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GRAMMAR
O~' TH&

JAPANESE

WRITTEN LANGUAGE.
U\

118400

W, G. ASTON, C.M.G. D.LIT.,


Late
jajJrlII8St

Secretary, /{,R,.lf.'s LegflliOll, T(I/d(l,jatflll.

THIRD EDITIO!'~, Revised and Corrected.

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LANE, eRA \:', FORD & CO.


1904

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CONTENTS.
Introductory Remarks
CH.~PTIiR

page i.
PAGE.

I. II.
!II.

Writing, Pronunciation, Accent, Letter-changes Classification of Words Uninflected Principal Words (Na). Noun, Pronoun, Numeral Adjective, Adverb, Conjunction, Int rjection

39

IV.

Inflected Principal Words (Kotoba), Conjugations, Derivative Verbs, Compound Verbs, Derivative Adjectives, Compound Adjectives 79
106

V. VI. VII. VIII.

Uninflected Teniwoha suffixed to Na Uninflected Teniwoha added to Kotoba ... Inflected Teniwoha .. ,

134

Humble and Honorific Verbs, Auxiliary Verbs, Verbs used as Adverbs and Conjunctions Syntax Prosody Appendix. Index. Specimens of Japanese

IX. X.

...

170

WORKS BY THE SAME AUTHOR.

A GRAMMAR OF THE JAPANESE


GUAGE.

SPOKEN LAN-

THE

NIHONGI;

or, Chronicles of Japan

from the

Earliest Times to A.n. 697. Japanese.

Translated from the Original Chinese and

A HISTORY OF JAPANESE

LITERATURE.

SHINTO.

II/

preparation.

INTRODUCTORY

REMARKS.

IN its structure, the Japanese language possesses all the characteristics of the Turanian family. It is in the main an agglutinative language, that is to say, the roots of words suffer no change," and the results which are obtained in European languages by inflection are arrived at in Japanese by the use of separate particles suffixed to the root. Like the other languages of this family, Japanese has no formative prefixes such as the German CE, or the reduplication of the perfect in Latin and Greek verbs. Its poverty in conjunctions and copious use of participles instead is another point of resemblance. The Japanese language is further an example of the rule common to all languages of this family, that every word which serves to define another word invariably precedes it. Thus the adjective precedes the noun, the adverb the verb, the genitive the word which governs it, the objective case the verb, and the word governed by a preposition the preposi tion. The number of vocables common to Japanese with its kindred tongues is much smaller than might have been expected. The only language which contains any cone to the roots of verbs (see Chap. IV.) is agglutination or inflection.
It may be a question whether the addition of the vowels a, i, U and To the Japanese mind the)' are not distinct from the root, and a Japanese knows nothing of such forms as mat (wait), lab (eat). These vowels have no meaning in themselves. They only serve to modify the meaning of the root, and therefore the term inflection appears more appropriate. It has accordingly been used in this treatise to distinguish these changes (rom agglutination proper, or the addition of particles which have a distinct meaning of their own, and are recognized b)' those who use the languag-e as separate from the root.
B

11

!NTROIJUCTJON.

siderable proportion of words which are also found in Japanese is that spoken in the Loo-choo Islands. Loochooan is very closely related to Japanese, but Mr. B. H. Chamberlain's researches show clearly that its grammar differs so much that it cannot be regarded as a mere dialect. The Korean language has also an affinity with Japanese. The number of common roots is apparently not considerable, but the resemblance ill grammatical structure is very close. The vocabulary of the japanese language, as it appears in its oldest monuments, is, in so far as it is possible to judge, homogeneous. It contains only a very few of the Chinese vocables which are ;;0 plentiful in its later forms. According to Japanese accounts, the study of Chinese was first introduced into japan in the third century of the Christian era, when Chinese books and teachers were brought over from Korca ;" but even if these accounts can be depended upon, the influence of these teachers was probably confined to the Court, and had little permanent effect. A succession of other teachers afterwards arrived from Korea, but it was not till the sixth century, when Buddhism was first introduced into Japan, that the study of Chinese became general. From this time it spread rapidly. The profane literature of China was also studied, and Chinese words began to find their way into the japanese language. This process has gone on uninterruptedly up to the present day, and now
The old Japanese histories inform liS that a teacher of Chinese called Ajiki came over to Japan from Korea A.D. 284, for which the correct date is 404. In the following year a second, named Iam', was sent for. I Vmli is said to have brought with him the ROIIgo, or Confucian Analects, and Sen-fi-mon, or thousand character classic, but there must be a mistake about the last-named work, as it was not written till more than two hundred years later. These two scholars were subsequently made instructors to the Imperial Prince. There is, however, evidence that Chinese books were brought to Japan in the preceding
reign,

INTRODUCTION.

III

the Chinese words in the language far outnumber those of native origin. The Chinese pronunciation first adopted by the Japanese was that of the province of Co (Woo or U in Chinese). This province contained Nankin, the capital of Chin? under the eastern Tsin dynasty, which Legan A.D. 317, and it also contained the capital of the southern of the two empires into which China was divided during the dynasties which succeeded from A.D. 420 to A.D. 589. It was the Co pronunciation that the Buddhist priests used (and continue to use) in their litanies, and the greater number of the Chinese words which found their way into Japanese in the early period of hinese learning have come down to us with the Co pronunciation. Most of the kmta are Chinese characters pronounced according to the Co - 011, or with slight modifications of it. The reason for choosing this dialect was no doubt simply because the province where it was spoken lies nearest to Japan, and was at that time the most flourishing part of the Chinese Empire. The intercourse between Japan and this part of China was considerable, and was not confined to matters of religion and learning only. Many Chinese customs and much of their civilization were adopted at the same time. To this day a draper's shop is called in Japan a Co-fulm-ya, or Go-clothing-house," showing that what we are accustomed to consider the Japanese national costume was at first an imitation of the dress of Co. Japanese grammarians give as an additional reason for preferring the Co pronunciation, or Co-O,t as it is called, that it approached more closely to the sound of the 'J apanese language, and was therefore more easy of 'pronunciation. It is not to be supposed, however, that any Japanese, except perhaps a few scholars who visited China, ever acquired the true Chinese pronunciation. It is impossible to represent any Chinese dialect accurately by the
Il

IV

INTRODUCTION.

Japanese syllabary. English written in this way becomes almost unrecognizable, and the metamorphosis undergone by Chinese when subjected to the same process is much greater. A second mode of pronouncing Chinese was introduced into Japan not long after the Go-on. This is what is known as the K all-on. K an (in Chinese Elan) is the name of the celebrated dynasty which ruled in China during the period from u.c, 206 till A.D. 265. Under it flourished the greatest literary men that China has produced, and even at the present day the Chinese are proud to call themselves "sons of Han." In a number of expressions Kau is used by the Japanese as equivalent to "Chinese." Thus, K an-sela are Chinese books; f( am-Incn, Chinese composition; Knn-go, a Chinese word; Kan-gnkn, Chinese learning, &c. In the term Kan-an however, the word Kan has a narrower signification. The Kan-ou was the dialect which continued to be spoken in the province of Honan which had contained the seat of the government of the Han dynasty. It was the most refined and cultivated language of China at this period, and occupied a position similar to that now held by the so-called Mandarin dialect. It was recognized as the standard pronunciation by the Chinese teachers from Go, although they spoke and taught their own dialect; and even the Buddhist divines, who did more than any other class of scholars to establish the GO-Oil, did not altogether neglect the study of the Kan-ou, The GO-Oilhad become widely adopted before much attention was paid to the Kall-OII. The latter was, however, recognized as the standard, and succeeded gradually in establishing itself as the more usual pronunciation of Chinese words. It is now, except in rare cases, the only one given in Japanese dictionaries of the Chinese character, but a multitude of words is still pronounced according to the GO-Oil. The Kan-on often coincides with the GO-O'l, but it is as frequently widely

INTROD

erION.

different, and the use of these two systems of pronunciation has therefore given rise to considerable confusion. J n the case of the more ancient lle1lgo, or names of periods, and of the names of the Mikados, it is often doubtful which is the correct pronunciation, and in many cases either may be followed at pleasure. The modern official Chinese language is car cd by Japanese the Ts-in, To, in Chinese Tang, is the name ~ f the dynasty which flourished in China from A.D. 6r8 to A.D. 906, but this word is used by the Japanese for China and the Chinese nation generally. A Chinaman is popularly called To-ji", and To-itt means simply the modern Chinese as opposed to the J apa nese traditional pronunciation. The To-in has been generally adopted in the case of a very few words only, as lor instance 1JJ1, which is pronounced Mi:t (Chinese Ming) when thc dynasty of that name is meant. It is also the pronunciation used in their litanies by the branch of the Zenshiu sect of Buddhists known as the Oba1:11ha. The Obaku ha was founded by missionaries from the monastery of Obaklt, in China, who came over to Japan A.D. 1692, and established themselves at Uji, not far from Ki6to. Like the Go-on and K an-on, the To-in differs considerably in the mouths of Japanese from the true Chinese pronunciation . The accents are neglected in the present Japanese pronunciation of Chinese words. There are, however, some traces of them to be found in the spelling. Where the same character has two different accents, the spelling usually varies, and the characters which have the entering accent in Chinese may be recognized from the Japanese spelling ending in tsu, chi, kll, ki, or /11. Chinese words can generally be easily distinguished from those of Japanese origin. They end much oftener in diphthongs and in thc letter n, and are usually associated in twos or threes, so that when one is known to be Chinese the

VI

INTRODUCTION.

otners may be presumed to be so also. Another id to their recognition is the fact that in japanese syntax they are a: ways treated as nouns. There are, however. a few cases in which genuine japanese words have assumed an appearance which makes them hard to be distinguished from Chinese. For instance sata, though really a j apanese worJ, identical with the root of sadaka, sadamcru, &c., is usually written with the Chinese characters i'J; ik. and in this shape it has all the appearance of a Chinese word. On the other hand, a good number of Chinese words which were introduced in the early days of Chinese learning have become so thoroughly assimilated that they might easily be mistaken for Japanese words. Such are eeni (cash). which is only another form 01 ,t sen iJ. semi (cicada) (or sen !lfj!. enislsi (connexion) fur eu-s/si rJe,/imLi (letter) for filii )(. DUring the fourteen centuries over which our knowledge of the Japanese written language extends. its grammar has suffered but little change." and such modifications as it has undergone have been slow and gradual. There is no gap between ancient and modem Japanese like that which divides Latin from Italian. or even that which separates the English of the period before the Norman conquest (rom that now spoken. Such changes as have occurred consist chiefly in the disuse of certain particles and terminations, in modifications of the meaning and use of others, and in the
The grammatical structure of the J apanese language is looked upon by native writers as an institution of Divine origin, and they attribute to this cause the substantial unity which it has maintained throughout its entire history. Heretical views of grammar, or bact grammar, arc therefore a very serious matter in Japan. Amatsu otm mi ka",i 710mi been handed down to us from the great and august gods of heaven, errors contrary to their ordinances must be a heinous crime, casting disgrace upon our august country,"

/sllfalle if II ni sId lutbereba, sono okite Ili tngahi aYlllllarli koto hll 111; klllll WO J.:egaslli-Ialrlllal.ruru lIIJ l.ruJlli !U.klll.:' arll/J~shi. II Grammar having

INTRODUCTION.

YII

disregard, to some extent, in the later forms of the language of the rules of syntax of classical japanese. The progress of these changes marks three stages in the history of the japanese language. rst, that of development, extending to about A.n. 900; znd, that of maturity, including the four following centuries; and lastly, that of decay, extending from A.D. 1300 up to to the present time. The latter half of the eighteenth century and the first half of the present witnessed a brilliant revival of the study of the old language, and it may be doubted whether japanese has not attained a higher degree of perfection in the archzeological and philological works of Mabuchi, Hirata, and more especially Motowori, than even in the golden age of its literature. But it is to be feared that this is no more than an eddy in the main current. The old language is at present falling more and more into neglect, and the faculty of writing or even understanding it is becoming rarer every day. Its use is confined to learned treatises far removed from the daily concerns of life. The style most in vogue at present (and used in official documents, newspapers, &c.) is modelled on literal translations of Chinese books. It is charged with Chinese words, idioms, and constructions to such a degree that, whether read or written, it is often entirely unintelligible to an unlettered japanese, and its grammar is only a skeleton of the luxuriant system of the older language. [See specimens VII., VIII., and IX. at the end of this volume.] The modern popular written language occupies an intermediate position between the old language, of which it is the true offspring, and the mongrel Chinese type just described. it is looser in its syntax and poorer in grammatical appliances than the former, but it has enriched its vocabulary by a liberal adoption of Chinese words. The Chinese element is, however, confined to the vocabulary, and there are few traces

VIII

INTROD

CTJO

in this style of Chinese idioms and constructions. Books addressed to the unlearned class-such as novels, tales, the romances which take the place of history and biography to all but scholars, a certain proportion of the popular poetry, &c.-are composed in this style. The spoken dialect of Japan differs so considerably in its grammar from the written idiom that it almost deserves to be regarded as a new language. Its position is not unlike that of Italian in the middle ages, when it was only a spoken dialect, the language used for literary purposes being exclusively Latin. The difference, however, is much less in degree than in the case of Italian and Latin. The principal characteristic of the spoken language is a tendency to pass from the agglutinative into the inflectional stage of development, many suffixes which are in the written language distinct from the root being in the spoken dialect blended with it in such a way that the separate elements can no longer be distinguished except by the scholar. For instance, where the written language has sllilllnhi-lm'Z', the spoken has sldmaua ; for the written form ari-tari-keri, the spoken dialect has attake , for ara-mu, nrO; for knln-Im, it has sometimes katD, and so on. Among these various forms of Japanese, the classical literary language of the tenth, eleventh. twelfth, and thirteenth centuries has been selected as the most suitable standard for grammatical purposes, and such differences as the other forms of the language present have been noted as variations from it. The spoken dialect, however, differs so considerably from any of the written forms that it has been found more convenient to exclude it from the scope of the present work, and to make it the subject of a separate treati e. A considerable portion of the literature of J apan is written in the ancient classical Chinese language which is still

INTRODUCTION.

IX

employed to a small extent. There seems, however, every reason to believe that it will soon share the fate of Latin in Europe, and fall entirely out of use except for a few purposes of a special character.

CHAPTER

J.

WRITING, PRO 'UNCIATION, ACCENT, LE1'ER-CIiANGES.

The origin and history of an alphabet, which in several forms has been found inscribed on certain ancient scrolls deposited in the treasuries of Japanese Temples, have been a fruitful subject of controversy amongst native scholars. Some have maintained that these letters, which they call the Sltndaiji, or "letters of the age of the gods," are of vast antiquity, but it is now admitted that they are nothing more than the Korean script known as 0111111111, invented by a king of that country towards the middle of the fifteenth century, and actually in use there at the present day. Japanese is written by means of Chinese characters both in the square (see 1., II., VII., and VIII. of the specimens at the end of this volume) and cursive (see specimens IV., V., and IX.), and also in several intermediate forms. The order is the same as that of Chinese, viz., from top to bottom in columns proceeding from right to left. In writing Japanese, a Chinese character may have one of four different values. . 1. It may be the equivalent of a Chinese word (on or koe). 2. It may be the equivalent of the synonymous Japanese word (/mll or yomz). 3. It may represent the mere sound of the Chinese word 0'i-01l 110 kana). 4. It may represent the mere sound of the Japanese word (k1l11 110 kana). In the two former cases a Chinese character has an ideographic value; in the two latter it has a phonetic value. \Vhen used in the former capacity, Chinese characters are

JAPANE~E

WRITING.

termed by Japanese writers mana ; when used in the latter capacity, they are called Imlla. JIIlalla means" true name," implying that this is the true use of a character, while kalla (contracted for kan-na) means" borrowed name," as in this case the mere sound of a character is "borrowed" in order to express the whole, or more frequently only a part of a word unconnected with it in meaning. Every Chinese character may be used as the equivalent of a Chinese or of the synonymous Japanese word, and a considerable number of them are also occasionally employed phonetically. For example, :R (heaven), may be equivalent to (I) the Chinese word ten, (2) the japanese word ame, cr (3) the mere sound te or ten, :R is not used for the mere sound ante, as distinguished from the word ante (heaven). An instance of a Chinese character used to represent the mere sound of a Japanese word i, which is used for the sound 1I1i(4), as well as for the Japanese word lIIi or lIIitslt " three" (2), and the synonymous Chinese word salt (1).* In the oldest Japanese writing, the Chinese characters are generally mana, and have their ideographic value. The K,!jiki, for instance. is written principally in mann, as are also the norito, or ancient ShintO prayers. Specimen I. (from the Kojiki) at the end of this volume is an example of this stage of Japanese writing. It will be observed that the Chinese order of the characters is followed, and it might perhaps be

=.:.

* This may be illustrated b)' the following example of the results which would have taken place had the Roman numeral signs been made use of in a similar way in writing English :-" On the IIICenar), (I) a C (2) times I C (3) him to you, although it tC (4); i.e., "on the tercentenary a hundred times I sent him to you, although it thundered." Here C has first its proper meaning, and represents the Latin word cent, (a hundred); second, it has its proper meaning, and represents the English word" hundred n; third, it represents the Latin sound eml only, the meaning being different; fourth, it represents the English sound Ilundred, the meaning being different.

JAPANESE

WRITING.

suspected that the Kojiki was intended as Chinese, and not as Japanese at all. The authority of l\1otowori, however, is against such a supposition, and he has even given us a restoration in Kalla of the entire text, as he conceives it to have been originally read. I n the noruo, the characters are written in their Japanese order. But even in this early stage it was occasionally found necessary to give the Chinese characters a phonetic value, in order to write Japanese proper names of unknown or doubtful derivation, and other words or particles for which there were no convenient Chinese equivalents. Besides, in the case of poetry, 1110110 could only give the meaning, whereas with kano, not only the meaning, but the precise words and particles used could be expressed, and consequently the metre rendered discernible. These causes gradually gave rise to a more extended use of the Chinese characters as mere phonetic signs. The poetry in the Kojiki is written in kalla, and in the MOllyosniu, a collection of poems extending over the period from the fifth to the ninth century, a gradual increase in the proportion of phonetic signs is plainly observable. At this period the analysis of the sounds of the language into forty-seven syllables had not been made, and inasmuch as many different characters were used not only for each of these forty-seven sounds, but also for many of a composite nature, great confusion resulted, much of which is now avoided by the use of the alphabets, or rather syllabaries, known as the Katakana and Hiragaua. There is some doubt respecting the exact date of their first introduction, but it is known that both had come into general use by the end of the ninth century of our era. The Hiragaua syllabary can hardly be called an invention. It consists simply of abbreviated cursive forms of a limited number of the more common Chinese characters. This syllabary consists of forty-seven syllables, but each syllable

JAPANESE

WRITING.

is represented by several characters, and as some of these are written in several different ways, the entire number of signs amounts to about three hundred. The Katakana syllabary is of a more artificial character. It consists, like the Hiragana, of forty-seven syllables, but there is only one sign for each. Most of the Kata/sana characters are abbreviated forms of Chinese square characters, one side (kata) or a part being taken to represent the entire character. Thus", (i) is an . bbreviated form of 1JI', '" (ro) of g, and so on." Modern Japanese writing is an intermixture of Chinese characters used as ideographic signs (1IIalla) with Katakana or Hiragnna. The proportion in which these elements are combined varies greatly, and is different even in different editions of the same book, words which are at one time represented by mana, being at another expressed by means of Katakana or Hiragaua. In other respects, too, there is great irregularity. The following rules are therefore subject to numerous exceptions :I. lYJ ana are used for all words of Chinese origin, and for the roots of the more important Japanese words (na and
kotoba).

Katagana and Hiragaua are used for grammatical terminations, and for the less important words of Japanese origin (teniwoha). 3. Katagana or Hiragana are often found, as in Specimen VI. at the end of this book, written to the right of a Chinese character, to represent phonetically the Chinese or Japanese word to which it is equivalent. They may also be written to the left. as in Specimen III., but this is less common.
2.

It is a curious (act, that notwithstanding its greater simplicity and convenience, the lower classes of Japanese are unacquainted with the Katakann, and even schulars prefer the Hiragana for most purposes.

JAPANESE

WRITING.

4. Katakaua are found with the square form of the Chinese character (see Specimens 1.,11., VII., and VIII.); Hiragaua with the cursive form (see Specimens I'!., V., and IX.). S. Katakona are occasio rally employed amongst Hiragaua in writing interjections, foreign words, and also where italics would be used in English. The pronunciation of the I( atakana and Hiragalla is n t always identical with that of the characters from which they are derived. 7' and -C, for instance, are pronounced te, although derived from JC, which has the sound ten, The Kataeana and Hiragana are arranged by native grammarians in two different orders. That in popular use is styled iroha, from its first three letters. In this arrangement the forty-seven sounds constituting the syllabary have been made into a line of dogg) el verse as an aid to the memory. The following table (Table 1.) exhibits the Katakaua and Hiragnna arranged in this manner. The first column contains the English pronunciation, the second the Katakana with the Chinese characters of which they are abbreviated forms, and the remaining columns the Hiragana letters, together with the Chinese square characters from which they are derived. I n this table the Hiragana letters are arranged in order of their most frequent occurrence, those in the first space being far more frequently met with than the others. It is this variety which is given in native educational works and taught in schools, and at first tile student had perhaps better confine his attention to it.

6
RATA-

TABLE I.

PRON.

_ lUNA.

fIlRAGANA.

-1

-1 1:y
'P

\'

oJ.
-:>,

r'A

Wt..

1:j

ro

=?
,~

?
~

-11 g

'l ~f1
~:

1~
/\

'-~-

;f~

-1~
.~

JJi,
.."
i~

--

'1~ '!t
ha
Y:h

{.

; ~.&:
~ ~

7t
it
~

*~.

ill

3 - ~=- - .Jf -4J. :1.


~~

'eJ '$ e,
z,

.it

*~~

--%

';t

-t
!f>
~

~.

1f1.

A>Jt.

.4,
~

--

71N -11f\

i(; < .7

ho

- it,

-1*

~
;~

Nzgt'. only,

.,e., ba;

--1*

t~ t

*- *-

-1'

TABLE I.
.

PRON.

KAT~-

KAN a,

~ HlRAGANA.

110
C(mf,f.

)!
'1f
~ ~ ~

he

JIll.

_mt

lib..
~ ~ ~ ~
I

l *'
lfi
......,.
fJ<}

:F

.~

l!.
s.1f'I.

J~
to

r
$..'

~-

t J:.
jr~

Jl:.

.)t -&:I

.~ ~

)jt
.::;-

thi

!fir:'

!fi~ jfiP LJ . 1.--0

-~- '&.'
1')

>t-

.0-

&.
,

ti
1it

. 1'1

;!"J
.3-

~"J i']
~..." ~t
;<,
~

1: 1i
..-v>

1. ;;l'~ . .!. $
~

)~ ;&t

;f

nu

~;;).
'::ll5\..

iO

:JtZ

.
.I

~
t.t.,

~ .3J}'
be.

I
~
i !

. Nlgon, only.

TABLE I.

- ,
, PROI\.

. !'l',\ ;

lllRAGA~A.

KA.i"A IV

ru

l>
t-o \E
..b
Yo>

'2
{.n
\lJ

:a /IlL..

I \1-

~>

.?:>
~,

11
~ J~

~;iL

:of.< OIL

~,

wo

7 .5j~

it it
~ ~

~ ~

>f

.-.

'1

3'?

51-

wa

;fP
JJ

'J

:b
&p

-;t'?

1 f~ 1
.l.
,
~

ft

-'1'

ka

7.>'
/1'0
~

Ap .
o!.>

4)

p'O

VJ
~ ~

Pf
~

1;1;
*~
~
I

:3

yo

's.

W
.!j

1?- 1~ -'1\
., Ni,pri only, s.e., gao

1~ Jv~

t~1

)t
$.. .lj

'*"
,
\

.~,

.s.t,

TABLE I. PRON. KATA K.o\NA.

mruoANA.

60

tsu

ne
N1.f01"

iJh ft, ~?r' ~.!r,


only, s.e.,
7.0.

C 2

10

TABLE I.

PRO~.

~TA KANA.

HlRAGANA.

I
~ ~

na

;t..... kil__ ,T,

)$.

m~

.tt

i/\

s. I X X.....
J1
.T,
~

~ ,7, "
I

j1.~

~~

J1~ i1fj
~<..
~ ~

;>"

~tf
~. .

1":"l.

7 ~<..
A

mu
,

U Sf- 'j(
"Ii
f'

R
~

>

0
t-<-~

n n fJ..
,....
~

"i-J
~

I '- -1. 13 I if- I~ 7f


~

}1f
-

U
-'~..

no

J)

LiJ~ * *
"1-

q:/

~. +
0)

"1
r7>

/jf,

h~

":1,

1~ -x;
,

~ ~ ~

1)

at,

J)

J]

Vh

~t At
1

:0

!t.

. ITf<-,

~"

TABLE I.
KATA KANj\. ,t

PRON.

o ku

;t
v

it
~~

;f~ ~~' t.,


~~ ~~ ~~

1.. 1,- ~

<

d?. 7U

1J.

If J1"

n
1n.

~L
~.

111n

;)

fa

12

TABLE I.
PROI'. KATA KANA. mMGANA.

ko

::l
...:L.

b
'tt?

-t it .

-t

tfJ.

I 10
1i5(

tr..

)J:.

tc

7 ;J\..

*
"'(

*vt
s:

it

7\..'

a
l-;[t.

-y

7 Pij

t~ t35 1~ .~t
:X~

-; .,. < 1 vJf .f~ I 5.. ~f, if


I

il! * ;;tz
::1:>

'>

1l-T
'K>

,..,'-

.' (t:S

5<

FJ

=it :k I. .

/fir:
1 .~

~l., 1 '-'"

)IZ .

l!~

-'f-

ki

~ ~~

~\ ;l;

)1r2. I J~

. 7~

if .a:J.lj'"

:k

-t. I t I

~ 11ft
~

it

~'itI .

~.~

l'

:t

~ PRON.

.~

KATAKANA.
~
\

BIRAGANA_

C07lfci.

ki

...:z..

~ ~

-s-'0

.,r

~ ~

yu

me
11n

.?

Yl

\b
ts1)

tb
~

vp m
~

Jt nt
J,..
~

.Q.

*"
"t

s.
v ;z..
~

*
~ ~

t
~

-s
~
I~

)L
~,
~

1;f ~1 :?'

s:
~

shi

t
~ ~ ~

l~ ~
I~'

v~

7"-

"" }L

t
14

;t
"' ;hT
~

jf;t

*1
-,'1.~

e
hi
!

.~ ,:....'.

d)
y'

~J;

/.0'-

-,lo-

,';J

'-

).,(;

yO
13

~t '. 1:1 .~f j( - . ..


Nifo1" only,

~.,

~r

n.-

.0
vI:.

j;.

h ';j~
I~

,.t~,j;.

JAPANESE

WRITING. 1.

TABLE

PRON.

KATA-. ~'1A.

BlRAGANA.

..:c
:0;10
~

k:;

i>~ i
~

.kJ
~.
y:}}.

k:J
'7

I~
.~

,~
~

--ro--

.!o

~ ~

-e
SC

-tt- * *
~~ ~

:1lt
;A
,
I

'ilt

!Jf
.~

SU

. --j~;l 7),

:1

11

c>

t1~ '33t 'I}JI Iv

*~

.~ .. tf> ~ -->" -p~~ ~k


"-Jt-:P

jhl
.:J
7if
.,j '

a
.
~

j x.
...:>.

i~

':10

The arrangement given in the following table (Table II.) is usually preferred by native scholars to the iroha. Here the syllabary (in the Katakana form) is arranged after a more scientific method, those syllables which contain the same vowels being arranged in upright columns, and those containing the same consonants in horizontal columns. It will be observed that this table contains fifty letters.

JAPANESE

WRITING.

15

TABLE II.

j :>~ <'I

I'<

M
-e

11 ,-I)"

,. .'
t-

Y
-\7

a
'I

.ks.
3i"

sa

ta. Ina

,"-

"
l:

I .,
R
'I n
)1-

W
'?

ha ma
Eo

ya

ra wa
'l'i
)

s;1..

ki
?

shi chi ni : hi mi

J.

(8
yi
::L

,.
U

;. IDU
;I-

ku

su
~

tsn nn
't'

fu
'"

yu

ru wu
v

E
r--

x: e
:K
0

ke
zr

".

.;i-

ye
'3

.x.
I e
'J

se
;J

te ne
t

he
II

me
0{:

re
V.

ko

so

to

DO

ho

mo

yo

ro

---

wo

Amongst these, however, the three letters which have circles drawn round them are not in use, and have only been introduced in order to fill up the breaks in the series. The reason why no letters are required for yi and unc is no doubt the close affinity of y and i and wand u, which renders y and w almost inaudible in this combination. Ye is equal to yi+a, and the same remark is therefore applicable to it as to yt:

16

JAPAKESE

WRITING.

N final is omitted from the second Table. It is properly not a Japanese letter, the termination of the future, which is nearly the only place where it is found in Japanese words, having been anciently not 11, but 11l11. It sometimes repreents an r which has been assimilated to an 11 or m following. The Japanese language does not possess the sounds si, ti, tit, or 1m. For si it has slu , for ti, c/si ; for til, tsu , and for
1111,/11.

>l' and .:e, though belonging to the w column, are not pronounced wi and we, but i and e. No doubt the original pronunciation was wi and we. lVo (;;') was formerly considered one of the a (7") i (-1 ) u (7) e (So) series, and 0 (;t) was placed along with wa ('7) i (>l') wu U)} e (~). Motowori corrected this error, but it is still found in many Japanese books. The Wakim S/liwori, 01' instance, follows the old practice. It will have been observed that the preceding Tables do not contain the letters g, e, ;: d, b, and p. Neither the Hiragana nor the Katakana originally provided any means of distinguishing the syllables commencing with these letters from those beginning with k, s, sIt, t, and It, and there are many old printed books in which the distinction is not marked. The passage at the end of this volume, taken from the Taketori flfollogatari, is in example of this practice. The diacritic mark ( )\ ) known as the lligori, placed to the right of the letter, is now made use of for this purpose. It is the same for both Hiragana and K aiakana. The letter p had no existence in the older form of the language. J l is now marked by a small circle ("), called the /t01t.-1tigol'i,written to the right of those kana which commence with h or f. The
. Nigori means impurity," It is opposed to .flllll' (purity), the term used in speaking of the unchanged sounds. An old form of the 7Ug-OI'I~ now lillie used. is 00, as ;11" (ga}. The 1ligori is of len omitted, even at . t'ie "resent dar.

JAPANESE

WRITING.

17 from the sub-

use of these marks will be best understood joined table :-

j1

ka
ga

I I

,..
jf

"" ,,"'
~

ki
gl

?
?~

?
!it'

.."

...:

-,,'

sa za ta da ha ba pa

v
T

shi
J1

"..
~ ~'

chi
dji

~-:J
,:/. "7 77'

~.
OTHER

hi bi pi
MARKS

ku gu su zu tsu dzu fu bu pu

'/

7'
-i! -i!-

7"
"-

-,

-e

-e

ke ge se ze te de he be pe

ko -::to go so :J .. f zo lto r do .r- ho bo "" ,j;' po


:2

USED

IN WRITING.

1 (Katakana) or ~ lHiragana; for koto. a thing or action." This sign is also used. more especially in the forms

or

I, to mark the beginning of a speech or RIn this position it stands for koto,

quotation-thusl.

in the sense of kotcba, words." In dramas it marks the beginning of the prose speeches of the actors, l. is also used for koto, It is a combination of the Hiragana Z. and \!:. ~ or k.. said to be a form of 1:. is used for a Chinese character when repeated a second time. as -;; ichi-ichi, "one by one,"
(. (with Kntnkmla) and \ (with Hirclgall,I). said to be a'so

abbreviated forms of

1:. are put for the repetition of a word

18

OTHER

MARKS

USED 1:

IN WRITING.

of more than

one syllable, as

I- !rilo.bilo, men;"

t '(
(

mote

mate, wait I wait!" " , said to be a further is used for the repetition
ha!

<
contraction

of the same character,


't

of a single syllable, as 't Ita! Ito!

and , are marks of punctuation, but they correspond not so much to our periods and commas as to the rhythmical pauses made by the japanese in reading. They will be found very unsafe guides to the structure of a sentence, marks the beginning of a chapter or section. -, which is merely the character ielti, "one," marks thc beginning o, shorter divisions than O. It is often put where" item" might be used in English. A document, the sections of which are marked in this way, is called a 11itotstt-gtlki or one-writing." 2 is the equivalent of the English [ ] or ( ). L- marks the end of a paragraph. is for I- =\' loki, " lime." -.J- is also uscd for toki, time." If: is for I- -'; 101110, "although." Z. is put for go::;ont, "to be." 3S. is written lor tama, the first two syllables of tamafu, the honoi ific auxiliary verb. ~ is put in j(lItakano for shlte, co having done." One or two lines drawn to the right of a word or character have rhe same effect as italics or capitals in English printing,

Ita! /IO!

~ koko, " here."

as

The sallie effect is produced

:1 ;~.

by a hne drawn round a word

I~ or letter, as ~.

OTHER

MARKS

USED

IN WRITING.

19

language, In writing or printing Japanese, the divisions between the words of a sentence are not marked by corresponding spaces between the letters, as in English. The Katakaua are written distinct from each other, but there is nothing to show where one word ends and another begins, while in Hiragana the letters are joined to each other or spaces left between them, entirely according to the caprice of the writer, and with no reference to the natural divisions of the words. ] apanese printing is in most cases an exact imitation of the written manuscript, the paper being pasted on the blocks which are then cut out, thus making a facsimile of the writing. This is, of course, impossible with moveable types, the use of which has lately spread extensively, but even in their case no spaces are left to show the divisions between the words, as in European printing.
PRONUNCIATIO '.

71" is for 111(1SII, the polite termination of verbs in the spoken

z: is put for gOJJf1, the first two syllables of gosari, to be."

a has the sound of a in father. z z " machine.

" e "
11

"

U frequently becomes i after sh,;; or cI, in the Yedo pronunciation of Chinese words, as sll1lku, which is pronounced shilm. The consonants have the same sounds as in English, except in the following cases :S, Sll.-Se and shi are the Yedo pronunciation. In some provinces these syllables are pronounced size and si. Ji, the nigori of slzi, is pronounced exactly like di;, the nigori of cM. A different spelling has been adopted in order

" "

" " "

" " "

"

" ey " tl,ey.


" "
0

00 "

book.

" so.

20

PRONUNCIATION.

to preserve a mark of the different origin of these two letters. Zit and dZll are also often confounded, especially by natives ofYedo. T, D.-The pronunciation of these letters differs slightly from the English sounds. In English the tip of the tongue touches the palate; in forming the Japanese sounds it is pressed more forward against the teeth. H, F.--Tn the Yedo language the pronunciation of these letters resembles the English, except that in producing the Japanese sound represented by f, the under lip does not touch the upper teeth, but only approaches them, the result being a kind of strongly aspirated who III the west of Japan all this series of aspirates is pronounced f, not h. Hiee is called Fieen , Hirado, Firaudo, and so on. In the vulgar Yedo dialect hi is almost undistinguishable from sIt;. R.-Especially before i, r differs considerably from the English sound. The true pronunciation can only be learnt from a native of J apan." The pronunciation of combinations of Japanese letters in some cases differs considerably from that of the letters taken separately, and in order to be able to read Japanese books as they are read by the Japanese themselves, it is necessary to know not only the sound of each letter when taken separately, but also the changes which its pronunciation undergoes in these cases. Au, afu, ou, ofn 00, oho, and ozuo are pronounced 0,. and eu, efu, eo, and eho are pronounced io or yo. Thus soft, (to associate) is pronounced so,. OILOsaka is read Osaka; sen-sou (a battle) is pronounced sen-so; efll (to get drunk), yo, and so on.
The Japanese r is a medial, and not an aspirate. It is formed in the same way as d, except that the tip of the longue touches the roof of the mouth further back than in pronouncing that letter. Some Japanese make it almost}.

PRONUNCIATION.

21

The latter part of this rule is in reality only a particular case of the former. In Japanese etymology, e is equal to i+a. En is therefore i a It: i.e., by the first part of the rule i8 or y8. This explains some apparent difficulties in Japanese pronunciation. Teu, for instance, is pronounced cl18, te It being equal to Ii a u, i.e., clti u or eM, t changing to cit before i, and au being contracted into o. A similar analysis will show how it is that defi~ is pronounced dju; sefu, s/zO; and hell, Itiyo or ItJ/(j. Exception I : In the terminations of verbs a/II oft are by most Japanese read aii vii. Exception 2: In some words of native origin, afit and ofu are pronounced as written, for example--afitreru, to overflow; hofuru, to slaughter. U.-In pronouncing Chinese compounds, the first part of which ends with the letter kll, and the second begins with k, the It is lost, as in mokl/-kOIl, which is read mokkon. The vowels of the syllables tsu and clti are lost before a t following. eM is in such cases written tsu, as in 1II0/SIl/e (pronounced motte) for moclute. G.-At the beginning of a word, g is the English g hard, but when it comes after other letters it has, in the Yedo dialect, the sound of 11% in ring, as in Nagasaki, which is pronounced Na-nga-saei. In the genitive particle ga, g has also this sound. In the western dialect, g is in all cases the English g hard. Tsu.-In modern Japanese and in Chinese words, tsu, except when it begins a word, is usually assimilated in pronunciation to a k, s, or p following. Thus shitsu-so is read shisso , satsu-shari, sasshari ; slm/slt-kill, sltukkill;' Nitsu-pon, NiPPOll, &c. This has caused tstc to become regarded as a mere phonetic sign of the doubling of a letter, and it is not unfrequently used by modern writers when the doubling has resulted from the assimilation of other letters

22

PRONUNCIATION.

than tS1I. Thus, tattobu is written tatsu-tobu, instead of tafutobu ; IIOSSurrt is written htJtS1t-sun~, instead of hori-suru. In H iragana texts a Katakana tsn is occasionally used for the same purpose. Something of the kind is needed, for it is often difficult to determine whether the ISle has its proper sound or is assimilated to the following letters. The only rule which can be given is that tstt. is usually assimilated in Chinese words and in the most modern form of Japanese, but not in the older language. t H, F.-Except !!...~ beginning of a word, the aspirates Ii and f are lost in pronunciation. Ha becomes wa; hi, i; 'fi", It; Ill!, e; and 110, o. It is this loss of the aspirate which enables fi~ and 110 to form a crasis with the preceding vowel, ,as shown above. The particle Ita is pronounced ura, and he, e, as they are considered to form part of the word to which they are joined. The aspirates are sometimes omitted even in writing. Thus I we find iu for ifu, "to say"; slaman for shimafu, "to finish." IThis practice should not be imitated. The old language .never has a syllable beginning with a vowel, except at the beginning of a word. N.-Before 111, b, and p, 1/ is pronounced 1/[.
TRANSLITERATIO '.

In the first edition of this work, the rule adopted in spelling both Chinese and Japanese words in Roman letters was to give as nearly as possible the actual Yedo pronunciation of the entire word, irrespective of its spelling in Japanese kfl1ta. This method has been retained in so far as Chinese words are concerned, for in their case nothing is gained in a work like the present by an adherence to the Japanese spelling. In the case of Japanese words, however, the native spelling represents a more ancient pronunciation, and a

TRANSLITERATIO

'.

23

knowledge of it is indispensable for etymological purposes. It has therefore been thought advisable, in the present edition, to represent the spelling rather than the pronunciation, and each letter of the Japanese syllabary is consequently in all cases written with the same R man letters, viz., those placed opposite to it in the foregoing tables. The preceding remarks on the modifications undergone by some letters when com bined with others will enable the student to 'infer the actual pronunciation, and, for example, to read sofu, so; lI'agasaki, Na-nga-saki ; matsntaku, mauas, &c.
LETTER CHANCE'.

The letter changes which Japanese words have suffered in the course of time have, in the majority of cases, not affected their spelling, which continues, as is 0 often the case in our own language, to represent the ancient pronunciation. These changes have been pointed out under the head of "Pronunciation," but those of this class which have found their way into the spelling, together with the changes due to the action of euphonic laws in derivation and composition, are still to be noticed.
Cll(lIlges 0/ Vowels.

final of adjectives, and of the negativq particle Sit, is elided before the initial vowel of the verb am.! "to be." Thus, uakare is written for 1mku are, Ilogakori for 1I0gaku ari, araearn for araeu ant. Other examples of the elision of a vowel are ;Tori for te on', Tarahi, "a wash-hand basin," for te arala. Z aru for eo aru. Kaeari for koku ari. Sasageru, to offer," for sashi-agern. Nart.' for 11iari.
Elisioll.-The
11

LETTER

CHANGES.

Tnri for to ari. 111are for 1/1(1 are.


. A riso, "a reef," for ara iso. The vowels of the syllables 1IIi,1/171,1110, and ni are often elided, the remaining consonant being then represented by the letter c>, which, as above observed, is pronounced n or lit, according to the letter which follows it. Examples:A SOli, " a noble of the Court," for asonu. Inoe, a man's name (pronounced illlbe), for IlIIibe. On, the honorific particle, for oun. Kiudachi, "nobles," for killli-tach;. Kansas/u, a hair ornament, for kamisas/ti . Vall}i, "you," for nauncdri. Nengoro, "kindly," for uemoeoro. Hingaslu, "east," for /tilllukm'/u. Nanzo, :c what," for nani zoo Iea, "how," for ikalli. Ap/znrresis.--In the older language, a hiatus was inadmissible in the middle of a word. It was therefore necessary, whenever the second part of a compound began with a vowel, either to elide the final vowel of the first part of the compound. as in some of the examples quoted above, or else to remove the initial vowel of the second part. The following are examples of the latter course having been taken :Kaumtsumnri for knlllll-atSl/lIInr, "an assembly of gods." Tozoomari (pronounced toman) hitotslI for /(I'l'O amari Intotsu, "eleven." Akas/l (namc of place) for Aka is/ti. Ogata (name of place) for Oagnta. Cmsis.-i followed by a becomes e in the termination en of the perfect, the I' being here the result of a crasis of the i final of the root of the verb, and the initial a of the verb ant,

LETTER

CHA

GES.

25

"to be." An instance "lament," for ?laga iki An irregular crasis sometimes written teu.

of a somewhat similar crasis is lmgeki (lit. long breath). is that of the words to i/Il, which are (pronounced elLa).

Other Cha1lges

0/

Vozueis.

U.-In a few words u has been introduced in order to give the syllable a fuller sound, asMaukem (pron. 1flokeru) for makeru, "to provide." Tanheru (pron. tOberlt) for taoeru, "to eat." Yallka (pron. yMa) for yaka, "eight days." Slzikau shile (pron, shil.'l' sllite) for sltz'ka slate, "thus," " therefore." An It of this kind is occasiona\1y introduced into ChineSej words. For instance, one pronunciation of f usually read saezuan (a clerk in a government office), is so-kwail, i,e.. sau-laoan: An It in the old language has not un frequently become 0 in the later times, as sodaehi, "bringing up," for 5udrrclti; 110, " a moor," for 1111. Where the first part of a compound ends in e, this vowel in a considerable number of cases becomes changed into a. Examples :Kana-mono, a metal fastening"; from kalle, "metal." and 1II0ll0,"a thing." Salea-mori , "a drinking bout'" J" from sake rice beer" and mori, root of mont, to fill." Da-bi. t "a torch " , from te t " the hand", and hi , fire MUlla-gi, " a roof tree"; from 11lulle," the breast," and kr:

-a-,

a tree."
MtI1lt1ko,

"the pupil of the eye" ; from me, " the eye," 110, the possessive particle, and /.:0, " a child," "somethi ng small." In a few cases i, in the same position, is changed into 0, as konoha, "leaves of trees," for ki 110 Iia , 1'01l0ho (pron. hOllo),
D

LETTER CHA GES.

a flame," for hi 110 ho (lit., "an car of fire") ; IUI/arll, "a fire-fly," for /u-tar, that which drops from it fire."
A ttractio. The tendency to assimilate the vowels of successive syllables, which is common to the Japanese language with the other branches of the same family, has been termed attraction. In Japanese its action is comparatively limited. The following changes of vowels are' probably due to this tendency. Sni1'l1-ga "white hair," for sl/Zra-kf!. Orodos/u, "the year before last," for atotoshi. Ago (1Itokillli, my great lord," for aga oltokimi. The pronunciation of Ott as g (see page 20) is also no doubt due to attraction. . The letters i and It are closely allied to each other in Japanese. It has been already observed at page 19, that in Yedo the It of Chinese words is in many words pronounced i. A few Japanese words are spelt indifferently with either letter, as iwo or taoo, u a fish"; iroko or uroko, " a fish scale"; itsltkushillllt or Itlsltkltshillllt, " to love." The spoken language has ilm for yuklt, "to go" ; and in some places ihz" is heard for y/thi, " a finger,' and iki for Yllki, " snow." Changes of Consonants.

Nigori.-Thc most familiar change of consonants is the substitution for a pure (i.e., hard) consonant (viz., k, s, sit, t, ts, dl, or It, f), of the corresponding impure (or soft) consonant (g, s, or j, d, or d:::, and hOI' p). [See above, page 21.) This occurs when the word beginning with a pure consonant is made the second part of a compound. The introduction of the nigori (z".e.,impurity) is not universal in such circumstances, and there is much irregularity with regard to it, the same compound being pronounced by some people with the Iligon' and by others without it, as for instance the name of the city Ohosaka, which some pronounce Osaka, others 6zaka.

I.ETTEI~ CHANGES.

27

The following rules will serve as a partial guide to its use. I. In forming compound verbs, the first element of which iSI also a verb, the nigori is not introduced. Ex.: Saslti-Itflsfl1l1l1,
Sllillle-koroSll,ltiki-lorll.

The initial consonant of the second element of most compound nouns take' the lIigori. Ex.: jo-bllkllro, an' envelope," for jO-/llkuro; warahi-gllsa, a subject of laughter," for warahi-kusa; kmz(I-bulIIi, "a writing in kana," for /.:(lll(l2.

jimli.

The same change takes place in many Chinese compounds. Ex.: Ko-.~lti for /;;o-sui, "an inundation" ; /;;It-do/;;rt for klt-Io/':II, " merit" ; hnll-;"Ofor flail-sILO," prosperity." The initial consonant of the second part of the reduplicated plural of nouns (see below, Chap. I II.) almost invariably takes the 1tigori. Ex.: Sauta-sama for snura-snma, "all sorts of" ; shilla-;i1l(Z for s/li1ta-sllina, "articles of various kinds"; hilobilo for hito-Itito, " men." 4- Tmiwoha suffixed to the perfect and to the negative base take the nigori; those suffixed to other forms do not. Ex.: Yuke-ba, yuka-i, yl/ki-tl', yuki-slti, Yllk1t-IoIIIO. In the case of compound nouns, whether a consonant takes the nigori or not is greatly determined by euphony. Thus in abura-tsnbo, "an oil-bottle," the nigori is no doubt omitted in order to avoid the ill - sounding combination aimra-dsubo. It is also for the sake of euphony that in japanese words an :/ (11 Or m) almost always C;1l1<CS the following consonants to take the 1Iigori. Ex.: A'illf/add for kill/ilachi, "nob'es"; tsumindo for tsumi-Iuto, "a criminal"; kal'ollzllru for karomisunl, to make light of," "to despi-e "; .rude for fumi-te, a pen"; himukashi, east," which has become first IIillgaslt and then ltigas/li. Chinese words are subject. though to a less extent, to the same tendency. For examples see the list of auxiliary numerals. The letter p, which is incorrectly described by Japanese

28

LETTER CHANGES.

grammarians as the htllt-1ligori (half lligOI'l) of It and / is entirely foreign to the older Japanese language. It is only found in Chinese words and in the present spoken dialect of Japanese, in the latter of which cases it is usually the result of thc assimilation of a preceding consonant to the inital It or / of the second part of a compound. Ex.: Hap-p8 for Ilachi-Ilb, "on all sides"; sepp1lku for setsu-fulm, di,;embowclment" ; Intsn-paru (pron. Ilipparl!) for liiki-hant, "to pluck" ; tsutsupari (pron. Isuppart) for tsuei-hari, "a prop." In some Japanese words a double p seems simply to have taken the place of an older II or f. Thus, yahari, " stili," has been strengthened into yatsn-pari (pron. yapjJart); ma-Jtira, humbly," into marsu-pira (pron. mappira). In Chinese words an 111 or 11 at the end of the first part of a compound has often the effect of changing the initial It or / of the second part into p. Ex.: Nalll-pll, an adverse wind," for lZatl-j'fi; lIlam-puku, " full stomach," for mau-fuku ; dampan, " a negotiation," for dan-Jum. There are a few Japanese words beginning with p, but they are all onomatopoetic words of recent origin. Japanese grammarians maintain that the nigori is in all cases the result of some such changes as have been described above, and that it had no existence in the original form of Japanese words; but this opinion can hal dly be sustained, in view of the numerous words which begin with b, d, g, J: &c., a fact for which they offer no explanation.
Assiuulation

0/ Consonants

to succeeding' Consonants.

