E

([Q)
{ & Csh Bsk

wsh J a\
wsh J [S
wsh uzu \

u|mk
h PP
Pa \, \ & 600 006.

 u|k A_
u v & 2005
UTl - 2006

Szu

.u.\Sn j
x{ A B [Q x,
A] PU P,
|u, \ & 600 035.

P
.Q.
h, xzu,
x{ A [Q x
D... A] PU P
va] & 620 020.

P. C[P
h, x{ A
B [Q x
A] PU P, |u,
\ & 600 035

. h]
h xzu,
[Q Ez u ~m x,
Q P, va] & 620 002

B]P
v. u. \P,
. [Qm u
xP [Q B],
xP [Q B],
.P. A] sP .{., ].G.I. \ mU .{.,
`k, \ & 600 094
Asn|P, \ & 600 040
v. }. S
xP [Q B],
G.GL.G.i. {
\Pmh, \ & 600 079

: .
h[P u : u|k A_UPP U P
CUPP, u|k
C 60 .G.G. u Aa]hmkx


CUS E x a] x.
A, u~mz xP Hmk [P
kzv E uP Ax P
P Qhzx. CUS | UPuP UP,
u En mP Ezv, _a` vP, \Uv
u AvPP, |P, E[P A G
]UPP Gv|UQ. Ca\P GvP
UQ o C E x AUS Ex. G
[Pzv u C uzu[Pa \ |x E\
U Pzu xPuS E xP ua]
u. Cu E x a] uhx ]h
Qx.
C E Ev \uUSz u
E x \u AihU PzxP umk. u
Eh\, zx, ~sq, |zuk, E
uP u ~m, _a `{, U, } E
, zx \uU Th u~m, P|h
u Bmk E xP nPUS
AP \x. CzxP uhP uk
\vP Cn u[P P Px U
P. nP u[Px [P EP UP o
wUP Euk P xP \x C
Ax. C umk u
~mU TP C P Cz
uPS.

u. \Sn j
Szu
E ([Q)
h] S

{ Cshsk E ([Q)
hzvmh & hSv
u Eh\ : Enmh & PimkP &
mjP & PP & mhP & u[P & } & \Qu En
& P AP & Sshu & Czu \UP AvP & Czu \UP
S.
I.

Ena \ : G\P A \kP & En

u SkP & \zu & P ]Qa\ & Sh s & Sh
CUP & Sh A] & zu PP & D CUQ | & P A].
GP, mkP : (PP) G & mkP |u
& mk & UPm Bi ] & G zx.
u\P : Gzu\ A & u\a_UPa \ & u\P
Su A _UP n & u\i (u\xUP)
& u\ CUP Eh] _\z xnh Ti Eh]
(EhPmk zu) & w Q.
_]zu : ~ _\ & _\ & Em_\ & a_\
& a_a ] & _\U Pmkk & \UPa\ & ]
& P\| & a \ & P\.
Sva _] : Cua \P & Cu CUPz ysh uu,
u & Cu _ CzuU S, Au UQzx & Cuz u\
|] | & w & Bg]Q & Cuzu\ CzuU
Sh }UP & Cuz u\ CzuU S u Aa ]Qa\
& Cu CzuU Sh & h & Cuzysh Ah & Cu
Gv h & Cu P & miU Cu | & CuU S
| w ]Qa\ & Czu Azu & Cu Aa ]Qa\
& |izxi & Cu ~ \ ysh & Czu & & Czua
\P & Czu Eu & z & G.
J[Qn EP uSP : | J[Qn
oP & { & EUP & UPu & A | &
UPa\ & {kzumh Aa\a \ & GUm
G\L QL & x Chx J[Qn & uskhzv
P & Aa\a \ & zusk hzv & v
J[Qn & mmh _ & uk & uk & P

iv

& C_ SUPP & Am _P P &

CUPa _P P.
En EP : Ps & Pso Skzx & zv
|h J v & PsP SkP & Qmh &
y & U PnURk & zv | & Ps &
Azu & U Ps | & Ps uP & PUii & SUP
& Ps xP & Px & Pmh CUP & Ph E & PxP
Sk & P EuU P & Ca\ _u & u &
\P & ` PvUP / UV PvUP&P & \| & |US
& _ En.
P }UP : h\ & ES E u
(Bu _]) & ]} ES & S iPmku &
SP sk Eg_u & SP _zu & ]}P \ & ]}P
FkS & ]}P Cv & ]}PU PP & ]}P ]Qa\ &
} |.
CUP : CUPa \P ES & uha _]
& Pu & EhUS \P Pu & U Pmkk.
II. ~sq : & zx ~sq & h

Pa h BQ [Rk & ~sqP A

& & [S P & |P & Uj
A, |P & mh\ ~sq &
& A] & Jmkso & ~sqP |
Ezvzu & ~sq | Gv & x ]Qa\ & Gm
Au Pmkk.
III. |zuhUP

: C |uhUP & UPsh |

uhUP & \ z uhUP & {n} EUP & u &
] & Eh A {n} EUP & {n} ia_P
& sp & Gv mP & CSP & hk
\[QP SvP & E uhP & QLi PP
& uhP sh ^ SP.
IV. uP : |UP & u & S\

uS h & DNA \UPz u~m &

|P & u vmh & S[ & mh
EP & ]Qa\ & E uP & & |UP & UP

& {UU A \ u[P & u \z u[P &

\UP & u A.
_a` A : UP uP UP & P
& EP E & Psni k & K\ h v
& PP s & E P xPzu & A_
A_ \ {[P [S & B |UPi Au _a`
uUP & _a` & | |UPi s.

V.

mk E : P|h Au & sn
& UQ mi[P & P[P & CEP C[P &
C[P & x P|h |P AP
Pmkkzu & P|h CUPzv Pk
u~m & u & U P[P &
snUS P & & u|mi En P &
zx \ua\ u~m[P & huP &
Umh & \Uhmh & ]} \UP B & GUm
PiQ & D.].. (PQRST) A & Pmhm hQL
uuu & GhP & \P UP & Bmh A\.
VI.

nU PmkP : UQ & v UQ &

h & v h & uPzv CPz u Pmk &
CPz u & ukzu P.

VII.

vi

\ hzvmh
E & [Q
S &

XII

1.

Pim, mj, P mP
Ah Pqu & 1 \u (JS)

2.

K mi ]} E Ah
Pqu.

3.

u E} E A |v \u
CUP Pzv Au.

4.

Psniz xshzv uUPmh vP Au &

Gh, |h PU, vu Qmik
P, Czu ]qUP, Czu qUP.

5.

vP & K mi , Ps, Px, ]}P,

|L, Cu.

6.

PP / x mP
1. hzuP
2. Umh
3. Pso \mk vk S (xh)
4. PsnU P k Q |]z v (Eye lotion)
5. y / QmhU Psni (Bifocal lens)

7.

vmh AUP (Sux Csk)

1. \ Pn & zx \u { Ax
zx Ax A B { (Research
Laboratory)

2. \ Pn & sn Ax Psn
Ax sn.
3. \ Pn & } \P .
vii

hUP

UP

1.

Eh\

001

2.

~sq

114

3.

|z uhP

135

4.

uP

154

5.

_a` A

182

6.

mk E

217

7.

nU PmkP

255

viii

1. u Eh\

Eh EP \vP Au
Eh\S. Azx Eh\ {Pa]P EP
u{ Pzu, u, CUP \u G CUP[P
\kPS. u{ Pzu EP E
mPx u[P P kzvU PsUQ.
u{ Pzu, u[P CUPzu AvPzxU P
q Aih E[PUS uzu
Azxx. Eh }, E [P Ahzv, AkP
BQ xPzu u{ Pzu sS. Cs E
v \P P _ BQ HkQx.
n kP u Pmh EP
AP Jzu \ vP E uUS
BuQ. Czuzv Ev Kha \ Cu Ezv
Ena]P CUPkx {Pa]. G Eu
{Pa]UP, Czu {P BUh Cnu u J
] UTP A u P ] yskuP
P v [Pz ux |P, EnU
Phzxu v {z uh \k
kP, En Enzx PsP
\kP CP |UPzx AuU PskiPS.
sPU Phzxu G Pa]UP
\mi CUPa \P Ezv \u
|ha \x G Pz uk CUP Ez
uP AvP Hkx mk |hP. ,
EP CUP P \u, _a`
UQ uP Psix ]hx.
CP Azx Eh\ {Pa]P G zu
Psh ]UP \kPS. Aa\kP, A
{ uk kP C
umk. C UP P AvP A uPP Esk.
C u Su A C[S UPmkx.
1

CSvP P A v S
EP { Pu sk. Cu
Eh\P E A.

Enmh
EP E S P Enmh P
PnQ. Enmhx En Ezu, \zu,
EmQQzu, uUSu G {Phx.
FmhP EnP Sv mP k. C
Azx En PP xP Pmmk, mj,
P, mhP, uxEUP, } G v mP
B. C JUS Smh oP Esk. Azx
mP \ A Psh En EmPx
A a], , Eh|, Eh\P, _a`
uP BQa \ux.

PmmkP (mU] BikP (A)

RmhP)
PmmkP, P, m, BU
1:2:1 [ (CH2O)n] G Quzv Psk. C
Ja\UP, Cmha\UP, Tmka\UP G Pk.

Ja\UPP
C uzu UT B G PmmkP
C PP GsoUP Aih h,
i, hm, h, U\ G PPP
Ax.
i_P : (Trioses, C3H6O3) ]u zv Ch{
mPPz u. E UTP Ch \v
CS UQ [Ssk (E& Q\ik).
h_P : (Pentoses, C5H10O5) UQ ,
iU] . CP RNA, DNA UTP UQ
A[P[P.
U\_P : (Hexoses, C6H12O6) SUP, LUh
PUh G mPP En E.
PmmkP \P \Uv uuUS EuQ.
\Uv EzvUP ]u BUPn {Pa]Q ]mU
Aa _] Hk. EzvS \Uv ATP (Adenosine triphosphate)
UTPPa \UPk. J Q Pmmk 4.1
P ASa \Uvz u.
2

Cmha\UPP
k | u [ V_ gk.
Ca\UPP , \UP E. P Cmha
\UPP Esk. A,
mh

& SUP + SUP

(x> >VMB^)

_U (D ) & SUP + LUh

& SUP + PUh
Uh (V_)

Tmka\UPP
k u [ [V_ gk.
CP Tmka\UPP AvP A uQ.
C Eh Pmk mPQ Pmi, \ G
mPP E. AvP A \UvU Psk, \ EnP
ha Axx. Enz xPP ha\x Ui,
AUi UTPP Ex. [SP P
u\P QUP G Tmka\UP Axx.

mjP (hkP)
mj UTP P, m, BU, |m
BQU Psk. C PuP Esk. EP
\\, E[P, |P[P, u\Pz uv
CS (A u[P) UQ [Ssk. mjP
G\PPa \Q. ASa \u[P G .
mj UTP, A A[P B. Q],
A, ], , ], BQ 20
P A A[P E. C A], A]
A A[P G CPPP UPmk. A]
A A[P |x Eh Ezv \ ix. C
En P |iP u sk. A, ,
ii, I\], ], ], v, A,
v, ih A] A
A[PS. kEB\u tV t^ cs_ \]
kB VBt_. M_, ku \m c_ >BVm
V^ BKD.
A A[P hk CnP Cnu
K mj Ax hk ES. CP }sh \[Qz
uh AS mj u{ A G .
3

mjP ]UP A Csk Ax {

mjPP AvUS. SuLm Xm WhuLs
Ei.
C{ v CnP Hk. K Smh
uUP mj AuS ]UP AU
PsiUS. K mj A A[P AkUS
UT A s Aihx. G u
"P' Gk Az uP C UQzx
.

h : 1.2. SP

h : 1.1. _

ICMR En {n S Pzxi WHO

{i J u|US J | uk mj
Ax J QQ Eh GhUS 1 Q BS. En
mj Su _, SP Smk
|P u. ] Su Eh Gh S.
Pk US Hk. Eh u\P . G
x u ix { u. SP u\P
x P, PP UP Hk. , EUS.

P (kP)
C \P P UQ UTP. C \UvSu
UTP. Eh P UQ \ En mP. uUS
Ai E P EhUS AS \UQx. ]P jk
P Ezv \uUS Pz u. G P
Ax iQ\kP CP AvP Pnk P
PPS (>Vk F^). C [SP Ai_ v_UP
E. K iQ\hx Q\ P A[P
Bx.
P A[P Csk PPsk. A {,
{u P A[PS. {u P A[P
Gv BUPnh. G u Czu Azu |
EPUS A\a_mhm P A[P (PUFA) E
4

`Pv Gsn \L Gsn ]ux GU

TQ.
J Q P 9.3 P ASa \Uvsk. |
En PP 25&30% Px sk GU
Tmkx.

mhP
C Tmk A[PP UTP. En PUS A
E. C Eh a] Eh\ {Pa]PUS C
A]. mhP |iPa \Uv u Cx. B
\UvUS Eh\ [P |h C u.
mhP A, B, C, D, E, K G UPmk. C
mhP B, C } P. C Sx P, PP |UQ
} P } Px \k. mhP A, D, E,
K AUS AvPP EmPsh Eh u[Q mh]
G S mh |P Hk.
mh D Ax P]L |x uUPi E
GPi G x ` J ku uUTix.
G CuSa "` J mh' G .

mhP UQ P
1. Eh\ {Pa]P : Ps En

mh

A UQ [S QUQx. [SP CUPz vUS

mh E A]. Czu Eu mh K {P.
mh C |z uk Axh a] FUSUS.

2. Eh v_UP xPzu : Eh Gzw v_UP

mh A B2 xPUPkQ. G a]US
mh D u. v_UPUP zxna]v mh E
[PUS. | \P En mh B 1 u.
mh B12, Czua ]qUP va]ha \.
3. Y[oR Ut\ {Pa]P : P]
]u mh D {P. mh E J Bi
BUhm BS. v_ ]u zv mh B1 J P&G\
P k. | shzv SUP BUPnzv
Eu. mh B2 SUP ]u zv Eu. |]
(mh B) K P&G\P BUPn S {Pa]P
uk. C A A[P, P ]u
[PUS mh B 6 u. mi G B mh
BUPn ]u [P K xn G\P Eu.
\ |h G\ {Pa]P mh C, ysik.
5

mh SkP
mh A
1.

Pspa _ vhx Pspa _U S.

2.

h Gzw Ex ] {h (Xerosis). h
_[Suhx Pik (Xeropthalmia) . Pso P
Sv s (Bitots spot) u.

3.

hzv sP u | u Hk (Keratomalacia).

4.

U Ps | Hk (Nyctalopia).

mh D :
GP P] iu vUPk. SuPUS
UPm |, vPUS Bi] G | u.

mh E :
u CUSk | Pshh. \u
[SP mkzu Hk.

mh K :
1.

Cu Smh Czu Eu vh.

2.

u CzuU P] SkP u.

mh B 1 :
mh B1 PU Su " ' G |
Hh. Cu | Cu&_ sh[P vh.
]P Cv \ AvPUS.

mh B 2 :
] Hk. C & Sh SkP, Euk, ,
|US sP u.

mh |] :
Cu Smh U G | u. Cv v
u. u v, s Hk. |USa ]x Hk.

mh B 6 : (hU)
PsP, US, PxP BQ EPa _ u
vP Hk. Eumi K[P iP u.
6

mh B 12 :
Cu Smh Czua \P Hk. |US Ex
snS. uskh \u |P vP Hk.

mh C :
Cu Smh "P' G | u. Cv D
CzuU P], u, u\P CzuU P] Hh.
Cnzv_ u[P u vh.

u[P
A[PP En mPQ PmmkP,
mjP, P BQh |x EhUSz u[P,
mhP, } uk.
u[P ] P AvP A ukQ. A
\i, P], mh], U], , \L
S BS. u[P \ Su A u. A
C, \, xzu|P, Pm, [P, Ai, L BS.
C ] u[P AvP A Eh PmkzuUS
EuQ. SP G, Pz uUPz u (P],
U], ). ] ~s u[P BU Phzxu (C),
u (Ai) ]u [PUS
([P, \, xzu|P) u. ] u[P Eh vzv
SvPP (S, \i, mh]). ] u[P
(U], \i, mh]) |u\z yskuPUS
u. P] Czu EuUS Eu. mh]
P] Cu CUP[P xn \.

}
Azx miP Eh } K UQ A[P.
P Eh Gh (Eh Gh & P) u Emh
miP } A 71 &
78% GU
PnUQhmkx.
Eh E } A x, , Eh Gh
PoP k. u Su Eh Gh 85 & 90% }
SvUS. CbP Eh 55 & 60% } Esk.
Eh zu } 2/3 [Px \ E vP
\P (Intracellular fluid) 1/3 [S \P (Extra cellular
fluid) AvUS. \ E } 25% Czu
Ex.
7

Eh ~ }US, }USh E
\mh Eh } xPUPkQx. } Axu,
vmP Axu, Enh ~ } BQ P
Eh } ~Qx. EnmP ]u
{Pa]P } EzvS. Ah | } A 2500
BS. Cv 1400 |iP }P ~Qx. Eh }
|S P |k. A 1. ]} (1400 ), 2. a_\
(400 ), 3. u (600), 4. h (100 ).

} P
1.

Eh Azxa \P UQ A[PS.

2.

En PmPU PhzxuUS Eu.

3.

v [P |huUP uhP A.

4.

G\P, P, mhP, GUimkP

PQx.

5.

Eh zu xPUS.

6.

Eh v_UP A Ev \.

\Qu En
EhUSz u Azx En mP E
AP Psh En \Qu EnS. CP En,
C Eh a], \u v, |m \k, P
A BQ xPuP Au sk. JUSz
u \Qu Enz w \P Ax zuU
Pzu PnUQhmk Au En SvmP
uukUPk. xP zu P u 10 & 15%
u[Px 25 & 30% Px Gg] P P
mmix uPU PkQx.

P AP
Enmh En x K P Gx 1
Q.Q } 1 0 C EzxuSz u APU
PkQx. Cv zx BU P] (ICMR) En
]U S (Nutrition Expert Committee) (1968) uSvPh K
v Cv BqUS (Indian Reference Man - IRM), soS (Indian
Reference Woman - IRW) uk APU PnUQmkz uxx.
Cv v Bs (IRM) 25 x, Eh
Eh Gh 55 QQ ,| Eh |.
8

1.62 \.mh,

Cv v s (IRW) 25 x, Eh 1.4 \.mh, Eh

Gh 45 QQ, | Eh |.
Psh IRM, IRW US P zx P
u A.
IRM (Cv v Bs)
v\ oP

Au

\ u

Pi

460 PP

460 PP

460 PP

B) \u
Eh oP
(8 o|)

1220 PP

1220 PP

1220 PP

C) \u
Eh oP
(8 o|)

750 PP

1100 PP

2200 PP

zu

2430 PP

2780 PP

3880

A) Aih
]u
(8o|EUP)

PP

IRW (Cv v s)
A) Aih
]u
(8 o| EUP)

354 PP

354 PP

354 PP

B) \u
Eh oP
(8 o |)

826 PP

826 PP

826 PP

C) \u
Eh oP
(8 o|)

610 PP

900 PP

1800 PP

zu

1790 PP

2080 PP 2980 PP

JUP Enz w \P Ax Pz
u PnUQhk. CUPnURk v Bs/s u
Aih A. x, Gh, Eh |, uP
BQ Aih PnURkP UPk. Cv
J En P v PnUQ Psk
Enz u wUPk. Au w \P En
_, \u UP[P Pzv Pk. \ u
\ K \\ Cv BqUS, sqUS vu
uk \Qu En \K^ kl_ umkx.
9

Sshu (A) Eh u (Obesity)

AS AvP P Eh \PUPku Eh
AvPUS. Cu Czu Azu AvP, CzuU S
Ah, Cu |, } | SkP |k.
Smh vS Gh h 10% AvP Eh
AvP Gk.
Eh Eh GhU Smh (Body mass index - BMI)
Sh. QQ PnUQ Eh Gh mhU
PnUQ Eh Ezv h[Q Szu BMI QhUS.
EunP 70 QQ Gh 180 \.mh E Eh J
BMI
21.6
2
(70/1.8 ) BS. P BMI x 19 & 25 G A CP
AvUS. CuS BMI E BsP, sP
SshPPU Puk.
Sshu { U Pn[P, AvP ] Au
ug] Esqu, | _P _P ]u
U SkP Hh.

Ena

\ EP : Ena \ EPP En
u ( u zx ) \a _P
Ax. CP En Eh A[PP
UTP, EUP, } Eh a \
EuQ. P ~ En SvP
UTP \UPkP mjP Ax.
C A{ Sh_ P EUP Cx. C
PUPmk ] UTPP Ehku sk. C{Pa]
\zu Gk. \zu, \a _P G\PEn
\zu Q FUQPP \hU Ti.

Ena \zu :
: \zu u \ Ena \zu Ax
u BS. Ca\ En Pa] xqUSPP Ak.
Cu ush En ]UP [P C. Ca\ P,
|US, uhP E} |h. , uh Gz
u\Ph Cnx \miU |P \zu Ax
10

u Hk. Enx DP, Asn, |US

SvP Azuzu Hkzxu uhu ^ u {Pa]
ysi hk.
E } : Asna _P (Parotid) Rzuha _P
(Submandibular), |ia _P(Sublingual) Cna _P
E}a _UQ. vu 1000 u 1500 E}a
_UPkQx. E} A, ] G A[PP mP
E. E} A (A) h ha] x
\hUTix. C \zu En ha] h
G Cmha \UPP . ] K QUPmjS.
C EnS z uz u. C{
EnS Gv [S uh Enz v (Bolus) G
. E}a _ K Aa\a \S.
[Su : [Su K ]UP Aa\a \S.
Cu Szv E [Su PmkkzxQx.
[Su sn, S (Larynx)
Ezuk. |US, Enz ush voUS. a_US
ix a_US ih En xP, EnU S
C[S.
EnU S En C[Su zv EnU S
_USz u\P ua] Hk. En xP
C |UQ C[S. CuP EnUS R |UQ
C[S A CUP[P Hk. EnU S Akzukzxa _UP
& ua]PPz u S _ CUPzvSU Sh A G
. x u K A C uh GkzxU
P P A 9 \PskP BS. Sh A uu
J uR { En [P C.
C : Cx K AP A. EuuzvSU RP
Ex. Cu i A EUS En A
zx A. En E~ AvPm\P 1.5
mh AS uS. C CUP Sh AP
Hkzx. J A C EhSvx
u UQa \. UQa \ u A
CUS ii SvUS Ch E _USz
u\Pa _[Pa \.

11

C E_ C }a _P Esk.
HUS 40 ~so _P E. C Chief
cells Gk UQ \P G\P, _\P (Parietal
cells) Gk BUiU (Oxyntic) \ HCl Azu _x G\
\miS u Azu QhUQx.
C G\PP ], _UPkQx.
] \ { ] G Pa _UPk.
HCl CUPzu ]x ]P . ] }
Szu mjP Ehzx hPP .
Azu Ca\k Pa ]P AvUS.
mjP + ] hkP + hP
: G\ mjQ P] P
u Psh P] G P . P] AP
P]x Pu P] & P] Tmk S.
CuSz u G .
uh Sh A CUP[P C En
Qx. _ CUP Px ysh ^ CUPzv
zx A. CUP | P
Pmkkzuk. Cx R[S EnS C
S G . CS Smh ChP ] Sh
~.
]Sh : 5&7 mh }h ]Sh, SvPhx.
A ii (]Sh), G Cha ]Sh, C
G ]Sh BS.
C Sh A \ Enx ]
Sh ~. CUPzv U _USz u\P
Pmkkzx. ]Sh Sv zu}, Pn }, ]Sh
} G mP PmhkQ.
zu} : C} h a\ {hx. Cx Px
u PS. zu \PUPmk zu|zv
]Sh Ah. zu } }, P , EP,
Pm, zu {P, zu } EP . zu
} EP P mPa ] Pz vPP
Q.

12

Cu
P
P mh
]
USh

C
Eg_u

EnUS
En
}

En \zu
vhUP
_zu
]Sh

E}
_P
|P

[Sh

h : 1.3. \zu \

Pn } : Cx Pzux (pH 7 to 8) Pn }u
G\PP i], Pi ] E. C Csk
i], Pi] G { _UPk. C
GiP G ]Sh } E C[S
{ i], Pi]P Qx. Pn }
A, (i]) PU] ih, {U
G\P E.
AXv S vPof] UphPNL Tdm.
lu, LUlu, LoTdTlPv, GuNmLs,
WhuL[f Ndm WhVL[m. CY T-TlPL[
TlPuLs, V TlPLs, A] AXeL[Lf R\f
Nnu\].
XlTv, Llu WNWL[ Ll AXm,
NWXLl dm.
uPp o: GuNmLm NVpLm
1.

Ll

Ll AXm + NWp

2.

dWv

dLv + WdPv

3.

UphPv

4.

XdPv

5. TlPLs
6.

DNA, RNA

XlTv
dWv

UphPv

dLv + dLv
XdPv

dLv + LXdPv
Glu

A] AXeLs
dV

dVPLs, dVNLs
13

EmQQzu uu : Ena \zv P

mmkP Ehmk SUP, Uhv, LXdPNm.
mjP } SUPmk A A[PS. P
Ehmk Q\ P A[PS. Sh Em_
E Sh Eg]P P ~so. C En Eg_
EP. C Ui | G {n} | Aua
_ Czuz uxQP E.
G A[P UTP, ux EP, mhP, }
Sh Eg]P Eh ~Q.
Cg]P {n} |zu P A[P EUPk.
mP |iP Ax PP Sh Eg]P
Czuz uxQP E~.
\UPmh En mP Eg\mk P
mh ] Pa \hQ. Px
Eh SvPUS EnmP PhzukQ. A[S
A kzuk. Cu Enx \UvP, \
AP u x uUP Gk.

En

SkP

\zu (Dental Caries) : T p - u x xPP E

G, hh G (uu) ]x ]uPz u
Ahu \zu Hk. P ix Ch[P Gv
u {P. Sv (Azu Ch) UP[P,
AQ P, DP Gg] EnP, E} P
, Uj[P BQ E. Ah[PEn
Pi mkP Q \ Uj[P Azu
Hkzv G vha \Q. Cuz ukUPi
hh G vh. Cu u S
uQ Uj[P u[S. E TS
vhx | u u.
\zu uu
TS

h : 1.4. \zu

| ASP : \zu xUPzv ASP

C. \zu |S HmkuS u AS S.
14

C `k Ax Sa] Su En AvPS.
x| Hh.
]Qa\ : zxP \zu E Chzua ]
x (Drilling) \ uUS. _zu \x uu
\UP (Dental amalgam & K S EPU P) Ax ]sm
{ k. T S | u AvP
ASv Akzva _zu \x { Ax
k[Q Gkzxh.
P ]Qa\ (Root canal treatment) : k[Suz
uzx CP z uUPzxU P, Cv ]Qa\ Eu.

]Qa\ i{P :
1.

x ] x K x Chk.
Czx T S A. T mP Azx
~so PP kzv }UPk. Ca]Qa\
X Pv {hzv PsPoUPk.

2.

S |S _zvPUPk. ~sqv (antibiotic) x

\ AUS {mkz uPPP hk. J
] |mPUS { }UQU SUP
QP {u Ga \vUPk.

3.

|z u C AUP ]h (Gutta
- percha) xzu|P BUk, z BUk \u PU
Psk {k. S Sv K P
]smi ^ \k.

Shs
C, ]Sh SvP E_ v_zu A
Ahx P uu Sh s Gk. CP CSvP
Hcl Azv vx xPuP K P U
Psk. C AUPmh A[S v_UP UP
Hk. Eu vh. CsP, Shs, C
s G CPk. C Sh s AvP uQx.
25&45 xhPUS Cs AvP uQx. 50 vS
mhP C sn vUPh.
Pn[P : Sh sP UPUh
(Helicobacter pylori) G Uj[P uQ. B
] {n x mPz uUS AvPP
15

EmPu sP u. P izu, x Axu,

PL E Azu[P sP Hk. Sh s
u AvP endoscopy G E|USU P B
\x v A wUPkQx. Sh so x
Ax CzuU P] Hmh EhiP zx \zxa
]Qa\ \u sk. xPa ]Qa\ P s BuP
PP v HhuP A. UP P
zu, Pizuz uzu, BP Auvzu
BQ u. P, Azu uzu
sk.

ShUP (Ax) Sh xUP

ShUPzv xPU RP' G. z
u\P S Ch[P CUSk |h. C{
vj Gh Su mPz yUSu Hk. Cu K
xUP Pz uk. Au Pz v_UP Ax
Sh Sv x[QUS. Pi Eh P
BsP R ShUP u.
ShUPzv Sh J Sv vPhx xUPzv
~xk. ASv Czu Kmh uhh. CuSU
ShUP ShxUP G . P AvP C Ehi
Aa ]Qa\ u. CP xUP[P Eh SvP
Hh.

Sh xUP PP :
1. Pmh xUP (Inguinal hernia) : Sh J Sv
Ai Sv U S PnPU R[Q k.
2. uh xUP (Femoral hernia) : uh
\hzv xhzu ] Rx xhSvUS
C[S. C[S Sh xUP Hh. AvP Eh Gh Ax
SuP BQ Pn[P sPUS CUS
|h.
3. P Sh CUP (Umbilical hernia) : CUSk
] SuPUS Hk. | (Navel) a _ Sv z
u\P ua]hu CUP u.
Sh CUP \ \u : G A ]Qa\P \
\. kzumh Ax x En
(Anaesthesia) Cua \ \.
16

Sh A] (Appendicitis)
Sh UP HmkU Pk u.
[Sh x[S Chzv K ] SPU Sh Ex.
CUSh A] C zvh (Adolescents) xPz
u. | SP Ensq a]hu
|mih C| AvP. Sh UPzu uk (Blockage),
{ Hk. uk E Sv Akzukzx Ch[P
Uj[P |z u Hh.
xUPzv vj , vn
u. Pa\ u. ]Qa\ Puu |
Sh izx u |h. CP
u vS Eu A] (Peritonitis) G .
Aa ]Qa\ Sh }UP \.

zuU PP
zu u zuU PP AP A.
40 vS mh zv JUS (1/10) CUPP u.
CUPP zu} u. zu } Pi, {P
] EP E. zu } uP [P Hmh P
uu {P. CUPP Pm B. P
uuUP Pa \ Pn[P u. C
Eh AvP K PnPU PukQx En P
AvPu P uu Hh. Su v {
PP zu } |zv Ah Hmk g\ P u.

P A] (Hepatitis)
P A], Pn[P Hh. C| P
UP Hk. C{ P uUSu Hh. u
| P A] AvP A x Axu Hk. B
{P uSP uP Cv. xP C|
Eh\, vkzu, Pa\, x Sv
K \v En Hk. CuPU Smh
]Qa\ C. C{US | K u. x
Axuz uUP sk.

17

GP

mkP

J u u Eh 206 GP E.
GPh CnUPmh u\ |P _ 700 E. C
Csk | Eh 50% GhU Pskx. GP Eh
xPUS, Ehz u[P EuQ. Csk GP
Cn Chzv mk Ax BiS uQx. mkP
Eh CUPzvS Exn CUQ.
G : G Ehu Ax Ru G
Gk. zv G Ax GP P ku
C u a] | AvPzxU Psk
Qx. , EP[S zxUP EP {P
PQ. Q.. 14& si, Qm P, PP
G ]Qa\ UQ. Cv, C P
G Sa ]Qa\P E. G S |U
Pa ]Qa\ E. CP A \u, |zv
]Qa\PS.

vu

h : 1.5 G PP

h : 1.6 X & Pvh & G

18

G PP :
1. a\U P : CP G SuPUS
HkQx. Cv uP, PhUE[ Sv Jmi
{ Pnk.
2. i : CP Hk CzuU Pmk
Pnkv.
3. vu : CP , Hk CzuU Pmk,
vu Pzv P |S uPU Pnk. Cx
J P \ P. Cu PU Pk US QP
EhS ~ A Esk.
4. |{ (Pathology) : u GP Hk
J ] u, CSU PnQx. Cx
ui\zv HkQx.
5. Azu : uha]P, }sh PzvS, G
Khzv Hk Azu, CP SU PnS.
6. : Su US u, Su Eh
Hk , Gk.

G Hk u :
|iP Ax PP G x Hk
u G SU PnS. |i u, Gu Chzv
u |hQu Au Chzv G HkQx. P
u, Khzvx ChzvS, u Hmh
Azu Phzumk Chzv G HkQx.
_] Ax G vP: G x Hk _] \
(Oblique) G HkzxQx. G G Hmhx

Ch
h : 1.7 u GP Tku.

19

xP \u v_UP

P v_

Guz ux Px P A]. Au , G
Sv \P ukUP i. J u zvu
Ax E Pmihzvu R u GP
Hk. Cv Hk G |iP Hmhx. Cu UP
P xPz uh Hk G P
u uuS.
u GP Tku : Ca\ {P E.
A : 1. [Su {, 2. \\u { 3. sk
izu {.
1. [Su { : G Hmh Chzv E CzuU
SP izx hu Gz xskPUS Ch E
Ch Czu {Qx. Cu Czu Ex h
HkzxQx. Ca\ J Ax Csk |mP |hQx.
CSv E v_UP UPhQ.
2. \ \u { : C{ P v_ EQx. Czv_,
u GP P, CnUQx. Aux
u GP P xP \u v_UP `x PQ.
C{ 8 u 12 [PUS |hQx.
3. sk izu { : P v_ u ,
xP u C P JmkQ. CSv xP
Azuzuz u[Su u\|Ph Cnu \
DkkQx. CSv Hux Sk CUS, Ax
Aa_zu \ \kQx. C{ 1 h
}iUQx.
] ]Qa\ (Physiotherapy) :
]u (] ]Qa\) G x, Eh]
P, \u P, PP sk | \ha
\Qx. ]u Eh]P, Czx ]
Eu, G A ]Qa\ zx R
PkQ. mkP CUPhu u\P
C G ]Qa\ Cv u ]
a]PS.
C
a]P
u
Eh]P wUP.
mkP |u : mkP Cnx GP,
ASvx Ch u Ax |uUS mkP |u
G . \ { v GP u[Px {
kQ. CuS PoP, PnQ.
20

mk |u Pn[P: A: 1. Pmh,
(USk) 2. zx, 3. |, 4. UPu. Pmh Gx
Pa] x PoP G a] Sk
HkuS. CPUS hhU Ax hhU
SkP G .
zxUP GP x |iP u Hkv mk
|Qx. Cv mk |u, u, [PP
Ck Sv HkQx.
| Hk mk |u, P\| |P
HkQx. P\|, Ck GPa ]uha \ x,
A]mhzvx G |Qx.
UPuzv mk |u C uzv
u\P a] S Au u\P B SQx. Cx
mk |uUSU PnQx.
Bzmi : (mk ) mk Sv E EP
AP UPhu mk HkQx. CuS
\, Csk GP Cn Sv BmiS Sv,
P] BQ SvP PnQ.
mk US |U PoP Esk. A: | &
Eh| |U Po, |z uu, |P
]u U Sk.

mk PP :
1. u | EshS mk : hLPUP,
mhPUP, PPUP, miUPa\, TVmU ,
]L, Q UP uP mk HkQx.
CzuP mkPa ]uha \Q.
2. miU mk : Cx J x |. Cx |
Eh E G Cnz v_UP vUQx. C|
SP G u\P Ez uSP AvPPz
uUSQx. \ E UP C| UQ
ASS. u J v BiUS GvPz u
| uk, miU |USU PnS.
3. Bi Bzmi (Bi Bz) : Cx
mkSv, UP, mkP ]uu Hk mk
S. u mkP E SzuP vUPku,
21

]x ]uPz wh J | BS. ux G mkU

SzuP P AUPkQ. Cu GP
SvP J mi E]U PQ.
4. ]u U Sk mk : Cx ]u
zv Hk Smi HkQx. u Pnk
(Purine) ]u U Si Cx uQx. CuSa
\unP Pm (Gout) G . \i m iP[P, (U
A) mkP Szu Sv, Aua _
v_UP, \ E x iu Cu mk
uQx. mkP UP, mkSv ]x u
Cu UQ ASPS.

UPm Bi ] :
C |P, GP x x P EP
\ EshQx. | Eh GP _ 98% P]
\zx UPmkx. BP P] ]u zv Hk
zv GP A a] v
HkQx.

u PP

h : 1.8. UPm

UPm : En Fmha\zxUSk CUS,

Fmha\zx UPm Sk GUPkQx. Cv, U
PmiSU R UPh Cx xPU PnhU Ti
ShS. Cx mh D Smi uQx. Cx, |S
vSmmh SuPh xPU PnkQx. mh
D, P] Eg_u GP \Pzu
Ph uhhx. mh D P] Sk,
GP xUSQx. C| vUPmh SuP,
u PP, Ax Jmi [PP, xzv U TkP,
oUPmkP APzu, E ASPh
Pnk.
22

UPm | u uk P, PU Pzv
uUS Fmha\zx En [Su, Su uh mh
D Pu En AvP Pkzu u. Pm _
P Gsn, mh D Ah[Q En S.
Bi ] : x uP, mh D
Smi vUPk x, C| HkQx. GP
GP hu C| sPS.
Cu, GP P Gv x k uhQ.
G zx (Orthopaedics) : Czx, G \umh
AzxU SkP PQx. CUSkP u
Ax Ch uuP CUP. u
Pnk SkP Su Pa] x u.
Ch uUTi SkP, zv PnP Hh.
CUSkPa \\, u, P Pkzu,
EPn[P kzxu, \x zu (UPmk) B
Cnzu. UP x Pkzxa \
GPa ^zu, A ]Qa\ | B
P kzukQ.

u\P
u\P CP _[Q uh. zv |
Ex yshPUS H u\P C[SQ. u\a
\P E CvPa \mk v B CUS
BP Q. SP EP A\P,
Cua_UP, CzuU SP _UP CUPa
\Pa \Q. uP | Eh Gh 40%
u\PS. Cv 10% v_UP Cuzu\P
Ah[S.

J Gz u\ A :
J zu\ u\ |P PPP Ax.
u\|P SUS mh A 10 u 100 UP
kQx. u\ |P } 1 .. u 20 ..
PnkQx. J u\ |a _ \h
PnkQx. CuS \P G .
J u\ |, 4 u 20 CP
PnkQ. CS LP G .
CP JUP CnP Ax. Cu L
P mh A 1 u 3 U kQx.
23

u\P

> V
u\ |
\_oB
w

Z
h : 1.9. u\ | ~s A

24

Cu CPUQh \P\ Ex. Cu L

J u xsiS \P G .
\P A : \P ~snUQ P
E |UQ Ahzv (A - P) Ahzv PP
(I - P) AvuU Pn. A & P zv
J S Ahzv Eh Sv PnkQx. AuS H Sv
G . I - P J 'Z ' iU Pmi CshP
UPmkx. BP, J \P, Csk Akzukzu
'Z' PkPUS Ch \P Z Pk, I - P A P & I P
Akzu Z Pk AP E.
GUm ~snUQ EuPsk zu\P B
\ux, uha]P Au 2 P u CP, Czu\P
Avx uxx. A - P, _[S uh
"]' G uzv uizu CP uSvP
PnkQ. Cu ] CP mh A 110 A0
} 1.5 U.
Cshx uSv ~s CP, (50 A mh A) A - P
} CPz u Ax. Cshx uSv CP A
P x, KS I P x }siUQ.
CUPP BUi G B. u\|P _[S
\, ], BUi, i] i
BQ |S UQ u[P \kQ. u\|P
\PUS u B ATP UTPx kQx.

u\a_UPa \ :
1. |P & C PzxU PP (Sliding - Filament hypothesis)
\ U BQ C (1955) CUPzxU PP
mh. CPx Pzvi, u\P _[S AQ,
CP CP E. A ] BUi BS. u\
A P

I P

h : 1.10 u\P _[S u

25

_UPzv x CP J x JP |Px \Q.

u\ _UPzv x, }m] x, A P } x
CUQx. zv, I P } u\ }zvS H
Qx.
Cu PU 'Z' PmkSvP J |UQ J
CUPkQ. Cukzx, Akzukzu \PP
CUPkQ. Cx u\a _UPQx.
u\a_UPzvP ATP B : J u\ \h, B
ukQx. Cu B ATP UTP ADP + P; BP
u hkQx. u\P AvP |h,
AvP GsoUP ATP UTP Q. Cu B
BUi C, \k Chzxh CnQx.
|& u\ \v : u\|P, Psh
|Ph CnUPmk. Cu |P usk hzvx
uQ. Cu |P i Chzv u\, |P
\vUQ. CuS |&u\ \v G . |P, u\ |
zv Sv Cnx. Cu | Pz u\
|PUS \S B, u\|P C v\P
Qx. J |zysh, | u\ \v uh x,
Ahzv
A]mhP
G
v
hkQx. C u\ _UPzuz yskQx.
u\a _UPzv xUP : Gh CnUPmk
u\P _[S \, \S B u\|P uh
x x[SQx. Ca\ ASv yshz uzx
a \Qx. Cu B, u\ |P EmSvP Qx.
Cu, \PU Svx P] AP
kUPkQ. CuU P] AP u\a _UPa
\UP v \Pz xUSQ. Cu
u\a _UPU Pmkmka \PUS ysh Ahu G .
u\a_UPzv AvPm\zv : C }h
u\P \k x, u AvPm\ Azu \Uv _ & 3.5
Q.Q/\.\.. u\SvS.
u\ v : }sh KS , J u\
_UP Auh zv (AvPm\v) vA CUS.
Czu\P, 30&50 u\zyshPUS S zv
AhQ. zyUS P Gh yUSP Cu
u[Ph zv AhQP.
26

u\P Su A _UP UP i (Muscle

tone - Rigormortis) : K { CUS x, \ ysku
J Smh A _[Q { u\P
PnkQ. CuSz u\P Su A _UP (Muscle tone)
G . GPh CnUPmk u\P Su A
_UP,
uskhzvx

|
yshP
|hQx. Ca\, x yshP K
|hQx. u\ |PUS u J ua\
\, CuU Su A _UPzvSU PnQx.

u\a\ (Muscle Fatigue)

}sh | { u\P _UPzv Cu u\a
\ HkQx. Cx u\P E QUP SuKD
V tD ]>VKD HkQx. u\a\ Gx u\P
Psk _[P C x u\ |P ]u
a \ |h Cx uS.
uhu u\ CUP SkuUS |&u\ \v
k yskuP u Pn G BP
kzv. u\PUS Czu Kmh uhku, J
iUS u\P \hx k Gx |S uu Es.
u\PUS O2 En mP \uu CuSU PnS.
n (Rigor mortis) : J Cu , o|
, u\P _[Q { (h) Ah. CuS n
G . ATP & UTP |P Cuu CuSU
PnS. C{, \ E \\P GP,
u\ |P u[P Pa ]uUS }iUQx. Ca\
|h 15&25 o|]uz^ BQx.
u\i Gx u\P ]uhx Ax vUP
kuS. J zv u\ |P CUPmh, u\ |P
vSQ. CuSz u\v G . Cv,
u\|P AvPm\ }m] vUS CUPk x
HkQx. ] \[P, u\i, AvP Pzxh u\ _UP
Hk x EshQx. ] \[P sk sk u\
A\P |hu EshQx. J u\Sv, }sh |
AvP Azuzxh CUS, Ahzv u\P J ]
Hmh u\iz u.
27

xS Ax Ck , \unPz u\i
Hk uS. Cx, |P \
AvUPmh Hk uS. Cu, }sh| J
{ Ax CUS x u\P CUPhQ.
C{x C\P J S usp GkuPP |
x Th u\i Hmk h.

u\ CUP Eh] _\z xnh Ti

Eh] (Isometric and Aerobic Exercises)
u\a _UPzv PP : u\ _UPzv 2 PP
PnkQ.
1. I\hU u\a _UP : Ca_UPzv, u\
~soP |u u\P SmhQ. Ca_UP
\un A\P HkzxQ. Aux, [PP hUSu,
P, PPa _u ]zu .
2. I\mU u\a _UP : Ca_UPzv, u\
~soP Au Aa]x \UP _ x, u\P
zu HkQx. u\P Hzu J A\u
SUS Cx \ku u\P z u HkQx.
I\mU Eh] x, J uhUS GvPz
u\P SQ y A\Q. J A\u z u
u Ax CUS u Cv u\ A\P
uQ. I\mU Eh] xP u\P
a]USa ]uuS. Au \, I\hU Eh]
Cuzu\PUS x v. I\mU Eh]
u\|P ui, A QUP \z v
AvPUQx.
Eh] : u\P kzu, u\P S,
u\P CS PnQx. kzumh, Gu E
\xk. J[P Eh], u\ A,
v \k P BQ AvPUQ. |
uUP Eh] kQx. |h] P
Kmku u\P US, |QS x
EuQ. u\a\US GvP kQ. SPz
u\ v, _\z xnh Ti Eh] AvPUQx.
Kku } }xu ]P _\z xnh Ti
Eh]PS.
28

_\z xnh Ti Eh] P :

Eh], Eh|zvS UQ [PUQx. Eh]
P Eh|zu kzxQx. A Cu ~
\v AvPzu, kzumh { K{
u\a_UP Pnku, mkP Gv A\ u
S. Cx Eh uz ukUQx. J[P,
Eh], u\PUS AvP A Czu,
BU \Qx. uha] Eh], Eh ]u
a \P, \zu, | u\P J[Qna
\P kzxQx. Cuzxi }iu, AvP Czu
Cuzvx EukQx. CzuU SP Pm \PU
SQx. ~P |S v a
\a \Q. uha] Pk Eh]
Psh AuP CP uPPP {uP
CUP. _\z xnh Ti Eh] o|[P
uhu, Au u\P }m]hv. B C]P
u\P uP, {zu AvPUQ. |
Eh | quS, J v\ 20 {h[P Eh]
\u sk. Cu Su m\ v\ 200 PP \Uv
(837 Q P) GUPh sk. PU Pi Eh]
h, uha] \un Eh] EhUS |x.
u \u Gh yUS ] u\P
uS I\mU u\a_UP PnS. Cv u\P
J Smh A\ h JmiU Psk u\ _UPzv
DkkQ. }izu {zu uUP Eh]P
Pmh u\z x[PP HkzxQ. BP J
Eh] |UP G Gx P A]x. Gh yUS
Eh]P, J zu KmhuzvP }izu Ez
v [Px. Ax Kku ], u\P xkzvU
Pmkv. EhUS mkv. J Smh
|UQPP, J Smh ] Gx P A]x.
w Q : Cu| 20,000& Jz
uUSQx. C| P, PPa \UPa \Qx. CuS, |z
u\ \v ysh Phzuh PnS. |h, u,
a_ ku, _u \ Dkk u\P vU
SQ. C| UQ AS, Ps C \zu BS.
29

w Q 20&30 vSmmh sP AvP

uUSQx. B C| C v Gx sk
uUP. _ |zuk AU Sk | G C|
|kQx. Cu, | Eh uuP, u\z
yskuUSU Pn A]mhP \mkUS GvPz
|z uk uk. Cu BiiP Ezv \
kQ. Cu BiiP u _ uUP
kQ. C| whu, _\ EP u\P
\x CUP |k. Cu |U Snkzu u _
Ehx }UP sk, Czuzua _zvPUS \
\sk. CuS L] G . Cu
BiiP PkQ. vUPmh _ 10 \uuzv
C| CUQ.

_]zu
_]zu Eh ]u zvP BU \P
kzukQx. C{Pa] P PU P & h &
BUk kQx. CP _]zu UQ
ox Eh \PUS u \Uvz uzuS.
BU kzv SUP ]u zv ]uu
\P \Uv Q. \PUS uhx \Uv u. Eh
\PUS ~PUS Ch BU P&h
&BUh PhzxuPa ]u Czua _ EP E.

~ _\ :
_\zv {Pa]P Esk.
Pmh : BU Su P ~ kQx
(Em_\). Au P&h&BUkh k
(a_\).
ii. O2 : ~P a_a ]Px BU,
Czuz uxQP E Czuzv .
iii. O 2 Phzxu : ~ ]P BU Su Czu
CuzvSa \u.
iv. O 2 u : uP uxQ P
BU Eh \PUS k. v_UP
uxQPx BU (SUP En
mPk) Eh \PUS . v_UP, \Px
P&h&BUk k.
i.

