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1
INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE FOR COMMUNICATION CONFERENCE
ILCC 2013
2
PROCEEDING OF ILCC 2013
INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE FOR
COMMUNICATION CONFERENCE 2013
Engaging Global Community: Breaking the barriers
to effective communication
23
rd
25
th
August 2013
First published 2013
Disclaimer : The organizer of ILCC 2013 is not responsible or liable
for any mistake and opinion presented in this proceeding.
e-ISBN: 978-967-418-297-7
Organiser :
Kulliyyah of Languages and Management (KLM),
International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM)
Published by :
IIUM Press
International Islamic University Malaysia
Table of Contents:
No
.
Title Page No.
1 Designing an interactive program in learning Arabic language for non-native
speakers via Virtual Tutor by Ahmed Ragheb Ahmed Mahmoud et. al.
6
2 Students attitudes towards university-required English Language instruction
: A Comparison between Universiti Brunei Darussalam (UBD) and Universiti T
eknologi Mara (UiTM) by Salinayanti Salim
19
3 The Problems of Learning the Arabic Verbal System among the Malay learners
in Malaysian Universities by Asem Shehadeh Ali
29
4 Arabic Broadcasting as a potential tool of National Integration: Nigerian Experi
ence by Tajudeen Adebayo
44
5 Gender Issues in al-Hilali and Khans English translation of the Quran : An I
nvestigation by Zakariyau I. Oseni
56
6 The English Block of Words as an Innovative Approach in
Teaching English Grammar by Arief Eko Priyo Atmojo, Mutiara Andrianti Suta
rno and Rohandi Latif
61
7 Study of language use of Indonesian proclamation speech by Soekarno (Pragm
atics and Discourse analysis) by awu_fan@ymail.com(029)
66
8 Common grammatical structures and their role in achieving linguistic oral co
mmunication by Khalid Osmak Yousif, Abdul Elaziz M. Haroun and Maryam A
bdul Rahman
77
9 The Study of Language Styles Used by The Members of Tonymacx86 Online Fo
rum: How People Engage Themselves through Language by Alfian Cahyo Budi
ardi and Baity Anggraeni
84
10 Motivation and E-learning: the Experience of Blended Learning by Kristina Mu
llamaa
93
11 Structured Learning Technique: Effort in Promoting Malay Language to Intern
ational Students by Mardian Shah Omar and Sidra Naim Taraq Naemzia
100
12 Comprehension and Ability to Use Word Order by International Students in As
pectof Writing Malay Language by Sidra Naim Taraq Naemzia and Mardian Sh
ah Omar
109
13 Language Planning and Terminology: An Insight of the Mak Yong Terminology
by Puteri Roslina Abdul Wahid, Salinah Jaafar and Tengku Intan Marlina Ten
gku Ali
115
14 English Song as an Asset to Improve Middle-aged EL Learners Listening Skill
by Masoome Noori and Alireza Jamshidi
127
15 Exploration of Cohesive Devices of English to streamline Arabic Communicatio
n Skills by Yahya Toyin Muritala
132
16 Multi Traditional Cultural Exposure Approach in EFLClassroom; Engaging Go
od Appreciation and Communication in Diversity By:Dian KaryaniAstuti
141
17 Humor in Chinese Language Classroom-The Cream of language teachers spe
ech art. By Angus AngThiahHuat
147
18 Culture and Language Use by Yuko Hoshino 154
19 The Impact of Indirect Feedback on L2 Learners in Learning English Languag
e by NazifahHamidun, ZalizaZubir and Nur Farhinaa Othman
159
20 The Impact of Using a repetitive question system of teaching on comprehensi
on of Arabic syntax in universities (A case study of Insaniah University Colege
by Abdul GaniyLuqmanOlowonjaye and ElsayedMakkiElbishrAli Hassan
164
21 Islamic Principles to enhance Effective Communication in Distant Education B
y HasinaBanu Shirin and Mohammad Serazul Islam
169
22 A pragmatic study of media war against military rule in Nigeria (1989-1999) b
y Mahfouz A. Adedimeji
176
23 Improving Young Learners Vocabulary using Benteng-bentengan by Nisrin A
delyna Darayani
189
24 Master of teacher website (MOTWEB): E-learning based application as a syste
m to improve teachers compentency to develop teachers quality in Indonesia b
196
ILCC 2013
4
y Tika Novita Sari, Wahyu Andi Saputra
and Tri Hardiyanti
25 ENHANCING LITERACY SKILLS IN HIGHER EDUCATION THROUGH DI
GITAL STORYTELLING by Leela Chakrabarty
205
26 Linguistic Argumentation and Logic: An Alternative Method Approach in Arabi
c Grammar by Solehah Yaacob
216
27 Fun Lyrics as An English Learning Media Software for Elementary School St
udent via Music Lyric by Wahyu Andi Saputra and Tika Novita Sari.
240
28 Instructional Methods on vocabulary acquisition among EFL language learner
s by Azadeh Asgari
253
29 Language and Communication Skills (LCS) of Leadership in Educational Mana
gement by Safrat Folake Adelakun
261
30 Psychometric Analysis of The Self-Efficacy Encouragement in The University E
nvironment: A Chinese Version
273
31 Lexical Borrowing from the Arabic Language in an Islamic Course Conducted i
n English by Nurul-Ikhlas Arshad
and Mohamed Ismail Ahamad Shah
285
32 English Language Teaching Challenges in Malaysia: Polytechnic Lecturers Ex
perience By Suhaily Abdullah and Faizah Abd Majid
302
33 Mobilizing Peoples Support to Combat Demonstration: (De)legitimization Strat
egy in Arab Spring Political Discourse
312
34 Penggunaan strategi pembelajaran aturan kendiri kemahiran bertutur bahas
a arab dalam kalangan pelajar melayu di Pusat Asasi UIAM. Oleh Mastura bin
ti Arshad
319
35 Peminjaman bahasa Sanskrit dalam dialek Melayu Patani dan bahasa Thai:
Sumber Persamaan demi menyelesaikan konflik di Selatan Thai
Oleh: Abdonloh Khreeda-oh
331
36 Analisis strategi kesantunan dalam kritikan oleh: Nasihah Hashim
dan Indirawati Zahid
342
37 Mengajar Prinsip Kesantunan Linguistik Dalam Budaya Melayu Kepada Pelaj
ar Asing. Oleh: Zaitul Azma Binti Zainon Hamzah dan Ahmad Fuad Mat Hassa
n.
357
38 Serangga dalam peribahasa melayu sebagai pelengkap kehidupan. Oleh Ahma
d Fuad Mat Hassan dan Zaitul Azma Zainon Hamzah
364
39 Analisis Kesalahan Umum Struktur Ayat Majmuk oleh Pelajar Asing 371
40
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ILCC 2013
6
Designing an interactive program in learning Arabic language for non-native
speakers via Virtual Tutor
Ahmed Ragheb Ahmed Mahmoud
1
, Muhammad Sabri Sahrir
2
,
Rahmah bt Ahmad H. Osman
3
1
Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences, IIUM
2
Kulliyyah of Languages and Management, IIUM
3
Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences, IIUM
______________________________________________________________________________
Corresponding Author: ragheb@iium.edu.my, Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human S
ciences, International Islamic University Malaysia
Abstract
This research presents the design framework of an interactive program specifically dedicated in teac
hing Arabic language to the non-native speakers. This program is established based on the complete
awareness of the language contents and its four study levels (phonological, morphological, syntacti
cal and semantic) with distinct focus on prominent foundations and theories concerned with academ
ic accomplishment as derived from the e-learning data system. The research is established on textu
al and phonological database involving vocabulary comprehension and its manners of pronunciation
and inferring to the most highly expected errors from the non-native speakers of Arabic. More than
120 users have participated in the process, under the supervision of a specialized teamwork between
the administrative, linguistic, educational and engineering departments. The tentative results have s
tatistically reflected the programs efficiency and its distinctive role in prompting the academic proc
ess and the increase in the cognitive outcome among the students specimen assigned as the experim
ental sample group in comparison to the results of the realizable control sample from the similar co
nventional education. This program garners practical and academic features ensuring more worth in
studying it as to the other e-learning programs. Virtual Tutor does not only embody theoretical foun
dations supported with modern methodological designs as it simultaneously ensures efficient partici
patory role of the users involved.
Keywords: design framework, Arabic language learning, interactive program, non-native speakers,
design and development.
Introduction
This universe is especially unique in its established diversity of tongues and different languages. Th
e difference in world languages should not, however, present an obstacle that seeks to separate one
nation from another. This study is aimed at effectively contributing in bridging the cultural gap betw
een multi-tongued people of different nations through the introduction of an interactive program th
at contributes to a major development in Arabic language teaching for the non-native speakers. The
effort is not dependent upon the linguistics and educational sectors per se as it fuses available tech
nical tools and applications into the Arabic and Islamic environments upon believing that the moder
n technology is an indispensable aspect of the educational process. The research addresses the issue
s of the importance of learning Arabic among non-native speakers, purposes of learning, and learnin
g tools and aids from the western perspectives. The use of technology and literacy among people is
often described in relation to one another and which are specifically known as information literacy a
nd multimedia literacy (Warschauer, 2006).
Computer applications in teaching and learning of the Arabic language
The earlier Islamic nation was very much concerned with the spread of the Arabic language. The lin
guistics sciences then in turn has come around to preserve and safeguard the Arabic language from e
rrors and distortions by describing its linguistics theoretical concepts beginning with el-Khalil bin A
hmed el-Faraheedi in his theory of the overview to Sibawayh in his theory of the complete mode
l as discussed in the book and finally to Ibn Jinny in his theory of theoretical concepts consisten
cy of Arabic language sciences as mentioned in his books the secret of syntax and the propertie
s (Ragheb-a, 2011). The spread of Islam all over the world also encourages the spreading of the Ar
abic language; the language of the holy Quran and its prophetic texts. Thus, the Arabic language has
been learnt and taught by different races and tribes from all over the world involving various teachi
ng and learning methods including computational technologies. In the case of Africa, the spread of I
slam also encourages the mastery of the Arabic language because it is considered a sacred language
in order to understand the Holy Quran for fear of subtracting from or adding to the sacred original t
ext (Adewuni Salawu, 2007). Nowadays the use of computer and its applications have invaded and
became an integral part of the modern societies life. Changes within the different aspects of life ha
ppen in a record time and it is the duty of every society to keep up with the information era especiall
y in embracing the computer and its applications which would then see them qualified and well-arm
ed in bracing the rapid changes of this era (al-Harak, 2003). Learning through multimedia is then on
becoming the focus of researchers in computer-assisted language learning in order to enhance the e
ffectiveness of learning process. The term multimedia learning can be defined as the presentation
of material using both words and pictures (Mayer, 2001). In addition, Mayer & Mereno (1998) foun
d that the learners understanding while watching animated images of a certain phenomenon (the lig
htning phenomenon) accompanied with an auditory explanation is much better than the learners un
derstanding of the similar animated images while verbally reading an onscreen-text explanation. T
hese technical developments are now synchronized within the stages of self-learning development.
This involved the use of multi-medias and computer-assisted learning method which increasingly a
ctivated the role of computer in language learning as also specifically seen in the Arabic language.
Based on Mohd Feham and Isarji (2000), Mohd Feham (2006), Ashinida, et al. (2004) and Zawawi (
2008), there is still a lack of use of computer-assisted technology in the Arabic language teaching an
d learning. Furthermore, Mohd Feham (2006) mentioned that there are few inventions and innovatio
ns available in the field of Arabic language learning, due to several reasons that pose a limit to the n
umber of Arabic language educational software and courseware. The majority of Arabic language te
achers were also found to be incompetent in using the computer and courseware in the teaching pro
cess due to poor computer literacy especially among the senior generations (Zawawi, 2008) and als
o lacking computer training (Ashinida et al., 2004). In addition, the technological production of mac
hinery for Arabic language teaching and learning is also being dominated by the American-English l
anguage, be it in terms of software or hardware as pointed out by Ditter (2006). Thus, this paper por
trays the process of designing an interactive computer-assisted Arabic language teaching and learnin
g web-based courseware that is to be used as complementary learning aids for traditional Arabic tex
tbooks. Studies have reiterated that multimedia applications have the ability in assisting the process
of teaching in the classroom in enabling more flexibility and effectiveness (Zamri & Nur Aisyah, 2
011) as well as in providing better learning experience compared to the face-to-face environment (V
incent, Lee, Tan and Syukery, 2005). A particular study in learning Arabic using multimedia found t
hat the audio with images mode was an important aid to learning as compared to text with images m
ode (Aldadalah, Fong & Ababneh, 2010).
Integration of technology and traditional textbook towards the design framework
The acquisition of a foreign language or any language is a process that is extremely complex be
cause of its relation to cognitive, cultural and psychological factors. With the growing interest in tea
ching foreign languages specially the Arabic language. Concerned institutions start to take an intere
st in this field by developing various learning aids such as readable books, audio tapes, CDs or spec
ILCC 2013
8
ialized sites on the internet. For instance, there are educational online games that have been specific
ally developed as the instructional aids for the traditional textbook by Muhammad Sabri and Ghazal
i (2012) based on the front-end analysis of the needs of learners, teachers, educational institutions a
nd information technology (IT) facilities (Muhammad Sabri & Nor Aziah, 2011) using the design an
d development research methods and approaches (Muhammad Sabri, Nor Aziah, Zawawi and Nurul
huda, 2012). A similar attempt at integrating educational technology tools in supporting an online ac
ademic reading environment was conducted by Noorizah et. al. (2011), in the design of a prototype
known as Interactive English Language Literacy System (i-ELLS). In addition, the use of traditional
textbook in classroom is undergoing a transformation of becoming digital textbook and courseware
due to widespread computer applications among the digital generation (Lewin, 2009). In this paper,
every one of the Arabic language courses presents the linguistic subject that the student needs to ac
quire through a pre-determined method. The courses have been considered as the real embodiment o
f the Arabic academic program and are regarded as the most important courses developed until now
and are widely used to teach the Arabic language for the non-native speakers such as:
(The arabic language book for the youth) (Siniy, 1983)
(The series of I love Arabic) (Siniy, 1980)
(Series of teaching the Arabic language for the non-native speaker
s) (Group of Authors, 1980)
(The Arabic language in your hands) (Al-Fawzan, et. al., 2004)
a) The Arabic language book for the youth ( )
This book provides an overview of the language and presented it in an integrated way with the Arab
ic sounds for example not separated from the language levels. The Arabic sounds are presented in n
ormal speech of different contexts. This book also does not present the entire vocabulary lesson at o
ne go but in a sequence of connected groups for the purpose of use and not for mere conservation or
memorization. One of the most important features of this book is the creation of an effective way f
or studying the syntax based on the functional approach, it does not depend on analysis or the synta
ctic terminologies; but it processes the four essential linguistic skills equally, believing that languag
e learning and a progress in it is achieved by an awareness of continuous training. Its effectiveness i
s also attributed to the teacher-student relationship as well as between the student and his classmates
. Therefore this book functions as the suitable ground for this connection to enhance the students p
articipation in the learning process and increase his opportunities in using language. The book is als
o concerned with the language of living and depends on the direct approach and it does not use an i
ntermediary language. The book gives a special attention to the pictures, explaining and illustrating
the different situations in the lessons texts and exercises to assist the teacher in the explanation
and also help the student to understand.
The book handles ten major educational topics that reflect the interest and love of the youth with a g
oal for the students to learn the language structures and vocabularies. These topics are presented thr
ough 30 conversational texts and 8 reading texts that contain 110 of the basic structures of the Arabi
c grammar and 445 of the vocabularies and real expressions. The topics include a systematic and co
ntinuous study that spreads the spirit of joy and happiness among students and allows them a chanc
e to express their ideas and interests in Arabic as they would express it in their native language. The
situations present in the book have an important and relevant connection to their lives in the school
and the home by providing them with a fair group of vocabularies and linguistic patterns that would
assist them in expressing themselves.
b) The series of I love Arabic ( )
This series is dedicated to young students, and it presents the classical Arabic language to enable the
students the use of oral and written communication Arabic. It is aimed for the use of Arabic in the c
ommunication and real educational situations, and prepares students for further study of the Arabic
language subjects. The series is composed of four stages, each stage consisting of a book for the stu
dent, a book of exercises, a book for the teacher, with a number of audio recording aids and visual a
ids to be used with the book including cue cards, paintings, records and a manual for the teacher.
Its approach enables the learner to practice the four skills (listening, speaking, reading, and writing)
equally and provides training of the language elements such as phonemes, vocabularies and structur
es. The series topics are based on the Arabic Islamic culture and the world cultures and it is also co
ncerned with the childs world and his interests such as: hobbies, play time, life at home and school,
relationships with relatives, friends and neighbours; it discusses the world of animals and plants, an
d the external universe through various modes such as in conversations, stories, songs, narrations, li
nguistic games, and meaningful entertainment to state the etiquette and basic scientific facts. The le
ssons are linked with linguistics exercises and physical and mental activities, individual tasks such a
s in drawing and painting, or group tasks. The series contains approximately 1500 words spread acr
oss the four levels; the basic Arabic vocabularies are concentrated in the first two books also contain
ing the Arabic phonetic system with all its different phenomena. The new vocabularies introduced i
n each lesson are specifically chosen to suit the students expected progress with some words repeat
ed from one lesson to another to ensure familiarity of the words.
c) The series of teaching Arabic for the non-native speakers (
)
This series is published under the supervision of the institution for Arabic language education in the
Islamic university of Imam Muhammad bin Saud; this series is considered as a complete course to t
each Arabic and the concepts of the Islamic science. More than fifty teachers, experts and specialist
s have contributed in writing this series composing of a definitional introduction and thirty seven te
xts for the learner with five manuals for the teachers and eight lexicons. This series is an encycloped
ic work involving a big team of specialists. The book is made up of levels beginning from the prima
ry introduction of the language and its letters to the linguistics descriptions. The book aimed to qual
ify the learner to join Arabic universities in studying the Islamic law sharia, Arabic language, and t
he literature.
d) The Arabic language in your hands ( )
This series come in seven books; three of them meant for students in three varying levels; beginner,
intermediate, and advanced. This series too does not ignore the teachers role so that it includes thre
e books containing the structures and guidelines in teaching language for the non-native speakers. T
he seventh book is, however, considered as the lexicon of vocabularies used in the book with an add
ition of about eight hours of phonetic appendix for each of the students three books.
Research process, participants and milestone
More than 120 users have participated in the research under the supervision of specialized administr
ative, linguistic, educational and engineering teamwork. The details can be viewed at the URL: http:
//www.rdi-eg.com/projects/VirtualTutor.htm. The tentative results have statistically reflected the pro
grams efficiency and its distinctive role in prompting the academic process and the increase in the c
ognitive outcome for the students subjected as the experimental sample as compared to the results o
f the realizable control sample that went through the similar conventional education.
Methods of teaching the Arabic language and samples of interactive learning programs
There are several ways practiced in teaching the foreign languages, and the methods have been deve
loped because of the continuous growth in the need to learn the foreign languages. The need to learn
and study foreign languages have increased especially among those whose nature lives requires the
learning of these languages as well as other diverse needs or purposes in learning a non-native langu
age such as for travelling, work, and studying. Al-Khuliy (1989) mentioned several Arabic language
teaching methods practised as listed below:
a) The traditional way or also known as grammar and translation.
b) The communicative way.
c) The direct way.
d) The audio oral way.
e) The selective way.
ILCC 2013
10
It is apparently noticeable that all previously mentioned series vary among themselves in interests, a
ims and the ways the courses are presented. Concerns in teaching Arabic for non-native speakers are
not only addressed in educational books but also available in designated sites on the internet. Amon
g the most important sites are:
1- http://www.rosettastone.com
2- http://afl.ajeeb.com
3- http://www.arabicsp.com
4- http://www.horoof.com
However, all the previously discussed methods existed without accurate and specialized electronic t
echniques to ease the learning and ensure the learners continuity in the learning process. It is sugge
sted for teachers to search for a program based in specialized techniques that help to achieve the exp
ected aims through quick, attractive and simple manner.
Formulating a theoretical framework in developing an interactive Arabic learning program
The summarized idea of this paper is to present a sample of an Arabic computational mechanism in
teaching Arabic language to the non-native speakers through a rich and attractive course that emplo
ys specialized techniques in its educational production. This course adopted an advanced electronic
format enabling activities through the internet and laser cylinders and reinforcing it with the differe
nt learning mediums to ease the learning process and elicit great results on the learner. This was po
ssible due to the experience of the specialized team in educational projects and their in-depth knowl
edge of modern techniques for teaching. The role of this team is not only restricted to the linguistic,
administrative, engineering and technical work but also in deciding on the educational strength of th
e course and its appropriateness to the age of the learners. The technical models and rephrasing tak
e into consideration the psychological side and the educational dimension of the learner resulting in
a mixed group of methods for evaluation and available correct answers. These characteristics are in
accordance to the most highlighted modern educational theories (Ragheb-a, 2011, Ragheb-b, 2011).
a) The goals of the program
Among the major goals of the program are in its aims in:
i) The employment of modern techniques in teaching that would have impact on the non-nativ
e learners emotion, involving the processes of search, uploading, analysis, and connection of mech
anisms.
ii) The flexibility in using this program for persons, associations, or universities from all over t
he world.iii) Extending cultural connections and civilized communication with persons of the non
-Arab institutions.
iv)Enabling the learners to acquire the linguistic, communicative, and cultural aspects efficiently.
v) Spreading the Arab culture through the objective processing of the course.
vi)Strengthening the connection between people of the world.
b) The technical specifications:
The program presents two levels of Arabic learning:
i) The basic level : The level contains 16 units, each unit composes of 6 lessons, so the level co
ntains 96 lessons. The units is as the followings:
a) The first lesson: interactive conversations
b) The second lesson: vocabularies
c) The third lesson: syntactic structures
d) The fourth lesson: listening and comprehension
e) The fifth lesson: speech
f) The sixth lesson: reading and writing
g) Four general tests are available for each level.
ii) The advanced level : The level contains 18 units, each unit composes of 6 lessons, so the lev
el contains 108 lessons. The units design is as the followings:
a) The first lesson: conversation + comprehension excersies + vocabularies + sounds + syntacti
c notice + audio comprehension + speech.
b) The second lesson: listen and read + comprehension excersies + vocabularies + syntactic not
ice.
c) The third lesson: interactive conversation+ comprehension excersies + vocabularies + sound
s + syntactic notice + listen and comprehend + speech.
d) The fourth lesson: listen and read + comprehension excersies + vocabularies + syntactic noti
ce.
e) The fifth lesson: directed writing + calligraphy + dictation.
f) The sixth lesson: free reading + comprehension excersies + vocabularies excersies.
g) Four general tests are available for each level.
iii) Ways and method of presentation for the basic level:
1- Interactive dialogues
The program presents a collection of dialogues that aims to equip the beginner with a group of basic
everyday expressions. The dialogues are presented in full animation between two parties having a
conversation. The user is able to listen to the whole dialogue and imagine the real situation as perfo
rmed by the two parties. The subtitles are shown in a clear diacritized font and the speech sound of
each party is distinct. The user could benefit from listening to the dialogues and enhanced the abilit
y to listen to new words and other benefits include:
a) Listening to the dialogue phrases discontinuously (phrase by phrase) with the ability to repe
at and move to the next or the previous phrase, the goal of this ability is to enable the user to listen,
and examine every phrase well and also get used to hear it.
b) Students are also able to choose one particular party from the two dialogue parties to listen t
o (individual listening) aiming at deepening the users awareness of the expressions he is receiving,
and to increase the ability to simulate and discriminate between the parties roles and to develop the
ability of role playing as the receiver end of a conversation.
2- Audio training tools
There are two ways in training the user to practice the expressions he have listened to :
a) The first way: recording the pronunciation of Arabic letters and words and the program assu
mes the teachers role in correcting the users pronunciation (speech verification).
b) The second way: recording the different phrases and expressions and the ability to replay the
recording to compare between the model dialogues and users accomplishment (users progress and
ability in using the new expressions (Ragheb, 2007).
3- The visual-audio presentation of the vocabularies:
The program presents a collection of simple words that the learner could utilise in daily life accordi
ng to the attempted level.
The program begins with the presentation of a collection of photos ; a click on the photos would pro
duce the audio expression of the photos.
4- The audio training for the vocabularies
The student is able to record the vocabularies he learned and listen to them in his own voice as the p
rogram is able to correct his pronunciation in order to allow the user to keep track of his pronunciat
ion level and learning achievement.
5- Vocabulary bank
The excellent language user or user desiring to learn more vocabularies could be exposed to other w
ords that do not exist in the lesson (but belonging to the same level of the words) by developing larg
e groups of different vocabularies. This vocabulary bank could also facilitate users cognition , achi
eve the reality , or be able to understand the lessons vocabularies as the countries names could be l
inked with the world map and highlighting the desired country on the map (Yaseen, et. al, 2006).
ILCC 2013
12
6- Vocabulary training
The training is one of the effective ways that increases the interactive value of the program and mea
sures the learners success in the learnt or acquired concepts. This training is also concerned with vo
cabularies learnt from the previous presentations. At the beginning of the training session, two phot
os would appear on the screen with one word pronounced and the user would have to decide and ch
oose the correct photo described.
In the case of a wrong choice a mark (x) appears with a voice message to notify that the users choi
ce is wrong. A right choice would display a mark () appearing with a message to indicate correct a
nswer. The training presentation is done in an enjoyable manner that is hoped to entertain the user a
nd motivates him to continue the exercises.
7- The writing training through writing verification
The writing verification is one of the specialized techniques under the development of a group of A
rab institutions. The technique works through a device called the Tablet PC using the Touch screen
pen that the learner could use for training in writing Arabic letters and words. Another method avail
able in mastering Arabic writing is through printing out some exercises and practicing writing the
m. In the case of operating the program through LMS, the user will enter the papers through the opti
cal scanner and send to the supervising teacher through the internet to correct these papers and to re
turn to the user with notes and feedback.
c) Ways and methods of presentation for the advanced level
There are several presentation methods used for the advanced levels such as:
1- Readable texts : The program displays the reading texts in order to teach the reading skill, in
crease vocabularies and also provide a scientific benefit. The texts are presented in the following ma
nner:
a) The user could listen to the text and controls the volume.
b) The complete text appears in a clear font and with full diacritics.
2- The lexicon service : The user enjoys the benefit of a prepared lexicon by just a right click at
the mouse on the word and the lexicon displays the following options (Attia, et. al., 2008) :
a) The meaning of the proposed words
b) The root word
c) Prefixes
d) Suffixes
e) The morphological form of the word.
3- Advanced explanation of the grammatical rules
The program presents grammar lessons through animated cartoon followed by a voice explanation f
lash tutorial of the grammatical rules. The user has control to re-play, pause or stop the tutorial.
4- The advanced search
a) The user could conduct a search under the following characteristics:
b) The search scope is extended to all the vocabularies of a single level.
5- The user could choose different types of search as the following:
a) on the order of all the words
b) on all the words within the same sentences
c) on all the words within the same page
6- Connection services: The user could be connected to a number of additional services throug
h the assisted vocabularies icon. The services are:
a) Additional vocabularies.
b) The units vocabulary bank.
c) The world map.
7- The interactive exercises and tests: An audio message would play with the right or wrong sy
mbols to indicate the right and wrong answers. The user is also allowed access to the accumulated g
rade at the end of the exercises. An audio message accompanied the exercises to create an interactio
n between the user and the presented material. A timer is made available for a more interactive envi
ronment presenting the user a real educational mood and to complete the exercises well.
7-The writing training through writing verification: as mentioned in the basic level discussion.
8-Text to speech service: This is one of the distinguished techniques that enable the learner to enter
any text and read it automatically.
9- The training of right pronunciation: As mentioned in the audio training tools section for the
basic level.
10- Supporting options
This program presents the methods that allow the user to learn without any teacher assistance. The
help and also the questions headers in the first level are in English (or any other language) and in th
e future may provide more than one language option. The advanced level uses only the Arabic langu
age for the help option.
The help icon is available to demonstrate the tasks to the user. Some of these services could be hidd
en or be made to appear for the advanced levels depending on the users necessities.
Phases and stages of development of the interactive Arabic learning program
The program is developed according to the following phases and stages as shown in Figure 1 :
Scorm
Scorm
Q.C
Figure 1 : Development Phases and Stages for Virtual Tutor
Interactivity and technical features in the interactive learning program
1- Arabic derivational search mechanism
The search of three million words takes a part of second on a windows operating PC with 128 mega
bit internal memory. This technique is implemented completely by using (ANSI C++) that could be
prepared to work easily with any operating system (Microsoft windows, UNIX, mac, or etc.) The a
bility to index all the texts needed to be searched for at one time (total indexing) plus the ability to a
dd or delete any pages from the already prepared index (Differential Indexing).
2- Text to speech mechanism T.T.S. (Arabic Text-to-Speech (TTS)
This Arabic TTS from RDI has a hybrid concatenated/parametric speech synthesizer which affords
a compact system within few tens of megabytes of space. Moreover, RDI's automatic large-scale Ar
abic phonetic transcriptor (diacretizer) is the other distinctive corner stone of ArabTalk. Along wit
h several discretization options, many speech effects in both male and female voices are available fo
r flexibility and high performance in real-time. SDK's for desktop applications, web services, as we
ll as client-server applications are also available for developers. Moreover, male/female Arabic TTS
speaker data bases can be built for certain real-speakers chosen. For more detailed information: htt
p://www.rdi-eg.com/technologies/speech.htm. A high quality TTS is almost similar to the natural hu
man voice. It contains a discretization application to adjust the Arabic text. It consists of high speed
speech generation similar to the speed of the natural human pronunciation and can work with any c
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omputer operating system easily. It is also found to be functioning well on mobile applications (Hif
ny, et. al., 2004).
3- Automatic writing (writing verification)
The Tablet PC device enables the learner to use this training technique in the writing style of the Ar
abic letters and words.
4- Speech verification mechanism
It is an automatic system that easily and promptly recognizes the phonetic properties of the new lear
ner (Speaker adaptation). It provides instant response to the learner in discovering his mistakes in re
ading and clarifying the mistakesin detail. This new technique was developed to completely work
with the different and diverse Arabic dialects. It also adapts well to all types of computer operating
system.