The most ancient language had no double consonants, and consequently no assimilation. In the stage of the language represented by the emji Mouogatari and similar works, there are frequent instances of the assimilation of I' to an In or Il following, as araznn 11m'; for arasaru uari, be/milt mereba for bel.:a,.u mereba, sakan-naru for sakarinaru, klldatt 110 golo/m

.118-iOO
LETTER CHANCES.

29

for kud'lri 110 gotokll. &c. This 111 or 11 is usually written to the right and in Katakana, and it is often dropped altogether. the tendency of the older language being to avoid double consonants. Thus, karina, "a letter," which becomes kamza by the assimilation of the r to the It following, is always written kfl1Ja. All other cases of assimilation belong to the latest form of the language. Except in the case of uc or 11, the Japanese syllabaries provide no means of writing double consonants, and recourse has therefore been taken to the rude expedient of writing, instead of the consonant assimilated, the letter in which this change most frequently takes place, viz., tsu. Thus, to show that la/lllok;, "august," is to be pronounced /al/ol.:, it is spelt lalsu/oki,. hori snrn, "to wish," is written IIotSIIsuru, in order to show that it is to be read hossnru , kiisltsak (pron. kissakz), "the point of a sword," is written for kin:saki, and so on. The Japanese language dislikes to have successive syllables beginning with the same consonant. To this principle are due such forms as too ba for wo um.
aras/u for ant rasld. kernslzi for kerll rns/u. hoshilmgi, " a broad-headed nail," for hoshi-Cltgi. tuasuruna, " don't forget." for tuasururn na. uunagara, " ali," for miua 1lagara.

The difference between the second and first conjugation of adjectives is no doubt due to the same tendency. In the first conjugation shi is added to the Toot in order to produce the conclusive form, but as in the second conjugation the root already ends in ski, the same rule, if applied to it, would give a termination sllishi. One of these syllables is therefore dropped.

30

LETTER CHANCES.

I n the more ancient language this tendency extended to double consonants, one of which was usually dropped, as kanna (for kllri na), which is always written kana, arazan nari, often written arasauari, &c.; but in the later and spoken forms of the language an opposite tendency may be observed, and many consonants have been doubled apparently for no other purpose than to strengthen the sound of the word to which they belong. Thus, tnda has been strengthened into tatsuta (pron. tilt/II) ; umtala: into 111tllslliaku (pron. lIlattakll); valiari is sometimes pronounced )'Ilppari; 1IIil1a, uunna ; minami, uunuami, and so on. K.-There is a tendency in Japanese to drop this letter when it occurs in the middle of a word. The most familiar instance of this is in the spoken language, where k is lost in the terminations of the adverbial and attributive forms of the adjective, lzaYMII, for example, becoming Im)lmt (pronounced IIn)'o), Iln),alti, Imyai, &c. The written language also affords examples of the loss of k. Snitsulcoro, "previously," for saki ts koyo. TSllilac/Zi," rst day of the month," for Isukillldfi. Il/aratrdzn (pron. warod::;u), "straw shoes," for warn-lm/slI. H, F-The aspirates of the syllables 1m, Izi,fn, Ize, Izo, are often vocalized into II, the vowels of these syllables being at the same time dropped, as in the following examples :Fltignu (pron. /ttigo), "bellows," for /lIki-gaha. 0101110 (pron. 0/610), " vounger brother," for ato-Jnto. Karindo. " a huntsman," for ;"ori-Ililo. Jllnllchigillli (pron. moclfigi",,). " former lord," for 11mlle ISIt
killli.

Htwki (pron. Mki), " a broom," for Im-Ilaki.


The western spoken form of the past tense of verb ending in aftl is also an instance of this change. I n this dialect the termination ahita always becomes8ta(in wtiting, altla) instead of atta, as in the Veda language. Thus, the past tense of

LETTER

CHANGES.

31

sI!i1Jl0/1I, ., to finish," which at Yedo is slti1l/alta, is, in the language of the western provinces, sllinz8ta.* 1If and N.-;.' (m or 1l) is frequently vocalized into u, as/

in the following examples;Kouji (pron. k8j;), a small road,' {or ko-miclli. Teudsn (pron. clt8-dzu), water for washing hands," for
le-lIIid::n.

Kautsuke (pron. Kotsllli:e), name of province, for KamitSlike. Kmtbe (pron. Kobe), name of town, for Komi-be.

A familiar example of this change is the 11 final of the future, which in the spoken language is changed into 11,and then forms a crasis with the preceding a, becoming along with it o. An ;.' is frequently introduced for the sake of giving a/ fuller sound. Ex.: Yoku11tba," if good," for Jloku ba, Akambo, "a baby," for akabito. Tell1t8, " Emperor," for telt-o. Zeunatsu, good and bad," for een-aeu, The Hakodate spoken dialect introduces this ;.' very freely. M and b are closely related in Japanese. Some words are' spelt with either indifferently. I Ex.: Sa111u1'a/1l or sabnrafr, " to attend on." Semae or sebala, narrow." Kemuri or kehuri, " smoke." Samisltiki or sabisltiki, " lonely." Himo or Itibo, a cord."
if Motowori lays down the rule, that vowels which lire left when the initiAl consonant of the syll ible to which they belong has been removed, or which are the result of the vocalization of a cor-sonant, should be written with the vowel series of letters (7' -'I '7:r.;t) and not with the aspirated series (" \: 7 ,,*) as is done by some writers.

LETTER

CHANGES.

It should be remembered that the sounds, tu, ti, du, di, si, i, and lilt do not exist in Japanese, and are represented by tsu, chi, dZII, 1ji, shi,ji, and fil. Hence the variations which take place in inflecting such a verb as utatsu (mllchi, matsu, uuua, mate), and in other cases where these letters are involved, are only apparent, and no change of consonant really takes place. Some of the preceding remarks on letter-changes are further illustrated in the following list of less obvious derivations.

A FI:.W DERIVATIONS.

Abumi, "a stirrup";

from as/u, foot," and fuuii, tread."

C( agaki for aslti-kaki. AI,,,lsllki, dawn"; from aka, a root meaning "clear," u bright," and loki, time." Asatsute (pron. asatte), the day after to-morrow"; from asu, "to-morrow," and satsute (for smite), having passed." Fuda, a ticket"; from funu, letter" or writing," and ita, a board." Hakallla, "trowsers"; from lurki, to draw on," and mo, clothing." Harllbi , a girth" , . from kaya belly" and obi" , girdle." Hotoke, a deceased person,"" a saint," a god"; from hila, " man," and ke, " spirit." Idsumi, a spring" ; from idsuru, "to issue," and midsu, "water." Cf. milo, water-gate." Ih; "a house"; from i, root of iru, to dwell," and he, an old word meaning" place." Ikada, "a raft"; from uki, float," and ita, "board." Inisltilte, "ancient time"; from ini, root of tnurtr, "to go away," slu, a particle indicating past time, and Ile, " place."
') o(

DERIVATION.

33

Kauroi, "the upper of the two beams into which the slides are inserted in a Japanese house"; from kami, "above," and i, root of iru, "to dwell." Koromo, "clothing"; from kint, "to wear," and 1110,

" clothing."
Kursmua, a bit"; from kuchi, mouth," and tua, " ring." MallP, before"; from tur, eye,' and Iw, place," or .side." Cf. Sllinh, " beh ind." fl'fodti-dzul.:i, "full moon"; from michi, root of mitsnru,

" to be full," and tsnki, "moon." MOgIISfl, tinder"; probably from 1Il01le, root of 1Il0YUrtt, " to burn," anti Nusn, herb." Mllkadl', "a centipede"; from lIIuknlti," opposite," and te, hand." Niski, "west," for il/iski, i.e., the part where the sun" has gone away." Nodo or 1101lcUJ, "throat"; from nomi, . to swallow," and to,
U

"door."

Otodoshi, the year before last";

from ato, " previous," and

toski, "year." Otolohi, "the day before yesterday"; from ato, "previous," tsu, genitive particle, and iii, " day." Susuri, "an inkstone "; from sumi, ink," and suru, "to rub." Tadcuua, reins"; from te, "hand," and tsuna, " ropc." Taimatsu, "a torch"; from laki, root of taku, "to burn," and matsu, pine." TOlollli, name of a province; from lowo, "far," tsu, genitive particle, and nmi, "sea." TSIIg01ll0ri, " the last day of the month"; from tsuki, "the moon," and komont, " to retire." Tsuitada, the first day of .the month"; from l.fuki, the moon," and taelli, root of tatsu, to arise." Tsnmabiralcani, minutely," fully"; from tsumu, "to cut
U U U U

34

DERIVATtON.

short," and /n'ra/at, "to extend." Cf. the phrase," the short and the long of it." Ynibn, sword-edge"; from ynki, root of yakn, "to burn," and /tn, edge." Yrane, " a dream"; from i, a root which appears in iueumru, to fall asleep," and ute, the root of mint, " to sec." The Japanese grammarians have supplied us with etymological appliances far more powerful than any of those described above. They inform us that not only are syllables interchangeable which begin with the same consonant, i.c., those in the same vertical columns of the Table at page 15, but that one syllable may he changed for another if they only contain the same vowel, t.e., the syllables in the horizontal columns of the Table are interchangeable. This is the old maxim that in etymology the consonants count for very little and the vowels for nothing at all, with the difference that with the Japanese etymologists the consonants count for nothing as well as the vowels, \Vith a comprehensive system like this, the gravest difficulties are easily surmounted. Thus, if we want to show that /uruki, old," is derived from wakal.l~ "young," we have only to run the eye along the columns which contain um and kn till we come to ha and ra, and then follow the vertical columns in which the latter syllables occur till we find fit and ru, and the demonstration is complete. This rule is sufficient when the words contain the same number of syllables, but in the case of a redundancy or deficiency in their number, the native grammarians are J amply provided for the emergency. By means of jo-rink" '(aphaeresis), chiurin/m (elision or contraction), gerialm (apocope), and joji (affixes), the superfluous syllables are promptly removed and additional syllables provided wherever necessary. The following derivations, which are taken from Japanese works on etymology, illustrate the application of these principles :-

IlJo:J<IVATION.

35

.11/1111"', "a plum," is derived from utsll/mslli!..'?, medsurasltiku, "beautiful-rare," by taking the first syllable of each word and omitting the others by geriala This gives tone, but as u and 1/lU belong to the same column, one may be

substituted for the other. Keshi, a poppy," is derived from Izt"rake, "to open out," and stnroslu, "white," the syllables him being removed by ;unak/{, and rostu being taken away by geriak. Sltitaga/u, "to follow," is derived from slnta 1Ii tSllldle koko1"o ni kmllifu, the superfluous syllables being removed by
clauriala.

Neko a cat," is from nedsumi kOllolllu. "fond of rats," the

first syllabIc of each word being taken, and thc others rejected Iu, c. a dog," is from inuru to go away," because if taken to another place, he "goes away," and comes back to his master. Akane sasu, a makura-kotoba of doubtful meaning, is derived by the Kanjiko from akak; ke, red vapour," which is first contracted into ake and afterwards lengthened by Jo/i' into alame, and sasu, " to strike," "to shoot." There is yet another system of derivation, by which words which we should be content to consider as roots are traced to fifty original elements corresponding to the fifty sounds of the Japanese syllabary. The following passage, taken from the preface of a Dictionary of Derivations compiled upon this system, will give an idea of its mode of operation . All Japanese words have their origin in the nature of the heart. For the heart has fifty modes of action. and consequently man naturally gives utterance to fifty sounds. If in his heart he thinks alt! the sound alt! comes spontaneously to his lips; if in his heart he grunts assent, he naturally utters the sound It; the thought o/z ! of alarm causes him spontaneously to exclaim oh ! and so on with the rest. The combination of these results naturally in words. Thus the

DERIVATION.

colour aka (red) is so called because it is so radiant (,{ngnyaktt) as to make one feel ah ; auro (green) has been so termed from its being so plentiful (ohokt") as to make us feel all!; kanl! (metal) is so called because it adheres .'Ieban) firmly (ka/aku) together." This system, which is not without a grain of truth in it, is aided by a free usc of /,jriaktt, chi"nnktt, &c. The influence of these theories is observable in the writings of even the most eminent Japanese grammarians, and it has therefore been thought desirable to warn the student against them.
ACCENTS.

Accents in Japanese have but little importance for the student either of the spoken or the written language. A competent authority has stated to me that the distinctions of accent described in the passages quoted below are really observed in speaking by the educated classes of Kioto, but the language of Yedo certainly neglects them, and educated natives of the east of Japan declare that they are unable to discover any difference in the pronunciation of such words as hi "the sun" Iti "fire" and Iti "a water-pipe" t, kflki "an oyster," and kaki, " a persimmon." The views of the native grammarians upon this subject will be learnt from the following extract from the Salt-OIl-NO, by Motowori Norinaga:In the language of this Empire there are but three accents, viz., "the 2ji (or even accent). the J: (or rbing accent), and the ;t; (or departing accent). The entering accent (A) is not in use. Hi,' the sun,' takes the 2ji accent; hz; a water-pipe: the J:. accent; and Iii, fire: the ~ accent. On the other hand the Iti of lzillala, sunshine,' takes the J:.
, ,), f

4' i, something like the English monotone; infiection, and ~ the falling infiection.

J:. resembles

the rising

ACCENTS.

accent; the hi of Ilakehi, 'a kind of water-pipe: takes the accent; and the hi of hibas/li, 'tongs: the J: accent. Yama, a mountain,' has the lJi accent. but in such compounds as ymlla.{oaze, "mountain-wind,' and yamamats, mountain-fir: yatna takes the ~ accent. Yet in the compounds higashiyallla, "east-mountain,' and nisluyama, "west-mcuntain,' yama has the J: accent. Uji (the name of a district) again is pronounced with the accent, but in the word Uji/ta/la, 'the river Uji,' it takes the J: accent, while in the compound Ujibaslti, 'the Uji bridge,' it has the 2fi accent. "In this way all words suffer changes of accent, and if in such cases the original accent were retained, a change of meaning would be the result. Take, for instance. yalllakaBe anJ yautamatsu, the examples just quoted. If yatna is here pronounced, as in the original word, with the ZJi accent, the meaning will be 'mountain and wind: 'mountain and fir,' and we shall have in each case two objects, and not one. It is owing to the change of accent that the meaning become; "tbe wind of the rnount.iin,' 'the fir of the mountain.' " But yarua is composed of the two syllables ya ane! ma, kalla of the two syllables ka and 1112. If we examine the accent of each syllable separately, we shall see that ya has the J: accent, ma the lJi, Ita the J:. and 1112 the ZJi accent . .The entire words)'nllla and Ntlfin have nevertheless their own accents, both taking the ZJi accent. The same principle applies to polysyllabic words such as /lilll1fkashi (I/lg-asllt), , east: minaun, 'south,' etc. But the attempt to distinguish the accent of each of a number of successive syllables leads to confusion, and no clear results can be obtained. This is due to the intimate connection which exists between the sounds of which a word is composed. There is, however, no unc ertainty in deciding the accent of any entire 1I'0rd." Motowori fUi ther says that although in speaking. Chinese words are accented by Japanese, the accents follow the

37

ACCENTS.

Japanese system, and have nothing to do with the original Chinese tones. Kitanobe, author of the AJ'"ids/IIJ, says that there are three accents in Japanese, VIZ., the Jlllki (going), corresponding to thc Chinese 2ji ; the kaner; (returning), corresponding to the Chinese J:; and the tachi (cutting off), con esponding to the
Chinese ~.

The comparison with Chinese shows that in the above remarks, by accent is meant musical intonation. and not a mere emphasis or stress on the word or syllable. In this latter sense the accent of ] apanese words is much less marked than in English. It usually falls on the penultimate syllable, but to this rule there are numerous exceptions.

CHAPTER
CLASSIFICATION

II.

OF WORDS.

Japanese grammarians divide words into three classes, viz.-Na, Kotoba, and Teniurotm. This classification accords well with the structure of the Japanese language. It rests on a division of words into principal and subordinate parts of speech, principal words being subdivided into uninflected (ua) and inflected (kotoba). There is, however, no good reason why this subdivision should not be extended to the subordinate parts of speech, viz.-Particles and Terminations or Teniuroha. If this be done, we shall have four classes of words, as follows ;I. Uninflected Principal words (lIa). II. Inflected Principal words (k%ba). III. UninAected Subordinate wordS} (/ elltWOlla . ') . IV. Inflected Subordinate words

With this modification the classification of the japanese grammarians has been adopted in the present treatise. Na" means name," and the class of words so denominated' includes the noun, pronoun, !!um~!ll adjective, and interjection.l together with a number of words, which, although corresponding in meaning to the verbs, adjectives, or adverbs of other languages, are uninflected, and must therefore be reckoned as 11a. Kotoba means" word." nder this term are comprised
U

In the A"olol", 110Chikdlllkhi,1111 arc called i-kolob", or words which remain at rest," as opposed to ha/dYtli.;j.J.:nlo/kI, or "words of action, the
H

term which in that treatise has been applied to the ~OIO"" of older writers.
By U rest" arid U action U are here meant "want of inflection" and" inflection," and htl/Ilrtl!.j, "working," or ccaction," has no reference to the usual meaning of verbs as expressing action.
E

40

LASSIFICATION

OF WORDS.

verbs and adjectives. The word temzuohn" is nothing more than four of the commonest particles, viz.-te, ni, too, and Ita, united so as to form one word. Under this designation arc included particles and prepositions, together with the suffixes attached to verbs and adjectives.
Tmiwolta.- The aspirate of Ita is sounded in pronouncing this word.

CHAPTER
UNINFLECTED

III.
WORDS.

PRINCIPAL

In this class of words are included the noun, pronoun, and numeral adjective of European grammars, together with some classes of words which it is convenient to render in English by other parts of speech, such as verbs, adjectives, or adverbs. Cases of this last kind are especially numerous among words' of Chinese origin, all of which are uninAected, and must therefore be taken to belong to this class, by whatever parts of speech it may be convenient to translate them in English. Thus ima, 1I0W," is really a noun, as its derivation shows. It is compounded of i, the root of iru, "to be present," and ma, "a space," the literal meaning bcing " the present space." Koko, " here," is also a noun, as is shown by its allowing the case-signs ItO, Itt; &c., to be appended to it. Such Chinese words as SJlZ1tjO, "to offer respectfully," goral!, "look," although often used alone, require some such verb as nasaru or suru, "to do," to be understood in order to make the sentence grammatically complete, and are therefore really noun. The most 'common case of this kind is where a Chinese or Japanese uninAected word is combined with the verb uaru, "to be," or with the particle ni, " in," to form a phrase equivalent to our adjective or adverb, the word being seldom or never used, except in one of these combinations. Thus, kil"ei uaru is used as equivalent to our adjective" pretty"; kil"ci IIi, to the adverb prettily"; sltidzukn naru, to our adjective "quiet"; slzz'dzttka IIi, to the adverb" quietly." These phrases are only substitutes for adjectives and adverbs, and mu t not be confounded with them. The true adjective is an inAected word (the adverb being one of its inflected forms), as may be seen by referring to the Table at the beginning of Chapter IV.
E ~

42

UNINFLECTED

PRIN

IPAL

WORDS.

Words of this class have, properly speaking, no declension. The distinctions of gender, number, and case are indicated by means of certain particles placed before or after the words which themselves suffer no change.
TilE NOUN.

Kouns may be divided into Simple, Derived. and ComSimple or Underived nouns require no pound nouns. remark.
DERIVED NOUNS.

roots of verbs often become nouns without any change of form. Thus duri, root of c/urn, " to become scattered," is also used as a noun meaning" litter," " rubbish "; ttcili, a stroke," is the root of the verb utsu, to strike." , Imkilstlke , "a writing" , is the root of the verb kakilsllkcMI "to note down'" /liraki .a door with hinges" is the root of the verb /tira/m, " to throw open." Those abstract nouns which seem as if they were formed by adding the syllable mi to adjectival roots really belong to this class. Thus takami, " height," which contains taka, the root of the adjective takaki, "high," is the root of a verb talcauu, to be high" ; !i.aya1llt;speed;' is the root of a verb ha)lflIllTl, "to be quick." In the old literature these nouns still retain enough of their original force as verbal roots to take before them the particle tuo, the sign of the objective case, as in the following examples :Roots oj Verbs.-The
, J' ,

A/mgolll{l ga aga/.'i
Jlfllll1.

1110

Im-

Miyako zoo tohomi. Ymila wo o/sonn.

The speed of foot of my bay horse. Its distance from the capital. A plenty of mountains.

Some of these nouns in iui, like the English abstract words " height," " depth," are also susceptible of a concrete signifi-

DERIVED

NOUNS.

43

cation. Thus, fukami may mean" a deep place" as well as u depth" in the abstract; /akallli may mean not only height," but" an elevation," " a hill." Roots of A djcctives.-T he roots of adjectives are occasionally used as nouns, as in the phrase shiro 110jofit, white cloth of first quality." A few abstract nouns are formed from the roots of adjec-j tives by changing the final vowel of the root into e, as ake, redness" red " kU1'b darkness" , from akaki "c;, , from kuraki . dark'" take "length" a height" from ta!.:aki high" Sa.-The abstract nouns formed by adding sa to the roots of adjectives constitute a large class. It is to be observed that these nouns express not so much the quality denoted by the adjective as the degree of the quality. Takasa, for instance, is rather highness" than height"; ohoeisa is the degree of bigness," i.e., " the size," rather than the mere quality of largeness in it. elf. Examples :Akasa, "redness," from aka!"i, red." Nigasa, bitterness," from 1ligaki, "bitter." A tsusa, It thickness" or hotness," from atsltki, It thick" or hot" Siurosa, " whiteness," from slnroei, white." In the old language nouns are formed in one or two cases by adding this termination to the roots of verbs, as I_alusa" return," from kahcru. " to return." Ra.-A few abstract nouns are formed by adding ra tOI adjectival roots, as wabishirn, misery," from wabishiki, miserable." . Ge, Ke.-A bstract nouns are also formed from na (un-, inflected words) and from verbal or adjectival roots by the addition of the syllable ge or Ne, which is identical with ki, "spirit." Derivative words of this class are of very frequent occurrence in the ancient monogntari.
" , J ,. It It It

44

DERln.1l xouxs,

Example :Nanig in the phrase Il(IlIige lIakll, as if thing were the matter "), from naui, what." lVlid:::lIl.e, "moisture," from midau, " wa ter." Aburake, oiliness" or "greasiness," from abr -7, "oil." .'Vige (in the phrase Ilige IInki, "jncornparale "), from mru, to be like." Hitoge (in the phrase Ititogr ,mki, "lonely' from llilo, a 'nan." TS11J'o.t;C, . an appearance of strength," from /.I,ol.-i, strong." A bUIli/gr, " an appearance of danger," 'rom nb1111al.-i,

dangerous."
of trouble rneness," from wad:::llrnll(lsltiki, "trouble orne." These nouns are often used in cornbinati 1 with naru. as the equivalents of adjectives, or with IIi a ed, instead of adverbs. Examples :~Va(bllrahtlsllige, an appearance

.JlllkutslIgc naru, hideous." Rik8ge IIi, .plausibly." J)lasltige ni, . meanly." KIl.-The uninflected words derived from er uninflected words, or from the roots of verbs or adjectives .y adding one lof the terminations ka, )Iak", yot:, raka, 11(lkrsaka, soka, or bika are of the class described at page 41 s always found t combined with the verb naru, "to be," to form phrases equivalent to adjectives, or with ni added asquivalents of adverbs. The ka which appears in all the, terminations is no doubt identical with the ke or ge of the Icceding paragraph, but the remaining syllables cannot e so readily explained. Ra is perhaps the ra used to form bstract nouns from adjectives, and bi another form of the rmination 111i, which has a similar force. These words are iostly descrip-

DERIVED

NOUNS.

45

tive of outward ppearance, and they often correspond to English derivativs in ful,y, or /y. Examples:Shid3u-ka 11 'U, u quiet." Shid::u-ka 1/ "quietly." Nodo-ka nai , "gentle." lVnkn-}'nkn iru;' youthful." Tnkn)'nkn 1 "loudly"; .with a loud voice," Niholzi-}'nkn'ant, "having a blooming appearance." Hana-yaea rrn;" gay-looking." Koma-yaea tru;" minute." Tama-saka ., by a rare chance." Yabu-saea ru," stingy." Nayo-bikn I -u, " graceful." Nada-raka 1"11," gentle" (of an acclivity). ... Nikll-rnkn ru;" hateful." Oro-sosa ni coarsely"; without taking pains." Ate-Jiaka 11. 't, "noble-looking." A-f akotoslli-; ka ni, with an air of truth." Asa-yaka ,. u clearly"; "distinctly." Compound nc 115 may consistIst. Of two iouns, as kazagunlllla, a toy windmill"; from ka::e, win " and kurltllla, a " wheel or mill"; k<lhnbata, a " ri ver-side," frn kaha, a " river," and hata, a side." and. Of the .ot of an adjective followed by a noun, as' kurombo, a "nero," from kuro, root of kllroki, " black," and/ kilo, . a man" ; kagane, "copper," from aka, root of akaki, " red," and kane metal." jrd. Of a nc 1 followed by the root of an adjective, aSI tomabnto," big s rn " (a kind of b at), from /01110, the stern," and futo, root 0 'utolei, " thick." 4th. Of the ot of a verb and a noun, as noritnono;" a travelling chair, from 1I0ri, root of noru, to ride," and mono, a thing."

COMPOUND

NOU '5.

15th. Of a noun and the root of a verb, as monashiri," a Ischolar," from 1110110, a thing," and shiri, root of slrirn, "to know?"; midsuire, "a water-holder," from midc, water," and ire, root of i17I1'II, " to put in." In compounds the first element may qualify the second, as ita-do, a plank door"; shO-slto, "a general of the third rank"; or in Chinese words may govern it, as Itai-san, .founding a temple"; ke-sllin, "transformation"; or may be governed by it, as !ri-Imki, "a pokcr"; sake-nomi, . a drunkard"; or they may be joined by .and" understood, as llillt-Juku, poverty and riches"; jo-ge, going up and oming down"; de-iri, "going out and coming in." In Chinese compounds two elements of the same or similar ncaning arc oftcn combined for the sake of emphasis or comrchensivcncss, as kai-sei, "reforming"; kon-satsll, "confusion." Ilybrid Compounds (compounds of which onc clement is of Chinese and the other of Japanese origin) are much commoner in Japanese than in European languages. Examples :-jitt-bako, "a nest of boxes made to pile up one on the top of another," from jilt, a Chinese word meaning to pile up," and Ilako, the Japanese word for" box "; oooheclIO, "a note-book"; haretst - daura, a bomb-shell"; jobllkllro, an en velope."

HONORIJ-'lC

PREFIXES.

Mi, ohonn, ami, 011011, Oil, o.-Nouns with one of these honorific words prefixed are of the nature of compounds. lIfi meaos august," imperial," and is usually rendered by the Chinese character f,iV. It is generally, although not exclusively, found before words relating to the Mikado or to the kami (gods of the Shinto mythology), as 1IIi-1.-0, a rince"; mi-ya, "a shrine of a kami"; nu-su, "the transparent screen former] y hung before the Mikado on public occasions" ; mi-ne, " the top of a mountain."

H01\OIUFlC

PREFIXES.

47

Oltom; is composed of oho, the root of oltoki, . great," and the 1IIi just noticed. Ouu, olton, Oil, and 0 are abbreviated forms of it. 01/011/ and omi are only found in the old language, the modern language preferring the form 011. Omi, however, is still used in the spoken language prefixed to one or two words. as om; ashi, the honorable legs." 0 is almost entirely confined to the spoken language, where it is exceedingly com mon. All these words are prefixed to Japanese words only, except 0, which is found joined to a few Chinese words, as 0 ntSIJ, your absence"; 0 Jlaklt-slto, the honorable office" ; 0 taint, the honorable house," i.e., your house." Mi is also found prefixed to Chinese words, as mi biobll, the honorable screen," but this is extremely rare. Examples of ohomi, &c. ;Ohomi-)mki, u an imperial progress." Ohorni-obi, the honorable girdle." Oholl-gami, the great and august god." Idsure 110 olton loki ni ari ke1l. ka I know not in what (Emperor's) honorable time it was. Although I have no fish to offer you. I beseech you to tell me your name. Accompanying the Princess. The Mikado shedding tears. The Mikado's ailment.

Naui bakar no nti sakana 1110 safurahanedo (pron. sOrawalledo ). II.-ode 011 11a wo k;kaseHilllc-miya 110 on 101110 shite. Mikado on namida koboshile.

Mikado

110

on yamalu.

Before words of Chinese origin are prefixed the honorific words go or gio, as in go-sho, the honorable place," i.c., " the palace"; ki, as in ki-kokll, "the honorable country," i.e., your country"; sou (before the relations of the person

HONORIFIC

PREFIXES.

addressed), as in sou-pu (pron. SOIll), "the honorable father," i.e., your father." Co occasionally appears before Japanese words, as go motsutomo, you are right."
IIUMULI!: PREFIXES. \

Humble prefixes are found with Chinese words only. TheyareCII, as in gn-sai, "the stupid wife," i.e., my wife." Setsu, as in setsu-oo, "the awkward mother," i.e., my mother." Sen, as in sen-soku, " the mean family," i.e., my family." SilO, as in sllO.jo, u the little woman," i.e., my daughter." Hi, as in hi-ka, " the rough, rustic house," i.e., " my house."
II lC

GENDER.

In the class of compound nouns should also be included nouns with one of the words tuo, male," or me, u female," prefixed. An 1/ is sometimes inserted for the sake of euphony Example :MASCtiLINE. FIlMININE.

IVo-uma, " a horse." lJ;/ e-uma, " a mare." TVo-Jilla, a stag." lJ;/e-jzl.'a, " a hind." iVon-dori, a cock." Mcn-dori, . a hen." /I'is not pronounced in these words. '1'0 and tile are combined with Japanese words only.
NUMBER.

Under the head of compounds there remains to be noticed a kind of plural formed in the case of a few nouns by a repetition of the word. Except in the ancient literature, these forms have never exactly the same force as the plurals of European languages, nor is their meaning precisely the same in every case. Every," all kinds of," before the noun, are the most usual renderings.
II

NUMBER.

49

Examples :Knui, "a country"; Hilo , a man" , . Tokoro, " a place" ; Toki , "a time" , . Tabi., "a time" , . Shina, "an article";

klllligltlli, every country." Ititobito, "all sorts of men." takorodokoro, " various places." tokidoki, "sometimes." tabitabi, u time after time "-" often." shillajilla, " all kinds of articles "-" an

assortment." In almost every case the first letter of the second part of these compounds takes the lligori, if it be a letter which admits of it.
PRONOUNS.

The distinction of person which holds so prominent a place in the Aryan languages has little place in Japanese. The verb has no grammatical inflections to indicate person. and although there are words which correspond in meaning to the personal pronouns of other languages, their grammar is the same as that of nouns, and the idea of placing them in a separate class has not even suggested itself to the native grammarians. The use of personal prono~ is much more restricted in Japanese than in English. As in Latin and Greek, they are used not as mere signs of the person of the verb, but in order to prevent ambiguity, or in cases where there is an emphasis upon them. Thus," I will go," He does not know," are in Japanese simply yukall, skiros. But where the pronouns are emphasized, as in the following sentence, they must be expressed in J apanese, Ko uiomina naraba, waga ko If the child is a girl, I will make it l1ly child; if it is IIi sen , zuonoko uaraba, nanfi YUlIliyatori Iii Ilasht'a boy, do you educate him tateyo. for a soldier. Where personal pronouns are wanting, the person of the

50

PRONOUNS.

verb may usually be inferred from the presence of honorific forms indicating the second person, or of humble forms showing that the first person is meant. The various modes of indicating the plural are but rarely had recourse to in the case of other uninflected words, but with pronouns it is the rule to employ the reduplicated form, or to add one of the plural affixes when two or more persons or things are meant.
PERSONAL PRONOUNS OF THE FIRST PERSO '.

I.-:fapmuse Words. A, wa, are, ware, waro.-The most ancient Japanese word for "I" is a or um. Both these forms are of frequent occurrence in the JlfanJ'~shill, but they have become obsolete in the later forms of the language. Examples ;~Va uio matsu tsuhaki. The camellia which awaits me. A,/)o matsu to Oh, that I could become Killli ga nure-ke changed into the drippings A sltihiki no from the mountain toilsome Vall/a no s/lid:::uku ni to the feet, with which thou .Varamaslti 1110110 WOo hast doubtless been wetted while waiting for me! .Lgo (for aga) oltokimi, "my great lord." \Vhen followed by the possessive particle ga, zua is still in use. Examples ;IVaga kitlli, "my lord." IVnga ko, "my child." IVaga tomognra, "my companions" (used in the sense of
"we "), ~Vaga atsurahe yflriS/Z saknd:;uki, "the wine cup which I

ordered from you."

PRO 'OU .~.

5(
Wngn Lo, for

lVaga has also the meaning" one's own."

instance, may mean "his or her own child" as well as my child." IVa 11a1l1iis properly a plural, but it is often used as a singular. Are, another obsolete word for" 1," is a with the syllable re, which is also found in sore, lsare, fare. &c. ~Varl' (plural" u/arera, tuaretoare, or ~"a1'edallla) is formed by adding the re just mentioned to zua, "I." It is the most general word for the pronoun of the first person, and is found in the most ancient as well as in the latest forms of the language. It is occasionally heard in the spoken language in the plural form tuarera, which is used towards inferiors as a pronoun of the second person plural equivalent to orera, Y n the modern epistolary style, uiarera is used for" I " in addressing inferiors. Instead of urare 110 and W(Wl' gn, wagn is used. Examples of ware :IVare uakam ato uari tonto. Even after I am dead. IVan ui yoki hakarigato an'. I have got a good plan. IVaI'. kalteri kilnrlt made, You must wait here till I kokolli rite IIInlsllbeshi. return. ,,flare-ware ha Hida 1/0 ktmi \V Co: are artisans of the pro11n1'11 talm /JIi nari. vince of Hida. IYam is an obsolete word for" L" It seems to be only a variation of ware. IYatnkusht".-As a pronoun, watakushi belongs to the spoken language. and to modern epistolary correspondence, where it is the commonest word for I." IVatakuslti gr (thing) and wnlnkllshi knla' (side) are also used. In the literary language walalmshi means u selfishness." u that which is private or personal." Its derivation is doubtful.

* The editorial" we is svare hilo I and man," and sometimes waga hoi, or wag,,. IOll/oga,.Il,

52
JV/aro.-Maro

PRONOUNS.

is used chiefly, although not invariably, to inferiors, or to persons with whom one is on terms of close intimacy. It has much the same force as the ore or washi of the spoken language. Towards persons with whom one is not on familiar terms, mayo is a haughty word for" I." The author of the lI{akura ZiJshi remarks that the Court nobles, in addressing the Mikado, should not say mara for " 1," but should use their own names instead. In the Tosa Nikki a child says,-Ullfaro ;"0110 lila 110 kaheslli sell," " I will compose a reply to this verse of poetry." In one of Motowori's works he says: "A rn Itito toltite illflk"," VIa to 1m ikatlanl 11101101IJO ifu coya f" "ill aro I?olal,etciltakll." "A certain person asked of me, ' How do you define poetry?' and I answered....... The Mikado and persons of high rank are in books made to use maro towards inferiors, as Maro 110 yo 1Ii, in my reign." It is little used in the modern written language.
U U

Waraha

Chinese

t!

1110 uc )IIIN;

(literally, the child "), corresponding to the (slrO), is only used by women. Ex.: Waraha wo tarua/r; "take me with you, too."

Onore (plural onoreray is properly of no person. It means self," "oneself," and may be used indifferently for" myself," "yourself," "herself," and "himself." In practice, however, it is so little different from "I" that a place has been given it among the pronouns of the first person. In the spoken language, ouore is usually of the second person, and is a contemptuous word oftenest heard along with abusive language. Examples of 0110re :I f you should now abandon Ima onore nusute-tatematsume, how could I exist in mba, ikade yo ni ohasen f the world?
u

PRONOU'S.

S3

He is a customer of my father's. Onore latori snakaran to ihite. Saying" I will go myself, alone." Mi, midomo, midsuleara. - Jl,fi literally means "body," " person," and hence" self," but like ouore it is often used as a pronoun of the first person. IVaga 111; has the same meaning as 1IIi. The derived form lIIidz/(!..'aYfl is, however, commoner. It is formed by adding to 1IIi the genitive particle tsu, and the kam which also appears in nagara, 1110110 kara, &c. Midzllkara means "by or of oneself," "by or of myself." Mid01/l0 is used in the spoken dialect by persons of the samurai class for the singular and plural indiscriminately.
Nau: of tIle speaker used instead of Ihe prouou of the first persoll.-Both in speaking and in writing, the name (the nanori, or if the speaker or writer has no IUlIIOri, the na) is

kim; 110 kokoro ),oku slarin. Onore ga chichi 110 tolmi uari.
OIIOI'e

I have well known your heart.

After (1) Chikuzen came and ItO kotod01J/O hita-hilO ui karelated to them all the laralti haberi-shikaba. things that had taken place previously. to that. Norinagn ansuru Iii. In Norinaga's opinion [i.e., in my opinion). Soregas/lt:-Soregas/li properly means" a certain person," "somebody," but it is generally used III the sense of 1." It is peculiar to the written language. Example:Soregasla ga me "0 mltaka Iii Inasmuch as my eyes were llaku narite Ilabereba. suddenly destroyed.

often used instead of" I." Examples :Chikuzelz mairite sono lIlukashi

54

rRONOt;N~,

Yatsugnre is a humble form of expression, equivalent to the Chinese boku (~). It is not in use in the spoken language, nor in the eai lier written language. 2.-Clti1zese Words. CMII nJt is the word used by the Mikado in his official ch aracter. It corresponds to the' we' of European sovereigns. Sltill (plural sllllt.ra) is the converse of clsin, It is the word used in petitions and memorials to government, or to persons in authority. In China this character is only used by officials of the highest rank, but in Japan all classes employ it. It is often preceded by the character gIt ~. " stupid." I Yo ~ (plural yom). is peculiar to the written language. It may be used to superiors, inferiors, or equals. Sess/ia tIl;lf, "the awkward person" (plural sessltndolllo), is the word used for" I "in the official epistolary style when addressing equals. It is not altogether unknown in the colloquial langu Ige, but in speaking it is rather a formal word. In Aidzu it is commonly used for wataktishi. Setsu, the sound of til. the first of the two characters for sesslm, i;' also in use in the spoken language,' as in the phrase setsn llt 1'011 IIi Ita, "in my poor opinion." BoklL ~, ":,ervant," is a humble word. It corresponds to the Japanese yatsugare, which, indeed, was probably intender' as a translation .of bolsu. BONtt also belongs to the spokerlanguage. G" J~ also implies humility. It is confined to the written language.

r.!

Examples:6'tt ga senlie IlllkIlSI,;/.:/ 11J0 1110Clt ill'. G,t i/.>/.:o110 shOni11 10 iher/{IIII0-

With my despicable views lind slender intelligence. I am nothing but a poor merchant, but-

PRONOUNS.

55

S/U7, " handmaiden, concubine," is a word used by women in addressing superiors. The modern epistolary style has numerous other words, mostly of Chinese origin, for the pronoun of the first per on, such asGe-setsu, " the mean and awkward person"; gu-setsu, " the stupid and awkward person" ; yn-fu, " the rustic, the clown" ; gu-tei, "the stupid younger brother"; set-lei, "the awkward younger brother"; fu-nei, "the simple one" ; fit-sho, "the silly person"; Iu-sei, "the clownish student"; rs-sei, "the ignorant vulgar student"; slll)-sei, the small or inferior student." The student will probably find that among the numerous words for" I," ware, waga for the book style, sessha for official letters, and w(ltakltshi for private letters, will be sufficient for all his requirements.
PERSONAL PRONOUNS OF TilE ECOND PER ON.

r.-Jnpallese

Words.

,Va or uare (cf. toa, ware) is the word used for the pronoun

of the second person in the oldest form of the Japanese language. It occurs frequently in the Kqjiki and lIfallj'oshill, but has now been long obsolete. The Loochoo language still preserves it. The ~V(llutll-shiwori looks upon it as identical with na, name," but it is better to consider it as the original pronoun of the second person. Ex.: Na 10 a to, "you and 1." (Kojiki.) Nat!!i (plural lIfl1IJi'm) is derived by Japanese grammarians from na, "a name," and 11toclzi,root of 1Il01S11, to possess." Its original meaning is, therefore, "the name possessor,""the famous person." This derivation is confirmed by the fact that a form oho1lat!!i, or 01101la1/luchz; is found in old books as the name of a god.
]'.

56

PRO OUN!;.

Nt/1Iji is perhaps the commonest word for the pronoun ('f the sc ond person in the hook style. It is the word used to translate the Chinese Uc and the Engli~h thou." which latter it very much resembles in force. I n the later literary language it usually indicates that the person addressed is the speaker's inferior. N(lIIji is not used in the epistolary style or ill the spoken language. Examples:Nanji gun}i wo bn iRn uaru 1110110 10 OIllO/U '! What sort of a person do you think a district magistrate is? [Said by a magistrate to a person who has been disrespectful to him.] Be not thou afraid. Yc having become secretly man and wife. [A judge addressing criminals.] The Mikado asked," Is this an image made by you?"

Nmzji osoruru koto uakare. Nanjira hlsokani /It-jlt uarite.

to

lIfikado "<Kore ha tta/I)z ga tsnknrert 1Ili /Iotoke uiya " to tohase-tamafu.

/mt/shi, lIlilllnshi, or /ltashi is an old word for "you." It resern bles ll11tzji in its force and application. Kimi, "lord," is used towards persons not differing greatly in rank from oneself. The SMsoko Bnnrei says that in spite of its literal signification, kiwi is not a sufficiently respectful term to use in addressing one's own lord. In poetry it is the commonest word for" you." In the spoken language persons of the educated class sometimes address each other as killli. Wa-gimi, " my lord," is also found. Example:Hlagillli klidarase-tflllla/u 1m saiisai 1Ia1'i," it is fortunate that you have come down" (from Kioto),
Oil/a/Ie or o/l1Ilfl/le (pran.

omtuaye : plural

otuahe gnla or

PRONOUNS.

57

or oumnhe is composed of 0 or 011, abbreviations of the honori fie word ohomi, and maize, .( before." The meaning is therefore "the honourable presence." Olllaiu is, in writing, a highly respect-! ful word-more so than /':ilJli-and is used to superiors; but in the spoken language, where it is very common, it is only used towards inferiors, or to persons with whom one is on very familiar terms. Omahe is seldom or never met with in the modern written language, but the derived form oumahe sama is a common word for" you" in letters written by women of the lower class. Otemabe belongs to the epistolary style. It is used towards inferiors, and is also met with in the spoken language. Nuslli (plural 1U1slti-tacht), um-nuslii, 0 1lUShi.-1Vuslli is literally "master." As a personal pronoun, it is only used to inferiors. It is also found in the spoken language. Wa-nustu, literally "my master," and 0 nlls/ti, "the honorable master," do not differ from nushi. Example:Wauustu wo 1110 umitari, " I gave birth to you also." Soko(literally "that place," from so, root of sore, "that," and ko. an old word meaning "place "), with the allied words sokomoto or SOII0-1IIOtO, "that quarter," sonata (for SOIIO kala), "that side," and SOI/O IlO (/10 being Chinese for kala, "side "), are used towards persons of inferior station to oneself They form their plurals by adding tada: SOIIO IzO is the word with which a criminal's sentence begins. Examples of soeo, &c.:Soko wo ba ika bakari ka Ita How much did I think about omoni kikoes/u: you? [i.e., Do you imagine I thought of you ?J Sokotadd 110 iflt tokoro koko- As what you say makes me rogumsht'kereba - saraba sorry for you-well then, yukitell. I will go.
olllahe tachi), omunhe santa, otelll,,/te.-O/I/a/te
r :2

58

PRONOUNS.

Soko H'O ruadu-tamafu koto hisashi. S01Z0 1t8 "ri, slari wo in to Itosslzi,-

Their waiting for you has been long. You, in the desire to aim at your own selfish advantage,-

011-111 (pron. 011l11lz), composed of the honorific word 011 and 1IIi, "body," "person," is a respectful word for "you,"

common in the later book style.


On-mi idzuku wo sashue Yllkase-/a1l/a/1l?

"whither are you

going? " seuaka Iii oharete, " borne on your back." In this sentence the speaker is a mother addressing her grown-up son. 1Ialllo (pron. 1118(0), from sua, "correct," "just," and kilo, "a man," is only used toward inferiors, as for instance by a noble to his retainers, The following example is from the GcnJi' 1IIonogatari:Kono anegimi J1a mal/to no nochi. no oya ? This elder sister is then your second parent? Koyatsu, or kolslt, lit. "this fellow," is an extremely contern ptuous word. Ki-snma is a hybrid word composed of the Chinese honoriric prefix k ft, noble," and the Javanese \\'01'0 santa, " sir," Kisauta occurs frequently in the modern epistolary style, and although not employed in addressing superiors, is by no means an impolite word. In the spoken language it is a contemptuous or familiar expression. A uatn, in the sense of you," does not belong to the written language.
H II

koto also belongs to the later book style, as okoto ga

2.-Ciz1/ese
I

Hlords.

Kak-ka, Ki-ka. These are the principal words for" you" in the modern official epistolary style. Kak-ka is considered as equivalent to" Your Excellency," and is used in addressing

PRONO NS.

59

Ministers of State, nobles, the Foreign Representatives, and other persons of similar rank. Ki-ka indicates much the same rank as ., Esquire." It is the word used to Foreign Consuls, the principal local authorities at the open ports, the secretaries in the public departments, &c. Kak-ka and Id-ka are also placed after the name in writing the address, as E-kolm /{oslti Kak-ka, His Excellency the British Minister." Hei-ka, Deu-ka. In the same way Hei-ka (Your Majesty) is used in addressing the Emperor, and Deu-ka (Your Highness) towards Princes of the Imperial family, and formerly to the Taikun, as Tell1z~ Heika, His Majesty the Tenn6"; Taik1t1l Deulea, His Highness the Taikun." Sok-ka is also much used in the official epistolary style. It is a moderately respectful word. I n private letters, ki-kllll, SOli-kim, or son-ko may be used to equals or superiors, and ki-dm, or Id.;jo, to inferiors. Go-ee is the pronunciation of the Chinese characters by which omahe is written. It is, like omahe, a respectful word. Go-cen belongs to the book style. Go-he (plural go-hen ra) is the Chinese equivalent of suauto, and, like it, is only used towards inferiors. The student will probably find that 1zm;Ji for the book style, kak-ka, ki-ka or sok-ka for official letter , and ki-kllll or ki-den for private letters will be all that he requires for writing Japanese.
PRONOUNS OF THE THIRD PER ON.

Ka, kare (pI. karera), a, are (pI. arera). These words are, properly speaking, the substantive forms of demonstrative pronouns, and mean literally that person," that thing." They are, however, used for" he," she," it," they." At the present time the distinction between kare and aye is that the former is confined to the written language, and the latter to the spoken idiom. In the older language both words are in usc. but a difference of meaning is recognized, Na1'/!

60

PROr\OUl\S.

being applied to the less remote, and are to the more remote, of persons or objects not conceived of as immediately present before the speaker or the person addressed. Kare would therefore correspond to the Latin is, and are to ilk. Kn and a are old forms. They are usually followed by the particle Ita. . In the written language a and are are "\uch less frequently met with than ka and kare. Examples:Kare ga akllgi8 wo lIilm1lli- Inasmuch as he hated his evil tuorikereba. conduct. Ka Ita to mite umrammi 1Ichi Seeing that it is she, whilst I Itado not cross overt The Japanese are fond of punning on ka Ita. Thus in the above sentence it must be taken in two meanings, viz., ka ha, " she," and kalta, a river," I It cannot be too strongly impressed upon the studen, that the Japanese language, although so abundantly supplied with personal pronouns, is very sparing in their use. There are often pages and even whole chapters without a single personal pronoun. In writing Japanese it is a good rule never to introduce them except when absolutely necessary for the sense, and always to think first whether one of the numerous Ihonorific or humble words or forms will not serve the purpose. These remarks apply equally to the spoken language.
DEMONSTRATIVE
Root and Archaic Form.

PRONOUNS.
Adj. Form. Muning.

*Ko , So, Ka, A,

Substantive Form.

kore sore kare are

(pI. korera), (pI. sorem), (pI. kam'a), (1'1. arem),

kOllo, SOI/O, kano,


(7110,

this. that. that. that.

