Lesson 2: Power Train Theory of Operation

Lesson 2: Power Train Basic Components

Fig. 1.2.1 Basic Power Train Components

Introduction
This lesson covers power train basic components, which includes
bearings, seals and gears.
Objectives
After completing this lesson the student will be able to demonstrate
an understanding of basic components, including bearings, seals and
gears, by selecting the proper responses on the quiz.
Unit 1 1-2-2 Power Train I
Lesson 2

Fig. 1.2.2 Bearings

Bearings
A bearing (Figure 1.2.2) is a mechanical device for decreasing
friction in a machine in which a moving part exerts force on another
part.

Fig. 1.2.3 Friction

Friction
When objects move against one another, a degree of resistance is
produced by the contacting surfaces. This resistance is better known
as friction (Figure 1.2.3). While friction is useful for transmitting
motion from one object to another, it is also a force that works
against movement. Continuous friction causes heat to build up and
results in wear of the contacting surfaces. In machinery, unchecked
friction can quickly lead to damaged parts and equipment
breakdowns.
Unit 1 1-2-3 Power Train I
Lesson 2

Fig. 1.2.4 Bearings on Shafts

Bearings on Shafts
Usually, the bearing supports a moving part. The bearing must allow
the moving part one type of motion, such as rotation, while
preventing it from moving in any other way, for example, sidewise.
Bearings are generally found at the rigid supports of rotating shafts
(Figure 1.2.4) where friction is the greatest.

BEARING FUNCTIONS

• Decrease Friction, Heat and Wear

• Support Static Weight of Shafts and Machinery
• Support Radial and Thrust Loads
• Allow Tighter Fit Tolerances
• Easier to Replace and Less Expensive than Shafts

Fig. 1.2.5 Bearing Functions

Bearing Functions
Bearings were invented early in history. When the wheel was
invented, it was mounted on an axle, and where wheel and axle
touched was a bearing. Early bearings had surfaces of wood or
leather lubricated with grease such as animal fat. Modern bearings
are often designated into friction and anti-friction types. Neither type
of bearing is completely frictionless but both are efficient in reducing
friction.
Unit 1 1-2-4 Power Train I
Lesson 2

In machinery, the most common methods used to reduce friction, heat

and wear are lubrication and bearings. Oil provides lubrication and
cooling but does not provide support. Bearings are particularly useful
because they also support both the static weight and dynamic loads of
the rotating driveshafts, gears, connecting rods, etc. For example,
wheel bearings support the weight of the entire heavy machine.
Crankshaft journal bearings support the shaft against the forces
produced by the piston rods.
The primary functions of bearings in a machine are as follows:
- Decrease friction, heat and wear
- Support the static weight of shafts and machinery
- Support radial and thrust loads produced by rotating shafts
- Allow tighter fit tolerances to prevent "slop’ in rotating shafts
- Easier to replace and less expensive than shafts

Fig. 1.2.6 Radial and Thrust Bearing Loads

Radial and Thrust Bearing Loads

As gear shafts operate in a machine they produce a number of
different loads that bearings must support. First, there is the static
load of the weight of the shaft and gears that are mounted on it
(Figure 1.2.6, top diagram). The direction of the load is toward the
center line (or axis) of the shaft. This is called the radial load. As the
shaft rotates it also tries to move to the left or right along the center
line of shaft (Figure 1.2.6, bottom diagram). This is called a thrust
load. Bearings absorb radial loads and thrust loads to prevent shafts
from moving.
Unit 1 1-2-5 Power Train I
Lesson 2

While many specific varieties of bearings are used in modern

machinery, bearings are classified into two main types: solid (plain)
bearings and anti-friction bearings.

Fig. 1.2.7 Solid Bearings

Solid Bearings
Solid bearings (Figure 1.2.7) are classified as sleeves or bushings and
split-half. Solid bearings are also referred to as friction bearings.