5- The lexicon service for the Arabic words
The lexical semantic analysis of the Arabic words offers many applications such as searching by sy
nonyms or antonyms, the generation of semantic fields, or general semantic analysis in the text (Atti
a, et. al., 2008). The sample of screenshot for this interactive learning program in Arabic is shown in
Figure 2 below:
Figure 2 : Sample of interface screenshot for Virtual Tutor
Results and findings:
The tentative results of this project have statistically reflected the programs efficiency and its distin
ctive role in prompting the academic process and the increase in the cognitive outcome among the st
udents specimen assigned as the experimental sample group in comparison to the results of the reali
zable control sample group from the similar conventional education. The study result confirms the f
easibility of technical programs in rapidly teaching the Arabic language; that poses a significant imp
act on achieving better results for special language teachings as seen through the following:
a) The students results showed an improvement for both the traditional method and the experiment
al groups. The group that utilised the program showed a percentage of improvement of 17% and 46
%and as shown in the following Table 1, Table 2, Figure 3 and Figure 4 of results from the experim
ental and control groups:
Table 1: Results for experimental group
% Total Oral Listening Written
59.50% 59.50 27.50 23.00 9.00 Preflight averages
60% 55% 77% 45%
87.00% 87.00 39.17 29.50 18.33 Final test averages
87% 78% 98% 92%
46% 42% 28% 104% Rate of improvement
Table 2: Results for control group
% Total Oral Listening Written
65.50% 65.50 31.67 20.50 13.33 Preflight averages
66% 63% 68% 67%
76.67% 76.67 37.00 24.00 15.67 Final test averages
77% 74% 80% 78%
17% 17% 17% 18% Rate of improvement
Figure 3 : Demonstration of the high index level of the experimental sample control
Figure 4 : Illustration compares the percentage of improvement between technology and the t
raditional way
b) Technology tools are the current attraction especially in an era with information and communicati
on technology as the common denominator among its members.
c) The realization of the principle of equal opportunities which arise from varying levels of Languag
e Learners.
d) To address the problems caused by individual differences that force teachers to accommodate to t
he needs of some learners while unintentionally neglecting other participants, but with this software
the student has the opportunity to learn well either in the classroom or from home.
e) Greater opportunity to communicate with supervisors and parents to report on students, improve
ments especially with the installation of case management system , Learning Management System (
LMS) and linked to a central server for the educational center.
Conclusion
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This paper discussed and presented the developmental stages of an interactive Arabic learning progr
am, the Virtual Tutor. It featured an integration of learning contents into several traditional and cont
emporary text books with several open source web-based applications as a proposed theoretical and
practical sample of design framework. This design framework may be useful in designing interactiv
e Arabic a-learning tools in other educational settings and environment. Its benefits include in contri
buting towards increasing the motivation and positive perception among non-native speakers in lear
ning Arabic.
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About the authors
Ahmed Ragheb Ahmed Mahmoud (Ph.D) is currently an academic staff at the Department of Ara
bic Language and Literature, KIRKHS, International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM). His resea
rch interests are computational linguistics, educational technology, research methodology, and teach
ing Arabic as a second language.
Muhammad Sabri Sahrir (Ph.D) is currently an academic staff at the Department of Arabic Langu
age and Literature, KIRKHS, International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM). His research intere
sts are curriculum development and evaluation, educational technology, and teaching Arabic as a for
eign language
Rahmah bt Ahmad H. Osman (Ph.D) is currently an Associate Professor and academic staff at the
Department of Arabic Language and Literature, KIRKHS, International Islamic University Malaysi
a (IIUM). Her research interests are curriculum development and evaluation, educational technolog
y, Arabic and Malay literature and teaching Arabic as a foreign languag
STUDENTS ATTITUDES TOWARDS UNIVERSITY-REQUIRED ENGLISH
LANGUAGE INSTRUCTION: A Comparison between Universiti Brunei Darussalam
(UBD) and Universiti Teknologi Mara (UiTM)
Salinayanti Salim
Albukhary International University,
Alor Setar, Kedah, Malaysia.
salinayanti@aiu.edu.my
Abstract.
This study assesses students attitudes to University-required English language instruction in
Brunei and Malaysia. The main focus of this study is to investigate the similarities and
differences in the students attitudes towards the English language instruction in Universiti
Brunei Darussalam (UBD), Brunei and Universiti Teknologi Mara (UiTM), Malaysia with the
secondary focus investigating the probable factors that may have caused such attitudes among
English learners in both countries. These factors may be internal, arising from the students
themselves, or external, that may come from their home, school and also society. Data from both
universities were collected using a process of triangulation through semi-structured interview,
classroom observation and student journal entry and the data was analysed qualitatively. The
findings reveal a generally positive attitude from the participants from both universities with
some significant attitudinal differences to specific English language contexts and that imply the
participants from UBD and UiTM are motivated learners despite their different background in
terms of English language learning and use.
Keywords: Attitudes, English language instruction, Second language learning (SL), Universiti
Teknologi Mara (UiTM), Universiti Brunei Darussalam (UBD)
I ntroduction
Malaysia was a British colony and that was how English came to have influence in the
country even until present. Even though the government wants to preserve Malay by making it a
medium of instruction in schools, they have been unable to stop the growth of English where it is a
language for international communication. So, with Malay still being the Official language of
Malaysia, there are no constraints for Malaysians to acquire English. However, given its volatile
history with the British colonial powers, it is believed that there are certain groups who are
uncomfortable to see English being well accepted in Malaysia and this will be discussed in detail
throughout this study. Brunei on the other hand, was one of the British protectorate countries from
1888 until 1984 when it regained its independence. Even though Malay is the Official language of
Brunei, English is widely-used and well-accepted in the country, owing much the cordial
relationship between the two countries. It would be interesting to see whether the nature of Brunei
and Malaysias relationship with Britain would have any bearings on their general attitudes towards
the language of their once colonial masters.
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Statement of Problem
The main subject of discussion in this study is the similarities and differences in attitude of
university students towards English language instruction, the possible reasons for any visible
patterns in these attitudes and any identifiable implications they may have on learning outcomes and
related issues. In particular, this study looks at two leading universities in Malaysia and Brunei;
Universiti Teknologi Mara (UiTM) and Universiti Brunei Darussalam (UBD).
Research Questions
1. What are the learners attitudes towards English in general?
2. What are the learners attitudes towards learning English language instruction
in
universities in Malaysia and Brunei?
2.1 Have these attitudes changed since entering university?
2.2 If these attitudes have changed since entering university, how or why have they changed?
3. What are the factors that led to the attitudes held towards English among
Malaysian
and Bruneian students?
Literature Review
Learners attitudes towards a language have a significant effect on second language learning.
Gardner (1985) mentioned that unlike other subjects such as History, Mathematics and Geography
which are close to the learners culture, a new language is totally from an external cultural
community. The definition of attitude, Allport (1954:45 as cited in Gardner, 1985) states that, an
attitude is a mental and neural state of readiness, organized through experience, exerting a directive
or dynamic influence upon the individuals response to all objects and situations with which it is
related.
There have been a number of studies and research done in other countries on attitudes of
learners towards the English language. In Nigeria, English enjoys a higher standing with locals than
does their own language, Yoruba, due to the educational codes of the colonial administration
(Adegbija, 1994). Teachers seem to focus more on English and it influences students attitudes to
favour English rather than Yoruba. In Swaziland, there was a favourable attitude towards having
English as part of education. However, Gardner (1982) found that ethnic identity does affect
learners attitudes of SL learning. Among French-speaking students, their English performance was
low due to their belief that learning English could be a threat to their society.
Amongst the important factors that contribute to learners attitudes towards L2, social
contexts and learning contexts play important roles (Yashima et al., 2004). It is believed that
support and encouragement from family, friends, teachers as well as society can help L2 learners
gain higher self-esteem with frequent communication in their target language. The attitudes of
parents are important especially for learners who are in the early phase of primary socialization.
Flowerdew et al (1998) assert that parents in Hong Kong want their children to learn English in
order to maximize their career prospects. Parents who have positive attitudes towards English will
likely influence their children to favour the language as well. In a study on Malaysian education
policy, Kow (2007) found that regardless of new methods are being created by the Education
Department for better education, it is still up to the teachers how they conduct their classrooms, and
how they interact with the learners who have different levels of proficiency. The fact is that
sometimes the teachers do not explain enough, leaving students confused and lost. Moreover, SL
learners are often afraid of making mistakes in class because they feel incompetent and
embarrassed. As stated by Horwitz et al (1991), SL students may skip classes or taking part in
classroom activities in order to avoid being evaluated negatively by their peers.
Interestingly, according to a study by Atef and Munir (2009), the results indicated that a
high number of students showed their interest in the culture of the English speaking world as
represented by English-language films. Flowerdew et al (1998) found a similar result where mass
media is a significant tool that can shape learners attitudes to favour English by publicizing items
addressing English standards and quoting statements made by academics, the government, and
business leaders. Another factor that is believed to have a significant influence in shaping learners
attitudes towards English is self-perception (Mohd Zulkanain (2008). Students who realize the
importance of English would have motivation to learn it because they know, with English; they
would be able to interact with people from different linguistic background.
In the Malaysian context, English is only a subject in primary and secondary schools whereas
the other subjects are taught in Malay. Since class time for learning English is limited, the teachers
tend to focus on teaching students to pass examinations. This has led to Malaysian students viewing
learning English with instrumental orientation and that they need to get good grades in order to
enter universities. Kaur (1995), in her study on English language functions among Malaysian
schoolchildren, found that young Malaysian students perceive English to be more important for
their personal and academic needs than their social needs. At the tertiary level, according to
Samsiah et al (2009), diploma students at UiTM Kedah have shown a lack of interest in learning
English. This has become a major concern among English language lecturers because the students
are supposed to excel in this subject since English is UiTMs medium of instruction. However, a
study done by Mostafizar (2008) at Universiti Putra Malaysia, Selangor, showed learners positive
attitudes towards English as a second language.
As for Brunei, Jones (2007) argues that Bruneians have accepted English for a better future
and better education, yet at the same time, they preserve the Malay language. English, as stated by
Ozog (1996), has been used in Brunei for official matters such as in government business, education
and trading since 1959. This reflects the Bruneians attitudes towards a foreign language; they are
more open and willing to accept a language other than Malay for the sake of the countrys
development. However, a survey of six local technical and vocational institutions in Brunei by
Rasidah (2009) found that students lack interest in learning English because they have low self-
esteem and they are afraid of making mistakes in the language. This consequently results in
negative attitudes and perceptions towards English as a second language. Even though it is not as
obvious issue as in Malaysia, it is undeniable that there are some students in Brunei who do feel
uncomfortable learning and using English despite knowing its importance.
Methodology
This research is qualitative in terms of the nature of the data used. Any study on attitudes
needs to have more than one standpoint for validity and therefore, in this study, three qualitative
research instruments were employed. The validity of this study is thus enhanced by a process of
triangulation through three data sources: semi-structured interview, classroom observation and
student journal-entry. The instruments used to collect data were Focus-group interviews, Classroom
observations and Student journal-entry.
A form of non-probability sampling called purposive sampling was used to select cases for
the study. The cases were selected from a variety of studies in two different universities in two
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different countries. The population make-up of both universities is diverse given that they attract
qualified students from all parts of Malaysia and Brunei respectively.
This study adopted the objectivist grounded theory approach where, according to Charmaz
(2002: 677), the researcher derives meaning form the data; meaning inheres in the data and the
grounded theorist discovers it. The method of analysis of this research therefore involved the
researcher reviewing the responses to each question and identifying primary themes that emerge
from the data that were felt to be potentially significant.
Discussion of Main Findings
This study intended to explore students attitudes towards English in Malaysia and Brunei
without any anticipation of what patterns or themes might emerge from the data. The themes for the
data emerged only after the fieldwork was completed and the data was analysed according to the
themes. This study investigated university students attitudes towards English in general and as a
required subject in universities in Malaysia and Brunei. The results show that students from both
universities are motivated learners. They recognized the social values of English and the importance
of English for individuals as well as their countrys future development as evidently shown below:
UiTM Participant 1 [UiTM:P1]
...it would be embarrassing if we meet some tourists and we do not know how to
speak English. [Translated]
UBD Participant 1 [UBD:P1]
Generally speaking, English is an international language. We can meet people from
different views.
Such behaviour shows that the participants in this study generally have positive attitudes
towards English. The participants also realised that English is not only used in educational settings
but is also very important when they are outside the classroom. Hence, it is obvious that the
sociolinguistic environment and the attitudes of learners are very much interconnected.
Regardless of their different levels of proficiency in English, the participants agreed that
their English Language classes were very important and they would still take the classes even if
they were not a university requirement. Again, this demonstrated favourable attitudes towards
English in the educational environment. Even though there were a few participants from both UiTM
and UBD who would be reluctant to take the English classes if given the choice, they admitted the
classes had been very helpful in their studies. As for the participants from UiTM, they all agreed
that English classes had taught them a lot and their English skills had been improved.
There would appear to be a similar attitude between students of both UiTM and UBD
towards university-required English language instruction. While most students are favourable
towards it, there are several in both universities who resent it, but for quite different reasons: UiTM
students resent having to take up English language lessons because of a lack of practice and
confidence in the language due to a lack of opportunity during their pre-university study; while
UBD students dislike having to do English language classes at university because they feel they
have had more than adequate training and competence in English, having learnt and used it
throughout their education prior to joining university. In other words it could be argued that the
Malaysian students demonstrated "a sense of inadequacy and anxiety" while their Bruneian
counterparts displayed a degree of "self-satisfaction and complacency".
The participants from UBD and UiTM seemed to have different opinions on the factors that
influenced their attitudes and perceptions towards the English language. The majority of the
participants believed that self-perception is the biggest factor that would determine ones attitudes
towards learning English. Other than that, the Malaysians believed that parents have the most
responsibilities in shaping their childrens attitudes towards English and if they expose their
children enough to it, the children will have positive attitudes and be motivated to continue learning
in school and universities. The Bruneians, on the other hand, believed that school is the place where
they learn and improve their English.
Response to Research Questions
In response to Research Question 1 regarding the students attitudes towards English in
general, the evidence shows that participants from both UiTM and UBD have desirable attitudes
towards the English language. The participants were aware that English is highly demanded in
many sectors and industries, in education fields, as well as for intercultural communication.
[UiTM:P2]
English is important especially during the interview for any jobs which might be
conducted in English. [Trans]
[UBD:P2]
In Brunei, we need English for both private and government sectors because
mostly...what the higher authorities want is English so we want to survive for that.
Apart from that, the participants believed that English is necessary even in their own country
as they might come across tourists who only understand English and they will only be able to help if
they can speak English well. In addition, as claimed by some participants, there are a lot of books
and magazines written in English which can easily be bought in their country, even in rural areas
that could help in their English language improvement. The results however is contradictory to Siti
Norlianas (2008) finding that students who live in urban areas have more favourable attitudes
towards English than students in rural areas because they have more reading materials and positive
influences from their parents or siblings who may also speak English at home. According to Nielsen
(2003), people learn English not just for employment, advancement in the workplace and academic
purposes, but also as it gives access to different media and other English materials like books and
magazines. Hence, it can be said that English cannot be avoided nowadays because of its status as
an international language. Everyone seems to have their own reasons to learn the language.
Apart from that, the study also compared the results retrieved from the fieldwork from both
universities. The Malaysian participants hoped to use fluent and accurate English and most of them
understood that their cultural identity as Malays would not be threatened. Nevertheless, one
participant from UiTM appears to be a bit more nationalistic and feels uneasy seeing the English
language being the priority language in Malaysia. Beyond that, this study has shown that the
participants from Malaysia are eager to improve their English communication skills. The Bruneians,
ILCC 2013
24
however, are not as eager as the Malaysians due to sufficient exposure to English from a young age
and also the fact that the Bruneians use English more frequently. This could be the result of
Malaysias education policy deciding the English language is only taught as a subject in both
primary and secondary schools. In Brunei, English has been the medium of education in school
since 1985 when the government came up with the bilingual system of education.
[UBD:P1]
In Brunei, from primary (school), we are obligated somehow by the government
to study the second language from kindergarten till even A- level (Form 6).
Significantly, this has led to different perceptions between participants from UiTM and
UBD where the Bruneians are more accepting of non-native speakers speaking in English as
compared to the Malaysians. The Bruneians are so accustomed to English that it has become their
daily language along with Malay. Conversely, in Malaysia, English is not as widely used and
communicating in English in public is less acceptable.
Research Question 2 considers the learners attitudes towards learning English in
universities in UBD and UiTM. There are favourable attitudes towards English Language
instruction among the majority of the participants in this study from both universities. This positive
behaviour was expressed through their confession of willingness to take the English classes even if
the classes had not been compulsory for their course.
[UiTM:P3]
As for me, I would like to learn English even if it is not compulsory here because
in the future, we never know what is going to happen or what kind of people we
have to meet. [Trans]
[UBD:P3]
Because you know during our English back then, form five, this LC class, the
content is very good because I did not know how to write essays back then. But in
this class, it really explains.
They seemed to recognize the advantages of taking those classes either in their current study
or for their future development. However, there were a few students from both universities who
admitted they would not take the English classes for different reasons. The participant from
Malaysia was rather nationalistic and claimed that learning English might be seen as an act of
betrayal to the country.
[UiTM:P6]
I would have not taken the subject because I just dont see why we need to be
proud of using the foreign language when we have our own language to be proud
of. We can take Japan as an example, they clearly do not depend on English and
yet they have their own influence all over the world, why cant we be like
Japan?[Trans]
The participants from Brunei who were confident with their English skills did not feel the
need to re-learn certain lessons which had already been taught in school. Regardless, all participants
from both universities agreed that the English classes were very useful.
This research has also revealed that some students from both universities are very anxious of
their English speaking ability thus it makes them nervous whenever they are in English classes.
[UiTM:P5]
Some really had questions to ask, but since the questions had to be in English,
they were reluctant to ask their questions. [Trans]
The inability to express themselves in English and a lack of vocabulary seemed to be the
main reasons for the UiTM participants reluctance to take part in activities in their English classes.
However, the participants from UBD who tended to be better English speakers also did not
participate as much in English classes because they were very concerned about others reactions
when they spoke in class. They did not want to stand out from the crowd because of their English.
Similarly, Price (1991) revealed that most SL learners refuse to practice the target language because
they have had unpleasant experiences of being teased and by other students.
[UiTM:P2]
The thing about Brunei, you know theres a word pengucapan, mean
judgemental. We have, you know, when it comes to people, we talk about
other people, especially in class.
As for Research Questions 2.1 and 2.2, which ask if the students attitudes have changed
since entering university, and how or why, the results indeed showed a change in the attitudes of the
students from Malaysia from when they were in secondary school to when they were in university.
There is a positive change in these students attitudes towards English maybe because of their new
environment that encourages them to learn English and they seem to realize that English is
important for their future development.
[UiTM:P1]
I felt English was not important back in the day, but when I entered the university
and I saw all the books were in English, I realised I had to like English somehow.
[Trans].
The finding was similar to Choy & Troudi (2006: 129) which stated that student attitudes
towards learning English seemed to be more positive when they were in college most probably due
to environments that encouraged and required the use of English for communication and learning.
Despite the fact that English classes made some students uncomfortable, they appeared to have
increased their self-esteem and gained more confidence with their English skills. In addition, the use
of English in social settings was more acceptable to the students UiTM. The result from UBD on
the other hand, showed no changes in the students attitudes towards English as the Bruneian
students generally have a positive attitude towards English from the time they enter primary and
secondary school which could be a reflection of the views held by the larger Bruneian population.
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26
In response to Research Question 3 which asks about the factors that might have influenced
learners attitudes towards English, the answers varied with each participant. Each participant from
both UiTM and UBD personally stated more than one factor that might have an influence on
attitudes towards English, but all of them seemed to agree that personal motivation is the most
important factor that will determine their attitudes towards English. They believe if a person has
strong determination to learn English, he or she will have an effort to overcome any difficulty.
[UITM: P4]
It doesnt matter where we are or with whom we hang out, it really depends on
ourselves to learn the language. [Trans]
[UBD: P1]
I believe it depend on ones determination whether or not to learn English.
Other significant factor which most participants from UiTM agreed on is parental
involvement; where parents are believed to play a big role in influencing learners attitudes towards
English. Malaysian students would depend on their parents to buy sufficient English language
reading materials such as books and magazines so the learners would have enough exposure to
English, given the fact the students do not get enough exposure to English in primary and secondary
school. On the other hand, the UBD participants believed that after personal motivation, school and
friends are the next important factors that are responsible in shaping learners attitudes towards
English. This is again not shocking because the Bruneian bilingual education policy established in
1985 increased exposure to English because most of the subjects in school were taught in English as
claimed by one of the UBD participants:
[UBD: P4]
By right, we talk (spoke) English from the British rule...protectorate. So we have
good opportunity to learn English because we have English schools. We have
good impressions in terms of encouraging students to talk, speak in English until
university level, they do have English.
Living in an English-speaking environment, as suggested by some participants from both
universities, is also a factor that can create a favourable attitude towards the language because they
believed it is necessary to have some pressure in learning it. According to Gonzales and Bautistas
(1986) assertion, the best way to learn a language is to live in a place with people who use that
language, which would help learners acquire it faster for the sake of survival. Media was also
suggested by several participants from UiTM and UBD as a factor in determining ones attitudes
towards English. With all the unlimited English programmes on television nowadays which can
give sufficient exposure to English, media is seen as another important factor that would generate
positive attitudes towards English.
Conclusion
It had been assumed that due to geographical, sociocultural and sociolinguistic proximity
and parallels between Brunei and Malaysia, a comparative study could be a futile attempt and
nothing new would be learnt. However, as this study progressed, those similarities began to appear
increasingly superficial only and proved to be deceptive. Indeed lessons were learnt in that attitudes
can differ between groups despite all circumstantial equalities and relative parallels, such that
seemingly minor differences can have exponential permutations.
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The Problems of Learning the Arabic Verbal System among the Malay learners in Malaysian
Universities
Associate Professor Dr. Asem Shehadeh Ali,
Arabic Language and Literature Department
Kulliyyah of revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences
International Islamic University Malaysia
Abstract.
This study attempts to look into and analyze through Error Analysis the occurrences of linguistic
errors among Malay students of Arabic in the use of the verbal system of Arabic. The Introduction
highlights some issues and concepts pertinent to second/foreign language learning acquisition, as well
as their implications to teaching. This study analyzes through Error Analysis the identified errors
committed by a group of Malay learners of Arabic. Interferences from the mother tongue are also
analyzed. The conclusion and recommendations are made based on the findings of this study with the
aim of helping students in the learning of the target language.
Keywords: The Subjects, the Test, Analysis, Summary.
Introduction
The main objective of the error analysis is to identify areas of difficulty as encountered by the
respondents, after which, a comparison will be made through the procedures of error analysis.A study
of the learner's errors is important due to its pedagogical significance and its theoretical value in
providing for a better comprehension of second language acquisition. There is, however, a need
initially to undertake a study on the nature of the errors occurring in specific learning situations.
According to Corder, "Until we are able to give a Linguistic explanation of the nature of a learner's
errors we can neither propose pedagogical measures to deal with them nor infer from them anything
about the processes of learning" (Corder,1974:205). With regard to adults, error analysis studies have
revealed that some errors committed by second language learns can be attributed in interference from
the mother tongue, while many other errors result from strategies such as overgeneralization and
simplification which are common to children acquiring their first language. (Coole.1973; B.Taylor,
1975; Richards, 1971; Hanannia and Gradman, 1977). On the significance of learners errors, Corder
further writes: "A learner's errors are significant in three different ways. First to the teacher, in that
they will tell him, if he undertakes a systematic analysis, how far towards the goal the learner has
progressed and, consequently, what remains for him to learn. Second, they provide the researcher
with evidence of how language is learned or acquired. Third, they are indispensable to the learner
himself, because we can regard the making of errors as a device the learner uses in orders to learn. It
is a way the learner has of testing his hypothesis about the nature of the language he is learning. The
making of errors then is a strategy employed by both children acquiring their mother tongue and by
those learning a second language" (Corder, 1967:167). One of the features of most versions of the
communicative approach is the toleration of mistakes or 'errors' produced by learners. Traditionally,
errors were considered negative aspects and had to be eradicated. The more recent acceptance of
errors in learners' language is based on a fundamental shift in perspective from the more traditional
view of how second languages are acquired. In Corder's own words (In Richards, 1974: 25), "we
must therefore make a distinction between those errors which are the product of such chance
circumstances and those which reveal his knowledge of the language to date, or, as we may call it, his
transitional competence". To Corder mistakes are not significant to the process of language learning.
Corder (1967) introduces an important distinction between'errors' and 'mistakes'. Mistakes are due to
performance factors such as memory limitation, spelling pronunciations, fatigue, emotional strain, etc.
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Errors, on the other hand, are systematic and consistent deviances which characterize the learner's
linguistic system at a given stage of learning. A learner's errors provides evidence of the system of the
language that he is using at a particular point in the course and it must be repeated that he is using
same system, although it is not yet the right system. The learners test their hypotheses about the
nature of the language they are learning. The making of errors, then, is a strategy employed both by
children acquiring their mother tongue and by those learning a second language. The Malay students
failure to learn correct Arabic could be looked upon as an indication of the actual acquisition process
in action. An 'error', then, is not something which hinders a student's progress, but is probably a clue
to the active learning progress being made by a student as he tries out strategies of communication in
the new language. Just as children acquiring their L1 produce certain ungrammatical forms in the
acquisition process, so we might expect the L2 learner to produce overgeneralizations at certain
stages.Perhaps the task of the second language learner is a simple one, that the only hypotheses he
needs to test is: 'Are the systems of the new language the same or different from those languages that I
know? And if different, what is their nature? The evidence for this is that a large number of the
learners errors are related to the system of his mother tongue. These are ascribed to interference from
the habits of the mother tongue.
2. The Subjects
The subjects of this study are selected from undergraduate students of the International Islamic
University in Malaysia. The total sample comprises 56 students picked at random from the Foundation
Centre - International Islamic University in Malaysia, as well as the University in the main campus of
which 36 were female and 20 were male students.The range of the learners' ages was from 18-23
which is identified by the code. The Quranic Language Programme ranges from level one to level six
in the Foundation Centre as well as in the main campus.The learners are placed in different levels
based on their performance in the placement tests which are held at the Foundation Centre or at the
University. All the subjects were Malay native speakers who were learning Arabic and had completed
level six (Intermediate Quranic for HsVI- Old Code: LQ 2046, new code: Quranic Language for Hs V-
LQ2426). The duration for each level is one semester. The number of contact hours per semester is 84
hours. Usually a beginner needs to complete a course of six semesters to fulfill his Quranic Language
programme requirement, which means 126 hours contact hours. The instruction time is spent on
reading and discussing topics from a chosen textbook as well as extracts from authentic Arabic texts
for the purpose of developing and increasing reading proficiency, vocabulary and comprehension.
2.1 The Test
The test which was administered contained one hundred questions. The emphasis of this test is on
the correct usage of the verbal system in Arabic. This means that Malay learners of Arabic, towards
the end of the Arabic course, should be able to correctly use aspects of the verbal system in Arabic.
The test questions were answered within a 2-hour period and were supervised by the class lecturer.
Controlled responses were employed to get the learners to reveal some specific aspects of their
interlanguage. Elicited response, as a method for data collection, was employed in the study of certain
aspects of language acquisition strategies. The administered test has the advantages of: "(1) forcing
the experimental subject to form a desired target language structure, and (2) assuring that the subject
understands the semantics of the structure which he/she is required to produce. Moreover, by forcing
a subject to form a structure which he has not completely mastered, the investigation can gain insights
into how the subject understands language operation and how he organizes new constructions in his
interlanguage". (Corder, 1973:13) At the end of the allocated time, the 56 assignments were collected.
Data analysis was undertaken through stages as suggested by Corder (1974). These stages which
involve error analysis comprise the recognition, description and explanation of errors.
2.2 Analysis of the Results
After approximately 3 semesters (Advanced level from Level 4-6), the respondents should have
acquired the competence and knowledge covered by the scope of the test, that is, the conjugation and
functions of Arabic verbs. The following types of verbs are tested: Application of the Perfect verb,
Imperfective verbs; Verb categories. In the analysis of the results of the test, emphasis is focused on
the verbs. The emphasis is on the students' knowledge of various verbal conjugations and their distinct
uses in Arabic. The errors will be presented and discussed one by one, that is from number 1, down to
the last item. The Arabic sentence will be stated with its corresponding English translation. The
students incorrect responses are marked by an asterisk (*). Comments on the possible source of
errors(s) will be made at the end of each corresponding number in question. Comments shall still be
made for items where no errors occur.
Test.
Part 1: Underline the correct verb fil a and week verb filmutal in the
following:
Lexical error/ meaning: The word a and yastaiyqiu , respectively, have the same
meaning. The students perhaps thought that the meaning of the word a 'to wake up' when
used before the subject 'tariq' was acceptable in Arabic. The response yastaiyqiu 'to wake up' is
similar in meaning to the verb a.
In the second response : fiil sa , the students were not cognizant of the rules of the 'weak
verb' fil mutal which includes those forms in which one of the two glides (i,e. 'waw' and 'ya')
formulates one of their radicals.
Part 2: Fill in the blank with the suitable verb fil mahmz 'hamzated verb'.
Lexical error/meaning. Form: The learner uses the verb yalub 'to require, to ask' which, in
Malay is minta 'to ask'. This is probably an error due to mother-tongue interference. The majority of
students gave the correct response. This may be attributed to the fact that they were cognizant of the
word l 'never', 'not to' which was a clue for the use of the verb ta'kul 'to eat'.
In another response, 2 students used the verbs: yamal 'to do; yufakkir
'to wake up', where the learner used the verb to complete the meaning because he
could not apply the rule of 'double verb' in Arabic.
Part 4: Choose the correct verb al-fiil al-mithl weak verb' in the following passage, and
identify the verb.
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Lexical error/meaning.form: The majority of the students gave the correct answer. Some learners
chose the 'weak verb' but they could not identify the verb. Perhaps these students could not apply or
recognize the rules of the weak verb, or could not express themselves in the response.
Part 5: Fill each gap with the suitable verb.
Lexical error/meaning .form: In general the learners used verbs which are not suitable at the lexical
level. The verb yadhhabu 'to go' must be followed by the preposition ila 'to' not min
'from'. One learner used the verb da 'to call; to invite'. He used a deviant structure.
Lexical errors/meaning: Most of the learners could not recognize a suitable fiil mithl 'assimilated
verb'.
Mother tongue interference is apparent in the use the of verb yaluba 'to request' which is similar
in meaning to the Malay word meminta 'to request' or yalubu in Arabic.
Part 6: Fill each gap with the suitable verb fil ajwaf 'hollow verb'.
Lexical error/meaning: The learners responses include dhahaba 'to go' perfective, yadhhab
'to go imperfective, dhihbu
'to gain'. These words are acceptable in the context of the sentence. The other response,
biidhni
(which is said whenever one refers to the future), is a contracted form of the phrase
bidhni followed by the name of Allah, which is an expression referring to the future. The learner used
the same technique. The other response, malaa
which is the root. We do not combine the radical 'da' in one letter. This is because in
Malay, the verbal system is characterized by the use of prefixes.
