons at the meso-positions have been replaced by nitrogen atoms.
Et N
N N N N
Me
N
OH SO3Me
Cl Me 27
MeO
Me 28
N N
Me
N N N
Br
N Me
Me Ph
29
Figure 27.8 Dyes belonging to the cyanine family.
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Me H2N
N N 30 N NMe2
Me H2N
N O 31 N NEt2
H2N
S 32
NH2
Me2N
S 33
NMe2
Figure 27.9 Heterocyclic stains.
Porphyrins have not found widespread application in the dye industry due to the usually low intensity of the absorption bands (Q bands) in the visible region, having instead more intense bands in the near-UV region (Soret band). In contrast, phthalocyanines have also bands in the near-UV region but the highest intense bands have shifted into the visible region (600700 nm) absorbing red light and resulting in their characteristic intense blue color. These differences in UV/visible spectra derive from two fundamental structural changes: (i) replacement of the carbon atoms at the meso-positions by more electronegative nitrogen atoms, which attract the p-electron density to themselves, (ii) the presence of fused benzene-pyrrole rings, which extend the p-electron density. On the other hand, phthalocyanines are very stable. As a notable example, iron is not removed from a phthalocyanine core in concentrated sulfuric acid and the intense blue coloration is not modied up to 500 C. This stability together with the intense coloration has rendered phthalocyanines as powerful pigments for the dye industry. A good example of the industrial applicability of phthalocyanines is the use of remazol turquoise blue (35) as a textile dye (Figure 27.11) [24].
N N N N N M N N N
M = Fe(III), Cu(II) 34
Figure 27.10 General structure of phthalocyanine.
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NaO3S N N N N NaO3S 35 Cu N SO3Na NaO3S N N N
Figure 27.11 Structure of the remazol turquoise blue.
27.2.2 Fluorescence and Fluorescent Heterocycles
A luminescent or photoluminescent agent is a molecule that upon excitation with ultraviolet or short wavelength visible light can spontaneously emit a photon to recover the original energy state. Among the two different kinds of luminescence, uorescence or phosphorescence, uorescence does not involve a spin change in the excited electron, since the transition occurs from a singlet excited state to the singlet ground state. Conversely, phosphorescence involves a transition from a triplet excited state to the singlet ground state, a forbidden transition by the selection rules and, as a consequence of this, it is less common than uorescence. Luminescence can operate in numerous compounds but it is easier in those with a narrow energy gap between the HOMO (highest occupied molecular orbital) and LUMO (lowest unoccupied molecular orbital). In this sense, two important factors that contribute to narrow this energetic gap are the presence of p-conjugated bonds and conjugated electron-donating or electron-withdrawing groups. On the other hand, contributions to the energy dissipation (rotation, vibration, etc.) are responsible for falls in the emitted energy related to the energy of excitation. As a result of this, the wavelength of the luminescent is always longer than that of the absorbed light. Thus, molecular rigidity favors luminescence that avoids energy dissipation through vibration modes. Among the different molecules that can exhibit the so-called luminescent properties (luminophores), heterocycles are good candidates because of their p-extended conjugation, together with the rigidity induced by the usual heteroatom participation in the conjugation. Selected examples from the many uorescent heterocycles are described below. In the eld of medicine, uorescent agents especially those containing heterocycles are important as chemical markers. In this sense, uorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) is a good example of practical application for early cancer detection that has been applied to studies in colon [25], lungs [26], prostate [27], and so on. In addition, specic uorescent heterocyclic molecules have been designed to be selectively attached to biological substances to serve as tracers of these components.
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Me2N
N Cl- H
NMe2
H2N
NH2 Ph
N Br Et
36
37
Figure 27.12 Examples of chemical markers used as medical tracers.
Figure 27.12 shows acridine orange (36) [28] and ethidium bromide (37) [29], pyridinium derivatives used to distinguish cancerous from healthy cells. A different, but no less important, medical application is the use of uorescent substances, for example uorescein (38), to check the quality of the blood vessel walls (Figure 27.13). A very small concentration of uorescein salt injected in the blood ow can be followed by uorescent detectors to obtain information related to the permeability of the vessels [30]. The application of uorescent heterocycles as markers is not restricted to the medical eld. Fluorescent dyes also have found industrial application in the detection of small ssures in different types of materials [31]. The piece to be checked is immersed in the uorescent agent and, after the corresponding washing, a uorescent detector looks for small amounts of the agent in microssures of the tested material. Fluorescence has also emerged as a valuable tool for ecophysiologists. Thus, a noninvasive technique known as chlorophyll uorescence is routinely used to monitor the photosynthetic performance of plants. Light energy absorbed by chlorophyll 2 (Figure 27.1) in plants is put to three possible uses: to drive photosynthesis, dissipated as heat or re-emitted as light-chlorophyll uorescence [32]. Detection of an increase in the yield of chlorophyll uorescence gives information about a decay in photochemistry efciency, as all three processes are in competence. Among the wide range of applications for agriculture are the improvement of crop productions by plant selection [33], studies of adaptation of maize to low temperature [34], responses to water stress in grapevine leaves [35], early detection of interactions of tobacco mosaic virus and chloroplasts [36], and so on. Related to industrial applications of uorescent chemicals in modern industry is the preparation of uorescent paints. These substances increase the brightness of the reected light upon irradiation and their use over a surface permits its identication
HO
CO2H 38
Figure 27.13 Structure of fluorescein.
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Et2N Cl O NEt2 N N O 39
Figure 27.14 Dyes for fluorescent paints.
CO2H
40
even at night. Thus, uorescent paints are very commonly used for road markings, trafc signals, coloration of safety cloths, and so on [37]. Figure 27.14 shows two examples of heterocycles with this property, xanthene 39 and benzimidazole 40. The application of uorescence phenomena to the whitening of different materials such as paper or white cloths is very interesting. The whiteness of these materials can be increased upon treatment with substances known as optical bleachers. These compounds are colorless uorescent agents that after absorbing energy reemit a part of it by uorescent in the blue region of the visible spectrum, thereby creating the appearance of an increased whiteness [38]. Optical bleachers can be included in the synthetic bers or used as part of washing mixtures. Several systems incorporating heterocyclic compounds exhibit this property. Figure 27.15 shows three of them: oxazole 41, pyrazoline 42, and triazinylaminostilbene derivative 43 [39]. Many other applications are possible using uorescent or simply luminescent heterocycles but remarkable among them is the participation in laser devices. The use of laser devices has increased progressively to the point where they play now an important role not only in industrial or research elds but in everyday life as well. Representative examples of these applications are lasers in medical surgery, supermarket code readers, credit cards readers, musical devices, computers, and so on.
N O 41 O N N N N N SO3H 43
Figure 27.15 Example of optical bleachers.
N RO2S
N 42
Cl
HO3S
N N
N N N O
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N O 44 N Me
H2N 45
N N O NH3 CF3
N Et2N O 46 H N O H N NEt2 Me2N 47
Et
Et
48
CO2Et
Figure 27.16 Some heterocycles employed in liquid lasers.
A solution of heterocyclic uorescent compounds contributes, in liquid lasers, to transform the energy into the necessary coherent light for the laser functionality. Many heterocyclic compounds are used for laser devices. Figure 27.16 shows a selection of them: oxazole 44, oxadiazole 45 [40], oxazine 46 [41], coumarin 47 [42], and xanthenes such as Rhodamine 6G (48) [43]. The advantage of liquid lasers, compared with solid or gas lasers, lies in the fact that, although they are not very powerful, they are usually easy to smoothly modulate in terms of the operating wavelength. Finally, another interesting application of uorescent heterocycles is their use as detectors for ionizing particles. 2,5-Diphenxyloxazole (PPO) (49), 1,3,5-triphenyl-D2pyrazoline (50) and 1,4-bis-2-(5-phenyloxazolyl)benzene (POPOP) 51 are heterocyclic compounds commonly used as counters (Figure 27.17). These substances emit short
Ph Ph Ph N N Ph 50 N Ph O 51
Figure 27.17 Fluorescent compounds used in counters for ionizing particles.
N Ph O 49 N O
Ph
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lived ashes when they are struck by ionizing particles. This use of heterocycles as counters has found applications in space investigations to detect neutrons, neutrinos and a-, b-, or c-rays [44].
27.3 Self-Assembling Materials and Molecular Containers 27.3.1 Introduction
As a reection of increasing interest in knowledge of the mechanistic bases of life at the molecular level, molecular recognition has been the focus of increasing effort in recent decades. This discipline can be considered as an art involving the creation and/or study of supramolecular structures held together through complementarity in size, shape, non-covalent or even electrostatic interactions, among others. As pioneers in this eld, Jean-Marie Lehn, Donald J. Cram, and Charles J. Pedersen were awarded with the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1987 for their development and use of molecules with structure-specic interactions of high selectivity. This section gives a brief compilation of several macrostructures assembled by non-covalent bonds, with the crucial participation of one or more heterocyclic rings. It is divided in three sub-sections according to the type of interaction involved: electrostatic and p-stacking interactions, coordination chemistry and hydrogen-bond interactions. A fourth section covers a special type of assemblies capable of encapsulating small molecules.
27.3.2 Assembly Mediated by Electrostatic and p-Stacking Interactions
Electrostatic interactions play an important role in the formation of a large number of assemblies. A good example is the early work done by Nobel Laureate Charles J. Pedersen in late 1950s with the synthesis of crown ethers and the formation of simple assemblies with cations [45]. From this work to now, numerous supramolecular structures have been described using electrostatic interactions as the main driving force. Heterocycles, especially nitrogenated heterocycles such as pyridines, have actively participated in the formation of assemblies in their cationic forms. A representative example of this type of work is shown in Figure 27.18 with the formation of the assembly 52 between a tetrapyridilium porphyrin and a tetracarboxylate calyx[4]arene derivative [46]. The assembly is highly dependent on the pH of the media, pointing to the electrostatic interactions between pyridinium and carboxylate ions as the most important driving forces involved in the assembly. Many other examples can be mentioned for the formation of supramolecular structures through electrostatic interactions, including their participation together with other non-covalent forces. In this sense, these electrostatic interactions emerge
27.3 Self-Assembling Materials and Molecular Containers
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NH
N O O O
N HN N
N N O
OO O O
OH OH OH HO 52
Figure 27.18 Example of an ionic assembly.
in many cases as the main factor in the control of protein interactions [47], and are the ultimate cause of some biological properties. Particular types of non-covalent forces, with an important component of electrostatic interaction, are p-stacking interactions. These interactions between two aromatic systems are considered to have two main components: electrostatic interactions and van der Waals forces [48]. The formation of supramolecular assemblies such as catenanes and rotaxanes are ruled out in many cases by p-stacking interactions between a donor group, usually an electron-rich aromatic ring, and an acceptor one as a heterocyclic cation. A good exponent of this work is Stoddart and coworkers. Since the formation of their rst catenane 56 (Scheme 27.3) [49], numerous interlocked self-assembled superstructures [50], including molecular switches [51], have been produced.
N O
2O
N N
N o
53
+
O2
55
N
Br
Br
CH3CN, 25C 70%
o
N
o2
54
Scheme 27.3 Synthesis of a catenane.
56
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Additionally, a change in the electronic properties of the molecules can be used to modify the assembly. In this regard, Scheme 27.4 shows a [2]rotaxane, assembled by p-stacking interaction of the tetracationic derivative with the tetrathiafulvalene unit [52]. This interaction prevails over the interaction with the 1,5-dioxynaphthalene unit present in the same rotaxane 57. However, a redox-switching can be accomplished through an oxidation of the tetrathiafulvalene, which promotes a switch of the cationic unit to the 1,5-dioxynaphthalene.
N O O O O O O O O O O O N N N O O O
- 2eO O S S N N O O SH SH O O N O N
+ 2eO S S H O O S S H
57
Scheme 27.4 [2]-Rotaxane as a molecular switch.
58
27.3.3 Self-Assembly Through Coordination Chemistry
The formation of labile metalligand bonds has emerged, in the last two or three decades, as an important tool in the eld of supramolecular chemistry. Examples of this type of behavior can be taken from nature, like the selective coordination exhibited by metalloproteins, such as hemoglobin. The selective and reversible binding of different molecules to the metal centre is one of the most crucial factors in the control of the protein activity.
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In this sense, chemists, taking advantage of increasing knowledge of metal coordination, have been able to design and construct architectures of increasing complexity. Although many factors affect the formation of these supramolecular structures it can be controlled by taking account of three major aspects:
.
. .
The shape of the self-assembled structure is highly dependent on the metal coordination geometry. Thus, metals with different coordination possibilities can drive different to architectures. The choice of the ligands also plays an important role through the orientation of their interaction sites, usually heteroatom functions. Finally, although metalligand interactions are stronger than other weak forces (hydrogen bonds, wan der Waals forces, etc.), metalheteroatom bonds are thermally labile. On the one hand, the higher strength of the metalligand bonds helps to overcome the entropic cost of the supramolecular assembly, as several discrete molecules have to be held together. On the other hand, the lability of the bond gives rise to the formation of the thermodynamically most favored assembly, through a process that involves the self-correction of initially formed kinetic structures.
As mentioned earlier, heterocyclic systems have been widely selected for the formation of supramolecular coordination structures due to the ability of heteroatoms to act as donors to the metal acceptor centre. A brief selection of these supramolecular architectures, accomplished through metal coordination of different heterocyclic rings, is given below. A wide variety of heterocycles, especially nitrogen heterocycles, can act as metal ligand and can be potentially used as ligands in self-assembly coordination chemistry [53]. However, pyridine derivatives, due to their well known ability to form complexes with a large number of metals, have been used in most cases. This is also favored by the back-bonding from the metals into the p -orbitals of the pyridine rings. Figure 27.19 shows an example of two different binuclear assemblies through the coordination of pyridine rings. The driving force for the assembly formation emerges from the silver [54] and palladium [55] coordination, respectively. Pyridine derivatives participate in numerous self-assembly processes even with two different metals [56], resulting in structures with diverse sizes and forms. An interesting example of this, carried out by Fujita et al. [57], is shown in Scheme 27.5. This work resulted in the formation of tetranuclear 61 or trinuclear 62 complexes in equilibrium, assembled from the nucleation of bipyridine ligands around palladium atoms. As a representative example of the increasing complexity in the supramolecular structures with pyridine or bipyridine ligands, it is worth mentioning the work of Lehn and collaborators. Scheme 27.6 describes the formation of pentanuclear 64 [58] or hexanuclear 65 [59] iron helicates with the same trisbipyridyl ligand 63. The formation of one double helicate over the other is dependent on the counterion size, which acts as a template. Thus, chloride drives the assembly to the pentameric helicate 64, isolated with a chloride ion within its central cavity, whereas sulfate gives rise to the hexameric helicate 65.
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4+
H N O
H N
2+
H2N N
Pd
NH2
N
(NO 3 )4
Ag
O
(NO3-)2
O N
Ag
H O H
N N H2N N
Pd
NH2 60
59
Figure 27.19 Silver and palladium dimeric assemblies.
NH2 H2N Pd N
N
H2N N Pd N H N 2
8+
6+
H2N
NH2 Pd N N (NO3-)6
(NO3-)8
H2 N
Pd N NH2
H2 N Pd N H2N
H2 N N Pd
N NH2
Pd NH2 N H2N
61
Scheme 27.5 Tetra- and trinuclear self-assembled complexes.
62
A careful design of ligands, which combines pyridine with pyridazine, pyrimidine or pyrazine rings, together with the appropriate selection of the metal has allowed the design and building of grid-type architectures of diverse size and complexity [60]. Scheme 27.7 shows two of the simplest examples of these type of complexes: the tetrameric compounds 68 and 69, containing bis(pyridyl)pyridazine (66) [61]and bis (terpyridine) 67 [62] ligands, respectively. Owing to the structure of the ligands, the metal is coordinated tetrahedrally in the rst case and octahedrally in the second. Metal coordination assemblies can also act as molecular machines. Scheme 27.8 shows a [2]rotaxane produced by Sauvage and coworkers [63]. The axle of the rotaxane,
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N N N
63
FeCl2
170C
FeSO 4 NH4PF6
170C
9+
N N N N Fe N N N N Fe N N Fe N N N N N
N N Fe N N
N N N N N Fe N
12+
N N
N N N N
N N Fe N N
N N Fe N N N N
Cl-
N N N
N Fe N N N N
N Fe N
N N N
N N Fe N N N
N N N N N Fe N
64
65
Scheme 27.6 Preparation of pentameric and hexameric helicates.
N N N N N N N N
N N
66
CuI
67
CuII N N
N N N N N
N N N N N N N N N N
N N N N N N N N N N N
N N N N N
NN
N N
NN
68
Scheme 27.7 Grid-type self-assembled complexes.
69
2292
O O N N N N O O N N N
O O
-e
+ eCuI CuII
N N
N N O O
N N
70
Scheme 27.8 Example of a redox molecular switch.
71
assembled by bipyridinecopper coordination, can be electrochemically switched between the two coordination sites of the ring. A change in the copper oxidation state promotes the rotation of the ring and the metal changes from tetra- to pentacoordination and vice versa. In addition to the six-membered nitrogen heterocyclic rings (pyridines, pyridazines, pyrimidines, pyrazines or tetrazines [64]) and combinations of these heterocycles, vemembered rings have also been involved in self-assembly metallomolecular arrays. Scheme 27.9 presents the tetrameric structure 73, which involve double zinc porphyrin-pyridine coordination [65]. Each zinc atom is surrounded by the porphyrin core and by a pyridine ligand, placed at the meso-position of a different porphyrin unit. Five-membered rings with two or more nitrogen atoms such as pyrazole [66], imidazole [67], triazole [68], benzotriazole [69], or tetrazole [70] have also participated in this type of assemblies. Figure 27.20 shows the hexameric assembly 74 involving a copper metal and a ligand bearing an imine and pyridine and imidazole rings [71]. The fourth coordination site of the copper is saturated with a second imidazole nitrogen atom of a different ligand. Finally, although the participation of heteroatoms other than nitrogen is not very common in metal coordination assemblies, heterocycles such as thiazoline [72] have been used in this type of supramolecular architecture.
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N N
Zn
N
N
Zn
N
Zn
N
Zn
N
Zn
Zn
73
72
Scheme 27.9 Tetrameric porphyrin assembly.
27.3.4 Self-Assembly Through Hydrogen-Bond Chemistry
Hydrogen-bonding interactions can be considered as a weak force that, taking advantage of the principle of cooperativity [73], can be used to hold together large
6+
N N N Cu N N
N Cu
N N N
N Cu N N N Cu N N
(ClO4-)6
N N N Cu N N 74 N N Cu N
Figure 27.20 Hexameric structure assembled through copper coordination.
2294

structures consisting of several discrete molecules. Owing to the weakness of this type of interactions and the entropic cost of keeping several molecules together, assemblies based on an isolated hydrogen bond lack stability. In this sense, cooperativity is crucial as the stability of the assemblies increases exponentially with the number of hydrogen bonds. However, the weakness of the single hydrogen bond facilitates two important features:
. .
The low energy of the hydrogen bond carries a selection capability as hydrogen bonds are made and broken until stable structures are reached. This property habilitates, as nature does, the transfer of biological information. In this sense, the transcription and translation of the genetic information represents a noteworthy example. During that processes both single strands of the DNA and RNA double helix, which are held together by hydrogen bonds, are partially taken apart and regenerated after the information has been transferred.
Owing to the difference in electronegativity between nitrogen or oxygen and hydrogen, these are the two most common atoms acting as proton donors and also as proton acceptors in hydrogen bonds. Heterocycles bearing these types of atoms commonly participate in supramolecular assemblies through hydrogen bonding. To show here all the different heterocycles that participate in the formation of supramolecular assemblies is far from the aim of this section and so only a brief compilation of some relevant examples is given. Perhaps the most important example of this type of assemblies, in terms of life implication, is the self-complementarily of DNA double helix through WatsonCrick base pair interactions [74] (adeninethymine and guaninecytosine). Figure 27.21 shows the structure of the purine (fused pyrimidine-imidazole) nucleosides adenine (75) and guanine (77) and pyrimidones thymine (76) and cytosine (78). The pairs adeninethymine and guaninecytosine are held together with the formation of two and three hydrogen bonds, respectively, contributing to the overall stability of the DNA double helix [75]. In addition to observations from nature, scientists have also focused a great deal of effort to designing and synthesizing molecules with the appropriate complementarily, to create new superstructures held together through hydrogen bonding.
H N N N N (Gua) 77 H N H H O (Cyt) 78 N R
O H N R N N N H N H O
R N O N 76 N R (Thy)
N (Adn) 75
Figure 27.21 WatsonCrick base pairs.
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R H N N RO N R N H O 79 N H N H N H N O H N N OR N N
Figure 27.22 Self-assembled artificial nucleotide.
Thus, Sessler et al. [76] have described an articial dinucleotide with purine and piperidindione derivatives, which can self-assemble, leading to the corresponding dimer 79 (Figure 27.22). Assemblies are not restricted to dimers as supramolecular structures with different numbers of monomerical components have also been realized. Figure 27.23 shows a circular array, developed by Zimerman et al., as a hexameric assembly of fused pyridines and pyrimidinones. Thus, the complementarily of both edges of the monomer, in the adequate angular disposition (60 ), results in the formation of the hexameric structure 80, which is held together with 18 hydrogen bonds [77].
H O N R N H O N H N N N N R N H H O N H N N H N Et H N N N N N N H N O H N H N R
Et Et
Et
H N N
Et
N N N N R H H
Et N
H N
N H N
N H N
O H N
80
Figure 27.23 Hexameric structure assembled through hydrogen bonding.
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N N N N N H H O N N H O N H O H N N H N N N H H O N N H O N H O H N N H N N N N
Pr
Pr
O N O N H H N H N N N H N
O H N O N H H N
O H H N N N N
Pr
N N
H N
Pr
N N
81
Figure 27.24 Melaminebarbituric acid assembly.
In a similar approach, a hexameric assembly starting from fused pyrimidinones has also been described by Lehn and coworkers [78]. Linear, even polymeric [79], structures have also been described. For example, Timmerman has reported the formation of the linear discrete assembly 81 through hydrogen-bond interactions between a trimer of the triazine derivative melamine and a bis(barbituric acid) derivative [80]. The cyclic-ureido structure of the bis(barbituric acid) can connect two linear strands of melamine components. Figure 27.24 shows the structure of four components, which involves the formation of 24 hydrogen bonds. Finally, in the literature it is also possible to nd three-dimensional structures assembled by hydrogen-bond self-complementarity with different sizes and shapes. Rebeks tennis ball (83) is a good example (Scheme 27.10) [81]. This supramolecular structure is held together by eight hydrogen bonds between two self-complementary
O H N R N H O N N R R N N
O N H R N H O
82
83
Scheme 27.10 A self-assembled tennis ball.
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units. The monomer 82 consists of two glycoluril subunits attached to a central skeleton that provides the necessary curvature. Other glycoluril capsules have also been attained [82] and some of these capsules are able to host discrete molecules inside. Encapsulation features are described in the next section.
27.3.5 Capsules and Encapsulation Behavior
Synthetic molecular recognition and hostguest chemistry have their origin in the complementarity of three main characteristics: size, shape and chemical interaction. This is very well illustrated in the pioneering work of Pedersen, in the 1960s, by the synthesis and study of crown ethers [45]. Pedersen demonstrated that these heterocycles can selectively bind cations of only a given size (Figure 27.25). This concept of molecules within molecules, a term coined by Nobel Prize winner Donald Cram [83], has been extended to modern supramolecular chemistry and an increasing number of molecules can be almost completely surrounded by selfassembled capsules. In the last decade, hostguests chemistry has been a eld of increasing interest and capsules of different shapes and sizes have been synthesized [84]. Apart from, or perhaps due to, the selective binding, these capsules are able to feature special properties such as catalysis, chiral discrimination, intermediate stabilization, traces capture, and so on. A brief compilation of some of these features is given below. A very interesting observation made by several authors is that self-assembled capsules can accelerate or even catalyze different reaction processes. Of note in this regard is the report by Fujita of an octahedral capsule acting as a phase-transfer catalyst [85]. The water-soluble capsule 86 is assembled from pyridine ligands coordinated to palladium complexes. Capsule 86 encapsulates styrene, which lacks water solubility, allowing its effective participation in a Wacker oxidation (Scheme 27.11). In addition, Rebek et al. have reported the participation in a catalytic process of glycoluril-based capsule 88, which is assembled through the formation of 16 hydrogen bonds (Scheme 27.12). A DielsAlder reaction between p-benzoquinone
O O K O O 84 O O O
O Na O 85
O O
Figure 27.25 Crown ethers and cationic recognition.
2298

O
HN NH Pd N N N N N N N N Pd N NH N N N N N N N N N N Pd HN N HN N Pd N NH
N [Pd] [Pd] N
Organic phase Aqueous phase

NH
HN
86
PdII O2
Pd0
Scheme 27.11 Example of the use of a capsule as a phase-transfer catalyst.
(89) and 2,5-dimethylthiophene 90 is catalyzed in the presence of the capsule 88 [86]. Thus, one of the two molecules of p-benzoquinone 89, which initially lls the capsule, is replaced by one molecule of 2,5-thiophene 90. After the DielsAlder reaction takes place the product 91 is replaced by more p-benzoquinone 89 due to its poor afnity for the capsule, and a new cycle begins. The capsule 88 also participates in the acceleration of DielsAlder reactions with other substrates [87]. However, in these cases, the high afnity of the reaction product for the capsule prevents its replacement by more reagents and no true catalysis is observed. This product inhibition has also been observed by other authors [88]. Asymmetric behavior has also been observed in self-assembled capsules. For example, Rebek et al. have synthesized a glycoluril-based dimeric capsule starting from achiral monomer 92. These capsules can be assembled in two different enantiomeric forms, as a racemic mixture (Scheme 27.13) [89]. Enantiopure guests can be selectively recognized by one of the enantiomers, affording an enriched diastereomeric mixture of capsules. Additionally, taking advantage of the much faster guest exchange compared with capsule dissociation, an enantiomerically enriched mixture of capsules 93 and 94 is obtained, replacing the chiral by an achiral guest [90]. Examples of chiral discrimination have also been reported from metal coordinated nanocages [91]. Thus, a racemic mixture of supramolecular structures assembled by

O HN R HN O N N R OH OH N N O O O O N N OH OH N R N O O NH R NH
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87
O
90
O
SO2
O SO2
O
O
O
89
2
O2S O O
89
O2S
91
O
O
Scheme 27.12 DielsAlder catalysis through encapsulation.
pyridine coordination to palladium can be discriminated by the addition of chiral guests. Finally, among the special features that can be addressed by a self-assembled capsule is the stabilization of reactive intermediates. A relevant example is the
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O O N N O R N N O O O N N N R N O O
HN
R
HN
NH R NH
92
93
Scheme 27.13 Chiral capsules.
94
formation of the highly reactive trimer of phenyltrimethoxysilane inside a capsule similar to 86 [92]. Owing to the special characteristics of the hostguest size and shape complementarity, polymerization of this intermediate is avoided inside the capsule. Similar behavior has been observed in the stabilization of benzoyl peroxide inside an hydrogen-bond self-assembled capsule [93].
27.4 Unnatural Enzyme Models
The quest for synthetic molecules to mimic one or more features of enzymatic systems is ongoing. These organic molecules, known as enzyme models, are structurally simpler than enzymes, as they usually lack the peptide chain, and are used to reproduce the characteristics and properties of the enzyme active site. The simplicity of the coenzyme model, compared to the biomolecule, and the possibilities of manipulation of its structure facilitates the study of a specic property of the enzyme. Because many coenzymes belong to the family of nitrogen molecules, heterocycles specically nitrogen heterocycles have been widely used as enzyme models. Among such heterocycles, porphyrin derivatives, imidazole rings and pyridines are perhaps the most commonly described. Several examples of such systems are, briey, given in this section. Several molecules have been synthesized to simulate the active site of the cytochrome P450s, a very important family of enzymes involved in the biocatalysis
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PivO
O
O OH N
HO
N Fe N O S N O
OPiv
PivO
O
O OH N O O
HO
N Fe N S N O
OPiv
PivO
O
HO O
OPiv
PivO
HO O
OPiv
95
Figure 27.26 Enzyme models for cytochrome P450cam.
96
of several organic compounds from dioxygen. The structure of the P450cam [94], one of the best characterized P450s is a hemoprotein with a special characteristic that bears a thiolate group belonging to a cysteine amino-acid as a ligand to the heme. A number of porphyrin derivatives have been synthesized to mimic the coenzyme of this cytochrome P450 [95]. Figure 27.26 shows two remarkable examples, 95 and 96. In both cases, porphyrins 95 and 96 have a thiolate group covalently attached to the porphyrin and coordinated to the iron centre [96]. Additionally, they have on both sides of the porphyrin hydrophobic cavities protected with binaphthyl moieties. The binaphthyl walls of one side protect the iron centre from a possible autoxidation. On the other side, these moieties protect the thiolate from oxidation and disulde formation. Finally, the hydroxyl groups attached to the binaphthyls on the open side of the iron centre interact with the bound dioxygen through hydrogen bonding. This enzyme model has been used in studies of binding and activation of dioxygen by cytochrome P450. The dioxygen adduct has been characterized and direct evidence of hydrogen bonding of the hydroxyl groups to the bound dioxygen has been obtained. Owing to the complexity of the active site of the enzymes, a precise combination of heterocycles and metals could also be required for the synthesis of an enzyme model. For example, the active site of the copper-zinc superoxide dismutase consists of a bimetallic Cu(II)-Zn(II) core bridged by an imidazolate moiety [97]. Few systems have been synthesized to reproduce this coenzyme due to the special characteristics of the bimetallic bridged core [98]. Figure 27.27 shows an enzyme model of superoxide dismutase (97) accomplished with a macrocyclic nitrogenated ligand [99] that selectively coordinates a copper cation on one side and a zinc on the other. The appropriate distance between the two coordination sites in 97 makes it suitable for the coordination of imidazolate as a bridge between the two metallic centers. Finally, the fth coordination sites in both metals are saturated by oxygen atoms.
2302

O NH N N H NO N Cu N H
Zn
HN
97
Figure 27.27 Enzyme model for copper-zinc superoxide dismutase.
Experimental measures of the catalytic activity towards the dismutation of superoxide show that complex 97 is a good enzyme model, although its activity is lower than the native enzyme. An interesting, third example, of heterocyclic participation in the synthesis of an enzyme model is the recent use of a macroheterocycle that includes a terpyridine derivative. This macrocycle has been used to simulate the active site of the enzyme Rubisco, which is involved in the xation of carbon dioxide by green plants and the formation of a carbamate moiety [100]. The natural enzyme xes carbon dioxide by reaction with the nitrogenated amino acid lysine, with the participation of a magnesium or manganese complex. This feature, the formation of a carbamate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and its stabilization, has been reproduced by an articial model (Figure 27.28) [101]. In this case, the enzyme model 98 involves the participation of a copper cation coordinated to a terpyridine included in a nitrogenated macrocycle. The copper complex acts as Lewis acid, facilitating the carbon dioxide reaction and helping carbamate stabilization by coordination. Finally, we end this section by mentioning other systems that can be considered as enzyme models although they do not mimic any particular natural enzyme. These compounds are included here because they reproduce some enzymatic properties
H N H H N O HO N
H N
3+
Cu
N
O H
N N
N H
98
Figure 27.28 Model of the enzyme Rubisco.
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N N
Zn
N N
O O N N Zn N N N O N N N Zn N N
99
Figure 27.29 DielsAlder acceleration inside a porphyrin trimer.
such as catalysis or chiral recognition. Examples have been given in Section 27.3.5, where we describe DielsAlder reactions catalyzed or simply accelerated by a selfassembled glycoluril capsule [86, 87]. These systems follow the Michaelis kinetics typically observed in enzymology. Similarly, DielsAlder acceleration has been accomplished inside the cavity of the covalently bonded porphyrin trimer 99 [102]. The reagents have been attached to a pyridine moiety and DielsAlder acceleration takes place through coordination of the pyridine rings to the metallic centre of the porphyrin core (Figure 27.29). Although the acceleration is truly remarkable, it cannot be considered true catalysis due to product inhibition. The DielsAlder adduct binds to the trimer and so the complex lacks catalytic turnover. Chiral recognition by organic synthetic molecules has also been observed by selfcomplementarity in size and shape between the host and one of a pair of enantiomers. Rebek et al. have described an example of this approach [89] (Section 27.3.5). In a different approach, chiral discrimination can also be accomplished by the differences between both enantiomers in number and quality of the interactions with the host. For example, Figure 27.30 show a bowl shape complex 100 that binds selectively ()-morphine 101 (natural morphine) 43-fold versus ( )-morphine 102 [103]. This bowl is formed by a porphyrin core covalently surrounded by four cholate units. The difference in selectivity towards the natural isomers lies in the fact that ()-morphine 101 has three binding-points to the host: coordination of the nitrogen to the zinc and formation of two hydrogen bonds through the hydroxyl groups, whereas the non-natural morphine 102, apart from the nitrogenzinc coordination, is only able to make a single hydrogen bond with the bowl 100.
2304

O O R O O OH O O O R O O N Zn N N N O O OH O O O Me R O O 100 H N Me HO R O O O
HO
HO
O (-)-Morphine 101
OH
HO
O (+)-Morphine 102
OH
Figure 27.30 Chiral recognition by a synthetic bowl.
27.5 Organic Conductors 27.5.1 Introduction
Low-cost, lightweight and exibility are the main requirements for electronic devices used on a massive scale [104]. The latest research on this technology demonstrates that organic-based materials fulll those requirements. In fact, thin lm displays based on organic light emitting devices (OLEDs) are already commercial. Obviously, the organic compounds useful for these purposes are those with semiconducting or conducting properties. Many heterocyclic structures are included in materials showing electronic conductivity, especially those heterocyclic rings with a heteroatom that is part of an aromatic ring. The common role played by the heterocycle is to modify the electronic properties of the material. In this sense, electron-rich heterocycles make the material easier to oxidize, so they will be a better carrier of holes. In contrast, electron-poor
27.5 Organic Conductors
j2305
heterocycles make the material easier to reduce, and so will be better electron carriers. Taking this into account, the conductive characteristics may be tuned by adequate selection or combination of the appropriate heterocycles. Applying the same terminology used for semiconductors, donor (electron-rich) heterocycles are p-type molecules, and acceptor heterocycles (electron poor) n-type molecules. Additionally, the term doping is used in the sense of oxidizing (generation of a positive charge) or reducing (generation of a negative charge) the molecule chemically or electrochemically. As with other organic compounds, the conductivity of one heterocycle may be modied by a change in its chemical structure or by interactions between molecules in the solid state. The chemical substitution of the molecule modulates the oxidation or reduction potentials, and the interactions between molecules greatly modify the conductivity of the bulk material. This section discusses the conductivity of several heterocyclic materials. The synthesis and properties of heterocyclic polymers is discussed rst, followed by a description of the conductivity of heterocyclic molecules in the bulk and how the structure of the bulk material in the solid state affects the nal properties. Finally, single-molecule conductivity is described.
27.5.2 Conducting Heterocyclic Polymers
From the mid-1970s, conjugated polymers have attracted increasing interest due to their electronic properties and the applications derived from them. In 2000, Heeger, MacDiarmid and Shirakawa were awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the discovery of metallic-type electronic conductivity in doped poly(acetylene). As there are only a few conjugated polymers with only carbon in the backbone, the incorporation of heterocyclic structures permits different kinds of conjugated polymers with tunable properties. Some of these properties are related to enhanced stability; it is generally agreed that heterocyclic polymers are more stable than allcarbon conducting polymers. Other properties depend on the energy of the band gap between the conduction and the valence band, which is typically 1 to 3 eV in the neutral state. As the excitation of carriers in the neutral state would occur at energy levels less than 2 eV, these polymeric systems would be insulators or, at best, semiconductors [105], and they only become conductors when they are doped. Recent efforts in conducting polymers have focused on diminishing the band gap, but conjugated polymers with a vanishing band gap have not yet been synthesized [106]. Figure 27.31 shows a selection of the most important heterocyclic conducting polymers: poly(thiophene)s 103, poly(thiazole)s 104, poly(pyrrole)s 105, poly(selenophene)s 106, poly(furan) (107), poly(pyridine-2,5-diyl) (108), poly(pyridazine-3,6diyl) (109), poly(quinolinediyl-5,8-diyl) (110), poly(isoquinoline-1,4-diyl) (111), poly (1,5-naphthyridine-2,6-diyl) (112), and poly(quinoxaline-5,8-diyl) 113. In general, these polymers are synthesized by two different methodologies: electrochemically and/or chemical coupling. As the nal properties very much depend on the synthetic
2306

R2 S 103 R1
n
N S 104
R
n
R2 N R3 105
R1
n
Se
106
O 107
N n 108
N N n 109
N n 110 N n N
N n 112
N n
111
113
Figure 27.31 Structure of some heterocyclic conducting polymers.
method used, we discuss the alternative synthetic methods for each polymer and the consequences of selecting one or the other. Poly(thiophene)s 103 are the most extensively studied conducting heterocyclic polymers. The rst electrochemical synthesis, directly from thiophene, was developed in 1982 [107], yielding an oxidized doped, black lm over the electrode. The material was insoluble in common organic solvents. However, some physical properties could be measured, such as the band gap [108] and conductivity [107], from the lm removed from the electrode. The neutral polymer was obtained by carrying out a reduction over the electrode. Several improvements to the reaction conditions, changing concentration, electrolyte, solvent, electrode material and electrical conditions [109], have produced poly (thiophene)s with increased conductivity [110]. Another approach for the electrosynthesis of high-conducting polymers is the use of substituted thiophenes. The aim of such substitution is to make the material more ordered and more processable, facilitate the electropolymerization by reduction of the oxidation potential, and, in some cases, make the polymer more stable in air. Consequently, the electropolymerization of many different substituted thiophenes has been reported; Figure 27.32 shows a selection of the most relevant.
CH3 S 114
n
O S
O
n
115
Figure 27.32 Substituted polythiophenes.
j2307
Polymer 114 has been used as a model compound owing to its better stereoregularity and conductivity [111], which are intimately related. Polymer 115 (PEDOT) is a processable polymer with an environmental stability that makes it a commercial polymer solution [112]. Poly(thiophene)s are also prepared by chemical methods, following two general approaches: chemical oxidation (typically using Fe3 as oxidant), resulting in polymers in their oxidized state, and chemical coupling of organometallic compounds as the best method for directly synthesizing polymers in their neutral state. The most efcient method for the preparation of stereoregular poly(thiophene)s is the chemical coupling of organometallic thiophene derivatives. The stereoregularity is an important issue in conducting polymers because it affects directly the transport of carriers between chains. A good stereoregularity in 3-substituted thiophenes is achieved with a head to tail coupling along the polymer chain. Two approaches to total regioregular polymers have been independently developed by McCullough [113] and Rieke [114] using magnesium and zinc organometallic derivatives, respectively (Scheme 27.14). For example, a polymer with R CH2O (CH2)2O(CH2)2OCH3 has been prepared with very high regioselectivity by McCullough [115], showing, to the best of our knowledge, the highest conductivity reported for a polythiophene.
R BrM S 116 Br
R Ni(DPPP)Cl2, THF -5 to 25C 20 - 98% M = Mg, Zn S 117 n
Scheme 27.14 Organometallic synthesis of polythiophenes.
Poly(thiazole)s 104 have been prepared by dehalogenationpolycondensation of 2,5-dibromothiazoles [116] using a Ni(0) complex. This synthetic method does not allow the preparation of regioregular polymers head to tail, and mixtures of head to tail and head to head are obtained along the polymeric chain. In this sense, the polymerization of 5,50 -dibromo-2,20 -bithiazoles is more convenient [117], resulting in polymers with the structure shown in Figure 27.33.
R N S N S
118
Figure 27.33 Poly(2,20 -bithiazole-5,50 -diyl)s (118).
2308

As expected for these polymers, the introduction of an imine nitrogen in the heterocyclic structure makes the material more electron poor than the equivalent poly (thiophene)s, which is demonstrated by a shift in the redox potential [117]. These polymers are insulators in their neutral state, but the conductivity increases in the ndoped state (with sodium naphthalide in THF [117]). Poly(pyrrole)s 105 were the rst conducting heterocyclic polymer directly synthesized [118] by electropolymerization (of pyrrole), although they showed moderate conductivities. Substitution by a methyl group at the 3-position of the pyrrole ring improves the stereoregularity and conductivity of these polymers [119]. Chemical oxidative coupling, using FeCl3 as oxidant, allows its synthesis with a conductivity similar to the best poly(pyrrole) prepared by electropolymerization [120]. Poly(selenophene)s 106 and poly(furan) (107) are prepared by direct electropolymerization of selenophene [121] and furan [122], respectively. The both show low conductivity. Polymers 108113, having one or more imine nitrogens, have been prepared by dehalogenationpolycondensation of the appropriate dihalogen monomer, using zero-valent Ni complexes [123], except for poly(pyridazine-3,6-diyl) (109) [124], which has been prepared by the electrochemical polymerization of pyridazine. In the neutral state, the conductivity of these polymers is very low, but when doped with sodium naphthalide the conductivity increases, in some cases by several orders of magnitude. The electronic properties of heterocyclic conducting polymers have been taken account for their application in several devices [125, 126]. Although much work is necessary to use conducting polymers in the same way as metals (copper has a conductivity of 50 000 S cm1, and in the best case for polythiophenes the conductivity is 5500 S cm1), in some cases very good behavior as semiconductors is found. These applications are divided into two groups, depending on the oxidation state of the polymers. Thus, in the oxidized or reduced forms, conducting polymers may act as anticorrosion protectors (mainly polymers with conductivities that are not pH dependent), sensors and electrochemical devices, batteries, electrochromic cells, controlled-release applications, radar applications, infrared polarizers, and so on. In the neutral state, they have been used as OLEDs and TFTs (thin lm transistors).
27.5.3 Conducting Heterocyclic Molecules in the Bulk
Well-ordered systems based on heterocyclic molecules also show very interesting electronic properties, related to their semiconductor character. To obtain good performance of the devices made with these compounds (OLEDs, TFTs and solar cells), they have to be disposed over a surface with the maximum of interactions between the molecules, allowing a good mobility of hole and electron carriers [127]. There are several methods by which to create such well-ordered arrangements of molecules: crystallization, chemical vapor deposition (CVD), LangmuirBlodgett lms, mesomorphic structures arrangements, and so on.
j2309
S n 119
Figure 27.34 Thiophene oligomers useful as TFTs.
Thiophene oligomers 119, or structures based in the thiophene ring, are among the most interesting heterocyclic molecules with applications in TFTs (Figure 27.34) [128]. These compounds are mainly p-type semiconductors; although there are some n-type, it is well known that p-type heterocyclic molecules are more stable than n-type [129]. The main reason for the high mobility of carriers lies in their ability to form p-stacking face to face structures in the solid state after deposition over a surface, which facilitates charge transport between the molecules [130]. Of the synthesized oligomers 119, from tetramer to octamer, the hexamer 120 with R C6H13 shows the best behavior [131]. To increase the air stability of oligothiophenes, the p character has been lowered by incorporation of electron-poor thiazole (Figure 27.35) [132]. Air stability is crucial for application in real devices. Commercially available pentacene, a non-heterocyclic compound used for TFT purposes, shows promising results. Consequently, some heterocyclic compounds with a related structure have been prepared and tested (Figure 27.36). Dimer 121 [133] and dialkyl anthradithiophene 122 [134] show very good performances in TFTs devices. Tetrathiafulvalene derivatives (Figure 27.37) have been extensively used as chargetransfer salts and are discussed below. However, in the context of TFTs, some derivatives have prepared recently and their electronic properties studied. Compound 123 [135] shows the best performance, although tetrathiafulvalene 124 [136] with electron-poor nitrogen heterocycles is more stable in air. Thiophenes may also act as n-type semiconductors if appropriate groups are linked to the thiophene ring. Thus, alkyl uorinated oligomers of thiophene (from two to six thiophene rings) have been studied [137]. Among them, the best performance was found for tetramer 125 (Figure 27.38). The inclusion of ketone groups in 125 (126) increases the performance by several orders of magnitude and also improves air stability [138]. Although thiophene oligomers are the most commonly used heterocyclic compounds for TFTdevices, other heterocycles can also participate, and several studies of
H13C6
N S 120 N
C6H13
Figure 27.35 Thiophene-thiazole oligomer with p-type semiconductor character.
2310

