Strain Concentrations in Pipelines With Concrete Coating

0. B. Ness R. Verley
Statoil, Postuttak, 7005 Trondheirn, Norway
This paper concerns the strain distribution, and in particular strain concentration in field joints, for concrete-covered pipelines during laying. A semi-analytical model, full-scale tests to verify the model and results of a parameter study are described. The model is used to establish nonlinear moment-curvature curves at a number of cross sections on the concrete-coated pipe and in the field joint (F J). These are used to establish a strain concentration factor (SCF) for the FJ, or characteristics for a varying stiffness model of a pipe for direct use in lay analyses. Constant moment, four-point bending tests have been conducted on 16-in and 20-in dia, concrete-coated pipes as well as material tests on the pipe steel, corrosion coating and concrete. The behavior of the pipe, and in particular the SCF at the field joints, is investigated and compared to predictions using the semi-analytical model. The model is found to give a good prediction of the SCF and strain distribution along the pipe joint, for both the steel and the concrete, and is suitable for use in lay analyses for the overbend of S-mode lay vessels.

Introduction
In order to apply S-mode lay vessels for larger-diameter pipelines in deeper water or for special applications such as reduced residual tension for pipelines on uneven seabeds, it is desirable to reassess the presently applied lay criteria. Establishment of lay criteria involves the assessment of loads, load effects, and capacity. Load and load effects are mainly concerned with the barge configuration, roller settings, tension control, and dynamic movement, as well as the stress/strain distribution along the pipeline due to its varying stiffness. The present paper addresses this strain distribution. Most pipelines consist of approximately 12-m-long "joints" welded together. The body of each joint is covered by a corrosion coating, often of asphalt, and concrete cover for weight and protection purposes. However, approximately 35 cm at each end remains uncovered to allow welding at the "field joint" (FJ). When bending loads are applied to the pipe, a strain concentration occurs at the FJ due to its lower bending stiffness w.r.t, the concrete-covered body of the pipe. Calculation of strain concentration in field joints is complicated by the nonlinear behavior of the steel, the corrosion coating, and the concrete, and the interaction between them. Parts of the steel cross section may yield and asphalt corrosion coating has visco-plastic properties. The concrete cracks on the tensile side may crush on the compressive side and may slide relative to the steel. The model presented herein is an extension of Lund et al. (1993), but includes nonlinear material descriptions for steel, concrete, and corrosion coating, and allows sliding of concrete. In the following, the principle of interaction assumed in the model will first be described, followed by a description of the tests and a comparison of the results to verify the model. Finally, a parameter study using the model will be presented.

Semi-Analytical Model Principle of Interaction. Forces in the concrete coating may stiffen the pipe joint through: axial forces in the concrete transferred by shear across the corrosion coating, and normal
Contributed by the OMAE Division and presented at the 14th International Symposium and Exhibit on Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering, Copenhagen, Denmark, June 18-20, 1995, of THE AMERICANSOCIETYOF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS. Manuscript received by the OMAE Division, 1995; revised manuscript received February 16, 1996. Associate Technical Editor: D. Mercati.