However, the sentence can be translated as in the following: In Malay when the verb begins with s, the
prefix me- is modified to meny- and the initial phoneme of a verb beginning with s is dropped: me +
sedia + Kan --> menyediakan to prepare. The Malay learner, assuming that the verb yu'idu does
not need any change in its radicals because in Malay the verb menyediakan 'to prepare' can be used
for all the subjects that predicate it (singular, plural). In Arabic, the verb must be joined with a pronoun
that refers to the subject. There is subject-verb agreement.
Similar linguistic errors are found in items (28, 29), as stated and analyzed earlier. Again, this
particular structure, among other syntactic errors, contains similar areas of difficulty, in so far as the
right application of Arabic verbs is concerned: the use of the verb with the predicate nouns and
pronouns. The problem of the application of the rule of agreement between the subject and the verb
in number and in person seems to be the biggest difficulty the learners face. In order that the learners
use the appropriate verbs, they have to be familiar with the various uses of the verbs especially when
those verbs are preceded by particles.
Part 11: Put the verb in brackets in the correct tense (fil ajwaf hollow verb').
Grammatical error/Subject-verb agreement: The responses show that most of the learners are not
cognizant of the root of the verb, because they think that the verb fuzna
* yaqul
Grammatical error/Subject-verb agreement: The learners use the verbs; qul 'you (male,
single) say', taqul 'she says', yaqul he says'
It is possible that learners thought that the verb qul was the answer where the glide 'wa' should be
added after the letter q. The verb qla to say', when it is joined with the pronoun anti
you
(female, singul.), the glide ' ' must be omitted. We can replace it with the glide 'wa' . The prefix
'' is added to qul to indicate that the verb is an imperative verb which requires the pronoun ''.
Otherwise, in Arabic, a subject (noun or pronoun) and a verb form must agree in person and number.
By person is meant 1st, 2nd or 3rd; by number is meant singular or plural. In addition to pronouns as
subjects, nouns are also used as subjects. Any noun whether common (al-rajul the man'; al-
marratu the woman'; al-wilatu the table') or proper (Zainab , Ali , Malaysia
, etc.), is always in the 3rd person, either singular or plural. This particular syntactic feature is
pertinent to Arabic due to its verbal changes which are unknown in Malay. Thus, a Malay learner of
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34
Arabic has to be initially familiar with the different endings (conjugations) of the verb (in any tense), a
part from the task of being able to correctly identify the correct person and number of the subject. In
this rule agreement seems to be elementary but which learners of Arabic are too often oblivious of or
careless about. In Malay, the pronouns dia, kami, beliau, kita, awak semua, engkau semua, kamu
semua, anda sekelian, and mereka apply to either male or female speakers. (Liaw. 1996:54)
Arabic shows gender distinction in the 3rd person singular (huwa 'he', hiya 'she') and in all its plural
forms 'nanu' we, antum you all', hum they (masculine), and hunna they
(feminine). These gender aspects when attached to a verb will change morphological features.
Part 13: Rewrite the verb based on the pronoun amr in brackets.
Grammatical error/agreement in number: The learners could not use the verb when it is attached
with the pronoun because, as mentioned before, this particular syntactic feature is pertinent to Arabic
due to its verbal change which is unknown in Malay, e.g.
a. Mereka balik lewat.
They (masculine, feminine) - came back late'
b. Dia balik lewat.
'She/he came back late'
It is noticeable in Malay sentences that there is no verbal change in the verb balik to come back'. In
Arabic, note the verbal changes as in the following:
a) Mereka balik (v) lewat.
Hum d
They (m) came/they
b) Dia balik lewat.
Hiya adat mutakhiratan
She came/she late
It is observed that the verb d 'to come back' has verbal changes; Humawa d (he), hiya
dat (she), hum d 'they' (masculine), hunna udna 'they'
(feminine), huma d 'they' (masculine - dual), huma dat they' (feminine
- dual).
Grammatical error/agreement in number: It is noticeable from the responses above, that the
learners could not make suitable conjugations for the verb when it was joined with the pronoun
(plural, singular, dual). The Malay verbal system, in most cases, is characterized by the use of prefixes
or suffixes and its reliance upon modal auxiliaries (Hj Omar. Asmah & Ramah. 1985: 7).
In Malay there is no change in the conjugation of a verb e.g.:
39. - ina biawtin lin
We cried with a loud voice
(Malay) - Kami menjerit dengan kuat.
The verbs jerit 'to cry' ada 'to be here' balik 'to come back' do not undergo changes in their forms.
Part 14 : Form a nominal phrase from the verbal phrase.
Grammatical error/Subject-verb agreement: In the responses mentioned above, it is noticeable that
the learners could not apply the rule on subject - verb agreement, where the subject noun or pronoun
agrees with the verb in number (singular or plural, or dual). This particular feature is, as mentioned
before, pertinent to Arabic due to its verbal inflection e.g. when the subject is plural/feminine or
masculine the conjugation of the verb must be changed according to the subject. The Malay learners
did not use the verb with its verbal inflection may be because their mother tongue verbal system, in
most cases, is characterized by the use of prefixes or suffixes and its reliance upon modal auxiliaries
or he did not know the rules of Subject-verb agreement.
Part 15: Put the verb in brackets in the correct tense fil nqi (defective verb) and omit the
pronoun amru al-raf.
Grammatical error/wrong choice of tense: Some responses show that the learners could not use the
correct tense fiil nqi when joined with the pronoun, because the verb inflection in Arabic
requires a change in the conjugation of the verb. It is possible that the learners thought that any verb
ending with the glide 'aa' was 'a defective verb' (fiil nqi ). They could not apply the rule of
fiil nqi which is formed from the root verb.
Part 16: Put each verb in brackets in the correct tense fiil nqi 'defective verb'.
Grammatical error/wrong choice of tense: It is noticeable from the responses above that most
mistakes were in the application of the perfective verb when joined with the pronouns. When we use
the defective verb raiya 'to accept'; a 'to give' the perfective of the verb is changed by
adding a pronoun at the end of verb when the verb is preceded by the pronoun hunna 'they (female)'
and the pronoun anta you (sing.mascl.)
Part 17: Form a nominal phrase from the following sentence.
Part 18: Put each verb in brackets in the correct tense fiil nqi (defective verb).
Grammatical error/wrong choice of tense: The learners' responses show that the rule of adding a
pronoun to al- fiil nqi 'defective verb' is missed by the learners. They used verbs which
have no syntactic features like akhfaytu , khifti .
In another response, bakaw they, bakahum , it is clear that the learner could not apply the
rule correctly. In the other responses, rumna , ramatn , the learners also could not apply the
rule of adding the pronoun to the defective verb which requires us to add the glide w to refer to the
pronoun.
Part 19: Put each verb in brackets in the correct tense fil mabni lilmajhl (Passive
verb).
Grammatical error/wrong choice of tense: The learners' responses show that they could not
formulate the perfective forms of the verbs qara'a 'to read', farada to commend' sharaa
'to explain' by changing the vowels that are interlaced between the characters of the involved root.
Where the passive voice of the verbs above, can be triconsonantal or quadri-consonantal, it is
morphologically formed according to the fixed patterns of : fuila
like qurria
, furria
,
sharria , which respectively mean, 'to be read', 'to be commanded', and 'to be explained'. The
imperfective passive of the verbs yushhidu , yatarimu , made in compatibility with the
paradigm yufilu as yushhadu (passive), yatarimu
(passive).
The learners used the verb qaraat , qurria
, qurria .
'
The story is read' passive.
In Malay the active sentence is changed into the passive by making the direct object the subject, (2) the
subject is made the agent (expressed) or (implied) which may be preceded by the preposition 'by' oleh,
and (3) placing the verb in the passive form. (Hj Omar. Asmah & Rama. 1989:45)
Part 20: Rewrite the following sentence using the Particles 'adawtu al-nab (negative
Imperfective).
dhahaba al-talmdhu ila al-mukhtabari lilistim ila al-ddarsi
'The students went to the lab to listen to lesson'
Grammatical error/wrong choice of tense :The responses above show that the learners could not
apply the rule of the subjunctive when used with these particles (kay , li ,
) which if employed can indicate explicitly a kind of conjecture or projection. These responses or
mistakes occur because in Malay the particles kay, li, atta, likay can precede the verb, when there is
no verbal change. Examples:
It is noticeable that the particle untuk 'for' when it precedes the verbs belajar 'to study', berjumpa 'to
meet', yastami'u 'to listen', there is no verbal change. This causes the learner to be unable to apply the
rule of the negative imperfective adawt-al-nab .
Part 21: Answer the following questions using the particle lan will not'.
Grammatical error/subject-verb agreement: The learners' responses show that they are influenced
by their mother language (MALAY) where they used the future particle akan 'will' prior to verbs;
tanam 'to sleep', takhruju 'to go out', yauru 'to attend; because the Arabic
sentences (64, 65, 66) could be translated into Malay as shown below:
It is noticeable from the examples above, that the learners translated the phrase tidak akan tidur or
keluar or hadir; into the Arabic language using the future particle sa 'will' preceding verbs. This
because the learners are influenced by his/her mother language (Malay), where he/she assumed tidak
akan tidur (will not sleep) to mean * lan satanam or * lan satakhruj ; or * lan
saaur , which are unacceptable in Arabic grammar. At the same time, the learners
responses also show that the students fail to apply the rule on subject verb agreement. The subject al-
tiflataan is dual, and therefore requires the corresponding 2nd person singular verbal form. Similar
linguistic errors are found to have been committed for the above structure (64, 65, 66), as stated and
analyzed earlier.
Part 22: Answer the following questions using the particle lam will not'. Begin the answer with
the words in brackets.
Grammatical error/subject-verb agreement :The responses above show the learners' failure to apply
the rule of the particle lam , literally 'not', which structurally represents the negation of Arabic
Perfective. This particle lam has the force of syntactically converting the Indicative verbs yusidn
, yanfau , and taiyn which are incorporated in (67, 68, and 69) above, into the
Jussive mood.
The learners use the verbs yusaidu , sad , yusid , and sada , They could
not use the verb following lam in the jussive mood, which requires the rule on subject-verb agreement.
The students could not apply the rule of agreement, where the verb yusid , when prior to lam
'particle negation', the subject al-abawain 'parents' (dual) requires the corresponding 2nd
person singular verbal form yusida . Examples. 67.a. al-'abawni lam yusida ibnahum
/ / /
Parents (dual) not help both
b. Ibu-bapa tidak menolong anaknya.Or mereka (plural) tidak menolong anaknya.
Or dia (she/he) tidak menolong anaknya.Or kamu tidak menolong anaknya.
It is observable from the above that menolong does not change; and there is no subject-verb
agreement. Similar linguistic errors are found in the responses (68, 69), where these syntactic errors,
exemplify a similar area of error.
Part 23: Fill in the blank with the suitable verb fil muri (Imperfective verb), use the
negativizer 'l' not.
Grammatical error/wrong choice of tense: Some responses show the students' failure to apply the
rule with the Imperfective Jussive when preceded by the negativizer l 'not'. The learners use the verbs
in deviant conjugations the verbs kharaja (perfective), Yakhruju (imperfective). The
learners seem to have failed to learn the correct conjugation of the imperfective jussive when it is
preceded by the negativizer l 'not', where the verb must change into the jussive which requires al-
sukn at the end of it.
The learner must use the verbs; l takhruj , l tabas , and l tayas ,
Part 24: Put the following phrases in the correct tense as shown in the example.
Grammatical error/wrong choice of tense: The learners' responses show that they could not apply
the rule of the Imperative in Arabic; which is formed by omitting the pronominal prefix of the Jussive
and replacing it with an 'alif'. In the response (73) the learners use the verb l tamal , which is
the Imperative form (male, sing), and the verb litalub (male, sing), this is because in Malay there
is no verbal change, or no different conjugation with regard to the order for the person reference. There
is no pronoun-verb - agreement in Malay.
The Malay verb exhibits no verbal change. The other responses (74, 75) are similar, where the
students make use of the same form. These errors, appear perhaps, because the learners could not
apply the rule of the Imperative verb in Arabic.
Part 25: Underline the inchoative verb (fil nsikh ) and classify its type.
Lexical error/form: In this part of the test most of the learners could not differentiate the types of
inchoative verb fil nsikh, which is classified into the verb of initiative fil al-shur , verb
of hope fil raj , verb of approximation fil muqrabah . This shows that the
learner failed to learn the fil naasikh 'inchoative verb' which the learner must learn to use with each
verb in context.
Part 26: Complete the sentence with the suitable verb fil al-shar (the protasis).
Grammatical error/wrong choice of tense : The learners responses show that they use the verb in
the conditional sentence when the verb follows the conditional particles which, if used, would require
both the Protasis and the Apodosis.The learners use the perfective "qaraa" instead of taqra
(Jussive verb- imperfective), this is because in Malay the protasis may be isolated from the Apodosis.
ILCC 2013
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The learner, perhaps, thinks that the perfect verb qaraa is acceptable because in Malay the verb can be
Perfect in the protasis, and imperfective in Apodosis. Another response shows that the learner follows
the rule in Malay, where the conditional sentence begins with a pronoun, e.g. 83.a. mahma (taqrau)
yazidka marifatan wa thaqfatan.
/ )( / / / / b. (Apa) saja yang kamu baca, kamu akan
tambah ilmu.
The response in (84) shows that the learners make the same mistakes as in item (83), where he/she uses
the noun mal, and the perfective amala .
Part 27: Put the verb in brackets in the correct tense fil mujarrad (naked or stripped verb).
All the students gave the correct response. This may be attributed to the fact that they are cognizant of
the naked verb dafaa 'to push' or jadda to be active'.
Part 28: Fill each gap with a suitable verb fil mujarrad (naked or stripped verbs)
Lexical error/form: The students' responses show that they could not use the suitable verb. They use
deviant form which is unacceptable in Arabic because the meaning of the verb they used makes the
sentence contextually ungrammatical. This mistake happens perhaps, because the learner lacks the
necessary vocabulary.
Part 29: Fill in the blank with a suitable verb fil mazd 'trilaterals verb'
Lexical error/form & meaning: The responses above show that the learners use trilateral verbs, thus
indicating lack of knowledge of certain lexicon in the TL. The verbs inkasara , akhraja , are
lexically unacceptable in TL. The appropriate verb for the above structure is aghlaqa to close'.
It is similar in the items (94, 95), where the learners' responses indicate a lack of knowledge of certain
lexicon in the TL. The verbs istaqbala ; ijtamau , qubbala , and akhraja , are
trilateral verbs. These verbs cannot be used in item (94) where the appropriate verb for the above items
is sayajtamiu .
Part 30: Put the verb in brackets in the correct tense fil l mazd triliteral verb'.
Lexical error/form & meaning: The learners' responses show that they could not use the prefixes in
the Arabic verb according to the context. They used the deviant structures like anhaytu , intih
, and nahaytu . They have to put the letters 'i',t in first and third place in the word. The verb
intaha to finish', is the correct one. According to the responses, the learners lack knowledge of
Arabic verbs. Similar mistakes in items (97, 98) are found.
Part 31: Fill in the blank with the suitable clause fil al-sharti (if clause).
Grammatical error/wrong choice of verb:The learners' responses show that the students failed to
recognize fil al-shar 'if clause verb'. This is because in Malay, the item (99) can be
translated as following:
99. a. In ... (Jussive) aliun ghadan 'ukrimka (Jussive)
/ .... / /
/
In Malay
b. Jika Ali datang esok, saya akan meraikan dia.
It is clear from sentence (b) above that the 'if' clause in Malay is a nominal sentence. The learners use
the nouns Allah , al-muslim because he was influenced by his mother language and he could not
apply the rule of the conditional sentences in Arabic.
Another response shows that the students have a lack of knowledge in the TL. The learners used the
verb tushhid to see' kna to be. They could not use the suitable verb lexically, or they did
not understand the context of the sentence which requires the Imperfective verb (Jussive).
3. Summary of finding
The lexical error/meaning has the highest percentage of lexical error of 86% (ranked first). The
lexical error/form 14% (ranked second). This means the learners have a problem the meaning in
context. For instance, the learners may not know how to use a particular lexical item, yet by chance,
he/she may also produce sentence which are well formed but when considered in context, may not be
plausibly interpretable at all. Thus, such sentences are clearly erroneous. The recognition of errors
depended upon the researcher making a correct interpretation of the learner's intended meaning in the
context. This means the learners have a problem in the meaning in context. The subject-verb
agreement category ranks second, with 45% which means more than two out of every four
respondents are likely to commit this kind of error. Since the category on subject-verb agreement in
person and number is one of the most difficult to observe and apply, the data merely confirms the
presence of such errors. Under "Grammatical errors' the learners produce deviant sentences involving
the subject agreement, etc., as well as ambiguous errors whose deviancy is characterized by clusters
of ideas expressed in a combination of unrelated grammatical structures, thus contributing to the
illogical relationship of words. Almost all the linguistic forms utilized in the sentences containing this
category of error were deviant and needed complete recasting of the grammatical structures of the
sentences to make the meaning clear. The learners seemed to be so preoccupied with their
communicative intentions that they paid less attention to or were merely not fully aware of the
unacceptability of their linguistic forms, as could be seen in the following structures: * al-ummahtu
tuiddna al-ama . 'Mothers prepare the food', * al-mudaristu
taqussuna baaa al-qasasi ala al-tilmidhti , 'The lady teachers are
telling their students some stories' to a certain extent, the learners follow norms concern the
relationship of the elements of a sentence: a subject, a verb, and predicate (object). However, in their
efforts to put the meaning across, they failed to appropriately apply the operational components of the
particular rule involved. It is the incomplete application of the operating TL rule as well as the
ignorance of rule restriction which caused them to commit errors of subject-verb agreement in person
and number. Many items of the test are designed to look further into the elements of the Arabic verbal
system which Malay learners seem to have difficulty regarding their usage. Some items are more of a
verbal type, that is, the learners were simply asked to fill in the blanks with the appropriate verbal
forms in Arabic. In order for the learners to get the right answer for every item of the verbal forms
mentioned in the test, he/she needs to consider the following suggestions or guidelines:
a) Knowledge of lexical items of the target language,
b) Awareness of the syntactic rule on the agreement between the subject and the verb in person
and number,
c) Familiarity with the distinctiveness of verbs, especially in common idiomatic expressions, and
d) Mastery of the conjugations of the verb and the tenses involved.
The students may have devised ways and means to get to their own answers, but all of the above
suggestions certainly will help facilitate the learner's ease in coming up with the appropriate
responses.
The learners have to look for the subject (either a noun or a pronoun) and analyze this in terms of
person (1st, 2nd, 3rd) and number (singular or plural). Certainly, at this stage, the learner should be
familiar with the position of 'subjects' in the sentence (Subject + verb + object). For declarative; there
are twenty three (23) items for these parts, the test is presented with the appropriate answers, with the
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students' incorrect response in brackets, followed by an analysis. For the (23) items were answered
incorrectly by majority of students. Item 5, 6, 7 involve the use of 'hamzated verb' in this particular
structure, the verb used in the expression yamur 'commanded' khadha took, takul to
eat', following this answer for the rest of the items, the learner did not get the right answer as in items
(8, 9, 10, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20), although they knew what verb to use. This may be attributed to their
ability to identify the weak verbs. There are (29) items for these parts, the test is presented with the
appropriate answers, with the students' incorrect response followed by an analysis. For declarative, in
items (27, 28, 29) the majority of the students did not get the right answer. Their errors '* tyuym
* taquunna , * shakka were caused by their failure to recognize the right verb in person
and number, thinking that the verbs tuiddu , taquunna , shakka as shown in their
responses. Certainly, tuiddu, taquunna, shakka cannot be verbs which must follow the subject
which is substantive (Noun-plural-female or male). This linguistic error due to incomplete application
of rules. In this case, it is not sufficient that the learners know the uses of the subject or what subject to
use, but they also need to consider other concepts, like the syntactic rule on the subject-verb agreement,
in order to come up with the appropriate answers. Falling under the same category of linguistic error
committed by the learners as in item 27, are structures in items 28 and 29 which involve the learners'
failure to recognize and analyze the subject, in order to get the right verbal form. The analysis of the
subjects (person and number) with the corresponding required verb to conform to the syntactic rule on
subject-verb agreement. It is interesting to further analyze items 29 has al-mudarristu for the subject.
The learner's answer * taquunna may be attributed to his having considered al-mudarristu
(3rd pl.) as subject, ignoring that fact that this subject (3rd pl.fem.) requires a verb in 3rd person plural:
taquunna. This holds true for item 27, 28 where the learner considered al-mudarristu (3rd.fem.) as
the subject, which requires a 3rd pl. verb taqsunna instead of * taquuuna , item 3 has a
subject Amad w asan (2nd pl.) which requires a 2nd person pl. verb yamn
instead of * yaum . While difficulty was encountered by the learners in applying the syntactic
rule on agreement between the subject and the verb in person and number, the initial problem,
however, and one which is very basic, is their inability to identify the correct verb to be used. Indeed,
they may be able to get the right conjugation of any given verb, but prior to this, there is a need to be
able to single out the verb to use in a given particular structure. This is seen for items 13, 14, 16, 17,
18, 19 and 20.
In all the above sentences the learner can use any choice of assimilated verb which its initial character
is 'waw' or 'ya' or the hollow verb which is one having a glide for its second radical or defective
verb for instance, the word akhalat 'to eat' akhadhat 'to take' (13) ja 'come' (17)
waala 'arrived'.
At this point, the learner needs to analyze the structure further by way of looking into the other lexical
items that world help him make the right choice of verb. The subject-verb agreement is required in the
process for some items. Following the process of agreement will be of great help to the learners.
Failure to consider the above suggested guidelines will create difficulties and problems on the part of
the learner, considering the fact that his answers will be dependent of his knowledge and ability to
apply these rules to this particular exercise or test. In the test question, what is crucial for Malay
learners of Arabic is the ability to recognize the right verb and subsequently the use of the appropriate
verbal form which agrees with the subject in number and person. Below are the results of the subject-
verb agreement as summarized. Recognition of errors was based on whether the lexical items were
correct and appropriate. Words which were structurally deviant were considered erroneous
immediately. These were called covert errors. Covert errors on the other hand were structurally well-
formed but did not convey the meaning the learner intended. These were considered erroneous
because they were not used in the appropriate context. Description of errors was based on whether the
words were overtly or covertly erroneous.In general, errors were divided into 2 board categories using
the source of errorsas the basis for classification. "These two board categories are interlingual errors
may be said to occur as a result of negative transfer from the mother tongue. On the other hand,
intralingual errors appear to occur as a result of the difficulties found within the target language itself".
(Tan, Po Li. 1994:101)
It is noticeable that the errors due to MT influence are translation errors. In this case, the subjects
resorted to their mother tongue to translate word-for-word to Malay. Translation is used because
many subjects when they response they did not think in Arabic. They faced difficulty expressing
themselves in Arabic, they response according to their mother tongue (Malay) and try to come up
with equivalent words or phrases.
They would then translate the Malay words to Arabic, thus producing 'non-Arabic' form or deviant
forms. Examples of such literal translation are shown in the following: a)* al-mudaribna
lan sayauru b.* al-mudaribna lan sayaurna .
b.* al-usratu lan satakhruju . Al-usratu lan satakhruj c.* al-iflatni
lan satanmu
. * Al-iflatni
lan satanm .
In examples (a, b, c) the literal translation strategy appear to be very comfortable employed by the
Malay learners of Arabic. This may be to the lack of a close relationship between Arabic and
Malay.A.Intralingual Errors. Wrong selection of a word or phrase: The selection of inappropriate
words or phrase for a particular context may lead to deviant lexical words or phrase. This category of
errors account for (19) per cent of all the errors identified.
3.1 Over Use of Subordinate Terms
The use of subordinate terms is one of the lexical simplification strategies used by the second
language learners. "As the second language learners do not have enough active vocabulary stored in
the mental lexicon (Palmbery, 1990) they tend to use subordinate terms rather than appropriate
hyponyms. Hyponymy is defined by Crystal (1985:150) as "the relationship which obtains between
specific and general lexical items, such that the former is included in the latter (i.e. is the hyponym of'
the latter". For example 'cat' is a hyponym of 'animals'; 'flute' of 'instrument'; 'chair' of 'furniture' and
so on. In this case, 'animal', 'instrument', and 'furniture' are supordinate terms, or sometimes called
hypernyms with reference to which the subordinate term can be defined as is the usual practice in
dictionary definitions ('a cat is a type of animal').
The percentage of errors approximately (13) per cent. It is interesting to note that many of the
supordinate terms used by the subject appear to be deviant verbs. This may be related to the fact that
many learners use other strategies such as paraphrasing or coining new words when they face
difficulties in using naked verb or assimilated verb, the learners might opt for the simplification
strategy and come up with supordinate terms which they are already familiar with.
Error produced as a result of 'wrong selection of words' or 'overuse of subordinate terms may be
explained in terms of over generalization'. Over generalization is evident when the learner learns a
word and applies it in context which is inappropriate, for example: the verb nazalat which is
hyponym of al-amru 'rains', the verb istayqaat 'woke up' which is a hyponym of
the word mubakiran
'the
table'.
The above examples show that the learners has learned the verbs nazala 'fall down', istayqaa
'to woke up' and takulu 'to eat' but has extended its use to an inappropriate context.
3. 2 Overlaporation
About '22' per cent of the total number of errors is made up of this type of errors. These may be
classified as covert errors as they are usually syntactically well-formed but inappropriate in the
context. For example,
a.* ghalaqa jarasa al-bbi
fadhahaba lifatih .
b.* da al-muslimna li amlihim
al-amati .
c.* qaraa slimu
al-fuqara
mimma ahu
allhu .
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The learners did not realize that the verbs chosen and uses inappropriate in context, inspite they are
well-formed.
2.5.3 Semantic confusion.
The errors recorded in this category represented about (31) per cent of the total number of errors.
Semantic confusion may reflect the confusion between and among lexical items in the second language
itself. As Arabic is a complex language, it is inevitable that second language learners of Arabic
produce erroneous forms as a result of subtable differences found between words in Arabic, for
example,
a.ala al-muslimi
an yad bilmarfi
. b. ala al-muslimi
an
yamura bilmarfi
.
d.had allhu qalbahu ila al-iimni
: )
luqmanaganiy@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
This research aimed to investigate the impact of using a repetitive question system of teaching on t
he comprehension of Arabic syntax in universities. Towards achieving this goal, the researcher carri
ed out an experimental research on a sample of (60) respondents from students of department of Ara
bic language in Insaniah University College Kedah, Malaysia. The sample was grouped into two eq
ually distributed groups namely: experimental and control groups. The experimental group was tuto
red by using repetitive question system of teaching while the control group was tutored by using the
traditional lecture style. Text based instructional material for both groups were prepared by the resea
rcher from a unit (Al-Asmaaul Al-Mansubah ) in the Arabic syntax text book (Alfiyatu
Ibnu Maliki ). The researcher used two tests (pre-test and post-test) to carry out the study.
The pre-test was used for both groups in order to evaluate both groups level of understanding on the
principles of Arabic syntax. After the pre-test, the researcher tutored both groups extensively for thr
ee weeks on the principle of Arabic syntax. Subsequently a post-test was carried out to measure the
differences in both teaching styles employed. For data analysis the researcher used independent sam
ple t-test to compare statistical means of both groups. The result of this study reveals that there is st
xperimental group which has been tutored using the repetitive question system. (Keywords: Repetiti
ve Question System Of Teaching, Comprehension, Arabic Syntax,)
Introduction
Surely effective teaching is needed to develop students intellectual ability. However, this is incomp
lete except if it is in tandem with current demands. The abundance of teaching technologies, method
s and strategies in the present century creates a lot of potentials for effective teaching.
It is presently observed that teaching Arabic syntax needs to be reinvented; because the students of
Arabic language in the present age are deficient in comprehending the subject. Nothing points to thi
s as the glaring mistakes the students make in speech, writing and reading Arabic language. This ma
kes the students love for the subject to be negatively affected. As a result of this, this researcher dee
med it fit to embark on a study on development of teaching methodology and technology in imparti
ng the knowledge of Arabic syntax. Possibly, this may help in changing the students perception and
motivate them towards the subject.
In response to the aforementioned, educationists have done various quantitative researches that have
resulted in development of different methods and strategies in teaching Arabic syntax.This isto enab
le effective teaching of the lecturers as well as sound intellectual development of the students in Ara
bic syntax. This is so because Arabic syntax is a tool that aids fluency and guide against mistake in
Arabic language. Hence, mastering Arabic syntax aids the students finesse of the languageAssayyid
( () 2991 ). These studies includesZaquut () and Al-Shakhsheer( ( ) 1001 ) which aims to
establish the effectiveness between lecturing method and discussion method in teaching Arabic syn
tax in Islamic university Gaza, the research sample for this study is eighty students and the sample
was distributed to two experimental groups. The result of the study established that there is no distin
ction between the two methods.
Amin () and lina ( () 1002 ) aims to establish the impact of using drama in teaching Arabic synta
x on the achievement of female students in grade 10 in Jordan. The study was carried with 120 stud
ents who were divided into two equal groups namely: control and experimental group. The result of
the study reveals that there is statistical significant difference at (0.05) between the achievements of
the two groups in favour of the experimental group that were tutored with drama.
Al-fifiy ( () 1020 ) aims to study the impact of solving problem method of teaching Arabic syntax
on primary students in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. The study was carried with 46 students who were divi
ded into two equal groups namely: control and experimental group. The result of the study revealed
that there is a significant difference at 0.05 less between the two groups with the result favouring th
e experimental group and a significant difference between the two tests favouring the post test.
Research Problem and Research Question
This research was carried out in InsaniahUniversity College, a relatively new university established
by Kedah state Malaysia, in 1994 and opened in 1996 as a state private university. The university ha
s among its faculties four Islamic faculties among which the faculty of Arabic language was chosen
for the purpose of this research.
As a result of the researchers experience in terms of the weakness of students in comprehending th
e principles of Arabic syntax, the constant complaints of students on the difficulty of understanding
the subject, and the fact that in most cases students do find it difficult to ask or answer questions on
the subject in Insaniah University College. The researcher concluded that of all the challenges face
d by the students, inability of the students to participate in the class (ask or answer questions) is the
root cause of the problems. Hence, the researcher thought of a way to encourage the students partic
ipation in the class thereby enabling the tutors to evaluate their level of understanding on the subject
. In view of this, the research aims to answer the following question:
What is the impact of repetitive question system of teaching on teaching Arabic syntax in universiti
es?
Research Objectives
This research aims to achieve the following:
1. Understanding the extent of students weakness in comprehending Arabic syntax in universit
ies.
2. Improving the methodology of teaching the subject through the result of the research.
3. Understanding the impact of repetitive question system of teaching Arabic syntax in Univers
ities.
Research Hypothesis
1. There is statisticalsignificant difference at (0.05) between the mean of the two groups in the
pre and post tests results.