S S S 121 S S 122
Figure 27.36 Fused heterocyclic aromatic molecules 121 and 122.
S S
H13C6
C6H13
S S 123
S S
N S N
S S 124
S S
N N
Figure 27.37 Tetrathiafulvalene derivatives useful as TFTs.
TFT devices based on nitrogen heterocycles have been performed. For example, very good results have been obtained with compound 127, a p-type semiconductor derived from carbazole (Figure 27.39) [139]. Finally, an interesting heterocyclic skeleton that has been used as an n-type charge carrier is the metallophthalocyanine 128 substituted with 16 uoro atoms [140] (Figure 27.40). Molecule 128 with M Cu in combination with hexamer 119 (R H) has found application in large-scale complementary integrated circuits [141]. Other types of organic molecular conductors are those formed by charge-transfer complexes. The discovery of the high conductivity (10 000 S cm1 at 54 K) of the 1 : 1 donoracceptor charge-transfer complex salt between tetrathiafulvalene (129) and tetracyano-p-quinodimethane (130) [142] (Figure 27.41) has opened a new eld in
S S C6F13
F13C6
125
F13C6 O S S O C6F13
126
Figure 27.38 Perfluoroalkylquaterthiophenes 125 and 126.
j2311
R N
N 127 R
Figure 27.39 Carbazole-derivative p-type semiconductors.
F F F N F F F
F N N M N N F
F F F N
N N
F F
128
Figure 27.40 Perfluorinated metallophthalocyanine: an n-type semiconductor.
materials, with conductive properties varying from semiconductors to superconductors. A brief description of several heterocycles used as donors or acceptors for charge-transfer complexes is given below. Several modications of compound 129 have been made to obtain new molecules so as to increase the interactions in the crystalline state and reduce the ionic potential, to favor the electron donation. Some of those heterocyclic compounds, shown in Figure 27.42 [143, 144], exhibit either metallic conduction, when they interact with organic acceptors, or even superconduction when crystallized with some inorganic anions. The incorporation of heteroatoms other than O, S and Se also produces materials for charge-transfer complexes salts. The structure of these compounds (136) is
S S 129
S S
NC NC 130
CN CN
Figure 27.41 The first reported acceptordonor charge-transfer organic complex salt.
2312

Se Se 131
X X X X Y Y
Se Se
X X
X X
132
X X X X Y Y
133
X = S, Se Y = O, S, Se
S S S S S S S S
134
135
Figure 27.42 Structures of some modified acceptors for charge-transfer complexes.
similar to that of tetrathiafulvalenes although they present lower air stability (Figure 27.43) [145]. In general, all these molecules present conductivity when they form chargetransfer complexes. Of particular note is the remarkable superconductivity transition at low temperature for molecule 132 (X Se; Figure 27.42) when salts are formed with anions such as PF6, AsF6, SbF6, TaF6, BF4, ClO4, ReO4, or NO3 [146]. Although less work has been carried out on charge-transfer complexes with acceptors derived from heterocycles, several compounds have been reported (Figure 27.44) [147, 148]. Molecule 137, a Ni complex with heterocyclic ligands, forms an interesting charge-transfer salt with Li(15-crown-5-ether), which is, at the same time, electron conductor by 137 and ionic conductor by the crown ether [149]. Very interesting systems are those in which the conduction is tailored to a preferred direction, such as in columnar discotic mesogens. These systems are packed in columns and have the appropriate electronic characteristics. They can transport electron or hole carriers along the column direction. Several heterocyclic structures, mainly based on pyridine derivatives, have been described for the
R N S 136
Figure 27.43 Donors with nitrogen atoms.
S N R
j2313
S S
S S
Ni
S S
S S
R S X NC
CN X R X = O, S
137
N 138
Figure 27.44 Structures of some alternative acceptors to 130.
RS RS RS N N N SR SR N RS RS SR RS N N N
SR
N N N SR SR
R = C 6H13
R = C 6H13, C8H17, C10H21, C12H25
139
140
Figure 27.45 Structures of molecules 139 and 140 for discotic liquid crystals.
preparation of n-type molecules capable of being ordered in columnar discotic mesophases. Figure 27.45 shows two examples of well-characterized compounds of this type [150, 151].
27.5.4 Single Molecule Conductivity
A very intriguing technological challenge is the reduction of the size of the components in computers and computerized machines. Surprisingly, this reduction has followed the Moores law for the last 30 years, which predicts that the number of components per chip doubles every 18 months [152]. It is expected that technology based on silicon will not be useful when a certain size is reached, and, consequently, it will be necessary to change that technology. In an extreme approach, the electronic components could be formed by appropriate monomolecules [153]. One of the most studied devices at the molecular level has been the rectier. The structure of molecules that shows a rectier effect follows two proposals: the rst is a
2314

H33C16 N N C 141 R1 N N N N C N
C N
S R2
R1 = CH2CH2CN, R2 = CH2CH2SiMe3 142

Figure 27.46 Two molecules showing a rectifier effect.
linkage between donor and acceptor parts of the molecule through a s-bridge, as suggested Aviram and Ratner [154], and the second is related to the p-n junction in silicon diodes. Figure 27.46 shows two molecular examples related to the latter. Compound 141 [155], which can form LangmuirBlodgett lms, has been layered over a metal surface and the IV (intensity of electric current versus electric potential) curves obtained using STM (scanning tunneling microscopy). The curve is asymmetric, as it is expected for a rectier. Molecule 142 [156] has been directly linked to a gold surface at one extreme and to a gold nanoparticle at the other extreme, allowing a more convenient way to measure the rectier effect by STM. Moreover, the rectier effect observed for this molecule can be inverted by protonation.
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j2321
28 Solid Phase and Combinatorial Chemistry in the Heterocyclic Field

Jos e M. Villalgordo
28.1 Introduction
Over recent years, disciplines like molecular biology, biochemistry and genomic sciences, have undergone enormous development and an ever increasing number of potentially relevant biological targets (e.g., receptors, enzymes, transcription factors, modulators, chaperones) have been identied, expressed and isolated in pure form and in macroscopic quantities, allowing the study their structure, function and biological role in living systems. In addition, the elucidation of the entire human genome is expected to further expand the number of novel biological targets. Through techniques of crystallization and co-crystallization, numerous crystal structures of pharmacologically relevant proteins (e.g., HIV-proteinase [1], insulin receptor kinase domain [2, 3], calcineurin/FKBP12-FK506 complex [4], platelet derived growth factor (PDGF) [5, 6] and collagenase [7]) became available, opening the way to drug development programs that turned out to be very successful. As a direct consequence, during last 20 years, drug discovery has been strongly inuenced by structural knowledge of target proteins and molecular modeling techniques, which have allowed in some cases the design of tailor-made ligands through the so-called rational drug design approach. The discovery of novel biological targets has been paralleled by the development of novel assays. Usually, after a target protein has been identied and selected it is expressed and puried using modern biochemical techniques. Once the material is available in pure form and sufcient quantity, the phases of structural determination and assay development generally start simultaneously. The use of modern informatic systems, robotics and miniaturization has allowed successful transfer of the new developed assays into a format suitable for high-throughput screening (HTS). By using HTS techniques it is possible to test several thousand compounds per day against a given biological target (Figure 28.1). Depending on the type of biological assay, once it is transferred to a suitable HTS format, the compound collection is screened (as individual compounds or as mixtures) in a completely random fashion, or, in turn, only a subset is selected
2322
j 28 Solid Phase and Combinatorial Chemistry in the Heterocyclic Field

Molecular Biology
Biochemistry
Crystallization Co-crystallization
Genomics
New Biological Targets

Assay developments Informatics Robotics Miniaturisation Computer-aided drug design
Rational Drug Design
High Throughput Screening (HTS)

Screening Capacity: Several thousands of different compounds per day
Figure 28.1 Flow chart outlining the steps in modern drug discovery.
based on 2D- and 3D-clustering techniques [8] and then screened. After an active ligand molecule has been identied it can serve as a starting point for hit-to-lead and lead optimization programs. Alternatively, in the case where crystals suitable for Xray crystallography are available, the ligand molecule can be co-crystallized and the resulting structural information used for structure-based de novo design to nd more potent ligands. In the ideal situation the rational and random approaches converge into lead compounds showing common structural features that are ultimately transferable into a development compound. In addition, since a successful clinical candidate originates on average from the evaluation of a pool of 10 000 related analogues, the appearance of this literal burst of novel biological targets together with the introduction of HTS techniques has created an increasing need for novel sources of structurally and chemically diverse compound collections. How could we then satisfy this increasing demand for novel compounds that can feed our HTS systems in the different drug discovery programs? The different sources for novel lead compounds can be grouped basically into the categories given below.
28.1.1 Natural Products
Natural products isolated from plants, microorganisms and animals of terrestrial or marine origin have a long tradition in medicine [9]. Nature offers a virtually unlimited plethora of diverse chemical scaffolds, often going beyond human imagination.
28.1 Introduction
j2323
Natural products are, structurally and chemically, the most diverse source for nding new lead compounds; with a molecular weight within the range $400 to $1000 Da, they are often biologically active (biological activity through evolution). For example, taxol [10], monensin [11], avermectin [12], mitomycin [1315], FK506 [16], and epothilones are just a few natural products that have served as inspiration sources for intense lead optimization programs (Figure 28.2). Usually, natural products display such enormous structural complexity that, often, the process of lead optimization is very time consuming. In addition, the development of a technical
O O O NH O O OH
OH H
HO H3CO O H O H O
H O
H HO HO OH
OH O O O O Taxol
COOH Monensin
HO
OCH3 O H O H O O OH H Avermectin O H HO H3CO OH CH3 OCH3 O H O O H H O O H2N N O Mitomycin NH2 O H OCH3 H NH H
S OH O N O O O OH O OCH3 OCH3 FK-506 O CH2 O R H3C O OH N H H
O OH
Epothilone A, R = H Epothilone B, R = CH3
Figure 28.2 Some natural products used in lead optimization programs.
2324

synthesis is generally very challenging and therefore the manufacturing costs of the nal drugs are very high. Despite these drawbacks, natural products will undoubtedly always play a key role in nding leads.
28.1.2 Peptides, Peptoids and Peptidomimetics
Peptides are another source for feeding HTS systems for novel lead nding. There are many bioactive peptides known and their preparation is generally fast through linear assembly of similar building-blocks. They have usually a molecular weight higher than 600 Da and in general they have a low bioavailability, undergo easy proteolytic degradation and, therefore, are usually drug-like. The transformation of a bioactive peptide into a molecule that maintains biological activity, while removing the undesired properties (conformational exibility, low bioavailability, etc.), requires the design and preparation of peptidomimetic structures. This is, however, a complex and non-trivial task that usually requires several trial and error cycles. Therefore, although peptides are not usually good candidates for effective drugs, many pharmacologically relevant target receptors exhibit large surface spanning areas where it is still very difcult to nd small molecules as inhibitors. For such purpose, peptoids, peptides and peptidomimetics derived from structural information of the targets can be of great value as tools for nding leads.
28.1.3 Small Synthetic Organic Molecules
A highly useful source for nding novel lead compounds is compound collections of synthetic small-molecular-weight compounds that have been accumulated over the past in industrial companies and academic institutions. These compound collections are usually derived from a limited amount of privileged core structures such as benzodiazepines, pyridines, dihydropyridines, pyrimidines, phenothiazines and others and, therefore, they exhibit a more limited chemical and structural diversity than natural products, but, in turn, due to their usually simpler structure, a given hit or lead can be subsequently optimized in a rather straightforward manner, resulting in low manufacturing and development costs. In fact, examination of the list of the most successful prescription drugs already on the market (data from 2004), reveals that most of them are small-molecular-weight compounds that generally bearing a heterocyclic nucleus (Figure 28.3). Hence, chemists have been challenged to develop new high throughput synthesis techniques to satisfy this growing demand for screening compounds and allow a reasonable rate to be maintained for the detection of valuable hits and leads for subsequent lead optimization. This new demand stands behind the birth of combinatorial and parallel chemistry. Small-molecularweight compound libraries from combinatorial and parallel chemistry are excellent tools to complement other feeding sources of HTS systems in terms of numbers and diversity. Hits and leads that have emerged from such a library are especially valuable since the optimization process is
28.1 Introduction
O N H N OH OH COOH N F Atorvastatin N H N H3CO S N H N N O S
j2325
N OCH3
Olanzapine
Omeprazole
H3C MeOOC
H N
O COOEt Cl
NH2
HHN CH3 O N S Cl Cl OCH3 H
Cl
Amlodipine
Clopidogrel
Sertraline
Figure 28.3 Some small-molecular-weight compounds currently employed as successful prescription drugs (data from 2004).
speeded up by the usually fast and convergent assembly strategies that have been used to synthesize the compounds. The structural complexity of the resulting compounds is only limited by the possible chemical strategies, the reactive monomers or building-blocks that can be employed and the number of those that are available and can be engaged for the nal derivatization of a given library. Combinatorial chemistry was initially developed to generate vast arrays of different peptidic molecules and can be performed in solution and/or on solid support. The resulting products can be obtained as individual compounds (parallel synthesis) or as mixtures of dened composition. In fact, combinatorial chemistry was inspired by nature. Nature, starting from just 20 simple amino acids, can obtain large combinations of different peptides with different functions. In conventional organic synthesis, one building block of type A (e.g., an acid chloride) is allowed to react with another building-block of type B (e.g. an amine) to afford one product C (e.g., an amide). If, however, we can employ ten different building-blocks of type A and ten different building-blocks of type B, all possible combinations of the available monomers would afford up to 100 different compounds of type C, and that just in one single synthetic step (Figure 28.4). In a multistep, linear assembly, a synthetic sequence for instance, the combinatorial capacity is of course greatly expanded. This is shown schematically in Figure 28.5, where in a four-step synthesis, simply by using ten different building-blocks of each class for every step, their combinations could afford potentially up to 10 000 different compounds. Organic synthesis in solution requires that, for every single synthetic step, the product or intermediate produced be isolated and puried. Common techniques
2326

A + B AB
O O O Cl 1 reagent + NH2 O NH
1 reagent Conventional Organic Synthesis
1 product
+ + + ......
A1B1 A1B2 A1B3.... A1B10 A2B1 A2B2 A2B3.... A2B10 A3B1 A3B2 A3B3.... A3B10 ...... ...... ...... ......
A2 A3
B2 B3
A10
+
O R Cl
B10
+ R1 NH2
A10B1 A10B2 A10B3.... A10B10

O R N H R1
10 reagents
10 reagents Combinatorial Organic Synthesis
100 products
Figure 28.4 Simple comparison between conventional and combinatorial organic chemistry.
used in organic synthesis for the isolation and purication of the compounds are extraction, distillation, chromatography and crystallization. The fastest way to isolate a compound in pure form is crystallization: The product is precipitated with a suitable solvent, ltered off, washed and used readily in the next step. This is only possible of course when the product is a solid. This is then the rationale behind the use of solidphase organic synthesis (SPOS). Schematically, SPOS consists in having a suitable solid support that is chemically modied to introduce a linker that in turn bears a given available functional group where the synthetic procedure can begin. The targeted molecule is then grown onto
100 1000 10 000 Compounds
A1......A10
AnBn
AnBnCn
AnBnCnDn
B1......B10
C1......C10
D1......D10
Figure 28.5 Multi-step combinatorial synthesis.
28.2 Solid Supports
j2327
Solid Support
Chemical Functionalisation
Solid Support
Linker
FG
Solid Support
Linker
FG
Molecule
Synthetic manipulations
Cleavage from Support
Compound
Figure 28.6 Schematic outline of solid phase organic synthesis (SPOS).
the solid support through suitable synthetic procedures and, nally, cleaved from the support (Figure 28.6).
28.2 Solid Supports
For many years, polymeric supports have been mainly used to immobilize substrates, reagents, and catalysts. In addition, insoluble polymeric matrices are widely used in solidliquid separations processes. The polymers that have been used in the synthesis of small organic molecules can be grouped into the following classes:
.
. . .
Crosslinked organic polymers: these are insoluble in organic solvents. They can be in the form of microporous polymers or gels [e.g., polystyrene, poly(4vinylpyridine)] or as a macroporous polymers (e.g., polystyrene-derived beads). Linear organic polymers: these are usually soluble in certain organic solvents but insoluble in others [e.g., poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG), polystyrene]. Dendrimers: their solubility depends on size and shape. Inorganic supports: such as silica gel, alumina, clays, graphite or porous glass.
Solid phase chemistry began with Merrields seminal polypeptide synthesis [17]. Owing to the highly repetitive cycles of removal of protecting groups, washing and coupling procedures, peptide synthesis became an ideal target for solid-phase synthesis. In recent decades, solid-phase peptide synthesis has matured to become a highly automated and powerful technology. Closely related to the linear assembly strategy of polypeptides, other biopolymers like oligonucleotides [18, 19] and oligosaccharides [18, 20] have also attracted great interest. In recent years, and due
2328

to the increasing demand for novel molecules for HTS, the synthesis of small molecules on solid supports has been generally performed by using either soluble linear polymers (usually PEG [21, 22] or polystyrene-derived supports [2326]) or insoluble matrices. With the former, the polymer-bound substrates are isolated and puried by precipitation [21, 22, 24, 25], ultraltration [27], or dialysis or gel ltration [23]. This technology takes advantage of combining the well-established solution chemistry with simple purication procedures. These purication procedures, however, are often very time-consuming and not generally easily adapted to automated systems. However, the vast majority of applications in the eld of solid-supported organic synthesis use insoluble polymeric matrices some advantages of which can be summarized as follows:
. .
Purication can be performed by simply washing and ltration cycles. The use of large excesses of reagents is allowed, with the general benet of driving the reactions to total completion. The excess of reagents are easily removed by washing with suitable solvents. Reaction, washing and ltration steps can be easily automated.
Among the polymeric supports that have been employed in solid phase synthesis, polystyrene-derived resins crosslinked with varying amounts of divinylbenzene (DVB, typically 15%) are of the most widespread use. These resins are simply spherical beads of different sizes. Depending on the polymerization protocol, these resins can be micro- or macroporous. Resins that have found wide applications in organic synthesis are:
.
Micro- and macroporous polystyrene/DVB-crosslinked resin beads (Merrield type-resins). These resins are fairly available, can be easily functionalized with high loading (between 1 and 3.5 mmol g1) and are widely used in solid-supported polypeptide as well as in small molecule synthesis. Polystyrene/DVB-crosslinked polymeric matrix coated with poly(ethylene glycol) spacers of various sizes (e.g., Tentagel). These resins are less hydrophobic and show better swelling properties in aqueous and in alcoholic solvents, but in turn they are usually mechanically less stable and show a lower loading degree than the Merrield-type resins. They have found widespread use in solid-supported peptide- and small molecule synthesis. Polystyrene/DVB-derived resin beads sealed in a porous polypropylene bag (teabags), developed originally by Houghten et al., have been also used, mainly for the combinatorial and parallel synthesis of peptides. Each bag contains one type of polymer-bound molecule. Different tea-bags can be mixed and are allowed to react with the same building-block, can be washed in parallel and then be separated. Since the reactions take place in separate compartments there will be only one type of well specied molecule in each bag. This protocol allows the synthesis of larger amounts of material and similar to the split-mixed technology the number of coupling steps is reduced while all benets of solid-supported chemistry are maintained.
28.2 Solid Supports

.
j2329
Polystyrene- or polymethacrylamide-dimethylacrylamide-(copolymerized) derived matrices grafted onto polyethylene crowns that are attached to the top of pins are another system widely used for solid-support organic synthesis. These pins are usually assembled in the 96-deepwell plate format. This technology, originally developed by Geysen et al. [2830] for the parallel synthesis of peptide libraries, has also found applications in the synthesis of small-molecular-weight compound collections [3134]. Other solid supports include foils [35] and cellulose disks [36].
28.2.1 Crosslinked Polystyrene-Derived Matrices
Crosslinked polystyrene beads are obtained by free radical initiated copolymerization of styrene and variable amounts of divinylbenzene (DVB). A suspension of water, styrene and DVB are mixed in the presence of a free radical initiator like dibenzoyl peroxide or azoisobutyronitrile (AIBN) and heated to a suitable temperature for polymerization. The aqueous phase initiates a ne dispersion of the mixture of monomers that serves as a medium to control the reaction temperature but does not participate in the reaction. Coalescence of monomer droplets leads to association and the formation of conglomerates. Suspension stabilizers such as poly(vinyl alcohol) or derivatives of cellulose are added to avoid these aggregations and to ensure a reproducible polymerization process. These aggregation phenomena can also be suppressed by addition of salts to the aqueous phase, producing a change in the surface interface forces. Thus, the polymerization proceeds in each droplet and initiates the formation of a polymer bed. The size of the bed can be controlled by the stirring speed, the relative ratio between aqueous and monomer phase, the amount and nature of the suspension stabilizers and by the reaction temperature. In essence, the swelling properties of the resin beads depend on the crosslinking degree and, therefore, on the relative amount of DVB in the core monomer [37, 38]. Resins containing a low crosslinking degree (typically 12% DVB) show a higher swelling capacity than those with a higher content of DVB (>5%) [39]. The size and shape of the resin particles can be controlled to some extent by suspension polymerization.
28.2.2 Functionalized Polystyrene Resins
The application of polystyrene-derived resins is widespread because styrene consists of a chemically inert alkyl backbone carrying chemically reactive aryl side chains that can be easily modied. Nowadays, a wide range of different types of polystyrene resins with various physical properties can be easily generated by simply modifying the crosslinking degree. In addition, numerous styrene-derived monomers are commercially available. The main feature of polystyrene, and hence one of the main reasons for its widespread use, is that it is chemically stable to many reaction
2330

conditions, while the benzene moiety can be easily functionalized in many ways through electrophilic aromatic substitutions or through lithiations. In general, there are two main ways of obtaining functionalized polystyrene/DVBcopolymers. As shown in Scheme 28.1, in approach A, a polystyrene crosslinked with DVB (3) is obtained through copolymerization of styrene monomers (1) with varying amounts of DVB (2) followed by subsequent chemical introduction of the corresponding functional group; in approach B, the functional group is already incorporated in a modied styrene-derived monomer (4).
1 Styrene
2 Divinyl benzene (DVB)
3 Polystyrene resin
FG
+ FG
5 Functionalised polystyrene resin
4 Functionalised styrene
Scheme 28.1
The chemical modication of crosslinked polystyrene (approach A) offers the advantage that only accessible benzene rings and positions on the aromatic rings are functionalized. In turn, the disadvantage of this approach is that the reactions on polymers are usually slower and difcult to monitor. This can signicantly affect the yields due to side reactions and thus the loading degree. Approach B assures the exact positioning of the functional groups and usually a high loading degree, but it needs prior synthesis of the appropriate monomers. Since the rst functionalization determines the loading of the resin, it is important that these reactions proceed with high yields and reproducibility.
28.2.3 Chloromethylated Polystyrenes
Although chloromethyl polystyrene was rst used as an intermediate for the synthesis of anion exchange resins [40], it was not until the introduction by Merrield [17] of the solid-phase peptide synthesis that its use attracted a burst of attention. Chloromethylated polystyrenes (6) are best synthesized by FriedelCrafts
28.2 Solid Supports
j2331
alkylation of polystyrene with methoxymethylene chloride in the presence of a Lewis acid such as SnCl4 (Scheme 28.2) [17, 40].
Cl
OMe
Cl
SnCl4//1h 3 Polystyrene resin

.
6 Merrifield resin
Catalysed also by ZnCl2 or BF3 OEt2
Cl
interstrand crosslinking
Scheme 28.2
Regarding the swelling properties of chloromethylated polystyrenes, it has been shown [41] that up to a chlorine content of 19% (about 0.75 chlorine atoms per aromatic ring) there is no signicant drop in swelling. An increase of loading, however, leads to a markedly less swelling capacity, indicating a higher degree of crosslinking by interstrand couplings (Scheme 28.2). For soluble polystyrenes (without DVB crosslinking), it has been shown by NMR that the ratio of para- to ortho-chloromethylation was 95 : 5 [42]. The same ratio, therefore, can be expected for resins with a low degree of crosslinking. The use of ZnCl2 instead of SnCl4 in the chloromethylation reaction with methoxymethylene chloride leads to a resin with a low degree of functionalization [43]. In addition, by using BF3.OEt2 as catalyst and ethoxymethylene chloride as alkylating agent, the loading degree can be controlled by the amount of catalyst used [44]. Chloromethylated resins have also been synthesized by copolymerization of styrene, divinylbenzene and chloromethylstyrene 7 (usually as a 3 : 2 mixture of meta and para isomers), although this approach can lead to substantial losses of chlorine content [4547] (Scheme 28.3). Merrield resin 6 with a chlorine content up to 22% (which corresponds to 1.0 chlorine atom per aromatic ring) can be obtained by copolymerization of 4-methoxymethylstyrene (9) and DVB and subsequent conversion using BCl3 in CCl4 (Scheme 28.4) [47].
2332

Copolymerisation + + Cl 1 2 7 m-/p-, 3:2
Scheme 28.3
Cl
+ OMe
Copolymerisation OMe
10
BCl3 / CCl4 / 0C Cl 6
Scheme 28.4
Chlorination of 4-methylpolystyrene 12 (obtained by copolymerization of styrene, DVB and 4-methylstyrene) with NaOCl in the presence of a phase-transfer catalyst [48] proved to be a valuable method for the preparation of microporous (1% DVB crosslinking) as well as macroporous (20% DVB-crosslinking) chloromethylpolystyrene 6 (Scheme 28.5).
+ CH3
Copolymerisation
CH3
11
12
NaOCl / CHCl3 BnNEt3+Cl- / SO2Cl2 AIBN /C6H6 / 60C

Scheme 28.5
Cl 6
28.2 Solid Supports
j2333
Again, through NMR techniques, it could be shown that for a loading degree higher than 2.5 mmol g1 dichloromethyl groups were also present [48]. Since the elemental combustion analysis gave higher chlorine contents than those determined by NMR, it was concluded that partial chlorination of the backbone also occurs.
28.2.4 Aminomethylated Polystyrene Resins
Aminomethylated, crosslinked polystyrenes constitute very valuable and versatile resins for various applications. The amino group can be easily acylated for the introduction of spacer and linker molecules [4952]. It has been used also for the synthesis of polymer-bound carbodiimides [5355]. Scheme 28.6 shows some of the most common synthetic procedures for the synthesis of aminomethylpolystyrenes.
NH2NH2.H2O / EtOH /
O N-K+ Cl O DMF 6 O N O X X = OH, Cl O N O 13 NH2 15
CH2Cl2 / TFA 3 O F3C N H OH HN Cat. (CF3SO3H, SnCl4, FeCl3)
O CF3 KOH/EtOH
14
Scheme 28.6
Although aminomethyl resins 15 can be obtained through reaction of chloromethylated polystyrene (6) with non-aqueous ammonia [56] with good conversion, the reaction is rather slow. Excellent conversions are obtained, however, by using potassium phthalimide [51, 5355, 57] instead, followed by treatment with hydrazine. The same phthalimido intermediate can be obtained from polystyrene 3 and N-(hydroxymethyl)- or N-(chloromethyl)phthalimide in the presence of an acid
2334

catalyst such as HF, CF3SO3H or SnCl4 [49, 50]. The loading degree (typically 0.053.6 mmol g1) can be controlled by the amount of reagent and the concentration of the catalyst by using N-(chloromethyl)phthalimide in CH2Cl2 and using FeCl3 as catalyst [58]. Loadings as high as 7.3 mmol g1 can be achieved, but the resultant resins show very limited swelling properties. Aminomethylated resins can also be obtained through the reaction of polystyrene with N-(hydroxymethyl)triuoroacetamide followed by hydrolysis with KOH in EtOH [50].
28.2.5 Other Functionalized Polystyrene Resins
Besides aminomethylpolystyrene 15, many other functionalized polystyrene resins can be prepared from chloromethyl resin through nucleophilic displacement. For instance, when Merrield resin 6 is treated with KOAC in DMA at 85 C, acetylated polymer 16 is obtained [59, 60]. Reduction of 16 with LiAlH4 or hydrazinolysis at room temperature affords hydromethyl polystyrene resin [60] 17. Alternatively, 17 can be obtained directly by reaction of 6 with KOH in reuxing 1-pentanol (Scheme 28.7) [61].
O Cl KOAc/DMA/85C/24 h O LiAlH4/Et2O/r.t./4 h or N2H4/DMF/r.t./76 h 6 16 17 CH3 OH
KOH/1-Pentanol//24 h
Scheme 28.7
Reaction of 6 with thiourea in reuxing ethanol/dioxane leads to polymer-bound thiouronium salt [62] 18 that can be hydrolyzed to thiol 20. Alternatively, reaction of 6 with KSAc in DMF affords 19, which can be also reduced with LiBH4 to give the thiol resin (Scheme 28.8) [63]. In addition, Merrield resin 6 is easily transformed into cyanide derivative 21, which in turn can be transformed into the corresponding carboxylic acid 22 or acid chloride [64] 23. Phosphine 24 is also easily available by reaction with Li/ClPPh2 (Scheme 28.9) [65]. Finally, oxidation of Merrield resin 6 can also afford the corresponding benzaldehyde resin 25 and, hence, polymer-bound benzoic acid 26 (Scheme 28.10) [66, 67].
28.2 Solid Supports
j2335
Cl H2N Cl H2N S NH2 S KOH/EtOH/Dioxane NH2 SH
Dioxane/EtOH 4:1/85C
6 O
18
20
S KSAc/DMF LiBH4/Et2O/r.t.
19
Scheme 28.8
Cl NaCN DMF/H2O/120C
CN H2SO4/AcOH 120C
COOH SOCl2 Toluene/
COCl
21
22
23
PPh2 ClPPh2/Li/THF
24
Scheme 28.9
2336

Cl DMSO NaHCO3/155C O H m-CPBA/DME 55C O OH
6
Scheme 28.10
25
26
The synthesis of other functionalized polymers containing spacer or linker units usually starts with a FriedelCrafts alkylation of the basic polystyrene resin 3. Reaction of polystyrene with propylene oxide in the presence of SnCl4 yields a resin containing a b-hydroxyl group (27). Prior to addition of the reagent, the resin is treated with the Lewis acid catalyst to afford a complex [68]. Alkylation of polystyrene resins with v-bromoalkenes in the presence of triuoromethane sulfonic acid yields bromoalkyl polystyrene 28. This reaction presumably proceeds without additional crosslinking, as shown, in comparison to similar experiments with soluble polymers (Scheme 28.11) [69].
O SnCl4/CH2Cl2/0C 27
OH
3
9
Br
8
Br
CF3SO3H/50C Cl
Scheme 28.11
Cl
28
FriedelCrafts acylation of micro- and macroporous polystyrene resins yields the corresponding benzophenone-derived resins 29. These functionalized resins can be further transformed into trityl- (30 and 31), oxime-derived (32) or into photolabile o-nitrobenzhydryl derived resins (33), which have been widely used in peptide synthesis and oligonucleotide chemistry (Scheme 28.12) [7072]. Strongly acidic cation-exchange resins of type 34 can be obtained by sulfonylation of polystyrene using H2SO4 or ClSO3H (Scheme 28.13). Nitration of polystyrene resins 3 followed by reduction with SnCl2 results in the formation of aniline 36, which can be further transformed into the corresponding isothiocyanate 37 (Scheme 28.14). This polymer has found applications as an insoluble reagent for Edman degradation [73].
28.2 Solid Supports
j2337
Cl R2
OH MgBr R2 R1 R2 30
R1
31
O COCl 3 R1 R1 29 N OH 32 R
1
NH2 NO2 33
Scheme 28.12
H2SO4 or ClSO3H
SO3H 34
3
Scheme 28.13
As discussed above, many different functionalized polystyrene-derived resins can be obtained through electrophilic aromatic substitution reactions; however, another valuable synthetic route to other functionalized resins is based on the lithiation of polystyrenes.
2338

HNO3 0-15C 3 35 NO2 SnCl2/DMF 100C 36 NH2
i) CS2/Et3N/0C ii) ClCO2Et 37

Scheme 28.14
N C S
Lithiated polystyrene resins can be obtained either via convenient brominelithium exchange using n-BuLi, starting from 4-bromo-substituted polystyrene [65, 7478], or by direct lithiation of polystyrene using n-BuLi in cyclohexane in the presence of TMEDA [74, 79]. The latter method, however, yields a mixture of para and meta isomers (40). Bromination of microporous resins in the presence of a Lewis acid catalyst is generally carried out in the dark, whereby the loading degree can be conveniently controlled by the amount of bromine used in the reaction [74]. Macroreticular resins can be brominated using Br2 and FeCl3 [39], or by using a stoichiometric amount of thallium acetate as Lewis acid catalyst (Scheme 28.15) [76, 77].
Br2/Tl(OAc)3 n-BuLi C6H6/60C 39 Li (meta and para substitution) 40
Br 38
Li
n-BuLi Cyclohexane/TMEDA 65C

Scheme 28.15
The brominelithium exchange on macroreticular polystyrene resins can be driven to completion by using iterative lithiation reactions with n-BuLi in THF [74]. Highly loaded microporous resins can be lithiated successfully in toluene or benzene. Direct lithiation reaction of microporous polystyrene-derived resins (2% DVB) using n-BuLi in cyclohexane in the presence of TMEDA is much faster than that of macroreticular resins (20% DVB) [79]. Notably, for this reaction, THF and benzene are not adequate solvents. The use of cyclohexane as solvent allows the synthesis of resins with a low or medium loading degree (up to 2.0 mmol g1). For higher loadings, the brominationlithiation route needs to be used.
28.2 Solid Supports
j2339
Lithiated polystyrene is a very versatile intermediate, since many differently functionalized polystyrene-derived resins can be obtained through different chemical reactions [76, 78, 80]. Scheme 28.16 shows several examples.
CO2/THF
COOH 26
S8/THF then LiAlH4
SH 41
B(OMe)3/THF then aq. HCl Li 39 ClPPh2/THF
B(OH)2 42 PPh2 43
DMF/THF
CHO 25 Me Si Cl Me 44 Cl Sn nBu Cl 45
Cl2SiMe2/C6H6
MgBr2/THF then n-BuSnCl2

Scheme 28.16
28.2.6 Polyacrylamide Resins
In microporous resins, the corresponding functional groups can only react when the polymers show a high degree of swelling. These swelling properties depend largely on the nature of the functional groups present. Thus, during a synthesis on a polymeric support, the swelling properties of the resin can undergo signicant changes. For instance, in the Merrield peptide synthesis, the starting polystyrenederived resin is highly hydrophobic but becomes increasingly hydrophilic as the synthesis of the peptide evolves and the peptidic chain grows. Owing to such phenomena, certain peptide sequences are rather difcult to synthesize on standard Merrield resins. To improve this situation, Sheppard et al. [81] have altered the hydrophobic nature of the polystyrene polymer backbone by introducing a polyacrylamide polymer backbone, which they felt is quite similar to a peptide.
2340

The rst polyacrylamide resins were prepared by copolymerization of N,N-dimethylacrylamide (46) (basic monomer), ethylenebisacrylamide (47) (crosslinking agent) and N-acryloyl-N0 -(tert-butoxycarbonyl-b-alanyl)hexamethylene diamine (48) (functionalized monomer) (Scheme 28.17) [82]. Monomer 48 is essentially used to functionalize the polyacrylamide polymer after liberation of the primary amino group of the b-alanine moiety. The hexaethylenediamine groups serve as spacers to separate the reactive groups. Monomer 48 was later replaced by acryloylsarcosin methyl ester (49) [83], which is chemically very similar to the basic monomer, to achieve a homogenous distribution of the functional groups. Copolymerization of monomers 46, 47, and 49 initiated by persulfate in an emulsion with 66% aqueous DMF, 1,2-dichloroethane and cellulose acetate or butyrate yields beads with a high swelling degree (in H2O, DMF, MeOH, Py or CH2Cl2, the volume increases ten times with respect to the original volume; in 1,4-dioxane about ve times) [81, 83]. Aminolysis of the ester groups using ethylenediamine affords resins containing free primary amino groups.
O N 46
O N H
H N O 47 O N 49
O N H 48
H N O
NHBoc
COOMe
Scheme 28.17
28.2.7 TentaGel Resins
TentaGel polymers, originally developed by Bayer and Rapp [84, 85], consist of a polystyrene matrix covalently coated with poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) chains and were intended initially for solid-phase peptide synthesis in analogy to the polyacrylamide resins. Subsequently, TentaGel resins have found wide applications in the eld of solid-supported synthesis of small molecule libraries [33, 86]. The PEG chains are introduced by anionic polymerization of ethylene oxide with hydroxylated crosslinked polystyrene beads (Scheme 28.18).
O CH2O(CH2CH2O)2CH2CH2O-K+ 50 CH2O(CH2CH2O)3+nH 51
Scheme 28.18
28.2 Solid Supports
j2341
An alternative procedure towards TentaGel resins uses the functionalization of b-hydroxy-polystyrenes, which avoids the grafting of acid-labile benzylether groups to the polymeric backbone (Scheme 28.19) [68].
O SnCl4/CH2Cl2 3 52
CH3
CH3 O(CH2CH2O)nH 53
OH KOH/Dioxane/
Scheme 28.19
TentaGel resins are composed up to 6080% w/w of PEG units. These PEG units largely determine their physical properties. Thus, they show good swelling properties in protic and polar solvents such as H2O, MeOH, CH2Cl2, MeCN, THF or DMF, whereas in apolar solvents, like diethyl ether, they hardly swell at all. In general, they show complementary swelling properties to polystyrene resins. Important features of TentaGel resins are those derived from the high exibility imparted by the PEG chains, which can be observed in NMR [84, 85]. The reactive centers are allocated at the end of the PEG spacers and are, therefore, easily accessible. However, loadings of commercially available TentaGel resins range between 0.15 and 0.3 mmol g1, which are signicantly lower than those of polystyrene resins.
28.2.8 Novel Polymeric Supports
PEGA is a copolymerizate of bis(2-acrylamidoprop-1-yl)-PEG1900 (54), 2-acrylamidoprop-1-yl[2-aminoprop-1-yl] PEG300 (55) and N,N-dimethylacrylamide (46) (Scheme 28.20) [87].
H N O
O O O
43
N H
+ O
H N
O
7
NH2
+ O 46
54
55
PEGA
Scheme 28.20
2342

PEGA can be obtained by bulk-polymerization followed by granulation of the polymerizate or alternatively by suspension polymerization resulting in the formation of suitable beads for synthesis. The PEGA beads show excellent swelling properties in non-protic solvents like CH2Cl2 and DMF and also in protic solvents like alcohols, H2O and even aqueous buffers. For difcult peptide synthesis on other polymeric supports, the corresponding amino acid coupling reactions proceeds faster and with higher efciency on PEGA resins. In addition, PEGA resins are also compatible with enzyme-catalyzed reactions and have been employed for the enzymatic synthesis of a glycopeptide using a b-(14)-galactosyltransferase [88]. In recent years, two novel PEG-crosslinked resins derived from polyoxyethylene polystyrene (POEPS) and polyethylene polyoxypropylene (POEPOP) have been made available for solid-phase organic synthesis. These resins lack the amide-derived polymer backbone and, thus, show increased chemical stability [89]. POEPS has been obtained by radical polymerization of monomers 56 and 57 as shown in Scheme 28.21.
OH
34
O 57
O
34
56
Peroxide/100C
POEPS
Scheme 28.21
POEPOP resins are obtained by anionic polymerization of monomer 58 and 59 (Scheme 28.22).
O O O OH
34
O + O O 59 t-BuOK/100C O
34
58
POEPOP
Scheme 28.22
28.3 Linkers for Solid-Phase Organic Synthesis
j2343
The loading capacity can be controlled by the corresponding ratio of the monomers. Both POEPS and POEPOP resins show excellent swelling properties in solvents such as CH2Cl2, DMF and H2O.
28.2.9 CLEAR Resins
CLEAR resins (cross-linked ethoxylate acrylate resins) belong to a group of highly crosslinked resins with good swelling properties. They are obtained by polymerization of monomers 6065. CLEAR resins differ from the standard crosslinked polymers by the incorporation of branched molecules such as 60 and 65. The amino groups present in monomers 61 and 62 constitute the attachment points for potential linker groups (Scheme 28.23). CLEAR resins show excellent swelling properties in protic and aprotic polar solvents such as DMF, TFA, H2O, MeOH, MeCN, THF and CH2Cl2, whereas they swell gradually in more lipophilic solvents such as toluene, AcOEt and hexanes. In addition, these resins show a high mechanical stability. Their properties have been compared with polystyrene, PEGA and TentaGel resins [90].
(OCH2CH2)n-OCOCH=CH2 (OCH2CH2)l-OCOCH=CH2 (OCH2CH2)m-OCOCH=CH2 60 O O O

p
O NH2 O NH2
61 O O O 64 O
q
62 OCOC(CH3)=CH2 OCOC(CH3)=CH2 OCOC(CH3)=CH2 65
63
Scheme 28.23
Linker molecules play a key role in every successful synthetic strategy on solid support. They covalently link the polymeric support and the molecules that are being synthesized. Linkers are usually bifunctional spacer molecules that contain on one end an anchoring group for attachment to the solid support and on the other end a selectively cleavable functional group used for the subsequent chemical transformations and cleavage procedures. Whereas linkers were traditionally designed to release
2344

one specic functional group (e.g., carboxylic acids and amides in peptide synthesis), the synthesis of diverse small-molecular-weight compound libraries has required the introduction of new additional linkers and hence of new cleavage strategies. Among those, the use of traceless linkers, and linkers that allow cyclization-assisted cleavage and multidirectional cleavage, has emerged as a powerful tool in solid-phase organic synthesis. A given linker should allow the easy attachment of the starting material to the solid support through a given functional group. It should be also chemically inert during the construction of the target molecules and, therefore, be stable under a wide variety of reaction conditions. Finally, it should allow for a selective cleavage under very specic reaction conditions without damage of the nal targeted product. Upon cleavage, either the originally attached or a new functional group may be generated. In addition, the so-called safety-catch linker principle has been rediscovered for combinatorial synthesis. A safety-catch linker is usually converted from a chemically inert entity into reactive species in the very last step before cleavage. Linker molecules, and therefore cleavage strategies, can be grouped into the following categories:
. . .
Linker molecules releasing one specic functional group; monofunctional cleavage. Linkers that allow for cyclization-assisted cleavage. Linkers that allow for multidirectional cleavages, by: direct nucleophilic or electrophilic substitutions, using traceless linkers, activation of the linker molecules (safety-catch principle).
28.3.1 Linker Molecules Releasing One Specific Functional Group. Monofunctional Cleavage
Monofunctional resin-cleavage has attracted wide interest in the eld of organic synthesis on a solid support [91, 92]. Monofunctional resin-cleavage strategies are well suited for the construction of focused combinatorial libraries, where a given important pharmacophoric group, which remains constant, is released in the very last step. Hence, the linkage to the resin also serves as a protective group throughout the entire synthesis. The linkers may be classied according to the functional groups that are released from the resin. Thus, we have linkers releasing:
. . . . . .
carboxylic acids amides sulfonamides amines alcohols and phenols other functional groups.
j2345
28.3.1.1 Linkers Releasing Carboxylic Acids The largest number of linkers described so far is for those releasing carboxylic acids (and also amides) as they are closely related to peptide synthesis. In addition, many relevant classes of pharmacologically active compounds contain this moiety. Therefore, strategies on a solid phase that lead to compounds containing a carboxylic acid, which is generally released at the very end of the synthesis, are of interest for many compound classes. Three different strategies are generally used for the attachment of carboxylic acids to resins: (i) acylation of resin-bound benzyl alcohols 67 [9395], (ii) O-alkylation of carboxylates by resin-bound benzylic halides 66 [9698], or (iii) O-alkylation of carboxylic acids under Mitsunobu conditions [99, 100] (Scheme 28.24).
O O 68 R
Cl 66
RCOO-M+
RCOY or RCOOH/DIAD/Ph3P
HO 67
M+ = Cs+, Na+, NMe4+

Scheme 28.24
Linkers releasing a carboxylic acid group can be grouped according to the cleavage method (Table 28.1); thus, there are linkers that are cleaved under acidic conditions (Table 28.1 entries 18), under basic or neutral conditions (entries 914), under transition metal catalysis (entry 15), and linkers that are photocleavable (entries 16 and 17).
28.3.1.2 Linkers Releasing Amides As in the case of linkers releasing carboxylic acids, there are a large number of linkers known that, upon cleavage, release an amide functional group. Table 28.2 shows widely used linkers that release an amide group, gathered according to the cleavage conditions: acidic conditions (entries 16) and photocleavable linkers (entries 7 and 8). 28.3.1.3 Linkers Releasing Amines Some of the most widely used linkers that release an amine group are depicted and grouped according to their releasing reaction conditions in Table 28.3. 28.3.1.4 Linkers Releasing Alcohols, Diols and Phenols Various linker strategies for the attachment of alcohols and phenols have been developed and some of the most widely employed examples are shown in Table 28.4. 28.3.1.5 Linkers Releasing Hydroxamic Acids Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) such as collagenase, gelatinase and others [132] have emerged as prime targets in several therapeutic areas (e.g., in antiinammatory
2346

Table 28.1 Some of the most widely used linkers that release a carboxylic acid.
Entry Name
Structure
Cleavage
Reference
Merrield resin
Cl
HF, CF3SO3H
[101]
Hydroxymethyl resin Pam resin
OH
O
HF, CF3SO3H
O OH
[102]
N H
HF/TFA
[103]
OH
Wang resin
O
OMe
50% TFA
[104]
Sasrin resin
O OMe
OH
1% TFA
[105]
HAL resin
O
OH OMe
OH OMe
0.1% TFA
[106]
Rink resin
O OMe
1% TFA
[107]
Trityl resin
O
Cl R = H, Cl
1% TFA/ AcOH
[108]
O O O S
OH
NaOH
[109]
X = O, NH
10
X S X = O, NH OH
NH3/TFE
[110]

Table 28.1 (Continued)
j2347
Entry Name
Structure
O
Cleavage
Reference
11
NO2 OH
DBU/ [111] piperidine
X = O, NH
O
12
SiMe3 OH
OH
X X = O, NH
Bu4NF
[112]
13
Bu4NF, SiMe3 CsF
[113]
N
14 Kaiser resin
OH
N2H4 [70]
NO2
O
15
N H
OH
Pd(PPh3)4 [114]
16
NO2 OH
hn/ 350 nm
[56]
X = O, NH
O O O2N X = O, NH OMe OH
17
hn/ 350 nm
[115]
and in oncology). An important class of inhibitors of MMPs is hydroxamic acids; several drugs or drug candidates contain a hydroxamic acid moiety. Therefore, linker molecules releasing the hydroxamic acid moiety are very valuable tools for the construction of focused libraries toward MMPs. Table 28.5 shows some linkers that release the hydroxamic acid functional group.
2348

Table 28.2 Some of the most widely used linkers that release an amide group.
Entry Name
Structure
NH2
Cleavage
Reference
BHA
NH2
HF, CF3SO3H [116]
MBHA
O
HF, CF3SO3H [117]
Rink-Amide resin
TFA
NH2
[107]
X = O, NH
O O
PAL resin
NH2 O X = O, NH OMe O
TFA
[118]
O
NH2
NH2
TFA
[119]
Sieber resin
O O
1% TFA
NH2 NO2
[120]
O OMe O X = O, NH NH2 NO2
hn/350 nm
[121]
hn/350 nm
[122]
28.3.2 Cyclization-Assisted Cleavage
Among the various cleavage strategies described in the literature, cyclizationassisted-cleavages are extensively used since they offer advantages:
.
First, only those molecules attached to the solid support that have gone through the entire synthetic sequence necessary for the cyclization reaction will be cleaved.