Fig. 1.2.8 Shaft Supported by Oil (solid theory)

In a solid bearing, the shaft turns on the bearing surface. The shaft
and the bearing are separated by a thin layer of lubricating oil. When
rotating at operational speeds, the shaft is often supported by the thin
layer of oil and not by the bearing itself.
As the rotational speed increases, the oil film becomes thicker, so that
the friction increases in less than direct proportion to the speed. At
lower speeds, the oil film is thinner if other factors are unchanged.
At extremely low speeds, the film may break and the two pieces
come into contact. Therefore, friction is high when a machine is
started in motion, and the bearing may fail if high stresses are put on
it during starting.
Unit 1 1-2-6 Power Train I
Lesson 2

Fig. 1.2.9 Sleeve Bearing

Sleeve Bearing
The simplest types of solid bearings are one-piece sleeve bearings
also called bushings. Sleeve bearings have been used in wheels and
other rotating shafts since the earliest times. Sleeve or journal type
bearings are simpler than anti-friction bearings in construction but
more complex in theory and operation. Figure 1.2.9 shows a type of
sleeve bearing and a camshaft. The camshaft is supported at the
journals by sleeve bearings in the engine block.
The shaft supported by the bearing is called the journal, and the outer
portion, the sleeve. If journal and sleeve are both made of steel, the
bearing surfaces, even if well lubricated, may grab or pick up small
pieces of metal from each other. The sleeves of most bearings
therefore are lined with brass, bronze, or Babbitt metal. Bronze
sleeve bearings are widely used in oil pumps and electric motors.
Solid bearings are lined metals that are softer than the shafts that turn
on them so that the bearing will wear before the shaft does. It is
typically less difficult and much less costly to replace a worn bearing
than it would be to replace the shaft or assembly that rests on the
bearing.
Sleeve bearings are generally pressure-lubricated through a hole in
the journal or from the housing that contains the bearing. The sleeve
is often grooved to distribute the oil evenly over the bearing surface.
Unit 1 1-2-7 Power Train I
Lesson 2

Fig. 1.2.10 Split-half Bearing

Split-half Bearing
A second type of solid bearing is the split-half bearing (Figure
1.2.10). Split half bearings are probably most recognizable because
of their use in automotive engines. Crankshaft rod bearing caps are
split bearings that are bolted to the piston rods. These bearings can
be replaced if they wear excessively. Split half bearings, in addition
to oil holes, often incorporate grooves that allow oil to flow freely
around the face of the bearing. Split half bearings may also have
locking tabs that fit into notches in the bearing cap. These tabs
prevent the bearing from sliding horizontally on the shaft.
Although they are described as solid, split-half bearings are most
often made of two types of metal. The bearing face material is often
an alloy such as aluminum, which is softer than steel and a good
conductor of heat. The relative softness of aluminum allows foreign
particle that enter the oil to become embedded in the face of the
bearing avoiding scratches on the more costly crankshaft.

Benefits of Solid Bearings

• Less Expensive
• Handle heavy radial loads

Fig. 1.2.11 Benefits of Solid Bearings

Benefits of Solid Bearings

- Less Expensive
- Handle Heavy radial loads
Unit 1 1-2-8 Power Train I
Lesson 2

Fig. 1.2.12 Anti-friction Bearings

Anti Friction Bearings

Anti-friction bearings use rolling action to reduce friction and have
lower starting friction than plain bearings. Anti-friction bearing
(Figure 1.2.12) designs include ball bearings, roller bearings and
needle bearings.

Fig. 1.2.13 Anti-Friction Bearing Components

Anti-friction bearing assemblies (Figure 1.2.13) consists of most or

all of the following components:
Inner race or cone: The inner race is a hardened steel ring with a
machined channel or groove that the balls or rollers travel in. The
inner race is often attached to the rotating shaft that the bearing
supports.
Outer race: Similar to the inner race, the outer race is a hardened
steel ring with a channel or grove for the balls or rollers to travel in.
The outer race is normally a separate component often mounted so it
remains stationary.
Unit 1 1-2-9 Power Train I
Lesson 2

Balls or Rollers: Between the races are the actual friction reducing
components. These may be hardened steel balls, straight or tapered
rollers, or thin rollers called needles. The balls or rollers turn freely
between the inner and outer races.
Cage: The cage is positioned between the inner and outer races and
is used to maintain the correct spacing between the balls or rollers.

Fig. 1.2.14 Bearing Contact Area

Anti-friction bearings reduce friction by providing both rolling action

and a narrow contact area (Figure 1.2.14). Balls have point contact
with the races that support them allowing high speed operation. A
thin layer of oil separates the components. Straight rollers have a
line contact. The line provides more surface contact for greater
support against radial loads.