2. There is statistical significant difference at (0.05) between the students achievement in the t
wo groups as a result of the methods applied.
3. It is easy to develop the system of teaching Arabic syntax from the result of the research.
Significance of the Research
The significance of this research lies in aiding the teaching of Arabic syntax in Malaysian Universiti
es with emphasis on Insaniah University College. Also, it aids lecturers in employing a teaching sys
tem that is effective in motivating the Malaysian students and driving them towards scholarly contri
butions in the class; in order to improve the students level of understanding Arabic syntax in parti
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166
cular.
Limitation of the Research
The research is limited to testing the repetitive question of teaching Arabic syntax.
The population consists of students of Arabic language department of Insaniah UniversityCollege K
edah Malaysia.
Definition of terms
This research is centred on three terms namely: repetitive question systems, Traditional System of le
arning (Lecturing), and Arabic syntax achievements.
1. Repetitive Question System
Repetitive Question System is a task between two people; it is based on interaction between lecturer
and students. The lecturer imparts knowledge on the student from his knowledge of the subject and
stop intermittently to ask questions from the students on the immediate discussion; to evaluate the le
vel of comprehension of the students on the topic till he is assured of their full understanding of the
topic discussed. Therefore, in this system both the lecturers and students are active participants in th
e class. However, it is advisable for lecturers to be moderate in the use of the system, so as not to re
sult in boredom to the student in the classroom.
2. Traditionallecturing System.
Traditionallecturing Method is a task that connects two parts, the first is the lecturer and the second
is a specific group of students. In this system, the lecturer imparts his knowledge of the subject on t
he student while feeling accomplished with the performance of the students in final examination. Th
is system obviously does not identify individual differences among the students. Therefore, in this s
ystem the lecturers are active while the students remain passive in their participation during lectures
in the class.
3. Arabic Syntax Achievements
An Arabic syntax achievement is the evaluation system that is used to measure the performance of t
he students in the two tests (Pre Test and Post Test). These two tests are designed to evaluate the stu
dents understanding of Arabicsyntax and its use in speech, writing, and reading by the students.
Research Design and Methodology
This researcher used experimental method to explain the effectiveness of repetitive question system
of teaching onteaching Arabic syntax
Research Population and Sample
The researcher carried out the experimental research on sixty students of faculty of Arabic language
in Insaniah University College, of which the population is five hundred and sixty three, including b
oth local and international students from both sexes (Male and Female). The sixty students that ma
de the sample were divided into two equal groups namely; experimental and control groups.
Research Instruments
The researcher employed the following three instruments to carry out the research:
1. Lecture: the researcher organised three hours per week sessiontutorial for the students from
each groupfor three consecutive weeks.
2. Pre achievement Test: the researcher prepared forty questions for the pre- achievement test.
3. Post achievement Test: the researcher prepared fifty questions for the post- achievement test
.
Reliability and Validity
This researcher adopted the two questions for both tests from previous studies reviewed after the ne
eded adjustment has been made for this research. The questions were further evaluated by specialist
s in Arabic language and education. The researcher then carried out a pilot test with a sample of 22 s
tudents from the same population to ensure validity and reliability on the 29th day of March 2013.
The pilot test result revealed the suitability of the test for the evaluation of the students. Thus, the te
st can be used for the purpose of the research.
The research carried out pre achievement test to evaluate the level of understanding of both groups
on the subject. The results are shown in the table below:
Table 1. Pre achievement test result.
GROUPS NO. MEAN STANDARD DEVIATION T- TEST
Experimental G. 30 65.07 19.348 .556
Control Group 30 62.20 18.159
It is evident from the table above that there is no statistical significance difference between the two
groups.This shows the equality between the two groups in their level of understanding of the subject
prior to the test.
After the pre achievement test, the experimental group were tutored using repetitive question syste
m of teaching while the control group were tutored with the traditional method. The researcher tutor
ed the students on various topics on the subject. The topics include: The five Arabic objects, phrase
and Specification; these topics were selected from alfiyahibnumalik ( ) and are topics that
are treated in year two Insaniah University College. Then a post test Achievement test was carried o
ut on both groups with the aim of evaluating the achievement of the students after the tutorial on 20t
h day of April 2013.
The statistical method used
The researcher employed the following statistical method for testing the reliability and validity of th
e test, data analysis and the derivation of answers for research questions and hypothesis:
1. Crombach alpha
2. Descriptive statistics
3. Independent sample t-test
Research Results
In answering the research question What is the impact of using of repetitive question system of tea
ching in the teaching of Arabic syntax in universities? And testing the three hypotheses the emplo
yed t-test for comparisons between the two groups and the comparison between the pre achievement
test and post achievement test. Refer to table 2 below:
Table 2 T-test for comparison between the differences between the mean of the two groups
GROUPS NO. MEAN STANDARD DEVIATION T- TEST
Experimental G. 30 59.47 14.911 0.018
Control Group 30 49.93 15.434
It is clear from the table above that there is statistically significant difference between the two group
s with the result in favour of the experimental group at 0.05 significance which shows the effectiven
ess of the method employed over the traditionalmethod (lecture) in teaching Arabic Syntax.
Analysis of findings
From the result of the study, it is evident that There is statistical significant difference at 0.05 betw
een the mean of the two groups in the pre and post tests results which exposes the differences in th
ILCC 2013
168
e methodology. Based on past studies on similar experimental research on teaching methodologies o
f Arabic syntax, this result is identical with; study (2003) and study (2005) which also reports signif
icant difference at 0.05 or less between the two groups in the post achievement test on Arabic synta
x that favours experimental group.
Reasons for the success of the experimental group over the controlled group
1. The effectiveness of repetitive question method for teaching the students of Insaniah Univer
sity College.
2. The use of repetitive question method aided the student in experimental group to have excell
ent understanding of the subject.
3. The use of repetitive question method made the student in experimental group to be attentive
in the class in anticipation of questions thereby aiding excellent comprehension of the lectures.
In conclusion, the researcher discovered that the experimental group are distinct in their performanc
e because they were motivated to participate actively in the class.
Conclusion
1. The significant contribution of present study
2. The quality and the efficiency of repetitive question method are better compared to the tradit
ional method.
3. The excellence of the experimental group over the controlled group in understanding the Ara
bic syntax.
4. There is no statistical significant difference at 0.05 between the students achievement in the
two groups as a result of the methods applied.
5. There is need to ensure the development of appropriate teaching methodology for Arabic lan
guage especially Arabic syntax.
Recommendations
With reference to the result of the present study, the researcher recommends that:
1. There should be more flexibility in employing other reliable methods other than the traditio
nal method.
2. Repetitive method of teaching should made compulsory in delivery of lectures in Arabic syn
tax for Insaniah University college students because of its effectiveness in aiding excellent understa
nding of the subject.
3. Lecturers should be adequately trained on the repetitive method of teaching for it to be prop
erly used in teaching Arabic syntax.
4. The method of teaching Arabic syntax should be re-examined and the necessary method and
strategies be employed to suit current demands.
5. The Arabic syntax curriculum should be re-examined in Insaniah University.
References
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Islamic Principles to enhance Effective Communication in Distant Education
Hasina Banu Shirin,
Institute of Education (INSTED)
International Islamic University (IIUM), Malaysia
Contact # 00600162245953
E-mail: hasinabanushirin@yahoo.com
Mohammad Serazul Islam
School of Business
University Kuala Lumpur (UniKL), Malaysia
Contact # 0060146238339
E-mail seraz_iium@yahoo.com
Abstract. Islamic principles in education refer to the rules of education which are prepared based on
the teaching of the Holy Quran and Sunnah. Accordingly effective communication in distant educa
tion denotes to exchange information between teacher and student. However, in this recent period it
is rare to find the application of Islamic principles in distant education system. Therefore for enhanc
ing Islamic education Islamic principles should be followed during communication in distant educat
ion. The aim of this paper was to create a conceptual framework based on Islamic principles for effe
ctive communication in distant education. The writers have used Moores (1991) transactional dista
nce theory to produce the conceptual framework for the communication of distant education.
Keywords:Effective communication, conceptual framework, Distant education, Islamic principles
1. Introduction
Effective communication refers to that communication process in which the communicators exchan
ge their messages and information among themselves; and their fundamental goals and objectives ar
e achieved positively. Distant education, on the other hand, is a process of delivering teaching and l
earning using various media sources such as radio, television, video tapes, printed materials, cassett
es, satellite and internet as well.
According to Schmidt and Gallegos (2001) distant education is the system of transfiguring a traditio
nal classroom teaching into a course instructed through different media like CD-ROM, internet and
so on. Working people do not have additional time to come any educational institution but are intere
sted to accomplish higher degree and to enhance their knowledge and experiences. They can get the
educational opportunities from distant education system.
Due to their personal occupation distant learners face difficulties to attend the traditional classroom
as regular students.Tesone and Ricci, (2003) argue, Distance education is suited for busy people w
ho wish to increase their knowledge and skills without giving up jobs, leaving home, or losing inco
me. Furthermore, distant learning in an Islamic educational institution must be assimilated with Isl
amic teaching. Through the educational institutions educators can propagate the beautiful moral teac
hing of the holy Quran and Sunnah. Accordingly, educators of an Islamic institution must have to p
repare curriculum which is more relevant to Islamic principles. The central objective of Islamic edu
cation is according to Halstead (2004, p.522) (i) aiding individual development, (ii) increasing und
erstanding of society and its social and moral rules and (iii) transmitting knowledge.
2. History of communication in distant education
Lecturers and the learners are the animated components for effective communication in distant educ
ation. Therefore, to establish this effective communication between teachers and students media pla
y an obligatory role. Frick (1991) says, The history of human communication, all the way through,
ILCC 2013
170
develops in technology have powered exemplary modification in education. According to Moore (
1991) distant education depends on the effectiveness of the communication system and also the cont
ent of the dialog between instructor and student.
In the United States, in 1873, correspondence study, at present which is known as distant education,
was introduced to encourage independent study. At the beginning it was arranged for all classes fem
ale in the society. Mail, at that period, was the main communication system for teaching and learnin
g. Printed teaching elements sent through mail (Nasseh 1997). Over forty years this mail was the on
ly one process of communication. After that new technologies become the alternative way to comm
unicate between teacher and student. From 1910-1920 visual teaching, including slides and vivid pi
ctures, was added to the repertory of many extension units for communication, but for the most favo
rable technology to communicate was instructional radio (Nasseh B., 1997).
After the Second World War, television was deliberated as the communication system in distant edu
cation. During that time educators considered television instruction is not a system but an instrumen
t to transmit instruction in different places. According to the report of American National University
Extension Association (NUEA, 1969) in 1968 the name of the correspondence study has been chang
ed into the independent study; and for communication this new study system provided various optio
ns such as programmed instruction, telephone, television, videotape and other multimedia. Accordin
gly, during 1970s and 1080s the name of distant education was introduced instead of independence
study.
Nevertheless, Wright (1991) says, In the late 1970s and 1980s cable and satellite were used as a co
mmunication medium for distant education. According to the catalog of the Mind Extension Unive
rsity (MEU, 1991) in the United States, in the fall of 1991, eighteen educational institutions used th
e Mind Extension Universitys (MEU) educational Network as a means of communication to delive
r video course materials for distant education.
In addition, Neeley, Niemi, &Ehrhard, (1998) found that since 1995 in Northern Illinois University
(NIU), one of the first graduate level course was taught through teleconferencing in human resource
development. To them the distant education of Northern Illinois University (NIU) was success not o
nly for being higher education but also teaching the course continuously via teleconferencing.
In previous age, some individuals were unable to attend educational institutions to achieve higher e
ducation because the time of traditional classroom was diverged with their own work schedules. No
wadays, this scenario has been changed. People can acquire their Baccalaureates and Masters degre
es through distant education system which is instructed in two ways. One is through technology and
another way is teaching in traditional classroom. In this present era numerous number of universitie
s even colleges are offering this distant delivery system of education. The age level of 60% distant l
earners is over 45.
3. Communication in Islamic Perspective
The greatest and holy religion Islam inspires mankind to communicate with each other for establishi
ng a good relationship among the Ummah. This communication must be free from any prejudice b
ased on race, color, language, religion, culture or rationality so as to achieve peace, equality, brother
hood and prosperity in this world and salvation and the pleasure of Allah in the hereafter (AbdurRa
hman O. Olayiwola, 2010). In the Holy Quran Allah says,
Invite (mankind, O Muhammad) to the way of your Lord ( i,e. islam) with wisdom ( i.e. with the di
vine Revelation and the Quran) and fair preaching and argue with them in a way that is better (Sur
ah Al-Nahal; 125).
During Mecca period, Prophet Mohammad (peace be upon him) followed verbal communication sy
stem to disseminate the divine teaching received from Allah (swt). Later on, when he (peace be upo
n him) established Islamic Government he (sas) sent many letters to the chief of different provinces.
Through those letters he invited them to accept Islam as their religion and to learn Islamic knowledg
e. Therefore, these two forms of communication helped Prophet Mohammad (peace be upon him) to
propagate all information of Quranic teaching and messages of Islam. So performing a good deed
enhances any relationship or communication (AbdurRahman O. Olayiwola, 2010).Accordingly, re
garding Islamic communication Sarder (1993) cites,
Communication in Islam is intrinsically related to the fundamental Quranic concept of ilm. Often
translated as knowledge ilm is one of the most frequently occurring terms in the Quran.As a defin
ing concept of the worldview of Islam, its influence permeates all aspects of Muslim individual and
societal behaviour (p. 43).
In addition, the actual relationship between Allah (Creator of this universe) and human being is co
nsidered in terms of rububiyya-'ubudiyya(Lord-servant). Hence Allah (swt) teaches human being thr
ough His commanding speech and similarly we as human being learn by paying attention to His vo
ice through the text of the Qur'an and by submitting to his authority (Cornell, 2005). Quran is the
communication medium for teaching and learning between Allah (swt) and human being.
The Holy Quran introduces its own self as Ummul- Kitab sourcebook (13:39). In medieval A
rabic, the term kitab stood for any type of dictated communication, whether it was written or verbal
(Cornell, 2005). According to Cornell (2005) Quran accomplishes its act as the model of divine c
ommunication and it also acts as a type of teachers guide to divine pedagogy (Cornell, 2005). A
l-Quran is the representative of wisdom teaching. As Allah (swt) says,
Recite in the name of your Lord Who created, created mankind from a blood clot; Recite, for your
Lord is the most Noble, the one Who taught by means of the eternal pen (of revelation); Who taught
mankind what it did not know(96: 1-5).He revealed to you the Book (the Quran) and Hikmah (th
e Sunnah), and He taught you that which you did not know (4:113).
Therefore, from the verses mentioned above, it is obvious that there remain two communications m
edia for Allahs teaching namely written scripture, in the form of the revealed text of the Qur'an, an
d the subtextual Book of Wisdom that complements the written scripture (Cornell, 2005). From I
slamic perspective it can be said that Islam has a strong foundation for teaching learning communic
ation.
4. Barriers of Communication in Distant Education
The lecturers of distant education require to teach their courses live and it may be a studio class or
without a studio class. In this way they interact with the students. Consequently it is quite hard to th
e instructors to perceive whether the instruction is successful or not. Opposite phenomenon is seen i
n a traditional classroom because here the lecturers comprehend the needs of the students. Furtherm
ore, for producing an effective teaching learning environment instructors can observe the body lang
uage of the learners, their verbal response even their eye contact. Teachers are able to provide feedb
ack to the disciples to improve their learning.
On the other hand, in a distant class, teachers are unable to contact directly with the students. Even
instructors in interactive distance learning situations face limited interpersonal contact, and must rea
djust the manner in which they assess the response and understanding of students (Bower B. L., 20
01). Consequently students fail to get feedback directly rather they receive indirect feedback from t
he lecturers in delay. Therefore, it can be said that distant learners are separated geographically and
they are also isolated from their own fellows and teachers. They are bound to motivate towards lear
ning on their own. They can be considered as independent learners.
A lot of studies have been conducted on distant education (Bower B. L., 2001), distance learning pr
ograms for career (Tesone, D.V., & Ricci, P., 2003), Classes going the distance.... (Neeley, L., Niem
i, J.A., &Ehrhard, B.J., 1998), Distance Learning: Issues and Concerns of Distance Learners (Schmi
dt K.E. & Gallegos A., 2001). Notwithstanding, it is rear to get even a single article on the effective
communication system of distant education base on Islamic principles. Therefore, the paramount tar
get of this article is to generate a conceptual framework based on Islamic principles to enhance teac
her-learner communication in distant education.
5. Theoretical Framework
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In distant education system distance is considered geographically. However accroding to Moores
(1991) transactional distance theory, distance is not geographical rather it is pedagogical in nature.
This difference of thinking and comprehending must be overcome by all lecturers and learners who
are involved in any educational transaction (Moore & Kearsley, 1996).
Fig. 1: Michael G. Moores transactional Distance Model
Moores (1991) transactional Distance theory is established based on three variables namely dialogu
e, structure and learner autonomy. Here dialogue is the teacher-student communication transaction.
Teacher, in dialogue, deliver instruction to the students and students reply. Moore (1991) thinks dial
ogue as a significant component which is interconnected with the communication quality but not wi
th the communication frequency.
In addition regarding the three elements of Moores transactional Distance theory some scholars co
mments can be mentioned; because they dedicate their utmost exertions to ratify the theory through
their empirical research study. Therefore Crawford (2009) identifies that dialogue is termed as an int
erchange of arguments, activities and concepts between instructor and students. In dialogue the im
portant factor involved is communication (Crawford 2009). According to Saba (2000) novice learn
ers obtain skills and proficiency so their demand for dialogue become high and at that time transacti
onal distance between teachers and students starts to decrease.
Actually communication interaction of teacher-learner differs in accordance of learners educational
background, their knowledge of the course and their depth of curriculum (Saba, 2000). Again she (2
000) argues that transactional distance may vary constantly because it depends on what learners mu
st do to learn; and similarly what lecturers must accomplish to deliver teaching on every topic in tim
e. Moreover, the interactive communication characteristics of Web-based, distance learning enhanc
e student-instructor interaction (dialog), thereby reducing transactional distance (Burgess, 2006).
Structure, on the other hand, is the level of changing course elements to fulfill the specific demand
of some individual learners. According to Moore (1991) structure is a qualitative aspect not quantita
tive. Moreover, teaching elements are included in structure such as: (a) learning objectives, (b) the
matic content, (c) presentations, (d) case studies, (e) animations, (f) exercises, (g) projects, and (h) e
xams (Burgess., 2006). According to Burgess (2006) the flexibility or rigidity of a courses instruct
ional strategies, assessments and learning outcomes are also reflected in structure. It is obvious that
these instructional elements are sometimes strongly organized by the concern lecturers. And someti
mes course elements are totally free for the students to work independently.
In addition, according to Moore (1993) learner autonomy is the scope by which students instead of t
eachers, create the outlines of a learning program. He (1986) also thinks that teacher-centered teachi
ng approach always inspires pupils to be inactive receivers of teaching materials; and without being
thirsty for knowledge students depend on their teacher to get guideline and direction. Therefore, the
teacher-centered teaching approach was the dominating approach in distant higher-education system
because of the shortage of teaching media (Moore, 1993). Nevertheless, today in student-centered te
aching approach, lecturers are seen as counselors and facilitators as an alternative of directors and te
achers (Diaz, 2000). Nowadays, autonomous learners have been provided flexibility to select their l
earning style and this learner autonomous reduces transactional distance.
So according to Moore it can be considered that transactional distance and dialogue are in opposite
part to each other. If anyone of them increases then another one starts to decrease. Similarly the inc
rease of course structure leads to reduction of dialogue and consequently, transactional distance incr
eases (Giossosy, Koutsoube, Lionarakis ,&Skavantzos , 2013).
6. Conceptual Framework
Moores (1991) transactional distance model is only for secular distant education which is totally Isl
amic value free. His all arguments regarding each variable of the model are Western perspectives. H
owever, in Islam all educational models should be Islamic principles based. Consequently, to disse
minate Islamic teaching throughout the world especially the Muslim world Islamic value-laden educ
ational model can guide us properly.
1. Dialogue
Here Dialogue is the extent to exchange arguments and interact between teacher and student. Throu
gh dialogue teacher can provide Islamic teaching on Tawhid and the importance of Ibadah (worship
) to the distant students. The meaning of Tawhid refers to the oneness of Allah (swt). In this univers
e Allah is the only one Whom people should worship. It would be unforgivable sin if anyone believ
es that Allah has partner. This type of belief is known as shirk.
Tawhidic-value laden individuals including teacher and student must have to believe that without th
e will of Allah (swt) no additional authority in this world is able to do anything. There is nothing o
utside the power of Allah (swt) and in a more esoteric sense, nothing outside His Being, for there ca
n not be two orders of reality (Nasar, 1981, p. 7). In other words, Islam is not only a religion but it
is the complete way to lead our entire lives successfully. In distant education system during interacti
on or dialogue with the learners, lecturers can easily spread the tawhidic knowledge to inspire stude
nt to be tawhidic-value laden person.
According to Al-Ghazali the purpose of education is to nurture man who could follow the religious t
eaching and could be assured of salvation and happiness in the life hereafter. Mohd Kamal (1986) s
ays, The aim of education is to get preparation for the safety of both in this world and the world he
reafter. So it is very obvious that Islamic education, instruction and teaching are acts of worship t
o Allah when it is accomplished within the instructions of Islam and planned to gain Allahs Love (
MohamadJohdiSalleh, 2012). Therefore, teacher-student dialogue in distant education must be base
d on Islamic principles through which students could be able to worship Allah (swt) for the betterme
nt of this world as well as Akhirah.
2. Structure
Structure is the extent of altering course components which includes learning objectives, case studie
s, exercises projects and vice versa. In Western education all these teaching elements are prepared b
ased on Western thoughts. But in Islamic education each teaching element is prepared depending on
ilm, aql, ruh, nafs and qlb.
In order to elaborate Islamic educational communication ilm is considered as the most important ext
ent. Moreover, the paramount source of knowledge is ilm. Accordingly, aql, ruh, nafs and qlb are th
e blessing of Allah (swt). Through aql a man can elevate him to the highest status in the creation hie
rarchy. Ruh is the spirit, soul and qlbare the heart of human being. Purified ruh and qlb should be po
ssessed by every individual. These two are also rigorous to achieve worldly knowledge and reveale
d knowledge. Nafs always allure human being to do both right and wrong. A man needs to purify hi
s own self to be a good man.
By obeying Allahs order, performing five times solah, following all the rules of Islamic Monotheis
m people refine their nafs. In the Holy Quran Allah (swt) says, And indeed he fails who corrupts h
is own self (Ash- Shams, verse-10).Therefore for structuring teaching elements educators of Islami
c countries should follow Islamic teaching principles which includes ilm, aql, ruh, qlb and nafs.
1.3. Learners Autonomy
In learner autonomy students are to select the course outline. Western students create this outline ba
se on their secular knowledge. Contrarily, in an Islamic country distant students need to produce co
urse outline based on Islamic knowledge which includes iman and taqwa. Iman refers to the belief i
n Allah (swt), His Angels, His Books, His Messengers and in the Day of Judgment. Iman, in other w
ords, is an individuals secretive matter which reflects his level of relationship with Allah (swt). It i
s a primary pre-requisite state of belief, on which a comprehensive system of values, attitudes and d
evotional rituals is based (Muhammad I. Ayish, 2003).
Taqwa is the supreme individual, moral and ethical capacity to achieve higher level in iman. It neve
r provokes a person to be more hanker after for this worldly desire. It actually, refers to the fair of
Allah (swt) and it also guides a person against of doing any unethical thing. In every spare of a Mus
lim life taqwa should be considered as a reinforcement constituent. So distant students in Muslim co
ILCC 2013
174
untries should select their course outline based on the Islamic principles which includes Iman and T
awqwa.
7. Recommendation and Conclusion
In distant education system educational authorities should follow Islamic principles while preparing
teaching module to disseminate Islamic knowledge. Consequently, distant teacher and students wou
ld be bound to share Islamic knowledge during communication. Moreover Islamic principles in edu
cation enable the teachers and students to be enriched as a good man physically, logically and menta
lly. Islamic principles help to purify all individuals nafs,qlb, ruh and it also assist to heighten our aq
l.
On the other hand, The Holy Quran and Sunnah are the main source of Islamic principles. T
herefore, Islamic teaching principles are designed based on the teaching of Quran and Sunnah. As a
result, while a teacher communicates with distant learners s/he should search the appropriate Islami
c principles relating to the lesson to deliver lecture. Nevertheless, lecturers can play a vital role to pr
omulgate the philosophy of Islamic principles among the distant students. Moreover, it can be consi
dered that teachers are more responsible to assist the students to construct their knowledge based on
Islamic principles. Similarly, a Muslims moral character must be reflected while conducting with ot
her individuals.
To gain Allahs pleasure Ummah should communicate with each other in a good manner. All princip
les of Islamic communication should be followed while communicating with others. We should not
give more priority on the worldly achievement neglecting the ethical and moral teaching of Islam.
We need to be ethical and truthful to others. So to communicate with others Prophet Mohammad (pe
ace be upon him) advises, You must speak the truth for the truth leads to virtue and virtue leads to
Paradise (Al- Bukhari& Muslim). It is praiseworthy that effective communication of any education
al institution or any projects depends on the actual practice of Islamic principles.
In this study the writers have attempted to establish a conceptual framework for the effective comm
unication of distant education based on Islamic principles. Nowadays many educational institutions
have already offered distant education system for those learners who are entirely unable to attend th
e class regularly due to the time confliction with the regular class and their own job. In a Muslim co
untry, distant education should be integrated with the Islamic principles so that educators and learne
rs can exchange their views from the Islamic sense. Without Islamic teaching Muslim individuals e
ducation is incomplete. Therefore Islamic principles have tremendous power to enhance effective co
mmunication in distant education and to fulfill education.
8. References
Al-Quran
Al- Bukhari& Muslim
Al-Ghazali's . On al-Ghazali's view of ethics, see Ihya' Ulum ad-Din, in particular,
vols. 3 and 4.
AbdurRahman O. Olayiwola, (2010). Interpersonal Communication, Human
Interaction and Social Relationship in Islam. Editorial team, Qawareer.com
American National University Extension Association (NUEA, 1969). THE
CONFERENCES AND INSTITUTES DIVISION OF THE NATIONAL UNI VERSITY EXTENSI
ON ASSOCIATION Papers, 1952-1987 (Predominantly, 1966-1977).
Bower B. L., (2001). Distance Education: Facing the Faculty challenges. Online
Journal of Distance Learning Administration, Volume IV, Number II, Summer 2001.State Universit
y of West Georgia, Distance Education Center.
Burgess J. V., (2006). Transactional Distance theory and Student Satisfaction with
Web-based Distance Learning Courses. A Dissertation submitted to the department of Instructional
and performance Technology. The University of West Florida.
Cornell V. J., 92005). Teaching and Learning in the Quran. The Journal of Scriptual
Reasoning. November, 2005. A 2005, Society for Scriptual Reasoning.
Crawford J., (2009). Learning Theories that Encompass Distance Education. Learning
Theories Related to distance Education. Bois State University.
Diaz (2000).Carving a New Path for Distance Education Research. The Technology
Source Archives at the University of North Carolina.
Frick W. T., (1991). Restructuring Education Through Technology, Issue 326
Giossosy Y., Koutsoube M., Lionarakis A., &Skavantzos K., (2013). Reconsidering
Moores Transactional Distance Theory.
Halstead, J. M., (2004) An Islamic concept of education. Comparative Education, 40
(4). pp. 517-529. ISSN 03050068
Ihya' Ulum ad-Din, vol. 2, p. 107-19.
M. Kamal Hassan (1986). Some dimensions of Islamic Education in Southest Asia
inTaufik Abdullah and Sharon Siddique (Eds), Islam and Society in Southest Asia, Singapore: Instit
ute of Southest Asian Studies.
Mind Extension University (1991).The Education Network.
Moore, M. (1991). Editorial: Distance education theory. The American Journal of
Distance Education, 5(3), 1-6.
Moore, M. (1993).Theory of transactional distance. In D. Keegan (Ed.), Theoretical
principles of distance education (pp. 22-38). London: Routledge.
Moore, M., &Kearsley, G. (1996).Distance education: A systems view. Belmont,
CA: Wadsworth.
Nasseh B., (1997). A Brief History of Distance Education.
Nasar, Seyyed Hussein (1981). Islamic Life and Thought. Albany: University of New
York Press.
Neeley, L., Niemi, J.A., &Ehrhard, B.J. (1998). Classes going the distance, so people
dont have to: Instructional opportunities for adult learners. T.H.E. Journal 26 (4), 72-74.
Saba, F. (2000). What is distance education? Defining the concepts and terms which
have characterized the field. Distance-Educator. Retrieved March 21, 2002, from http://www.distan
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Sarder, Ziauddin (1993). Paper, Printing and Compact Disk: The making and
Unmaking of Islamic Culture.Media, Culture and Society 15, 43-59.
Salleh, MohamadJohdi (2012) Islamic principles of administration: implications on
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Distance Learners.Journal of Industrial Technology Volume 17, Number 3 May 2001 to July 200
1 www.nait.org
Tesone, D.V., & Ricci, P. (2003). Distance learning programs for career-
change business educators. Journal of Applied Management and Entrepreneurship. 8(1) 57-65.
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A PRAGMATIC STUDY OF MEDIA WAR AGAINST MILITARY RULE IN NIGERIA
(1989-1999)
Mahfouz A. Adedimeji, Ph.D.,
Department of English,
University of Ilorin,
Ilorin, Nigeria.
mahfouzade2@yahoo.com
madedimeji@unilorin.edu.ng
Abstract
This paper examined the deployment of language as terrible weapons (Akinfeleye, 1988:112) by t
he Nigerian media in fighting military rule over a ten-year period in Nigeria. Based on the speech ac
t theory of pragmatics which construes utterances as not mere statements of truth and falsity but as a
ction-performing linguistic elements, the study highlighted the analysis of thirty headlines of News
watch, Tell and The News magazines in combating the military in the last decade of its rule in Niger
ia. The paper, while overviewing the Nigerian press, military rule and the three magazines, reported
the various speech acts engendering the casting of the various headlines as well as their analysis. It
concluded by affirming the truism of words being mightier than the sword and that language is pow
erful tool which can be used to achieve various results when deployed effectively.
Keywords: press, military, Newswatch, Tell, The News, speech acts, pragmatics.
1. Introduction
In the world of information or the Information Age in which we live today, the kind of langu
age that man uses, hears or reads, shapes, to a surprising extent, the world he lives. According to Bi
rk and Birk (1959:3), mere words can make and prevent wars, create understanding or inflame preju
dice, form constitutions or destroy them, sell shoddy or superior products or ideas, justify mans wo
rst actions or express his highest ideals. There is no substitute for words (Boulton, 1960:8) and it i
s through words that language attains its essence as a symbolic manifestation of experience (Broo
ks, 1964:99).