Table 28.3 Some of the most widely used linkers that release an amine group.
j2349
Entry
Name
Structure
Cl OMe
Cleavage Reference
Rink chloride
TFA
O OMe
[123]
Cl
Chlorotrityl resin
TFA
Cl
[124]
OMe
BAL resin
O
CHO OMe
TFA/ Et3SiH
[125]
Cl
O
NO2
SiMe3
Bu4NF/ CsF
[113]
SO2Cl
PhSH, K2CO3
[126]
O
6
N H
H N O
O O
NR1NR2 Pd(0)
[127]
Secondly, even in those cases where single synthetic steps do not proceed quantitatively, the cyclization will nevertheless lead to pure products.
As expected, cyclization-assisted cleavage is largely independent of the nature of the linker molecule (it depends only on the synthetic sequence that is necessary to create the corresponding precursors) and therefore many available linkers are perfectly compatible with cyclization-assisted cleavage procedures. One of the rst examples described in the literature was the pioneering benzodiazepine solidphase synthesis by Camps et al. in 1974 [136].
2350

Table 28.4 Linkers that release alcohols, diols and phenols.
Entry Name
Structure
Cl OMe
Cleavage
Reference
Rink chloride
O OMe
TFA
[123]
Cl
Chlorotrityl resin
Cl
TFA
[124]
TFA, [128] PPTS/EtOH

OH
Wang Resin
O
OMe OH O
TFA
[104]
Sasrin resin
1% TFA
[105]
Cl SiMe3
O Cl
Bu4NF/CsF
[113]
O
5
TFA
O O
R1
H3O [129]
R2
O CH O
SH
O OR
R1
H3O
[129]
LiBH4
[130]
9
O
HF, anisole
[131]
10
N H
NO2 O O OR
hn/350 nm
[131]

Table 28.5 Linkers that release hydroxamic acid functional groups.
j2351
Entry
Name
Structure
O O NH2
Cleavage
Reference
TFA/iPr3SiH
[133]
X
2 Trityl resin
O NH2 X= H, Cl
TFA/Et3SiH
NH2 O OMe
[134]
3
HN O
TFA/iPrSiH
[135]
A more recent prominent example is shown in Scheme 28.25, where 2-chloro nicotinic acid (69) is attached to benzyl thiol resin 20 in basic media. Introduction of different amines through standard amide couplings affords amides of type 70. Oxidation to the corresponding sulfoxide 71 through Davis reagent followed by
O SH + HO Cl N HO S N 69 O R NH2 Coupling reagent
20
O R N H S N
Ph O
O O S Ph
O R N H S O N Cl3C
O O
O CCl3 R N H
Pummerer
S O
N O CCl3
70 O R N S +
71
72
OCOCCl3
N 73
Scheme 28.25
2352

Pummerer rearrangement affords heterocyclic derivatives of type 73 with concomitant release from the resin [137, 138].
28.3.3 Multidirectional Cleavage Strategies
Monofunctional resin cleavage procedures are well suited for the generation of targeted libraries where the given key pharmacophoric group that remains constant forms the link between the resin and the molecules that are being synthesized. Multidirectional cleavage, in addition, offers the advantage that, in the nal cleavage step, an additional element of diversity is incorporated into the nal compound being produced. Thus, the number of compounds is multiplied by the number of elements that can be incorporated. Most the linkers that have been described for multidirectional cleavage procedures are also termed traceless linkers as no element of the linker remains in the nal molecules. The main strategies include:
. . . .
direct cleavage by nucleophilic substitution reactions; direct cleavage by electrophilic substitution reactions; cleavage through cross-coupling reactions; activation of the linker group prior to cleavage (safety-catch principle).
28.3.3.1 Direct Cleavage by Nucleophilic Substitution The following schemes show some representative examples of linkers and strategies that allow the nal multidirectional cleavage from the resin using nucleophiles such as amines, alcoholates, thiolates and C-nucleophiles such as organolithium or Grignard reagents. Thus, for instance, carboxylic acids attached to Kaiser resins type 74 react with different nucleophiles [70, 139] (e.g., amines, alcoholates) to afford different amides/esters of type 75 with simultaneous release from the polymeric support (Scheme 28.26).
O2N
N O
O R
NuH Base Nu
O R
X O X = O, NH
Scheme 28.26
74
NuH = Amines, Alcohols
75
j2353
Another illustrative example of multidirectional cleavage through nucleophilic substitution is the one shown in Scheme 28.27, which is based on Weinreb amides (77). Again, the introduction of a new element of diversity and release from the polymeric support are simultaneous [139].
O CHO 25 MeO-NH2 [H] 76 R2 HN OMe R
1
OH or O Cl
R1 N OMe R2MgX or R2-Li R1 O R2 78
77
Scheme 28.27
28.3.3.2 Direct Cleavage by Electrophiles Most of the developed linkers that allow multidirectional electrophilic cleavage from the resin are based on the chemistry of silicon and also to a less extent on germanium [140142]. Silyl linkers have broad appeal in solid-phase synthesis. Many encoded diversity-oriented synthesis (DOS) libraries rely almost exclusively on immobilizing alcohol building-blocks via the silyl ether [143, 144]. Cleavage conditions are tunable, depending upon the type of alkyl substituents present on the silicon atom. Scheme 28.28 shows a few early interesting examples.
X R R
Si 79 X = I, Br
Si 80
E 81
E = H , Cl , Br , I , NO2
Ge 82
Scheme 28.28
E 81
E+ = H+, Br+
2354

28.3.3.3 Safety-Catch Linkers Among the several successful linker strategies that are being developed specically for the solid-supported synthesis of small organic molecules, the safety-catch principle has gained wide acceptance as it offers several advantages:
. .
Through the entire synthetic sequence of the library, the linker moiety is completely stable under a wide range of reaction conditions. The linkage between the resin and the molecule can be specically designed according to the structure and chemical stability of the desired nal products. The linker group can often be reduced to a single atom such as sulfur, silicon, tin and others. Thus, full advantage can be taken of the rich chemistry of these elements, integrating the nal activation and cleavage step into the whole synthetic strategy. The safety-catch principle generally leads to multidirectional resin cleavage, which allows multiplication of the nal library members both in terms of structural and functional diversity.
The safety-catch principle was rst described by Kenner et al. [145] in the eld of peptide chemistry and was originally based on the reactivity of the sulfonimide group. As shown in Scheme 28.29, after suitable synthetic manipulations on molecule 83, alkylation of the polymer-bound sulfonimido nitrogen atom with diazomethane or iodoacetonitrile activates the linker towards the action of a nucleophile (e.g., amines, alcoholates), thereby introducing a new element of diversity with simultaneous release from the resin (multidirectional cleavage) to afford compounds of type 85 in high yields [145, 146].
O O H N R CH2N2 or ICH2CN/DBU O O R1 N R
S O O O 83
S O O O 84
NuH R
O Nu 85 NuH = Amines, alcoholates
Scheme 28.29
A further example that illustrates the safety-catch principle, designed by Frank et al., is based on imidazole chemistry. Thus, Boc-protected polymer-bound
j2355
imidazole 86 is activated by cleavage of the Boc protective group. Acyl transfer in 87 and subsequent nucleophile cleavage leads to products of type 85 [147, 148] in a multidirectional cleavage (Scheme 28.30).
O X O R 86
Boc N N O TFA Activation X
O O R
1
NH N O X
O OH
N N R1 O
87
88
NuH R
O Nu 85 NuH = Amines, alcoholates
Scheme 28.30
In addition, a novel safety-catch principle for the multidirectional cleavage of pyrimidines and related heterocycles was rst developed by Obrecht et al. [62, 149]. Here, polymer bound thiopyrimidines of type 89 are activated at the end of the synthesis to the corresponding sulfones 90 by oxidation. Multidirectional cleavage with various nucleophilic agents such as amines, alcoholates and C-nucleophiles allows the formation of diverse pyrimidines of type 91 with simultaneous release from the resin (Scheme 28.31).
R1 m-CPBA/CH2Cl2 N 89
Scheme 28.31
R1 N S R
2
R1 NuH N Nu N 91 R2
2
N S O O N 90 R
Activation
More recently, other novel safety-catch linkers have been developed. Starting from 4-hydroxythiophenol (92), S-tritylation, coupling to the Merrield resin (6) and detritylation afford linker 93 (Scheme 28.32). Safety-catch linker 93 reacts with various electrophiles, such as halides and sulfonate esters (NaH is required as the base) and epoxides (Et3N is required as a base), or alcohols under Mitsunobu conditions, yielding a sulde resin 94. This
2356

SH HO 92
Scheme 28.32
i) Ph3CCl/Py/CH2Cl2 ii) Cl DMF/NaH O 93
SH
iii) TFA, Et3SiH/CH2Cl2
sulde linker is stable to a wide range of reaction conditions. Subsequent activation through the corresponding sulfoxide followed by Pummerer rearrangement promoted by triuoroacetic acid anhydride releases alcohols 97 or aldehydes 98 depending upon the reaction conditions used (Scheme 28.33) [150].
R1 SH O 93 O O S O 95 Et3N/EtOH NaBH4 R1 HO 97 R2 R1 H O R2 98 R1 R2 TFAA THF O F3C O S R1 R2 CF3COO

-
Various electrophiles O 94
R2
BuOOH/CSA CH2Cl2
R1 S O O R2 O CF3 96 Et3N/EtOH
Scheme 28.33
Nitrobenzyl linker 101 has been designed as a new safety-catch linker for solidphase synthesis, possessing both acid and base stability. This is a Wang-type resin whose acid stability is dramatically improved by virtue of the nitro substituent. It is activated by reduction of the nitro group to the corresponding aniline followed by sulfonylation (also acylation); the corresponding synthesized products are then released from resin upon exposure to mild acid. Linker 101 has been prepared upon Mitsunobu coupling of 4-hydroxy-3-nitrobenzaldehyde (100) to
28.4 Heterocyclic Synthesis on Solid-Phase
j2357
2-hydroxyethylpolystyrene (99) followed by aldehyde reduction with NaBH4 (Scheme 28.34) [151].
NO2
OH +
HO
NO2
i) Mitsunobu CHO ii) NaBH4, MeOH
OH 101
99
100
OH R Mitsunobu
NO2 O i) SnCl2.H2O/DMF O 102 R ii) TsCl/DIPEA Activation
NHTs O TFA/CH2Cl2 (1:1) O R OH R 104
103
Scheme 28.34
As discussed earlier, for more than two decades most developments in solid-phase synthesis focused on the preparation of biopolymers. In recent years, interest in other synthetic targets including heterocycles has begun to grow. Today the eld of solidphase heterocyclic chemistry is rapidly expanding and numerous preparations and methodologies have been reported. Heterocycles are very important compounds due to their chemical, biological and technical signicance: heterocycles count among their number many natural products, such as vitamins, hormones, antibiotics, alkaloids, as well as pharmaceuticals herbicides, dyes and other products of technical importance. Interest in solid-phase heterocyclic chemistry originated mainly from the pharmaceutical industry. Heterocycles not only enable the spatial xation of a set of structural elements relevant to reversible binding to proteins but can also have a strong inuence on the solubility and on other physicochemical properties of a
2358

compound. Heterocycles play a key role in the development of new drugs. Therefore, synthetic methodologies that enable the rapid production of arrays of heterocycles are of critical importance to the pharmaceutical industry. Several review articles have appeared covering the synthesis of heterocycles on insoluble supports for the production of compound libraries [152154]. It is not the purpose of this chapter to comprehensively review all synthetic methodologies available for the preparation and further manipulation of all heterocycles classes on solid supports. Instead, we illustrate how the technical developments on solid-phase chemistry and the concepts previously discussed have been successfully translated to the heterocyclic eld. For this purpose, recent prominent examples according to the type of heterocycle prepared and its relevance are presented here.
28.4.1 Synthesis of b-Lactams
b-Lactams are clinically valuable pharmacophores. There preparation on a solid support can be best achieved by reaction between resin-bound imines and ketenes. Owing to the highly reactive nature of ketenes, resin-bound ketenes are less suitable intermediates for the preparation of b-lactams. An illustrative example has been reported by Gallop et al. [155]. Fmoc-amino acids tethered to the acid labile Sasrin resin (105) have been condensed quantitatively to imines 106 by using a large excess of alkyl, aryl or a,b-unsaturated aldehydes in a mixture of CH2Cl2 and trimethylorthoformate (as dehydrating agent) (Scheme 28.35). Optimization studies of the [2 2] cycloaddition
OMe O O 105 R O NHFmoc i), ii) S O R 106 O N
R1
iii)
R2 N
R1 O O S iv)
R2 N
R1 O OH +
R2 N
R1 O OH
R 107
R 108
R 109
Reagents and conditions: i) 30% piperidine in NMP, 45 min., r.t.; ii) 0.8 M R 1-CHO in (MeO)3CH/CH2Cl2 (1:1), 3 h; iii) 0.8 M R2CH2COCl, 1.1 M Et3N in CH2Cl2, 0C to r.t., 16 h; iv) 3% TFA in CH 2Cl2
Scheme 28.35
j2359
step showed that conversion into b-lactams 107 could only take place by slow addition of acid chlorides to a suspension of the imine resin at 0 C in the presence of Et3N. By using a large excess of ketene at high concentration, the cycloaddition of imines derived from even sterically hindered amino acids (e.g., valine) could be carried out with full conversion. After mild TFA cleavage from the resin and preparative HPLC purication, b-lactams 108 and 109 were isolated in yields of 5597% (Scheme 28.35). Although the formation of the corresponding b-lactams occurred with high cis selectivity, the diastereoselection induced by the asymmetric center of the amino acid was only moderate. Higher induction could be achieved, however, with an optically active ketene.
28.4.2 Synthesis of Pyrrolidines
1,3-Dipolar cycloaddition reactions are important processes for the preparation of several heterocyclic systems due to the generally mild reaction conditions and the simultaneous formation of several bonds in a single operation. The preparation of pyrrolidines via cycloaddition reactions of azomethine ylides is a well-known process and has been extensively studied. One of the earliest described examples of preparation of pyrrolidines on solid support was reported by Hollinshead [156], who developed a solid-phase protocol for the preparation of highly functionalized pyrrolidines based on the reaction of azomethine ylides with polymer-bound a,b-unsaturated ketones. Thus, chlorinated Wang resin 110 [157] is coupled to 3-hydroxyacetophenone 111 with Cs2CO3/NaI in DMF, affording acetophenone tethered to the solid support (112). Knoevenagel condensation with different aromatic aldehydes using a 0.5 M solution of MeONa/MeOH affords the corresponding enones 113. These a,b-unsaturated ketones attached to the solid support are then subjected to standard 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition with N-metallated azomethine ylides in the presence of DBU and LiBr as Lewis acid to give highly substituted pyrrolidine derivatives 114 with high regio- and diastereoselectivity. Derivatives 114 can be further manipulated by introducing acyl or sulfonyl groups on the pyrrolidine nitrogen atom (Scheme 28.36). Monofunctional cleavage of pyrrolidines of type 116 from Wang resin is then achieved under standard acidic conditions (50% TFA in CH2Cl2) for this linker to afford a collection of compounds that can be puried by chromatography or crystallization. In a similar approach, but generating the corresponding azomethine ylide on the solid support, Gallop et al. [158] have developed a protocol for the solid-phase synthesis of highly substituted pyrrolidines. Starting from Fmoc-amino acids tethered to the acid labile Sasrin resin 105, deprotection of the Fmoc group with piperidine and subsequent condensation reaction with different aromatic and heteroaromatic aldehydes at room temperature in neat trimethylorthoformate as dehydrating agent provides the corresponding resin-bound aryl imines 106. Lewis acid-promoted formation of N-metalloazomethine ylides and subsequent
2360

Cl O 110 + 111 O Ar iii) Ar MeOOC 113 O OH iv) N X X=H Ph O HO CH3 i) W O O CH3
112 O
ii)
O O
114 115
v)
Ar MeOOC N X 116 Ph
X = Ac, p-EtC 6H4SO2
Reagents and conditions: i) Cs2CO3, NaI, DMF; ii) Ar-CHO (12 eq.), NaOMe (0.5 M in MeOH, 12 eq.), THF; iii) PhCH=NCH2CO2Me, LiBr, DBU, THF; iv) Acylating agent, Py, DMAP, CH 2Cl2; v) TFA/CH 2Cl2 1:1
Scheme 28.36
cycloaddition reaction with different electron-decient olens (e.g., acrylates, cinnamates, conjugated enones, maleinimides, etc.) under basic conditions affords pyrrolidines 117. Representative proline analogues 118 have been characterized by mild acid cleavage from the resin by means of 10% TFA in yields ranging between 50 and 80% and with diastereoselectivities ranging from 2.5 : 1 to greater than 10 : 1 (Scheme 28.37). Again in this case, a strategy based on monofunctional cleavage (releasing a carboxylic acid) was used. In this particular case, since functionalized prolines and proline analogues are frequently found as C-terminal residues in numerous ACE inhibitors, this chemistry was used to generate a focused library of mercaptoacyl prolines as potential ACE inhibitors whereby the release of a carboxylic acid group had to remain constant. A further example of pyrrolidine synthesis on solid support employs a siliconbased traceless linker of type 119 that is chlorinated with 1,3-dichloro-5,5-dimethylhydantoin under mild conditions to afford 120. Reaction with azaallyl anions generated in situ from N-alkylidene N-benzylamines and LDA yields the corresponding polymer-bound a-silylimines 121. Thermal 1,2-silatropic shift affords 122, which reacts in situ with the corresponding dipolarophiles to provide pyrrolidines 123.
j2361
iii) Z
OMe O O 105
O NHFmoc R i), ii) S O
O N R 106 Ar
O O R
O H N Z 117 iv) Ar HO R
H N Z 118
Ar
Reagents and conditions: i) 20% piperidine in DMF, 20 min., r.t.; ii) 1 M Ar-CHO in (MeO) 3CH, 4h; iii) 1 M olefin, 1 M AgNO 3, 1 M Et3N in MeCN, 8 h; iv) 10% TFA in CH 2Cl2
Scheme 28.37
A further element of diversity can be introduced into the pyrrolidine ring during the cleavage step (multidirectional electrophilic cleavage) with different electrophiles (HCl, acid chlorides, allyl iodide, and so on) to furnish collections of pyrrolidines of type 124 in good yields (Scheme 28.38) [159].
Me Si H Me 119
i)
Me Si Cl Me 120
ii)
Me N Si 1 Me R 121
R2 iii)
Me 2 R Me Si N R1 122
A B iv)
Me Si Me N R1 R2 A B 123
G-X v)
R1
G N A B 124
R2
Reagents and conditions: i) 1,3-dichloro-5,5-dimethylhydantoin, CH2Cl2, r.t.; ii) LDA, THF, -78C, R1CH2N=CHR2 ; iii) Heat; iv) Dipolarophile; v) Electrophile
Scheme 28.38
2362

28.4.3 Synthesis of Pyrroles
Substituted pyrroles are commonly found in natural products [160, 161], drugs [162, 163], conducting materials [164, 165] and insecticides [166]. The pyrrole ring system has been synthesized on solid-supports by few methods. An early example is shown in Scheme 28.39, where pentasubstituted pyrroles are synthesized using a multicomponent condensation. The condensation of a resin-bound amine 125 to an aldehyde, followed by the addition of carboxylic acid and isocyanide (Ugi reaction), results in the formation of resin-bound N-alkyl-N-acyl-a-amino amides 126, which are acylated and hydrolyzed in one-pot to 127. Treatment with neat acetic anhydride or isobutyl chloroformate and triethyl amine in toluene, followed by the addition of a series of acetylenic esters, provides the polymer-bound pentasubstituted pyrroles 126. The reaction proceeds via in situ cyclization of the intermediate through a [3 2] cycloaddition with various alkynes. The corresponding products are released from the resin with 20% TFA to afford 128 (monofunctional cleavage releasing amides) in 3575% overall yield over eight steps. For asymmetrically substituted alkynes, an isomeric mixture of pyrroles 128 in an approximately 4 : 1 ratio has been obtained.
O N H 125 n = 1, 2 R2 N
n
NH2
n
i) N H
R2 N
n
O N H X
ii), iii)
R1 126
O N H
O OH
iv), v) H2N
R2 N
n
R3(4) R4(3) R1
R1 127
128
Reagents and conditions: i) R1-CHO, R2-COOH, PhNC (or PyNC), CHCl3-Py-MeOH (1:1:1), 65C, 48 h; ii) (Boc)2O, CH2Cl2; iii) (1N LiOH-5% H2O2)-THF, 4:1; iv) R3 R4 , Ac2O, 65-100C; v) 20% TFA/CH2Cl 2
Scheme 28.39
Another method toward the solid-phase of pyrroles was developed by Jung et al. [167]. by adapting the Hantzsch pyrrole synthesis to the solid support. Thus, acetoacetylated Rink amide resin 129 has been converted into resin-bound enaminones 130 upon reaction with primary amines. These enaminones 130 react with a-bromoketones 131 to yield polymer-bound pyrroles 132. Cleavage with 20% TFA in CH2Cl2 affords pyrrole-3-carboxamides 133 in excellent purities (Scheme 28.40).
j2363
O H N O O HN O 129 O O CH3 R N H 130 O HN R1 CH3 + Br O 131 R2 R3
R N H
R2 N R1 132 R3
O H2N H3C
R3 N R1 133 R2
H3C
Scheme 28.40
Furthermore, related resin-supported Hantzsch methodology has used been successfully for the cyclocondensation of nitroalkenes 134 with enaminones 130 or, alternatively,inathree-componentpathwaywithaldehydes 135 andnitroalkanes 136 to furnish polymer-bound resin 132. As in the previous case, monofunctional cleavage under acidic conditions (releasing an amide group) affords pyrrole carboxamide derivatives (133, Scheme 28.41) [168]. Other prominent recent examples for the solid-phase synthesis of pyrroles include the PaalKnorr condensation of polymer-supported 1,4-diketones with primary amines [169]. In another approach, 1,3-dipolar cycloadditions onto polymer-bound vinyl sulfones and subsequent pyrrole annulation have been reported to deliver isoxazolinopyrrole-2-carboxylates [170, 171].
28.4.4 Synthesis of Furans
A traceless linker strategy for the synthesis of substituted furans based on the nchnones has been developed by generation on a solid support of mesoionic isomu Gallop et al. The key step of this protocol takes advantage of an efcient [3 2] cycloaddition reaction with electron-decient acetylenes, followed by a thermally promoted cycloreversion reaction. For this synthesis, an amino TentaGel resin (137) was employed. Thus, 137 was primarily acylated with different carboxylic acids 138 using diisopropyl carbodiimide (DIC) in the presence of catalytic amounts of DMAP. The amide 139 was converted into imide 141 by treating the resin twice with a 1 : 1 (v/v) mixture of malonyl chloride 140 in benzene at 60 C. Quantitative diazo-transfer reaction to diazoimide 142 was effected at room temperature using tosyl azide in
2364

R3-CHO (135), R2-CH2-NO2 (136)
O N H
HN
R1 + CH3
H R3
NO2 R2
R N H
R2 N R1 132 R3
H3C
130
134 O H2N H3C N R1 133 R3 R2
Scheme 28.41
CH2Cl2/Et3N. Optimization of this reaction sequence was facilitated by using gelphase 13 C NMR, by monitoring these transformations with initially acetylated resin with 2-13 C-labeled Ac2O. The analysis indicated that both the imide and diazoimide formation proceeded with >95% conversion (Scheme 28.42).
R1 T N
O T NH2 + R1 OH
i) T
R1 NH
O O Cl ii)
O 140 OEt
O O O 141
EtO 137 138 R1 iii) T N2 EtO 142 N O O O 139
Reagents and conditions: i) DIC, DMAP, DMF; ii) 140, benzene, 60C; iii) TsN 3, Et3N, CH2Cl2, 18 h.
Scheme 28.42
j2365
Resin-bound diazoimides 142 have subsequently been allowed to react with different electron-decient acetylenes 143 in benzene at 80 C for 2 h in the presence of Rh2(OAc)4 as a catalyst (Scheme 28.43). Analysis of the crude products showed exclusively the presence of the desired furans 144 and excess of unreacted acetylene, which, when sufciently volatile (e.g., propiolate esters), is eliminated in vacuo to provide furans 144 of high purity. To avoid contamination of the desired furan product with residual, non-volatile acetylene, a two-step sequence has been implemented for the cycloaddition reaction. Thus, 13 C-labeled diazoimide 146 has been allowed to react with a large excess (10 equivalents) of dimethyl acetylenedicarboxylate (DMAD) 147 in the presence of Rh2(OAc)4 at room temperature in anticipation of trapping the bicyclic intermediate 149 on the polymeric support. After washing the beads with suitable solvents to remove excess acetylene, resin 148 is suspended in fresh benzene and heated at 80 C to promote cycloreversion. HPLC analysis of the
R1 T N2 EtO 142 N
O O O +
R2
i)
R2 R1 O
R3 + COOEt T NCO
R3 143
144
145
H3*C T N2 EtO 146 N
O O O +
COOMe ii) COOMe
T -O
* CH
N + O COOEt
T -O
* CH
COOMe
N + O
COOMe COOEt
147
148
149
iii)
MeOOC * H3C O
COOMe + COOEt 145 T NCO
150
Reagents and conditions: i) Rh2(OAc)4, benzene, 80C; ii) Rh2(OAc)4, benzene, r.t.; iii) benzene, 80C
Scheme 28.43
2366

crude product from this reaction showed the presence of pure furan 150 with neither starting acetylene nor any other impurities. Resin washings did not contain any 13 C label, indicating that no cycloreversion occurs at room temperature, while gel-phase 13 C NMR of the resin after thermolysis showed no resonances from enriched nchnone 148 carbons, suggesting that the cycloaddition to the polymer-bound isomu proceeds efciently at room temperature. This stepwise (room temperature/thermal) cycloreversion sequence failed, however, to provide furans from acetylene derivatives activated by just a single electronwithdrawing moiety (e.g., propiolate esters). These derivatives, less reactive than DMAD, do not undergo cycloadditions to the immobilized dipoles at an appreciable rate at room temperature. In another traceless strategy, 2,5-disubstituted furans have been synthesized on solid support through hydroxyalkylation of polymer-bound allylsulfones. Thus, 4-hydroxyphenylsulfonylmethane (151) is attached directly to Merrield resin (6) to give the corresponding resin-bound arylsulfonylmethane 152. Deprotonation of this resin with LDA and treatment with diethylchlorophosphate and subsequent addition of 2-methoxy aldehydes (HornerWadsworthEmmons reaction) affords resin-bound vinyl sulfones 153. Treatment with t-BuOK allows isomerization to alkoxyallyl aryl sulfones 154 that when treated with a strong base at 0 C react with aldehydes to afford 155. Optimal conversion into hydroxyalkylated resins 155 was observed when DMPU was used as an additive. Finally, treatment of resins 155 with two equivalents of TFA in CH2Cl2 at room temperature effects the formation of 2,5-disubstituted furans 156 with simultaneous release from the resin. The overall yields for this ve-step sequence range from 13 to 32%, but no other purication other than removal of the solvents under reduced pressure was necessary [172] (Scheme 28.44).
28.4.5 Synthesis of Thiophenes
Based on an aminoalkylurethane linker attached to the Wang resin 157, Zaragoza et al. [173] have developed a solid-phase synthesis of substituted 3-aminothiophenes by adapting Lalibert es thiophene synthesis [174, 175]. Thus, as shown in Scheme 28.45, Wang resin 157 was primarily treated with 4-nitrophenyl chloroformate (158) in the presence of pyrimidine to give 159 and then reacted with piperazine in DMF to produce 160, which on treatment with cyanoacetic acid afforded 161. Subsequent reaction of the resin-bound (cyanoacetyl)piperazine 161 with aliphatic or aromatic isothiocyanates in the presence of DBU, followed by S-alkylation with a-haloketones under slightly acidic or neutral conditions gave the intermediates 162 and 163 (the predominant form being determined by the electronic properties of the substituents R1R3). Treatment of intermediates 162/ 163 with DBU in DMF and subsequent acidolytic cleavage of the resin with TFA yielded 3-aminothiophene 164 as triuoroacetates (monofunctional cleavage releasing an amide group). This synthetic sequence toward 164 has, however, some

O Cl + HO SO2Me i) SO2Me 6 151 152 ii) O S O O
j2367
R1 OMe 153
O iii) O S O R
1
O iv) O S O R2 154 R1 OMe OH 155 156 v) R2 O R1
OMe
Reagents and conditions: i) K2CO3, n-Bu4NI, acetone; ii) LDA, THF, (EtO) 2POCl, -78C, then R1CH(OMe)CHO; iii) t-BuOK, t-BuOH/THF; iv) LDA, R2 CHO, THF, DMPU, 0C; TFA (2 eq), CH2,Cl2, r.t.
Scheme 28.44
limitations. For instance, a complex mixtures of products is obtained in those cases, where strongly electron-donating isothiocyanates or a-haloketones are used and, in general, no thiophenes results from aliphatic haloketones. In contrast, direct treatment of the intermediates 162 and 163 with TFA yields the 2-methylene-2,3-dihydrothiazoles 165 and 166 of unknown conguration. The reaction sequence leading to 165 and 166 shows higher tolerance towards variation of the substitution pattern. Generally pure products are obtained for both electrondonating and electron-withdrawing isothiocyanates and a-haloketones. For most of the studied cases, dehydrated 2-methylenethiazoles 166 are obtained as single products. 4-Hydroxythiazolidines of type 165 result only in those cases where R2 is a strongly electron-withdrawing group (Scheme 28.45). Since thiophene is sufciently acidic to be metallated directly by treatment with nBuLi, this direct lithiation can also be carried out with polystyrene-bound thiophenes. The resulting organolithium compounds react as expected with several electrophiles such as amides (to yield ketones), alkyl halides, aldehydes and Me3SiCl [176]. In addition, polymer-bound bromothiophenes can be metallated by treatment with Grignard reagents. The resulting thienylmagnesium compounds can be directly treated with carbon nucleophiles to afford the corresponding derivatized thiophenes [177]. Polymer-bound halothiophenes are also good substrates for Suzuki, Heck, Negishi, and Stille coupling reactions [178, 179]. For instance, the Suzuki coupling
2368

OH O + Cl O 158 O N NH 160 O O N N 162 O R1 N HO CN S R3 R2 163 H W O N N O R1 N R2 CN S R3 161 iii) W O N N O CN NO2 i) W O O O 159 NO2
O 157
O ii) W O
iv), v)
vii) vi), vii)
O HN N R1HN . CF3COOH 164 S NH2 O R2 .
N N O CF3COOH
CN S R1 N HO 165 R3 R2 .
N N O CF3COOH
CN S R1 N R2 R3
166
Reagents and conditions: i) CH2Cl2/Py, then 158; ii) piperazine, DMF, r.t., 13 h; iii)cyanoacetic acid, DIC, DMF; iv) R1-NCS, DBU, DMF, 18 h; v) R 2-COCH(R3)X, DMF, AcOH; vi) DBU, DMF, 20 h; vii) 50% TFA in CH 2Cl2
Scheme 28.45
of soluble PEG-bound bromothiophene 167 and p-formylphenylboronic acid (168) provide biaryl 169. Owing to the high solubilizing power of PEG, the reaction is conducted as a liquid-phase synthesis. Treatment of 169 with o-pyridinediamine 170 results in a two-step-one-pot heterocyclization through an imine intermediate. Nitrobenzene serves as an oxidant in the ring closure step. Finally, transesterication with NaOMe in MeOH furnishes thiophene derivative 171 (Scheme 28.46).

i) PG O O 169
j2369
CHO
PG
O O
S 167
Br
(HO)2B 168
CHO
NH2 N NH2 ii), iii) 170 MeO O 171 N S HN N
Reagents and conditions: i) Pd(PPh3)4, 2M Na2CO3, DMF, 110C, 10 h.; ii) 170, nitrobenzene, 180C, 72 h.; iii) NaOMe/MeOH
Scheme 28.46
28.4.6 Synthesis of Imidazoles
The imidazole ring system is of particular interest since it is a component of histidine and its decarboxylation metabolite histamine. The wide application of the imidazole pharmacophore can be attributed to its hydrogen bond donoracceptor capability as well as its high afnity for metals (e.g., Zn, Fe, Mg) that are present in many protein active sites. Based on a four-component condensation reaction (the Ugi reaction), Mjalli et al. [180] have developed a solid-phase protocol for the synthesis of tetrasubstituted imidazoles. Because of the limited number of commercially available isocyanides, the selected strategy started with the generation of an isocyanide component tethered to the Wang resin. A series of N-formylated aliphatic amino acids 172 have been attached to Wang resin 157 (Scheme 28.47), affording 173. Dehydration of 173 provides resin-bound isocyanides 174. Multicomponent condensation of resin 174 with arylglyoxals 175, primary amines and carboxylic acids the affords resin-bound a-(N-acyl-N-alkylamino)-b-ketoamides 176 that further react with excess of NH4OAc in AcOH to give immobilized imidazoles 177. Final monofunctional cleavage with 10% TFA provides imidazoles 178. The length of the isocyanide linker, the electronic nature of the aryl glyoxals, the use of different primary amines (except anilines), and the use of both aliphatic and aromatic carboxylic acids showed no effects on the yields of imidazoles 178. This methodology has been further extended [181] by attaching the aldehyde or amine component to the Wang resin. Hence, functionalized polymers 180 and 182
2370

O + HO H N
n
OH 157
H O W
O O
H N
n
H O
i)
172
173
O O W O NC
n
Ar H ii)
O 175 W
O O Ar
H N
n
O O N R1 R2 iii)
n
O NH
W R1 N N 177
O Ar
O 176
R2
174 iv) N R
2
Ar N R1
H N O
O
n
OH
178
Reagents and conditions: i) Ph3P, CCl 4, Et3N, CH2Cl2; ii) 175, R1-NH2, R2-COOH; iii) NH4OAc, 100C; iv) 10% TFA in CH 2Cl2
Scheme 28.47
have been prepared by standard coupling methods of carboxybenzaldehyde 179 and N-Fmoc-6-aminohexanoic acid (181), respectively. Resin 184 has been prepared via a modied Mitsunobu coupling of 4-hydroxybenzaldehyde (183) to Wang resin 157 (Scheme 28.48). The protocol for the preparation of solid supported imidazoles 185 and 186 involves the condensation of resins 180 and 182 with a large excess of 1,2-dicarbonyl compounds, NH4OAc and primary amines or aldehydes. Imidazoles of type 187 have been prepared in a similar manner by replacing primary amines with NH4OAc. Subsequent monofunctional resin cleavage with 20% TFA afforded imidazoles 188, 189, and 190 in high yields and purities (Scheme 28.49). Tetrasubstituted imidazoles of type 196 have also been prepared by using polymerbound sodium benzenesulnate as a traceless linker. Thus, polystyrene 1% DVB sodium sulnate 191 was allowed to react with concentrated HCl in DMFH2O (3 : 1) at room temperature. Condensation of 192 with an aldehyde and a primary amide in the presence of Me3SiCl at 50 C afforded resin 193. The a-ketoamide 195 was generated by treatment of resin 193 with excess triethylamine in the presence of thiazolium catalyst 194 in CH2Cl2. Concentration of the reaction product 195 and in situ treatment with primary amines in reuxing EtOH/AcOH affords imidazoles 196,
j2371
HOOC 179 i)
CHO O
O W
CHO 180
O HO W OH 157 HO 183 iv) 181 ii), iii)
NHFmoc W O
O NH2 182
CHO O 184
CHO W
Reagents and conditions: i) DIC, DMAP, THF, 23C, 48 h.; ii) DIC, DMAP, CH 2Cl2, 23C, 24 h.; iii) 20% piperidine, DMF; iv) N-ethylmorpholine, DIAD, Ph3P, sonicate for 1 h., then stirring 23C, 16 h.
Scheme 28.48
which were isolated in pure form after ash-chromatography in 2440% overall yields [182] (Scheme 28.50). In addition to imidazoles 196, the a-ketoamido intermediates 195 have also been used to obtain thiazoles 197 and oxazoles 198 by reaction with Lawessons reagent and PPh3/I2 respectively (Scheme 28.51). Another approach, reported recently [183], involves a simple, efcient synthesis of 1-alkyl-4-imidazolecarboxylate derivatives on solid support through a cyclizationassisted cleavage strategy (which in general is largely independent of the linker type). By this approach, N-methylaminomethylated polystyrene 199 was allowed to react with alkylisocyanate 200 in the presence of N-formyl imidazole diethylacetal 201 under acid-catalyzed conditions (10% CSA) in DMF to afford functionalized support 202 (Scheme 28.52). Although this transformation could be achieved on heating the mixture at 80 C for 36 h, the reaction was preferentially conducted under microwave heating to reduce the reaction time to just 10 min. The free amine on the polymer was monitored using the chloranil test [184]. This rather sensitive assay enables the detection of even very small amounts of free secondary amines on the resin, a negative test indicating complete anchoring to the solid support. Treatment of the resin 202 with a primary amine 203 in n-butanol affords the isomerically pure
2372

O R1-NH2, NH4OAc R3COCOR4 CHO 180 AcOH, 100C, 4h. 185 O W O N R1 N R3(4)
R4(3) R4(3) N R2 R3(4) N
O W O 182 NH2
R2-CHO, NH4OAc R3COCOR4 AcOH, 100C, 4h. W O
R3(4) N 186
CHO W O 184
NH4OAc R3COCOR4 AcOH, 100C, 6 h. W O 187
N H
R4(3)
O HO N R N
1
O R3(4) HO
R3(4) N
R4(3) N R2 HO
R3(4) N N H R4(3)
R4(3) 188
Scheme 28.49
189
190
1-substituted-4-imidazolecarboxylate derivatives 204 in excellent yields (8097%, overall, two steps). A particular feature of this approach is that the solid-support 199 can be regenerated and used for 34 cycles with similar levels of yields and purities of desired imidazoles 204. A similar strategy has employed resin-bound 3-N,Ndimethylamino-isocyanoacrylate for the regioselective synthesis of 1-substituted4-imidazolecarboxylates [185].
28.4.7 Synthesis of Thiazoles
Most of the solid-phase syntheses described so far are based on the cyclocondensation reaction between thioamides or thioureas and a-halocarbonyl compounds.
j2373
O S OO
SO2Na
i)
SO2H
ii) R1
N H
R2
191
192
193
I N
S 194 iii)
OH R3 R1 O N H 195 O R2 iv) R2 N
R1 N R4 196 R3
Reagents and conditions: i) HCl (c), DMF-H2O, r.t., 4 h.; ii) R 1-CHO, R2-CONH2, Me3SiCl, MeCN, 50C, 8 h.; iii) 194 (cat.), R3-CHO, Et3N, CH2Cl2, 35C, 10 h.; iv) EtOH, AcOH, R 4-NH2, reflux, 12 h.
Scheme 28.50
Lawessons reagent Toluene, reflux R3 R1 O N H 195 O R2
R1 R3
N S 197
R2
R1 PPh3/I2 CH2Cl2/35 C R3
N O 198
R2
Scheme 28.51
Using this general strategy, Masquelin et al. [186] have developed a solid-phase synthesis of highly diverse 2,4-diaminothiazoles through a cyclization-assisted cleavage approach. Starting from Merrield resin (6), reaction with thiourea in DMA affords polymer-bound thiouronium salt 18. Subsequent reaction with several isothiocyanates in DMF at room temperature in the presence of DIPEA leads to the formation of thioureido thioureas attached to the polymer support of type 205. Next, the reaction of resins of type 205 with a slight excess of different a-bromoketones in DMF at room temperature in the presence of diethylaminomethylpolystyrene 206 for several hours affords the corresponding 2,4-diaminothiazoles 209 in high yields (4996%) and purities (Scheme 28.53).
N N NH O + R1 N C EtO i) 201 OEt R1
O N N
199
200
202
O R2-NH2 ii) 203 N N R2
R1 +
NH
204
199
Reagents and conditions: i) 201,CSA (cat.), DMF, MW (80C), 10 min.; ii) 203, n-BuOH, 114C, 30 min. (2 cycles)
Scheme 28.52
Cl NH2 i) Cl S NH2 ii) S
NH N H
S N H
R1
6
R2 S N H
18
205
N 206 iii) S
O NH N
R2 R1 O H2N S S N 208 N H R1
207 O R2 H2N S N NHR1 +
H N
Br + S O
R2
209
210
211
Reagent and conditions: i) Thiourea, DMA, r.t.-85C; ii) R1-NCS, DIPEA, DMF, r.t., 3 h.; iii) R 2COCH2Br, 206, DMF, r.t., 18 h.
Scheme 28.53
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125 126
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130 Kobayashi, S., Hachiya, I., and Yasuda, M.