30

v.

O 2 , CO 2 Ch : Czu, Eh\Ph BU,

P&h&BUk Ch . \P SUP,
BU K ]UP v {Pa] DkkQ. Cu
SUPx P&h&BUk, }P Qx. (G\
BUPn).

vi. CO 2 Phzxu : Czuzv PU P&h&BUk

PhzukQx. ~ kQx. (a_\)
sh

CO2 O2

Pmh (1)

CO2

O2

O2

CO2

(2)

O2
~ Czua _]
Phzu (3)

x Cu
A

Eh Sv Czua _]

Chx Cu
A

CO2
(4)

CO2

O2

\P

\P _\ (5)
h : 1.11. ~ v_UP

31

vii. CO2, O2 Ch : P&h&BUk P a_a

] _P BU EUPk.
viii. a_\ : P&h&BUk Su P .

_\
Hk Azu [P Em_\
a_\ Hk. |x Azx SvP
AhUPmh, PP Cu A. Cu ,
xPz uh UP[P GP RP
Euu G AUPmkx. GPh ,
Em Ghz u\P E. Czu\P CUPzu
P AvPUP SUP C.
Ai Euu ix. _]zu {Pa]
ha \u SUSu |h.
Em_\ : C{Pa] v P, ~PUSP
GkzxU PkQx. Cx K \S {Pa]. C{Pa]
Ghz u\P, Euu [S Q.
C _\zv x Ghz u\P
_[Su GP zv \ |UQ EQ.
Ca\ UPmi xS & mi
uQx.
a_US
hu

Em\
P

P ~sn

GUTk
Euu
h : 1.12. Em_\

Euu

Euuzv mhzu\P _[Su |UQ

Evu Euu umhQx. C{Pa]
& R mi P TkQx. T Azxz u\a
\P A AvPUS. Cu ~
P Azu shzv Azuzu hU S. Cu
Dk\uP UP P uP ~
~.
32

a_\ : Em_\zvz uhx a_\

{P. Cx K uzuh \. C{Pa] P
~x k. CuP P
SUPk. ~ Pzu AvPUS. Ca_\
CUP[P Hk.

a\
P

_[Su

Euu
uhu
Euu

h : 1.13. a_\

1. Euu ua]h. |UQ Eu C

Su Az u.
2. GP E Ghz u\P _UPzu
C {USz v.

a_a ] :
~PU P Ahuh {P. ~
u uxQP a_a ] _ Jmiu Gv
Hh.
CO2

O2 O2

P ~sn

Po2 = 100 mm Hg
CO2
] Czu

CO2

O2

O2

Po2 = 40 mm Hg
Pco2 = 46 mm Hg

u Czu

Po2 = 96 mm Hg
Pco2 = 40 mm Hg

h : 1.14. P ~sn

33

BU

|m P&h&BUk

Du

E %

21.00

79.00

0.04

15.7

74.5

3.6

Sv

P Azuzvx S Svzu SvUS

BU P&h&BUk . C Azu
\{k Hk. C{Pa] K G C
\S. CuP Bh _zu, Phzxu
u.
shzv BU Azu AvP. Azu 20 &
25% (Po2 140 Hg) G A P&h&BUk PUSP
0.04% A Ex.
a_a ] Po2 (BU Sv Azu) 100 .. Hg
A ]P Czuzv 40 .. Hg G AP
AvUS. Azu mh O2 Ch . ]P
Czuzv Co2 Svzu 46 .. Hg G A Au
a_a ] 6 .. Hg (02 1/10 Sv) G AUS.
Cmh Co2 . Czv P O2
h 20 h[SP CUS.

_\U Pmkk :
Szv K _\U Pmkmk Ex. Cv
uzu Em_\, a_\ [P E. C[P
| \ BUP U |P (Phrenic nerves) P
EuuzvSa \Q. C|P E, Ghz
u\PUS Akzukzxz yskuPU PhzxQ. a_a
]P _ CS En SvP Esk. C _\a
]a _ \ EnUTi.
a_a ]P _P Em_\zv |S h.
Au Enu EnSvP Szv a_\ SvUS
P | yskuP AQ. Cu Em_\
{zuk. CPz uh {Pa]US [ & \ (Herring
Breuer reflex) G .
, Szv K a\[S Sv Esk. CSv
_\ zxh uh Pskx. CP ^
34

Jzv\ CUP Ev \mkx. Em_\zv x _\

zv Em_\U Pmkmk Svx a\[S
(Pneumotaxic) SvUS EnP A. Cu uha]Pz
yshmh a\[S Sv EnPa _\ zv
a_\U Pmkmk zvS A k. a_\
C[Pz x[S. Cu Em_\ zv o uP uhk.
CP _\a ^UP [P CUPkQx.

{ (Pneumonia) \UPa\ :
~P |z u [Q {hu
{ Gk. C|x _P Ax Uj[P
u. {x Ai , _\a
\n Ax PU\Q P Hk. Uj
{x {PUP { G Uj[P
Hk. UP G ~sqP {z
uUP. (UP Gx K UjzvS
S Chmh E)
uSP : g\, a\ {a \ ] P
Czu \ ku Hk. Pa\, |kUP,
a_zvn, C u.
]Qa\ : |shUQ ~sq zx x
]Qa\ A. xP iW (Antibiotic) Ax g\U
P (Antifungal) xP mi E. Pa\U SUP
B Ax ]mh k. BU Azu Ax
\P _\ ]P uh.

P\| (Tuberculosis) TB
C|x UPUj iS] G
Ujzu u u u|S. J Pzv EP
x AvP A u P |S. a.I..
v EP C| uU P.
Pn[P : C| uU P. |
J P uUPh. Em_\zv, ~
~ Uj[P CUPhx vQ. US
|zukz v |z uz ukzx h. C|z
u Sh, GP, ]}P[P EP vUP.
35

uSP : UQ AS C |g_S. ]
P Czu h. |g_, a_z vn, Pa\,
C zu, ], GhUSu Hk.
~US } u[P |h.

a\ |

(Bronchitis)

a_U S ~Ph CnUS a_U QU

SP _ UP u. Cu C \ uu
Hk. C| Csk PPsk. w a\ |
vjz ua ]x P vUS. a \|,
uhx }izx BskP vUP. C Csk PP
P iP AvP A P _ku E Ch[P
P AvPPU PnkQx.
w a \ | : P Ax P _ku
u. Uj[P u. SP[P v
AvPUS. PiP, ] SuP, uP, ~
|hP Gv vUPk.
a\ | : Sux uPx
C \ u. C| a_ uP SPhx
AhP Hk. G^ Gk ~ UP|h
C| CnvUS. CuS ~ uz uh|
(Chronic obstructive lung disease - COLD) G .
Pn[P : P _UPk, Pizu .
C| \ u a_ uP Ahk.

Sva

_]

|x Eh E Azxa \PUS uhx En

mP u. \P ]u [P
|hu A[S u P mP u
UQzx x. Eh \P Eh
En ~ Ch Enu Ax P }US Ch
]}P[PUS AQ Cv. G Eh Azx
SvPUS uh Hkzx P Cu, CzuU SP,
Czu Ax. Cuzv CUPzu CzuzuU
Phzx CzuU SP En PmP Phzxu
Q.
36

Cua \P :
u
~ ]P

g]

Chx Hm

~ u
x Hm

a \v

Du

R g]
Chx mUQ
x mUQ
h : 1.15. Cua\P

Cu Czu KkuUP \UPU PS. C

Eh SvPx ]P Czuzu .
SP , R g]P ~ ]P Cuzu
|UQ Czuzua \zxQ. Cu Cuzv x Hm
A BU }UPmh Czuzu Chx Hm A
~x BU Czuzu . C Hm
AP _[S Czu x, Chx
mUQP Ah. x mUQPx ~
UQ u Czuzu BU uP ~PUS
Gkzxa \. Chx mUQx K u
ux. Czux P uP (Coronary
arteries) Eh _UP uP u.
x Hmzvx x mUQUS Czu C[Su
u (Tricuspid valve) Pmkkzx. Cu Du
Ax m (Bicuspid or mitral valve) Chx APU
Qh Czu C[SuU Pmkkzx. ~ u,
u BQ SP Czu ~u \v
P US.

Cu CUPzysh u u :
Cuzv \UP Cuz u\P Hk. Czu\P
_[Su hu K ^ CUPPU Smh i{P
|h. CzuP CUPzvP \&BUS Pq (SA node),
37

\ & BUS Pq
Hm & mS
Pq

] P

Q CP
h : 1.16. Cu CUPzysh u u

Hm&mS Pq (AV node) , ] P, Q

CP AP Cuzv E.
Pqx YX Hmzv UPa_
Axx. Cx K ] mh i u\ | AUP
miUS. Cu A 1.5 N.. X 3 .. BS. Czu\ |P BUQ
_zu\Ph |S Cnu. CUPq yskuPz
uUS vhx. Czysh v BUQ x
C. C P 0.3 /\Psk BS. SA Pq ysku
AV PqS . AV Pqx yskuP ] P,
Qg CP BQS . ysku Phzx Cuz u\
CP mUQ _ x . AV Pq
CP ysku Phzxu P zv\[P Hk.
SA

Cu CUPa _] :
K xUP Cuzxiz u iiP {Pa]P
sk Cuz xi xUP uu K Cu CUPa
_]S. Ca_] Cu _[Su ]h Gk. Cuz
ua]x hh BS. K Cuz xi Gx K ]h,
K hh EhUQx BS.
Hm ]h : , R g]P, Cuz u\, \
(Coronary sinus) SP uhx Czuzu x Hmzv
PmkQ. Au Chx Hm V[z ~ ]P
Czuzu Qx. Hmzvx iUQPUS 70% Czu
uP u { R[P. Gg] 30% mUQ
Hm A _[Su voUPk.
38

mUQP {u : Hm[PUS mUQ

APUS Ch E P vu Czu R[S.
Cu mUQP C [S {. Gg] Ch Hm
_UPzu {k.
mUS ]h : Hm ]h iuh
SA Pq ysh AV Pq | AP
Ahx kQx. Cu mUQP _ _[S.
Cu mUS Azu u. Czu \
Czu, A \v Pz vUPa \x E uP
x ~.
mUS hh : mUQP _[Q Czu
h Czu Azu Sk. Aa\v P
hmk Hm P vUS. Akzu Cu CUPa _] x[S.
Cu JP : huP | En Cu Jx
Cu P CUPzu HkuS. JP K ^
uQ. u J EzuuP () }sh |zvSP (0.16
& 0.9 \PskP) CUS. C mUS ]h {
Hm & mUS P ku Hk. Cshx J
(h) \ SQ P CUS. (0.10 \Psk). Cx,
mUS ]h i Aa\v P ku
Hk. Cu {hzvS 72&80 P xiUS. mUS
]h uP Czu Svzx Kk. CuS Hm |izxi
(arterial pulse) G . Cu oUPmi En. Czxix
CuzxiS Cnx.

Cua _ CzuU S Au UQzx :

C UQ Cua _z uP (Coronary arteries) Esk. A
Chx, x UPU SPS. Chx ux Chx S u,
Chx R[Sz u G C QPU Pskx. x Chx
Cua _z uP QP Cuz u\P ~x. C
~so uPz uzx Cuz u\US BU
Su Czuzu AUQ. BU }UPmh Czu Cuz u\a
]P Ah. Au Czu x Hm A Pmhk.
Cuz u\ CzuU SP vhu Ax AUSP
_[Q Cuzu | (Coronary artery diseases - CAD) Hk.
39

uP Czu Kmh Su Cuz u\P vh.

h, SkP Hk. uPzv UP
[P EQ SvP UP Cu |P
vhx.
Cuz u\ |] | (Myocardial infarction) : Cx K
Cuzu\z u |S. C| Cuz u\PUS \ uU
SP Ahku u. Cu PU Pk |g_
Hk. CkSp CRVjRNu J T C\k \.
Pn[P : Cuz u\z uP Ah C|
Hk. Ch Ax S SUP Em_ Pi
P mP iu Hk. CiP R
HmkU S CzuU P] Hh. P]u Czuzv Eu
xqUS S Ahzu Cuz u\PUS Czu Kmh uhk.
Cu Cu CUP {zu Hh.

uSP :
1. PU Pk |g_ . C Pzx, Chx PUS
. 2. zu, 3. a_z vn, 4. U Smh, v.
5. n hh.
5& JUS C| |g_ uv. B
UP, zu, u |h. CuS
""Av Cuz u\ |]'' G . Czu \UP
vhP, P Czu Azu EP u.

| U PoP :
1.

PiPUS Cuzu\ |] | Au n
|kuP P AvP.

2.

P Czu Azu K U Po. Czu Azu A

zx v A.

3.

30% Eh Gh AvP EPUSz uU S Ah,

Cuz u\U S |P u sk.

4.

Czuzv Pm A Tku. AvPU P En

EmPu.

5.

EhUS v Eh] Cvzu.

40

w (Angina Pectoris)
B G Azxx
Pk Hk. C Cuz u\PUS Czu Kmh
Sx BU Qhzu Sk Hku u. C
vjz u. CUPPz u x
Azukx A. 30 {h[P C }iUP.
Pn[P : 1. Sh Pn[P Cuz
u\PUS Czu Kmh Sku.
2. P \ Czua \P Czuzv BU yUQa
\ v Su.
3. \zw | Czua ] AqUP
GsoUP AvPUS. Cu Czuzv Ah AvPzx Cuz
u\PUS \ Czu Kmh P S.
4. uU] _ AvPzu, AuS uhU]P] G
. C| Cu CUP wh. Cua _ Czu Kmh
AuS Dk \x. Cu w u.

Bg]Q (Angiogram) CuUSh hzu

X & Pv \zv Cuzu\ CzuU SP hPz
uzu Bg]QS. Chzu S AhPU
PskiUP. \unU Pv hi AhP
uv. Ch v \P P Sv uhz
u P K S \zumk Cuz u\z u
AUS }iUS. S K {a \ \zumk X & Pv h[P
GkUPkQ. Ca\ uv.

Cuzu\ CzuU Sh }UP (Coronary Angioplasty)

Ca\ Cuz u\ CzuU SP Ah
}UPk. CuP Em\zvU S kzuk. K
EQol UP x (local anaesthesia) Pkzu { K u
PmkU Px uhz u Cuz u\z u
\zuk. S Em\zvU S Aumia
\zuk. Ah E Chzv , P {k. Cu
Ah }[S. Au SUS BuP J _ P (Stent)
A[S {zv UP. Ca_ Azu |S vUPa \.
41

Cuzu\ CzuUS u A ]Qa\ (Coronary

bypass surgery)

Ca]Qa\ Ah Sv Czu Kmhzv uUP

kQx. Cu CUP {zumk A ]Qa\ Pk.
A _\ & Czu Kmh o CRV WWp P
(Heart - lung machine) P. Eh Sv
CzuU S Ah SvUS P v u AUPmk
Czu Kmh ^UPk.
Cu CzuU S Ah (Atherosclerosis)
CUSmi uP SPh. uP Em
_ iP Hk. CiP Czuzv P
mP Hk. Cu Czu Kmh vh.
C{ CzuU PmiP Gv u. (thrombus) C Czu
Kmhzv |Px \U Ti. (embolus) CP vP
BsPUS AvP u. sPUS Di K
CP xP AUS.
Pn[P : S AhSU P GsnP
Pu Bz G UQ PnS. , iu
\P, |z v_UP, Czu mmkUP, Pm, P]
P Cv Hkzu.
| U PoP : P izu, P Czu Azu,
Di Cvzu (BsP), Eh , Eh],
\UP |, , CUSmi U
PoP. CUSmh UPu (Stroke) h
Hh.
Cuz ysh Ah (Heart block)
Cu CUPzvP ysku uhku C{
u. C{ ysku \ BUS Pq u
P Cuz u\P Ahv. Ah ysku
Pz u\P Ahx.
Cu Gv h (Echo cardiography)
~s J AP Em\zv Cuzv E
hPz uzu Cu Gv h Gk.
Ca\u K ~s J uUS P Cu Sv
UPmk, ~s J AP Em\zuk. EnU
S \zv \u \.
42

Cu P :
Cu APUQh, CzuU SP xP
Czuzua \zu Cu P k. P
EP. C Czu \si v\ Pa \u
Ev \Q. Cua \v P \a \xx.
Cu P vx ku Cu JPz u.
x SP (Stenisis) Cu PU PkP C[Q
Czuzua \zu siUS. \S Czu
. CUSkP Cu J qqP u.
Cu zxP Ah Ps.

miU Cu | (Rheumatic heart disease - RHD)

miU Cu | EP x x. C|
Eh BUSU Pk UPU Tix. C|x Pa\
Hkzx. ush Sv ihPUP Uj[P
uUSu C| u. C| J | ukz u
Ax Eh v_UP v Hkzx. C| ASPPU
Pa\, Eh, mkP UP Hk. Um CRV
YpLs TlTPVXm.

CuU S | w ]Qa\ (Intensive Coronary Care Unit)

Pi Cu | vUPmhPUSa ]Qa\u
P |P[P E zx P Azv w
]Qa\ Ex. A|Pz uhx PsPoUP
sk. CuP P hu v PP E.
_\zvP \P _\U PP A[S Esk. Eh vzv
E, \UP A, APa] F] xPUPk. Cu
u En mP AUP. K Em\zvU
S Eu ]} \PUPk. u[Q Czu Azu
Czu Azu v \k. Cuz xi ^ CUP, ECG
P v \k. CzuP PsPoP h[P,
Pmkmk zvS uhx Ak. vP C
A o JUS. EhiU P QhUS.

Czu Azu
UQ uP Czu Kk x AzuP
_ u Azu Czu Azu Gk. Eh],
43

Azu, EUP uP zx Cu CUP Czu

Azu k.
CP Czu Azu[P Esk. iUQ Aa_
_[Su u Czu x \u, u
Azu ]hU Azu (Systolic Pressure) Gk. mUQ
P _z ua]h uP _ u
Azu hhU Azu (Diastolic Pressure) Gk. ] uP
Czu KmhzvS [S uh Cu CUP
BQ AhP Czu Azu A. J Cuz
xi x uP u Azu AUS |izxi G .
Czu Azuzv Umh (Sphygmomanometer)
G P Ak \Q. Eh |h J Czu
Azu 120/80 .. US (Hg) GUS (120 mm Hg - ]hU,
80 mm Hg - hhU). v zx k Czu Azu
60 v 130/90 mm Hg GUS. Czu Azu C {
h ""]hU Azu'' 160 mm Hg hhU Azu 95 mm
Hg BQ AP Ax AuS AvPP C Azu
""Pzu'' Gk C AzuzvS Sx
""Szu'' Gk.

w Pzu (Intensive hypertension)

Pzu uhv Cu CzuU SP
\ AvPUS. Cu TdLYRm (ApX) uUS (Stroke)
AvPUS. h, Cuz u\US |, P
Czu Azu, ]}P v, zv | (Retinopathy)
SkP Hk.
Pn[P : Eh AvP P Czu Azu
Hk. En E AvP, x Axu, P izu
Pn[P Czu Azu AvPS.
uk P : x Axu, P izuz uzu
sk. Eh AvPP EnU Pmkkzxu
Eh] Pn[P GhU Pmkkzu. [S
P EnP , Q, h, \, mhP) SP
EmPu sk. E EmPuU SzxU P.

Cu Aa ]Qa\
Ca]Qa\ J uhu Cuzv }UQmk
Ch J Cuzv zu. [SP Cu
44

 Aa ]Qa\, 1959& Bsi Pmhx. u

u uP Cu Aa ]Qa\ . Qi
k, u BUP 1967& \u.

Cu Aa ]Qa\ PmkkP :
1.

CuU Ph E |zv
Ca]Qa\ P C.

Qhzu

mk

2.

zv Cuzv Eh UP zx mh (|
uhUP v) Cu zxx u
.

3.

Ph C mh Gz wx.
C Cuzxi {uS Cuzv
kzx | Eh zxu sk. Cu
Aih Ca]Qa\ AvUS.
C Hmhuz wzx E \u zx AUP
sk.

|izxi :
K ^ u _ _[Q x Czu \u
|izxi Gk.
Czxi Au P, ^ CUP xi \ BQ
Ax UP.
Smh P|zv (15&20 \PskP) Hk |izxi
GsoUPU PnUQmk Au J {hzvP
xiPPU PoUP. |iz xix xP Cuz xi
GsoUP vUS. GsoUP, K {, Eh\P
BQ zx k.
|izxiP CuU SmiU SUS. |iz
xi x PU SP C Cua \, Ava],
Ax Czua _] v Pn[P EnzxUS.
LpLp luU CWjR \ EPtZt \lTh SVp
Ru\Xm.

Cu & ~ \ ysh :
Cuzxi {mh JUS EhiP Sv
CuzvS Azv \x, zxa _\z
ysh \u Cu & ~ \ ysh GQ.
45

, |S {h[PUS USa \ Czu Kmhz

uh Hmh { vP Hk. G,
USa \ Czu Kmhzv |ha \u u.

Czu :
Czu, v { Cnz v_S. Czuzv
G v Sv \P Esk. x
Czuzv 55%, \P 45% BS. xP sP Eh
4&5 mh Czu BsP 5&6 mh Czu Esk.

TP.
mP

oP

1. }

P, Czu mP u[Q
FhP (92%)

2. mjP
A, S
L

u[S v mP, Ll AXeLs,

P, PmmkP Phzxu,
P,
APPa
\u, Czu Eu.

3. AP & Na, K, Ca, Mg,

Cl 2 , Fe, PO 4 , H, HCO 3

FkP J[Sk,
A&Pzu \k

4. En mP :
SUP, A
A[P, iQ\kP
Pm mhP

\Uvzu, Eh
Pmk mP.
|vP \P.

5. P mP :
U A, Qmi
A,
UiU A

]}Pzu
]qUP A
mP. AU _\
i mP

6. UP : BU
P & P & BdN
|m

HU _\ {PP
]u U
PP.

7. |hzxUS mP
P, G\P

Eh\P

Czua \P : P Czua \P
Esk. A;

46

1. Czua ]qUP (Erythrocytes/RBC)

C mh i C Su \P Ca\P EmP
C. BsP Czuzv J P mh Czuzv
HUS 5.2 ]qUP Esk. (Ak 4.2&5.8
) sP Czuzv J P mh Czuzv 4.5
]qUP (Ak 3.6&5.2 ) AvUS.
umk i E ]q SUS mhzv A 7.5 m
BS. K ]q UQ A[P S G CQl
WRUm. C Czuzv ] {zvSU PnQx.
S Eh BUU Phzx. BUh
Cnu { AuS BUS G .
BsP Czuzv ]qUP 120 |mP sP 110
|mP vUS GU Pshmkx. C GP,
xPP BQ G EzvQ.
vhu ]qUP P, sp AUPkQ.

2. Czu qUP (Leucocytes / WBC)

C S {P u \P.
Ca\P EmP Esk. C AUP |PUTi.
Eh ~ ~sqPx C |x Eh
xPUQ. C Ix PPsk.

L\m
\m

\L {mL

D]L

h : 1.17. Pmh qUP

(A). {mLP (|ka\P) (Neutrophils)

qUP CP \u (60&70%) C
EmP i[P AvUS. G CS
EmP {mLP (Polymorphonuclear Neutrophils) G .
(B). C]LP (C]P) (Eosinophils) &
0.5&3.0%. C |P Ch. Eh EP v_UP
47

UP Hi C A[S |Px \Q. Jz u

(Allergy) C GsoUP AvPUS.
(C). \LP (Pa\ P) (Basophils) & 0.1%.
J { Eh v_ UP[P Hku BQ P C
UQ [PQ. C G Czu
Euz uh\.
(D). \mkP ({n}a \P) (Lymphocytes) & 20&30%.
C Pa] qUP. {n}U PqUP, sp, h]
G ush , u {n} EP C AvP
PnkQ. B \P Gk \mkP, Bii
(Antibody) G Gv |a_UPz uUPU Ti. C Uj[
Ph Cnx A Azx hUTi. T \P Gk
\mkP P Gvzx uUPUTi. C P
u[Qx CUPh \Pz uUQ, AUS uh.
(E). \mkP (Ja \P) (Monocytes) & 1&4%.
C qUP. Uj[P, Cu \P, \
xqUPP Azxk uh. Eh
u| uUPk P C GsoUP
AvPzvUS.

3. Czu mmkP (Czuz umha \P) (Blood Platelets)

(A). x\mkP : C \P ] PPz
u. Czu Eu UQ [PQ. C 5&9
|mP UTi.
Czu Eu (h]) : K CzuU S
vhu Czu Eu Hk. K Eu CzuU Pmix
P mj |P Bx. A
Czua \P, mmkP ]UQUS.
E mjP Czu Eu
HkQx. CS Eu PoP G . xP
CUPoP \ { Czuzv AvUS. P
HkP C Eu EshUPz ysi hkQ.
Czysku {P Hk.
u{ : xP uu & v Ax
Phu v_UP mjP, kP
Q. CSz v_UPoP (Tissue factors - TF) (A)
xi G . CUPoP WmTL]v
ApX WWmu G z uUQ.
48

Csh {: x uu & C{
Px x G mj x G
G\Qx. C{Pa]US x G G\ u.
LpW-p WWmu RVlp YhPu K ER\.
x
x
x
++
Ca

{ : Px L G
mj P mjQ L G P .
C{Pa] x Hk.
x
L
L
L, | Ahx. C|P Eu K
Az uUQ.

x] (Czu Eu vu) (Thrombosis)

CzuU SP Czu EuUS x] G
. CzuU S _ vhx Czu u
Eu ukUS. SP Czu Ex x ux
CPUS {S.
K u u CzuU Pmi Czu Kmh
uhh. Cu EPUS v_UPUS \si
Czu, BU \hx.
Cuzu\z uP CzuU Pmi Hi AuS P
x] G . C{Pa] h Hk.
USa \ u Hk CzuU Pmi UPu
(Cerebral thrombosis Ax Stroke) Hk. CzuU Pmi J ]
xoUP Czu Kmhzv Ch u AuS G (Embolus)

G . C{Pa]
EhvP u.

Czu

Kmhzv

uh

Hmk

J[Qn EP uSP
(CO-ORDINATION SYSTEMS)
Azx EP Eh { \kPU
PsiUQ. `{ mh {zu u
UQ. CuS h G . Cx
J[Qn EP \k BS. [SP Eh E
J[Qn EP yshPUS H x[Su \x
EhPU Pmkkzva ^Pa \ha \Q.
49

J[Qn EP yshP , Phzx

v. CP yshP Azu P
BQU Pshx AuP x[Su HhU PnQ.
miP, C J[Qn uSPU Psk.
A (A) | EP uS, (B) v J[Qn
(| _P) BS.

J[Qn

{P \u A |z uS BS. WRV[^,
c cA^ - >|kD, J \uD BKD cA^ B
t[-k]B \VuV_ #|>_ > c>[. >V
W^ WRV[[ c^D Ax\V Na \uD K BM[
\Vu>V_ u|[. >uz VBD-VVEBD D [ B.
>B >Vt[-k]B WB c #_
[VD.

h : 1.18. | \ Cn

J | , | \P Cnt | \
Cn G . J | \- BU i E
S (T[hPu) Sv AjR SWm Np-u PuWhPu
RPo Lsm. CkR Cn | \ Cn BS. Cu
Cn J ] Ex. Au mh A 10&20 |mh.
Cu Cn Sv A]mhP G v
EnP (yshP) PhzukQ.
|z uS E BUP PPa _
E Ex. Cx s PU PukQx.
E Cu BUP PP \ { PU
PukQx.
50

zv |z uS E BUP s
S. C | uPP E. Cu BUP |
\ \v a \Q. \ {SvP zv
|z uS J[Qn a \Q.
oSv \ {P, zvSv s {SvP
PnkuS E Cu BUP E
E BUP Avu PnS. \
{zvmkP uSP PnkQ. CS {U
G .
: J u , K {PUS
AvPPU PnkQ. J PnUPki,
o mk _ 102783000 | \ CnP E. BP
J ]UP E.
A, \ ,
PP UP. A 1. 2. |k 3.
(\ \L) : & CSv
h\L EhUQx.
h\L, u u E.
u : & Cx h\L Sv. Cv
EmPUP uSP PnkQ. o
SvUSa \ En yshP u
\Q. J, En yshP Gkzxa
\ BUP, u J uh P
P { x Eh A\Pz
yskQ.
u :& CSv ] EmPUP, |
uP EhUQx. Cu EmPUPUS EP
(Mamillary bodies) G . C ~PuUP Aa\ \,
~Pa]UP Ena] S \mi \umh.
Cv E Ci, mmh _
{], uh CnUQx. BP
u mmh _P PmkkzxQx.
u En EPx En
Pz yshPP Qx. SP |US, US
CUP EP AQ. BP CSv {
51

Ena]S {h uhhx. CSv Azuz

vx kk { |US EnzxQx. En Esh
Hk {, BQ EnP CSvh
uhhx. CSvx yUP&a _]
Pmkkzxxh SvP J[QnUQx.
:& Cx SvS. Cuh Gh
BsP _ 1400 Q, sP 1200 Q. A
uP Cx, Eh A zux, A v zux
A.
\ {Sv o BS. Cu E,
Bzv EmPUP uSP E. EmPUP SvUS
oUS Ch E Sv s x. CuS
k G .
\-EQol T

Lj\u
RXVNLs
LiL[ AN

(R-u EQoL[l Tm)

TWhPp
(EQo RPol T)

RNfNVp iPp
iRp \

BdhPp ToY
RPol T

RNfNVp
im T

u\m

Tm \u

u\m

ToY EQol T

WiPp Ll
Lof

NQo RPol T

PmTWp Ll

h : 1.19. o \ SvP

o :& o u En SvP
E. Cv _ Enu, PmhUP uha]
\Pa \kzx SvP E. ,
u uk EnUP Ena]P SvP, CSv
\kQx.
oSv u En SvUS Jmi SvUS
u En \[P Sv G . CSv Ah Pqu
\h Dkmkx. GkzxUPmhPU Pso E mi
AkUQ u En yshP | P
\[P SvUSa \Q. A[S Au En
yshP HP v \mk \vPh
Jk \mk J i GkUPkQx. BP \vP
52

xP wUPkQx. J {Pa], Ch
P C Gsn[Pz uUQx. G u K {Pa]
| zuP Au {Pa] P USQ.
o u CUPSv, Eh
CUP[PU PmkkzxQx. SPU PP ~so
CUP[P CSv PmkkzxQx. AvP |Ph
CnUPmk Pzu\P ~so A\P u
CUPSv PmkkzxQx. o Sv u
CUPSvPa \kQx.
o u CUPSv SvUS
CUPSv G . J \ \uS , CUP
Sv CUPz yshP uUPmk J[QnUPmh
CUP |P Pz u\|PUS Gkzxa \kQ.
GkzxUPmhP, P Ezu sk AuP \P
CUPSv uUPmk, J[QnUPkQx.
BP | Gu AUS, Gu Pzv P Ezu sk
Au AUS Ezu iQx. C Azx uP |
{nUPkQx.
Cu CUPSv S[Q[P (Primates) u
|S a] x. | Eh |h Ena] S \
P { \umh \P CSv Pmk
kzxQx. EjYLm, NVphPm YdL ERm.

|k Ax \ \L
|k T |S EmPUP E. Cu
EmPUPUS P Sm G . Cv 2
PSP 2 R PSP E. PUSP
\umh Aa\a \ DkkQ. A Ps
u A\PU PmkkzxQ. A\ mP
uz uh EuQ. R PSP Pmh
DkkQ.

Ax \L :
, ], S BQ
Ah[Q.
] : ] h[QP | uP
E. C P ], zv | shzv
SvPh CnUPmkx.
53

] Ah[Q EP ku[ P
EP
1. LUSk &

P
Eh \{
u\|P K {
(Muscle tone)

2. Sv &

CUP AP J[Qn
u\ |P K

{ (Muscle tone)
3. Sv
& ~so CUP AP
J[Qn u\ |P
K {
] zv S u\|P
\k, Eh \{ qu J[Qn BQ
vUPk.
: CSv x \vPa ]USU
PhzxQx. CSv EUPzvS _\zvS SvPU
PukQx. CSv Szxh Cnx _\zv x
|h A\PU PmkkzxQx.
S : Cx, zusi RSvS. , R \
| uP Phzx ChSvP CSv \kQ.
Szv E EmPUP Aa\a \P Pa
\kQx. SP Cuzxi u, CzuU SP _[Q
u, _\, [Su, v Gkzu, C x
Aa\ \P Dkmkx.
{ : { Gx J Smh
\U SUQx. { Gx ] {h[P Cx
BskP }iUS vS.

{ PP :
1. EnP { : En yshP H,
Azx {P {zv UPkQx. Cx
{ uhUPa \S.
2. u{ { : Cx Es |hu,
\P, GsP, GzxUP Ax \vP | {
zvzu BS. Ca\vP | {, EhiPU
QhUSi Axx. Ca\vPUPP }sh ]u
u.
54

3. Csh { { : ] \vP {uP

| vQ. Ca\vP ]o |[PUS ,
Ax ] |mPUS P Ax ] h[PUS P
uk. Cu {US }sh P { Ax,
{u { Ax Csh { { G .
{ Eh\ P : yshP, |
\P Phzuk x | \P Cn SvUS
Sv v, C E [P
|hQ. C[P | \P Cn SvP
{uPz yshP PhzukuS EuQ.
C G | \P Cn yshPU
Phzx \v Ax J ]u _ (Circuit) BP
EkUQx. Cu \Um Hux \umh yshP
yshk x J {u { { AhQx.
Cu \UmiS {u { v (Memory engram) Ax
{ uhu G .
A^ : A^ Gx { C BS.
C| PshP Phu P {PP { T Cx.
EUP : J | C J u {u
{ AhQ. Avx z uSu zyshP
ukQ. Ca\ | EUP GQ.
EUPzv PP : J C E[S x,
C EUP {P J , {PQ. A
1. x A EUP 2. REM (xu Ps A\Ph
Ti) EUP.
1. x A EUP : CP EUPzv x
AP P xPU PnkQ. Cu EUPzu
xP | P EUP G T, PP AiUPi
uQ. Cu EUPzv x Aa\mk (Night mare) PP
uQ. B | AUP {Pa]P { T
Cx. Cu EUPzv x | Eh Czu Azu, _\zv u
Aih ]u [P Sx | EhUS | UQx.
REM EUP (Rapid Eye Movement sleep) (xuU Ps

A\Ph Ti EUP) : J \un Cz yUPzv x,

J 90 {h Ch CUP {PQx. CUP 5
u 30 {h[P }iUS. xP CUPzv x
PP AvPPz uQ. u\ |P yshmh {
55

uhQx. Cx x \vPz uskhzvS

A A Hkzx J uh |hQx.
CUPUPzv x Cuzxi u _\
CUP[P ^ C[SQ. xih C[SQx B
x v\|UQa \si yshP
\a \uu, |USa _ n C, zu
{ E[SQ.
EUPzv Eh\ P : EUP, |x |
Ez uSP En v, \{ qu
zxnh \ha \Qx. | Bu EUPzv Pz
u Czu Azu SQx, |izxi u SQx, u
CzuU SP hQ. Ehu\P ua] Ah,
Jmkzu ]u [P 10% u 30% SQ.

UPu (Stroke)
UPu | \Pz xuP hUQ,
uhx C{ 24 o | }izu nzv iUTi
|S, (WHO). CzuUSP Czu Euz ukUP
PoP Pnmh, Czu E Hh. C WLp ALm
Ru m. CzuU SP Czu E Hmh AuS
v G . US Czuzua \zx z
u Czu E Hmh, UPu | EshQx. Cu
Czu E AUS Ah HkzxQx. Cu
E \P B[P[P CUQ. Cukzx \UQx.
Czu Kmhzv Hk Ah Csk PS. A
1. viU 2. GU. G P Czu EU
Pmi x Czu Kmhzv \ Cu UQ EPUSa
\ Czu Kmh uhku AUP v_UP ix
kQ.
CzuU P] : AvP Czu Azuzv
E CzuU SP i Hmk, CzuU P] HkQx.
CzuU S iS , CzuUSx [Q,
iUQx. UPu CzuU P] BQ CzuU
SP Hk vS.
UPu |, Eh h[Qa \UQ.
Cx EP J x |a]S. UPu Gu
v Hh. VV >B VF^, } |, Czuzv
AvPU PU Pnku, E Czu Azu, Eh , P
56

izu, CzuU SP _UP AU PoP

UPu | HhU PnP E. Cu AU PoPz
uku UPu |z uUP.
A | : A | Gx J w U
Sk. }sh P { C, ]uz
v Sx C Hh. Cu | xP vPh
PnkQx. P AuP 50 - 40 vSmmhP C|
uUSQx. 65 u 74 vSm mhP 5 \uu UP
C| vUPkQP. 80 vS mhP 50
\uuzv C| vUPkQP.
oSv \, A |h
uhhx. o E {P ]uhu,
A BUP, hmmkP ]uhQ. Cx
A |USU PnQx.
xP A |, vj zv uQx.
h |USk EP, C| vUPkQP.
21x S\ E Csk Ax P
C| HkuPU PukQx. C, C|US
s Pn GUT Cx.
U Pa\ (a\ Pa\) (Meningitis) :
a\ Pa\ Gx a _ E a \P
UPS. Uj, Ax g\P
|UPoP C| HkQx. u, J ,
Ga\, Pzx Sv u\ CUP, Pa\ |
\umh PP C| ASPS.

{kzumh Aa\ \ (Conditioned Reflex)

u u Eh\ Ab, I
{kzumh Aa\a \ {UPa \u J
|hzv. o Ca\U PmkkzxQx. Cx
UPzvSmmh \ G AUPkQx.
, u \u u |US J \z xsh
({kzuhu ysh & UCS) Azu. A| \zuU
Pshh u E}a _ux. ({kzuhu
Gv & UCR) Au \ CshuPa \{z ysh
Azu. (o K\ & NS) o K\ mk AUPmh x E}
57

_UPh. B o\ \z xshzu \zx

AUPmh o\ mk E}a _UPa \ux.
Ca\u \{z ysh, {kzuhu
ysh (UCS) \zx JP AUS x,
iiPa \{z yshUP Gv uQx.
C{ \{z yshUS {kzumh ysh (CS)
G GvUS {kzumh Gv (CR) G .
BP {kzumh Aa\ \, A[Q
|hzuP kQx. Cx PUS {US
AihP Ax kQx.

GUmG\LQL (EEG)
o {P Ah[Q
EP E. CPUQh ^ mh A
PnkQx. GUm G\LQL G P
GUmkP Euh Cu mh AP v
\. CUP Azx {P mhz vz
uP v \Qx. Cu h \U
Psh. SP P Dkk x,
EUPzv x, zvUS { h
\P A. CUP Eu uh
|P, |Pmi, sP |P,
Psh.

x, Chx P J[Qn :
Chx AUP o Eh x zu
En [Q EPh CnUPmkx. x zu\P
uskh
Pmh |

En |
`h zv
h : 1.20 Aa\ EP

58

CUPzum Pmkkzx\ x AUP o

Eh Chx zv E Ena] EPh CnUP
mkx. CSv Eh Chxz u\P CUPzuU
PmkkzxQx. C AUP[P PsPh uh
Psk. Chx Pso | x h x
Pso | Chx h | SUP
CnUPmk. BP Chx, EP -
Sv x EP - Ch Sv EnQ.
Chx, x AUP[P P P\
G v_ Pa \vP U PQ.
Cnz v_ P Cnz v_
C AUP[P \vP U PQ. C
C
AUP[P
\P
zx
Ax
\kv, CU P[P \ CUP En
CUP (Laterization)G AUPkQx.
AUP[P Csk u \h
Cnu \h P P EuQx. Cnz
v_UP, Ena]S unzv C AUP[P Cnx
\Pa \ EuQx. P P v_ Hk ]u,
C AUP[ PUQh z uhz
ukUQx.
Chx, , Gsv, En, _ ,
A v x P BQU PmkkzxQx.
x , n, P, a \, Ena]
Su, C\, n Chx P BQU
PmkkzxQx. Chx UP Szu x UP
hz v Psk.

uskhzv P :
uskh , Eh SvPh CnUS
\a \Qx. Ena] EPx k
EnP J Smh SvUS A z
uskh \Qx. Au \ EUPk CUP
AP x A \ EPUS A
Qx. CUPz yshPj Rtj
\Qx. Ca\ Aa\ \ Gk
59

Aa\a \ : En EP yskuP |
Ca\USmh | A P |h {Pa]
Aa\a \ Gk. (G.P) y] x PsP P
iU Pu, P mhh Eh CzxU P,
Aa\a \P, | Ca\USmh uP |h.
Ca\ Dkmk EP uS Aa\ Gk.
C En ES, \ ES Chmh uS
|a \[QP BS. Aa\ Ah[Q EP :
En EP En | uskhzv \
{Sv Chmk | CUP | \ EP.

uskh v
smQP uskh U
S { {, u v z uskhz
v BS. smQP E Pk U
_a \P z uskhz vzua _UQ. \\P,
J u E Czvzv A 150 mh. J |,
550 mhz v _UPkQx.

z uskhz vzv oP
1.

u A\ x, Ax zv | sh
Ava]USS x Czv Av u[QPa
\kQx.

2.

zv | shzv xP EP, u
C \\Qx.

3.

uskhzvS u P,
En mP Cx \zx UQx.

4.

Cx CUPz u[Q (Mechanical buffer) BP C[SQx. zv |

shzv E Ax CUP Azuzua \
\Qx. Pzv Ezu Czvzu Qx.
Czu S x Czv a\x {zvU
PkQx.

v J[Qn
| _P uS, | Ez uS |
Eh J[Qn Hkzx C Ez uSPS.
| Ez uSP ES yshP | \
60

P PPU PhzukQ. | _P, P

Pz u P PQ. P
Ch[P E | _P _UPmh, Czuzv
P AP \k v_UPUS Gkzxa \kQ.
v_UP, P, u[PUP Pa \Q.
P G, | _P EzvQ
vmP, C Czuzv A \k ChzvS
Gkzxa \kQ. A[S P Eh\
a \Q. G PUS vz yxP
G .
| _P oP : | Eh E `{a
^P u | _P S.
Eh\ \P J[QnUQ. Pm
mkP, mjP, PP, ux EP, } u
]u [P, P ^kzxQ. [SP,
CUPa \P CP PmkkzxQ. | Eh
E Am _, A\U P[P | Ehz ukzxQx.
\PUQh uh, P \kzxQ.
J | _, AvP A Pa
_UQ. J Eh\ iu Gv
ysh CUP (Negative feed back) , Aa\v Au |
_US Gkzxa \kQx. Aua _ u _U
SzxU PQx. J _ PU SP Cu,
AuP Smh Eh\ |hx, Ca\v,
Au | _US Gkzxa \mk, Aa_
yshkQx. Cu Aa_ AvP A a _x Au
Eh\ Pa \Qx. Cu
h] (Homeostasis) \{ sk {Qx.

u :
u, zv | Ez uS, |
_P J[QnUQx. mmh ua _Pa
\mk _PU Pmkkzv, mmh
u Pmkmi \kQx. u
kUS, Po (Releasing factor) Ax uh\ Po
(Inhibitory factor) P mmh _U
PmkkzxQx. u |z v_ mmh
61

 Pxh, Gzwz v_UP Pxh CnUP

mkx. u \Px k PoP
BUP P mmh AhQ. mmh
_UPk P, Czuzv PUQ.
mmh _ : Ca_ L] G
AUPkQx. Cx RSv Axx. Cu
n[P uP 1.\. } 1 u 1.5 \. AP,
0.5 \.. P Ehx. Cu Gh _P 500 .Q. E,
mmh _ C SvPP UPmkx. A Sv
E,
Ai
L]

Sv,
{L] BS. Ai L]
SvPU Pshx. A ih, Cshi

i.
Pa]
x,
AiL] U Sx EQx. Cx
{L], h\L u Svx
EQx.

Ci P

{L]
AiL]

h : 1.21. mmh _

Sv mmh P :
AiL] B iU P Ax
iP _UQx. A a] Ax \mh
iU (GH / STH), um Ax uhz
ysik (TSH), Am PiPiU
(ACTH), LUQ \Pz ysik (FSH),
mi][ (LH), miiU
(LTH) Ax Ui.
62

1. a] ]u [P :
a] , xP ]u [PUS
QUQx. a]z ysk ]u [P,
Cu [S QUQx. PmmkP, mjP
P ]u [P Cx yskQx.
a] G Szu EUPzuz
yskQx. |m, mh], \i
ux EUP | Eh uUP zxU Pa \Qx. C
a]US EuQ.
Su zv a] Su, a]
uhkQx. G EP a] uhku
Szu HkQx. CUSk EhP 0.9 & 1.2 . E
mk P. CP va] Ahv.
Csh { sP v.
Su zv Cu a] AvP _US,
Cm\u u HkQx. CUSk EhP Eh
GP AvP A a] AhQx. CP 7&9 Ai Ezu
Ah. P Cu AvPPa _UPmh
Rzuh, P, P GP uizxU Pnk. C{US
AUP Gk.

2. ui Ax uhz ysik (TSH)

ui 28,000 hhP UT Ghh J
QPuS. Cv 211 A A[P Ah[Q. Cu
\k E, uk _S. Cx uk _z ysi,
uUa _UPa \Qx. u k
u
TSH

k Po
uU]

mmh
uk

h : 1.22. Gv LmU \

63

PoUS, Czuzv uU AUS Ch J Gvz

ysh Aa \kQx. Czuzv uU A
S, u TSH&UP k Poa
_x, mmh TSH& a \x, Au uk
_z ysi uUa _UPa \Qx. Cu ,
uU A Czuzv AvPPU Pnmh, u
GvPa \mk uU _U PmkkzukQx.

3. Am PiPiU (ACTH)
Cx J u BS. Cu Gvz ysh
\mk, Am _ PhU (o) _UPU
PmkkzxQx. Cu ] \P. u
\mkPz ysi, u {P ux, C_ _z
yskx Ai v_UPx PP Chx
BS.

4. LUQ \Pz ysik (FSH) :

Cx J Phi S. Cx Bs, s
CUP EP Ca \P u Pz
yskQx. u FSH Gx J ] QPu BS.
sP, Cu \k E, AshP[PS. Cx AshPzv
QL LUQP a]z ysi, AshPzv
Jmkzu Gh AvPUPa \Qx. BsP uP[P
\mk, uP ~sSP E Bs Ca\ Ezv \
Gw AkUPz yskQx. Cu x\P Ezv
AvPUQx. GvW_u WlTm i\.

5. mi][ (LH) Ax Chmka \Pz

ysk (ICSH)
u LH J QP uS. sP Cu ,
AshPzv UQ \P va]z ysi, Ash
kku \ \Qx. BsP Cu , uPzv
E Chmka \Pz ysimk, hhj
(Bsm) _US \Qx.

6. Ui Ax miiU (LTH)
mii, miiU , UhU
, i P Ui
AUPkQx. C mj B. Cx sP,
64

_US \z yskQx. Cx P mizv x

\mk i WUPa \Qx. Gmh \x
_ a]US, _zuUS u \Qx.

{] P :
Cx mmh _ SvS. CSv BUh]
G Csk Pa _UQx.
BUh], uha] A A[P EhUQx.
BUh] G \USz "xu ' G . Aux,
Cu , P u\P x \mk,
Aa _[Pa \x, Su GuUSQx. Cuh
Akzu UQ \, _z ysi _UPa \u BS.
BUh], _P E SP SPa _
Gwa \Pz yskQx. Gw Sv
_[Su, A[Qx x, S Ax \
Sv x AhQx. \ Svx ,
zukQx.
: Cu , BsihiU
G AUPkQx. Cx, ]}PU SP
\mk, }, | Eh {zvU PQx. Cx, |L
\ _sh S \PUS SP x \mk, ]}P
ivzvx } Eg_ v AvPUQx. Cx G
CzuU SP _[Pa \x Czu Azuzu AvPUPa
\Qx. Cx {zv UQx. Cu
S hj C]h G } | uQx.
C| PshP, AvP A ]} P
(). Cuz uhx AvP A uP Psk
usp AxP (i).

uk _ uU :
uk _ Csk PxPU Pshx. C Pzx
Sv S CUP[P Ax. Cu C
PxP Cz Gk SQ _zuh UPz
v_ CnUP miUQ. uk _ J Px
~s PxPU Pskx. Cu ~sPxP LUQ
P. Cu LUQP, A] GUPkQ.
J A] K P \x i Gw \PU Ps
kx. A] EmS Pk v
65

Px

Cx
S

h : 1.23. uk _

{x. Czvzv uU Ah[Qx. uU 65%

Ai Ah[Qx. Cx h] G A Azux.
ui oP : Cx C Eh a] SP
GP | shzv a] ysi kQx. Cx
\ BUPn u Aih ]u a \P
PmkkzxQx. Aih ]u uzu AvPUQx.
Eh n K CUS x, 200C A {,
J Smh P A, Eh EshS zv A
Aih ]u A BS.

uU \kP :
1.