Fig. 1.2.15 Tapered Roller Bearings

Tapered Roller Bearings

Tapered rollers work the same way as straight rollers. The rollers and
the surface of the races are tapered at an angle to the centerline of the
shaft they support. The angle provides resistance to thrust loads.
Tapered bearings (Figure 1.2.15) are often used on both ends of a
shaft and work together to counteract thrust loads from both
directions.
Unit 1 1-2-10 Power Train I
Lesson 2

Fig. 1.2.16 Needle Bearings

Needle Bearings
Needle bearings (Figure 1.2.16) work the same way as straight
rollers, providing line contact. Because of the small diameters of the
needles, they can be used for minimum clearance applications.

Fig. 1.2.17 Caged Needle Bearings

Caged Needle Bearings

Needles have the highest load capacity for the same radial space of
all bearings but application is limited to bore diameters of less than
10 inches (254 mm).
Unit 1 1-2-11 Power Train I
Lesson 2

BENEFITS OF ANTI-FRICTION BEARINGS

• No Wear on the Shaft

• Less Power Loss
• Allows Higher Speeds

Fig. 1.2.18 Benefits of Anti-friction Bearings

Anti-friction Bearings
The benefits of anti-friction bearings are listed below:
- No wear on the shaft
- Less power loss
- Allow higher speeds

Fig. 1.2.19 Seal Failure

Seals and Gaskets

For smooth operation with minimal wear, most gears and bearings
require constant lubrication. Since the earliest times engineers have
devised different means to keep lubricant around moving parts and
keep out water, dust and dirt. Given the conditions under which
construction machines typically operate, effective seals are
particularly important. Seal failure (Figure 1.2.19) results in
machinery breakdowns and the resulting lost time and money.
Unit 1 1-2-12 Power Train I
Lesson 2

Fig. 1.2.20 Seal Types

Seal Types
A seal is defined as a piece of material or a method that prevents or
decreases the flow of fluid or air between two surfaces. The sealed
surfaces may be stationary or have movement between them. Some
of the many duties of a seal are to:
- Prevent lubricant leakage

- Keep out dirt and other foreign bodies

- Keep different fluids such as oil and water apart

- Remain flexible enough to allow some movement between

parts without leaking

- Seal rough surfaces

- Wear faster than the more expensive parts with which they
are used

Seals (Figure 1.2.20) can be classified into two basic types: static
seals and dynamic seals. Static seals are used when there is no
movement between the two sealed surfaces. Dynamic Seals are used
when there is movement of the sealed surfaces in relation to each
other.
Static Seals include O-ring seals, gaskets and liquid gasket material.
Dynamic Seals include O-ring seals, lip seals, Duo Cone seals and
packing rings.
Unit 1 1-2-13 Power Train I
Lesson 2

Fig. 1.2.21 Gaskets

Gaskets
Gaskets are one of the most common seals used to seal small
clearances between static machinery parts. They are made of
materials that prevent the passage of air, gas or liquid between
stationary surfaces. Some of the places that gaskets are used are
between the cylinder head and the block and between the block and
the oil pan. Surfaces where gaskets are used must be flat, clean, dry
and free of scratches. The pressure of the fasteners used to join the
surfaces produces an important part of the sealing action of gaskets.
It is essential to tighten fasteners to the specified torque to prevent
leaking.

Fig. 1.2.22 O-ring Seal

O-rings
An O-ring (Figure 1.2.22) is a smooth circular ring made from natural
or synthetic rubber or plastic. In operation the ring is usually
compressed between the two surfaces. The compressed ring provides
the seal. The ring may be used as a static seal in a manner similar to
a gasket.
Unit 1 1-2-14 Power Train I
Lesson 2

Fig. 1.2.23 Backup Ring

In extreme high pressure sealing applications above 5500 kPa (800

psi), backup rings (Figure 1.2.23) are sometimes used in conjunction
with the O-rings to prevent extrusion of the O-ring into the clearance
space between the sealed parts. The pressure backup rings are
usually made of a plastic material and extend the life of the O-ring.
While the most commonly used O-rings have a circular cross section
there are other types that are used for specific applications.
Make sure that all surfaces where O-rings are installed are free from
dirt and dust. Inspect the O-ring for dirt, cuts and scratches. Do not
twist or stretch the O-ring during installation. When removing an
O-ring use tools that will not damage the surface of the part.