131 Alsina, J., Chiva, C., Ortiz, M.,
132
133 134
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136 137
138
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140 141 142
143
144
145
146
147 148
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j2381
Index
a
Abramovich reaction 1570 acanthifolicin 110 acceptordonor charge-transfer organic complex salt 2311 acenaphthylene azonia derivative 2048 3-acetamino-1,2,4-oxadiazole photolysis of 1118 acetonitrile 32, 33, 95 acetophenone azines 657 3-acetoxymethyl cephalosporins transformations 2161 acetylaminoacetone 343 2-acetylamino-5-benzylmercapto1,3,4-thiadiazole 1373 C-acetyl-N-arylnitrilimines 1,3,-dipolar cyclocondensation of 1022 4-acetylbenzofurazan 1144 2-acetyl-5-bromo-1-methyl-4nitropyrrole 312 acetylcholinesterase 1867 acetylene [222] cycloaddition of 1439 acetylenic alcohol treatment of 933 acetylenic dipolarophiles thermal reactions 1070 acetylenic glycosides 993 acetylenic Grignard reagents 936 2-acetyl-2-ethoxycarbonyl-1,3-dioxolanes 955 acetylide anions 32 N-acetyl indoles 511 1-acetyl-2-methylbenzimidazole 885 5-acetyl-4-phenyl(methyl)-2-phenyl-2H-1,2,3triazole 1-oxide oximes of 1160 3-(4-acetylphenyl)sydnone ClaisenSchmidt condensation of 1073 2-acetylpyrrole 333 3-acetylpyrrolidines 345 Achmatowicz rearrangement 567 acid/base-mediated cyclization 610618 acid catalyst 2238 acid-catalyzed cyclization 432 acid-labile benzylether grafting 2341 acid-labile oxazole derivatives synthesis of 828 acryloylcarbamates 1718 acryloyl chloride 51 Actinomadura madurae IFM 12 acyclic C-nucleoside 5-(1,2-dihydroxyethyl)3H-[1,3,4]oxadiazole-2-thione 1195 N-acylamidoximes 1089 o-acylamidoximes 1084 cyclization of 1084 cyclodehydration of 1083 a-acylamino amide 2190 2-acylamino ketones cyclodehydration of 824 o-acylanilines condense 1537 o-acylated amidoximes formation of 10841085 3-acylated indolizines preparation 2007 N-acylation 698 of pyrroles 302 acylation reaction 451, 452 quantum mechanical and molecular mechanical (QM/MM) modeling 2146 N-acylbenzenesulfonamides ortho-deprotonationcyclization 770 1-acyl benzotriazole 874 N-acyl-1H-benzotriazole1-carboximidamides 1027 N-acylbenzotriazoles 1013
2382
j Index
benzotriazole-mediated methodology of 1013 C-acylation of 1013 preparation of 1012 synthesis of 1013 use 452 N-acylbenzotriazoles 303 1-acyl-2-bromoacetylenes 309 acylcarbazates cyclization of 1192 acyl chlorides 1084, 1090 N-acyl-N-cyanoguanidines 1823 5-acyl-2,3-dihydro-2-imino-3-(3-phenyl) pyrazol-5-yl)-1,3,4-thiadiazoles 1359 acyl 1H-benzotriazol-1carboximidamides 1027 1-acyl-1H-1,2,3-triazoles 1006 4-acyl-1H-1,2,3-triazoles 1000 acylhydrazines 1019 N-acylhydrazones oxidation of 1177, 1179 N-acylimidic chlorides 1089 N-acyliminium ions 349 N-acylindoles catalytic asymmetric hydrogenation 478 N-acylisoquinolinium cations 1588, 1611 3-acylisoxazoles (Z)-oximes of 1143 4-acylisoxazolin-5-ones 751 3-acyl-2-methoxy-3H-azepines synthesis 775 3-acyl-1-oxa-2-azoles oximes of 1141 3-acyl-1,3,4-oxadiazoline derivatives 1228 c-acyloxybutynoates 552 N-acylpyridinium salts 1470, 1501 4-acylpyrrole-2-carboxaldehydes 302 acylpyrroles 303 3-acyl-substituted furazans oximes of 1143 3-acyl-substituted indoles 409 N-acyl-tetrazoles, thermal decomposition 1183 adamantyl alcohols 969 Adams catalyst 2042 additionelimination pathway 534 1,4-additionelimination reaction 1481 adrenergic b-blockers 736 AgOTs-CuCl2-TMEDA catalytic system 622 Agrobacterium 1751 aicemicin 13 ailanthoidol 609 alane (AlH3) 2138 alcoholysis of 2-(trichloroacetyl)pyrroles 303 Aldol reaction anti-selectivity 321 of aziridine and a,b-epoxyaldehydes 549 reductive 321 aldoximes 1819 alkali metal/lead/indium halides 932 alkaline potassium permanganate 1591 alkaloid coralyne 2026 alkaloid ()-vinblastine 424 alkene epoxidations using chiral salen metal catalysts 71, 72 nucleophilic attack 435 alkene-nitrosyl chloride adduct formation 748 v-alkenylaryl azide 29 alkenyl epoxide 92 alkenylindoles intramolecular cyclization 444 3-alkenyl-1,2,4-oxadiazoles 1123 5-alkenyl-substituted 1,2,4-oxadiazoles 1124 alkenyl sulfonamide 19 2-alkoxy-2-amino-1,3,4-thiadiazoles 1344 2-alkoxy-3,1-benzoxazin-4-ones 1556 alkoxycarbonylation reactions 1763 2-alkoxycarbonylazolium N-ylidesN-aminides 893 1-alkoxycarbonyl-1H-azepines 1911 alkoxycarbonyl-N-imidazolium-N-methyl amides metallation of 894 alkoxycarbonyl tetrazoles thermal decomposition of 1185 2-alkoxy-1,3-dithioles 961 4-alkoxy-2-quinolones intermolecular [22] photocycloaddition of 1566 alkoxystynyl boronates 858 b-alkoxyvinyl trichloromethyl ketones 741 cyclocondensation 662 triuoromethyl analogues 663 2-alkyl-3-alkylthio-5-arylisothiazolium halides 793 3-N-alkylamino-5-alkyl-1,2,4oxadiazoles 1099 alkylammonium salts 1407 2-alkylated-1H-1,2,3-triazoles 1006 N-alkylated pyridones 1499 N-alkylated thiadiazolimine 1376 alkylation 1733, 1738 N-alkylation 697 of 3-methylpyrrole 308 alkyl azides [32]-cycloadditions of 995
Index alkyl-1,3-azoles 890 synthesis of 890 2-alkyl-1,3-azoles 890 alkylbenzenediazonium tetrauoroborates 682 alkyl 4-bromo-3-alkoxy-2-butenoates 339 o-alkyl 2carbamothioylhydrazinecarbothioate 1344 4-alkyl-4-carboxy-2-azetidinones asymmetric synthesis 2133 alkyl diazoacetates 1165 5-alkyl-2,5-dihydro-1,2,4-oxadiazoles chemical shifts 1081 alkyl Grignard reagents 845, 851 alkyl halides 1732 alkylhydrazine 1209 N-alkylhydroxylamines 1103 2-alkylidenetetrahydrofurans DDQ oxidation 607 2-alkylidene-1,3,4-thiadiazolines 1370 N-alkyl imidazole 835 a-S-alkyliminium salt 830 alkyl iodides 1603 N-alkylisoquinolinium-1-carboxylic acids 1609 alkyllithium reagents 92, 116, 946, 1477, 1478, 2264 alkylnylcarbene complexes [33] cycloaddition reaction 1454 5-alkyl-1,2,3-oxadiazole 3-oxides 1052 2-alkyl-1,2,5-oxadiazol-3(2H)-ones formation of 1130 meso-alkyl porphyrins 2268 alkylpyridines 1431, 1472, 1504 side-chain hydrogens of 1505 4-alkyl pyridines 1475 alkylpyridinium salts 1469 alkylpyrimidines 1758 alkylpyrroles 303 3-alkylpyrroles 304 4-alkylquinolines 1530, 1541 3-alkyl-1,2,4-thiadiazole-5-carboxylates 1324 2-alkylthiazoles 890 2-alkylthio-5-alkylamino-1,3,4thiadiazoles 1346 alkyl-1,3,5-triazines 1832 1-N-alkyl triazoles 1031 (g2-alkyne) organopalladium complex 409 alkynes [222] cycloaddition of 1443 hetero-DielsAlder cycloaddition 1658 intermolecular titanium amide-catalyzed hydroamination reactions 393 1-alkynes palladium-catalyzed cross-coupling of 601 alkynethiolates, formation of 1279 alk-4-yn-1-ones gold-catalyzed cyclization of 1658 2-(1-alkynyl)-2-alken-1-one regioselective gold-catalyzed cyclization 554 o-alkynylanilides carboamination 410 alkynylaniline aminopalladation of 407 o-alkynylanilines indolization 410 intramolecular hydroamination of 407 o-alkynylbenzaldehydes cycloisomerization 1640 2-(1-alkynyl)benzaldimines palladium-catalyzed carbonylative cyclization of 1582 2-alkynyl benzofurans formation 605 alkynylcarbene complexes 664 alkynyl ketones CuI-catalyzed cycloisomerization 548 o-alkynyl-N,N-dialkylanilines, cycloisomerization 502, 503 o-alkynylphenol palladium/bpy-catalyzed annulation 599 2-alkynylphenols 5-endo-dig-iodocyclization 598 palladium-catalyzed annulation 606 o-alkynylphenols carbonylative annulation 600, 1670 o-alkynylphenylisocyanide Pd-catalyzed three-component coupling reaction 412 alkynylpyranosides 1894 alkynylpyrazines 1762 alkynyl-substituted pyrimidines 1714 b-allenamine regiocontrolled cyclization 2141 allenic alcohols 68 allenic anilines gold-catalyzed intramolecular hydroarylation of 1550 allenic nitriles 1714 a-allenylcyclopentenone isomerization 556 allenyl ketone intermolecular reaction 547 allyl-2-allyloxy)benzene 618 N-allylated indole 449 allylaziridine 51 allylic alcohols 69, 97, 99, 117, 1614 N-allyl-o-haloanilines
j2383
2384
j Index
Pd-catalyzed cyclization 418 p-allylpalladium azide complex 412 2-allyl-1,2,3-triazoles 995 allylvinyl sulfonate ring-closing metathesis reaction of 968 almitrine 1817 aluminium dodecyl sulfate trihydrate 310 Alzheimers disease 1330, 1533 Amanita muscaria 1867 ambuic acid 57 2-amide derivatives formation of 1164 amidines 1115, 1116 cyclization 821 amidinothioureas 1298 amidoximes 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition of 1108 amidoximes, acylating reagent for 1087 amidrazones 1358 electrophilic carbon compounds 1022 N-amination 700 amine-assisted mechanism 2119 amines, ring closure of 2729 aminoalcohols 100, 874 cyano group 875 2-aminoalcohols 27 b-aminoalcohols 33 palladium-catalyzed oxidative carbonylation of 901 a-aminoalkenyl azides 47 2-(1-aminoalkyl)aziridines Ritter reaction of 875 2-amino-5-alkyluorinated-1,3,4oxadiazoles 1186 1-amino-3-alkylimidazolium, synthesis 892 aminoalkylimine 119 2-amino-3-(alkyl or aryl)amino-2Hindazoles 679 amino/amido/alkoxy/alkylthiomethylbenzotriazoles structures of 1015 2-amino-5-aryl-5-hydrothiazolo[4,3-b]-1,3,4thiadiazoles 1363 2-amino-5-aryl-1,3,4-oxadiazoles 1182 hydrochloric reaction of 1214 Schiff bases of 1181 3-amino-6-arylpyridazines 1756 a-aminoaziridine 35 aminoazirines 52 2-amino-1,3-azoles synthesis of 818 2-aminoazoles, reactivity of 898 o-aminobenzaldehydes 1537 aminobenzimidazoles 1714 2-aminobenzimidazoles 897 3-amino-1,2-benzisoxazoles solid phase synthesis 764 3-amino-1,4-benzodiazepines synthesis 2197 3-amino-1,5-benzodiazepines synthesis 2216 2-aminobenzoic acid 1010 2-aminobenzophenones 1538 o-aminobenzophenone treatment 2185 2-aminobenzothiazoles 896 c-aminobutyrate (GABA) receptors 728, 736 c-aminobutyric acid (GABA) 1689, 2176 benzodiazepines modulation 2176 a-aminocarbonyl compounds 818 7-aminocephalosporanic acid (7-ACA) 2153 esterication 2160 silylation 2158 2-amino-5-chloro-1,3,4-thiadiazole 1368 5-amino-4-cyano-3-(methylthio)-1H-pyrazole1-carbothiohydrazide 1348 2-amino-3-cyanopyridines 1718 2-amino derivatives, synthesis of 820 4-amino-1,4-dihydroquinolinide ion 1561 4-amino-2,6-dimethylpirimidine 1731 a-amino ester 2187 b-aminoethanethiol 115 2-aminoethanthiol nucleophilic addition-elimination 880 N-aminoethyl amides dehydrocyclize 873 3-[(2-aminoethyl)amino]propylfunctionalized silica gel 1,4-disubstituted-1,2,3-triazoles, generation of 996 aminofuran intermediate MW-promoted intramolecular [42] cycloaddition 507 a-aminoglycine derivatives 2196 3-amino-1H-indazoles 690 2-amino-4H-pyrans synthesis 1658 aminohydrazones electrophilic carbon compounds 1022 2-amino-4-hydroxythiazoles 895 2-aminoimidazole alkylation of 898 containing natural products 894 preparation of 897 5-amino-2-imino-3-phenacyl-1,3,4tiadiazolines 1370 aminoindoles 500 2-amino-6-iodo-4-tosyloxypyrimidine 1760 2-aminoisoquinolinium iodide 1605 aminoketone, cyclization 398 aminolysis reaction 2156 a-amino malonamides 1725
Index aminomethylated polystyrene resins 2333, 2334 2-aminomethyl-4,5-dihydrooxazoles 874 5-aminomethyl oxadiazoles 1124 2-amino-5-(m-nitrophenyl)-1,3,4-thiadiazole bond lengths and angles 1335 aminonitrones 1102 2-amino-5-(5-nitro-2-thienyl)-1,3,4thiadiazole 1344 aminooxadiazole derivatives tautomeric imino form 1077 2-amino-1,3,4-oxadiazoles 1024 3-amino-1,2,4-oxadiazoles 1089 2-amino-1,3-oxathiolium salt 973 aminopalladation/reductive elimination domino reaction 407 6-aminopenicillanic acid 810, 2150, 2160 2-aminophenols diazotization of 1057 o-aminophenols 895 aminophenylfurazan 1131 3-amino-4-phenylfurazans 1140 aminophenylfuroxan cyclocondensation of 1131 3-amino-5-phenyl-1,2,4-oxadiazoles photoinduced ring-isomerization of 1078 2-amino-4-phenylpyrimidine 1744 3-(4-aminophenyl)sydnone moieties 1057 2-amino-5-phenyl-1,3,4-thiadiazoles 1367, 1373 5-aminophenyl-1,2,3,4-thiatriazole 1297 N-aminophthalimide, as nitrogen donor 21 aminopropylsilica gel (APSG) 95 2-aminopyrazine 1741 3(5)-aminopyrazole acylation 699 2-aminopyridine 1502 4-aminopyridine nitration of 1503 2-aminopyridine N-oxides acylations of 1102 aminopyridines 1500, 1501, 1503 nitration of 1502 4-aminopyridines diazonium salts of 1503 4-aminopyrimidine 1741 aminopyrimidinethiones 1718 2-aminopyrrole-3-carbonitriles 342 aminopyrroles 342 2-aminopyrroles 342 aminoquinoline derivatives 1530 3-amino-4R-furazans dipole moments 1132 3-aminosoquinolines 1580 2-amino substituted 1,3-dithiolanes 955 2-amino-4-substituted oxazoles 827 amino-substituted 1,3-pyrimidines 1720 2-amino-5-substituted-1,3,4-thiadiazoles from Merrield resin 1382 5-aminotetrazoles parallel solid-phase synthesis of 1416 aminothiadiazole 1310 2-amino-1,3,4-thiadiazole (ATDA) 1386 3-amino-1,2,4-thiadiazole 1312 5-amino-1,2,4-thiadiazole-3-ones 1305 2-amino-1,3,4-thiadiazoles 1340, 1382 5-amino-1,2,4-thiadiazoles 1287, 1288, 1307, 1312, 1325 methylation of 1312 5-amino-1,3,4-thiadiazole-2-thiols 1342 5-amino-1,2,4-thiadiazolin-3-one 1290 2-aminothiazoles with aromatic aldehyde 898 synthesis of 896 2-aminothiazole-5-sulfonic acid heating rearranges 839 ortho-aminothiobenzoic acid oxidative cyclization 771 ortho-aminothiophenol 1263 2-amino-1,3,5-triazine 1831 6-amino-1,3,5-triazine-2,4-diones 1825 2-amino-1,3,5-triazines 1821 4-amino-1,3,5-triazin-2-yl ketones 1822 5-amino-4-triuoroacetyloxazoles 752 7-amino-3- trityl-3H-azepines 1875 3-amino-1-tritylpyrrole 344 ammonia acceptor reagent 1088 ammonia, loss 1360 ammonium triuoroacetate 821 AnBOX ligands 22 Angeli rearrangement 1161 angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) 2023 aniline derivatives 885 cyclization of 1535 anilines synthesis 1645 treatment 404 N-(anilinocarbonyl)-5-(2,4-dichlorophenyl)1,3,4-oxadiazole-2-sulfonamide 1225 anilinosulfonium salt 395 a-anions formation of 1124 o-anisole imine 27 annelation effects 643 annulation mechanism 413 ANRORC cascades 1641 anthocyanidines 1633, 2275, 2277 antibacterial uoroquinolones 1533
j2385
2386
j Index
anticoagulant activities 1330 anticonvulsant effect 2180 anti-inammatory activity 1182 anti-inammatory agent bendazac 645 antiviral agents 1127 aolyl copper reagents 855 apigenin structures of 1674 Aplysinidae 57 a-pyrones 1660, 1662 arachidonic acid cascade cyclooxygenase (COX)/lipoxygenase (LOX) pathways 647 arene oxides 1892 aromatase 624 aromatic carbonyl compounds reactions 620 aromatic 1,2-dialdehydes 1581 aromatic ve-membered systems attack on pyrrole by nucleophiles 6 resonance hybrids of pyrrole 5 structure and reactivity 5, 6 aromatic heterocycles 2 aromatic heterocyclic aldehydes asymmetric Michael addition of 1034 aromaticity fundamental concept 2253 Huckels 4n2 rule for 2231 aromaticity of 1,2,3-thiadiazole 1,1dioxide 1255 aromatic nitrile oxides 1148 aromatic 30p heptaphyrins 2252 aromatic pyrylium salt 1665 aromatic six-membered systems electrophilic attack on pyridine 8 nucleophilic attack on pyridine 7 resonance hybrids of pyridine 7 structure and reactivity 68 1-aroyl-2-arylidene hydrazines 1181 arsetanes 244, 245 artocarpol 1868 Artocarpus rigida 1868 arylacetylenes palladium(II)-catalyzed cyclization 596 3-aryl(alkyl)-1-(3 R-furoxan-4-yl) amidines 1160 arylaminoketone 416 a-(N-arylaminoketones) cyclization 415 arylammonium salts 1543 arylation 1738 N-arylation 35, 697 oxygen-containing ligands 860 using DCC 36 arylaziridines 35 4-arylazobenzofuroxans 1162 3-aryl-2,1-benzisoxazoles hydrogenolysis 783 2-arylbenzo[b]furans 612 synthesis 615 N-arylbenzophenone hydrazone 395 aryl benzophenone hydrazones 664 arylbiguanidines 1827 4-aryl-b-lactams palladium-catalyzed hydrogenolysis 2140 arylboronic acids 35, 604 aryl bromides, Pd-catalyzed crosscoupling of 395 3-aryl-2-bromo-1-sydnonylpropenones with 3-arylaminomethyl-4-amino-5mercapto-1,2,4-triazoles 1068 3-aryl-4-carbohydroximic acid chlorides 1069 aryl carboxylic acid 885 3-aryl-5-C-glucosyl-1,2,4-oxadiazoles 1095 5-aryl-2-chloroacetamido-1,3,4oxadiazoles 1225 1-aryl-5-chloro-1H-1,2,3-triazoles 1006 arylcyclopropanes photooxygenation of 926 1-aryl-4,6-diamino-1,2-dihydro-1,3,5triazines 1827 aryldiazomethanes generation 668 aryldiazonium salts coupling 392 4-aryl-3,3-dichloro-2-azetidinones halogenlithium exchange reaction 2136 2-aryl-2,5-dihydro-1,2,4-oxadiazoles 1103 5-aryl-4,5-dihydro-1,2,4-oxadiazoles 1077 aryl dihydrotriazines 1827 4-arylethynyl sydnones 1067 3-aryl-4-formylsydnone-40 -phenylthiosemicarbazones 1069 4-aryl-3-formylsydnones 1068 30 aryl-4-formylthio-semicarbazones 1069 aryl halides catalyzed cross-coupling 430 one-pot Suzuki coupling 547 2-aryl-2H-benzotriazoles 1011, 1012 6-aryl-3-hloro-1,2,4-triazine 1704 arylhydrazines 1209 arylhydrazones palladium-catalyzed cyclization 685 N-arylhydrazonoyl halides dehydrohalogenation 669 2-aryl-2-hydroxyethanamines 1577 1-arylimidazole-5-carboxylates 818 N-aryliminotriphenyl-phosphoranes 1190 N-arylisoquinolinium 1604 aryl isothiocyanate 885
Index aryllithium reagents 2256 2-aryloxadiazolinethiones 1204 5-aryloxazoles resins used 828 synthesis of 827 5-arylpyrimidine 1758 4-arylpyrrole-2-carboxaldehydes 335 2-arylpyrroles 334 3-aryl 2-quinolinones 1549 aryl radical, cyclization of 1555 aryl-substituted alkynes metal-catalyzed intramolecular cyclization 596 aryl-substituted 1,2,4-oxadiazoles UV spectra of 1082 4-aryl-substituted 1,2,3-thiadiazoles 1261 1-aryl-5-substituted-1,2,4-triazoles synthesis of 1021 1-(arylsulfonylamino)-1H-1,2,3triazoles 1002 2-aryl-1,2,3-thiadiazole-4H-5-imines 1273 arylthioamides 1305 N-arylthioureas oxidation of 1300 6-aryl-1,3,5-triazine-2,4-diones 1825 aryl triates 1011 3-aryl-4-[2-(2-vinylphenyl)ethenyl] sydnones 1063 aryne [42] cycloaddition reactions 1585 Aspergillus fumigatus 57 asperlicin C synthesis 2203 Aspidosperma alkaloids pentacyclic skeleton 484 asymmetric alkene aziridination, chiral catalysts for 17 asymmetric aziridination of cinnamate esters 23 of styrene, reaction conditions for 16, 17 asymmetric epoxidation of chalcone 85 asymmetric induction in azirine formation 45 asymmetric N-aminophthalimide-mediated aziridination 21 attack by nucleophilering openingring closure (ANRORC) sequences 1633 attack on pyrrole by nucleophiles 6 aulosirazole 735 arylboronic acids with imidazoles 858 1-aza-2-azonia allene salts 686 aza-BaylisHillman reaction 348 azabenzimidazoles 1170 aza-Cope rearrangement 1882 azacycloheptatriene 1865 aza-Darzens reaction 25 2-azadienes hetero-DielsAlder reaction 1443 photocyclization 1587 azadienophiles, DielsAlder cycloaddition 1453 aza-ortho-quinodimethanes 771 aza-Wittig cyclization 2204 aza-Wittig [22] process 1584 aza-Wittig reaction 827, 828, 2192 quinazolobenzodiazepine alkaloids synthesis 2204 azepane 1865, 1870 azepines boat-like conformation in 1871 NMR data for 1872 partially reduced azepine derivatives, reactivity 1934 dihydroazepines 19341937 dihydroazepin-2-ones 19381941 dihydroazepin-3-ones 19411943 tetrahydroazepines 1937, 1938 reactivity 1911 and benzofused derivatives 1911 cycloaddition reactions 19111914 with electrophiles 19231927 hydrogenation and hydrogen transfer 19321934 with metal carbonyl complexes 19141916 with nucleophiles 19271929 with oxidants 19291932 pericyclic reactions 19171923 through metal carbonyl complexes 1916, 1917 synthesis 1898 tautomerism in 1874 R/S-azetidine-2-carboxylic acids 163 azetidines 163, 164 chemical shifts 165 cleavage of the azetidine ring 186 cyclization reactions 166173 cycloadditions 176177 enzymatic resolutions of azetidines 186188 oxidizing reactions 180, 181 physicochemical data 165 reactions of C-metallated azetidines 182 at nitrogen atom 177180 with nucleophiles and bases 181, 182 ring expansions 182186 ring transformations 173176 synthesis 166
j2387
2388
j Index
azetidino[1,2-d][1,4]benzodiazepines synthesis 2211 2-azetidinone ab initio calculations 2117 2-azetidinone nucleus synthesis b-amino acids cyclization and derivatives 2126, 2127 chromium carbene-imine cyclization 2126 hydroxamate cyclization 2127 isocyanate-alkene cyclocondensation 2125, 2126 ketene-imine cycloaddition (see Staudinger reaction) metal-catalyzed insertions of diazo compounds 2127, 2128 metalloester enolate-imine condensation 2124, 2125 multicomponent reactions 2129 photochemical, and radical methods 2130, 2131 synthesis from carbo/heterocycles 21312133 terminal alkynes and nitrones coupling (see Kinugasa reaction) 2-azetidinones 3 2-azetidinones. see b-lactams azetidin-2-ones (b-lactams) 163 2-azetidinone-tethered imines aza-DielsAlder reaction 2141 4-aziadamant-1-amine 124 azide addition 29 azidealkyne cycloaddition reaction 992 azide-containing amino acids 993 azide-functionalized glycosides 992 azides, cycloaddition reaction 895 ortho-azidoaryl ketones thermolysis 766 azidocinnamates 1906 2-azido-4,6-dichloro-1,3,5-triazine, photolysis 1830 azido esters 898 4-azido-5-nitrothiophene-2-carboxylic acid ester photolysis 1149 azinomycin 11 azinomycin A 13 azinomycin B 13 azirdinyl anion chemistry 37, 38 aziridinates N-tosyl pivaldimine 26 aziridination of diactivated alkenes 23 of epoxyalkenes 19 of imines 2327 aziridination of alkenes 1223 asymmetric aziridination of styrene 16 bromine-catalyzed aziridination 18 catalysts for racemic aziridination 15 chiral catalysts for asymmetric alkene aziridination 17 general synthetic routes to 14 reaction conditions for asymmetric styrene aziridination 17 for bromine-catalyzed aziridination 18 for styrene aziridination 15, 16 aziridinecarboxylate esters 30 aziridines 11, 447, 875 azirdinyl anion chemistry 37, 38 general synthetic routes 14 geometry 12 naturally occurring 13 N-elaboration reactions 35, 36 nucleophilic ring opening 3035 reactivity 3038 from ring-closing protocols 28 ring closure of amines 2729 ring contraction of other heterocycles 29, 30 ring expansions 3841 ring opening 449 synthesis 1229 meso-aziridines 31 aziridinyl alcohol 37 aziridinyl esters 29 aziridinylmagnesium bromide 38 aziridinyl sulde 53 azirines 41, 48 addition of nucleophiles 5053 cycloadditions 5455 Neber route 4245 from other heterocycles 4850 from oximes with activating groups 43 properties 41, 42 from quaternary hydrazonium salts 44 reactivity 50 rearrangements into other heterocycles 55 synthesis 42 from vinyl azides 4548 2H-azirines. see azirines azirinyl aldehyde 55 azirinyl phosphonate 50 azobenzenes, photoreduction 1200 azofurazan annulated macrocycles 1135 azoisobutyronitrile (AIBN) 2329 1,3-azole derivatives arylation 855 azole functionalization 856 azole-N-oxides reactivity of 904
Index azole ring 836 azoles acidity 697 basicity 697 1,2-azoles class 636 derivatives 704710 electrocyclic reactions 704 importance 636 indazoles synthesis 678696 nomenclature 637, 638644 number of publications 636 pyrazoles synthesis 651678 reactions of C-metallated pyrazoles 702 with electrophilic reagents 697701 of N-metallated pyrazoles 702 with oxidizing agents 701, 702 with radicals 702 with reducing agents 703 reactivity 696704 relevant natural/useful compounds 644651 ring transformations 703, 704 1,3-azoles 809 alkyl-1,3-azoles 890891 anticancer properties 810 azole N-oxides 902904 azoline N-oxides 902904 benzo-1,3-azoles 880886 computational chemistry 810814 DielsAlder reactions 866870 dihydro-1,3-azoles 871880 4,5-dihydroazoles 871 1,3-dipolar cycloadditions 866870 direct electrophilic silylation of 840 ve-membered ring systems 809 free radical reactions 864, 865 IUPAC nomenclature 810 NMR data 810814 order of reactivity 838 oxy/amino-1,3-azoles 894902 photochemical reactions 870871 physicochemical data 810814 pKa, values of 814 quaternary 1,3-azolium salts 891894 reactions with reducing agents 865, 866 reactivities of 834 structure 812 tautomeric equilibrium of 815 tautomerism 814, 815 tetrahydro-1,3-azoles 886889 transition metal mediated reactions 855864 use of 861 azole silanes 852 azoles, N-arylation of 858 1,3-azoles, synthesis of imidazoles 815824 oxazole 824834 1,3-azole structure natural compounds, contains 812 azolic stannanes 853 azolic zinc derivatives 854 azolides 706 azolidin-2-ones 898 azolinium salts synthesis of 891 azolium ions pKa, values of 814 2-azolylstannanes 854 azomethine imines 670 azomethine nitrogen electrophilic attack 834 azomethinimines 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition of 1201 azoxyfurazans 1135 crystal structure simulations 1134 azulenes synthesis 1646
j2389
b
Bacillus cereus 1205 Bacillus subtilis 1222 Baders AIM theory 2146 BaeyerVilliger oxidation 1899 BaeyerVilliger type rearrangement 565 Banert cascade 994 Barbier-type allylation 2161 barbituric acid 1690 Bartoli protocols 398 Bartoli reaction 397 Bartoli synthesis 397 base-catalyzed rearrangement of epoxides, to allylic alcohols 99 base-promoted processes 382 batch-ll and withdraw system 2151 bauhiniastatin 1868 BaylisHillman adducts 662, 1542, 2135 a-substituted c-butenolides 581 Beckmann transformation of ketoxime 1819 Beirut reaction 1162 benzaldehyde 1577 benzaldehyde N0 -(5-benzoylmethyl-1,3,4thiadiazol-2-yl)hydrazone hydrobromides 1346 1H-benzazepine 1586 2H-2-benzazepine 1904 1H-2-benzazepine derivative 1867
2390
j Index
1H-1-benzazepine derivatives 1902 benzazepine ring 1,2,3-thiadiazole ring 1262 benzazepines 1867, 1902 3H-3-benzazepines 1904 benzazirine 1883 benzobromarane analogs 623 benzene catalytic hydrogenation of 1489 benzenecarbothiohydrazide 1353 benzene, complex alkyl-substitution in 433 benzene-1,2-diamine derivatives diazotization of 1009, 1010 benzene ring 880 electron-withdrawing nature of 886 benzenesulnic acid 821 benzils, electrochemical reduction 934 5-benzilydene-1,3,4-thiadiazole-2,2(5H)dicarbonitrile 1364 benzimidazoles 882, 886, 1118, 1164 oxides 1164 synthesis of 883 benzimidazolium salts 892 1,2-benzisothiazole 1,1-dioxides. see saccharins 2,1-benzisothiazole 2,2-dioxides 771 1,2-benzisothiazoles 768770, 769, 770772 benzisothiazole saccharin 736 1,2-benzisoxazole 763 base-promoted intramolecular displacement reactions 762 isosteric relationship 735 2,1-benzisoxazole 1,3-dipolar cycloadditions 782 1,2-benzisoxazole-3-acetic acid 765 benzisoxazoles, chemical behavior 772 1,2-benzisoxazoles synthesis 761765, 768 bond 7a-1/3-3a formation 764, 765 bond 7a-1 formation 761, 762 bond 1-2 formation 762, 763 bond 2-3 formation 763, 764 from other heterocycles 765 2,1-benzisoxazoles synthesis 765772 bond 1-2 formation 765766 bond 2-3 formation 766768 by introduction of C-3 768 2,1-benzisoxazolium salt reaction 780 benzoalium salts 892 benzo analogues 928 benzo[a]quinolizinium systems preparation 2054 benzoazoles 882 benzo-1,3-azoles formation of 881 benzo[b]furan-3-carboxylic acids synthesis 600 benzo[b]furans 617 electron populations 594 investigation 593 skeleton 595 structure 594 UV and NMR data 594 benzo[b]quinolizinium derivatives synthesis 2055 benzo[c]quinolizinium system 2056 benzo-15-crown-5 1642 benzo-derivatives 3, 1631 benzodiazepine 1127 1,4-benzodiazepine-N-oxides as dipoles for [32] cycloadditions 2208 benzodiazepine-quinazoline scaffold 2182 benzodiazepines 3, 2175, 2192 1,4-benzodiazepine-2,5-diones synthesis 21862192 1,4-benzodiazepine ring modications 2193, 2194 1,4-benzodiazepines 21772179 1,5-benzodiazepines 22132217 2,3-benzodiazepines 22172222 1,4-benzodiazepines ring synthesis 2182 1,4-benzodiazepines synthesis, cycloaddition reactions 22062210 1,4-benzodiazepines with fused heterocycle 21982210 1,4-benzodiazepines with heterocycle condensed at sides a or d 21792181 1,4-benzodiazepin-2-ones ring synthesis 21822186 clinical application 2181 [22] cycloadditions 22082210 [32] cycloadditions 22062208 functionalization at C3 2196, 2197 general introduction 21752177 with heterocycle fused at side (N1-C2 position) 21982204 naturally occurring 2181, 2182 pyrrolo[2,1-c][1,4]benzodiazepines (PBDs) 22102213 reactions of C2 carbonyl group 2194, 2195 structural classication 2177 structure 21762178 1,4-benzodiazepines hydroxylation of 2196 benzo-1,3-dithiolylium ion 13C chemical shifts 949 12H-benzo[e]indolo[3,2-b]benzofuran 626 benzofuran derivatization 593
Index in drug discovery 623625 in material science 625628 naturally occurring, isolation 594596 structure and reactivity 594 synthesis 596623 transformation of 1676 benzofurazans 1134, 1143, 1144, 1150, 1152, 1154, 1165, 1167 homocyclic ring of 1152 benzofuroxans 1134, 1136, 1150, 1154, 1155, 1156, 1158, 1164, 1165 Boulton-Katritzky rearrangement of 1162 benzofuroxan system 1149 benzo-fused derivatives NMR chemical shifts 1135 benzonitrile derivatives 817 benzopentathiepine 1272 benzophenone reacts 870 2H-1-benzopyran-2-ones 1660 2H-benzopyran-2-ones. see coumarins 4H-1-benzopyran-4-ones 16741676 2-benzopyrilium salts 1581 1-benzopyrylium ring synthesis of 16371639 2-benzopyrylium ring synthesis of 16391640 1-benzopyryliums synthesis 1639 benzopyrylium salt 1648 1-benzopyrylium salts, preparation 1638 2-benzopyrylium salts, preparation 1639 2-benzopyryliums synthesis 1640 1,4 benzoquinone 881 1,2,3-benzothiadiazole molecular dimensions for 1256 oxidation of 1282 benzothiadiazoles photochemical decomposition of 1274 reduction 1283 1,2,3-benzothiazole 1265 thermolysis of 1272 benzothiepines synthesis 19071910 1,2,3-benzotriazine Hetero-DielsAlder reaction of 1551 benzotriazole acylation of 1-benzotriazoles and benzotriazole methodology 10121014 benzotriazole-mediated amino-, amido-, alkoxy-, and alkylthio-alkylations 1015 benzotriazole-mediated imidoylation 10141015 1H/13C NMR spectra of 1009 physicochemical data and NMR data 1009 reagents 10161017 ring-closure reactions, synthesis 10091012 tautomeric forms of 1009 1H-benzotriazole-1-carboxamides 1823 benzotriazole imidates, synthesis 1014 benzotriazole mediated substitution 1647 benzotriazole methodology applications of 1012 benzotriazoles 1H/13C NMR spectra of 1010 tautomerism in 1010 N-benzotriazoles 1014 benzotriazole (Bt)-substituted pyrrole 433 benzotriazolyl carboximidoyl chlorides 1014 benzotriazolyl group, nucleophilic substitution 888 5-benzotriazolyl-1,2,3-triazoles thermal rearrangement of 1271 1,2,3-benzoxadiazole 1048, 1055 UV spectrum of 1055 benzoxadiazole ring, UV irradiation 1059 1,2,3-benzoxadiazoles 1057 IR spectra of 1055 2,1,3-benzoxadiazoles 1129 benzoxazoleimines 895 benzoxepines synthesis 1648, 1906, 1907 N-benzoylated hydrazone 1226 1-benzoyl-cis-1-buten-3-yne cyclization reaction 549 2-benzoyl derivative 891 benzoylhydrazines 683 N-benzoylhydrazinium salts 935 1-benzoyl-1-methylhydrazine hydrochloride 1210 3-benzoyl-1,2,4-oxadiazoles phenylhydrazones of 1117 3-benzoyl-5-phenyl-1,2,4-oxadiazole 1142 N-benzoyl-5-phenyltetrazole 1184 benzoyl protected 3-ribofuranosyl-4nitroisoxazole-5-carboxylate synthesis 750 3-benzoyl-2-substituted-5-phenylfurans 673 N-benzylamidoxime oxidation of 1097 benzylamine 33 2-benzyl-1,3-azoles carbanions of 812 2-benzyl-5-chloro-1,2,4-thiadiazole-3one 1322 benzylcyclohexanone 937 benzylic carbonyl compound Friedel Crafts acylation 1639
j2391
2392
j Index
2-benzylidenehydrazinecarbothioamide 1344 4-benzylisoquinolines 1592 N-benzylketenimines 1583 1-benzyl-2-methylimidazole with benzoyl chloride 891 1-(benzyloxy)-1H-1,2,3-triazoles 1006 3-benzyloxyisothiazole lithiation 796 benzyloxyl (OBn) N-protecting groups 1006 benzyloxymethylthiirane 115 5-[4-(Benzyloxy)phenyl]-3-(2-cyanoethyl)-1,3,4thiadiazol-2(3H)-one 1356 12-(2-cyanoethyl)hydrazine 1357 2-benzyloxypropanal 1198 benzylpenicillin, conformational properties 2146 benzyl peroxide, photolysis 865 N-benzylpiperidine fragment 1330 1-benzylpyrazole 1832 1-benzylpyrrole 323 2-benzylthio-4-uorobenzaldehyde reaction 769 5-(Benzylthio)-N-ethyl-1,3,4-thiadiazol-2amine 1385 berberine 2021 Bergman cyclization 1749 betaine 1609 b-glycosides 1072 bicarbonate-activated hydrogen peroxide (BAP) 67 bicyclic b-lactam antibiotic 13C NMR spectra 2147 bicyclic dioxolane, thermolysis 928 bicyclic 4H-pyrans synthesis 1660 bicyclic imidazo[1,2-d][1,2,4]thiadiazol-3(2H)one 1299 c-bicyclic lactams 1703 bicyclic oxazolidinone 55 bicyclic system formation 2026 bicyclic 1,2,4-triazolium salts 1034 bi(4,5-dihydro-1,3,4-thiadiazol-5imines) 1360 Biginelli reaction 1706 biguanidines 1823 bipyridinecopper coordination 2292 Birch reduction 567, 568 bis(benzotriazolyl) carboximidamide 1014 4,5-bis(benzoylthio)-1,3-dithiole2-thione 959 BischlerNapieralski synthesis 1576 Bischler synthesis 415, 416 bis-chlorodibutyltin oxide 97 bis(cyclooctadienyl) iridium(II) chloride complex 23 2,5-bis(dimethylaminomethyl)pyrrole 331 bis-dithiocarbonates thermolysis of 973 bis-1,2-dithiole dimers 944 bis-dithiole salt 952 bis(hydrazones) oxidation/cyclization 1002 bis(hydroxyiminomethyl)furoxan 1155 bis(isoquinoline-N-oxide) 1575 bismetanes 254 1-bis(methoxy)-4-bis(methylthio)3-buten-2-one cyclocondensation 661 bismuth trichloride 32 bismuth triate 95 bis-1,2,4-oxadiazoline complexes in vitro cytotoxicity 1081 bis-oxadiazolyl suldes 1214 bis(oxazolinyl)pyridine scandium(III) triate complex 310 bis(2-oxo-3-oxazolidinyl)phosphinic chloride (BOP-Cl) 1087 2,5-bis(peruoroalkyl)-1,3,4oxadiazoles 1203 3,6-bis(phenanthrolin-2-yl)-1,2,4,5tetrazine 1837 1,4-bis-2-(5-phenyloxazolyl)benzene (POPOP) 2285 2,5-bis(phenylthiomethylene)pyrrole 331 bis(pyrrol-2-yl)methane (dipyrromethane) 307 bis(tributyltin) oxide 1407 2,5-bis(triuoromethyl)-1,3,4oxadiazole 1216 3,5-bis(triuoromethyl)-1,3,4oxadiazole 1023, 1204 N,O-bis-(trimethylsilyl)hydroxylamine 1722 1,2-bis(triphenylphosphonium)ethane dibromides 955 bite-angle diphosphinine 1643 bithiophene diols acid-catalyzed condensation 2252 bi-/tricyclic heterocycles synthesis of 865 B3LYP/6-31G level DFT calculations 1148 3-(boc-amino)isoxazole direct lithiation 786 N-Boc-indole 455 N-Boc-protected amino aldehyde 2192 N-Boc-pyrrolidine 348 Boekelheide reaction 1513, 1514
Index BohlmannRahtz heteroannulation reaction 1462 bond-switching reaction 1324 bond-switching rearrangement 1320, 1321 borane 849 boron triuoride di-Et etherate (BFEE) 625 boron triuoride etherate 1413 BoultonKatritzky rearrangement 1149, 1158, 1159 bradykinin receptors 1550 tetrazolyl analogs 1405 B-Raf kinase inhibitors 1596 bromide ion 843 brominated/iodinated porphyrins 2259 bromination 45, 1830 bromine-catalyzed aziridination 18 reaction conditions for 18 brominelithium exchange methodology 849, 851 m-bromoacetophenone 463 2-bromoalkylamine hydrobromide 27 N-2-bromoalkylimine 27 1-(bromoalkyl)pyrroles 319 1-bromobenzocyclobutene 1586 bromocyclopropenes 1703 2-bromo derivatives, reactivity of 895 bromo enol ethers 819 2-bromoindole Bergmans synthesis 455 3-bromo-2-isocyanoacrylate (BICA) 819 4-bromoisoquinoline derivative 1597 4-bromo-5-lithio-2-phenyloxazole intermediate 849 2-bromo-3-methylfuran 535 5-bromo-1-methyl-1H-1,2,3-triazole reacts 1006 3-bromo-4-phenylfuroxan 1167 bromopyridine 854 bromopyrimidines 1759 2-bromopyrrole 333 3-bromoquinolin-2-ones 1565 1-bromoquinolizinium bromide 2039 4-bromo-2-stannylthiazoles lithiation of 854 bromo-substituted pyrrole 6-exo-trig cyclization 433 N-bromosuccinimide (NBS) 535, 838, 2001, 2239 5-bromo-1,2,3-thiadiazoles 1285 2-bromothiazole 861, 863 bromothiazole, dimerization 859 Brnsted acids 872, 1468 BuchwaldHartwig amination 394, 464 BuchwaldHartwig arylation applications 463 BuchwaldHartwig palladium-catalyzed aryl-amino coupling reaction 1547 BuLi reagent 890 Burgess reagent 1176 use of 873 ()-butaclamol 2023 t-butanol 82 v-butenyl sulfonamide 18 1-butenyl-2-vinylpyrinium salts ring-closing metathesis (RCM) reaction 2036 t-butoxide 119 N-tert-butoxycarbonylanilide 1540 N-(t-butoxycarbonyl)-N(2-nitrobenzenesulfonyl) aminoalcohol 27 1-(tert-butoxycarbonyl)pyrrole 325, 334 trans-t-butyl cinnamate 22 5-tert-butyl-3-(2,4-dichloro-5isopropoxyphenyl)-1,3,4-oxadiazolin-2one 1192 5-tert-butyl-3-[2,4-dichloro-5-(2-propynyloxy) phenyl]-1,3,4-thiadiazol-2(3H)-one 1355 3-t-butyl-2,3-dihydro-1,2,4-oxadiazoles 1104 2-tert-butyldimethylsilylimidazole 852 o-tert-butyldimethylsilylimidazolyl aminals 852 butyl (2-carbamothioylhydrazinylidene) ethanoate oxidation 1342 t-butyl hydroperoxide (TBHP) 82 t-butylhypochlorite 15 t-butylhypoiodite 15, 50, 119, 126, 1145 n-butyl-lithium 1006 hydrogenmetal exchange 1030 tert-butyl peroxide 1602 N-t-butyl-2-phenylaziridine 39 tert-butyl 2-(5-phenyl-1,3,4-thiadiazol-2-yl) acetate 1382 t-butyl phthalimidomalonaldehydate 2148 tert-butyl-substituted benzofuran trimer 626 t-butylsunyl imines 25 t-butylsulfonyl (Bus) protected pentylaziridine 37 tert-butyl tetramethylguanidine (BTMG) 509
j2393
c
calcium oxide 23 C-alkyl derivatives 163 camphorsultam as chiral auxiliary in aziridination 27 mediated aziridination, yield data for 27 camphorsultam bromoacetamide 26
2394
j Index
cancer therapy potent agent for 426 cannabinoid receptor antagonists 646 Canthine alkaloids 486 N-carbamoylguanidine hydrochloride 1823 carbamoyl-1H-benzotriazole 1016 carbanions X-ray crystal structure analysis 2091 carbaporphyrinoids 2243 carbazole-derivative p-type semiconductors 2311 5-carboalkoxydihydroazepines 1704 carbocycles 1883, 1890 synthesis 1644, 1645 carbocyclic compounds 1 carbocyclic-fused indoles 400 carbodiimide 68 carbon-carbon bond forming reactions 857, 1479 carboncarbon cross-coupling reactions catalyst 1516 carbonheteroatom bnd formation 857 carbon monoxide 106 carbon nucleophiles 844 carbon tetrabromide (CBr4) 599 carbonyl insertions, into aziridines 40 carbonyl tautomeric formation 1495 5-carboxamide-3-phenyl-1,2,4-thiadiazole 4-oxide X-ray structure of 1293 N-carboxy anhydrides (NCAs) 2140 carboxylic acids 36, 269, 1012, 2346 derivatives of 875 carboxylic sulfonic anhydride 1012 4-carboxy-1,2,3-triazoles azides with methylene compounds 1000 cardiovascular system 1329 carzinophilin 11 catalystsubstrate complex 81 catalytic cycle 412, 466 catalytic hydrogenation of pyrroles 321 catenane synthesis 2287 cation-exchange resins 2336 cationic indolinylarylpalladium complex 468 cationic zirconium species 932 CB1 receptor subtype antagonist 646 CC bond formation 937 [CCCNO] reactions 748 C3/C6 cycloaddition regioselectivity of 1450 C,N-diphenyl nitrilimine 1198 cefuzonam 1286 central nervous system (CNS) 1287 cephalosporin C isochlorobutylformate (ICBF) ester 2152 synthesis 2150 Woodwards total synthesis 2149 cephalosporins 21442161 classical syntheses 21482150 conversion 21582161 industrial production 21502153 with 3-morpholinosydnonimine 1072 physicochemical data 21462148 reactivity 21532158 ceric ammonium nitrate (CAN) 33, 310, 2142, 2202 cerium trichloride heptahydrate 33 cesium uoride 1011 cetyl(trimethyl)ammonium hydroxide (CTAOH) 66 c-glycosidic bond 1763 chalcones 663, 664, 1635 charge-transfer complexes 2311 structures 2312 cHBOX ligands 22 chelating sulfonamides 19 chemical markers as medical tracers 2283 chemical shifts 189 chemical vapor deposition (CVD) 2308 chemotherapeutic agents 1168 Chichibabin approach 2007 Chichibabin reaction 1573, 2032 of diazines 1741 Chichibabin synthesis 2006 chiral aldimine 25 chiral aziridination using diazoesters 25 chiral bis(oxazoline) (BOX) ligands 21 chiral camphor-derived ligand 21 Chiral capsules 2300 chiral catalysts for asymmetric alkene aziridination 17 and auxiliaries for electron-decient alkenes 84 chiral dihydroquinoline carbonitriles 1569 chiral 1,2-dihydro-1,3,5-triazines 1830 chiral Fischer-type furan carbene complex 563 chiral c-sultones asymmetric synthesis of 968 chiral imidazolium salts 892 chiral nonracemic aminoalcohol 27 chiral 1,2,4-oxadiazoles 1087 chiral pyridine derivatives 1441 chiral S-benzyl sulfonium triate 26 chiral sulfur ylide approach 26 chiral sulfur ylide precursors 88 chiral tetrahydroisoquinoline alkaloid 1575
Index chiral tetrazole compound 1427 chiral thiepane derivatives 1901 chiral thiourea organocatalyst 443 chlordiazepoxide Sternbachs synthesis 2183 structure 2176 synthesis 2182 chlorinated porphyrins examples 2258 chlorination 347, 1830 chloroacetamidine 1822 a-chloroaldehyde bisulte adducts hetero DielsAlder reactions of 1034 chloroalkynes Ti-catalyzed hydroamination 393 2-chloro-5-aroyl-1,3,4-thiadiazoles 1382 o-chloroarylacetaldehyde hydrazones intramolecular cyclization 500 2-chloroaryl alkynes 604 2-chloro-N-(5-aryloxymethylene/aryl-1,3, 4-thiadiazolo-2-yl)acetamides 1383 chloroaziridine 51 4-chlorobenzaldehyde 86 2-(3-chloro-1-benzothien-2-yl)-1,3,4thiadiazole 1345 chlorocarbonyl isocyanate 1827 N-chlorocarbonyl isocyanate 1827 chlorocarbonyl isocyanates 1825 chlorocyanogen oxide 1092 2-chloro-4,6-dimethoxy-1,3,5-triazine 1819, 1832 chlorodithioformates 1266 chloroesters, treatment 931 chloroethanol 98 2-chloroethyl methyl carbonates 936 5-(4-chloro-3-ethyl-1-methyl-1H-pyrazole-5-yl)1,3,4-oxadiazole-2-one 1214 4-chloro-2-(hydroxyamino)phenyl derivative 1213 1-chloroisoquinoline 1600 chloromethylated polystyrenes 23302333 swelling properties 2331 chloromethyl benzothiazole 25 1-(chloromethyl)benzotriazole with sodium dialkyl phosphites 1015 3-chloromethyl-1,2,4-oxadiazole Arbuzov reaction of 1123 5-(chloromethyl)-1-pyrroline derivatives 347 4-chloro-2-methylthiopyrimidine 1758 2-chloro-N-(5-aryloxymethylene/aryl-1,3,4thiadiazol-2-yl)acetamides 1377 2-chloro nicotinic acid 2351 1-chloro-2-nitrobenzenes benzotriazol-1-ols from 1011 5-chloro-N-substituted-1,2,3-triazoles nucleophilic displacement of 1007 2-chloro(or uoro)-1,3,5trinitrobenzene 1007 m-chloroperbenzoic acid (MCPBA) 1327, 1599, 2144 m-chloroperbenzoic acid (mCPBA) 64 chloroperoxidase (CPO) 79 3-chloroperoxybenzoic acid oxidation of 903 6-(2-chlorophenyl)-3-ethyl-[1,2,4]triazole[3,4-b] 1,3,4-thiadiazole crystal structure of 1336 p-chlorophenyl isocyanate 1826 2-chloro-4-phenylpyrimidine 1744 N-4-(p-Chloro)phenyl-1,2,4-triazole-3,5dione 1033 chlorophyll-a 273 chloropyrazines 1760, 1762 3-chloropyridazines 1756 chloropyridines 1485 (6-chloro-3-pyridyl)acetylene derivative 324 2-chloropyrimidine 1745 chloroquine 1532 N-chlorosuccinimide (NCS) 1095, 1454 N-chlorosuccinimide, manganese dioxide 1116 chlorosulfonic acid 1576 chlorosulfonyl isocyanate (CSI) [22] cycloaddition 2126 5-chloro-1,2,3-thiadiazoles 1278 chlorotriazolinone synthesisof 1026 cholinergic channel activator ABT-418 synthesis 740 4H-chromen-4-ones 16741676 chromone iron-promoted formation of 1675 structure of 1661 chromones 1660, 1661 chromophore UV absorption spectra 2025 chrysopterin 2276 ciguatoxin 1868 Cinchona alkaloid organic catalysts 445 cinnamate esters 22 asymmetric aziridination of 23 cinnamic acid 1867 cinnamylideneacetophenones 664 cis-aziridine 51 cis-2,3-divinyloxirane 1894 Claisen condensation with acetophenone, and condensation 1069
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2396
j Index
Claisen-like condensation 738 Claisen-like sigmatropic rearrangement 386 Claisen-like [3,3]-sigmatropic rearrangement 398 Claisen rearrangement 489, 512 ClaisenSchmidt reaction 1462 Clavulanic acid 2145 CLEAR resins 2343 clobazam 2181, 2214 synthetic route to 2215 clomipramine 1867 C-metallated azoles, reactions of azolyl copper reagents 855 copper azoles 855 lithium azoles 847850 magnesium azoles 850852 silicon azoles 852853 tin azoles 853854 zinc azoles 854855 C-metallated pyridines 1479 c-metallated pyrroles 314318 CNS depressant 734 C-nucleophiles 2352 co-catalysis system 599 colchicine total synthesis 571 2,4,6-collidine 1470 Combes reaction 1534 combretafurazan 1169 [CONCC] reactions 750, 751 N-CONEt2 protected indole treatment 456 N-confused porphyrin 2241 conjugated ene-yne-carbonyl 554 conjugated heterocyclic mesomeric betaines (CMBs) 2021 p-conjugated nonsymmetrical liquid crystals, 1125 20p conjugated pathway 2247 ConradLimpach synthesis 1534 Cope rearrangement 329 copper(II) hexauoroacetylacetonate 38 copper(II) permanganate 83 copper(II) sulfate 82 copper-zinc superoxide dismutase enzyme model for 2302 core-modied oxybenziporphyrin 2245 core-modied sapphyrins 2251 CoreyChaykovsky synthesis 86 corrphycene 2236 coumarins. see 2H-benzopyran-2-ones Pechmann condensation, synthesis of 1670 synthesis of 1669, 1670 coumestrol synthesis 613 COX-2-selective inhibitors 1712 CpCo catalyst 1438 crisscross cycloadditions 670 cromoglicic acid 1674 cross-coupling protocols 410 cross-coupling reactions 464, 2051 cross-linked ethoxylate acrylate resins (CLEAR) resins 2343 crosslinked polystyrene chemical modication 2330 Crown ethers 2297 crystallographic data 1134 crystallographic techniques 1078 CS bond 114 Cu-based chiral catalysts 447 Cu-Cr catalyst 1888 CuI/CuIII system 510 C4-unsubstituted isoquinolines 1578 C4-unsubstituted-N-oxides 1579 cupric triate 94 Curtius rearrangement 413 CusmanoRuccia/BoultonKatritzky rearrangement 1117 5-cyanimino-4,5-dihydro-3-aryl-1,2,4thiadiazoles 1309 cyanine dye 2279 structure 2279, 2280 cyanoacetamide 1673 3-(cyanoacetyl)pyrrole 303 cyanoacetylureas 1719 N-cyanoamidines cyanamide 1089 1-cyanobenzotriazole electrophilic cyanations 1015 cyano compounds palladium-catalyzed three-component coupling reaction of 1409 b-cyano enolate 848 cyanogen chloride 894 cyanohydrines 1090 5-(cyanoimino)thiadiazolines 1320 1-cyanoisoquinoline N-oxides 1606 cyanomethyl-1,2-dihydro-Nmethylquinolines 1568 5-cyanomethyl-1,3-diphenylpyrazoles induced additionelimination 692 5-(p-cyanomethylphenyl)-2-n-nonyl-1,3,4oxadiazole 1227 2-cyano-1-methylpyrrole 339 1-cyano-4-(N,N-dimethylamino)-pyridinium bromide 841 cyanopyrazine 1760
Index 2-cyanoquinolines 1560 3-cyanoquinolines 1534 cyanurates 1820 cyanuric acid 1820, 1830 cyanuric chloride 1818, 1820, 1832 cyclic azomethine imines 1070 cyclic b-ketoesters 392 cyclic C-alkoxynitrones 903 cyclic C-aminonitrones 903 cyclic compounds 1 cyclic diazo compound 491 cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) 651 cyclic imines 1102 cyclic pyrrolo-2,3-quinodimethanes DielsAlder cycloaddition 435 cyclic suldes ring contraction 970 cyclization approaches 593 cyclization-assisted cleavage strategy 2349, 2371 advantages 2348 cyclization of hydrazones of 4-oxoalkenoic acid derivatives 1699 cyclization reactions 385, 407, 424, 19951997, 2053 cyclization-release strategy 2185 cycloaddition cascades applications 484 cycloadditionelimination process 1298 [42] cycloaddition methodology 435 applications 482 cycloaddition reactions 54, 480487, 780782, 791, 793, 16481652, 2000, 20422043, 2095, 2096 of aziridines 39 with azirines 55 cyclobutadiene tautomerization of 1221 cyclodehydration method 2053 b-cyclodextrin 94, 111 cyclodimerization of a-amino acids 1726 of a-amino carbonyl compounds 1726 of nitrile ylides 1728 cycloheptatriene 1865 cyclohexane spiroepoxide 57 cyclohexanones 1557 cyclohexene 82 cyclohexene imine 36 conditions for N-elaboration 36 cyclohexene oxide 110 cyclohexenyl carbamate 19 cyclohexylaziridine 34 N-cyclohexyl-N-benzoylhydrazine 1213 1,5-cyclooctadiene 1071 cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitors 576 cyclopentene oxide derivative 101 cyclopropanes with SO2 969 cyclopropenyl ketone Cu-catalyzed ring-opening cycloisomerization reaction 555 cycotoxic effect 2210 cysteine-derived chiral 4-amino-1,2oxathiolane 2-oxide nucleophilic attack on 971 Cystobacter violaceus 164 cytochrome P450cam, enzyme models for 2301