Language, as used by the media or press, both of which are used interchangeably, has been r
eckoned by Kwame Nkrumah (cited in Akinfeleye, 1988:120) as a weapon of fighting illiteracy, po
verty, ignorance and the essential weapon to overthrow colonialism. It is also considered a powerf
ul tool for construction and a powerful weapon for destruction and defense (Birk and Birk, 1959:1
9). The essence of language lies in its effectiveness in achieving the purpose for which it is meant. T
his paper highlights, using the pragmatic theory of speech-acts, how the Nigerian media, through th
e deployment of language, launched offensives on three military regimes over a ten-year period cul
minating in the successful attainment of democracy in 1999. It focuses on headlines of three news
magazines and concludes that the war of words waged on the Nigerian military regime was largely r
esponsible for the enthronement of democracy in the country.
2.0 The Diachrony of the Media and Military Rule in Nigeria
The media or press, which includes radio, television, wire services, newspapers, magazines and suc
h other channels of communication, evolved in the collection and dissemination of information (Olu
gbiji et.al 1994:117). The press is a pervasive, indispensable aspect of human existence without whi
ch the society will cease to exist; that is, if its members do not interact or share information (Okonk
wo, 1978:117). The primary responsibility of the press is to report accurately and wherever possible
, seek out the truth (Jason, 1997:115). According to Medubi (1999:109), there are four major functio
ns underpinning the responsibility of the press: information dissemination (i.e. reporting news and e
vents), education/interpretation (i.e. giving enlightenment and being a watchdog for the society), ser
vice function (providing services like advertisement, measures against health hazards, etc.) and ente
rtainment function.
While Ekwelie (1978:202-115) discusses the functions of the press from the viewpoints of (a) the ne
ws function, (b) the education-information function, (c) the economic function, (d) the opinion funct
ion and (e) entertainment and other functions, the over-arching duty of the press, as espoused by St.
Louis Despatch (cited in Agbese, 1997a:67-111) is to:
Fight for progress and reform and never tolerate injustice and corruption, always fight demagogues
of all parties, never belong to any party, always oppose privileged classes and public plunderers, ne
ver lack sympathy with the poor, always devoted to the public welfare, never be satisfied with merel
y printing the news, always be drastically independent, never be afraid to attack wrong, whether by
predatory plutocracy or predatory poverty.
The Nigerian press, regarded as the most outspoken volatile, witty and free in black Africa (Arnol
d 1977:113) started with Iwe Irohin Fun Awon Egba ati Ijebu published in 1859 by Henry Townse
nd in Abeokuta. More stables were to join the pioneering Iwe Irohin during the anti-colonial protest
and the nationalist struggles of the first half of the twentieth century. The press, after printing, is th
e oldest of the modern occupations in Nigeria, for there were pressmen before there were lawyers,
doctors, engineers and educationists (Dare, 1985:114).
With Independence attained on October 1, 1960 and the resultant freedom and awareness it brought
about, the Nigerian press blossomed with more newspapers, magazines and radio/television stations
. The birth of the Nigerian press is aptly captured by Golding and Elliot (cited in Oso, 1997:5) that
Nigerian journalism was created by anti-colonial protest, baptised in the waters of nationalist propa
ganda.
The post-independence era with its drastic, unprecedented socio-political changes, public enlighten
ment and economic crisis, heralded the emergence of more stables, all aimed at positive social chan
ge. The Nigerian press is not for the faint-hearted (Akinrinade, 1997:112) though to Alhaji Sheu S
hagari and some others, the Nigerian press is misleading... inept...mischievous...self-serving...illiter
ate (Newswatch, Jan.9, 1989-p.41). It is flamboyant and exuberant, especially with the long militar
y intervention in Nigerian politics, which ceased some fourteen years ago, which made it imbibe the
concept of advocacy journalism, which Oso (1997:10) defines as a practice of journalism where the
practitioner refuses to comply with the canon of the profession which compels him to be a disinteres
ted, impartial or neutral recorder of events, the journalist chooses and defines objectives, goals and
causes which he thinks and in public interest and uses his stories to canvass, champion, project and
defend such ideas.
The practitioners of advocacy journalism, which was the hallmark of the last decade of military rul
e in Nigeria, otherwise known as the radical press, the guerrilla press, the agitational press, the milit
ant press, etc. are, for the purpose of this study, are those journalists in Newswatch, Tell and The Ne
ws who launched psychological offensives, hauled linguistic missiles and deployed words as weapo
ns to confront the military.
Meanwhile, the history of the Nigerian press is replete will the gloomy pictures of suppression and r
epression by the state power, especially the military, which had ruled the country for more than thirt
y of its fifty years independence. The animosity and contempt that the military has for the press sur
faced just three years after its incursion into politics with the overthrow of the first civilian governm
ent. Thus, in November 1969, Daily Times was closed and its principal officers, including its Chair
man, Alhaji Babatunde Jose, were detained. The paper was eventually taken over (or captured) by
the Government in 1976 and the press had to be walking a tight rope.
The trial of the publishers of the African Spark, Dr. Ohanbamu, for an alleged false story against G
eneral Muritala Muhammed, the banning of Newbreed by General Olusegun Obasanjo and the shavi
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ng of the hair of Minerre Amakiri of the Tide on the orders of the then Rivers State Governor, Diette
Spiff, are just a few of the various infractions against the press before the second republic (Onanuga
, 1997:117). The return of the military on December 31, 1983 subjected the press in Nigeria to furth
er stiff legislations and official gagging. The notorious Decree No 4 of 1984 was promulgated by th
e Buhari/Idiagbon regime to protect public officers and the first victims of the decree were Tunde T
hompson and Nduka Irabor of The Guardian, who were jailed for publishing reports on Government
diplomatic postings, in addition to the newspaper being fined N50,000.00.
The assumption of power by General Ibrahim Badamasi Babangida (IBB) on August 27, 1985 mark
ed a watershed in the annals of the military aversion to the free press. Series of harassment, hauntin
g, hunting, detention and intimidation of journalists characterised his government, which allegedly
murdered Mr. Dele Giwa, the founding Editor-in-Chief of Newswatch, through a letter bomb. Whe
n his phantom transition programme was on course, in 1989, IBB ordered the closure of The Guardi
an as it was later done for Concord. Previously, General Babangida had ordered the closure of News
watch for six months, based on argumentum baculinum (one based on force and power), on April 6,
1987.
The trying political period of the early 90s gave birth to Tell and The News, considered the most vi
brant Nigerian newsmagazines which more than any other publication... suffered the most harassm
ent (sic) in the hands of General Babangidas security agents (Olugboji et al. 1994:114), and which
were repeatedly shut in 1993 and 1994. In 1990 alone, at least five media houses were shut down b
y the Nigerian military authorities (Civil Liberty Organisation 1991:43) with scores of journalists ar
rested and traumatised.
The darkest period for the press was witnessed under the regime of General Sani Abacha who seize
d power on November 17, 1993 from the Interim National Government, which was headed by Chief
Earnest Shonekan. Barely a year after General Abacha seized power, more journalists had been arre
sted and detained than the combined number of those arrested in the Nigerian history (Olugboji et al
. 1994:2)
In July 1995, media organisations were asked to register with the Newspapers Registration Board, a
booby trap designed to further gag the watchdog. The order was challenged in court. In 1996, there
were several cases of detention of journalists, though no media house was shut. Six journalists were
incarcerated for alleged complicity in a coup plot and notable were the travails of Godwin Agbroko
of The Week, Eyiwumi Tosin of Vanguard, Richard Akinola and Muyiwa Daniel of Concord and Bu
nmi Aborishade, publisher of the defunct June 12 magazine.
With the self-succession bid of General Abacha and the public denunciation and disapprobation of s
uch as spear-headed by the press, 1997 was the year of Operation Total Crackdown (Headline, Tel
l, Nov. 24. 1997). Tension mounted up and by 1998, it was Murder incorporated (Headline, New
swatch March 2, 1986) again as Abacha Declares War (Headline, Tell August 29, 1994) on the tea
ming opposition. Cases of human rights violation of the journalists and the public at large were legi
on (Civil Liberty Organisation, 1991).
The assumption of power by General Abdulsalami Abubakar, after the sudden death of Gene
ral Abacha on June 8, 1998, brought relief to the besieged press and the embattled public. But the p
ress was too experienced to trust a seemingly unassuming military man. Having paid considerably f
or trusting General Babangida, General Abubakar was closely monitored, carefully attacked and con
tinually hit until he fulfilled his promise to hand over power to a civilian president.
Hence, to a considerable extent, General Abubakar was given the benefit of the doubt and was close
ly tackled and persistently covered by the media missiles until he fulfilled his promise. General Ab
ubakar eventually handed over to the democratically elected Chief Olusegun Obasanjo (on May 29,
1999) who was declared winner of the election, and who assumed power again twenty years after he
also voluntarily relinquished power to a civilian president, in the same manner.
3.0 An Overview of Newswatch, Tell and The News
The quest to use the power of language and its chief function of communication to transform
, or at least, sensitize the Nigerian public, was the impetus behind the establishment of the three ma
gazines sampled for this study. The three media organisation were conceptualised and born during
military regimes. The dictatorial, revolutionary undercurrents which characterise military rule perh
aps informed the militant, radical posture of the magazines in distilling their messages. One thing t
hey all have in common is courage and determination to articulate their views without minding who
se ox is gored in the process. To quote Onanuga (1997:42), the Editor-in-Chief of The News extensi
vely here is considered desirable:
Newswatch, The News and Tell were all established by journalists who were nurtured on the noble i
deals of journalism and who believe that the ideas must not be extinguished by the crushing weight
of the jackboot. Because these journalists cannot contemplate living without journalism, they are st
uck to publishing, jackboot threat, or no jackboot threat. For them, journalism is more than a busine
ss. It is a lifetime vocation. For them, their existence derived from the failure of the government m
edia to live up to their responsibilities to both the people and the government.
Newswatch magazine was founded by four editors, Dele Giwa, Ray Ekpu, Yakubu Muhammed and
Dan Agbese, all seasoned journalists. According to Dele Giwa, they wanted to build a magazine w
hich will be open even to the most radical of ideals, as long as they are positive-and well written (c
ited in Osundare, 1990:118). The magazine hit the news stands on the 28th of January, 1985, settin
g out with a moral mission powered by a human and fearless conscience, to help society grow whil
e itself growing in the process (Osundare, 1990:6). Barely two years after its inception, it became
an international award winning magazine and Dele Giwa had to pay the supreme price for the maga
zines radical views. Even though Newswatch became moderate and less critical of the gover
nment with time, probably for survival sake, it received further harassments under General Babangi
da and the succeeding military regime of General Abacha.
Tell, Nigerias independent weekly, is the quintessence of advocacy journalism, with its characteristi
c use of emotive language, sensational and populist appeal to emotion and public sentiments. The
language is also combative and negative, designed to portray the opposition camp in negative, de
precatory and threatening light (Oso, 1997:11). Its founding fathers are Nosa Igiebor, Dele Omotu
nde, Onome Osifo-Whiskey, Dare Babarinsa and Kolawole Ilori who all decamped from the Newsw
atch to pursue what Adeniyi (2001:111) refers to as a single-minded determination, a course that w
as to confer on it a golden plank of heroism.
The founders of Tell appear to have parted ways with Newswatch to pursue combat journalism from
which the latter was diverting. At its birth on the 18th of April, 1991, its editors thought of a magaz
ine intended to inform, educate and entertain the Nigerians (Adeniyi, 2001:12) and they remained
faithful to their ideals and their integrity. The magazine and its staff suffered untold hardships, hara
ssments, intimidation and persecution from the agents of Generals Babangida and Abacha.
Moreover, The News magazine was founded by the team of Bayo Onanuga, Sani Kabir, Idowu Oba
sa, Dapo Olorunyomi, Babafemi Ojudu, Kunle Ajibade and Seye Kehinde. The magazine, with the
motto, defining the present, shaping the future, began in January 1993 with a mission, according t
o Onanuga (cited in Oso, 1997:11), to
Be dedicated to the promotion of the principles of civilised nationalism, democracy, liberty and the
equality of the various ethnic groups of the Nigerian federation to partisanly neutral on the side of
truth, justice and good government.
The News maintained a defiant, militant position and expectedly stepped on powerful toes w
hich made it face trials and tribulations during the incumbency of General Babangida and General A
bacha administrations. Apart from roping one of its editors, Kunle Ajibade, into a phantom coup sa
ga which was almost fatal, the General Abacha regime saw to the mysterious disappearance of one
of its reporters, Bagauda Kalto. By 1994, a year after it hit the news stands, The News was voted b
y the Commonwealth Press Union (CPU) to have made the most outstanding contribution to the co
mmonwealth paper industry. The magazine, which claims to be fresh, spicy and authoritative, is ab
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out people, reporting their pains and their triumphs.
4.0 Pragmatics and the Speech Acts Theory
The word pragmatics derives from the Greek word pragma which means deed o
r action. The term pragmatics, according to Taylor (1998:118), was first used by Morris (1938) w
ho described it as one of the three (with syntax and semantics) component fields of semiotics. The
main goals of pragmatic theories, as Adegbija (1999:1989) avers, are to explain: how utterances in c
ontexts and in particular situations; how contexts contribute to the encoding and decoding of meani
ng; how speakers and hearers of utterances perceive them; how speakers can say one thing and mea
n something else; and how deductions are made in context with respect to what meaning has been e
ncoded in a particular utterance.
In other words, as Lawal (1997:152) proposes, pragmatic theories must revolve around speech act f
unctions, along with presuppositions, implicatures and mutual contextual beliefs (MCBs). Thus, th
e theory of pragmatics is that of meaning interpretation and pragmatic theories generally explicate t
he reasoning of speakers and hearers (Katz, 1977:19). Scholars and theorists like Bach and Harnish
(1979), Adegbija (1982), Leech (1983), Thomas (1995), Lawal (1995), Kreidler (1998), Osisanwo (
2003), among others, are unanimous in submitting that pragmatics accounts for specific meanings o
f utterances in particular social and situational contexts.
While pragmatics is important as it enables the understanding of the principles and procedures guidi
ng the interpretation of socio-cultural and contextual meanings of utterances, the aim of pragmatic t
heories is to explain how speakers of any language can use the sentences of that language to convey
messages which do not bear any necessary relation to the linguistic content of the sentence used (Ke
mpson, 1977).
The dominant theory of pragmatics is the theory of doing things with words, popularised by Austi
n (1962), one of its pioneering theorists. This is further advanced by Mey (2001:6) who describes th
e theory of pragmatics as follows:
Communication in society happens chiefly by means of language. However, the users of language, a
s social beings, communicate and use language on societys premises; society controls their access t
o the linguistic and communicative means. Pragmatics, as the study of the way humans use their lan
guage in communication, bases itself on a study of those premises and determines how they affect, a
nd effectualize, human language use.
Until the post-humous publication of Austin (1962), philosophers, especially the logical positivists,
had solely construed a sentence as either analytic or empirical. In other words, sentences were verif
ied as either true or false (Thomas, 1995:30) giving verve to what is studied in linguistics as truth co
nditional semantics.
Austin (1962) sets out to challenge this myopic approach to language, asserting that utteranc
es need not necessarily have truth conditions but are rather used to perform actions or carry out actu
al events. Austin differentiates between constatives (sentences that have truth /falsity values) and p
erformatives (sentences that do things with words). A speech act, according to Austin, is the total sit
uation in which the utterance is issued (Thomas, 1995:51). This concept has received further apprai
sal and modification by Austins student, Searle (1969) and a vast army of scholars including Bach
and Harnish, 1979; Adegbija, 1982; Levinson, 2003; Leech, 1983; Thomas, 1995; Yule, 1996; Lawa
l, 1995; Kreidler, 1998; Mey, 2001; Osisanwo, 2003; Odebunmi, 2006; Babatunde, 2007; and Sbisa,
2007.
Mey (2001:95) considers speech acts as verbal actions happening in the world. According to
him, uttering a speech act, I do something with my words. I perform an activity that at best intenti
onally brings about a change in the existing state of affairs. To Yule (1996:134), a speech act com
municates while Babatunde (2007:51) considers the thrust of the speech act theory as a consideratio
n of the social and linguistic contexts of language use. According to Adegbija (1998:44), the core pr
inciple of the speech-act theory is that in uttering a sentence, a speaker, besides making a propositio
n about a state of affairs in the world about the truth or falsity of a proposition, committing himsel
f to a future course of action, or making somebody else do something also performs an action suc
h as requesting, stating, commanding, or informing. The theory is relevant to media discourse as it h
as been found that news reports perform the illocutionary acts of advising, commending, warning, t
hreatening, condemning, highlighting and exposing (Adedimeji, 2005: 133-138).
Searle (1969), building on Austins work, defines speech acts as the basic or minimal units
of linguistic communication and goes further to develop his five illocutionary classes as: Represent
atives or Assertives (the speaker asserts a proposition to be true with verbs like affirm, boast, conclu
de, deny, report, etc.), Directives (the speaker wants the hearer to do something with verbs like orde
r, command, invite, insist, beg, entreat, etc.), Commissives (the speaker commits himself/herself to
a future course of action with verbs like pledge, promise, guarantee, vow, undertake, etc.), Expressi
ves (the speaker expresses an attitude to a phenomenon using such verbs as apologise, appreciate, c
ongratulate, deplore, detest, regret, etc.) and Declarations (the speaker changes the status or reality o
f a person, object or situation solely by making utterances like I name this art work Mona Lisa,
I pronounce you guilty, I sentence you to two years imprisonment (Adegbija, 1982; Odebunmi,
2006; Babatunde, 2007).
Speech acts are actions performed by the use of an utterance to communicate. They are the linguisti
c acts made while speaking, which have some social or interpersonal purposes and pragmatic effects
(Wales, 2001:363). Speech acts can either be direct or indirect. Direct speech acts are utterances tha
t are explicitly expressed. What is meant is clearly stated in direct speech acts. Indirect speech acts,
however, are utterances in which we say one thing and mean what we have said, and also mean anot
her illocution with a different propositional content (Adegbija, 1999:196).
Leech and Thomas (1990:191) see indirect speech acts as cases in which one illocutionary act is p
erformed indirectly, by way of another. While they assert that speakers use indirectness for politen
ess (Leech and Thomas, 1990:194), they cite factors such as clash of goals, instrumental rational
ity, wishing to say and not to say something simultaneously (by using indirectness, the speaker s
ays one thing and implies another, leaving him/herself an out in case of reprisals) and interestingn
ess as the motives for indirectness. A speech act, can also be locutionary, illocutionary and perlocut
ionary. The speech-act theory is considered relevant to literary works as observed by Pratt (1977:86)
thus:
Speech act theory provides a way of talking about utterances not only in terms of their surface gram
matical properties but also in terms of the context in which they are made, the intentions, attitudes, a
nd expectations of the participants, the relatrionships existing between participants, and generally, t
he unspoken rules and conventions that are understood to be in play when an utterance is made and
received.
This study adopts the set of speech acts proposed by Kreidler (1998) which tends to incorporate the
essentials of Austin and Searles classifications. According to Kreidler (1998:182-194), seven types
of utterances are identifiable based on their general purposes.
Assertives are concerned with facts that are subject to empirical investigation such as inform, r
eport, state, etc. (which relate to Searles Representatives). Performatives are those acts that brin
g about a change in the state of affairs they name, a category that corresponds to Austins Performati
ve utterances and Searles Declarations. The felicity condition of this category is that the speaker an
d hearer must be within an extralinguistic institution before they can perform. According to Krei
dler (1998:187), the speaker must be recognised as having the authority to make the statements. T
he circumstances must be appropriate and examples include resign, declare, sentence, exco
mmunicate, etc.
Verdictives, which are just like Austins, are acts in which the speaker makes an assessment
or judgement about the acts of the addressee; for example thank, accuse, rank, etc. Expressi
ves assess or evaluate the actions or failure of the speaker to act or perhaps the present result of t
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hose actions or failures, for instance, apologise, confess, admit, etc. This category differs fr
om that of Searles Expressives because it is restrospective in nature, making an anaphoric reference
directly or indirectly to a previous situation; Searles is basically expressive as the term denotes.
Directives, on the other hand, are illocutionary acts by which the speaker tries to get the ad
dressee to perform some act or refrain from performing an act, the examples of which include co
mmand, direct, charge, forbid, warn, etc. This category corresponds directly to Searles D
irectives and is related to Austins Exercitives. While Commissives are speech acts that commit a
speaker to a course of action, e.g. agree, threaten, decline, promise, etc. which squarely m
atch Austins and Searles Commissives, the last Kreidlerian category, phatic utterances, derived f
rom the concept of phatic communion coined by Malinowski, is used to establish rapport betwee
n members of the same society. Examples here include greetings, farewells, polite formulas, etc. es
pecially when they are neither Verdictive nor Expressive in nature.
All the above classifications are part of the illocutionary act, with which the force of an utter
ance is made. As Kempson (1977:51) puts it, a speaker utters sentences with a particular meaning
(locutionary act) and with a particular force (illocutionary act) in order to achieve a certain effect (p
erlocutionary act) on the hearer. It is noted that the speech acts theory is chiefly the theory of illoc
utionary acts because illocutionary acts are the central objects of study of speech acts (Adegbite,
2000:76).
5.0 Data base
Three magazines namely Newswatch, Tell and The News are sampled. The magazines are se
lected on the basis of their prominence in the respective military regimes and the similarity of their
agenda. Ten headlines from each of the three magazines over a total period of ten years that marked
the highest point of agitation against military rule in Nigeria were selected. The data presented are i
n three groups, A, B and C. Group A data feature Newswatch headlines cast against General Baban
gida (between 1989 and 1993). Group B data constitute Tells fireworks against the government of
General Abacha (1993-1998) while the last group, Group C, presents The News attacks on General
Abubakar (1988-1999).
The following are headlines of Newswatch, Tell and The News:
Group A: Newswatch
(1)a N BEYOND REACH Feb. 13, 1989
(2)b IBBs Surprise Move The Sacking of AFRC Feb. 20, 1989
(3)c The 3rd Republic How New is the Constitution ? March 27, 1989
(4)d Is Judiciary in Retreat ? Jan. 29, 1990
(5)e Count down to 1992 IBB Changes Gear
In the Last Lap of the Race Sept. 10, 1990
(6)f Transition in Turmoil Oct. 26, 1992
(7)g 1993 to Be or Not To Be ? Nov. 16, 1992
(8)h Nation in Darkness Dec. 21, 1992
(9)i Hardship April 19, 1993
(10)j Standstill No Light No Water No Fuel More Strikes May 31, 1993
Group B: Tell
(11)a ABACHA DECLARES WAR The Role Emirs Played August 29, 1994
(12)b ABACHA MUST GO IN 1995- Military Commanders December 12, 1994
(13)c SECRET ACCOUNTS/HOW ASO ROCK LOOTED THE NATION
January 30, 1995
(14)d AMERICA SHAKES THE JUNTA Threatens Tougher Measures
September 11, 1995
(15)e PANIC GRIPS ASO ROCK Military On Red Alert December 4, 1995
(16)f ABACHA Vs ABACHA His Latest Plot to Succeed
Himself Whey He May Fail February, 17, 1997
(17)g THIS REGIME IS GODLESSIts Bound To Fail GANI February 24,1997
(18)h NO WAY FOR ABACHA Nigerians Say Enough is Enough April, 14, 1997
(19)i THE ODDS AGAINST ABACHA Self-Succession Plan in Trouble
June 9, 1997
(20)j OPPOSITION UNITES AGAINST ABACHA
We Can Die For Him... Daniel Kanu March 23, 1998
Group C: The News
(21)a. REVEALED ABUBAKARS AGENDA The IBB Connection 3 August, 1998
(22)b THE IGBO what have They Done ?
A Story of MARGINALISATION 10 August, 1998
(23)c. Guerrilla War in Niger Delta 14 September, 1998
(24)d. ABUBAKAR Agenda Unfolds Why He Cant
Sack Abacha Boys 5 October, 1998
(25)e. Abubakar GIVES UP 18 January 1999
(26)f Return of the CHAGOURIS How Abacha Business
Partners Penetrate Abubakar 1 February, 1999
(27)g. Rumpus in The MILITARY Bamaiyi Battles Abubakar 22 March, 1999
(28)h. THE RUSH TO Share Nigeria Abubakar Under Fire 29 March, 1999
(29)i. Abubakars FINAL COUP Obasanjo, Governors-Elect PANIC 12April, 1999
(30)j. The Soyinka Interview Abubakars Junta DUBIOUS 3 May, 1999
The summary of the analysis (see Adedimeji, 2002) is presented in the following table:
Data Speech Act Type Function
1 Indirect Verdictive Complaining
2 Indirect Expressive Reporting
3 Indirect Directive Questioning
4 Indirect Directive Questioning
5 Direct Assertive Stating
6 Indirect Verdictive Assessing
7 Indirect Verditive Questioning
8 Indirect Verdictive Complaining
9 Indirect Verdictive Complaining
10 Indirect Expressive Reporting
11 Direct Assertive Affirming
12 Direct Directive Commanding
13 Direct Expressive Reporting
14 Direct Assertive Threatening
15 Direct Assertive Threatening
16 Direct Expressive Informing
17 Direct Expressive Condemning
18 Direct Assertive Rejecting
19 Indirect Expressive Reporting
20 Direct Assertive Threatening
21 Indirect Expressive Exposing
22 Indirect Directive Questioning
23 Indirect Expressive Reporting
24 Indirect Verdictive Assessing
25 Direct Assertive Reporting
26 Direct Expressive Exposing
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27 Direct Expressive Informing
28 Indirect Verdictive Assessing
29 Direct Assertive Stating
30 Indirect Verdictive Judging
6.0. Analysis
It is evident from the foregoing summary that indirect speech acts, which are utterances where one t
hing is said but another thing is meant with a different propositional content in addition to what is sa
id (Adegbija, 1999:196) or cases in which one illocutionary act is performed indirectly by way anot
her (Leech and Thomas, 1990: 191) are preponderant during General Babangidas regime (Group A
) constituting 90% while there is only one instance of direct speech acts or (utterances where what i
s meant is clearly stated) or 10% of the data. There are five verdictives, two expressives, two directi
ves and one assertive. In Group B or under General Abacha, however, there is only one indirect spe
ech act (10%) while most speech acts (90%) are direct, the opposite of the Group A result in that cat
egory. There are also five assertives, four expressives and one directive. In Group C or under Gener
al Abdulsalam, the distribution of direct and indirect speech acts is almost even at ratio 6:4 or 60% a
nd 40% respectively. There are also four expressives, three verdictives, two assertives, and one dire
ctive.
The result shows that the press, for certain reasons, did not criticise General Babangida directly. De
liberate attempt was made in the casting of the headlines to condemn him and his government in a s
ubtle way. Except in two instances, the name IBB was not mentioned as a strategy of avoiding conf
rontation, as much as possible. General Babangidas antecedents of allegedly masterminding the m
urder of the magazines founding Editor-in-Chief and his perceived deceptive, often cunning counte
nance, with which he consolidated himself in power, are some of the reasons for this approach of th
e press. There is a strong reliance on using images, colours and pictures which often lend themse
lves to divergent interpretations rather than verbal linguistic codes to achieve what Lascal (cited in
Leech and Thomas 1990:194) refers to an out in case of reprisals.
The language of the press was thus that of doubt and sceptism while his policies, programmes and t
he state of the nation were criticised with his name seldom mentioned in the headlines. It can be gai
nfully surmised that General Babangida was attacked without causing him a lot of damage, for fear
of reprisals, giving his previous antecedent and experience of the sampled press medium, Newswatc
h.
In other words, the press under General Babangidas leadership, within the scope of our data was cri
tical, but not combative, anti-status quo but diplomatic in approach. General Babangidas reaction t
o all these criticisms was repressing the media men and houses as well as forcefully quelling the var
ious protests under his regime. For instance, the January 30 1989 edition of Newswatch presented a
cover story highlighting various wicked measures taken by IBB to further gag the suppressed press.
The headline of the edition was aptly captioned Media Decree chaining the Watchdog.
Though thousands of civilians died under his practical step to subjugate the public including the v
olatile media, General Babangida was eventually forced to step aside from power on 26 August 1
993, replacing himself with Shonekan (Uweche, 1996:119). As such, General Babangida was defea
ted, at a high cost although.
In the Group B data, against what used to be the case under General Babangidas rule, there
was a tendency to directly confront and unapologetically criticise General Abacha. The language of
the press was highly combative, decidedly offensive with direct speech acts that amounted to lingui
stic missiles. The media left no stone unturned in condemning, rejecting, exposing, threatening and
attacking the General based on the perceived lessons of deception and hypocrisy learnt from Genera
l Babangida. Aso Rock, The Junta in respective frequency dominate the headlines where Aba
cha, mentioned in six out of ten instances, is not used, all in an attempt to portray the government o
f General Abacha the way it was perceived, without taking recourse to much indirectness. The text
s of the headlines are powerful and forceful with performative violent verbs selected for pragmati
c effect. It is entailed that given the prevailing autocratic ruthlessness of General Abacha, he should
also be fired by linguistic missiles ruthlessly. It is doubtable if any other Nigerian military leader ha
d been so terribly criticised, condemned and embarrassed by such level of language use.
The reaction of General Abacha to the media warfare and public demonstrations was brutal.
He brooked no dissent in unleashing a Reign of Terror on the nation, as the headline of Tell, 3rd
November 1997 indicates. His tyranny was thus unprecedented as he had the singular honour of
being the worst ruler Nigeria ever had (Uweche, 1996:2). All opposition regardless of being milit
ary or civilian, high or low, was decisively dealt a fatal blow.
However, despite the operation total crackdown launched by General Abacha and the resultant de
aths, closures (of press houses), detention and tortures of the ubiquitous opposition groups, the press
especially did not relent. The psychological warfare of the press arguably occasioned the heart-atta
ck General Abacha allegedly suffered, culminating in his unexpected death. Though, he did not surr
ender willingly to the linguistic power, he had to vacate the seat he so much coveted when he was g
ripped by the hands of death.
Definitely, the press attacks on General Abubakar, as the study shows, were not as serious as
those launched on the previous regimes. Much attention was given to uncovering the various atrocit
ies perpetrated by General Abacha. One can gainfully assert that he was being made to partly pay f
or the sins of his comrades-in-arms, the previous two rulers. There was a tendency, moreover, to mi
ldly criticise General Abubakar so that he would not attempt to truncate his transition programme as
the two Generals before him did. With appropriate word density and face threatening acts, General
Abubakar was covered to achieve the perlocutionary effect of not disappointing Nigerians.