Korc lind ktJ1/()correspond to the SOt/() to cotesto (Latin isle), and kaye

(Latin is, ,.Ile)

Italian 9"ul() (Latin Ide), sort and and k(l1I(), are and ana, to 9uel/()

PRONOUNS.

61

Ko, kore, kono are said of things conceived to be near, or belonging to the speaker. They may be described as demonstrative pronouns of the first person. Ko and korr JIb are substantive forms. Ko is only used when followed Ly one of the particles 110, wo, ha, or ya, or in forming compounds, as, for instance, /';01.:0, this place," here'" , kO-loshi , this year'" /,;O-1Jolri c, J , this evening'" , /"0)'"-lIaki, unsurpassable." r n the KOji'ki, however, /,;0 is more freely used, and such constructions as ko wo o are found where the later language would have kore zuo ba. Kono (i.e., ko followed by the genitive particle 1/0) is the adjective form. It should be distinguished from kore 110. KOIlO uedau, for instance, would mean" this price" ; kore 110 nedan, the price of this." Exarnples s-;
Ko ya utatsu-musln 1/0 koe ni Ira aran ? K 0 11(/ kolo-JIlollO 1/0 kalJa nari. Ito aslliki koto to te, kure kare kikuyu.

Might this be the note of the matsu-mtrs/u ? This is the skin of a different animal. Making it a very bad thing, he said this and that. [I.e., He made all manner of objections to it.]

So, sore, and SOIIO, "that," are said of persons and things

which are regarded as near, or in some way connected with the person addressed. They may be called the demonstrative pronouns of the second person. Sonata (for SOltOkala, that side ") and soko are actually used as personal pronouns of the second person, and S01l0 is frequently best translated by the English u your." The most common use of sore and S0110 is where they refer to something which has just been mentioned, it being conceived as present to the mind of the person addressed.

I'RO:\01.:XS.

is seldom found except with one of the particles no, gn, 1II1',J'O, '"!O, or hn affixed, or in compounds, as soko, sochi. ,<';0 and sore are substantives; S0110 is the adjective form. The same distinction is to be observed between sono and sore 110as between kOl/o and kore 110. Sore is sometimes seen in a detached position at the beginning of a chapter. This is a Chinese idiom, and is confined to the style imitated from translations of Chinese books. Examples of sore:,<'''0

Sohl1 shiln'Cli. So.fl1 illl,I.er,zI.:II.

Tarsn

I.wbi IIi itsu tro hilMrll 1<11l1a tlri-sorc torite tamahe.


110

III '"!O

Y(Wile

/"'ose) sore

/"'11

10

1110

mtme, Sore IIi 1110 yorazu. SI'>IIO hoktl. SOIlO koro, KtI, ktlrlc, and a, are

That I did not know. That which he said. In the dragon's head there is a jewel which shines with five colour ; it take and give to me. Xot until one has approached will one see whether it is that or not. \\' ithout reference to that. r n addition to that. At that time.

have been noticed as personal pronouns of the third person, but, as already observed, they are really demonstratives. The forms kmlO and ana are never possessive adjective pronouns, but demonstrative adjective pronouns. In other words, kmlO and ana (ka and a, with the genitive particle 110) mean" that," not" his" or her," which would be, in ] apane e, km'c gn or km'c 110,are gtl or are no, A'<111o is also found in the sense a certain." Karc, /..'11110,"are, auo are used of persons or things not
/I

., Art and uno are of rare occurrence in the written language, but in the spoken language they have almost superseded kare and Eano.

PROr..OU/,\ .

immediately pr cnt. They pronouns of the iird person.

may be termed

demonstrative

Karl' Ita
10/.:0
IIi

1If1111

10

nan u/o-

101';-;"/

Kare Ita nani /Ii :;0 '1 Kana ho IIi hay, eogi-yose yo, Kano hilo 11/0 'tlni Oll/O/Uran.

Kauo

011

tcuara tori.
"ITERRO<;ATlVE

What is that?" he ask d the man. What man is he? Who IS he? Quickly row to that side. I wonder what somebody thinks of it. Taking the copy-book 111 question.
PROO
Adjtetlvc form

Root and old

SU

st,

10

Modem .u.bst. (arm.

l'\
Mu"I""

Ta Na
I d:;u

Tare
D1I1e

I who
Nani
1/0

Nmu"
I'dsnre
Dore

Id::11 re ItO

Dono

(written I.) who (spoken I.) what which (writt n I.) which (spoken I.)

The root III is preserved by the old language in t expressions ta EO, who "; ta gIl, whose." The Kqjzki h. til ui, "to whom," instead of tare IIi. Til, tare are used c persons only. Nan], "what (plural lIallirn), is used of things only, except in the cornpoi d nani-Into, what man," who! " l\'alli 11(1, usually pronouced 11f111110, is the adjective form, as uau] 110 111110, what hi se." The root 0 nani is probably 1W, the lIi being originally the prepositio to." Nani is found in the older literature in the sense ( II for what," to what end." The root na is also found in rase, nado, II why." Nalli belongs to both the written and tl spoken languages.

Ta, tare, 110."

PROKOU S.

Idaure," which,"" where," is used both of persons and things, Idanre 110 is the adjective form, The same root is found in the adverbs idsut, "where," idzuclli or id::;/~kata, whither," 1&c, In the spoken language all these words change idsu into do, Thus id:::uko becomes doko ; idzuchz', doc/d, &c,

Classical Japanese does not recognize the meaning" at any rate," in which the spoken language and later writers often use id::11 re, f/~a, what manner," is found 111 conncxion with a few words and particles only, as11.auaru, what manner of," Jka Iii, in what man ner,' how." lkade (for ikfl1lite), how," 1kaga, " how." !kaga 110, u what kind of." lka-bakari, " how much:' lka-Itodc, how much." llw, what number," appears in the following combina-

tions :-

Jk1l/SII, "how many";

Ileura , how much" , or how many " ,

lklllllai, how many" (of flat things);

lkuka, how many days"; lkubaku, . how much ";

and also before many nouns, as iku-ki, how many trees"; ikll-!lIzru, "how many springs," Itsu, "what time," when," is found alone and also in combination, as' itsuka, itslishika, "some time or other"; itsngoro, when," &c, Examples of Interrogatives:Kouo yaina 110Ita uro uani to ka mafus ?

What is the name of this mountain?

PRONOUNS.

Kana uiomina tnso to

10/11.

Idaure IIi 1110 are. Ta ga lIla/.:oto wo ka wore 1m tanotnan ? Kie Itilo Ita tare uaran ?
[kalli sltile idanre
10

shirmt?

Its mairitsnru co ? Kouo luto 1m ikalli narinuru eo ?


I kaga slibe/.-i to oooshimeshiwlld:mmjit ni. Ikll tabi /0

if"

!toto uakll.

He asked who this woman was. Be it whichsoever it may. In whose truth shall I put trust? Who can he be who inquires? How shall I know which it is? When did he come? What has become of this man? Whilst sick with anxious thought what she should clo. No number of times being Any number of specified. times.
PRONOUNS.

INOEFINITE

The Interrogative Pronouns tare, idzure, and uaui become Indefinite Pronouns by the addition of the particles ka or mo. Thus tare Ita is Japanese for" somebody," nani ka for CI something," tare 11/0 for" anyb dy," and naui 1110 for anything." Kn, however, sometimes only intensifies the interrogatives. When tare 1I{0 and nani 1J{0 are followed by llt.gatives, the negative may be joined to them in rendering into English, and the whole translated" nobody," "nothing." Thus tare mo s/urasu. is" nobody knows" ; nani 11/.0 s/urnsu, he knows nothing." I 'dcuremo idcuremo kallerigo/a To none of them did any lIIihe:;u. answer appear. Nanika ito kokoro-uki kolo. Some great cause for sadness. Iretaru mouo uanimo k6ba- Among the things contained slziki mono nashi. in it there was nothing sweet-smelling.

66

PRONOUNS.

Other words used as Indefinite Pronouns are:Hilo.-This word literally means" man," and is used in a similar way to the French on" or the English one," people." It may also mean" other people" (French aulrllt). Examples:Hito 110 nzuasa shichi Ji'u melzi nart. Hito 110 kmzi he makari-keri.

Mitla ilito. Hito uio llito to 1Il0 seen,

The talk of the world is for seventy days. He went away to a foreign country. Everybody. He does not look on people as human beings.

Soregnsld originally meant a certain person,"" somebody," but it has come to be merely a humble way of saying" 1." Nmligashi, ,. a certain person," somebody," is used where a~person's name is not known, or is purposely left unindicated. Ant Into, lit" an existing man," is also very commonly used for" somebody." Mina, " ali," is used either alone or with a noun. The old language put miua before the noun, as milia Iuto, " all men"; the later language puts it after, and in fact makes it an adverb qualifying the verb of the sentence.
DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOt;NS.

Ono-ouo, mei-mei, correspond to the English word "each" when used as a substantive. "Each," as an adjective pronoun, is rendered by 0110-0110' 1/0 or mei-mei 1/0. 1I,fei-1JIei is Chinese.
REI'LI::XIVI:: PRONOU 'S.

The most ancient reflexive pronoun in the Japanese language is shi, self" or own." It occurs frequently in the Mmzy6slliu, but is now entirely obsolete.
SIIi.

PRONOUNS.

Ouore is at present the ordinary word for" self," " himself," " herself," " itself," &c. The final syllable re is omitted before the genitive particle ga, as in the phrase 01lOga wantki koto "one's own faults." The derivative word ollOdcukara, of

oneself," is also in use. DZII is here the genitive particle ISIt with the nigori. lIfi and lIlidzukara are synonymous with OHareand 0110dzlIkara. 1I-li means" body," hence" person," " self." IVaga is properly a pronoun of the first person, but it is also used in all persons in the sense" one's own," as waga ko " one's own child." Ji-sltin and Ji'-blm are Chinese words for "self." They belong to the later language. Examples of reflexive pronouns :Taking the wine-Clipinto his hand himself. A me no sltita ni IJ1lOre 1lZ He did not think that under masaru taNumi aru to 1110 heaven there was any better c01lji-safitmltazll. workman than himself. Onore 10 urarobi. Rolling over of itself. Jishill 1Ii 1110ceuinuai 110ataHe knew himself that it was hacaru wo shiri. impossible that he should recover. Shi ga haha wo toraku wo They know not of their own shirasu, mother's being taken.
Onore sakad:;uki te ni torite.
RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

The Japanese language has no relative pronouns, nor indeed relative clauses at all. 'What is a relative clause in English is in Japanese converted into an attributive clause, and like other attributives, is placed before the noun which it qualifies-viz., the noun which is in English the antecedent of the relative clause. The verb of the relative clause is put

68

PRONOUNS.

in the attributive form in the Japanese construction. Thus, "the man who comes" is in Japanese kuru hito; the man who came yesterday," killf> koslti ldto. The same construction is found in English in such phrases as "the murdered man" for "the man who was murdered," the stolen goods" for the goods which were stolen "i and it is still commoner in German, where it is often applied to long phrases which would inevitably be relative clauses in English. The same construction is allowable even when the relative in English is not in the nominative, but in one of the oblique cases, as in the following examples :Halla

sak yallla.

Malslt

Ililo komi 11/0110 )'uyel1i. hnua.

Ug-ullis1I no naki-tsurn

Uwo ollOki kahn.

The mountain on which Rowers are unfolding. [Lit., the Rower-unfolding mountain.] Because he comes not whom (1) await. The Rowers amongst which the uguis has just been singing. A river ill which fish are plentiful.

Where in English the verb of the relative clause is in the passive voice, the Japanese language usually prefers a construction with the active verb. Thus, instead of saying "II country which is unknown," they say slarnnn /;;1IIIi, i.c., "a (people) not know country"; "a man who is called Denkichi" is in Japanese Dmkiclzi to ifu mono, lit. "a person whom (people) call Denkichi." The construction in which the words toeoro 1l0, "of the place," are inserted bet ween the noun and the verb, as in the phrase" kllrll tokoro 110 lli/o," the man of the coming place," i.e. the man who comes," is an imitation of a Chinese idiom.

PRONOUNS.

69

and is not found in the more ancient literature. The oldest example of it which the present writer has met with occurs in the Tsure-dcure g"sa, a work of the fourteenth century. I t is sparingly used even at the present time. Examples of tokoro as a Relative ;Kiris/ata sintouon to ifu ha That which we call the Nalllbankokll yori zuataru Christian religion is an toeoro ItO jaM nari. evil doctrine which came over from the country of the southern barbarians (the Portuguese). Korosu tokoro no tori wo kllbi Having caused the birds ni kakesasele. which he had killed to be . hung about his neck.
NUMERALS.

The Japanese language has two series of numerals, one consisting of words of native origin, and one composed of Chinese words.
JAPANESE 1 CHINESE.

Hito-tsu Fura-tsu
Mi-tslt

3
4

Yo-tsu
JJb~-ISIt

6 8 9
10 1I 12

5 Itsu-tsu
Nana-rsu Ya-tslI Kokono-tsu Towo Totuamari /ato-ts Towo' mari futa-tsu Touio'mari 11Ii-ISII

su

/chi Ni San

Go Rolm Shic!/i Haehl'


KIt

13
14

Tozoo'mariyo-tsu
Tozuo'mari itsu-tsu

15

jiu jiu-iehi jill-lIi Jill-sail jilt-shi jill-go

70
)APANI!SF..

NUMERALS.
CHII'ESE..

16 17 18 19 20 21

Touidruari 1II1t-ISII Towo'mari nana-tsu T owo'man ya-tst


Tozuo'mari kok01l0-IS?t

Hata-chi Hata-chi amari hito-tSlt 30 Mi-so-d.fi 40 Yo-so-dfi 50 I-so-djz 60 Mu-so-dji' 70 Naua-so-dfi Ya-so-djz 80 90 Kokono-so-dfi 100 lI~ollto-chi
200

jill-roku jiu-shichi jilt-Ill/chi jiu-klt Ni-ji'lI Ni-ji'u-ichi San-fin Shijiu Gojiu Roku-j'iu SJzichijiu Hachijizt
KlI-jz1t

300

400
500 600 700 800 900
1,000 2,000

I-llO-chi or i-ho-tsu

Ya-Ito

Chi-djz

3,000 10,000

Yorodzit

30,000
100,000 1,000,000

Hink//. Ni-hiaku Sam-biak SIti-hia},;n Go-hiaklt Rop-pin1m Sluchi-hiakit Hap-piaku Ku-hiaku Sen Ni-sen Sail-Zen Mall Salll-malt

os
CM

The terminations tsu, cM, and dji' of numerals, and perhaps also the dsu different forms of the same particle. identical with the genitive suffix tsu.

the Japanese series of of yorodsu, are only They are probably all Tozoo," ten," does not

NUMERALS.

7f

take this termination, but it is preserved in the phrase tSIIrC;U ltalaeili, which properly ignifie ten or twenty years of age," although later writers have given it the meaning of" nineteen or twenty year of age." Ya/slt was originally a general word for" a great number." Thus, in the .lIImtygslli1t we have It wo yats kadzlfke, " keeping large numbers of cormorants." 1'aso andyalto are also used in the same sense. The numerals of the Japanese series above ten are obsolete in the modern language except Italachi, lIlisodji, &c., as far a' yosodji, which are still in use, but only with the meaning "twenty years of age," ,. thirty years of age," &c. Yorodzu also remains in use, in the sense of "a very large number," "a myriad." The mari in lowo'man /uto-tsu is amari, "over and above," "in addition," with the initial a elided. Immediately before a noun, the numeral of the Japanese series is used with a Japanese word, and of the Chinese series with a Chinese word. In this position the Japanese numerals are commonly put in the root form, i.e., without the final syllables tsu, chi, or d;i', but the longer form is also used, though more rarely. VVe may say, for instance,fittatslt tose as well as futa lose," two years." For numbers above ten, Chinese numerals are used with Japanese words, except in the old language. In counting, Japanese use the root form, except that instead of Mto,fitta, they say IIi, fie. Whenever a Japanese numeral does not immediately precede its noun, or where it does not qualify any noun, it is invariably put in the longer form, as futatsu 110toslli, or loshi futatsu, two years" ; fiaatsu tamah, give me two." The words before which Chinese numerals are placed are monosyllabic, and are mostly names of weights or measures, or belong to the class of Auxiliary Numerals described below.
G

72

NUMI::RALS.

Larger numbers than ten thousand are usually expressed by the help of multiples of 1IIa1l, oku and c//~ being very rarely used. One hundred and fifty thousand, for instance, is expressed by ji/{-go-lIInll rather than by ,dt oisn go man. In numerals consisting of several words, the same order is followed as in English, e.l[., sen Itnppiaku rok j,. haelti, 1868.
ORDINALS.

The Japanese language has no separate words for ordinal numbers. They are expressed by prefixing dni, or adding I ban 1I/e or g~to the cardinal numbers. These particles are usually combined, as in the following examples :Dai ni batt 1IIe. No. 2, the second. Dai Itnku nijiu ,oku go. No. [26. Roku bnll or rok ban me. The sixth. Sometimes the cardinal numbers are used without addition as Ansei ni ueu, "the second year of Ansei."
AUXILIARY NUMERALS.

Instead of joining the numeral immediately to the noun, the Japanese language generally prefers to use what I have ventured to call Auxiliary .urnerals. They correspond to such English phrases as "six head of cattle," "two pair of shoes," "five sail of ships," which would be in Japanese US/Ii 1'0p piki, Itnkimollo IIi soku, flute go so. Auxiliary numerals may either follow the noun, as in the examples just given, or they may be placed before it, with the genitive particle 110 intervening, as futa /Ias/tinl 110knmi, " two gods." The following lists contain the more common of this class of words.
AUXILIARY NUMERALS OF JAPANESE ORIGIN.

Eda (branch), for eMs/ti, a kettle with a long handle. Fun (brandish), for bills (llaginn/a), swords (tnc/u), &c. Halle (wing), for helmets.

NU)lERALS.

73

Hari (stretch), for bows, tents, mosquito-tents. Hashim (pillar), for gods of the Shinto mythology; also, in the older language, for men. Kake (hang), for cruppers and several other parts of harness. Kara (empty), for drums. Kasaue (pile), for official clothes. Kashim (head), for cbos/Ji (a kind of cap) and deer. Kasari (ornament), for Jo'IIlIllllllri, a sort of cap of ceremony, Kosh (loin), for swords of alI kinds. Kuch: (mouth" for saddles, stirrups, and bits. Kudari, for trowsers. KU11Ii(pile, for jill-bako, sets of boxes piled one on the other. 111010 (stem), for plants, and for a large kind of falcon, on account of the perch on which they rest. Nagarc flow), for flags. Ori (bend), for small boxes. Sa/zo (pole" for 1lagalllochi, a travelling chest carried on a pole. Saslu, for mackerel. Sorohe (set), for horse-gear. S/I/lt (seat), f r falcons. Stdi (line), for bridles, bowstrings, arrows, girdles, spears. Toumhi, for storehouses. Tsuga/ri (brace). In ending presents of wild geese, wild ducks, swans, and pheasants, they are usually reckoned by ISligalli, or brace.
AUXILI.\RY NUMERAL OF CHINESE ORIGII'.

Bi (tail), for fish.

Bu (class), for books, or for copies of a book.


CM (handle), for norimons and jinrikishas, tools with handles, muskets, small drums (1m/swItZ), ink sticks. CM (stretch), for bows, stringed instruments.
o 2

74

N MERALS.

(card), for packets of medicine. Fit (seal), for sealed letters. Fllku (border), for hanging pictures. Gil (set), for clothing, &c. H ai (cup), {or cups, glasses full. lie; (handle), for things with handles, such as uclsitua. Hi!.:i, for animals, except birds and men. Ho (ear of corn), for 1I1s1Ibo, a kind of quiver. Hon (stem), for cylindrical things, as pens, fans, sticks, large fish, spears, whips, &c. In (number., for officials, &c. Yiktt (roller), for hanging pictures. Kai (cover), for hats. Ken (eave), for houses. Kiak (leg), for chairs and other articles of furniture having legs. /(0 or ka, for things generally, especially where no other auxiliary numeral is in use, as for places, days, months, years, &c. This numeral is placed immediately before the noun, as ik-ka-sllo, one place." Kio (bali), for balls. Kwall (tube), for wind instruments, also pens. Kusan (roil), for books, also stuffs made up into rolls. lIfai, for Rat things, such as sheets of paper, flat fish, clothing. l![m (face, surface), for mirrors, cup-stands, ink stones, I~oto (a stringed instrument). lJlOI1 (gate), for cannon . \Till (man), for men. Rio (rim), for carriages. Rio (collar), for armour, clothing. Rift (grain), for pills, grains of rice. Sa/sit (vol.), for volumes of a book. Shill (burn), for sticks of incen c. Sltill (head), for poems.

eM

NUMERALS.

75

SIJ (boat), for ships. SIJ (pair), for pairs of screens. Soe (foot), for pairs of shoes, stockings, &c. (head), for some animals, as dogs, oxen. Tsa (communication), for documents. /tVa (feather), for birds. . "Va (bundle), for bundles of grass, straw, grapes, firewood, vegetables, &c.

To

Examples of Numerals :Fune Ilitotslt IStlklwi-tari. Ya-clli-Inbi kflttnslliki. Sen shi-Ilialm ni-fiu-go dora. Hito lose ni futa Sa71slzi me,yo saJlyIJ. lie has made a boat. Many thousand times lamentable. One thousand four hundred and twenty-five dollars. Twice in one year. Three passports for three men. For the space of five years. Thirty-one letters. Hearing one, to know ten.

tam:

Go ka lien no ahida. Miso moji amari MIO 1ttl?;i'. Hitotsu wo kikite, tou/o wo slziru. Usld ippiki udzi-leoroshi, hokalzi 1IZIzikiuballi-Iom.

They killed one ox, and carried away as plunder two others. The class of tin or uninflected words comprises numerous adverbs." They generally consist of a root, followed by one of the particles lli or 10. In some words, however, it is optional to omit the particle, as naze 1Ii or nate, " why" ; haru-baru to or haru-baru, "from afar"; and in numerous other cases the root stands alone without any particle, as I itllsltille, " anciently"; i1lln," now"; kOtz-tlichi," to-day." The derivation of most words of this class shows that they

* For

other classes of adverbs, see under the verb and adjective.

76

AD\'ERB_.

are really nothing more than nouns, as for example ima, " now" ., a space." , " from i root of im , ., to remain" , and ilia,. koko, "here," from ko," this," and /':0, an old word meaning " place'" , ollokala, "probably", from ohoki" "great" and kata ,
U

side,"

part."

The root is often reduplicated, sometimes to convey the idea of repetition, as dan-dan," step by step," "gradually"; tabi-tabi, " frequently"; but oftener merely for the sake of emphasis, as lmru-barsc to, . from afar"; tsura-tsura," attentively." The Japanese language is rich in onomatopoetic adverbs. Examples:Gata-gnta, with a rattling noise. Do-to. with a thud. Soyoro or SO)IO-SO)'O, with a rustling sound. Pilla-filla, with a Rapping noise, as of a fan. Dobun-to, with a plunging sound. Sara-sara, with a rattling noise. Examples of ua as adverbs :Ima Im taYII. It hath now ceased. Yoso IIi sidle kofil1'eba kuru- Being away [from him], I shi. pine for love. Hamka IIi lIliy/{. It is visible afar off. Wadsuea IIi ltiloriflltari. Only a few - one or two persons. Sfziba-sMoa lito lIIilllak" no The desire to see thee freIzoshisa. quently. Imada l.'Ontoa. Because he does not yet come.
CONJUNCTIONS.

The Japanese language is sparing 111 the use of conjunctions. The necessity for them is in some measure

co

'JU 'CTIONS.

77

obviated by the Rule (see Chap. IX.) according to which the adverbial form of the verb or adjective is used instead of the conclusive form or attributive form whenever followed by a verb or adjective co-ordinated with it in the sentence. Thus, in the sentence kokoro tao tS1(kuslti, eltikaY(l wo kiwa1Jlcle, abiIlataraku-beshi, you must work together, giving to it all your soul, and devoting all your strength," the circumstance that tsuklls/d is put in the adverbial form is a sufficient indication that this verb stands in the same connexion with the following verb kiw(lmelc, which is expressed in English by the use of the conjunction" and." Where in English the conjunction "and" is inserted between two nouns, it i commonly omitted in Japanese. Hiakll-sllO eM-1Ii11110autai, " the security of the peasants and townsfolk"; sake sakana, sake and fish," Most words used as conjunctions are verbs or particles, or combinations of words of these two classes. A few. however, are na, alone, or with a particle added. Ex. : Katsu, and, moreover. Katsu Illata, and again. Hata, further. Mata, again. 1"1 ata ha, or. Hata mata, again. Motsutomo, still, nevertheless. The above are placed at the beginning of the clause to which they belong.
Akida (lit. "space "), because.
Yuye or YUJ1e ni (lit. " cause "), because,

Jo (lit. article "), inasmuch

as, because that.

The last three words are placed at the end of the clause

INTERJECTIONS.

after the verb in the attributive form. They occur very frequently in the modern epistolary and official style.
INTERJECTIONS.

Interjections belong to the class of uninflected words, They require little remark. Examples of interjections:
Isa ! tonroui 1IIi niynkan. A no ! omoslaro I Ana I u yo 1101U1ka! Ahore! ima ha yo ui 11aki hilo 110 kO::11 71i iris/Ii IIi yo!

IVos/li ! woslt !

Come! let us go and ee it it together. Oh ! how amusing! Ah! what a wretched place this world is! Alas! can he have now entered the number of men not of this world! Hush! hush!

CHAPTER
INfLECTED

IV.

PRINCIPAL WORDS.

(Kotoba or Hataraki-kotoba.) This class of words corresponds to the" verb" and" adjective" of the grammars of European languages, but with limitations which will be understood from the following observations. The reader had better at once discard from his mind any notions of the functions of inflection which he may have acquired by the study of European languages. In Japanese, inflection has nothing to do with voice. mood, tense, person, gender, number, or case. Instead of a passive voice, Japanese verb have derivative verb with a conjugation the same as that of active verbs; mood and tense are indicated by teniuroha or suffixes; person is only occasionally and indirectly intimated by the use of honorific or humble particles; gender is denoted by compounds similar to the English words " he-ass," " she-ass," and number and case are expressed, if at all, by suffixes or particles distinct from the noun, which, as has been already stated, is never inflected. In the Japanese language, the principal office of inflection, as distinguished from the addition of suffixes, is to give to the same root the force of a different part of speech according to the inflection employed. In Latin, and even in English. inflection has to a limited extent the same function. Thus, for the verbal root fac we have faa, a verbfacere, which is virtually a noun, and factus, which is an adjective, and in English the same root lend appears as a verb in lends, and in the participle lending as an adjective or a noun according to circumstances. The extent to which this system is carried is one of the chief distinctive features of Japanese grammar.

80

INFLECTI-:D

PRI'

II'AL

WORDS.

Not only have all kOloba (inflected words, i.e., verbs and adjectives) forms in which they appear successively as nouns, adverbs, adjectives, and verbs, but the suffixes indicative of tense, &c., have inflections by which they are affected in the same manner. Inflection has a second function, viz., to provide bases to which are added the suffixes or tenizuo/:. The form for which the term" Negative Base" has been adopted in this treatise is employed solely for this purpose, and each of the four other forms, although at times a separate and independent word, may also be a mere base to which certain suffixes are attached. The following table gives a synoptical view of all the inflection' of which Japanese principal words or kOloba are capable. It should be studied in connexion with the table of terminations given at the close of Chapter VII.

...:

::

.~

.~

vi
f-<

r.

u W .....l

Z "'"

82

VERB A '0

ADJECTIVE.

ROOT.
I. The roots of verbs and adjectives are often used as nouns, as yorokobi 1/0 fill/an', " excess of joy"; e-ga/a no girt', a meaning hard to apprehend"; shiro 110 Satsuma jojit, "white atsuma fine cloth"; tsukahi," a messenger." In these examples yorokobi. amari, ega/a, shiro, and tsuka/zi are the roots of yorokobu, to rejoice," atnaru, to exceed," ega/aki, "hard to apprehend," sluroisi, white," and /s-ukaju, "to end." It is more convenient, however. to consider these nouns as na derived from I.o/aba, and they have been accordingly noticed under that head at p. 41. 2. The root is also used in forming compounds, as kasni-ya, "a house to let"; yo-hodo, "a good deal"; waru-gashikoki, " badly-clever," i.e., u cunning." 3. In exclamations the adjective is put in the root form.

PRIl\CIPAl.

PARTS

OF KOTOBA

(VERB

AND FORM.

ADJECTIVE).

ADVERB

OR ADVERBIAL

In verbs this form does not differ from the root; in adjectives it is distinguished by the addition of the syllable klt.As will be seen below, the term" adverb" or "adverbial form" -does not cover all the uses to which this form is applied. Sometimes it is a true adverb (I), at other times it is joined to a verb or adjective, but without qualifying it (2), and may therefore still be called an adverb, although not exactly in the ordinary sense of the word, and it is sometimes not an adverb at all, but a noun (3), or merely a base to which suffixes are attached (4). I. The adverbial forms of adjectives are sometimes adverbs, as hayaku /l(ISnil'1t, to run fast," atS1//m shasuru," to thank

* The spoken language drops the letter k in this termination, and the contracted form is also frequently found in books of the nalsa-mubashi, -or middle-age of Japanese history, as (0 instance the later lIfollogatari.

VERB

AND ADJECTIVE.

warmly." The adverbial forms of verbs have often the same force. For instance, in the sentence cllikaku /lasliiri kitari, "he has come near running," it is plain that cltikaku and flasitiri both stand in precisely the same relation to kitari. Both words describe the manner of the coming, and are therefore adverbs. It is this use of the adverbial form which has uggested the term applied to it in the Kotoba 110 Cflikallliciti, viz., :;oku-yo-gen, or "word joined to inRected word ." What we should call compound verbs are often nothing more than verbs preceded in this way by the adverbial forms of other verbs, as buclli-I.:01'OSU, to "beat-kill," i.e. . to beat to death"; kin'-haya/II, to cut-clear-away," i.e. "to clear away by cutting." 2. A most important function of this form is described in the term invented for it by a native grammarian, viz., yen-yo8,m, or word co-ordinated with inRected words." It is a rule of Japanese syntax that when two or more kotoba are coordinated in the same sentence, the last only receives the inflection which properly belongs to all, those which precede being placed in the adverbial form. [See below, Chap, IX.] In compound verbs the first element is sometimes coordinated with the second in this way, as yuki-kaheru, "to go and return." 3, The adverbial form may be a noun, as in the following examples :Flly"k" yon'. From of old. Kore wo tanotui ni te, Trusting in this. 4. A number of the lelliwofla are added to the root-form as a base. [See below, Chapters VI. and VI I.]
CONCLUSIVE FOR 1.

This form has been termed variously by Japanese writers kimru kotoba, eet-tei-geu, or sai-dan-geu, literally "cutting,"

YERIl

AND ADJECTIVE.

"determining," or " dccisive word." These epithets have reference not only to the force of the conclusive form, which is the same as that of our indicative mood, but to the position which it always occupies at the end of a sentence. trictly speaking the conclusive form is not of an)' tense. In the sentences kaha 1lngaru, kalto fukaslii, the properties" flowing" and" depth" are predicated of the river without reference to time, and it is only from the context that one can judge whether time past, present, or future is intended. But as the past and future are generally indicated by suffixes, the present tense is in the majority of cases the most suitable translation for the conclusive form of verbs or adjectives Thus, in the absence of any indication to the contrary in the context, the above phrases would be translated" the river flows," u the river is deep," although it is quite possible that the context may render it desirable to translate them ~ the river flowed," or "the river will flow," "the river was deep," or the river will be deep." The want of a proper system of punctuation in Japanese books often renders it difficult for the student to distinguish where one sentence ends and another begins. The only remedy for thi lies in his making himself familiar with the conclusive forms both of verbs and adjectives, and of the inflected tenruioha or suffixes. Examples of Conclusive Form :Noch] 110Ilifo 110 sndaure wo suatsn, Kono tenizuoha ni filfa kokoro

an.
Kouo hataraki-kotoba shi.
Ohonl/we ya lli o1lllji.

ito oho-

J await the decision of posterity. This suffix has two meanings. These inflected words are very numerous. J ts general meaning IS the same as that of :fa.

VERB .\;\"D AIlJF:CTI\'F.

85

A few adverbs are obtained by reduplicating the conclusive forms of verbs. Ex.: Osorn-osoru, tremblingly "; yul.:l1Yllkll, "as timc goes on," while on our way." For thc suffixes to this form, see haps. VI. and VI I.
ATTRIBUTIVE OR SUBSTANTIVE FORM.

This form is denominated in the Kotoba 1i<J CII1A'flmidli zoku-tai-gen, or" word joined to nouns," i.e., "adjective," and other names of a similar purport have been invented for it by other native writers on grammar. I. This form may be al1 adjective. In the case of verbal roots, it then corresponds to the participle in illg of English verbs, but it may oftener be translated by placing the verb in a relative clause. Like the conclusive form, it is of no tense, and the context must decide whether, in translating it, the present, past, or future tense should be employed. There is an ambiguity in the use of this form as an adjective which a glance at the context is generally sufficient to remove. 1I1alslt hilo, for instance, may mean either "the man who is waiting" or the man for whom I wait" ; sldr
., The conclusive form has almost entirely disappeared from the modem form of the spoken language, its place having been usurped by the attributive form. An exception is ntlSlti, the conclusive form of Ihe negative adjective, which is not unfrequently used in the spoken language, although nai (a contraction of the attributive form "ai'" is more common. In some of the provincial dialects the conclusive forms of adjectives are still in use. This change in the construction of Japanese is well worthy of the attention of students of language. It is as if we gave up the use of the indicative mood, and used participles instead, saying, for instance, "he dying" or his dying" instead of "he died," "his being killed" instead of" he was killed." The sensation headings of American newspapers, and the verbless sentences of telegrams and advertisements, show that English is not altogether free from the same tendency. For the manner in which this change was brought about in Japanese, see Chap. V., under the particles no and gao

86

VERB AND ADJECTlYl::.

hito may be either" the man who knows II or "the man I know II ; a1'igataki koko1'o may be either" a thankful heart"

or " a heart for which one should be thankful." Examples of Attributive Form as Adjective :Noki chikaku tobu luuaru, Ouan' to S/tSU11111 ,oki.

{1l1117l ;i'll iclzz'mchi. Vuku lie naku, Tametomo 110yuku he slurezarte Nolo. Voki hi!o. Uwo ohoki kalla.

The firefly that flies near the eaves. When he started in pursuit. [Lit., the time of his starting to pursue.] The past I I th day. Without any place to' go to. His not being able to learn where Tametomo had gone to. A good man. A river in which fish arc plentiful.

2. This form has, as a noun, two significations. Kasu, for example, may mean either" the person or thing who lends" or "the act of lending yoki may mean "good persons or things or it may mean" goodness." In other words, kasll may be the equivalent either of kaSIl 1110110 or of kasll kolo; J10ki may correspond in meaning to either J10ki 1/101/0 or yoki koto. It will be observed that in neither of these senses has the attributive form the same meaning as the root, which may also be used as a noun.
II ; II

Examples of Attributive Form as Noun :Zokll-tai-gm yon ukm'll Ira.

Tatsutoki

1JlO

iyaslliki mo.

Those (teniwoha) which are attached to the attributive form. Both noble and mean persons.

VERB ANI) ADJE 'TIVE.

Both in liberality and in economy. 1110. I(ami ie/Ii mni ?ti te 1110 SIIFearing the throwing away of even a single sheet of tsurn WO osorete. paper. Kono ji too mocluynrt ha The use of this character is an error. ayamari nart. Hi 110 Mkan IIi sono hire wo Its causing its fins to glisten in the sunlight is like the hiramekasuru ha IUlIa wo furu ga gotoshi. waving of a flag. rVad::llm/laslliki made ollOslti. They are numerous unto troublesomeness. [I.e.. They are so numerous as to be trou blesome.]
IIlO,

Hodokosu ni

slumatsn ni

3- This form takes the place of the conclusive form when preceded by so, ya, or an interrogative, by a rule which is explained in Chapter IX. Examples:Ot01lashi-galUl to so tsuini It is as the river Otonashi nagare-idzuru. that it at last flows out. Kore so lIudetaki. I t is this that is beautiful. 4- The suffixes which may be attached to this form as base are given below. [See Chaps. VI. and VI I.]

BASE FOR NEGATIVE AND FUTURE

SUFFIXES.

This base never constitutes a complete word by itself. It is only found associated with the negative and future suffixes. It is termed, in the Kotoba 110 Cltikamie/ti, sM-cen-gm, or "future form," and is opposed to the "i-sen-gm, or "past form," as the perfect is termed in the same treatise. The San-i?l-k8 says that this form imada sllt'karacarll lli lIlodli)'It, " is used for events which have not yet taken place," a description which seems more appropriate than the sllo-sen-gell of
H

88

VERB AND ADJECTIVE.

the Chikalllichi, as it would apply to the negative as well as to the future. For the suffixes attached to this base, see Chaps. VI. and VII.
PERFECT.

In the modern written language, verbs of the first conjugation have a perfect formed by adding am to the root, the final i of which is contracted with the initial a of ant into e. Thus kaktt, to write," has a perfect Imkem (for kaki + am), to have written"; i/II, to say," has a perfect ihetu ifor ihi + ayu), to have said." In the most ancient literature we find a form from which the final syllable YII of this form has disappeared, <10 and there it is not confined to verbs of the first conjugation, but is al '0 in use, although with some changes, for verbs of the other conjugations and for adjectives, It is this form which is ill the present treatise called the perfect, the ki-zell-gen of the Chika1llichi. The perfect form is used in the following ways. I. I n the most ancient literature] it stands by itself as a perfect, as Imshille ya ?
2.
110

llilo ni zuare

(I1'e

I kani otuohoshiutese ka ?

When preceded by koso, it takes the place of the conclu ive form. Hence it has been called by a native gram There are several other instances of the disappearance of the I'll final of the verb aru and its derivatives. In the written language miy,zanl nari is often written tJtty~Eal1ari. and in the spoken language we have ta (the termination of the past tense) for taru, kirei-l1a for kirei l1ara, waruka (Nagasaki dialect) for waruku am, and allakke (Yedo dialect) for ari-tari-beri. t The perfect form tn~ of the future suffix" or mtr is occasionally met
with in modern writers.

Have 1 been one of the men of old? What has been his thought?

VERIl

A .1) AOJECTIVE.

89

marian koso 110 musubu. k%blt, or " form joined with koso." (See Chapter IX.] Examples :Kore koso
/(l1I1II 11111'e.

YOlle koso yokere.

It is this, and not anything else, which is the jewel. It is rice only that is good.

3. The most familiar use of this form is as the base to which are added the conditional and concessive particles ba, do, and dotuo. It retains, however, its force as a perfect, as may be seen by comparing such forms as yukeb(l, "since he has gone" or " if he has gone," with yuk(lba, "if he went" or " if he should go." 4. In the first conjugation of verbs, and in the irregular verb (1m, this form coincides with that of the Imperative Mood. Example :Yuke, " go !" ualeare, " let it not be."
For the mode in which the Imperative is formed in other conjugations, and when combined with a negative, see under the suffixes ),0, 11 -so, and na. The following table shows the formation of the I mperative, both Positive and Negative, in the different conjugations :-

VRR8.

- - --FOSITI\'E IMflRRATJ\'K. NECAT[\"It IMrSRATIn .

rst Conj. and Conj. 3rd Conj. Irregular

Verbs.

f
I

liasu lalmru
minI
Q1"U

kuru
surn

kase labe yo mi yo are

kaSlma

tabunma

or

1t(t. kasni so
01'

"0,,0
se yo
illt

miruua
"akare
1mI/o

na In/Je SI)

inuru

suna or suruna inuruna or "a ill; so


II

or 1:111""11

CONJUGATIONS. CONJUGATiONS.-

There are three conjugations of verbs and two of adjectives. First COlljllgation of Verbs.-To this conjugation belong the great majority of underived verbs. It is distinguished by having a form for the negative base distinct from the root,
Of the three conjugations of Japanese verbs, the first is evidently the original one. The third consists entirely of verbs with monosyllabic roots. If these 'erbs had been inflected according to the first conjugation, the vowel of he root would have been obliterated in every part of the verb except the adverbial form, a loss which could be ill afforded in words consisting of 'only two letters. To avoid this the letter Y has been inserted between the root and the characteristic vowel endings of the attributive, conclusive, and perfect forms, so that we have, for instance, instead of 1111/ 111/1 1IIe, lIIiYII uuru mire. In the case 01 the negative base, the obliteration of the vowel of the root has been avoided by a different means, viz., by allowing the root to remain without change. There are a few other verbs with monosyllabic roots whose inflections, no doubt partly from the same cause, resemble to some extent (and in the Vedo spoken language are identical with) those of verbs of the third conjugation. One 01 these verbs is "1''', to get," which is conjugated thus: Adv. e, concl. u, attrib. U"I, neg. base e, perfect urc. UyU may in fact be considered a slightly irregular verb of the third conjugation. It will be seen by referring to the Table of InAections that the principal parts of trru are identical with the terminations of verbs in e of th second conjugation, and there is every reason to conclude that all such verbs are composed of a root followed by this verb uru, This is plainly the case with Passive and Causative Verbs, which constitute the large majority of verbs of this onjugation, KoroSat7/"e," to be killed," is obviously nothing more tban koyosu-ari-ttrlt, i.e., "get-be-kill"; korosasuru, "to cause to kill," is koroshi-shi-uYII, i.e, "get-make-kill." The Derivative Transitive and Intransitive verbs, such as adt:llkllrll, "to give in charge " (really to get taken charge of), miyuru, "to be visible," may be easily shown 10 contain the same element, and an analysis of the remaining verbs in e of this conjugation will generally reveal it, The number of those whose roots end in" is compararively small, and many of them may also be inflected according to the first conjugation. They are also plainly derivatives, but it may perhaps be doubted whether the final uru

CONJUGATIONS.

and by the circum tance that the inflections involve no increase in the number of syllables of the root. Second Conjugation of Verbs.-The number of underived verbs of this conjugation is small, but it comprises all passive and causative verbs. The Japanese grammarians make two conjugations of it, drawing an unnecessary distinction between verbs whose roots end in i and those whose roots end in e. In the second conjugation the root and the negative base are identical in form, and the attributive form and the perfect contain one syllable more than the root. I n the spoken language of Yedo, and sometimes in the modern written language, the attributive form and perfect of verbs in i of this conjugation terminate in im, ire, and the same forms of verbs in e end in ern, ere. Third COli/ligation of Verbs.-The third conjugation differs from the first in haloing the negative base the same as the root, and from the second in having the conclusive undistinguishable from the attributive form. The following list contains all the verbs of this conjugation. It will be ob erved that they have without exception monosyllabic roots. In this conjugation the older language often attaches to the adverbial form the te1liwoha which belong properly to the conclusive form. Kiru, "to clothe" ; niru, "to resemble" ; niru, "to boil";
is the verb uru, "to get," Or some other verb with a monos) llabic root,
as, for instance, iru,
H

to remain."

It may be observed that the spoken language of the east of Japan, by omitting the conclusive form and preserving the vowel of the root in the attributive and perfect forms (having en. iru, ere ire instead of uru, lire), makes the second conjugation agree entirely with the third. It is not Improbable that in this case the spoken forms are really older than those of the literary language. The above remarks may be summed up by saying that the First is the Original conjugation; the Second, the Deriuatiue or uru conjugation; and the Third, the ,lIonosy//abic conjugation.

C:ONJUt:ATIONS.

Idr, . to dry in the sun"; hint, "to winnow"; hinl," to sneeze"; miru, "to see" ; iru, "to shoot with a bow"; Wit, .to melt", ,J im "to dwell " 'J lscrn "to kick."
IRREG LAR VERIlS.

A YII, to be." The conjugation of ar differs from that of verb of the first conjugation in the conclusive form only, which is an' instead of aru, The latter form is, however, retained as a base for the suffixes (except to, which is rather a conjunction than a suffix proper) of the conclusive form. Like arn are conjugated om, ltaberll, and imasokaru, and the suffixes into the composition of which aru enters, viz., keru, tnru, sam, tuern, 1{(l1'lI, and sern," The imperative of nyu is are, and the negative imperative nahare (for Ilak/NII'e). Ku1'II, to come." In this verb the suffixes slli and s/zika, which in other verbs it is the rule to append to the root-form, are more usually, though not invariably, attached to the negarive base 1.:0. Thc imperative of I.:tt11t is ko, but modern writers have often koyo or Noi. The negative imperative is kllll", or in the later language 1""1'Ima. 5111'lI, "to do." Like sur are conjugated OltaSIlYU, to be," and the numerous compounds of Slt17/, as Ili-surll, "to compare"; fi-suru, "to decline" or "refuse"; sllo-zuru, "to produce," &c., 'c. The suffixes sId and slli/",a are never found attached to the root-form of this verb, viz., shi, but always to \ the negative base se. The imperative of surtt is seyo. The negative imperative is suna or snrtom. Innru, "to go away." Like innrtc is conjugated shinurt; " to die," and also the suffix uuru, which is nothing more than tuuru with the initial i elided. 11I11rtt has the imperative 11Ie. Later writers have sometimes ineyo.

* S"''It (for $/1'''1'11) and slti/:/lYII (for shil.:''''I1'II) conjugated in the same way as ani.

arc, of cour e, also

COXJUCATIONS. CON) CATIOKS OF A[))ECTIVES.

93

Most adjectives are of the first r.onjugation; the second conjugation includes those adjectives only whose roots end in slti or Ji'.- The native grammarians are of opinion that the ending kere of the perfect is compounded of ki, the termination of the attributive form, and are, the perfect form of nne, "to be," The old form )fOkellllf, )fokedolllo, which are found in the lJlnnyoshitt, perhaps stand for )Ioki-nmlllll, )fokinredomo, and are additional instances of the loss of the letter r of the verb aru, to be." (See above, note to page 88). Only a few of the suffixes are attached immediately to the different parts of adjectives. The verb am generally comes between.
DERI\'ATIVE VERBS.
1Ia

I. Derived from

or Nouns.

Verb are derived from ua-sI. By adding the termination rn, as Yadoru, to lodge"; from yado, a lodging." 2, By adding 11m, utarn (intrans.) or 111111'11 (trans.) as Hammu, "to become pregnant"; from hara, "the belly." Tsukanm, "to grasp"; from tsuka, "a handle." Inamu, "to refuse"; from ina, "no," Knuamarn; "to reach a limit"; from kiwa, "edgc." Knuamuru, "to push to an extreme"; from kiwlI, "edge." 3- By adding gu, as Tsnnagu, "to tie"; from tsuua, a rope."

* The reason why the conclusive form does not add sid in the second conjugation is Obviously because the root already ends in slzi (or ji, which is the same thing in Japanese), and the repetition of the same syllable is disliked. In other respects the second conjugation is the same as the first, and if this difference is only remembered, the student need not trouble himself about the second conjugation of adjectives,

94

OERIV ATIVE

VERBS.

'4, By adding IUljit, as flji'unjit, " to taste"; from aji, "taste," Tomonafu, " to accompany"; from tonto, " company," 111 ahillafit, " to bribe"; from maki, " money,"

5, By adding fit, as Uta/It, " to sing"; from uta, " song," '6, By adding Imru (root bi), as Inaburu, "to refuse"; from ilia, no," Otonaouru,' to be of full age"; from otoua," a full grown person," 7, A good many derivative verbs are formed by adding to nouns the verb snru, " to do," the initial s of which often takes the ?ligon and becomes e. In the great majority of these verbs the root is a Chinese word, In the later language tho e verbs of this class in which the initial s of SIl1'U takes the nigori often follow the spoken form of verbs of the second conjugation in i for the Attributive, leg. Base, and Perfect, as, for instance, ausnr, "to reflect," which is conjugated thus:OLD CON).
JS'E\\, ON).

Adverb Concl. Form Attributive

m1Jt
(1I/~1t

I
I1-I

nllJz

auan
allJzru nllJl

fl11:U1"U

Neg. Base

-Perfect

anze anaure
I

aujzre

DERIVATIVE

VERBS.