2.

3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Su US u, u u Ksk P[P
Su | Ez uSP a]US Cu
P A].
, CUP EP, EP, {n} ia_P,
sp ~ BQ EP u v_UP
]u zuz yskQx.
]Shx SUP Eg\kv Cu
UQ [S QUQx.
^ Pi AU SUQx.
u ]u zuz ysi, Eh a] FUSUQx.
Cx, Cuzxi u, Cua _UPzv P Czu |zv
Czu Azu \P AvPUPa \Qx.
Czuzv \ A uU { {zumh, Ax
u\ |P \Pa vh |h UQx.
Czuzv E uU \ A CUP
EP, vh \h EuQx.
66

ui : uU _zu US
ui BS. Ai Smi G Ph,
Qmi Ui Sk |P u. |
Esq En Ai SP Cu, (J |US 10
UQUS SP) uU Ezv S HkQx.
Cu Czuzv uU A Su, AvP A TSH
_UPkQx. Cx uk _ [Pa \Qx. C{US
G Ph G Esk. CuS GhU Ph G .
H C| so Ai SP Pnk Ch[P
PnkQx.
Qmi : SuP US u uU
US vUPmh C{ HkQx. Cu
ASP, | sh a] uhku, Eh a] S
SmhPU Pnku, |US uu, Sv
UP Pnku, Aih ]u u Su, Eh
{ Su, G EP a] Su
va] Ahu sP a] uhku BS.
Ui : uU US, PUS
Ui G | uQx. Su Aih ]u
u, u uizx, Ex \\Su, Ena]P E
P, u i Evu, S , x a_, x
]u, bP v Ui ASP BS.
C| SkP, Eh\, Su Czu Azu,
Czua \P, ^ Pm AvP .
ui Ax uhUP (Q |
Ax GU\LuU Ph)
uk _ _ AvPu, Q | HkQx.
C| ASP: P Aih ]u ,
P _\, x[Q PsP, P Cuzxi, | Qa],
Ena] \k x {zu Czu, Eh Gh Su,
Czuzv \UP A Rp, ^ Pm A Su,
EP \mi k Hku .

uk _ : u uk _, g\
& {zv, }mh izv, uk _ Sv
Ax _S. Ca_ C Pa _UQx. A,
1. u 2. P]h.
67

1. u

zu K hm \[Q BS. Cx E
\mi Su | \kQx. Cu Az
u Cx u x {h[P BS.
u | Eh mh Ch[P u
a \Qx. A, G EP, ]}P EnU
Sh BS. G EP Cu , Gz v_ x
\mk, BiQm \P \z yskQx.
(Ga ]uUS \P) Cu G x, P]
kUPmk Czuzxh PUQx. Ca\ GPUS
xi PkUQx.
]}P[P, u, mh z
yskQx. EnUShx m P] EP
Eg\z xnu mh D Ezv EzxQx.
Cu Pa _] Czuzv m P]zv A
AvPUQx. Cu ] Eh\ P
\Qx. A, 1. G EUS \P (Bim)
x J uh HkzxQx. 2. ]}x Pmh
sk Eg_u ]} pH (P&A {) AU
Szu BQ.
P]h : Cx P]zuU S\US . Cu
_ LUS \P _UPkQx. Cx
J uS. Cx LuUS GvPa \kQx.
]}P[P P], , \i, mh], U]
AP sk Eg\kuz ukUQx. CWlTp
_US HCI & AU SUQx. C_
SUPP _P AU SUQx.
ui\ : Cx, Czuzv AvP A
uk CuU SUQx. uk
AvPPa _UPmh GPx ux EP }UPkQ.
um_ Eg\kQx. Cu G \z u,
Czuzv P]zv A Ex kQx. ]}P, u, ,
~ BQ P]i HkQx.
ui\ : uk _ Ehx
}UPk x Czuzv P]zv A Sx hmh
Ax Qmiu G { EshQx. hmh, ^
P] A SQx. (P]), ]}P
68

P] mi AP SQ. |h Jmi
u\SvP AvPPz yshku u\ |P CUP
ASPPz uQ.
Pn : Pnz v_ Pnk ] P |
_ \PUS [P vmkP G . Ca\P,
Ezv \x, \Pzx, _US P, C_,
SUPP BS. Ca\P Csk PP PnkQ.
A BL mh \P BS. BL \P,
SUPP, mh \P C_ _UQ.
Cx TkuP hh \P Pnz v_UP
PnkQ. ] BP Pzxi, Ca\P BL
mh \PUS Ch uPP {.
1. C_ : Cx J u Ax hk. Cv 51
A A[P Ah[Q. u C_ UT Gh
5,734 hhP. Cx (A) (B) G Csk \[Qz uhU
Pshx. CzuhP h\k [P Csk
]hPUS Ch CnUPmk.
C_ Eh\ \P : C_ Czuzv
\UP P SUQx.
(A)
Cx SUP, QUPP U P
u\P \UPku AvPUPa \Qx.
(B)
v_UP SUP BUPn Ah uzu
AvPUPa \Qx.
(C)
SUP PP mk Ai v_UP
\UPku AvPUPa \Qx.
(D)
A
A[P
]u
}

P&h&BU\k BP \ uzu J[SkzxQx.

(E) u A, P Pmm Au
x SUP Ezv (SUP {)
^P UQx.
BP, C_ Czuzv SUP] A SUQx
(Q]) x A C_ _UPi u\P,
P C SUP, QPP Cx. Cu
P Czuzv SUP AvP A \u Czua
\UP A AvPUQx. Cu Pa \UP {US
Q] G . Cu PnP, AvP A SUP
]}h k. Cx } |S (hj
69

h). } | J, AvP A ]}
, (), AvPP } Ax,
(i), Gx ] Hmk AvPP En EmP
(). C_ A S x Pa ]u
AvPzx SUPP kQx. Cu Czuzv
SUP A AvPQ, Au P Rmh mP
\Q. C{US Rmh G .

Czua \UP AvP (Hyperglycemia)

Ensn { C Czua \UP A 70
& 110 .Q / h.mh BS. Cu A Ah {Pa]P
vUS. Pmm Su En EmPsh Czua
\UP Ea\PmhP 140 .Q / h.mh A Gmh. CP
E A Czuzv }izu AuS Q^ G .
C{ uhx }izu Eh EP v, n
|h. 400 .Q / h.mh A J ] |mP }i Eh
} C, P n {P.

Czua \UPU S (Hypoglycemia)

C{ Czu SUP] A S.
Ensn { P Sxk. CuS Esn{
Q^ G . AvP A C_ _,
Eh\ PoP \UPU S { u.
Q^ {USa \UP AU Smka
\u Cx.
Ensn { Czua \UP A S
]n, AvPUPmh Cuz xi, u Hk.
CzuP | shzv \P uQ.
USU QhUS SUP \UP A Su
u, S, a_U S Hk. v
, P { Hh.
hmi mh (Diabetes mellitus) \UP |
hmi G \ QUP "KkS' Ax
"FhP Kku' G Pshx. C| vUSP
AvP A ]} Pu Ca\ SkQx. " U - h P v'
GuTRt Cl Gu Ts. uhu Q^
\UP | u. C| C_ S Ax
C_US Eh \P C[Pu { Hh.
70

uP hmi (C_ \ {)
CP | [P vmkUP,
C_ P SvUS. ARLd LQlTm
CqYLp LQVju NpLs TlTPkdm.

Csh P hmi (C_ \u {)

Czu C_ C Ax CS
AvP {P CUS. Czuzv _ C_ EPp
NpLs ysku v. C{ Eh Sshu, AvP
En EmPu, Eh] Hk.
En P P AU Pmkkzxu
\P C_ ysh v AvPkzu. G
Gu ]Qa\ C EnU Pmkmi P
] P Csh P \UP |U Pmkkzu
C. Eh] C_ ysku
Ch[P AvPUP.
2. SUPP : Cx BL \P _UPk 29
A A[P Eh hk S.

SUPP Eh\ \P:

P, QUP x \mk QUP]
\ SUP Ezv \x Czuzv SUP A
AvPUQx. G SUPP, Q^U
G AUPkQx. Cu P E
A A[P x \mk SUP { G
\ SUP Ezv \Qx. Ai v_UP
Pa ]uz ysiU P A[P kUQx.
P A[P AvP BUPn, Rmh
\ iQx. Cx Cuzu\Pa _[Pa \Qx.
]}P[P, \u S iPmk
v Cu AvPUQx. Czuzv \UP A
^P UP C_ SUPP BQ C
PUS Ch J \ \{ A]Qx.

Am _P
Am _ Ax ]}P a_
PhU Em k G CSvP Ehx.
C Am PhU SvS. uP,
PhU Sv, AkUSP Ehx. A
71

AkUS & \ S\, uizu |k AkUS & \

]Smh uizu E AkUS & \ miS BS.
u \ Smh \ miS \P
J \mk, UQ oP SUP PiPkP,
]u Bsm Gm P _UQ.
\ S\ ux Pu PiPkP (Ahj)
_UQx. G Am PiPkP jk Pa \u.

SUP PiPkP \P:

Pmi, Auk Cnu jkP BQP
UQ SPPiPkP BS. C PP, A
A[P Pmm AuPx SUP
Ezvu yskQ. xPz v_UP SUP
EPzu SUPPiPkP SUP \Q.
Ca\P Czuzv SUP A AvPUQx.
Pmi\ A] uk P \kQx.
ux Pu PiPkP \P : C UQPa
\izv ]u zu, PP mh]zv
]u zu PsPoUQ. uxPu PmiPkP
UQx Ahj BS. ]}P S
ivzvx \i AP Eg]U Pu
AvPUPa \u Cu UQ oS. \i AP
{zvU Pu, ]}P[P Sh AvPP
mh]zuU SP {zvU PQ. Am PhU
UQ , |UPi \Q (Stress tolerence) [PuS.
Am k : CSv, A, Eh\
A, PhU Svx mhx. P a] x
PhU k SvP uzu v_UPx
u. u miP k Sv,
PhU Sv |UPP AUPmkx. Am
k \P mh i. ys Pa
\u Ca\P Czu |[Pa _U TmhP Ax.
Am k 1. Am Ax G|L 2. |
& Am Ax | G|L G C Pa _UQx.
Cu C P PmiP (Catecholamine) Pa
\u.
72

Am Ax G|L Eh\
E v oP R Pn.
1.

Am ]Sh, ]}P EP u
BQSa \ Czu |[Pa _[Pa \Qx.
Gz u\P, Cuz u\PUS \ Czu |[P
ha \Qx.

2.

Cuzxi uzu, Cuzv A Gsn

AvPUPa \Qx.

3.

EnU S u\P ha \u
EnU S A CUPzu (hiU) {zv kQx.

4.

a_USP hu, Ps hu, _USz u\P

_[Su, Ezv AvPzu BQ Cu
\PS.

5.

EU PPUS \ u\P _UPzu EshUQ

E Szvmk {Pa \Qx.

6.

_\zu AvPUPa \x nz yskQx.

7.

QUP SUPP , Au PnP, BU

Ezu, Ezvz xukzxQx.

8.

E v \P, P A[P kUQx.

, Czua \UP A AvPUQx.

9.

Am |UPi \zv, uP [PQx. BP

Cu US LTm, KhPm zu (Fight, Flight,
Fright) G .

| & Am oP : xP Cx Am
\mh, CuzvS Czuzu Gkzxa \ SP u
CzuU SP _UPzu HkzxQx. Am
| Am BQ C P CuzvSa \ CzuU
SP ha \Q. Cx Cua _UPzv x
h x Pnk Czu Azuzu AvPUQx.
EnUSh u\P x Cx \mk, AP
_UPhu K ukUQx. C, ~ ]SP
u\Pz uha \v. | Am, Pmm
]u zv BU Hv PU Su A
\kQx.
73

CUPa _P : uP[P, AshP[P

Ca\ Ezv \ EP, | _PP
\kQ.
uP : BsP, Ca\P Ezv \ Gwa
\P Ax, C Gwk \P E. CPUS
Chmka \P Ax iU \P G . Ca\P |
_PPa \kQ. Ca\P hhj G
Bsm P a _UQ. Cu BsmP
jk Pa \u. va] K Bo,
\unP J |, 4&9 .Q AUS hhj _UQx.

hhj oP :
1.

Bs
CUP
EP
P
hhj PnQx.

a]US

2.

h x, Csh { sP Eh a],
E a], BsS. BozxUP UP UP[P,
uh, hhj Cux.

AshP :
U S CkSv Pnk Cn mh
ih AP AshP[P BS. C Dm
i G Csk P _UQ.
1. Dm : Ai L] _UPk FSH
Euh Ash x, Q LUQP
`kQx. Q LUQk Cnu \P Dm
G jk Ezv \Qx. Cu Dm C&18
P jk Tmk S. Cx s CUP EP
, Csh { s sP EP Cux.
2. i : Q LUQx Ash
kmh , izu LUQ \P Pmi G
uPP | _P Q. CuU P mi
TkuP i Ezv \Qx. u \
Cnz v_, PU P[P Sv, ia
_UQx. Cu C &21 P jk TmkS.
i, PzuUPu so P uhUS
74

a] {USU PnQx. P Ash P vuS, PU

Pzv u \ Cnz v_ a]US Cx Cux.
U
:
P
so
P
mi
ih, U G
_UQx. U P {P \zv Ck Sv
u\P, u\|P uha \Qx.

En

EP

E[P _[P E uPP ,

Jkzv, \ \vPP, \ EPUS \zv Q.
Eh Emz uPP EP U
PQ. CP E \P, v, PvP,
\ Ax CUPz ysh yshP yshP
zv | shzvS AQ. C[S CzuP
Jkzumk J[QnUPkQx. En \P Ca\
FkPhzu Gk G En EP FkPhzvP G
AUPkQ.

Ps :
Pk
Qk

] u\
P
Ps
I

zv

h : 1.24. Ps ^mkz u

]
] _UP

] E

u[S u\P
h : 1.25. ] u\h

75

zv E P A, A, {,
Jzu CUP BQ |x Ez
uSv A iQx.

(A) Pso JU Skzx

Pso J \ x Ja ]u, Jzv\
u HkQx. Jx, zv Ah
P Ja]u AhQx. A, P, ] Sv
] SvPS. P _US Ch
Pnk } v AUS Gk. _US,
zvUS Ch E A m G v
Ex. Cx T UP uzvx. Czv[P J
Fk u Pshv J, zvz uh
AhQx.
u Pso E ] Su Sv US
yzvS H u Szu uU
Pshx. Czu H (Accomodation) Gk.
C, ] u\P, ] EP u[S CP
|hQx.
Psn yzv E US x ] u\P
xPz ux kQx. x Cn
JUPvP zv SUPkQx G u
uQx. U Pso AQ Psk x,
Hz u AvPv Ja]u u EQx.
Czu ] Sv AvPv
HkQx. G AQ E P uPz
uQx. Cu yzv E P US x
\ u[Q u[S CP \x }m] ]
u kQx.

zv E {P |h J v
Pso Sa] \P (120 P) Sv
Pnk ]U Pu Fu {, h] Ax Fu
Gk. Cv u B] (Pmh]) Eh Aik \u
mh H& B, Sv mi1 Ax mi G
AUPkQx. Jx h] x x {
Qx. H C mi B]P EhUP
kv J Cu CP i CnQ.
76

Sa]

h : 1.26. T Sa] \P

] miUP, Pmh] Eh i Cnx

h]P, ] mh A BP SUPkQ.
Sa]\P, AvP J Enu Psh. G Su
J uS C EuQ. C PmhU
(Scotopic vision) Gk.
T \P Pnk {P, mi Eh\u
u B] (mh]) P B. u A
} Psh {P PnkQ. u {[P;
], a\ } BS. AvP A JPsh
\ u {S. Cv T \P {[P EnQx.
AvP A J, {[P zv Sv
EnQx. CSv Sa]\P Pnkv. T \P
mk u E. Su J Sv E
Sa]a \P \kQ. CSv {[P En
iuv, {[P [QU PnkQx. T \P AvP
J \kv CzuSv AvPz uPa \mk
{[P En iQx. (mhU & Photopic vision)
zv \mi J v P
Ja\Uvx | yshP kQx. Ca\ |
CP yshmk, |z yshP PhzukQ.
En EP ES yshP, T \P
ES Azuzu zx, \ {P
SUPkQx. |x PsP PsQ Ax SzukQ
{ h[P, K Pi \ uSS. Ca\
, BUmh Px o Sv |hQx.
77


Pso Sv P |P Ps
|P Q. C| Pzv \Qx. zv
| u CSv En \P Pnkv. G
CSv zv En ix. CSvU Psumk
(Optic disc) G Enu SvP Ev
Smk G AUPkQx.

PsP

SkP

Sh Pso, yzv E P Cx
Cn JUPvP, \P zv SUPkQ.
S u u 25.\.. AQ E mP uP
US P Sh H x. Ca\
Ja]u { Cm (Emmetropia) G. Cm
{x k Ahu Au Hm
(Ametropia) G. Hm UQ {P
(Myopia) m (Hyper Metropia) AiUmi\
(Astigmatism)

(Prespiopia)
BS.
HmP Pn, Ps P }Su Ax Pso
Ja]u u k HkuS.

(A) & Qmh

Sk

\\u

CUP S _
h : 1.27. Qmh \\u

G Qmh Ps ] Sv
AvPv PsP }m]u HkQx. E \
JUPvP uUS AvPPa ]uh x, JUPv
zvUS SUPkQx. Cu uuP
EnkQx. C{ Qmh Gk, H Wjp
E mPx JUPvP \P zv
SUPh C. C{U S ] \ \.
G G S ] Sv P E \
JUPvP \ USu Ja]uhu k AhQx.
Czv {h Pso J \
zv SUPkQx.
78

(B) m & y
Pso _ Sv x Cuv
m { EshQx. Cu JUPvP x
\\u

Sk

CUP S _
h : 1.28. y \\u

A ]uhuu Jx zvUS Sv
SUPkQx. C{ y Gk. H AQ
E P Cx PvP, yzv E Px
PvP \PU SUPkv. C{
S] \ \. G S\x Pso
E JUPv J Szx kv
JUPvP zv \PU SUPkQx.

(C) AiUmi\:
CUSmi P Ax vhUQx.
Pso
JSv
Ja]u
AvPP
Ax
PUSP Pnk, Cu Hk [P \U
SUPkv. J Sv Cx JUPvP
zvUS Sv Cx
JUPvP zvUS m
SUP kQ. AiUmi\zuU PsqUS _ zxa
\\. Cu ] Sv Sv mkU
Pnku C Pso Smia \ \Qx.

(D) :
x va] Pso Piv,
zu Sv Hz u (Accomodation)
S HkQx. G Cx ]UP { HkzxQx.
CUSk 40 vx BUQx. ]v Hk
SmiU S ] \\, Pso Hu Sk
u Eh Ps _ \umh B\P AqPsk.

79

U PnURk : Pso u Ax AuS H

PsniP Ax PhUm _P EQzx
S {zv \ PnURk (Optometry) Gk.
PsPz uSvu U PnURmh \ua \x
Ja]u SkPU Pshx AuU PsniP Ax
PhUm _P \ \. CU PnURmhP
Pso SkPU Pshx AuSa ]Qa\ AUS uSv
EhP A. B AUS {zv \U Ps
zxPh x \.

miv (A) zv |
zv Hk v miv Gk CuSU
Pn } | Ax E Czu Azu BP. Csk
P miv Pshmkx.

} \u miv :
CP v zv E uxQP (~so
Czu|[P) ] hU PnkQx. Czu
|[P Ehx zv Czu Qx. CzuU P]
m Hh. |zv_UP m
a]. \ PvP A ]Qa\ \v
C{z uh ukUP.

E Czu Azu \u miv :

zv E uP SPP v HkQx.
Cu zv SvP vQ CzuU P]
i zv Hmk zv u
x kvS PnP. Cu \ Pva ]Qa\
\ \ i.

Ps (Cataract)
Ps ] JS u Smi Ps
HkQx. \unP Jx, ] P Fk
zv Ah, JS u Sv J zv
Ah iv G uPU Pn Cx. ] E
u CP Hk PnPU Ps HkQx.
Ps USmkz u Hhx B JS u
S. Cu zv u sP uha]PU
SQx. Ps P ] zv JPzu
sSuPU Pn.
80

PsSuUS Pn[P uSu, AvP `Jku,

P izu, En US, Ps Phu, Eh
|P }, u |P, P[P, ik Pu
xP Esqu PS. umh P
uz uUS x SuUSU Ps EshPU PnP.
\zu En EmPu, AvPa `J, X PvP, AvP
BQ Pso kuz uzu, ] }
|PUS BU Pzv ]Qa\ \u
Ps Euz uh.
Csk P PsP E. A Ahzv Ps
(] zv Ps Eu) U Ps
(] Sv Ps). PsUS zxa ]Qa\
Qhx. J w A ]Qa\ u. J Ps }UPmh
Pso, Cu Pnzu JU SUP ix. G
\P \ EPkzu. C \x,
Psni, PhUm _P Ax Ps E\zx _PP
CUP.
uPzv zx zu Ps A ]Qa\
PP |hzukQx. v A ]Qa\ Ps
E _ \zxu | (97%)
EUP i.
Azu : |x vU PhuP Ps
Aa ]Qa\ Psni PhUm
EQvz uUP. u (CLR) (Clear
Lens Replacement) K | wS. C CP \
Gkzx mk \ Psq v v UPkQx.
C CP \ Gkzx kv,
vhu AQ E \Pz uv. 40 x
Phx C P _P EQPUS CLR
Jzx v. H u CuPUS TXV
IOL a \ wS. Cu u AQ
E mPU Th GuPU Pni.
QUP : Cx Pso AP K v. Cx
CS J xU PnS. PsoS E v
Azu AvPv | vUPmk Au Ps mk
Sv vUPkQx. ]x ]uP UPmk Ps
S HkQx. zvUS Czuzu \zx u Ps
81

mi P Pso ~Qx. HP Ps mkSv

vUPmiu Czu vUPmk zv ]u
HkQx. SP HkuS Pn[P uPz
umh u| zxP CuS PnP.

{Uh / UPs |
mh A {P Ezv \ EuQx.
mh A Smi u AS U Ps Ax
{Uh BS. uha]P AvPU P mh A Sk
Hmh zv E Sa] T \P a]
Sx Psh \Qx. Cv HkuS mh
A EmPsk zv \mi xPUP.
zv \miS mhP B uSv
ukQx.

Ps |P :
1. PsPmi (Stye) : Ps CP K[P Ax
_P Hk w u h Gk. Cu UP, ,
Ga\ Ps C KSv ]Su HkQx.
uha]P Jzuh ]Qa\ AUP.
2. PUii (Ps) : PUi Hk
u PUii GQ. u Hkv,
PUi E PsqUS uu ~so Czu |[P
Q kQx. Cv Ps ]Su, Ps A],
vUPmh Psox u HkQx. xP
]PUS u P PUS J P
PUii HkQx.
2 (a) PUii u : PUi Uj
(E..h PUQ) u HkQx. C
PPx EshS. PsoS uku P Ax
uUSu \una \, ushs, umh,
PUii . Cx K u |S. C|
P TmhP Ph PP .
2(b) J PUii : Cv J Esk
sq P P AS \u P, PhUm
_P _zuUS v, Puz y P HkQx.

82

ASP : G P PUiiP, Ps
]Su, Ga\, Ezu, u J
(Photophobia) u PUii ^ zu
kQx. Cu P US x Ps CP
Jh JmiU PQ. J PUii Ps
CP [Q { zuQ.
]Qa\ : xx } EQzx Ps CPh
Jmi zu P }UP sk. |
uua \\ Ps \mk x Ax | Gv xP
kzu sk. J PUii |U
Snkzu Bu h Pu Ps \mk u kzu.

PsxP :
Ps J P UQ E, G Au xPzu P
A].
1.

Psn AiUPi \vzx, Au U Sk ]

SPUP ASP ukQ Gu ux
Psk.

2.

Pso x ] y_P Q. C Pso \.

BP Pso xu y]P P PP, Psn
\ukzusn AP sk.

3.

Pso zv (mi) AiUPi \vzx, Ax AvP

Azuzxh PnkQu Ax Czu Azu }
|P Cx AvP vUPmku Gu ux
Psk.

4.

_P Ps x GkzxU Puz uUP sk. [P

u Ax Pso Ehi Hmh,
Ps zx |kx |x.

Px (Ear)
|x PxP C UQ, B mh P |US
AUQ. A Pmh \{kzxu BS. \P
Enk Jx |x _zuU Szu uPP |US
Auk mkx, | uh P kQ.
| R ui {u { {uSz u \{
EnU PxP |US AUQ.
83

J Gx a ` } Av Hk
EnS. J Px J AP a] zux.
ux A AvsP zux (AP
GsoUP / P AS). u PmPUTi J 20&20,000 cps
(cycles per second Ax Hertz) C v mk Cmi
PU PmP.
J Enu Gx P A AvsP
zux. u \ 50&5000 m J uzu En
i. | xPU PmPUTi Jx 500 & 5000 m
AS CUS. u PxP J AP Su A
kzx u Pshu, (| EnUTi PU Pzu
\zux, SU Pmi _ 1012 h[S AvPuS).
J Ah AuS h] (db) G AS kzukQx.
| PmS ux, Pv |h ]UP uh
{Pa]Pa \xx. P Pnk J AP
AP P AvPP H EP Ahu PmP
iQx. ` AvP Enmk yshPP
kQ. Cu yshPP |P US Gkzxa
\ A[S A SnkQ. A Snu
uPP JP | u kzv EniQx.

Pmh CUP :
a\ o : J AP a\ ,
a\ S Pa \ AhQx. Cu
\ AvQx.

|ka\ o :
|ka\ Gx h G Ax P {
S SvS. Cx \US USz ush
Sv vUQx. |x \zu, [Su Pmh
ku x \US vu, \ C
Azux \{ kzukQx.
|ka \ \U SzuP Ax.
C \h Cnxx; h
|ka_ Ax }mh Poh; CP C
GPh Cnxx.

84

}mh v
Px GP

P iL
P
i
P
i

mh iz
v

PU
h : 1.29. Pv Emz u

ushU
PxU S

C \ AvP }mh Po
AhQ. \ _ 90 \x .. , h
Aizumk 3.2 \x .. Psku, CuU
SzuP |P uSv Cu Azuzv 1.3 h[S
AvPUQx.
}mh Po AvP i S Ah[Q
vzv Azuzv EshUSQ. Cu Azu AP
|kUS Ahx ] \ Avha \Q.
}mh Po RP Ax mh ia \Q
mh Poh \ S CnUPmkx. Cu
A Azu AP \US (Cochlea) vzv
AhQ.

PU oP :
Em\ (z) PU i BQ
Bx. Em\ PU Sv 2.75 _P Psh S
Ahx. Au } x ] \
APP UPmkx. |k A (P i)
Ev, C AP (P i, P
i) _z v Ah[Qx.

Ph E: (Organ of Corti)
] \ P Env Psh Ph E
Axx. ] \x |S \ \P
uQ.

\P ysku :
h] Aizumi A\P P i
Pnk _z vzv uhP EsksqQ. Cu
85

E
\P
E
P i
hUh E
P iL
Ph E
P
iL
Pmh |
h : 1.30. Ph E S..u

] \

h : 1.31. Ph E

uha]P i \, P i
Ah[Q Evzv AvP HkQ. Cu AP
\ Hkzxuk, ] \
[P {Pu Ph E \P P
Q. Cu P Cuk uhh |P
EshS ysku \| PhzukQx.
Ph E EshS AvPm\ A\P J
AvsP zux. Su uh Ti Jx
PU AiSv P Eu AP, Su
ux ~Sv uUS. J Ca\
A zx Ph E HkQx.
Czysh EnP \o HkQ.

J En u
J AP & \ Avhu & Px GP
A\P & }mh Po Av & `v AP & Ev
AP & \ & ] \ Hk
& a \P & {P & \ |
Phzu.

PxP SkP :
PxP Hk SkP Px P Ax
\hS { Hk. Pv Hu J Ax AuS mh
P[P Hk SP Px P uhQx.

PxPz u PP :
Px Pzu& ] PP E. A :
Phzu P, Enu P, PU Phzu P, |U
PP BS.
86

Phzu Pzu :
Ax |ka\ P Hk, Czu
EshQx. Phzu Px Pzu vUPk SuP
]u PxP Av. B Cx uPPx; H
zx Cu Eu \.

Enu P Px Pzu :
PU Ax ] \P uhu
Ax AUPku CUSk HkQx. CUSmi
A zx, J \zu[PU PmS { (A
S { Cu) Ax ] \zu[P mk Ax
Gua \zu[P PmPu { CUP.
Enu P Px Pzu A|PP {ux.
xP _ u Cu vUPk.

| Px Pzu :
PUS US
a]P Cx HkQx.

uh

Hk

Px Pzu uhhuP, |ka\

vzv, E | Pk u |P,
uUP, u mk LP Pzu \zuPa \[Ru
Pmh, Cv[P sk sk Hk P JU
Pmh BQ Hh.
Phzu Px PzuUS x Pn, \USa
\x u Ax \ _Px _US
Q, a\x AhUPku BS. ]US Cu
Px Piu, \ AzxQx. zP
Eg_ SP CUPi Q APu, sk PmS
u Ah.
Phzu Px PzuUS Pn x
\S. |ka\ u, (Infection) AP Hk
ia\zu u vj Aiku Hk
CUP[P EshS P[P BQ x HhU
Pn[PS. u P Hku |ka\ GP
xsiUPmk, PUh uh kUPkQx.
87

AvP Em\USz vh Phzui, PU

\| uhu Pzu Hh. CP
PxPzu En| Px Pzu Gk.
u, uUP, ia\zu Pzu \zu Pmh
BQ C{ PnS.

P Eu P : (Hearing Aid)
PU Snkzu iu { Phzu Px
Pzu Psh |PUS "P Eu P' k.
J A v

Jmi
JUQ
~s J [Q
h : 1.32. P EuP

Cx Pzu C[S q PS. uh

kzxuPP CUP J UQ Ax
AUQx. Px P PP J ] UL J
J AP \UbPP Q. Cua
\UbP J UQx (Amplifier) AvPUPa \x
JUQ Px U S \zxQx. \UbP
sk J APP kQ.
Em\ J A CUP Ax K ]
\UP i JU Pmkkzv J[S \.
J P AvPP UPha \ \Uvu
PP u\ QhUQ. CUPP UL, UQ
P BQ Eh AoUTi K mi
Ah[Q. Px AQ E SvUS K P (Wire)
\ Gkzxa \k. Phzu Px Pzu Psh,
SPU Px S uu Ax ^ iu
vUPkPUS G Phzv (Bone conduction) Px P
P kzu. CP PxP P K Psni
mh Ax Tu mh x zuh.
Px Pu kzuUTi PP & J UQ
hP, A o h oUS vP P\
88

J USP, J En Av PP, u zx
Lh Ti uUPm] miP, u umha_ Gv[P,
|hzx JP u.

Ca\ _u :
Ca\ (Noise) G \ 'Nausea' G Czw x
u zuS. Ax K Sa\ Hkzv v
GkUPa \ K EnS. zuPu, u Jx
Ca\ Gk. Ax _u K PS. |x Ah
UP FkUTi u Gvh Ti J
Ca\ _u Gk. Ax A|P uP P
HkzxQx. \U P[P P, } E `shzu
_a \ v _kzvP Ca\ K
_kzvPU Pshmkx. Ca\ uUSz w[S
uk, Au P sk \\ iu.
Ca\US A|P U Pn[P Esk. Az
u\u [P, u \ [P G Pkzu.
u\P Cv[P EQ s
voUPk Ca\ u \u [P Ah[S. |P
a] u Ca\; u, , C USzx;
JUQP; uUPm] {[P, Pmk
SvP, Ash mh xUQ G J A,
|P UP \kP BQ Ca\ A
AvPUPa \Q.
Jx A|PU Tmkz uSvP AUPkQx.
J AuS Pa]u AS h] BS. Cx \
BLm GU SUS. Cv u Ca\ Ami
PnUQi AvUPmh J A 81 dB u 120 dB BS.
Pzu \zux (130 dB US ) |kUPv u\PUS
{ \uzu, Px GP Evz u v,
PU \ Smh, Ax \
Q, Pmh u P Sha \Qx.

Ehu
Eh ux Eh ES. C
Eh zu Gh 8% BP Ex. Cu zu 1.1&2.2
\x mhS. Eh Azx `x Eh
ux EhUS _U `USh K ChP
Axx. Eh x[P \SvP Ps, Px
EP P u uha]S.
89

u ha \P kPP a _P,
Gsna _P, E u hP, |P[P
Ax. ^ G Gsn a _US Gsna
_P EUPPUPQ vx. a _P
C PPsk. A Sva _P (Merocrine glands),
a_P (Apocrine glands) Gk. Sva _P Eh x
. C uu }a _UQ. a_P
PUP[P, U P Pmk mh, _ (Pubis), u, zx
` SvP E. C EU PP vvUP.
u h Sv Cnz v_UP. C[S
Ax GiU P CP uUS
}u AUQ. CSv u
CzuU SP, {n} |[P, |P | ukP
\P . ukEn, u, Azu, ,
S, AvP AuP Ena] EP u E.
u Pa \ Czu Kmhzv En mP
Phzukuk Eh Qx.

u P :
1.
2.

3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

~sqP Hk u|Pz ukUS AnPz

u Axx.
Ehx } Buz ukUQx. v mP
, JzuUP, FkP BQx Eh
xPUQx.
Ehx uU SzxU PmkkzxQx.
]u P }UP , EmQQzu |ha \Qx.
mh D Ezv EuQx.
u P En EPU Psh K Ena] P
Axx.
u Ax Pmj uUS K Smh
z uzxx. Czu Eh A\P
mPU Pu GuQ.

\P :
K Pu P {h {S. Cx
S . C{ E, u, Pso Pk
E, BQ SvP Ex. C G \P
] xPPPa \UPkQ. Ca\P u R h
Sv E. Ca\P h] G A Azvx
90

 Ezv \kQx. CuP h] G\

Aa\P Axx.
h] + h] =
{ uzv E SkP {
AvP Ax Su {P.

T. x { AvP :
A. Ai\ | x {vP {P. Jk
uP, E SvP { Hk.
B. Di , P P[P AvPu
P, BQ Ch[P { AvPUS.
C. B\U |a_ Eh x ] PP
{P A.

II. x {US :
A\ Gk sz u |, Skh
{P u uYRp HkQx. Cx J q Sk
|. uuP h] \ |h
v. CPUS s { u, U Sk,
J uP Hk. CPx u AvP A
` J | sP u sk.

III. B[P[S { Su :
A. UPh G su Smi B[P[S
sz vmkP u AvUS. Cx J U Sk.
B. miP G su Smi B[P[S
s SvP u.
C. k {USkP : ] G u|,
SnS P[P, PvUP, u |P u.

` PvUP / UV PvUP & P :

` FuUPvP PsPUS uv. C
` JUP | Pq JUPvPUS P
Kzv E GU PvPUS Ch E. }sh A
}zvU Psh FuUPvP, Pq J A AQ
E. C UVA G Sk. Kzv GU Pv
AQ E FuUPvP UVC G Tk. UVA, UVC BQ
PvP zv UVB FuUPvP E.
91

UV PvP ` J, UV USP, i[ P
BQ kQ. UV PvP u J ] mhP

mk ~UTi. G C v Gh Sv
mk AvUS. u u UV PvUPzu AkUS
Gzw P], R\ P] w uh
P u |P u. UV J
vz u ux Ahzv zxz
uUP. s {hPUS Ah SP
EPUS (Fair skinned) UV Pv vP u
Psk. zv P |kP, P {
o, \P BQ JUPvUP vUP.

u a ]Qa\ :
vhu u Sva ^\z u Aa
]Qa\ PkQx. Ca]Qa\ Eh J Sv |S
Ax u }UPmk v Sv zuk. A[S
v \P x vhu ua ^ \xh.
CmhP u JUP zu.
B Ax [Q u zu
Cx. zv Azu {PUPmk k. Eh u
AvP. G Cnzxz uUP Cx. Cnzu ]
P Eh A uk Eh A\P
vh.

hhmi (Dermatitis) \| :
C| Eh u UP Hk. C{,
J Ax Smh Pn Hh.
JPz u |US GU G . \U \|,
uh \|, Ja\| G u |Psk.

uh \| :
uh ] mP uh Pu u P]
(Rash) u. C| |iP A Ax
J Hh. xP ihm \P, {UP
(PUPiP mh, P , EhU PUQP)
\| u. ] u[P, \ mP, x
mP PnP. P zxz
u P] uUSu k. A, u Eu P
Hk.
92

Ja\| :
]USz u J vh. `
Jk Ch[P ]PmiP Ax ] ] hP u.

|US

P\

C E
h : 1.33. |UQ _ En SvP

|x _ mkUP Ax. C SP
| AvP. | RSv, a_US i
, ush BQ Ch[P E. J _ mhx
h ui AS AvUS. C zv
xPsk. uh _ mkUP AvPUS. a]
C GsoUPU SQx.
_ En _ \P : |S Aiha
_P | EnQ. A C, , P, P\ BS.
Pa_, EPa _ Th En.
Ca_ mkUP | Smh P E. P\
En mkUP | E C[PP Ax.
UP[P P (E) En mkUP E. |
~ mkUP Ca _ A. Asn
Sv _P , P\ EnP |S A.
]u, C, P\a _P A C. ush,
a_US iSvP C, Pa _P A Cx.

}UP

\P uha]P |h EUP ]uzu

{Pa]P PP ESQ. \P ES
|m PP {P P }UP Gk. ,
U A, A UQ |m
PPS. mh xPP k |m
93

PP AP h U P } A
zx kQx.
h\ : u hzv Pnk E[P
uP h\ BS. Pa ]} EuSU
Su A } ukv AvP } Cz uUPkQx.
Ah JkP Su |a_u
Ehx. C P }UP EPUS Phzumk
}UPkuS Czuzv \ | PnkQx. Czuzv
A PU SPU Pnmh, ]} AvP
Ahh \Pzx UPkQx. u Czuzv 0.04 Q
/ 100 G Quzv ]} 0.2 Q / 100 QuzvPU
PnkQx.

ES E u
A + CO2 + ATP

Bu _]
P m

Bu

]m
AiU A
A

A&\U]U A

v ES UQ E PS.
\ v_UP A }UP |h x ES
A, P&h&BUk P Bu _]
Cnx P mhP EQx. C{Pa]P
hzv Pmhmhi {PQ. |a_ A,
J UTP EUP ATP UTP EQUPkQ.
|L : ]}Pzv A \ AS |L
BS. ]}Pzv J US AvP |LP
PnkQ.
|x Eh ]}P RPsh UQ oPa \Qx.
1. u ]u zv ES PP Qx.
94

2. H + Pm AP v P,
A {P J[SkzxQx.
3. ]}Pzv E _US P
} EP A J[SkzukQx.
4. Gzi _v Czu Azu
Czu ESu J[SkzukQx.

]} ES
J |L uha]Pa ]} EUSQx.
CUPzv |h {PP S iPmku,
SP sk Eg\ku, SP _zu BS.

S iPmku :
E Czuzu E Aih
iPmku Cu E iPmi GQ. S Sv
Qsn Cnu Sv E BS.

iPmku u :
Cuzvx zu Czuzv HUS 20&25%
A Czuzu ]}P UPQx. CvP A Czu
S uxQP P \v A[S Czu Azu
EPU PnkQx. C Czu Azu iPmkuUSU
PnQx. S] E E\ uxQP Pnk Czu
v Azu(Hydro static pressure) 75mm Hg. CuS GvP \k
Azu[P, \k Azu 30mm Hg, Chmk Azu
10mm Hg ]}P ~sS E Azu 10mm Hg BS. C
S iv iUPkv UQ [S BQ. ]}P
uxQP E u[P ES Cv Azu[P
E\ u
(75mm Hg)

a\ u

\k Azu 30mm Hg

Chmk Azu 10mm Hg

Qsn

~sS E
Azu 10mm Hg
h : 1.34. S iPmku

95

Pmi Czu } Azu AvPP PnkQx. G i

Azu (75mm Hg - 50mm Hg = 25mm Hg) iPmku UQ
PnQx. P` E iUPmh v S
iv G AUPkQx. J {hzvS ES ivzv
C S iv A (Glomerular filtration rate- GFR)
G. u C 125 . / {h BS. 24 o|zv
iUPk zu S ivzv A 170 u 180
mhP BS.

SP sk Eg_u :
]} ESu Cx Csh {S. Q i
vzv, SUP, A A[P, ux EP
mhP BQ UQ P Av E } Px
PnkQ. sk Eg_u {P ]}P ~sSP
|hQx. hUTi P mh Ax uukzx
Eg_u P sk Eg] EUPkQ. SUP,
\i P] P Cu P, \S
]}Pzu

P]

Na

H2O

Na

I\hU

I\hU

H2O

H2O
Na

H2O

Na

H2O

]}Pa ]

H2O
h : 1.35. ]}PU S sk Eg\ku

96

hU

hU

Phzu AvP A Eg\kQ. , U A

u P G Fk Su A
Eg\kQ. Qmi P P
Eg\h kQ.

As _sh SP sk Eg_u :
As _sh S }, SUP, \i m
Pm Eg\kQ. CSv ]} Jzu
Ah uhuPU Pnk. Jzu Ah u Gx Csk
PPUS Ch E h } Phx \u
{S.

sk Eg_u :
R[S S ]}a \ x E
Ah { AvPUQx. H R[S Sv P
uP Eu \i GuP Fk E \Qx.
Ha \ S _ P Ev ]} xPa
\Qx. H Sx \i R[S SUS Chmk
v_UP Ch \v ]} Ah {
Sx Psk \Qx. Gu J P\ Cx } C
HkQu AUP\ AhS v Gk.

\ _sh S sk Eg_u :
\ _sh Sa ]} Ah x _
v_UPUS, \S Phzu \i, G Phzu
} Phzuku ]} Jzu Ahz u AhQx.

\PUS S sk Eg_u :
\PUS Sa ]} Ah x ADH
\ } Eg\kQx. G ]} i E Ah
u AhQx. \PUS S _
k \k Azuzv u E \k
EnSvP Enx ADH ha \Q. G
E ]} 96% } 2%, 2% ]u U PP
PnkQ.
24 o |zv iUPk Q i vzv
Pnk P A, Avx \
P A K JhP Amhn
umkx.
97

J| iUPk J| ]}
S i

vzv A
P A

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

180 mh
2 Q
580 Q
640 Q
30 Q
275 Q
180 Q
53 Q
8.5 Q
1.6 Q

}
u
\i
Sk
mh]
Pm
SUP

U A
Qmi

1&2 mh
0.1 Q
5 Q
6 Q
2 Q
0
0
25 Q
1 Q
1.6 Q

SP _zu :
iPmku Cu u EhUSU Pk US P
P S _ \S Phzu
kQ. Cx ]} ESu Ph]{ BS.

]}Pa \ C :
]}Px, Czuzv Cx P P iPmi
]}P v Hk Smi ]}Pa \ C
G. ]}Pa \ C Eh }a \{, ux EP
\{, Czu Azu BQ k HkQx.
Czu v_UP ( P P
ESu) { v P v HkQx.
Ca\ SkP ASP EQ.
]}P \ C Gx EhiPa \zu (Acute)
Ax PUQ xPa \zu (Chronic) CPk.
EhiP \zuUP PnzuU Pshx AuS E
zx \x Psh i \un { Ah i.
PUQ xPa \zu ]}Pzv o i
C {US v. C{USU Pn Su Czu
Kmh, | v, h Pn \u
|PS. C ]}Pzv v_UP \
vha \Q. PUQ xPa \a
]}P A ]Qa\ \ \.
98

]}P FkS (Renal dialysis)

]}Pa \P ]Qa\ , Czuzv E
P mP, AvPi v BQ Ehu Fk
S .

FkS |h \P
]}P J |US HUS 180 mh Czu i
iPmkQx. Cvx UQ P \i,
mh], P], A A, SUP }
Pa ]}P i Eg]U PQx. ]}P
vhPUS C{Pa] Sk EhiP Ax
xP Hh. Cu PP Czuzv AvPzx w[S
. ]P EUS v HhUTi P
EshS. C PkP x \P
Fk Sa \kQx. Ck S \Pa ]}P G
AUPkQx.

]}P Cv :

u
]
FkP \

]}P CvzvS FTl

WYjR \zx S
h : 1.36. ]}P Cv

Cv K CUPU PS Cu E
vUPmh Czu \zukQx. vhu
Pzv ux Czu sk Au AQ E
] P Em\Qx. Cvzv EUS Fk Sz
v Ah[Q h[PUS Ch Ax P Czu
\Qx. Czvzv EUP Czuzv Ex {
AvUS. Czuzv E AvPi vs P
hzv P Fk FkS vzu AhQ. C
Eh AvPiPU Pnk PP
UPkQ. Czua \P u[P Czuzv u[Q
kQ. C{PSa Czu Fk S G .
99

zxz x Csk P Fk S \kzx

QP. A Czu Fk S (Haemodialysis) h
Fk S (Peritonial dyalysis).

]}PU PP (Calculas)
]}P

]}
]} P
h : 1.38. ]} P

h : 1.37. P }UP sh

]}P[P, ]} | ]} BQ Hk.
]} E P iu {PP ]}PU PP
EUSQ. ]} PP EuU Pmi ]}P
]} |[P AvP A uQ. C{PP
PhUPzv AvPP |h. H Ph AvP
US Eh v C HkQx. Cu ]}
Ahzu AvPUQx. CUPP Ev uhz
uP HkQ. ]}PU PP Eh } uhx
AvP |mP |hv HkQx.
Pm (Gout) i vUPkP ]}PU PP U
A AvPPU PnkQx.
mi m Su En EmPu
]} PP EQx. ]}P ]} |zv PP
Ev Pk Hk. ]} PP E
]} x u Hk. ]} ]}
|zv R Sv ES PP \mhP Ax
miP PP Ehzx . uu
]Qa\P, Av AP AUPP x \zv Pa
]uUPkQ. Ca]Qa\ zui] (Lithotripsy) Gk.

]}P ]Qa\ :
vUPmh ]}PzvS vP Ax \
Cuhx, | ]}Pzu A ]Qa\
100

v ""]}P '' ]Qa\ G. C US

| ]}P J Eh| n xuS.

} | :
Pnzv _UPk C_ US
Ax x C Hk Pmm ]u
Sk } | Gk. C_ UQ oP,
\PUS u \Uv AUP \P SUP\ Eg\
Eux P P \P SUP,
QPP \zx UP Eux BS. C_ SmiP
Pn[P : 1. Pnzv Sk, 2. Pnzv [PP
vmkP mh \P C_ _zu Sk, 3. mh
\P vhu, 4. U PP.

ASP :
1.

120 Q / 100 .. CzuzvUS AvPP SUP

Pnku.

2.

]Qa\ \hu } | ASP

A.

&

AvP A ]} u

B. i] &

AvP uP Hku } Su
AvPzu.

C. &

] AvPv AvP A En
Esqu. B Eh GhUSx
Pnku.

3.

Eh Eh Hku \un ASP

4.

Eh SUP \UP Ax EPkzu

Cuv Eh GhUS, { En Cu ]US
u Eh\.

5.

P a]u zv k.

6.

] Czu |[P PP Ax u.

} | PP :
1. C_ \ P 2. C_ \u P
1. C_ \ P : CP AvP u
C_ _ S HkQx.
101

2. C_ \u P : x A C_ EUP
Cuv C{ HkQx. Eh u K UQU
PnS. 40 vS mhPUS iiP CUSk
HkQx.
ux
C_
Gv
}
|
Pshmkx. CUSk ]vh PnkQx.

} |UP Pn[P :
1.