Fig. 1.2.24 Internal Lip Seals

Lip Seals
Lip seals are some of the most important dynamic seals used in
construction equipment. Lip seals endure operation in all types of
severe conditions and resist breakdown due to heat build-up or
contact with lubrication or hydraulic fluids. They are also resistant to
movement between the two parts they are sealing. Lip seals are
relatively easy to remove for service replacement.
Unit 1 1-2-15 Power Train I
Lesson 2

The two most common types of lip seals are radial lip seals and dirt
excluding lip seals. Dirt excluding lip seals are used as "scrapers" or
"wipers" on hydraulic cylinders. Radial lip seals are used to prevent
leaks on rotating shafts and are manufactured in many different
shapes and sizes to suit specific applications. Internal lip seals have
the seal lip on the inside diameter of the seal. Some of the most
common internal lip seals are shown in Figure 1.2.24.

Fig. 1.2.25 External Lip Seals

External radial lip seals

External radial lip seals (Figure 1.2.25) have the seal lip on the
outside diameter of the seal.

Fig. 1.2.26 Garter Spring

Garter Spring
Radial lip seals are held against the surface of the shaft they seal by
fluid pressure and a garter spring (Figure 1.2.26). The garter spring
provides additional force when fluid pressure is less. The seal
actually operates on a thin film of oil between the seal lip and the
shaft. This permits lubrication of the seal lip without allowing
leakage.
Unit 1 1-2-16 Power Train I
Lesson 2

Sometimes thin metal cylinders called shaft wear sleeves are used in
conjunction with lip seals to provide a replacement smooth surface
for the seal and avoid replacement of expensive, highly machined
shafts. The sleeves are most often found on U-joints and large
crankshafts.
Make sure that surfaces where lip seals are used are clean and free of
scratches and grooves. Do not use lip seals with a broken lip. Do not
use lip seals if the lip is "turned under". Lip seals must be removed
with a special tool.

Fig. 1.2.27 Duo Cone Seal Components

Duo-Cone Seal
Duo-cone seals are designed to keep large amounts of dirt out and
lubricant in. Because of the harsh conditions where they are used,
duo cone seals must be resistant to corrosion so they last for a long
time with minimum maintenance. They must be resistant to shaft
bends, end play and shock loads.
The Duo-cone seal consists of two rings, usually made of rubber
mounted on two grooved metal retaining rings.
Unit 1 1-2-17 Power Train I
Lesson 2

Fig. 1.2.28 Duo-Cone Seal

In operation, the rubber or toric rings hold the metal rings together to
form a seal. They also provide a cushion for the metal rings and keep
the sealed faces in alignment when the shaft moves during machine
operation. The smooth surfaces of the metal rings combine with the
viscosity of the oil to a seal the shaft.
Duo cones must be "exercised" to maintain the metal-to-metal seal.
If a machine is idle for a long time, the seals may begin to leak. This
does not mean the seals should be replaced. Use published operation
guidelines to determine whether Duo-Cone seals have failed.
When servicing Duo-Cone seals, thoroughly remove all traces of
protection layers or oil from new duo cone rings. Use a solvent and
make sure all surfaces are dry. Before assembly, wipe clean the seal
faces and using a tissue moistened with light machine oil carefully
apply a layer of oil on the metal seal face. Do not put oil on the
rubber ring. Use an installation tool to install the seal with a correct
and even application of force. Duo-cone seal rings must always be
kept in pairs.
Unit 1 1-2-18 Power Train I
Lesson 2

Gears
Since the work of a gear is done by the teeth, gears are usually named
according to the way the teeth are cut. As machinery has developed
over the years many different gear patterns have been devised to
perform specific tasks. For proper operation, meshing gears must
have teeth of the same size and design. Also, at least one pair of
teeth must be engaged at all times although gear tooth patterns allow
for more than one pair of teeth to be engaged. The following are the
most common gears found in modern industrial machines.