95

Examples of derivatives of sum :Rou-suru, modern form ron-jim, " to argue." Jltlei-zuru, modern form mei-jiru, "to command." Omon-enru (for OIllOllli-sllru), modern form omon-firu, "to esteem," Karon-zuru (for kor01lli-su1'II), modem form karon-firu, "to despise." These last two verbs are derived from the noun omomi, karollli, which contain the roots of the adjectives ollloki, " heavy," and koroki, " light," [See above, p. 41.] Hi-sum, "to compare." In this example the letter s does not take the nigori, and the conjugation of sum is therefore retained even by modern writers. 8. By adding meku, as Knra-meeu, "to have aChinese look"; from f{ara,"China"1 J.'tyll-lIIelm, " to have a wintry look" ; from /uyu, "winter."
II. Derived from Verbs,

Intransitive and Trausitiue Verbs.-In English there are seldom distinct words or forms for the intransitive and transitive applications of the same verbal root. TIm the words ride, sillk, brenk, bmd, and many others are either transitive or intran itive according to circumstances. In such cases the Japanese language has usually two distinct verbs containing the same root. These verbs are formed in several different ways, sometimes the transitive from the intransitive form (1.), sometimes vice vers& (11.), and sometimes both from an obsolete verb containing the common root (IlL). Intransitive mu ,t be distinguished from passive verbs, For instance, kirltl'7l, the intransitive form of kiru, "to cut," should not be confounded with kirnl7wu, the passive form. The latter only is properly translated" to be cut." Kiruru means
I.

DERIYATlVE

VERBS.

"to po se"" the quality cut," i.e., " to be discontinuous." It conveys no idea of passivity or of being acted upon either from without or by the subject itself. Many of these verbs are best translated with the help of adjectives terminating in rr/>/e and ib/e. Ururu, kiruru, &c., are exactly rendered by the French Sf "fJtdrp, se couper, &c. The following examples illustrate the various modes in which tran itive and intransitive verbs are formed from one another,
INTRAl'. ITlVE.

I.

TRAI

ITIV!!:.

1StConjugation.

znd Conjugation.

SI/Z'ricoRu, " to retreat."


Tn/sit, " to stand." Sustauu, II to advance." J 'aum, " to cease."
,st Conjugruion.

Shiri::okllrlt, "to drive back." Tatsuru, tI to set up." Snsnumru, " to encourage." 1" a1JIII ru, u to cease."
rst Conjugation.

Ugoklt, " to move." Odoroeu, " to be astonished.' l(awaRII, " to dry." Oyob, tI to extend." TVa/nru, "to cross ove r." l(nlterlt, "to return." lI'Ok01'II,"to remain over."
1St Conjugation.

Ugokasu, . to move." Odorokasn, " to astonish." Kaumleast, " to dry." Oyobosu, " to extend." TVa/aslI, " to send over," deliver over." Ka/iesu, " to send back." Nososu , "to leave."

t.

to

l'orll, .t to approach." Noru, " to mount." lI'i,'u , "to be like."


3rd Conjugation.

Yosuru, " to bring near." Nosuru, " to mount." Nisur, " to counterfeit." II.
IS!

md Conjugation.

znd Conjugation.

and Conjugation.

Conjugation.

Kil.:oYll17l, " to be audible." Kirurn, "to be disconti n uous,"

Kie, " to hear." Ki"/I, " to cut."

DERIVATI\'E INTR.\NSITlVJ::.

YERBS.
TRAl':
I st

97 rnvs,

znd Conjugation. Klldakurlf, "to crumble."

Conjugation.

Kudai:, " to crush to pieces."

Tahtrlt,

to melt."

Toku,

to melt."
jrd Conjugation.

2nd Conjugation. Ml)'ltrll, "to be visible." i st Conjugation.

lIfirlt, " to see," I st Conjugation.

Tsugnr, "to be continuous."


and Conjugation. 01'11 ru, " to descend."

Tsugu, " to join."


I 51

III.
Conjugation.

to rise." 1'dcnru, to go ou t." l\rigJt1,It, " to flee." Obi),lIrll, "to start with alarm." S Itgllrll, "to pass," " to be excessive."
0/"111'11, "

"to let down." Okosu, "to raise." I 'dasn, " to pu tout." Nigasu, to let flee." Obiynkas1I, "to frighten." Sugos or sugnsn, "to pass," to exceed."
O,.OSll,

1St Conjugation.

Tasulearn, " to have help."

Sodamaru, "to be fixed." Kaumru, " to change."


znd Conjugation. Shirakl/ru, " to become white

to help." Sadamurn, " to fix." l(a./llrl/, to change."


T 'asukuru,
u

end Conjugation.

znd Conjugation.

Shimgl/rIt, "to make white."

or feeble." Noburu, (root 110bi), "to Noouru (root llobe), to stretch." stretch." The transitive verbs terminating in S1t or suru, although differently inflected from SI(171, "to do," have no doubt been formed by adding this verb to the root. Indeed, the modern language often conjugates them like surn, and we meet with such forms as wntasc-shi instead of walas/d-shi, tsukahasuredomo instead of tsukahasedouto. The verb masu, so common in the spoken language, is one of the verbs which has been affected in this way. In the older language it is a verb of

DERIVATIVE VERBS.

the first conjugation, but in the later and spoken language its inflections have been assimilated to those of SI/1''1I. The terminations am and uru of the above table are no doubt the verbs aru, "to be," and 111'11,"to get." The conjugation, however, of those in aru is regular. In the examples given below we have pairs of transitive verbs containing the same root. Those in the second column may seem at first sight to be merely the causative forms of those in the first column. They are really the transitive forms corresponding to intransitive forms which in most -cases have ceased to exist, or perhaps never have existed. Kasn, for example, docs not mean" to cau e to borrow," but '" to make borrowed," i.e., " to lend"; misuru is the transitive form corresponding to the intransitive miyuru, "to be visible," and does not mean" to cause to see," which would be misasurn, The fact that these forms never have a honorific sense shows that they are not regarded as causative verbs.
Kant, " to borrow." Kasu, " to lend."

Sadeuearn, to receive." .Adsulearn, "to take charge of." Satoru, to understand." Tamaharu, " to receive."
Kim, u to wear," Mil'll, " to see." 2. Causative Verbs.

Sadsuteur, " to give." Adsneuru, to give in charge." Satosu, to acquaint." Tamafu, to give." Kisuru, "to put on (clothes)." Mis1I1'11, " to show."

The causative forms of verbs may be -obtained by the following empirical nile. RULE. For verbs of the first conjugation, and the irregular verbs arn and inurn, add to the negative base SIIYiI (root se) -or in the modern language slumnrt: (root shillle). I For verbs of the second and third conjugations, and the irregular verbs I.:ItYil and suru, add to the negative base

DERIVATIYE

VERllS.

sasurn (root sase), or in the modern language shi1Ilurll (root shimt). EXCEPTION. Verbs with monosyllabic roots add seshimuru, the causative of sura, to the root. Snn itself is, of, course, an exception. Examples:1St

lIfa1lt0YII,to guard." Korosu, to kil1." l'asur71." to become lean." Tadmunru, " to look for."
jrd Conjugation.

Conjugation.

Ma1ll0rasllrtl or momorashimuru to cause to guard." Korosasurn or korosas/amuru, to cause to kill." Yasesasurn or yases/nmuru, to cause to become lean." T 'adzunesasurn or ladstmeshimuru, "to cause to look for." Misasze1'u or miseshimuru, to cause to see."

and Conjugation.

Mint, to see."

All causative verbs have their root!' terminating in e, and I are of the second conjugation. ; The causative forms are-very' commonly used instead of the original verbs in .honorific sense' The reason is that. according to Japanese ideas, i: '-is' 'considered polite to represent the man of rank as surrounded :)} vassals and attendants, whom he causes to e).ecute his <;:0IT.rN.11ds . : : 3. Passive Verbs. The passive forms of verbs may be obtained by the following empirical rule: In SIInl, sasuru, or shimunl, the terminations of causative verbs, it is easy to recognize the elements suru (root Shll' do." and uru, "get." The passive terminations runt and raruru are evidently composed of the verbs ant, be," and "1''', "get."

100

DERIVATIVE

VERBS.

For verbs of the first conjugation, and the irregular I verbs ant and inurn, add rum (root re) to the negative base. For verbs of the second and third conjugations, and the irregular verbs kuru and suru, add raruru (root mre) to the negative base. Examples :RULE. ACTIVE. PASSIVE.

Kasu, to lend." Taouru, to eat." Mil"tt, "to see." A ru, " to be." Kuru, u to come." Suru, u to do." Inuru, " to depart."

Kasaruru, to be lent." Taberaruru, " to be eaten." 1IIirarltr1t, to be seen." A raruru, "to be able to be." Korarurn, "tobe abletocome." Seraruru, "to be clone."
Inaruru, "to be able to depart."

All passive verbs have their roots terminating in e, and are of the seconclconjugation. In the case of intransitive verbs these forms have a potential signification, as in the examples kOt'amru, inaruru, cited above, and the passive forms of transitive verbs may have a potential as \Ve~1 as ~ passive signification. lIfiraru1"tt, for instance, may be "to be' seen" or " to be able to see." The potential often merges into a honorific sense, it being thought more respectful to' ~~r ih~.t a' man (,has been able to do something" than simply that ,. he has done something." The passive forms of causatives are very frequently used as honorific substitutes tor the Ori~!lIal verbs. A familiar example of this is araseraruru, the passive of the causative of aru, a form much used in speaking of the Emperor." Examples of Transitive and Intransitive, Causative and Passive Verbs :The Kofoba 110Kayo/Ii.ji, Vol. I., is the best native authority on the subject of intransitive and transitive, causative and passive verbs.

DERIVATIVE

VERBS.

101

Ko wo tuomiua yasltill(1ll(1S7t.

IIi

ad:;ukete

Hi 110 1Ulka IIi lIclli - kubete yakase tamafit tu, mera mera to yakelllt.

Hi ni kuhet/!, yakitari. Sashi kosaresla (honorific use of passi ve) edcumeu. Tenc/d
1110110.

110

all ida

Iii

umaruru

Kwoto

kawal'ase

(honorific
tmnafit

use of causative)

given the child in charge to a woman, he caused her to nourish it. When he caused (his attendants) to burn it by throwing it into the middle of a fire, it burned away with a blaze. He burnt it by placing it on the fire. The map which you have been good enough to send me. Creatures born between heaven and earth. The imperial line of descent has never changed.

Ilaving

(The Emperor's) praying every morning and cvcry evening that his subjects may have case. H ito ItO /;;OkOl'O wo tanoskiTo give pleasure to the hearts suaslumuru. of men. Onore ga ta1llasltilti wo l11tSU- Being robbed of his own soul.
mare/e. H ito Ita 11IilteJlu nari.

koto nashi. Tam; yasukare to asaua yuna iuorase tamaft koto.

There is no one to be seen.

4. In the Mallyoslzitt and KOjikithere are found many verbs which differ from the ordinary forms of the same verbs by having ant, afu, or asa instead of the tt final, or by being lengthened in other ways :Examples:Tsutsushiruaru for tsutsuslamn, to be quiet and respectful."

102

DER[\'ATIVE

VERBS.

K(lkllS(lfie Nabikafu Nagekasu Tsumasu

for ImlmSII, "to hide." for unbileu, " to bend." for nagektt, "to lament." for tsumn, " to pluck." These seem to be merely poetical forms, of the same meaning as the original verbs. Derived from Adjectives. J. By adding uu to the root. Ex.: Shiromu, "to become white"; from shiro, root of slliroki, "white." Kuromu, "to become black"; from kuro, root of kllroki, " black." The lengthened forms shiromaru, kuro1Jlnne, &c., are also found. The corresponding transitive verb end in muru (root me), as sluromuru, "to make white," llaga11luru, "to lengthen," " to gaze upon." I 2. By adding ra to the root Ex.: Slligcnt," to be dense"; from skigeki, " dense." Nigam, . to feel bitterly"; from lzignki, " bitter." The final vowel of the root is sometimes changed, as in A suru, " to be shallow"; from asaki, "shallow." Katsuru, " to be hard"; from kataki, " hard." The last two examples are, however, verbs of the second conjugation. 3 By adding garzt to the root. These verbs arc chiefly formed from the desiderative adjectives ending in lakz: Ex.: Yukitngnru, "to wish to go"; fromyukitnki, "desirous of going." H oslugaru, " to be eager for"; from Iwshiki, "eager." Ayashigaru, "to think strange" j from ayasltil.:i, " strange." Garu is no doubt compounded of ge, the termination of nouns described at page 42, and aru, to be." These verbs III.

DERrVATrn:: n~RBS.

103

are, however, not conjugated like ant, but as regular verbs of the first conjugation. They must not be confounded with the combinations so frequently met with of the adverbial form of adjectives with am. Hoshigarn, for instance, must be distinguished from IlOsltik'aru.
COMPOUt\U \ERBS.

The first element of a compound verb may be a noun or an adjectival root, but is more commonly a verb in the root form. The first element of a compound may stand to the I otherrst. In the relation of iU1 object direct or indirect. J Ex.: Tabi-dalslI," to start on a journey." Mono-gaiar, "to relate." and, In the relation of an adverb qualifying it. Ex.: Ni-korosu," to boil to death." Seme-Eairu, to enter with violence." Bltclli-koroslt, co to beat to death." A tSlt-gohetaru killll, thick clothing." 3rd. It is sometimes co-ordinated with it. Ex. : Yuki-kalunt, " to go and return." Nige-cluru, "to flee and scatter," "to be put to the rout."
DERIVATI\'E AD]ECTl\"ES.

I. Derived from na. 1. By adding mslliki. These adjectives have a similar signification to English adjective. in ish. They belong to the later language. Ex.: Kodamo-rasldla," childish" i from kodomo, "a child." .Bakn-rasltiki, " foolish" i from balla, " fool." 2. By adding sltiki or jiki. Ex.: Hattalzadashiki," extreme" i from Ieanahoda; very.' lfitosltiki, " uniform," " similar" i from lata, u one." Kohishiki, " beloved" i from kolti, " love."
I

104

DERIVATiVE

ADJECTIVES.

Adjectives in shiki often reduplicate the root for the sake of greater emphasis. Ex.: HakabakaJ'hiki," efficient." Chinese roots sometimes take this termination. Ex.: Bi-bi-sltiki," splendid"; from bi, " beauty." I 3 By adding keki. Keki is a poetical form. It simply changes an uninflected word into an inflected word, and does not alter the meaning. Thus tallirakeki, from talura, means " level," " fiat," and is the same as tahira naru of the ordinary written language, or tairaua of the spoken language. Such form as 1Ulga-keku, sanm-kela, where keku (never kek,) follows the root of an adjective, have an entirely different character, and must not be confounded with the adjectives just de scribed. I I. Derived from kOloba. I. By adding sltiki to the root, the vowel of which is usually modified at the same time. Ex.: K01/oll/aslliki," lovable'" from k01l0llli, root of kOIlOJllIJ, " to like." is(1gasitiki, "busy"; from isogi, root of isOgll, "to be busy," " to be in a hurry." Osoros/uki, "dreadful"; from OS017', root of OS01'lt, "to dread." All verbs have derivative adjectives formed by adding taki to the root, and be!.:i and lJla!i'ki to the conclusive form, but it is more convenient to include these terminations among the
tCiliwoha.
COMPOUND ADJECTIVES.

The first clement of a compound adjective may be either a noun, a verb in the root form, or the root of another adjective. Examples of Compound Adjectives :Na-takaki, " famous"; from na, name," and takaki, " high." Te-bnynki," dexterous"; from te," hand," and ilflyn!.i, "quick."

COMPOUND

ADJECTIVES.

105

Kiki-gllrllshiki, harsh"; " painful."

from kikl(, "to hear," and kll17fShiki,

Nogare-gataki, " inevitable"; from nognrurn, "to escape," and kalaki, " difficult." Slti-yasuki, "easy to do"; from sura, "to do," and yasnlei, " easy. Usu-almkt: "light red"; from us"ki, "thin," and a/tald, " red."
II

CHAPTER
UNINFLECTED TENIWOHA

V.
SUFF/XO TO NA.

I. Case Suffixes.

Genitive, IlO,ga, tsu, " of." Dative, Locative, Instrumental, IIi, at," "in," "to"; uue, in," "by means of"; he, gnri, towards" ; made, a far as." Accusative, too. Vocative, yo, yfl, yayo. Ablative, yori, km"ll, " from." II. Plural Suffixes.
Rn, domo, ladli, gala, bam, nado, s/liu,

1o.

III. Oilier Suffixes. Ha (read wa), Distinctive or determinative particle.


lITo,
II

also,"

even."

Ka,Interrogati,c. Ka1/lI, Exclamatory. Ya, Interrogative and Exclamatory. Nan, Emphatic. 20, do. Koso, do. To, Conjunctive. Dcutsu, each." Daui, "at least." SIlI'a, "even." Sotre, even." SIIi, "only." Nouti, bflkari, only." Gaclii, all over." Nngnra.
Datera.

UNINFLECTED

TENIWOHA

UFFIXED

TO NA.

107

Many of the Ietliwollfl in this chapter may be suffixed not only to ua, but to those parts of koloba and inflected tcnituoha \\ hich are capable of being treated as substantives, viz., the adverbial form and the attributive form.
/. CASE S FFIXES.

There is no suffix to distinguish the nominative case. shown below, Ita and ga do not indicate the nominative.
Genitiue or Possessive Particles.

As

No, s tsu, "of." The distinction between 1/0 and ga resembles that between the English preposition of and the s added to form the possessive case. This is probably what the Japanese grammarians mean when they te\1 us that ga 1tOyori omos/ii, i.e., "s is heavier than 1/0," the possessive relation being looked upon as a closer one than the partitive relation. In the classical period ga was used only after the substantive forms of verbs and a few other words, chiefly pronouns, as, for instance, ta ga, uia ga, kimi ga, uno ga, chielti ga. Ga and 110are in later times used without much distinction. Thus hana ga saku and /lfIlla 1/0 saku mean precisely the same, vi 1. the unfolding of the flowers." There is, however, a tendency in the Japanese language to treat phrases of this kind as if they contained an assertion, and hana 110 saku or hann ga saku are sometimes met with in poetry in the sense of the Rowers unfold." In the spoken language the last-named meaning has become much the more usual one in the case of ga, and so entirely has the proper force of that particle been forgotten in these cases that it is either considered a sign of the nominative case, or is omitted altogether. This construction-viz., the attributive form with or without ga-is now used in speaking to the exclusion of the conclusive form, which has passed out of use both for verbs and adjectives. Thus for midsu nagnru, "the water flows," the spoken

108

UNINFLECTI-:D

TENIWOllA

SUFFIXED

TO NA.

language has 1II1dzII gn nngnrum (or oftener 1lflgareru) 1IIid:./( nagarllYU, or midsn wa naganwu; for Iiana Ita slurosla, "the flower is white," hana ga shiroi (for shiro/d) or ltalla wa sluroi. [See above, page 85.] In the later part of the classical period there are instances where Ca with a pronoun of the first person seems to imply humility, and with pronouns of the second or third person, contempt or disparagement; but this use of ga is unknown in the more ancient language, and also in its modem form. No (not ga) is used where the same thing is meant by the two nouns which it joins, or where one is a part of the other as in the examples Yamato 110/.;1111, "the province of Yamato," chic/u' no Daiungo, "her father the Dainagon," S01l0 lOS/Ii I/O uatsu, " the summer of that rear." A noun is sometimes omitted after no if it can be easily supplied from the previous clause, as hito tsuma 10 tuare 110, some one else's husband (or wife) and mine." TSIIlIlfl is of course to be SLI pplied after 1U). No frequently occurs in the ancient poetry in the sense of 110 gOloki or 110 golokll, like," a tori 110 tuuragnrite matsu, "to wait assembled in a flock like birds." TSIl (sometimes d:;u) is an old word for the genitive particle. I t is obsolete in the modern language except in OIIOd:;/tNlIYil, midsulsara, of or by oneself," and a few other words. Examples of Genitive Particles r- TSllki 110 J'o,Jfllki 110 ashita. ,A moonlight night, a snowy morning. Taregasla g,l 1II/(ko ni naru. To become such a one's sonin-law. 0110 g(1 umrnki kolo 110 snnge. The confession of one's own sins. Saki 110 kmlli 1110, ium 1/0 mo. Both the former lord, and the pre ent one.
U U

U 'INFLECTED TENIWOI-IA SUFFIXED TO

A.

109

lIfiyrrko If( to Ouiof lIUI /IlOI/O 110


f(mlfTsht'ki lIfT
110

Kaherant lzito

A reba

uari

keri.

Even with our joyous anucipations of returning to the capital is mingled the sad thought that there are some who never will return, [In this sentence it IS necessary to supply from areba the substantive form
rrnt.)

III/a

110 yo

no hito

110111OIIose171

futui uta zoo mint ni.


Oki
ISIt

s/urauami.
lIilJllida.

IVaga llaku

Nnru grr uclli IIi. Itsutsu 110 1//1/ tsu, Seieai kOga kotoba ui.

Yuku midxu (poetical).


Kiru!
lIi kofitnt lIIichiltllrebrr.

110

kayak"
110

reading the prose and poetical compositions of the men of the present day. The white waves of the open sea. The tears which I weep. During my sleep. Five times six. In the words of Seikan. Swift as running water. As the tears of longing for thee have filled my couch. [!n thi phrase 11(1 joins uamida with mictiinnru, which must be supplied from 1Ilicltilluyeba.] Oh! the brightness of the moonlight that falls on the hoar-frost of the decayed leaves of the winter withered woods l As there is no certainty as to whether he whom I expect will come or not.

In

uamida

toko

Fuyu-gare

uo
110 kllclti-ba 110

lit ori
SIu'IIlO

ItO

uhe

11; 110

Oc/utaru
Kage
MITtSit Ilito

tSllld

110 sayakesa. 110 kOIl

ya

koji

ya

110sadame Itakereha.

110

NINFLECTEO
110

TENIWOHA

S FFIXEO

TO

TA.

Hartt ILakagiri slti!.:aba. Ille ISIt dori. Harn 1/0 SIIIte/SIt

uaimrama-

kala.

If there were only no end to spring. The house-bird, i.e., the cock. The latter part of spring.
Cases.
, J U

Dative, Lacatiue, and Instrumental


), H U , U J ,

" until." Ni is sometimes the sign of the dative ca 'e, as in the

lV "at" "in or to" into" "by" 11t' te "by n by means of'" , Itt' and b' "'art', towards'" " made as far as"
J

following examples :Show me. To give in charge to orne one. OJ'll IIi niru. To be like one's parents. In the following examples lIi means" to," " in," or "into." Yokohama 1IiYlIkll. To go to Yokohama. YokolLallla ni WOYII. To live in Yokohama. Hai Iii irurn, To put into a box. Ni has the meaning of "along with" in the foil wing example :Ooan ga ka::e 1IZ mIla 110 Along with the wind through tSlfki-kage. the obana (a kind of grass) the moonlight in the courtyard. In such expressions as isami m' isamite, " full of eagerness" (lit., "along with eagerness being eager "), ni has the same force. The instrumental case is represented by the noun followed by 111 te, This is the equivalent of 7.1101II0tle of the modern semi-Chinese style. Ex. : Chi 1Ii te eM 7.110arafu. To wash away blood by blood.
miseyo. Hito ui ad:::lIkurlt.
T Vare tti

U INFLECTED

TE

1\\'0 II A SUFFIXED

TO 1'A.

III

Ni is sometimes apparently the root of an obsolete verb to be." Ni te, for instance, may mean" being" as well as "in," and narn Clli + aru) may mean" to be" as well as to be in." Ni te is then the equivalent of de atte of the
1lU, "

spoken language. Examples :I am an old man who resides in the neighbourhood of Chain. What manner of man.' [Lit., a how being man.] \Vhat country-men are yc, my masters? In this neighbourhood. A flute which was in his bosom. regarded as the sign of the

Ouore Iw elloi" 110 hotori IIi saburafn aeiun ?Ii saburafn. ll:n naru hito?

r Vadono laC/,i ha
Idlo-bito
/(0110 IIi IIi

id::lllm

110

atari

kn ? teo

FlId<J/.:oro nartt fue.

Ni may often be conveniently

predicate of a proposition. In the semi-Chinese style wo shite or wo motte sometimes takes the place of ni, as s/dura wo motte uani nani ~,'O s/nraslumurn, " to make so and so known to your servants." lIN is added to indeclinable words to form adverbs, as ji!.:i ni, It quickly"; 1111117 1Ii, "violently," It wrongfully." Ni is used with causative verbs to distinguish the person who is caused try perform the action, and with passive verbs to indicate the person by whom the action is performed. The phrases used in the KaJtohi-;i' for" causative" and It passive" are examples of this usc of 1ti.

Ta ni shiknsasuru. Ta
11i

shikaserarur/t.

Causing another to be or do so and so. Being caused by another to be or do so and so.

112

UNINfLECTED

TENl\\'OHA SUFFIXED TO NA.

Other examples of lIi;}I!al.-olo IIi.


SlI1IIi;lakn 11i.
fl!lItSlt IIi zoalmrnr. Idcure 110loki IIi?

Uta youu: ui.


Kane ni naru. Dai ui lsul.-lInt.
(JlIlldzlfknrtl
1I11rtt

mono

su

sltill!.
Sore
IIi.

Koto ui yoritc. Oytl ?Ii Rtl1/do seraru,

In truth. Immediately. To be divided into six. At what time? In composing poetry. To become metal. To make into a table. Making it to (i.e., accounting it) a thing which is produced of it elf. In addition to that. According to circumstances. He was disowned by his parents.

To is sometimes used in the same signification as ni in the example kal1e IIi naru quoted above. Ex.: Hilo to uaru, "to become a 'man," "to attain to manhood." He, " towards." lie not being considered a separate word from the noun to which it is joined is pronounced e by the rule given at p. 2. It is really a noun meaning" place," "direction," as in ihc, "it house," from 1; root of iru, "to dwell," and ltC, place" ; )'uku he;" the direction in which to go." It has taken the nigori in the compounds /tamabe, "the shore"; 1l0/Je, the moor"; umibe, the sea-side." He is often confounded by careless speakers and writers of Japanese with ui, to." The former is properly used only of motion in the direction of, the latter of motion up to. Thus kita fteYlfklt, to travel northwards," is the correct expression, and not kitll IIi )'1Ilm.

UNINFLECTED TEl\IWOHA SUFFIXED TO NA.

13

Example of lie ;Sometimes ascending towards the summit, sometime' descending towards the base. jJ!1ade indicates a limit arrived at, and may be translated u until," "a far as," "as much as," "as many as," "to such a degree," &c. Examples :Jittgo ?lidli made. Until the t yth. Karasu 110atnma sldrolm naru ntil a crew's head becomes made. white. Yokohau: made. As far as Yokohama. lI'liclti 1110lIaRi made. To such a degree that there was no road. Cari is an old word occasionally found in poetry. It has the same meaning a3 he. Examples of gari ;J( ilHi ga rio Towards you, Hilo 110 gayi ifubeki kolo arite Having something to say to jil1l1i wo yaru. some one, I send a letter. Hashi wo uma kosltigallete, My horse being unable to kOROYO 1I01l1i iiuo gnri yarite, cross the bridge, I remain tea ha Rokolli shite. here, my heart alone I send towards thee.
Mille

lie fumoto

he on' uobori.

Accusative

Case.

IVo, the ordinary sign of the accusative case, was probably

in its origin an interjection of the same meaning with the English" 0 !" It has this sense in SOIlO )la/Ie gnki wo ! 0 r that eight-fold barrier!" a phrase which occurs in one of the oldest extant specimens of the Japanese language. In the tnonogntari we find instances of 'iII0 as an interjection in answer to a call or command, something like the English " Halloa ! " or u Aye, aye, Sir! "

114

UNINFLECTED

TENIWOHA

SUFFIXED

TO NA.

"Aye, aye, Sir," said he, and started off. Intermediate between its use as an interjection and as the sign of the accusative case may be placed those instances where too seems to be merely an emphatic particle, of much the same force as a significant emphasis or pause over the word. This is perhaps why Motowori calls it a yasuntelem1voha or pause particle" when used in this way. Example:Snmidare 110 On this night, when the Tsuki 1/0 hOllok(mi moon of the 5th month is lIfi;'ul'It yo ha, seen faintly do thou, at Horotogisn dani any rate, 0, hototogisu! Sayaka ni zuo 1take. sing distinctly. TVo has here the force of drawing attention to the antithesis between the faitll shining of the moon and the distinct singing of the bird. The same uio is also found after verbs. Example:All night long Yomosugnra Having seen thee I would 1I1ite tuo akasan watch till morning Aki 110 tsuki; 0 moon of autumn! Ko-yoM 710 sora !li On the sky of to-night KWI/o nakarauan. May there be no cloud. The zoo here marks an emphasis on mite. Akin to this force of tuo is its meaning in sentences like the following :S/zim-tsltylt 110 Of the clear dew /1'0 ha hitotsu 1/JOThe colour being but onej kani slu'le How then. can it be that A ki 110 kono/In wo The leaves of autumn Ch{ji ni S01l/1Irn" ? A thousand-fold it dyes?
Ie)

Example :IVo 10 te (for 10 iM

tadunn.

UNINFLECTED

TENIWOHA

SUFFIXED

TO NA.

15

force very much like the English "but," "though," " notwithstanding." MOllo woo When 1.'<1 follows 1110110, preceded by a verb or adjective in the attributive form, it has commonly the meaning just described, Example:11liyako

IVo has in this case an adversative

idete Kimi ui alum to Koslzi 1110110 woKoslti kalli 11/0uakn,


IVaktlye111tYlt kalla.

Setting forth from the capital, That I might meet you, I have come hither, but My coming having been fruitless, Alas! we are parted.

By far the most common use of wo is as the sign of the accusative casco This case is, however, by no means invariably indicated by W<1. It is not found when thc noun is governed by a preposition, or when it forms, along with a governing verb, an equivalent to a single verb, as in yiOji sum, " to treat medically," kellli suru, "to examine," and is omitted in many other cases. In fact it is only used when it is desired, to mark distinctly the case of the noun. Examples of woo Kono ko wo mitsulsete 1lochi After discovering this child lIi take wo tom ni /llshi wo in collecting bamboos, he hedatete yogoto Iti kogall every night found bamboos aru take UfO1JlitSllkuYII. containing gold on separating the joints. Takara wo 1ISltillll/li, yalllllhi He loses his money, and conwo lIIaukll (pron. l/Ioku). tracts disease. K0110 cMgo yashinafu hodo In proportion as they nurlli. [Accus. without woJ. tured this infant. 1V0 is frequently found III Japanese where in English a preposition would be used.

116

UNINFLECTED

'IWOIIA

SUFFIXED

TO I\A.

The being distant from the capital. To partfrolll some one. Hi/O wo 'WaRm'll. Ollo}i wo yoPOboltiYIII. ill'. Staggering along the high road. To be sick of jaundice. O-dml tuoyantu. Other particles sometimes come between the noun and 'I.. VO, asKuslti to kmu;aslli to wo 1mku. To remove comb and hairpin. Kore bal.-art'wo slum. He knows this only. In poetry, and in the semi-Chinese style, wo is sometimes seen at the end of a sentence. In such cases an inversion of the construction has taken place, or an ellipsis has to be filled up. Example :Hisokoni Ilegafll--yllslu' /.:0110 I humbly pray that the lain Iii gyakll seearan kolo officials will not oppose uio. this great principle. lVo ba. The ba of this combination is the ordinary distinctive particle lIa with the mgort: Both particles have here their ordinary meaning. Example:Hito tsukll 1Islti zuo oa, tsuno We cut off the horns of an wo kil'i, Irito kllfll talen wo ox which butts at people, ba, mimi wo kirite, S0110 and cut the ears of a falcon sJliruslri to su. which bites people, as a mark of their vice, It will be observed that the last sentence is an example of a double accusative, a construction familiar to us in Latin and Greek. In the semi-Chinese style wo moclnte (molle) or 'U'O sllil,' is often put for Iii or wo only.
llfiyrrko wo 101LOllli.

Examples:-

UNINFLECTED

TENI\\'OHA

SUFFIXED TO N.\.

117

Vocative Case.

The vocative case is rarely indicated by any specific particle, but when necessary one of the particles yo, ya, or yayo may be added to the noun. Example:finla yo! finta )IO! to yobnHe never ceased calling out, hile yatuasu. Jinta! Jinta!" .rl. blative Case. Yon', kara , from" , since." Yori is the root of the verb yoru, to approach," to relate to," but this meaning is forgotten in its familiar usc as a suffix meaning from." Yo and ylt are ancient poetical forms for yori. Yori may be translated than" when used in phrases like the following, where in English the comparative degree of the adjective is employed: sakura yori IIlIt1l1eha /layaklt snl: the plum blossoms earlier than the cherry." Kara cannot be used for yori in such a position. Knra does not differ in meaning from yori. It is curious that whereas it has become nearly obsolete in the later written language, the spoken language uses it almost to the exclusion of yori. In the old language Il0 is often put between kara and its noun, the reason being, no doubt, that kara was originally a noun itself. A similar construction is observable in the compounds te-dzu-kara and ono-dsu-eara, of oneself." Kara "i of the old language does not differ in meaning from kara alone. 1110110 kam has much the same force as Ilagam, as in the following example :Itsuhari
10
1110110 kara-

Omofn

False
While I think it, Just now In whose truth Shall I put my trust?

1111asara Iii

Taga 1Ilakoto soo /;;a I Vare /Ia tauoman ?

III:S

U;\I~J

LJ.CTJ.D TE;\I\\OIlA

SUFFI~EII

TO NA.

1.xaml'lf~ of yori and !'oro :/I/lIk"SIu' /I/lIlIIil

)'<1n'.
!.-1I11I11111

j'ori otsuru.

('ltoJtlka .""1 i. (,,.,/ 1'",; IIklll'lI.

/,tI",

/..-"ro.

"-,.hi,/tiki .1"'1; It, II!.'; II. '1/,' 1.'" II"~? A C'" J ',i li,I/..',lIli. F II',' 1/ /:,' III 111(' rom ,1'1/
() 1I1"t

hrl

111,

From antiquity. To fall from a horse or carriage. From Osaka. To receive from one's parents. From here. ompared with love, is miery aught? Other than this. Both from the ship" stem and
stern.

i
/-, (,.

~,'l't

1,/

wri.

"'chili

IIi

sutc-

Rather than Rin;; away your life into the r-.ad.


'lFT\F:::;.

11. ILlR~L

be 11'<."\\ either with person. or with thir as. as , .. th,'\ " , I," the-e thin,..,": J,! 'ira. you, Ra 1I1I!,lk, 11, th," I "I':--:t nor II c reverse, It irefore .Irtlc \I ',\ \\ 1\ h 1\ '1111' 'r 'r n lUI ' III the' . nd per III the \ ,\ 1,111:'\1.::- there nit, n II 'III it t II:\I!. f. 1-\ r i -: ra, \\ I nlv
S
1 1.1\

\\
I "

'

:--

\.

11

T.' in the later I.\n~u'::.'-" ~<) ". .; :' or pn'lh II~': i the s x nd { , s: n, or III spea-,";; res ;. <,j ,\tty v n ......~ :. r
.. I

,) ,: Jr
" . i-,
.

nt ..."

.. ., "
t

III

,
) .. \ -n."

,'ani. r in

III

ni

e-

F"
... '..,"
,

F',II' 1'1":-

'itt e u-ed,

Tw)
I

. \'
I.

. I" .u d

'\'>!I1~('f\.

from

.
"hn "~e
fh.'!Ul ".

.'

i..:: ;t

l.u
J . '\

1 r, I rt ... ..... nb ~ ....hc L un r: ,'1cc.-.,.


l.... 't

t, " I' "


"

"

t' ...t'

i I'

",~, ..............
"

"

"

It
\lOti

u..t
-,

\\

.....
"

i th

120

UNINFL"CTED

TENIWOHA

SUFFIX!!.!) TO !'IA.

Examples of Plural Particles :Kodouto ra or kod01l/0 sfliu. Children. NmlJim. You. A rIJ tokoro no samnrahi domo. The samurai of a certain place. I felt it hard to part with Kono ltilo domo waRm'egataRII omofu. these men.
Ill. OTH ER SUFFIXES.

This particle is not looked upon as a separate word from the noun to which it is joined, and is accordingly read wn, according to the rule by which aspirates are not pronounced in the middle of a word. [See page 22.) Ha may be termed a separative or distinguishing particle. Its force is thus described in the Kotodama 1/0 Shirllbe:
Ha.
" J-l a ha isasaka lIageku I.:okoro zoo obite, 1110110 tli mare, kolo ni snare, arn ga naka yori eri-toakur yo 1/0 1.:01.01'0 suoteru 1t!1Ii-

u/oha nari" I.e., Ha has somewhat of an exclamatory force, and is a particle which pos sesses the meaning, as it were, of choosing out and separating a thing or an action from amongst a number." In English, ha may sometimes be translated" with respect to" at any rate" , in the case of" , in so far as regards"" -, , or its meaning may be given by printing ill italics the word to which it refers. The French" quant it expresses its force pretty accurately. In most cases, however, 1m cannot be rendered in translation, and its force is often so slight that its presence or absence makes no appreciable difference in the meaning. In speaking, a Significant emphasis is often the best equivalent. Ex.: Wart! Ita 10 omohi. Thinking I (am somebody). Kore 10 ha cldga/II. It is different from this. Kono toearo lze 1m kilara::lI. He has not come here at any rate.

UNlt"FLECTED

TENIWOHA

SUFFIXED

TO K.\.

121

It is quite. true that it often does distingui h the ubject of a sentence, but this is merely by virtue of its general force as a distinguishing or separating particle. A suffix which is used freely with nouns in the dative or objective case cannot properly be described as the sign of the nominative, Examples:The mountain which knows not time is the peak of Fuji. Ken i a word which expresses a doubt concerning the past. In the phrase Akashi 110 nra 1m? In regard to the Bay of Akashi?" or What about the Ray of Akashi? ,. Ita looks like an interrogative particle. The sentence is, however, really incomplete, and some such words as i/.:a uartc tokoro naru Y What sort of a place is it?" require to be supplied. In S01l0 /lIl11i 110kotoba Ita to 10/11, What is the language of that letter > ' asked he," a similar ellipsis has to bc filled up. Ha is used not only to single out an object from among a number, but to contra t or oppose one object to another. The Greek --P.(~( would accordingly be in Japanese
Toki sluranu yalJla lUI Fuji 110ue (ll~yi). Ken ,,~ kwako wo 1I1agafit kOloba nari. --Iza--lta.

Ha has been called the sign of the nominative case.

Examples:Hito ha isa I Kokoro 1110shirazu; Furueato Ita Halla so l/Iukaslti 110

Ka

ni

1II110Iti-kem.

Its people-ah no! I know not their hearts: But in my native place The flowers with their ancient Fragrance are odorous. Deep in the mountains E'en the snow on the fir trees Has not yet meltedK

.1-liyallla ni Iza .Illat SIt 110 yuki dani Kimaku ni

122

UNINFLECTED

TENIWOHA

SUFFIXED

TO NA.

On the moors by the capital We have plucked the young herbs. In the first of these two sentences the has point the contrast between the inhabitants and the place it elf; in the second, between the mountains where the season is late, and the capital where it is early. When I{(/ is suffixed to an interrogative word or particle, it shows that the question i merely rhetorical, and not fur information, and that a negative answer is expected But if the question already contains a negative, an affirmative reply is suggested. Thus, while ikngtl sen merely puts the question, "\Vhat is to be done?" which mayor may not be merely rhetorical according to the context, ikngn lin sen is only another way of saying" there is nothing to be done," " there is no help for it." In the same way IVare Mlon kn ? "Am I the only person?" may be either a question asked for information or an indignant way of denying that one is the only person. But if we say ware nitori kn nn, the question can only be a rhetorical one, and the answer- " TO!" necessarily follow'. This rule holds good throughout the greater part of Japanese literature. In the pre-classical period, however, Nfl is found with interrogatives without any meaning of this kind, and the rule is not often exemplified in modern literature, which is comparatively sparing in its use of particles. Examples :}(o/uslziki yori lUI IIki ha Compared with love, is touo 1m hn misery aught? Nurn gil /(eM Shall we call that alone a lJIi1'lt zoo 110m;),fl Ita dream which we see while sleeping? - this vain world YUille to iltnllalso I look not upon as f/aktlllflki)'o wo 1110 (JtslllslI to 111;::11. reality.
l1/i;'n/;o lra 110be110 /IV nkann tsnnd-keri.

UNINI:'LECTEV

TENIWOHA

SUFFIXED

TO NA.

123

\Vhat ? Tears! He I doubtless a husband whom I shall meet againOther than weeping Consolation I have none, When did I ever inform you tam? wrongly? In the later language alii at the beginning of an interrogative clause shows that a negative reply is expected. The case suffixes and the interrogative particles ka and)'a are placed between ha and the noun. Where zuo intervenes, Ita takes the nigori and becomes btl. This is owing to the dislike which the Japanese language has for allowing two successive syllables to begin with the same consonant. Example:Hito tsulm ?lshi zuo ba. {SUllO Vve cut off the horns of an ox tuo kiri; Ilito ku/u taka wo which butts at people; we ba, mimi uro kiru. cut off the ears of a falcon which bites people. frIo is the opposite of ha. Kore ha, for instance, means this separated or distinguished from something else" ; liore 1110 means "this along with something else." and may be translated" too," " also," even." Examp1es:Kono Itt ni 1110. On this side also. Uhe ni 1/10 ilzerlt gotoku. As has been stated above also. 0110 koro made mo. Even up till that time. I/ubeki 1ti mo arasu, It is not neces. ary even to mention. \Vhere 1IlO is repeated with each of two successive nouns the meaning is " both-and-." Example:K01l0 yo 1/10, noelli 110yo mo. Both this world and the next. Ko::o 11/0 kotoshi 11/0. Roth last year and this rear.
Jo,Til1llida Jill /m ! .lfata 1110 a/llbeki Tsuma naran-:-Naku yori !toka 1tO Nagllsame so 1laki. Itsu h% Ittl lIItl/uslti ayamari.C

124

L'NI1\FUXTED

TENIWOIlA

SUFFIXED

TO NA.

lI/v after an interrogative particle has often a force opposite

to that of

in the same position, and indicates that an affirmative answer is expected if the question is affimative, and a negative answer if the question is negative in form. For exampleTapuru Iti araute }'ll Im ? is \Vill there be a day when it will ceasc ? [by no me.'\ns]" but Tayur IIi araure yn 1/I0? is ~\\'ill there ever be a day when it will cease? [I trust .] ~o. A somewhat similar use of 1110 is where it converts interrogative pronouns and adverbs into indefinite. Thus by the add ition of 1110, tare, who," becomes tare 1110, anyone; itsu, when," becomes itsu suo, at any time," always;" and naui, " what," becomes 1I(llli mo, anything." . Especially in the old language 1Il0 is in many ca es nothing more than a feeble interjection of surprise for which there is no adequate English equivalent. Example:Kakar Ililo 1110 }'O 11; ide Even such a man i a thing IJIUISUYII 1110110 nari-keri. which appears in the world, i.e. There arc such men as this in the world. 11-[0 is contracted with nrc, the imperative of aru, to be," into mare, as in the phrase Idcure 111 mare, Be it whichever it may"; J1/i utare 1m~~tt utare, Be it that I see, be it that I do not sec," i.e. whether I see or not." 11-[0 ga 1110 or 1110 /.:n 1110,1/10gn tra, 1110gn 1110 ua express a strong desire. Examples :I pray that the bridge of A 1J/nbaslti no 1lagaku 1110 gtl 1110. heaven may last long. Tnknku toblt A high-soaring Tori IIi JJlOgn 1110(1lnn'le) Bird-Oh! that I could become.
1111

..

U:"INFLECTED
ASII )",I.i/I'
11110 11i

TENIWOHA

SUFFIXED

TO NA.

125

That I might go to-morrow And vi it my love. O/ORO 111(1 zoomin 111(1 tRade A both men and women toklt miyako he 1Il0 ga ua were eagcr to reach the to omofn kokor(l areba. capital as soon as possible. The case suffixes and the interrogative particles ka and )'tl are placed between 1110 and the noun. Ka and )'(1. In Japanese no change of construction is required in order to convert an affirmative clause into an interrogative OIlC. All that is neces ary i to uffix one of the particles /.-a or ya. The force of ka or )la varies somewhat according to circumstances, being referable to one of the following heads:I. A question for information. 2. A merely rhetorical question. 3. A doubt. 4- A mere exclamation, of much the same force as the
/.-o/(ldoh i.

sign

l"

Ka is chiefly used in the first sense, but is also common in meanings 2 and 3. Followed by 1110, it occur in the Jl,lallJ'osliizt as a mere interjection. In the combination kana it has also usually an exclamatory force, though it occasionally retains its interrogative meaning. Ya seldom marks a question asked for information; it force is almost entirely re tricted to the other three heads. Examples of ka:I. I{ollo Itito IIi ko Ita aru ka, l Ias this man children or uak] ka? not? K(ll1l1iclti ka ? Is it to-day? 2. Kono leadc 110 malic yori How is it possible for me to ski mo zoataru 111011(1 ka ? pas before this door? S01l0 killse; gne subek; ka? Is one to agree to this prohibition?

126

UNINFLE

TED TENIWOlJA

SUFF1XJ::DTO N.\.

3. Kakabe no hotartt i:a; lima I/O /lIktt Iii ka ? Idsure 110 ohon lol.i arike.
1lI

ka

JiilslI ka /urots I,a lIi te aran.

1110

4. Osorostiiki knlla!

Kana-

sldka kana! Hito 110 kokoro oroka naru


motto kalln !

Jii/"asn 110 yaum /suki kn 1110 !

lIZ ideshi

Is it a firefly on the river bank, or a fire kindled by the fishermen? In what august time (i.I'., reign) will it have been? [I do not know.] It may perhaps be three or one. How dreadful ! How lamentable! Alas! what a stupid thing the heart of man is! The moon that hath come forth over the mountain of
Mikasa !

Examples of ya;Jfigi ha ika narn fii naru ya ? fidto ya ani? 2. A IIi k01'e 'Ul0 sasseaaru-bekm ya ? 3- Halla J'a 1II0miji zoo miru.
I.

What is the cause of this? Have you an attendant? Is it likely that he does not perceive this? To look at the flowers or red leaves of autumn. I thin lc it is perhaps this. Parent or relations. He is perhaps to be classed even with monkeys. Whether it was that the bridge had fallen on account of heavy raillsOh! what a bother! H ow joyful! Jinta!

KOI'eya /OOIllO/II. Oya yn slanru]. Saru Iii 1/10 yn rui slfbeshi. Ame /sllyoku state, /mshi oddkent IIiyn4. A nn l mendo pa Ureslli r ! jill/(I Y" !
.I

UNINFLECTED J}[illlasaka ya ! )la1l/a.

TENI\\'OIlA

SUFFIXED

TO NA.

127

Kmueuosnra

Mimasaka

r\ ar, rather let

me speak of the Kurnenosara mountain, Ka added to interrogative pronouns and adverbs usually, but not always, makes them indefinite, as fare, who," fare ka, "somebody," irsu, "when," itsu ka, "at some time or another," At the end of a clause which begins with an interrogative, Motowori rules that !.Ia is the proper particle to use and not )Ia, except the latter has its exclamatory force, a uani zo ya ? "\Vhat is it?" In the modern language, however, little attention is paid to this rule, and especially in indirect interrogative c1auses,ya is almost always found instead of kII. In the modern semi-Chinese style ya often represents the Chinese -IlI., especially after the opening words of a chapter or paragraph. It has here its exclamatory force, and draws the attention of the reader strongly to the subjectmatter which is about to be discussed. Thus an article on adoption begins as follows : Y{~sll1'110slIillkwa1l tarn )111"With regard to the custom of adopted children-" Ya followed by aran (fut. of am) is usually contracted into )'arml, which in the spoken language, and occasionally in the popular written style, is further shortened into yara. Na: is probably the same particle as the 11a,lin, 1lt5 or ne (Yedo dialect) of the spoken language. It is an emphatic I exclamation drawing the attention strongly to the word which precedes. It resembles, but is a less emphatic word than zoo Nan is perhaps the future of the obsolete verb uu, " to be," inserted parenthetically in the sentence. Nama is an old form which occurs in the JII[(!IlJIosltitt and other old books. Examples of nan ;Kore nan sore to utsnscmits

kaslti.
Kore lIa1l 2t1/1e to sluriunr,

I would like to see this exchanged for that. I found that this was a plum.

128

UNINFLJ::CTE)) TE I"OHA SUFFIXED TO


;'0/,001"0

A.

