The Effect of Sexually Violent Video Games on the Emotional Cognition of Women Kati Miller University of Richmond

Abstract Our study will examine the effect of sexually violent video games on the desensitization and empathy of college-aged women. Our subject group will consist of 100 college-aged women, 50 of which will be in the experimental group and 50 of which will be in the control group. Women in the experimental group will play video games such as Grand Theft Auto, Duke Nukem, and Saints Row for one and a half hours a day for three days. Each day they will play a different video game, and the order in which each participant plays the games will be randomized. Women in the control group will not be asked to do anything. At the end of the third day all participants will be asked to take the Revised Attraction to Sexual Aggression Scale (Malamuth, 1989) and the Attitudes Toward Rape Victims Scale (Ward, 1988) again. The difference score between the pre and post-tests for each measure will be calculated for each participant at the end of the experiment and analyzed. It is hypothesized that participants who are exposed to the video games will score higher on Revised Attraction to Sexual Aggression Scale (Malamuth, 1989) and on the Attitudes Toward Rape Victims Scale (Ward, 1988).

Introduction Our culture is hypersexualized (Dines, 2010). Women are made to believe that their value and power are derived from their physical attractiveness and from their desirability to men (Dines, 2010, p. 102). Rather than grooming women to be independent, intelligent, emotional creatures, our society socializes women so that they view themselves as legitimate sex objects who are deserving of sexual use (and abuse) (Dines, 2010, p. 117). Sadly, many women are forced or coerced into sexual acts that they are uncomfortable with, but few women label their experiences as a rape or assault: the women blame themselves for their lack of judgment and for not stopping the man (Dines, 2010, p. 117). Dines (2010) posits, In the world of blow jobs, multiple sexual positions, anonymous porn sex, and screaming orgasms (usually his), saying no to his erection is unthinkable.What is not on offer is the option to refuse his demands since he has (an unspoken and unarticulated) right of access to the female body. (Dines, 2010, p. 108) What is causing this degrading, abusive, unyieldingly patriarchal culture? Previous research suggests that desensitization (Fanti, Vanman, Henrich, & Avraamides, 2009) and decreased empathy for victims of sexual assault (Krafka, Linz, Donnerstein, & Penrod, 1997; Dill, Brown & Collins, 2008), catalyzed by exposure to sexually violent media, has encouraged this culture. Our study explores the impact sexually violent video games on the desensitization of collegeaged women and their empathy towards victims of sexual assault. Fanti, Vanman, Henrich, and Avraamides (2009) have defined desensitization as, the diminished emotional responsiveness to a negative or an aversive stimulus after repeated exposure to it.desensitization to violent media takes the form of lowered inhibitions toward violence and weakened evaluative categorizations of violent stimuli (Fanti et al., 2009, p. 179-

180). Desensitization is a process of habituation: initially viewers react negatively to violence (Fanti et al., 2009, p. 185), but repeated exposure to screen-based media violence can cognitively and emotionally desensitize the viewer over time (Fanti et al., 2009, p. 179). Fanti et al. (2009) found that, after repeated exposure and desensitization, viewers actually enjoyed the media violence (Fanti et al., 2009, p. 185). Most alarmingly, however, is that college students who have been desensitized to violence may show less sympathy or empathy towards victims of violence and may be less inclined to help the victims (Fanti et al., 2009, p. 186), which directly relates to the apathetic acceptance of sexual violence present in todays society. The theory of desensitization is corroborated by the work of Dill, Brown and Collins (2008), which found that, after watching a PowerPoint presentation of sex-typed video game characters that embodied negative gender stereotypes, college-age men were more tolerant of sexual harassment against women and were more likely to blame the victim (Dill et al., 2008, p. 1404). The psychologists found a relationship between long-term violent video game exposure and less progressive sexual harassment judgments and greater rape supportive attitudes (Dill et al., 2008, p. 1406). Dill et al. (2008) posit that the negative gender stereotypes in video games impact players schemas and social scripts about male-female interactions, such as promoting rape myths (Dill et al., 2008, p. 1403). Rape myths are incorrect stereotypes about rape that are cognitive justifications for sexual aggression, that create a climate that allows rape to occur, such as the belief that women enjoy rape (Dill et al., 2008, p. 1403). As a result, Dill et al. (2008) found that after exposure to pictures of hypersexualized video game characters, men may disregard womens reports of sexual harassment, blame the victim and assign weaker punishments to perpetrators, thus condoning sexual harassment and punishing victims