Practically, General Abubakar reacted to the missiles against him by freeing all the political
detainees and others who were unjustifiably incarcerated by General Abacha. He was intimidated e
nough to announce an epoch-making less-than-a-year transition programme. His activities were clo
sely monitored and he made good his promise by conducting elections as scheduled and handing ov
er to a democratically elected president.
7.0 Concluding Remarks
This paper has shown that language to the press is like missiles, bombs and explosives to the
military: they are used to wage war or make peace as the situation warrants. In Nigeria, it is discov
ered, the press had been at the forefront of setting agenda and fighting the cause of democracy, the r
ule of law and justice in compliance with the opinion of Nnamdi Azikwe, one of Africas most gla
morous politicians and journalists, as quoted by Akinfeleye (1988:121) that, there is no better mea
ns to arouse African people than by power of pen and of the tongue.
During the worst decade of military rule in Nigeria (i.e.1989-1999), the scope of this study, headline
s were cast, projected and propelled with force as great and compelling as such could be to awak
en protest against the status quo and force the military out of power. A study of thirty headlines, ten
for each of the regimes of General Babangida, General Abacha and General Abubakar revealed the f
acets of assault on the military through linguistic (and non-linguistic) means by a selection of the Ni
gerian vocal media. It can be deduced that the press set the machinery for the eviction of General B
abangida in motion, practically chased General Abacha out of power (or out of this world) and blac
kmailed General Abubakar into quickly stepping out of power.
It is noted that the media did exceedingly well by fighting the military to achieve democracy
with the force of language deployed through speech acts. It is a challenge as well to the press to all
ow the hard-fought-for democracy to thrive as it should desist from all temptations to advertently or
inadvertently provide a springboard or excuse for military overthrow of the civilian government. T
he greatest of such temptations is the prevalent cancer of corruption which not only threatens the
credibility of the press but also its capacity to perform its constitutional roles and which has cau
ght the attention of serious-minded professionals (Aiyetan, 2002:112). It is believed that the rot i
n the media should be treated accordingly, at least, for the sake of democracy while truth should be i
ts hallmark, not lies in its various ramifications (Adedimeji, 2013). Lastly, the synopsis of this stud
ILCC 2013
186
y can be presented thus, in the words of a former Senate President and current Secretary to the Gove
rnment of the Federation, Anyim Pius Anyim, with whom we agree that:
The power of the media is, therefore, enormous and far reaching since the colonial era until this tim
e, government has seen the media as sometimes helpful, sometimes dangerous but always an indisp
ensable institution for social control (Sunday Punch, 2002:12).
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Adegbija, E. 1998. Towards a Speech-act Approach to Nigerian Literature in English In
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Eritrea: Africa World Press, Inc. pp.41- 56.
Adegbija, E. 1999. Titbits on Discourse Analysis and Pragmatics. In Adegbija, E. ed. The
English Language and Literature in English. Ilorin: MEL Department, University of Ilorin. pp. 186-
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Adegbite, W. 2000. Pragmatics: Some Basic Principles and Procedures. In Babajide, A. O.
ed. Studies in English Language. Ibadan: Encrownfit Publishers pp. 60-80.
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UJ Lagos Council and Friedrich Ebert Foundation. pp.63-68.
Akinfeleye, R.A. 1988. The Youth, Education, Mass Media and Nation Building. In
Nnolim, C. E. ed. The Role of Education in Contemporary Africa. New York:
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Akinrinade, O. 1997. Liberty is not Licence. In State of the Media 96.pp.21-24.
Arnold, G. 1977. Introduction. In State of the Media 96. Lagos: NUJ. Lagos State
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Austin, J. L. 1962. How To Do Things With Words. 2nd ed. Massachusetts: Harvard
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Babatunde, S.T. 2007. A Speech Act Analysis of Christian Religious Speeches In O
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Improving Young Learners Vocabulary using Benteng-bentengan
Nisrin Adelyna Darayani
University of Muhammadiyah Malang
Corresponding Author: Nisrin Adelyna Darayani, University of Muhammadiyah Malang,
nisrinadelyna@gmail.com
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract.
It is widely believed that one of the substances of learning English is vocabulary. Not only becomes language componen
ts, also, it is as the basic of language. Structuring vocabulary to young learners is important because it sets up a strong b
asic in their mind to learn understandable vocabulary as it should be known by their ages. Besides, teaching to young le
arners is not that easy as we thought.
There has been considerable difference in teaching young learners and adult learners. Despite being tolerance, the abilit
y to perceive learning strategies and teaching media to ease teaching and learning process is needed for teacher. It is und
eniable that media plays important role to clarify the material to what the teacher explained, by means; it becomes the to
ol to have interaction between teacher and students.
Deciding a best media to teach young learners is not easy. A best chosen media is got by recognizing the characteristics
of young learners. One of alternative medias chosen using in this teaching vocabulary is Benteng-bentengan, one of I
ndonesia traditional games that has replaced by the existence of modern games in this era. In addition, Indonesia traditio
nal game is a game that plays together by people in a certain place. Moreover, it has numerous function such as to entert
ain and as one of instruments to keep up the tradition.
This traditional game can be played as teaching media in class, especially in teaching English as foreign language.
By playing this game, young learner not only enjoys the game, but it gives additional benefits for them such as to
gain their creativity, build up their togetherness and sympathy to other and also the use of language can be applied
as media to interact with their friends. Therefore, this media can be the alternative chosen to teach young learners
vocabulary.
Keywords: vocabulary, young learners, traditional game
Background
Considering the important role of English as widely spoken language, teaching English should have been tau
ght as early as possible to the children. Moreover, teaching young learners is not as easy as adult. The approp
riate technique in teaching English will help teachers to teach them.
According to Willis and Slattery (2004) said that one of the most stimulating techniques in teaching English
vocabulary is games; besides, the basic of teaching to young learners must be interesting and enjoyable. In ad
dition, not only entertaining and interesting, the chosen games as the technique in teaching English is conside
red to be implemented in all language skills as stated by Ersoz (2000).
There are many kinds of games to teach young learners. Here, traditional game is chosen as the technique in t
his research. Traditional game is a game that is passed to one generation to another in a particular culture. On
e game should undergo the test of time and its generation. One that survives will be passed for a long time (S
eagoe, 1971 in Hurlock, 1978.p.322). It is therefore, the researcher choose Benteng-bentengan to be impleme
nted as one of games in learning English.
This research has done at third grade students of SD Muhammadiyah 6 Dau where one of schools that condu
ct young learners education. Through this research is expected to get an alternative ways in teaching and im
proving young learners vocabulary mastery.
Theoretical framework
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Giving instruction and skills in a classroom with the materials and use the approach, method, strategies and t
echnique to create the class effectively are called by teaching. In teaching, there is sequences of activities tha
t have the goal and planned well (Herrel and Jordan, 2004).
In teaching learning process, teachers usually prepare the teaching approach, strategy, method, and technique
.
Anthony (1963 in Brown, 1994:48) stated that approach is a set of assumption dealing with the nature of lang
uage, learning, and teaching. Brown (1994:51) stated that theoretical position and beliefs about the nature of
language, the nature of language learning and the applicability of both to pedagogical settings are called by a
pproach.
Herdian (2012) stated that teaching strategy is a kind of learning activity which has to be done by teachers an
d students to get the teaching goal effectively. There are two kinds of strategy from the way to deliver it; they
are inductive and deductive teaching strategy as mentioned by Senjaya (2008, in Herdian, 2012).
Teaching method is a way to implement the teaching strategy in a real activity (Herdian, 2012). He stated so
me kinds of method. They are speech, discussion, demonstration, simulation, laboratory, brainstorming, deba
te, and symposium.
Games are used by the researcher to teach English vocabulary at third grade students. Games are fun and chil
dren like to play them. And games add variation to a lesson and increase motivation by providing a plausible
incentive to use the target language. Remember that for many children between and twelve years, especially t
he youngest; language learning will not be the key motivation factor. Games can provide useful to the childre
n.
Research methodology
1. Research design
This research used experimental research one group pretest-posttest design to investigate whether or not teac
hing English games improves students vocabulary ability.
pretest treatment posttest
O
1
X O
2
Before giving any treatment to the students, they are given the pretest to know whether they have known the
kinds of profession and the activities in English or not. After getting the score from the pretest, the researcher
gave a treatment that is teaching English vocabulary using games technique. In the instruction, the students
played a game which is Benteng-bentengan using cards to help them. To know the impact of the games techn
ique in teaching English vocabulary mastery at third grade of SD Muhammadiyah 6 Dau, students are given t
he posttest which is the same questions as the pretest questions.
2. Research method
The instrument for data collection is written test that consist of 15 questions, that is multiple choice and matc
h form. The material is about the kinds of profession and the activities. Students are expected to mention kin
ds of profession and the activities.
3. Research findings
1. The condition of the students English vocabulary mastery at third grade students of SD Muhamma
diyah 6 Dau
The result showed that the students ability in English vocabulary is low. It reflected from the mean students
pretest score. They were in trouble to answer the questions. Furthermore, there are many students got the lo
w score; besides, some got high score. It shows the students ability in English vocabulary mastery. Not only
in multiple choices but also in matching the word, they got difficulty. In doing this pretest, some of them ofte
n asked about the questions. They did not know what the meaning of it.
2. The process of teaching English vocabulary mastery at fourth grade students of SD Muhammadiyah
6 Dau
This research used games technique, since it makes the young learners interested in learning a new English v
ocabulary and will be reached the goal of instruction easily. By doing game will make motivate them learnin
g English vocabulary and it provides the stimulus. While teaching English vocabulary mastery at third grade
students of SD Muhammadiyah 6 Dau, they were happy. In implementing the games, there are some instructi
ons followed by students. They are spelling the vocabulary and reading questions from the cards when playin
g the game. The cards are consisted some questions that should be asked by students to their friends. In doing
the games, the researcher explained how to play the games, and then the researcher gives an example for hel
ping the students are more understand how to play the games. After the students are ready to play, the researc
her gives them an opportunity to play the game which has done twice. After few a days, the teacher gave the
same questions as the pretest, for evaluating the effect of the games in improving the students vocabulary as
the posttest.
3. Data Analysis
Researcher has to analyze them in order to find out whether teaching using games improves students
vocabulary mastery or not. Here, a researcher needs to use t-test. This test is used to distinguish the effect of
a method for pre-test and post-test, and also to check whether the Null hypothesis is accepted or not
(Sudjiono, 2006:278). The level of significant or used was 5% because it is usually used in educational
research, and a form for t-test would be used as below.
Where:
t = the difference between two means
1
= average or mean of post-test score
2
= average or mean of pre-test score
N
1
= sum of students who take post-test
N
2
= sum of students who take pre-test
After the researcher found the t-value, she compared it with t-table. According to Levin (1999:25), the compa
rison is done by using the selected level of and the appropriate degree of freedom, df = N
1
+N
2
-2. Then, the
researcher saw the result on the table. If the t-value
is bigger than t-table value means that teaching using ga
mes does not improve students vocabulary mastery. On the contrary, if the t-value
is smaller than t-table, tea
ching using games improves students vocabulary mastery.
Besides using t-test, the researcher also used SPSS program to count t-value. Based on Laboratorium Kompu
ter UMM module, the Ho is accepted if t-value is between t table and +t table, and Ho is rejected if t-val
ue is not between t table and +t table.
4. Displaying the data
The following are the data of the score obtained from the pretest
No. Name Score
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Almas Nila E
Adam Dwi A.D
Ahmad Fadhil A
Balqis Saraja
Basti Mahbub Ibrahim
Cindy Claudia
Dimas Mahendra
Erieck Fajar Airlangga
Ghandi Miftakhul Ilmia
Hamdan Ashari
Ilham Nurhakim
Khusna Nur Lailatus S.
M. Bayu Prasetyo
M. Ilham Hidatullah
20
25
30
20
35
40
45
30
45
50
30
40
45
55
ILCC 2013
192
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
M. Nauval Amrullah
Moch. Ferlanda Maulana
Moh. Akmal Hakim
Moh. Iqbal Ashidiq
Moh. Izdiar Al Nafisi
Muh. Fakhruddin
Netto Angkasa Hayuningrat
Naufal Imaduddin
Nidaul Harmain Al Makzum
Qathrunnada Salsabila
Rizky Ramadhani Patawari
Selvi Nur Afiyah
Shofiyyah Rikhadatul Aisy
Yovani Kistiara Yanti
35
50
50
55
30
45
55
30
55
35
55
40
40
35
SUM 1120
Mean Score 40
Sum of Squared of Pretest (SS
2
)
Value
The pretest mean-score was used to find the sum of squared of pretest value or SS
2
value which would be us
ed in finding t-value. The SS
2
value was 3150.
The following are the data of the score obtained from the posttest
No. Name Score
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
Almas Nila E
Adam Dwi A.D
Ahmad Fadhil A
Balqis Saraja
Basti Mahbub Ibrahim
Cindy Claudia
Dimas Mahendra
Erieck Fajar Airlangga
Ghandi Miftakhul Ilmia
Hamdan Ashari
Ilham Nurhakim
Khusna Nur Lailatus S.
M. Bayu Prasetyo
M. Ilham Hidatullah
M. Nauval Amrullah
Moch. Ferlanda Maulana
Moh. Akmal Hakim
Moh. Iqbal Ashidiq
Moh. Izdiar Al Nafisi
55
65
70
75
65
70
85
65
50
55
50
40
60
55
60
60
50
75
65
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
Muh. Fakhruddin
Netto Angkasa Hayuningrat
Naufal Imaduddin
Nidaul Harmain Al Makzum
Qathrunnada Salsabila
Rizky Ramadhani Patawari
Selvi Nur Afiyah
Shofiyyah Rikhadatul Aisy
Yovani Kistiara Yanti
50
70
55
65
75
75
80
85
50
SUM 1775
Mean Score 63.39
Sum of Squared of Posttest (SS
1
) Value
From the mean score, the sum of squared of posttest value or SS
1
value result was 3652.679.
t-TEST AND t-TABLE CALCULATION
t-test Value
t Table
= 5% = 0,05
df = N
1
+N
2
-2
df = 28+28-2
df = 54
t-table value = 1,684
t-TABLE DISTRIBUTION
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194
The Result of t-test
The mean of pretest score was 40 and posttest score was 63.39. The SS
1
value was 3652.679 and SS
2
value
was 3150. From the result of pretest and posttest and also the SS value above, the researcher found the result
of t-value. The t-value was 7.800 which was bigger than the t-table. The t-table was 1.684, with the level of s
ignificant or 5%. The calculation of t-test and t-table was stated above, and the t-table distribution was state
d above.
From SPSS result, the t-value was found -7.916 and t-table was 2.05 with the level of significant 5% and df
was 27.
Conclusions and suggestions
1. Conclusions
From the analysis result, this research showed that teaching English using game improved students vocabula
ry ability at SD Muhammadiyah 6 Dau. It is shown by the t-value which was bigger than t-table with level of
significant 5%. Moreover, the t-value in SPSS was not between t table and +t table.
The improvement was significant which was shown from the result of pretest mean score and posttest mean s
core. The mean score of pretest was 40 and the mean score of posttest was 63,39.
2. Suggestions
After finding the result of the study, the researcher gives some suggestions as below.
Teacher had to be creative to create and select the appropriate technique to teach English for young learners.
Teaching using games motivates students more in learning English.
The use of English in daily communicative will help students easily learn.
References
Slattery, Mary and Willis, Jane. 2009. English forPrimary Teachers. New York: Oxford University Press.
Herdian. 2012. Apa Perbedaannya: Model, Metode, Strategi, Pendekatan dan Teknik Pembelajaran.(http://he
rdy07.wordpress.com/2012/03/17/apa-perbedaannya-model-metode-strategi-pendekatan-dan-teknik-pembela
jaran/) Retrieved on 15 June 2013
Herrel, Adrienne and Jordan, Michael. 2004. Fifty Strategies for Teaching English Language Learners. New
Jersey: Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall.
Levin, Irvin P. 1999. Relating Statistics and Experimental Design, an Introduction. Iowa: Sage Publication, I
nc.
Mutiah, Lutfatul. 2007. The Use of Games and Songs in Teaching English to the Fourth Grade Students at M
I AlGhazali Panjerejo Rejotangan Tulungagung. Unpublished thesis. Malang: UMM.
Sudijono, Anas. 2006. Pengantar Statistik Pendidikan. Jakarta: PT. Rajagrafindo Persada.
ILCC 2013
196
MASTER OF TEACHER WEBSITE (MOTWEB):
E-LEARNING BASED APPLICATION AS A SYSTEM TO
IMPROVE TEACHERS COMPETENCY TO DEVELOP
TEACHERS QUALITY IN INDONESIA
Tika Novita Sari
1
, Wahyu Andi Saputra
2
and Tri Hardiyanti
3
1
Dept of Informatics Engineering Education, Yogyakarta State University
2
Dept of Informatics Engineering Education, Yogyakarta State University
3
Dept of Elementary School Teacher Education, Yogyakarta State University
Corresponding Author: Tri, Hardiyanti, Dept of Elementary School Teacher Education, Yogyakarta State
University, email address: triacheery@gmail.com/ tria_sabanewmail@yahoo.com
____________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract. In Indonesian Law number 14 year 2006/ chapter IV section 10, it is stated that teachers competency consi
st of pedagogy, personality, social, and professional aspects that were gotten from profession education. Those compete
nces are really important to improve the education quality in Indonesia. As known that the condition of education in Ind
onesia hasnt showed a significant increasing. According to Fasli Jalal (2008), the Board of Director of High School, al
most a half of 2,6 million teachers in Indonesia are considered that they havent eligible yet for teaching students in clas
s. Their qualifications havent met the 4 aspects that have to be qualified. Master of Teacher Website (MOTWeb) is a m
edia to improve teachers competency and also used as a media for teachers certification. The aim of this research are 1)
to design and make the MOT Web as a learning media for teacher, 2) knowing the coincidence and appropriateness of
MOT Web as an e-learning media to improve the competency of teacher and as an instrument test for teachers compete
ncy. The research method in this research is Research and Development method. The procedure in this research based o
n 10 Step and Development Model from Borg & Gall (1983: 775). Then we simplified this method into 4 steps, those
are : (1) Need Assessment, (2) Model design, (3) Implementation, and (4) Validation. This media were made by Moodle
, an open-source framework. There are some features in this website such as forum, e-books, exercises, and certificatio
n exams. In validation, there are Alpha Testing and Beta Testing. In Alpha testing, the authors do interview to 2 lecturers
. In Beta testing, this system was tested to 18 users and most of them said that this system is very useful and helpful wit
h appropriateness percentage is 70%. MOTWEB is really appropriate to be used as an e-learning media to increase teac
hers competence and as instrumental test for teachers qualification. The existence of MOTWEB gives the user much a
dvantages as an e-learning media to improve the competence of teacher, especially in pedagogic.
Keywords: MOTWEB, E-learning, Teacher Competence, Indonesian Teacher Quality
Introduction
In Indonesian Law number 14 year 2006/ chapter IV section 10, it is stated that teachers competency are
consist of pedagogy, personality, social, and professional aspect that were gotten from profession education.
Those competences are really important to improve the education quality in Indonesia. As known that the
condition of education in Indonesia hasnt show a significant increasing. According to Fasli Jalal (2008), the
Board of Director of High School, almost a half of 2,6 million teacher in Indonesia are considered that they
havent eligible yet for teaching the student in class. Competence does not satisfy qualifications as described
above. In fact, the teacher is the most important factor in improving the quality of education. As has already
been implemented in developing countries that the quality of education is much higher than Indonesia, the
ideal teacher by Anies Baswedan, Ph.D in Jodhi (2011) said that a teacher must master two basic concepts,
those are pedagogy and leadership. In terms of mastery of pedagogy, he said that teachers today must be
always be up-to-date on the development of science pedagogy.
Regulation of the Ministry of Education and Head of BKN number 03/V/PB/2010 and Number 14 Year
2010 dated May 6, 2010 which became effective on January 1, 2013, explained that the terms of promotion /
professorship of III / b to rank higher position shall implement self-development activities (training and
teacher collective activities) and scientific publications / innovative work (scientific papers, making props,
learning tools, technology work / art) .The self development in terms of this study, in line with the
Regulation of the Minister of National Education of the Republic of Indonesia Number 16 Year 2007 on the
Standards of Academic Qualifications and Competencies Teachers. The law states that teachers should be
able to take action to improve the quality of reflective learning by doing research.
On the other side, the development of Internet and technology in the world is very quickly. Indonesia is a
country consuming this technology and the internet to remote corners of the country-has been touched by
this progress. The development of the internet is being one of the main considerations for the government in
the implementation of teachers competency test Uji Kompetensi Guru (UKG) by online tests. UKG held
from 2012 it became the first step for the government to implement development programs and teacher
professional development in the form of continuing professional development activities. However, the
implementation of UKG is still lacking. Syawal Gultom (Gandi Makitan: Tempo 03/08/2012), said the
national average value of the results of calculations per July 1, 2012 was 47.84. This value is still considered
below the standard expected. In addition, the implementation of constraints in terms of implementation UKG
there are some teachers that is one of Junior High School teacher, discloses in using a computer that instantly
makes mental down because she is not familiar with the test online. (Dara in Hilda: 2012)
Therefore, the authors propose the concept of "MOT Web" to overcome the problems of teachers in
Indonesia by providing an online system that can be accessed in order to enhance teachers' pedagogical
competence and professionalism to every teacher in Indonesia. This system is an online web system. Each
teacher can obtain reference materials related to the research activities and questions to test the ability of
teachers to instantly find out how much a user (teacher) can encourage to constantly learn.
Goal of the Research
The aim of this research are 1) to design and make the MOT Web as a learning media for teacher, 2) knowing
the coincidence and appropriateness of MOT Web as an e-learning media to improve the competency of teac
her and as an instrument test for teachers competency.
Methodology
Research Design
The method that used in this research is the design approach or Research and Development method.
Procedures that used in the development of this software as it has been developed by experts and include 10
step models of the development of Borg and Gall (1983:775), which we simplify in 4 steps. In line with the
research and development of the model above, the procedures to be done in developing this MOT Web is the
steps: (1) needs analysis/need assesment, (2) design of the model, (3) Implementation, (4) and validation.
Need Analysis
The stage of the analysis phase that is to identify and obtain data on the needs what is required in the design
and implementation of systems and design thinking to the next. According to Pressman (2002:319), the
analysis is a process of discovery, improvement, and specification. In this stage, the identification of the data
required for system development. The steps that are taken in the analysis phase include: a) the analysis of the
technical specifications, that is: what are the analytical capabilities needed by the system, b) analysis of the
system, that is: an analysis of the performance of the work will be performed by the system being designed
or built.
Model Design
Architecture
The architectural design is an illustration for explaining the structure and the program modules represent
relationships between modules.
b. Interface
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Interface design is the design software interfaces in order for the user easily understand the purpose of the
software while the software is running as it should. With the appearance of the user-friendly interface, users
do not need to go too far to understand the programs that are difficult to understand, but the user interface,
they can run software more easily. Design flowchart is a picture of how these processes are derived from
user input will be processed in a software system.
Implementation
Implementation is the stage the modules translate the results into the design of the application form by using
a specific programming language and incorporate them into a more complete unified system. The steps that
must be done in the implementation are: (a) collect and choose the modules that will be translated into a
programming language, (b) determine the required programs to support programs that have been designed,
(c) translating procedures, subroutines and functions -function of the modules into the programming
language, (d) unify procedures, subroutines and functions of modules that have been made into the unity
program.
Validation
Software testing is the process of executing the program to find errors. Before the program is applied, then
the program must first free from errors. Therefore, the program should be tested to find errors that may
occur. Testing is done for each module and continued with testing for all the modules that have been strung
together. Testing in field research techniques includes Alpha Test and Beta Test. Alpha Test is the process of
testing and revision of the program took place at the time of creation Software. This process includes an
assessment of the aspects of the media and programming aspects. It required an expert media and
programming experts who can objectively assess the software that has been created
Object Research
Object of research is making Master Of Teacher Website (MOT Web). This website development is to
improve the professional competence of teachers and pedagogic competence in particular. The target that we
use in this research is a continuity of the program students study Primary School Teacher Education,
Yogyakarta State University.
Data Collection Techniques
Collection techniques in this research use two stages. First, use the measurements of program functions in
accordance with a predetermined plan. Second, the media expert and matter expert related with precision
manufacturing, software benefits for teachers or questionnaire to assess the feasibility of software Mot Web.
Data Analysis
Data analysis techniques for the first phase is described as the result of engineering information systems are
implemented in software, and the level of validation and reliability testing program. The second phase, also
uses descriptive qualitative, that explained about the feasibility of the product to be implemented.
Furthermore, the data that is processed communicative with the expected number and percentage obtained.
The feasibility of measurement for matter experts and media experts are as follows
Eligibility percentage (%)
Xy
Xt
X 100%
Where Xt is the score of eligibility; Xy = maximum score;% = percentage of viability. The collected data
were analyzed by qualitative descriptive analysis techniques disclosed in the frequency distribution and
percentage of category rating scale that has been determined as a percentage of the presentation, then draw
conclusions about each indicator.
Results and Discussion
Development Procedure
This website was made by using Moodle framework. There are some function that can be used from Moodle
library, they are forum, course, resource, quiz, and agenda
Testing Procedure
The testing procedure in this research was tested to media expert and content expert. Media testing is testing
process and revision to the program during the producing. It includes assessment of the appereance. Thats
why this testing need an expert who can assess objectively. Content testing is related to the content, those are
the material and quize.
The second testing is tested to the student of Elementary School Education from Yogyakarta State University.
The reason why we choose this student is because they are involved in education and aware to technology d
evelopment.
The result
Architectural Design
MOT Web
Forum
Soal
Materi
Chat
Upload
Berdasar mata
pelajaran
Berdasar mata
pelajaran
Picture 1. Architecture Design
The description of every menu are:
1. Forum
Used for interaction between teacher and each other teacher. In this forum, teacher can deliver their
feeling, complaint, material, or publication of their research.
2. Exercise
This website has some various kind of exercise. Those are competence tes, science, social,
Indonesian, Math subject. There also duration or time period during the test. And after the test is
over, this website will show the correct answer for them.
3. Material/content
This menu will provide some material of every subject for teacher. This menu also will show
announcements, news, calendar, and guidance for research.
The login form divided into 2 forms, those are general visitor and member. The general visitor is a
visitor who doesnt registered as a member. The member are teacher who have been registered by
the admin. The differences content between general visitor and member are the material, quiz,
content, and news are more specific and comprehensive.
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Picture 2. General Visitor Login Form Picture 3. Teacher Login
Interface
Picture 4.Interface design of website Picture 5. Procedur
Implementation
Implementation is applying the design of the step before. This website was made by using an open source L
MS (Learning Management System) from Moodle . the step of making this website are:
Seeking the content and material
Purchasing the domain of the website
Purchasing the domain name
Installation Moodle on our webhosting
Configuration over internet
Choosing theme
Uploading the material
Maintenance
Here is the result:
Picutre 6. The interface of MOTWEB
After the website is ready, then the website must be tested by developer (including all aspect, unction, and us
ability system). The result of the test
Result of Validity Test
Media Expert Data
Num. Name NIP Expertise
1. Yuniar Indrihapsari, M.
Eng
198206212010122002 Interactive Multimedi
a
2. Unik Ambarwati, M.Pd 19791014 2005012001 Learning Strategies
Matter Expert Data
Num Nama NIP Expertise
1. Ikhlasul Ardi Nugraha,
M.Pd
198206232006041001 Elementary schoo
l science teaching
Feasibility Test Results Pictures
Num. Component Assesment
1 2 3 4 5
Material aspects
1. Suitability competency test materials with grille competenc
y test
2. Conformity with subject matter competence pedagogy
3. Suitability of the material with the development of professi
onal competencies
4. Substance suitability website has been created with the Min
istry of National Education website
Aspects of information clarity
5. interface design
6. Clarity of instructions for using the menu
7. Grouping information for each field category
8. Clarity of exam questions and results are displayed
Aspects of usefulness
9. Use of the website for the development of pedagogical com
petence
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10. Use the website as a means to exercise primary school teach
er UKG
11. The use of websites to measure the ability of teachers in wo
rking.
12. Use the website as a means of exchanging information thro
ugh the establishment of a forum.
From the test results and retrieval of data can be analyzed the performance and quality of media. In
the alpha stage of testing, no revision is obtained from the questionnaire design experts and media.
Category:
16% - 32% = do not deserve to be tested
33% - 49% = less worthy to be tested
50% - 66% = good enough to be tested
67% - 83% = worth to be tested
84% - 100% = very feasible to be tested
Media Expert 1:
Eligibility percentage (%)
Xy
Xt
X 100% =
60
42
X 100% = 70 % % (Worth to be tested)
Media Expert 2:
Eligibility percentage =
60
44
X 100% = 73,33 % (Worth to be tested)
Matter Expert :
Eligibility percentage =
55
41
X 100% = 74,54 % (Worth to be tested)
Num Critic from Media Expert and Matter Expert
1. Text / font is too small (Log in, etc)
2. Be Focused on material
3. Fulfill the information
4. The menu that is using English to be translate into Indones
ia language.
Individual Testing
The external testing are taken from 3 random respondents from students of PGSD UNY that will checking th
e function and usability. The researcher provides online questionnaire.
Num. Name NIM PKS PGSD
1. Murwantana 10108247051
2. Fika Chilmi R 10108247071
3. Yustina Martini 10108247063
The material of the questionnaire are:
Num. Question Result
1. Usefulness of the webs
ite
The website is very useful, very helpful in sharing a
nd information-exchaning between each teacher.
2. Content The content are need to be improve
3. Quiz The quizzes are interesting and developing
4. Material The material is still need some innovation
5. Forum Chat, forum, and news are interesting and developin
g 6. Chat
7. News
8. Critic and Suggestion Need some revision and development in order to hel
p the teacher competency
Need some new innovation
The material need to be enhanced
Discusstion
Based on expert analysis of data media and design experts above this website earn approppriateness percentage for 70%
that means this website is approppriate to be used as an e-learning media. On the second testing, from different expert, t
hey said that this media need some revision on bigger font size. Beside that, the experts are suggested us to enhance th
e material. And on this second testing, the approppriateness percentage is increasing to 73,33%.The third testing is mate
rial testing. The expert suggest to translate the English menu to Indonesian. Other than that, this website need some extr
a help menu to give more information for the user. The approppriateness percentage is 74,54% that means apprippriate t
o be used with some revision. External testing is tested to 3 random respondents. And the result are: this website is quite
useful, and the quiz is interesting. This competence test is an extra feature which become a good point for this website.
The forum and chat menu also interact the users. Some critics that gotten from them is that this website need to enhance
the amterial and concerning the teaching proccess such as method, strategy, nad model.Based on tha dat analysis, Mas
ter Of Teacher Website is approppriate to be used with some revision, especially enhancing the material so that this we
bsite can be used as a media that will increase teachers competence.