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d
DABCO 176, 177, 661, 683, 684, 1927, 2136 Danishefskys diene 483, 1672 Davis reagent 2351 DBU/Lewis acid 1537 Dean-Stark apparatus 689 Debus reaction 816 decarboxylation 339 of pyrrole-3-carboxylic acids 337 p-decient heterocycles 1572 dehydrobrominations 46 dehydrochlorinations of pyridazines 1736 a-dehydrophenylalanine irradiation of 1587 4,5-dehydropiperidine 1509 delocalization energies (DE) 2024 demoxepam 2184 Dendrobates histrionicus 1558 density functional theory (DFT) 1134, 1292 calculations 379, 1573, 2005, 2092 deoxyglucitol-derived aziridine 32 1-deoxymannojirimycin analogs 32 deprotonation 5 DessMartin conditions 98 desulfurization 116117 of thiiranes 118 Dewar phosphinines 2085 Dewar pyridines 1495 Dewar pyrimidine intermediate 1731 DeWitts solid-phase synthesis of 1,4-benzodiazepine-2-ones 2187 DFT/6-31G computational method vs. experimental bond lengths 1332 diactivated alkenes 23 2,4-diacylpyrroles 304
2398
j Index
6-dialkylamino-1,3,5-triazine-2,4dithiols 1830 3-N,N-dialkylamino-1,2,4-triazoles 1025 dialkylation 1733 2,3-dialkylaziridine residue 12 1,2-dialkyl-1,2-dihydroisoquinolines Grignard reagents 1610 N,N-dialkyldithiocarbamidates 953 N,N-dialkylfurazanamidoximes 1143 O,N-dialkylhydroxamic acids 1013 1,3-dialkylisoquinolines 1608 2,5-dialkyl-1,3,4-oxadiazoles 1203 3,4-dialkylpyrrole-2,5-dicarboxaldehydes 302 3,4-dialkylpyrrrole-2-carboxylic acids 302 dialkyl-1,2,4-thiadiazoles 1306 dialkylzinc reagents 1762 diamides Pd-catalyzed reaction 2192 1,2-diaminoalkene 1724 1,2-diaminobenzene 1017 4,6-diamino-1,2-dihydro-1,3,5-triazine 1827 1,2-diaminoethanes 1723 diaminomaleonitrile (DAMN) 820 2,4-diaminothiazole 896 diaryl diselenides 1901 1,3-diarylimidazolium chlorides 892 4,6-diarylpyrimidine-2-ylamines 1712 3,4-diaryl substituted 1,3,4oxadiazolidines 1200 3,6-diaryl-1,2,4,5-tetrazines 1840 2,5-diaryl-1,3,4-thiadiazoles 1349 2,4-diaryl-1,2,3-triazoles preparation of 1002 2,5-diaryl-3-trimethylsilylmethyl-1,3, 4-oxadiazolium triuoromethanesulfonates 1191 diastereomeric mixtures 888 diastereoselective epoxidations, with chiral auxiliaries 87 diastereoselectivity 28, 79, 114 3,6-diaza-bicyclo [3.1.0]hexane system 12 1,2-diaza-1,3-butadienes 1260 Pd(0)-catalyzed carbonylation 672 diazepam 2179 acylation 2196 3,6-diazido-1,2,4,5-tetrazine (DiAT) 1836 diazines 3, 1683 bicyclic variants 1683 1,2-diazines 1757 diaziridines cistrans isomerism in 119 diaziridines 122, 123 diaziridinimines 123, 124 diaziridinones 123, 124 geometry 118 other methods 121, 122 oxidative methods using hypohalites 119, 120 properties 117119 reactivity 122 synthesis 119122 via hydroxylamine derivatives 120, 121 diaziridinimines 119, 123 diaziridinones 122, 123 ring enlargement 671 diazirines properties 124 reactivity 126129 synthesis 124126 3H-diazirines. see diazirines diazoalkanes 1265 dipolar cycloaddition of 1050 a-diazoanhydrides 1,3-dioxolium salts 930 diazocarbonyl compounds InCl3-catalyzed 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition 668 diazo compounds decomposition of 931 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition reaction 651 metal-catalyzed insertions 2127, 2128 diazo coupling, nitrosation 701 diazocyclohexadienone valence isomer 1049 2-diazo-1,3-dicarbonyl compound copper-catalyzed decomposition of 931 2-diazo-1,3-dicarbonyl derivatives 1264 diazo esters rhodium-catalyzed reaction of 931 diazoketones 1724 diazomethane 1901 frontier molecular orbital theory prediction of 1256 diazonium ions 840 diazothiocarbonyl compounds 1263 a-diazothiocarbonyl compounds 1264 2-diazothione isolation of 1254 diazotization reaction 2046, 2047 diazo(vinyl)methanes bearing a carbonyl group reductive cyclization of 1700, 1701 dibenzazepines 1867 dibenzo[b,e]thiepines 1869 dibenzylthiirane 115 3,5-dibromo-2-aminopyrazine 1737 dibromobithiazole formation of 859 1,3-dibromo derivative 971 a,b-dibromoesters 29
Index 1,6-dibromohexane 1901 3,5-dibromo-1H-1,2,4-triazole 1032 3-(2,4-dibromophenyl)-2-methylthio-5-phenyl1,3,4-thiadiazolium methosulfate 1353 2,4-dibromothiazole chemoselective reaction of 863 5,7-di-t-butyl-1,2,3-benzoxadiazole 1049 N,N-di-t-butyldiaziridinone 123 N,N-dibutyldiaziridine 119 1,5-dicarbonyl/ammonia 1462 1,2-dicarbonyl compounds monooximes of 902 1, 3-dicarbonyl compounds ring construction, synthesis 926927 1,4 dicarbonyl compounds 821 1,3-dicarbonyl derivative 1533 1,5-dicarbonyl derivatives cycloaddition of 1461 1,2-dicarbonyl monohydrazones 1698 1,4-dicarbonyl reagents structures of 821 dicarbonyl synthons 1713 2,6-dichlorobenzaldehyde 87 2,3-dichloro-5,6-dicyano-1,4-benzoquinone (DDQ) 1465, 1738, 2106 2,2-dichlorodiethyl sulde imidazole, reaction 835 1,2-dichloroethane (DCE) 1568 4,5-dichloro-3-iodopyrrole-2-carboxylate 336 dichloromethane (DCM) 1346, 1827 2,4-dichloro-6-methoxy-1,3,5-triazines 1819 N,N-dichloro-o-nitrobenzenesulfonamide (2-NsNCl2) 879 2,6-dichloro-3-nitropyridine 1471 2,3-dichloro-4-oxobut-2-enoic acid 1696 2-(2,4-dichlorophenylamino)-5-(2,4dihydroxyphenyl)-1,3,4-thiadiazole 1387 2,4-dichloroquinoline 1563 4,7-dichloroquinoline palladium-catalyzed carbonylation of 1563 3,5-dichloro-1,2,4-thiadiazole 1306 N,N-dichlorotosyl sulfonamide 29 5,6-dicyano-1-methylindole 327 4,5-dicyanopyridazine 327, 1748 dicyclic 1,2-dithiolane 940 dicyclohexylcarbodiimide (DCC) 36, 1086, 1182 Dieckmann-type cyclization 1901 1,3-dielectrophile condensation of 1533 DielsAlder adducts 323, 704, 869 DielsAlder catalysis 2299 DielsAlder cycloaddition 693 of propargylic aldehyde 1697 DielsAlder cycloadditionretro-DielsAlder reaction strategy 542 DielsAlder cycloadditions 704, 793, 1453, 1670, 2078 DielsAlder (DA)/1,3-dipolar cycloaddition (1,3-DC) cascade 1218 DielsAlder/hetero-DielsAlder cycloaddition 1551 [42] DielsAlder reaction 2076 DielsAlder reactions 54, 273, 324, 480, 482, 486, 533, 537, 570, 572, 616, 780, 781, 791, 866, 867, 1172, 1216, 1378, 1444, 1445, 1446, 1564, 1585, 1665, 1893, 2043, 2297, 2298, 2303 products 546 from 2-quinolones and butadiene compounds 1566 DielsAlder reagent 1131 dienic system of molybdenum carbonyl complexes 2078 reactivity 2077 dienophile LUMO 485 nucleophilic carbon of 1450 dienophile (p-toluenesulfonyl)acetylene 324 a-dienylb-lactams DielsAlder reaction 2143 1-(diethoxymethyl)imidazole use of 847 diethoxyphosphinyl acetic acylhydrazine 1020 4-(diethoxyphosphoryl)methyl-N-(3-phenyl [1,2,4]thiadiazol-5-yl)benzamide 1331 diethylaluminium azide 95 diethylaluminium 2,2,6,6tetramethylpiperidide (DATMP) 98 diethylaminoacetonitrile 1834 3-diethylaminoacrylonitrile 669 diethylaminosulfur triuoride (DAST) 872 diethyl azodicarboxylate 1823 diethylazodicarboxylate (DEAD) 1403 N,N-diethylcarbamyl chloride 902 diethylepisulde 114 diethyl ethoxymethylenemalonate 339 o,o-diethyl hydrogen phosphodithioate 114 diethyl (pyrrol-2-yl)methylphosphonate 331 N,N-diethyl-1-propynylamine hetero-DielsAlder reaction of 1449 3,6-diethyl-1,2,4,5-tetrazine 1837 5,5-diuoro-1-methyl-3-pyrrolin-2-one 339 N,N0 -diformylhydrazine 1341 4,5-dihydroazepines 1884
j2399
2400
j Index
dihydro-1,4-dithiins 963 2,3-dihydrofuran 1893 dihydrofuran-2,5-dione 1 dihydrofuran-2-one 1 3,5-dihydro-4H-2,3-benzodiazepin-5ones reaction 2221 1,2-dihydro-3H-indazol-3-ones 688 2,3-dihydro-4H-pyran-4-ones 673 2,4-dihydro-3H-1,2,4-triazolin-3-ones 1026 4,5-dihydroimidazoles 873 synthesis of 871 dihydroisoquinolines 1602 1,2-dihydroisoquinolines 1604 diastereoselectively 1611 3,4-dihydroisoquinolin-1-ones 1577 2,3-dihydroisovalerate 1167 4,5-dihydro-3-methyl-1,2,3-oxadiazolinium salts 1059 2,5-dihydro-1,2,4-oxadiazin-5-ones 1102 4,5-dihydro-1,2,4-oxadiazole 5-ones 1116 oxidation of 1116 4,5-dihydro-1,2,3-oxadiazole 2-oxides 1052 4,5-dihydro-1,2,4-oxadiazole ring 1080 2,3-dihydrooxadiazoles 1198 2,3-dihydro-1,2,4-oxadiazoles 1105 crystal structures for 1080 4,5-dihydro-1,2,4-oxadiazoles mass spectrometric analysis of 1083 synthesis of 1099 4,5-dihydro-1,2,4-oxadiazoles ring 1076 dihydro-1,2,3-oxadiazoline structures 1050 4,5-dihydro-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-ones 1099, 1111 4,5-dihydro-1,2,3-oxadiazolo 2-oxides 1052 4,5-dihydro-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-thiones 1099 dihydrooxazaphosphole derivatives 50 4,5-dihydro-1,2,3-oxazolidinium salts 1058 dihydrooxepine 1894 D3-dihydropyran derivatives 1654 2,3-dihydropyrazines 1723 dihydropyrazoles 1071 4,5-dihydropyridazin-3(2H)-ones 1693 1,4-dihydropyridine derivatives formation of 1457 1,4-dihydropyridines Hantzsch synthesis of 1458 3,4-dihydropyrimidine-2-(1H)-ones 1706 1,4-dihydropyrimidines 1707 1,6(1,4)-dihydropyrimidines 1716 2,5-dihydropyrroles (3-pyrrolines) 320 dihydroquininedihydroquinidine 1530 2,3-dihydroquinolin-4-ones 1542 4,5-dihydro-1,3,4-thiadiazole-2carboxamides 1362 2,3-dihydro-1,3,4-thiadiazole derivatives 1361 2,5-dihydro-1,3,4-thiadiazoles 1379 4,5-dihydrothiazoles synthesis of 873 4,5-dihydrothiepine 1896 2,3-dihydro-[(thioacyl)methylene] thiadiazoles 1379 dihydro-1,3,5-triazines 1835 4,5-dihydroxazoles 871 2,4-dihydroxy-6-methylpyrimidine 1736 2,5-dihydroxypyrrole-O-benzoates 311 4,5-dihyro-3-methyl-1,2,3-oxadiazolium tosylate synthesis of 1058 diisobutylaluminium hydride (DIBALH) 339, 1489 diisopropyl carbodiimide (DIC) 2363 1,5-diisopropyl substituted 6-oxoverdazyls 1838 diketones 2036 1,4-diketones Stetter reaction 1035 a-diketones 816 1,2-diketones, synthesis 816 dimedone, coupling 608 dimeric benzo[b]furans split-pool synthesis 622 4,6-dimethoxy-2-aminopyrimidine 1691 1-(3,4-dimethoxybenzyl)pyrrolidines 345 2,5-dimethoxy-2,5-dihydrofuran 537 4-(4,6-dimethoxy[1,3,5]triazin-2-yl)-4methylmorpholinium (DMTMM) chlorides 742, 1819 dimethyl acetylenedicarboxylate (DMAD) 322, 323, 753, 781, 1070, 1884, 1885, 2365 DielsAlder adduct 870 dipolarophiles 868 thiazoles 869 dimethyl acetylene-dicarboxylate (DMAD) 1613 N,N-dimethylacrylamide copolymerization 2340 5-(dimethylamino)benzofuroxan nitrosation of 1162 N0 -[(dimethylamino)methylidene]-N,Ndimethylhydrazonoformamide 1340 5-(dimethylamino)-4-methylisosydnone 1190 2-(dimethylaminomethyl)pyrrole 308 2-[4-(N,N-dimethylaminophenyl]-4substituted-(3,4,5-trimethoxyphenyl)D2-1-3-4-oxadiazolines 1197
Index dimethylaminopropenoates nitrosation of 1090 1-[(3-dimethylamino)propyl]-3ethylcarbodiimide (DMAP) 178 catalytic amounts 2363 1-[3-(dimethylamino)propyl]-3ethylcarbodiimide (EDC) 1086 4-dimethylaminoquinoline acylation of 1559 4-dimethylamino-4-trichloromethyl-1,3diaza-1,3-butadiene 1822 2-dimethylamino-4-trichloromethyl-1,3,5triazine 1822 N,N-dimethylaniline 303 2,3-dimethylbutane 137 2,4,-dimethylcarbonohydrazide 1838 3,4-dimethylcoumarin 1668 dimethyldioxirane (DMD) 70 catalytic epoxidation using 60 epoxidation of sensitive substrates 59 2,2-dimethyl-1,3-dioxolanes 935 dimethylformamide 98, 106 N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF) 1480 dimethylfurazan 1137 3,4-dimethylfurazan 1166 1,2-dimethylimidazole 869 butyllithium reacts 890 DielsAlder adduct 870 dimethylpyridazolyl 1838 dimethylpyridine 1505 trans-2,5-dimethylpyrrolidine derivative 349 dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) 87, 453, 991 1,3-dimethyl-3,4,5,6-tetrahydro-2pyrimidinone (DMPU) 1553 2,4-dimethyl-1,2,4-thiadiazolidine-3,5dithione 1317 2,4-dimethyl-1,3,5-triazine 1822 4,40 -di(morpholin-1-yl)azoxyfurazan 1134 2,5-di m-/p-tolyl-1,3,4-oxadiazoles oxidation of 1211 Dimroth reaction 1282 Dimroth rearrangements 1280, 1312, 1324, 1370 1,3-dinitrobenzene 1732 4,6-Dinitrobenzofurazan 1153 4,6-dinitro compounds 1158 Diol formation 67 1,2-diols with oxalyl chloride and triethylamine 935 1,3-dioxane treatment of 935 dioximes 1139 1,2-dioximes oxidation of 1149 dioxirane-mediated sulfoxidation 139 dioxiranes epoxidation of alkenes 137 hydroxylation of alkanes 137, 138 oxidation of sulfur 138140 properties 135, 136 reactivity 137 synthesis 136, 137 1, 2-dioxolane 925 electron diffraction 926 heterocycles, ring transformations of 927 reactivity of 928 1,3-dioxolane derivatives 938 1H NMR data 929 with ferrous sulfate 937 dioxolanes 933 1, 2-dioxolanes formation of 926 1,3-dioxolanes 928 derivatives 938 heterocycles, ring transformations of 935 NMR spectroscopy 929, 930 reactivity of 935938 ring construction, synthesis 930935 X-ray diffraction studies 929 1,2-dioxolan-2-yl cation X-ray diffraction studies 929 1, 2-dioxole 925 heterocycles, ring transformations of 927 reactivity of 928 1,3-dioxoles 928 derivatives 13C NMR data 930 17O NMR data 930 1,3-dioxolane derivatives 938 heterocycles, ring transformations of 935 ketones 933 NMR spectroscopy 929, 930 reactivity of 935938 ring construction, synthesis 930935 X-ray diffraction studies 929 1, 2-dioxoles systems 926 1,3-dioxolium salts 928 2,5-diphenxyloxazole (PPO) 2285 diphenyl derivatives electrophilic reaction 1223 2,4-diphenyl-1,3-diazabuta-1,3-dienes 1823 3,7-diphenyl-5,6-dihydro-4H-1,2diazepines 1705 diphenylfurazan decomposes thermal process 1154 diphenyl imidodicarboxylate 1825 1,3-diphenylisobenzofuran 330
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2402
j Index
diphenylnitrilimine prepared from 2,5diphenyltetrazole 1193 2,5-diphenyl-1,3,4-oxadiazole 1207, 1219 3,5-diphenyl-oxadiazole fragment 1080 N,N0 -diphenyl-oxalodihydrazonoyl dichloride 1361 2,5-diphenyloxazole irradiation of 870 diphenylphosphinoferrocene (DPPF) 332 diphenyl phosphorazidate (DPPA) 48 3,6-diphenylpyridazine 1705 2,6-diphenylpyridine reduction of 1490 2,6-diphenylpyrylium salt synthesis 1635 2,5-diphenyl-1,3,4-thiadiazole 1338 3,5-diphenyl-1,2,4-thiadiazole reduction of 1311 4,5-diphenyl-1,3,4-thiadiazolium 2thiolate 1372 3,6-diphenyl-1,2,4,5-thiatriazine 1837 3,5-diphenyl-1,2,4-triazole 1207 diphosphorus tetraiodide 27 1,3-dipolar azomethyne imines 1054 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition 877, 904, 1071, 1147 of azides to alkynes 991 of nitrile oxides 1083 of nitrones 1104 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition 29 dipolar cycloaddition reactions 1060 of 1,4-benzodiazepine-5-ones with nitrilimines 2207 1,3-dipolar cycloadditions 1027 of alkynes 998 of azides and alkynes 992 dipoledipolarophile interaction 666 dipole moments 270, 1132 2,5-di(4-pyridyl)-1,3,4-oxadiazole molecular dimensions for 1173 di(pyrrol-2-yl)ethenes 309 di(pyrrol-2-yl)methanes 332 direct aziridination, with alkyl azides 30 directing metallation groups (DMG) 1476 discotic liquid crystals 2313 2,5-disubstitued-1,3,4-oxadiazoles 1180 3,30 -disubstituted-4,40-azofuroxans transformation of 1160 2,3-disubstituted benzofurans preparation 611 o,o-disubstituted biaryl systems 1645 2,2-disubstituted-1,3-dioxolanes 934 to carbonyl compounds, hydrolysis of 936 2,5-disubstituted furans preparation 548 2,2-disubstituted glycines 52 1,6-disubstituted hexanes 1899 1,5 disubstituted imidazole-4carboxylates 819 4,5-disubstituted imidazoles 816 2,3-disubstituted indoles 423 solid-phase synthesis 423 1,3-Disubstituted isoquinolines 1584 1,4-disubstituted isoquinolines 1580 3,4-disubstituted isoquinolines 1582 1,5-disubstituted 3-[1-nitroethyl(benzyl)]1,2, 4-triazoles 1160 2,5-disubstituted 1,3,4-oxadiazoles synthesis of 1181 2,5-disubstituted-1,3,4-oxadiazoles synthesis of 1176 3,5-disubstituted-1,2,4-oxadiazoles photochemistry 695 3,4-disubstituted 1,2,4-oxadiazoline5-thiones 1300 N,N0 -disubstituted oxamides cyclization of 817 2,4-disubstituted oxazoles 824, 826 2,5 disubstituted oxazoles 827 N-(1,1-disubstituted propargyl)anilines 1544 1,3-disubstituted pyrazole-4carbonitriles 669 2,4-disubstituted pyrimidines 1734 2,5-disubstituted pyrrolidines 344 1,1-disubstituted taurine 116 1,5-disubstituted tetrazoles 1411 2,5-disubstituted-1,3,4-thiadiazoles 1349 4,5-disubstituted-1,3,4-thiadiazolium 2thiolate 1351 2,4-disubstituted thiazoles 834 1,3-disubstituted 2-thioureas 1825 1,4-disubstituted-1,2,3-triazoles 996 1,5-disubstituted-1,2,3-triazoles 994 3,5-disubstituted-1,2,4-triazoles synthesis of 1028 4,5-disubstituted-1,2,3-triazoles 991 2,4-disubstituted-1,2,4-triazol-3-ones 1029 2,5-disubstituted-3-trimethylsilymethyl-1,3,4thiadiazolium triuoromethanesulfonates 1H and 13C NMR data 1337 1,4-dithiafulvenes 1276 4-dithiafulvenes 1270 1,3-dithianes 941 ring contraction of 941 1,2,4-dithiazol-3-one 976 dithiocarbamates 949 cyclized with conc. sulfuric acid 951
Index 1,2-dithiolane 13C NMR chemical shifts 939 1H NMR spectrum of 939 1,3-dithiolane enantioselective oxidations of 965 heterocycles, ring transformations of 956, 957 1,2-dithiolane-4-carboxylic acid 946 1,3-dithiolane derivatives bond lengths 948 13C NMR data for 949 ethylenediamine reacts 966 1HNMR data for 948 1,3-dithiolane ring 956 1,2-dithiolanes 938, 939, 940, 941 carbenes react 946 compounds of interest 946, 947 cyanide ion 946 1,2-dithiolium salts 942944 heterocycles, ring transformations of 941, 942 physicochemical data 939 preparation of 940 reactions with carbenes 946 with electrophiles 945, 946 with nucleophiles 946 ring construction, synthesis 940, 941 synthesis of 940 1,3-dithiolanes 947, 964 acid and alkaline hydrolysis 963 cleavage of 964 electrochemical oxidation of 957 NMR spectroscopy 947949 ring synthesis of 954956 synthesis of 954, 956 theoretical methods 949 X-ray crystal structure 947 X-ray diffraction studies 947 X-ray methods for 939 1,3-dithiolanes, reactivity of cleavage reactions 963, 964 electrophilic attack at carbon 964 oxidations 964, 965 radical reactions 965 ring transformation reactions 965, 966 1,2-dithiolane system 938 dithiolane, with WCl6 965 1,3-dithiolan-2-yl radical intramolecular addition of 965 dithiolate disodium salt 755 1,3-dithiole-2-one 960 decarbonylation 960 1,2-dithiole-3-ones acyclic ketones and thiones 944 1,2-dithioles 938, 943, 944 1,2-dithiolium salts 942944 heterocycles, ring transformations of 941, 942 physicochemical data 939 reactions with carbenes and nitrenes 945 with electrophiles 944 with nucleophiles 944, 945 ring construction, synthesis 940, 941 synthesis of 940, 941 1,3-dithioles 947 coupling reactions 962, 963 heterocycles, ring transformations of 953, 954 NMR spectroscopy 947949 reactions with electrophiles 961 with nucleophiles 961, 962 reductions 962 synthesis of 949953 theoretical methods 949 thermal and photochemical reactions 960 X-ray crystal structure 947 X-ray diffraction studies 947 1,2-dithioles react 945 carbene and nitrenes 945 1,2-dithiole system 938 1,2-dithiole-3-thione reaction of 945 1,3-dithiole-2-thione 952 1,3-dithiole-2-thiones 951, 953, 961 synthesis of 952 1,2-dithiole-3-thiones react 944 1,3-dithiole tributyl tin 962 1,2-dithiolium cations 939 dithiolium salts 943 1,2-dithiolium salts 942, 943 with carbon nucleophiles 944 electrochemical reduction of 944 formation of 944 1,3-dithiolium salts 947 synthesis of 949953 dithiolones conversion of alkynes into 951 1,3-dithiolones synthesis of 949953 1,3-dithiol-2-ones 950 1,2-dithiol-3-thione geometry of 939 1,3-dithiolylium bromides 950 1,3-dithiolylium ions
j2403
2404
j Index
coupling reactions 962, 963 reactions with electrophiles 961 with nucleophiles 961, 962 reductions 962 thermal and photochemical reactions 960 1,3-dithiolylium-4-oate photolysis of 960 1,3-dithiolylium-4-olates 962 1,3-dithiolylium salts 952, 958, 961, 962 with nucleophiles 961 preparation of 949 diversity-oriented synthesis (DOS) libraries 2353 divinylbenzene (DVB) 23282330 1,2-dixolanes 927 DMAD 869, 1062, 1897 DNA topoisomerases 649 1-dodecyl-1-methyl-4-oxopiperidinium triate 61 DoebnerMiller methods 1535, 1536 domino-reaction 580 donoracceptor charge-transfer complex 2310 dopamine antagonist 735 Dosts bases 1306 Dysidea fragilis 42 electrophilic amide activation 1578 electrophilic attack on pyrrole 6 electrophilic cyclization reactions 1578 electrophilic reactions 22552262 formylation 2255 halogenation 22572262 reactions of formyl porphyrins 2256, 2257 electrophilic reagents 834842 at carbon 837842 C-metallated azoles, reactions of 847855 at N3 834837 N-metallated imidazoles 846 nucleophilic reagents 843846 oxidizing agents 842, 843 electrophilic replacement reactions at C4 in sydnones 1066 electrophilic ring 849 electropolymerization 274 electrostatic interactions 2286 elemental uorine oxidative addition of 926 Ellmans solid-phase synthesis of 1,4-benzodiazepine-2-ones 2186 enamine ketone amine exchange reaction 738 enamines 1450 cyclocondensation synthesis o 1459 Michael-type addition 427 1,2,4-triazines, [42] cycloaddition of 1451 enamino derivatives Michael addition of 1455 b-enamino ketoester 740 enamino ketones one-pot reaction 738 enaminones cyclization 506 enamino thioaldehydes 754 enantioenriched chiral triptophols 448 enantiospecic preparation, of episuldes from epoxides 111 6-endo-dig cyclization 1658 energies of the LUMO (ELUMO) 1589 energy gap 1701 enolizable enones 1585 enolization, stabilizing effect 574 ensaculin 1668 enthalpy 73 entropy 73 enzyme interactions 1127 enzyme Rubisco model 2302 enzyme topoisomerase I 1531 ()-ephedradine, synthesis 604 epoxidations
e
Eatons acid 388 Eatons reagent 1535 Ehrlich carcinoma 1074 electrocyclic reactions 570573, 20182019 electrocyclizations 435, 488, 1729 of 2,3-dialkenyl-4-nitropyrrole 435 electron-decient nitriles 1092 electron-decient olens 20 electron-decient oxadiazole ring carbon 1203 electron-decient pyrazine ring 1763 electron density 813 electron diffraction 926 electron-donating groups 1576 electron impact ionization (EI) technique 2026 electron-poor nitrogen heterocycles 2309 electron-rich alkynes 1658 electron-rich arenes electrophilic FriedelCrafts alkylation 2078 electron-rich system 2011 electron spin resonance (ESR) spectroscopy 1337 electron-transfer process 2013 electron-withdrawing effect 812
Index of alkenes using catalytic dioxiranes 61 of alkenes using hydrogen peroxide 67 of alkenes using other non-metal oxidizing agents 68 of alkenes using peracids 65 of allylic alcohol with performate 66 of carbonyl compounds 86 of carbonyls with methylene equivalents 88 with chiral catalysts and reagents 86 of 1,2-dihydronaphthalene 77 of (E)-2,3-diphenyl-2-propenol 78 of electron-decient alkenes 8386 with immobilized metal salen catalysts 77 of phenylstilbene 64 under Sharpless conditions 78 using metalloporphyrins 80 using methyltrioxorhenium (MTO) 82 using polyoxometallates (POMs) 81 epoxide 68 cyclized with triethylamine 969 epoxideepisulde conversions 112 using other sulfur sources 112 epoxide ring opening with carbon nucleophiles 93 with halide nucleophiles 98 with nitrogen nucleophiles 94 with oxygen nucleophiles 96 with sulfur nucleophiles 97 epoxides 447 activation using cyanuric chloride 112 from ring-closing reactions 91 6,7-epoxygeraniol 66 EpsteinBarr virus early antigen (EBV-EA) 1530 Escherichia coli 1222 esoteric N-iodo-N-potassio-ptoluenesulfonamide (TsN KI) 14 estazolam 2198 ethane-1,3-dithiol also reacts 956 ethanolic ammonia 1461 3-ethoxyacryloylisocyanate 1718 5-ethoxycarbonylamino-3-(1-nitroalkyl)-1,2,4thiadiazole derivatives 1160 3-ethoxycarbonyl-1,4-benzodiazepines synthesis 2197 2[(ethoxycarbonyl)hydrazono]propanoic acid 1259 4-(3-ethoxycarbonylthioureido)-3-substitutedfuroxan intermediate 1160 5-ethoxy-4-methyloxazole 867 ethyl acetoacetate 1456 2-ethylbenzothiazoles 891 ethyl 2-(2-benzoylhydrazinyl)-2-oxoacetate cyclocondensation of 1175 ethyl 4-bromopyrrole-2-carboxylate 335 ethyl 2-(2-chlorophenyl)hydrazine-carboxylate condensation of 1192 ethyl diazoacetate 24 N-ethyldiisopropylamine 892 ethyl-diisopropylcarbodiimide (EDC) 822 ethylene glycol 1027 ethylene oxide 312 5-ethyl-4-ethoxycarbonyl-1,2,3thiadiazole 1264 ethyl glyoxylate with amines/ammonia 818 ethyl nosyloxycarbamate 23 ethyl pyrrole-2-carboxylate 304 S-ethyl thioamides 1025 ethyl triuoroacetate three-component condensation of 1027 2-ethynylbenzaldehydes copper(I)-catalyzed domino four-component couplingcyclization method 1578 o-ethynylphenols reaction 597 p-excessive aromatic systems 2033 exocyclic carbonyl bond length 1055 exocyclic CO bond X-ray structural measurements 1054 exocyclic nitrogen atom 1058 exocyclic PC bond cleavage by alkali metals 2076 4-exo-digonal cyclization 2134 3-exo-tet ring closure 27 expanded porphyrins gure-of-eight structure 2254 extended Hckel theory (EHT) 1528, 1573 electron densities 1574
j2405
f
fast atom bombardment (FAB) 2026 Fenton-type reaction 1492 ferrocenyllithium direct C-C coupling of 1591 ferrocenylpyrazoles 707 brous histiocytoma tumor 1074 cellomycin 13 eld desorption (FD) techniques 2026 Fischer carbene complexes coupling 604 Fischer-carbene complexes 2126 Fischer cyclization 394 Fischer indole synthesis 386, 387, 501508 application of 389 cyclizations by C2C3 bond formation cyclizations by C3C4 bond formation 504506
504
2406
j Index
cyclizations by NC2 bond formation 502504 cyclizations with NC7a bond formation 506, 507 by [42] cycloaddition 507 with enol ethers and enol lactones 392 under kinetically controlled conditions 388 regioselectivity in 388 Fischer indolization 389, 502 Fischer synthesis 398 ve-membered heterocycles 3, 269 acylation 302306 BartonZard synthesis 287, 288 computational chemistry 270 conjugate addition to a,b-unsaturated carbonyl compounds 309, 310 cyclizations of four-carbon precursors 278281 cycloaddition reactions 322328 and related approaches 289291 fundamental reactivity patterns 271273 general reactivity 270 halogenation 295299 Hantzsch synthesis and related approaches 284 heteroatom versus benzene 271 IUPAC rules 269, 270 Knorr synthesis and related routes 281283 ligandreceptor interactions 271 miscellaneous transition metal catalyzed methods 291293 multi-component reactions 291 nitration 299 NMR data 270 PaalKnorr pyrrole synthesis 275278 photochemical reactions 330, 331 physicochemical data 270 protonation 294, 295 pyrrole derivatives 336349 pyrrole ring synthesis 274, 275 pyrryl-C-X compounds, synthesis and reactions 331333 reactions with aldehydes, ketones, nitriles and iminium ions 309, 309 with bases 313318 with carbenes and carbenoids 328330 with electrophilic reagents 293 with nucleophiles 312, 313 with oxidants 310, 311 with radical reagents 318320 with reducing agents 320322 with sulfur-containing electrophiles 299301 reactivity and regioselectivity, in electrophilic substitution 293, 294 relevant natural and/or useful compounds 273, 274 syntheses involving glycine esters 284, 285 transition metal catalyzed coupling reactions 333336 Tromov synthesis 288 Van Leusen method 285287 ash thermolysis 695 ash vacuum pyrolysis 773, 928 avone 2276 structure 2275 avones 1674 avonoids 2275 avonol 2276 avyliums synthesis 1638, 1639 avylium salts 1633 umazenil 2199 derivatives synthesis 2201 uorescein 2283 structure 2283 uorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) 2282 uorescent agents 2284 uorescent compounds 2285 uorescent coumarin in laser devices 1669 uorescent dyes 2283 uorescent heterocycles application 2283 uorescent organic nanoparticles (FONs1) formation 628 uorescent paints dyes for 2284 uorinated 1,2,4-oxadiazoles 1024 uorinated 1,3,4-oxadiazoles 1024 uorinated pyrimidones 1745 3-uoroalkylated benzo[b]furans synthesis 603 5-uoroalkylated 1H-1,2,3-triazoles 999 5-uoroalkyl-1,2,4-oxadiazoles 1097 uorobenzenes nucleophilic addition 1425 N-uorobenzenesulfonimide 318 6-uoro-1,2-benzisothiazoles 769 1-uoro-2-nitrobenzene aryl halides 1007 2-uoro-4-nitrobenzoic acid 2192 3-(2-uorophenyl)-1H-indazole 682 2-uoropyridines 1494 uoro(tributylstannyl)acetylene 667 Fmoc-protected amino acid 2185
Index FMO theory 666 formamide, STO-3G energy 2146 o-formamidoarylamine cyclization of 884 formylation of pyrrole 302 4-formylbenzofurazan 1162 4-formylbenzoic acid 1101 2-formyl glycals 674 N-formylisoquinolinium imines 1612 4-formyl-3-phenylsydnones 1069 3-formylpropenoic acids 1695 4-formylsydnones, reduction 1069 four-membered oxygenated heterocycles 188 free radical reactions 864 FriedelCrafts acylation 304, 841, 1590, 1640 of 3-alkyl-1-(phenylsulfonyl)pyrroles 305 FriedelCrafts acylations 381, 451, 2262 FriedelCrafts alkylations 38, 1109 FriedelCrafts alkylations of indole 438449 epoxide and aziridine ring opening 447449 indole as nucleophile in palladium-catalyzed allylic alkylations 449 Michael additions 439443 reactions with carbonyl compounds 444, 445 with imines and imminium ions, Mannich reaction 445447 with unactivated olens 444 FriedelCrafts chlorination 1590 FriedelCrafts conditions 1013, 1568 FriedelCrafts-like transition state 32 FriedelCrafts reactions 701, 1545 pyrylium salts as electrophiles 1648 frontier molecular orbital theory 1255 Fuligo septica 274 fulminic acid (HCNO) 752 fumagillin 57 fuming nitric acid nitration of 1589 a-functionalized alkylfurazans 1166 5-functionalized imidazole 855 4-functionalized-quinoline derivatives preparation of 1551 2-furaldehyde 38 furan 1 ab initio methods 540 furan-2-carboxylate asymmetric cyclopropanation 573 furan-3-carboxylic acid synthesis 545 furan derivatives 1703 furan-2,3-diones 673 furanocoumarin synthesis of 1669 furanophanes, transannular DielsAlder reactions 570 furans additional reactions 581583 additional syntheses 577580 aminofurans 577 disubstituted furans 546551 electrocyclic reactions 570573 p-electron excess 540 enantioselective organocatalytic [43] cycloaddition 571 furan ring system, numbering 534 general reactivity 534538 gold-catalyzed intramolecular cycloisomerization 572 microwave spectroscopy 538 monosubstituted furans 544546 natural and useful compounds 540542 nomenclature 534 oxyfurans 574577 photochemical reactions 573, 574 reactions of C-metallated furans 568 with electrophilic reagents 561563 with nucleophilic reagents 563 with oxidizing reagents 563567 with radical reagents 569 with reducing reagents 567, 568 reactivity 560574 relevant physicochemical data 538540 synthesis 542560, 23632366 tetrasubstituted furans 557560 trisubstituted furans 551557 UV/Visible spectroscopic absorption maximum 539 furazanobenzimidazoles 1169 furazano[3,4-b]pyrazines 1169 furazan ring cleavage 1152 furazans 1167 electron impact mass spectra of 1137 N-ethyl salts of 1151 gas-phase thermolysis of 1154 heterocyclic ring of 1155 IR spectra of 1136 NMR chemical shifts 1135, 1136 oxidation of 1145, 1151 reduction of 1153 furfurylamines aza-Achmatowicz oxidation 566 furocarbazole alkaloids 595 furoclausine A synthesis 612 furoxans 1144, 1155, 1158, 1161 NMR chemical shifts 1135
j2407
2408
j Index
nucleus 1154 oxadiazole ring of 1134 synthesis of 1147 Frstner synthesis 424 2-furylcarbene 554 furylcyclopropane synthesis 559 N0 -[3-furyl(phenyl)methylene]phenylhydrazide 1221 2-furylzirconocene complexes dyotropic rearrangement 569 trans-fused diastereomer 536 fused heterocyclic aromatic molecules 2310 fused pyrimidones 1717 [1,2-a]-fused pyrroles 319 fused ring system 1410 G protein-coupled receptors 1303 gramines chemistry 493 derivatives 446 Grandberg indole synthesis 389, 390 Grandberg strategy 393 grid-type self-assembled complexes 2291 Grignard derivatives 1479 Grignard reagents 347, 504, 563, 864, 894, 946, 1155, 1548, 1568, 1611, 1646, 1738, 1743, 1838, 2256, 2261, 2352, 2367 under nickel catalysis 964 Grubbs catalyst 55, 348, 546, 619, 968 generation 619 Grubbs I/Grubbs II catalysts 1878 guesthost complexation 98 GYKI 52 466 synthesis 2218, 2219
g
Gabriel synthesis 833 ()-galanthamine framework 608 Garners aldehyde 886 polymer-bound version 2124 gas-phase electron diffraction 1334 Gassman synthesis 395 Gattermann aldehyde synthesis 1831 Gelsemium elegans 164 gem-dialkyl effect 567 gephyrotoxins class 2003 germetanes 252 preparations 252, 253 reactivity 253, 254 c-fagarine 1530 gibepyrones compounds of 1661 ginkgolide B synthesis 574 glacial acetic acid 951 thiocarbonyldiimidazole 953 glaucoma 1253 gliotoxin 1867 glutamate excitatory amino acid receptors AMPA subtype 2217 glutamate receptors implication 646 glutamine synthetase tabtoxinine-blactam 2121 glutathione S-transferase (GST) 1168 glycidic amides, enantioselective synthesis 90 glycidic esters, treatment 932 glycosylidene-derived diaziridine 121 glyoxal o-benzyloxime hydrazone 1003 glyoximes, cyclization 1138 glyoxylic acid with amines/ammonia 818 gold-phosphole inhibitor 2105
h
halide displacement reactions 780 haloallenyl aldehyde 1,2-halogen migration 556 o-haloanilines 420 2-haloazoles 843 7-halodinitrobenzofurazans 1137 o-haloenamines Heck reaction 420 2-halogenated azoles 858, 861 halogenated pyrroles 295299 halogenating agents 476 N-halogenation 700 halogenation reactions 452, 453, 535, 22572262 acylation 2262 bromination 2259 chlorination 2258, 2259 cyanation 2262 uorination 2258 iodination 2259, 2260 nitration 22602262 halogen atoms 843 halogenlithiumtin interchange 854 2-halogeno 1,3,2-dithiaborolanes 956 haloisoquinolines 1599 a-haloketones cyclocondensation of 826 dehalogenation of 830 o-halo-N-allylanilines intramolecular Heck reactions 418 1-halo/nitro-2-nitrobenzenes 1012 2-halophosphinines CX bonds 2093 one-pot synthesis 2089 1-halophospholes 2075
Index halopyridazines 1743 3-haloquinolines oxidation of 1560 synthesis of 1545 5-halo-1,2,3-thiadiazole 1281 o-halothioanilides 885 o-halo-N-triuoroacetylanilines 1549 Hammick reaction 1507 Hantzsch procedure 895 thiazoles preparation 831 Hantzsch process 830 Hantzsch synthesis 897 a-tosylketones 832 pyrrole synthesis 2362 HartreeFock computational methods 1333 H/D exchange 700 Heck based cyclizations 506 Heck coupling reactions 2123 Heck couplings 1599 cross-coupling reaction 1487, 1763 Heck reactions 457, 458, 837 of 2-chloro-3,6-dimethylpyrazine 1763 Heck sequence 1563 Heck-type couplings 859 HeLa cells 540 Helminthosporium oryzae 1225 Hemetsberger indole synthesis 429 HepG2 human hepatic carcinoma 1168 herbicide 1691 heteroaryllithium reagents 1014 heteroatom 1, 2 heteroatomic nucleophiles 32 heterobenzylic hydrogen atoms 1608 heterobimetallic Ti-Ga-salen catalyst 97 heterocalixarenes 1734 heterocycle 1 heterocycle[a]azeto[1,2-d][1,4]benzodiazepines synthesis 2211 heterocycles 2293, 2357 feature 772 in liquid lasers 2285 role in 2358 synthesis 1642 use 2286 heterocycles, ring contraction of 29, 30 N-heterocyclic carbenes (NHCs) 560, 1035 class 2122 heterocyclic chemistry 1 heterocyclic compounds 1, 2 basic literature on 8, 9 heterocyclic conducting polymers 23052314 electronic properties 2308 structure 2306 heterocyclic derivatives 1, 2 heterocyclic eld aminomethylated polystyrene resins 2333, 2334 chloromethylated polystyrenes 23302333 conventional vs. combinatorial organic chemistry 2326 crosslinked polystyrene-derived matrices 2329 functionalized polystyrene resins 2329, 2330, 23342339 heterocyclic synthesis on solidphase 23572374 natural products 23222324 peptides, peptoids and peptidomimetics 2324 small synthetic organic molecules 23242327 solid phase and combinatorial chemistry in 2321, 2322 solid supports 23272343 heterocyclic ring, reduction 478480 catalytic hydrogenation 478, 479 metal hydride complexes 479, 480 metal-promoted reductions 479 heterocyclic systems 1253, 2289 color and uorescent agents 22752286 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition reactions 2359 self-assembling materials and molecular containers 22862300 unnatural enzyme models 23002304, 23042314 hetero-1,2-diazepines 1705 hetero-DielsAlder processes 1584 with electron-rich alkenes 1702 pyridine synthesis 1444 N-heteroenesulfonylbenzenetriazoles 1016 heteronucleophiles 476 hexahydroazepine 1865 hexahydro 1,3,5-triazin-2-thione 1824 hexameric structure 2293, 2295 hexamethyldisilathiane 1901 hexamethyldisilazane (HMDS) 1026 hiepan-4-one 1901 high-conducting polymers electrosynthesis 2306 highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) 2005, 2107, 2282 high intensity ultrasound (HIU) irradiation 2124 high-throughput screening (HTS) 2321, 2322, 2324 feeding sources 2324
j2409
2410
j Index
histamine H2-receptor antagonist 541 histamine H3 receptor antagonists 624 H/K ATPase 1316 Hoffmann-rearrangement 503 hole-transporting material (HTM) 627 HOMO electron density 1528 homopropargylamine 32 HornerWadsworthEmmons reaction 423, 2366 HoveydaGrubbs catalyst 2037 5-HT1A receptors 645 Hckel molecular orbital theory (HMO) 1993, 2024 Hugershoffs method 897 Huisgen rearrangement 1184 human DNA topoisomerases 1127 human immunodeciency virus (HIV) 1075 human phospho-diesterase 5 (hPDE5A) 1531 human rhinovirus 3C protease (3CP) inhibitor 2004 human rhinovirus (HRV) serotypes 2004 Hnigs base 581 HurdMori reaction 1259, 1260, 1279 hybrid DFT B3LYP method 1189 hydrazide 1201 1,2-hydrazinedicarbothioamide oxidation method 1344 hydrazines 390 cyclocondensation 665 hydrazino(3-arylsydnon-4-yl)methanone oximes 1069 hydrazones 659 formation 392 indolizidation 392 lead tetraacetate cyclization of 1023 hydrazones, transformation of 1280 N2-(a-hydrazonotriuoromethyl)-N1(triuoroacetyl)hydrazine 1204 hydride donors 2002 hydroamination-based Fischer indole synthesis 393, 394 hydroamination-based Grandberg indole synthesis 394 2-hydrodestannylation sequence 862 hydrogen-bonding interactions 2293 hydrogen cyanide 1720 hydrogen disulde 941 hydrogen sulde 1706 hydrolytic kinetic resolution (HKR) 95 hydroperoxide, reduction 566 5-hydroperoxycarbonylphthalimide 66 2-hydroperoxy-hexauoropropan-2-ol 69 3-hydroperoxypyrazolines 927 hydroquinine-derived catalyst 22 hydroquinone oxidation 427 hydroximoyl chlorides Huisgens base-induced dehydrohalogenation of 1092 hydroxyalkyldioxolanes 931 2-(hydroxyamino)alkan-1-one oximes treatment of 903 o-hydroxyarylketone chromone, formation of 1675 4-(o-hydroxyaryl)-1,2,3-thiadiazoles 1277 3-hydroxy-1,4-benzodiazepines synthesis 2184 o-hydroxybenzophenone oxime Beckmann rearrangement of 883 1-hydroxybenzotriazole in peptide coupling reactions 1015 3-hydroxy-2-carboxysydnone dianion 1051 hydroxy derivatives, tautomerism 1077 1-hydroxy-2,3-diphenylpyrrole 338 3-hydroxy-6(1H)-pyrazinone 1689 b-hydroxyhydroxamate cyclization 2127 N-hydroxy-2-(hydroxyimino)-2arylacetimidamide 1140 3-hydroxyindoles synthesis 406 N-hydroxyindoles structure 498 hydroxyindolomorphinans 428 hydroxyisoquinolines 1608 3-hydroxy-isoxazole 738 hydroxylamine 1084, 1089 nucleophilic attack of 1152 hydroxylamine reaction with three-carbon atom components 739 hydroxylamine-O-sulfonic acid (HSA) 1308 plasma proteins 1308, 2119 2-hydroxylamino-4,5-dihydroimidazolium-Osulfonate 1301 2-(6-hydroxy-2-methoxy-3,4methylenedioxyphenyl) benzofuran synthesis 614 3-hydroxymethyl-5-arylisoxazole polymer-supported synthesis 745 hydroxymethylation 1604 N-hydroxymethyl moiety 889 5-hydroxy-2-methyl-6-phenyl-7H-[1,3,4] oxadiazolo[3,2-a]pyrimidin-7-one 1194 2-(hydroxymethyl)pyrroles 331 3-(hydroxymethyl)pyrroles 331 7-hydroxy-5-methyl-1,2,4-triazolo[1,5-a] pyrimidine 1691
Index b-hydroxyoximes 762 hydroxyperoxy zwitterion 1061 5-hydroxy-3-phenyl-1,2,4-oxadiazole keto forms 1076 3-hydroxy-5-phenyl-1,2,4-thiadiazole 1313 hydroxypyrazines 1747 6-hydroxypyridazin-3(2H)-ones 1695 3-hydroxypyridines 1496 electrophilic substitutions 1497 pKas of 1496 hydroxypyrimidines 1689 6-hydroxypyrimidin-4(3H)-ones 1719 3-hydroxyquinoline-2-carboxylates 1539 4-hydroxyquinolinone esters preparation of 1555 4-hydroxy-2-quinolinones microwave synthesis of 1535 4-hydroxystilbenes oxidative dimerization 609 trans-4-hydroxy-5-substituted 2cyclopentenones 568 4-hydroxy-3-substituted-2-pyranones 1667 3-hydroxysulnyl chloride 967 3-hydroxy-1,2,4-thiadiazoles 1288 with electrophiles 1326 5-hydroxythiazoles hydrolysis of 846 hydroxy-(tosyloxy)iodobenzene (HTIB) 833 5-hydroxytryptamine 1127 hyperconjugation effect 2117 hypervalent iodine reagent 575 imidazolino[1,4]benzodiazepines synthesis 2206 imidazolium cations 839 imidazolium ions resonance structures of 815 N-imidazolium-N-methylamides 894 imidazolsugars synthesis of 848 imidazol-4-yl-zinc chloride 855 imidazo[1,2-b]thiazolines 845 imidoylbenzotriazoles 1027 N-(imidoyl)benzotriazoles 1014 imidoyl chloride 877 imidoyl phosphate formation 2200 imine hydrazones 1003 in situ formation of 822 2-Imino-1,3-dioxoles 934 2-imino-1,3-oxathioles preparation of 975 5-imino-3-oxo-1,2,4-thiadiazolidines 1298 iminophosphoranes 829, 897, 1716 iminoposphoranes 655 5-imino-1,2,4-thiadiazole-3-ones 1298 3-imino-1,2,4-thiadiazoline 1322 imipramine 1867 o-immobilized ketoester with diverse aldehydes 1460 immobilized metal epoxidation catalysts 83 2H-indazole-2-oxides 680 1H-indazoles 687, 696 preparation 682 indazoles synthesis 678696 one C3C3a bond formation 687, 688 one N1C7a bond formation 683687 one N2C3 bond formation 680683 one NN bond formation 678680 ring synthesis from heterocycles 695, 696 synthetic methods 691695 two bonds formation 688691 indenoquinoline 1554 indigo structures 2277 indium chloride 954 indium tribromide 32 indium trichloride 23 1H-indole. see indole indole-2-carboxylic decarboxylation 501 indole carboxylic acids 500, 501 indole reactivity oxidation reactions 475478 pericyclic reactions involving heterocyclic ring 480489
j2411
i
imidazole-4,5-dicarboxylic acid 886 imidazole N-oxides 903 imidazoles 841, 842, 845, 865 derivatives 860 1,2-dicarbonyl compounds 816 direct alkylation of 846 nitration of 838 nomenclature and numbering of 811 photosensitized oxidation 842 preparation methods of 816 preparation of 816 quaternizing alkylations of 835 ring system 2369 self-condensation, preparation 822 synthesis of 819, 23692372 vinylation of 836 imidazolide ions resonance structures of 815 imidazolidine synthesis of 876 imidazoline 877
2412
j Index
photochemical reactions 489491 radical reactions 470474 reactions with bases 453457 reactions with carbenes and carbenoids 491 reactions with electrophiles 436453 reduction of heterocyclic ring 478480 transition metal catalyzed reactions 457470 indole ring synthesis, by pyrroles annelation from 3-alkynylpyrrole-2carboxaldehydes 435, 436 [42] cycloadditions 435 electrocyclizations 435 palladium-catalyzed cyclizations 433, 434 synthesis by electrophilic cyclization 431433 indole ring synthesis, from benzene ring cyclization, NC2 bond formation 398415 cyclizations with NC7a bond formation 427431 by formation of C3C3a bond 415421 by formation of C2C3 bond 421427 involving sigmatropic rearrangement 385398 indoles 377 addendum 501513 alkaloids 384 N-alkylation 453 alkylindoles 491494 o-alkynyl-N,N-dialkylanilines, cycloisomerization 502 N-amination 500 aminoindoles 500 catalytic asymmetric Michael reaction 441 CDCl3, 1H and 13C NMR chemical shifts 380 C-metallation 454 containing stilbenes 490 coupling reaction 463 1,3-dipolar cycloadditions 485 direct acylation 454 discovery and structure 377 electrophilic substitution reactions 381 ve-membered ring construction, strategies for 386 formation 419, 1651 FriedelCrafts alkylation 442, 444, 508 frontier orbitals, graphical representation 381 general reactivity 379382 H-1 and H-2 , chemical shifts for 380 Heck reaction 421 1H NMR spectra 379 indole carboxylic acids 500, 501 indole derivatives chemistry 491501 indole reactivity 436491 indole ring synthesis by pyrroles annelation 431436 indole ring synthesis from benzene ring 385431 indole synthesis 384436 intramolecular Pd(II)-catalyzed oxidative cyclizations 464 introduction 377 N-metallation 453, 454 natural products 383 one-step tert-prenylation 511 oxiderivatives 494499 Pd-catalyzed cascade synthesis 506 physicochemical data 379 preparation 446, 502 properties 379382 regioselectivity in 380, 387 relevant natural/useful compounds 383, 384 structural parameters 379 synthesis 384436, 1650 synthesis by cycloisomerization of propargylanilines 502 system isomers and nomenclature 378 tautomers and isomers 378 indoles, NH-containing 464 indolinium cyanines Basic Yellow 21 structures 2279 3-H-indolium cation 438 indolizines 3, 20032020 Birch reduction 2018 derivatives 2020 general structure and reactivity 2003 1H and 13C NMR chemical shifts 2006 Heck arylation 2019 intramolecular condensation 2006, 2007 nitration 2012 NMR spectra 2005 organometallic processes 2009 reactivity 20112020 rearrangement of acetylenic derivatives 20092011 relevant natural/seful compounds 20032005 relevant physicochemical data, computational chemistry, and NMR data 2005 synthesis by [32] approach, 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition 20072009 indolizin-1-ones synthesis 2010
Index 2-indolylborates 455 indolyl Grignard reagent 844 indolyl palladium complex 466 indolyl rhodium complex 470 indomethacine analogs solid-supported synthesis of 391 infrared (IR) spectra 734 ingenol ABC-ring 571 in situ generated 1-(o-bromophenyl)-2ethylamine 430 in situ generated Rh carbenoid 423 intensity of electric current versus electric potential (I-V ) 2314 intermediate oxime cyclizationdehydration 737 intramolecular aza-Wittig reaction 2204 intramolecular aziridinations 19 of carbamates 20 reaction conditions for 20 intramolecular aziridinations, reaction conditions for 19 intramolecular BuchwaldHartwig amination 430 intramolecular cyclization of 1,6hexanediols 1899 intramolecular Diels-Alder reactions 582 intramolecular dioxirane-mediated hydroxylation 139 intramolecular dipolar cycloaddition 2202 intramolecular Fujiwara-Moritani/oxidative Heck reaction 602 intramolecular Heck reaction 418, 433 intramolecular Michael/hetero Michael addition 561 N-inversion energy 11 a-l3-iodanil ketone formation of 833 iodinating reagents bis(pyridine)iodonium(I) tetrauoroborate (IPy2BF4) 410 iodine-mediated electrophilic cyclization of 2-alkynyl-1-azidomethyl benzenes 1579 iodoamides copper-catalyzed cyclizations 2191 o-iodoanilines direct annulation 420 3-iodo-6-arylpyridazines 1756 o-iodobenzaldehydes tert-butylimines of 1581 iodobenzene novel palladium-catalyzed carbonylation of 885 iodobenzene diacetate 15, 24, 1023 iodocyclization 38 5-iodo-1,4-disubstituted-1,2,3-triazole synthesis of 994 iodomethylenetriphenylphosphorane 47 iodonium salt 975 o-iodophenols nucleophilic addition of 602 palladium-catalyzed carbonylation 1675 2-iodo-1-(phenylsulfonyl)pyrrole 333 iodopyrimidines 1745 4-iodopyrrole-2-carbonitrile 318 4-iodopyrylium salt formation 1649 5-iodoquinoline with bromoenoate 1563 iodosobenzene 19 iodo-substituted diaminopyrazine 1763 N-iodosuccinimide (NIS) addition 1665 iodosylbenzene 79 5-iodouridine palladiumcatalyzed coupling of 862 ionic assembly 2287 ionic interactions potential enhancement 601 ionic liquid 603 ionizing radiation 1137 iridium-catalyzed asymmetric hydrogenation 1612 IR spectroscopy 774, 1054, 1055 isatin, reduction 377 isocyanates use of 1108 isocyanatophosphoryl chloride 2014 isocyanides 824, 1410 aldol-type addition of 878 1,2,5-isomer 1255 isomeric 2-oxide system 1052 isomeric 1,2,3-triazoles 993 isonitrile derivatives 878 isoporphycene 2236 2,3-O-isopropylidine-D-glyceraldehyde thiazole-based one-carbon homologation of 866 2-isopropylthiazole 869 isoquinoline 3, 1572, 1573, 1589, 1590, 1594 addition to nitrogen 1588 aromatic nucleophilic substitution 1572 BischlerNapieralski synthesis, PictetGams modication of 15761578 C-metallated isoquinolines boron derivatives 1597, 1598 lithium derivatives 1596 metal-catalyzed reactions 15991601 tin derivatives 1598, 1599