forces between the concrete coating and the steel pipe (relative bending). Only the first mechanism is considered here, as the second should be minor due to the small amount of reinforcement used in concrete coating. Figure 1 illustrates the forces in the concrete and corrosion coating, and strains in the steel and concrete, for a certain applied moment. Bending of the pipe gives a compressive axial force in the concrete, which will only remain if the concrete does not slide, i.e., it is held by shear forces in the corrosion coating. At low curvatures, the axial force in the concrete is low, and only a small area of corrosion coating, adjacent to the FJ, is mobilized to withstand it. For increasing curvature and higher concrete axial force, an increasing area of corrosion coating in shear is needed. For the central part of the pipe joint, see Fig. 1, plane sections of the steel/concrete section will remain plane (i.e., no sliding), and a single moment-curvature curve will apply. However, between " 1 " and " 2 " the concrete will slide, reducing the axial force in the concrete to that which can be carried by the shear stress in the corrosion coating working over the area from " 1 " to the cross section being considered. Therefore, approaching " 1 " there is a progressively reduced contribution to the combined stiffness from the concrete axial force, and the steel section must therefore be strained more to support the applied moment. The axial force that can be transferred depends on the shear stress and area over which it acts. The coating is assumed purely plastic, i.e., the shear stress equal to the shear capacity other than for zero displacement. The shear force is assumed carried around the whole circumference of the pipe from sections " 1 " to " 2 . " This assumes transfer of forces from the tensile to the compressive side in the concrete at section " 2 . " FE results (Endal, 1994) show that the shear force acts over a shorter length on the tensile side. Nevertheless, the lengths over which shear forces act in the same direction on the compressive and tensile sides are similar. Furthermore, both numerical results and bending tests show that the concrete slides towards the FJ on both sides of the pipe, other than for small curvatures. The assumption is therefore considered reasonable. The axial load in the concrete that can be taken up by shear in the coating at a particular cross section is thus (TrD/~-), where ~- is the shear capacity of the corrosion coating and l is the length from " 1 " to the cross section being considered.

Journal of Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering Copyright 1996 by ASME

AUGUST 1996, Vol. 118 / 225

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1.6

. ~ ,,.-'"

.e.-

J"

shear stress in corrosion coating ~--..~ force in concrete

1.4

1.2

.*"

."

.....

2m

. --...

~0.8 Z~ 0.6 l~ 0.4 O.2 0 ~

~/.. " - " -

4m
Sm

FJ GLOBAL BAL I
0.004

I
0.008 0.012

Fig. 1 Forces in the concrete and the corrosion coating as well as strains in the steel and concrete, for a certain applied moment. (Symmetry about mid-coating, MC.)

0.016

0.02

CURVATURE [l/m] Fig. 2 Moment-curvature curves at each cross section and the global moment-curvature curves

The model is used to calculate curvature and position of the neutral axis, as functions of moment, at a number of cross sections along the pipe. These give the variation along the pipe of stiffness and of maximum tensile and compressive steel strains, as functions of the load level. By integrating the moment-curvature curves along the pipe, a "global", i.e., average, curve is obtained. An SCF is calculated as the ratio between the predicted strain from the FJ-curve and the global-curve. The FJ strain is the total tensile strain (nonlinear) due to combined axial and bending stresses. The global strain is calculated from the global curvature /(globaland axial stress cro a s (KglobalD/2 + ere~E), i.e., assumes linear summation of strains due to the curvature and axial stress. If the shear capacity of the corrosion coating is sufficiently high, it can support a higher axial force than the concrete can accommodate, and crushing will occur at the MC section. For offshore pipeline concrete coating, crushing occurs at a strain of approximately 0.2 percent. The model predicts the global curvature at which this strain is reached. Crushing will introduce a weak cross section (similar to the FJ), the axial forces in the concrete will redistribute and the model is no longer valid. At this point, the SCF in the model is arbitrarily held constant (in agreement, however, with results of bending tests, see the forthcoming ). Step-by-Step Description. The material properties of steel and concrete are described by arbitrary nonlinear stress-strain curves. The moment-curvature and SCF for a specified axial force are calculated as follows: 1 Choose a value for tensile strain in the steel outer fiber. 2 Assume position of the neutral axis and therefore of curvature. 3 Calculate strains in the concrete assuming plane strain with the steel section. If the resultant axial force is greater than the capacity of the corrosion coating at the cross-section, (TrD/ ~-), where l is the length to the FJ, recalculate strains to give a concrete axial force equal to this capacity. 4 If the maximum strain in the concrete is larger than 0.2 percent, notify that crushing may occur, and put the strain to 0.2 percent. 5 Calculate total moment and total axial force for the given strain (i.e., for the combined steel/concrete section). 6 Check that the axial force is equal to that required; otherwise, adjust assumed position of neutral axis and repeat 2 to 6. 7 Repeat 1 to 6 for a number of values of strain in the steel in order tO complete the moment-curvature curve. 8 Repeat 1 to 7 for each cross section along the half-pipe joint. 9 Calculate the global (i.e., average) moment-curvature curve for the pipe joint and the SCF. 10 Estimate sliding of concrete relative to steel by integrating the difference in strains along the half-pipe length.
226