C_ \u } |US \x PnkQx.

2.

u PnP Pn vUPkv C_
Sk HkQx.

3.

C_ \ } |US UQU Pn Eh u
BS.

4.

Pk, |US, Pn vzu uk

vzu } EshSQx.

5.

PiPik hiU
EmPx PnQx.

xP

CUP
Azx E[P u[Px Ez uP
CUPzv uPzxU PQ. G EPQ
Uj[P CUPzv Jzu qsh
\uvPz uUQ.
u Bs, s CUPa \P uUPmk,
AP Cn, CUP HkQx.
uqx PuUP Ash Aqh CnP C
(u Bs, s) P DNA UTP Cnx vP
E u. CUPnzu CUP Gsoh[P
PP EUP C Gx uQx.

Bo CUP EP \v :
Bo CUPa \ UQ o xa _P
{Q. C o uq Gk Bs CUPa
\Pz uzuS. K Bs, CUP va]huh
Ax xa _ uhx uqUP EzvQ.
Cu CUPa \mi sP h BsP }sh
|mP [Qh C. , xa _P xa \ uz
ysik Bs P (Androgens) _UQ. _UPmh
102

P xa\ Ezv, CUPzv, na]

BQz ysi kQ. C Cshu
sPUS PnQ.

xa _P Ca\ Ezv
uq EzvU PoP : mmh _ FSH
xa\ Ezvz ysimkU Pmkkzx, ikP
xa \PP va] A a]U PoPQ
\mh \Pz ysik. FSH hhj
BiP Ezv ysik.
mmh _ LH G xa _ iU
\P x uUPzu Hkzv hhi Ezvz
ysk. xa _ \Pa \x uqUPz
uUP Au { 320C Czu u.

xa \
u
EmP

AU\

|kSv
mhPi

Aa_ C

h : 1.39. xa\

xa \P |P uh. K x
\ } mh iz uSvsk. Au EmP,
AU\ E AvUS. uz uhx SQ
Pzx, |kh, SvPsk. |kh Sv _ i
mhPi Ex. Ch \Uv uUP Eu. UQ
Sv iSvsk. uq Cha]UP \Uv ATP
UTP k.
hu (Puberty) EP a] K {S.
vh C xa _P uhx x \P
EzvQ. J |US 125 G A A
EzvP. 12&15 v xu Hk. C
mmh
P
Bs

Q
hhj Ezv ysi hk. Cu A AvPUS.
Cu a] Csh { s uP Hk.
103

\
hm _
x |
Ghi
uP

]} US

h : 1.40. Bs CUP EP uS

x\ |Pa] : CUPzvP x \P
so CUP E Ahu u. a]
x\P xa _ Akzx }sk, _sh SPQ
Ghi] Pa \Q. Ghi] \UPk
xa\P x |zvS Ax Evz ukQ.
C| x a_ |zxh uhhx. na] x x
| _[Q, x xa \Pa ]} | Evz u.
]} | vvUS. xa \P, _P
_UPmh Ahzv v }va \. CzvzvS
xz v (A) \ G .
xz v s {U P P AvUS.
CUS \ G . C x,
hm _, P _, & zu _P
_UPk. C xa \PUS Enxh }va
\ FhPP [S. J k \
50 xa \P AvUP.
na] x Bs n E zx uS.
A AiSvx u u\ CUP[P xa
\P \h so PU P a\k.

Pmkk :
Bo CUPa
PmkkzukQ.
1.

\P

mmh FSH, LH P Ezv

u Pmkkzx.
104

2.

FSH, LH P CUP EPz ysik.

xa_
xa
\P
P Ezv \.
3.

hhj

hhj Bs CUPa \PU

Pmkkzx. Cx , Csh { sP
uUS. Cu ushSv AP S
Hk. E a] h [P Hk.

xa _a \ Pmkk
u, mmh, xa _
FSH
BQ
Cnx
\k.
mmh
uqUPzvz ysik. C{Pa] hhj
Hk. xa _ \h \P Ezv
\ ]P mjP hhj _U
Pmkkzuk. Ca\P Cmi G a
_UQ. Cx hhj EzvjRd\.
iU \P, hhj Ezv \Q. Cu
LH ysik. hhj \P x

\. xa _ |[P ~x xa _U
Pmkkzu. mmh, u] x C[Q LH
Ezv SUP.

so CUP EP \P :
s CUP EP UQ o Asha
_P {Q. C mPh Ash Aq
(A) mhPz uUQ.
Pu mhP Pa]dL] \]l Q.
Asha _P so CUP P Ezv
\Q. C uha _] |hzxUQ.

Asha _ P (s P)
Asha _P Di, i G s
CUP Pz uUQ. Czu mmh
FSH, LH Pmkmi Ex. s P x P
E a], uha _] BQU PmkkzxQ.
105

DiP
:
C
ik
P.
Asha_ wUP Ch, Q UQ, P mi, \h
C _UPkQ. C xn EP
a] Csh { sPUS PnP E.
uha _]U PmkkzxQ. Asha _ E
LUQP a]z ysi kQ. _P
a]US G { uzvS PnP E.
P mizu _UPk UQ US,
i G . Cx P _ Pmh
Jmi uP { Hkzvz uQx. \h G
u&\ Cnz v_ uuS P u {
{zu EuQx. Px PU Pzv P
_[S uz ukzx kQx. Cx v Ash Aq
kuz ukUS. P Pzv uha _] {zv US.

Ash Aq A :
u Ash Aq ]x. Av Pn C
(H]zu mh). Cq SUP 100 U Ahx.
Ash Aq zv x Aua _ UPkh
h Esk. CuS \ imh (Zona radiata) G .
C S x \ ]h (Zona pellncida) G
E u EuQx.
Asha \Pa _ LUQ \P
Ax. ] LUQ \P \ ]hS
P. AS P imh G .
Cx Ash |zv Asha \ C[S
UQ \
\ ]h
EmP
vP
P imh
h : 1.41. u Asha\

106

Exk. UQP Ash Cnx QL

UQ Gk. QL UQ a_ wUP
Ch, wUP GUh EP `miUS.

Ash Aq Ash Aq i :
Asha _x Ash Aq u "Ashq
' (Ovulation) Gk. C{Pa] Asha _
LUQ uQ Asha _ Kzv A.
QL LUQ _ i, wUP AkUSP
Ehx Ash Aq k. Ash |zv C[S
Pu {P. Pmh P C[Q Au _ vzx
UPk. Ash |zv Pu {P
12&24 o |zv Ash ixk.
P mi

Ash

QL UQ
h : 1.42. Ash kku

P mi :
Pa] (P US) Pzv P mi
UQzx Qx. C Ash Aq u,
P QL UQ hS. Ca _US
, i BS. Cx J jk .
Po\ AS Cu P mizvx,
u&\ Cnz v_x uQx.

uh _] :
a] so uha _]P P UQ
{PPS. C CUP EP \kP
uh. Ash Aq , P mi EUP
{Pa]P |h u P Em_
uh[P HkQ. C[P _] Hk.
Ca^ CUP[P 28 |mPU Psh Pa _]P A.
107

uh {

1 2 3

uh {

4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1112 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 1 2 3 4 5
FSH

Dm
AvP
LH

Dm S
m AvP

US {

mi {

uh _]
h 1.43. uh _] {P

Ca_]P Akzukzx K s x va]hu P u

x vx uh {, uh Ahu (Menopause) P
uhx |h.
Ca_] UQ {Pa] CUP u P
Czu kuS. C{Pa]US uh Ax \
(Menses) G . uha _] CzuUS x[S
{x sk CzuUS Hk P }siUS.
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[P zx _] {P u.

LUS { (A) UP{ (5 u 14 |mP)

mmh _ _x k FSH Gk LUQ
ysku C{z x[S. C{ Asha
_ LUQP A uQ.
A Di ] A i
Czuzv _x kQ. LUQ
Di ysku Ghm G P Em_
108

zuUP xUP {x sk A. QL
LUQP x va]h. C{ i FSH _
{k.
m i { (A) uh { (15&28 |mP)
C{ uha _] 14x | x[S.
mmhx LH Gk mi][
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Aq . Cu P UQ, P
mi G { |a _P u . P
mi xP A uQ i a
_x k. ]u Di Czuzv _x
hk. i P Ghm Em_
uUPzu Hkzx. Ash Aq US P
Ghm
u Ah. P so
P{ xPv P _[Q u u
{zv v i UQ [PQx. Pu
C P mi Az x[S. mi
{ Cv P Ax k.

uh { (A) k { (1 u 5 |mP)
i, Di P _ Suh
Ghm P Em_x Ex .
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uh BS. Ca\mi P Em_ u
AkUSP Azx Ex . Cu i P
mix K kP A. AS P AP
G .

Pu :
Ash Aq xa \ Jh JPU Pxk
{US Pu G . C{Pa] u ik
u E \, Pmh Gk.
Asha _ va]hu Ash Aq mk
P |zv Sv P ~. A|zv
B Sv uh. CSv Pu {P.
K uq Ash Aq EQ \ ]h (Zona
Pellucida) z xzxU Psk E~. C x
109


S
AshP
P

PU P
h : 1.44. s CUP E uSP

K Pa\ uu JUS mh uqUP E ~x

ukUPmk k.

EhUS \PU Pu (\uU S Su)

"\uUS Su' EhUS GkUPmh
Ash AqU Pa \u EUP. C
vnQ SushUP Cu Pn & US
QhUS.
Aso Asha _ QL LUQP
a]z
ysk
P
P
Eh
\zukQ. Ash Aq, va]hx
{ K Eg_ S Eu GkUPk. K
E FhPz vzv Ash mk UPk. Aso
Pnhx mh x \P AhPzv
\zukQ. Pu Pa] B {P
FhPzv {P.
Ca\P PPU PsPoUPk. Px Gmk
\P E { Ahuh, AUP P E
Ghma _ "Jmku' \k. CzuP Jmku
] 20% Psk. Czu ~m PU
Pzxh { si ]UP S. G |
] v EP u. 20%
Czu~mzv 2 Ax 3 \u sk. CuS
\ AvP. Cv u P C[Qv hh,
Gmm (1978) B. ux Cv Emh |kP C
miS xx.
110

Ca\ Ash| Em\zxu (Gamete Intra Fallopian

Transfer) (GIFT)
Cx J v . C Pa \u
Ash, CP Pu |h Ash| (A)
L SUS EP \zukQx. C
uP P AvP. ux xP J uzu
uq Ashzv ~s F] a \zu \zv
Pa \u |hQx.

U Pmkk (SkU Pmkk)

UPm uP AvP |kP UQ
a]P Axx. 1960& Cv HUS 400
Gu UPuP Cx 100 PiP (A) 1000
P GQx. CzuP v
Enx P vmh[P A_ Szxx. EPa
_Pu { (WHO) ux "EP UP Eh|z vmh''
2000 AD (Global Strategy for Health for All by 2000 AD) G vmhzu
|hkzvx.
u] Sk |zvmh EhUQ K
Cnz vmhS.
1.

u & \ | qu

2.

u, SuP | uk \u.

3.

P sPUS ] SuPUS Enmh.

4.

Pzuha \u P kzuU PP.

Pzuha \u[P :
Ca\u[P CPU Pu |h ukUP
C.

(A) uk : C so PU P
uq ~u ukUPk.

h 1.46. sq

h 1.45 S E

111

(a) S (Condom) Cu BsP kzxu

uqUP PU P Pmhkx uUPk.
CP mhU]x uUS B.
Cv CP "{z' G P
{QUPkQx. uqUPU P x mPh
\zx CP kzu. CP ]L,
Gm |Px xPUS.
(b) sq (A) Pzuhz v\ : PUP
k P sP C Ao. Cu P |UQ
x \P \x ukUPk. CP Ax
iU B. Cu xU P x
mPh kzu.

(B) P :
P miP zvP, F] x
mP, P xP BQ PP QhUS. ]
x mP Ash Aq zuz ukUS.
i mk CUS. ] xUP
i, Di BQ Csk x mP
AvUS. mk P 99 \uQu zuU
Ti. AshqUP ukUPk.
Ash|zv Ash Aq C[Su {zuk.
C Ghm G P Em_z uiUPa \Q.
PU P P a _UPa \u uq
Ashzv ~x uh \k.

(C) Pzuha \u[P :

P zuk Pzuha \u[P (Intrauterine
device IUD, Intrauterine System (IUS) Esk. P & T Gx P (\)
iU Bx. Cu P zu.
3 BskP CUS. Cu Puz uUP.

(D) Aa ]Qa\ :
Aa ]Qa\ P J CUPz uSv
CUPa \. Cu BsP (\Uh) sP
(iUh) \ C. \Uh (x | il) (Vasectomy)

112

& Cx BsPUP K { Pzuh S. C

x |zv J Sv xsiUPk. Cx K G . Ehi

P - T

h 1.47. P - T

h 1.48. iUh

h 1.49. \Uh

QhUPx. HP Ezv \mh xa \P x

PP u[QUP sk. G A ]Qa\
J ] |mPUS Bq kzxu u.
iUh (Ash| i l ) (Tubectomy) & Cx
sPUP K { Pzuh S. C Ash
|zv J Sv xsiUPk. C EhiP
QhUP.

113

2. ~sq
:
~sqP EP Gx P UjUP, P
g\P mh\ JmksoP BQ
EhUQx. ~snUQ Pski, ~sqP
zukzxU PshuP ~m \P ~sq
G J v A uU PnQ. C
~sqP i, A, CUP, Eh\,
]u A Pmi, USQx.
~sq SvPP, A A\[P
~sqP CP {; AQh Cu
EPh E uh; A, u[P, [SP
uh u P, A \kP `{
h[P {, }, P BQ {ku
~sqP Ez u ~m |P BQP
[SQ.

zx ~sq :
zx ~sq BP 1888&B Bsk Puk.
Csi i { (Pausteur Institute), _ |mi ]
{ \mhx. Cm Pa (Robert Koch) Au u |P
x CUSP . i, Cm
Pa_ AUP I UPh zx
~sq UQzxzu AuP zu
FUPzu Hkzv. zx ~sq Gx |z
uP , uUP EUPoP, uu
|P AuS. |PUP i QU
PP, u UP uP vUS. Gsn u
|P U Psh Eux. |PUS
C xP, uk F]P Pshmk.
zx ~sq uz uQ ~sq
P, A G |z uUQ Gu
USQx. uUS Gv Eh \, Smh
~sq Gv ]Qa\ USQx.

114

 i [Rk : (1822 & 1895) (Louis Pasteur)

h : 2.1. i

~sq, u |P [S |P
x Ax P Szux. i \P
UjUP DmkP v FhP uS.
mi (1857) |vzu P P
~sqPU Pshu. E.. BP |vzu
Esh i Dm \P Ezv UiU |vzu
] Uh ] Uj[P Ezv. CUPskiP
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i Azu.
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u zuU SuP \ ~m,
A~sq | Gv vz ysk \Uv
FUSzu BQ UQuS. i A
PP P uk], BkP BuU_UP (Anthrax)
uk] u |UPiUP (Rabies)
uk] Pskizu.

Cm Pa & (1843 & 1910) (Robert Koch)

m Pzv Cb Cm Pa ~sq
Uj[P EUQ uPU PsuP \ku,
Pshu A BQUP v
\PU Pshv u [P B. A v i
Uj FhPzu AP (Agar) Psk vh izvS .
BzU (Anthrax) GUQ (T.B.) |PUP
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\P A | u z
uUQ.

115

Pa ""iUQ ]'' P Pshu A u

PPP mh. Ax | EshUS ~sqP
A EQ ~sqP Ax Pa
\ux. 19& si Cv Ah \P, Smh
hU]P, iw hmh ( ) |US
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Aa \{kzu u [SP Eu,
Pskizu. Ah Psk iP, | ukU P
]Qa\US Szu. Pa APUS 1905& Bsk Ah
iS] U PskiS, | _ [Pmhx.

\ h AP [Rk (1827 & 1912)

Uj y a \ ~sq \
h AP [Rk BS. J v FhPzu }[P,
\uU S Ax \u Th EPnzv Cmk J
Czua \u ~sq \PU zu "y '
Gk. h i y Uj Ui
(Bacterium Lactis) G UjzvS Psk, Au y
G J uSu FhPP ~sqP a]US
kQx Gu UQ. i ~sqP |
u, |vzu, so |m {kzu
[PS Uj[P BS. y a \P |
~sq EP Szu.
i Bu[P AihPU Psk, 1860& \
h, ""Bmi\iU (Antiseptic) '' A ]Qa\ U
Pshu. Cx A ]Qa\ Hk sP
uP Au Cu ]UPP ukUP Szux.

A, , |P:
P uU QP BS. A Uj[P h
A Pa]. A A _ 20 u 300nm BS.
\P FhP[P P uP Q v APS.
A u Ax [S \P mk UTi. BP
u P Pmkkh \ E JmksoP G
[P \P C Cmihx CUP
AhQ. C UPzv SvP vP
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uUPkQ. P u[PUP \Uv Ezv

116

\UTi Ax uzu Ezv \UTi ]ua

\u[PU PsiUP. i P Ezv \
A ua \P \x. Uj
P Uj LP (Bacteriophages) Gk. Cu
P Uj[P u; A UP Ahx
Aa ]uUQ. (iU _]) Ax Uj h
J[Qnx PnkQ. (\).

P A :
[S u P {UU A[P B
J Sv Aua `u P\ ASP BUPmh
P]m (Capsid) G ESv Pnk. P Smh
^PU Psk [SQ.
1. Esh i P \UP SvPU Psh
I\m i[P.
2. ]sh i P _ ^U Psh
] EvP P ]UP ^ uSvP
BS.
] [S P {U P]m Ah
\ J E Pnk. C
u[P Bx. C P \a^
UQx. EP Psh P P
PP
Du,

SL
BQ
PUTi. B E P AUPP
Pu. A | P, T & UjLP
]UP ^ AU Psh P BS. C
mh u[P, u[P PsiUS. \UPa
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_ i ^U Psh u P \U
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(Measles) mh (Mumps) Pa\ C\
(Flu or Influence) (Rabies) BQ
PnkQx. CP {U P]m Sv J G,
u Psh AS. i K[P
xn ASPP QUP u[P B. TMV {UU
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P\P B k P G AUPk. Tdv

117

E
E E
h : 2.2. A
h : 2.2 (A) UiL

YWLs, T TdV TwLp dLX], NUfWt\ AUli.

CYtu WReLs, -lT WhuLs YThPY.

:
P A uPP (DNA) j.G.H.
Ax B.G.H. (RNA) & PsiUS. J {UU
ASv C\ P 1% , ] LP
50% Pnk. ] P, P 3 u 4
P A Pnk. B P
A | P P UPnUQ
CUS. P {UU A[P JPU Pnk.
CS J vUS m P BS. C ik
P. C RNA P Cmh \[QPPU Pnk.
P {UU A } i, Ax mh
i Pnk. [S P i.G.H.
}UTPS. ] u P B.G.H. mh i
Pnk. B [S P B.G.H. Cmha \[Q
BUP }i Ax J \[Q UTP
Pnk.

[S P :
P E \P mk u Psh.
B As P \zvQx. P
G ]UP P, Gsn [S P
US \ ""PUP '' \
[SQx. Cv P PmhP A AhPUS
Pzv 5 |mP u 12 |mP , \USz
uukUPkQ. P i mhP Kmi
_zu Q {, Emvzu (Inoculum)' \kQx.
(F] ) Kmi x S Psk AhUPk. 360
C AhPUP mh mhP US HS.

118

P PUP \PP PnkQ.

A P CmihQ. Pn J x
]u P a]UP FhPPU PukQx.
P Pk. AP : ua \
, ik \ \z uh .
1. u : u US si \P,
G, Bh (Hamster) P S[S Ax u BQ
Cz v_UP Cx kQ. Czv_UP \P,
\UP US \mk UPk x ES.
A u u AkUS, u Gk. J u AkUS
Gx a \uzv JmiU Pnk \P AkUS
BS.
2. ik \P : ik \PP, P
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BQ \ P Cx kQ. u uk]
xP EzvUS, i ik \P u ]uu
ua \PPz uukUPkQ.
3. \P : uh a \P Gsoh[P
CmihU Ti v . AzuS uh
a\P, J \ P vj zu Ax
|a \P P Cu k
\ PPS. UPa ] Ax UP Cu ]
P i uh \ PP UPkQ.

I. |P
A. | P :
P\ (A) |US P J PoPU
Pshmkx. |z uUS P
BUPU P (Oncogenic Viruses) G AUPk. Ai
P, P, ] 40 (SV40) Gi
P (EBV) (J P) BQ i.G.H. P BP
PS. B.G.H. PP B.G.H. \UP
P BUP U PS. (E..) \UP

B. _ | :
h Skzua \uuS. Ax mk
[SP miP JmksoS.
u [S uU Piu uUS A]

119

u EshQx. |, , miP
_US [S [P BS.
u (| Pi) |US ASPP, Pk
u, AvPU Pa\ u{ [Su {,
ush SvP u\ |kUP[P, }
(mL) BQ u. C| AS
uUP _ 3 u 8 [P BS. CUP h Tk.
| C u 100% BS.
_US v uk] x 1980& PskiUPmkx.
Ax u ik \P FhPzv UPmh
\mhzu Cu P uUPmh uk] BS. Cx
P xP, ukz ysk uk]S.

C. A P :
G P A u \[P P
A P U P Cmh \[Q i.G.H,
uzu, P Psk. C SkSk
{Uh Aua `x Csk \kUSP Psh
A .
G AUPk. Cx
}zx |iP uUSz uQx. Ax
| u u EP (k) P
Qx. JUPmk mhx.
uk] _US |UP U]
uUPk. Czuk] uUS | uk, \
v BQ Csi uUQx. U
/ A P umh A P P
BS.

D. mhmi & (P A])

mhmi & & (HBV) J h Ti
Cmha \[Q i.G.H. Psh BS. Cx g\ P
| P P] | uUQx.
Cx J EUP |P, Gm hU Pi uP
PukQx. HBV uk], J _zvPzu Ga... Hmi (Ag)
(Bv Hmi) BS. Cx | {
HBV Ag _P (u) Czuzv Cx (^) uUPkQx.

120

PP

E_ _D

h : 2.3. UjUP AP

II. Uj & A & , |P

UjUP Ezu Gx A A, i
\P A BQU SUS.

UjUP Ezu[P :
1.

Esh i Ax E i Ax i
AP A kP

2.

Uja \P CQ, uSv, \[QP

A; iP i, i BQ.

3.

UjUP hL[, C ] \ku Ax

GUm ~snUQu LQXm.

T P i\[P UjUP zu
E sP BS. CsP Uj C[PU Psh
Eu P, Pmi UQzx P BS.
Uj \P EP Psk.
CP ~sq \ Uj
E Gk.

Uj :
G UjUP a]US Fmh P u
kQ. A u a]US, US J Fmha\zxU Psh
FhPzu |. J ~sq FhP ] vU Tmk
P BUPmiUS. Ax J v FhP G
Ax
\P
FhP
G
AUPk.
Au
TmkP PmmkUP, u[P, {UU
A[P, PP, mhP Cu ]UP
mP hP, Ca] Psh v, Dm Psh

121

v u. i EmmP Psh J FhP Gsn

i iU P Uj[P a] FUSUQx. AP
G Fmha\zuu vh FhP FhPzv
Chk / \UPk. AP, Fmh Lz v G
vh v FhP[PP ii UjUP a]USa
\kQ.

Uj FhP[P uSU RPsh {P A]

:
1.

}u FhPzv J J Smh PA
} PUPh sk.

2.

FhPzv m A Ahzv (pH) PnUQhh sk.

3.

AP, FhPzv Chmk Ax PuPP (vh FhP)

`hmkU PvUP UP h sk.

4.

FhPx SkP Ax SP \PUPh

sk.

5.

FhPx Bmh Q Psk Q }UP \h

sk.

UjUP a] Fmha\zxUPh, C sP
{, {, (pH) Azu Pzu
Evz uPP Jh, }zu BQ ukQ.
[S

m
i.G.H.

Pg_P S

h : 2.4. Uj Pg_P

122

Uj :
Uja \P J J (DNA) i.G.H. \[QU
Psk. Pm S\P Pnkx , Cv
Cn u C. (Pnhx) Uj P Pm
P Cmizu, sP kzxu, vj
\UP BQ sPU PsiUQ.
UjUP \UP {Pa]P 1.
Cn, 2. ihU\ 3. E BQ {PQx.
Uj Cn J Uja \ ] i.G.H. SvP
Auh Cn Psk \ kQx.
zvS Cn \i Uj[P / Uj \P
Q. C, [Q Uj S\ Sv
Ax S\ hUTk.
Uj E Gx, z uP Psh \u
Ax \ }UPmh Uj DNA UP J
\Px \ P k {Pa]S.
C{Pa] 1928& C[Qx zx AvP Qz G
Pskizu. mh Ax s i.G.H.
Gu 1944& B Um UPzv GP
Pskizu.
ihU\ , UjL P H
FvPPa \mk J [Q Ujzv E i.G.H.
Sv H Ujzv Q. J Uj
\ Azx i.G.H. SvP H Fv (Uh) L
~UP ALx x P ihU\
Gk. AuS Pa ] P mk J [Q S\
Cx L ihU\ Ahu ALx ]
ihU\ P Gk.

Uj |P :
1. \ u |P :
\ Gk | u Q, ] Pa
\u Uj BS. Cx u P |Pz
uUQx. AP ; hk Ax hk,
Pm Gmimi \i^.
hk , \ h G Ujzu
EshQx. C| ASPPz uh Pa\, Sh
nu, s sp UP BQ u.

123

Pm Gmimi | \
P \ P] G Ujzu
EshQx. Uj Shu P Czu Kmhzu Ahx
A[S Ax UP AhQx. Cu E Pa\ vz v
Hk. Eh S, ], Eh Gh Su BQ
Hk. Czuzv Cx Uj Eh EPz uUS x
mi, {, EP s, |mi, Bmi
mi Ax GhP hmi BQ |P u.

2. P
u P |, P Ujzu
uQx. C| BvP umh u \
x[P, CP Hkzvx. CUP |
Uj[P A_zukzumh (umh) }
EnP Qx. ]Sh Sv Uj Gwz
v_ Jmi, UPhx, Gmi hU] |a_
Ezv \Qx. P | ASP : v, Pg]z usp
Pk US Au EshS Pk
}, uxEUP, Czuzv Azu AvP
Czuzv Ahzv AvP BS.

3. U
u U | G] i G Uj
u EshQx. Ax J |Pa] Q |Pmi ]
P Uj BS. Csk P U |P U U
{U U BS. U U | {n}a _P
nQ UP AhQ. () Au ASPP EhSu,
vn, vkzu x Eh BQ
u. ]Qa\UPu P U U. 58% C uzu
HkzuU Tk. {U U | {U Pa\
EshUS. Czuz vP Pu Ga] k. C|
]Qa\ { 100% Cz uUPU Tk.

4. ]
] G | |Pmh, P Pl
|, (STD) BS. C|, i h ] G
Ujzu uQx. u mk uUTix. u
|iP (Eh) Pu Pz uQx.
CPz u ] Gk. CUQ u
uhx SuUSz u \ Cnz v_ \h ,
u ], u & \ ] Gk.

124

 ] | Pmh[P, u {,
Csh { { Qx. {
Cu ASP P PkP CUS.
C{ Ps Czu, Px P, a\u,
yUP, u, m], uskha\u Eh A
i Ax ]u, Q mh n[P P
Gk C Eh SvP E,
u.

5. P
P Gx {\ P G
|S. BsP C| uUS Ch ]}
ES. sP C| \U Svz uUS. BsP
]} UQ x , g\ {zv ]} v
ku u. sP h Ti ]} US
C v ku u. Cu ASP
, Ai , mk mi BQ.

III. mh\ ~sq (Protozoan

Microbiology)

mh\ uSva \u EP PmiU

J \ EP BS. C ~snUQ Psk
US ASa ] E[P. A Eh A 5 u
250 UP BS. mh\ ~sq SP
u | uhx. Sh A], BUP yUP v
, mh\ ] u |PPU
ShU Ti BS. } C mh\P
SuPUS, uPUS |P EshUSQ.
SuP, Qi Chmi (Giardia intestinalis) G
} mh\ E, h (Diarrhoea) Gk vUSU
Pn. Au iUPkP, mi
G D |z uUQ.

( A) i :
|, u i G mh\
Jmkso Hk. C| P_UP .
Jmkso UPa _], u CUP
s A P_ CUP BQ Csk
CUP {PU Pshx. s A P_
Cmkso {u u BS.

125

|SP , Pa\ EshQ P

mkU P, Pshmk. AP:
1. i U] Hk h] Ax n
h] Ax U
2. i Hk Smh
3. i K Hk k h] Ax
K
4. i L] Jmkso Hk Um
h] Ax ] BQ.
C|S PP Um P , EP
PS.
Pa\ x, |US Pk S Eh
|kUP, zu HkQx. Eh Pk S Ah[S x,
Eh { _ 1060 F AUS EQx. i E Eh
{ Ti Pa\, (Czu) \
|a_zxPP, ]PqUP E \\skP Ehx,
k x EshQx. zua ]qUP AvPi
]u |US Pk Czua \PUS HkQx.
Cu ASP : sp UP. Cx
AvPi GsoUP k U Gk [Qa
\P Su PnPz uQx.
L] P , Sh Czuz uxQP Czu
Eu HhU Tk. E uxQP Jmkso
z xPP Ah Hmk C |k. Pk
vP L ^ P 'Black water fever' Gk.
P}U Pa\ PukQx. Cv | Eh
Jmkzua ]PqUP ]uhx SP ]}
k.

( B ) A] :
u A] | \UPh Sa \u
mh\ E Jmkso Gsh hiUP
u EshQx. C| EP A U Pnmh
u |kP, S|kPU Pmi AvPP
C| u { PnkQx. C k
\mk |shUS uU (Pothogenic) {S.

126

k\mkP [Sh, R UP\ BSvP,

Sh UP\ \z v E \Q. Cu P]Q
Czuz xP, Shs mP Sh uP,
Czu[Pu v (P) P Qx. Cx A]
Ax AU UQ sS.

(C) Cu mh\ | QP :
1. i\ P

&

BUP yUP v

2. h

&

P A\

3. iUP

&

u ].

IV. Jmkso
Jmkso, Jmkso UP uUS
EshS |P U TuS. [SPhx
uUSz u Jmkso, |P `miU u Ax
`] (Zoonoses) GUP. `] P uUS
Hk |P J zuPU Puk. u u
Jmkso Gu | Ahx, Au ua \[Q
uk ihQx. B, u vhQ.
"Bz\' (Anthroponoses) G zu JmksoP
uk u mk {kzu
JmksoP A |P SUS. "` Bz
\ (Zoo anthroponeses) ' G zu [SP Cx
uUSz u Jmkso |PS. Cv u Ch
u J {P uP mk Jmkso
UPa _] J UQ CnS Gx uQx. G.P.
k |hUP.

]h\P Ax zuUP :
s

\P
Bs

h : 2.5. CzuUP

127

~sqP | Ezvz u :
[SP u |z uUS ~sq
P v A | Ezvz u G AUPk. u
|P Au |US Q ~sqPUS
"u EPUS Ch {P J[Qn \P
P uQ.

VR[ >k\A^:
~sqP u | Ezv uUS A
{PP, uPP PnS.
1. |UQP uuS, P (KP)
EP u, Ps Ch BQ Ax
Em SvP _\, & Sh Ax CUP
uP Ax, Ph SvPz uukzx
A Jmiz uQ sU Psk.
2. A i Eh Ax v_ h SvP
E ~x Emz v_UPa \hQ.
3. ] ~sq uu, Qx Eh Gu Sv
~uu Au Sv { Psk Pnk.
4. ] ~sqU QP v_UP Ax EP
\ UQhUQ. CPz u x
uP Gk.
5. ]P ~sqU QP ua \P
a]hu u C Eh \
{Pa]PUS Pk v HkzxQ.
6. ]P ~sqP \PUS a]hx, ]
|a_Pa _v Eh v_UPUS \uzu
UQ.
~sqP |zvz u (v) ~sq
C[P mhU Pskx. ]P Uj[P PU
Pk Pi PP BS. i Pi PP J ]
Uja \P, u Eh |z uUP
xx BS. B ] PP Pk Ax S
Pks Psh. CP | Ezv \ AvP
GsoUP, A \P ukQx. ]P
QP w[P PP BS. Cu P ~sqa \P AvP
GsoUP u Eh \zumh A |
EshUSv. i w[P Pi PP |u / \u

128

PP G AUP. C Eh | Gvz
vU TmkuPP Ax Ezv \uPP, F] xPPa
\kQ.

~sq | Gv :
u [SP, uP |UQ
~sqP uu EshUPa \u PU
Psk. Cx u Eh, QUS Gv
Gsn P P Au BUQUS Gvz uzx,
Au |z uz uUP (A) ukUP Qx. i
| QPUPv u uk , CPP,
Smh QU PvuP, Ax xP Pnk.
CP uk BVm Czuk, \zuk
u| uk G PU Pskx.

v / x ]Qa\
u |P v mP Snkzu,
Pmkkzu v Ax x ]Qa\ G AUPk.
vmP xP v ]Qa\ PoP G
AUPk.
J ]u va ]Qa\ x sPU Pshx.
1. | EshUS Q uz v_UPUS Gu
v Ax ukUQx Ax ]uUQx.
2. uz v_UP \P Sx A[S
|U QP GvPQx. xP AP, Ax
\kQx.
3. u CP | uk P \
[P, Ax Bii Ezv BQ {Pa]PUS Gu
v C ux \kQx.
4. x uukzu |a_a \u Pskx. Aux
Ax | Q ~sqPU P Ax A
a]z ukzu \Qx. Cv u EUSU
Pk P Hx C Ax PU S vh,
x \Qx.

Gv ~sqU PP x ]Qa\ :
Gv ~sqP G ]u uzuU Psh
v ]Qa\ mP BS. C Uj Ax g\
EPhx kQ. ~sqv (Antibiotic) Gu

129

 J ~sq ]u zv EzvS J
, Pa ] AP Cu ~sqPU PU Ti
Ax A a]z ukUPU Ti BU Pshx
GuS. EQ u u Pshmh Gv ~sq x
1929& AU\sh L[ G PskiUPmh
] BS. V^ MEoBD D lom >|
m. Avx UPnUP Gv ~sq mP
Pshmk.
Gv ~sqP Pk. AvP a_U P Gv
~sq xP P ~sq C[P AUP
Ax A a]z ukUP v . S
a_U P Gv ~sqP ] Ax Su |UQ
C[PU P v Psh.
Gv ~sqP \ Csk Pk.
1. UjUPU P P, 2. Uj a]z ukzx {
{zx P.
u P "Uj \h' G Csh P "Uj
hiU' G AUPk. Gv ~sq xP
RPsh P \Qx.
A. A \_ Ezvz ukUQx. Ax
B. \_a ]uUQx.
C. A \mh\a \a ]uUQx. Ax
D. A u Ezv {UU A Ezv
( h) ukUQx.
E. A ] Smh |vz uSvP \z
ukUQx Ax A ]u zua ] UQ
|vPUS miz uka \ \mk ukUQx.
] Shz uSu Gv ~sq xP : B]
(Ampicillin), mmh] (Streptomycin), hm\U (Tetracyclin),
Gz] (Erythromycin) . ] Gvg\, Gv
~sq xP P] L (Griseofulvin)
Ch\ (Imidazole) BQ.
] Bmi Gv ~sq xP Bmii
(Amantidin), \US] (Cycloguanosine) Bm. Pa]u
Ezvu AUS |PU Snkzx va ]Qa\

130

x ChL (Interferon) BS. ChLP

qUP LmkP BQ _UPU
Ti QUPu UTP BS. ] | Gv Gv
~sq xP, Hz] (Anthramycin) uSva
\u.

Gm (Ga.I.) Au Pmkk
mh | Gv u ]m Gk
AIDS Gm | 1981& Bsi (i\) Psk iUPmhx.

BP | u ASPUP BP Gm |,
| G, Bs & s na] P, Ax
Psh Czu Ax Au Sv P P
U Ti u| G Ev \mhx. 1983& U
hU (Luc Montagnier) G i {zv
B AUP NIH (USA) Gk. u]
Eh| {zv B V P (Gallo) G Gm
|US ] uzuPU Pshu. 1986&
Pmi S, C_US HIV Ga.I.. Ax u
| Gv u G mh. i x
BP P Cu ] AUS
]UPz uzx J [S \u.
Ga.I.. u m P mi G
xnUSkzua \u J v PS. m P
Gk B.G.H. P, J i Qh G
|v A B.G.H. j.G.H.P
UTi v .

Ga.I. E A :
gp 120
gp 41
iQh
B.G.H.
C

h : 2.11. Ga.I. A

131

Ga.I.. Esh ih BS. Cu _

100 & 140 m BS. G P Ga.I.. _ B.G.H.
U Psh (J zv) P]m (Capsid) Gk Es
E\]m Aua `u J u E Psk Pnk.
u E QUP u ~s \mhP mP
AP JmiU Pnk. m P
Psu Ga.I.. i QUPu[P u
E C[P (Em & ) JmiU PnkQx.
CUQUPu AQ Sv gp 120 Au gp41 G
Em Svh Cnxx. gp 41 _ US mh
A A[PU Psh J A\un }u BS. gp 120
J Eh S AS. GUm ~snUQ
BP, Ga.I.. E u[P A, J
Px A JzxuP USQx. i Px
E A 12 I[Pn SvP, 20
APn SvP Pskx. i SvP
J[Qnx J E APz uQx. Ga.I..
E CuP u[P, ] Ga.G.H. (HLA) (Human Lucocyte
Antigen) BmiP Pskx.
Ga.I.. Csk _ B.G. H. UTP
u i BUPmiUS. B.G.H. h,
iQh |v CnvUS.

| Eu :
Ga.I.. u P AvP A | uk S
HkzxQx. CUS Jzu qUP BmiiP
EUSQ CD4 T - Eu \P (Th) (
\mkP) BQ Ezv Su PnP HkQx.
Cu \ PP B - \mkP, UL
\P ]uv HIV u HkQx.
Ga.I.. u UL \P PUSz
uUQhP [Q Eh v_SvPUS \
UQ. Ga.I.. Czuzv mk, G Eh
v[P x, s C UP _, \U _,
u, zusk hzv, ] v, v,

132

P]m

{UU A
E
u E

vh

{UU A
iP

v P]m
EP

v P

h : 2.12. P UP

mh v, Pi v, BmiU v
BQ Pnk. Ga.I. a \PU Thz uUQ AUPU
Tk.

ASP :
EPa _Pu A (WHO - World Health Organisation) RPsh
Gm | ASP UQx.
1.

Eh Gh 10% SUTk.

2.

J uzvS Pz uh v Pnk.

3.

uhx J uzvS P Pa\ }iUS.

4.

C zu, }izu C Pnk.

5.

\uz uPP GUQ, & ush

Pih] Gk g\z uU Pnk.

6.

mh ] uu Ax EshS.

7.

mi |a \u

8.

zvU T Czu, bP v Hk.

9.

P] \UP Gk | u. Cu P
SvP u P } sP
u.

133

Pshu :
1. Ga.I.. uU G\ (ELISA) G ~m x>_ W
zua \u, Au BmiiP Psh kQx.
2. Ga.I.. u Ev \ "mh m (Western
Blot)' G \u Eu. Cx Ga.I.US GU Shmh \u
BS. Ca\u Ga.I.. US Gv BmiiP
Czuzv Psh \u BS.

Pmkk s :
1.

zu zu mP Ga.I.. \uUSmkzxu.

2.

Gm v G u GuP n
UPh Hkzv AuP na] vP Szu.

3.

xP Eh EP |hzuP vP
vzu.

4.

x| CUP[P, B]P, A_ \ {[P,

Cn zx mP, Cu _Pu CUP[P,
Gm n {Pa]P |hzxu A [S
Pu.

5.

Bmi xP AZT G A]hui (Azidothy

midine), hi (Zidovudin) \U
Gm |PUS Gv QhUS \u.

Ga.I.. u T x |hiUPP ,
\uz u |P |U Snkzxu
Bmi xP , | Gvz ysk P
P Bu ]Qa\P, B\P s
\ C.

134

3. |zuh P (IMMUNOLOGY)
|zuh P (Immunity)
Uj[P, P, g\P JmksoP
| EshUS PoP u [Q[P uhx
uUPkQ. ]P |Px sk u Au |
sk uUSv Gx }shPz ux K
Es BS. CzuPP HP uUPmh |PUS
GvPz uhP Gx uQx.
|UQP | BQx Eh xPUS
A |zuhP A G, Ca \u
AUS, |z uhP G . |zuhP
Ax | Gv A Aih SUPP,
ua_Pu mi A kP BQ
CSv P AP \x.
B[Qzv |z uhPUS ""C'' (Immunology)
G . "C' (Immunis) G zw zux
"C' ux. C GuS "JUSu' Ax
Gsna _P
Psp
\
E}
][P

S
Su

u
LZ

A
h : 3.1. CP |z uk

]} Pzu
}UP

135

Sh G\P
\

pH

"ku' G . G, a`x EhUS Sx,

v HkzuUTi A mPx Eh xPUS
Azx P EhUQx, |z uhP.
EhUS v HkzuUTi AmP ~sQP
A _ mP, ] En mP, v mP,
xP PuzxPP BQ Ah[S. |zuhP
Csk Pk.
(A). C |zuhP (Innate Immunity)
(B). U Psh |zuhP (Acquired immunity)
(A) C |zuhP (Sk u) :
C |Px xP uPP CPP
E AvUS uhP P BS. A mP
Eh ~u ukP uh\x, EmS
|U QP, ] uhP ASP AUPkx BQ
C |zuhP P \kzukQ.
[S |zuk B {PP C
|zuhP Pa \u. C |z uhP
RUPsh |S P uhP E.

1. Eha \u uhP :
|UQP Eh Sx CzuhP ukUPkQx.
[SP u, _\sh, Sh CUPU SPa
`vUS Ph | QPa ]UPUQx.
CUSP Em\ AvUS SP uh
A\, ]USsh QP kQ.

2. Eh\ \u uhUPoP :
Eh , P&Azu (pH) Eh_P
BQ | EshUS ~sQP a]z ukUQ.
GkzxUPmhP, Eh Pa\ Eshu |UQP
a] mkkQx. a _ iSU
Azv PnP Enk \x Eh S ~sqP
P kQ. Psp E} E \\
G\, Uj[P \_a \UPUTix. Czu
q ] \P, P uUPkx
CshLP (Interferons) G Gv u[P
_UPkQ. CshLP AP \P
uUSu Cx xPUPkQ. Cu

136

uUPmh u uUPzu GvUS v

AvPUQx.

3. LP\mh] (A) \ [Su (Phagocytosis)

\u uhP
LP\\
LP\
UjUP

LP\m

h : 3.2. \ [Su

C |zuhP P LP\mh] (\
[Su) UQ J. Czu qUP (UP
\mkP) Cv DkkQ. |UQ uUPzv x
UP\mkP GsoUP AvPUQx. u Eh
P [S \P (LP\mkP) E.
P\mk P UQzx u ULP
{mLP mh EU Psh ULP,
Uj[P, P ]uhu \P BQ
[SQ. |UQ uUSQ EhSvP \mk
P Czu qUP SQ. S \mkP
ULPP vhQ. Ca\P Uj[Pa
\US |vP, v mP E. |UQP
C|vP v mP AUP.

4. UP (Inflammation) Eshu Hk uh :
xP Ehv_UP |UQP uUPkx
Ax P Hkx ASv \{Q UP
EshQx. Eh AvPQU Pa\ uUTk.
v_UP Pnk "m' \P (\LP G Czu
q Ah) ]u x h,
\mh hQi v \Ub
P ku v_UP HkQx. UP EshS
Ch[P CzuU P] Hmk, Uj[Pa ]uUS ^u[P
Esk. vUPmh Ch[P
LP\mkPU Sa \x E |UQP AUPh
SUQx.

137

LP\mkP u, CP Pa \P
( NK \P) T &L\mkP, AUPhsi
\TPXe P L G |v xP
EshUSQ. CzxP P } EmSx \P
Ea\x, iUP UQx.

(B ) UPsh Ax Sk uh |z
uhP (Acquired Immunity)
Smh ~sqP C[Pnmk C P
AUPku, CuS ""uzuS uhP'' G ""Sk
uh uhP'' G Esk. CPP Au
xPz u U Psh |z uhP Cx
AvPUPa \Qx. E ~ |UQP uhP
AP GvP x Sku Eh |z
uk EshuP |hiUPP PkQ.
C
|zuh
|hiUPP
u
x,
Skuh uhPa \P kUQhkQ.
CP |z uhPa \ yshkuS |mP
BP.
u V >V[ EA A^
i. Sk u : umh A UTP
A B.
ii. Pz u : A UTP Ah
Pq v.
iii. _ A UTP kzxu :
A UTP (_ Au) C Pqu \kQx. Au
\, Eh UTPUS (_ BiP) Gv |hiUPP
uUPkQ.
iv. { : uhP sh uuP J Smh
APo (G.P. ~sq) GvP x AuPvP
uhP P Psk Au AUQx. C{Pa]
uhP sh |k|mPUS { zxU PQx.
Cshx , Au APo GvP x
w uhP |hiUP PQx.
Sk uh uhP |hiUPP Csk P
\P |hkzukQ. (1) L\mkP
(2) Bsi [S \P. BUQ J u Eh
PiU PnUQ L\mkP E. L\mkP

138

Csk Pk. T &L\mkP Ax T&\P

B &L\mkP
Ax B &\P Csk P
L\mkP P Czua \P G
EzvQ. C{Pa]US SvUP (Haematopoiesis)
G . vhu { L\mkP, Czu
Kmh P Ch x, u G EUS Q.
C A vhx T &\PP hQ.
B&\P G v Q. B T \P
Csk P |z uhP |hiUPP Esk
sqQ. T \P \ | uhPUS (Cell mediated
immunity - CMI) SUQ. Au B \P Gv
(Antibody) Ax Czu / v (Humoral immunity) |z
uhP \kzxQ.

\ |zuhP (Cell mediated immunity - CMI)

\ |zuka \kzxx \ |a\UP P T
\P (CTL) BS. C |UQP uUPmh \PU
SP C[Psk A P uUQ AUQ.
|UQ P UPa _] { uS AU
Psh, ua \P uP Eu, \P
]uhu
Pnzv,
|UQP
a]
PmkkzukQx. | vUPmh \P AuS
\ |z uhP SUQx.

Bsii & |zuhP / Czu |zuhP

(Antibody - mediated immunity / Humoral immunity)
Bsii Ax Czu |z uhPU SU
Psh Gv UTP CSP
Ax Igs (Immunoglobulins), B & P L\mkP Ezv
\kQ. J Bsi u Bsi
{a\USPU
Pskx.
J
Smh
Bsiih v, Cni A x. Cu
Bsii |z uhPUS B & \P SUQ.
Bsii UTP (Igs) \\h Cnu, uzu
Pnh. uzxU Pnk BsiiPUS UQ
oP E. (1) Uj[P, P xP mPz
vha \Q. (2) LP\m \P C[PsuS,
\ [Su |hu GuUS P BsiiP
Uj[P zv a\P AQ. CuS

139

K\Pn (Opsonisation) G . (3) Uj[P

k |a_ mPa \UPa \Q.
uzuS |z uhPx (Adaptive immunity), \UP
(Active) u (Passive) |zuhPP G Csk
Pk. |U QP P, Ax uk xP
\zxu PnP ES uhP {PP \UPz
uhP Pa \u. BsiiP uhP
mP, uhPz vh ux, uhPz v
J uUSa \zxu k SQ P | Gvz
v u |zuhP G AkQx.

uzuS |z uhP kUQ ku (Activation of

Adaptive Immunity)

J Bsi, ULP, B & L\mkP

hsimk \P Bsi [S \P
(Antigen - Presenting cells APC) ukzukQ. Ca\P
zv ukzumh BsiP uUPkQ.
Eu \ T \P (T-helper Cells - or - TH Cells) G T &L
\mkP ] Pm]kzumh BsiPk SPz uh
Psk, "ysku' { AhQ. C kUQ hmh
Eu\ T \P, B &L\mkP \ |a\UPa
\P G \P J (CTLs - Cytotoxic T - Cells), Sk
uh yskQ. yshmh B \P \ |a\UP
T &L\mkP GsoUP UPhQ. C{Pa]US
"Ka \ UP' (Clonal Proliferation) G . C
GsoUP UPhu \ "SP' J AU Psh
BsiP GvPsk, A AUP.