Conclution
From the results obtained by means of making the following conclusions:
Master Of Teacher Website creation (MOTWeb) using software engineering principles. The first phase of
the needs analysis, design, implementation (coding), testing, and maintenance.
Media and material test results of three lecturer experts showed a percentage of 70% and 73.33% on the test
medium and 74.54% on test material. This media expert test results indicate that the tested media worthy and
fit for use in some revision course with content.
References
Aboedhari, H.M. (1985). Strategi Pusat Pengembangan Guru dalam Meningkatkan Mutu Pendidikan Guru
Tenaga Teknis Kependidikan Lainya. Makalah disampaikan dalam sarasehan dan forum komunikasi VI
FPIPS dan JPIPS FKIP/ STKIP se Indonesia di Kampus IKIP Malang.
Arikunto, S. (1990). Managemen Pengajaran Secara Manusiawi. Jakarta: Rineka Cipta.
Bernadib, Imam dan Sutari Imam Barnadib. 1995. Beberapa Aspek Ilmu Pendidikan. Yogyakarta: Penerbit
Andi.
Clark, Ruth Colvin and Mayer, Richard E. 2011. E-Learning and the Science of Instruction. San Francisco:
Pfeiffer
Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan RI. (1994). Pedoman Pembinaan Profesional Guru Sekolah Dasar.
Jakarta: Direktorat Jendral Pendidikan Dasar dan Menengah.
Departemen Pendidikan Nasional. (2008). Sertifikasi Guru dalam Jabatan Tahun 2008, Buku 5 Rambu-
rambu Pelaksanaan Pendidikan dan Latihan Profesi Guru(PLPG). Jakarta: Depdiknas.
GadiMakitan. (2012). Hasil uji kompetensi guru masih di bawah harapan. Website:
http://www.tempo.co/read/news/2012/08/03/079421057/hasil-uji-kompetensi-guru-masih-di-bawah-harapan.
Diambil pada tanggal 17 agustus 2012.
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Hilda SabriSulistiyo. (2012). UKG ONLINE 2012: Terobosan Yang Mencemaskan. Website:
http://www.bisnis.com/articles/ukg-online-2012-terobosan-yang-mencemaskan.
Horton, William K. (2012). E-Learning by Design Second Edition. San Francisco: Pfeiffer
Jodhi Yudono. (2011). Mejadi Guru Ideal. Website:
http://oase.kompas.com/read/2011/11/04/14563555/Menjadi.Guru.Ideal.
Moh. Uzer Usman. (2007). Menjadi Guru Profesional. Bandung: PT Remaja Rosdakarya.
Mulyasa. (2008). Standar Kompetensi dan Sertifikasi Guru. Bandung: Remaja Rosdakarya.
Undang-undang Nomor 14 Tahun 2005 tentang Guru dan Dosen. Bandung :Fokus Media
Enhancing Literacy Skills In Higher Education Through Digital Storytelling
Leela Chakrabarty
Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris
leela@fbk.upsi.edu.my
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract. This paper will showcase Digital Storytelling (DST) that has proved to be instrumental in enhancing literacy
skills in higher education. It highlights the motivational elements of DST as perceived by the undergraduates in a public
university and explores ways to further develop their interest in reading and enhancing their writing skills. This study
explored the use of multimedia and traditional literacy to answer the question: How did writing a story and
constructing the video influence students learning? Thirty five semester three Diploma in English Studies students
created a series of two digital stories implementing narrative writing. These productions were undertaken using two
basic platforms; Microsoft Office tools-Power Point 2007 and Windows Movie Maker. The study showed how literacy
skills were impacted through the use of digital storytelling and how it can be adapted to different content and
proficiency levels and represent a tangible record of student progress and basis for evaluation. The students came to
recognize the importance of organization, story, voice, emotion, pacing, economy of words, and value of re-writing
while developing presentation skills. In analyzing the reflections by the students it is noted that students find that digital
storytelling has had an impact in the enhancement of critical thinking skills and language skills. This in turn trained
them to be more creative and critical in their writings.
Keywords: Digital storytelling, literacy skills.
Introduction
Although it is generally assumed that the motivation level of higher education students is high as they are
supposed to be self motivated, it may not be so in reality. Motivation and involvement will increase if
students find the activities meaningful and engaging. This was the starting premise for embarking on digital
storytelling as teaching and learning tool in an ESL higher learning classroom. Trending now is that students
tell stories digitally as they get involved in a continuous process of sharing information about themselves on
social networking sites, through images and sound besides words, with peers and the world. Thus class
activities merely based on pen and paper may appear boring and less engaging.
Miech & Mosteller (1997) reviewed the research on computer-assisted language learning (CALL) and found
a pattern of usage that reflected changes underlying educator beliefs about learning. With the advent of easy
to use software we are able to capture and tell our stories to a broader population via digital storytelling using
pictures, videos, text, music and narration bringing a particular concept to life. When seen from a
pedagogical perspective, a digital storytelling activity actually targets all four skills (reading, writing,
listening and speaking) apart from promoting research skills, critical thinking and reflection. It could be an
excellent tool for informally assessing learners on their language skills.
Rationale of the Study
Educators and researchers are looking to the future not by asking the question, Should technology be used
in education? Instead they are now asking How technology should be used to help students achieve higher
levels? Heo (2009) conducted an experimental study to show the effects of digital storytelling on pre-
service teachers self-efficacy and professional dispositions. According to the study, Knowledge and skills
of personal technology can be transferred to educational technology settings with the help of digital
storytelling. Prior to that, Li (2007) investigated the use of digital storytelling to integrate multimedia
technologies into higher education. In that study participants were pre-service and in-service teachers in
higher education. The results revealed that these experiences can improve students learning skills during the
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incorporating phase of technology implementation in education. Thus, this study seeks to explore ways to
further develop the students interest in reading and enhancing their writing skills through digital storytelling.
The Research Questions:
The study looked into the impact of digital storytelling in a writing class. The following two research
questions were examined:
RQ1: How did writing a story and constructing the video influence students learning-in terms of literacy
skills such as reading and writing?
RQ2:Which learning area(language, critical thinking, reflection, artistic or communication skills) had the
most impact as perceived by the students?
Literature Review
(Porter,2008) expressed that DST builds communication skills: creativity and inventive thinking, multiple
intelligences, higher-order thinking, information literacy, visual literacy, sound literacy, technical literacy,
effective communication, teamwork and collaboration, project managements, and enduring understandings.
According to Brice (2009) kids tend to learn best by multi-modalities teaching. Since multimedia digital
gadgets comprise multimodal properties, digital storytelling can help learners of ESL (English as a Second
Language) students to enhance their literacy skills; namely reading and writing skills. Apart from that,
researches conducted by Hibbing and Rankin-Erikson(2003) demonstrated that digitally-enhanced stories are
excellent mnemonic devices that help students retain new information and comprehend difficult material
easily.
Dogan(2007)conducted a study with three groups of teachers and the results revealed that the teachers who
used digital storytelling in their classrooms believed that their students increased their technical, research,
presentation, organizational and writing skills. They also reported that they thought that the digital
storytelling process had positive effects on students motivation and engagement levels. On a similar note,
Rudnicki (2009) explored whether discussions about storytelling evoked students' higher consciousness of
the stories they tell and she found that this in fact helped them tell more meaningful digital stories.
In another research by Anh Nguyen (2011) who interviewed graduate students at a university, found that
students own learning and teaching practices were influenced by personalizing elements in the script, using
computer-based digital storytelling software, reflecting on their own work and listening to feedback from
others, and perhaps most important, sensing their own progress as they worked through all the components
of digital story making.
Some researchers have already highlighted the importance of the use of digital storytelling in language
teaching and learning (Gregori-Signes, 2008; Robin, 2006) well as the need for more research on the
learning outcomes of its usage in educational settings (Barrett, 2005; Yuksel, Robin, McNeil, 2010). Robin
(2006) reiterates that Digital storytelling not only offers language teachers the opportunity of working with
all four language skills, but also brings together the idea of combining the art of telling stories with a variety
of digital multimedia such as images, recorded audio narration, video and music.
3.0 Methodology
The students were required to produce two digital stories. They were to read a number of story books to find
a story that they like. They then had to re-write the story in their own words. They were to create a ten to
fifteen minutes movie based on the narrative writing.
The learning areas investigated were: (1) Reflection Skills (2) Language Skills (3) Critical Thinking Skills
(4) Communication Skills (5) Artistic Skills.
This paper describes the practical experience of incorporating digital storytelling in an ESL classroom at
tertiary level. Using the writing class as an anchor, students created digital stories through multi-media
production. Final projects were then presented to the class.
Participant and Setting
Thirty five semester three Diploma in English students were the participants. They had completed the
SPM(Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia) or what is equivalent to O levels in some other countries. The evaluation
scheme was fully exam-based. None of the students had any formal training in the use of software to make
movies. The thirty five participants comprised both male and female students from all over Malaysia who
opted to take a diploma level study at a local public university in Malaysia.
Procedure
To answer research question 1, How did writing a story and constructing the video influence students
learning, the researcher assumed the role of a non-participant observer. Observations were recorded as field
notes and analyzed. The purpose of the observation is to gain additional information about the process
involved. The observation allowed documentation of the learning dynamics amongst the students. Apart
from that, their writings were scored. To answer research question two, Which learning area had the most
impact as perceived by the students?; data was collected through an online forum portal from students. The
forum sought to determine which learning areas were most meaningful as they delved with digital
storytelling. The forum posted semi-structured interview- like questions to gain insight into the students
thoughts and perspectives about the effectiveness of digital storytelling.
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3.3 Stages in DST
In the first project, students were first taught storyboarding and then how to use the Microsoft Power point in
the production. Basic animation concept was exposed whereby students created multiple pictures to produce
the movement in the story. Students were not required to purchase or use any other software for the
production. The students were then introduced to Windows Movie Maker as well as iMovie.
The following pictures show a student who managed to create multiple slides to show the movements
required in one of the scenes in the story. The slides were based on the students storyboard.
Fig. 2: Storyboarding
The pictures were drawn according to the needs of the story. They were scanned into the computer and saved
in the pictures file. The pictures were later inserted into the power-point slides during the final production.
Sound and music were allowed to be inserted. Focus was not given to the writing of the story at this stage,
although they did write the scripts. Here, the main focus was to expose students to storyboarding and basic
animation concept that was to animate objects to effectively illustrate story action.
The second project required students to come up with their own digital story. Here the researcher instructed
the students to find a story by reading other stories in story books. Students selected a story to be re-written.
This was done by paraphrasing and summarizing. They were also given instructions for the structure of the
story. The story had to be well organized and the following pattern included:
Structure of the story
1-Setting: It introduces the main characters and the initial situation of
the story.
2-Conflict: It presents some kind of problem or goal to reach and the
tension around it.
3-Resolution: It is the end of the story and presents a solution to the
conflict.
Table 1: Instructions for the structure of the story
The students were allowed to change parts of the story to be re-written in their own version. This is now the
script development stage. Students were taught to work with appropriate sentences as their words would be
accompanied by images. This stage lasted for few sessions depending on the students ability to write. As it
was an integrated skills environment, the researcher had students submit multiple drafts of their scripts and
assisted them with form and structure.
The next step was capturing and processing images. Images were used to further illustrate the story. This was
a fun step in which students were able to be creative and original as they chose images they believed to be
meaningful reflections of their stories. The students had to justify their choices. This was done as an
additional critical thinking activity. Students were encouraged to use digital cameras to take pictures. They
were allowed to draw their own pictures and scan them. Once they had their pictures digitized, they made a
copy of the folder.
Having done with images, it was time to combine the scripts with music. At this point the students combined
the images onto a timeline. They could also record narration here. However, narration was not done in this
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project as the focus was on reading and writing. They also added music tracks. This was another venue for
students to unleash their creativity as they mixed images, and added cool transitions and fun music to their
stories.
Finally, the students reviewed and presented the completed version of the digital story. The students had a
special presentation session using a computer projector for other students to watch and enjoy. Assessment
was included in this project. They were given comments on form and structure immediately after
presentations by the researcher. There was also a peer- reviewing session where students commented and
offered suggestions for improvements.
As a means to illustrate the actual processes that the students had undergone before they actually created
their final product, a sample is described here. The students were asked to write down the process.
Students As pre-production process:
Firstly, she listed down all the different ideas that she had wished to use and went through them one by one.
She crossed out the ones that she didnt want and kept the ones that she would probably choose. In the end,
there were only two stories that she decided to choose from: Blood and Chocolate, a story about an ancient
being called the Loup Garou and The Firework Makers daughter. She decided to choose The Firework
Makers Daughter because it stresses more on moral themes such as determination whereas Blood and
Chocolate revolved around forbidden love which she thought was very typical.
Secondly, she wrote the script that she would include in her project. She made sure that the sentences were
simple and easy to understand. Then, she looked for some images from the internet that she would use in her
project and edited them according to her colour scheme. She used Photoshop CS3 and Genius EasyPen
drawing tablet to draw her illustrations. Below are two of the illustrations that she drew. In addition, she used
CyberLink YouCam3 to record her desktop movement when she was drawing the illustrations. With the
videos of the illustration in progress, she incorporated it in her project to make it more interesting.
Fig. 3: Student As drawings: She used the Genius EasyPen drawing tablet
4.Findings
Observation notes were used to answer research question 1; How did writing a story and constructing the
video influence students learning?
Instruments Results Overall Findings
Researchers Journal Students showed an improving
progress although some seemed lost
at first. Then after a few readings and
discussions, they began to fill up the
mind maps with the main details.
They provided feedback to each
other. Even the quiet ones started to
be brave in asking questions and
providing responses. It was found that
many had problems with vocabulary.
They had to make literary decisions.
They had to determine whether they
will use first, second or third person.
They were challenged to expand word
choices. Some of them resorted to the
use of the dictionary and thesaurus.
Students rewrite the stories with a
personal twist.
Students gathered or created images,
audio and video. They chose what
will impact and set the tone for their
digital story. It was observed that
students revisited and revised their
storyboard. Students were seen to be
so engrossed in their work that they
dont leave when the time is up
DST made students contribute
actively.
Reading the stories allowed them to
build on their foundation of the story
line and enhanced their vocabulary.
Reading the stories enhanced their
reading skills whereby they learnt to
pick up the main points and the
supporting details to be included in
their story.
Rewriting the stories encouraged
them to think critically about what
they particularly like or dont like
about the story, and what features
they want to highlight and exaggerate
in their own version. Thus, the
ignition of critical thinking skills has
in turn made the students better
writers.
Through matching pictures with the
story line, they become acutely aware
of mistakes and poor word choices.
Script writing scores - rubrics Students managed to produce well
written scripts that established a
meaningful purpose of the story and
maintained clear focus throughout
until the story reached a logical
ground.
17 students obtained Outstanding
scores- extremely well written and
contains all of the required elements;
11 students obtained good scores-
well written and contains all of the
required elements; 7 students
obtained average scores- written in
an adequate manner and contains
most of the required elements. None
obtained poor scores
Table 2: The Findings on the Influences of Digital Storytelling on Students' learning
During the first stage, organization is very important. At first, students seemed at a lost. They did not know
where to begin. They were merely staring at a blank sheet of paper. They were then asked to read some
stories. The researcher then used mind-mapping to help students keep track of information. There were many
rounds of discussions before each one of them made a decision on their stories. It was found that many had
problems with vocabulary. Reading the stories allowed them to build on their foundation of the story line and
enhanced their vocabulary. This was also the time where literary decisions come into play. Students had to
determine whether they will use first, second or third person. They were challenged to expand word choices.
Some of them resorted to use the dictionary or thesaurus. Reading the stories enhanced their reading skills
whereby they learnt to pick up the main points and the supporting details to be included in their story.
When they were actually writing, another learning area came into play, that was critical thinking skills. Some
of them had re-written the stories adding a personal twist. As an example, a male student had written an
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outline of Dr. Jekyll and Mr Hyde in the Malaysian version. He said it was rather difficult to visualize the
setting so he wanted to use Malaysian setting in his story. He then changed the names to Dr Johan and Mr
Hadi along with some of the names of places such as London to Kuala Lumpur and so forth. The pictures
were characters dressed up in Malaysian attires. Apart from that he also changed the ending. Some re enacted
stories in their version and captured their own pictures. Some students were allowed to choose a book that
they like or really dont like and create a parody. This encouraged them to think critically about what they
particularly like or dont like about the story, and what features they want to highlight and exaggerate for
their own version. Thus, the ignition of critical thinking skills has in turn made the students better writers.
Storyboarding is the process whereby magic happens and writing come alive. Using their storyboard as a
guide, students gathered or created images, audio and video. They chose what will impact and set the tone
for their digital story. Through matching pictures with the story line, they become acutely aware of mistakes
and poor word choices. It was observed that students revisited and revised their storyboard. Students were
seen to be so engrossed in their work that they dont leave when the time is up. At this stage, students were
provided with a rubric so they understand what is necessary for a completed story. The storyboard
presentations also indicated that there was awareness of audience as well as emotive content. The students
could clearly explain why their selection of vocabulary, pictures, graphics and music suited the target
audience.
Overall, it was noted that there was student engagement in learning. They were encouraged to provide
feedback to each other. This in turn made the students reflect on their work. They were proud of their
products. Although the students were struggling in the beginning, they managed to write good stories after
reading, paraphrasing, writing, editing and re writing. All these phases had helped to enhance the students
reading and writing skills. Students developed their digital skills as there was extensive, informal peer-
learning and feedback in the process of tool application. The positive progress in the students' writing ability
was also indicated by the students' storyboard scores. The final productions showed a clear improvement
regarding the use of linguistic routines with the final outcome that contained more complex structures and a
varied range of expressions used to start and to end a conversation. The students were able to construct
coherent stories that included both a narrative and a dialogue.
Seventeen students out of thirty five obtained Outstanding scores- these were the stories that were
extremely well written and contained all of the required elements, such as a meaningful purpose, clear focus
and logical conclusion; eleven students obtained good scores- well written and contained all of the required
elements and seven of them obtained average scores; their scripts were written in an adequate manner and
contained most of the required elements. However, with additional effort, it could be even better. None
obtained poor scores.
To answer the research Question 2: Which learning area had the most impact as perceived by the
students?,the students were asked to categorize their learning area that they think they have improved on.
Five themes were identified that dealt with the improvement of student learning using digital storytelling.
The MyGuru2 platform was used to illicit responses from the students.
Learning Areas Frequency Percentage
Reflection Skills 5 14.29
Language Skills 19 54.29
Critical Thinking Skills 22 62.86
Communication Skills 4 11.43
Artistic Skills 2 00.57
Students that have chosen more than one skill 17 48.57
Total number of students 35 100.00
Table 3: Learning areas
The discussion on the above findings are as given below, according to the identified learning areas and some
samples of students postings are also inserted to show how the students responded.
Reflection Skills: Five students indicated that digital storytelling allowed them to improve their reflection
abilities. For instance, one student said that:
My DST is about love and sacrifice. From this story, I reflect their situations and learn from it. I learn to love life and to
be grateful because we still got the chance to live happily. Even if we have problem, we should smile and be strong
because there a lot of people outside there who are more suffer than us Finally, just like the main actor in my DST
said, now I am trying to live life to the fullest for tomorrow might never be.
Language Skills: 19 students indicated that digital storytelling had helped them to improve on their language
skills. Regarding the language skills, this is what some of the students had to say:
After I created a digital storytelling (DST), I found that my language skills such as speaking skill, narrative skills for
both written and oral have a big increase. It was because when Im creating my DST, I needed to insert some text.
From the text that I inserted, I needed to make sure that there are no grammatically errors in order to attract readers
attention. Besides, my I also can speak well when Im presenting my DST to my course mates. Hence, after creating my
DST, my language skills have improved.
This project also really has improved my language skill. We have to write in a proper and correct English language. I
asked my friends to check my grammatical errors besides asking for their opinion of using the different style of English
writing to make my DST more attractive to watch. For me, this project was not only improving one skill, but can
improve some skills at a time.
While I was doing my work on DST, I need to make sure that my grammar is all true. I have to see my lecturer and
asked her about my language so that my DST has a good quality. Apart from that, I also got many improvements in
speaking skills that also can be categorized as language skills. Before I submit my final work of DST, I need to present
it in front of class and of course I have to speak. Doing DST helped me a lot in language skills.
Critical Thinking Skills: 22 students indicated that DST had enhanced their critical thinking skills. Some of t
hem said that:
Doing the DST has improved me on language skills and higher level thinking skills. When I did the DST , my language
skill has improved because I need to use a right words to make sure my DST is excellent and easily readable by the
readers. I had done so many correction on my grammatical error and get explanation about my grammatical error from
my classmates who read my DST. I have so many improvement on my grammar My thinking skills has increased
because by doing the DST, we have to be creative and thinking out of the box to make sure our DST is interesting, fun
and provide knowledge to the readers.
I learn how to think creatively when make a digital story telling. I can make my own story and it is really great. It
makes me think out of box. To make a interesting digital story telling is difficult. But this is one way to practice high
level thinking.
Communication/social skills: Four students indicated that using digital storytelling had improved their social
skills/ communication skills. One student said that:
I think that the social skills is more relevant to me. because before this Im quite shy guy. so by doing all the DST I think
that Im more expose to the public. when we make the movie, we need to share to the public and get the comments. it
really give something new. when I make it, I must set my mind, it s for commercial purpose so Im trying my best to
promote my movie to the public.
Artistic Skills: Only two students indicated that they had improved in their artistic skills. These two students
were identified as the only ones good and interested in drawing. One of them said:
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Creating an interesting DST requires one to think more on what to put in the DST, how to put it, where, when and why.
This requires patience and the artistic ability to compose the scenes so that they fit along nicely with the music that
plays. I certainly have acquired some artistic abilities along my journey to complete this DST. I used tablet and
Photoshop to draw the scenes in my DST, and thanks to that Ive brushed up my drawing skills that have rusted for the
past 2 Semesters. I am more aware of the presentation of the characters for the story. I learned that characters need not
be fancy and beautiful but they must be able to express emotion.
The results indicated that overall, the students experience in digital storytelling was positive. The learning
areas most impacted were language skills(inclusive of reading and writing skills) and critical thinking skills.
5. Discussion
Writing digital stories ignites a love of learning and creates powerful stories for others to share and enjoy. By
incorporating digital storytelling projects into learning, teachers can reach todays students and, at the same
time, help them to develop the skills they need to be successful in the complex, technology-rich world.
Digital storytelling learning projects may be a cure for reluctant learners as this approach to learning is an
exciting and compelling way to engage students in the learning process and to inspire them to become
lifelong learners. It is noted that Digital Stories has given voice to those who dont always participate in
class. Digital story telling enhances technology-rich project learning and this is what most students would
rather do given a choice to write a traditional paper or create a digital story that presents their research and
learning. Students of all ages enjoy creating stories, and more and more students are eager to use
technological tools to create those stories.
Through engagement, motivation, visualization, extensive production and contact with the target language,
digital storytelling tools helps students to enhance their literacy skills. Students developed their digital skills
as there was extensive, informal peer-learning and feedback in the process of tool application. DST can be
adapted to different content and proficiency levels and represent a tangible record of student progress and
basis for evaluation. For example, if the content is describing places, then students could be allowed to take
pictures of the identified place, do research on the place and develop a digital story. Teachers can actually
identify students according to proficiency levels and prepare various tasks according to their levels.
References
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Proceedings of the Society for Information Technology & Teacher Education International Conference 2005
(pp. 18781883). Chesapeake, VA: AACE.
Brice, A. E. & Brice, G. R. (2009). Language Development: Monolingual and Bilingual acquisition. Boston:
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Dogan, B. (2007). Implementation of digital storytelling in the classroom by teachers trained in a digital
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Gregori-Signes, C. (2008). Integrating the old and the new: Digital storytelling in the EFL language
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Heo, M. (2009). Digital storytelling: An empirical study of the impact of digital storytelling on pre-service
teachers self efficacy and dispositions towards educational technology. Journal of Educational Multimedia
and Hypermedia, 18(4), 405-428.
Hibbing, A. N., & Rankin-Erikson, J. L. (2003): A picture is worth a thousand words: Using visual images to
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(Eds.),Proceedings of World Conference on E-Learning in Corporate, Government, Healthcare, and Higher
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Linguistic Argumentation and Logic:
An Alternative Method Approach in Arabic Grammar
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Solehah Yaacob
Dept. of Arabic Language & Literature
Kulliyah of IRKHS
International Islamic University Malaysia
Abstract
This research emphasizes the relationship between linguistic argumentation
1
and logic
1
. Linguistic
argumentation is a language system which uses the meaning of expressions in a sentence to draw a
complete meaning of the sentence, as there lies a dependence between expressions. In fact, this
connection between expressions enhances the overall meaning from the very fundamentals of the
sentence structure in the logical relationship between ideas; where there lies a relation between
words and the mind which is dependent on the logic of combined utterances. In order to signify the
above concept of thinking, the researcher has turned to the theory of the early system of Arabic
grammar which focuses more on analogical approach rather than anomaly. The analogical approach
in the system is based on the underlying theory which implies the aforementioned relationship, even
though some modern views may disagree on the interpretation of this issue. To round out the
discussion, the researcher has included similar existing theories on Latin grammar which have
shown the logical approach to be a result of the connection between linguistic argumentation and
logic. As a result of this discussion, the connection between words and logic is shown to be a
universal concept.
Keywords: Logic, Method, Grammar and Analogy
Introduction
The relationship between language and logic was discovered by early Muslim`s scholars. They
believed that drawing a relationship between the two was basically a rouse to redirect the topic of
discussion to theology and law in terms of Aristotelian logic. However, in order aver this argument
and in order to exhibit the relevance of logic for the study of grammar, the researcher will
henceforth use the term linguistic argumentation to refer to the study of the Arabic grammar
system. In fact, Al-Frb (d.950)
1
developed such a theory on the relationship between language
and logic, discussing the origin and development of language from a logician`s point of view. This
can be found in his book Kitb al-urf
1
wherein he connects the ideas of Arabic grammar
demonstrating his awareness of the relevant differences between languages, in general, and between
Greek and Arabic, in particular. His aim was to incorporate the disciplines grammar and logic
together, for he believed there was no doubt that they were connected to each other. He based this
on his view that logic the use of logic transcends the domain of any particular language and is
common to all languages
1
. In fact, this connection has been proven in his book:
This science (logic) corresponds to the science of grammar because the relationship of the
science of logic to reason and the intelligible equals the relationship of the science of
grammar to language and the expressions. The rules that the science of grammar provides
for the expressions are paralleled by the rules that the science of logic provides for the
intelligible.it has in common with the science of grammar that it provides the rules for the
expression and it differs from the science of grammar in that the science of grammar only
provides rules concerning the expressions of a particular nation, whereas the science of logic
provides universal rules that are valid for the expressions of all nations
1
.
He here has explained the connection between language and logic concerning the expression of a
particular linguistic group, a nation, are related to their mode of expressing meaning in a
grammatical sense, and that the expression of all nations or logics demonstrates a universality of
approach which is a valid means of expression for the all nations.
This point has been supported by, Ikhwn al-af, The Brethren of Purity, in their Rasil.
They believed that the heart is the organ responsible for distinguishing between intelligible
(mafhm), and unintelligible sounds. From the former, it distills the meaning (man) of sounds.
They regarded this as the process of knowledge in establishing a correspondence between word and
meaning. They explained in Rasil,
therefore, we need exterior speech and we have to teach it and to study its laws, which
take a long time to explain. The pure spirit that are not embodied do not need language and
speech for the mutual understanding of the knowledge and the meanings that are in their
thoughts
1
.
The Brethren of Purity are not the only scholars to have discussed the correspondence
relationship between the issue of word, meaning and thought, Jabr Ibn Hayyn
1
also has a
speculation about the correspondence between word and meaning where he believed this
correspondence are based on the balance of letters (Mizn al-Hurf). This theory is clearly derived
from Greek sources and is based on concepts ranging from the numerical speculations of the
Pythagoreans to Platos dialogue on Kratylos
1
postulation on the origin of language. However, Ibn
Hayyn places greater interest on the nature of physical elements in his investigation. Thus, he
often uses grammatical theory as a heuristic instrument such as the grammarian applies his methods
of Tasrf (morphology) in order determine their radicals in contrast the alchemy or physical scientist
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dissects the objects in order to find out their constituent element
1
.
The discussion on the origin of language by Ibn Jinn and his teacher, Ibn Fris, should
also be considered for his arguments on the origin of language being revelation or agreement
between word, meaning and thought. Notably, most of the speculative philosophers held that the
connection between language and logic is a matter of mutual agreement and convention rather than
revelation and inspiration. This statement emphasizes the human nature of language and origin of
speech is with man. Based on this concept, arises the Mutazilite correlation that since man has free
will, then men are responsible for their own acts, their own words. In the context of the spoken
word, by speaking man he is the one who brings into being, such as the nomenclature of mutakallim
can be given only to someone who produces speech
1
.
This leads to the discussion of the literary study conducted al-Jurjn on meaning and
expression where he considered the logical ideas to be signified by the expression. He linked his
view to meaning as being the determining factor differentiating the level of quality of the between
linguistic dimension in a text; by not considering this dimension in isolation but rather as it is
realized within a coherent text
1
.
From the aforementioned viewpoints, it is relevant that the relationship between language
and logic is not a matter of philosophical speculation discussed among philosophers, but its also
been a field of study and discourse between grammarians and rhetoricians.
Views Regarding Logic being Enhanced by Linguistics Argumentation
We acknowledge that vast the contributions of Arab logicians during the Golden Era of Islam
enhanced the concept of meaning in the sentence structure, yet must also give note to the Orientalist
perspective on this issue. They claimed that the idea of the existence of a relationship between
syntax and semantics was taken directly from Aristotles works. This theory has been supported by
Prof. Bursill Hall, who states:
Nevertheless, the attention paid to syntax by the grammarians of the later 12
th
century laid
the basis for the continued close association between logic and grammar, a relationship
fruitful enough to create a logical grammar within the domain of grammar and which
culminated in the speculative grammars of the modesties. This was a development from the
result of the full assimilation of the `new` Aristotle and the works of the Arab logicians
1
.
Charles E. Butterworth supported this idea in a similar statement, saying:
Aristotles writing found a much more receptive audience on the other side of the
Mediterranean as learning on his writings flourished in Constantinople, Edessa and Antioch.
When the School of Alexandria was forced to close, it moved to Antioch in Syria. In the 6
th
century, many of Aristotle`s writings had been translated into Syriac. This activity continued
until some Syriac translations were rendered into Arabic. In the 10
th
century, the school
moved to Baghdad
1
.
This historical movement of study of the Aristotles works has been proved by Amad Amn
when he showed the interest of a number of Arab scholars in the translations of Greek philosophy
and science within Islamic world. These include Hunain bin Isaq, Yaya bin Bitrq and Ibn al-
Muqaffa
1
.