Her heart was more excellent than her beauty. Zo is an emphatic particle. The Kotodama 1/0 Shirube describes it as" a particle which limits and narrows things, or represents them, as it were, taken up and held in the hand," and adds that" it is opposed to )'a in meaning." Very often the best way to translate eo is to change the construction of the sentence in the manner shown in the following examples. Examples of:;o:O)'a 1/0 kokoro yasume-sludsuIt was not until he had quieted mete :;0 mala ide ui ker. and calmed his parents' hearts that he again went out. Kore EO tndaslu'ki yomieama It is this that is the correct uaru. mode of reading. Kara 110 uta ni mo k{um :;0 This is probably true in the a17tbeki. case of Chinese poetry too. Koso resembles :;0 in meaning, but it is a still more emphatic word. It is probably derived from ko, "this," and so, "that." The AYllltisha say of the sentence yone koso yosere, "it is rice and rice only that is good," that Y01ll! 110 "oka lin uaslu to iflt nari, i.e., "this is saying that there is nothing else but rice (that is good)." The same authority further says of koso that it has the force of choosing out and rejecting other things, and of taking up in the hand and looking at the object to which it refers. Kore koso may therefore be translated, " This and nothing else," "This more than aught else," "This very thing." Koso and 1Ia1l are very common particles in the uaka 1IIItJ.ns/li, or later classical period, but are less frequently met with in the modern language. /\OSO is sometimes seen at the end of a sentence. In such cases a verb has to be supplied after it
Kataclri ),01"; 1m masari-taru. uan

'N1NFLEC1'ED TE 'I\YOHA ~UFFIXEf) 1'0 NA,

129

Examples:Ahi-1Ili1t koto nona (Oll/Olle). H (lila ,hz'ra:;u ari (/lOs/likcn). I:oso koso

I think of naught else but meeting him. IIIy whole wish is that the flowers may not become scattered. I t is strong drink alone from which all diseases spring, In ancient times, the only form of expression was " amc 110sluta" TSIIISit is 1I0thillg more thatl a reduplication of the suffix
ISII.

Examples of koso :Yorodcu 110)la1lla/li Ilfl sake yori koso okore. lI{uknslli lUI " ame 110 shita "
10 110mi koso illere. Tsutsu 1m tsn 110 lem'woha WI) kaS(l1lelarlt 1110110 IIi koso are. Homi 110ki ka to koso omolutsure. lIfasa11le Iii killri tuo ahi-mileba koso, 'Waga kohi )la-

umme.
To is a conjunctive

I had imagined that it was doubtless none other than the tree of Mount H6rai. Not until after I have seen you face to face will my longing cease.

particle. With nouns it may mostly be translated" and," "with," " along with," as in the examples kare 10 ware, "he and I," killli 10 )llIkll, to go along with you." Analogous to the use of to with verbs as equal to the English ccnjunction that" in introducing indirect narration is its usc after nouns when followed by one of the five verbs utiru "to see " kiku "to hear'" Olllo'i, to think sur-It to do "; and _ifil> " to say." To ifn is often contracted, especially in poetry, into tefn (pron. eM), dli.fu (eMit), or tofu (t6). To often stands after nouns where one of the five verbs mentioned above must be supplied in order to complete the sense. Thus
II , " , ~' J II II. , J II

130
to te

UNINFLECTED

TI::NIWOHA SUFFiXED

TO N.-\.

often stands for to illile or to omolnte , 10)10 for to mij10 or 10 seyo; to co for to ifie EO; to uaraba for to ifu koto naraba ; to dam for to ifit koto dani, &c. Where adverbial expressions are formed by adding to to uninflected words, as in I,arll oaru to, "from a distance," !lis" Iliso to, .quietly," slare is to be understood after to. Tam, preceded by a noun, as in the phrase slliujill tarn hito, "a man who is it master," is a contraction for to arn, This form is rarely found in poetry, and never occurs in the more ancient language. Examples of
10;-

Hito no kotoba to lIli{bllkam 110kotoba. Kore to cltigajil. Ame to furu (poetical). Yuki to dur saiacra 110IW.llil.

Another's words and one's own words. It is different from this. To fall like rain. The cherry flowers which catter like snow. Natsu toaki to. Both summer and autumn. Rusui to sadaruuru, To appoint rusui. O)la to miru. To regard as a parent. Ko tam (for to-tWit) 1110110. One who is a child. Deutsu means "at a time," apiece," as in the following examples ;Hitori dzursu iru. To enter, one person at a time. Tori 110ko totuo dcnrsu. Young birds ten at a time. Jl{i1la niyotsn dsuts atrl,Y1I1'Il. To give them all four apiece. Goto ni, "each," .every "-as labi goto ni, "every time"; tSliki goto 1Ii, "each month." Dani with an affirmative means at least," "at any rate," " if no more," and with a negative, "even," so much as." It is used where something less than might have been expected is spoken of, as ill the following examples ;-

UNINFLECTED TENJWOHA SUFFIXED TO NA.

131

Sore WO suite dani ka/It'rilltlll.

J will return after having seen

that at any rate (having expected more). J,loji 10 ifit 1J/OM too kaltlchi Probably not so much as the uio dani nruar kolo 1/10 shape of what arc called 1tnkari-kcII. characters hac! bccn seen. !chi 1II0nji dani s/urann 1II01l0. A person who does not know even a single letter. Ke 11itosuji uro dmzi ugoknslzi I will not move even a single tateuuusurofi: hair. Sura may also be translated "even," but it is used where something is introduced more than might have been expected, as in the examples :Haruka no uodu, Nara no Long after, even in writings koro 110 SIlO Iii Sll ra. of the 1ara period. Seifin sum. Even a holy man. Salle (pronounced sa)'e) is connected with the verb sofuru (root solre), meaning" to as .ociate," "to join to," and in the old language it means "also," "in addition," as in the examples :Hito futa 110 Not only are there the sides Me nomi Ili arasu : one and two: there are Itsutsn mntsu also five, six, three, and Milsll yo/SIt sake arifour-the dice of the backgammon board. Sugurolm 110 StU. H.anneu n 111m"; lIdgtt1 zoo 11n- He had done no cultivation sasu, ille IIi 1110 roM salle for more than half a year, and in addition he had an art. aged mother in the house. In the colloquial language and in the later written language, sahe is used instead of dani and sura. S/ti is a particle of very little meaning which i sometimes found after nouns. Only" is a little like it.

132

UNINFU.c-n:D

TENIWQIIA

SUFFIXED TO !'A.

Examples of shi :Killli kofuru namida sid uakuba. Sliika shi nraba.

lit1sl/6

110 uri

shi

1110.

Onore shi.

If there were only no tears of longing for you. If this were only so. Even at the time of the Emperor's death. By themselves.

NOllli and oabari, only," no more than."

Examples:.Jfutslt baRayi. Ki1lli nouu.

Only six . You only.

BaRaYi is derived from IlaHaYII, "to weigh," and originally meant" quantity," in which sense it is frequently used by old writers, as in the example Hito baNaYi Ilislzasliiki ha naslu, "there is no animal so long-lived as man." The style imitated from the Chinese puts 1I0mi at the end of a sentence in a meaningless way. Motowori condemns this. Gruflt' or gaclli IIi, also goe/d, "all over."

Examples :Hige gaclli 1/1: ynse-yase uaru otoko. S /1&111'0 IIi namida gaelzi uari. Hana Iuralee-hatezu, gadd ni lIIiYIl. tSl/boml

A lean fellow all over beard. She became unconsciously bathed in tears. The Rowers have not unfolded completely, but seem all over buds.

Nagnra means that the object to which it applies is taken

without any change or modification.

UNINFLECTED

TENIWOHA

FFiXED

TO NA.

133

Examples:T alJi 1UJ sugala Tsuyu

11agtlra.

In his travelling dress


was.

as

he

Look at the dew as it lies on the branch. Datcra resembles nagnra in meaning. Example: Oi-biro datera, old man as he is." Calera," by way of." Example: Katnmi galeI'll to okosetartc koyomo, the clothing sent by way of keepsake."
1Jliyo.

zoo eda IUlgara

CHAPTER
U~INFLECTED TENIWOIlA

VI.
SUFFIXl::D TO KOTOUA.

This chapter gives an account of the more common suffixes attached to inflected words, classified according to the part of the verb or adjective to which they are joined. Some suffixes are attached to more parts of the verb than one, but in such cases there is a difference of meaning or application. It is to be noted that these particles may be added not only to the principal parts of verbs or adjectives, but to the corresponding parts of those teniwoha which admit of inflection. It is impossible to notice all the different combinations of teniwoha, Some of the more common are explained in the following pages, and it is believed that the others will present little difficulty to the student who has mastered the meaning of the several teniwoha of which they are composed. Few teniwoha are joined immediately to adjectives, The auxiliary verb aru is usually interposed. Thus for hoslzikuJ;u we must say IwslLiknra::u, "he is not desirous"; for J10ktt keri, J'oknri-keri, &c. In such cases the 1t final of the adjective is elided. The initial consonant of those particles which are added to the negative base and to the perfect take' the uigori, particles added to other forms remain unchanged.
I. U:)IINFLECTED TENIWOIlA ADDED TO THE ADVERnIAL

FORM.

The adverbial form is sometimes a noun, and as such may be followed by most of the particles described in the previous chapter. Amongst those which occur most frequently in this position are 11i, ha, 1110,to, and 1Ulgnr(l.

UNINFLECTED TEl' 1\\"011.\ Sl:I'FlXElI

TO K TOI).\.

135

The commonest signification of ni following a verb in this form is" in order to," as in the phrases 111; ni, " in order to see "; yobi "i I.:ilnreri, "he came to summon." Ni also occurs after the adverbial form in such idiomatic phrases as nkire "i nl.:irele, " extremely amazed "; ualll; 11; isamire, " very eager." Ha. When 1m follows the adverbial form of adjectives, it has sometimes the same meaning as it has when suffixed to nouns, i.e: that of a distinctive or separative particle. It rna}' also have the meaning" if" (conditional future), but in that case btl is more commonly written.

Ni.

Examples:S,)JlOkatana ltibukll Ita arafi.


l\'tlWO 1l0gtlrc-ga/(1ku

ha,
SItOIllO 110

Ollfljil.:tt

Iltl

7IJaga

kalmIa tamaharitenya.

That sword will not be blunt (whatever else it mar be). /\ thing which it is still more difficult to escape from, If it will be the same(to you), will you please give me the sword which I desire,

Ha after zn, the adverbial form of the negative suffix, has the force of a conditional, aS)lo secu Ita, " if one did not take care," but in this position most later writers prefer to write ba. Ha after te, the adverbial form of thc suffix tsuru, has its ordinary force as a separative particle. JJlo is frequently found with the adverbial form of both verbs and adjectives. Here it may usually be translated .even." It is particularly common after te, as sltiri-te 1/10, "e\'en knowing," iki-te 1IlO, "even having gone." JJlo sometimes comes between the two parts of a compound verb, as i/li 1ItO oharazu, " not even finishing what he was saying." To is found with the adverbial form of verbs in idiomatic phrases like ari 10 ani," as many as there are," kiki to /':il.:l1 Itilo, " all who may hear."
L

136

UNINFLECTED

TENJ\\'OIi.\

SUFFixED

TO KOTOIJ.\.

Nag-am has a similar meaning after verbal roots to that

which it has after nouns. Examples ;Umare


'la)[(rr(1 1/0

kataum-

1110110.

Lnagara teki wo maUII.


J 1Iagllra 110ikuStl.

Y 'ornbe

10 /UI

omolu' nagnr.

In the same state in which he was born, a cripple, i.e., a cripple from his birth. Remaining at rest to await the enemy. A defensive warfare. Though still looking on it as a source of help.

Ex.; liliaS/lillie gntera ni ifu /.'010 something said by way of reproof." Cachini or godli11i. With verbs, this suffix may be translated constantly." Examples ;KII/uri-IIIi

Calera, by way of."

gachi ni ide tama11/0 hcdatari

/d,LU.
011

1/(';,a

te.

gadd ui

lIJ01l0 home gtlchi.

He went away constantly looking behind him. Being also constantly on bad terms. Always praising things.

The following particles are found in conjunction with verbs only. Tsutsu indicates that the action of the verb to which it 'is joined is simultaneous with that of the verb following. V hen tsutsu occurs at the end of a sentence, as it often does in poetry, an ellipsis must be supplied, or the order of the sentence has been inverted. The Kotodanm 110 Slu'rube thus distinguishes between tsutsu and te : The sentence Otoui kiki te kO/li-walfl1'11 is equivalent to Ololli kiki II' 1I(lchi1li ko/u'zoatarn, but O/O1l; kiki tsutsn kohi-wa/arl/ is equivalent to
O/oni /alm to oua)i loki IIi ko/ii-walaru."

UNINFLECTED

TENIWOHA SUFFIXED TO KOTOIH.

137

Examples of tsuts :Am 1110110 to (olJlohile) umsure tsutsn, llaki I,ito wo tofu. llIid::u utoo
110 uhl!1li
~~'O Imff(.

--1IIi

--111;

At the same time that he forgets and thinks that they are still alive, he Inquires after dead persons. asobi-tsutsn It feeds on fish at the same ti me that it ports on the surface of the water, resembles the --tari --tari of the

Becoming alternately clear and cloudy. Nakillli umratnnn. Alternately weeping and smiling. , Ka1llillnd::ukt furl/llli furaIt is the unsettled. showery sumi sadame naki sltigllre weather of the tenth month, EO fliJlli no Imji1lle naru. sometimes rainy. sometimes fine. which is the beginning of winter. --lsI/ --lslt also corresponds to the --IIl,.i --tnri of the spoken language. Example :lkusa Iia kiritSlt kimretszt War is a business where suru m01tO nart. people wound and are wounded . Va--so. The negative of the imperative mood is in the old classical Japanese formed from the adverbial form by prefixing na and adding so. Examples:Na yuki so:" Do not go. Na Jlaki so. Do not burn.
For which the modern language would say Yllkll"akan. I
L

spoken language. Examples:Harems kll1ll0nllli.

:l

138

UNINFLECTED

TENIWOHA SUFFIXED TO KOTOIlA.

"Kifll IItlJlli lin tachi so" to hito-bilo inoru. IVare wo hito ua togame so.

Everybody prayed-may the waves not arise to-day! Let not people blame me.

The last two examples show that the imperative is by no means confined to the second person. Yo is in the second and third conjugations added to the adverbial form, and in the irregular verb sum, to the negative base, as the sign of the Imperative Mood. Except by ignorant writers of the present day, yo is not used to forut the Imperative in the First Conjugation, but it may be placed after it by way of gh'ing additional emphasis, as in the example Tore yo kashi, "Do take it, J pray you." This is however, a very exceptional use of yo. A yo of this kind may occur even after a negative imperative, as umsurnna yo, "be, sure not to forget." Examples of )'0:llIiyo.
Tabe yo.

Look! Eat!
TENIWOHA ADDED TO CONCLUSIVE FORM.

n.

UNIKFLECTEJ)

Ras/zi is connected with the adjectival termination ms/ziki, which it resembles in meaning. It is, however, indeclinable, and has always the force of the conclusive, and never of the attributive form. It has the same meaning as son of the spoken language, as in the phrase ame gil .fllri SOfia, it is likely to rain," which would be in the written language ante
II

furu raski.

There can be little doubt that rashi is really added to the attributive form, and that the final ru which distinguishes this form in verbs of the second conjugation has been dropped for reasons of euphony. The final syllable of the perfect forms in ri is also dropped before rash],

UNINFLECTED TENIWOIIA SUFFIXEO TO KOTOB.....

139

Example of ms/li:J-I ant sttgile


Natsu kila1'll ras/u, S/lirolahe 110 1(01'01110 /lOs/dtnri, A lIlello/mglt Jlalila.

Spring seems to have passed away, and summer to have come, for the white garments are spread out to dry on Mt, Amenokagu.

and is the sign of quotation, or of indirect narration. It may be placed not only after the conclusive forms of verbs and adjectives, but after any word which is capable of standing at the end of a sentence. As has been explained above (p. 129) there is often an ellipsis after to of one of the five verbs mint, "to see "; kikll, " to hear ".I'.I 01Jl0'"u"to think . suru "to do , and ir" :t', "to say" , either in the substantive form or in the adverbial form with te added. This is often the key to a difficult construction. In the modern language, as for instance in newspapers, the following construction is not uncommon. First we have some such phrase as A I'll kis/ta i/taktt, "A certain writer observes," or Hisoeau, kiken', "I have heard privately." Then follows the quotation, after which is the particle to, marking the end of it. Iheri or kikeri must of course be added to complete the sense, and the omission of these words is condemned by Motowori as a slavish imitation of a Chinese construction. In the modern language, however, to is continually used in this way by the best writers.
j , " ,

To corresponds to the English conjunction "that,"

* There can be little doubt that, like its English equivalent, 10 was originally a demonstrative, and that it is identical will) the so of sore, "that." It has still this meaning in the compound to kill"" "in that war or in this," and in the phrase 10 mare l..a~'II II{(We, "be it in that war or in this," In many other cases to is best construed as equivalent to "this" or It thus."

140

Ul\INJ-LECTED

TEr\IWOHA

~U~FIXED

T() KOTOJ:A.

Examples of 10 :Raslii //(1 sOlla 10 ifu ko/.:oro uart 10 iheri.

K u'dki IIvbi?1to stint


Yulmll 10 omofu.

IIi.

Hidetsng k6 III ISI/kal", tateuuusnrau 10 (Olllo./u) 1/1' lla arazn.


Takara

He has said that the meaning of rasld is scilla. The fiery element in its efforts to expand. I am thinking of going. It is not that I wish to enter H idetsugu's service.

The saying that great riches are injurious in respect of self-protection was meant of occurrences like this. Hilo-gue/Ii too fusogan 10 Thinking that he would stop (ollloIiiIC). people's mouths. Ya. VII has the same variety of meanings after inflected words as it has after uninflected. [See p. 125.] It has sometimes an interrogative force and is at others a mere exclamation. Examples of ya :Ari J'a nasln ya ? Is there or is there not? Ito IUldzlIkllsltiki ll'aca narazu Is it not a very shameful ya ? thing? L'resldya ! How glad I am! (Jmolri 11(/ gotoku 1110notamaYour speech is even as my fit )'a ! thought! J itsu IIi sltt'kartt ya ina ya wo vVe did not know whether it s/rira:. was really so or not. Korc uro miru ),a ilia ya, As soon as we saw it, we at sngun] k{lrl1 'WOyakltshilconce having translated itThe last example contains a very common idiomatic use of y". JIim J'(/ ina ya literally means "while it is doubtful whether one sees it or not," i.e., "as soon as one sees it."
oftoki ha 1111'ilIO rnamoru ni gai ari 10 (ifu) Im kakaru /"010 zoo mafusn.

UNIXFLECTEO

TEl\'I\Y()lIA

SUfFIXED

TO KOTOBA.

141

is a word which adds emphasis to what precedes, It is often used at the end of prayers to the Deity, where it means much the same as our" Amen." Kas/li is doubtless nothing more than the conclusive form of kaku, " thus," and means literally" thus it is." It really stands by itself, and forms no part of the sentence. Examples :Koleoni kurtlJlla yori ori Ila- \Ve here got down from the ben'1I11 kashi. carriage. It is difficult to give the force of kashi in this sentence, Thank God" is perhaps a little ncar it. .lifo, yo, and IUl after the conclusive form are mere interjections. All these particles, except raski, are found after both adjecrives and verbs in the conclusive form.
Kaslli
III. UNINFLECTED TENIWOliA SUBSTANTI\'E ADDEO TO ATTR18UTI\'E OF

FORM.

As a nOLIn,this form of the verb may be followed by any of the particles mentioned in the previous chapter. Wo has ordinarily its usual force after this form of verbs I and adjectives as the sign of the accusative case. It has, however, sometimes the same meaning as mono WO, i.e., "although," or .whilst." [ee p. II S.] For this last wo,' modern writers and the colloquial dialect have gao Ni is often found with the attributive form of the past suffix shi in the sense of " as " or "since." Ka::e /"kishi ut, " ince the wind was blowing," Kara, with verbs, means" after," asI OJMIIIIl Imra !,oll1shiki mono Whereas It IS after we regret woo things that they are dear to us. Knoe 110/llklShi kara. After the wind blew.

142

UNINFLECTED

TENIWOIiA SUFFIXED TO KOTOBA.

The interrogative particle ka is suffixed to this form; as has been seen above, ya is added to the conclusive form. Na added to the attributive form of the verb gives one form of the negative imperative of the written language and the sole form used in the spoken language, as Yllku 1/tI, " do not go"; taburu na, do not eat"; tuiru. na, " do not look." The ru final is, in one or two exceptional cases, dropped before this 11n,as ~';aslt1'11 na, do not forget"; k1l ua, do not come," The regular forms are also found. The verb aru, "to be," has a negative imperative, or rather a substitute for one, formed by prefixing the negative adverb nak, not," to the positive imperative an, thus gi\'ing the form nakare, Ae, kek/{, In the old language there is a form which ends in ak" in the case of verbs, and in keku in the case of adjectives. The difference in these endings is only apparent. They are identical in meaning, and may both be obtained by the following rule :RULE.-Add aklt to attributive form, eliding the final of , verbs, and contracting the final i of adjectives with the a of akll into e. [See above, p. 24.] Thus, from miru, to see," is formed mirnku ; from koltiskiki, dear," ko/zishikeku. The termination aklt, whose existence is here assumed, is not found in any other connexion, and its derivation is by no means obvious, The a may perhaps be the a of ant, to be," and kll is possibly the same as the ko of kOlo. Salllllkekit would therefore be snlllllki-m'lt-kofo . suiraku, miru-arn-koto. At any rate this derivation corresponds well with the meaning, for this form is always a 1IOIII!, ami not an adverb or adjective, as the final k1l might lead one to imagine. ::\'0 such form exists as samukeki. In a few verbs this form is in use even in the modern language, as K6s/d 110 ihn/aI, the saying of Confucius H; 1Itgn/ln/.." hn, "that which I beg for."
Ka.
H H H

UNINFLECTED

TENIWOHA SUFFIXEO TO KOTOBA.

143

They know not of the capture of their own mother. slurast . .AIi11laku 110hoshisa. The wi h to see. In the last sentence aleu is added to the attributive form 1JIU of the future particle. Nagekaku u/o todome kaneNot being able to restrain my felamentationAs I see the goodness. Yokektt wo mireba. Nurr: yo ochieu At night when asleep without fail In my dreams 1 see thee, Itne lIi ha unredo But as in my waking hours UtSII!SII Ili shi Till/a IIi araueba This is not truly so, Kolzishikekll My longing Clzilu IIi tsumorinu. Is heaped up a thousand-fold. Kama 110osltikektt 1Il0 nashi. I do not spare my horse.
Ahoslziki, the termination of desiderative adjectives in the old language, is contracted for nkuhoslziki. It is added to the future suffix 11111.Thus, 1IlilllalzosMki, wishing to see," is mi-mu-akll-hoslliki; yukalllalLOshiki, " wishing to go," is J'"ka-1Il11-aktt-IIOshiki. These adjective belong to the econd conjugation. Example:Ko wo osluyurr: Ilito ha knku It is of this kind alone that it koso aramahosiukere. is desirable that teachers of youth should be.
H

Examples:Sid gn l/alla wo !ornku wo

IV.

UNINFLECTED

TJ::NIWOHA ADDED TO NEGATI\-E BASE.

En with the negative base forms what may be called a


future conditional tense. Thus yuknba means "if he shall go," " if he should go," or "were he to go." Ba is probably a contraction for n, the future suffix, and lUI, which has in this

144

Ul\INI'LCTI::l>

TEl\I\YOHA SGFHXEIJ

TO KOTOll.-\.

combination substantially the same meaning as described above, p. 120. The fact that the older language has ha instead of ba after the negative suffix :;11 and after adjectives confirms this derivation, as the future suffix is not found along with either of these forms. Later writers, however, following a false analogy, usc Im for Ita in these cases. After adjectives 111 is sometimes inserted for the sake of euphony, as J'olmlllba for ),oku/Ja, "if it should be good." I n the ,lfml)'oslu"u forms like )'okaba are found. The commentators say that aba is here a contraction for araba. 1"0!.-aha would therefore be for yokll-amba. Sa has often an optative force, which is sometimes brought out more forcibly by adding the interjection ya, as in the sentence ltito ni lIIiseba)'a, Oh ! that I might show it to some one." Examples of ba ;Tsuki ide ba. If the moon should come forth. Kore ';.)0 sliirn.~1t btl. If he should not know this. Ri~golm IIi se/>a)'a to 1l0:;:01ll1t. He wished to make it his own dominion. Uguliisll 110 rani l{(Ira idcuru Were it not for the note of kolte naRu ba. the uguisu coming forth from the valley. Samba (for sa-arabay. Should that be so. De is a negative particle. Its grammar is that of a verb in the adverbial form, It is equivalent to, and is perhaps a contraction for, cu-te. Another derivation makes it a contraction for ni-t, IIi being here the old adverbial form of the negative suffix nu. Example of de;fottkaki kokoro too shimde alri- It is impossible to meet him without knowing the depth gataslti. of his heart.

UNIl\FLECTEIJ

TENIWOIlA

'UFFIXED

TO KOTOIlA.

'45

ji is also a negative particle. Its grammar is that of a verb in the adverbial, conclusive, or attributive form. It i the negative corresponding to the future particle 11 or mu. ji is the equivalent of lIlai of the spoken language, and of bckaraau of the later written language. - Examples:111akt!Ji' 1.:01.'01'0. A spirit that will not be vanquished. Isshtl 110 hlTji I.ore ni sltgurlt It is improbable that any hfl arof]. disgraceful act of his whole life will surpass this. 1Iful.ahl'-idt:/i to oooslutc. Thinking he would not go out to meet him. Kon )'(1 !.:qji ,1'<1 ? \ Vill he come or will he not? il'tlll with the negative base must be distinguished from 11(111 with the adverbial form. The latter is the future of 11U17I. ,Vall with the negative base is probably contracted for 11 of the future followed by nan described in the chapter on suffixes added to nouns. The form thus obtained has an optative signification. I t is chiefly confined to poetry. Examples :KilJli g<1 1.'01r'01'0 WfI1'IJ lli to\Vould that your heart were kellan. melted unto mc! Kalil; lIi tamuk SU171nusa 1/(1 May the favouring breeze of olii-ka::;e yamas fuleanas, (i.e. granted by reason of) the fillets offered to the god blow without ceasing! De,ji, and 1It11l do not occur after adjectives.
V. UKI).'FLECTED

TENI\YOilA

ADDEO

TO PERFECT,

Ba with the Perfect is the same separative particle 1m (with the 11igori) already described at p. 120. Yukeba, for instance,
will therefore mean "in the case that he has gone," "in respect to his having gone," and btl in these forms may usually be

146

UNINFLECTED

TENIWOHA S FFIXED TO KOTOBA.

rendered by one of the conjunctions since," "when,"


.(1

whereas," (C because." Ya after this ba has its ordinary dubitative force, and not an optative, as when it follows ba suffixed to the negative base. Thus mirebaya means" since he has seen, if indeed he has seen," while 1Jlibaya means Oh! that he might see." Jlf;reba 1m would mean "is it because he has seen," or

c.

perhaps because he has seen." Examples of ba :The ice that melts now that the spring has come. When he kindled a light and looked, it was a priest of about sixty years of age. Since that is so, or that being so. When this sun had set.

Ham tateba, kiyuru ko/IOn'.

Hi wo tomoshite mireba,
ku-Jilt bakari
110

YO-

IIIJslli 'Ian'.

Sareba or s/tik01'ebn: (for sa areba or sltika areba). Kono Ili kltreshikaba (slzika,

perfect of past participle


sIlt). Do is the same particle 10 (with the lligorz,) already described under the head of particles suffixed to the conclusive form. With the perfect it may be translated" though," "although," notwithstanding." To iltedo, literally" though it be said that," " though one say that," is often found where the meaning is simply" although." Observe that the phrase yuku 10 mo, "though he should go," forms a Future Concessive corresponding to the Future conditional yukaba, "if he should go," while yltkeM is the Perfect Concessive corresponding to the Perfect Conditional Yltkeba. Do is very commonly followed by
1110,

even," a ),u!.:edolllo,

even though he went."

urn

'FLEeTED TEr\IWOHA SUFFIXED TO KOTOBA.

147

Examples of do and domo :E V(;!11 though they called her, she did not awake. Tenia Ita yorosltiku snfura- Although the weather Iredomo, sasltitsukalze kOle good, I am unable to ari, 1Jlairi-gtltaku safurafu, come, having an engagement K o1ZllZclti 1/0 Oil ide tuo macla Although I expected you to sa./Itralledolllo. come to-day. Ka1!J"i wo l//()CltiyUril Ita IUII/aAlthough the use of Chinese hada jitlSlfgt$ naredomo. characters IS very Improper. Ya, the interrogative particle, is sometimes found after me, the perfect form of the future particle mit, as in arame ya, u will there be," or " will there have been." Btl and do may be added to the perfect forms of either verbs or adjectives.
J 'obedomo, snmecu,


CHAPTER VII.

DIFLECTED T1'-I\\OIlA.

Inflected teniwoha are suffixed to verbs and adjectives only. In the following list the same classification has been adopted as in the case of the uninflected teniwoha, i.e., according to the part of the verb to which they are suffixed. Only a few of these suffixes are added directly to adjectives, As in the case of uninflected teniwoha, the verb aru usually intervenes.
1. IN}LECTED TENIWOHA ADDED TO ADVERBIAL FOR~1.

Tsuru (te, ISII, ISIIrll, te, ISIIre) has the same meaning as the Chinese ~ and the Japanese Ita/sum, i.e., to finish"; thus mitsurn, kikilsllrll, mean to finish seeing," to finish hearing." Tsuru is much the same as the It' shimafu of the spoken language. I t is not really a sign of the past ten e, or it would hardly be found combined with the past suffix sM, but it is often difficult to render it otherwise in English. Te followed by the combination of particles sIll' ga or slti gn 11n forms an optative, Ex.: Iknde kOlll) J(ng/~J,(!ltiJlleW/J etesltigmtn, miteslrigmtn. Oh! that I might obtain this Kaguyahime! Oh ! that I might see her! " Te, with 11, the future particle, and )Ia, the interrogative, expresses a request; as in the following examples :Yo .fuke!e. osoroshikereoa, As the night has become oknrue lama/Ii len yn. late, and I am afraid, will you please escort me. Clzillllngoll 110 ko uio esaseteu Will you be after causing me to obtain the Chiunagon's ya? daughter?

INFLECTEn

TENIWOIIA.

149

In the later form of the language, the root te is the only form in usc. Here it has lost the meaning te shimll/" which it had in the old language, and merely indicates that the action of the verb to which it is joined is regarded as prior or preparatory to that of the principal verb of the sentence; in other words, it forms a past participle. Examples of ISlIm :The flowers where the uguisu has just been singing. SlIke klll'nhilsllrebn, iltlllt to When they had finished ijil. drinking the wine, they said they would go away. Hana sakite :;0 !lito TIlZ 1IZ It is after the flowers have kuru. opened, that people come to see them. Okiua 110 IIIn/llsall kolo kikiYou will kindly hear to the tamalu tell yll. end what the old man is about to sa)' to you. 1klisn mite, yn zoo IlIIgu. To whet one's arrows after one sees the battle. Kaklisltite yo. Be after hiding it. Hartt sltgile, natsu kila1'1t. Spring having passed, summer comes. Tnru (tari, tari, tnru, lam, tare) is te, the adverbial form of tsuru, followed by the verb aru, to be." It has the same meaning as the te am or te i1'll of the poken language, and should be distinguished from the colloquial ta, which (though the same word as Inm) is used simply as a past tense. Theforce of taru will be understood from the following examples: Nururn, for instance, means "to get wet"; unretaru, "to be having got wet," i.e., "to be wet"; 11111'11 means" to lie down" j uetaru, "to be having lain down." The nureta and ueta of the spoken language mean" got wet," " lay down."
U/{liltiSll

1/0 11tlkilSttl'tt 111I1Ia.

I r.; I'LECTED

TENIWOHA.

His beard and hair have all become white. Having taken off his wet clothes. 1111gile. tuo habuki-Iaylt The having diminished the A'ami-ka:::u number of leaves was ha Itone-ori WO IIOShi1Jllt ni not because labour was arasu. grudged. ,VIlYII (ni, IlII, JlU1'It, Uti, 1lIlYC) is the verb inurn, "to go away," the initial i having been lost after the i or e final of the adverbial form of the preceding verb. NUYII and tsnru differ little in meaning, but they are not found combined with the same verbs, uuru being usually found with intransitive, tSU1'U with transitive verbs. This rule is, however, subject to numerous exceptions. Nuru may often be conveniently rendered by the ad\'erb" away," as yuki-IZUYII, to go away," sltillobi-Iltlru, "to steal away," yake-lmru," to burn away." The German IIi1l is a still closer equivalent. Nan after the adverbial form of verbs is the future of this suffix. Motowori is of opinion that ni in such phrases as uari 1Zt' ken', l.-illl!ni seba, etc., is Iii the adverbial form of nnru and not lIi the preposition. Like te, Iii with slti ga or slti ga lUI has the force of an optative. Examples of uurn :,NOIZOSlti17tuelli IIi yo fulceuu, Whilst we were gossiping, the night grew late. J nasmuch as she died here. J{o/.'01li llsC1lisltikaba. We made to go away on FUJ/c Iii uoriuan 10 SII. board. Kern (keyi, keri, ker, kera, kere) is the perfect of /.:111'11, u to come," as in the example tsukalli 110 keyeba, tanos/dmi to
JUge

Examples :kami kOlogoloku sltiroklt nari-rari. A'ililOIlO 110 shimeri-taru wo

INFLECTED

TENIWOllA.

151

(OIll01ii1t") matsu, "I

waited, thinking of the JOY when the messenger should have come." As a suffix, however, it is employed in a looser and more general signification, and is sometimes little more than a substitute for the perfect ending of the principal verb. Where its original force is more distinct it may be rendered at length," "it came to pass that." The form gem is sometimes met with in old writers. The spoken equivalent of kem is Ie kiln. Examples of kem :Hana lin saki Iter;.
Haru ha ki IIi keri. Nige-use IIi ken.

The flowers have at length opened. Spring has at length arrived. They at length ran away.

The 1Ii keri of the last two examples is often written llgeri in the llaka III1.tkaslli period. Shi (-, ki, slti, ke, shika) is the sign of the past tense. The root of the verb with shz"added is like the Greek aorist, simply I a past tense, and nothing more. This is really the only past tense in the Japanese language, at least in its classical form. Pa t time may, however, be implied by the use of other suffixes, and when tsuru, nuru, taru or kent is added to a verb, a past tense will usually, though not invariably, be the proper translation. The following example illustrates the distinction between tsurn, 1111nl,and slti. FUJi 1Wllli Ita saki te cltiri 11iki, the westeria waves (poetical for flowers) ltavillg first (Ie) blossomed, became (kl) dispersed away (m)." Ignorant writers of the present day often use slti for the conclusive as well as for the attributive form. The semi-Chinese style prefers to indicate past time by separate words such as NalsllLe previously," sudeui " already," &c.

IlI/FLECTEO

TENIWOIiA.

A woman born in Kio. Inasmuch as she died here. K okoni usenishikaba. The horse is an animal which ,llwJla wa kishi (or koslll) lIIichi umsurenn WOIIO nart, does not forget the road which it has come. They made to kill us. Korosan /0 shiki. Ta!"i is inflected regularly as an adjective of the first conjugation. It is the same word with the adverb ito (before adjectives) 01' ilal", (before verbs)" very," exceedingly," and in the old language when added to verbs it produced adjectives resembling English adjectives in /y, fu], etc., as lIIedeta/'i, lovely," from medzuru, "to love" ; kohi-tal.i, "much longed (or," from koftt, "to love," "to long for." In the modern language taki forms desiderative adjectives, and may be added to all verbs, as yukilaki, "desirous to go," nritaei, desirous to selL" It has replaced the allOsltiki of the old language. Examples of lak; :Co mill/go nasareraei 1111111e. The information that you desire an interview, Co s/~clli kore arztala confiI think it desirable that you saburafu. should understand.

Examples of sILi:K w ni te umarcsla tuomiua.

n.
\

IKFLE(;TED

TENIWOIlA

ADDED TO CONCLGSI\'E

FOR)I.

Naru (IInri, uari, naru, nnra, 1/are), "to be," is sometimes

, found annexed to the conclusive form of the verb, as in the


,. It has been thought convenient to follow the practice of the Japanese
grammarians and to place the suffixes held, and 1I1lljikl suffixed to the Conclusive FOIm. At the
IItlYU, rail,

meru,

under the head of Teniwoha same time there can be no doubt that these particles are really suffixed to the attributive form, and that what in verbs of the second conjugation appears to be the conclusive form is only the attributive form denuded of the final syllabic ru, which has disappeared owing to phonetic causes.

INFLECTED

TENIWUHA.

153

phrase Vama ni 1///(slu"110 kolle Sit nari, "There is a chirping of insects on the hill." Iller/{ (1I/eri, meri.rueru, mera, mere) expresses a slight shade of uncertainty, such as is indicated in English by the use of such adverbs as " seemingly," " probably," " apparently." The Kotooa no CII1/mllliclli says that meru is contracted for mike ani, mike being the root of 1IIiyllr1l, "to cern." A YII, whether alone or in composition, loses the final ru before meru, Examples of meru:Sltin"taJlleredo. Although they are doubtless aware. Oroka naranu hito bito tit They are doubtless anything koso autere (for ani mere]. but stupid men. Ran (rail, rail, run, -, rmlle) is aran, the future of ani, " to be," the initial a being dropped after the final vowel of the verb, in order to avoid a hiatus. Rail is therefore the same
No question arises on this point in the other conjugations where these two forms are identical. This will explain a number of apparent irregularities in the form assumed by the verb before these particles. For instance, we see that seza nari, where '1<11'; is apparently attached to the negative base, is really sezaru uari, and in confirmation of this we have the intermediate form sezan nari, in which the 11of sezau represents the r of I'll which has becom" assimilated to the following consonant. I n the same way mira, where ran seems added to the adverbial form, is a contraction for 111;,." rail, ameru for OfU meru, Sit nari for suru nnri. The modem written language sometimes follows the Yedo colloquial idiom in having the attributive form of verbs of the second conjugation in eru or iru instead of in uru, and we therefore meet with such forms as sulebtld, deki1llajiki, where "eN and mttjiki are not really added to the adverbial form, as might appear at first sight, but to the colloquial auriburive in en, or "'-llt the final ru having been lost. For a similar reason mai (for majiki), the sign of the negative future in the spoken language, is only apparently suffixed to the adverbial form in the second conjugation.
M

154

IN fLEeTED

TEN IWOHA.

as de tiro of the spoken language, or ni Ie nnw of the written language. Rail expresses a slight shade of doubt. Examples of rau :Horn; 10 ifuran J'alJla. The mountain called. if I mistake not, Horai. H agi ga /"'a1laclaruran. The hagi Rowers will doubtless become scattered. Beki (belm, bulzi, beld, be/.m, belw-e) is a regularly inflected adjective of the first conjugation. It is used in many different shades of meaning, such as to express probability, possibility, moral obligation, necessity, futurity, &c., and may be variously rendered according to circumstances by u probably," " may," ought," must," " should," "will," &c. The last meaning is very common in the later official and epistolary style, where beki has almost superseded the ordinary future in 11. Beslu and /lekara:::u (bckll-arn:::u) are often used as nearly equivalent to the ordinary imperative. In the Monogatari beii is frequently found for bek1l. Examples of beki:rosk;1I e ranntu subesla to grii He ordered him (saying) "lI'lake an incursion into ski-tmlltllu. J Oshiu." I dr::/t1'C youmkaran 10/,;01'0 IJ1ltHe was to confront whatever place might be weak. kafn buIlt: Tel: i ha sadatuete taigun I1a17l Decidedly the enemy are sure bes/It: to be in great force. Tatakaf beki ka ; waboku Shoutd we fight or beg for kolll beki kn ? peace? Kono uta 11/0 kakll 110 gotoklt The same is probably the case naru beshi. with this poetry also. S01l0 birei flam I.:oto ifllbeii It was impossible to describe 1110 arasu. its beauty. Emu' and bern are poetical forms. They are abstract nouns

INFLECTED

TENIWOIIA.

155

obtained by adding to the root be the terminations lIIi and ra. [See above pp. 42, 43.] Example :eM-tose-dochi to so omofubera There is a thinkability that they are thousand-year 11aYIt. comrades, i.e., one mar well suppose that the)" have been comrades for a thousand years. lV/ajiki (Illajiku, tuafi, 1I/ajiki, lIIajik1l,lIlflji'kere) is a regularly inflected adjective of the second conjugation. Its meaning is the opposite of that of beki. }IIlai, the negative future of the spoken language, is a contracted form of lJIaJi"ki. Examples of lIIaJi"ki;Kono yo ni ha mala minllJlaji. In this world, at an)" rate, we are ti1llikely to see him again. Tsukafu beki tokoro to tsukajit There are places where it mOJi"kitokoro to an'. ought to be used, and also places where it ought not.
III. INFLECTED TNIWOf.iA ADDI::D TO ATTIUHUTln: "'OR~I.

There are no inflected teniwoha added to the attributive form of the verb or adjective.
IV. NTt INFLECTED TENIWOHA ADDED TO NEGATI\"E J1A E.

(::n or ni, SIl, nu, ::U, 1/e), "not," is the negative suffix] Ni is obsolete in all but the oldest form of Japanese. Examples of 111t;lhallcdo. Though one do not say, Shira:::/{. I don't know. Shira:::" olJlo/liki. He felt ignorant. Y6 sccu-ha. I f one did not take care.

INFLECTED

TEN I \\'OIlA.

Zur (:;ari, sari, earn, sara, care) is for sn-aru. In the later language cam is preferred to the simple suffix n,
I

especially in the case of the attributive form. Zarn, for ;;0 tim, must be distinguished from the above. Examples of
Shirazari keri.
caru ;-

Shiracan: lura.
I

He did not learn (or know). A stranger, or, a man who does not know.

or 1J1ll, 11 or mil, 11 or 11l11, -, me) is the future suffix. It may also give the verb the force of a SUbjunctive or of an optative mood. At other times such adverb as Ie probably," "doubtless," &c., are the most convenient war of rendering it.
11m (/I

N or

Examples of
Hototogis

1/ ;fSliI 11i.

ki-/lrlkil11

Imada lIIi1ll1hito IIi

1110 ISlIgCIl.

Kwaki /lobill to suru ni. fl.-allodo k(II/IIIIII1'Z' lI,.lIlli1sllil: rn 1/ IIi 1/10. Nikki kak'lll hito.
,

Korosau 10 shiJ.i. Horni 10 ifll yama uaran.

I.

In the month when the hototogisu will come and sing. I would tell those also who have not yet seen it The fiery clement, in its efforts to expand. However elegant the headdress may be, Those persons who may write journals . They made to kill us. It is probably the mountain called H6rai.

Nzu1'!I. The future suffix 11 is sometimes combined with the verb suru, " to do," thus forming a compound future tense. This combination has the meaning of a future tense proper, and not of a SUbjunctive or optative mod.

INFLECTED

TENIWOllA.

[57

Examples of nenru ;Kihe useuanzu, I will vanish away. Saru lokoro he 1IIai,-a1l::;/l1"/IThe being about to go to such koto. a place. IVan /ur kore yon' kaheri I will return from this place. znanzu.

This combination is not found either in the oldest or in the most modern form of the Japanese language. The word makarasn occurs in the Tosa ll'ikki not as a negative, but as a future. Makara:J1l is here put for maearanZU, " I will come." This form is preserved in several of the local dialects. folashi (-, masld, utaslu, tuase, lIlashika). Mas/Ii is a kindred particle to 11 and beki, but like the English phrases "would have," " ought to have," is only used where the action of the verb might have taken place, but did not. It is most commonly found after conditional clauses, where it implies that the condition is unfulfilled. lIfashi is chiefly confined to poetry. Examples of mas/Ii;Chikakambtl Ka/reri ,ti ddlti uta Uclli-Yllkite Imogn tontakura Sashi.kahete
Netemo k01llashi
WOo

If thou wert near, Even it were only to return, I would go to thee, And having slept, Exchanging with thee arm pillows, I would come. If we had never met, Neither would there been love. have

A/Ii 1IIi&/I ba Kohishiki koto 1110 ]" II karalll asla.

INFLECTEU

TENI\vOHA .

.Alirll llito 1Il0 .Na!.:iyama-zato 110 Sakllnl-bana If 'olsa no chiruran Voehz"::0 sakfllllflshi. Uguhim /10 tani yon; idzurn kohe IUlku ba, hart kuru kolo ha tare !.:asluramasl: I?

The cherry-flowers of the mountain hamlets, where there are none to see them, ought to flower after the others shall have become scattered. \Vere it not for the note of the uguisu from the valley, who would know of the arrival of spring?
.\OOEO TO PERFECT.

v,

INFLECTED

TENIWOllA

The meaning and derivation of the perfect form in rtt have been already explained at page 88. This form is peculiar to verbs of the first conjugation and the irregular verb Slim, the perfect of which is sern. Examples of perfect form in nt:Koua kolo Ita onore .Afiklt11i 110 This subject

Rlt (ri, ri, 171., ra, re).

Kotodama Iii tsubara Iii iheri. Nodu 110 yo 110hilo 110kakent


mono miru ni.

1 have myself fully discussed in the ./lIi/.:lI1ti110Kotodanta. In reading the writings of men of a later age.

TABLE
I.

OF TENIWOHA SUFFIXED Il'\FLECTED WORDS.


TENJWOHA I. ANNEXED TO ROOT.

TO

UNINFLECTED.

Ni, Ira, 1110, to, lIagnrn, tSlIlslI,gntern,gnehi, --lslt --tSIl, na --so, yo.

--1IIi

--lIIi,

INFLECTED 2.
Advc Form.

TENIWOIIA.

159

INFl.ECTED.

--

Conclusive Form. Attributive Form, N ega ti ve Sa "".,

Perfect.

--

te tari
tit

tSII tari 1111 keri ki !nsM

tsuru

te lara
ua

tsure tare 1I111'e kere slu'ka takere

taru
nuru

keri

Hem

kern ke tnkzt

takll

slri Inki

11.
1.

TENIWOHA

ANNEXED

TO CONCl.U

lYE FORM.

U INFl.ECn:D.

Raslti, to.yo, kaslti, 1110,yO,11a.


2. INFl.ECTED. Form. Negative Base.
I
I

Adv,

FOl'111.

Conclusive Form. Attributive

Perfcct.

nart men rail belm lIIaji"ku

uart

naru

uara
mera

uare mere ratue bekere 11IIajikere

1IIen ran buM maji

meru ran beni maJi'ki

be/m lIIflJi'ku

160 III.
I.

I 'FLECTED TE:"IWOHA

TEl\I\\'OHA. FORM.

ADDED TO ATTRIIIUTIVE
" , J ,

UNINJLECTED. INFLECTED.

!\'a i.-a kana kam tuo akll

2.

one.
ANNEXED TO 'EGATIVE BASE.

IV. I.

TE

IWOllA

UNINFLECTED.

Sa, de,ji, uan,


2. INFLECTIW.

Adv. Form., Conclusive F orm, Auriborive Form.

_.

Negnlh'c Base,
Perfect.
~It

tie or

"i

zrc

uu.
carll
11 01'

111:

cart
11or 11llt

zart.
11

cora

care

or

IIItt

mt

ruase

V. I.

lIlaslti

lIlaslzi

I lIlas!Ji!.:a

me

TENIWOHA

ANNEXED

TO PERFECT.

UNINFLECTED.

Ba, do,ya.
2. INFLECTED .
Form. Negnthc Base. Perfect.

Adv. Form.

Conclusive

Form. An riburive

ri

17-

"/4

ra

re

CHAPTER
HUMBLE ,\ND USED HO 'ORIFIC AS AD\'ERHS

III.
"ERRS, YERR

VERBS, AUXILIAR\' AND CONJU

'CTIONS.

The absence in the Japanese verb of any grammatical distinction of per on ha been already remarked, This want is partly supplied by the extensive use of humble and honorific words and particles, the former being chiefly characteristic of the first per on, and the latter of the second. A curious exception is the case of the Mikado, who in books is made to use the honorifics in speaking of himself. Humility and respect are indicated in Japanese in the following ways ;I. By prefixing to nouns Oil,go, i.:i, sOIl,llei, &c.; or to verbs the particles 0 or 011. II. By sub tituting for the simple verbs the derivative causative or pas ive verbs. III. By the Liseof humble and honorific synonyms instead of the ordinary nouns or verbs. I . By means of auxiliary verbs. The humble and honorific prefixes, and the use of causative and passive verbs as honorifics, have been noticed above, [See pp. 46, 99, 100.] The following are examples of humble and honorific synonyms ;NOUNS.
SEUTRAL,. HUMBtE. HONORlFIC.

Ko (child) Muslt1llc (daughter) Tegnmi (letter)

segare

s!t8jo
suncho

go shiso!.:l1 shitsn ].
Mkntl

IIU)IIlL

AND

1I0NORIFIC VERBS,

VERUS,

~EUTRAL.

HU:\IBLE.