(Dill et al., 2008, p. 1407). Desensitization powerfully and negatively affects college-aged mens perceptions of sexual aggression. Another study explored the effects of slasher movies on college-aged womens perceptions of sexual violence (Krafka, Linz, Donnerstein, & Penrod, 1997). In this study, one group of female participants watched slasher movies and then commented on the proceedings of a rape trial (Krafka et al., 1997). Slasher movies depict sexualized violence, and Krafka et al. (1997) found that women who were exposed to sexually violent films became desensitized to the material and were less sympathetic towards the rape victim than the women in the other conditions (Krafka et al., 1997, p. 169). Subjects that watched slasher films were inclined to interpret the events at the trial in a manner unfavorable to the alleged rape victim (Krafka et al., 1997, p. 173). Krafka et al.s (1997) findings demonstrate that sexually violent media negatively impacts the emotional cognition of college-aged women, too. As Dill et al. (2008) noted, video game players social scripts and schemas are effected by the interactions they see between men and women in the games that they play. Video games encourage unrealistic sexual expectations for both men and women, and they promote specific scripts about gender roles and sexual objectification (Downs & Smith, 2010, p. 721). After seeing hypersexalized characters, scripts, and relationships in video games and receiving rewards within the game for performing certain violent or sexual actions, both male and female video game players might come to believe that these behaviors are reinforced and sanctioned by society (Downs & Smith, 2010, p. 723). This could cause the player to apply what he or she has learned from the video game to real life, which would perpetuate a hypersexualized and sexually violent society like the one we live in today.

The purpose of our study is to build on the aforementioned findings by focusing on how sexually violent video games impact college-aged womens perceptions of sexual aggression and their empathy towards victims of sexual violence. The independent variables in previous studies that have explored similar dependent variables have been exposure to hypersexualized pictures (Dill et al., 2008) and movies (Krafka et al., 1997), but not exposure to video games. Dill et al.s (2008) study only focused on college-aged men and their reactions to violent, sexual media, but we have decided to align our study more closely with that of Krafka et al. (1997) by limiting our population to college-aged women only. Our study will add to what has already been known about the effects of sexually violent media on desensitization and decreased empathy in men and women by focusing on the relationship between sexually violent video games and college-aged womens empathetic and sensitized reactions to them. Procedure Variables The independent variable in our study is exposure to sexually violent video games. Experimental group participants will be asked to play three different video games over the course of three days, spending an hour each day playing one of the three games. Our dependent variables are the womens desensitization to sexually violent material and their decreased empathy for victims of sexual assault. Desensitization will by measured using Malamuths Revised Attraction to Sexual Aggression Scale (Malamuth, 1989) as seen in Handbook Of Sexuality-related Measures (Dines, 1998), and we will measure empathy for sexual assault victims using the Attitudes Toward Rape Victims Scale (Ward, 1988).

Participants We will have 100 female participants, and 50 will be randomly assigned to the experimental group and 50 will be randomly assigned to the control group. Our population will be restricted in that the participants must be women between 18 and 23 years old (college aged) and they must never have played any of the video games used in our experiment. It is important that the women have never played these games before in order to avoid any extraneous variables caused by their past playing experiences. The women must also never have been a victim of sexual assault or harassment, and they must have been consensually sexually active sometime within the year before the experiment start date. It is very important that the women have never been a victim of sexual assault or harassment so that they will not introduce the extraneous variables from their past trauma to the experiment, and it is important that the women have been recently consensually sexually active so that they are familiar with the dynamics of a consensual sexual relationship and because they may have a greater ability to empathize with those who have been victims of unwanted sexual relations than women who have no sexual experience. Sexual experience will be measured using Bentlers (1968) Heterosexual Behavior Assessment for Females. Procedure Participants will have an initial meeting during which they will be introduced to the experiment and asked to sign the consent forms. Upon signing the consent forms participants will be instructed to complete the Heterosexual Behavior Assessment for Females (Bentler, 1968) and to answer questions regarding their experience with sexual assault or harassment. Assessments will be scored to ensure that participants have not been victims of sexual assault or harassment and that they have been recently sexually active, and the participants who meet the