{n} EP (Lymphoidal Organs)

|zuhP shzv A oP :
{n}a \P, {n} EP G Csk AP
{n} shzv AUPmk. {n} EP, A
o Aih u{ {n} EP (Primary Lymphoidal
Organs) Ax (Central) {n} EP G, Csh
EP Ax A (Peripheral) {n} EP G
Pkzumk. {n} EP G {n}
sh \u Gw EP BS. CP L
\mkP i \P UPhx va] z

140

PzxUPq
u

AUS Pq
sp
Pq
PmhU Pq
G

h : 3.3. u Eh
{n} EUP

uhPz v DmiU PQ. miP u, G

P "] ' (Bursa of Fabricius)
u{ {n} EPS. uhPz v
L\mkP, Czu Kmh P, {n} sh P
n \x & {n} EP vQ.
{n} EP, EhUS BiP GvP
L\mkP yshmk, E uhP |hiUPP
PQ. sp, {n} ia_P (Lymph nodes) ,
Ph \u {n}z v_UP (Mucosa associated lymphoid
tissue - MALT) BQ UQ A {n} EPS.
Sh \u {n}z v_UP ( vmkP), Sh, h]P,
E}a_P, Pspa _P ^ (Colostrum) _US
{ u P[P BQ uhP shzv
APPU PukQ.

141

I. x>_ W WB cA
u :
Pa] Bx zv u uQx. Gmk
zvS S |UP v_ Ah Ti K Gw
EP u Qx. Pn, P P G
BQ EP Pnk \P uskXa\P
(Mesenchyme stem cells) L\mkP i \PS.
C u_US x, hhx u \u L\mkPP
(u \mkP) hhQ. P u a]h
x u, AuP E Ezu AhQx. [Q[P
uuPz u {n} E u BS. u, Su
US u a] Qx. 12x x
Ax Qx. hu S, u A ]Pa ]PU
SQx. G, u a] B {P mk u
|S \kQx G GsnkQx.
Cuzv Sv, \ uP u AvUQx.
| \P J E `mh CUS Csk
hP E. Ex Bzv\ E|UQ x
Pnk a _P v_UP u EmSv
xn SvPP UQ. J xnSvUS PhU
G AkUS, k G E AkUS E. PhU
Sv
P
UPh
{
]
L\mkP PnkQ. k Sv Gzw
\P, v L\mkP PnkQ.
CSv _ iP Au Gzwa \ Tmh[P
E. CS \ v_z uSP (Hassalls Corpuscles) G
.
E
\a \
a _
Gzwa \
Qa\
\ v_zuS

h : 3.4. u & A

h : 3.5. u & SUS mkz u

142

u o G BUPzv \z
u. \zv u Cu \ & |z uhP Cu
[S PskiUPmhx. uU L\mkP (T - \P)
Ezv \u Cu UQo. Eh L\mkP
UPzvSz u P u Ex. G, Ezv
L\mk P J \uu mk u mk
Q. Ah] (apoptosis) G
UPmh \ C AUPkQ. u
CUS x, L\mkP u Bi (Thy antigen) G J
x Bsi Q. u EzvS
L\mkP, u (T) \u L\mkP Ax 'T'
\P G AkQ. A {n} EP
{Px A u \m Ezv Bsi
yskua \ Ex.
u E u[QUS L\mkPUS, A
uhPz v AUQx. u EUS L
\mkP
uhPz
v
v.
u
L\mkP, BsiPUPvP E uhP |hiUP
PuPP UPkQ. Co u
EshUPk u, u] umi BQ
PoP P {kQx. vuP u
_shP u APmka \mh \uP
L\mkP Sx () Pshmhx.
Cvx L\m UP \ |z uhP
EUPzv u [S z uux.
A {n} EP UPmh ]
SvP T - L\mkP vsk PnkQ. sp
ua` sT SvP {n} ia_P PhU
\u SvP T - L\mkP HP E.

II. Eh A {n} EP
(Peripheral lymphoid organs)
A. {n} ia_P (Lymph nodes)
C, {n}U SP mhiP, mh i
P, Ax ] ia_P. |a\P
E Cia_P `mk. Ex iUS
G uka _P v_AP E|UQ x.
{n} ia\x PhU G AkUS k G

143

EkUS BQU Psk. PhU Sv L

\mkP J Ti A [PPz uUQ. CS
u{ UQP G . BsiP ysh k
x u UQ PUSP \US [P (Germinal centres) uQ. UPh L \mkPz u,
BsiP
izx
u
\
himiU
ULP. UQP u[Q. k Sv
}sk, QPh Ti mhPP (Medullary cords)
L\mkP PnkQ. PhU Sva \u
UQP k Sv mhP B - L\mkP
HP E. C[P, ] & & \u SvP
Ax G \u SvP G Gsn. PhU Sv
UQPUS kSv mhPUS Chmh AkUS
PhU SvS. AP Pnk Cu |kAkUQ
H T - L\mkP E. G, PhU u
\u SvPU Pusk.
E~U S
UQP
E

{n}z u
{n}a ]
a\ S
h : 3.6. {n}U Pq & SUSmkz u

{n} ia_P, {n} iPmk [PPa \k

Q. J {n} & ia_U S, Eh Smh Sv
{n} iPmkQ. ~sqP AP
ia_P SUS LP\mkP [SQ. T
B \P AvP Eh n BQS {n}
ia_P [S UQx Smh Svx BsiP
yshk m\zv Aua \u {n} ia_P UPhQ.
u Eh Hzu 600 {n} ia_P .

144

g. sp (Spleen)
sp P {n} ES. _ _
>| V[ B_AD EkA, k\ \ V^
Wm^. \o[ \VV^ VR cl
>>|m a c>[.

sp oP :
1.
2.
3.

P u { Czua \qUP AUPk

ChP sp \kQx.
\q EzvUS [PP, \qUPz uUQ
US EP sp \kQx.
Czu Kmhu, ~sQP AmP
iPmk EP sp \kQx. Czu P
BsiPUPvP uhP |hiUPP kUQ ku
sp UQ oS.

III. VD W WB cA^
Pa\ \u {n}z v_UP (Mucosa associated
lymphoid tissue - MALT)
\ sh, CUPU P }UP sh, _\
sh, EhSP BQa `vUS. Pa\x
H BsiP \vUP six. Pa \P
AvP
{n}a
\P
PnkQ.
Ca\P
UPmh vmkPP (G.P : vmkP) P
AvUS {n} LUQPP CUS. C xP,
Pa\ \u {n}z v_UP (MALT) (Mucosa Associated Lymphoid
Tissues) GkQ. Sh Pa\ Ax Pnk
{n}z v_UP, GALT - (Gut associated lymphoid tissue) G,
a_USPa \u {n}z v_UP BALT (Bronchus associated
lymphoid tissue) G AUPkQ. MALT AP {n}a
\P LP\mkP E. B T G Csk P
L\mkP C PnkQ. Pa\ IgA
G _ C SP E. En _\
P |PUPv xPU Pa\
SvP [SQ.

BsiP (Antigens)
AP BsiP GkQ. CS
CP (Immunogens) G J Esk. G C

145

zuP, h. C Gx
uhP |hiUPz (Immune response / immunogenicity) ysk
UTS. P, Bsi Gx Bsiih, \
| uhP Dkk \Ph UTS.

Bi Gh
Bi

Bii

h : 3.7. Bi & Bii Cn

Ck uhh h (hapten) BS.

hP _Pz u uhP {PPz ysh.
UPmh v UTP BS. (G.P. h&|m
& DNP) C HP EshUPmh BsiiPh mk
. hP, P uhP |hiUPP
Dkh sk, Gkzxa \ UTPh (Carrier Molecule
eg : serum protein) A CnUPmiUP sk.
BsiP C Psv BsiiP mk T \
HP (T - Cell receptor TCR) [PQ. C SP
xP x Hhu BsiPh mk Cn.
P, T - \, HP, Bsi [S \P
ukzumk Q. C ukzu mh
BsiP, Bsi [S \P Pm]
kzumiUS.
Bsi {a\USP GhP : (Antigenic
determinants and epitopes)
Bsih Cn Bsii SvUS "h'
(Paratope) G . hh SP Cn Bsi
SvUS "Gh' (Epitope) G . BsiP
u[PP Cu, A iUPmh Ah n
{ AU PshP E. G A A
\P Tmh[PP, n izv ukQ.
BP JUS mh Gh AP BsiP
TmhP AvUPU Tk. C A Gh
TmhzvS Bsi {a\USP G .

146

xP, uhP |hiUPPz ysk \

(Aux Skuh BsiiP Ezv) Dkk
UTP BsiP GUPkQ. B \
|zuhP
\u
AmP
\,
CUPzvSmh. G u, \ Czu
|z uk BQ Csk \Pz ysk A
C G AUS UP |hUS ux.
BsiP CPP, \PP, CUP.
CP BsiP Csk Pk. xP i BsiP
P i BsiP. Uj[P P, Czua
\qUP \P xPi BsiPS. Uj
|a_P, u[P, QUPu[P, u[P BQ P
BsiPS. v mP E
UTP, \PP EshUPk hkP
BQS Bsi usk. Tmka \UPP,
EmP u[P Bsi uh. i.G.HS
Gv
BsiiP
\PPz
uk
uP
kzumk.

Gv mP / BsiiP / CSP
(Antibodies / Immunogloblins)
CSP (Igs) G QUP u[PS.
J CS UT, } zv\h Csk
Cn hk \[QPx. ] hk uhUS
C\ \[Q (Light chain - L - chain) G, hk
uhUSU P \[Q (Heavy chain - H chain) G .
L& \[QUS Hzu 25,000 hh UT Gh Ex. H & \[Q
HUS 50,000 hh UT Gh Pshx. J
L & \[Q. Au UPa \[Qh K Cmh \Lk
Pzua \[Q
A
CSa \[Q
Cnh
S-S Cn
COOH
h : 3.8. C S (IgG)

147

(-s-s-) n CnUPmkx. Csk H - \[QP 1 u

5 Cmha \k nP CnUPmk.
A, Bsi Gvz u, H & \[QP z
uU Psk. Cu Aih 5 P
CS PP E. CS PP
QUP GzxUP hmk. IgG (P) ; IgA
(BL) ; IgM () ; IgD (hmh) IgE (G])
CSP Azx PP L &hk
\[QP J AU Psh. A P (K) h (
G CPa \u. ) K CS UT P
Ax h \[Q AvUS. Csk PP JP K
UT AvUPx.

hk \[QP SvP
J P \[QUS C\ \[QUS Csk
SvP E. A :
k Sv (V) Ax Fab Sv : CS
UT N Ax A A A
\ AvPi u Hkx Pshmkx.
C P u Hk H L & \[Q SvPUS
""mmkP'' (Hotspots) Ax Sv mk SvP (Hyper
variable regions) G . BsiiP, Bsi Cn
P EUPzvS ""mmkP'' P UQ.
H \[Q L \[QP k SvP (VH VL
SvP) Sux ""P mk SvP'' Ax
""mmkP'' E. H L \[QP A A
\ [P, mhP Sk uhuP
CuS P xn Q. , Jk J mh
uh BsiiP PiUPnUQ Eh Ezv
\uP BUS k A A \ J
Pn.
{ Sv Ax Fc Sv : { Sv Gx
CS usk SvS. Cu Ai C
Ax COOH GkQx. { Sv
A A \ { uh PnkQx.
Fab - Bsi Cn Sv
Fc - { Sv Ax iPUP Sv
mh PUS x sn E BsiiP
"AUmiP' (Agglutinins) "]miP' (Precipitins) G

148

AUPmh. |zuUPzvS uk uzvS S

Czua ^zv BsiiP A AvPzxU Pnk. CP
Czua ^zvS "C ^' Ax "Bsi ^' G .

E uhP (Transplantation Immunology)

xmh K E, BUQ U Psk \
\u ih\ BS. 1940& Csh EP
x wUPhu |PUS v_ A \uu P,
& uP Ax, h G mh.
P [P A ukzv.
1.

J u Eh J Svx, SvUSz v_
/ E \u, A (QLm) GuP HU
PkQx.

2.

Eh uP |[Q EPUQh E
\k (QLm) UPkQx.

3.

J {Pu, Au Phhx
E sk J | , P
P, wP QLm {PQx.

QLm Ax Ax U P Eh
]UPP Esk sqQx. CSU Pn, QLm k
u Pk uhP |hiUPP.
UPkQx Ax QLm
uPUQh Gv P EshUSQx. ] \
|P EshuS HxP Ex.
QLi PP
PPP UP.

QLkP |S UQ

1. _ (BmhQLm) Auto graft

Phhx mh v_ Ph |UP
zukQx. GkzxUPmhP iU A
]Qa\ P J u uhSvx GkUPmh u
Sv Au wUPmh PSvUS u.

2. Jzu s Psh (I\QLm)

Isograft
J AU Psh C |Ph k
QLm G.P : SP Ax Ezu CmhPUQh
E .

149

3. J C EPUQh k E (AQLm)
Allograft
J ]zua \u EP A
miUS. mh Ahx, J ]zua
\uPUQh k QLm BS. G.P. J u
Cx US k ]}P.
4.

EPUQh
k
E
(\QLm) Xenograft
C[PP E EP mh
zua \u. CQh k E
\QLm. G.P. x uUS Ax
S[Qx uUS k E.

E zv Aih :
Gz v_UP v_zu BsiP E. E
\si |P (Ph / H) v_zu
BsiP JzxP six. v_zu BsiP
{nUS P u v_zu Tmh (Major Histocompatibility Complex MHC) GkQx. _shP Bx
S\ C E. u CS - d L N h
Bu_u Tmh G . (Human leukcocyte Antigen) HLA
P AP EU Pk, E HP
v_zuzu (Histocompatibility) {nUQ.

AQLm :
mh shx, J ]zua \u
|PhP E |h x,
(QLm) {PUPkQx. CuSU Pn QLi
BsiP, QLm H v_ BsiP Jh
JzxPuu BS. G, QLm Cx, AP Hmk,
kQx. QLm v_ (u) Eh,
RPsh P Hh.
(1) u A (2) sp }Pmku UPhu
(P) (3) Eh x u (C]\) (4)
USU P UP (mhP) (6) Czua
\P x |vz v Su, (7) zu |[P
uhu (8) AvPi Ezv & u. QLm
{P, \ |z uhP Czu |zuhP
P |h. E {P u uS,

150

Enmhmh T \P (LmkP) ULP

\P DkkQ. Csh
uS {PP B \P (B - L\mkP)
\kQ. \zuh P P ChUQ 1 (IL
- 1) ChUQ 2 (IL - 2) u [PQ. QLi
Cva \zu, hUP, |UPmi ]uU PoP
(Tumour necrosis factors) Ax ua \ |vP \kQ.
zxa ]Qa\ x {Pz ukuSU
RPsh |hiUPP PkQ.
1.

E H Czuz uSv (A, B, O, Rh) Bu.

2.

E H Czu ^zv \ |a\UP BsiiP (Cytotoxic antibodies) E GuU Pskizu.

3.

Ez u \ E | BQ C
Czua \PU SUS Jk \u (Cross matching).

4.

\U jkP uhP
mkkzx xP zv_ HPUS Azu.

5.

{n}z v_UP PU PvUPzvS (Lymphoidal tissue

irradiation) Emkzu u.

A ]Qa\ x {P E {P
a]USz wPa \PP hx S[
Ex. uska\ (Stem cell) ~m S[
, EPa \ua \P UP i. C
v_UP Cu, A P{ \Pu UPk
EP {P a] Hx Au |US P
zu i.

uhP sha ^SP (Immune System disorders)

uhP shx, ASPhx. CS
Ph \P |h, |Px E
P kQx. G, uhP sh \ C[Pi
Eh|US |P Hh. ]\ n Th {P
sk. uhP sha ^S PnP u
EuP EshP.
1. J (allergy) Ax \]mimi (hyper
sensitivity) 2. _ & uhP |P 3. uhPU S |P

151

1. \]mimi Ax J : \un
BsiPUPvP, uhP sh zux
x \P Dkk x J EshQx. y_,
g\P, Puz xPP, En mP, ]
xP JU PoPP AP \hUTk.
J Dkkx IgE P BsiiP,
hP BS. hPa _x m \P.
Bx |, J EshS | BS. ]\
AP, vUPmh u x wx
Pz uzx, CUPa \UTk. CUS
ALU] (Anaphylaxis) G .

2. _uhP |P (Autoimmune diseases) uhP

sh, _\P UTPUPvPa \mk,
A AUS x, _ uhP |P uQ. _
uhP w {x, AvP| mhx vP
u. C_ F] ukQ \UP v, ""mi
Q]'' (Multiple Sclerosis) , ""mhk Bzvmi''
(Rheumotoid arthritis)
_uhP |PUS
GkzxUPmkPS. |P Ex BsiiP
iu ""i Q]'' v EshQx.

3. uhPU S |P (Immune deficiency

diseases) C Ax uP |zuhP AP
ASP, Hu S Cu, uhPU S |P
uQ. uhPU Sh |Pz uUS |P,
uPz uUS Ch. vj [P, |u,
v Enmh, zx PoP uhPU
S EshP.

1. w J[Qnu uhPU S | : (Severe

combined immunodeficiency - SCID) U SP
PnPnPz uQx. Ai] j A S Gx
Cv U Sh EshQx. SCID | vzuP
Czu Kmhzv u\mk P GsoUP P SP
CUS. SCID vUPmh P C zv Cx
kQ.

152

2. Gm (AIDS) uhPU S Hk |,
Gm. Cx B.G.H BPU Psh m P
Bx. C B.G.H, i.G.H, vP P
UPhQ. Eu \ T \P SPz uUQ
AUQ. T \P S U Psh |
uhPx |, A C h.
B.G.H. Bx "" iQh'' G
|v (reverse transeriptase) \ i.G.H iP Qx. HIV
DNA i u S\ i.G.H. \UPmk,
\u x iPP EQx. Ci[Px
iQ\ H iP
EshQ. ikUPmh B.G.H. UTP
xPPP kQ. mh xPP
T \P AUQ.

153

4. uP
(MODERN GENETICS)
|UP
sP ku \kP
PmkP USQ A Gk. sh
PskiP EsP Au uzx[P,
S\P P A EsP
AuS AiP. shUS u Pzv |h
BP x v PmkP,
PPP Pshu. A PoP Ax P
J[Qn \, {n, nu, nu.
SUPv , \mh\ , Tmk AP
BQPS. 1952& m\ QU AP
Pski j.G.H Cmhz vS _ v i, P
\P EsP A zux. a]P
(Drosophila) G\a] P G Ujzv |hzumh
BP | UT uuP Szu.
| u J A[PS. Ax uh
UQzxzuz uz uUSQx. u u
S\PU Pshu, UQzx[P,
|P, ]Qa\, S[ P q mh EP
BQP Ah[S. Ax mk u uS,
EzuP mi U Ax ua \v
BQP B \Qx.

u
S\ uS h u : (Karyotyping)
S\ uS h u J \
E Azx S\P UPmk AP \P
AUPku BS. CUS\ \ AUS PQ
G . As PQ G zuUS vP
CiQ G zu S\P h UPzvS,
mi Ex.
S\ uSz u xPa \P

154

mh] x |hzukQx. S x
(]) S\ h uP Pz uPa \
C. B mh] Dkk \P GuPU
QhUP. P Cmihu
S\P uP k (\Pu SmiU SvP).
Pm \P E Cmh Gs uS S
\P J {zu iU Sn[P GsoUP, i,
BQU PsiUS. S\P Csh
{ dLm, Qu {UP A BQ Cu sP
Ah Pnk. T Azx sP
USQ S\P uS Ph[ G
AUPk.

13

19

14

10

15

11

16

17

12

18

G
20

21

22

h : 4.1. u S\ uS h

S\ uS h uUP BmiU vzv

E Pa\P J Sv Fmha\zxU Psh mh
AUSm Psh vzv UPkQ. Pa\P
a] x PQ] x (Colchicine) Chk. PQ],
\P P |k{ Pmhzv {zv UQx.
i |k{ Cmihu S\P uPU
Pnk. Cua \P J Ah S (hU)
vzv Ckx AP } EmSu UP AhQ.
\ EmSu }, S \P UQx. C

155

UPmh S\P J Psni uPmi

UPmka \ Hmk ~snUQU Psk Ph
GkUPkQx. Phzv E uzu S \P
PzuUPmk A i S\Ph zumk
S\P uS h Ax CiQ EUPkQx.
u E 23 i S\P H uSvPP
H (A) u (G) G mk [P.
uSv H (A) : CzuSv A Pu
S\P 1, 2 3 Ah[S. Cu S\P
\m Sv |kzv Psk 2 \[Ph
Pnk mh\mU PS.
uSv (B) : CzuSv S\P 4 5
Ah[S. C Csk \ [PU Psh \
mh\mU PS.
uSv ] (C) : CzuSv 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 x
S\P Psh P uSvS. CUS\P
u A, \ mh\mU P Pnk. Cv
X S\ 6&x S\ JzvUS.
uSv i (D) : CzuSv u Ah
S\P, ~\mP Psh AU\mU
PS. 13, 14 15& \i S\P Cv Ah[S.
uSv D (E) : Cv 16, 17, 18&x \i S\P E.
C Smh P Ax \ mh\mU P Ax
mh\mU PPS.
uSv GL (F) : CzuSv Smh 19, 20&x mh
\mU \i S\P E.
uSv (G) : Cv PUSP AU\mU PP
21, 22&x \i Y S\ Ah[S.

P :
1.

S\ uS h P Pzv B
\h\ uUPmk UPS
Su Pshk.

2.

C u EshS |P
Pshk. i | Pzv Pshk
x zx B\ i Sk Psh
PU Pa]u \x ukUP.

156

3.

J u C uS hzv
S\ a]P }UP, Cmizu, Chu, \
\i Au EshS Ai
SPU Psh.

DNA & \UP

(DNA - Recombinant Techonology)

u~m

Q G EP Smh a \vP
PnkQ. P Pa \kP UP[P,
A Hmh [P |USz u x.
P UT A \kP J x
Pmmiz uzx. Aui G Pm E
\P DNA UT u ikzu {Pa] RNA
UTPz uUQ. RNA, {Pa]
J uzu (hk \[Q) EUSQx.
i UT v \vP As Pshk
, |hk P Gk (i \P)
1965& UhU, Ah UPa\z u \uP
Azx.
uh |UP zvP
P AUS \kP USQx. J Smh
\h (uEzv) Au C Chzvx }UQ
[Q i.G.H

m E D.P

|v
m i.G.H.
|v
Uh i.G.H

\UP i.G.H

[Q i.G.H
xskP

B.i.G.H.
u \zumhx

m }UPmh
D.P
h : 4.2.
\UP i.G.H.
u~m

S[ \P

157

 x vu mh \ Ax E `S
J zu Phzv Ax yUQ Psk . i yUQ,
J Ujzv m DNA P Ax J P
CUP. A mh , Au v ` Au \
Aux u Ezva \ C. G J Gu J v
`, E \ \hUTi u Pshx G
Es AihPU PkQx.

\u[P :
Gx J xshzu J \
Jmkzu Cx zukUQ, Au Gsn
vP EUSQ, Au \mh kzxQ
(A `) {Pa]PU Psku, AuS P E
\u[P uQ. AP ] RPshPS.
1. |vP : a. GU\ {UP b. Gh {UP
c. mU\ (UPmh) Gh {UP
d. K\a\[Q DNA P ^US SI |vP e. DNA
PP f. AP h g. Gv i Qh h. DNA
BQ.
2. A DNA / n DNA : Cx |v zukUP
kQ vkUPkQ DNA \[Q J Smh
xsh (A ) BS.
3. S[ UhP : UhP Ax Fv DNA Gx
A DNA xshzuz uh Cnzxa _UQ DNAUP BS.
C UjUP k DNA
UjL P BS.

kP : (Plasmids)
J m Gx _ 200 u 300 {Uhk P
UTP EhUQ J mh i DNA BS. Uja
\P u S\h, \mh \zv uzx,
i m DNA Pnk. ] \[P UjUP
Cn x J m Au Uja \x
CnU S (H) Uja \US
~x sP Au Ha \S Q. m
DNA J Uj \ ua\P, u S\h
Guz uh, Cmi AhQx. ]P

158

u DNA J Sv J m uh CnzxU
Psk Aua \ mk UTk. ]P J
m Au AQu u DNAh CnU Tk.
C hx J]u \ FvPa
\kQx. Cx u~mzvS CP
|US Azu _ GUT.

ukzxu
DNA \UP u~mzv, Gh
{U |vP, DNA Cmha _z xPz xsiUQ.
C|vP DNA E Smh P \P C[Psk
PQ. DNA Csk \[QP J Smh Chzv
xsiUQ. DNA E Smh P Au P\P
m (Palindrome) \P Gk. C|vP
A\PU PshQ. J m P \ Gx J
Smh P[P Ax, A DNA Csk \[QP
Gvvz v\ Pnk. EunP DNA J \[Q Au
P\ 'GAATTC' 5' & 3' v\, Au {a \[Q 3'
& 5' v\ 'CTTAAG' GvhPU Pnk.

P\US J \a^ Pnk. PkUPmk

m \P,
5' GAATTC 3' -

A||

3' CTTAAG 5' -

T | |

Aa\a^ AT/TA BQQh Axx.

|vP :
|vP DNA UT J \a^
Auz xsiUQ. i m \PU Psk \a^
xsiUS |v G\] P Ujzv
zukUPmhx. Ax ECOR1 G AUPk. C|v DNA
\[QP Jmk P Psh xskPP UQ. Cu
J Smh Sv ukzuk.

\UP DNA :
J A DNA () xsh Gu Gsh {U
|v UPmhu Au |v m DNA
xsiUQx. A DNA xshx DNA P |v
m DNA ~UPmk JnUPk. C

159

Jnu A DNA + m DNA m DNA h Jnu

A DNA & \UP m Ax r - DNA G AUPk.

UT S[ :
\UP DNA J ua \ ~UP
kQx. Au Ax ua\P Cmihx Q
SQx. G\] P Uj
uSuu ua \P kzukQx. uSu
FhPzv Uj CUPhx a]h x, r - DNA
P UPhQ. C UPhu r-DNA P UP
UT S[ (vP) P Gk. Cv, G\]
Px ] \i, mh \
\UP\ \] BQ EP kzukQ.
r DNA vP G. P ua \PUS
\zuk x ] B vP Aa\P ~Q.
Ca\P, \P Gk. J \ Au
Jzu v \PU Psh P EUS.
CUPP Pshmk uP UPk. C
a] Ahu PP Cx \UP DNA P, \Pa
]uzx, z ykzumk kzuk. P
a] x A AuS uzu Ezv \.
1973&B Bsk m
h P G AUP P Pnzv E
hLk PU PP AP, u u
S[ \x UQ.
\UP DNA u ~mzv \kzu P :
1. (\UP DNA u~m)
Pm P A A SvP Bx
Ax P HxPx.
2. EUPmh UjUP
] EPUS xP, P, Gv xP
(Antibiotics) BQ kQ. E.. Gv P\
Gv ChL u a] (HGH),
\mhhmi BQ.
3. \UP DNA u~m u[P
AP mk v mU u[P EUP
mk. C | Gvz v, (w[SP) a
\ua]PUS GvPz uzvS Gv PkUQx.

160

4. [SP u E SkP,
]Qa\ CUS }UPh C.
5. Uj[P "Super bugs" G AUPk.
i \UP Uj[P J |zv P m
PP ]uUP. CP Uj[P Ph Hk P
zxU PnPU Ph} PUS Gsn P
EhiPa ]uzx _ }UP \ kzu kQ. G
C _ }USu [PQ. u u ""` bugs''
AUP E Bz \UPzv G J Cv Ezv
\mhx. A `h G `U P Gsn
P]Pa _zu \ mk EUQ. Ah ""` bugs''
Uj Gsn E BUhP, \P, P
hP ]uUP v x.
DNA Szu xshUSu :
DNA Pmhz xshUP Gx
AUT SvPP zx Av P\P (A)
{Uhk \P B \u Ax A
h uzu SuS. Cua \uS v
|v \P E. Cu Pa \[Q E
u SvP Psh C.
u _ US mh |P
Pshmk. A AzxUS P [P
PnkQx. Hk vj [P, S\
Hk a]P C|PUS Pn GU Psh
mkx. |P Pmh
Gk, u |P BS.

\uv z uh B : (Pedigree Analysis)

[SP |hzukx Pmkkzumh `
P BP u |ha \x Cu JS. Cu
u u |P CP |h uU
PP B \Q. CP J Sk Ax \uv
z uhP J Smh | Ax s
mi Tx BQ. Cxa \uv zuh Szu
GUPk.
\uv zuh h : \uv zuh h J
Skzv J Smh s Enzx. Ch
SP Psk kQx. CuU Sk (Family Tree)
G AUP. CzuP h J Smh | \uv

161

\uv zuh SkP

& Bs

& P

& s

& K Cmh
& SuP

& C Cmh
& Bv
& vUPmh
& E P

& i \P

& nu Jk[S _
h : 4.3. NkR YjRPo Ls

F1

F2
CVp
Ti

Bi

TdLlThP
Ti

aW NLv

h : 4.3. T - P d P - T i u N k R Y j R P o

162

z uhP Gu z uQx G Au u
Ax P. PxPP FQUP kQx. L]
Rmh |P \uv z uh
Es | h A.

|P (Genetic Diseases)
Pv A \P (Sickle cell anaemia) : Pv A
\P G AS uS |, J Eh S\
vj uQx. Cu Jk[S A Hbs BS.
Cu \P (Jzu Pmh){ (Hbs Hbs) J
C S S S&I Ezv \Qx.
C S HbA GUPk (HbA HbA). Pv A
\P |U Psh Cnzu AP PshP (Hbs
Hbs) J EUP zua]u \P |USmk. Cu
|P Cu uh, ]}P, sp
BQ EP uhu CUP |k. CP
A[S Czu |[P Ah uhQ.
Pv A HbA HbS G n i\P
{ PshP C|UP u[SPP Eh
.

2. u^ (Thalasemia)
SuPUS Csk Cnzu \P Jk[S
P \ mh JP zua ]Pq ]u \P
uQx. Cx u^ BS. Csk PP C|
Pnk. A, u^ u^ BS.
PU Pk \Px u^ BS. B u^
PkuPU PukQx. CuP Cn Jzu
\P { Psh SuP Cu Pk PUS
Au \ n AP Psh SuP Pk
PUS Emk. Pk u^ |UP zxU Th
ASPP (A) kPP 1. G \ Sk
2. zu Kmh zua]u 3. sp P UP
BQ u. u^ vUPmh SuP _
v v CUP |k.

3. GPS (Agammaglobulinemia) :
GPS G J Jk[S | | Gv

u PS Ezv |h Q. C|

163

PshP AvP A | Gvz v S, \P

C, C {n}UPqUPh A
CUS S \m \Ph Pnk. |
Gv u BmiiP Ezv Cuu C|P
P Uj[P & SP P A
uUSuUS Emk. C| ]P Pnk.

4. A\ (Albinism) :
C| (P {) ]u U
P u k |S. u, i
PsP BQ C Pnku C|UP
sPS. zx ASPP s u {
JUTa\ u. A\ J ]u
|S. vj hu Jk[S { P ]u
{P [S P ] |vP Ezv \ u
C| uU Pn BS.
] A G A A J \[Q
]u {Pa] uhQx. Czuh [S P
|vP, Sk \ Ezv BPu x Ax
h x Eh\ A [P
uQx. P {, Cu x,
C| Psh A u AvkQ. C|
uP 1:5000 Ax 1: 25000 G Quzv {PuP
AUPmkx. A\z v Eh v A\,
Psq A BS A\ Ax u
iv Sv P A\ G k. u E
\m \P DOPA (3,4 - Dihydroxy Phenyl alanine) G
P u { u. CzvS h]
G G\ PnQx. A\zv G\ Ezvv.
G uv. CUSk 'aa' G |k[S
P Hk.

5. Asi[Uh P (Huntington's Chorea) :

Cx uP Eh S\ J K[S
uUPk EUP |S. C| 35 u 40
xhPhzv uQx. CUS u\P P
A u[S u Eh Ah[P iu JP P,
P Eu (A) AvP Eshu & C|UP sPS.
C| | shzu S P uha \u,
Eh a \ uhx iiPa ^ AhQx.

164

si[Uh | u u u Pshmh K[S

|S. CuP v |Px S\

Axx. C|UP Cu sP zvUT ^,
a\, ,, Q x En BQ
v vP uu. C| Snkzu Cu
|S.

6. Pk Tmk | GvU S ]m (SCID) /

(Severe Combined Immunodeficiency Syndrome) :
Cx SuP vUS A |S.
C|UP ADA (Ai i A) S\ 20&
Axx. C|Vp vUPmh SuP, P |
Gva \Uv C S. CuS AP zuzv E G
[VqUP Au PnS. SCID Gk C| ""S
]'' ]m G AUPk. CUSu Gx J
y, Q }UPmh SU S zvUPk.
G E \i CUSu PmhP
CUP|k.

u vmh (Human Genome Project) :

u vmh Gx u P
Pmh, Av \vP BP u
{PPS. u Gx J u Eh \
Ax DNA Gk j BU] {UU A UTP
uS BS. i u U Psh[PP
\uu Pa _ 30000 P Ah A
SvU TP UP[P Amk. P
Pu[P Ezv \uP \vPU Psk. Cu
u[P |vPP, PP BiPP
(Gvuz ysi) E \ i Eh
Eh\ E v \kP {PzuU PnQ.
u vmh { 23 CQd S\P DNA
\U Pshmkx. Czvmh E zx
A Hmh Pu vPU Puk.

u [Q Ax \v \P
u [Q Ax \v \P Gkx
UPmh P \kzuU SUQx.
GvP miS i \kzxu \kQx.
\mh P Aih \vPP [SQ.

165

miU / ua \v BP (Proteomics) :
u u BP EhUQx BS. P
u[P B \u, AS \PU Pshu,
AS PU Pshu (miU) ua \v
A BS. u[P BuSa \P yx B.G.HUP
(m RNA) B \kQ. BP, P u
Cx _ 60000 mRNAUP Pshx. mRNAUP P
A EUQ P (A) DNA xsh[P uhkQ.
i Pshu DNAUP cDNA ({ DNAUP) Gk.
u vmhzv Smh S\P
Ax, |P Szu P h[P
uUPmk. Cu P S\ h ] |PUP
S\ GsoUP Avx Ah
BQz uUQx.

ua \v ~s SP :
u vmhzv, Eh a], \ {Pa]P
|a \ J[Skzxu, Gv \\mhPa
]UPPUP Skzua \u u[P
Pshmk.

u vmh (HGP) kP UQzx :

1.

u vmh |P ] EUP
|P | U Snkzx U
Psh EuQx.

2.

u u |P z uP A AuP
xPa EUP Czvmh EuQx.

3.

HGP vmh |Pz uUS Sk P A

EuQx.

4.

| | \u AU PPUS
u vmh J PPa \ku Pzv
AP EhT ]x [S |P ua
\uzu EUP C.

5.

Czvmh Eh\ ]Qa\ P ]Qa\

US EuQ.

166

S[ (Cloning)
S[ Gx zu EP vPP Ezv \
\S. CuS P C BQ
xP A Eux. Cu \P mi
AhuP U Pmkmh \P
a] Ax Psk. CUS u
S[ EUP C G \zv T EshQx.
hhu :
\P a] Pz uUS a
\P Pmh [SQx. P mh mh]
Pz uhx |hu Gsn \P
EQ. Ca\P izv \ \
PPP hhQ. T \ uPP Ax
\PP u \ hhu G AUP.
1950& B Bsi B.U i.Q[ BQ Csk
PP EmP zxu G \
EUQ. CP uP PmhP E EmPUP
J ~so m Gkzx (EmP }UP) mk
Au uP P E \P EmPUP }UQ,
A EmP }[Q PmhP Jmhzu. EmP
PmhP C a]h \PPh
umhP EshUQ v u EP EUQ.
CP i \ Psk Gsn zu
u EP (SP) EUQ. P C
a] E \P EPz uUS
B u, A "zv' (Totipotent) \P G
AUPkQ.
B .Sh G vu P
umh E \P EmPUP, EmP }[Q
PmhP zukx A a]z v
vUS EQx Guz uUQ. va]
P EmP HQ PmhP C a]
Ah Q. Ah \uP va]
P E Pa \P EmPUP,
zuk x A a]z v ysh kuP
Azx.
Cu A, P \P Au u a]U
Pzv E EUS v Cx Ahx

167

Smh EUP EUS v PshPP Q

G. Aux P \P "zv' { Cx
"Svzv' (Pluripotent) hm {US Q.
""Svzv'' { Aa\P Smh v_UP Ax
EUP EUS C Psh.

\ BmkUSmi
(\ UP)

S[

hUh. A m G h G \
BmkUSmi S[ i EUQ. CuS EmP
zxu kzv. A s \ Bmi
i E Cmh S\ Gs (2n) Psh Eh \z
uukzu. Au Bmi (Ph) AiPjR
zukzu. AiPm J Gs S\U (n) Pshu,
Au v \ Bmi EUP Cx. Au i
E Eh\ (2n) CUPa \P Cuu Aa\
v \ Bmiz uUP Cx. G m
ia\ Cmh Gs (2n) Psh EmP }UQ. Au
AiPj E J Gs (n) Psh EmP }UQ.
ia\ EmP, EmP }[Q Pmh \zv.
ux Pmh 2n Cmh Gs Psh S\P
uSv EmP zu x x.
Cmh Gs (2n) EmP Psh Pmh, Au u \

Ash
EmP }UP

i \

2n

EmP }UP

2n

miU () u

2n
EmP

\z u

h : 4.4. \ Bk & S[ \

168

Bmi P sk zumhx. i Pmh

v ua \ Bmi (\zu) P
zuh. Pmh P x, \ BmkU
Smiz uzux. C E S[ \ Bk
sP Cmh Gs EmP (ia\) [Q \
Bmi JzvUS, Pmh [Q \ Bmi Jzvx.

JUP \u a]P & |, wP

1.

2.
3.
4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

S[
i
[SP
Ezv
\u
JUPUS CP {vUS Ju u~mPa
] PukQx.
S[ u EUP G
]P w uP uUPU Tk.
S[ US SuP z uP
Jzvv. sP [P Hh sk.
S[ Eh \x EUPk EP
UP, | Gvz v BQ sP PU
SQ. S[ E [SP mk
|P u.
S[ \ Pmh \P niUPk. J
S[ EUP kzumh 57 Pmh
\P J P mk a]hx ux.
S[ E [SP Eh PPU
PsiUPUTk. AP C EP ha ^UQ
CUP |h. G Eh\ u S[ C
EP SQ | Pzu PsiUP sk.
u {{zu S[ EuQx. Cu
CQ Cx Ax mh [Q[P
Ax AUTi { E [Q[P sk
Ezx {kzu C.
u S[ JUPUS uPU
Pumh, Ca\ u Eh EUP,
A a\P UP, kzu. A
EP zu E zu u
ChP v_ J (u), w[S
US | Gv P BQPz uzx
u EPU P C.

169

iU EP Ax mh
EP (Transgenic organisms)
P K Ex
EUS , [SP u[P
EzvUS Szxx. Cu P EP iU EP
Gk. E u ~m Cx UQzx
uuPU PukQx.

P :
[SP \P A P HU P s
iLU\ Ax A u G AUP.
A u \P |hP mi
E. Aux,
1. v P zx P uuS
kQx. 2. P A, \ Ax
P EuQx. 3. v u
UQzx
u

mh
P|h
[SP, P Cu Ezv \ C.

PmhP Ax PUP P ku :
PmhP E EmP Ax Au Svz
xsh[P Ax Av E DNA Svz xsh[P ku
P {PzukQx.
A. EmP v, \P \mh \]
B G vUS Emkzumk EmP }UP
\kQ. EmP }UP \P z
uukUPk EmP, Gv QUP E
~UP { {zuk.
B. S\P \P uS, mh
(|k{) { E \P S Ahzv vzv
ChkQ. Cu S\P uzuP
UPkQ. CUS\P \Ph
Ax Pmhh CnUPkQ.
C. DNA SvP uS ~s F] \zxu
kzu kQx. Cv Pmh DNA xsh[P
|iP ~s F] \zumk CnUPkQ. DNA
xsh[P Cnu PmhP EPz
uUS.
D. a \ P : C (i)
a\P kzukQ. a\P G k

170

Ahu i \P BS. CuP E

a\P, P Uh P mP
Em\zuh. Ax |iP xP xUQ kzxu,
~s F] \zxu, x Hkzxu, \P
kzxu P \zu.
As [Q[P [SP
Ezv \mk. C GP, P, BkP, P,
\ BkP, _UP P BQ mk
PP EUPmk.
P : 1. mh [SP A CP
h En uUP v AvPPU Psk.
2. CP xu a]U Psiu, \u Gmk
(US) Aa ^UQP AhQ.
3. Ch \zv u ]P Ex.
4. ] vPUS CP GvU Psk.
5. CP Ezva \PPa \mk UQzx
u \UP u[P x mP
A Czu, ]} uQ.

]Qa\ (Gene Therapy)

P UPnUQ |PUP
\ C. G C zx EQ J x
]Qa\ z uzxx. Cx ]Qa\ S.
]Qa\ Gx u u PUS vPz vzumh
P ~uS. Csk P ]Qa\ P : 1. Eh
\ ]Qa\ 2. Pa\ ]Qa\ . Csk
P kzv |PU Snkzu C.
Eh \ ]Qa\ , | Czu, G
Ax EP u, BQ Cx u
PU Psh \P zx GkUPmk
vzumk, sk | Eh \zukQx.
Eh \P CUP Ahu \P BS. G Eh
\P P vzuk x, i vzu \
\uvPUS Phzukv. CP Eh \
]Qa\ , uzu vj[P Hk |PU
Snkzu EuQx. Cua ]Qa\ mP
|uhP P HS UhPP (PhzvP) kQ.
Cu P RNA x DNA P

171

vkUPkQx. P \k UhPP
uP A ] P }UPkQ. Cu i
P w[PPP mk A |P P
~uP Ch[P uUPkQ. Eh \ ]Qa\
|P P Pi AS vkUPku
sk. Ax A HQ Uh P
GsoUP UP sk. \ AzuP
GsoUP uSz xn P kzukQ.
_h Cnu (vUP |P ) Eh \
]Qa\ kzukQx. Eh \ ]Qa\
[SP U Dmix.

Pa\ ]Qa\ (Germcell Line Gene Therapy) :

h |P \ \uvPUS
ukUP ]Qa\ CUPa \P Ax Pa\P
kzukQx. [SP, Pa\ ]Qa\
| uU Pshx. Cua ]Qa\
_, G Bk BQ [SP Pmh EmP
|P x \zuk. Pmh EmPh Cnu
|P P [Q Eh Au PUS v u[P
EPa \Q. Pa\ ]Qa\ uU P
\kzumkx.
uU Pa\P m UhP |P
P ku AhQ. u CzuP ]Qa\
ux GuPa \ CuP \vP, vP
E. Ash[P, xa\P J \ PUP
GuPa \Pzx xPuPP v |m B E{
ux mi Ex. \uU S Pu
ux Pa\ ]Qa\US x xn Qx. Ca]Qa\
C uhu { |UQ |h
Qx.

E uP

(Bio informatics)

E uP, E uPP {UU A,

\P u \ BQ uz u[P (Data
base) EshUP, { EuQx. Au kP
]Qa\, | Au, uUP, , E v
{PP BQ. E uP uP B \u
u UTPUP q uzu[Pz uzu
a \Qx.

172

E uP (History) :
sh PzvS u uzx[P
(PPP) zu sP mi,
EP E vUSn[P mi
P P {nUQ G Es P
Enzv. Phu x BskP UT E
Pnmh [P, PoP Pski, A
\P Hmh, ~so a]P, "|' ASP
A Szumh \u[P kP BQ E
uP Hh Szx.
BU PmhU PskiP P|h C_ A
A \, 1950& Dm \ A i.B.G.H.
77 [P \, 1960& x Pv Psk Amh u
iP A, BQ AihPP, Es uzu[PP,
uvS, Pz uS mh.
Po mi Hmh [P,
uku APuP (Blast) A Pmh P,
E Pmh \vP (Input format) E uP G
A u Eu.

kP : (Application)
E uP Gx E u ~m, uP
u ~m Cnu J x BS. E u
~m ~sqP EP, kzumk
uUSz u |US P DmhkQ.
AsU P[P q E E
u~m K u u xP x.
q J E J x
E ~UPk. H E P Au
\P vUPh sn, u Ezv
\kQx.
\A VlBo[ xBmkD
1. E uP xP, EPUS mP
C_, a] P, ChLP (Interferons) ,
\mhPP (Cytokines), S BmiiP (Monoclonal
antibodies) Ezv \kQ.

173

2.

_a `, s } _u SUP kQx Ax
A }UPkQx.
3.
P _] Ezv UP Eu.
4.

u[P
CUPzv
u
P
~UP
Ezv
TmhkQx
(|m
{kzx P).
5.
s P w[SP uUPzvS Gv Hkzu
Eu.
6.
]Qa\P |PU Snkzu.
q E u~mP H
P , A Ph A \,
A u[P \ A six.
PoP vuPz uUPmh uSvP
i [P A EuQ. Cu J[Qnu A
(field) u E uP Gk.

E uP |UP : Scope
1.

J \ Ex \ EP A
P ua ^\PUP q u zu
EUP.

2.

E UTP A \mi Axh

A n AP Ax P C.

3.

E, E v E C uP
BuP Pou Po P
CnUQ AP E uP [SQx.

4.

E uP Gk {UU A (DNA/RNA) u
\P A, \kP, uhP
J[Qn \P BQ B \x, \uP
\P Szxx.

5.

E uP Po P, u {
mk E A, Ax J ` sh
A \vPa \Pzx B \.

6.

E uP uP P Aih
C E P Ax P.
Smh P \mi Ax P Eu.
Au |U Psh v P xP
uUP US.

174

u / uu & K UP (Database - definition)

P miS Eu P u uSUP
kQx. u uPP Ax vP
uUPP [SQx.
u [P, x u[P ] u [P
G C PP UPmk. DNA, u[P,
PmmkP BQ AP x u zv
Ah[S.
]z u zv ESTs Gk k \
zvP, GSs Gk \ \P, SNPs Gk u
{Uhk AP, STSs Gk \ zv
Ch[P RNA u [P BQ Ah[SQ.
xz ux, \z u A
u G CP EhUQx.
\z u [P {Uhk \P Ax
A A \P vP BS. x {UU
A[PUS x u[PUS Ex.

h : 4.5. DDBJ

xUPUP

175

Az u [P UTP A
u vPU SUS. {UU Az uP u{
Csh { u [P G UPk.
u{ u[P zvx GkUPmh Esz
uPP, (E..) [Q (NCBI / USA) u (Swiss - Prot)
(_m\x) u 3D A BQ.
Csh { u [P, vU Tmkz u[P
G AUPk. C AhUS S uP, uPPS.
(E..) OMIN - Eh {P (Online) sh & u
GDB u & u.

{UU A \zu [P :
I UT E \uU Th (EMBL) u]
E u~m uP (NCBI) u [Q
(DDBJ) G u {[P (CimmkP)
{Uhk \ u [PUP, E {[PPU
PukQ. C{[P Cn u[P :&
www.ebi.ac.uk/embl - (for EMBL)
www. ncbi.nlm.nih.gor / genbank (for NCBI)
www. ddbj.nig. ac.jp (DDBJ)

u \ u[P :
u \z u [P, E{ AhUSkP
ua \P UP, A A; A A \,
US {P [P, u UP BQU
Psk. SIB Gk E uP { (Swiss
Institute of Bio informatics - Swiss - PROT) EBI (European Bio informatics
Institute) Gk I E uP { BQ
uzvP \ u [P EUQ. Swiss - Prot C
Cnu.
http : / www.expasy.ch/sprot - top html.

\UP
J E A UTPP
GUm] Kmhu G \ UP C.