HOXOR.f.C,

JIlin{ (to see)

Suru (to do)


Y"i,1t If1l

Hnisen suru Tsuknmatsnrn


JlEnk(1I'1l

GOl'fll1/irlt

or Gorau uasaru

(to go)

Nasarnru I 'demas
Idemas O//oSltru Kudasaru Tamafu K ikos hillleSIl

Kuru (to come)

Jllnini
JlfafltSll Agllrtl

(to say) AtaYItYlt (to give)

" (to eat) Taburu


Okll1'lt

Tatematsuru

(to send) Jlfairasll1'lt As will be seen from the examples quoted below, the verbs used as humble and honorific substitutes for ordinary verbs have a tendency to lose their original specific meaning, and are in many cases used as mere indications of humility or respect. In some instances a still further change takes place, the distinction between respect and humility is lost, and the auxiliary ceases to be anything more than a characteristic of a polite style, A familiar example of this is the termination masu of the spoken language. I. Auxiliary verbs used primarily with verbs in the first person to express humility, Haberu or /1fl1llbenl originally meant" to be beside," " to be in attendance on," but it has acquired the same force as the modern colloquial masu or go:::arimaSlt, The old language uses /Iflbcm chiefly with verbs in the first or third person as a more respectful word than aru, to be," or wont, to abide," It is obsolete in the modern language, Examples of haberu ;1 kade ka yo IIi habermz ? How shall I remain in this world? Yo Ilfl OIllO/U' 110 llOkn naru It i. my humble opinion that 11101/0 to omolu haber, this world is a thing which is beyond our expectations,
II II

HUMBLE

AND

1l0NORIFIC

VERBS.

My eyes, too, being unable to see. Sa Ila Imberalm ka? Is it not so? Saruumfn, saburafu, or safurafti is a verb of the first conjugation. Like IlMem, it originally meant" to be in attendance upon," and in this sense it often occurs in the older literature. The word samuro/si, a Daimio's retainer," a man of the two-sworded class," means, therefore, properly" an attendant." Safiwa/u (pronounced S01'0) has by degrees become the written equivalent of the colloquial masu or gocarimasu, and is now used as a polite auxiliary with all three persons, and even where the subject of the verb is not a living being at all, In the modern epistolary style, almost I every verb has safurafu (SOl"o) annexed to it. Examples of safnrnfn :Kusnslu A /sllshige go Ho-o The physician Atsushige 1/0 omunh IIi samumhite. being in waiting before the retired Emperor. Sadamegatnlcu zonji safurafn. I think it is impossible to decide. .\ll.Okall '410 mochite ma/ushiI address you by a letter .
ire-safurafu, f)eki sliidai saslzi-shimm-beku safuraft. --to yomeru koka 1110 safuraheoa. . Owni lit! ika uaru llilo 11 te sn/um/It ? lIfnkaru

1I1[e 1110 mine haberann 11;.

I will end it to you as soon as it is fini hed, As there is an old stanza composed saying thatWhat manner of man are you?

means properly" to go down," "to retire from the presence of a superior," or to go from an honourable place to one which is less honourable." Later it became used more generally as a humble word instead of yuk'" to go." In the Japanese of the present day umkar does not stand by itself,

II UMHLI:. AN D HONORIFIC

VERDS.

but is prefixed in the adverbial form to verbs signifying motion, such as yuku, idzuru, koSIl, &c., as a mere auxiliary to express humility. It is also found before aru, "to be," and wont, " to abide." Jllakal'll occurs very frequently in the n tes of evidence taken in courts of ju tice, Examples of makarn :Tama 110 eda tori ni nan Saying that he was going makaYli 10 ihasete (TsIIdown to fetch the jewel k/lslIi lie) kndari tautafu, branch, he went down (to Tsukushi). Going from the capital to the provinces is always spoken of in Japan as going down." This example is from one of the old classics. The following examples show the modem use of 1//akarll :K iftt lie nralmri koslti sa- When he visited your honourable city. furafu setsu. Kokoni makart ari snfurafu Whilst I was here.
U

toboro.
JI/a/ustl

(pron, 1//8sll) was originally used, chiefly in the first

person, as a very humble word for ifu, "to sa)'." In the later language it is still a polite word for ifu when it stands alone or precedes another verb, but it is also employed after verbs in the adverbial form as a mere auxiliary to indicate humility, and without any trace of its original meaning. Examples of mafusu :ANca:':'iT LA 'GUAGE...

Gelt/i ItO killii ni I"; 1.010.

mafnsnbe-

Kono yoshi

ma/lIslli

tanmlre.

Something which ought to be respectfully represented to Prince Genji. Be so good as to repre .ent this (to some high personage).

HUMIlLI::

AND
MOJ)RN

HONORIFI
LANGUAGE.

VERBS.

Hiki-b1l11e idete 1I1i11(tlo lie Iliki-ire-1JIa/lIsln-sa/lIrfl/u. YaktishO to obosltikll mille1IIafi(sl1i safurafu. Yu wo Isukahi-lIIa/ltsu koto.

Tug-boats having come out, towed us into the harbour. It looked like a public office. The use of hot baths.

Kikoyu1"ll. like urafnsu, is properly a humble word for" to

say," "to tell," but it is often used as a mere auxiliary expressing humility without any specific meaning. The compounds kolli-kikoyunt, olllohi-kikoyuru for instance, are only polite expressions instead of the simple verbs /';o/u, . to love," outofu, "to think." This word is obsolete in the modern language. Tatematsurn originally meant" to give as a present," as in the sentence 1Ilasatsurfl sake yok; mono tateutatsureri, " Masatsura brought a present of sake of excellent quality." As an auxiliary it is a very humble word, and is much used in memorials, addresses, and other writings composed in a formal style. Examples of tatematsurn :Ippitsu kei//) tatematsuri Sa/IfI beg to address you one rafu, stroke of the pen. NegaM age tateumtsnri sa/ItI most humbly request you.
rafu. Aguru, "to raise," "to offer up," is also joined to the roots

of verbs to mark humility. Example:Sudmi lIla/ushi-age sa/urn/lI

As I have already had the yom'. honour to inform you. 1I1airasuni mean "to send as a present." It is used generally as a humble auxiliary both in the old language and occasionally in the modern epistolary style, e ipecially in letters written by women.

166

HUMBLE

ANI)

HONORIFIC

n:RBS.

Examples of 1IIllirnSIII'/{ :Co /tellJi' tuo lIIa./us/zi-age suairasc-safurafu buhz'. On yorokobi lIIa./lislti-age 1IIa;rase-soft: rafu,

I shall reply to you. I beg to offer you my humble congratulations.

11. Auxiliary verbs used as honorifics with verbs in the second person, or with verbs in the third person when the actions of some exalted personage arc spoken of. Tauiafn is a lengthened form of the old verb tabu, "to give," and was originally used as a honorific substitute for that verb. Even at present it has often this force, but it is more commonly a mere honorific in which the meaning "give" can no longer be traced. Examples of tatuafu :1II asu re-tanmfu na,
Sassoku ni kiki-sll7lli
talll11hi-

Please do not forget. At once granted his request. Seeing the moon, she wept exceedingly. He caused him to teach.

;':i.
TSllki too mite i1lliji'/m lIakitamafu, OS/Ii/Ie -maimse-sase-tamotsikeri.

jJ,faslI (rst conj.) is used as a honorific in the old language, where it is found exclusively in the second or third person. It is much more restricted in its use than tamafu being only used along with certain verbs. MaSte originally meant "to sit," "to dwell." The modern colloquial auxiliary 1IIaSll is the same word, although its conjugation is different, and it is used indiscriminately with all three persons. Examples of 1IZaSte:Hmlallluke s/zi ni idemaseri.

He came to gh'e a parting present.

IlU~Il)LE Kaklui-lIlllslti-ki.

ANn

IIONORIFIe

YERRS.

He became hidden, i.e., he died. 1\-(1 ha r,Vatarahi IIi rnasu This is thc god who dwells /.:nllli uari. in \Vatarai. /lSOlifTSII, asobasaru, and asobasarnrn, from asobu, to sport,"] are used as honorifics in the same way as tamafn. Examples :all sorohi nsobashi, go/':igm That you all together have J'o/m Oil los/Ii /':nsnllebegun a new year in good hcalthCo /.:Ollrei shillbi yo/m Oil totobeg to congratulate you on lIohi asobasnre 11Icdetaku the marriage which you :::OIlJi' tatemntsuri safurafu, have celebrated so auspiciously in all respects. In the older language, if a honorific particle is placed before a verb the honorific terminations or auxiliaries are omitted, and vice ucrsd no honorific is prefixed if thc verb has a honorific termination or auxiliary. This rule is not observed in the later language. II 1. Other auxiliary verb. Aruc naru, Ant (-tj) means "to be," in the sense of "to exist." It is not the mere copula of a proposition like uartt (-IlL). Thus, although the two propositions
K(II10 1I1I1IIIa Ita s/lil'okari, Kono 11/1(1I/n hn shiro/oz' uari,

are practically identical, the rcal mcaning of the former is " As to this horse, the quality of whiteness exists," while the latter is " This horse is white," nan' being nothing more than a copula. A rn is chiefly used, as in thc above example, as an auxiliary joined to adjectives. Its use with verbs to form a perfect tense, and its combinations with some of the commoner teniwoha have becn already noticed. Naru; which is conjugated like aru, is contracted for 1It' aru,
N

168

AUXILIARY

VF.RJ~<;.

Here the ui is sometimes the locative particle "in," and sometimes the root of an obsolete verb 1111, "to be." Jlrarll as an attributive is abbreviated in the spoken language into 1111, a form which is occasionally used by modern writers. I Nar! is often used after the attributive forms of verbs and adjectives to form a substitute for the conclusive form. It should be distinguished from uaru," to become," which follows the adverbial form of adjectives, and which is conjugated as a regular verb of the first conjugation. Example of nru and naru :Chi aru 1110,oroka narn 1110. Both those who have understanding and those who are foolish. Kore Ila HQrni 110ymua uari. This is the mountain Horai. Kakll nari 10 sltrubeklt nan. You must know that this is so. 1Ilid:::ukam gi wo tokasltimuru It makes the meaning exnarz, plained of itself. Nase Ilflreba-lltllli 1Ifwito Why is it so ?--it is benareba nari. cause it is so and so. to do." The simple verb may be replaced by the adverbial form followed by stint. Sometimes, however, there is a difference of meaning. Thus yorokooi-te means" rejoicing "; yorokobi ski/e, " making gala." Uru, " to get," "to be able," is prefixed in the adverbial form e to negative verbs, as in the examplesE illfZ:::U. He is unable to say. E nomaca. He is unable to drink. E 01ll0hi IlallfZ1'e;i: He will be unable to cease to think of her. A noun may intervene, as in the example :E taimen tammuaranu. I cannot accept an interview Kanuru, " to be unable," is annexed to verbs in the adverbial form.
S1I1'lI, "

AUXILIARY

vlmns.

169

Example ;I am unable to go. A/tI, "to meet." In many cases, this verb when prefixed in the adverbial form to other verbs has more or less of its original meaning, as alu-noru, "to ride together"; ahi-miru, I'to see one another ": ahi-oorttru," to love one another"; but in the later language it is often used without much meaning, as natsu ni ahi-uari safurnfu toki, " \ Vhen it became summer:'
Yuki-kane snfurafn.
VERBS A ADVERBS OR CONlUN 'TIONS.

Many words which must be translated in Engli. h by adverbs or conjunctions are, in Japanese, verbs or adjective. (koloba). Indeed, as shown in Chap. IV., every verb and adjective has a form in which it is an adverb. Examples of verbs as adverbs ;Hatashi-te. Ultimately," eventually:' Seme-te. At least." Kaheri-te. On the contrary." J.lashi-te. Much more so." Amari "Too much." Ka/sesu-gnhesn. Again and again:' Nokora-zu: Vithout exception:'
II II II II II II II \

Examples of verbs as conjunctions:S~-shite (lit. " having done so ") "and." Shikm'eba (lit. " since it is so") " therefore." Oyob; (adv. form of oyobn, "to reach to") "and." Narnbi 11 (lit. " in a line with OJ) " and." Tadashi (adv. form of tadasu, " to correct ") but." A rulliha (properly aru Ila) "in some cases," " or."
II

CHAPTER
SYNTAX. lllWI:.R OF WORDS

IX.

IN A SENTENCE.

l. Qualifying words or phrases precede the words which they qualify. Thus:-

(a) The adjective (verb or adjective in attributive form) precedes the noun which it qualifies, as J10ki Ililo, "a good man "; kuru hito, "the man who comes." The adverb precedes the word which it qualifies, as ito IwyaJ.:1t, " very fast "; Ilflyaku kuru, " to come quickly." (b) (c) The noun followed by the genitive participle no or ga precedes the noun to which it is joined, as hito 110 chikara, a man's strength."

The nominative case stands at the beginning of a sentence. Tsuki Ita kagili 1m!.:/( lIIedela!.:i mOIlO nari. " The moon is an immeasurably beautiful object." To this rule ithere are numerous exceptions. I n comparisons, the object with which the subject of the sentence is compared usually, though not always, precedes it, as in the sentence /(0110 yaura yori are Ita takashi, "That mountain is higher than this."
2.

3.
I placed

The verb (verb or adjective in conclusive form) is at the end of the sentence, as in the last example.

The regular order of a sentence is frequently inverted in poetry, the verb appearing in the middle, and the sentence being closed by a noun, a particle, or a verb or adjective in the adverbial or attributive form.

SYNTAX.

Examples: Na de jit (for 1tmli 10 ifll and pronounced IUYO) ;'0kochi sureoa, kaklt
1Ii

mono

omohi tarn sama

te

tSlIki

heart the smoke from the salt-furnaces of Tsunooka. The later semi-Chinese prose style affords examples of a similar construction. Negnllnkll lin sltiM Il0 kUllshi I pray that gentlemen from kOkiu aran koto woo all quarters will purchase it. Osorae //(/ jitgnku 110 sosluri I fear I may incur the rearau kOlO woo preach of ignorance. Osoraku Ita yo 110 hito 110 I fear it may become a uiamhi-gusa to uaran laughing-stock to the koto woo public. 4. The case signs are placed after the nouns to which they relate, as koko made, " to this place "i ware 110, " mine." s. The direct object of the verb precedes it, as knlill uuuarn, "to cross a river." In poetry the object is sometimes placed after the verb. 6. A noun governed by a preposition precedes the direct object of the verb, as fune ni kahn zuataru, "to cross a river in a boat." 7. Expressions denoting time precede expressions denoting place, and a general expression precedes one that is more precise. Examples: Itsn lilt/de /.:ot:olli Sll/II" ka? "Until when do you reside here?" Rokll C'.;.!ntsu nanuka made. "Until the seventh day of the sixth month."

tao 1IIi taumfi: eo shikiyo 11? Kokoro arnn Ifito 11i lIIise/Jayn Tsunoosa gn Shiwoynki kebllri.

taua-

Because of what feelings do you in this plea ant world gaze upon the moon with the appearance of being so immersed in thought?
I would that I could show to some one who had a

SYNTAX.

8. Conjunctions and interrogative particles are placed after the word or clause to which they belong, as in the examples, [ka uaru !tito 1.:(/to tofu, u He inquires what manner of man he is ": [!.'aga slfbcl.:i to omofu, " \ Vhat is to be done? thought he," 9, Dependent clauses precede principal clauses, Example :Uglf flt'SIt 110 Were it not for the note of T o u j yor! idsnrt the lIguislf from the valley, [(olle 11ilkft btl, who would know of the Haru kft1'lt koto ha arrival of spring? Tare /.:a slnramashi ? In poetry this rule is often disregarded. Examples :Yo WO sntsnru To abandon this world Kokoro !til 11mI/O $0 Heart as yet N(/ktlrl-kcrlfThere is notUki zoo us!ti to Izn That misery is miserable Omolzi slziredolflo. Though I recognize,
A ki Iwgi .10 Irodoru Im~c Iltl

\Vhat though the wind blow that paints thc autumn Ful.:i1i1t 101110 !ta.g'i- my heart will not Kosoro ha kartgz wither, for it is not a herbleaf. Kustlba uaraueba. Inversions like the following are not unfrequent ill the modern semi-Chinese style;J! isokmu' kiku-sltilllbltlt j6rci \Ve have privately heard that it is under consideration issogetu-mitsu wo klfllainrll 1(0gi ari to. to add a degree of stringency to the Press Laws, A'ore wo kiklt-kogi !ta ses-sei We are told that a clever 1Ii sllika::/t to, falsehood is inferior to a clumsy truth.

S\"!\TAX.

173

In the style imitated from the Chinese, 3S for instance in official letters, a number of words of frequent occurrence are usually written in the Chinese order, although in reading, the j apancsc construction is followed. Thus the verbs motsu Ja.. irasu ik. scs/umurn %, uru. ~, yoru i1( (or mil in the phrase ni yorue, okzt 1ft in the phrase ni oite, oyoo ffi. are written before the nouns which they govern, the passive termination arum fill is written before the verb to which it belongs, ari ;ff is put before kore when kore is nominative to it, the negative particle 1m ;;y:: comes before its verb, and the adjectives kalaki ., gotoki :1m, and beki PI precede the verbs with which they are compounded. Examples will be found in specimens VI!., VIII., and IX. at the end of the volume.
PARTICl.ES AFFECTING TI\'E THE FORM OF THE VERB OR ADjECENTENCE

AT THE END OF A

(kakfwi Il!lIi'Wolln).

It has been already pointed out (p. 88) that the principal verb of a entence, i.e., the verb in the indicative mood, or the adjective when it includes the verb" is," is placed at the end of the sentence, and in the conclusive form. To this rule classical" Japanese recognizes certain well defined exceptions, which are stated below. It is difficult to over-estimate the importance of this part of Japanese grammar. Motowori has devoted a work in seven volumes, the Tama no O,t to the elucidation and illustration of this rule and its exceptions,

* The modem language shows a strong tendency to disregard these exceptions and to revert to the simplicity of the general rule. In the present spoken language both rule and exceptions are altogether unknown, and in the modern written language there is so much confusion between the old practice and the new forms to which the language seems tending, that no rule can be laid down. The semi-Chinese style rarely employs constructions where the exceptions required by classical Japanese would be exemplified. t Tam" no O. lit. "the string of jewels" (i.e., the connecting principle of words), a high-flown expression for" syntax."

SYl\T.\X.

and other grammarian~ have followed his example. The substance of Motowori's treatise is contained in the following rules, among which I. and I I. are much th most important ;RULE I. When one of the particles ::0, IWII (not the particle nan suffixed to verbs), or an interrogative (ka, yfl, nani, nado, naco, tare, i/..,(lJIi,il.-nga, ikade, idsure, itsu, iku) occurs in a sentence, the verb or adjective which closes it is put in th attributive instead of in the conclusive form. Examples; Kore ya waga motoumrn This is (if I mistake not) the yaura uaru, mountain of which we are in search. Kore &0 tama narnbelci, It is this which must be the jewel. Yam(/ kalmsJI This mist of spring which Ham 1}0 kasltllli &0 hides the mountains IS hateful. Uramcshila. KaJJ/i yo yon How many ages have passed 1kit yo ka hellishi? since the age of the gods? FTlkakll omo/u When was it that the autumn Sometsu. to ild shi wind blowing scattered Koto 1/0 lin fia those lea ves of speech (i.e., {1m ka aki-kn:::e words) in which he told me Fllkile chi1'-iJlJlrJt. ? that his mind wa-. deeply tinged with IO"e? Katach: yori lur kokoro 1I1l1/ Her heart was more excellent masaritaru. than her beauty. :\lost Japanese grammarians include 110 in the list of particles which govern the attributive form. The mere occurrence of 110 in a sentence, however, does not affect the final verb or adjective, unless it is actually joined to it. In such cases the verb or adjective is properly a noun, but as shown at p. 107, this construction is frequently substituted for the conclusive form.

SV'TAX.

175

Examples :Sasagnui 110 Koromo 1l1'/mkari Ware wo ImIOIllU,./(.

The spider, clinging to my garment, has turned to me for help.


i

No is here joined not to koromo, but to tanomuru, so that there is properly no verb in the sentence, sasagani 110 tanomuru meaning properly" the spider's turning for help," not

" the spider turned for help."


wo OIllOj'U Hito WO 01/l011fl1Ut Jl/u/m/li 11i ya?~Vaga otuofu !lilo 110 IVare wo otnohanu.
Ware RULE

Is it as a punishment for 110t loving him who loved me?He whom I 10\'e loves me not.

II. \Vhen the particle koso occurs in a sentence, thel verb or adjective which-closes it is put in the perfect form instead of the conclusive form. Examples :K ore koso lama narc. YOlle koso yokere. yori 1/10 Kn /,oso ahare /0 Omohoyure. Jl/i no uki wo ~VflSure-gusa koso Kislli III ofure-sUbe SUlIliyoslti /0 A nta 1110 illi-keri.
11'0

It is this, and this only which is the jewel. It is rice, and nothing but rice, which is good. I feel touched above all by the fragrance more even than by the colour. Above all things (koso) the herb of forgetfulness of one's woes grows upon the bank-well have the fishermen given it the name of Sltllliyoshi (pleasant to reside in).

!;HITAX.

YakezlI ba /.oso, 1/lakolo 1/(1/'(lJ/ In case it does not burn, and to omolu tc, Mlo 110 iflt kofo in that case only, I will 1Ii 11101IIakt'llle. consider it genuine, and

will comply with the man's proposal. A verb has often to be supplied after koso. Examples :A hi-1IIin kofo uro 1101lli koso I think of nothing but of our (01110110)'11 re). meeting. Chikara aru Iuto ni te koso He is indeed a powerful man.
(are).

The older poems in the lJ{an),6slliu have occasionally a perfect without koso or with a koso after the perfect. Even at present a pure Japanese style admits the perfect form in the case of the future particle, notwithstanding that koso may not have preceded it. Examples:11lisltilte 1110sltika nare koso. Even in ancient times thus and thus only was it, II.'asf!1IIf! 1Ii How has he thought? i.e., Ollloiloslti1llcse I;(I? what has been his reason? Kaha IIi "kosll" to ifl( koto Is it likely that there should a rame ya Ita ? be such an expression as kosu" in speaking of
rivers>

The modern popular style has often an attributive form after /.oso. RULE III. If koso occurs in the same sentence with :;0, nan, or an interrogative, the verb or adjective follows the go\'ernment of koso, Examples:Ohollam)la ! Oh! Ohara! Oslat no yama 1Il0 Even thy mountain of Oshio,

Sn'TAX.

'77

A'ifll koso "ll Kanu )'0 no koto 11/0 Oll/o"i idsurame.

On this day of all others, The events of the age of the gods Will have called to mind.

RULE IV. When one of the particles enumerated in Rules 1. and I I. occurs in a dependent clause, it does not affect either the verb of the dependent or of the principal clause, Even though I see not thy form when I lie awake in my bed. to It was the appearance of onc who waited (thinking) will he (come) to-night. Exception. When the dependent clause is a quotation it is treated as a principal clause, and the verb or adjective which closes it follows the usual government. The reason for this is that the Japanese language has 110 distinguishing forms to mark indirect narration, and sentences must be repeated exactly as they were originally spoken, preserving of course their original grammar as independent sentences. Examples :He whom I awaited, in order Tomo Tli I,oso that we might see the ff ana zoo 11/0mime to fi1 aim lato. flowers together. They would ask. "How many Iku yo ka lushi to nights have passed?" TolUllI/aslli 1Il01l0woo
Sllga/a koso Nezan: 110 Yllka ni filfilte::tt to 1110. KOJlo;'; bai:ari ya (kon) tuadu-lcer soma uari.

This exception is not invariably observed. In good authors a conclusive form is occasionally found before to even when one of the particles enumerated in Rules 1. and II. precedes the verb. This construction appears somewhat abnormal, and is no doubt traceable to a notion that "/0" governs the verb before it in the conclusive form,

~\,NTAX.

Example :Kane 110010 ni

At the sound of the bell, Hath day now broken?" 1111(/ J'll akclllt 10 (oJllollile). (thought I). ,Vt/gt/lllllrebil When I looked out, the cloud .Vm:.vo k1lll1O JII!':t/slu'of night was still deep over .lIllie 110 shirt/yuki. the white snow of the mountain-peaks. \ here 10 is not the mark of quotation, as in 10 11/0, the verb preceding it is unaffected by the particles in the clause with which it terminates. Example:AS(lstI koso Even though men should see H ilo 1M 11/iru 10 mo. its shallownes . RULE V. Ya at the end of a clause does not affect the form of the verb or adjective which precedes, but at the end of a dependent clause, it governs the verb or adjective of the principal clause in the attributive form. Examples:Hototogisu Can I hear the err of the Kouoha gal"" re 110 l/otologis:J. hidden among Kolle lin kiko)1IIyn ? the leaves of the trees? Kurenai 1Ii My sleeves that once hung Shi~i/ol'eshi sode 1110 down scarlet are now Kuchi hatenn-sutterly decayed-if only A rabayn hilo tit' their former colour re11'0 1110 misubeki. mained, there i one to whom J would show it. Rut.i: VI. Kn, kmltl, and ::;0,at the end of a sentence, gO\'ern the verb or adjective which precedes in the attributive form."
are equivalent

In these cases the verb or adjective is re-Illy n nO\lI1, /"( and 'k,m<l to ru la, aru 1:"1/((, and the verb aru is understood after ;0.

SYNTAX.

179

Is there (or) is there not? II'igori IIi I,'{I/Io lIIihef//i :;0. In the muddy water my face cannot be seen. I n poetry, sentences are often met with which do not end in a verb or adjective in the conclusive form, notwithstanding that they contain none of the particles enumerated in Rules I. and II. These cases will generally fall under one of the following heads. (a) An inversion of the ordinary construction has taken place, a in the examples quoted above, p. 171. (b) A verb or adjective is understood which may be supplied from the context. Examples :Told shimnn The mountain which knows J 'anra 11(1 Ftlji 110 lie. not time IS the peak of Fuji. Here uari is to be supplied after 11e. A rataura 110 The thing which is more Tosld /(lcltikaltel'u excellent than the mom of As/uta yon the new year when it comes 1Ilas(lrltru mono ha round again is the note of Uguhis 1/0 kohe. the uguisu. Nari is again to be supplied at the end of this sentence. Aki lzagi IIi If I might only take hold 01 Nillolzeru waga 1110 the towing. rope of thy Nureun /0 1110 boat, (I care not) even l(illli g(l mifun 110 though I wet my garments Tsuna slzi tori leba steeped in the odour of the autumn hagi. In this sentence there is an inversion of the ordinary construction, and some such word as ktllll(llulZU, " I care not," has to be supplied.
Am 1.,/:
I/(I/';i /.:(1?

180

. YNTAX.

It is none other than the sound of the bell of dayKiko)f/t lIaredawn that we hear-if we K ore tuo iri-nlri to could only fancy that it ourolramasl: iA'aba. was that of night-fall (it would bc pica ant). (c) The whole sentence has the force of an exclamation. Examples :TollOlm areba If thou were far from me, Wabi te 1110 aru woI might wait in patience, Sato dlikaku but Cwo) Oh! the helpless A ri to Idld tsutsu misery of not seeing thee .il/hlll ga subenasa ! while hearing that thou art near my dwellingplace! Whilst putting on my clothes F1t17l yuki 110 .illfi 110 shiro-goromo white as the falling snow. Uclti-ki tsutsti (imagine) my surprise Hartl ki ni ken" to to find that spring had Odorokarennru ! come! Idaure ka has/Ii to I inquire, Where is the bridge? But alas! no answer! Tohedo kOla//C1111 ! These sentences are not statements of fact; they merely picture to the mind a state of things without making any assertion respecting it. A kalsllki 110 K aile 110 !.'ol,ekoso
OTIIER RULES OF SYNTAX.

1. \Vhen a suffix is common to a number of nouns it i~ placed after the last only. Examplcs:Oya kitJdai mohO wo sutete To run away abandoning 1I;gIlYU. one's parents, brother and sister and wife,

S\'NTAX,

18r

I r. When an inflection is common to two or more inflected words, it is put with the last of the series only, all which precede being put in the adverbial form, Examples:Ayaslliku urtauaslr iku medeInki mono uari. Kate wo 101';, Ilnynku tsutsnute. Chi sake, )Inllln odu-iri, kahn snknsh;lIIn ni 1Zngnru.

I t is a wonderful, graceful, and beautiful object. Take the provisions, and make them into a parcel quickly, The earth gapes, mountains collapse, and rivers flow backwards.

Here sake and odu-iri are adverbial forms put instead of the conclusive forms snktt and odu-ir, the last verb only of the series, viz., 1lngal'II, retaining the inflection of the conclusive form.
Dorognlul ni s/~$urlt lin nt/lit nknku, abura ohoslzi.

Keltnsltiku

laknki lokoro.

As to those which are produced in muddy streams, their flesh is red and their fat plentiful. A steep and high place.

In this phrase, both kelwslzilm and tnknki are epithets of tokoro, but, by the rule above stated, only the last-viz., tnknki - takes the appropriate inflection, i:e., that of the attributive form. Exception. If two adjectives qualify different parts of the same noun, both are put in the attributive form, as in the example Yltkiki 1/0 mono tnkaki iyasltiki zoo ilwzu,yobiatsnum, He called together the passers-by without respect of highness or lowness of rank." III. Adjectives used as interjections are placed in the root form.

182

SYNTAX.

Examplcs r=How miserable I A na k(1l1(1slii .' How lamentable! ;"-mif1slti ua t How lamentable! Ajikillfl )1(1 ! H ow tiresome! I . There are no grammatical forms to distinguish indirect from direct narration. A speech is reported without any change further than the addition of the particle to, " that." Thus the speech ware Ita s/drac, I do not know," if repeated by another person is repeated without change, as, for instance, umre Ill! slurasn to mafusu, " He said he did not know." V. An interrogative at the beginning of a sentence is accompanied by lsa, not ya, at the end. This rule is often disregarded by modern writers. VI. The nominative case is often placed absolutely, t.c., without a verb. Ex.: Okilla 1IIiko ni urafusu. )''', "The manner of the speech of the old man to the Prince." VI I. The genitive case sometimes dispenses with the particles no or ga, as hototogis /':OIIC, " The cry of the hototogisu." VII I. The particle til, " and," is often omittccl, as asn ynf, " morning and evening."
A 11(1It
.'

KEN-YO-GEN.

The ken-)'o-gm is a species of pun. An example in English is found in Thackeray's novel The Netucomes where he speaks of the teapot presented to Mr. Honeyman by the devotees attending his chapel as the "devoteapot." Here the syllable" tea" stands at the same time for the last syllable of "devotec " and the first syllable of "teapot." This is a very common ornament of style, not only in poetry, but in the more adorned passages of prose compositions, The severer taste of the old classical authors rejects the klll-yu-gen. It is seldom found in the 1I[m'Y{7shiu. Ex.: fl.-itaki kokoclli 1/{llm balmri, "Ha\"ing no desire to

SYNTAX.

live, and dolnz nothing but weep." Here nakn must be taken twice. The first time it is the negative adverb" not," the second it is the verb" to weep." Namida 110 kawakll ma 1110lIaki-ktl1'as1f, She spent her time in weeping, there being no interval in which her tears might dry." In this sentence uale, not," must be supplied from tmki, the root of uakn, to weep." Vo no naka wo 0 village of Ohohara ! Stilt S01lluki 11i to te Ita there are many sorrows for !\os!tikadcmo me, though I have come Naito uki kola Ita hither to avoid the world.
Oho-hara 110sato.

In the last example oltoslli, many," has to be supplied from Ohotrara, the name of a village.

CHAP fER
PROSODY.

X.

Metre. Japanese poetry has neither rhyme, assonance, nor quantity. It is not marked by a regular succession of accented syllables, as in English, and is only distinguished from prose by metre. Broadly speaking, all Japanese metre consists in the alternation or mixture of feet, or rather lines (1iJ) of five and seven syllables. Lines of three, four, six, and eight syllables may be found in the oldest poetry, and in modern popular verse the metre is far from regular, but these variations are not intentional, and in singing or chanting, the proper length of the lines is preserved. There is no Japanese metre into which lines of other than five and seven syllables are regularly admitted. Each kana counts as a syllable, including 1: final, which was originally 11m, and is not unfrequently written so in poetry. Chinese words are not admissible in classical poetry, but in the modern popular poetry, where Chinese words do occur, the same rule holds good. R5koku (, ~ '9 ;>: 1') for instance counts as five syllables, bOIZ1l0 ( :.-' T '9) as four. The end of a line must also be the end of a word. Tanka or lIli/ika-uta, i.e., "short poetry," so called to distinguish it from nagn-nta, or "long poetry," is by far the commonest Japanese metre, and when the general term uta is used, it is this metre which is commonly meant. It consists of five lines of live, seven, five, seven and seven syllables, or thirty-one syllables in all. There is a pause between the third and fourth lines, the former part being called the kam 110[:It, the latter the s/iisno no ku. This division usually coincides with a break in the sense.

PROSODY.

Each verse of thirty-one syllables is an entire poem. Examples of lallka ;THH ~(OON.

Nttba/a1lla uo

Yo umtaru Isltki wo Omoslaromi- ~V aga wont sode ni Tsuy so on ni Eeru.


Wag' i1ll0/ 0 ga A /':a-1IIo110SltSO 1/0 Hidzuc/li nan Kefu 1/0 kosallle ni Ware sahe nure na.
LEAVING

Whilst enjoying the sight of the moon eros ing the dark night - On the sleeves of me waiting, there has descended the dew. Let me too be drenched with the fine rain of to-day, which is doubtless wetting the skirts of my love's crimson raiment.
HO'IR..

LOVE IN A SUowF.R.

Idele it/aba NtiS/Ii tla!.:iyaM to

Narinu to mo, Nokiba 110 1111t1JU yo H ant wo tuasuruna.

"'hen I am gone, Though my dwelling' become tenantless, Do not thou, 0 plum-tree by the eaves! forget the spring.

Renea is where one person composes part (commonly the second part) of a tanka, the remainder being added by some one else. Kio/.:a, or" mad poetry," is a modem and vulgar kind of poetry, composed in the old classical metres, especially tanka. It differs from classical poetry by admitting words of Chinese derivation, and in being much less choice in its diction and subject-matter. It will be seen from the following examples that it deals largely in punning and plays upon words :o 2

186
Kalutriyi' 10 Tag-aid 1Ii kilalle A ki-d::;uclzi 110 S 11 he ha flligo 110 -fit to so na YlI.

PROSODY.
1.0\'.; t~ A SMITH\'.

F,'

The pair of sledge-hammers having tempered each other to eternal constancy, become at last the bellows' puff-puff, { husband and wife.

There is here a pun on fii-fu, which is an onomatopoetic word for the puffing sound of bellows, and may also mean husband and wife."
I~ MY LOVE THE THUNDERcon.

MisollllsllYU Hito 1m jiu kl~ ka Hatata kallli Nariiura santa ka Hiean Genji ka ?

Is the man whom 10\'e nineteen or twenty? Or the Thunder-God? Or is he Narihira, or Hikaru (bright) Genji ?

From luuata kami, "the Thunder-God," there is understood Itatachi Na, " Is he twenty? " Narihira and Ge1!Ji' are names of beautiful youths, as we might say Apollo or Adonis. Kami-nari (end of third line and beginning of fourth) also means" thunder," and Hikaru, one of the names of GeIlJi', is inserted, because the root of the verb ltik, to be bright," is the second part of the word illabiknri, "lightning."
ARDENT LOVE.

Alfollo omoheoa,

Kaha 110 kanabi 1110 lYag-a mi yon' Pon 10 idetaru Tall/a ya to so mini.

Thinking of my 10\'e, the \"ery fire-works over the river seem as if they were bans issuing with a bang from my own body.

Nag-a-uta or cllo-ka, i.e., long poetry." commonest classical metre is Ilag-a-uta.

Next to tanka, the Some of the best poetry which Japan has produced is in this metre. It con-

PROSODY.

sists of a series of couplets of lines of five and seven syllables, the end of the poem being marked by an additional line of seven syllables, thus :-

-----1------Two additional lines of seven syllables are sometimes found instead of one. The following specimen of 1lf1ga-uta is from the M (m)/us/lilt (vol. vi. fol. 55, of Riakuge edition).
1:-; PRAISE OF THE PALACE 01; FU1'A(;I.

~Vaga o/tOkillli 1 kallli no 1IIikoi0 no, Takashirasu 1 Ftttagi 110miya ha, lJIl01ll0ki nasu 1 ya1lla 1m kodakaslzi, { Ocld-tagitse: 1 se IlO'10 1ItOkiyosM: Ug1tllim 110I ki-ttakll Itambe ha, Iha/tO ni Ita I yallla-shita lzikaru, { Nishiki nasu 1 hana saki zootoori ; Sa woslzika ItO I tsuma yobtt aki ha, A 1Jzagirafit 1 stiigur ~IJO itami, { SmJidzttrafiz I 1I101Illj"i chiri-tsutStl, Yacki lose IIi I are-tsngashi-tsutsu, A ute no slti/a I shirasltilllesan 1011-101110 yo Iii 1110I kaltaYttbekaYa1m Ollomiya-dokoro.

By the palace of Futagi, Where our great King And divine lord Holds high rule,

188

"ROSQO\".

Gentle is the rise of the hills, Hearing hundreds of trees, Pleasant is the murmur of the rapids, As downward they rush: So long as in the spring-time, (When the nightingale comes and sings) On the rocks Brocade-like Rowers blossom, Brightening the mountain-foot; So long as in the autumn (When the stag calls to his mate) The red leaves fall hither and thither Wounded by the showersThe heaven beclouding, For many thousand years May his life be prolonged To rule over all under heaven In the great palace Destined to remain unchanged For hundreds of ages. Hanka or kallCshi-lIta. The uaga-uta is usually followed by one or more ta1/ka of the ordinary length of thirty-one syllables. These are called haul:. They sometimes contain the principal idea of the poem which precedes in a short, pithy form, and are at others employed as a sort of poetical save-all to utilize any scrap of imagery which it has been inconvenient to include in the llaga-uta itself. The fraga-uta quoted above is followed by five IZallka, the first of which will serve as a specimen :-

PRO ODY,

\Vhen the flowing waters of the rapids of the river Idzumi fail-then, and not till then, may our great palace uffer change! The !tanka is occasionally not a tanea, but a sedok(l. SetMka con sists of six lines, of five, seven, seven, five, seven, and seven syllables (5, 7,7, 5, 7, 7), i.e., it is a tmzka with an additional line of seven syllables inserted between the second and third lines. The pause in setMk(l is after the third line. It is a characteristic of this metre that the last line usually contains a repetition of some word or phra e in the earlie: lines, Examples of sedoka:Id::;ulIlig(lita } 'uk" se 110 mids no Ta/teba kosoOhollliy(l.dokoro Utsuro/u-yneorne !
LOVE If\; ABSENCE.

I k/!1lobe 110 1Vo-deuki

110

S/li1U1

mota

110

na

kari so

ne

Sore wo dani
Kiwi ga katallli 1Ii Mi tsutsu shiwlball.
1'lTV

Oh! cut not the bamboo grass at the foot of the little elm tree by the pond side. If naught else is left to me, [ would bear (my loneliness) looking upon it as a memento of thee.
FOR 1'HF. I.AUOVREJil.

1 pity thee that thou becomest weary in the ricefield even on this spring day; (I pity thee) that, having no youthful spouse, thou becomest weary in the rice-field, I-Iokku, as its name indicates, is the first part of a verse of tfllzk(l. It consists of three lines of five, seven, and five syllables, or seventeen syllables in all. The modern varieties
H(11'11hi sura Ta l1i tflChitsukam Kimi Iza kall(lslti 11101Vaka kusa 110 Tsuma nai: i kimi Ta ,Ii /ac/titsukam.

190

PROSODY.

of poetry known as haikwai uta and seuriu are chiefly composed in this metre, although the number of syllables is occasionally exceeded. As in the case of tanka, each Ilokku is an entire poem. Examples of hokku :.UJI CO:<CEAI.ED 1:< A MIST.

Kin' 1/0 ~t1lli Idt:uko lie Fuji ha Shid::lIlIli 11111'11 f Hito 1Ii koso Toshi ha yon unre H ant 110 kusa ! YII/lldlldli r T a suo mi-megnri Knmi narnba.

Into a sea of mist whither hath Mt, Fuji sunk?


01.0 "''';.

It is only man who becomes aged, Oh thou grass of spring!


THE ~U~lMF.R SHOWER.

Oh l if the summer shower no were only a god who should make his round of visits to the rice-fields. The last verse is an acrostic on the word )ill/aka, wealth" or" prosperity."
IRREGULAR VERSE.

The four kinds of metre described above are the only regular metres known in ] apanese poetry. To the first three of these, viz., tanka, 1laga-uta, and sedoka, belongs all poetry recognized as classical. The admirers of haikwai uta claim for it a quasi-classical character; but it is objected, with much reason, that nothing which deserves the name of poetry can wert be contained in the narrow compass of a verse of seventeen syllables. There remains a large quantity of popular poetry which cannot be reduced to any regular metre. It is, however, distinguishable from prose by a more or less regular alternation of lines of five and seven syllables. The character of the

PROSODY.

versification of some of the principal varieties will be een from the following specimens. Saioara is a kind of popular lyrical poetry of considerable antiquity. The following drinking-song may be gIVen as a specimen :7 Sake wo taubete Drinking sake, Drinking till we're drunken, 5 Tabe-yerae 7 lil1lto korin ::;0(ya /) Then let 115 be right sober! 5 .A[alltickllnt As we come along Steady! no staggering! 7 Na YOl'obohi SO S lI-fmldekllnt As we come along Tanna tauna With our tanna tanna TIWZya rauna Tariya ranna Tan" chin' ra, Tari chiri ra, Ya, in the third line, is an interjection, which in this kind of poetry does not count in the metre. . Ka/J'IIm i also of considerable antiquity. As it name indicates, it was sung at the Shinto festivals. \ Vhat is now known as ka/Jum is dancing only, unaccompanied with singing.
OOATSOl<C.

I.

S
7 5

7 7
7

Sliiuagntori It/a 110 minato tti (ili;;o /) It'll fun 110 KlIji yoku lIIakase; F'l1Ie katabukll1ulFune katabllk1l1ltl,
II,

Manage well the helm of the boat in the grebe-haunted harbour of Ina. Let her not heel over, Let her not heel over, ~Iy young wife Is on board, And I too am on board; Let her not heel over, Let her not heel over,

5 7 7
7

Wakakusa

(ya /) Imo 1110uoritari (ya /) (~izo /) IVal'e 1110 noritari (YlIl); Fnne katabllk1l1la ! Fuue katabukulIa,
no

PROSO()Y.

It will be cen that, if stripped of interjections and repetitions, the first of these stanzas is aver e of taulca, and the second a verse of tallkn wanting the third line. A large proportion of ktlgll ra are tani: more or less disguised in this Japanese dramatic works are composed partir in prose and partly in verse. The speeches of the dramatis persoll!, which are declaimed by the actors on the stage, are in prose, but these are always connected by a thread of narrarive (as was, to some extent, the case in the older English drama) which is in verse and is chanted by a chorus. It is this latter part which is termed ntahi. The Japanese have two kinds of drama, the more ancient of which is called 1115. The 110 are short dramatic sketches, mostly of a religious character, and occupy a position in Japanese dramatic literature corresponding to that held by the" mysteries" in Europe. The following- pccimen of this kind of poetry is taken from a 110 called ffakllrn!.:ufclI. The principal personage having announced that he has been commissioned by the Emperor of China to spy out the intelligence of the inhabitants of Japan, the chorus strikes in and thus describes his voyage:7 S S
4 way. Utah].

Fune kogi-idde
Hi no tuoto 110 Hi 110 111010 110 Sonata no

7 S 7

Kiwi
Naill

WO

tadznne.
110
1ll'

Tdkai
Yuku

5 5
7

iji 1mrtf ka

fuue 110 Yuktfune 110

A to ni trn Iti Krona

110

5
7

Kage uokor
110Iltl"'lc no

Oaring forth his ship, He would visit the land Of the quarter Of the rising of the sun, Of the rising of the sun. As she sails, As site sails Far over the wave-path Of the Eastern sea, Behind her sets the sun, O'er her is the void of heaven \Vhere the cloud-banners

PROSO~Y.

193

Are still bright with his radianceAnd now the moon comes 7 Tsulsi uuua idxur forth; S SOl/ilia yori On the same quarter 7 Yall/a nuhesouretc Mountains are first descried; S Hodo 1/10lIaku Ere long 8 Nippoll I/O chi IIi 1Jl0 Even at the land of Japan, S Tsuki IIi keri, He hath arrived, 5 TSllki J/i kel'l. He hath arrived. The following specimen of utahi is from a modern play called Ishikawa Goyemon.' It is a description of the preparations for boiling alive the celebrated robber of that name. 7 Shio/':i 'N) btlsho Ita The place of execution is the 7 Sldclzi j6 gnhara ; bed of the river (Kamo) in 7 Ni eM )10 M ni the seventh division (of 7 Kaki Ylllzi-mtlhashi, Kioto}: for 240 yards 7 {fehi I/i tntctar on a II sides a fence has 1\'1/ kimi 110 yari-i6 been tied around: within. l\mznlte I/i sli/lCs/zi the upright spears with 7 Oko-gniua Ita naked points, and the S 7 jigoklt 110 scme wo great caldron mounted on S Kono yo kam an iron tripod! Clearing 7 1Ilfi IIi atsnmarislri his way before him through 7 Cwgi'l/ 1tO 1/aka the multitude which has 7 Saki 'WO harafute assembled to see from this 7 Hayano YatU/i world the tortures of hell, 7 lwaki T6111fl 1110 comes Hayano Yatoji. 5 A hi-yaku ni Along with him Iwaki 7 lhi-tsukeraretc Toma, appointed to be his Zeni "ak" 11/0 colleague, reluctantly takes S SMgi ni knlmne his seat on a camp stool. 7 A to yori 11/0 From behind them Hiobu, S
A 1IIa tsu
SOl'(/.C

194 7 Oya no Hi6bu hn 6 Koleoro IJIOsora 8 Kanahanu nagnra

PROSODY.

the (culprit's) father with heart empty of hope, fruit1110 less though he feels it, Tachi lIIukahi. standing forth opposite. 5 (Here follows Hiobu's speech in prose.] The following is a specimen of the popular lyrical poetry of the present day:I.

5
7

Afu
YUille

10

lJIislli

ha IIIll1ltlslliku;

Samete mala 7 Tsuraki Ii/SllISIl 110 7 Omolt;!e 111;11110 5 Fusatsidemo

Vami

110

IlClli.

7 H on 11ikokoro no J Ynrueata uto nnyn ! J DOll de aharenu 5 Uki-yo nara

Vain has been the dream In which I thought that we met; Awake, I find myself again I n the darkness Of the wretched reality. Whether I try to hope Or give way to gloomy thought Truly for my heart There is no relief!
II.

If this is such a miserable world that I may not meet thee, 7 Miyama I/O oku no Oh! let me take up my abode 5 S0110 oku 110 Deep in the far mountains 7 Zntsuto 110 oku ui And deeper still 5 Sumahi sidle, In their furthest depths, 7 Hito-me olllohade Where, careless of men's gaze, 7 Mono olllohilaya. J may think of m)' love, It will be observed that the metre of the above differs only slightly from nagn-uta.
ELISION.

In Japanese poetry, elision may consist either in dropping

PROSO!)Y.

195

the final vowel of a word before the initial vowel of the next, or in taking away the first vowel of a word after the final vowel of the one preceding. Thus we have wag'i1ll0ko for wa.ga-illlol.:o, but kikanll Itt' /II(lIIelm for kika1l11 Iii amaueisu, Elision is optional, except when two vowels come together in different parts of a compound, in which case it is compulsory. For instance, nudsu-taui, " a lake," can never count as four syllables in poetry. It must be read mid:! urni. Elisions arc sometimes expressed in writing, but oftener they are left to the discrimination of the reader. The vowel e cannot be elided. Tsuik, i.c., opposite or corresponding lines. This is a frequent ornament of Japanese naga-uta. It consists of a parallelism of meaning or construction in two consecutive or sometimes alternate lines or stanzas. Hebrew and Chinese poetry afford numerous examples of it, and even in English poetry it is not unfrequcntly met with. The following lines from Longfellow's' Hiawatha' are ISI/ilm :" Ye who love the haunt of nature, ( Love the sunshine of the meadow, L Love the shadow of the forest "and again;" Filled the marshes full of wildfowl, { Filled the river full of fishes." A more elaborate kind of parallelism is exemplified In the poem entitled 'Seaweed,' by the same author. The following example is from the 1wgfl-ula in the 1I1fl1lyoshilt :-. lIIiyoshi1llt 110I lIfikf1111! 110Iflke lli Hima ltaku :::0I ant Ita ftlm tofit (for to ifit) { Tokijiku :::0i )luki Ita furu tofit { Sona ame 110 I himfl 1Iak; ga goto { 50110J,uki 110I tokijikll ga golo Hima 1Il0 ochia I zuare ha :::0 kofuru Imoga ladaka 11i.
CONSTANT 1..0\'.1.