j2413
2414
j Index
zinc derivatives 1596, 1597 condensation reaction-based methods 1580, 1581 direct metallation 1595, 1596 electrocyclic and photochemical reactions 16041606 electrocyclic ring closing methods 1584, 1585 electrophilic cyclization-based methods 1578, 1579 hygroscopic solid 1572 metal-catalyzed ring closing methods 15811584 natural compounds 1574, 1575 NMR data 1573 nucleophilic cyclization-based methods 1580 nucleophilic substitution with displacement of halide 1594, 1595 nucleophilic substitution with hydride transfer 15911593 photochemical methods 1587 PomeranzFristsch synthesis 1576 reactions with bases 1595 reactions with electrophilic reagents 1588 reactions with nucleophilic reagents 1591 reactions with oxidizing reagents 1590 1591 reactions with radical reagents 16021604 reactions with reducing reagents 1601, 1602 reactivity 1571, 1588 ring contraction-based methods 1585 1587 ring expansion-based methods 15851587 structural isomer of 1571 substitution at carbon 1589, 1590 synthetic methods 1575 tautomerism 1574 isoquinoline alkaloids 1574 isoquinoline carboxylate 1577 isoquinoline-3-carboxylate 1581 isoquinoline derivatives alkylisoquinolines 1608, 1609 aminoisoquinolines 1608 isoquinoline carboxylic acids 1609 isoquinoline N-oxides 1613, 1614 oxyisoquinolines 1606, 1607 quaternary isoquinolinium salts 16091613 isoquinoline magnesium derivatives 1595 isoquinoline-N-borane 1610 isoquinoline N-oxides 1590, 1613, 1614 photolysis of 1606 isoquinoline reacts with potassium amide 1592 isoquinoline ring 1595 isoquinolines 1581 isoquinoline skeleton synthetic methods 1575 isoquinoline syntheses Larocks group 1581 isoquinoline synthesis 1643 isoquinolinium cation 1590 isoquinolinium methylides 1605 isoquinolinium salts 1571 isoquinolin-1-ol 1574 isoquinolin-3-ol 1574, 1606 isoquinolin-1-ones classical reactions of 1607 4-isoquinolylzinc bromide 1597 1-isoquinolylzinc salt 1596 isosydnone 1210 isothiazole 728, 733 13C NMR chemical shifts 733 1H NMR chemical shifts 728 physical properties 733 isothiazole 1,1-dioxides. see sultams isothiazole-fused 3-sulfolenes 793 isothiazoles 753760 and benzisoxazoles, reactivity 772787, 787797 general reactivity 729734 natural/useful compounds 734736 nomenclature 728, 729 photochemical reactions 787 ring transformations of heterocycles 758760 ring transformations of heterocycles leading to isothiazoles 758760 synthesis from acyclic compounds 753758 synthesis, from acyclic compounds 753758 isothiazolium salts 790, 791 oxidation 794 isothiazol-3-ones, catalytic hydrogenation 793 isoxazoles 49, 727, 736753 p-bond orders 730 p-electron density distributions 729 electrophilic substitution 730 1H NMR chemical shifts 731 NO bond 730 one-pot synthesis 742 oxidation reactions 784 proton resonances 731
Index reductive ring cleavage 784 ring-opening reactions 777 [311] routes 751753 [32] routes 737747 [50] routes 748751 solid-phase synthesis 737 isoxazolidin-5-ones 1721, 1722 isoxazoline-3-thiones 942 isoxazoline transposition 1161 isoxazolium salts, deprotonation 779 Lactam 1135 b-lactamase 2157 hydrolytic enzymes 2144, 2145 inhibitors 861 b-lactams 3 analysis by X-ray diffraction 2119 antimicrobials 2145 2-azetidinone nucleus synthesis 21212134 2-azetidinone ring reactivity 21342144 benzylidene moiety 2142 biologically relevant monocyclic blactams 2120, 2121 chemistry 2117 enzyme-catalyzed hydrolysis 2154 1H NMR spectroscopy 2120 trans-b-lactams synthesis 2122 monocyclic derivatives 2117 nonclassical antibiotics, discovery of 2117 penicillins and cephalosporins 21442161 physicochemical data 21172120 synthesis 2358, 2359 Langmuir-Blodgett lms 2308, 2314 Lansburys reagent 1489 lanthanide triates 23 Larock indole synthesis 413 Larocks heteroannulation 414 Larocks indolization 415 Lawessons reagent 48, 940 L-cysteine methyl ester 888 lead optimization programs 2323 natural products used in 2323 lead tetraacetate (LTA) 1198 LeimgruberBatcho synthesis 402 lesopitron 645 leucopterin 2276 Lewis acid (LA) 35, 100, 386, 402, 440, 448, 452, 841, 849, 872, 900, 956, 1078, 1413, 1657, 1833, 2135, 2302 catalyzed alkylation 536 catalyzed halocyclization 1546 catalyzed methods 25, 1092, 1462 LiAlH4 reduction 1115 ligand DPEphos effects 606 ligandreceptor interactions 271 Ligularia tongolensis genetic study 541 Lihalogen exchange reactions 1562 linkers 2350, 2351 lipoic acid, sulfonamide derivative 946 lipophilic alkenes 82 lipo-soluble substances. see benzodiazepine liquid crystals (LCs) 1056
j2415
j
Jacobsen catalyst 73 Jacobsen-type catalyst 95 JacobsonHunter method 885 Jacobson method 885 janoxepin 1868 JappKlingemann reaction 392, 393 jatrorrhizine 2021
k
Kaiser resins 2352 Katritzky synthesis 433 Katsuki catalyst 17 ketazolam synthesis 2209 keteneiminium salts 47 ketene silyl acetals 1556 ketenimine 1584 1,5-ketoacid derivatives 1662 a-ketoaldehydes 816 keto amide, cyclodehydration of 827 b-ketoamides 821 ketoconazole synthesis 938 5-ketoester 1662 2-ketomethylquinolines 1567 ketone enolates Pd-catalyzed arylation 401 ketone N-acylhydrazones electrolytic oxidation of 1179 ketone precursors for dioxirane oxidations 62 keto-1,2,4-oxadiazoles 1128 allergic diseases 1128 asthma 1128 ketorololac 274 b-keto sulfones 1014 khellin, structures 1674 Kinugasa reaction 2130 Knoevenagel adducts 23 Knoevenagel condensation 1655 Knorr synthesis 1534
l
labile metalligand bonds formation 2288 lachrymatory, uses 833
2416
j Index
lithiated allene reaction 1464 lithio(alkyl)triazines 1828 N-(2-lithioallyl)anilines carbometallation 417 2-lithioimidazoles 847 lithioisoquinolines metalhalogen exchange 1596 N-lithioketimines 1456 2-lithio-N-methylimidazole 847 4-lithio-3-phenylsydnone 1067 4-lithio-5-phenyl-1,2,3-thiadiazole 1277 2-lithiothiazoles 850 used as nucleophiles 850 3-lithio-1-TIPS-pyrrole 318 lithium aluminum hydride 105, 1373, 1602 lithium azoles 847850 lithium bis(trimethylsilyl) amide (LHMDS) 1465 lithiumbromine exchange 859 lithium t-butoxide 98 lithium dialkylamides 1580 lithium (trimethylsilyl)diazomethane 1266 lithium diisopropylamide (LDA) 50, 99, 100, 1005, 1477, 1754 lithiumhalogen exchange 86, 1483 5-lithiumimidazoles 848 lithium perchlorate 33, 95 lithium telluride 106 lithium tetrahydroaluminate 1612 lithium 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidide (LTMP) 37, 107, 691, 1477, 1562, 1613, 1752 lithium tetramethylpiperidine 1005 lithium trimethylsilyldiazomethane 1264 liver alcohol dehydrogenase 649 lobatrienetriol 1868 lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) 2005, 2282 luteolin, structures 1674 male erectile dysfunction (MED) 651 maleimide derivatives 760 manganese-picolinamide-salicylidene complex 75 manganese to chromium 72 Mannich additions 1652 Mannich bases 2015 Mannich reactions 308, 445447, 888 Marckwald synthesis 818, 894 Mrkl relying method 2086 Mrkl synthesis 2108 Markovnikov adducts 870 Martinella iquitosensis 1531 martinelline, synthesis of 1555 Martins sulfrane 872 massanalyzed ion kinetic energy (MIKE) spectroscopy 1138 mass spectrum of 2,7-di-tertbutylthiepine 1873 matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) 2345 inhibitors 110, 2347 mauveine synthesis 2279 McBride synthesis 2100 McCormack reaction 2102 of conjugated dienes 2074 medazepam synthesis 2195 Meerweins reagent 1284, 1319 meoquine 1533 Meisenheimer complex 688, 1153, 1158, 1572 melaminebarbituric acid 2296 melamines 1818, 1820 Meldrums acids 340, 738 MeMgBr utilization 598 MeOPEG-supported azide 1416 5-mercapto-1,2,4-thiadiazole IR spectrum of 1289 2-mercapto-1,3,4-thiadiazoles 1381 Merck researchers 1409 Merrield resin 827, 1349, 2331, 2334 oxidation 2334 Merrields resin 77 Merrields seminal polypeptide synthesis 2327 mesitonitrile oxide 1165 O-(mesitylenesulfonyl) hydroxylamine 1308 mesitylenesulfonylhydroxylamine (MSH) 892 mesoionic 1,3-dithiol-4-ones 1313 coupling reactions 962963 reactions with electrophiles 961 reactions with nucleophiles 961, 962 reductions 962 thermal and photochemical reactions 960
m
MacDonald-type condensation 2244 macrocycles 2234, 2236 synthesis 2088 macrocyclic pyrazoles 710 macroreticular polystyrene resins brominelithium exchange 2338 Madelung indole synthesis 422 madurastatin A1 13 magnesium azoles 850852 magnesium bis(monoperoxyphthalate) hexahydrate 66 magnesium monoperoxyphthalate (MMPP) 564
Index mesoionic 5-(methoxycarbonyl)amino-3methyl-1,2,3-thiadiazole 1257 mesoionic 2-methylene-1,3,4thiadiazole 1350 mesoionic 1,3,4-oxadiazoles 1190 mesoionic 1,3-oxathiolium-4-olates 978 mesoionic 3-phenyl-1,2,3-thiadiazoles 1285 mesoionic sydnones 1049 meso-ionic 1,2,4-thiadiazoles 1291 mesotetraalkylporphyrinogens 307 mesylation 92 o-mesylation 27 metalation of diazines 1754 metal-based catalytic systems 407 metal-catalyzed approaches development 593 metal-catalyzed reactions 385 cross-coupling reactions 382 types of 1482 Heck reactions 403 Stille coupling 403 metalhalogen exchange 1754 methodology 543 metal hydrides application 2138 metal ions 1733 N-metallated pyrroles 313 metallation reactions 1065 pyrroles at C3 273 metallo-b-lactamase 2158 metalloester enolate-imine condensation route asymmetric version 2125 metallo-octaalkyl porphyrin diformylation 2255 metalloporphyrins 2254 metallo-vinyl porphyrins 2256 metathesis catalysts synthesis of 891 methanesulfonylbenzotriazole 1012 methanol, photochemical irradiation 1024 methoxyacryloylisothiocyanate 1718 p-methoxybenzylamine, condensation 1412 N-methoxycarbonylindoles 413 2-methoxy-2H-azepine 1875 1-(methoxymethyl)-1H-1,2,4-triazole 1030 3-methoxy-6-methylpyridazine 1733 2-(methoxymethyl)pyrrole derivative 310 N-methoxypyridazinium salts 676 5-methoxytriazoline thermal decomposition in vacuo of 1031 7-methoxytryptophan 414 methylaluminium bis(4-bromo-2,6-di-tbutylphenoxide) (MABR) 101 5-methylamino-4-nitroisoxazole, alkaline treatment 779 2-methylanilides, cyclocondensation 422 5-methyl/5-aryl-2-thioxo-2,3-dihydro-1,3,4oxadiazoles, methylation 1215 2-methylaspartate 52 1-methylazafulvenium ions 331 3-methyl-1,2-benzisoxazole photolysis 775 synthesis 763 methyl 2,3-butadienoate 348 methylcyclohexadiene oxide 18 N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors 649 1-methyl-2,3-dinitropyrrole 312 2-methyl-1,3-dioxolane preparation of 931 2-methyl-3,5-diphenyl-1,2,4-thiadiazolium chlorosulfate 1314 methyl 2,5-di-tert-butyl-3H-azepine-1carboxylate 1874 methylene-activated compounds 1698 methyleneaziridines 50 methylene blue (MB) 566 methylene chloride 23, 57 methylene cyclopropane 969 methylenedecalone 101 a-methylene group, carbonyl compounds 954 3-methyleneindolines 417 3-methylene quinolones 1550 3-methylenindolines 419 N-[(1S)-1-(methylethyl)-2-oxoethyl](tert-butoxy) carboxamide (N-Boc-L-valinal) 1226 N-methylformanilides 1554 3-methylfurazans 1136 a-methylglutamate 52 methyl group, deprotonation 812 2-methyl-2H-1,2,3-triazole, nitration 1008 1-methyl-1H-1,2,4-triazoles 1031 N-methylimidazol-2-yl-zinc iodide 855 4-methyl-5-imino-2-thienoyl-D2-1,3,4thiadiazolines 1358 1-methylisoquinoline 1592 N-methylisoquinolinium iodide 1605 N-methylisoquinolinium salts 1611 S-methyl isothioamide hydroiodide 1019 methylisoxazoles 13C NMR chemical shifts 733 1H NMR spectra 732 physical properties 733 methyllithium 1901 N-methylmaleimide 323 methyl 2-[3-(4-methylphenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol5-yl]benzoate 1079
j2417
2418
j Index
molecular dimensions 1079 methyl(methylthio)oxadiazolium tetrauoroborates 1216 N-methylmorpholine N-oxide (NMO) 71, 1022 S-methyl-N-acylisothioureas 1025 3-methyl-7-nitrobenzo[c]isoxazole 1162 2-methyl-4-nitro-2H-1,2,3-triazole 1008 methyl olenonate, oximes 1411 o-methyloxime 1539 methyl 3-oxo-6-heptynoate 859 4-methylpent-3-en-2-ol 79 N-methyl-N-phenyl amide 48 3-methyl-4-phenylfurazan 1151 2-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[2,1-b] oxadiazole 1206 3-methyl-5-phenylisothiazole lithiation 797 3-methyl-5-phenylisoxazole 727 2-(methyl, phenyl, or styryl)chromones 674 3-methyl-5-phenyl-1,2,4-oxadiazole methyl group of 1121, 1122 5-methyl-3-phenyl-1,2,4-oxadiazole 1121 1-methyl-2-phenyl-,6-pyridazinedione 1736 3-methyl-4-phenyl sydnone, nitration 1066 4-methylpolystyrene chlorination 2332 5-(2-methylpropanenitrile)-D4-1,2,4oxadiazolines 1105 methylpyridines, nomenclature 1432 1-methylpyrrole 322 N-methylpyrrole 1748 methyl pyrrole-2-carboxylate 303 methyl 3-pyrroline-1-carboxylate 348 methylquinolines, aerobic oxidation 1567 N-methylquinolinium salts 1554 trans-b-methylstyrene 72 methyl-substituted oxepines 1867 2-methylsulfanyl-1,3-dithiolylium salts with Grignard reagents 962 2-methylsulfonyl-1,3,4-oxadiazoles nucleophilic substitution of 1222 2-methylsulfonyl-5-phenyl-1,3,4-oxadiazole nucleophilic substitution of 1221 2-methylsulfonyl-5-pyrazolyl-1,3,4oxadiazole 1222 3-methylsydnone 1055 methyl tetramate 341 1-methyl-tetrasubstituted imidazoles 821 3-methyl-1,2,4-thiadiazole 1323 5-methyl-1,3,4-thiadiazole-2-thiols trihalomethylsulfenyl derivatives of 1339 N-methyl-1,2,4-thiadiazolium salt 1290 2-methylthiazol-4-ylmagnesium bromide preparation of 851 2-(methylthio)-5-oxazolylmagnesium bromide 851 1-methyl-1,2,4-triazole 1033 methyltrioxorhenium (MTO) 81 (M60) fragment, acetylenic structure 1138 Michael acceptor 35, 443 Michael additions 439443, 508, 695, 699, 1546, 1652, 1740 ketone, enolate 1663 Michael fashion 819 Michael olens 837 Micrococcus luteus 12 micro/macroporous polystyrene resins FriedelCrafts acylation 2336 Micromonospora chersina 57 microporous polystyrene-derived resins direct lithiation reaction 2338 microreactors, uses 1084 microwave-assisted one-pot cyclization-Suzuki coupling pproach 618 microwave assisted organic synthesis (MAOS) 816 a-hydroxyketones 817 microwave induced Claisen rearrangement 620 microwave irradiation 993, 1715 microwave-mediated solvent-free RapStoermer reaction 618 microwave methodology 1185 microwave-promoted synthesis of 1,4-benzodiazepine-2,5-diones 2189 microwave spectroscopy 1134 midazolam, multistep synthesis 2201 migrationnucleophilic attackcyclization (MNAC) 1189 Minisci reaction 1492, 1602 3-minopyrazine-2-carboxylic acid 1737 miraziridine A 13 Miscini reaction with RHNCO radicals 1492 mitomycin C 12, 13 mitomycins 1992 Mitsunobu conditions 1404, 2345 Mitsunobu reaction 883, 1607 Mitsunobu reagent 27 MNDO calculations ab initio methods 1053 Mn-salen catalysts 73 modern drug discovery ow chart outlining 2322 modied salens and salen analogs 75 molecular orbital calculations 1131 MllerPlesset (MP2) levels 1573
Index molsidomine 1072 molybdenum alkylidene-catalyzed ring-closing metathesis 619 molybdenum hexacarbonyl 106 monocyclic azepine derivatives 1867 monocyclic dioxolanes 928 monocyclic furazans 1137 monocyclic furoxans rearrangement of 1159 monocyclic 1,2,4-thiadiazole scaffold 1316 monocyclic 1,2,4-triazole-containing structures 1033 monocyclic 1,2,3-triazole system 989 monofunctional resin cleavage procedures 2352 monohydroxyquinolizinium bromides. pKa values 2045 monosubstituted alkynes addition of azides 992 co-cyclization of 1439 monosubstituted furazans 1135 monosubstituted furoxans glyoximes 1155 4-monosubstituted 1,2,3-thiadiazoles ring cleavage of 1276 montmorillonite KSF use of 887 Moores law 2313 MoritaBaylisHillman acetate 562 MoritaBaylisHillman reaction 581 morphine 164 N-morpholino-Nnitrosoaminoacetonitrile 1072 Mukaiyamas dehydration of primary nitro compounds 1092 multicomponent reactions (MCRs) 822, 878, 2129 advantages 2129 multidirectional cleavage strategies 23522357 direct cleavage by electrophiles 2353 direct cleavage by nucleophilic substitution 2352, 2353 safety-catch linkers 23542357 multi-step combinatorial synthesis 2326 muscaavin 1867 Mycobacterium tuberculosis 57, 1194 myricetin 1675 structures of 1674 naphthylacetone derivative 44 Natsume synthesis 432 naturally occurring 13 natural octapeptide celogentin 477 natural pigments 2275 limitations 2278 NCN bond angle 118 Neber rearrangement 42 Negishi conditions 1601 Negishi coupling conditions 1838 Negishi couplings 1600 Negishi cross-coupling 1006 Negishi crosscoupling reactions 789 Negishi reaction 1761 Nenitzescu indole synthesis 427429 Nenitzescu reaction 428 NH bond 5, 6 NH-indoles arylation 467 NH-pyrazoles tautomerism 642 N7H tautomer 1303 nickel catalysis aryl and alkylGrignard reagents 864 nickel-catalyzed zinc-based Colon reaction 1599 nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) 1431 nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP) 1431 nicotine 1432 nitration 449451, 700 N-nitration 700 nitrene cyclizations of 405 generation reaction 406 insertion, synthesis by 429 nitrene precursors 12 nitric oxide donor 1072 nitric oxide synthase (NOS) isoforms 650 interaction 650 nitrile imines 1063 nitrile oxides 1108, 1148, 1158 cycloaddition 745, 1095 dipolar cycloaddition 2207 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition 743, 746, 764 formation of 1094, 1156 intramolecular 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition 744 stability 742 ultrasound cycloaddition of 1092 nitriles microwave irradiation of 1088 o-nitroacylaminoarenes
j2419
n
Naon NR50 1178 naphthoxadiazole 1057 irradiation of 1059
2420
j Index
in situ reduction 884 a-nitroalkanoic acids alkyl esters of 1148 nitroalkenes, cyclocondensation 2363 nitroalkenes/vicinal acetoxy nitro derivatives 999 nitroamino derivative 1502 o-(2-nitroaryl)alkyl ketones 399 nitrobenzofurazans 1168 o-nitrobenzyl bromide 423 nitrobenzyl linker 2356 o-nitrochalcones 1542 o-nitrochlorobenzene 884 o-nitrocinnamaldehydes Bakers yeast reduction of 1542 BaylisHillman adducts 1542 nitrogen atom oxidation 1588 nitrogen chemical shift 1435 nitrogen transfer to amines 132 to carbon 132 common oxaziridines used 131 a-nitrohydrazones addition of amines 1022 2-nitroindoles 450 Gribbles syntheses 455 1-nitroisoquinoline 1592, 1593 nitroisoxazole reaction 780 a-nitroketone 1092 o-nitroketones 401, 402 a-nitro-ketoximes 1147 a-nitro ketoxime tautomer thermal isomerization 1146 nitrones 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition 1107, 2132 p-nitrophenylazirine 55 2-(4-Nitrophenyl)-5-phenyl-1,3,4oxadiazole 1225 o-nitrophenylpyruvate 398 3-nitropyridine 1732 N-nitropyridinium ion 1472 o-nitro-b-pyrrolidinostyrene 402 nitrosoamidines 2199 4-nitroso-5-aminopyrazoles 644 5-nitrosoamino-1,2,4-thiadiazoles 1325 1,2-nitrosoarenes 1133 nitrosobenzene derivative 398 nitrososydnonimines 1073 o-nitrostannylbenzene Stille cross-coupling 401 o-nitrostyrenes N-heteroannulation 403 reductive cyclizations 402 4-nitro-6-triuoromethansulfonylbenzofuroxan 1164 NMR spectroscopy 2071, 2243 N-nucleophilicity 1571 NOCCC reactions 750, 751 non-conventional chiral mesoionic liquid crystals 1056 non-covalent forces types of 2287 non-cyclic derivatives 2 non-natural morphine 2303 non-steroidal anti-inammatory drugs Indomethacin, Sumatryptan and Etodolac 384 (5-Nonyl-1,3,4-oxadiazol-2-yl)benzothiazine dioxide 1184 norchelerythrine, synthesis 1579 Nordlander synthesis 416 novel arsonium ylides 26 novel polymeric supports 23412343 N-protonated isoquinoline 1589 NS bond 1314 nucleophilic agents 2355 nucleophilic catalyst 837 nucleophilic reactions 886, 22622268 p-cation radicals reactions 2262, 2263 reactions with 5,15-disubstituted porphyrins 2265, 2266 reactions with H2TPP 22662268 reactions with porphine 2268 substitution reactions. reactions with H2(OEP) 22632265 nucleophilic replacement reactions 780 at C4 in sydnones 1065
o
OCCCN reactions 749, 750 octaethyl porphyrins (OEPs) 2231 octaethyl tetra phenyl porphyrins (OETPPs) 2231 octaethylxanthoporphyrinogen 2261 octaphyrins 2252 octapyrrolic macrocycles. see octaphyrins olenic epoxides 101 olen-metathesis approach 618620 olens 68 oltipraz 946 one pot process 394, 420 one-pot reactions 1636 on-water methodology 617 optical bleachers 2284 optical microscopy 1056 organic electroluminescence (OEL) 626
Index organic light emitting devices (OLEDs) 627, 1230, 2304, 2308 organocopper reagents 549, 2010 organohalides palladium-catalyzed cross-coupling reactions of 1482 organoindium reagents 2135 organolithium reagents 2261 nucleophilic attack 2263 organometallic alkylations of cyanuric acid 1832 organometallic processes 2009 organometallic reagents 460 use of 1540 organopalladium chemistry 1755 organopalladium compound 467 use 2056 organotin(IV) compounds IR spectra of 1338 orthoesters 1411 OrtolevaKing reaction 2043 1,2,4-oxadiazole 1109 aldol condensation with benzaldehyde 1122 1,2,5-oxadiazole 1129 heteroaromatic compound 1129 1,3,4 oxadiazole 1170, 1172 aromatic and thermally stable molecule 1170 cyclization of acylhydrazones, semicarbazones, and thiosemicarbazides 11771183 diacylhydrazines, cyclization 11751177 furoxan moiety, drugs 1171 heterocyclic ring 12141221 mass spectrometry 1175 mesoionic 1,3,4-oxadiazoles, preparation of 1190, 1191 metal complexes 12291231 methanol use 1120 NMR spectroscopy 1174 1,3,4-oxadiazolium cations, synthesis of 1190, 1191 oxidative and reductive processes 12111214 reactions of substituents 12231229 reactions with nucleophiles 12211223 reactivity 1203 ring cleavage reactions 12031211 ring transformations 11831189 structural aspects 1173 synthesis of 1175 D2-1,3,4-oxadiazoline 11961203 oxadiazolinones, oxadiazolinethiones, and oxadiazolimines 11911196 2,3,4,5-tetrahydro-1,3,4oxadiazoles 11961203 theoretical aspects 11721173 UV/IR spectroscopy 11741175 X-ray diffraction 1173, 1174 1H-[1,2,4]-oxadiazole[4,3-a] quinoxalin1-one (ODQ) 1075 1,2,3-oxadiazole derivatives 1072 1,3,4-oxadiazole derivatives 1229 1,3,4-oxadiazole-functionalized terbium (III) b-diketonate synthesis of 1230 1,2,4-oxadiazole moieties 1086 1,2,3-oxadiazole 3-oxides 1051 oxadiazole ring nucleophilic attack 1156 1,2,4-oxadiazole ring 1075, 1076, 1127 protons 1081 1,2,5-oxadiazole ring 1129 1,3,4-oxadiazole ring 1209, 1219, 1225 1,2,4-oxadiazole rings rearrangement reactions of 1117 p-tolyl ring 1080 oxadiazoles photoreactivity of 1099 types of 1047 1,2,3-oxadiazoles 1048 benzo-1,2,3-oxadiazoles 1059 DFT analysis 1048 4,5-dihydro-1,2,3-oxadiazoles 1059 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition reactions 1070, 1071 electrophilic substitution at C4 10651067 nucleophilic substitution at C4 1065 reactivity of 1058 ring cleavage 10601065 ring system 1049 substituents, reactions 10671070 40 -substituted-30 nitrophenylsydnones 1074 sydnocarb 1073 sydnones 1059, 1060 sydnonimines 1049, 1050, 1057, 1058 sydnonimines molsidomine 1072 synthesis 1057 1,2,4-oxadiazoles 1074, 1075, 1083, 1084, 1088, 1089, 1090, 1092, 1094, 1095, 1109, 1118, 1127 amidoxime route N-acylamidoximes, cyclization of 10891091
j2421
2422
j Index
O-acylamidoximes, cyclization of 10841089 catalytic hydrogenation of 1113 13C NMR shifts 1082 cycloaddition route 10921095 ester and amide isostere 1075 fragmentation pattern of 1082 human immunodeciency virus (HIV) 1075 IR analysis 1082 mass spectrometry 1082, 1083 in medicine 1127, 1128 NMR spectroscopy 1081, 1082 N-[3-phenyl-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl-methyl] phthalimide 1074 nucleophilic displacements on 1113 phenyl moiety of 1213 reactions with electrophiles 11091111 reactions with nucleophiles 11111113 reactivity of substituents 11211126 reductions and oxidations of 11131117 structure of 1076, 1077 synthesis of 10951099 dihydro-1,2,4-oxadiazoles 10991102 2,3-dihydro-1,2,4-oxadiazoles 11041107 2,5-dihydro-1,2,4-oxadiazoles 11021104 1,2,4-oxadiazole-N-oxides 1108, 1109 1,2,4-oxadiazolidines 1107, 1108 synthetic routes 1083 theoretical studies 10771079 thermal and photochemical ring cleavage 11171121 UV irradiation of 1119 UV/IR spectroscopy 10811082 X-ray data of 1079 X-ray diffraction 10791081 yttrium triate, as catalyst 1094 1,2,5-oxadiazoles 1129, 1150 aryl furazans 11651167 benzofurazans 1143, 1144 benzofuroxans 1154 benzofuroxans, cycloaddition reactions 1164, 1165 benzofuroxans, heterocyclic ring rearrangements of 1158 benzofuroxans, rearrangements 11621164 benzofuroxan system 1149, 1150 1,2-dioximes, oxidation of 1145 dipole moments 1132 electrophiles and oxidizing agents 11501152, 1154, 1155 furazans, furoxans, and benzo-related compounds in medicine 11671170 furoxans 1144, 1154, 11651167 furoxans, heterocyclic ring rearrangements of 1158 furoxans, rearrangements 11591161 heteroaromatic compound 1129 heterocyclic ring 1150 Meisenheimer complex formation 1158 nitrile oxides, dimerization of 11471149 a-nitro ketoximes, dehydration of 11451147 nucleophiles and reducing agents 11521154, 11551157 ring systems of 1047 structural aspects 11291131, 1134 mass spectrometry 1137, 1138 NMR spectroscopy 1135, 1136 UV/IR spectroscopy 1136, 1137 X-ray diffraction 1134, 1135 synthetic routes 1145 furazans 11381143 theoretical studies 11311134 thermal and photochemical ring cleavage 1154, 1157, 1158 1,2,3-oxadiazole system 1047, 1051, 1170, 1172, 1177, 1185, 1211, 1214, 1226, 1254 DielsAlder (DA)/1,3-dipolar cycloaddition (1,3-DC) 1218 electron impact mass spectra of 1175 IR absorption spectra 1174 proton NMR data, ring hydrogens 1174 ring-opening reactions of 1203 synthesis of 1181 X-ray structures of 1173 1,3,4-oxadiazole system 1203 electronic spectrum of 1174 1,2,4-oxadiazole systems 1083 nucleophilic attack 1111 1,3,4-oxadiazole systems iridium(III) complexes 1231 1,3,4-oxadiazole-2-thione derivatives Mannich reaction of 1216 1,2,4-oxadiazolidine 3,5-dione 1111 1,2,3-oxadiazolidine ring system derivatives of 1053 1,2,4-oxadiazolidines 1107 1,2,4-oxadiazolidinones 1108 1,2,4-oxadiazoline acetylation of 1111 1,2-3-oxadiazolines 1050 ab initio and DFTcalculations 1051 mass spectra 1056 NMR spectra 1055, 1056 structural parameters 1054 theoretical aspects 1053, 1054
Index thermotropic liquid crystals (LCs) 1056 UV and IR spectroscopy 1055 X ray crystallography and spectroscopic data 1052 X-ray diffraction 1055 1,3,4-oxadiazolin-5-ones 1191 1,3,4-oxadiazolium cations 1170, 1191 1,2,4-oxadiazolium salts 1110 1,3,4-oxadiazolium salts 1210 1,2,4-oxadiazolo[4,5-a]indolines 1116 1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-one moiety 1128 oxadiazolones 1205 1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-ones 1121 1,3,4-oxadiazol-2-ones 1205 oxadiazolopyrimidinium salts 1110 1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl carboxylic acids 1086 2-(oxadiazolyl)imidazo[1,2-a] pyrimidines 1176 oxa-PictetSpengler procedure 545 1,4-oxathiane 977 1,4,2-oxathiazine 978 oxathiolane treatment of N-alkylcystinol 968 1,3-oxathiolane derivative 975 1,3-oxathiolane 2,2-dioxide diazosulfone 973 1,2-oxathiolane-2,2-dioxides 970 1,3-oxathiolane-5-ones 979 1,2-oxathiolane 2-oxides 970, 971 SO, thermal extrusion of 970 1,2-oxathiolane-2-oxides 968 1,2-oxathiolanes 966 1H NMR data 967 NMR spectroscopy 967 nucleophilic attack 971 thermal/photochemical reactions 970, 971 X-ray diffraction 967 1,3-oxathiolanes 971, 980 hydrolysis of 979 NMR spectroscopy 972, 973 oxidation of 978 preparation of 975 radical, electrochemical reactions 979 reactions with electrophiles 978, 979 reactions with nucleophiles 979 ring expansion 979, 980 ring synthesis of 973976 thermal reactions 978 X-ray diffraction 972 1,2-oxathiolanes derivatives. 1H NMR data for 967 1,3-oxathiolane systems 1H NMR data for 972 1,3-oxathiolane-2-thione 974 1,2-oxathiolan-5-one 2,2-dioxide derivative 970 1,3-oxathiolan-2-ones CO2, pyrolytic extrusion of 978 1,2-oxathioles 966 heterocycles, ring transformations 970 NMR spectroscopy 967 nucleophilic attack 971 ring synthesis of 967969 thermal/photochemical reactions 970, 971 X-ray diffraction 967 1,3-oxathioles 971 cycloaddition reactions 978 heterocycles, ring transformations of 976, 977 heterocyclic ring of 977 NMR spectroscopy 972, 973 reactions with electrophiles 977 reactions with nucleophiles 978 ring synthesis of 973976 X-ray diffraction 972 1,3-oxathiolium 4-oxide compound 13C NMR data for 972, 973 1,2-oxathiolium salts 966 1,3-oxathiolium salts 971 with NaN3 978 preparation of 973 1,2-oxathiolone derivative geometry of 967 oxazaphosphole 50 1,3-oxazin-6-ones 1446, 1722 HeteroDielsAlder reaction of 1446 oxaziridines 1108 nitrogen transfer reactions 131, 132 oxygen transfer reactions 133 properties 129 reactivity 131 rearrangements 133135 synthesis 129131 oxazole. see also 1,3-oxazoles mercuration of 839 ring bromination of 838 synthesis of 902 oxazole nitrogen 849 oxazole ring 842 oxazoles 824, 865 aza-Wittig rearrangement 829 preparation of 826 1,3-oxazoles 809 nomenclature and numbering of 811 oxazoles, preparation b-(acyloxy)vinyl azides 827 using van LeusenTosMIC route 828
j2423
2424
j Index
oxazolidine ring 889 oxazolidines 888 oxazolidinones 38, 901 oxazolidin-5-ones 1175 1,3,4-oxazolidinyl carbocation 1179 oxazoline N-oxides 1105, 1107 oxazolinethiazoline conversion 879 oxazolo[3,2-d][1,4]benzodiazepines synthesis 2205, 2206 oxazolone with iso-pentyl nitrite 1003 5-oxazolyl cuprates 855 oxazolylmagnesiums use of 851 oxazol-2-yl-zinc 855 oxepanes 1868 synthesis 1898 oxepinearene oxide equilibrium 1877 oxepines 1867, 1870, 1871 partially reduced, reactivity 1953 dihydrooxepines 19531955 tetrahydrooxepines 19551957 reactivity 1943, 1944 and benzofused derivatives 19441952 oxetanes 188, 208 acyl halidealdehyde cyclocondensations 198200 bond lengths and angles 188 carbonylative ring expansion reactions 201, 202 catalyzed [22] cyclizations 193, 194 CH insertions 200, 201 [22] cycloaddition of ketene and carbonyl compounds 197, 198 electrophilic cyclizations 196 b-hydroxy acid cyclizations 202 infrared spectroscopy 189 isomerization of oxiranyl hydroxyls 195, 196 b-lactones, reactivity of 202208 natural/bioactive compounds 189, 190 NMRspectroscopy 189 nucleophilic attacks 208214 oxirane ring expansions 196 oxirane ring opening by carbanionic attacks 195 [22] PaternoBchi cyclizations 191193 physicochemical data 188, 189 reactivity 202214 ring contraction of butanolides 194, 195 synthesis 191202 Williamson reactions 195 2-oxetanone 188 N-oxidation 1734 oxidation reactions 475478 oxidative acetoxylation 1546 oxidative coupling reaction 311 oxidative cyclization 607609 5-oxide tautomers 1132 3-oxidopyrylium betaine [52] dipolar cycloaddition 1652 intramolecular dipolar cycloaddition 1652 oxime ethers [3,3]-sigmatropic rearrangement 620 oxime tosylates 756 oximino derivatives 1453 oxindole 495 reactivity 498 synthesis by cyclization reactions 496498 synthesis from indoles 495 synthesis from isatins 495, 496 zinc-dust pyrolysis 377 oxiranes 55, 56, 875 epoxidation of carbonyl compounds 8690 epoxidation of electron-decient alkenes 8386 metal-catalyzed epoxidation of alkenes 6983 nucleophilic ring opening 9298 oxiranyl anions 107109 properties 56, 57 radical chemistry 104 reactivity 92 rearrangements 98104 reduction and deoxygenation 104107 ring-closing reactions 9092 synthesis 5890 using dioxiranes 5964 using other oxidants without metal catalysts 6469 oxiranyl anions 107109 carbenoid behavior of 109 reaction with electrophiles 108 4-oxoalkanoic acids 1693, 1694 a-oxoamides 2130 5-oxo compound 1111 5-(4-oxo-2,5-diphenyl-1,2,5-oxadiazolidine3-yl)-2,4(1H,3H)-pyrimidinedione synthesis of 1131 2-oxoesters glyoxalate 445 a-oxoketene dithioacetals 661 a-oxoketene N,S-acetals cyclocondensation 660 oxone 33 4-oxo-thiazolidine 1069 a-oxothioester
Index diazomethane 975 b-oxo thionoesters 738 oxybenziporphyrin synthesis 2243 oxygen transfer to carbon. 134 common oxaziridines used for 133 reactions 133 to sulfur 134 palladium-promoted homocoupling processes 2051 Pandaros acanthifolium 110 (R)-pantolactone derived ester 25 papaverine 1575 PariserParrPople (PPP) approximation method 540, 2024 Parish conditions 82 Paterno-Bchi reaction 537 [22] cycloaddition 573 PBD-DNA adduct formation 2212 Pd(0) catalyst 457 Pd-catalyzed allylic alkylations indole as nucleophile in 508, 509 Pd-catalyzed carbonylation 1764 Pd-catalyzed cyclization 420 Pd(0)-catalyzed domino reaction mechanism for 409 Pd-catalyzed intramolecular arylation 602 Pd-catalyzed process 877 Pd-catalyzed reactions 382, 385, 1761, 2017 Pd-catalyzed SuzukiHeck sequence 506 Pd-catalyzed tandem process 415 Pd/C/CuI-catalyzed tandem Ullman/ Sonogashira couplings 605 trans-[-PdCl2]-1,2,4-oxadiazole complexes isolation of 1095 Pd(II)-catalyzed cycloisomerization 553 PdII-mediated carboxylative annulation 601 Pechmann synthesis 1255 PEDOT 2307 PEG-bound bromothiophene 2368 penicillin 21442161 chemical relationship 2158 classical syntheses 21482150 conversion 21582161 industrial production 21502153 introduction 21442146 physicochemical data 21462148 reactivity 21532158 penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs) 2144, 2156 catalytic cycle 2157 penicillin G 2160 use 2145 penicillin V 2147 penicillin V ester, ring enlargement 2159 pentacyclic cations synthesis representative examples 20582061 N-pentauorophenyl triazolium tetrauoroborate salts 1034 pentameric/hexameric helicates, preparation 2291 pentane-1,5-dione
j2425
p
PaalKnorr condensation of polymer-supported 1,4-diketones 2363 PaalKnorr synthesis 542 palladacycle, formation 505 palladium acetate 1763 palladium-catalyzed alkylation reactions of chloropyrazines 1762 palladium-catalyzed carbonylation synthesis of chromone 1676 palladium-catalyzed CH arylation reaction 1033 palladium-catalyzed CN coupling reactions 1565 palladium-catalyzed cross-coupling reactions 786, 2049 palladium-catalyzed cyclizations 426427, 433, 434 isomerization procedure 551 palladium-catalyzedH bond arylation of azoles 857 palladium-catalyzed hydrogenation/ heterocyclization 1544 palladium-catalyzed intramolecular amidation 2192 palladium-catalyzed multicomponent sequential coupling strategy 598 palladium-catalyzed Negishi coupling 1597 palladium-catalyzed oxidative alkenylation 334 palladium-catalyzed reaction of propargyl acetates 933 palladium-catalyzed Sonogashira reaction 612 palladium-catalyzed Stille reaction 1598 palladiumcatalyzed SuzukiMiyaura reactions 1597 palladium(0)-catalyzed termolecular queuing processes 1550 palladium complex 346 palladium(II)-catalyzed oxidative carbocyclizations 602 palladium-mediated sequential cross-coupling Sonogashira reactionWacker-type heteroannulation 558
2426
j Index
condensation 1633 pentapyrrolic 22p system 2249 peptidic hormones 2214 peracetic acid 66 perchlorinated pyridazines 1737 peruorinated metallophthalocyanine, n-type semiconductor 2311 peruoroalkylether-1,3,5-triazines 1833 peruoroalkyl iodides 314, 319 5-peruoroalkyl-1,2,4-oxadiazoles hydrazinolysis of 1023 2-(peruoroalkyl)pyrroles 319 peruoroalkylquaterthiophenes 2310 peruoroalkyl radicals 319 peruoro-(isopropyl)-1,3,5-triazines 1832 perhydroazepine 1865 pericyclic reactions 512, 513 perillosin 1868 periodates 70 peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-c (PPAR-c) 541 PetasisUgi multicomponent condensation strategy 2129 phase-transfer catalyst 2298 phase-transfer GombergBachmann synthesis 544 phenacyl benzoate with H2S 974 phenacyldithiocarbamates 973 1-phenacylisoquinolines 1574 phenanthridine, synthesis 1557 phenolic-type reactions 2047 a-(phenoxy)alkyl ketones dehydrative cyclization 596 phenylacetic acid derivative FriedelCrafts acylation 2220 phenylacetonitrile 1594 phenylalkoxyoxadiazoles alkyl iodide 1223 2-phenylamino-5-(4-uorophenyl)-1,3,4thiadiazole 1342 N-phenyl-a-phosphinylhydrazone 657 phenyl azide 994 N-phenylbenzaldimine 24, 25 3-phenyl-1,2-benzisoxazole ash vacuum pyrolysis (FVP) 773 N-phenyl-benzyl imine 847 phenyl chloroformate 1826 2-phenylchromones. see avones o-phenylenediamine 53 b-phenylethylamines 1575 b-phenylethyl vinyl azide 46 phenylfurazans 1135, 1150 6-phenyl-3(2H)-pyridazinones 1756 phenylhydrazine 1368 phenylhydrazones (Z)-isomers of 1159 N-phenylimidazoles 857 phenyliminodioxolane 935 3-(phenylimino)-1,2,4-thiadiazolidin5-ones 1299 phenyl isocyanate imidazole-1-carboxamides, addition 841 5-phenyl isomer 1076 phenyl isothiocyanate 41, 1365 5-phenylisoxazole 942 phenyl ketone phenylhydrazones lead tetraacetate oxidation 684 phenylmagnesium chloride 405 N-phenylmaleimide 1071 intramolecular dipole formation intermolecular cycloaddition 2208 5-phenyl-4-methyl-1,3,4-thiadiazolium2-olate 1368 2-phenyl monosulfoxide derivative 965 2-phenyl-1,3,4-oxadiazole 1209 3-phenyl-1,2,4-oxadiazole INDO studies 1078 N-[3-phenyl-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl-methyl] phthalimide 1074 1-phenylphosphinane, description 2071 phenyl radicals 865 N-phenylsulfonylindole 455 1-(phenylsulfonyl)pyrrole 304 3-phenylsydnone 1065 oxidation of 1060 3-phenylsydnone-4-carboxylic acids 1067 3-phenylsydnones 1065 5-phenyltetrazole 1422 phenylthallium bis-triuoroacetate 1605 3-phenyl-1,3,4-thiadiazolidine2-thiones 1366 N-(5-phenyl-1,3,4-thiadiazol-2yl) benzamide 1341 4-phenyl-1,2,4-triazole-3,5-dione 1033 N-phenyltriuoroacetohydrazonoyl bromide 1359 phenyltrimethylammonium bromide (PTAB) 18 3-phenyl-/3-(p-tolyl)-10bH-1,3,4-thiadiazolo [2,3-a]isoquinoline-2(3H)-thiones 1365 Phillips method 882 pH-independent reaction 2155 phosgene 1822 phosphabenzyne dimeric complex 2095 phosphacene 1584
Index phosphetanes 244 phosphine oxides 45 phosphinines 20842097 history and nomenclature 2084, 2085 reactivity 20892097 spectral, structural and theoretical studies 2085 synthesis 20862089 l5-phosphinines 2085 phosphinine synthesis 1643 phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE5) 651 phosphodiesterase type 3 enzymes (PDE3) 647 phosphole system 20712084 history and nomenclature 2071, 2072 isomers 2072 phospholide ions 2075, 2076 reactivity 20762084 spectral, structural and theoretical studies 2072, 2073 synthesis 20732075 phosphomolybdic acid (PMA) 34 phosphonate 1123 phosphonium salts 423 phosphonium ylides 944 phosphoruscarbon heterocycles, uses 2103 phosphorus heterocycles addendum 21052108 applications 21032105 ve-membered rings 2102, 2103 four-membered rings 21002102 introduction 2071 phosphinines 20842097 phospholes 20712084 three-membered rings 20972099 photoafnity label (PAL) 128 photochemical free-radical alkylation 1605 photochemical reactions 489491 photodynamic therapy (PDT) 2238, 2247 photoinduced rearrangements of ON bond 1099 photolytic decomposition of vinyl azides 47 phthalimide aziridinations, reaction conditions for 20 phthalocyanines 2280 industrial applicability 2281 structure 2281 PictetGams modication 1577 PictetSpengler reactions, asymmetric organocatalyzed 508 PictetSpengler syntheses 1576 pilocarpine analogues, synthesis 851 PINDOX 98 piperidine 2 piperidin-2-one 2 trans,trans-1-piperidinyl-4-(2-pyridyl) butadiene 2040 piperylene 1220 platelet derived growth factor (PDGF) 2321 plieninger indole synthesis 404 31 P NMR spectroscopy 2090 polar solvents 928 Polonovsky rearrangement 2184, 2196 polyacrylamide resins 2339, 2340 poly(2,3-benzofuran) (PBF) 625 poly(2,20 -bithiazole-5,50 -diyl)s 2307 polychloropyrimidines 1743 polycyclic adduct 482 polycyclic aromatic nitrogen cation systems 2021 polycyclic ring system synthesis 569 polycyclic systems 550 polyethers 1899 poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) 1028, 1101, 1417 chains 2340 with sodium methoxide 1101 poly(ethylene glycol)-supported azide 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition of 998 polyethylene polyoxypropylene (POEPOP) 2342 2-(polyhydroxyalkyl)pyrroles 311 polyisoxazole systems 747 polymer-bound a-silylimines 2360 polymer-bound halothiophenes 2367 polymer-bound resin 2363 polymer-bound substrates 2328 polymer-bound triphenylphosphine 423 polymeric systems 2305 polymer-supported Mukaiyama-type reagent 2124 polymer-supported triphenylphosphine use of 876 polyoxometallates (POMs) 79 polyoxyethylene polystyrene (POEPS) 2342 Polyozellus multiex 595 polyphosphoric acid (PPA) 1176 poly(pyrrole)s 2308 poly(selenophene)s 2308 polysiloxane 1057 polystyrene-derived resins application 2329 polystyrenepolyethylether (PS-PEG) resinsupported palladium-phosphine complex 612 polystyrene resin FriedelCrafts alkylation 2336 polystyrene resin-bound azide 996 polystyrene resins
j2427
2428
j Index
nitration 2336 polystyrene-SO2-CH2-NC resin 827 polystyrene-sulfonyl hydrazide resins 1004 polysubstituted imidazolidinones 899 poly(thiazole)s 2307 poly(thiophene)s 2306, 2307 organometallic synthesis 2307 porphine 2231, 2268 porphyrin 1510 porphyrin framework carbon rings in 2234 core-modied porphyrins 22332235 electrophilic reactions 22552262 expanded porphyrins 2235, 2236 ve- and six-membered cyclic sub-units 2235 general introduction 2231, 2232 isomers 2232 nitro derivatives 2260 nucleophilic reactions 22622268 pyrrole inverted systems 2233 reactivity 22542268 six-membered ring 2234 structures 2276 syntheses and reactions 2231 synthetic chemistry 22362254 tetrapyrrolic systems 2232, 2233 trimer, DielsAlder acceleration 2303 potassium carbonate 45 potassium dodecatungstocobaltate 95 potassium hydrosulde 904 potassium hydroxide hydroxylation of 1593 potassium permanganate 82 potassium 2phenylhydrazinecarbodithioate 1350 potassium thiocyanate 1361 potential energy surface (PES) 1133 poton afnities 1078 Povarov reaction 1552 prolyl endopeptidase (PEP) 595 a-propargyl a-keto ester palladium-catalyzed cyclization 554 propargyl alcohols palladium-catalyzed cyclocarbonylation 575 propargylamides 877 propargylic alcohols hydroamination 416 ruthenium/platinum-catalyzed sequential reaction 557 propargyl vinyl ether gold-catalyzed reactions 558 propionic acids 1670 propylenediamine 119, 121 propyne conversion, regioselectivity 1440 N-protected (a-aminoacyl) benzotriazoles 1087 N-protected-2,3-bis(dibromomethyl) indoles 487 N-protected-2-indolylstannane, coupling 463 N-protected hydroxylamine tosylates 22 N-protected quinolin-4-ones 1567 N-protected 1,2,3-triazoles, lithiation 1005 proton sponge 1158 proton-transfer transition state 45 ()-pseudoephedrine-derived aziridine 38 Pseudomonas putida 1751 pterin family 2277 pterin pigments 7-methylxanthopterin 2276 1-(ptoluenesulfonyl)-4-(tributylstannyl)pyrrole2-carboxaldehyde 335 Pummerer rearrangement 2352, 2356 Pummerer-type reaction 553 4H-pyran synthesis by a Ni-catalyzed formal [42] cycloaddition 1659 2H-pyran derivatives characteristic property 1655 Claisen rearrangement 1659 strategies for synthesis 1657 synthesis by Knoevenagel condensation 1656 synthesis by metal-catalyzed cycloisomerization of diyneols 1657 synthesis by metal-catalyzed isomerization 1656 synthesis by Pd-catalyzed 6-endo-dig cyclization of enynols 1657 pyranoavylium synthesis 1653 pyranone a-formylation of 1668 formation of 1663 Grignard reagent 1666 O-enolate cyclization 1664 2-pyranone transformation of 1667 2H-pyran-2-one 1663 2H-pyran -2-one 1663 2H-pyran-2-one 1663 retrosynthetic analysis for 1662 structure of 1661 2H-pyran -2-one synthesis of 1664 2H-pyran-2-one resonance structures for 1661 4-pyranone
Index from diketone 1672 a-pyranone allenyl ketone to 1663 via carbonylationcyclization 1664 2-pyranones synthesis of 1664 transformation of 1666 2H-pyran-2-ones. see a-pyrones synthesis of 1663 4-pyranones nucleophilic attacks on 1673 4H-pyran-4-ones. see c-pyrones mesomeric structures for 1671 pyranoquinoline alkaloids 1532 4H-pyrans bicyclic 1660 Claisen rearrangement 1659 synthesis of 1658, 1659, 1660 2H-pyran structures 1655 ring synthesis 16551657 4H-pyran structures 1655 ring synthesis 16571660 pyrazine 1683 pyrazine (1,4-diazine) 1731 pyrazines (1,4-diazines) 1737, 1746, 1755 pyrazoles 13C NMR spectra 641 geometry 640 1H NMR spectra 641 identication of isomers 638 medicinal chemistry aspects 635 15N NMR spectra 641 properties 638 space lling models 640 structures 639 use 637 1H-pyrazoles preparation 668 pyrazoles synthesis 651678 one CC bond formation 654, 655 one NC bond formation 653, 654 one NN bond formation 652, 653 from other heterocycles 671678 two bonds formation 655671 pyrazoline cycloadduct 1165 D2-pyrazolines NMR data on 642 pyrazolium 705 pyrazoloacridine (PZA) 649 pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyrrolo[2,1-c][1,4] benzodiazepines synthesis 2203 pyrazolo derivatives 1165 pyrazolopyridines synthesis of 1459 pyridazine 1666, 1683 pyridazine, NN bond 1684 pyridazines 1733 pyridazines (1,2-diazines) 1731, 1735, 1742, 1747 pyridazine thiocarboxamides 1753 pyridazin-3(2H)-one 1694 pyridazinones 1704 pyridine 2, 1431, 1558 aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids and derivatives 15061507 alkyl derivatives 15041506 amino derivatives diazotization of 1503, 1504 electrophilic substitution reactions 1502, 1503 reactions with acids 1500, 1501 reactions with acylating agents 1501, 1502 reactions with alkylating agents 1501 reactions with electrophilic reagents 1499, 1500 benzene derivative 1436 tert-butyl acrylate of 1488 electron-decient heterocycles 1436 electron-decient nature of 1437 electrophilic substitution reactions (SEAr) 1471, 1472 Heck reaction 14861489 with hydroxide ions 1475 with phenyllithium 1477 IR spectrum 1435 metal-catalyzed cross-coupling reactions 14811483 natural compounds 1433 nitrobenzene charge distributions 1436 nitrogen chemical shift of 1434 15N NMR signal for 1434 nucleophilic aromatic substitutions 1476 photochemical irradiation 1495 photochemical reactions 1495 proton coupling constants 1435 reactions at ring carbon atom 14921494 reactions at ring nitrogen atom 1490, 1491 reactions of C-metallated 1479 reactions of pyridyl lithium/grignard derivatives with electrophiles 14791481 reactions with acids 1468 reactions with acyl halides 1470, 1471 reactions with amide ions 1474, 1475 reactions with bases 14761478 reactions with carbon nucleophiles 1476 reactions with electrophilic reagents 1467 reactions with halides 1469, 1470