Fig. 1.2.29 Straight Cut or Spur Gears

Straight Cut or Spur Gears

The teeth of straight cut or spur gears are cut straight parallel with the
axis of the gear rotation. Straight cut gears are prone to produce
vibration. These gears also tend to be noisy in operation and are
generally used in slower speed applications.
Straight spur gears are often used in transmissions because the
straight teeth allow gears to be more easily slid in and out of mesh
allowing easier shifting.
Unit 1 1-2-19 Power Train I
Lesson 2

Fig. 1.2.30 Helical Gears

Helical Gears
Helical gears have teeth that are not parallel to the axis of the shaft
but are spiraled around the shaft in the form of a helix. Helical gears
are suitable for heavy loads because the gear teeth come together at
an acute angle rather than at 90° as in spur gearing. Engagement of
the gears begins and rolls down to the trailing edge allowing a
smoother transfer of power than on a straight cut. This also permits
quieter operation and the ability to handle more thrust. So helical
gears are more durable than straight gears.
A disadvantage of simple helical gears is that they produce a
sideways thrust that tends to push the gears along shafts. This
produces additional load on the shaft bearings.
Unit 1 1-2-20 Power Train I
Lesson 2

Fig. 1.2.31 Herringbone Gears

Herringbone Gears
The thrust produced by helical gears can be balanced by using double
helical, or herringbone, gears. Herringbone gears have V-shaped
teeth composed of half a right-handed helical tooth and half a left-
handed helical tooth. The thrust produced by one side is
counterbalanced by the thrust on the other side. Usually a small
channel is machined between the two rows of teeth. This is to allow
for easier alignment and to prevent oil being trapped in the apex of
the ‘V’.
Herringbone gears have the same advantages as helical gears, but are
expensive. They are used in large turbines and generators.
Unit 1 1-2-21 Power Train I
Lesson 2

Fig. 1.2.32 Plain Bevel Gears

Plain Bevel Gears

Bevel gears permit the power flow in a gear train to turn a corner.
The gear teeth are cut straight on a line with the shaft but are beveled
at an angle to the horizontal axis of the shaft. Bevel gear teeth are
tapered in thickness and in height. The smaller driving gear is called
the pinion while the larger driven gear is known as the ring gear.
Plain bevel gears are used in applications where speed is slower and
there is no high impact present. For example, hand wheel type
controls often use plain bevel gears.

Fig. 1.2.33 Spiral Bevel Gears

Spiral Bevel Gears

Spiral bevel gears are designed for applications where more strength
is needed than a plain bevel gear can provide. Spiral gear teeth are
cut obliquely on the angular faces of the gears. The teeth overlap
considerably, so they can carry greater loads. Spiral bevel gears
reduce speed and increase force.
Unit 1 1-2-22 Power Train I
Lesson 2

Fig. 1.2.34 Hypoid Gears

Hypoid gears
Hypoid gears are variations of helical bevel gears that are used when
the axes of the two shafts are perpendicular but do not intersect. The
smaller pinion is located below the center of the larger ring gear it
drives. One of the most common uses of hypoid gearing is to
connect the drive shaft and the rear axle in automobiles. Helical
gearing used to transmit rotation between shafts that are not parallel
is often incorrectly called spiral gearing.

Fig. 1.2.35 Worm Gears

Worm Gear
Another variation of helical gearing is provided by the worm gear,
also called the screw gear. A worm gear is a long, thin cylinder that
has one or more continuous helical teeth that mesh with a helical
gear. Worm gears differ from helical gears in that the teeth of the
worm slide across the teeth of the driven gear instead of exerting a
direct rolling pressure. Worm gears are used chiefly to transmit
rotation, with a large reduction in speed, from one shaft to another at
a 90° angle.
Unit 1 1-2-23 Power Train I
Lesson 2

Fig. 1.2.36 Worm Gear Application

Worm Gear Application

Figure 1.2.36 is an example of a worm gear application.

Fig. 1.2.37 Rack and Pinion Gear Set

Rack and Pinion Gear Set

Rack and pinion gears can be used to convert straight-line motion
into rotary motion or rotary motion into straight-line motion
depending whether the rack or the pinion is driven. The teeth on the
rack are straight cut while those on the pinion are curved. Common
uses of a rack and pinion gear set is in automotive steering systems or
in an arbor press.
Unit 1 1-2-24 Power Train I
Lesson 2

Fig. 1.2.38 Rack and Pinion Gear Set

Fig. 1.2.39 Rack and Pinion Gear Set

Figures 1.2.38 and 1.2.39 are examples of different rack and pinion
gear set applications.

Fig. 1.2.40 Ring and Planet Gear

Ring (internal tooth) Gear

Ring gears are used in planetary gear sets. The planetary gear set
includes a ring gear with internal teeth which mates with teeth on
smaller planetary gears. The planetary gears mate with a sun gear.
Operation of the planetary gear set is explained in Lesson 3.