The SCF can be applied to the results from lay analysis performed using a global moment-curvature curve to predict the FJ strain in the field joints in the overbend region during laying (it has been found sufficiently accurate to use the bare steel moment-curvature curve rather than the global). Alternatively, lay analysis may be performed by dividing a pipe joint into a number of sections, each of which is modeled by an appropriate moment-curvature curve obtained from the model. A number of such pipe joints may be introduced at appropriate points in the modeled pipe string and the FJ strains calculated directly. (At other cross sections, the strains will not be correct unless the model information on the movement of the position of the neutral axis due to the concrete forces is included.) Example Results. Figure 2 shows moment-curvature curves at several cross sections and the global moment-curvature curve, for zero axial force, for the same pipeline as analysed by Endal (1994) using a FE shell model (20-in. ttiameter, 17.9mm wall thickness, X65, corrosion coating shear capacity 0.30 MPa, 80-ram concrete coating with compressive strength 40 MPa). The curves in Fig. 2 are in good agreement with the results of Endal (1994), other than for low moments where the semianalytical model overpredicts the FJ strain. This is due to the effect of the tensile capacity of the concrete, which is only included in the numerical model. Figure 3 shows the SCF predicted by the FE, semi-analytical, and Lund et al. (1993) models. The semi-analytical model predicts concrete crushing to occur at a global strain of 0.247 percent for which the FJ strain is 0.37 percent. The FE model does not include crushing of concrete; however, the concrete strains predicted at this global strain are 0.19 percent by the FE, and 0.20 percent by the semi-analytical model. The Lund et al. (1993) model overpredicts the SCF at high global strains.
2.4 2.2 2 nLUNDet al.

u. 1.8 0 1.6
. 1.4 1.2 1 0 I 0.05 I 0.1 I 0.15 ~ l ~

#~M dd~

~ J l

NUMERIC ANALYTIC

I 0.2

I 0.25

I 0.3

GLOBAL STRAIN [%] Fig. ~3 Strain concentration factor (SCF) from the semi-analytical and numerical models and by the method described in Lund et a|. (1993) Transactions of the ASME

/ Vol. 118, A U G U S T

1996

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Table 1 Results of material tests and geometrical measurements for the four bending tests

0.4
TEST 2 0.3 ~

i~

Test DO0ran) tstee I (ram)

1 517.0 18.5

2 517.0 18.5

3 525.0 23.7

4 407.0 16.1
_z 0.2 < ,n 0.1

/TEST 1 j
#

,i

too ~ (ram) coating

t~on~~ 0ran)

6
80 33.6

6
80 36.4

6
asphalt 40 44.2

3
polyethene 45 31.4

asphalt asphalt

m 0 o -1 o .41.1
-0.2
i i i i ~ i i

concrete strength
(mean, MPa)

20

40

00

00

100

120

140

TIME [ m i n u t e s ]
Fig. 5

Control signals for Tests I and 2

The SCF exhibits a high value at low load levels, reducing to a minimum at about 0.13 percent global strain, and thereafter increasing again until crushing occurs. The initial high value is due to the fact that for low moments, the necessary axial force to prevent the concrete sliding is mobilized over a short length and the full stiffening effect from the concrete applies over most of the pipe length. As the moment increases, the concrete slides over a progressively longer section in which the axial force carried by the concrete, and therefore its stiffening effect, is reduced. For higher moments, the nonlinear steel properties become important, the straining in the FJ is large, and the SCF again increases.