j2429
2430
j Index
reactions with hydroxide ions 1475, 1476 reactions with metal ions 1468, 1469 reactions with nucleophilic reagents 1473, 1474 reactions with oxidizing agents 1472, 1473 reactions with reducing agents 1489, 1490 reactivity 1436, 1437 regioselectivity of reaction 1478 resonance forms 1436 six-membered heterocyclic aromatic compound 1431 SnAr reaction with 1476, 1477 with sodium amide 1474 Sonogashira coupling 1485, 1486 spectroscopic data IR data 1435, 1436 NMR data 1434 UV data 1434, 1435 Stille coupling 1483, 1484 Suzuki coupling 1484, 1485 synthesis 1642 synthesis of azadienes/dienophiles, DielsAlder reaction of 14441453 by aza-electrocyclization reactions 1462 1465 BohlmannRahtz heteroannulation 1462 cycloaddition reactions with organometallic derivatives 14541456 [222] cycloadditions 14371443 [42] cycloadditions 1443 from 1,5-dicarbonyl derivatives 1461, 1462 dienes and azadienophiles, Diels-Alder reaction of 1453, 1454 from enamines 14591461 from ve-membered rings 1465, 1466 Hantzsch cyclocondensation 14561458, 1458, 1459 from six-membered rings 1466, 1467 via ring transformation 1465 UV spectra 1434 pyridine boron derivatives 1485 pyridine carboxylic acids 1506, 1507 zwitterionic forms of 1506 pyridine derivatives 1432 for agrochemical 1434 electrophilic substitution reactions 1497 natural 1431, 1432 oxyderivatives 1495, 1496 oxygen function replacement 1499 oxypyridine anions with electrophiles 1497, 1498 photochemical reactions 1499 reactions with acid chlorides 1496, 1497 reactions with acids 1496 reactions with electrophilic reagents 1496 unnatural 14321434 pyridine drugs 1433 pyridine-like nitrogen atom 898 pyridine nomenclature 1432 pyridine N-oxide (PNO) 77, 1511, 1512 electrophilic substitutions 1513 pyridine nucleus 1494 pyridine ring 1472 electron-decient nature of 1473 halogens 1594 pyridine rings 1462 pyridines 1468 chelates 1469 derivatives 1517 electrophilic substitution reactions 1471 hetero-DielsAlder synthesis of 1448 nitrogen atom 1467 p-ligands 1469 reactivity of 1516, 1517 as reagents 1468 synthesis of by cycloaddition reactions 1515, 1516 pyridines N-oxides with electrophilic reagents 1517 pyridines salts 1455 pyridinesulfur trioxide complex 535 pyridine-type nitrogen electronic density 836 pyridinium cyclopentadienides 1491 pyridinium ring reduction of 1509 pyridinium salt with nBuLi 1508 pyridinium salts 1455, 1468 intramolecular free radical substitution of 1510 in situ generation of 1508 pyridinium salt synthesis 1643 pyridinium ylides 1491 pyridiniumylides 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition 2007 4(1H)-pyridinylidene complexes regioselective formation of 1455 pyridium salts, quaternary a-cyclizations 1510, 1511 nucleophilic additions 15071509 pyridine N-oxides 1511 deoxygenation reactions 1514, 1515 reactions at alkyl side chain 1513, 1514
Index reactions with electrophilic reagents 1512, 1513 reactions at alkyl side chain 1510 reduction reactions of 1509 2-pyridone 1498 pyridone oxygen 1499 pyridones electrophilic substitutions 1497 1-(2-pyridyl)-1,3-butadiene 2042 pyridyl-lithium derivatives 1480 3-(3-pyridyl)sydnone irradiation of 1064 pyrilium cation 3 pyrimidine 1683, 1741 pyrimidine esters 1763 pyrimidines (1,3-diazines) 1731, 1735, 1737, 1739, 1743, 1748, 1749 4-pyrimidinones 1722 5-(pyrimidinyl)magnesium chloride 1754 a-pyrone as dienophile 1666 transformation of 1667 pyrones 1660, 1661 pKas of 1496 a-pyrones 1661 coumarins 16681670 DielsAlder cycloaddition of 1665 reactivity of 1665, 1668 structure of 1661 synthesis of 16621665 c-pyrones. see 4H-pyran-4-ones chromones 16741676 as dienophile 1673 Hetero-DielsAlder cycloaddition 1672 intramolecular [52] cycloaddition of 1673 large-scale synthesis of 1671 photochemical transformation of 1672 reactivity of 16721674 retrosynthetic approach 1671 structure of 1661 synthesis of 1671, 1672 pyrrocoline 1989 pyrrole-3-carbodithioates 314 pyrrole-2-carbonitrile 304 pyrrole-2-carboxaldehydes 333 pyrrole-2-carboxylates 337 pyrrole ring synthesis 274, 275 BartonZard Synthesis 287, 288 cyclizations of four-carbon precursors 278281 cycloaddition reactions and related approaches 289291 Hantzsch Synthesis and related approaches 284 Knorr synthesis and related routes 281283 miscellaneous transition metal catalyzed methods 291293 multi-component reactions 291 PaalKnorr Synthesis 275278 syntheses involving glycine esters 284, 285 Tromov synthesis 288 Van Leusen method 285287 pyrroles containing molecules 271 electrophilic attack 431 inverted systems 2233 isomeric mixture 2362 nitration of 299 polymers 274 protonation 294 resonance hybrids 5 ring system 2362 synthesis 2362, 2363 Vilsmeier bases 1997 1H-pyrroles 269 2H-pyrroles 269 3H-pyrroles 269 (pyrrole-2-yl)phthalimide 342 pyrrolidine derivatives 610 pyrrolidines synthesis 23592361, 2360 2-(pyrrolidin-2-yl)pyrrole 308 pyrrolizine 3 3H-pyrrolizine 1993 1H NMR chemical shifts 1994 pyrrolizines 19912002 cycloaddition reactions 2000 derivatives 2001, 2202 general structure and reactivity 1991 reactivity 19972000 reduction reactions 2000, 2001 relevant computational chemistry and physicochemical and spectroscopic data 19931994 relevant natural/useful compounds 19911993 ring-opening reactions 2001 synthesis by [32] approaches 19951997 synthesis by cyclization reactions 19951997 Vilsmeier reaction 1998 1-pyrrolizin-3-ones 1997 pyrrolobenzodiazepine ring 2211 pyrrolo[2,1-c][1,4]benzodiazepines (PBDs) 2181, 2210, 2212 synthesis 2212 synthesis from amino dithioketals 2213 triggered by Swern oxidation 2213 pyrroloquinoline-based alkaloids 1531
j2431
2432
j Index
pyrrolo[3,4-b]quinolines 1551 pyrrolyl ketone 432 pyrrolylmagnesium chloride 314 pyrrolylmagnesium halides 314 pyrrolylsodium 334 pyrylium cation 1631, 1650 [21] cycloaddition reactions 1648 [52] cycloaddition reactions 1651, 1652 dienes in [42] cycloaddition reactions 16491651 dienophiles in [42] cycloaddition reactions 1648, 1649 heterocyclic systems, synthesis of 16411644 reactions with nucleophiles 1641 reactions with organometallic reagents 16461648 reactions with reducing agents 1654, 1655 reactivity of pyrylium salts 1640, 1641 retrosynthetic analysis 1634 side chain reactions 1652, 1653 structural parameters 1632 synthesis of carbocycles 16441646 pyrylium cations chemical behavior 1640 general reactivity 1641 reactivity 1641 pyrylium dyes synthesis 1653 pyrylium ring synthesis of 16331637 pyrylium salts 1631, 1632, 1645, 1646 aldol-like condensation 1653 with ammonia 1466 Balaban synthesis 1635 catalytic hydrogenation 1654 mechanism of synthesis 1637 michael-type addition 1653 one-pot synthesis 1637 by oxidation of cyclopentadienes 1638 reactivity of 1640, 1641 reduction 1654 reductive amination 1655 stereocontrolled synthesis of dienals from 1647 synthesis 1634, 16351637, 1643 quinoimmonium cation 427 quinoline alkaloids 1530 quinoline resin 1569 quinolines 1, 3, 1453, 1527, 1530, 1532, 1533, 1546, 1567 o-acylanilines plus carbonyl compounds 15371541 addition to nitrogen 1558 from alkynes, propargyl amines 15441546 o-allyl/o-isopropenyl-N-tosylanilides, palladium-catalyzed coupling of 15471550 anilines plus 1,3-dielectrophiles 15331537 benzo-fused pyridine heterocyclic compound 1527 C-deprotonation of 1562 C-heterocycle 1529 13C NMR chemical shifts 1529 cycloaddition processes DielsAlder and Aza-DielsAlder reactions 15511554 heterocycles, ring transformations of 15551556 microwave preparation of 1557 radical reactions 1554, 1555 Vilsmeiers reagent 1556 electrophilic reagents at carbon 1558, 1559 electrophilic substitution 1559 Friedlander synthesis of 1539 halogenation 1559 1H NMR chemical shifts 1528 metal-free method 1564 natural compounds 15301533 nitrogen and oxygen substituents 1559, 1560 NMR data 1528, 1529 nucleophilic additions 1567, 1568 nucleophilic substitution reactions 1561 nucleophilic substitution with hydride transfer 1561 nucleophilic substitution with leaving groups 1561 oxidation of 1560 with oxidizing reagents 1560 from oximes, azadienes 1546, 1547 presence of nitrogen 1528 quinolinium salts, cycloadditions of 1568, 1569 reactions of alkylquinolines 1567 reactions of C-metallated heterocycles 1562, 1563 reactions of quinoline N-oxides 1570 reactions of quinolinium salts 1567
q
quantum chemical methods 1078 quaternary isoquinolinium salts 1612 quinazoline N-oxides 2183 quinazolobenzodiazepines microwave-promoted synthesis 2205 quinidine 45
Index reactions of quinolones 1565, 1567 reactions with bases 1562 reaction with radical reagents 1564 reaction with reducing agents 1563, 1564 reactivity and tautomerism 1529, 1530 Reissert-type reaction 1569, 1570 ring synthesis of 1533 SNAr reactions of 1561 sulfonation of 1559 UV data for 1529 vapor phase synthesis of 1536 from ynones, enones 15411544 2-quinoline triate, alkynylation 1562 quinolinium ion 1558 quinolinium salt as dyes 2280 quinolinium salts 1529, 1569 2-quinolinone derivatives microwave preparation of 1557 3H-quinolin-4-ones 1553 quinolinophanes 1533 quinolizinium salts 20032061, 2048 alkyl derivatives 2043, 2044 benzoquinolizinium salts and related systems 20522061 cation, electron densities 3, 2025 13C NMR chemical shifts 2025 general structure and reactivity 2020, 2021 halo derivatives 20482052 hydroxy and amino derivatives 20452048 ion, feature 2038 physical properties 2026 reactivity 20382043 relevant computational chemistry, and physicochemical and spectroscopic data 20232026 relevant natural/useful compounds 20212023 synthesis 20232026, 2056 synthesis by [33] approaches 20262029 synthesis by [42] approaches 20292035 synthesis by cyclization reactions 20352038 o-quinone dioximes oxidation of 1149 o-quinones, oximation 1144 quinoxaline-based antifolates 1405 quinoxaline-1,4-dioxides 1162 quinoxalines 1162 quinozilidine hydroidide 2042
j2433
r
racemic aziridinations with ethyl diazoacetate, reaction conditions 24 representative catalysts for 15 using ethyl diazoacetate 24 radical [32] annulation reaction 610 radical chemistry 104 radical cyclizations 424426, 609, 610 radical reactions 470474 of functionalized epoxides 105 Radziszewski reaction 816 (R)-alkyl-2-benzofuranmethanamines preparation 616 Raney nickel 1116 rearomatization 1740 rectier effect 2314 red erythropterin 2276 redox molecular switch 2292 reductive deoxygenation of epoxides 107 reductive Mannich additioncyclization mechanism 2133 reductive ring opening of epoxides 106 Reformatsky addition reaction 2124 regioselective indole 469 regioselective intramolecular Heck reaction 601 Reissert compounds 1612 ReissertHenze reaction 1512 Reissert reaction 1738 indole synthesis 398402 quinoline derivatives of 1569 remarkable antiplatelet 1330 remazol turquoise blue structure 2282 use 2281 RemfryHull synthesis 1719 resin-bound amine condensation 2362 resin-bound diazoimides 2365 resin-bound isonitrile 823 resin-capture-release strategy 391 resin-supported Hantzsch methodology 2363 retro-Claisen type rearrangement 573 retro-DielsAlder fragmentation 752 retro-DielsAlder reaction 867, 1452 retro-dipolar cycloaddition 484 Rh-catalyzed CH insertion reaction 901 rhodium-catalyzed reaction 573 epoxidations of carbonyls 90 Rhodosporidium toruloides 2152 Rho-kinase 1170 RhnePoulenc process 2103
2434
j Index
Rieke zinc 854 ring-chain tautomerism 1130 interconversion of 2/5-oxide isomers 1130 ring closing metathesis (RCM) 546, 1885, 2037 enamides 347 ring contractionring expansion route (RCRE) 1189 ring-junction nitrogen heterocycles general structures 1990 indolizines 20032020 introduction 19891991 pyrrolizines 19912002 quinolizinium salts 20032061 ring-opening reactions 2001 trans-5,6-ring system construction 613 Rink-isonitrile resin 1419 Ritter reaction 875 RNA synthesis 1168, 1426 RobinsonGabriel synthesis 824 of oxazoles 825 rosefuran 543 rotaxane 2288 as molecular switch 2288 Rothemund reaction 2236 rubyrins 2251 Ru-catalyzed reaction 1660, 15440 ruthenium-catalyzed intramolecular hydroamination 1880 ruthenium-catalyzed isomerization 995 ruthenium porphyrin catalysts 14 Schmidt reaction 1412 Schrock carbenes. see titanium benzylidenes selenetanes 238 formation by cycloaddition 242 formation by ring regression 241, 242 reactivity 242, 243 synthesis 239 synthesis by formation of one SeC bond 240, 241 synthesis by formation of two SeC bonds 239, 240 self-assembled complexes articial nucleotide 2295 tetra/trinuclear 2290 semi-synthetic penicillins 735 seven-membered heterocycles 1865 azepine derivative 1867 bond lengths 1870 13C NMR data 1874 computational chemistry 18691874 1H NMR studies 1871, 1873 MOMM calculations 1871 natural compounds 18671869 semiempirical and ab initio studies 1871 synthesis of azepines 1878 from acyclic compounds 1878, 18801882 from cyclic compounds 18831885 synthesis of oxepines from acyclic compounds 18851890 from cyclic compounds 18901896 synthesis of thiepines from acyclic compounds 1896 from cyclic compounds 1897, 1898 tetrahydroazepines synthesis by RCM reactions 1879 valence tautomerism 1872, 18741878 valence tautomerism in 18741878 sigmatropic rearrangements 397, 488, 489 indole ring syntheses 385 siletanes 245, 246 [22] cycloadditions 247 other intramolecular cyclizations 246, 247 preparation from chlorosilanes 246 preparation from other heterocyclic compounds 248 reactivity 249251 silica sulfuric acid 1033 silica-supported aluminium chloride 111 silicon azoles 852853 silicon tetrachloride 98 silver(I) acetate 114 silylated acetylene uses 1486 N-silylated imidazolylzinc hloride 854
s
saccharides acid-promoted dehydration 533 saccharins 729 derivatives 787 safety-catch linkers 2344, 23542357 principle, advantages 2354 salen catalysts with chirality at the 3position 74 salen-chromium complex 95 salen(Cr) catalyst 73 alkene epoxidation 72 salen metal catalysts for alkene epoxidation 70 salen(Mn) catalyzed alkene epoxidation 74 salens designed for biphasic systems 76 salicylaldehydes 1669 Samarium diiodide 782 scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) 2314 Schiff base complexes 898, 2261
Index 2-silylated oxazoles 852 preparation of 852 silylation 1831 silyl dioxolanones 931 silyl enol ethers 92, 844, 975 silyl linker-based macrobeads 621 N-silyl-methyleneaziridine 50 silyloxy-1,3-butadienes 1569 2-silyloxyfuran Mannich reactions 562 silyloxyfuran, Nazarov cyclization 583 silyloxy-furazan derivative 1151 4-silyloxyquinolinium triate 1568 simple heterocycles 4 simple ketones, benzylimines 428 single-crystal crystallography 2246 six-membered heterocycles 4, 1683, 1777 alkyldiazines 1766, 1767 aminodiazines 1765, 1766 diazines N-oxides 1764, 1765 general reactivity 16841687 halodiazines 1770 hydroxydiazines 17671769 pyrazines (1,4-diazines) 1691 cycloaddition reactions 1729, 1730 synthesis by ring-closure reactions 17231729 pyridazines (1,2-diazines) 1688, 1689 cycloaddition reactions 17001702 synthesis by ring atom exchange 1704 synthesis by ring-closure reactions 16921700 synthesis by ring contraction 17041706 synthesis by ring enlargement 1703 pyrimidines (1,3-diazines) 16891691 cycloaddition reactions 1720, 1721 one-component couplings 1719 synthesis by ring atom exchange 1722 synthesis by ring-closure reactions 17061710 synthesis by ring enlargement 1721, 1722 two-component couplings 17101719 reactivity of diazines 17301764 tautomerism 1687, 1688 triazine isomers 1777, 1778 six-membered oxacycles 1631, 1632 Skraup reaction 15351537 Slid-supported aryl iodides 856 small-molecular-weight compounds 2325 small organic molecules synthesis classes 2327 SN2 reaction 53 sodium borohydride 1153 sodium cyanide use of 844 sodium-glucose co-transporter (SGTL) 648 sodium hexamethyldisilazide (NaHMDS) 1714 sodium nitrite 1033 solid-phase Fischer indole synthesis 391 solid-phase organic synthesis (SPOS) 428 cyclization-assisted cleavage 23482352 linker molecules releasing one specic functional group 23442348 linkers 23432357 multidirectional cleavage strategies 23522357 schematic outline 2327 use 2326 solid-phase synthesis progress in 621623 protocol 1090 of pyrimidines 1715 solid-supported synthesis 2328 of 1,5-benzodiazepines 2215 Sonogashira conditions 1562, 1838 Sonogashira coupling reaction 407, 1125, 1599, 1838 Sonogashira reaction 335, 458460, 622, 860, 1485 Sophora tomentosa L 619 Soret band 2231 S-oxidized 1,2-oxathiolane systems 1H NMR data for 967 spiro [chroman-3,30 -(20 H)-benzofurans] synthesis 610 spiro cyclopropyladamantane 137 spiroepoxide 104 3-spiro-fused benzofuran-2(3H)-ones 601 spiropyrrolidinyloxindoles 320 split-mixed technology 2328 SR141716A derivatives 646 stabilized iodonium ylide 933 p-stacking interactions 2286, 2287 4-stannylated azoles preparation of 854 5-stannylimidazoles 854, 862 3-stannylisoquinoline N-oxide 1598 stannylisoquinolines 1598 stanozolol 649 Staudinger [2p2p] cycloaddition 2131 Staudinger reaction 21212124, 2209, 2210 steric effects 2255 steric sensors 62 Stetter reaction 1035 [1,2]-Stevens rearrangement 503 stibetanes 254
j2435
2436
j Index
stilbene oxide 95 Stille couplings 862 of chloropyrazines 1761 cross-coupling 462, 463 Stille process 2050 [2,3]-StilleWittig rearrangement 620 stoichiometric organometallic reagents use of 861 stoichiometric silver(I) oxide use of 862 Streptomyces aureus 42 Streptomyces cellus 12 Streptomyces griseofuscus 11 Streptomyces jamaicensis 1688 Streptomyces violaceoniger 1688 Streptomyces xanthocidiens 1688 strychnine, Shibasakis total synthesis 401 styrene aziridination, reaction conditions for 16 styrene monomers copolymerization 2330 (R)-styrene oxide 79 trans-styrylpyrazoline derivative 1063 5-styrylthiadiazoles with CO2 1323 6-substitued-3-methyl-2-pyrones 1661 5-substitued-3-methyl-1,2,4thiadiazoles 1291 1-substituted 3-acyl-1,2,4-triazoles 1030 a-substituted alkynylphospholes synthesis 2107 2-substituted amino derivatives 895 1-substituted-3-aminoisoquinolines 1580 1,5-substituted 3-aminopyrazole-4-carboxylic esters 1210 3-(N-substituted)-aminoquinolin-2-ones 1565 2-substituted aniline 881 o-substituted benzaldimines 26 5-substituted-2,1-benzisoxazoles 765 3-substituted 2,1-benzisoxazoles synthesis 768 2-substituted benzothiazole derivative 885 1-substituted 1H-benzotriazole physical and chemical properties of 1009 1-substituted benzotriazoles 1010 synthesis of 1011 synthetic utility of 1016 2-substituted benzotriazoles 1011 5-substituted-1-(benzyloxy)-1H-1,2,3-triazoles catalytic hydrogenation of 1007 4-substituted-3,5-bis(triuoromethyl)-4H1,2,4-triazoles 1205 5-substituted-4-carbaldehyde-1,2,3-triazole derivatives 991 1-substituted-4-carboxylic acid imidazoles synthesis of 823 1-substituted-3,5-diaryl-4,5-dihydro-1Hpyrazoles 663 2-substituted-4,5-dicyanoimidazoles preparation of 820 N-substituted dihydroazepines 1881 2-substituted 5,7-diphenyl-1,3,4-thiadiazolo [3,2-a]pyridilyum derivatives 1351 2-substituted-1,3-dithiolanes with NBS 964 2-substituted-1-hydroxybenzimidazole-3oxides 1164 1-substituted imidazoles phosphorylation of 840 2-substituted indoles one pot synthesis of 407 2-substituted isothiazolin-3-ones bromination 788 2-substituted nitrobenzene 397 40 -substituted-30 -nitrophenylsydnones 1074 o-substituted nitrosoarenes cyclization of 1143 b-substituted-oazidostyrenes thermolysis of 405 2-substituted-1,3,4-oxadiazoles 1226 5-substituted-1,3,4-oxadiazolin-2-ones 1222 2-substituted 1,3-oxathiolanes 979 5-substituted 1,3-oxathiolanes 976 6-(4-substituted-phenyl)-2,4diphenylverdazylium salts 1838 meso-tetra-substituted porphyrin 2259 meso-substituted porphyrins 2265 4-substituted-4H-pyrans synthesis 1647 N-substituted pyrrole 5 2-substituted-5-stannylazoles 854 5-substituted-1,3,4-thiadiazole-2thiones 1357, 1358 1,4-substituted-1,2,3-triazole-peptide compounds 997 1-substituted-1,2,3-triazoles 1005 N-substituted-1,2,3-triazoles nucleophiles 1006 Sugasawa synthesis 404 suldes, oxidation of 1211 sulnylfuran, nucleophilic substitution 553 sulfonamides 735, 1313 sulfonation 700, 886 of pyrrole 299301 N-sulfonyl-2-imidazolines 878 2-sulfonylimino-2H-1,2,4-thiadiazolo[2,3-a] pyridine derivatives 1330 N-sulfonylpyridinium salts 1470 sulfonylurea 1691
Index sulfoxide 1215, 1374 sulfur atom soft nucleophiles attack 1314 sulfur-mediated asymmetric epoxidation of benzaldehyde 89 sulfur-mediated epoxidation of benzaldehyde 89 sulfur ylide methodology 26 sultams 729 superoxide dismutase enzyme model 2301 SuzukiMiyaura cross-coupling 460462 Suzuki reactions 335, 862, 1484, 2049 conditions 1421 coupling reactions 335, 1416, 1485, 1756, 1761, 2123 cross-coupling reactions 618, 789 on imidoyl chlorides 2198 reductive debenzyloxycarbonylation sequence 1584 Swern oxidation of N-protected amino alcohol 2212 sydnone ring 1057 electron impact mass spectra of 1056 sydnone system 1060 acidhydrolysis of 1060 carbonyl stretching frequencies of 1055 cycloaddition reactions of 1071 frontier orbital energies and coefcients for 1054 photosensitized oxidation of 1063 ring cleavage of 1060 sydnonimines alkaline hydrolysis of 1060 1H/13C spectra of 1055 sydnonyl-substituted a,b-unsaturated ketones 1068 synthetic indigo 2278 2,3,4,5-tetraalkyl-1-3-4-oxadiazolidines 1199 2,3,6,7-tetraarylbenzo[1,2-b:4,5-b]difurans (BDFs) 627 meso-tetra-aryl porphyrins 2266 tetrabutylammonium bromide (TBAB) 116, 1214 tetrabutylammonium uoride (TBAF) 32, 1826 tetrabutylammonium monopersulfate 70 tetracationic derivative p-stacking interaction 2288 tetrachlorobenzyne 325 tetrachloroethylene, uses 959 tetracyanobisimidazole 859 tetracyanoethylene (TCNE) 1364, 1911 tetrahalocyclopropenes 1703 2,5,6,7-tetrahydroazepine 1886 1,2,3,4-tetrahydroderivatives 1574 tetrahydrofuran (THF) 1, 1493 tetrahydro-1H-indazoles dehydrogenation 691 4,5,6,7-tetrahydro-2H-indazoles 690 2,3,4,5-tetrahydro1,3,4-oxadiazoles 1171, 1199 2,3,4,5-tetrahydrooxepines 1886 4,5,6,7-tetrahydrooxepines 1887, 1889 tetrahydropyran 1899 tetrahydropyridazines 1702 1,2,3,4-tetrahydropyridine 2 1,2,3,4-tetrahydroquinolines with zinc borohydride 1563 2,3,4,5-tetrahydro-1,3,4-thiadiazoles 1365 tetrahydro-1H-s-triazolo[4,3-d][1,4] benzodiazepin-2-ones synthesis 2207 5-(1,2,3,4-tetrahydroxybutyl)-3H-[1,3,4] oxadiazole-2-thione 1196 tetrakis(pyridine)cobalt(II) dichromate (TPCD) 741, 2008 tetrameric porphyrin assembly 2293 1,1,3,3-tetramethoxypropane 1710 tetramethyl ethylenediamine (TMEDA) 536 tetramethylurea (TMU) 116 tetranactin synthesis 568 tetranitromethane 95 tetraphenanthropoprhyrin synthesis 2248 1,1,4,4-tetraphenyl-2,3-O-isopropylidene-Dthreitol (TADDOL) 81 tetra phenyl porphyrins (TPPs) 2231 tetrapropylammonium perruthenate (TPAP) 1022 oxidation of the hydroxyl group 1124 tetrapyrrolic pigments 2231 tetrapyrrolic systems 2232, 2233
j2437
t
TADDOL complexes 937 talampanel, synthesis 2220 tandem Nef reaction 1740 tautomeric equilibria of some monofunctional azines 1687 tautomerism 642644, 733, 734 Te electrophiles 1066 telluretanes 244 tellurium-containing porphyrins 2235 TentaGel polymers 2340, 2341 features 2341 TentaGel resins 2340, 2341 terpenes 101 tertiary ammonium salts 938
2438
j Index
tetrasubstituted imidazoles preparation of 821 tetrathiafulvalene derivatives 2309 as TFTs 2310 tetrathiafulvalene (TTF) system 947, 957 2-methylsulfanyl-1,3-dithiolylium iodide 962 synthesis of 957960 1,2,4-tetrazine 1839 tetrazines 3 physicochemical and spectroscopic data 1835, 1836 reactivity 1838 cycloaddition reactions 1839, 1840 reactions with nucleophilic reagents 1838, 1839 reactions with oxidizing reagents 1840 relevant computational chemistry 1835 relevant natural and useful compounds 1836, 1837 synthesis 1837, 1838 tautomerism 1836 1,2,4,5-tetrazines. see tetrazines 1,2,4,5-tetrazines derivatives X-ray crystallographic analysis of 1835 tetrazole compounds, uses 1402 tetrazole ring 1405 tetrazoles 1401 acid chlorides as substrates 1406 acylation reactions of 1423 amides as substrates 14031406 from amidines, carbodiimides, carbonimidic dichlorides, isocyanates 1414, 1415 arylation of 1424 benzylation of 1422 from b-keto esters 1413 as catalysts 1426 C-phenyltetrazoles 1425 from cyclic ketones 1414 derived from proline 1427 electrophilic addition 1421 with epoxides 1425 ve-membered ring aromatic compounds 1401 fused, multi-component syntheses of 1420 isocyanides as substrates 1410, 1411 from isothiocyanates, isocyanides, nitrilium salts, oxazolones and thiocyanates 1414, 1415 from ketones 1413, 1415 ketones as substrates 14121414 Michael addition reactions of 1423 under microwave conditions 1418 microwave syntheses 14161418 multicomponent reactions 14181420 nitriles as substrates 14061410 orthoesters as substrates 1411, 1412 oximes as substrates 1411 reactions at C5 1420, 1421 reactions at N1 and N2 14211425 reactions of 1420 ring as ortho-directing group 1425 under solid-phase conditions 1415, 1416, 1417, 1419 solid-phase syntheses 1415, 1416 synthesis of 1403, 1404, 1406, 1407, 1408 synthetic methods 1402, 1403 tautomers of 1402 Ugi reaction 1418 using 1402 as catalysts 1426 multiple components 1419 nucleotide coupling 1426 PEG 1417 tetrazolo[1,5-a]pyrimidines thermolysis 677 Theonella aff. mirabilis 12 thermal decomposition 46 thermolysis 47 thiacyclohexan- 3-one 1901 thiadiazine dioxide 1267 thiadiazole 1263 1,2,3-thiadiazole geometry of 1255 photochemical decomposition of 1273 pyrolysis of 1275 thermal decomposition of 1276 1,2,4-thiadiazole 1288, 1309 1,3,4-thiadiazole Fukui functions for 1333 heterocyclic ring, reactivity of 13741382 mass spectrometry 1338, 1339 in medicine and agriculture 13851388 NMR spectroscopy 1336 reactions of substituents 13821385 reductive and oxidative processes 13721374 ring cleavage reactions 13671372 ring systems 1331, 1332 synthesis of 2,3-dihydro-(D2), 3,4-dihydro-(D3), and 2,3,4,5-tetrahydro-1,3,4thiadiazoles 13611366 2-oxo/2-thio mesoionic 1,3,4thiadiazoles 13491354 1,3,4-thiadiazoles 13401349
Index thiadiazolinones, thiadiazolinethiones, and thiadiazolimines 13551361 theoretical aspects 13321334 thermodynamic aspects 1339, 1340 UV/ESR/IR spectroscopy 13361338 X-ray diffraction 13341336 1,2,4-thiadiazole[2,3-a]pyridinium salts structure of 1289 1,2,3-thiadiazole-4-carbonylhydrazide derivatives basecatalyzed ring cleavage of 1277 1,2,3-thiadiazole derivatives 1269 1,2,4-thiadiazole derivatives 1308 1,3,4-thiadiazole derivatives 1361 Mannich reaction of 1377 1,3,4-thiadiazole-2(3H)-thiones thiocarbonyl moiety of 1380 1,2,4-thiadiazole nucleus 1328 1,2,4-thiadiazole 4-oxides mass spectra of 1297 1,3,4-thiadiazole ring systems 1257, 1266, 1331 1,2,3-thiadiazoles 1253, 1254, 1257, 1258, 1281, 1282, 1285, 1286 in agriculture 1286 alkylation of 1283 base-catalyzed decompositions 12761279 13C NMR spectral data 1258 cornforth-type rearrangement 1281, 1282 Dimroth rearrangement 1280, 1281 elaboration of 1269 electron-impact mass spectra of 1258, 1296 heterocycles of 1253 transformations of 12661268 heterocyclic ring, reactivity of 12831285 HurdMori synthesis 12591262 mass spectrometry 1258, 1259 in medicine and agriculture 1286, 1287 methylation of 1284 NMR spectroscopy 1257, 1258 Nold synthesis 1265, 1266 oxidative and reductive processes 1282, 1283 Pechmann synthesis 1265, 1266 photolysis of 1274 proton NMR data for ring hydrogens of 1257 reactions with nucleophiles 1285, 1286 reactivity of 1269 rearrangement processes 1279, 1280 ring cleavage reactions 12701276 solid-phase synthesis of 1262 structural aspects 1254, 1255, 1256 synthesis of 1265 theoretical studies 1255, 1256 thermolysis of 953 UV/IR spectroscopy 1258 Wolffs synthesis 12621265 Wolffs synthesis of 1262 X-ray diffraction 1256, 1257 X-ray structures of 1256 1,2,4-thiadiazoles 1273, 1289, 1294, 1306, 1310, 1316, 1328 aromatic ring reactivity 13111316 D2-1,2,4-thiadiazolines, reactions of 13171320 D3-1,2,4-thiadiazolines, reactions of 1320, 1321 D4-1,2,4-thiadiazolines, reactions of 1321, 1322 IR/UV spectroscopy 1296 mass spectrometry 1296, 1297 in medicine 13281331 NMR spectroscopy 1294, 1295 properties of 1291 reactions of substituents 13221328 reactivity 1310, 1311 ring systems 1287 structure of 12881291 synthesis of 13061310 D2-1,2,4-thiadiazolines 13001305 1,2,4-thiadiazolidines 12971300 theoretical studies 12911293 1,2,4-thiadiazolidines, reactions of 1317 weak bases 1311 X-ray diffraction 1293, 1294 1,3,4-thiadiazoles 1332, 1345, 1386 electronic spectra of 1336 1H NMR signals of 1336 IR absorption spectra for 1338 Mulliken population analysis of 1334 preparation of 1341 reducing and oxidizing agents 1372 1,2,3-thiadiazoles, monocyclic 1275 thiadiazoles, types 1253 1,2,3-thiadiazole system 1259, 1269, 1279, 1367 ring cleavage reactions 1270 1,2,4-thiadiazole system 1287, 1290 cephalosporins 1329 1,3,4-thiadiazole system 1367 1,2,4-thiadiazol-5(2H)-iminium chlorides 1330 1,3,4-thiadiazolidine 1366 thiadiazolidinediones 1329 1,3,4-thiadiazolidine-2-thiones 1340 1,2,4-thiadiazolidone system 1298 1,2,4-thiadiazoline nucleus
j2439
2440
j Index
equilibrium geometry parameters 1292 1,2,3-thiadiazoline products 1266 thiadiazolines 1294, 1321 ab initio calculations 1292 with trichloroacetonitrile 1320 1,3,4-thiadiazolines synthesis of 1362 thermolysis of 1372 1,3,4-thiadiazolin-2-ones 1339, 1355 1,3,4-thiadiazolium cations 1331, 1354 1,2,4-thiadiazolium ion 1310 1,3,4-thiadiazolium-3-methanide 1,3dipoles 1380 1,3,4-thiadiazolium perchlorates 1352 1,2,4-thiadiazol-3-one 976 1,3,4-thiadiazolo[3,2-a]pyrimidines 1370 1-(1,2,3-thiadiazol-5-yl)-1H-1,2,3benzotriazole 1269 thiazole 839 electron-releasing substituent 838 1,3-thiazole nomenclature and numbering 811 thiazole analogs 860 1,2-thiazole, bicyclo[3.3.1]tetrasiloxane 1 thiazole moiety 862 thiazole reduction 866 thiazoles 842, 846 synthesis of 809, 827 thiazoles derivatives b-hydroxythioamides, cyclodehydration of 873 thiazoles synthesis 830, 833, 23722374 thiazolidine 888 1,3,4-thiazolidine-2,5-dione oxidation of 1374 1,2,4-thiazolidine N-oxide formation of 1295 thiazolidinones 942, 1291 thiazolines synthesis of 879 D4-thiazolin-2-ones alkylation of 898 thiazolylmagnesiums metalated bromine-magnesium exchange 851 thiazolyl peptides synthesis of 851 thiazolyl triates 860 4-thien-2-yl furoxans hydroxylamine in aqueous KOH 1156 thiepane 1901 thiepane 1,1-dioxide 1866 thiepanes synthesis 1898 thiepan-2-one 1901 thiepan-3-one 1901 thiepine 1,1-dioxide 1866, 1870 thiepines 1870, 1871 reactivity 1958 and benzofused derivatives 19581968 partially reduced derivatives 19681975 thietanes 214, 215 cleavage, reactions 237, 238 electrocyclic reactions 235, 236 natural and bioactive compounds 215 physicochemical data 215 reactions with bases 233, 234 reactions with electrophilic reagents 231 reactions with metal complexes and salts 234, 235 reactions with nucleophilic reagents 233 reactions with oxidizing agents 231, 232 synthesis 216221 synthesis by [22] cycloaddition 228230 synthesis by formation of CC bond 221 synthesis by formation of SC bond 216221 synthesis by formation of two SC bonds 221224 synthesis from other sulfur heterocycles 224228 thietan-2-ones, oxidative ring expansion 970 thiiranes 109 from alkenes 113 desulfurization 116, 117 from epoxides 110112 from haloketones 113, 114 nucleophilic ring opening 114116 properties 109110 reactivity 114117 synthesis 110114 thiiranyl acetal 114 1-thioacyl hydrazine thermal cyclization of 1349 1,3-thioalcohols 968 chlorination of 967 thioanilides 885 ortho-thioaniline 1556 thiobenzoylthioglycolic acid reacts with acetic anhydride 951 1,10 -thiocarbonyldiimidazole (TCDI) 1355 thiocarbonyl suldes cycloaddition of 940 thiocyanate 112 thiocyanuric acid 1820 thioformaldehyde frontier molecular orbital theory 1256 frontier molecular orbital theory prediction of 1256 thiohydrazides 1351
Index thioketenes 1273 formation of 1270 thiolactam formation 2194 thione 1209 2-thione 1,3-oxathiolane derivative 975 thiopeptide antibiotic 1532 thiophene oligomers 2309 as TFTs 2309 thiophenes synthesis 2662369 thiophene-thiazole oligomer 2309 thiophenol 97, 1196 2-thiopyridazines 1710 thiopyrylium synthesis 1644 thiosemicarbazides cyclodesulfurization of 1181, 1182 thiostrepton 1532 5-thiosubstituted-1,3,4-thiadiazo-2-yl-2carbamates 1384 thiourea 896, 1718 thiourea-based organocatalyst 443 thioxo-dithiocarbamates acid-catalyzed cyclization of 950 2-thioxo-1,3-dithioles dethioxygenation of 959 electron-withdrawing groups 959 thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH) 1405 tin azoles 853854 tin-promoted cyclizations 424 tin zeolite 1901 titania-supported gold nanoparticles 99 titanium-based catalysts 935 titanium benzylidenes 621 titanium binolate catalyst 33 titanium-catalyzed Markovnikov hydroamination 394 titanium enolates 889 titanium-mediated benzofuran synthesis 615 TMEDA 2338 toddaquinoline, isolation 1531 tosopam 2181 toluene 38 p-toluenesulfonamide 14, 15 para-toluenesulfonic acid (PTSA) 693 N-(p-toluenesulfonyl)iminophenyliodinane 344 1-(p-toluenesulfonyl)pyrroles 311, 333 N-toluenesulfonyl-1,2,3,4tetrahydropyridine 73 4-toluensulfonyl chloride 904 o-tolyl analog 27 p-tolylsulfonyliminopyridinium ylides 1491 TosMIC reagents structures of 819 TosMIC route 827 tosylacetophenone transfer hydrogenation of 934 N-tosyl aziridine 31 N-tosylimines 346 tosylmethyl isocyanide (TosMIC) 818 toxic a-halocarbonyl compounds use of 833 traceless strategy 2366 trans aziridino epoxide 18 transition-metal carbonyls 782 transition metal catalyzed benzofuran synthesis 2,3-disubstituted benzo[b]furans synthesis 596607 transition metal catalyzed reactions 457470 CN bond-forming reactions 463, 464, 511, 512 cross-coupling reactions with organometallic reagents 460 direct alkenylation, alkynylation, and arylation reactions 509511 palladium-catalyzed cross-coupling reactions, considerations on 457 pericyclic reactions 512, 513 reactions with alkenes and alkynes, Heck reactions 457, 458 Sonogashira reaction 458460 Stille cross-coupling 462, 463 SuzukiMiyaura cross-coupling 460462 transmetallation of pyrrolylsodium 314 trapping reagent 2081 Traubes oxazomalonic acid 1051 trialkylaluminium 1762 trialkyloxonium tetrauoroborate 1733 trialkylstannyl-1,3-azoles 861 trialkylstannylisoquinoline derivatives 1598 triallyl cyanurate 1819 triallyl isocyanurates 1819 2,4,6-triaryl(alkyl)oxy-1,3,5-triazines 1820 1,3,5-triaryl-hexahydro-1,3,5-triazines 1828 triazapentadienium iodides 1823 1,3,5-triazine 936 triazines 3 1,2,3-triazines 1778 computational chemistry 1778, 1779 physicochemical and spectroscopic data 1778, 1779 reactivity cycloaddition reactions 17881790 Direct DielsAlder reactions with fullerene C60 1792 reactions with electrophilic reagents 1784, 1785 reactions with nucleophilic reagents 17851788
j2441
2442
j Index
reactions with oxidizing reagents 17901792 reactions with reducing reagents 1790 thermal and photochemical reactions 1783, 1784 relevant natural and useful compounds 17791781 synthesis cycloaddition of [33] fragments 1782 cycloaddition of [51] fragments 1782, 1783 cycloaddition of [60] fragments 1783 from pentacycles 1782 from tricycles 1781 1,2,4-triazines 1792 computational chemistry 1792 physicochemical and spectroscopic data 17921794 reactivity 1805 cycloaddition reactions 18091811 DielsAlder reaction 1812 metallation and intramolecular inverse DielsAlder strategy 1811 with nucleophilic reagents 18071809 with oxidizing reagents 1811 reactions with electrophilic reagents 1806, 1807 with reducing reagents 1811 thermal and photochemical reactions 1805, 1806 relevant natural and useful compounds 17951797 synthesis cycloaddition of [33] fragments 1799 cycloaddition of [42] fragments 17991803 cycloaddition of [51] fragments 1803 cycloaddition of [60] fragments 18031805 from more than two fragments 1805 from other heterocycles 1797, 1798 tautomerism 1795 1,3,5-triazines 1812 mass spectra of 1815 15N NMR spectroscopy 1815 physicochemical and spectroscopic data 18121815 reactivity 1830 cycloaddition reactions 1833, 1834 with electrophilic reagents 1830, 1831 of metallated 1,3,5-triazines 1835 with nucleophilic reagents 18311833 with oxidizing reagents 1834, 1835 with reducing reagents 1834 thermal and photochemical reactions 1830 relevant computational chemistry 18121815 relevant natural and useful compounds 18161819 synthesis 18191829 of N-amino and N-oxide 1,3,5triazines 1829 of hydro-1,3,5-triazines 18271829 of 1,3,5-triazines and mono-, di- and tri- 2-, 4-, 6-substituted derivatives 18201823 of 1,3,5-triazinones and 1,3,5triazinthiones 18231827 tautomerism 1815, 1816 triazinetrione 1827 1,3,5-triazine-2,4,6-triones 1825 1H-1,2, 4-Triazol-3-amines 1029 1H-1,2,3-triazol-5- amines azides with acetonitrile derivatives 1001 1,2,4-triazol-3,5-diones dehydrogenation of 1032 1,2,3-triazole 1009 1H/13C NMR spectra of 989 1H-1,2,3-triazole 989 1,2,4-triazole compounds 1025, 1029 1H/13C NMR spectra of 1018 1H NMR spectra of 1017 1,2,3-triazole derivatives, synthesis 996 1,2,4-triazole-3,5-diamine derivatives novel one-pot synthesis of 1024 1,2,3-triazole formation via 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition 991 1,2,4-triazole-3-ones 1022 1H-1,2,3-triazole reacts 1008 nitration of 1008 1,2,4-triazole ring pharmaceutical products 1018 1,2,3-triazoles 989 a,b-unsaturated systems 9981000 acidic cleavage 997 active methylene compounds reactions of azides and hydrazines 10001002 N-arylation of 1007 b-lactam antibiotics, structure of 991 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition, of azides to alkynes 991998 electrophilic reactions 1008 hydrazones, oxidation/cyclization of 1002, 1003 natural products 990 NMR data 989, 990 preparation methods 10031005
Index reactions of carbon 1005, 1006 reactions of nitrogen 10061008 synthesis 990, 991 tautomeric structures of 990 1,2,4-triazoles 1017, 1018, 1028, 1030 acylhydrazines with nitrogen-containing reagents 10181020 N-alkylation of 10281030 carbene reactions of 1031, 1032 carbons of 1030 C-substitution by triazolyllithium 1030, 1031 halogenation reactions of 1032 hydrazones, reactions of 10211023 natural compounds 1018 oxadiazoles/thiadiazoles, reactions of 1023, 1024 physicochemical data and NMR data 1017, 1018 radical reactions of 1031 reactions on nitrogen 1028 reagents 10331035 semicarbazides reactions 1026, 1027 synthesis of 1018, 1019, 1027, 1028 oxadiazoles 1023 1,2,4-triazoles via benzotriazole methodology 1027 tautomerism of 1017 1,2,4-triazoles from thioureas, thiocyanates, and thioamides 10241026 urazoles 1032, 1033 1H-1,2,3-triazoles 1006, 1007 lithiation of 1005 triazole synthesis 992 D2-1,2,4-triazolin-5-ones 1024 1,2,4-triazolium salt catalysts 1034 [1,2,3]triazolo[5,4-a][1,4]benzodiazepines multicomponent synthesis 2203 [1,2,4]triazolo[4,3-a][1,5]benzodiazepines synthesis 2218 1,2,3-triazoloheterocycles 1003 1H-1,2,3-triazol-5-ols azides with malonic esters and amides 1001 1,2,3-triazolo[4,5-b]pyridin-4 (7H)thione 1267 1,2,3-triazolopyrimidine diones 1004 1,2,4-triazolospiro compounds 1021 2,4,5-tribromoimidazole 838 tributylammonium uoride (TBAF) 33 tributyl phosphite 33 4-tributylstannyl imidazole palladiumcatalyzed coupling of 862 tributyltin hydride 117 tributyl(3,3,3-triuoro-1-propynyl)stannane 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition of 993 2,2,2-trichloroacetyl chloride 840 3-trichloroacetyl-4,5-dihydrofuran aromatization 545 2-(trichloroacetyl)pyrrole 303, 304 trichloroisocyanuric acid 1032 trichloromelamine 1818 3-trichloromethyl isomer 1112 5-trichloromethyl-1-phenyl-1Hpyrazoles 662 2,4,6-trichlorotriazine, uses 964 Trichovirin I derivatives 52 trickier approach 2097 2,4,6-tricyano-1,3,5-triazine 1834 tricyclic benzimidazo derivatives 1299 tricyclic 1,5-benzodiazepines 2217 tricyclic derivatives 465 tricyclic fused-1,3,4-oxadiazole systems 1200 tricyclic heterocycle 19 triethylaminetetrahydrofuran mixture 1125 triethyl orthoformate 1346 4-(triethylsilyl)oxazoles 853 triic acid 1824 triuoroacetic acid 92 triuoroacetic acid (TFA) 1265, 1416, 2244 triuoroacetic acid solution benzene ring 1601 triuoroacetic anhydride (TFAA) 1057, 1724, 1901 triuoromethanesulfonic acid (TfOH) 903 triuoromethanesulfonic anhydride 1578 3-(triuoromethyl)-4-aryl-furazans, synthesis 1140 triuoromethylated propargylic alcohols cycloaddition of 996 2-triuoromethylated quinolines 1544 triuoromethyldiazirines 126 triuoromethyl hemiaminal 25 triuoromethylphenylazirine 45 triuoromethylphenyl derivative 647 4-triuoromethyl-substituted quinoline 1550 2,2,2-triuoro-N-(4-phenyl-1,2,5-oxadiazol-3yl)acetamide irradiation of 1186 triuoropropanone (TFP) 138 2,4,6-triuoro-1,3,5-triazine 1832 2,4,6-trihalotriazines 1833 1,3,5-trihydroxycyanuric acid 1826 triisopropylsilyl (TIPS) 294 1-triisopropylsilyl-(E)-2-(2-phenylsulnylvinyl) pyrrole 327 1-triisopropylsilyl-3-iodopyrrole 335 1-(triisopropylsilyl)pyrrole 305
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2444
j Index
2,4,6-trimercapto-1,3,5-triazine (TMT) 1818 trimerization of cyanogen chloride 1820 1,3,3-trimethyl-6-azabicyclo[3.2.1]octane (TABO) 1537 trimethylsiloxycyclohexadiene 54 4-(trimethylsiloxy)pyrrolidine-2-one 339 trimethylsilyl azide(TMSN3) 994, 1406 trimethylsilyl cyanide (TMSCN) 32, 92 o-[(trimethylsilyl)ethynyl]phenyl acetates in situ coupling/cyclization 597 2-(trimethylsilyl)-2H-1,2,3-triazoles 1006 3-trimethylsilylmethyl-1,3,4-thiadiazolium triuoromethanesulfonates synthesis of 1354 trimethylsilylmethyl triuoromethanesulfonate 1191, 1376 2-(trimethylsilyl)thiazole 853 use of 853 2-(trimethylsilyl)ethoxymethyl 1006 trimethylsulfonium iodide 25 1,3,3-trinitroazetidine 164 1,3,5-trinitrobenzene 1158 1,2,4-trioxolanes Lewis acid treatment of 927 triphenyl-1,3-dithiol-2-yl azide, thermolysis 760 triphenylmethyl chloride 115 triphenylmethyl hydroperoxide (TrOOH) 78 triphenylphosphine 92, 106, 1404 used as nucleophilic catalyst 837 triphenylphosphine dibromide 27 triptamines synthesis 503 2,4,6-tris[di(t-butoxycarbonyl)nitromethyl]1,3,5-triazine 1833 tris(p-bromophenyl) ammonium hexachloroanitimonate (TBAH) 2262 tris(dimethylamino)sulfonium diuorotrimethylsiliconate (TASF) 399 tris(pyrrol-2-yl)alkanes 307 1,3,5-tris(1,2,3-thiadiazolyl-4-yl) benzene 1279 tris(trimethylsilyl)silane (TTMSS) 1554 2,4,5-trisubstituted azoles, synthesis 832 2,2,4-trisubstituted 1,2dihydroquinolines 1536 1,5-trisubstituted-1H-1,2,3-triazoles preparation of 997 trisubstituted imidazoles 842 1,4,5-trisubstituted imidazoles 818 2,4,5-trisubstituted imidazoles N-alkylation of 820 trisubstituted indoles solid-phase synthesis 420 2,4,5-trisubstituted oxazoles synthesis of 824 2,4,6-trisubstituted pyrimidines 1716 trisubstituted 1,2,3-triazoles 995 3,4,5-trisubstituted triazoles 1027 1,2,4-trisubstituted urazoles 1019 Trgers bases 708 tropinones 103 tropiporphyrin 2243 Trypanosoma cruzi 1167 tryptamine analog one-pot synthesis 417 tryptophan 383, 477 TsujiTrost reaction 449 tunable BOX-mediated asymmetric aziridination 22 tungsten Fischer dienyl carbenes 692 tyrian purple 2276, 2278 structures 2277
u
Ugi 4CC/SNAr sequence 1,4-benzodiazepine-2,5-diones synthesis 2193 Ugi four-component condensation (4CC) 2188, 2190, 2192 1,4-benzodiazepine-2,5-diones synthesis 2191 plausible mechanism 2190 Ugi reaction 822, 884, 2129, 2369 Ullmann conditions 859 Ullmann reactions 860 Ullmann-type arylation couplings 1030 ultrasonic irradiation 1058 unnatural enzyme models 23002304 a,b-unsaturated enones Michael additionaldol condensation reactions 549 a,b-unsaturated imines 927 a,b-unsaturated ketone 433 a,b-unsaturated oxathiolanes titanium tetrachloride mediated reaction of 980 a,b-unsaturated oximes nitrosation 655 N-unsubstituted imidazoles behavior of 814 N-unsubstituted pyrazole-4carbaldehydes 657 N-unsubstituted 1,2,3-triazoles 989, 991, 995, 998 unsymmetrical 3-substituted furan regioselective oxidation 564 N-(uracil-6-yl)-S,S-diphenylsullimine 1003
Index urea-hydrogen peroxide adduct (UHP) 129 UV absorption bands 626 of diazines vs. pyridine 1686 UV light 1064 UV spectroscopy 774, 2045 of 1H-azepine 1873 UV-Vis light 1439 Wang-supported nitrile oxide, uses 1108 water-borane complex 33 water-soluble alkenes 67 WatsonCrick base pair interactions 2294 Weinreb amides 851, 2353 Weintraub reaction 1071 Westphal condensation product 2035 Westphal process 2034 Westphal reaction 892, 2029, 2030, 2054 Wipf-Miller cyclodehydration synthesis 826 Wittig-like intramolecular reaction 423 Wittig olenation 2161 Wittig reactions 47, 552, 955, 1067, 2001 Wolff rearrangement 1059 Wolffs methodology 1264 WoodwardHoffmann rules 1876 Woodward method 2026 Woodwards total synthesis of cephalosporin C 2149
j2445
v
vacataporphyrin 2246 VAPOL phosphoric acid derivative 35 Venturia inaequalis 1388 versatile ligand 2232 vicarious nucleophilic substitution (VNS) process 1739 of hydrogen 399 vicinal aminoalcohols 899 vicinal bis(arylsulfonylhydrazones) 1002 vicinal diamines 875 Vilsmeier formylation 2015 VilsmeierHaack conditions 535 Vilsmeier-Haack reaction 302, 381, 701 VilsmeierHaack reagent 308, 657 Vilsmeier reagent 1556, 2255 Vilsmeier salts 1999 vinamidium salts 1534 Vindoline 1218 ()-vindoline synthesis 484 N-vinyl-2-azetidinones three-step synthesis 2143 vinyl azides 45, 1141 6-[(4-vinylbenzyl)propylamino]-1,3,5-triazine2,4-dithione (VBATDT) 1815 S-vinyl-N,N-dialkyldithiocarbamates 950 vinyl esters 931 vinylic uoride 1580 vinylidene intermediate nucleophilic capture 606 3-vinylindoles enantioselective organocatalytic [42] cycloaddition 513 intramolecular DielsAlder reactions 485 vinylnitrenes generation 772 vinylpalladium intermediate 426 vinylphosphonate Michael acceptor 1034 von BraunRudolph reaction 1403
x
xantphos ligand 1004 xenobiotics 1867 XPdII(CO)OR-activated alkyne 600 X-ray analysis 2097 X-ray crystallography 638, 2322 X-ray crystal structure analysis 2080, 2108 X-ray diffraction analysis 538, 1135, 2023 xylenes 881 D-xylose use of 1195
y
yellow xanthopterin structures 2276 ylide/haloanion approach to aziridines 26 ylides 25 ylidine-N-phenylhydrazinecarbothioamides 1198 ynamines, cycloaddition 976 yttrium triate 1094
z
zinc chloride 1712 zinc-copper reduction 29 3-zinciobenzofurans 607 zinc-mediated couplings 863 zirconacyclopentanes 1826 zirconium tetrachloridesodium borohydride 105 zwitterionic 6-diazocyclohexa-2,4dienone 1054 zwitterionic structures 1048
w
Wacker-type process 406 WadsworthEmmons reactions 1123 Wallachs reaction 818 Wang resin 824, 2034, 2359 Wang resin-bound 1,2,4-oxadiazole 1115 Wang resin derivatives 28