176

J E DNA Bx GUm] i
UPk x, Au UTP | |UQ
|PQ. H DNA Gv UT BS. DNA C ]
UTP UTP h AvPPzv |Pa]hQ.
i DNA UT SvP |Pa] yzuU Psk,
A Ah[Q [P GsoUP PnUQhk. DNA
SvP i [P \ v E
v \P P Ak. AsU Pzv
DNA UPnUP [P ]UPUTi u[Q \n
]UPmh Cv[P EQ. DNA \ uP
U Po Gv UTi i \UPkQ.
DNA P : DNA P Gx J EUS Azx
SvP \, EhUQ \PS.
cDNA

P : ({ DNA)

yx (RNA) B.G.HUP, { C DNA P vP,

UQ () iQh |vP EUPk
Q. C DNA P[P U P[P ha ]. A
DNA UTP SvP mk Psh.
{UhkP Ax u[PU SuS IUB / IUPAC
(International Union of Bio-chemistry/ International Union of Pure and Applied
Chemistry) uUSkP kQ. u[PUS A Az

uUSkP :
A
E
I

A
Smhm
I\ \

B
F
M

Ahm / A
A
v

Smh

Smhm / Smh

Hux J

&

{zu

& G Ch
C

]h

Ahm

Q]

ii

177

{UU ASP (Fasta i)

A

Ai\

GTC

\mii

S]

P (S Ai)

ui

iP (ui \mh)

ACT

GCA

AGCT

GTC

GAT

Ch.

Ea uP ]u ua] , E uP
u~m BQ Csh Au sk. J E
| { \u, EPUP (SP), Pzx B BQ E
uP Pz ux P sk. E |P
UQ Po |P Au A]. E uP
EuQ PP C, C++ , , m, U, U
BQ [SQ. Ax u BUQ u u (Oracle database)
\ (Sybase) BQ ukQ. Pou Sv,
PnURmi (CALCULUS) \P uk.
CGI (Common gateway interphase) GzxUP Au A] BS.
i uP J E uP E
uP {UU A[P u[P \Pa
\PUP, { \, uh, B \ C.

E \v P :
1.

E \v A u Ezv Ax
P EuQx.

2.

|P Ax P EuQx.

3.

Aih E DNA Gk AihU

T A EuQx.

4.

zx E xP miS
SUQx.

178

5.

E BP E C E u~m

PPPU PmkP) kzu EuQx. Cu

P, zxzxUS k v xP uUP,
PuP vP vUTmk mPU
Psh \.

u A (Protein Structure)
u[P A A[P BUP } \[Q
UTP BS. A A[P uzv ASP BS.
_ Cx A A[P ua \[Q
EUSQ. A hk \[QP G AUPk.
H A US mh A A[P hk
CnP CnUPmiUS. J u
hk \[QPz xn ASPPU PsiUS.
EunP J S UT 4 xn AS hk
\[QP Bx. (2 BL 2 mh \[QP) J
hk \[Q J C Aq Psh UT
Ex.
ua\[Q A A[PUQh E hk
Cn CSz u Pshx. Cu BP hk
hk \[QP i P B A
Q. J Smh \a \uP P, J
u Smh i, u U
PsiUS. u A uP EUS Av
A A[P UPa \[QP BS. ] A A[P
zu (| Ax Gv) Psh. ] A
A[P x UTPP Ax |k{ UTPP
\mk GUmP Da \Q. P A
A[P x } z uSvPU Psk uzv
Emzv ux Pnk. x A Az
uSvP uzv zv Ax Pnk.
}mi J Smh \ A A[P A

hk \[Q uzv u { AS. i

hk (A) ua\[Q i Gv Ah[

179

PnUTi P B mh uPk A
Pnkx u Csh { AS. ua \[Q
n { Au { AS. B P mh

uPk AP u AUS {zuU PkUQ.

J \ Ezv u i A
uPUSQ
{
A
Qx.
C A \ u |vP \UPk
(A) ]uUPk. i { A u[P
A u[PP, \ u[PP hhQ.
miU Gk ua \v A
A[P \x J u[Q ^Pmh (Sequenator)
]UPmkU Po Gvzv uPP (Database) EP
x \ Ah P v \k. u[P
n A \vP uz u [Q Gk
P \PU Po \zx UPk. u[P
n i[P A A A UQ.

u v (Protein Model)
ua uP J uzv Aq UT
A \vP vP uxx. X Pv iP
h, J uzv AqUP [P USu, Ax
uzv \mhP v kzxQx. AqUP A uP
Psk, ux xP uzv UT A h
zu EshUP C. 1970& Cx Po u vz
uzu \UPkQx. Po E vP, J
uzv E A A[P sP USuk,
Auzv \mi, A EuQ. "Gun P'
'(Glowing coal) ' Gx u A US QU Po
vS.

180

P :
1.

u A \ v_UP Pmh A E
UT \ A kQx.

2.

u AP, u vP, Po h vP E
P A EuQ.

3.

Po h vP J uzv Gu J Sv zx
UQzx Pshx Gu Ax Au uk
F]P, xP EUP kQ.

4.

uz uP vz u\P xP,
vUTmk P |vP EzvUS
SUQx.

181

5. _a ` A
(ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES)
_a` GuS, J _ G
P. _a` Ax `{ Gu, E[PUS
`{US Ch E E Au G UP.
E, `{ Gx J UQ S. UPm
uP UP, _a` _k, u C k, a]PU
Pmkkzu CP [P xP ]UPPUS
wPn | `{ Ax Pv B Psk.
T ]UPPUP hP `{ uzx[P
AihPU Psh. G, u C miSa _a`
A A A]S.

UPmuP UP & P (Human Population

and Explosion - Issues)
\zuU PskiuS [SP USuS
EQ UPmuP J ] PP mk Cux.
RUPsh Amhnx UPuP UP Ag_ P
G AvPzux Gu Ax P.

EP UP uP
|/Bsk

UP uP

5000 Q..

50 P

800 Q..

100 P

200 Q..

200 P

1200 Q..

400 P

1700 Q..

800 P

1900 Q..

1600 P

1965 Q..

3200 P

1990 Q..

5300 P

1995 Q..

5700 P

2000 Q..

6100 P

182

Bsk JSa _ 90 P G A UPuP

SuPU PnUQhmkx. Cu Pzv 2050 B Bsk
UPuP 12.5 P G A Gmih. Cu Pzv
UPuP UP uhu ] BskPUS E
[P UPuP UPzvS DkPkUP i
h. EP x UPzu, [P k
_a` BQ CUP vUS.

h[P
h : 5.1. EP zu UPuP &
1950&2000

UPuPU P (Demography)

UPuP UPzv C u u Bu.

"En Ezvh PP UPuP Su, EP mi
QhUP |k' G T. A, UPuPx Tmh
Quzv ^P P (1,2,3,4) Cmi Quzv (1,2,4,8) S
uPU Pv. UP uP uPPa \Pzu, uSzu
Azu BQ "UP uPU P' (Demography)
GkQx. Co DkkP UP uPU P |P,
(Demographers) Gk.

u_ UPuP UP
C[Qua \u u u 1798 B Bsi s Ezv
SP CUSx UPuP mk AvP A SuPU
Pv. 1800&P xUPzv g\ Hk GUT.
UPuP UPzuU Pmkkzui, EP ^
Gv|US G {zu. B, Ax PzxPUS nP, PP
Q UPuPUS DkPkUS uzv, u~m xP
\ Ezv Qx.

183

UPuP BUPU TP
J Smh Chzv x, uUS CUP
Dkk J S, UP uPS. UPuP Av Pnk
kP, \ { u BQ
Aih CsP vUS _a`
{PP Aih BkQx. BP J Smh
UP uP C, C u[P, x
, |hzu P, En , `{ sP
\ u BQ zxz wUPkQx.
CUP u[P, C C u[P UP
uP a] Pzuz wUP EuQ. K CUP B
Psh UPuP, { | Pzu AvPm\
UTi u PsiUS.

\a^ UPuP :
Phu 300 BskP SuP AvPP uu h,
Ca \uu Sx u UPuP UPzvS UQ
PnP Aux. UP uP UP |kP J
^P C. EQ J ] SvP UPuP P Q
{ ] Ch[P uP Cu `{
PnkQx. UP uP C
uU PoP vUP kQx. EPu um
s Psh EQ SvP uP uS
Eu Ch[PS. AvP, AvPU S, Su Du,
Su mP, Pkh , u Pk
US um {P { SvP uP EPu
Ch[P A.

UP uP UP BP : ] zu
UP[P
CUPzv
EUSx.

Gx

SuP

(\uvP)

u Gx J hzv J B UPm
uP {Pu SuP u
zu CUP u Gx J so CUP
| Pzv, AsoS US SuP \\
GsoUP.

184

 UPuP UP u Gx Cx S
uPUS \P US uP GsoUP.
C u Gx J Smh Bsi B uPUS
G uP CUQP G u.
a] u[P : uzvx C uzuU Pzu
QhUS CP AvP.
zu a] u Gx Em, ,
C u[P EhUQx.
| A P : K C AvPm\ Gzu
BskP Gx | A BS. Gu J \uzv
u J Su \\ G BskP Gx |
Ax P Gk.
UP uP UP : Phu ] skP u
UPuP P PP AvPzxx. 1900 B Bsk 1.65
G A Cu UPuP 1960& 3.02 G
A Ahx, 2000 Bsi 6.1 A Gmix. BP
Phu 100 BskUP A UPuP A |S h[S
Qx. Cx \zvzv Pnhu UPS.
Cu AvP UPuP UP Ax UPuP
iSsk Ax UPuP G AUPkQx.

UPmuP AvP Psh Ch[P

QUS B]Sv, uS B]Sv S I
SvP u AvP A UPuPa \ PnkQx.
QUS B]Sv : P AvP A UP uP Psh
^, P, m|, Pi, Cu]
EhUQx. EQ zu UPmuP |Q J Sv
Pshx.
uP] Sv : EQ zu UPmuP 20% Psh
Cv, [Pu\, , Qu [P BQ |kP
Cv Ah[S.
S I Sv : I |kP, zvuUPh
|kP A |kP, mj wP Psh CSv
EQ x UPmuP Psh SvS.

185

UP uP UPzvP Pn[P :
1800&B BskUS Su A ^ UPmuP
QuS , ush Ah, umh
]U Pa\ |P AvP Cux PnS.
vj u, G Ch[P |P hk
Pa\, P, U H EP [Q.
g\ AiUPi x x. E Aih |UQ,
1800&US , u CP GvP _a`
GvP UPuP J \{U Pmkmi zvu
G. AvP GsoUP , AvP GsoUP C
DkPmix.

19&B sk Bzu ,
*

u |Px xP Azu uk]P

zxa \zvzv |QU P xP (Antiiotic)

Pski

s u~m P [P, En
PP [P

_Pu uuP _Pu BQ

C uzu Szu. SPU SuP
C u P Sux. u AvPP Cux.
BP UPuP UP u UPUSmkh a]
{ ~ux. CuSU Pn CP GvP
_a` GvP Cu.

UPmuP UP _a` uUP[P :

UPmuP P AvP A Su, AvP [P
k, AvP A PP Ezv P _a`
x uUP HkQx. uP ux uPUS
\zu PU Psk. v xP
Pski, um]P C u \ UPuP
Qx. \zu P |US uP
UPuP UP Gu Hkzx? Ix
Aih {PP Hux J a] |h.

186

 |kP UPmuP UPzv P

h 5.3& umkx.
AvP \,
s A,
CUP
Su.

AvP
izu, Ph
EP
GsoUPU
Su.

BP siu,
C,
.

UP uP UP

[SP
mhh, u
x kzxu
\mh u
kP.

sn {[P ]
xskPP UPh,
Sk[P UP
xuP C.

|P[PUSa
\, H
|P.

GUQ |UP
BsmiiU PP,
, {,
|P.

v {[P
\zvS
kzu, Ph,
}\ v.

} Su
C.

Ch u,
_a ` APvP
Xm TVoRp WfN]Ls

[SP Au,
E P
Au,
um k

h : 5.3. |kP UPuP AvPu Hk

P

ux SuPmS Ch snP Qx AUP

Ax J Smh Chzv a\ UP
\zuz wkzu.

v \ snP Hkzu.

UPP |P[PUS \.

zvPP J ] \mhua \P Dkh.

\ SLd Xm TVWXm.

UPuP UP SP, sP, SuP vUS.

UdLu NWN NpY ALl SuU - UL[ [dm.

187

EP E &- Psni k
(GLOBAL WARMING - GREEN HOUSE EFFECT)
EP E Gx \\ A
Hk AvPU SUS. Cu z um {
uP Hk. Phu 4.65
BskP, AvPzxx. B u\
u \kP A QkQk E A
Hmkx. EQ uu \\ { 590F (150C). Phu
100 BskP \\ 10F AvPzux. 2100& BskUQ
u 10.4 0 F
AvPUS GU
{ 2.5 0 F
PnUQhmkx. Cu Avi [P Phmh
A E, P , u[P, [SP
uP P uUP [P BQ Hh.

Psni k UP, Psni k

shzv E ] UP ` zu Eg]
Ai zxU Pu { EQx. CuSU
Psni k G . CuSU Pn UP Psni
k UP GkQ. }, P&h&BUk, |m
BUk, u zu Eg] zxU P.
CUP v APa] PvP Eg]
vUS. C \u , CUP, J Psni
mi PsniP G zuz uUPzxU PQ,
A zuz uUPzx zuU TmkQx.
xP E Azx EP CuU Psni
k a \xx. C C Sx,
h xzvx ux PmiP ik.
BP Psni k US A]. B
Psni k AvP, UPzu h AvPP
hz x[S. ]u E Th uP, u[P
[SP uUPzu Hkzx.

Psni k UP PP
_zv (1) CPP Ax (2) u
\kP, Psni k UP PnkQ. P AvP
A Pnk Psni k P&h&BUk BS.
G izu, [SP _]zu, u[P P
mP Gzu A mQ ASu Pn[P
P&h&BUk mk shzu AhQx.
xP, u[P JfNodLu shzv E

188

P&h&BUk APk. B uP u
\P shzv P AvP A P&h&BUh
Q. {UP, m GmP, vhUPP,
P[P Kmku, \ uzu, mP
G \kP P&h&BUk AvPP
kQx. Au \ PkP AUPku PnP,
Ja\UP

[P
Eg]U
P
P&h&BUk A x Sx mhx.

shzv P&h&BUk A
CP P P&h&BUk
APk Pzu h, uP \P
shzv \UPk P&h&BUk A P AvP.
1750&B Bsi J P UTP (ppm) 281ppm
P&h&BUk UTP Pnmh. B C
368ppm P&h&BUk UTP E. Aux 31%
AvP.
zu, P&h&BUh h 20 h[S AvPP
zu GkzxU PQx. Cx {UP, CP
Gsn BQ Ezv \ku Ax K
Chzvx ChzvS Gkzxa \ku,
shzv kQx. SP Pnk P
PP AS x _kP En mPa \US
x, zu kQx. 1750& BsiS zu
A Cmizxx.
|m BUk, P&h&BUh h 300 h[S
AvP zu Eg_. ui GmP Gzu
sn sn Eu {PP C
kQx, CRu A[ 1750- k 17% ALjs[.
Azu EUSx k m Tmkm
P, ~zuP uUS x ES iPP,
S\u miP kzuk Smk mP
S PP UP EP
EUSU PnS. iu \ mhm
(Trifluoro methyl sulphur penta fluoride) G J v A
vkUQk AS shzv P AvPP Cx 2000&B
Bsi PskiUP mkx. Cu Au JP Cu,

189

Cx Psni k UP h P AvPP zu
Eg_Qx. Cv Pki \v G, GuP
u\x C kQx Gx C
PskiUPh Gxu.

EP E Hk P
1.

PhP hu, Ph} mh E. EP

EQU Ph} mhzu Ezx. Cu 21&x
sk i Ph} mh 9 u 88 \.. E.
}mh E |kP SvP } P.
2. ] Ch[P U P[P A }iUP.
3. EP, xP AvP Duzu EshUS. AvP
Du AvP Hkzx.
4. P AvP , AiUPi EshS.
5. EQ ] SvP HP Cu h AvPP
BP.
6. _] P Pz wP _. `P P
PkP _.
7. uP \PU PoUP i S.
wS.
8. w[S a]P u |P P PkP
vUPk.
9. _a`USz uz uPzxU P [SP
u[P ]h siUS. [SP x[P
|UQ Eu Ch[P |UQ Ch .
10. ]PU PkP x S.
11. a _] AvP GsoUP uP |k
Ax Cx P.
12. , h[S Pa\, g\ Pa\, UPa\
|kP Pnk |P EQ SvPUS
.

EP EU Pmkkzx ]P
EP EU Pmkkzu CP E.
J, P&h&BUh Ax P Sv
G[Px \zx zu. CuSU P ukzxu G .
Psni k UP EzvU Szu S.

190

P ukzu
CuP G, [P zu, vuP
[P,
u[P
x
u.
[P
P&h&BUh GkzxU Psk Ja\UP Au
Ehzx, P x SvP \UQ. BP
PkP UPhsk. P&h&BUh BPh
Ax GsnU QnP Ax ] }{P
|hPa \zv, Avx uUP h ukzu.
Psni k UP u GmP
Aq \Uv, ` \Uv, Pa \Uv m G
\P kzxu wkzu.

K\ h v (Ozone Layer Depletion)

K\ Gx BU J i (O3). shzv
mmhL (K\) Pnk K\,
`x FuUPvPz ukzx,
EPU PUQx.
3. SUPmh mP
K\ AUS

2. ` J CFC
Sh
4. K\
B

1. u\P, kPx
k CFC

h : 5.4. KNu

Tl

K\ K CP `zuh
`x Pumh Pnk
FuUPvP, E[PUS w[S US.

191

CuSU Pn C i.G.H \ukzxxz u. US

Pnk mmhL AkUQ K\ A 1% Su,
Ah FuUPvP A P AvPzx k.
K\ C G uh Fu PvP A
EP Ax k AUS AvPP CUS. Azx
EP uUS Ai Ax Ph x[P six .
mmhL, BU x `J \mk,
uhx ]u K\ EzvQU Psh Ex. Au \
CP {PP K\ ]uUPkQx. xP K\
EUPk A, ]uUPk A \P Cu,
K\ zu A {P CUS. B
uuP, u uPa \kP Azx CP
\mh mh. S PP
m S P Ezv \k
vmP, mmhL E K\ Ax
EzvS Pzu h AvP PPa ]uzx kQ.
K\ zu : K\ C uu AshiU
SvUS mmhL Sv PskiUPmhx.
shzv K\ h P Ah Sx uU Pnk
Sv "K\ zu' GkQx. B Cx Es J
zu C. Ch[P E K\ Ah Jk x
P Sx, Ah CUS {S.

h : 5.5. K\ zu

xSvPx K\ & Su P, SvPU

P Qx. , Ch[P |h K\ C
HkQx.

AshiU Sv K\ CSU Pn[P

shzv ES S Tmk
mP u K\ zu HkuP A BP

192

{UQ. mmhL Pnk zuU S,

v , u \kP EQ.
ua \kP EshS S PP
E mmhLUSa \Qx.
S PP Ax L UP, (Freon gases)
Tmk P Ax P, |m BUkP
u m BQ Pnk "K\
S mP (Ozone Depleting Substances) (ODS) ' BS.
CmP S\u miP, LP, ~mP,
u\U PP, wnU PP w[SU
PP Px H kQ.

K\ C Hk P
K\ h C AvP Fu PvP (SP Fu
Pv b - UVb) uhQ.
u[P Hk P : a\ vzxU
PkP Ezv vUS.
[SP Hk P : Sg_P ]
[SP vUS.
uUS Hk _PuU PkP : u {
|P, ` zu Hk Gv, PsU PP,
Ps |, |z uhP v uUP[P
Hkzx.
R E hzv K\ h C Hk x P

umk.

K\ h C Hk x P
K\ Cz ukzu (Hydro Chloro Fluro Carbons) (HCFC)
1.

S& PPUS vP
i. m S& PP kzuh
sk (AvPP kzumh Cx K\
hzu vUS.)
ii. m PP (Hydro fluro carbons) (HFC)
kzu.

193

2.

3.
4.
5.
6.

iii. mh, L m PP
kzu (B C w A
|a_zu u)
iv. A kzu (Ga\UPh
Ph sk).
v. } } kzu.
K\ h CSU Pn CUS P Ezv,
k shzv BQ
SUPhsk.
Cv mP _] Dkkzu sk.
Sa \umiP Sa \u[P x v
P Hkzu sk.
SmiPU P sk kzu
sk.
` PvPx uPzxU P sk.

K\ h CU PsPozu

CFCs
EP
E

K\
Sku
mmhL

u
~sqP

{a`
v

FuUPv
AvP

` }

En
US
Eh|

\UPh UP,
|P, kP

K\ AvP
& iL

_\
|P

194

1980&P xUPzv AshiUP SvUS J

K\ zu AP Pskizu.
CSv K\ A 30% Sx Pnmhx.
CUSUSU Pn S PP Ga
\uQUPmhx.
UP uP UP Psh hSvP (hUS
I, AUP) Cx zu Pshmhx.
1987& sm 34 |kP [S Psh "sm
Ju' 20& si Cv S
PP mh 50 \uu Sx G Ehmh
Hkzvx.
1981& Cuu h 1991& K\ zu 13 h[SP
uQ mhu 1992& AP
Azu.
1990& sh |hu |mi, |kP, 2000&B
Bsi S P miS 100 \uuz
uh vuS JzxU Psh.
1991&92&B Bsi h E ""I BUiU
mmhL K\ \u {'' 500 Q Gh
Psh, 800 YL K\ B mP 39
PUS zx mmhLUS Ax.
APx B K\ h 15&20 \uu Sxx
Guz uzux. NVp Xs[ [m
Aes[ RVYkR.

PP s (Waste Management)
u UP \vk Cnu \P
PP EzvQ. AzxU PP _P Gk.
A Hux J _mh EshUSQ. Aih
PP \ Phuu P, } { _kQ.

_k, _kzx mP
u \kP PoP P, }
{ CP [P zuPuuP \
_k Gk.
_mh EshUS Gu _ Gk.

195

PP PP
1. Ea ]uS ES PP (Bio-degradable Wastes)
CP ] PP ~sqP \kP
i]uS EQ. s PP, [SU PP
En ukzu, u uku, CP, u,
Ezv mPPU Pk x EshS PP
BQ Cv Ah[S.

2. Ea ]uS EPu PP (Non bio-degradable Waste)

~sqP ]uu mP CP Ah[S.
uxU PP, _[PU PP, u\ PP, iU
mP, EP[P C Ah[S.

3. Ea ]uS ES Ea ]uS EPu

PP P :
Cv |Pm]U PP u\U PP Ah[S.
|Pm]U PP PQu miP, |uP, \uzuP,
n EnmP, Psni, uP hUP, EPn[P,
Ehu mP, u PoP, xoP iU
Pnk. Pmk PP, AmhmiP, \UPh,
zxU PP, FvP |Pm]U
PP. CUPP Azvh i, vhi, Az
v i, P\kPP \P PnkQ.

Chk u PP s (Management of
hazardous Waste)
Chk u PP B BskP B Ai
Cx Bzu US. Pva_U PP, EPU Tmk
mP, PUPP, A Ah, P \kP,
| zxU PP, u yUQ
Gk zx EPn[P Chk u PP
BS. CU PU RUPsh P kzukQ.
1. {zv {u (Land fills) : Cq uh
ChkPz u PP Pva_U PP C
xPP US Ai \UPkQ. P B x[S
SP P AvP A Pv_ vPsh PP \UPk
Q. {zui E SPUS vmP
Jh J Px SUS Dkhh, A
uzu \UP kQ. CUSP P Piu
196

Ps Psk hkQ. SPUS } ~x ukUPk

Qx. S Hux P] Hmh Aua ^\uSU P
A Hkzumk, uhx CUSP PsPoUPk.
2. BUQn a\ (Deep well injection) : C
xPP, xP Psh sh P Bzx, {zui
}US R BUQnP ushk. CUQn ChkP
u WYdPP \zu kQ. C so xPP
xPmS ~x P PPz u kzumk
Ai CUS. B ]\ u iz u
CUPP {zui }h Pxk A Esk.
3. izu (Surface impoundments) : ]u
vU PPU Psh H }U P C
kQx. C u ]S[P mhmk
A
vUPP
PmhkQ.
vhUPP
u ix kQ. } BQ kQx. Szv
uSv }UP] Hhsn |S \mk mh, }UPP
uhx Pmhkx, } BQk. vhU PP
u uhx ix k.
4. Gzxa \UP (Incineration) : Chk u E
zxU PP GUPmka \UPk. u Eh PP,
yUQ Gk xP, |a_zu Psh xP, Czu,
^, [SP PP, ~sq E u~mU
PP

E
zxU
PP
C
AUPkQ.
5. Ez w (Bioremediation) : Cx ux P PP
J u~mS. ~sqP, u[P,
E mPU Psk _a `a _zu \x u
Ez w BS. CP Pnk Uj
~sqP, P EP[P PPa ]uUP Ax
Eg]U P Ax Au |a_zuU SUP
\Q. u[P _UP J GkzxU P
kzukQ (uzw).
yshk ~sqP (Genetically engineered micro organism (Gems)
H GsoUP EUPmk, AU Psk w[Su
AqUPvP, u\, S, Pm P
EP[P }UP kzukQ. \
(Gibberella fusarium) G uzv \kP ]uUPmkz
w[Pu kQ. "`U' (Super bug) G AUPk

197

`h (Pseudomonas) Uj w[S u
TmkmP GsnU PP ]uUQ.

Chh PPU Pu
vhU PP s (Solid Waste Management)
1. _Pu {US (Sanitary Land fills) : {USU PP
CPU SP Ax ushmh [P Szx,
AuS _zu n kQx. Cv P,
Gx vu SP PPU Su h . B
{zui } _k Hh, Gx C E J Sk
BS. C _Pu {USa \u, Ahzu AiUPi
\u \x G \P Eu Guz uUQU P
sk. C EUPmh _Pu {USP x [PUP,
mk u[P xUS A\[P EUP.
2. Gzxa \USu (Incineration) : |Pm]P Gzxa
\US EP (Incinerators) GUTi vhU PP Gzxa
\UPkQ. ]P Gu PP EUPkQ.
AvP, u|U QP Au, _PuU
Psnmhzv zu Cx J ]u S. C
vhUPP 80 u 90 \uu SUP.
3. sk kzu _] P :
PPx v u mP UP. \ Ezv
\. , Psni, u xsk EP[P
PPx u zukzx sk kzxuS _]
G .
Pz u (54% i kzu) sk TUQ
Au
_]
Dkkzv
AmhmiP

mPP Ax |S Pzx, \ Phzu

mPP Ax u EP .
PsniP (20% i kzu) |S |UQ,
iUQ, xUPsni \Pz uUP, Ax Au
|UP Pmk oPUP P[Qm, Bm
uUP k T[PP Ax nUS P
kzu.
]P iUP (2.2% sk kzu) EUQ,
|hu PP, }a_ SPP, KkP \,
iU AmhP uUP kzu.
EP[P (39%) EUQ sk kzu.
EnU PP, snUPP (CP, P)
z uEP kzu.

198

 xoPz xshUQ, _]U PQuz u

kzu.
hPz xskPUQ Ax EUQa \P h
kzu.
P}a _zvP s : P}a _zvP
uUS PP }UP E zu, izu, iPmh;
x| sn mP BuSU P
\u | Hkzx EPU PU S H
i{P Esk.
u{ _zvPa \UPhU PPa _zvPUP,
u _zvP. Cv Cv iPmh, \h kzu,
ih, Auz uhx S H \u Ah[S. C
50&65% uUS vhmP }UPkQ.
Csh { _zvPa _zvP {[P
UjU P P PP }UPkQ. C hk
PP }{P E BUU Szx hui, P

BU
HkQx.
C

UjUP EshUPk P\kP, JUPmk J P

\ PkQ.

xPzu

(E xP

Ph[P)

A_ A_\ {[P [S
E P G G?
EP Gx, {, Ph, | G Azxa
`{ sh[P E[P Pnk
A A[PzvPP E `{ sh[P
mh u G P. xP Cx
Pk. P, ] P `{
sh P.

EP SuP Pn[P
1. CPU Pn[P :
Cx u ][P 99% Ax mh
Gu ui BP ukzxQ. u Cu
EQS uS C[P Ax mh.
][P vj[P, CPz u uQ.

199

Au AQ. 250 BskPUS ,

Pzv Hmh J PnPU Ph u EP
Csk [S, Azxz u [S Sk[P
v Axmh.

2. u Hk A :
CPU PkP snPP, kPP, PhPP,
xUS Ch[PP, u\PP kQ.
J
Pk
AUPmh,
Av
E
[P
mk
AUPkv. Aua `{ shzuz uPPP,
{uP, \x u Azxz u[P, [SP
vUPkQ Ax Ax kQ.

E P H xPUPh sk?
\, } E , [S , Pmk
E PmS E P xP
uS. v u a]P A xUP
PmS AihP E P u
A Qx. GvPzv xP En, xP
u uP E P u zv \
Qx.
Ax C[P, Kh { C[P (endemic)
Ph, E [P Ah Pnh sk.
J |mi E E P P Ch[PUS (hot
spots) xP UQzx AUP sk. A \u u
A E C[Px P i.

E P C Hk P
C[P HP Axmh. E[P Ax,
| G CUQ Gx |US Es uv. J
| J P UQ E Czu | CUP. J Smh C
Ek Cu u E[P Aa`{ shzv
Ek CUPi G { AuU Smh C A
|h. EunP, UPkP E [P Pua
\UPUS P A] BUQm uUP. A Au
Au uha] Aua `{ sh Axk. Cu
C, AUPkP C[P S, A
|k. xUS, Pn zuPv CP
uUP iuQ k.

200

E P xP
| uUS Akzx uPmS E
P xP, UP UPU Pmkk \PP
AQ. E P xPSU RUPsh
vmh[P sk.

1. EP xPz vmh[P
Azx uPUS x a \zuPU Pv
E P xPUPhsk. Azx C[P
uS E . x Pnk E
PP Ch[P xPx K AUPh
si UQ vmh BS. Ch[P AvP GsoUP Kh
{ C[P Psk, UPzvS uP PPP
h[P kP u Ch[PS. EP x
25 E PP Ch[P Ah Pnmk.

2. u] xPz vmh[P
\mh |hiUPP, h xP
h ExP ]P, E P SzxU QhUS
uPP xPzu, A u~m[P
kzxu |hiUPP Cv A\
Pmk Q.
EQ E 12 E PP sh[P
Cv J. 1994&B Bsk u Hkzumh
""EP E P Juzv'' (International Convention
on Biological Diversity - (ICBD) Cv K E |k. ""u] E
P \vmhzu'' (National Biodiversity Action Plan) EUQa
\kzua _a` PkPUP zv A_ Aa\P
]P Pskx. Cx A_ \u, A_&\u {[
P u uP EuP \kzuk.

3. E S [P (Biosphere) Hkzu
E S[P Gx J ] Pmk. Cv J
Ax AuS mh xPUPmh Ch[P, Aua `x
{[P {QUPmk, Au EP xP CP
[P uhu kP UPk. IUQ |kP
\ P, A P A (UNESCO) EP
A EUPmhx u E S Gx. Cx u

201

 E S vmhzv (Man and Biosphere Programme - MAB)

[S |kP \US {[P \kzu
kQx. MAB Gx 1971&B Bsi Hkzumhx. uPmS,
_zvS E uh E kzu, A u
x P v, A AuPP Hkzumhx.
E S MAB & J UQ PS. Cx EP x
QP Psk \kQx. | 2002 i EP x
E E Szv 95 |kPa \u 495 Ch[P Cu.

K E S zv sP :
*

Cx, UP UQP A[P QUS J {, Ph

PhS. Cu |UP, xP w uhu
E P EzvS.

CP {QUPk `{ sh[PU
PsPoUP, Av BP P, ]
EUPmh ] AP BS.

Cx A] PP iP GkP, A AbP,
{QP E UP J[Qnx {
} u uUS H kzu, Au \ CP
P, E [P xPUP, ""J v''
vmhzu EUSx BS.

CvP, J E S, ua\ Jzx

EP[S Pnk UP |zvPP [P
kzxu BQ ]S.

Cv E S[P
u|k (1) Ph} S Sh E
S (2) E S }Q E S
G C S[P Psh ] x.

}Q E S (Nilgiri Bioreserve)
Cu zu 5,520 \x Qmh. Cx u E
P HPU Pskx. Cx ][P E
P xPUP, ]ux `{ shzu
CP {USU Psk Hkzumhx.

202

Sh E S (Gulf of Mannar Marine

Bioreserve)
Ax C[P { Ea \[P
\ BQ AihPU Psk uukUPmh B
Ch[P JS. Cv xPUPmh Ch[P GvP
\uvUPP P UPz wmhmk J \vmhzv
\UPkuPP Sh
E S
uukUPmkx. Cv 21 ]wP PnkQ. 3600 u
[SP "E \UPP' Cx PukQx.
Cv E [P
|UU (P), |u (Ana\u\), |uu
(Ezvu\) {UP (Au {UP wP)
_uUPkP (S [P).
zvmh : (Project Tiger) Czvmh 1973& Bsi
x[Qx.

h[P
Pnk
Jx
Ph[P xPUS |UQ Hkzumhx. C,
CUTmhzu, Au _zu PzxU P,
23 Ph[P |k x UPmk Q.

E P xP Dkmk {[P
E P xPUP Hkzumk {[P
1.

EP [S {v & (World Wildlife Fund - WWF)

2.

GvPzvP [P & (Resources for the future - RFF)

3.

CP xP & (The Nature Conservancy)

4.

EP [P { & (World Resources Institute - WRI)

5.

CP CP [P xPUS EP PP
& (International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources
- IUCN)

6.

BUP [S & (African Wildlife Foundation - AWF)

7.

[P \k vmh & (Genetic Resources Action

International - GRAIN)

8.

mk A PP & (International Science Foundation)

9.

EP Buzvmh & (The Biodiversity Support Program

- BSP)

203

E P xPUP Cv E {[P
1.

u [PUP u]U PP & xh (National

Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources in New Delhi)

2.

[S [PUP u]U PP & P (National Bureau

of Animal Genetic Resources at Kamal)

3.

[PUP u]U PP & APz (National Bureau

of Fish Genetic Resources in Allahabad.

4.

_a` PkPUP zv A_ Aa\P (The Union

Ministry of Environment and Forests)

5.
6.

mha _Pu P EUS PP & [P (The

Foundation for the Revitalisation of Local Health Traditions (FRLHT).
[SPUP & [P (Centre for Ecological Sciences,
Bangalore).

7.

CPUP EP {v & Cv (World Wide Fund for

Nature, India)

8.

Ez u ~mzx & Cv A_ (Department of Biotechnology, Government of India)

B |UPi Au _a` uUP (Energy

Crisis and Environmental Impact)
Gvux EzvS Ax P k
s B G UP. C EQ B Gx
C[P ix. B A {zxUTh UP Cx.
J |mi a], A|mi EzvS B A
kzuk
B
A
Aih
vk
\kQx. , J, \ B
i[P. Ezv \mk kzuk B
_a` u vUPkQx. AvP UPuP, P
uUP, AvP B Ezv, AvP Ezv, Pmkh
~Pa] _a` v BQ C Jh J
uh Psh. a]PP Cu \kP
uS S |UPiPP Q.
B mi
Bvu Pskizu u B u~m |S.
|x Esh UP Akzx u uP

204

kzv. P } B }sh |mPP

kzumk u. sUSU P|hP Qhzu
u\ B, Azv] ux. } Cv EUPmk
|kP um] Hmhx. A|kP SP A
Sz x[Qx, zuu si UQ B
{UPUS, u z x[Q. Cu si
{UPUS v Gsn hz x[Qx. Cu Gkzxa
\x, \x, Gx GuS. ux |kP
\, m u u zvS zvmk.

xUPUTi B [P, xUP Cu B

[P
u[Szuh uha]P CP EzvS B
[P xUPUTi [P GQ. Eun :
B, P B, Ph Ku B, AqUPv Cnu, `
B, [Ph B, \n G, E s B
PPU P B .
J kzumh sk xUP iu B
[P, xUP Cu [P GkQ. Eun : {UP,
uxUP, m, S, CP G, \
. EQ zuP vP kzuk B zv
95 \uu m, CP G {UP
kzukQx.
B |UPi : AvP UPUP, P |PUP
u UP PoP B |UPi
Hmkx. 2020&B BskUS ux EQ E
m CP G wx k Ax. Cua
\UPU RPsh xu |hiUPP GkUPsi {uzv
u E.

B |UPiz uUP GkUPsi |hiUPP

1. G ~PU Szu :
zu Bu, kP SU Szx mha
18% \uu, USzvS 25% \uu kzukQ.
CU SUP GkUP si |hiUPP :
(A) ux Pmih[P zuh mP
Azu, u [P Hkzxu (EunPU
Su A Psni uPkP kzu, Cu 33%
B a\kzu.)

205

(B) USzxa \u[P G ~PU Szx

Ba \zu,
(C) ]u v USzx P[P kzu.

2. v B [P EUSu :
B |UPi PnP, v B [P,
EUPh six. C ui GUS |
P A.
i. P B : P B Cv zu
UQzx ux. H C[S Pnk }sh
PhSvP, P P, P
BP EUQ, P Ba ]u kzv
Ezv \. } \ i.

Px B
Px
B
x
P
G
u~m. P CUPP x PP _ P
v Aa _a \Qx. _ Cu Cv B
hPh CnUPk x \zu Ezv \
mhP CUS. BP EhiPU P B
Cx, ]Pa]P B . Cv xnU
Pshzv E AvPU P _ SvPx 20,000MW
\ uUP i GU PnUQhmkx. u|k,
Sz Bv u\zv HP { PP
{mkU P B kzukQx.

P B {P
1. PP EzvS \zvS BS
Ezva \ P S. J miS 40 P_P
G A \zu Ezv \.
2. _a`US Gu v C
3. j\ B uhx \
Ezvu, \k uk nv.
ii. B : Cv [Ph _U SvP
E w |kP, B kzx u~m
PPP Qx. CP Pnk }

206

FP Cx } BP kzxx
u Czu~m.
B EzvUS P : E
(HDR - Hot Dry Rock) u~m Cv AU

Psh |kPmS P EPux. Emzv, Bzv

P 200&2500C G A Ex. CP
BSU QnP ushkQ. CUQnP E AvP
Azuzv } a\kQx. Ai a\k }, PmS
Ch E SQ ChP ~x `hQx.
C} SP }P Aix,
SU Psk kQx. Cu }U Psk
hP CUQ Ezv \. Au }U
Szx, }UQ sk Bx QnUS \zv h.
iii. ] } vmh[P : Azx xUP B
[P, P , |Pzu u ] }
vmh[PS. PP, KhP x _U Pk
Hkzu Ezv \. CP, CvS H
A } BPU PhPU Pkzxx.
iv. [Ph B : [Phx RPsh P
B .
1. [Ph P, 2. [Ph AP, 3. [Ph Ku[P
(tides), 4. [Ph }mh, 5. [Ph , 6. [Ph

B , 7. Ezu kP, 8. Ph]P

E .
P E g\ i xPzv, Cv
[Ph Bx \Uv ua \ u B
EUPmkx. Cx BskUS 150 MW \ Ezv \.
Ph Ku[P B : [Ph AP, Ku[P
H BU Psk. Ku[P B xUP
u, _a`USU Pk UP Cu Cx P
Cux BS. Pa _] |US }
B Jk x Cx {x. Gx Cvx B
. Ph Cv Pma Sv Ku[Px
B BP AUPmk. C Ch[P
Ku[P \ AP E.

207

v. ` B : Cx B . J h
`hx US 5x1020 Q P B QhUQx. EQ
E Azx BPUS ` B J xUP
BS.
` B {P : 1.EP[S QhUPUTi,
_a ` _kzuu B Cx. 2. Ja\UP Psni
k BQ {PP mi `{ \mh
UP Cx EuQx. 3.i GmP {UP, Gsn
UP Hk _a` Pk Cv Hkv..
vi. AqUPv B
C | EQS EPu J B,
AqUPv B u. ui GmPUS vP Cu B
k.
AqUPv zu : J P Aq, {m uP
]] xPPP u, H A B kQx.
Cx {P Cu, AqUPvU PPU Pva_ A
G Px G a] J SS.
AqUPv Cn Gx GvPzv J ]u B P
CUS. AqUPv Cn, imj (2H) imi (3H)
CS Aq EmPUP Cnx J Pzu { Aq
EmPP . , AqUPv Cn Hk
mP, Pva_ A Gx CUPx. BP,
AqUPv zu Pva_ Azu GvP
a] C C. skPUS |US B
AUP HxP H CS I\hP E. B
xvh\P, Cu AqUPv Cn uhx B
u~m C \U PskiUPh.
vii. E Ax \n G B (Bio gas or Gobar gas)
EU PPU P mPa \u
C kQx. C mk \nzv Gv 20%
AvPUQx. C QhUS P E mk \nzu h 43%
]uuS. Cu E |u \u E[P uU Szx
kQx. 10m3 E B, 6.0m3 CP S, 3.6 mh
mhUS, 7.0 mh m Ax 6.1 mh j\US
\ GU PnUQhmkx.

208

viii. m & GvP B

Azx B [P Jkx m
J ]u BPU PukQx. u\ E
u~m[P Eu C A Ezv \.
m \u GmP Jkx ua
\uzvSz u Azx B uP P,
vuuP, m { \ GU PukQx.
_a` v Gu uzv Hhx. H m
J |a_zu, PuS G, Ch[PUS
A uS K xP GS. m
AvPm\ s B (Mass energy content) Pshx.
J Smh Gh ASUS Au G{ QhUS
m P h 2.5 h[S, Gzu h 4.5 h[S u
h 6.0 h[S AvPS. mzv (20&25%) &Cv
B zv h Cu Cv B zv
(30&35%) AvPS.

_a` uUP :
B [P _a` P R
umk.
1. B : _a` n Hmk mh
Ca\uzv, B BP Cx ~s
\, CO2, SO2, NO2 Hk P, } n
_kP HU PzuUPu.
2. } B : } \u BP Hkzuk x,
Ah UP Ch[PUS Ch a \x,
Sizu six. Cu PnP uPmS Hk H
a]P u Czvmhzu {v uu, AuPS
\ AvPQx. vuPU Pmhk AnP Ahzv
`sh vUPkQx.
3. AqUPv B : Aq EPx
Pva_ }sh PzvS ChkP Hkzv k. Pv}
EP Hkzxu } }shP ]u Pnk
AqUPvP u[Qa \UPk A Esk. Aq EPx
U P} HP }a` sh
vUPmk mhuPa _a` BP TQ.
AP AqUPP, { } vUP sn
US Ai uUP ix. (Eun) HP Hmkmh

209

 \z E \ AqE zx. A|P

A Pva_ A[P, UP zv Aa\zu
Hkzvx.
4. ` B : _a` , ` B
kzxx J xP \u. B, Cua ` B
BP HkzuU PkP AUPUThx. ` \P
Ezv k Pm, |a_zu |z
ysk C Pshx. ]UPx, ]UP Ezv
\x EshS P&h&BUk sh zu
AvPzx, Psni k EshUP. ]UP _P
w[P US.
5. ui GmP : {UP, Gsn, , \n
m mP Gu _a`
a]P HkQ. (1) P&h&BUk AvP,
Psni k EP E HkzxQ.
(2) ~s \U P, ~s \ SP Hkzxu Ax
{zu _kzxQx. (3) , s mP Ax \nzu
Gu Px _\ ^n sha
]UPP Hkzx. Ps, ~ |P EshUS.
(4) |m BUk, P&h&BUk \&h&BUk
A z uUPU PnS.

_a` (Poverty and Environment)

Gx Sum\ Ax Cvzu
BS. uz uPmS A] \zxn, EhP, k, _zu
} _Puz uP Cvzu S. Pk
CP Hmk CUP |k. |kP
BUP, B], zw AUP, QUS I |kP
P { E UP Ah En, Eh,
uPUPP AkQ. AP
\zxnUS, u |P, g\ P kQ.
AUP, Ph, |kP, S I
|kP E H UP \zxnU Sk, | Azu,
u xP S[P BQ vUPkQ.
uP UPUP PhP A \ ,
(Absolute Poverty) G AUPk. EP |kPh
Jkx Su Ax zuU Psh J \u
Ax |mi {USz uh (Relative Poverty)
G . , Eh|UPk, S \u[P
Jh J uh Psk J ux
uUSz uhQ.

210

 _a` a]P
] PnPa _a` ]uhQx G,
] _a` ]u u US Cmka \Qx G
vUQ. Ch[P UPuP, CP
[P x, _a` x uUPzu EshUQ.
EQ P[P _a` ^Pk (sh, } {P,
s PkP CP _a`P ^PkP)
UP J UQ PoP AQx. _a`
a]x En US, _zu }, Eh[P
Azv] mP US iQx. PkP,
{, P, } BQ Ch[P ^Pk Ahu,
C[P | UP Cu x vUPkQ.
EP _a` ^PkP PoP HkQ.
UQ Po UP uP UP, {[P
[P AP AvPm\ kzxx BS.
AvPm\a _a` ^Pmi HkQx.

a \\ P
1.

2.

3.

4.
5.
6.

7.

\zuz wkzxu. _m] AvPzu. |

E u~m P Ezv
USu P u Ahu.
} { [P AvPzu. hz uSv {[P
A AvPzu, }Pk (watershed) s
{[P {[PP
iPU Pu.
w[SP AUP, E Pmkmk P
kzxu, v a]UPP mhU
Su } { _mhz ukzu.
YXYnlT ALdL, V RtNXL[m, Rp
hTeL[m HtTjRp.
Gvz vmh[P, \PxPz vmh[P
\kzxu.
AvP A Ba _Pu {[P, zxP,
Phmh |PUS Au kvP
Azu.
SkUPmkmk PU PkPa \kzxu.

211

| |UPi, s (Freshwater Crisis and

Management)
u J \US, _zu |
ukQx. Azxa _a` PoP h |
QhUPUTi A\ u u hzu,
\kP wUQx G. uUS EnUS
Azx s \PUS usp ukQx.

| [P
QhUS } 3 \uu u |.
1.

, UPmi, s : QhUS
\uu }, |Q J [S P, UPmiP,
s Ahx QhUQx. A. AvP E
Ch[P Ax {|kUPmkUS hSvP u
PnkQ.

2.

US Akzx | AvPU Pnkx {zui }

i u. s AkUSPUS R Pnk usp ""{zui
} mh'' GkQx. usp Ahmk n, ,
SvP }P GkQ.

3.

HP S[P : Bsk x uspU PsiUS

{zv Pnk [P HP BS. S[P
G uPPP, {uP B, usp
\zx zvUS SvPS. Azx BP
KhP h h[S } HP Psiu,
EP uspz uUS A Pa] w u.

4.

D {[P : \Pv {[P, \P, D } u{,

\x{[P J ], Au \ UQ [P
AUQ.

| USUP Pn[P
1. CPU Pn[P : Su A ,
UP, UP UP BP Cv
Ah[S.
2. uU Pn[P : UPuP UP,
|PUP, BkkP AvP a\, k P, u

212

\UPh vmh[P, A] Ea \x
uuS {vUS Cv Ah[S.
3. {zui }U Su : |kP
sUS, mk EPzvS Qmhzumh 40 \uu k
usp {zui } BS. Q[P UP 95 \uuzv
ux Si} uPmS {zui } |. Cu P
AvPP kzx x QnP, } FP sk
kQ. HP, BP, \x {[P sk
kQ.

h : 5.7. {zui }USu

EQ Ch[P {zuiUS uspa \

A h AvP A {zuix } Eg] GkUPkQx.
AvP A Cx |hu {zui } A mh S. {zui
} xPU Sxk A Ex. {zui } FP
sk mh, A sk }iUP BUPnUP
BskP BS.
4. Ph} EmSu : EQ SvP Ph}

h : 5.8. Ph} EmSu

213

EmSu | {P kQ. {zui } FP

sk ku, Au Ph} x kQx.
5. Kk BP u : | |UPiUS Pn
AnP Pmhmk Kk BP PiUPkx,
Ax }sh PPP ku BS.
6. Bu, JSu shiu : | H,
S AnP C |hQ.

| s
QhUS } A J Smh A u. AvP
} EUP | Gx \ Cx. C Smh
Ch[P } QhuS P E.
1. Pzv (vP) yu : E Ax
mh] Ahk xPP }Pzu P[P x y
] \ Hk.
2. E}U Si}UP : | A AvPUP
[Ph } Ezu }USx J ]u u ~mS.
E} AP P AvPP kzxx
iPmh (BUQ sk Szu) Ax uR \k
(v Phzx J hzv Ph} PPa
\zxx Ahzv ~sxP } mk ,
EUP, uxUP ukzx {zvk) BS.
E}U Si}US vmh P \ Hkzx vmh G,
x, K |US Cu
|kP HUPmk |S \kQx.
3. AnP, }zuUP[P, PP, }USP : AnP
}zuUP[P AvPPU QhUS }a\zx, G[P[S
}z u, A[P PP, _[P[P, uiUSP
usp Ax x |hS.
4. }Pk (Water shed) s : \P Ax
]] AnP Ax H |v}U QP BQ usp
P Q nP uUQ US. Cv AnP
EshS S[P }z uUQxh [S Ph[PP
A. ] AnP E BmP kzvU Su

214

\ Pmih, Cu AnP uz
uUP i.