Bending Test Setup

The objective of the tests is to verify the semi-analytical model and in particular the main assumptions: (i) the interaction between the concrete and steel is by transfer of shear forces through the corrosion coating; (ii) shear transfer occurs around the whole circumference; and (iii) the shear stress to be used in the model is related to the values obtained in material tests. Four bending tests were performed, see Table 1. The test setup is sketched in Fig. 4. Four-point bending was applied in the horizontal plane with the pipe weight supported from cranes. Steel strains were measured on the compressive and tensile sides every 1 m along the pipe. In addition, some 40 strain gages were placed in each FJ section. Strains in the concrete were measured every 2 m. A number of displacement measurements were made, as indicated on Fig. 4 ( " 8 " to "13" are relative displacements between concrete and steel). The "global" curvature, i.e., the average curvature over the test joint, was estimated through pipe displacement of the midtest section ( " 1 " in Fig. 4), rotation of the ends of the test pipe ( " 7 " ) , and by integration of the measured steel strains along the test section. For curvatures of interest, the global curvature calculated using these three methods was always within 5 percent. The moment applied to the pipe was calculated through the forces applied at the jacks and the geometric configuration. The moment variation over the pipe was less than 1 percent. Control Signals. Displacement-controlled signals to the jacks were given in order to give the required global curvature. The signals used for Tests 1 and 2 are shown in Fig. 5. The

signals used for Tests 3 and 4 were similar to that used for Test 2. The pipe was first bent to a global strain (=KglobalD/2) of about 0.33 percent in approximately 1 min, simulating pipe moving onto the stinger (other than Test 1, where a number of steps was used taking approximately 80 min). For Tests 2-4, this curvature was held constant for approximately 1 h (simulating the pipe on the stinger), while for Test 1, nine cycles of small-amplitude oscillatory curvature at this high mean curvature were employed (simulating movement of the pipe over the rollers on the stinger). The curvature was then reduced to zero and reverse bending applied to a global strain of about -0.15 percent (suspended section and sagbend). The curvature was then reduced to zero and bending applied to 0.4 percent global strain, and finally reduced again. This last application of bending does not simulate any part of laying, but is of interest in assessing strain distributions for laid pipes subjected to bending.

Material Properties
Steel. Stress-strain curves obtained from bar coupons cut from each test pipe did not accurately predict the momentcurvature curve for the plain steel pipe (FJ) measured in the bending tests, probably due to spatial variation in material properties. A single-bar coupon is insufficient to establish a representative stress-strain curve, which was instead back-calculated from the measured moment-curvature in the FJ. These curves are shown in Fig. 6 for the four bending tests together with the curve from the bar coupon test for Test 2. The curve obtained from the moment-curvature has higher strain hardening. Similar observations were made for the other tests.

400

350
~300 m 250 o~ j /

* ~
~ ~ m

- TEST1 TEST2

100
100 00 f f 0

--~='I 0.001 I 0.002 I 0.003

T T4
TEST 2 (Bar Coupon) I 0.004 0.005

/ ~ 12
Fig. 4

7 10 8

JACK ~ 4

STRAIN (-)
Fig. 6 Stress-strain curves from measured moment-curvature curves

Sketch of test rig showing displacement measurements

(Tests 1 to 4) and bar coupon (Test 2)

Journal of Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering

AUGUST 1996, Vol. 118 / 227

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Table 2 Results of tests on asphalt corrosion coating (tin is the shear capacity)

Table 3 Shear tests, polyethene corrosion coating (tin and treeidu=lare the maximum and post-fracture shear stresses)

Test

A1

A2

A3

A4

A5 0.37 0.36 15 0.37 0.48 15

A6 0.15

Test initial rate

(MPahnin) hold at (MPa) for (rain)

Pi
0.037

P2
0.44

P3
0.44 0.18

P4
0.44 0.18 120 0.44 0.33 0.35 O. 10

initial rate
(MPa/min) hold at (MPa)

0.37 0.037 0.067 0.37 : 0.55 1.7 0.44 3.0 0.46 3.0 0.29 25 0.37 0.54 2.5

for (rain)
final rate (IvlPahnin) t m(MPa)

l ! 0.33 0.15 i O. 10 0.33 0.10 O. 10

30 0.44 0.28 0.10 O.10

: 0.42 25

final rate (MPa/min) tra (MPa) disp. at tm (ram)

t,,~i~I (MPa)

disp. at tm (turn)