PROSODY.

On the peak of Mikane in l\Iiyoshinu, It is said that the rain falls unceasingly, { It is said that the snow is ever falling: { Like that rain which never ceases, { Like that snow that is ever falling, Without intermission do J long For thy charms.
MAKURA-KOTOBA.

il/n/mrn-kotob'l, called also knlllllri-A'otoba or oHoshi-kotob", are a peculiar feature of Japanese poetry. The)' are om amental epithets or phrases resembling in some degree the Homeric epithets of persons and places, but of a still more conventional character. Each lIIakura-!':otoba is prefixed to a few words or phrases only, and, on the other hand, the number of lI/a/l'1Irn-kotobn which can be applied to the same words seldom exceeds three or four. What marks even more plainly their conventional character is the circumstance that when a word to which a lIIn/..um-kotoba belongs has several meanings or applications the malcura-kotoba may be applied to it in all, however meaningless or inappropriate it may be. Isanadori, whale-catching," for instance, is an epithet of 1IIIIi," the sea"; but it is also freely applied to inland lakes, such as the lake of Omi (Lake Biwa), where, of course, no whales are to be found. In very many cases the word to which the makurakotoba belongs must be taken in one sense with it, and in another with the rest of the sentence. This is the figure already described under the name KC1Iyogm. [See p. 182.] Thus, in a poem about the town of Akashi it has the epithet tomoslabi 110,of the light," because akash; also means to throw light upon." lI-Inkllm-kotoba are not invariably of the nature of adjectives. Some are the direct or indirect complements of verbs prefixed to them as a sort of ornamental introduction. In Into ga me zoo lJlisollle 110saki, the makura-

PRO ODY.

197

thine eyes," is the accusative case governed by the verb misome, " to see for the first time," which is to be supplied from l~isol/le no snki," ape Misome." Makura-koloba almost invariably consist of five syllables, and even when they are of three, four, or six, as is sometimes the case, they always constitute the first line in tanka, or the first line of a couplet in uagn-uta. The 1Ilakum-kotoba are one of the principal difficulties of the old poetry. They are in many cases remnants of the form of the language which existed prior to any written literature, and their derivation, meaning, and grammatical construction are often obscure." Examples of I/lakllra-kotoba :Nubalama 110 )'0. Black night. [KlIbatallltl is the name of a black berry.] lite ISII dori kake. The bird of the house, the cock. Aslti ga dtirtt Nmlilta. Naniwa, where the reeds are scattered. 11110 ga te wo Toroshi 110 ike. The pond of f~~::: ..my love's hand. ~Vilg'iIllOko 111 Altaji no The island of {~:::": "'ee , my shium. love. In the last two examples Toroski and A/mji are kcn-yo-gm. From Toroski is understood toru, to take," and Altaji, besides being the name of a place, also means" I shall not meet," Ahajirna no aharedo. Untranslatable. Here the first two syllables of a/laredo, "though I meet," suggest A/lllJi'lIIa, the name of an island, which is accordingly installed as a 1IIaku1'(l-koloba without the slighte t regard to meaning.
kotobll, imo ga me
1110,

The student of japanese poetry is recommended to provide himself with the dictionary of 1J,n.k,wa-koloba called Kafljik6, and its supplement, K anjisokudlO.

PI,OSOD\'.

My love, whose charms are bright as the kelna. KaA'ilsllbtlltl My love, whose charms arc Niholu1"U ;1110. bright as the iris. No, as in the first of these examples, often means like" in 1Ilnkum-koloba, and i_ often omitted, as in the second example. IVada 110sot The depths of the open sea Oki ISItjltkami. - of the bottom of the ocean. Ararcfuri The hail is falling - Cape Kashima. Kasluuta 110saki. A rare furi is brought in here as a makura-kotooa, not in the least because Cape Kashima is noted for hail-storms, but because Kashima suggests kashilllaslliki, noisy," which is a good epithet for a hail-storm. Ordinary syntax would have required arare furu, JOkll, or introductory verse," is a more extended kind of
}'a1lltlbllki 110

Niholleru

imo

11ItlkuYIl-kotoba.

Example:A dsusa YUllli

1Il0chile ill[ asurntuo 110 I satsuya tabasruui Taclli1llukafi' I Takn-mato-yama IIi Hartt Il11yala, &c.

! It! IIi tori

The spring-moors are burning on the hill of High-target, opposite which one stands with adzusa bow in hand and the warrior's trusty arrows. Here the poem really begins at Talsa-mato-yarua; all that precedes being only an epithet of malo, target," taken from the name of the mountain.

APPENDIX

SPECIIVIE

S OF JAPANESE.

I. PROSE PASSAGE FROM' KO]IKI.' II. POETRY FROM KO]IKI.'

Ill. POEM FROM' MA Y()SH IU.'

IV. PASSAGE FROM 'TAKETORI V. PA SAGE FROM 'TAMA VI. PASSAGE FROM' HAKKE VII. MEMORIAL. VIII. OFFICIAL IX. PRIVATE LETTER. LETTER.

MO lOGATARI.'

TO ARARE.' DEN.'

!'>I'ECI ME 'S vI'

JAI'o\l\ESE.

r.
VERSION IN ROMA ' l.ETTER ..

110 111ikoi07110ahi-lJli1JUlkU;1 01Jlo/loshile, Y01llO tsn kU/ti" 11i ohi-ide1llas/111d.' Sll1Inltndli touoda .1'01'1'ide - 1Il11knht: - 111nSIItoki 111: / ::nll(7gi 110 1IIikoio /.:alarn/li-Iflllla/Iflkll. "Utsu/.:tts/tiki6 agn 1 '/ani1ll0S 1101IIi/';0(0: are 9 mil/wshi!ll to Isukllre1'ishi II kll1li imada tsukll1'i-walte:::u areoa, 1."lllieri-lIInsane" to 110ri-talllnhiki.12 Koi 11i [cananri 110 1IIikol(1 lIlawoshi-Ia1l1ahakll. "](uya-sltiki kn 1110. Toen ki1llasa:::lllc, a ha Yomi tsu /,egtt/ti ,:I sldlsu." S/Iikaredolllo 1l1Sllklls/Iiki a ga uase ,., 110 1IIik% iri-ld-111aSel'71k% /.:ashiko/.:creba, />4/,c1'i1lallWO,'" 1IInd::1IIsubara/.:a 11i Y01ll0 tS1t /.:allli 10 age/sura/wlIlII. A 17 wo na 1IIi rama/nso." /(nku 1IInwoslltle SOIlO /0110 11ltchilb 11i kahr1'i-iri-1IIaserli hodo i/o hisashilm tc, 1I1nchi-Imlle-tall1ahiki. Kare In'dari no mi-midzura 19 1Ii 20 snsaseru J'lItsu tsuma-gusla" no zuo-baslurn Z2 hito/stt 1017.'A;aRile, hito/slt-bi tomoshite, iri-mimasu toki 1Ii, tt.fi taknre 1(l1'orogile,XI mi-kashira 1Ii Ita ollO-ikadcttclti zuori, 111i-1II1111C 1Ii Ilfl II01I1)-ikad:::/lc/li won', uri-h ara 1Ii 1m ku1'o-iknd:;udli zoori, uri-hodo ni IUl saktt-ikndzlIchi toori, hidari 110 mi-te l1i /Ia wrlki-ilmdzudli won, migi1'i 110 mi-te 1Ii ha Isuclli-ikad:::uclti soon, ILZ'dari 110 ini-ashi ni /UI naru-ileadzuc/ri won; migiri 2. 110 mi-asla 11i Iia /llslli-ikadzuchi wort, ahasete ya-eusa 1lO i/.:adzllcki-gallli uari 'Woriki.
TRANSLATION.

Koi: 1It S01l0 i1ll0' /znllnmi2

Hereupon (the god Izanagi) wishing to see face to face his wife the goddess Izanami, went after her to the country of Yomi. So when she came out to meet him from the palace-door, the god Izanagi thus addressed her and said: " My dear wife! the country which thou and I have made is not yet finished; therefore come back." Hereupon the goddess Izanarni said: How lamentable! By thy not having
H

VI

SPE DIENS

OF }APANES1::.

come sooner, I have eaten of the cooking-pots of Yomi, Nevertheless, as I reverence the having entered here of thee, my beloved husband, I will return. But I will in the first place discuss it fully with the god of Yorni. Do not thou look upon me:' Having thus spoken, she returned within her palace, but her stay being very long, he was unable t wait. He broke off one of the end-teeth of the many and close-toothed comb which was stuck in the left bunch of his hair and making a light, he entered and looked. Maggots had bred and she was putrefying. On her head there sat the great-thunder; on her breast, the fire-thunder; on her belly, the' black-thunder; on her groin, the cleaving-thunder; on her left hand, the young-thunder; 011 her right hand, the earth-thunder; on her left foot, the rumbling-thunder; on her right foot, the lying-thunder. In all, eight kinds of thunder-gods had been produced and were there.

NO,."".
This is an extract from the Kojiki, one of the oldest monuments of Japanese literature. Its value to the student of the language is, however, much lessened by the fact that it has been written in Chinese character. in such a way as to render the original Japanese words extremely difficult to ascertain. Motowori's attempt to restore the Japanese as it was read is shown in the "",,,ko1la to the right of the Chinese characters, but there arc many places where his version cannot possibly be correct, and it is impossible to accept it unreservedly as genuine Japanese of the period when the Kojiki was written. It will be observed that the Chinese order of the sentences is followed in the original text. Nearly all the Chinese characters in this work are m0110, i.c., they have an ideographic value, the principal exceptions being proper names, lines of poetry, and words for which the writer apparently could find no convenient Chinese equivalent. I 111/0 means in the old literature either younger sister or \\ ife. It contains the root 1110, "woman." ~ Ieanant], The chara rers for this word are kon<l.-3 ,ifill/Mil, "the seeing." /I[I"",/m is a noun governed in the accusative case by Olllfl/WS/titc.-' Yomo tsu kllll;. TSII is the old genitive particle. YOI/IO or youri, "HlIdcs," probably connected with voru,

SPI:: nlENS

OF JAIANE~E .

vii

night.'- Ide-1IIaslllcki. There is only one Chinese character. viz. (or this. however. represents only ide, and the remainder is a conjecture of Motowori's, The honorific words such as III"SII, lallla/II, 1IIi, &c., and the suffixes are for the most part not in the original, and have been introduced b)' Motowori on his own authorit)'.- UI.fII~'IIsltiH, in the old language, "belo"ed "; in the later language, "Jovely," "pretty."7 Ag, archaic (or 'b./tEgtl.-' NOJ1i1l1o for 1111 110 imo, U thou, 111)' wife," na being an old word for u thol1.n_ti Are, archaic for 1t'II,rl'._1t) J/llllllShi, an old word for" thou."-" Tsnkurcristn, perfect of IS'II~'lIru, "to make," with sIlt; the attributive form of the past particie.-1" To lIon',lamalii H. All this is Motowori's, and is not found in the original. Nol'II is an old word meaning "to sa)'."-" He-gIlM. Motowori says that l,e means "n cooking place." GuM is the root of kll/II, "to eat," with the 1Iigori. "SltilslI. TS/l is the conclusive form of the particle tsuru. There is nothing for it in the original.-I> Nose is the masculine of 1III1Ii1ll0 mentioned above. Sc is "elder brothel'," or "husb.~nc1." The characters for 11t1Se are kana.-I< tVo after kllnerillan is not in the original. Its force is given in the translation by "but.'J_17A, archaic for 'It'/lIre, U 1."

tt.

tt.

IS Nm'/d

IIi

is (or

110 1fchi IIi

_lit

.lfilllitl::uYIl.

Alirf::llrfl

is in Fana.:-:

Yutsu. is for i-ho-tsn, i.c., "five hundred," put here for "a large number." ~1 Tsuma is connected with ISIIIIIY, "to pack c1ose."-~21-Vo-bashir", lit. male-post," the large tooth at the end of the comb.-"U;; fI,i'Q1'~ rororogitc. Apparently the writer wa at a loss how to express thi in Chinese, and consequently had recourse to kana.-'4,1'figiri, archaic for migi.
'lI)

.-----

E:

r:

SI'ECIM EKS 01' JAI'ANESE.

ix

II.
This line of poetry is taken from the Kojiki. It is said to be the earliest example of tanka, and dates probably from the sixth or seventh century A.D. It shows how Japanese was written before the invention of /(alllklllJa and Hiragnna. The Chinese characters used here have all a phonetic value. The Kala/mila are an addition by a later editor.
VERSIOl' I ' ROMAl' LETTERS.

Ya-kulIIO) ratsn : Id~ltlJlo2ya-he-gaki; TsulIIa-gollli3 IIi Ya-!te-gaki ISlIk1lYu,SOIlOya-/l/!-gaki wo !


TRANSLATIOK.

Many clouds arise: On all sides they form a manifold fence: For the husband and wife to retire within They han! formed a manifold fence: Oh! that manifold fence!
Nores, It was the custom in ancient Japan to prepare a special hut (01' the consummation of a marriage, When Susanowo (the Rainstorm (;00) wedded Inada Hime (the Rice-field Goddess) the clouds gathered round on all sides to form such a hut for them. 1 Va is the same root which is also found in yatsn, "eight." It is here put Kenerally for a large number.s-" IdouIIlo. Motowori derives this word as the name of a province from ide-Lnmo, i.e., "the clouds which come forth." Idsumo is really equivalent 10 idzuremo or doremo ; U each," i.e., U On each hand. ,t There is no doubt an allusion to the name of tile province Idzumo.-' Tsuma-gomi. Another reading is LSWlld-f(Ollle, i.e.; the transitive form instead o( tile intransitive. This would mean" to shut up my wife Or the husband and wife in," ISII1JIa being applicable to both sexes in the old language, and not confined to either number.

III.

xv

1v">

1-

IL

xvi

SI'ECDIE:-iS

OF J.\l'ANESE.

III.
VERS(()l\ IN RO'IAN LETTERS.
TH~; L~NEND O~UkASHIM/\,

Haru 110hi 110I k(lsl/lllcrlt /o!.i 111 5Wllillolle 110I kishi IIi ide-ill' Tsnri-bnne IlO I tn)'IIlnjitl lIIireba l11isltilte 110 I k% ::0 omohoyuru. lJlid::lt1l0e 110 I Urashima 11() ko gn KnIS1lU'O' tsuri I Im's tsuri-hokori Nanni: made I ihe ni 1110 ko:;ule Unasaka" uro I s1lgile kogi-J11Ikll lIi" ~Valndzllllli' 11() I kami 110u/otome ni Tamasnka 1/Z' I i-kogi-lIlllkahitc A hi-kagnrahi I kolo narislukaba Kaki-lIIl1sllbi I toko-),o ni itari Watadsutui 11() II.'nllli 110lIIiyn 110 Veld IIl1lie 11() I tnhe narn tono 1/t' Tadsnsaimri I jiltari iri-ite Oi 1110 seeu I Sh,11;1110 secu sllite Tokoshillc ni I arikern mono wo Yo 11() uaka 110I shiretaru Ililo 110 lVng'illloko Iii 1'lOrite kntnralmShilllaral.'u' lin I ihe lIi kaherite Chiclii haha Iii I kOl08 wo 1110 110ra/I/'P A Sit I/O goto I ware lin kil1nl1" to /III'-kerebn I ima gn il((wakllU Tokoyobe Iii I tata kalteri-kitc 11I/a I/OgOlo I alran to naraoa K 01/0 ku.s/lige I /zira/a/Jla )'1I1Ile"10 to 50komkll IIi I katalJlcslii kolo uio 511111i,10;'1' Iii I kahcri-kitarile 1hf' miredo I ilic 11/0mi-kanete Sato miredo I sato 1Il0mi-kanete

5PECIME

'5 OF JAPANESE.

xvii

A Jln.slli 10 I soko 11iomohnlsn Ille )1/1'" detel2 I mitose no hod" IIi Kaki 1Il(} lIflk" I ilte IIsellle'3 ya 10 K01I(}IUlko WO I Ilimkile uuteba Moto 110 goto": I ille Ita aran 10 Tmlla-kllshige I sltkoslti /tirakll ni Shim-kumo 11016 I /In.koyori idete Tokoyobe Iii I Inlln.bikilllm!bn. Tadu-hnshiri, I sn.kebi, sode ./lIri, Kola-umrobi, I ashi-euri shi-tsntsu Tada-mada It; I kokoro-ke usenu IVakak' arislll'l hada 1/10sltiwn1l1i1lll, Kttrok' nrishi I kn.mi IIlOslaralseun YWIn.-J'It1Zn.w hn. I iki sn/leIT taete Noclri tsulri ni I i11Oc/ti sltil1ikent JJlid:;ul1o!reno I Urasluusa 110ko gil IltedokorolS lIliytt.
IIAI'KA.

Tokoyobe m' SUI/Iltbek; mono WO TmYlIgidac/IZ'P Shiga kokoro kam. Osoya r-o kono kimi.
TRANSLATION.

When the days of spring were hazy, I went forth upon the beach of Suminoe, And, as I watched the fishing-boats rock to and fro, I bethought me of the tale of old: (How) Urashima of Midzunoe, Proud of his skill in catching the katsuwo and tai, For seven days not even coming home, Rowed 011 beyond the bounds of the ocean,
Q

XVIII

SPECIMENS OF JAPANJ::S~;.

Where with a daughter of the god of the sea He chanced to meet as he rowed onwards. When with mutual endearments their love had been crowned, They plighted their troths, and went to the immortal land, Where hand-in-hand both entered Into a stately mansion within the precinct Of the palace of the god of the sea, There to remain for everlasting, Never growing old, nor ever dying. But this was the speech which was addressed to his spouse, By the foolish man of this world., For a little while I would return home, And speak to my father and my mother: To-morrow I will come back." When he had said so, this was the speech of his spouse" If thou art to return again to the immortal land And live with me as now, Open not this casket at aIL" Much did she impress this on him, But he, having returned to Surninoe, Though he looked for his house, No house could he see: Though he looked for his native village, No village could he see. "This is strange," said he ; thereupon this was his thoughtIn the space of three years since I came forth from my home, Can the house have vanished, without even the fence (being left) ? If I opened this casket, and saw (the result) Should my house exist as before?" Opening a little the jewel-casket, A white cloud came forth from it And spread away towards the immortal land.

SI'ECDIl~NS

OF

J AI'.\N ESE.

xix

He ran, he shouted, he waved his sleeves, He rolled upon the earth, and ground his feet together. Meanwhile, of a sudden, his vigour decayed and departed: His body that had been young grew wrinkled; His hair, too, that had been black grew white; Also his breath became feebler bye and bye. Afterwards, at last his life departed, And of Urashima of Midzunoe, The dwelling-place I can see.
HAI'KA.

In the immortal land He might have continued to dwell, But of his own natural disposition, How foolish was he, this wight!
'OTES.

The .Ifllllyoshiu, as may be seen from this specimen, is written in mana, with kana intermixed. The Eana are however, much more numerous than in the Kojil";, and there is the additional guide of the metre, SO that there is here some certainty that we have befoi e us the genuine Japanese language of the period. In fact, it is by means of the knowledge of the old language acquired from the Mallyoshiu that ;\1010wori has endeavoured to restore the Japanese version of the Kojiki. Metre.-For the metre of this poem see under Naga.ula, p. 186. I Tayulltju. Another readinz is l()Woraju, a lengthened form of I{)'WOnt, "to pass."-Kalsltwo. The bonito.- Tai, the serranus mflrginalis, a fish greatly prized in Japan as a delicacy.s-" Unasaea, the same as umisalsa, the bounds of ocean," the horizon."-" Sugile kogi:)'uku ni. This line has a syllable tOOmany.-' Watadzumi, for uxua-tsu-umi, tuata being an old word for" sea," and ISIl the genitive particle.-' Shi11larrrlm, old form (or" shibaraku."_8 Koto nearly always means something said in the old languagc.c-> Nora/,,~ a lengthened form instead o( 110ri. _10 YUille, U a dream," J./;'-a/.:UlIa J'U1i1~,"open not even a dream," i.e. not at all. Tsuyu;" dew," is used in the same way.- 11 !he )'Ii. Yll is old Japanese for yori.-I! Dele. The initial i is removed by elision (or the sake of the mctre.-"llstlllc. life is the perfect form of the future suffix 1IIfI. It is not unfrequently found before yn.-"lIfolo noS,rofo. Later Q 2

xx

SI'J:;CB1NS

OF JAPANESE.

j apanese would ha,egolo.(oIl._1S lu"ra.(o,m,o 1(0. The complement to"o is to be supplied from Idluwikitlltreoa, "as there was an extending away of a white cloud," &c._1G J 'una-yuna an adverb, "nightly," connected with )'tJ or J'orll, H night."-IT Salle, "too." This is the original meaning of snltc.-'8Iltc.dokoyo is interpreted by Motowori to mean the ruins of the house. It may perhaps mean his tomb, by a figure not uncommon in Japanese POOIl)'.-" TSlIYllgi.dnd'; is a 1IInkllYdk%ba consisting of two words meaning" sword." I howe not been able to find any sarisfactory explanation of its being prefixed to slti, the reflexive pronoun. -~ Oso ya. OSP is the root of osobt, c: slow," " dull," " foolish."

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IfJ

tk ~ 1

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19

t~

tV~

I)

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I tl.rr~ 1 ~ ~ ~ l{,tJh~~ l
y"\

:>

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~~.
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I

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xxvi

SPE

IMENS

OF JAPANESE,

IV,
VERSION IN ROMAN LETTERS,

OI.-i"(11IIikol m'2 lIla/IISU3)'0,' 11m 1Ifl17t" tokoro IIi kaij ROItO' ki lurS s(if/{mhiken 7' A),ashilmlo lIrt1hashiku medelak,'1 1Il01lQ ni 1Il012 tol3 snafusu. J.I 1I1iko kotahctc Itotamalltlk1t"~ " Saotad(lsltil6 110kisaYtlgil7 110tozuoka goro ni, Naniha yon fune 1Ii norite, umi-,ltllm ni idetel8 yukalllP kala suo sllirtlZl/}i) obohesllikado,'Z1 omofu k% 11arade,'J2 yo IIC uaka ni iki'l3 naniea 11112" se,P" 10 olllollishikaba,2tl tada tllllllasl,iki kaee 11; makasete a17I<II,Z/ Itlochi sltinl1ba,28ikaga ha sen . ikite artllt21'kagil-i,i1fJ kakl/ill arilrite Hortli IQ'J:J i/lI1'1I1jJ-1 )'(1111/1 IIi a/u!WY" ItT'"IIl11im3iJ kogi tadayohi-an'/ale, waga kll1li 110liciti'll wo hanarete ar;kilIIaRm'i sIll'&> IIi, aru toki Ita nami tlretslltslt,~ um; no soko 11; 1110 z,7'lmbekll ;'0 aru loki IIi Iia, kn.::;e IIi tsueete" shirmzu42 krmi Id /lIi:i-yo.rertwete,~ om' 110 yo naru" 1II0noide-kite's korosall'\d to shiki, Ani loki IIi !ta koslzi-kalaH Yllku sillte 1//0shiradf1'8 1ftlli ni 1JIagirell4P 10 slti,50ani toki 11; ha, kate IS1fkite, kusa 110III' WQ ku/ti-lIlono to slzt', aru loki ;lzan"1 kata Ilaku lIlUktttSllgC uaru 11/0110 1/Q'2kite kulti-kakarall to siliki, A ru toki Ita umi 110kai wo torite inochi wo tsugrt. Tabi 110sora 1Ii tasuke-tallta/ubeki ltito 1/10Ilaki tolioro Iii iro-ird" no yalllaizi wo sltite Yllku kata sora 1110 oboheau, fuue 110Yllk/{ III 11IakaselcS'!tllli ni latlayohile illOl,:ti':' to i/If. Tatsu 110koku bakar; ni umi 110naea I,; wadzilka IIi yallia mi),1t.56 Fune 110Tlchi WOS7nats sentete miru. U1ll; no Idle 11i tatlayohertr'08 yama ito ohokiio9 nite an', Sono )'mlla no santa lakakuOj[) lWlfhaslll: Kore ya waga 1Il0tOIllIl1'UU1 yama uaramu to omohite sasugn Iii osorosluku ooohete yallltl 110' lIIe/Jlfri wo sas/li-Illegurflshite /ltfmka 1IIikfl'62 bakari mi-anku ni; ama-ouo no yostlholti sltitat'Utl.1zoomina yama 110 nalsa yon" ide-kile shiro-gaul' 110kmla-/Jiarfl wo lIlochite midc wo kumi" arisn. Kore wo mite, fuue yori 017'fe,' Kouo yaJlla 110Ita wo nani to ka mafus ' to 10/11, HI omiua l.'olalLele ifu-' Kore lut Horni 110yama nari ' to kOla/lt. Kore wo kiku 11i,ureshiki

SPECIMENS

OF JAI'A

'1-:51':.

XXVII

kotfIH ka,t;in' naslu. 'K01lo uiomina kaka 1l0laJJla.fu~ fUT taso ' to tof). IVaga na !lIZ Ht1ka1lruri' to ihi te, futo yam" 11b
nllka 11 iYillll:'~" TRAN LATION.

Thus spoke the old man to the prince: In what manner of place can this tree have been? What a marvellous, graceful, and lovely thing it is!" Thus he spoke, and the prince answered and said: Three years ago, on the tenth day of the second month, we embarked from Naniwa (Osaka). \Vhen we put forth into the mid-ocean, we knew not even the direction in which to go, but as I felt that unless my heart's desire were fulfilled what should r do living in this world, we sailed on, merely trusting our course to the empty winds. If our lives perish, what help is there for it-so long as life remains, sailing on thus, we shall reach, it may be, this mountain called, if we are rightly informed, Horai. With such thoughts we rowed on over the ocean; and tossed about until we left the bounds of our own country far behind us. In the wanderings which we then made, we were at one time like to go down even to the bottom of the sea whilst the waves were raging; at another time, driven by the wind, we were borne to an unknown land, where creatures like devils came forth and endeavourecl to slay us. At one time, knowing neither the way we had come nor the course we ought to follow, we were almost lost upon the sea; at another time our provisions became spent and we used the roots of herbs for food. Once, beings hideous beyond expression came and attempted to devour us, and once we sustainecl life by gathering the shells of the sea. Under a strange sky where there was none to render us aid. we tossed about over the sea a prey to diseases of all kinds, and leaving the ship to her own spontaneous motion, for we knew not at all what course we should follow. At last when five hundred days had passed, about the hour of the dragon (8 A.M.) a mountain became

XXVIII

SI'J::CDIEl\S OF JAPAN ':!:>E.

faintly visible in the midst of the sea. All in the ship looked steadily at it and saw that it was a very great mountain which floated about on the surface of the sea. The appearance of this mountain was lofty and picturesque. Thinking that this was doubtless the mountain of our search, no wonder we were filled with awe. After we had sailed round it for two or three days there came forth from amongst the hills a woman clothed like an inhabitant of heaven, and drew water in a silver vessel, Upon seeing her we landed from the ship, and asked what might be the name of this mountain. The woman replied and said: This is the mountain H6rai.' Our joy at hearing this was unbounded. Vole inquired' Who is the woman who tells us so?' My name is Hokan-uri,' she 'aid, and of a sudden went away in amongst the hills."
NOTES.

This passage is taken from the Tasetori .lfonoglliari, a \\ ork of the -classical age of Japanese literature. , ,Vi"o, a prince," is compounded of the honorific prefix 1fti anel .'0, a child."-2 Ni is the dative suffix.--' .lfa/usu is the attributive 01' adjectival form of the verb IIIl1/USIt(pron. lIlasu), to speak."-< I'D, manner," is a noun in the nominative case, placed absolutely. It is, however, possible to supply some such words as Eore nari after yo. This will be literally" The manner of speech of the old man to the prince was this." Miko ni mafusu is in this sentence an attributive clause qualifying yo. The Japanese language employs attributive clauses exclusively where a European language often prefers n construction involving the use of a relative pronoun. Thus lIIiko ni lIIa/lisu yo might be rendered ill English "The manner i/lTtJhid, he addressed the prince,"-' Nnr, H to be," is here in the attributive form because it qualifies the noun tokoro. I.'" naru toeoro IIi is literally" in a how being place."-6 Ka is the interrogarive particle. It is in this sentence redundant, a question being already implied by the usc of the word il,tl.-' KOllo is the adjectival form of A-ore,th;s."-" HlI is the distinctive or separative particle. It has here the force of concentrating the attention on the word ki.-o Sa!um.hi-ke-lI. Stljitmhi is the adverbial form of the verb tel/11m/II, Co tu be." [See p. 163.] The adverbial form is required before the particle kc. ,,-. is the negative base of the past suffix s;'i. The negative base is required

SPECIMENS

010' JAPANESE.

xxix

which is the conclusive form of the future suffix n Or is literally U will have been." 1(1 Ayltshikll nruha- ,'hikfl IIIrdct"ki 11101/0. 'ote that of the three adjectives qualifyinlr mono, the last only is put in the attributive form, the two which precede beil\g placed in the adverbial form.-" .1fede./akl is derived from me1/,

before

11111. SlIj"rlllti-A'C+1I

deuru, 'to love,' The letter (Ie) is here read de, although there is no mark 10 show thai this is the ase. The lIigori is omitted all through this passage, which is a facsimile of the Japanese printed edition.-12 lIf() has here scarcely any meaning. After 1110 must be understood ari, which with the preceding ni make up nari, the conclusive form of naru, "to be." _13 To i~ a conjunction which may often be translated " that," but which cannot be conveniently rendered in this passage by any English word. It may be considered to be represented by the marks of quotation ' '.u lIfa/IISII, "he said," is redundant, as the same idea has been already expressed in the words mafust above,_15 No/allla/uu", is a poetical substitute for notamafu, a honorific word for mafusu, It is here a noun in the nominative case, placed absolutely _ _ 1Saolo-tfoshi, O/(>-doslti means "the year before last." The addition of sa (for saki, "before") makes it mean another year further back. -" Kisoragi, "the second month." The modern language always uses mi,"IIJa/m, a wore! of Chinese origin. Note in this sentence an example of the rule that clauses indicative of time precede clauses indicative of place.-18 Ide-to. Ide is the adverbial form of idcur, Uto go out."_19 Yuka-7l is yuka., the negative base of yuku, " to go," with the attributive form of the future suffix 11 or 11111.-"" Shirtlf:u is sltira, the negative base of slliru, "to know," with ZII, the adverbial form of the negative suffix 1111. SlIirazu is here an adverb qualifying the verb obohe which follows.-'I Ouone-sltikn-do is ooohc, adverbial form of the verb oboyurn, " to think," "to feel;" $hil. a is the perfect of the past suffix shi; and do is the concessive particle meaning U although." SI,il-ar1l obo!tcsh;Rado is "although we felt ignorant." Note how each particle governs the form which precedes, sltika requiring an adverbial form before it, dt> a perfect, and Zli a negative base.-22 NanrOe is nara; negative base or naru, "to be," with the indeclinable negative suffix de._'llJ IJ:i is the adverbial form of ikiru, "to live."-"' Nanikn hn, Ha after the interrogative suggests a negative answer.~" Se-n is se, the n gative base of the jrregular verb suru, "to do," with the conclusive form 01 the future particle 11,-$ Omohi-shika-ba is OlllOhi, adverbial form of the verb 01llo/u "to think;" sltika, perfect of shi, the past suffix, and ba, a suffix which after perfect forms means cc as". "since,fl or "because."-'27 Ani:" is the conclusive form of the verb ariku or arusu, "to walk," "to go."-

1:

yo

xxx
\\ ith
n._30 btl,

SI'ITDII::-';S

OF ).\I'AI' I:SF.
H

2II,Shilur/Ja is stun, negative base of the

irregular verb shillUllI, to die" a suffix which with this base means "H," __ ~ AIlI'11 is lzra, ncga ..

rive base of aru, "10 be," with the auributive form of the future particle ""gin:, "Iimi!," is the root of the verb kagiru, "10 come 10 an end." II is here a noun. 'H-I,. ara-n kagiri. Lit." the limit of our being alive, i.r. U so long as we remain ali\'e."_'l KtlJ:lI, vulg. /;6, U thus," -"' Horai 10 ifu, called "Hi1rai." To has the force of the inverted commas before and after "Horai."-'" .(/,,-ra-lI. .(/u is the verb "to say," I' to call;" rt.r is for ar", negntivc base of aru, H to be." and II is the future particle which has here a force which is attempted to be rendered in the translation if we are rightly informed!'-'" Afu ya. Afu is the conclusive form. Ya is an interrogative particle, but the question which it pUIS is addressed to the speaker himself, not to another. See the translation.-3$ To. After It> must be understood omolli/e.-"" I-Va-c- ktmi, i.t'. Japan.-'" Velli is literally " the in,;ide.'-- Makan: is probably
an error of the text. The true reading is no doubt mmoari, "to go

about," "to wander." Shi is the attributive form uf the past suffix. It is here a noun, as is seen by its having the particle IIi suffixed. Arikill1awan'shi lIi is in the wanderings we then made!'-3t Tsutsu. The particle tsuts shows that the actions signified by the verbs are and in""lNk,, are regarded as simultaneous.-"'ri.lIu.oeku is iri, adverbial form of '-1'/1, U to enter"; 1111, conclusive form of the suffix IIIIYU, and bel'lI, adverbial form of the suffix bdd. Nil is equal to Ie sltimali of the spoken language, INku has the meaning" probable," and the ki at the end of the sentence must be taken with irimtb~ku as well as with sit,; so that the full translation will be "Were (ki) like 10 (lNkll) enter (iri) utterly (mt)."-" Tsuket. TSllkile (or Intile) is the modern form. -'" Sltira-"It is shira, negative base of sltiru, "to know," followed by the attributive form of the negative particle 1111.-'" FlIl.:i-yourar,I,.. Fllki, adverbial form of fuku, "to blow," is an adverb qualifying J'flse.-nre. Yosemre is the adverbial form of the passive of the transitive of the verb yoru, "to approach.-'"' Y.1 nan, is the colloquial y611a.-"'tle-ki-I., is ide
U

adverbial form of ideuru, "to come out n ; !:i, adverbial form of J:UYII, II to come," lind It, adverbial form of the suffix lsurll.-" Korosa-n 10 sltj-J.-i is

literally" they made that they would kill us."-" Kosltikala. One of the irregularities of ~wu> "to come," is that it attaches, as here, the past suffix sM to the negative base ~.()instead of to the adverbial form kj. _ Sldradc is shiro, negative base of slt;rll, "to know," with the negative suffix de.-'" lIfagire-" is mapic, negative base of the verb of the second conjugation magiruru, "to mingle," It to become indistinct," with 11 the future suffix in the conclusive form.-lIO Slti is the adverbial form of

SPJ::CIME 'S OF JAPANESE .

xxxi

.suru, "to do," "to make." The past suffix ki at the end of the sentence must be taken with this sId as well as with the word along with which it is found.-" 11"'-11. Illn is the negative base of ifu, "to say.' Ilur-n kaLa naku, "unspeakably."-'" ,If 0110 110. See p. '07.-'" Iro-iro. Ira means" colour," iro-iro, "every colour," hence cc all kinds o.Jl_$.I. YIII.. u rli makasl!/~. YltklJ, to go," is here treated as a noun in the sense of "movcment."-45/-hoI ..a, "five hundred days," is derived from i, root of i/sutslt, " five," ho, an old word meaning "hundred," and i.'a, the termination of the numerals for days.-" ,'fiy" is the conclusive form of miyuru, "to appear," "to be visible," the intransitive verb corresponding to the transitive miru, "to see."-"" FlI1u 110 tlchi 1VO. There is probably something wrong in the text here; wo can hardly be right, but the meaning is no doubt that given in the translation.-"' Tudltyoher" is the attributive form of the perfect of l<ldilY0.!II, to toss about."-'" O",,/:i is the predicate, the construction being yam" olloki nari (tli +ari), .( the mountain is a great one."-" Takaklt is the adverbial form, while IInfnaslti (second conjugation of adjc rives) which follows is pUI in the conclusive form. The meaning is the same as if both were in the conclusive form, viz., h was lofty and picturesque.v-s-" ~V"ga motomuru yama. Note the force of the attributive form motomurt as equal to the relative clause "which (we) are in search of."-fflllfik". In the modern language milsuka, pronounced mikkn.-&3 SnifflYlI. Note the force of the terrnination taru, indicating a continuous state.-" Uresltiki koto is put, by an idiom very common in the spoken language, for the abstract noun ureshisa.-" K0110 wOlllilla and kalm "010111<1.!1I are both nouns in the nominative case, placed in apposition. A more regular construction would have been klt~'11 "olalllll.!u 11)01ll;nll.-" IYi-IIII. The 1I/t is represented by the word" away" in the translation.
H

><

~:

SPECIMENS

OF JAPANESK

XXXII

V.
VERSION I . ROMAN LETTERS,

Kaha wo kosu. Yall/a hal koyu ti? ihi, kalla Ila u/ataru to ific' zo sadamarinaru.' Sltikaru wei' ima 110 Mlo tabi-fi 110 lIt'kki nado 11i "1Iald-gaha zuo kosltile" nado kakuu Ita i1llishiki1 lligakoto nari. IlIIa 110hito ha kachi-watm-; 11aradeluil "suataru" to ha ihatll'do,9 wukashi ha'O nuri kaha Ira, hashi 111' ware,1l fime 11i mare, uani 11imare, s1lbete'2 "umtaru" to koso ilti-tsllre.l~ /ltnla yama hn "kOYll" to ilzedomo,14 sore 1110"kosu" to ha iha;;u.I~ "Koyn" tol6 "kosu" to ha jilal1 110kejillle ari. lIfashitel8 knlza m .kosu" to ifit koto arante yaW Itn'20?
TRANSI_ATION.

Kallfl wo koStt (to cross a river).

In the case of a mountain, it is the rule to say" koyu" (to cross); in the case of a river, to say" zuatarn " (to cross). The use which, notwithstanding this rule, is made by men of the present day in their journals of travel, &c., of such expressions as" nani-gnl: wo kosllite" (having crossed such and such a river) and the like, is a great error. Except in the case of crossing by fording, writers of the present day do not say "ruiataru;" whereas in ancient times the word "suataru" and no other, was used generally for crossing the sea or river, whether on a bridgc or in a boat, or in any man ncr whatsoever. Again, although in the case of a mountain "koyu" was said, yet even in this case no one said "kostl." Between "koyu" and "kos1l" there is the distinction of intransitive and transitive. Still more is it unlikely that there should be such an expression as "koStt ., in speaking of rivers.
NOTES.

This extract is from the Tama no A rare, a work of the well-known grammarian Motowori 'orinaga.
R

XXXIV

Sl'l::CIMENS OF

JArA.

ESE.

'Ha (pron. ua). It is no. which is translated" in the case of."-iTtJ U /'-'Ifu is a noun, nominarive to ",,,u.-'M,yu. The attributive in lead of the conclusive form, because $0 occurs previously in the sentence. [See p. [67.}-'/Vo "notwithstanding." [See p. i r S]-"Ao/.'u, a noun, nominative to nari. 7/",ishiki, an adjective of the second conjugation in [he atrributive form, qualifying Rigakolo. -8Naradeluz, lit. "if it be not," is nara, neg. base of naru, " to be," de, the indeclinable negative particle, and ha, the distinctive or separative particle.-'lIw,"e.do is ina, negative base of ifll, "to say"; tie, perfect of the negative particle 1/U, and do, the concessive particle.-,oHa. ote the force of no in marking the opposition between ima 110 Ililo and 1IIukashi.-"llfare is for JIl0 are, are being the imperative mood of "I'U, "to be."-12Sub.lc may be translated U generally." It is the adverbial form of the verb suberu, "to include," with tc, the adverbial form of the particle tsuru.-,slni-Isure. The perfect is used instead of the conclusive form, because koso occurs previously in the sentence. [See p. [70.}-"III<.do.1/lo is literally" though One has said," but means here nothing more than "although." /II< is the perfect form (before do) of the verb iftt "to saY."-"/lm.::u. Zit is the conclusive form of the negative particle tlu.-,oTo repeated after koy" and J:OSli means simply "and,"_l1Ji-ta. Ji means "oneself," ta, U another ": ji-Ia means here "inmll1sitive and transitive."-18l1faslti is the adverbial form of INdS", tt to increase"; with te it has an adverbial force, viz., ., increasingly," "much more."-19ArtN/,. is put here for the perfect future ara-me-ri, [See p. [S3.}-~Ha after an interrogative clause shows that a negative answer is expected. [See p, [22.]
is equivalent to the marks of quotation

xxxvi

SI'ECl~lt::NS

OF JAPANESE.

VI.
\'El(SION IN ROMAN LETTERS.

Kono /Li 11tOklfresllikaba,t Afoto/u/i ha madsu kityi'u ra ni illilSul.:ete, okulllaritant' kocasltiki wo kaki-fmraJUlsfll",3 tobari wo tarete, sflokudai tSlIklle k~,'O naudo' 110J'~i Ilflyakll 1110 toto110fzikel'cba,"Happiaku bikll1li wo yobisnmashite, y,t/iI-zeI1 wo SUSlI1l1eJ'o"10 Ie;' koshim% ra ISlIkalrasesllt'l; Iii, "klldm: 110 hikul1i ha 1I11lalti shite, yobedolltO yobedomo, samezu" to i/1I. Toeakn sura hodo ni k~ lakele, haya lie no lIakaba 111' 1UZriSIu"kaba, .lI%filjl iradadii kalslt lItagahile, lIlidzukara soeo Iii omomukite, yobi-samasau to sesiu' hodo ni, JlIiyoc/tin y~-yaklt nemuri samete, mid:m wo kolli, kuchi sosogite, llikarele idete killi/.ocreba, lJfotofilJ'iJla! JIfl fS 10yohi-rlrikadzlIl'l'tl', " Niobosatsn, sudeni kano go ni uarinu"
TRANSLATION.

\. hen this sun too had set, Motofuji, in the first place ~iving orders to the attendants, caused to be swept out a small reception room at the rear of the house, and hung a curtain before the door; and as the preparation of candlesticks, table and censer, &c., was already complete, sent the maid-servants, saying, "Awake the nun Happiaku, and offer her slipper." But they said that the nun was in a deep sleep, and that however much they called her, she did not awake. Whilst doing this and that it grew late, and it had become already the middle of the hour of the rat (midnight), so that Motofuji, partly enraged, and partly suspicious, went there in person and attempted to awake her. \Vhen he did so, Miyochin awoke from sleep with difficulty. She asked for water, and having rinsed her mouth came forth led by the hand. Motofuji called her to him, exclaiming, Come, come, your Holiness! the hour appointed has already arrived."

SPECl\IE'S

OF JAPANESE.
'OTh.

XXXVll

This passage is taken from the H"kk"lIdl'1l, a romance by the popular writer Bakin, published in .834. 1Ktl1'tsltikabil. KtI,'e is the adverbial form of i't117lne "to set," shik',> perfect form of past particle shi, and {m, a particle having here the force of "when," "as."-20kIl1llQrU is a hybrid word, the root oJ.({ being Chinese, and the termination ]apanese.-Ha1'ak,lSll (pron. h"rawasu) is not the causa live proper of Il(Ira/1I which would be /mra/msuru or I"wa, hisnsII1'1I. H(Wn/ulslI means "to make swept out," /ulrahis(lMlrlf "to cause some one to sweep oUt."-'N01,do. The" being written in k"takana shows that the writer looks upon it as properly not belonging to this word, which is usually written nado. It is possible that f/(lJIi 10 from which "'UlIIQ is derived may have first been contracted into nado and the n inserted afterwards for euphony, but it seems more likely thatllalldo is really a transition form between l1a"i 10 and IItldo.- To tc is for 10 ihile.-" Tsulr"ha5cshi. The verb is 15I1k"h,,411, and shi, the past participle, is added to the adverbial form. \Vc ought therefore to have had tsukahashishi, but the modern popular language prefers the form ending in seshi. 7 Scshi. It is one of the irregularities of suru that it always adds shi and shika to the negative base instead of to the adverbial form. _8 Yal fa I is an interjection. Interjections are usually printed in kataka"a as here.

)( )(

E:

I~ ~l
-:l:-~~

ti!~ ~
M
~

r-

<

1!
~

-- ... '~-'- ~ ;tIl. i: ;f,. ~

,1' ~

i;"

~ n 1;t ~
it.