5. }a \P
i
k

} P]U S
Qn

h : 5.9. }a \P

} |hP Ax US \zv {zui

}zu USu }a \P Gk. C
{zui} A xPUPkQx. {zui} mh A Sx
ukUPkQx. PhSvP Ph} {zvS Sx
ukUPk. {zui} A AvPUP Pmih[P TP x
}a \PUP. Pmih[Pa _ {zv }
\PUP. Tx } HP E vu Qn
Ax BSP |hPa \zu. vuP
Pnk }a \UP G, ]u P E.
uP A_ |mi iP }a \Pz
vmhzu Akzvx. J mi PmhP }a
\P AUPsk G Ezu zxx.

6. mh s P
]u s P PkP }, Kinuz
ukUS. Ah iux Gg] n P Ai
{zv mk x } Ki nuz ukUS. \
{SvP EuU Szu, PkP Azu
|hP } PkP xPUPk. \x {[P
xPu {zui } u, CPP }a
\x AvPS.

215

7. kP \zu :
kP | ux kzx } A | UP
] uPU Psk u \UP. \
Cv, zv[PU P Cv[P, Su }
kzx S Aa\u[P } nuU
SUP.

8. u\P \zu :
u\P kzuk usp HUS
v, \u[P, u\ Cv[P
SUP kQx. EU SUS P kzxu
CP } nuz ukUP. u\U P}a
_zvPzx, _] Dkkzv sk kzu.

}a\v J uu [S
RUPsh P , u J u }a \UP
i.
SUP EPkzx } AU SUP sk.
PP, C\UP P[P AiUPi PUThx.
PPU Pu, zv[P Pu, xUS
u u uspU SPz vx UPU Thx.
mkz umhzv AvP } uh Ea \iP,
a \iP |mk ASkzu.
Su } kzx SUS \u[P Pa
\u[P kzu.
umh[P, mkz u[P BQUS, PPU P
_] \mh } kzu.
JQU PsiUS SPa \ \.

216

6. mk E
P|h Au (Livestock and its Management)
ua\uzv k CP zxh |hz
uhhx. u[P, [Q, {, } uxmP
BQ CP [P SvP BS. P|h ,
sn Czx Qa `{ AihPUPsk
A[S Q UPUS Hkzv zu
Dmiz uS. P|h a] Au BQ
miPP Cv s BUS (Indian Council for
Agricultural Research - ICAR), { s PUPP[P
u B {[P , w BP
Psk. P|h a] w CUPz vmh
Pshu P AvP PkUS P kP Ezv
Qx.

sn
sn a] ]u P|h , \P,
\u mP ukzxu BQ Ah[S.
sn a]x Ezv, \u mPa
\uku BS.
19 B si v snz u~m
AvP a] Ahux. CuU PPmhzv PuP
v P |a \u[P QhUP. _UP
u v AvPkzxuPP Fmha\zx {u \Pz
w[P uUPkQ. CUPz u~m
Ezu ~m BQ uPzv a] PnP AvP
A PUS v CU P|hP Ezv \ mkx.
J UQ u EnP Cu, Cv UP
u[PUSz u Tku uzvS a \vUQP.
UQ mi[P A sP
miP P|hP (Bos) G zua \u.
Cuzv CiP (Bos indicus - v Ex), h
(Bos taurus - -v Ax) (Bos bubalis -G)
G ][P E.
Cv x Smka\U TiuP 26 P mi[

217

P, 6 P G[P PnkQ. mi
Aih P|hP PP Pkzumk.
AP P mi, C EP C mi
Ax CUS mi.

mi[P
P kP

C EP kP

C kP

}sh |mPUS

US, CUS

PP |P

AvP u
_UP

k Cmk
P kP.

CUS. Su
P _UP

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

K[P
uUP
P[
UP

Az
P[P

\
]v
Q
Ea\
P _

P C[P Ax C[P (Milch breeds)

Cu P _UP }sh |mPUS AvP UPkUS
v. PP Su CUS v. Cu CkP
vh Eh, PP Psh. E.. Q, ]v,
\ C[P. | UPP mi US _UP
SmkUT Czua \u A. (C\kP).

1. ]v (]a ]v, ]U Pa])

h : 6.2. ]v P

h : 6.1. ]v _

u : Cu C Pa], uzu
\ux.
uzu sP : |kzu E A Eh
Psh. PP uizx, UPmi zx [Q

218

Eh. T Ah Pzu Psh. Bu

Pg] {h. _hU PP {zv Sx
Pnk. ASz v (hump) Esk. Su A
PPh Ti iU Psh. kP \xP,
AhUPP CUS. PP \ US, US
H ^P E. ]v _UP zu,
a]UPi u[S vh. C[P Cv Su
\ {u PkUS _ CS.
Ezv : J PU Pzv 5,443 QQ AUS
U PkUPUTi vhx.
2. Q: (Pzv, _v)
u, : Q C u Pzva \u Q
PkP ux. P Q CkP h
izv ] SvP PnkQ.
uzu sP : Cu kP Gx J {P
Cv. C xPa ]P, Pg]P,
s Pu ]P Ax ] Ph CUS.
EhPmk ]P AvUS. u Q C kP Pz u
Psh. CP }sh PxP Eh. A
}uP, \mh AvUS. PP }P
Esk vsk CUS. i AuP PP Esk.
P kP zu Ehk |P CUS \Uv u kPS.
Ezv : Q C_UP AvP PkP.
\\P J Q C_ J PU Pzv AvPm\P 3715
QQ Gh AS U PkUQx.
II. C EP C[P : (Dual purpose breeds) C
kP PUS, C US kQ v
kP. xP C_UP { PkUQ. PP
vhPzvuP, { Eu, si Czu PUS
kQ. EunP , K[P C kPU
Sh.
1. K[P : (|)
u : Bvu\zv |
mhzua \u K[P, Ssl, |\mh, qPsh
PskT BQ mhSvP PnkQ.
uzu sP : C Ehh
|S u P 700 Q GhuP _x
400 Q GhuP CUS. K[P CkP

219

h : 6.3. K[P

{zv \ {zvmkPU PshuP CUS.

Eh ~SvP Pg\ {zuU PsiUS.
CkP v |P x |P CUS. PP
PuP SmhP, |UQ x x Pnk.
PP Eh Evk si CUP, \ US H.
B CP P PU Su kP.
Ezvz v : _UP {u U Pk. J
PUPzv 1,700 x 3,500 QQ
PkUPUTi.
III. C C[P : (Draught breeds) C C kP
si Cx, { Ex PUS
Eu BS. AP Pmh Ehh, u u
Psh. PP si CUP kQ. C _
AvP PkUS vhu. Au, P[P, ,
UP P Cv UQ C kPS.

1. P[P (P[P |k, P[S)

u : C u|mi Pzy Ax
P mhzv, u mhzv, P[P SvP
ux. Cu C Ekmh, h, a]
uv ] SvP PnkQ.
uzu sP : Cu C kP _ Eh,
PPk Ti s { Ax \ { EuP
CUS. A PP vsP |UQ x
Pa \x CUS. u ]uP, {u |
EhuP CUS. A Pzx } SP, vhP
Cuk, A PxP ]P, TP CUS.
A u A v, AP u, vh PP,
u AP Psh. ]
PPh Ti u A i Psh. PP Pi
ES P EPu.

220

h : 6.4. P[P

Ezvz v : _UP Su P \Uv Eh. J

PU Pzv \\P C _UP 666 Q.Q. Gh
uQ.

2. UP C
u : |x |mi xPz u {[P
Cu C kP Q. SP P|hPzv \, kT
SvP C[P hS.
uzuU Sn[P : C \ {P ]
|[P | P {P CUS. kP |kzu EhU
PshP CUS. uSv \ }P, |k Sh
Ti hzu | PsiUS. ] PxPU Psh A
P \ }P CUS. }sh PPhuP CUS.
A }sh PP \ APP UQ x Au
~Sv |UQ x TP CUS. A
vx u a]U PshuP CUS. C kP ]
PPh u iU Psh. UP PP C
US EPu. A {zu EuS, si CuS
PUS kQ.
Ezvzv : C _UP Su U PkUPU
TiS.
A C kP : AvP PkUS kP A{
|kPx zx Cv UPkQ. C
zu kP | |mk Czxh Cnzx k u
Pzu PP EUQ. | |mi u uP
90 BskPUS I C kPz uzu. A
UQ C[P SmhU Ph A kP(Ayreshire) ,
] C kP (Jersey), _ (Brown swiss) C kP,
j & L (Holstein - Friesean) BS.

221

3. ] C : ] kP Pzv P Smh.
C kP xP {zvx Ahzv \
{ {[P PnkQx. ] kP }sh
PPh Ti iU Psh. PUP Dq
v, 5% Pa \Uv Psh 4950 Q BS. Pmi \zx
{xu PnP \ g\ {PU PnkQx.
CkP h CU PP \ mkzu EuP
CUS. ] CkPa ]v, C kPh P
\x v P kP EUS x, E P
kP {u U PkUQ. CkP J PU Pzv
2000 Q Gh z uQ v .

h : 6.5. ]

x P|h |P AP Pmkkzu :
P|hP |z uUSuPUS EmmhPS.
BUQ P|hP, h, __P,
u Psk Pnk. APhzv \un ], |
EUP Pnkxsk. u BUQzuU Psh K
{, J { Eh zvUPu {, BQh
Su PUS v ASP P|hP
BUQ {UP ASP.
u |P (Contagious diseases) : Gv P
UTi |PUS u |P G . CzuP |P
Uj uUPkQ. BzU
(Anthrax), U \i^ (Haemorrhagic septicemia), imj
(Mastitis) P\| P Uj Hk
|PS. P U Tix mh, P |
(Foot and mouth disease), hm (Rinderpest) |PS.
1. BzU (Anthrax) : C|x, Bz] G
Uj Hmk, vj E CSU PnQx.
| ASP : AvP Eh { (41 & 41.50C), Pzx,
, UP SvP Ck SvP Pnk UP

222

 ASP Esk. CPz x[P P Czu US

Hmk, vUPmh [S 10 u 36 o|zv CUQx.
| Pmkkzxu : C|P, uk] 6 u
x Ahuh, BsiS J \zxu
ukUP. vUPmh [Qz ukzv, _
Ahu Chzv ] UQ, Cu EP Eh
P BP uzx, C| U Pmkkzu.
2. _ A : (Cowpox) : C| ]
_UP GxP vSUSQx.
| ASP : Su A\k u, i
PP UP, Eh { AvPzu, \, i,
P EP EshS P[P, ^P
][SP P, _zu CUP |k.
|
uk

:
vUPmh
[Qz
ukzxu, [SuS, \zvS H P
Su En Azu, QP }USQ x P\h Ti
Jzuh[Pkzu, Eh v uzu ]} UQ
AvPzu, P[PU Snkzx Q|] PP
kzxu ]Qa\ P C|z ukUP.
Azxh mk PmhPPa _zuP zvzu sk.
3. Jmkso |P : (External Parasite diseases) : DUP,
EsoP, ] a]P, u a]P P P
JmksoPS. CmksoP |hPU P|h
Px Czuzu Eg] APUS Ga\ HkzxQ.
Azxh, CmksoP PP, Uj,
J \ EP ~s EP | PP
\kQ.
4. APJmkso |P : (Internal parasitic diseases) : PUQ
UP, E UP, |h UP umh UP
AP JmksoP v, v ] Eh EuP
HkzxQ.
|P : (Non - contagious diseases)

1. Pa\ (Milk Fever) :

C|x AvP EzvU PkUS _,
GP, AP B _zu { x HkQx.
CzuP |x, P|hP Esq En E P] En
\zu x uUP h Hkxh GP
u u HkzxQ. Czuzv E ^zv

223

Pnk P], P[P Sx \UP

A AvPUPa \Qx.
| ASP : (Symptoms) : |h uk,
], \un Eh { hU Sx Pnh,
|izxi AvPzu K { Au Pa
\U Pnku PS.
a\UP u Eu : _sn }h Ti
zv, P DuS ] |mP P, x \zu
Gv \hU Ti EnU P D S
Au Pa\z ukUP. i xx
xoU Psk xhzxa _zu \u , mk
PmhP u x EshS | QP
|z ukUP. _ iP x _zu Pa
\zxx iP |S izx ku ]Qa\ PS.
2. a]UP : (Constipation) : Pi |h En
AvP Esqu Su A } Su, Eh]
P Pk a]UPUSU PnS. Cu P
], A\ku, HmkU P|hP uPU
Pnk.
a\UP u Eu : | vUPmh
P|hPUS, Px uk En Ax A] | Pg],
} P|hzw EnP AUP sk.
Ax Eh Ti AvP A Si} Azu, xx
\ } USha _zu \u (G Azu)
zv |S uzxh P ]Qa\
PS.

P|h CUPzv Pk u~m

1. U P CUP : (Out breeding) : ]x
(Ax ) |[Q, Ax uh E[P Pa
\u CP CUP S. CzuP CUPzv
Dkk EP, AP 4 u 6 u P
xz uh sPS.
2. CU P CUP : (Cross breeding) :
C EP Jh J PUPa \u CP CUP
S. CP CUPzv , CuS AP
u, ] zuSu v sPU Psh v EP
EUP. CP CUP CUP EP

224

K[Q sh U PoP J[Qnx AvP a],

Eh u un P EPz uUP.
3. \P Pzuzu : (Artificial insemination) :
\P Pzuzu x, Bs Ca \P, s
CUP E, CP US Pa \P
Cv Eu \zvU Pa \uS. Bs x \
{u xz v \P \PUPkQx. C
\PUP mh x vzv J Sva \PUPmh Au
Ahh Ax Aua \ }zu \u s E
Ph Pzx (cervix) Ax ~Sv \u[P
_Pu \zukQx.
\P Pu P|hP, CUPz
vPP uPa \UP siv. \PUPmh x
v[P CUPz uhh |U QP vUPu
sn uy Ch[PUS Gkzxa \xh Pu
uzu AvPUP C x EuQx. ,
CP CUPzv, Phu va]hu
kPhx mh xz v \P ]kzuUS
EPP Exh, \u A\un sP,
| Pnzv Psh P Ex.

z u : (Poultry)
kP UPk C[P PP, zx,
P ^UP u zx CUP
\u Gk. P|h P En
Jkx, P P En u Pa ]u [S uP
hU TiuS. P P \unP
AvP A zvPP UPU Tix P PP u.
zu P , PP mk 90 UPk Chzu
Q.
U P C[P : (Breeds)
P US mh P C[P Pn
kQ. uUS UPU Tiv Aih, PP
Pk \mk. AP Ca] C (Meat type),
mh (Egg type) D P (Dual type), mk P (Games
type), A[P P (Ornamental type) BS. PP Cz
u (Origin) Aih, |S A |mk P (Exotic)
C[P PnkQ. AP, AUP CP, B]

225

CP, B[Q CP zv uUPh P BQS.

ku[ k V| VaD k|[.
I. AUP CP : (American breeds)
Czv PP Ca]UPP,
mhUPP UPk D PPS. g\{ CS
A, ]P {h \ h A { Kkh
mhP Cku sP C EP .
m Isk m (Rhode Island Red), z U (Plymouth Rock),
{ \ (New hampshire) hmi (Wyandotte)
P AUP CP S Pnk ] UQ
C[PS.
A. z U : (Plymouth rock) : C P
u, Au AUP PS. C P
u JU Psh, }sh Bu Eh A
PshPS. C[P A mhP
CkQ. Cu CS AP \ Pu soPU
Pnk. s P, Bs P h Ah{PU

h : 6.6. z U P

h : 6.7. z U \

Pnk. CzuP {sP, Eu CP \,

mhU PP Gv kzv A. Azxh s
P R P Sv xPU P { P
Pnkx Esk.
g. zU : (White Plymouth rock) : C
PU P Eh x E CSP s {P
Pnkxh CPa \unPU PUP (Broiler)
EzvUPP kzukQx. C P \ P
4.3 Q.Q., mhU P 3.4 Q.Q., C \ P (Cockeral)
3.6 Q.Q., C mhU P (Pullet) 2.7 Q.Q. G A {
Gh U PnkQ.

226

II. B]P : (Asiatic breeds) : CPa \u

CUPP B] Pshzua \uuS. C EP
GPU Psh EhQ, RP Sv
CSPh, ]a \ h g\ {a\ A
Psh sP . C P mhUPP,
Ca]UPP kzukQ. mhP Kmi {x
{ u Ahu { PnkQ.
Cv zv zuUQx Psk mh
(Brahma), Pa] (Cochin), P, ^a \u [
(Langshan) P CSa \u ] UQ C[PS.
: (Brahma) : CU PP
Em\mhPzxh Ti zu Eh A, Sv Eh
CSP \ Eh a] PshPS.
mhoU Psh, (Peacomb). CU PP UQ sS.
CUPP {h Ah{h x
Csk PP PnkQ.

h : 6.8. P

h : 6.9. \

{ : (Light Brahma) : CPU PP \

{ u s {P, Pzx CSP P { Psk
PnkQ. CP AS PP g\ {hx.
P, \ PP 5.4. Q.Q, mhU P 4.3 Q.Q.,
C \ 4.5 Q.Q., C mhU P 3.6 Q.Q. G A
{ Gh U PnkQ.
Ah{ : (Dark Brahma) : CP PP U P
{ Ax C \ {huP, Pzx CSP a\ {
Psk PnkQ. Ah{ P \ PP 4.9
Q.Q, mhU PP 3.9 Q.Q, C \ P 4.0 Q.Q,
C mhP 3.1 Q.Q. G A { Gh
U PnkQ.

227

III. B[Q C P : (English breeds) : CP Czua

\u PP C[Qx |mi uPS. {
CS A, Fu {a \ h CP PP
sPS. CP PP { Kkh
mhP CkQ. `\U (Sussex), B[h (Orpington),
Bm (Australorp) P (Corinsh) P
Czua \u ] UQ PPS.
IV. zv uUPh C : Mediterranear breeds : CU
PP zv uUPh Sva _ I
|kPx uPS. CSa \u U
(Leghorn) AP (Ancone) C Czu |mh,
UP (Minarca) C |mh \uuS. CU
PP Azx C\ Eh, RP Sv CSP
PnkQ. CSa \u PP s {
Kkh mhP Ckxh AP AhPv.
U : Leghorn : CU PP Cv P
P J zuP v CS. CP CSP,
s, Ax P { PshuPU Pnk.
CU PP Azx E ]uP, Pa]uP
u JU Pshh, u RSv uih
(wattle) PnkQ. U PP
`{P uP zuP AP
sh `{ AvPa \h Q. CU
PP va]hx 5 Ax 6 u x Ah u
mhhz x[QkQ. G u, CU PP
u UQzx uuP Cuk zuP v

h : 6.11. U \

h : 6.10. U P

228

PsnP AvP UP kQx. CU

PP \ 2.7 Q.Q, mhU P 2.0 Q.Q, C \
2.3 QQ C mhUP 1.8 Q.Q. G A {
Gh AhQ.
V. |mkU P[P : (Indigenous breeds of fowl)
Cv \unPU Pnk |mk mhU PP "u]'
GUPk C Sg_ uS H ]uu
uUPS. Cv Pnk PP ] U
Jzvu AP Su GsoUP mhP
Ck u Psh. ]mhP[, A^, PU|z
P Cv Pnk |S P |mkU
PPS.
1. A^ : (Aseel) : CPU PP \shk sU
Psh J ShzuUP CS. CP s Ax P
{zvU
Psk
PnkQ.
C[P
mhUPP AvP mhkP Ci, AP
AhPuS P ]uP. A^ CUPP
Azx {[P Pnmh, Bv u P AvP
A E.
2. ]mhP[ : (Chittagong) : CU PP AvP A
S [Pzv PnkQ. CP CSP {
mkU Pnmh, g\
{a\ AvP . g\ {zxh Ti }sh
AQ, ] \h, ]P {z uih Pnk.
CPU PP AvP mhk u, _UPuP
E.
3. PU|z : (Karaknath) : CU PP Ca]P
P { PshuP E. CPU PP zv u\zv
E a\v AvP UPmk Qx. CUPP
mhP { PshP. va] PP
CSP y u } Pu P {
mkU PnkQ. CP Psh, uUSU
Rzui |US EP Fu {zxh PnkQ.
4. : Busra : CU PP Sz i
{[P ] SvP Pnk ] |kzu
A PPS. AP C\ ]SP
Eh { mi PshPS.

229

sn AUS P :
P ux |S Au JS.
CzuP P UP Hkzx gb
Aih J uS. CzuP Q u
a] UQ [Q QUQ. P US
EhiP Dmh sk. mhP, Ca]
Pkxh, P ]SP E[P
QhUQ. P miSU RUPsh PoP
Pzv PkQx. 1. ] B u, 2. | u Psh
PP Qhzu, 3. SQ u Ch E C[P,
4. P|hP JkP P Gvzu
]u Azu, 5. ] mP
Qhx, 6. hu gb En
Fmhzv Avzu, 7. zu _PuU Pmkk.
{P : mhPz uukzu,
mhP AhPzx UPa \u, zu Sg_P
zu, sn Azu, U PPUS En Azu
P P UQ ] {PS.
, mhPz
uukzu
:
Sg_
UPa
\uP mhP, PU Pzxh uukUP sk.
mhPz uukUS x RUPq ] SP |
Pzv P sk. 1. mhP \P CUPsk.
2. P Ax Pa] mhPz uzx uSu
Ah mhP uukzu sk. 3.
{ Kkh mhP h Ah { Kkh
mhP uP UQ. 4. vuP Chmh
mhP, x kxsk.
g, AhPzu, Sg_ zu : (Incubation and hatching)
P mhU P mhP AhUPzu x,
zu x, P a] AhQ.
EUPhu PU Sg\x 21&22 |mP AhPzuUS S,
mhx x Qx. CUPzv x mhP
Au a]US EPu , D | Pmh
BQ sk. T EPu `{U PoPh
vuP Chmh mhPU Sg_P US zx
zu AhPzu (Incubation) GuS.
AhPzu CP AhP (Natural incubation)
\P AhP (Artificial Incubation) G CP Esk. CP

230

AhP mhP uUP Smmh

Pnk. Su GsoUP mhP
mhUP AhPUS. \P AhP mhP
AhP mi (Incubator) zx, Sg_ uP \
`{P HkzukQx. CP AhP h,
\P AhP AvP GsoUP mhP AhPUPa
\.
, oPzu :

(Brooding)

zu C PUSg_P |S u B
zx {Qzu oPzu GuS. AhPzu ,
Sg_P oUPzu, CP \P P Esk.
CP oUPzu K |mP xh Sg_P (Day Old - chicken) uP CUS \P
oUPzu, { Pmkkzumh Sg_
mi (Brooder) zx xPUPk.

Sg_P zuUSz u PoP :

{ : UPmh Sg_P AhUP
mi _ 36 o| zvx a \P Sg_
miUS sk. Sg_ zu x u
|mPUS u EPu {x 330c BS. Cu
{ 210 c { Ah zvS 30c G
A Szx sk.
Pmh : (Ventilation) : C Sg_P
BUQ | a]USz y Pmh P
UQS. \ Pmh, P & h & BUk,
A }P J \x ~sqP |
uUSuUS ExnQx.
Sg_ Pzv u Ch : PUSg_Pa
\P uS x u Ch Azu
sk. J PU Sg_USU Su A 500 \.\..
u Ch Azu |x. C, Sg_P Tmh
|\ PnPU Sg_Ph S a]
AP u C F EsoPP (Cannibalistic) {
AhUTk.
SP : Sg_ Pzv uSv
U Pnk UP, A] EP, zxPP
PU Sg_ Pzv SP (Litter) G. CzuP

231

SP Pzv u 5 u 7.5 \.. uiSU

S kUPP Au Eu { zvUP
hsk.
J : Sg_P Pzv |UQP ~sn
xPUP, AP |S J Fk Azu sk.
\ J Au QhUS mh D
Eu Sg_P | a] AhQ.
~, P Azu : (Housing of Poultry) :
vu P P | |mi ]PU PnkQx.
UPk P, `J, , PsoP
(Predators) PoPx xPzx APUSa ]u
h \v Au CP A u
|UPS. Px ]u Pmh \v
UP sk. Ph Sa]P, SP[P
u zxh AzxU P sk. P
Pzv uSvx D Hh GP
~, iP C, Gv _zu \x }sh
|mPUS EPkzu Ti P CUP sk.

2. US P Enmh :
P Enmhx, P J
UQ A[PS. PPUS AUPk Enx v A
}, Pmm, u P, PP, mhP
u[P UP sk. UPa\, ,
\, Px, Gsn snUS, A] EnP
J vmh A AUP.

EmP : (Poultry byproducts)

P
Au
EmP
Gv
APUTiPS. G, CP USkzxu,
ukzxu \u \P AvPU P
\zv, Ezv \, ukzx ~P
P | xPUP sk. P Ca]P
USkzuk , mP Czu }UPmh,
]SP, u P SvP PPP xsk. Sg_
x Pnk mhP Cu PUSg_P
P Pzvx PPS.
PP Pzv P D Ga\[P (Wet droppings)
PPP AvP A Pnkxsk. CzuP P

232

Pzv EmP US kzu, kzu,

Ezv \U Sxh Au P
mP APkv Pq a] UQ _mi
BzvU SUP. P CzuP EmP
USkzv CS En (Feathermeal), E
En (Poultry by product meal), Pzv E En (Hatchery
by products meal) mh Kmkn (Egg shell meal), A xPP
Ea \u EmP PP EUP ]P
Pmk.

(PISCICULTURE)

"} E ' G J A[P u " '

Gk ]Pa\ BS. , "Pmkkzumh {P
u UQzx u P snP zu' G
UP.
zu J Dmk u. P Su Fmha\zxU
Psh; Gv \UPk u[P (Azv]
A A[P ] zv AvPU
Pnk), P], , C, \i, mh], U],
PuP uxUP A D mhP,
BUQzvS EPu PP A Psk.
Pm J[Smh \ \, Cuzv BUQzu
kzu, Eu u P A[P
(Polyunsaturated fatty acids) [PP P vPQ.
P EUSu J[QnUPmh Q
a]US EuQx.

zu :
zu Gx \u Ax zvPP
P snP x BS. A UPk Chzu
zx A | , PP} , E }
Ax Ph} (Mariculture) G Pkzu.

S kzuk P sP :
S kzx Pz uukUS ,
RPsh sP A Psk GU Psh sk.
1. P : Su Pzv AS
P EPu. (G.P.) PP.

233

P[Pzv

zv (A) \

Pzv
h : 6.12. u|mi QhUS En P

234

2. um {US H uP : snP E
um {USz uz uPzxU P v Pshu
P CUP sk.
3. u[Su : C, v sP } BU,
Ezu, P Hk H CUP[Pz u[QU
P C PsiUP sk.
4. \P En HU Pu : Su Chzv
AvP GsoUP UP |kx \PPz umh
En PUSz usix . Av En
Eh HU P C PUS sk.
5. Gv : x Hk |P, JmksoP
uUSu GvUS Gv PsiUP sk.
6. Ps[S Jzv : P
P J Szv US x, A J J uUP,
JP C Psizu sk.
7. zv : Smh A En GkzxU Psk,
Au AvPm\ \ v Psh P
zuUP.
8. ~P : u u ChzvS Ch
kQx. BP | US P Ah[P uP
u CUP sk, Ax Smh ~PUPP
UPh sk.
Cv UPk C[P :
PP, P, P, v,
UQ PS.
Cv P :
Cv PP :
PP (Psh)
Pm Pm (Pm) (Catla Catla)
Qmh (S) (Labeo rohita)
] P (P) (Cirrhina mirgala)
|mk (^) PP (Exotic Carp)
] P (x P) (Cyprinus carpio)
] PP :
mh (mh) (Labeo bata)

235

 P : (Pzv)
P Bmk (| _ : )
h K (Pzv )
Q mUP (S) (Clarius batrachus)
P Ax zu\P ()
\ mmh (PkP Psh zu) (Channa
Striatus)

XlV: JS \UP ( Psh)

(Oreochromis mosambicus)

mk P (S} P) :
1. mmkP (\ : \)
\ Pm ( mm)

Ph} P :
mh PP ( Ax PUA; Pk) (Lates
Calcarifer)

Q \ (\ m, "h') (Mugil Cephalus)

\ \ ( ) (Chanos Chanos)
Cu En Pz u, |kP x mkz
u A[P P u uP P E.
ku\V cl kV_ ] VD ~|k>uz xBV
zD \>_, V\>_, VmV>_ kEB\VzD.

S[P PP :
snU S[P AP Pnk.
|[P S, U S, EzvUS, zuS
CUPU S A. J sn RPsh
\uu Ch[P A BUQzxU PsiUS.
|[P S
&
3%
US
&
11%
EzvUS
&
60%
US
&
1%
CUPUS &
25%
|[P S B Sx, S[P K
Bzxh Pnk. Ezv S[P } A 2 u

236

3 mh E UPk. xPUPP sna

_ J AUP.

Szu Bzu \u :
US Szu AuP Bzu[P Dkkzu
sk.

1. uUP ` zu : (Conditionings)
C[PmSU Szv u KkUSa _snU
(P] mUk) sk. Cx so Az
u }UQ, zuUP v _]P EshUQ,
u s EPU P k.
C [PmS xPz usp E mkz
u BzvS {sk. , BU A, P
Azu (pH), P[P u, Pizu, Pzu
u EP a] uUPmkmk AkP (Parameters)
\vUPmk A uk A E GuU
Pshu Szv P hsk.

2, Eh :
_sn Cmh 15 |mPUS , En EPz
u u EP ~s [S u EP)
uPP Eh sk. Ax P EP Ax v
EP CUP. P E[P ]}P Ax |m {u
\UPh }P, mk\n, \n, P \n, _u
E, Pm, snUS uP CUP. P P
S Cu, J UhUS 2&3 h mka\n Szv
Chsk. J UhUS 5000 Q Pa\n Cmh [S
u EP Ezv H CUS. v E[P
kzxu, so Pnk |m
zx k.
| S[PUS xPa ]_ \k. |m
mh] (NPK) A 18:10:4 BS. K s
Psh SzvS 200 Q//h G A 450Q/
/h G A A \mh P EzvS
Akzukzx Ch.

sn s \u :
U S[P PUPh si P UQ
En, } u BS. , hk Sg_P u,

237

Ca \ A s |hiUPP
Ezv \k Az wUS.
} uzu J[Skzxu Gx A 25&350CUS
zvzu, } Px BU, pH (6.5 - 9.0) Pizu,
P[P u u E a \
A zvzu BS.

Enmh :
CP Enz u, P
\P En GkzxU P. xP, \P
En 30&40% u, 5&10% P, 50&60% Pmm, 5%US
S \, 10% usp, mhP ux mP
Pnk. En P[P EUS x u [S
mP kzu. P, CP, \ En,
mk , Px, U Q[S, [SP
mhku QhUS PP, A]zuk, usp
PP, snUS ]u En mPS.
UP Cv \P Psh PUS
A]zumh, snUP EnPU Pk. ,
Pzv P \Eso (Carnivours) PUS, hu
P P EnPz u. PUS Au Eh Gh
2% I v xn { EnPz usk.

UP |h s, |P :
} AUP Bu, } u, P, ^
Enmh, CU Pzu, | ASPU Pshu
J } E U Szv Ph si
UP
|hPS.
|P
P,
UjUP, Jmkso Ax AP JmksoP
Hh.

u|mi En P
(Edible fishes of Tamilnadu)
I. | P :
| P, ] \a \u PP,
AnUPmk SvP, BP U S[P Pnk
uSvS. CYtt Yp TtLs CpX. RiPl
TtLs Ei.

238

1. Cv PP (Psh )
A. Pm Pm (Pm) : AP Eh, u, |UQ
uzxz uz u En CP A EukP, 14 u 16
xkP Psh AP xSUPz xk BQ Pm
Ah Pn Eu sP BS. , \ xUPzu
kzvU Szv [S u EP C
EsqQ. G ] P (15 & 20 ..) [S u
u EP Esq. Cx AvPm\ 1.8 (45 Q) }
. Cv PshP Cx P P
BS. UPk x u h 35&45 \.., Qmhzumh
1.5 & 2.0 Q Gh PsiUS. Cshx h CUP
\ uSv .

h : 6.15. Pm

B. Qmh (S) : Azx PP Cx

u AvPa _ Sux GU PukQx. Cx J T ]

h : 6.16. Qmh

239

u, C Psh R Eumh Pshx. xS

UPxk 12&13 QP Psh xkP Pnk. ]
sn \vP PsiUS. C Ah Pn
CsP Eu. C } AkUS Sv E u
u E, u xPP Ax }zu[P AS SvP
BQ Esq. C ]P, [S u EP
Esq. Cx AvPm\ A 1. Cx K P
. u h Cu a] 35&40 \.. } 900 Q GhS.
C). ] P (P) : }sh Eh, ] u, T
P, USa \ R Pnk Euk Psh
, 12&13 Qzu xkP Psh xSUPz xk, \
sna \ Psh US s Eh C
Ah Pn Eu sPS. C u E AS
P u mP Esq; C Cu Sg_P
[S u EP Esq. Cx AvPm\ } 0.9
. u h 30 \.. } (700 Q Gh) .

h : 6.17. ] P

D). P (\ : \ & "Pzv')

: C shzv E P |hPa _]US v
E P BS. }US C AvP |
i; BP C }sh yzvS Eh Ph |
{ Gkzxa \ i. Eh \vP Qhx.
R uhP J Ci }sh En CP
PnkQ. }m]h iu uhP Psh P
Pnk. P P v. u Czu
P v. Szv E ]P Emh Azx
EP Esq.
E). P Ax z uP (\ : \
& ) : ~PP AvP CP Pa

240

_]. }sh, E i Eh, umh u,

}m]h BQ C Ah Pn Eu sPS.
P QnP, B, SmhP UP.
F). \ (uzu) : Czv
xSUP z xkP, mP }sk Pnk.
1.2 G AvPm\ }zvS . C v Ph
\zxU S[P UP. v C Sg_P CUS
EnP A.
G). \. mmh (Pimh zu Ax
x P) : Eh PkP Pnk. 90 \.. .
H). v (\ : ]) KS \P
(v, Psh) : BUP QUSU PhP
Svx 1952& Bsk CvSU Psk mh J
|mk Cx. Cx mP Psh xS UPz
xk, xSUPz xk
PsiUS. CP Csk u[P CUP va]
x k. J hzvSU Qmhzumh Gmk C CUP
\. s P u mhP zx xPUS.
II. PP } P :
C u | Sv } (Backwaters) [
(Mangrooves) \x {U SmhP, Ph E }z
uUP[P PUQ. C \ \ (), \
mP (h), mkP (P), (Pk)
P S.
III. Ph} P :
u|k PhSv E EsnzuSu P
Szu P, G P Ah[S.
G [Qmh & _ PmkP Szu
PS.

G P :
(i) LmP () (ii) Cv UP (P Pzv)
(iii) (g] Ax |) (iv) l (v) uUPh a,
(vi) P[QmP () (vii) P (viii) P (Pzv)
(ix) umh P (|US ) (x) \hP (zv)

241

zxa \ua \ u ~m[P

(MEDICAL LAB TECHNIQUES)
|P }UP Eu zxU P, |U Pshu
(Diagnosis) ]Qa\ (Treatment) C UQ A\[PS. |
Pshu Gx, | u Ah Psx Ax
wx, ]Qa\ Gx | Hkzx Po }USuP
Snkzx PS. zxa \ua \ \uP
zxPUS |a \PU Psh, AuP ]Qa\z
u EuQ.

1. huP (Stethescope)
J huP Cuzv JP, (\u[P) P
EUS x, k x ~ _\uP
Hkzx JP, Sv CUP (Movements)
JP PmuS Eu EPn BS. Eh SP Gu
Chzv ]UPP E Guz ux Psk |PU
Psh Cx P EP \u BS. huP
U mhh \zx kzu. 1855&B Bsk
u C \ (Binaural) huP PskiUPmhx. |
q \u huPP P x \u[P BS.
Eh EhP Aovu, _ P Ca\h
Pnmh Th, J | Cu ~P
JPz uPU PmP C Eu. u US P
Cu JU Th Cu q huPP PmP C.

P :
1.

h : 6.18. huP

Cuzv \un (&h) JP, A\un JP

PskiUP, Cu P oP ^Pk Ahu
AuU Psh huP Eu.

242

2.

{, ~ Gj (Edema) vP EshS
x, ~P E v[PU Psh Eu. [Qi,
mi _\ u |PU Psh Eu.
3. \unU Sh uP CUPzu AvPa \k
ShuP
CUPzxh,
SPa
\k
ShuP CUPzxh JmkU Psh C Eu.
2. U mh (Sphygmomanometer)
Czu AzuzuU Psh Eu EPn U
mh. Cx, U (Sphygmus) G QUP zu (CuSz
xi' G ) A (C) zu mh
Gu Cnzx EUPmhx.
u Czu Azu Gx, Cu CzuU SPUS Kk
Czu, CzuU SP _P Hkzx AzuS. Cua
_]US (Cardiac cycle) H, u Hk Czu Azu k.
Cu J uh _[S x, h x |h
{Pa]P uS Cua _] G UP. _[Su
Gx "]h' (Systole) G, hu "hh' (Diastole)
G AUPkQx. smUQ _[S x Chx,
smUQ Czuzuz uUS P a_. Ax
Azu J Ea\zu Ah. CuS "]hU' Azu G
. Cu h x Azu PU Sx, J PU
Su { Gmk. CuS "hhU' Azu G .
Czu Azu Gx, \ Cu a_ Czuzv P
A, \ ~suP (Arterioles) _P E
u\P _[S {P \xx. Eh], P, B,
Ena] \h, yUP \[P Czu Azu .
C, uhx Ax AiUPi Czu Azu AvPzu
( h) J uUS h, mU, ]}P v
u Eh |USkP EshUS. J u
KP E { u Gx Czu Azuzu AUP
sk.
\un Czu Azu A 120/80mm Hg BS. Cv "120' Gx
]hU Azuzu "80' Gx hhU Azuzu
SUS.
CP U mhP E. 1. mh P
2. imh (|) P.

243

P :
1. Czu Kmhz u, Cu \ku Psh
U mh Eu.
2. h G AvP Czu Azu {,
h G S Czu Azu { Psh
U mh Eu.

3. \mhmh
uSu }zuUS , Czua \P Gsqx
\mhm G, Czua \P Gsn Eu EPn
\mhmh G AUPk. \mhm
kzv ]qUP, mmkP, D\P
GsnkQ. uPzv Uj, Dm Ax ]P,
Gsn C kQ.

\mhmh & P UP :
J \mh mh, Gsq AP, Au
kuP Psni i (Coverglass), }US mkP
PsiUS. P Gsq AP QhUQ.
mh {, LUu BQ Csk \ua
\P x kzuU Ti Gsq APS.
Czuzv Czu YlTqUP (RBC), qUP
(WBC) Ai Gsn ix. \ A (Jzu) AP Psh
v[P (Isotonic solutions) Psk u Czu }UPh sk.
RBC }US v (Hayemis) v Gk.
WBC UP }UP hU (TURKS) v Ax h vzu
kzu.
280

300
260

AP

220

mh

240
200
180
120

180
140

80

100

40

120

P S
C S

mi

100

80
150
100

80
0

EPU PUQ
\kzx vS
Ph

h : 6.20. Czu Azuzu

A \

h : 6.19. U mh

244

zua \P GsoUP Pmh Shk.

Jzu A v \P Eh xPUS. WBC I
Gsqx, Czv ]q \Pa ]uzxmk, {U
Psh WBC \P GsquS HxP zvUS. Czua
\P GsquSa ] Czu kzukQx.

uP RBC UP \ A R :
Bs
:
s
:
US x :

4.5
4.1
4.0

&
&
&

5.9
5.1
5.6

/ P .
/ P .
/ P ..

uP WBCUP \ A R :
P
]P

:
:

4,500 &
10,000 &

11,000 / P ..
25,000 / P ..

zx UQzx :
1.

Czua ]qUP Sx AU (Czua \P)

SUS.

2.

Czua ]qUP AvPx \zw CuU

SUP.

Czua ]q m

{ A
h : 6.21. Gsq A
UP A

q m
h : 6.22. Czu ]
qUP Gsq mkP
q

]q AP

h : 6.23. Gsq AP

245

3.

{ WBC GsoUP AvP Uj uU SUS.

4.

uhx, A\un WBC GsoUP AvP RU

(Czu |) SUP.

4. ]}a \UP B (Urine sugar analysis)

]} Bx (C, v ~snUQ
BP) ]} (] & Urinalysis) Gk. Cx J
| x Eh| UQ Sz u.

]} :
1. ]}P ]}P u uPU Psh,
2. ]u U PP Eh EU PP
BQz ux P Eu.
hj : (\UP v) g\ P (Jaundice)
PPU Psh SUP, Rmh mP,
Pa \ua
\sk.

]}a \Pzu, \zu

]} 95 \uu }, v SvUS , U A,
Qi, \i, mh], Sm, P], mkP
Pskx. ]} J Eu _zu zvzv
\Pzx, G P i, A P B
sk. SUPa \vUP, ]} \PUPmh 2 u 3 o
|zvS B Pmh |x.

\UP B :
u (Copper) P EP[Pa \UP Eu
BUPn {x Su {USU SUS v
u, A xU SUS (Reducing) mP
Gk. EunPa \UP }sn SU \mh (u
\m) ] S \mhP SUS. ]} Pnk
SUS mP SUP, Uh, Uh, PUh,
sh_P _U PS. ]} H SUS
mP Pnmh SUP Ah P UQx.
H A Q^U (AvPa \UP A) {U
SUS.

SP UQzx :
\una ]} ]u SUP Pnk.
]}P[P S Sv ]} iPmkQx. ~s SP

246

A sk Eg]U PQ. J Smh AUS

]} SUP Pnmh A ~sSP Eg\
Cx. AvP SUP ]} Pnk. C{US
"QUP' (Glycosuria) G . QUP
PskiUPmk Q^, (AvPa \UP) Cx Ev
\mh, "hi mh' G |mh \UP v
Cx Ev \kQx. C{ 280. / SUP
]} Pnk. Cx Pmm, mkP (P)
u ]u [P Hmk PPU SUS.
]}P SUP sih (Qualitative) ,
Ah (Quantitative) \vzxU Psh k J
sih \u iUm \uS. ]}
\UP AU Psh Ah \uP E.
A
J
J
uzxzv
Aih
EUPmh. A ] iUm \ (Reagent) ,
SUP BUh P, 0 & hi . ]}a
\UPPU Psh J Pa]u " AkUS
SmhQ' (Thin layer chromatography) BS. Czua \UP
APU Psha \U Pzv imh SPmh
kzukQx.

5. D.].. & GUmPiQ (ECG - Electrocardiogram)

GUmPiQ (D.].) Gx Cua _] x,
Cuzv Hk v [P Bn BS. Cx Eh
x v \kQx. D.].. v \ Eu
EPn GUmPiQ BS. D.].. Pnk
AP Cu _[Su Hkx A; Cx v\
zu (Depolarization) HkuS. Cuzu\ _[Pz x[S
, v\ A u uQx.
J ~s GUmh Psk , 1887& u Cuzv
B v \u. B J Ev Pmh
Psk D.].. v \ G Gu B u
| GUmPi Q uSU Pn Aux. CuPP
GuUS 1924& | _ [Pmhx.
J \un D.].. Ix AP Pnk. A
Chx P P, Q, R, S T G GzxP SUPk.
Cv P, R T AP |UQ (| AP) Q
S AP R|UQ (Gv AP) Pnk.

247

D.]. . & 'PQRST' A :

Cuzysk \ (impulse) (u UP \
Px x[S, Cu P x mh (Electric
current) Cuzua `x v_UP . Cv ]u
mh Eh US . Cuzv Gvv\P
u x GUmkP zu, Cu mh EshUS
v v \ i. Cv \k vPmS
GUmPi Q (D.].. Ax D.P.) G .
P A :
Cx BUQ u Hm (BUQ) AS. Cx
v\, BUQP u EshQx. Cu
P A 0.1 i; Cx BUQ _[Pz x[S {PQx. Cu
a_ (Amptitude) Qmhzumh 0.1 u 0.3 m BS. P A
Ea\UPmhzu Ah x Cuzysk \ \ & BUS
Px AhQx. BUQ \mhU Psh P A Eu.
Q, R S AP :
P A iux, \ (Isoelectric) Ch
EshQx. CuPkzx QR S AP x[SQ. Q A
Gx R|UQ ] Gv S. Cx
uP hx. Cx BUQ Cha_ |h
v\ zuU SUS. R A Gx J |UQ |

EUP 1

EUP 2
EUP 3

h : 6.24. D.].. EUPPh & u

248

AS. S A Gx ] Gv A. R S AP
smUQ v\ |h v\ zuU
SUS. QRS Tmi PA 0.08 i; Ax 0.1
iUS CUS. R A \\ a_ Qmhzumh 1 m
BS. QRS Tmi kPx H |P Szu
uPP i.
T A :
S Az uhx J \ Ch Pnk.
Cu T A x[S. Cx smUQ |h
U (Repolarization) SUS. Cx J AP A, Cu P
A 0.27 i; a_ 0.15 u 0.5 m BS.

h : 6.25. D.].. & h

h : 6.26. K { D.]..

Pmhm hQ (Po FkPv Eu h & (CT)

Ax Po Fha_a \u FkPv Euh & CAT)
(Computed Tomography - CT or Computerized Axial Tomography - CAT)

{ (Imaging) u ~m Ax Cv zx
EQ m]a \xx. Cu zxP, UQ
EP UP AhP (Blocks) Ah Pn,
v_UP u a]U Psh, | ASP
A ]Qa\U Psh iQx.

249

6. Pmhm hQ uuu : (CT Scan)

Pmhm hQ (CT) Ax CAT uuu Gx
J imh Po mh, _ GU A
J Cnzx, Eh EP P[P SUS
mk {UP Ax ""xskP'' (Slices) EUSx BS.

{ u~m[P Jk x CT
kP :
{ u ~m[P Jk x CT
u~m, v_, G CzuU SP
Cnzx { u uzuU Pshx.
EunP UP k u GkUPk GU
{, Pzv Ahu G AP zv
Pni. u \k GU Bg]Q u
Pzx mk Pmhk! zv_ ux.
Pu Av UP (Magnetic Resonance - MR) {,
v_, CzuU SP Pmk Pa]
oa \; B, Cu G AP u
[Pz u Cx. u k CT {UP zv
v_UP, SP E AP,
\ s A (Matter)
zxP B EuQx.
CT P :
1.

|U Psh US CT J v \u.
Cx ~, P Pn |PU Psh
AiUPi kzukQx.

2.

Cu |P, \ mUSP, mUP Hkzx

CzuU S |P, u\ AP (Gangrene) Ax ]}PU
P U Psh CT {UP, CT
Bg]Q x kQ.

3.

Bi] G G \u |P
GP E ux mP AhU Psh
EuQx.

4.

Ava] s (Trauma) EP CzuU P] Hk

|PmS CT |S kQx.

250

5.