Concrete. Six concrete test cores were taken from around the neutral axis of the test pipes after the tests and standard tests conducted. The structural strength results are summarized in Table 1. The range of the concrete strength was about + / - 1 0 percent around the mean. Shear tests on the corrosion coating were performed on approximately 1-m-long pipe sections. Load and displacement-controlled tests were conducted in which the steel pipe was forced through the concrete sleeve in a 100-T press, the loads and relative displacements between the steel and concrete being measured. For the asphalt coating (Table 2 and Fig. 7), the shear capacity is 0.42-0.55 MPa, the highest values occurring for the highest rates of load application. High values are still obtained if a constant, relatively high load level is maintained for some time, during which considerable displacement occurs, followed by a high rate of load application to fracture, e.g., Tests A4 and A5. Due to its visco-plastic properties, asphalt maintains its shear capacity, even after large displacements. However, if a displacement is held, the shear load reduces to approximately 0.200.25 MPa, due to creep of the asphalt (Test A6 in Fig. 7; due to flexibility in the test fig, the displacement was not completely constant). For asphalt, one must therefore consider a shear load in the corrosion coating equal to its shear capacity when assessing strain concentrations during rapid loading. However, lower shear forces (0.20-0.25 MPa) are appropriate when the curvature is held for some time (in the order of 5 rain). These effects will be seen clearly in the results of bending Test 1. For polyethene corrosion coating (Table 3), the shear capacity is 0.28-0.33 MPa, independent of the load rate. At very small displacements (~0.1 ram), fracture occurs, after which the capacity is reduced to ~0.1 MPa (due mainly to friction); i.e., polyethene behaves as a brittle material. During bending, fracture will occur at low load levels, sliding between the con-

crete and the steel will occur, and a low shear capacity (0.1 MPa) is appropriate when assessing strain concentrations. R e s u l t s o f B e n d i n g Tests The tests were primarily initiated to verify the semi-analytical model. In the model, the concrete and corrosion coating properties used are those obtained from the material tests and the stress-strain curves for the steel are given in Fig. 6. Figure 8 shows a comparison of measured and predicted global, FJ and MC moment-strain curves for Test 2 (the FJ strain is the average overall cross sections of the test pipe within the FJ). Figure 9 shows the strain distribution along the test pipe for various values of global strain. Each strain given is the average

Corrosion Coating.

2100

CONCRETE CRUSHING

MC~,.,,**"~

~ '~J"

~ 1 ~1800~z 2 900 0 0 1 5 0 0 3 0 0 6 0 0

"

i 0.1

i 0.2

i 0.3

i 0.4

0.5

STRAIN[%] Fig. 8 Test2mmeasured (. . . . ) and predicted (..... ) MC, FJ, and

global moment-strain curves

0.7 t 0.6

A'I.. A4
A2

0.45 0.5 0.4

~ ~

0.35 ,.~'
~ . - "A5

CONC~ CRUSHING ~

"~ 0.2s
.=

0.5 Jr . . . . / , ~:--"~

04-1- " ~"~f"--0.3

0.25

0.3

:'# .....
-

"t
0.05

"

~OA
0 0 2 Fig. 7 4 6 8 DISPLACEMENT [mm] 10 12

-7 ..6 -5 -4 .-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 DISTANCE FROMCENTRE OFTESTPIPE [m] Fig. 9

strain Test 2restrain distribution along pipe at various levels of global

Shear tests, asphalt corrosion coating

228 / Vol. 118, AUGUST 1996

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T r a n s a c t i o n s of the A S M E

0.8 0.6 _._~,~0.33 ]

1.8
LUND et aL 1.6
t w
we B~ ~

0.25 /

'~' 0.4 ~ " ~ - " ~

~."""'"'~

0,2 / 1.4

ANALYTIC

o.2 t
1/)

orj

-0.2 -0.4

1.2

-0.6 -0.30

-0.25

-0.20

-0.15

-0.10

-0.05

0.00

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

0.35

DISTANCE FROM WELD IN FJ. [m] Fig. 10 Test 2--strain distribution (compressive and tensile) within FJ