criteria will be invited back to continue on with the experiment. Upon returning to the experiment, participants will be randomly assigned to the control or experimental group. Participants in both conditions will take both dependent measures (the Revised Attraction to Sexual Aggression Scale (Malamuth, 1989) and the Attitudes Toward Rape Victims Scale (Ward, 1988)) before the experiment begins. Women in the experimental group will be asked to play sexually violent video games such as Grand Theft Auto, Duke Nukem, and Saints Row for one and a half hours a day for three days. Each day they will play a different video game, and the order in which each participant plays the games will be randomized to avoid order effects. Women in the control group will not be asked to do anything until the end of the third day when they will be instructed to rejoin the experimental group. Together, at the end of the third day, women in both conditions will be asked to take the Revised Attraction to Sexual Aggression Scale (Malamuth, 1989) and the Attitudes Toward Rape Victims Scale (Ward, 1988) again. The difference score between the pre and post-tests for each measure will be calculated for each participant at the end of the experiment and analyzed. Predictions Based on the results of Dill et al. (2008) and Krafka et al. (1997), it is hypothesized that participants in the experimental group will score higher on Revised Attraction to Sexual Aggression Scale (Malamuth, 1989) and on the Attitudes Toward Rape Victims Scale (Ward, 1988). Conversely, we predict that participants in the control group will not have significant difference scores between the pre and post measures. We believe that college-aged women will show the same reactions to sexually violent video games as college-aged men do to

hypersexualized images (Dill et al., 2008) and as college-aged women do to slasher movies (Krafka et al., 1997). Significance We hope to find that sexually violent, graphic video games impact female players emotional cognition by desensitizing them to sexual aggression and decreasing their empathy towards victims of sexual aggression. Our results will contribute to a greater understanding of the causes of sexual assault/harassment victim-blaming and the promotion of hypersexuality and sexual aggression/violence in todays society by demonstrating that, in conjunction with previous findings (Dill et al., 2008; Krafka et al., 1997), sexually violent media decreases empathy and increases desensitization in both men and women. The practical significance of our work directly impacts consumers: Consumers of media products should be aware of the psychological effects that viewing hypersexualization and sexual violence can catalyze. If our experiment demonstrates that four and a half hours of playing a sexually violent video game can adversely affect the emotional cognition of college-aged women, imagine how deeply habitual video game players are affected by sexually violent and hypersexualized games, especially children. Our experiment is crucial in determining if sexually violent media, specifically video games, impacts the emotional cognition of women.

References Bentler, P. M. (1968). Heterosexual behavior assessmentII. Females. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 6(1), 27-30. doi: 10.1016/0005-7967(68)90038-7 Davis, C. M., Yarber, W., Bauserman, R., Shreer, G., & Davis, S. (Eds.). (1998). Aggression. In Handbook of sexuality-related measures (pp. 52-54). Thousand Oaks, CA, CA: Sage Publications. Dill, K. E., Brown, B. P., & Collins, M. A. (2008). Effects of exposure to sex-stereotyped video game characters on tolerance of sexual harassment. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 44(5), 1402-1408. doi: 10.1016/j.jesp.2008.06.002 Dines, G. (2010). Pornland: How porn has hijacked our sexuality. Boston, MA: Beacon Press. Downs, E., & Smith, S. L. (2010). Keeping abreast of hypersexuality: A video game character content analysis. Sex Roles, 62(11-12), 721-733. doi: 10.1007/s11199-009-9637-1 Fanti, K. A., Vanman, E., Henrich, C. C., & Avraamides, M. N. (2009). Desensitization to media violence over a short period of time. Aggressive Behavior, 35(2), 179-187. doi: 10.1002/ab.20295 Flood, M. (Ed.). (2008). Measures for the assessment of dimensions of violence against women: A compendium. Retrieved April 22, 2012, from http://www.svri.org/measures.pdf Krafka, C., Linz, D., Donnerstein, E., & Penrod, S. (1997). Women's reactions to sexually aggressive mass media depictions. Violence Against Women, 3(2), 149-181. doi: 10.1177/1077801297003002004 Malamuth, N.M. (1989a). The attraction to sexual aggression scale: Part one. The journal of sex research, 26, 26-49.