PxP EmSvP, G EmSP (Sinuses) B

CT |S EuQx. E Px G EmSP
v_ AP, P ~so GP B. G
EmSP u ] PP, PmiP
{UP uUP CT J ]u \u. EmPv
] GP Hk ]u |PU Psh
CT EuQx.

6.

CT Euh |h v_}UP B (Biopsy) EhUS

Su A Fk |h ]Qa\ PmP
CT u AihS. | ]Qa\UP PvUP
zxzuz vmhhUS CT {UP AihP

AQ. | ]Qa\, |U PmiP

G SnkzxQx Gz uhx PsPoUP
CT EuQx.
7. GshP (P) u~m[P
(Endoscopy (Laproscopy) Techniques) :
EhS EmSv Ax [P Psh
E (G.P : EnUS, C) J SP,
u Psh JU Phzx CP Psh EPn
GshP Psk BuS GshP G .
\U P , skPmS EUPmh EPn[PU
Psk |hzuk A ]Qa\ u zx EQ
|hP Cx ux; B Cx |PmS J v
Qhzxx.
EP A ]Qa\ \, GshP J
PU Su A Eh ~UPk S. UPa
\k A ]Qa\ QhUS P Cv Qhzu,
C Sx, P |x sk |P
Qa]hQ. CUS zx Psi Av
uhu w PsPo u. zxPmS
Th CP kzv {n uh.
GshP zxP B_PUS
Cx ]Qa\ PU Su Pzv miSz v
Ax oa \.

251

GhP PP :
1.

[PP

a_US, ~P QP
\x.

2.

PP

[Sh Sh |hx.

3.

PP

n, s C EP
\x.

4.

]hP

]}, ]}U SP P
~, BsP hm
_ BQ Ch[P |hx.

5.

PmP

EnUS, C Sh
\x

6.

[PP

S \x

7.

UhP

USh ]Um [Sh

\x

8.

uPP

(Pleura), Ch
P, ~ Chu (Mediastrinum)
Pizv \x.

9.

10.

BzP

C, P, EP,
S s
CUP EP BQ
\x.
mk (Knee) SvP
\x.

8. \P UP (Artificial Pacemaker)
Cu ^P, \ A xiUP EuuPPz uUS Ai
~zx UPmh J ] mh C[PUTi q \u
\P UP BS. Cuzv CP UP xua
\mk Cuzuz ysi h CUS u Ax Cuzv
Phzu A uhP Pnmk, CP
UPx smUQPmS ysh x ukUPk
u, \P UP Cuzuz ysk.

252

Cuzv CP UP
Cuzysh x[S Ch x BUQ x _
Ax \Px (\ Hm Px) (1.5 \.. },
3 .. AP Psh u\) u miP Cuzv CP
UP BS.

J \P UP P[P :
J UP mh P BQ CSvP
Pnk. mh u mh Czxi J[Skzx
uPP \zx UPmiUS. P mhx
Qa ] \ Cuzv \Q UPmk. P
\ ysh Cuzuz xiUPa \.
UPP zv mhP B. mhP 7 u 8
h[P \k C zxP AiUPi \vzx, u
x P. mhP xUPU P[P
izxh Pnmh. B ux Pa ]u 30 Q
Ghh E.

Bmh A\ (u[Q SP) (Auto analyser)

|P, SkP Psh Eu, ]Qa\
h, H \uP, zxa \ua
\P PkQ. UP uP UP, |P
AvP Pn[P \u P H
PkQ. { vPUP \u iP
P U PP \k P si
{u HkQx. CuS P Bmh A\P
kzu. C Eu { \uP P,
PzxP \ C. iP uzu UP, vmh
mP (HP A uu vP) J \u
vPh \u \PmS Emkzuk.

Bmh A\ P :
1.

PP \k Jk x x AvP.

2.

Su Pzv H vPa \kzu.

3.

J \ Csk Ax P \u \Pa
\.

4.

PnURkP uTPpX.

253

Bmh A\ SkP :
A. ] GsoUP vPmS EPux A.
B. Gux Bmh A\ EPn[P x Hh.
C. EPnzu C[P zu. zu x}UP
PmPP oPmS ] AUP sk.
D.

A Eu.

Bmh A\ Sk :
SUP, u, A, Qi, Czu , |m
(BUN) \i, mh], S, i A, UiU
im, , P m, P], Pm,
U A, hP, Pm Bmh
A\ Eu S \x A AU Psk iUP.

254

7. nU PmkP
:
E[P ux uhP PzxUP Esk.
E[P Azx A, sP
JPh E. C Pmh E[P
Phu
P[P
vuuP
Bu[P
E.
[Pzv [Q GsoUP GP uP
{P Gu K FP \ C. E JP,
Phu P E[P, [P uP Azu
US P nU PmkP Ax.
CUPmkP ] UPuPz ""uPzv TmkU Pmk''
Axx. CUPmk E xP AihU
PzxUP EhUQx.

UQ :
n PmkP mhP vx
U (1744- &1829) UQ. 1809 Bsi C ""[Q
uzx'' (philosophie zoologigue) G mh. n
{Pa]P Cx UP[P C E. Cx
PzxUP P HU Ph. G n
Gsn[P C UQ Ch .
"" s su'' G Pzv Aih
UQ nU Pmk Axx. CUPmkP, K
[S ux | kQ sP CP z
uhxk G Pzv {{zx P. Cu
|S vP U zu.
1. u v : PUQ n [P E[P
A EhP A uS.
Cv USuSU SvP n a]
U EunPU Pmi. DS (Eqvus) G uPzv
Sv C[P Pzv vu, ] Ehh

255

Pzv (Hyracotherium) (A) C (Eohippus) G

C[Px uuPU PukQx. CUPzvS BuP
Ch{ iP i[P Qhzx.
C, AsUPzv Qhzx ] Sv[
P i[P \ skhPP E. C u[Px
|i iPha ] G B uUQ.
CUPski UQ vUS shP Ex. Cu u
vx PUSQx.
2. Cshx v : K EzvS A]x Gz
uk E uk.
Cvx zv Gsnzva _a` Aih
G uh uh kzx uzv Axx. Cuiz
uhx uPP zv { ""u'' EnP, v
EP uuSU PnP G U uUQ. JmhPa
][QP Pzx BskP iiP }m]hxu
U EunPU PmkQ.

h : 7.1. UQU Pmk

uPzv JmhPa ][QP, Smh Pzx PP

Psiu iPx uuP ia \P
Qhzx. AiP BUP u P
vu. A AQu ] [P CP EnP
EmPsh. iiP, PUQ, P {[
P. Cu EnP A[SPh mi Hmhx.
Pzu }mi CP zx Esq A[SP }sh

256

Pzv Psiu. Csn Pzu }mi

CP zx Esq UP PUQ }sh Pzx
PP uh Szu Gx UQ Pzx.
CUPzv , K [Q ""u En'' v
s U PnP G U UQ. UQ
CUPzv uPzv n A HUP.

3. x v : Eh k v
Cviz uhx k Ea ]h.
hu EU PUQ ux ]x, ]uP
k. U, CUPzv zu Cz u
Dkmk Pzu\P Kmhu P Pu\P
]hxu EunPU Smh. Cun[P \uP
C Czu\a ]S sS u C
Cv n UQzxzv Cxx.

4. |P v "" s su''
""K E ux | Eh Ax v s
Akzu uUS Phzumkk''.
Cv mh U, CuPU Smh
Eun[PU T. k Ea ]h, hu
Ea ^ G | U AsP Akzukzu
uPUS Phzuk G Pv.
UQ Cv vUPmkx. Cv
{UP BP Pmk.
1890 Bsk BPk G A
GP BP Psh. C Eh |h Bs, s
GP CnPPz uukzxU Psh. A Pz
uhx HUS 20 uPUS mi. Ca\u
u s sP u Hu K
u GP u! GUTx |UQ. Cs
sP u . Ci A K Pzv
mh. AUPzvi EhSvP (\mh\) Hk
[P CUPa \P (\) uP {Px
Gz uUPmhx. , Cu u P

257

\mh\ (Somatoplasm) G Eh E mh\zu

\ (Germplasm) G CUPa \Px
zxUS z uzu.
CzuP Gsnzu ""\ Pmk'' ux.
CUPmk ""\mh\ uP \'' vhx
GUTQx.

v UQ (Neo-Lamarckism)
UQ "" su Pmk'' AbP
B \x. UQ Gsn[PUS mk APx
PzxUP v UQQx.
v UQzv ""uPP'' CP xs
PPU PkQ. A, \ vP, _a` BQ
u uh uPQx. _a`
kP K Ezv UP[P P u
Q. Cu EP xP v AP Q.
Cu k sP iiP s {
GmikQ. CzuP Gsn[P u[P UQzv
v UP[PQ kQ. CUP[P EP
_a` UQzxzv zxQ.
| UQzv {{zx uzv BP
Pmh.
1. ""Pu sP'' Gu U lP (1938) GP
Psh K ] B {{zu . CuP C
K "T" iz umi {. Czumi Csk
P Cu. J a\ux. A i \
uUS P AUPmiux. Akzu Cmh uS.
Au i K hU Pmi SvP UPmiux.
UlP, GP Azumi KhmkU Tx Pzu. Khz
uh[Q GP a\u uz uukzuu i
uUSu . Cmh uz uukzu J ] GP
h UPsh. GP umi hmk
Cu \ QU Psh. CP PUQ
CUP \x Akzu u uzu.

258

Ca\u Akzu u GPh UlP

Psh. \ z uukv CP \u
uP iiPU Sz x[Q. Akzukzu uP
P AP P A C G A
uzu. Ca\u "" sx sx''
G UlP uzu.
Ca\u B \u A, UlP
\u SP Ex G Pzv mk.
2. zv P Hk Eh [P
uh BP GL. . \ (1910) Psh. C Kn
P 20 & 300C zv Cn GPU
SSu ` zu. AvP zv x Cu GPUS
PxhP P }sk uuU Psh.
CsP sz u uP uzu. Cx
BP m\, P&z, P Psh.
CP u[Px BP \ Buzu. C
BP Ca\u SkP E G CUPzv HP
zx.
Cu PzxUP E { "" s
su'' uh \a\P C }izx Q. G
UQ CUPmmiz u G P {PUPu
{, \xu G {UP C.

h
\ Cm h, 1859 mh CPz u
Pmh h GkQx. n {Px u
uh \ UPzv h Pmk mkuPU
PukQx. hx {mh U Pmk
Ij _UPPUS Cn JPU PukQx.
h ux US ""CPz u ][P
u'' Ax ""UP mhzv uSu C[P {k''
Gz umh. C n uh \PU
Smk.

259

h : 7.2. \ Cm h

C[Qx |mi _ G F 1809 B Bsk

u 12 | \ h u. sh |P P
P A[S o u ] . G. _
G |m CUSU Qhzux. A Euh u
h |S Ax Psh. P iS "HMS
Q'' G P E BP o CUSU
Qhzux. CUP u AUP EQ SvP Ix
BskP (1829 & 34) B oPUPa _ ux.
B oP izx 1836 Bsi h C[Qx
v. 20 BskP P BPa \x 1859
Bsi ""CPz u'' Pmmiz uzu.
CUPmmi h uzu Au Cu
Gsnzv Au Pmmi h GvP |ux.
Au Sv B \u Bm _ (1823 1913)
G Au. \ h, uh ]
Pzv HUPsk u[Px PskiP K Cnu
PmkP h JUPsh. Cu CPz u
Pmhx ""h&] nU Pmk'' G u
x.

CPz uU Pmk
B \u , \ h ux Tu P
EsP Ah PskPsh. AsP
Aih ] iP Psh. AiP ""h''
Ax ""CPz uU Pmk'' GkQx. CUPmk
TP EhUQx.

260

1. ug] CUP (A zu v)
u[P \uv EUS En Azx
[SPUS Esk. Cu A u[Px \uv v
Quzv UPha \ u PsiUS.
Czu vUQ Azx E[P Pn.
EunP J s \ CUPU Pzv 28,000,000
mhP Ezv \ v Pskx. AmsiU Sv
K ] E J U Pzv 80 mhPz
uzx . CUPU P[P Ph P
Asha _P 10 mhP u sk.
GPz uh CPP CUP |h C
KnU SP 10 BskP 275 SPz uUP
C. PU S zu vh P h
Eun PmkQ. P xPz u[Px 30 x v
va]hx CUP ] Dkk. CP A 90
x CUP \. ux | K s
x 6 Smih. CzuPh Kn
P, 750 BskP, PnURkPi 19 Pz
uUP C. CP Azx [SPUS ug]
CUPz vP Esk G Ax.

2. UP mh
h Pzxi Ez uPx v Quzv
UPh C. G, AuS CnP En Ezv P
Cx G Ax. Cu E Azx EP K
mha `a \vUP six G. CzuP mh
J C \u EPh Ax C mh
C[Ph Hk. J C \u EPh Hk
mh \ Pkx. H, AP Azx J
v uPU Psh. CPU PoP mh
{P. , S, g\, , CPa ^[P
E[P mh uUS Cmka \.

3. kP
kP Psix Azx E[P Aih
sS. CzuP kP A, E,

261

Eh\ v, |hzu P uh. (h Pzv

CzuP kP uuP Pn[P Ah).
kP {zu Gu Csk [SP J
vPP Avv. kP P EQ
Pni Azx kP n UQzx .
Ez uP {{zuk J ] kP mk
kPP vUPk. AzuP kP
nzv Aihz uPQ.

4. uSu uzu
Azx E[P UP mhzua \vUQ.
A, E kP Psh mk uzx C.
AzuP kP kPx uQ.
Cu EPu kP K [S Ax uzu UP
a\Qx G. AzuP EP ` Pz
uSuPU Pumk . AsP ` uPUP
uP .

5. CPz u
h Pzxi ""Pa ]ux'' GUPuk EP
""CPz u'' uukUPmk uSv Q
G. (CPz u Gx v EQzxU Psh EPz
u[S CPa `S).
u uUP uP kPU Psh
E[P mk CPz u \UvP uS FUSUS.
AP h ""Pa ]u'' G Pkzv.
sPU Psh EP EzuPx CPzu
\UvP UPoUPmk Axk. kPh uukUP
mh E[P n u Akzukzu {PUS |Pz
x[S.
""CPzu'' Pzx kzv AzxP n
{PP UQh C G h |. JmhPa
][Q Pzx }huu UP U kzv
Pzxx h mh. h UPzvi
JmhPa][QP Tmhzv P Pzx }[Ph A

262

vu. A }sh Pzxh [SP AvP A

CP zx Esn C. G ]u Eh |
u. PUQ ""CPz u'' Az uukzxU
Pshx. Cu n a] }sh Pzxh u
ux.

hU SkP
h kzv EU PzxUPQ A zu
v, kPh, UP mh, uSu uzu
HUPU TiP. C
Ah AihU Pmmi ] SP Esk.
1.

UQ
n
uP
kP
UQzxzv UQ h AkP Gu
u GUT C.

2.

""Pa ]u'' (the fittest) Ga ] [SP h

Smhx PU SQx. CP Azx
{P E E PshP Gz uP
A uUQ.

3.

{PP uh AihP h Pzv

PskiUPh. Cu h ""\ UPP''
(Pangenesis) |UP Psiu. CUPPi
Eh Jx ~qUP |PP u
G Pzx {x. C|PP Czu Kmhzv
Ph. A[Qx Akzu uUSU
Phzuk G |mhx.

4.

Av P PP AUPvPPa ]u
A[P Auu. Cu h UP
C.

v h
hzv mh hP v h
Axx. h U PzxUP HUPsk CPz
uS v UP Eun[PU Pmku CUPmk

263

ux G. C[Qv i. Ga. U], AUP B\ Q,

C. UP xUPU Pzv CUPmmi
HUPsh.
CbP \zv \mh\zvx
kzv \ Pmmiz uzu. Eh
sP a] ] ""wmP'' (The determinants)
Pmkkzuk G |. CP | h
, Ju PzxUPU Psiux. CUPmmi
x Pu C.
uPzv CPz u Pmk (A) v nU
TminU Pmk
\, , Ez uS (Population Genetics)
xP uPzv Hmk kP v nU
TminU Pmk uuUS Szx. SP i.Ga.
h\_Q, G. m, a. . , . G. U], B. H. ,
Gm , . G. h P CUPmmi
a]US Eu.
CUPmmiP Aizuzv "" ]z
uu'' (Genetics and Origin of Species) G P (1937)
Hkzv. nzu |hzxUS Ix PoP na
\[S'' (Process of Organic evolution, 1971) G . G.
h uzx. A q , S\
a], q kUP, (Genetic recombination) CPz u,
CUPz uku BS. Ckzx uPzv
iQ \k, |P, (Genetic drift) zu
(Polymorphism) PoP Ah Pnmk.

1. q (Gene mutations)
E[P sPz w \ mjPUS
Eh P oP Esk. AoP mj A
Aih AvUS. K mi \P AUPmh
A Aa \[Qzuh Au Aih AS. Cx
mj u{ A. C mj n

264

AS AihP A. n
Amj \ vUS Pnx.

A,

mj A A AkUS q Smh
(Genetic code) wUPk. CUSkh q u vj
Aq uUPk mj A
vUS. Cu u mh mj huP
Ax w[QuP [P. K mj
Amj uuUSU Pn q Au
EUS si JQx. PUQ, \uvP AzuP
qUPU Psh EP GsoUP EzuP
AvPUS. w[QUS mjPUP qPsh EP
CUP va]huS ixh. Cu CP
qUP Akzu u \ C.
q [P n |h Aih {PPQ.
C v kP qkUSP HkzuU
Pn[PQ. K CzuS (Population) Ax P
"" S'' (Gene pool) G. CUS[P miS q
[P u. CzuP [P K Szv AvP
n [P u P Esk.

2. S\ a] (Chromosomal aberrations)
] \ux S\P x xshu
{P. Au Ehu xoUPP {P .
1.

K ] xoUP Pn x h (Ju).

2.

K xoUP S\ ~ Cn
(Ch).

3.

K xoUP v { S\h Cn
(uRu).

4.

xoUP P E S\ Ch
~u (Cmiu).

Smh
hh.

Azx

{P

265

] P Kn Jzu S\P ]
\u xhvUP. Cu ] PmkP J
S\ AvPP ] SP A { Hk.
CP Ca\P u \uv S\
(Polysomics) Gk. C{ S\P GsoUP
Su Ti A.
] P CnUS\P P
UPh PmkP (uq, Ashq) A. Cu
PmkP, ik (Diploid) G Cmh { [S. J
ik Pmk C k (Haploid) Pmkh
Cnu h[SP S\P Eh { Hk.
CuS i (Polyploidy) G . Czu u[P
uQx. Czu v C[P u.
xP E kP kUPzu |k. vj
[P kP ]h. S\ a],
i P [P Hmk v C u
US.

3. kUP (Recombination)
] \u Sim SUP HkQx.
A Smi SvP Ch Q. Cu
P kUP HkQx. C{Pa] Ca\ EUPzv
{P x S. Czu v A Cn
Pu v P E uu {P.

4. iU \k (EzuP )
Jh Cx \ EP K Tmh
Ez uP (population) Gk. CUPz
uhh AUTmh Ez uP Ax i
Ez uP GUPk. Cx ""K Smh SQ Chzv
Smh Pzv vx u[PUS CUP \
Tmh G UPmkx. CUTmhzv E Azx
EP qUP JmkzuP S (gene pool)
GUPk. K Szv P kPh Ax
P A AkUSP Esk. CzuP P
PP K Ez uP uu QuzuU Pou

266

 h. K q uh uu (gene frequency)
Szv K Smh Chzv (locus) E PUS A
APUS E GsoUPz uhU SuS. CuU
Smh ChzvP zu P GsoUPx uh
uu PnUQ P GsoUPU Pzx ku
PnUQh.
K Smh "A" uh uu Qu "P" G
"a" Qu "q" G Psh \mi P
zuz uu "1" GUP.
G p+q = 1
Ax p = 1 - q
q = 1 - p
Cu K EzuP P uU PnUQ
USu B. H. (C[Qx), ] m (AUP)
BQ uzu. Ez uP K v P
Ax P Aih .G.i (C[Qx), h.
U BQ Hkzv (1908). G Cv APx
iU v Gx. Cv EzuP US,
| nU PmkPUS AihQx. Cvx ""K
, u CUP E EzuP P
P \ uh u Gs (Relative frequency) Akzukzu
uP vj, u, v P BQ
C vUS'' GuS.
Cvx n Cu Ez uP
Pzv vmhQx (theoretical). C h uh uu
(Frequency) Smh PoP C mk Hk
Gx Cv uQx. AUPoP \mh q
uhuu u . Cu kP u.
kP n |h SUS.

5. |P Ax ] m (Genetic drift or sewall

wright effect)

CUPmmi 1930& ] m mh. CUPmk

K ] Ez uS q uhu x. K ]
Tmhzv Smh qP Azx AP CUP
. G , iU vUS shP

267

AvUS. K ] Tmhzv u ] kP
uhu UQzx . G |P G u
wP Ez uP PP n uP
Hkzu C. E Cn AP Gv Axk
P C[S Esk. Cu kP AvP
Hkv. ] Tmhzv {P uhu CUPzu
n S\P AvPUS. ] ukzumh
Tmhzv sP AQ Tmhzv sPx
h. CkP v C[P u C.
|P uP ] Tmh, v Ez
uP {Qx. CuS ""{ uzx'' (Founder principle)
G . CzuP q uh uu, Ez
uPx k.
]P u\P, CPa ^[P umh
Tmhzv [P u Psk. Cu
CUTmh Ez uPx h. G
Ca] Tmhzv EP [Tmh EPh
CUP \ C Cxh. ] Tmh v CP
n US CP |PS ""^\ Pzx
'' (Bottleneck effect) G .

6. CPz u (Natural Selection)

uPzv Tmin nU Pmmi, CPz
uU Pmk Ez uP \u {PP Amkx.
CPz ux ] AP uh uuP u
\x v uP sP FUSUS.
Ez uP GsoUP AvPzu En US
a]P u. G a]Pa \zxUP
sPh E[P u . CP uP
GsoUP _a ` PoP Cnx K ""u Azuzu''
HkzxQ. Czu K Smh Ax q
Szv Au uP zx AvPUP
SUP \. Cu n {P.
P u P E. AP {kzx
, CUS |UQ , Eh S.

268

{kzx CP a]P AvP

v. Eh AP _a` APUS H AvUS.
CPz ux ` uPUS Ju Ax w[SP
EshUS sP Ez uPx }UQk. Eh
Az uP CP ` uPUS H Akzukzu
uPUS xPh {kzuk.
CUS |UQ x _a ` iiPz
u uPUS H A. EzuP
AvUPU Ti Az uP kP,
u AS P k. PUQ,
Az uP E kP P mhx
UQzx . A mh ` AUSz
uuP CUS. CPz u Auz uuku AUTmh
As uk. CP n a] Hk.
Eh JUS mh Eh P
CPz u AvUS. CP AzuP Ez uP
Csk xn Tmh[PP UP \. C
Tmh[PUQh q C v xna
][P u sk. JUS mh A J
Tmhzv u AuS (Polymorphism) G .

7. (Polymorphism)
""q vj ] Pn[P UP iu,
CskUS mh AP K CP Ez
uP Pnku BS''.
CP Psh K Ez uP K
q AP {Pz uk. CP,
P uukUPmk Ez uP {kzxQ.
"Pv A ia ]qa\ Czua \P' (Sickle
cell anaemia) CuS EunPU T. C| Czuzv BU
yUQa \ v S. EhP Czu Kmh vh.
Cs h Akzukzu uP u. Cx
K Jk[S s. AUP |mi }U C UP Cs AvP
Ex. Cs w[S US u Psi

269

UPmuP Ex. A\ (1955, 61) ux

BP Cu sP A BUP |mi
UPUS | uUTix GU Pskizx. Cq
U Pa\x xPUS G A uzu. CP
Pv A Czua \P U Pa\h uhkzv.
C| Pv CPz u CzuP
UPmuP Avzxx.

8. ukzu P
""CUP P EPx ukzu
mh K Ez uP C Gk''. CPi
Pz ukzu P K C uUS uP
[S G A. ukzu P Esk.
A
1. uu C CP AvP
PnkQx. Ez uSPUS Ch A P,
|vP, Ph, PkP Ax { PoP uu
Hh. CP ukP CTmh[PUQh CUP
|huU uzxkQ. Cu J Tmhzv u
vj[P A[S v C u. |[Q Cz
uhh u C[P uv C[Pz w
u CuS EunPU T. C | [SP.
CzuP Sh ukzumk.
}shP C uzu C[PP nzx.

2. CUPa \UP uku

C C mh C[PUQh CUP
uUPkQx.
A) _a` u J Smh Chzv mh CPa
`P E[P ukzuh.
B) Pz u & Ca\UP P[P
{P.
C) En, E (A) |hzuz u Cmh
C[Ph |hzu P kP.
D) A J CUP EP \UPUS Ju
AhuP Czu.

270

E) Ca\ J K Czv x \ Ax PuUS

Czv Ash Ax Pmh |[Px.

3. CUPa \UP uku

Pu Pmh a] vh.
A) PUP iu & P PmhP
ixk.
B) P mkz u PU P a]sk.
C u E mkzu PsiUS.
C) PP v F 1 P C u
PsiUS. F2 PP mkzu Esk.

]u
K ] Gx CP, E APS.
E[P Pmk ASP ] mk
u Hkzumhu. Ax CP K Es AS.
nx
][P
mhzv
|h.
CUPnzv h ""][P u'' G US
UQzx umkx. C[P PPsk.
h ][P
C mh P
. Cv, C[P uP CuS EunPU
T. C {[P Sh UPmk.
Kha ][P P |[Q Csk ][P E
J Psizu BS. E.m: W]adNPdPX, W.Pd],
W.NV]-dv - CY JW [jp Ym.
CP P ] AP nzv u.

271

]U

PP

Eh\
Sv & 1
\ hz uuk :&
1. En uU Smi Hk |
(A)
(B) UPm
(C) Czua \P
(D) SUP.
2. J Q i ES PP A
(A) 9.3 PP
(C) 7.1 PP

(B) 8.2 PP
(D) 6 PP

3. mh D S EshS |
(A) {Uh
(B) ]u
(C) Bi]
(D) U.
4. Piz u \ IRM & u \ x uk
PP A G?
(A) 1100 PP
(B) 750 PP
(C) 2200 PP
(D) 460 PP
5. vP Eh{ Gso A G?
(A) 10&15
(B) 12&24
(C) 15&20
(D) 19&25

272

6. En EmPu \zv Eh SUP] A

(A) 70 u 110 .Q/h.m
(B) 80 u 200 .Q/h.m
(C) 100 u 150 .Q/h.m
(D) 200 u 250 .Q/h.m
7. ~zu G G]UP\ x P
(A) xPP
(B) Gsn
(C) PUP
(D) UP
8. U S ]Qa\ x S { \
(A) Pmi
(B) P] Pm
(C) Ahk EP
(D) Pmh\ ]
9. zuU PP EUSx
(A) P]
(B) vUPmh v_UP
(C) Pm
(D) \i iP[P
10. G SU Pn
(A) Ava]
(B) Czu Kmh C
(C) \ uUP
(D) S Enmh
11. G u Sva _ ES v_z uSv
(A) ia_
(B) }m]P
(C) UPUT
(D) P

273

12. ] hzv Hk v
(A) u mk
(B) [P mk
(C) miU mk
(D) UPUP mk
13. u\P _[S x G.i.. (ATP) UTP Cn Ch
(A) ] C
(B) P
(C) |
(D) BUi CP
14. u\ _UPzvSz u P] AP kx
(A) Czu
(B) mh\
(C) ] h
(D) \P U
15. P i] x u\P E uzu AUS
(A) i iU |vP
(B) mhPsi |vP
(C) \\ |vP
(D) Gm\
16. |x Eh zuz u
(A) 1&2.2 2
(B) 2.2 & 3.3 2
(C) 1&2 2
(D) 0.5 & 1.5 2
17. ^ G Gsn a _x
(A) a _
(B) \] _
(C) uk _
(D) Pspa _

274

18. A\ Gx
(A) AvP A {P
(B) Su A {P
(C) { EUPzv Sk
(D) {P
19. S A\ EshPU Pn
(A) UPh
(B) miP
(C)
(D) hmi
20. AvP A FuUPvP uUPzv Eshx
(A) v
(B) PsP ]Su
(C) {
(D) u |
21. "U m' (Rag weed) uzv J Hkzx
(A) J u s
(B) P u v
(C) u v
(D) GU Pn[P
22. Czuzv A
(A) 0.02 Q / 100
(B) 0.06 Q/100
(C) 0.08 Q/100
(D) 0.01 Q/100
23. EUS Ch
(A) Czu
(B) P
(C) zuskhz v
(D) ]}P

275

24. A P z uk ATP UTP

GsoUP
(A) |S
(B) Csk
(C)
(D) |S
25. S iUPmku x E \k.
(A) Aih AS
(B) EiPmi
(C) Eva\{UQ
(D) P&Aa \{UQ
26. ]}PzvSa \ Czuzv A Qu
(A) 20 u 25%
(B) 25&30%
(C) 30&35%
(D) 35&40%
27. S] Pnk zu iUPmk \ A
(A) 25 .. Hg
(B) 50 .. Hg
(C) 75 .. Hg
(D) 80 .. Hg
28. ]}P ~sSP v Eg\k A
(A) 5 Q
(C) 21 Q

(B) 17 Q
(D) 20 Q

29. }, SUP, \i, m Pm

Eg\k Ch
(A) S
(B) As _sh S
(C) \PUS S
(D) R[S S

276

30. S i vzv Pnk } A

(A) 170 mh
(B) 168.5 mh
(C) 165 mh
(D) 162.8 mh
31. u\ C_ Gv } | AvPPU Pnk
x
(A) 10&15 h
(B) 40&50 h
(C) 35&40 h
(D) 20&25 h
32. u HhUTi } | CPa \ux
(A)C_ \u }
(B)C_ \u }
(C) Cn P
(D)w[S }
33. Gx \P ]}P G AUPkQx.
(A) [Pmh ]}P
(B) h\
(C) v_UPUS H ]}P
(D) ukzumh ]}P
Sv & II
1. Pmm G G? A CP ?
2. \UQkP PkzxP?
3. \UQkP G G? GkzxUPmkP uP?
4. "Azv] A A[P' ?
5. SUP G G? Au ASP G?
6. kP oP ?

277

7. PUFA G G?
8. mh PP P GxP?
9. IRM IRW BQ UP A sP
GxP.
10. Eh G G?
11. BMI & .
12. Q] ASP ?
13. PUP G G?
14. ]u ]Qa\US EPkzx G?
15. S ]Qa\ P ?
16. C s G G?
17. zu P v x?
18. Sh _] ASP ?
19. i G G?
20. P ]] EPU Pn[P ?
21. Azu G G G?
22. u .
23. G ]Qa\ & .
24. Pso AP Pnk v[P ?
25. Ps J[Skzx E G?
26. Qmh G G?
27. mi Ax zv Hk SkP G
T.
28. Ps UP Hu Csk Pn[P uP.
29. CLR G G?
30. {Uh G G?

278

31. Cg]U Ps G G?
32. ] h G G?
33. GuSv J EnQx?
34. Px PUP Csk Pn[P uP
35. G Phzv P EuU P G G?
36. u\x J _UP ?
37. {nUPmh J A G G?
38. ~ Pmhzv x {Px x?
39. _\zv x \k u\P ?
40. Em_\, a_\ P A mP Jk.
41. [& Aa\ G G?
42. { |US Pn ~sqP P ?
43. ] G G?
44. |izxi A G G?
45. Bg\Q \v Hk P ?
46. P Bi G G?
47. GUP PiQ \k x G {PQx?
48. > zw_ A VF [V_ [?
49. |izxi G Ah?
50. Cu, ~ Ezu G G?
51. Czuzv \mkP PP ? A UQ
oP SkP.
52. Czu Eu PoP G G?
53. G v k uP.
54. uh _] G G?
55. P AP Gx G?
56. Eh U Pu \u (invitro) h Uv
kzukQx?

279

Sv & III
1. Pmmi PP, A UQzxzu uP.
2. u G G? ] UP uP
3. } uUS Cux. H?
4. ux EUP UQzxzu ]Sz uP.
5. Ax \, x \, Pi
\PQ IRM IRW BQ PzuP
AmhnkzxP.
6. Eh UP PoP ?
7. iizv |h \zu .
8. Shg] ]S Au UQzxzu
GxP.
9. Sh CUPzv PP USP.
10. &S ]Qa\ UP uP.
11. G P .
12. G SnSu |h {P .
13. G Cn Ch uUP PoP USP.
14. mkP PP USP.
15. \P A .
16. _\ \u Eh] \v Hk |P ?
17. { USP.
18. ""yUP J u u {'' & E Pzuz uP.
19. Pso \u G G?
20. PUii G G?
21. Psn xPuP P ?
22. J J u & .

280

23. Pmh x |kUPv [S G?

24. Em\ J G G?
25. _ En E US.
26. ~ _]zu x |h {PP .
27. P ~s AP |h zu USP.
28. _]zu x |h uh {PP UP.
29. P\| ASP Pn[P S P
30. Pi | PP UP.
31. Cu u\zysh _] S uP.
32. ICCU UQzxzu UP.
33. uPzv | _ \ UP.
34. Ashkku Au Q UQ \P
\mi UP.
Sv & IV
1. ]Sh |h \zu {PP UP.
2. mi \zu UP.
3. S ]Qa\ E i{P UP.
4. Hu Csk \ SkP UP.
5. G Hk uzu Ax G SnQx
Gu .
6. mk PP AuP Pn[P .
7. u\ _[S uzu zx GxP?
8. u Pso J S uzu USP?
9. J Enu Sa] T \P [Q USP.
10. Pso Pnk SkP A \\
P GxP.

281

11. "Ph E' \ A .

12. \USk Au {zv \ P GxP.
13. Ca\ K _ Gu Pzxz uP.
14. _\ |h hzxh USP.
15. Cu \k x |h {P USP.
16. Czuzv C GxP.
17. Bs CUP shzv \P USP.
18. uha _] UP.
19. u] Sk | vmhzv E \vmh[P
AP UQzxzu GxP.

2 & ~sq
\ hz uuk
1. u |US u uk] Pshu ?
(A) Cm Pa
(C) h

(B) \ h
(D) h

2. | ~sq EPU Pn UQ {P
(A) uk]P EUSu
(B) v P Psh P EUSu
(C) v P Pshu
(D) FhP P EUSu
3. A Aih R PkUPmk UQ[P
Gx \x A.
(A){UU mPa _U Pnk uzv B
E P]m Gk.
(B) P]m E P\P B.
(C) ] [S P TkuP E E.
(D) Tku E QUP uzv B.

282

4. J J {UU A mk Pnku Ax
C AUPkQx.
(A) P
(B) k P
(C) i P
(D) P
5. U Pmi (A) P\ EUP ysk P
(A) | u P
(B) BPU P
(C) P
(D) P
6. R EP mh\ Jmkso EshS
| Gx?
(A) BUP yUP v
(B) n A
(C) P
(D) j]
7. i CUP UP _] G[S
|h.
(A) P \P
(B) Czua ] \P
(C) u
(D) P_ Eh
8. | EshUS Gh hiP { x?
(A) EPsh P
(B) Eh i[P (A) k\mP
(C) \mP
(D) \\skP
9. R EP ihh P Gx?
(A) ]h\P
(C) i

(B) Ea\
(D) BP

283

10. |U Pmkkzx AvP \Psh v

Po
(A) hm\U
(C) Csh

(B) B]
(D) Bz]
Sv & II

1. ~sq &
2. y FhP Ezv \ P ?
3. Cmh Gs \P G G?
4. PP T.
5. A G G?
6. ""` Av]'' G u GuU SUQx.
7. UQ Gv E P Gu.
8. Gm |U Psh P UP.
9. Smh CP Gvzu uP Gu.
10. `] G G?
Sv & III
1. A UP
2. u Pnk |P ]S uP.
3. ]h mhzv UPa _] ]S
uP.
4. HIV A AuU Pshu {P
GxP.
5. ~sq |UQP uPP ?
6. EP _Pu A (WHO) i, UPmh Gm |
ASP ?
7. Gm | uk Pmkkzxu S GxP.

284

Sv & IV
1. [S P FhP a] \
GxP.
2. | K P \u _Pu a] Gu
UP.
3. ~sqP uUSu u UP.

3. |zuhUP
\ hz uuk
1. RPkUPmkP ukz ysk
G?
(A) Uj
(B)
(C) JmksoP
(D) Azx
2. u \ku GuP \u uk
(A) E A uk
(B) Eh\ uk
(C) \ [Su uk
(D) Cn P uk
3. R Gx Uj & Gv
(A) ChL
(B) \\
(C)
(D) u
4. R EP Gx Gv
(A) \\
(B) ChL
(C) u
(D)

285

5. R PsP [S \ \iP Psh

(A) U {mLP
(B) L\mkP DLP
(C) UL DLP
(D) DL {mLP
6. ha _US \P
(A) Gzwa \P
(B) m \P
(D) Czu ] \P
(D) Hx C
7. v uk \kx
(A) \una \P
(B) | Po \P
(C) |a_a \P
(D) C Q UTP
8. GP u Jmk \P u A ]Qa\
EPkQx.
(A) Qm
(B) AQm
(C) BmhQm
(D) I\Qm
9. MHC P, _sh GuU S\ Ex.
(A) J
(C) |S

(B) Csk
(D) B

10. RPsP Bmh C | Gx?

(A) Gm
(B) Tmk \v |
(C) |
(D) Bx

286

11. Gu P BmiiP J s Psh.

(A) IGG
(B) IGA
(C) IGM
(D) IGE
12. SCID |UP Pn
(A) Ai\ i A Sk
(B) SUP BUh Sk
(C) h Sk
(D) Gx Pn C
13. Gm |UP Po
(A) Uj
(B) g\
(C) m
(D) TMV
14. u _ a] P
(A) 17 h[P
(B) 12 h[P
(C) 5 h[P
(D) 30 h[P
15. CSa _x
(A) T&\mkP
(B) B&\mkP
(C) U
(D) m \P
16. C S E H \[Q UT Gh
(A) CS \[QUS \x
(B) CS \[Q Ch[Px
(C) CS \[Q h[Px
(D) P \[Q Ch[Px

287

17. C S v
(A)QUP
(C) QUP m

(B) QUP u
(D) u

18. AvP kP Psh SvP Pnk

(A) P \[Q mk
(B) CS \[Q mk
(C) P CS \[QP
(D) C \[Q
19. x uUS E Jmk \kx
(A) BmhQm
(C) I\Qm

(B) AQm
(D) Qm

20. Jzu Ah CmhPUS Ch |h E

Jmk C AUPkQx.
(A) Qm
(C) Bmh (_)Qm

(B) AQm
(D) I\Qm
Sv & II

1. |z uhUP G G?
2. | |S P PoP ?
3. CP uk & .
4. \\ G G?
5. \ [Su G G?
6. mh uk G G?
7. \ v |zuk kzxP.
8. \S uk mh uk kzxP.
9. C S G G?
10. Gv P UQ oP ?
11. sp oP ?

288

12. C G G?
13. Bmi G G?
14. hP G G?
15. h Gh kzxP.
16. C S Ix PP ?
17. IG UT E { mh SvP
kzxP.
18. BmhQm AQm P kzxP.
19. Qm I\Qmix G kQx.
20. C & JkUQ xP ?
Sv & III
1. uP uk Smh uk PP sP
UP.
2. C S A h P.
3. C S A \P UP.
4. v_ Ax E zv Aih USP.
5. Jmk UP ASP ?
6. |zuk S|P USP.
7. u {z uk [S E
Eh\ ukP USP.
Sv & IV
1. k EP A \P Pmk
P.
2. E |z uhUP K BU Pmk
GxP.
3. CP | uk K Pmk P.
4. |z uk \P USP.

289

4. uP
Sv & I
\ hz uuk
1. Gu Pmi AvP A \uP
Pmkx.
(A) TMV
(B) L
(C) G\] P
(D) P Uj
2. DNA Csk CP (\[QP) E GU Pshu
(A) H.G. P
(B) sh
(C) T.H. P
(D) m\ QU
3. u Gzu U Smk |P Pshmk.
(A) 300US AvP
(B) 300US S
(C) HUS 400
(D) HUS 100
4. u sP A Eux
(A) E v \u
(B) P \u
(C) \uv z uh
(D) KU Pa \u
5. ]UQ \ (Pv A) Czua \P Gu HkQx?
(A) EhS\ E
(B) S\ E
(C) mhP Sk
(D) P A k

290

6. A\zvP Pn
(A) C
(C) Cv

(B) mh C
(D) P C

7. u EhS\ Pnk K[S Hk

|
(A) Pv A \P
(C) SCID

(B) u^
(D) Asi[mh P

8. CiQ G
(A) P SUS h
(B) S\PU SUS h
(C) Cuzv SmiU Pq h
(D) GU Pi Q.
9. S\P 4 5 (Ph[) S\
uS Guz uSv Ax.
(A) A
(C) C

(B) B
(D) D

10. G |hk GkQx.

(A) mP
(C) E

(B)
(D) i\P
Sv & II

1. \uv zuh B G G?
2. u^ zxa ]Qa\ P ?
3. Ph Hu Csk P GxP.
4. A DNA Gx x?
5. S[ UhP G G?
6. kzuk Uj Czv G?
7. DNA xshUSu G G?

291

8. k Ahu G G?
9. (qa ]Qa\) ]Qa\ G G? Csk P
]Qa\P ?
10. E \v u u G G?
Sv & III Sv & III
1. A\ SCID I UP uP
2. u Pnk H uSv S\P ? J
uSv Ah[Q S\P ?
3. DNA \UP u~m P ?
4. S[ \ JUP P ?
Sv & IV
1. DNA \UP u~m Pmk GxP.
2. S[ |h Eun Psk UP?
3. u vmh UP.
4. E \v J Pmk P.
5. u A, v Au P U Pmk GxP.

5. _a`
Sv & I
1. UPuP UP a] u G?
A) BskUS 10
B) BskUS 90
C) BskUS 1
D) BskUS 80

292

2. ux vj AvPzvUS UPuP AvP C

AUPkQx.
A). UPuP UP
B) UPuP iSsk
C) UPuP
D) C Azx
3. EP ESU Pn
A)
B) K\ hzv zu
C) CPUS Gv ua \kP
D) [SP u[P A.
4. PU Pnk Psni k
B) CO2
D) SO2

A) NO2
C)O3

5. RUPsh Gu UP K\ hzu PP AUQ?

A) S PP
B) m S PP
C) (A) (B)
D) \ h BUk
6. ] A v PPU Psh AvP A P
}UP G ]ux?
A) {zv {u
B) BUQn a\
C) izu
D) Gzxa \UP
7. UPkP [P Pua \UPUS UQP
kx.
A) U miP
C) ] skP

B) BQm uUP
D) k P

293

8. RUPsh GSv "E \UP' G AUPkQx?

A) Sh E [P
B) }Q E [P
C) |uu
D) {UP
9. J hzvS US ` B A
A) 1000 Q. PP
B) 10x1010 Q. PP
C) 5x1020 Q. PP
D) 15x1023 Q. PP
10. |USz u Azx \z uP zv \
GvPzv hx Gx?
A) usp B
C) B

B) m
D) ` B

11. EQ E }, Gzu \uu |?

A) 10%
C) 15%

B) 3%
D) 50%

12. | uS E}U Si}US vmhzu |US

|k Gx?
A) x
B) K
C)
D) T Azx
Sv & II
1. `{
2. UP UPu En UP u[PmS Ch E
P ?
3. EP G G?
4. K\ Czu Hk P ?

294

5. u _zvP \UPh} G _zvPUPkQx?

6. E P G G?
7. J E Szv ]P ?
8. Cv E E S Ch[P ?
9. B G G?
10. ` B {P ?
11. uh G G?
12. P[P yu G G?
Sv & III
1. UPuP UP Au _a`US Hk
uUP ] S GxP.
2. EP zv P \kzxP
3. K\ K CP `zuh & v.
4. P PP GxP.
5. P}a _zvP s a ]S GxP
6. E P SuUP Pn[Pa _UPP ?
7. | [P a ] uS GxP.
Sv & IV
1. Psni k UP , A _a` Hkzx
J Pmk GxP
2. w[S u PP G P? Auz ux
mk A A Aih .
3. B |UPi G G? B |UPiz wUP
GkUPh si |hiUPP ?
4. J uSz uP.
5. | \ & v.

295

6. mk E
\ hz uuk
1. uxU Pnh mi[P GsoUP
(A) 29 C[P
(B) 30 C[P
(C) 26 C[P
(D) 20 C[P
2. R EP Gx C Czua \ux A
(A) P[P
(B) R
(C) P[
(D) UP
3. ]v Czv G?
(A) P[S
(B) |
(C) ] Pa]
(D) hUP
4. P[P C u Ch
(A) g\
(B) Pzy
(C) P|hP
(D) Pzv
5. R PkUPmhP Gu C A Czua \ux
(A) ]
(B) R
(C) _
(D) A\
6. R PkUPmhP u | Eun Gx?
(A) a]UP
(B) Pa\
(C) _ A
(D) Gx C

296

7. _sn }h Px Pkx G|UP u

Eu ]Qa\
(A) US
(B) a]UP
(C) Pa\
(D) BvU
8. Jzu sP Eh C[P CUP \x
(A) CUP
(B) \P Puzu
(C) CUP
(D) u CUP
9. RPq _ C[P Guh AvP Pmi \zx
PnkQx.
(A) ]v C
(B) C
(C) R C
(D) ] C
10. ASP BvU |P Pnkx
(A) i [Su
(B) CP P P zuUS
(C) ]
(D) A\ h
Sv & II
1.
2.
3.
4.

P|h P ?
P|hP G PkzukQ?
]v_ P[P _ i Jk.
C k Psh P C[P u CzvS
GP EuQ?
5. P[P P|h Czv u
6. J | | P|h G Pshx.

297

7. P|hP Uj |P A ASP
USP.
8. _ A |z ukUS P x.
9. P|hPUPk a]UPUP uu ]Qa\ x?
10. P|hP |P GxP.
11. C C[P G G?
12. \P ymhzv |P ?
13. \P ymh G G?
14. AP G G?
15. SUS P G G?
16. ]v, K[P, P[P P kP JkP.
17. P C G G?
Sv & III
1. UP uP UPzv Au Hk `{z
uUPzu ]S P.
2. u PU TP.
3. K\ h K CP ` Jzuk ,
4. PP PP UP.
5. P } s AuP P ]S
uP.
6. Sx uP Pn[P UP.
7. | [P GxP.
Sv & IV
1. Psni k UP A _ vP
Pmk P.
2. w US PP G s \kQx?
uP {P .
3. B |UPi G G? C|UPia \\
G P PkQ.
4. USP.
5. | xP Ax s ?

298

7 . nU Pmk
Sv & I
\ hz uukUP
1. [Q uzx G

mh

A) \ h
C) U kP

B) BPm
D) x U

2. uu \zv, \mh \zvx

zuu A
A) U
C)

B) zu
D) P i

3. U kP v UQzv Buzx mhU Pzx

A) Ezv `{ |iz uUP
B) sP sPS
C) P u uUS u AvPUQx.
D) GU Pn[P
4. h Buzu n PzxUP
A) Pa]u uhu
B) Pa]u u u
C) \ \mh\ k
D) kUP
5. na \[S G mh
A) h\Q
C) iU

B) . G. h
D) P i

6. S miS PoP
A) vj
C) S\P S

299

B) Eh s [P
D) \mh\ AvP

Sv & II
1. UQ Pmmh TP.
2. Eh k vU T.
3. { UQzv PzxUP ?
4. \U PP .
5. UkP PzuU T.
6. uSu u zu G G?
7. hzv SkP Hu Csk TP.
8. { h\zv UQzx x.
9. uPzv CPz uU Pmk G G?
10. S G G?
11. nzv AihU Pzv Csk PU
TP.
12. S\ a] G G?
13. |PU PPU TP.
14. ] G G?
Sv & III
1. { UQzv ] S P.
2. uP CPz uU Pmk UP.
3. mh C[PUQh P G ukUPkQx & .
4. ]m UP.
5. ][P UP.
Sv & IV
1. UQzv PmkP n Aih USP.
2. i U \k Gu `{ \kQx Gu
USP.
3. CPz u Pmk Pmk P.

300