GLOBAL STRAIN [%] Fig, 12 Test 2 - - m e a s u r e d and predicted SCF (assumed corrosion coating shear capacity 0.55 MPa)

at various levels of global strain

from the tensile and compressive sides of the pipe. At a global strain of 0.05 percent, the stiffness is constant from about -4.5 m to +4.5 m from the MC section; i.e., no sliding occurs. For the outer ~ 1.5 m of the pipe, the corrosion coating is not able to sustain the compressive load in the concrete and the concrete slides (the model predicts this to occur at 4.5 m for a global strain of 0.04 percent). As higher loads are applied, concrete sliding occurs over a progressively larger extent of the pipe and reaches the MC section at a global strain of about 0.25 percent (0.23 percent according to the semi-analytical model). Figure I0 shows an expanded view of the strains in the field joint, for various values of global strain (Test 2). Large local strains occur some 3 cm from the weld on the tensile side. At a global strain of 0.33 percent, the average FJ strain is 0.47 percent and the local peak strain 0.66 percent. This high local strain is due to local plastification, due to local variations in steel properties and is n o t related to the weld (in some tests they occurred 20 cm or more from the weld). For Test 4, for which the steel had a yield plateau, local plastification gave very high local strains ( 1 and 2.2 percent for average FJ strains of 0.25 and 0.33 percent, respectively). Figure 11 shows, for Test 2, the strains on the compressive side of the concrete at MC and at 5, 4, and 3 m from MC, together with the model predictions. The measured and predicted results are in reasonable agreement, sliding first occurs at similar global strains but the measured strains continue to increase as the global strain increases, in particular for sections furthest from the MC. The semi-analytical model predicts the same curves for the MC and 3 m from MC sections and crushing at 0.25 percent global strain. The measured MC and 3-m curves are similar, but the MC curve falls off abruptly from ~0.24 percent global strain. This is due to redistribution of compression within the concrete prior to crushing, which was observed

at 0.255 percent global strain. At this point the moment-strain curve for the steel at MC changes abruptly (Fig. 8). In the absence of axial forces, the SCF is given by the ratio between the strain in the field joint and (Kg~obalD/2). Figures 12-14 show measured and predicted SCF for Tests 2-4, respectively. (Test 1 is discussed in the forthcoming.) The SCF is predicted well, both for Tests 2 and 3, up to the point where concrete crushing occurs. Test 2 shows a higher SCF than Test 3, due to the thicker concrete coating and thinner steel wall. For Test 4, the measured strain concentration is low, reflecting the low shear force transmitted by the polyethene corrosion coating after fracture (0.1 MPa). For high global strains, the measured SCF increases rapidly due to extreme local strain peaks, as discussed in the foregoing. The SCF calculated by the model of Lund et al. (1993) is also shown in Figs. 12 and 13. Comparison shows good agree-

1.3

LUND et al.

. -

1.2

1.1

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

GLOBAL STRAIN [%] Test 3--measured and predicted SCF (assumed corrosion coating shear capacity 0.55 MPa) Fig. 13

1.5

~-0.04 uJ ~ -0.08 Z O

"''',5m.

1.4 1.3

,Js--/~
/ / / / I
i

-0.12 -

1.2 I 1.1 ~ i
i

_z
~.16 ~ MC

F.J.Nodh

-0.2 0

-3rn...
l

0.05

I 0.1

.I

MC,3m 0.35 0.4

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

0.1

0.15

0.2 GLOBAL STRAIN [%]

0.25

0.3

GLOBAL [%] Fig. 11 Test 2 - - m e a s u r e d ( - - - ) and predicted ( - - ) crete outer fiber at MC and 3, 4, 5 m f r o m MC

strains in con-

Fig. 14

Test 4--measured and predicted SCF (assumed corrosion coating shear capacity 0.1 MPa)

Journal of Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering

AUGUST 1996, Vol. 118 / 229

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2500 E 2000 1500

CYCUNG ~ ~ NG

1.6
CT=80 mm
CT-~Omm /

1.5 1.4

w O
z
Z W

1000 500 0
~oo4

~ 1.3
1.2

.i I . ~

0.4

0.6

08 1.1 1
I I I I I I

m -10o0 -1500 STRAIN [%] Fig. 15 Test 1--moment-strain for FJ ( . . . . . ) and MC ( - - - ) Fig. 17 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35