Hetero Cyclic Compounds

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Hetero Cyclic Compounds

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Edited by Julio Alvarez-Builla, Juan Jose Vaquero, Barluenga and Jose Modern Heterocyclic Chemistry

Heterocycles in Natural Product Synthesis

Eicher, T., Hauptmann, S., Speicher, A.

The Chemistry of Heterocycles

Catalyzed Carbon-Heteroatom Bond Formation

Handbook of Cyclization Reactions

Modern Arylation Methods

H. Yamamoto, K. Ishihara (Eds.)

Acid Catalysis in Modern Organic Chemistry

Asymmetric Synthesis of Nitrogen Heterocycles

Edited by Julio Alvarez-Builla, Juan Jose Vaquero, and Jos Barluenga

Modern Heterocyclic Chemistry

Three-Membered Heterocycles. Structure and Reactivity S. Shaun Murphree

21.8.1.1 21.8.1.2 21.8.1.3 21.8.1.4 21.8.1.5 21.8.2 21.8.2.1 21.8.2.2 21.8.2.3

28.1 28.1.1 28.1.2 28.1.3 28.2 28.2.1 28.2.2 28.2.3 28.2.4

1 Heterocyclic Compounds: An Introduction

j 1 Heterocyclic Compounds: An Introduction

Figure 1.1 Examples of heterocyclic compounds.

Table 1.1 Main three- and four-membered heterocycles.

1.1 Heterocyclic Compounds: An Introduction

Ring size N Benzo

j 1 Heterocyclic Compounds: An Introduction

Ring size N Benzo O

Diazines Pyridazine Pyrimidine Pyrazine

Table 1.4 Other simple heterocycles.

5-5, 5-6, 6-6

1.2 Structure and Reactivity of Aromatic Five-Membered Systems

1.2 Structure and Reactivity of Aromatic Five-Membered Systems

Scheme 1.1 Resonance hybrids of pyrrole.

j 1 Heterocyclic Compounds: An Introduction

E -H+ N H 16 Minor isomer

Scheme 1.2 Electrophilic attack on pyrrole.

Scheme 1.3 Attack on pyrrole by nucleophiles.

1.3 Structure and Reactivity of Aromatic Six-Membered Systems

1.3 Structure and Reactivity of Aromatic Six-Membered Systems

Scheme 1.4 Resonance hybrids of pyridine.

j 1 Heterocyclic Compounds: An Introduction

Scheme 1.6 Electrophilic attack on pyridine.

1.4 Basic Literature on Heterocyclic Compounds

2 Three-Membered Heterocycles. Structure and Reactivity

j 2 Three-Membered Heterocycles. Structure and Reactivity

Figure 2.1 Geometry of aziridine.

8, Aicemicin A, R=H 9, Aicemicin B, R=Me

j 2 Three-Membered Heterocycles. Structure and Reactivity

Scheme 2.1 General synthetic routes to aziridines.

12a, R = CF3 12b, R = Me

Figure 2.3 Representative catalysts for racemic aziridination.

j 2 Three-Membered Heterocycles. Structure and Reactivity

16 n.r. 1.5 7 3 16 1 3 12 n.r. 3 6 2 5

a) Based on nitrene source. b) Bu4NBr used as PTC. c) Immobilized in bmimBF4.

conditions (see Table 2.2) Ph

Scheme 2.3 Asymmetric aziridination of styrene.

Catalyst (mol.%)a) CuHY 18 (7%) 19 (5) 20(0.1)

Nitrene source PhINNs PhINTs TsN3

Styrene : nitrene 1 : 1.3 1:5 1:1

Time (h) 16 n.r. 24

CH3CN CH2Cl2 CH2Cl2

[45] [49] [51]

based on nitrene source.

18a, R = Ph 18b, R = t-Bu 19, X = OAc

Figure 2.4 Chiral catalysts for asymmetric alkene aziridination.

j 2 Three-Membered Heterocycles. Structure and Reactivity

Chloramine-T CH3 CN, rt bromine catalyst (see Table 2.3)

Scheme 2.4 Bromine-catalyzed aziridination.