:K 1ijt ~

SP~:CUH;NS

OF JAI'A:--'ESI::,

xlv

VII.
VERSION IN ROMAN LETTERS,

Soycgashi ra1 bessh kengen tatematsurit snfurafu (pronounced s6,'0, SOYO, or even soro) shidni luizei 110Jiron ui shite, soregashi m saikuran-chit: slliba-sltiba kengm m'a 0)'obi4 safurafi' 1110110 JJlO lsore ari safurafu tokoYo,s YobeiG domei kakkokte he taisis! 011HasHlItSIi no ?the, Ji'tclti no keikio u/o 11101 011 molengeki ni alti-1Zari,8SOIlO IIlleJigi sllillslzaku slnsersu alu-narubelsu' to 110go Idogi 1Il0 koyi? an', ShikamlO 17i 1Il0haya taislli go kic/w irai sudeni sugets tuo kemis/Ii safurahedomo" naui ra 110 go shisetsu 1110 lIalsllo tsukamatSltrazu, sakleon lIlillsllin ki6ki6, sMka Ilhi-utagafti, yaya 1110sureba, tollo gwakai 110 eM k01'e llaslti 10 1/10 lIIrifllslli-gatakil2 ikillohi ni tadii-itnri safuraf gz'18 Iti~'kid tenka yoron kogi 110yosokll suru )/ltlte to jits1l mochite zannen no itaril4 ni zonji tatematsuri safurafu. Kono 1S dan yoyoshiku go lzidgi wo togerantbeku safuraftt nari. M et}i sMelti nen. dai felti gwatsll jiu-slzichi tlichi, Kochi kC1l kwal1zoku Sllizokll Furusaha ljyd,ld Okamoto Kenzabuyo, " " " " lJ/i6d6 K01ll1lYONobllwo, " " Tsuruga " ken Yuri K 'immasn. " " EM Sltilllpei, Sago " " " Ko-elii Itagaki Taisuke. " " Tokid Fu GoM SlWjiyo, " " So/ujima Taneomi. Saga Ken " " l1 Smtt On Shiflyal8 fusltitel9 hokon seiken 110kiSlIYll tokoro wo sassuru ni, ka1l/; teis/litsll tli araeu, shitno ji1ll1llill 11iaraeu, shikaushite ltitori yltslli ni klSu, Sorif8Jyfishi ka1lli teistutsi wo tatsutobs: to ihazam Ili Ita arasu , sltikallshite teisldtSlt )'oyaklt SOIlOS01l too uslunnfn: sllillto jimmi1l wo tatnotsu to illaearu 11i ILa araen ; shik(lllsftite seirei Iliaktt tall cftosftutsu bokai matsurigoto jOji'tsu 1Ziuari, slz6batsll aieo 1Ii idzu, genro yohei konkll

cu

xlvi

SI'I:\'nn:NS

OF JAI'A:-II;SI:.

tSlIgU1'll nashi. Sore kaklillogotoklt ni slate, teulea 110dtiml naran kolo wo liOSS1t.P Sansek! 110dQji 11/.0naho S01l0fill.." naru wo shiru. Itljo a/'ataJlle::1t,~1 osoraku ha kokJ..n loho 110 ikiholti wo itasau. Skin ra nikoku 110jo onodzulcara yaum atahacu, sunahach] ;"0/'1'wo sln'1/ki1l S1Ini 110 lIIidli wo kBkil/ suru IIi tada lel1kn 110kogi wo Ital'1I Iii aru 1I0Illi.22 Tenka I/O kBgi wo Itan/Z3 ha uzinsen giill wo tatsurn IIi aru nomi, stoutht/clLi ylislLi 110kett kagiru tokoro arite slLikaushite slloka S01l0 aneen kofitku wo ulaeru mono aran. KifIi" tsulu IIi kort 'wo dunsen. SOI'l'jillllllill seifu Iii lai-shitt sozei wo Ilarnfif /10gillllf ar 1110110 ha slmaltndli SOIlOseifu I/O kolo wo yochi !.-nhi snru 110 kelln' wo J'lt-Sit. Kore lellkfiE' 110Is/Iroll 1/i slat urata e/IOe/u) shi ra I/O kore wo ::eigell surn uio lIIntnzaYU26 1110110 nari. 27 YuIll' ni sllill ra Itisoka tli tlega/It Yl1slti mala Isono tairi ni Mlei sezaran kolo wo.Z<l Iura uunsen giiu wo ratsuru 110 gi zuo kohallllt mono iknkll. "IYnga. tallli fitgaku 1/wdli,2P imada kaillloi 110eki ni susnmas, yullt IIi kOlYIIS1l miusen g-ii'IIwo latstlrtlJ> naho masani hayak'm71 buh;" 10. SI,;1l ra omoheraleu 1 moshi Iurtaslute makoto Iii SOI/O ifu 10koyo32no gOloki ka, sunahachi kore wo shire gaku kats chi sltika/(s/u'le kilt IIi kaimei 110 eki 1Ii sustanaslumurti I/O1Iliclli slmahadti uttnsen gii'll wo tatsuru ui ari. Nani 10 IUlI'eba,33 suuahac/u. klJl!jilSlI wng(1 jilltlJlill wo shite'U gaku katsu c/ti IIi kaiJllei 1/0 eki IIi SIISUJllaslamen 10Sll,ar.madsu SOltOISl1gi kellyi wo I/(Jgo seshillll!,36koye wo sllile,juml jie/IB, le1/kn 10JIl1ra/;:uwo tomo 111' sum 110kislui wo oeosasiumen to suru ha, koye wo okosasltimen to SUYll 11Il, kore wo sltite~7 tellkn no koto ni adsnkarashhuuru ni ari. Kakll Ito gotoklt~ slute, jimmill sono koro tli yasm~ji, filga/;:u mite/Ii midsukara amansuru 1110110imada kore arazaru tlnyi':'" SltiktlltSilile una SOIIOmidcnkara g-aklt katslt cia' /II' slate ",id::ltkm'a SOIlO kailllei 110eki tit' ;1'11 wo matsu. Kore hotondo Ilinku 1/C1tkasei wo matsu 110 1'11.; nari. Htltla-Iladashiki ha<" S1Ill1lllllcJli ima Iliwaka ni giill zoo tatsnru ha kore teul: no gu

SPECDIENS

OF JAPANESE.

xlvii

WO atsuuturuni sugicaru nomi /0 ifit ni itaru. A! nanzo uudzlIkara ogont 1U) hmmhadaslliku;l shikr11lsltite souo ji1lllllin wo mint 110betsufo tam ya !'2 Y!islzi cltiu dURO mota yon' Ilito Iii sl/gunl mono aran, slllRaredolllo idsllkmlzo gakll1llolt yushild I/O llito yo'~ Illata sh(Jjill lIi sugur /110110 arazaru wo slaran ya ?I.I Kedaslu /mka 1/0 kito knkzt1log%ku besslti subebarasaru uari. Moshi luua besshz' subek; mono to seba,Yllshi mala SOIlO1Ic11i no itsu/ill narneu ya? Shikaraba sunahachi Ili/osltiku kore fugakll musltiki nari. Kinkin Yl(Slli no sensai to jimmilz no yoron !.:,sgi wo ham to SOIl()kmgll fiuM hataslut ikan zo Y" ? Sltill ra ifu. YlJslu' 110chi mala kore wo isltill iaen. 1/l' mirn, kmlara:;u SOIlOsllsumislti mono nnran. Nnni 10 IInreo,z;; slmallachi ningen ni chisltiki naru 1Il0llOha kallara:;li S0110kore wo mochiyuru. 1Ii sltitagahite sustauu 1110110 nareba nari. YlIlte ni ilzaim. " Millsen gii11 wo tatsu kore sunakach: /i11l1Jlin zoo shite gMU katslt C/zi IIi sltika1lshite kilt ni kailllei 110e!.:i lti susumasiamuru 110 miclti nari "'8 to. Katsu sore seifn 110 sll()ku SOlIOyoroslzil.m ItO-sllite mochite 1Jlokuteki /0 Izasllbdti mono jilllllli11 wo shite, sltimpo SIlI'II wo esesltilllllru" 1Ii'8 nri, Yulle Iii sOlllai 110yo yaba1t 110 80k1l SOIIOtami ytlllliJ btJk01I sltlRauskite shitagafu. tokoro'" wo shira;lI. K01l0 toki IIi atarite seifu 110shoku utoto yori kore 'WOslli/e shi/agafit tokoro wo sldraslzimurt/>l ui ari. I7Ila waga kutti sudcn] s~lIIai ni arasu. Idkol/sltite waga ji1Jllllilz 110 jiujim naru II/olIO~l sudeni kwajill 10 SIt.52 Sldkarnba Sllllallfle/li kOl!jitsu waga seijil 1/0 yorosltikll mochitc SOllO 1JI0kuleki to Ilasubeki 1110110 sll1lnhaclti minsen giill WO tate, waga ji'lIImi,1 WO shite/>3 SOIlO katli 110 ki wo okoslli, tellka u/o bumlitz suru 110gil1l1t U'O belle/Ii slu, tenea no kolo ui sanyo slu, eseshimuru ni an, SUI/allaclli k,skoku no Ilito mina dOslti11nari. Sore seift 110tSllyoki mono nani wo utochite kore zuo itasu ya ? Tenlsa ji'mlllill mina dJsltilt nard/a lion. SIIiIl ra ktlt/arasu tou/okt ki1t.F wo llikite kore wo slt,s-se=u, katsit salm jittgwatslt seijil 110IU'IIkaku IIi tsulate, kore wo ken-su. Kilt

xlviii

SPECIMENS

OF JAPANESE,

kill ko sore (I)la.fulti kana ! rVaga seifn 110 koritSit surtt ha 11(111&0 ya ? Sak )iugwatm seifu no henkaklt tenlea ji'1I/1//ill 110 kare waga lame Iii kiseki suM 1110110ikubakuM ka tint? Tada kore ga tame 1/Z' kise!.:i seearu 1I0mi uarazu, tenka ji1ll11li1l 110bo 10 shite kore wo sidrasarn mono jilt 1Ii sId"!,,, Itakk//. tli oru, Toda Iteitai 110kaisatl 1Ii odoroku 1Iollli,66 1111(1 minsen giiil tuo tatsuru ha sunahadu seifu. jill/min 110allida ni jojilsu ),l1lsl2 sltikaltsltite alu-tomo Iii ahasete illai to nnri, klmi hajilllele 11l0cltite"1 Im)'okarubeslli; seifu haji'mete modute tsu),okantbe!.:i nari. Shill ra sudeni tenka no tairi IIi tsukite lsore wo kiltaJlle, waga klmi kOtljilSlt 110ikillolli IIi tsukite kore wo ji'tsll ni sin', seifi 110sltokll IIi tsukile kore wo roufi, o)lobi snku jillgwatslI seifu Iiolumkaku Itt' tsukite kore wo ktll-sll, Sllikaushite shill ra /10 midznkara sllin ra no setsu wo sldncur koto iyo-iyo atsul:, setsu 1Ii ifu-" Konfits tenlsa wo iji' shillki suru ItO michi tada minsen gii'n wo tale, sllikauslzite tenka 110kogi wo hnru ni ant 110111;" 10,M! SOllO IlOilo1669110gi 110gotokiOOshill ra kallara::u kore wo kokom' ilulU, Kedasiu jill-sll-/JIai-slti~1 110 )101,'11 kore wo tsukusll 1/10110 Iii arasareba 1Ia1'i, T ada shin ra Ilisoka6' ni kiku " kOlljilsu ),l?shi jiend 110setsu Ili yori kOlo olloklt illjlm u/o tStttollle,),o no kaikaku wo ijil 11/0110 wo mokushite keikei sltimpo to shi, sltikaushite kore wo !.:oballlu 1Ii 'llaho Ilaya!.-i' no tzij'~'wo moclut su " /0, Shin ra ko/lt>' tuata kore wo bellzen. Sore keikei shimpo to i.fll mOlltl" 111010 yori Sltill ra no kaise.nru tokoro, moshi hataskite !.-OIO sssotsn 1'Ii idsuru 1110110 wo mochite keikei shimpo to sun, ka, miusen giitl naru mono Ita mochite koto wo leicho ni sum tokoro 110mOtltIMnari : kaktlslz8 fuiua ni slute sltikausltile IlmM 110sai koto homumts kwmlkiu Ito jo wo slll/sslti Itisslti 110 slusetsu aui-miaarn 1110110 wo lIlocltitf!6 keikei slzimpo to sura ka, kore klllii Iii teiritsu llaNtI ),lIs!ti jini !tok~ sureba nari. Kono futatsn 1101110110 araba sztlltllziclli masa IIi SOIIOminseu giin no tatesunba arubeeara-

SPECIMENS

OV JAPANESE.

x lix

zant"' 110 yuen wo sh~-sllrn suo mini 1/OIIIi, Sore sltilllpo naru mono Ita teulea no sltibi uari, jiji blllsllbulsll shilllpo sccuuoa arubekaraxaru. ShiA'araba sltnallllChi ylishi kmzarazu sllimpo 110ni;i' wo tsumi snru atahazu. Sono tsumi SU'rU10koro63kmla" ms keikei IW 11i;'ini todomaran , keikei 110ni;'1.suiusen. gii'li to kalsute alii kmtsllo secant nari.. u Nalzo luzyaki" 'W ni;'i ItO minseu griill wo tatsuru lIi okern,ep Sl,ill ra tado m' kore wo kai-sesaru nomi naracu, .rltin ra no ke1l masa ni lore 10 ahi-Ean-su. Ikml10 10 nareb, konjitslt miusen giin wo tatsurul! 1110 naho osoraeu Iza snigets no Izisaslliki wo mac/Ii slzikattslzite Ilochi luzji'lIlete S01l012 jiubull grfZlnbiwo kisltYU Iii itaran. Yrtlze Iii Slli" ra icltfjits/t lIW tada SOJlOtats kolo no osokarau 1':010wo osoru. Yulte,1i ilullm " sltin ra tada SOIWItaltla; wo miru 1II01lli" 10. YI1shi 110setsn utata ifit 'Yl1bei kakkoku ItOl~jilJ'1(no giill naru mono Ita ilch~ isseki IIi setsuritsu sesllZ'IWgrii'11 IIi arazu, sono slzilllpo 1W zen zuo ntodute kore wo itasestu mOIlO nomi, yuhe ni wagra konjitStI Iliwaka Iii kore wo IIlO-SftrUwo ezu'73 to. Sore s/u'IIlPO no zen wo mochite kore wo itasesld 1II01l0mli14 /titOl'i giill 1I0mi uarau ya ? Olzoyoso hiakll '10gakulIloll gzfitsu kikai milia s/zikrrru nari. Shikant w' kare sullialm nen ItO Izisashiki zoo /s1l1ltite7& kore wo itaseshi76 mouo Ita /.:edaslti mayelli seiki nak, milia lIlidzukara kore wo keikell hatsnmei sesla nareba nari. Ima ware S0110sciki wo eramite kore wo toraba IUZIZ:;O /mwadate-oyobllbekaYflzaYfl11 ya,77 Mos/Ii waga midsuleara joki no rt wo hatsumei suru wo machi, slzikallsltite nodu, ware luzji'mete ;iSlli kikai zuo 1Il0chiyuru wo ubeku,18 del/ki 1tOri wo luusunsei suru wo madu sllikaslzile19 nodu ware haji'mete dens/till 110sell wo ga-suru wo ttbeki to suru ka? Seifit Itn utasa lIi te wo kudLlS1l ItOkolo llLlkrryubes/li, SlU"1l ra sudeui sudeui kOlljitsu waga klmi minse griill wo tateeunba aruoekarasaru yuell oyobi80 kOllJi'tsu waga kfmi ji'mmin shimpo 110do yoku kOlt()gt'ilt wo tatsurtc ni taJlltl'U kolo wo beuron. suru 11t01l0/~I Stlllahaclti yflshi ItO kore wo kobmmt
8

SI't:CDIEI'S

/)F JAP:\:\ESE.

1/10,,0wo shitc Rue/Ii IIi se!"" suru tokoro Ita!.arasililllell to ui araeu, kOllo gii'll wo tatsuru teuka 110k6roll 2/)0 shine/tO slli ;i'lIlllli,t 110 ts/}gi kwn' wo tate, tel/loa 110ge"ki wo !'?obllsid, 1Il0cllit~ sluJka slu'llkill slti kmlsltill ahi-ai sit i waga teikoRu zuo iji s/dllRi shi MIl/kit ancen 'WOIwgo SC1tRoto wo ltOssltite 11111'1.Kofn saltiwa/d "i Rore wo erabi-taruahan Roto woo
TMNSLATION.

The opiruons contained in the Memorial hereto annexed which we have the honour to address to you having constantly been held by us, and some of us during our period of office having repeatedly memorialized you on the same subject, an understanding was come to that after the embassy despatched to the allied powers in Europe and America should have observed the actual condition (of affairs) also, steps should be taken after due consideration of the circumstances. But although several months have elapsed since the return of the embassy to this country, we do not learn that any measures have been adopted. Of late the popular mind has been agitated, and mutual distrust has sprung up between the governors and the governed (lit. the upper and the lower), and a state of things has arrived in which it cannot be denied that there are signs of destruction and ruin being rcady to break forth at any moment. The cause of this we profoundly regret to say is, in effect, the suppression of the general opinion of the Empire as ascertained by public discussion. 'vVe trust that you will give this matter due consideration. 17th January, 1874
GOT6

Samurai of the Saga ken. SHOJIk6, Samurai of the Tok,O,Fu. ITAGAKI TAISK~:' Samurai of the Kechi ken. ETo SHIM PEl, Samurai of the Saga ken. M IT$VOKA HACHIkO, Samurai of the Tsuruga ken. YUki KIMMASA, Samurai of the Ts uruga ken.
SOE}IMA TANEOMI,

Ii
KOMURO Nouuo, Samurai of the Mi6c16 ken. OKAMOTO KF.:N7.ABURO, Samurai of the Kochi FURUSAWA URo, Samurai of the Kochi ken.

ken.

To the Hon'ble Members of the SA.IN.

When we humbly reAect upon the quarter in which the governing power at present lies, we find that it lies not with the Crown (the imperial house) above, nor with the people below but with the officials alone. \Ve do not deny that above the officials respect the Crown, and yet the Crown is gradually losing its prestige (lit. honour and splendour), nor do we deny that below they protect the people, and ret the manifold decrees of government appear in the morning and are changed in the evening, the administration is conducted in an arbitrary manner, rewards and punishments are prompted by partiality, the channel by which the people should communicate with the government is blocked up and the}' cannot state their grievances. Is it hoped that the Empire can be peacefully ruled in this manner? Even a child three feet high knows that it cannot be done. We fear, therefore, that if this continues, and a reform i not effected, the state will be ruined. Unable to resist the promptings of our patriotic feelings, we have sought a means of rescuing it (rom this danger, and we find it to consist solely in developing public discussion by the Empire. The only means of developing public discussion is the establishment of a council-chamber chosen by the people. Then a limit will be placed to the power of the officials, and both governors and governed will obtain peace and prosperity. \Ve ask leave, then, to makc some remarks on this subject. The people, whose duty it is to pay taxes to the government, possess the right of sharing in the direction of their government's affairs, and of approving or condemning. This being a principle universally acknowledged, it is not necessary for us to waste words in discussing it. \Ve therefore humbly
8

Iii

pray that the officials will not resist this great t7ment standwho now oppose the establishment of a coun~l!' ~.~~.~!r chosen by the people say: "Our people are wanting in culture and intelligence, and have not yet advanced into the region of enlightenment. Therefore it must necessarily be too early yet to establish a council-chamber elected by the people." It is our opinion that if it really be as they say, then the way to give to the people culture and intelligence, and to cause them to advance swiftly into the region of enlightenment is to establish a council-chamber chosen by the people. For in order to give our people culture and intelligence and to cause them to advance into the region of enlightenment, they must in the first place be induced to fulfil their duties and protect their rights, to respect and value themselves, and must be inspired with a spirit of sympathy with the griefs and joys of the Empire, which can only be done by giving them a voice ill the concerns of the Empire. It has never happened that under such circumstances the people have been content to remain in a backward condition 0' have been satisfied with want of culture and intelligence. To expect now that they will acquire culture and intelligence by themselves and advance by themselves into the region of enlightenment, is very much like" waiting a hundred years for the water to clear." The worst argument they put forward is that to establish a council-chamber at once would be simply to assemble all the blockheads in the Empire. What shocking self-conceit and arrogant contempt for the people this indicates! No doubt amongst the officials there are men who surpass others in intelligence and ingenuity, but how do they know that the world does not also contain men who surpass the multitude in learning and knowledge? Wherefore the

* A quotation from the Tsoduean: The Yellow river is said to be a muddy stream, but to become clear at intervals of a thousand years. The text says" a hundred," which is no doubt a slip of the pen.

sr':.~IMEN

OF JAI'AlXE<;E.

liii

chosen by ~:::Empire should not be treated with such cont!::~: .. :- "zrumitting that they deserve to be treated with contempt, are the officials themselves not a part of the nati n, in which case they also are wanting in culture and intelligence? Between the arbitrary decisions of a few officials and the general opinion of the people as ascertained by public discussion, where is the balance of wisdom and stupidity? We believe that the intelligence of the officials must have made progress as compared with what it was previous to the Reformation," for the intelligence and knowledge of human being increase in proportion as they are exercised. Therefore we have said that to establish a council-chamber chosen by the people would promote the culture and intelligence of the people and cause them to advance rapidly into the region of enlightenment. It is further the duty of a government and the object which it ought to promote in the fulfilment of that duty to enable the people to make progress. Consequently in uncivilized ages, when manners were barbarous, and the people fierce, turbulent, and unaccustomed to obey, it was of course the duty of a government to teach them to obey; but our country is now no longer uncivilized, and the tractableness of our people is already excessive. The object which our government ought therefore now to promote is by the establishment of a council-chamber chosen by the people to arouse in our people a spirit of enterprise, and to enable them to comprehend the duty of participating in the burdens of the Empire and sharing in the direction of its affairs, and then the people of the whole country will be of one mind. What is it that makes a government strong? It is by the people of the Empire being of one mind. "Ve need not prove this by quoting ancient historical facts. We will show it by the change in our government of October last. How great
Le, The restorarion or the Mikado's go'crnmenl.

~I'E(.;[)II'::-;~ OF JAP,\!\I'.~[':,

was its peril! \ Vhat is the reason of our goverrwnent standing isolated? How many of the people of the Empire rejoiced at or grieved over the change in the government of October last? Not on I)' was there neither grief nor joy on account of it, but eight or nine out of every ten of the people of the Empire were utterly ignorant that it had taken place, and they were only surprised at the disbandi ng of the troops. The establishment at present of a council chamber chosen by the people will create community of feeling between the government and the people, and they will mutually unite into one body, Then and only then will the country be strong. Then and only then will the government be strong, \Ve have now investigated the question in the light of universal principles; we have shown the truth in regard to it by reference to the tendencie of the day in this country; we have discussed it in reference to the duties of a government. and have tested it by the case of the change which occurred in our government in October last. OUf belief in the justice of our views is strengthened, and we earnestly contend that the only way to maintain and develope the destinies of (lit, to move up) the Empire is to establish a council-chamber chosen by the people and to develope public discussion by the Empire. "Ve will not here enlarge upon the means by which the idea is to be wrought out, as that would occupy too much space, \Ve are informed that the present officials, under the pretence of being conservative, are generally averse from progress, They call those who advocate reforms "the rash progre gists," and oppose them with the two words too early." \llie ask leave to make an explanation here. I n the first place we do not comprehend the phrase" rash progression." If by "rash progression" is meant measures which are heedlessly initiated, then it is a council-chamber

SPE<.:IMEl'S

01'- JAPANESE.

chosen by the people which will render them prudent. Do they mean by "rash progression" the want of harmony between the different departments of the government and its consequences, viz., the disturbance, during a period of change, of the sequence of beginning and end, of not urgent and urgent, and the incongruity of this measure with that? The cause of this is the want of a fixed law in the country, and the fact that the officials abandon themselves to the promptings of their own inclinations. These two facts we look upon as precisely a confirmation of the reasons which render it necessary to establish a council-chamber chosen by the people. Progress is the most beautiful thing in the world, and is the law of all things moral and physical. Officials cannot condemn this word "progress": their condemnation must be confined to the word" rash," which has no connexion with a council-chamber chosen by the people. We are not only simply unable to comprehend what the words" too early" have to do with a council-chamber elected by the people, but our opinion is directly the opposite of this. For if a council-chamber chosen by the people were established to-day, we may fairly suppose that it could not be expected to be in complete working order until months and years had elapsed. We are only afraid therefore of a single day's delay in establishing it, and therefore we say that we hold the opposite of this opinion. \Ve shall mention another argument of the officials. They say that the council-chambers now existing in European and A merican States were not formed in .one morning or one evening, but were only constituted by gradual progress, and therefore we cannot to-day copy them suddenly. But gradual progress has not been the ease of council-chambers only; the same is the case with all branches of learning and science and mechanical art. The reason why foreigners have perfected this only after the lapse of centuries is that no rules existed

lvi

~1'1':C1~II':'S OF JAPANESE.

previously, and these were all discovered by them for themselves by actual experience. If we now select these rules and adopt them, why should we not be successful in our endeavours? If we are to delay using steam machinery until we have discovered the principles of steam for ourselves, or to wait until we have discovered the principles of electricity before we construct an electric telegraph, our government will be unable to set to work. Our object in sceking to prove that a council-chamber elected by the people ought to-day to be established in our country, and that the degree of progress amongst the people of this country is sufficient for the establishment of such a council-chamber, is not to prevent the officials from making use of various pretexts for opposing it, but we are animated by the desire that by establishing such a council-chamber public discussion by the Empire may be developed, the duties and rights of the people be established, the spirit of the Empire be r used to activity, the affection between governors and governed be made closer, sovereign and subject be brought to love each other, our imperial country be maintained and its destinies developed, and prosperity and peace be assured to all. 'liVeshall esteem ourselves fortunate if you will adopt our suggestions.
NOTES.
1 S()"~g(l.sh': rd, certain persons," "we." 2 Tatcmatsuri is written in the Chinese order before the noun which it governs.v-" Ni is not written, but mu.t he supplied in reading.-' O)'ooi is also written before its noun. .: Tokoro is something like" wherea '." It is represented in the translation by the ill.f{ of" ha\ing."-6 I'dbei. V<I, the first syllable of Ydrop, Europe: bei is for IIIr, the second syllable of America.-' .110. ot only the arguments of the rnemorialists, but actual observation on the spot "aI50."-8 Alii has little meaning here.-9 KM'e is inserted before ari in imitation of hinese construction. It is superflunus.c='" Shikr.,." IIi, lit. U in ib being so," i.e, U although this was 50."_" Safurahcdooro, pronounced sorarrfomo.-' .Ira/u.rh;-Ka'a/'i. This compound is written in
I(

SPECI~IENS

OF JAI'ANESE.

lvii

the Chinese order.-J3 Gi, "malter." This word is qualified by the whole passage from sakkotl on.-"1tnd, matter," lit . go."-" Togeraru6eku. TOjferanl is the conclusive of the passive (used as a honorific) of the verb loge'!'u," "10 complete." _ Furusaha Ura, &c. The signatures are in the opposite order to what we should expect, the most honourable position being in Japanese that next the name of the person addressed. Furusaha, although his name occupies the least honourable place, is believed to be the actual writer of this Memorial.c-P The Sa-in is no longer in existence. It was a board associated with the Council of State. One of its duties was to examine all memorials presented to the Governrnent.s-J'' Shin ra, "your servants," "we," only used in addressing the Government.c-J" Ftlshile, lit. " with the face to the ground."-' Sore is superfluous. It is inserted in imitation of a Chinese construction. _21 Aratamesu is condrtional. The omission of "a is characteristic of the semi-Chinese style.-'" Nomi at the end of a sentence is an imitation of Chinese.-'" Haru, lit. to stretch."-"'Ktijll. In ordinary Japanese this verb would be at the end of the sentence instead of at the beginning. _:Il> Tenka sometimes means" Japan" only; sometimes, as here, "the universe."-2'G Marasaru, for matazu ant, "does not wait for," i.e., "does nOI require."-2'iHisoka ni;" privately," hence "humbly." This application of Idsoka "i is in imitation of Chinese, where the character corresponding to this word has also this secondary meaning.-28 Kolo 1(10. Kolo is governed by the verb negajtt which precedes it. This is a Chinese construction.e-P Fugal:u //Iu{ld. Supply III Ie after these words. _30 Tatsuru is a noun (" the establishment") nominative to Ilaya~'a"716eshi. In proper Japanese tatsuru would have some particle, as no or ha, added to il to show that it is a noun. The semi-Chinese style, however, rejects particles as far as possible.-:JI Omohernl.'U is olJloheru, perfect of Oll/Ojtl and nim, a termination which gives the verb the force of a noun. Shirl YO olllohera!.:u, "our opinion (is that)."-"" ijit 101'01'0," that which they say." Tokoro is here the relative.-"' Nail; 10 narcba. "Because it is what?" i.e, "for what reason ?"-'" Waga jilll1Jlln 1(10 shiM. Shite is altogether superf!uous.-"Stt. Bya Chinese construction for the hypothetical seba.--1f6 ~s!tiIlJC. ausarive of suru, "to do," /,(to make." -'" Kore TUO slute. Shile is again superfluous. It adds nothing to the sense, is unnecessary for the grammar, and is only inserted in blind imitation of Chinese.-l18 Ka1'u 110 golol.lt. The Chinese characters for these two words are written in the reverse order to that in which they arc read.-'" Araearu nan. A circumlocution for arazu.-'" HlInllhadtlSltiki "a. "The worst is to if1l11l' itaru, that they proceed to suy."-" Hit

h-iii

SPEC1M~: 'S OF J.\PANESE.

17I""I((iI,lti/;u. Adverbial form, the sentence not ending till bel:;ujo taruJ'fI._<f'l

Rrl.\lIjo /(''''"/1 yn.

J tl is an interjection

merely.

Taru is in the

attributive form, owing to the senten e containing the intenogative nanzo, _ . , Vo, for )'0 IIi or yo no 1UU:1I ni.-" SMrIVl )'<1. Va is here the 4I interrogative partic1e.- Nalli 10 nareba narcba nnri. U Because or what is it? 1t is because "_ .,l!;rM nuri 10. To is joined with ;It"/;,, two lines back.-" Esdnmuru. E is the root of uru, "to get," and sesM. 1111/r1lthe causative of SUYU, "to do."-.Ift JVi ari. Ni is often, as here, the sign of thc predi ate of a proposition.-'" Sldlilg"/" lo!.-t>ro."Where to be obedient.~-oo .... j/tirtlshilllllrlf. causative of shiru, "to know."-$l MOllo in the semi-Chinese style is often equivalent to the particle Ita of proper Japanesc.-&l .<111, conclusive form of suru, "to make," "to account." -"'j;lI1l11ill ,.'0 sltilr, equivalent to jillllllill IIi of proper j apancsc. -"'/k"o"J."II ktl ant. Aru, the attributive, instead of ari, the conclusive, owing to the interrogative which precedes.--'" jiu l1U s/dte. Sltite would be omitted in proper Japancse.-n(J NOIII;, a Japanese word, is written with the two Chinese characters i!Ii Mt>c!rit., by this means.'

e,.-"

-~Kti.t:i <;,'0 Iltlrll IIi aru 110m; 10. To refers back to sets 11; ijll.-:1IHo!to 10. T(i marks the plural.Goloki properly means" such matters as," but in the semi-Chinese style it has often very little meaning. It has becn entirely omitted in thc translation.-U1 /ill-sll-mai-slti. "More than ten sheets of paper."_t~ Hiso/", ni, " secretly," must not be understood too literally. 1 t merely means that they have heard from some one whom it is unnecessary to name.-"' SlIillm !.-O/II. The japanese construction would be slunra IIIlIln kure 7<'0bm::ell !.-olo -"'0 k(l/II.-'" 1I{(l1I0 would be It" in proper Japanese_-'" TeicIL6 1/; surtt toboro 110 1Il01I0, "a thing which renders prudent." Toeoro is here a relati\"e.-" Moelt"" is here superAuou!).
t;;711j(:ttll/J(e

"rllbtJ:(lru~lI.

](,le~lIl1btl.

IV

is

inserted

(or

euphony. It is pronounced III. This phrase is equivalent to the colloquial IlllcllcOa naranu, tc must CreCI Or establish."-foB Sono /SIIIII; suru 101'01 o. "That which they blame'-'"' Tntsurn l1i okrru. 01''''11 would be IIi oirc or"i IS1Ii/r in ordinary Japanese.-'" J!.-a" (for i~''''") 10 narco. See above,1II1II; 10 ""reoa.-71 Tatsuru mo would be in ordinary J apanese tarsu It> ;I/edolllo, Or in the spoken language, Itl/c/(JJIO._72 SOIlO qualifies
IdsUYII.
U

Its. attaining

pede tion."-"IJMo-sllrll

'1.l~D I'::U.

"\\'c

do not

get the imit~ting," i e., U We are unable to imilate.n.-7~Al1i is placed at the beginning of an interrogative clause and shows that a negative answer is expected.c-> .\'II"i"I.'II ne 110/dsas/til .. i WiJ lSI/illite. "Accumu .. lating the l~ngth of several hundred years."-" il(l.SfSlti 1110110It" nar.roil 'Mri. "Their having done this is because " Afo110 is super-

SPECIMENS

OF JAPANESE.

lix

Ruous.-" Km<1flda!e-oyobubd! -",.,,-I! -"""-".},<I. Endea vour-reach -shouldbenot-be-fut.-interrog.-'"Ub<>klt, conclusive form of 111"11, "to get," "obtain," be able," and b<>l:u, adverbial form of bcl.-i, "should."-'" SidRa sidle and shiMallshitc(pron. shil:6 shite) are the same, the" being inserted for euphony.-800yobi, "and."-"'Bmroll suru ""111" hfl. "The reason why we maintain!' Mono is nominative to nari at the end of the sentence.-"'J/o<:hite. By means of all these."

lxii

~PECnlt:NS

OF JAPANESE.

VIII.
VERSION IN ROMAN LETTERS.

ShOlul1l wo 1Il0cllite' keijo itastu safurafu. Silikarehfil Taiwan btl1le/1l3 110 kioto btm::ai 110 gi ni tSllki, ~,)(lgaseifu to Sci!':ok1t' sci/It 110ikefl sogo wo SIIOjj,bdalllpml ukketsll6 ISliId 1Ii kO/,;WlZ hoson shigala!.:i halilli lIi 'tadli-ilari safurafu 10/';01'0, f/{I/':/':ilz8chillliJ 9 kikoku senken koslzi ka/.-ka waga baln'dofjill to /.-tlllO shodaiji,1'" no ahida 1Ii go slausen korc ari,1l bcsshi no totuori kiOgi ahitotonohi lagani ni jokwatl wo kokwmz safurafe tunne migi bcnri dayi'n yorf kW(lIzill kicllO'2 scslt.iJlle,'3 sakufitsu. tochaku, /';01ljilsflg'lljo IIi oyobi safiwajil nllida, go nairau 1Ii ire sofurafu, lIIigi lin wnga scift 110skiui /';wanletsll shi, riogoku" 110kifuktl Iii itari safurafn gi lIIigi15 ki::e1lke1l-/.oshi ka/.:ka 110go ;i'1Irioen sukulln/,;'arazartlI6 gi to ::01lji safilrafit. Kore fli yoritc tori-nkezn icJzio shinsha ni oyobi safurafu jo kisciftt 1IIImbi fa: sai Hokkiu kikoshz'7 kakka e sllika1'llbclm go dCllchi kltdasa1'L'tae, migi shaJi' lIInjilslli-slzifl:jitaku, "'aku 110gotoku sofurafu, Keigu. Mei;i' sltidli11en,jillie/I1' gwatslt ;;'ll1Ii nie/li. Gwai1Jl1lkio TernsM1I/{I 1I1lI1te1U1ri, Dni Buritauia koklt Tokumei Zotl"C1I J(oslli Harm'; cs P(~kllsU 1(akka,
TRANSLATION.

I have the honour to address you a letter, A difference having arisen between the views of our Government and that -ofChina in respect to the matter of the chastisement of the savages of the barbarous part of Formosa, there was a hitch in the negotiations, and they at last reached a position in which the preservation of friendly relations was impossible, H is Excellency the honourable country's Minister Plcnipotentiary resident at Pekin then used his good offices between our High Commissioner and their high officials, An agreement

SPECIMENS

OF JAPANESE.

Ixiii

was thus brought about and articles mutually exchanged as in the enclosure. Our High Commissioner sent an officer back to Japan with this intelligence. This officer arrived yesterday and has made his report to me to-day. I therefore place it (the agreement) in your hands for your private perusal. I am sensible that no small exertion has been made by His Excellency your honourable Minister before-mentioned ill arriving at a result in which the views of this Government have gained acceptance, and which is fortunate for bot countries. I accordingly hasten to offer to you this expression of thanks, which I beg you will be good enough to convey in a suitable manner to the honourable Government and to the honourable Minister at Pekin. I wish to offer the above thanks. Thus it is. With respect. November 12th, 1874
TERASHJ\IA MUNEt\ORI,

Minister for Foreign Affairs. To His Excellency Sir HARRY . PARKES, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary of Great Britain.
NOTES.

This is a specimen of the style of official letters. 'Silo/um wo modnt. Wo is not written, but is always supplied in reading. Afodtile is pronounced mol/e. In writing this phrase, the Chinese order of the characters is followed, that for mocllite coming first. -' Sldkareba, lit. this being so." To slli/mreba inclusive may be freely rendered I have the honour 10 inform you Ih:\I-."-3 Tatum ballchi is for Taiumn no banchi.-< SeiNoku. Sei, in Chinese Ts;'lg, is properly the name of the Manchu dynasty of Emperors of China. Sdkoku is the ordinary word for China in official correspondence.c-s ShOji, adverbial form of slld:urtl, from sIlO, producing," and suru, "to do."-GljH:cl.ru. After "Nkelslt must be understood sllile. The constant omission ofunimportant words and particles is characteristic of the semi-Chinese style.

lxiv

SPECliIIE '5 OF JAPANESE.

-' Tmhi has little meaning here.-"/lokNIl. Ni must be understood after HoNd/l.-1IKikokll. "The honourable country," i.c., your country. Sho dIllj;'.. Sho marks the plural.-" KOI'e ari. Kore is superfluous in Japanese: it is introduced in imitation of the Chinese construction. -" Kirh&, "return to court," i.e., to Japan.-" Scshilllc. Adverbial form of sesiumurn, the causative of suru u to do." The character for this word is placed Chinese-fashion before the noun which it govems.-.J'RiOgoku. Golm is for kok", "country."-" Illigi, "the right," corresponds to "the above mentioned," Japanese being written from right to left.-.J' SlIklllla. kara::tlYu, i.e., sukunaku ara-zu nyu is represented by the two characters :::t'~~. the first of which represents 1:11, and the other the remainder.

_I.

-" Kikoshi, "the honourable minister," i.e., your country's minister.

lxvii

IX.
"ERSIO!\ I!\ ROMA!\ LETTERS.

lPP;ISII' kei/tJ. Sltikanhll J'nkll/iISlI 1m sIll/kart' go leillei go kio,l, kolo 11;gltsoku made uteslu-yoserare, jill-.;i"1I go kOllsti kataJi'ke/lllll'll ::;ollji safurafu. Knrsu c/"Jseki ruru go seidau kalls/ltl 110 itari 11i zOIl/i safuraft. SOIlO setsu 011hanastn1Jln/ushi-nge sa/ura/u sOlllokll bniyoslto gmsho 011 ma/las/IilIIajilsiti-age safurafn jo," go ichirrm klldasarelakll-sajitra/u; salm.;i"lsll 110bUll Ita lIIacltiglllti 110sharui nire hanatrada lIIoC/lile 011I.il/odo}"" Iii ::ol/ji sn/llra/II. Sos(j lIIip kii etakll,4 ka/m 110 golo/m' lIi sajilra/u. Keigll.
1-1 ncltig-;."nlsll tmuol:,

Matsllda Kei::o. Tnkcuai: RioslIl.e sama Kika.


TRANSLATION.

I address you a stroke of the pen.


I am grateful for your extreme kindness in entertaining me

so courteously when I visited your residence yesterday, and especially for having invited my son also. Further, I feel that your conversation at our long interview is matter for thankfulness. I beg now to send you the originals of the papers on the rearing of plants and trees which I then spoke to you of, and hope you will peruse them. I am extremely sorry that those I brought yesterday were the wrong papers. In haste. Please take note of the above. Thus it is. With respect. August ith.
MATSUDA KElZo.

To

T.\KE:-\AKA

Rresuxz, Esq.

SI'I:CDIE;>(S (IF J.\I'.\:\Jo:SF.


:-.:0'1 J-.S.

This is a specimen or the ordinary style of a private letter. The version in the current hand is a facsimile of the original, the \ ersion in square character being added for the sake of comparison. 1 ijJjJilS/I, for ichi hitsu, one pen," Almost all Japanese leiters begin by this or one of the numerous phrases of similar meaning, and go on with s"i~'arelkl,this being so," &c.- <llIk,I11. The construction here is very elliptical. The full construction would be sankon no tol"; go Idl1d I/O 1:i66 1('0 "ke.- /.,. See p, 78.-' A'if tlaloll, Ioal", 1/(>gololm. In writing these phrases, the Chinese order of the characters is followed.

INDEX.
PAGE
IlAGt-:

A (pronoun) Ablalive AhstmCl nouns Accents, Chinese " Japanese ... Accusative ... Adjective, oonjug ....

50 Ba ... 117 Bakari


43 Bars Introd. v Baya

135, 144, '46


132

119

146
154

36
113

lkki

derivative
root of .. syntax of

Bemi 93 Bem

'54
'54 '54 54

.03 Beii ... g2 IIoku


Buru Case suffixes '69 2 Causative verbs Introd. i Chin '69 Chinese character ... Irurod. i pronunciation of ... study of ... 65 " Choka 77 143 Classical IMgU:\g ... '42 Classification of words 58 Compound adjectives

Adverbs Adverbial form Affinities of Japan.se

.8.

.06
98

94 54

Mu ...

Assimilation
Attmction

24 Conclusive form 51 Conjugalions, adjectives It demonstrative pron.... 6'2 ., verbs Aru ... 89, 92, 98, 99, '53, 167 Conjunctions Aru hito 66 Consonants, assimilation Asobasu .67 " changes of Aspirates, loss of ... 22, 30 double
21 t

Agglutinalion Aguru Ahida Ahoshiki Aku ... Anara Ani ... Ano... Aphaeresis ... Are, personal pron.

lntrod.

iii.
II.

Introd,

.23 59,6.

nouns.. verbs ...

lntrnd. viii 39 '04

.86

45 .03
83

8',93 8',90,94
of
21,28

76

...

Altributh'e form AuxiliAry numerals Auxiliary verbs


B, interchange with M

.6 Oachi &5 Dani 72 Dare .62 Datera 31 Dative

28 Crasis

26 28,30
24

119
lJO

63
'33
110

Jr\DEX.
I'A(~I~ I'(.\(a~

D~ ...
Demonstrative Denka
pronouns .
0

144 Ita, after nouns /io

Derivation ... Derivative verbs Derivative adjectives


Derived nouns Distributive pronouns Divi ion of words .'. Do ... Domo, plural particle . DOTe, dono ... Dramatic poeu y Dzutsu E, changes of

59
103

.. aner l Iaberu
I'" ...

verbs

93 H.nk.
42

32 Haikwai
lI:1nnigori

ttataraki kotoba

,.

\\ itlt verbs ...

F, changes of
n

Eli~ion Etp'H1lngy ...

pronunciation of

Fu, term. of verbs G, pronunciation of

Gn _,_
Gachi

Gari Gnnt
Gata Gatera Ge ...

66 19 Heika q6 IIi ... I 18 111 i"'b",na 146 table of 64 llito 192 l lokku '30 Ilononfic prefixes ... 24 verbs " verbs 23, 194 Humble 32 Humble prefixes 27 Hybrid compounds 20,22 I, changes of 94 Ill"" 21 Idzure 107 Ika ... 112, 136 Iku ... 136 Imashi 102 Imperative ... 119 Indefinite pronouns '33, 136 Inflected Teniwoba

120 135 162 190 188 16, 28 79 112

59 48
3 6 66 t89 46 161 161 48 46 25 64 64 64 64

Gender
Genji )lonogatilri Genitive panicles Go ... . .

43 481
28 107, 182 47 132, 136 Introd.

G chi Guhcn
G<Hl1l
GOlo
G(11.C1l

89 65 148 Inflection .. , Introd, it note, "iii table of 79 Instrumental ease 81 Interjections 78 Interrogatives 63, 125, 140, 174, 178 Intransitive verbs ... 95

S6

59 Inurn iii, v Inversion


'30

92 ...
[70, 172, 173

ni

I Iroba

Grammar, divine origin

or

Gu .. Gu, term. of deriv, verbs ... II, ch.nge .s of

verbs J ntrod. vi Italics, marks of 48, 54 Its" ... 93 J i, pronunciation of . 30 neg. Cut. particle
20, 22

59 Irregular

92 ,8
64 19 145 67

" pronunciation of

IJ..

ihun

..

rx
Jishin 67

I>E~.
1'",,1.; Kurt!

)6
[oka

...

K. loss of
KA.,

77 Korean '98 "-OM>

Introd,

60 ii

interrog. termin. of nouns

Kn, pronoun

65. 125. '4 '7!; Koyntsu Ku 59.60,6,

30 Kotoba

"

Kagura

Kahn Kaheshi uta Kakari Tcniwoha K.kl" Kamuri kotoba Kana KAn.." interjection ...
Knno

Kart-on Kanuru Kam Kare Kn.l.hi Katakana Katsute Ke ... Kcki Kcku

44 Kudasaru Kuru Letter changes Locative .SS '73 Looch~n .. 58 M. chang., of '93 Made 2 ~(a(usu '711 ~tain'\8uru 6. ~fajiki Introd. iv Makaru

'9'

128. '75 39 79 !;. .62 9' 23


'10

Introd.

Ir3

3'

..

.64

.65

.68
J 17, 141

i\'TAkul'n kOluhn Mnna

'55 .63 '96


I

59.62
3,

Manyoshiu ...

3 8 S7

5.'5

Maw Mas hi. pronoun 151 " particle 431 M.!Jtik. ...
141

52
56 97 66 5S

Kenyu~cn
Keru

.821 Me.
J

'4.

'04

~!allto "

Masu

'57 '57

...

fern. prefix
future ~uffix

SO

48
88. '56
66

Ki, honorific prefix

47 8 r, 85

Mei'mei Mdrc

" past particle ... " term. of adjectives


Kiden Kijo ... Kika Kikoyuru

151 Meru 59 M i, termin. of noons

'53 '84
42

59. ., pronoun
58, 59

Kikun
f\.imi Kioka Kisama Kizengen Kiyatsu Ko ...

165 Midomo IS51-mi-mi


58 Mina

prefix ...

53.67 46 53.74 56 '37 66 65, .23. '35. '46 116


'24 '24 53

59 M idsukara ... 56 ~[imAShi

87 to ... 58 Mochite
601 ~logamo 60 Mot:::mn

Kono

l:'\I)EX.
"" F. I l'AC:~

Mono wo ..

Mono kara ...


M(lSu

)(otowori .0' M u, termin. of deriv. verbs u (tHurt.' uffix . N. changes of . H pronunciation 01 " future ~uffix '0' N a, pari of speech " personal pronoun
It

lu, neg. suffix 117 Number 164 NUlnerl\) auxiliary 93. 102 Xuru "

115

155

48
69
72

56 Nu,hi
31
22.24

15
57 1;6

I NzunL
I

156 Ohomi
... 39 Okoshi kotoba

55
14J

~6 ~6 '96
5~

OkOlO

interjection

...

u neg. imperative Nado Nafu Nagara Naga-ula

Omahe 142 On ... 119 Onmahe


132 136

Namo Nan, after nouns


" with neg. base u with adverbial (orm Nando Nani Nanigashi

94 On-mi Onodeukara 186 Onomaropoetic 127 Ono-ono

57 46 56 5~
adverbs
67 76 52,67

66

127.

'74 Onore '45 Order of words


J SO

()rc.linl\h,

'70
72

119 Otemahe 66 65 65 55. S9 55

._.

63 P

57

27

Nanika
Nanimo Nanji Nare Naru Nasaruru

Parallelism ... Passive verbs Perfect Person

Na-so
Ngeri Ni (locative particle) " (neg. particle) Nigori Ni kef;

Plural suffixes 152, 167 Posses ... ive particles 162 Prefixes, honorific '0' '37 Prefixes, humble . Prinling. 1p"nes< .

'95 99 88 ~9
II~

..- '5'

110,

135 Pronnun.s... 155 Prosody


J6

...

Pronuneiarion 151 Punctuation


II 0

Nile ... No ,..

No ".

Nomi Nominative absolute Noritot writing of . Noon

'0'/. 174 R. changes of 192 H pronunciation of R a, tennin. of nouns 182 " plural suffix .. , 1{an ... ,.. . 41 Raruru . .

IQuulatl0n

...

184 19 18, !l.! 178, .82

'07 46 ~8 '9 ~9

29
20

'321

43
118

31

'53
99

INDEX.
I'.-\GE

R.,J.iki Reduplicated plurals Reflexive pronouns Relative pronouns ... Renyogell ...
Renka Root of verb and adjective

138 Soko moto ... ,0J Son ... 48 Sonata 66 Sonk6


67 Sonkun

47

57 59

6.

83 Sono .85 Sono hl>


42, 43, 82 Sono mota ...

61

S9

Ru, disappearance of " terrain. of deriv. verbs " termin. of perfect Ruru , pronunciation Sa ... Saib.. a S.idangen Samurafu
Sahe

88 Sore ... 93. un Soregashi ... 158 saro .00 Spoken language 19 Stages of Japanese ... 43 Structure of Japan ese 131 Sii ... 191 Substantive form 83 Sudeni
163
ura .

57 57 57,6.

53. 66
.6J

Introd. viii Int.rod. \ ii Introd. i 119


115
r 5'

Sasuru 99 Suru Scdoka '89 Syntax Semi-Chinese style Introd, vii, 171, 173 T, pronunciation Sen ... 48 Ta ... eueiu '90 Tachi Sessha 54 Taki Sersu 48 Tamafu h, pronunciation ,., 19 Tamil no 0... Shit reflexive pronoun 66 Tanka " suffix to nouns '31 Tare hi, I~St particle ... IS' Taroka u terrain. of adjective 93 Taremo Shiga or Shigana [48, J 50 -tari-Lari. .. Shika J 5 t TRfU, afier nouns . Shiki 104 " verbal suffix . Shimuru 98 Tatematsuru '"hin

92, 94, 99, .611

'31
20

'7'
63

119
I j2

.66
173

.84 6J

65 65 137

Shindaiji Shill. .. Sho .. Sho ...


Sh6zengen

54 To
J

1'9 1'9

48.55

So ... Sokka Soko

87 6.

59
57,6.

'48 . 148 Ten . Teniwoha .. 39, 40 Teshigana '48 To 112, 129, 130, 134. '39, 178, 182 To ... 119 TO-in Imrod. v Tokoro 68 Transitive verb. 95

.65

149

'30

I 'IJ~X,
l'A(:h I'AC,I'~

Ttan ..Iireration

Tsu,
"
It

22
21,29

\Vare

kana

...

genitive particle

,.

termination of numerals \ erbal suffix .,.

T.uiku
T~unl T::,ut::,u
-buISu ,

\\'.ro Watakushi .. t07 \\'0, masc, prefix 70 '!'ign of accusative '48 Wo ba .. , '95

..

4:>
113, 141

50 50 5'

U, change of ,. pronunciation Uninflected principal words Uninflected teniwoha Uru '" Ul.hi

marks used in '36 \' a, il'uerrog, 125, '37 23.25 vocative ca..\C ..
19, 21 Yaran

'48

V'hiting

I (40,

'7 '46'47
117

\'erL,
u
.II

39 \'Rht, ,06. 134 """uCarc 99. 168 \'a)'o 192 Yo, pers, pronoun ... 161 169 169 117 23 20 50
79

"
\'0\\

humble or honorific .. , ad\ erbs .. , a, conjunctions


:\~

Vocative

case

imperative vocative case ... nfier conclusive (ornl,., Yori ... Y uye

127 7' 54 117 54 117 '41 117 77 156 83 128, '74. 178 85 83 155 '56
138

cl chungc5.
,..

Zan,

"', pronunciation \\'a, pronoun ,t particle

Zeueigen

See h.

Zo ... Zokutaigeu

.. ,

\raga \ragimi \\'"",h.

51,67 ZokuyVcn ,.. 56 Zu, neg, particle 52 future ...

I'R." II;;U U\'

JOUI\ (tOWARD FIlANClSJ

13,

IlRHA\I'S ItUII.UING~,

CHANCERY LAN~, h.(".

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