GLOBAL STRAIN [%]

Effect on SCF from varying concrete thickness on a 20-ino pipe

ment for strains about 0.15-0.20 percent, but deviation for higher and lower strains. Figure 15 shows the moment-strain curves for the FJ and MC for Test 1. During the initial loading the MC curve shows "dips" where the curvature increases and the moment decreases. At the same points, both the moment and the curvature decrease for the FJ curve. These "dips" correspond to the points in the loading cycle where a constant global strain was held for some minutes (see Fig. 5) and redistribution of the forces in the concrete and asphalt coating occurs due to creep of the asphalt. Figure 16 shows the SCF for the initiai loading and smallamplitude cycles of Test 1. Th e pipe used for Test 1 is nominally the same as that used for Test 2; however, the initial loading was applied in a number of steps over a period of about 80 rain. The SCF for Test 1 is lower than for Test 2 (1.25-1.3, as opposed to 1.35-1.4). "Dips" in the SCF occur when the pipe was held with a constant global strain between steps. Predicted SCF is shown using various values of shear capacity in the semi-analytical model and the most appropriate value is seen to be 0.20-0.25 MPa, rather than 0.55 MPa that applied for rapid application of loading of Test 2, consistent with the shear testing results under (near) constant displacement conditions. During the first loading, the contribution from concrete coating causes the MC section to be considerably stiffer than the FJ; at a moment of 1800 kNm, the MC strain is 0.32 percent, whereas the FJ strain is 0.53 percent. Some sliding of the concrete occurs and cracks appear on the tensile side. During unloading (from +1800 kNm to - 1 4 0 0 kNm, Fig. 15), the stiffness of the MC section is still much higher than the FJ section, due to the effect of the release of the compressive forces in the concrete. The concrete slides still more, and, towards the end of the unloading, cracks on the tensile side appear (i.e., the side that was the compressive side during the initial loading). At

this stage, the concrete is cracked around the full circumference and has slid such that it appears as a series of collars, each about 1 diameter long, separated by small gaps ( 1 - 3 ram). During most of the second loading cycle ( - 1400 kNm to about +1500 kNm), the stiffness of the MC section is only slightly higher than that of the FJ section; however, the sections have different residual strains from the previous loading and unloading cycles. Thus, the concrete coating no longer has a stiffening effect, but the strains in the MC and FJ depend on the plastification during the previous cycles; i.e., the SCF based on the semi-analytical model no longer has meaning. For higher moments during this second loading cycle (i.e., > about 1500 kNm), the concrete is once again activated and the MC stiffness is higher than the FJ stiffness, and the model SCF may once again be applied. During the nine oscillatory cycles after the initial loading (i.e., between 1800 and 1500 kNm), no progressive breakdown

1.6 1.5 1.4

u.

1.3
1.2 1.1 1 0

I 0.05

I 0.1

I 0.15

I 0.2

I 0.25

0.3

0.35

GLOBAL STRAIN [%]

Fig. 18 Effect on SCF from varying concrete strength on a 20-in. pipe with 60-mm concrete coating

1.8 1.7 1.6

1.6

1.5

TAU=0.SMPa TAU=0.3MPa

0.ssa~

1.4

--*--

TAU=0.1M~B ~

u. /) 1.3
1.3 1.2 --

1.2 1.1

1.1

PAUSE DURING LOADING I

0.1

1 0.05

I
0.15

I
0.2

I
0.25

I 0.3

] 0.35

, I

0.4

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

0.35

GLOBAL STRAIN [%]

Fig. 16 Test 1--measured and predicted SCF (assumed shear capacities 0.55, 0.25, 0.20 MPa) 230

GLOBAL STRAIN [%]

Fig. 19 Effect on SCF from varying shear strength of the corrosion coating on a 20-in. pipe with 60-ram concrete coating Transactions of the ASME

/ Vol. 118, A U G U S T 1996

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1.6
1.5 N=1OOton 1.4 " -*-*-*-*N=O ton

' 1.2 1.1

1 i

--*--

N=200ton

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

0.35

GLOBAL STRAIN [%]

Fig. 20 Effect on SCF from varying axial tension force on a 2 0 - i n . pipe with 60-mm concrete coating

occurs; i.e., the strains and SCF are dictated by the loading up to that point (see also Fig. 16).