10

Malamuth, N.M. (1989b). The attraction to sexual aggression scale: Part two. The journal of sex research, 26, 324-354. Ward, C. (1988). The Attitudes toward Rape Victims Scale: Construction, validation, and crosscultural applicability. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 12, 127-146.

I pledge that I have neither given nor received any unauthorized assistance during the completion of this work. Kathryn E. Miller April 23, 2012

11

Attitudes Toward Rape Victims Scale The Attitudes Toward Rape Victims Scale (ARVS) is designed to assess attitudes related toward rape victims. The 25-item questionnaire consists of 8 positive and 17 negative statements about rape victims which deal with areas of credibility, denigration, deservingness, trivialization, and victim blame. Items are rated on a 5-point Likert scale and summed to form a total score from 0 to 100. High scores reflect more negative attitudes. Ward reported Cronbachs alpha = .83, and a convincing construct validity. The ARVS is the only scale that had also been applied crossculturally in the U.S., Singapore, and Australia, demonstrating convincingly ecological validity (ibid., Xenos & Smith (2001) (Flood 2008). 1. A raped woman is a less desirable woman. 2. The extent of the womans resistance should be the major factor in determining if a rape has occurred. 3. * A raped woman is usually an innocent victim. 4. Women often claim rape to protect their reputations. 5. * Good girls are as likely to be raped as bad girls. 6. Women who have had prior sexual relationships should not complain about rape. 7. *Women do not provoke rape by their appearance or behavior. 8. Intoxicated women are usually willing to have sex. 9. It would do some women good to be raped. 10. *Even women who feel guilty about engaging in premarital sex are not likely to claim rape falsely. 11. Most women secretly desire to be raped. 12. *Any female may be raped. 13. Women who are raped while accepting rides from strangers get what they deserve. 14. Many women invent rape stories if they learn they are pregnant. 15. *Men, not women, are responsible for rape. 16. A woman who goes out alone at night puts herself in a position to be raped. 17. Many women claim rape if they have consented to sexual relations but have changed their minds afterwards. 18. Accusations of rape by bar girls, dance hostesses and prostitutes should be viewed with\

12

suspicion. 19. *A woman should not blame herself for rape. 20. A healthy woman can successfully resist a rapist if she really tries. 21. Many women who report rape are lying because they are angry or want revenge on the accused. 22. *Women who wear short skirts or tight blouses are not inviting rape. 23. Women put themselves in situations in which they are likely to be sexually assaulted because they have an unconscious wish to be raped. 24. Sexually experienced women are not really damaged by rape. 25. In most cases when a woman was raped she deserved it. The scale scores from 0-4 : Disagree strongly, Disagree mildly, Neutral (neither agree nor disagree), Agree mildly, Agree strongly. Range 0-100. *Items are reversed scored.

Scale created by: Ward, C. (1988). The Attitudes toward Rape Victims Scale: Construction, validation, and crosscultural applicability. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 12, 127-146. Found in: Flood, M. (Ed.). (2008). Measures for the assessment of dimensions of violence against women: A compendium. Retrieved April 22, 2012, from http://www.svri.org/measures.pdf

13

14

15

Found in: Davis, C. M., Yarber, W., Bauserman, R., Shreer, G., & Davis, S. (Eds.). (1998). Aggression. In Handbook of sexuality-related measures (pp. 52-54). Thousand Oaks, CA, CA: Sage Publications.

16