Parameter Study With Semi-Analytical Model

The effects of the most- important parameters in the semianalytical model have been studied. Figures 17-19 show the effects on the SCF of concrete thickness, concrete strength and corrosion coating shear capacity, respectively, for a 20-in-dia, 17.9-ram wall thickness, X65 pipe with no axial force. The stress-strain relationship for the steel is modeled using the Tverrg~rd (1976) model and the concrete using Gaylord and Gaylord (1968). When the predicted maximum concrete strain reaches the strain capacity (0.2 percent), the SCF is held constant. The SCF increases with increasing concrete thickness, concrete strength, or shear capacity of thecorrosion coating. Reduced shear capacity delays the crushing of the concrete. The effect of axial tension force in the pipe is shown in Fig. 20. The SCF is reduced, and the crushing delayed, by increasing axial tension as this reduces the strains on the compressive side, and thereby the stiffening effect of the concrete coating.

steel is by transfer of shear forces through the corrosion coating, (ii) shear transfer occurs around the whole circumference, and (iii) the shear stress to be used in the model may be related to the values obtained in material tests. For a given concrete coating, the SCF is closely, related to the shear transfer from the concrete to the steel through the corrosion coating. Asphalt corrosion coating is a visco-plastic material and was found to maintain its shear capacity, and thus maintain the SCF, even for the large distortions to which it is subjected during the bending. However, if a given curvature is held for some time, the asphalt creeps, the shear load reduces and the SCF is reduced. Tests in which the loading is applied rapidly (1 min to full load) are predicted well using the measured value of shear capacity of the corrosion coating (0.55 MPa). Tests in which the loading was applied over a longer time ( ~ 1 h) are predicted well using a value of shear stress for constant displacement loading (0.20-0.25 MPa). Polyethene corrosion coating is a relatively brittle material for which fracture occurs for small distortions greatly reducing the shear stress between the concrete and the steel (to about 0.1 MPa) and resulting in a low SCF value. The parametric study using the semi-analytical model shows that the SCF increases with increasing concrete strength, concrete thickness and corrosion coating shear strength. The SCF is reduced by increasing axial tension. The main conclusion from this paper is that the semi-analytic model provides reliable strains in both the steel and concrete for a concrete-coated pipeline exposed to bending and axial force as on the overbend during S-laying.

Acknowledgment
The authors would like to thank the management of Statoil for permission to publish this paper. The bending tests were conducted at Det Norske Veritas, whose help is gratefully acknowledged, in particular that of O. Bjc~rnty, who carefully planned and conducted the tests. Elf Norge is thanked for providing the 16-in. pipe used in the tests.

Conclusions
Results from the semi-analytical model compare well to resuits from full-scale bending tests of 16 and 20-in. pipelines described in this paper. The model gives a good prediction of the SCF, the strains in the steel and the concrete, and the sliding of the concrete over the steel. In particular the results support the basic assumptions of the model; namely: (i) the interaction between the concrete and

References
Endai, G , 1994, "Extreme Bending of Concrete Coated Offshore Pipelines: A Numerical Study," DIANA Comp. Mech. Conference. Lund, S., Bruschi, R., Montesi, M., and Sintini, L., 1993, "Laying Criteria Versus Strain Concentration at Field Joints for Heavily Coated Pipelines," Proceedings, 13th OMAE Conference. Gaylord, E. H., and Gaylord, C. N., 1968, Structural Engineering Handbook, Sect. 11, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY. Tverrg~d, V., 1976, "Buckling of Elastic-Plastic Oval Cylindrical Shell under Axial Compression," International Journal of Solids and Structures.

Journal of Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering

AUGUST 1996, Vol. 118 / 231

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