The process of translation of Greek philosophical works went through a process of serious scholarly
endeavors when they were translated from Arabic
1
and rendered into Hebrew during the period of
Islamic Spain and then into Latin in the middle of the 12
th
century. Prior to this, the writings of
Aristotle were unknown in the West. While, in the East, these works had already been studied and
commented on by Al-Kind, Al-Frb and Ibn Sn, and they were redressed again by Averroes, in
the beginning of 13
th
century. Even after the Latin conquest of Constantinople in 1204 and the
discovery of new Greek manuscripts, the most complete translations of Aristotle`s works were still
those done from Arabic texts
1
.
The researcher believes it essential to highlight some of the tremendous contribution of Averroes in
enhancing the ideas of Aristotle when he translated the `Categories` in his `Middle commentary on
Aristotles Categories, as this work had a great impact on the development of the Modistae
1
in
Europe and, as it seems, the starting point in the progress of understanding Aristotles categories in
the Middle Ages. Charles E. Butterworth supports this view without, writing:
without exaggeration, the beginnings of scholarship in the later middle ages can be
traced to the effect this newly found legacy had upon western Europe, especially to the
effect it had upon such important thinkers as John of Salisbury, Saint Thomas Aquinas,
Albertus Magnus and Roger Bacon
1
.
Butterworth notes that in Averroes commentary, he presented the
uncombined utterances which denote uncombined ideas necessarily denote one of ten
things either substance or quantity or quality or relation or where or when or position or to
have or doing or being acted upon
1
.
To further our understanding from of Averroes view on this matter the researcher gives one of his
examples on the subject. Averroes gave the situation of a man and a horse and how they are
distinguished from each other, as both of them have a dependant relationship on each other, as in
Zayd rode a white horse last year. The words Zayd and horse are understood by the listener when
they are used together in a context they have a relationship. A new meaning is added to this image
with the addition of the word white; conveying that is a white horse. Here, the word white
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shows the concept of quality and thus is termed an adjective. Analysis of this example shows that
Averroes was more concerned with meaning conveyed in a relationship between word as it is
related to the concept of thinking, such that there is relation between words and thinking which
depends on the logic of utterances when combined.
Analysis of this statement is similar to the concept of nam introduced by Al-Jurjn in his book
Dall al-Ijz when he described that what is understood by a sentence is dependent on the
connection of meanings in utterances of which it is made. This is idea is highlighted in Part two of
Chapter 14 of Averroes commentary on the Categories. However, it must be kept in mind, that the
statement and supposition do not admit truth or falsehood in as far as the thing to which the
supposition refers outside the mind is itself altered. For example, take the supposition that Zayd is
sitting, is indeed true
1
when Zayd sits and false when he stands
1
. Averroes manner of analyzing
here is similar to the concept of logical analysis when the case is that the action of something needs
to be confirmed with the correct word of the action and not vice versa.
It can be concluded from this discussion that the connection between syntax and semantics in
linguistic theory has been thoroughly debated among Muslims scholars. This activity is especially
important in the study and interpretation of the meaning of the Quran and Sunna, and should be
applied to reach a correct understanding of its meaning in a modern context.
The Relationship between Linguistic Argumentation and logic
We have discussed previously the role of early grammarians in linguistic polemics, and we have
found that there is a group of Modern scholars who have debated aforementioned issue. These
include Khlid Ibn Sulaymn Muhanna al-Kind. He has mentioned in his book, Ul al-Naw
wa al-Taalam al-Naw f al-Dars al-Lughaw al-Arab al-Qadm
1
, that the argumentation in the
explanation of grammar is divided into four divisions which are; first, the linguistic argumentation
is affected by philosophy and speech, secondly, linguistic argumentation is affected by the
principles of Jurisprudence, thirdly, linguistic argumentation seeks more than one external
influence, and fourthly, linguistic argumentation has not been subjected to these influences.
The researcher views that al-Kinds divisions are unnecessary, as its essence can be stated as:
linguistic argumentation is affected by speech, philosophy and jurisprudence. Why? This is due to
the fact that the philosophical influence of grammar is an aspect that requires delicacy in its
exploration and application. Regarding the impact of jurisprudence, it is an important matter to be
cited because the grammatical normative process is purely a result of the ancient Arabs dexterous
scholarly endeavors. As for the remaining two points, al-Kind himself has mentioned they are two
normal events that do not require a discussion.
In order to thoroughly discuss on logic, we have to discover the point at which philosophy entered
the discussion of Islam? According to Ibn Nadm in al Fihrist, We find recently that the Persians
transferred something of logic and medicine books from Greek into their Persian language, and it
remained so until they were transferred to Arabic by Abdullah bin al-Muqaffa
1
Relying on this
evidence, the researcher believes that the concept of philosophy was digested by the great Arab
grammarians from their study and translation of Greek philosophical works during the later part of
the second century hijr, and henceforth they imparted such theories in the discussion of studies in
their own fields. It has its authorship in medicine, engineering, astronomy and logic and this means
proximity of time, philosophy and speech. However, the intended meaning of the researcher is that
the philosophical idea which appeared in Arabic grammar was the work of Muslim philosophers
who sought wisdom in their work and they were convinced of this method. In fact, the acquisition
of philosophy is not a result of a relationship with the Greeks, but rather is evidence of the
dexterous Arabs work and their ability to apply this knowledge to problems in Arabic grammar.
From study of this matter, the researcher concludes that the grammatical rules which have their
origin in philosophy are: al-Taqdrt, al-Hadhaft and al-Imrt, This conclusion is confirmed by
Ibrahm Muaf in his book Ihy Al-Naw, wherein he discusses the influence of philosophy on
Arab grammarians. He comments that Arab grammarians, in this path of theirs, are affected by all
means by the philosophy of the Word (al-Kalm). This concept was not only common among them,
but it dominated their thinking, and was taken as a standard means of practice based on the
information available to them at their time
1
.
Ibrahm Muaf responded to this view with regards to the issue of estimation:
1
. He describes the Arab grammarians as being in search of
answers for linguistic dilemmas and in this situation they were by all means going to find a
resolution even if their methodology was foolish. He puts forth many examples of this including :
. He explains that some grammarians have claimed that this sentence is in fact truly;
1
which means , and
1
that means: , and
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1
which means:
1
. According to Ibrahm Muaf these examples in linguistic and
semantic and meanings are similar to the case of: and , where there is a
case of omission yet this meaning is understood by the reader. He also gives the example of the
ruling for the case where the predicate exists of an omitted subject, such as in the case of the
sentence: . He puts forth that for the word it is possible to assign it the
accusative case as though the estimated meaning is , and it is equally valid to assign it the
nominative case when its meaning is estimated as . He views that such examples of omission
are common in every language, however, in the case of the Arabic language in particular, this type
of expression is most often reserved for the cases of al-Ijz and al-Takhff. Herein, by eliminating
that which is understood, the argument for estimation is rejected (al-Taqdrt). Ibrahm Muaf
continues that estimation and expansion lead to the loss of an existing Arabic grammar rule saying:
They did not make for him a conclusive word and decisive saying, and they overdid the
aspects of the speech. Many types of parsing are intolerable. They estimate the factor as a
nominative, hence they make [it] nominative case and estimate [it] as the accusative hence
they make accusative case, and they do not see that it is followed by a difference in meaning
or a switch in the understanding
1
.
Then Ibrahm Muaf points out that the Arab grammarians adherence to philosophy led them
lose their concern for the meanings of speech relative to its different conditions, such as the case of
1
, in the example: . Some scholars hold that the accusative case is
permissible on al-mafuliyyah and others hold that the nominative case is suitable based on the fact
that are in fact two subjects connected by a conjunction . The first position is viewed as
the weaker of the two arguments because it has taken the position that the second subject is
not preceded by a verb. He holds that in fact, each of the assumed meanings conveys a different
meaning that cannot be substituted by the other one. That is, in the assumption that the intended
meaning of: is estimated to be equivalent to:
This conveys a different meaning than: It is as though the
estimation took place to explain the connection between the two subjects.
However, the majority of the grammarians do not accept the aforementioned argument, due
to their view that a double entndre was indeed meant by the speaker
1
. And this has caution of the
majority is based on a history of such double meanings in Arabic language. For example if an Arab
said,
1
1
. From
the words where the parsing of the defective noun is estimated in it are:
and ., where is made nominative case by case by latent ending in an
original y and is made accusative case by the argument:
, and of
the words which can be estimated by what is known by the location is occupied by arakatu al-
munsibah ( ) as in:
. He said,
The grammarians have disagreed in assigning the agent in
1
ILCC 2013
228
The discussion revolves around the parsing of with accusative case. The Sunnis say:
(everything) is a creation of God is assigned the accusative case, because it is the predicate of the
verb which has been placed in the initial position (Ibtid). The majority opinion ( )
disagrees with this argument because they hold that if the verb is not benefiting by adding value to
the description, and rather that which comes after it fulfills this role corrects the predicate and the
meaning was such that the verb is the chosen predicate accusative in the first noun, the pronoun
attached to then it is clear that the verb descriptive.
An alternative reading, the qadariyah reading ( ), disagrees with the accusative
parsing of in the same ayah and stand by its reading in the nominative case:
1
The hold that the verb is in the position of adjective for . They base this on the fact that it
conveys the meaning: Everything We created. This argument has been based on its estimation, the
extent in its appearance and its time, and so on
1
.
Al-akbr agrees with the first argument on this issue as mentioned in his book At-tibyn f
Irb Al-quran ,that being in the accusative. However, he puts forth a different argument for
this effect. He considers that the factor in this verse is a deleted verb that is explained by the
mentioned; the evidence is that has been parsed in the accusative. He also believes that the
accusative reading is preferred over nominative as it conveys the significance of the creation of
everything more emphatically. He considered the possible reading of in the nominative, in the
position of ibtid, and adjective for all or something, and
; it is
a present tense verb, made nominative by an apparent . The question here is why doesnt
become a predicate as in the example ? The answer to this is that the governor cannot
precede the governee, and in order to solve this predicament grammarians have invented an implicit
governor for . They came to the conclusion that there is rationale for the effect of
accusative or jussive on it, rather it is in the initial position with an implicit agent preceding it. The
researcher believes that this is an invention of the grammarians is an influence of philosophy and
logic, and the implicit agent in this case is immaterial.
Ibrahm Muaf commented on the condition of Arab grammarians in this path and noted
that they by all means affected by the philosophy of words that was common among them. It
dominated their thinking, and was taken as a given in the assessment of facts in them
1
. Similarly,
with regards to whether the reason for the emergence of the grammar agent is due to the logic and
Aristotelian philosophy, or due to the philosophy of words, the researcher believes that the
emergence of the grammar agent in the linguistic argumentation is mainly a result of mans natural
impulse to search for the cause of all that he sees. Therefore, in the search to understand the cause
and effect in grammar, we ask the questions: Why is the subject made nominative case and the
object is made accusative case? And on what basis it is nominative and accusative? It seems that
this rule was used by Arabs in their poems, then grammarians interpreted this phenomenon and took
it as a fundamental of grammar. This invention alone shows that Arab grammarians relied on
philosophy and logic in linguistic analysis.
Exploring language by questioning the fundamental reasons for parsing brings up other
questions. In the case of the accusative object which is genitive in the feminine sound
plural, such as
, pronounced, is the
governor for and the proof is that the transitive verb, , requires an object. In this discussion
it is clear that understanding the order of the components of the sentence is vital in order to being
able to uphold the idea that the governor must precede its governee. To oblige by this rule, the
Basrans invented the idea of an estimated governor preceding . Hence, they explained that is
a governee, and its governor is estimated and its estimation is . This is the mental perception
of the existence of an estimated verb in the statement.
We can see from the manner in which Arab grammarians defended the tenet of precedence
of the governor before the governee and different schools of grammarians put forth different
philosophical arguments to come to this conclusion. In the aforementioned discussion of various
grammatical issues it can be affirmed that there was a philosophical influence in Arabic grammar.
Although the researcher does not support the argument that this phenomenon existed due to the
influence of the Greek and Roman philosophical works, but rather the dexterous Arabs themselves
sought out wisdom through philosophy discourse.
Philosophical Influence in the Concept of Modistae
1
In order to have a comprehensive discussion on the concept of relationship between the logic and
linguistics on Arabic grammar, it is important to consider the structure of Latin grammar and shed
light on the logical discourse which it has gained from Greek philosophy. We will utilize the a
minor concept in the construction of the Modistae concept in sentences for discussion. For
example: homo currit (The man runs). According to Alain De Liberas study on 12
th
and 13
th
century thought this sentence would be described as:
an intransitive construction in which a verb has an immediate dependence on the
substantive which represents the first constructible. In analytic approach, it would be
considered as follows: There is at least one individual, a man, and he is running; or more
simply: Something that was a man (regardless of whether it still is or not) has run, or there is
at least one individual, which is a man and that it has been the case that he is running, or
more simply. Something that is now a man has run
1
.
He continues that in the case of: homo currit bene (The man runs well) the adverb is drawn back to
the substantive through the verb, and in Homo albus currit bene (The white man runs well) we find
an intransitive construction in which adjective and verb are immediately dependent on the
substantive, and the adverb is dependent on it through the verb
1
.
Note however that the case of a transitive construction such as Socrates currit (Socrates
runs), the subject term Socrates supposits for a man. This is different from the intransitive
construction which is presented as a relation between determinable and determinant such as homo
est animal, man is an animal
1
.
Martin of Dacia recounts that several debates occurred between Modistae scholars on this
issue, including the construction of acts and the construction of persons
1
. Herein, we do not find
that they had issue with examples such as Socrates et Plato currunt (Socrates and Plato run), where
two nouns are one suppositum (noun phrase).
In the case of one noun being influenced by two verbs, take the example of the conjunction
of si Socrates currit is literally translated to be: If Socrates runs. Yet, according to Giulio Lepschy
conveys the meaning: if he runs he moves
1
. However, Boethius of Dacia holds a different opinion
on this matter and commented that a conjunction in a construction is but only a connector between
the words in the sentence, so it is not a constructable. Being constructable, it must be a mode of
signifying grammatical properties reflected to the mind.
Lepschy gives evidence of further discourse on the matter and offers Radhulphus different
approach to solving this question, for he sees it to be an issue of the fundamental distinction
between intransitive and transitive construction. He has summarized that sentences fall into four
categories or, four basic constructions:
1) intransitive construction of acts such as Socrates currit (Socrates runs);
2) intransitive construction of persons such as homo albus (white man);
3) transitive construction of acts such as lego librum (I am reading a book); and
4) transitive construction of persons such as cappa Socratis (Socrates cloak)
1
.
Another type of construction in Latin is like
1
: vado in ecclesiam (I go to church). In this
case the preposition is considered to be a medium of the construction of the verb with the
complement and assigned to the complement which is ecclessiam (church) and is termed
linguistically terminans (the determinator). In the case of the two previously mentioned
constructables; homo albus currit and homo currit bene, the adjective albus and the adverb bene are
determinants.
Thomas of Erfurt, another of the Modistae scholars, disagreed with his fellow scholar,
Radhulphus with regards to the different forms of construction and believed in the concept of
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suppositum (noun phrase) and appositum (verb phrase) such as Socrates percutit Plato,(Socrates bit
Plato), depends on the term of verb is either oblique
1
or not and therefore follows it in a verb +
oblique construction
1
. In all, it can be said that Erfurt emphasized grammar based on the meaning of
the word in the sentence.
The point here is not busying ourselves with the polemical issues between the arguments of
Radhulpus and Thomas of Erfurt, but rather to point out their different methods for construction
analysis. Of important note here is that the semantics of the Modistae puts forth a distinction
between formal meaning and material meaning, where the formal meaning is stable, and is defined
by the nature of words. The material meaning, on the other hand, cannot be properly determined by
the context.
We can say, the aim of these grammarians was to explore how a word corresponded to
concepts understood by the mind, how it signified reality and how this was successfully realized.
Since a word cannot signify the nature of reality directly, it must stand for the thing signified in one
of its modes or properties such as being, understanding and signifying. It is this discrimination of
modes that the study of categories and parts of speech is all about. Thus the study of sentences
should lead one to the nature of reality by way of the modes of signifying
1
.
The researcher would like to highlight the tremendous contribution put forth by Averroes
(Ibn Rushd) when he translated the Categories in his Middle Commentary on Aristotles
Categories. Here, he enhanced the explanation of Aristotles ideas, and had a great impact on the
development of the Modistae in Europe, for it seems, the he was the starting point in the progress
towards understanding Aristotles Categories during the Middle Ages. Charles E. Butterworth
supports this idea, commenting:
without exaggeration, the beginnings of scholarship in the later middle ages can be traced
to the effect this newly found legacy had upon western Europe, especially to the effect it had
upon such important thinkers as John of Salisbury, Saint Thomas Aquinas, Albertus Magnus
and Roger Bacon
1
.
In his commentary, Averroes distilled Aristotles principles and presented them in a concise
fashion. For example he said,
uncombined utterances which denote uncombined ideas necessarily denote one of ten
things either substance or quantity or quality or relation or where or when or position or to
have or doing or being acted upon
1
.
We can see in his discussion that he combined examples from Greek and Arab grammatical
discourse in his discussion of understanding meaning in a sentence based on the relationship of the
components. He explained the case of a construct including a man and horse where to differentiate
between the human and animal elements, as both of them have relationship of depending on each
other, as in the sentence: Zayd rode a white horse last year. The relationship between Zayd and a
horse is understood by the listener when they are combined by the verb rode. The introduction of a
new meaning comes about with insertion of: white. In white horse, white shows the concept of
quality in the sentence and is therefore called an adjective.
Averroes method of analysis reflects that he emphasized meaning where it was in relation to
a concept of thinking, i.e. there is relation between words and the mind which depends on the logic
of utterances when combined. This issue is specifically dealt with in part two, chapter 14 of
Averroes Commentary on the Categories. Notably, Averroes commentary is very similar to the
theory of nam introduced by al-Jurjn in Dalil al-ijz, where the later explained that meaning
of a the sentence is dependent on the connection of meanings in utterances
1
.
However, not all of Averroes arguments were discussed from the point of view of
maintaining meaning. With regards to the idea that a statement and supposition do not admit truth
and falsehood in as far as the thing to which the supposition refers outside the mind is itself altered,
for example, the supposition that Zayd is sitting is indeed true when Zayd sits and false when he
stands
1
, we see that Averroes emphasized concept of logic when the action of something needs to
be confirmed with the correct word of the action and not vice versa.
The above discussion shows the role of linguistic argumentation and the concept of logic in
the discussion of the construction of meaning and in Modistae grammar. The discussion of Latin
grammar between Modistae scholars, reveals that they too utilized a discursive, analytical approach
to grammar. Then, Averroes took an important step towards explaining Aristotles Categories and
brought it to reach of Modistae scholars. It is evident that through Averroes deep knowledge of
both the Arabic and Latin grammatical systems he was able to synthesize many linguistic examples
and utilized philosophical arguments from both systems, thereby carrying the influencing of Arab
grammar to the world of Latin grammatical scholarship. Averroes influence by Al-Jurjns theory
of nam; wherein an explanation was put forth to arrive at the meaning derived from the connection
between the utterances, rang forth in his analysis and discussion of Aristotles Categories. It is
evident here that the search for explanations and reasons for linguistic constructs which conveyed
the intended meaning created a need for the use of logic, be that Arab or Greek, so that the
convention of a grammar system came about to explain the meaning in language.
Conclusion
The discussion of the relationship between the linguistic argumentation and logic is an alternative
approach to study of grammar, and the researcher has offered evidence from the corpus of Arabic
ILCC 2013
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grammar itself to support this methodology. In order to create a balanced discussion, the researcher
tied together both early Arab grammatical theory and modern Arab views. Astonishingly, though
some of the modern views are flooded with the idea that Arabic grammar is a philosophically ridden
field, they made the error in assuming that the historical discourse was not effective and have even
erroneously called for the lack of necessity of parsing, a concept which it at odds with the
relationship between the relationship between grammar and the conveyance of an intended
meaning. They believe that the concepts of al-taqdrt and al-imr spoil the mood of system in
Arabic grammar, and called for their abolishment as being the solution. However, the researchers
stand on the issue is not for a destructive approach but rather to take a constructive approach. Thus,
we have presented some ideas from Latin grammatical discourse of the Modistae in order to
uncover the methodology used for Latin, as this language has very strong contact with Greek. It was
found that most of the scholars of Latin language were students of Arab logicians such as Averroes
and therefore had exposure to Aristotles Categories, but did so through the eyes of a scholar who
was grounded in both Arabic and Greek grammatical theories. Based on the evidences shown here,
the researcher believes the connection between grammar and logic has been emphasized and seeing
how this has been used to describe and analyze the relationship between grammar and meaning in
expressions, that this provides a new alternative approach to the study of grammar, not only Arabic
grammar, but also may be applied to other languages.
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Fun Lyrics as An English Learning Media Software for Elementary School Student via
Music Lyric
Tika Novita Sari
1
, Wahyu Andi Saputra
2
, Novi Maisaroh
3
, Wasilatun
4
, Luqman A.
5
1
Yogyakarta State University, Karang Malang Yogyakarta 55584, Indonesia
Corresponding Author: Wahyu, Andi Saputra, Yogyakarta State University,
wahyusaputra@live.com:
________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract.
English has an important role in intellectual, social, and emotional development of a student.
This role is indicated by its position in every class subject. Many people say that English is
very important to be taught to student for their absorption and development of science,
technology, art and culture, and also relation among countries. The existence of English subject
in Indonesian Curriculum is to teach the student so that they can have such good skill in
English, especially in speaking and writing and also to be used as international language. Fun
Lyrics is one of alternative learning media to be used in English class for elementary school
student. Theaim of this research is to design and improve the Fun Lyrics and knowing the
eligibility of this learning media in education world. The research method is Research and
Development (R & D) method. The procedure is based on 10 Step and Development Model
from Borg & Gall (1983: 775). Then, the authors simplified this method into 4 steps, those are :
(1) Need Assessment, (2) Model design, (3) Implementation, and (4) Validation. The
development of this application is using Microsoft Visual Basic 6.0, Adobe Flash, and
Windows Media Player. There are 2 versions of this software, desktop and mobile version. The
desktop version is made by using Microsoft Visual Basic 6.0, and the mobile version by using
Adobe Flash CS 4. There are some feature in this media. They are choosing the song, edit the
lyrics, and change the skin of that media. How the way this media can run is when they choose
a song then 2 lyrics will appear, in Indonesian and English. There are 2 technique in testing.
They are Alfa Testing and Beta Testing. The Alfa Testing were tested to 2 professional
multimedia lecturers and the result is 85,41% for appropriateness number and it means this
software is very appropriate to be used. The Beta Testing were given 30 students of elementary
school and the appropriateness percentage is about 91,1%. It means that this software is very
appropriate to be used. The elementary school student is very interested with this media and it
really help them in learning English.
Keywords: English, Student, Learning Media
Introduction
English as a lokal subject that is stated on Dekdikbud RI No. 0847/14/1993 chapter VIII. It is declared that
an elementary School grade is allowed to enhance the subject of their curriculum only if it doesnt the
purposes of national education. This policy is also supported by a regulation from Education and art
ministry No. 060/U/1993 on February 23rd 1993 about the possibilites of english to be a local subject for
Elementary School.
Based on the regulation of national education ministry number 22 year 2006, The purposes of English
subject for elementary school is to develop the skill of language to support the action. Used for interaction,
the topics are about conditional and situational of daily activites. It is important to be taught for the
improvement of their knowledge, technology, and arts. The existence of English subject in Indonesian
Curriculum is to teach the student so that they can have such good skill in English, especially in speaking
and writing and also to be used as international language.
Yogyakarta as cultural and educational region need to be aware about the importance of english. That is the
reason why our government concern on improving english, especially in Grammar and Vocabulary. One way
that will interact students attention is by using learning media. Fun Lyrics is an alternative learning media
for elementary school student in learning English.
The author proposes a research about English learning media software, called Fun Lyrics: English Learning
Media Software for elemtary school student via music lyric. With this software, it is expected that student
understand and learn english better because this one is not boring.
Theory
Learning Media
Tho word media comes from latin medius that means center, intermediary, or middleman. Gerlach
and Ely (Azhar Arsyad, 2007) said that media in general definition os human, material, or happening which
construct the condition of children and hel them gaining kowledge, skills, or stance.
Arief S. Sadiman (2009) on the speech of Kasihani E. Suyanto said that media can be used as a mediator to
tranfer the information between message sender and message recipient so it will stimulate their mind.
Feelings, attention, and interest of student till a learning process will conducted. Learning process is the
planned efforts that will manipulate the source of studying, include learning proccess without the coming of
teacher. One effort that can be used to earn effective learning is by a media of learning.
Media of learning is used to explain the material to be verbalistic-less (only by word or verbal). It also solve
time, space and sense problem. We can say learning proccess is a proccess of comunication. Learning
proccess consist of 5 elements: teacher, source of teaching, media of learning, student, and the goal of
studying. Media of learning are: material, quipment, hardware software. So, media of learning is everything
that can be used to transform the information so it can interests the attention, interest, and mind of student to
reach the purposes of studying.
English
English is an international language where commonly known in 2 styles, British and American. This
language has been an important need of humans life related to technology, infomration, and science. And
thats why the curriculum of a country must organize it.
English for elementary school student, as stated on national curriculum, is purposed for them so they are
allowed to read, write, and speaks english. It means, the student are expected on able to understand common
instructions, having interaction with their mate, and reading and writing with simple text on their daily life.
On English learning, there are 4 skills of linguistics, they are: performatif, functional, informational, and
ILCC 2013
242
epistemic.
The characteristic of elementary school student
An elementary school students age are at 7-12 years old. In this age, they are on the last period of being a
children. Their fellowship coverage will be wider and more because thay have been a mate in a school.
Education that is orientet at this period will be concern at the basic education for their growth and
development, intelligence, emotional, linguistics, as their personality and development step on children
(Conny R. Semiawan, 1999).
Hemerly (1982) from the speech of of dissertation of Kasihani E. Suyanto stated that English teaching for
elementary school student will be better if it be taught earlier for children. An assumption about age and
learning are children will learn linguistics better than older-aged learner, english learning must be initiated
as ealier as possible, children are easier to be interacted on education.
Fitting to childrens development, they like seeing such interesting pictures, clear, and colorful. They also
love listening to a story, while reading a full-of-picture book. Playing while studying is a cheerful activity for
children.
Visual Basic (VB) 6.0
Visual basic come at 1960s developed by Dartmouth College. BASIC (Beginners All Purpose Symbol
Instrution Code) programming language has been developed quickly. And today, this software has
compatible to Windows OS 32-bit..
Research Method
Time and Place
This research had been held on November 2011 for 1 month and take place in:
Engineering Faculty and Education Science Faculty in making the software and consultation to the expert
Minggiran Elementary School, Yogyakarta as testing place and approppriatenes test.
The Step of Producing
This research is based Research and Development Method. The procedure in making the software is based
on 10-steps of making and developing model by Borg & Gall (1983:775) that we simplified into 4 steps. The
steps on implementing on Fun Lyrics production are: 1. Need assessment, 2. Model Designing, 3.
Implementation, 4. Validation
Need Assessment
This step will identify and earning the data about the need in modelling implementing the system. It
includes: a. The analysis of English learning process, b. The learning media of teacher, c. The stance of
student to the media, d. The stance of student to the teaching
Model Designing
This step is to illustrate and explaining the model about content, size, coloring. Model was made in an easy
interface.
Implementation
This step will translate every module from designing step into an application with certain language
programming and rebuild them into a system. The steps are: a. Collecting and choosing module, 2.
Determining the program that will be used, c. Translating the procedure and sub routine to the programming
language, d. Rebuild them into a program.
Validating the Program
Testing this software is to knowing the bug of making this software to determine the approppriateness of
useing this Fun Lyrics as a media of learning English. This step sonsist of testing by expert, revision, then
tested to student as the subject.
Research Object
The object of this research is Fun Lyrics Software. The result will support the teaching process which uses
this media.
Research Instrument
The instrumenf of this research are questionnaire and interview to knowing and analyzing the needs of
English learning proccess and assess the Fun Lyrics as a studying media. The data sampling was taken to
earn the data of approppriateness level of the software and result will be used for validation. The assessment
includes: content, interface, picture, and audio.
Data Sampling and Analyzing
Data sampling are in 2 steps. First, by measurement of functions as implemented from design.
Second, by questionnaire to assess the approppriateness of Fun Lyrics software.
Data analyszing is by promoting the product, checking the validation and trustworthiness of
software. The second step, by using descriptive-qualitative method, it is by accomplishing the
approppriateness of the software after implemented to the student. And then the data will be
processed to earn the percentage
Approppriateness percentage (%)
Xy
Xt
X 100%
The data collected will be analyzed by that technique of calculation and will be wrote on a frequency and
percentage based on assessment scale, and then described and conclude it into each indicator. The aspect are:
Precentage Value Scale Interprestation
80 - 100 % 4 Very Appropriate
60 - 79 % 3 Appropriate
40 - 59 % 2 Enough
0 - 39 % 1 Not Appropriate
Hasil
Batik Guide Mobile Application
Screenshoot Program Versi Desktop
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The description of each menu are:
Main menu (menu utama): Main menu are consist of link to the sites on the internet, Help, and exit
Find lyrics: Contain the list of the song
Edit lyrics: To edit the lyrics
Change skin: To change skin
Screenshoot Program Versi Mobile
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Validate
This are the results of the research instrument data processing to media expert and programming
expert. In Fun Lyrics, the songs is song for children which familiar with children daily activities.
The lyrics contained in the song is only used to attract the attention of student in learning English
material. The example of the relation between lyrics and daily activities are:
In this
case,
need the
character
of
teacher to
help
students
Indicator Material Relation to the song
Enhancement
English
vocabulary
Introduction my self and
my friend
Perkenalan guru
My Family Satu-satu
Class and school
environment
Lihat Kebunku
Kind of clothen Topi Saya Bundar
Kind of transportation Naik Delman
Kring-kring ada Sepeda
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improve this English vocabulary. From results of validation and data collection, it can be analyzed
performance and software quality.
Tabel. Data Ahli media Pembelajaran
No. Name NIP Position Areas of
Expertise
1.
Masduki
Zakaria, M. T
19640917 198901
1 001
Lektor Pembelajaran
Elektronika
Digital
2. Umi Rochayati,
M.T
19630528 108710
2 001
Lektor Pembelajaran
Elektronika
Industri
Test result table by media expert (desktop version).
No. Aspect Xt Yt %
1. Design 47 56 83,92
2. Information Clearness 20 24 83,3
3. Advantage 23 24 95,8
Total 90 104 86,5
Test result table by media expert (mobile version).
No. Aspect Xt Yt %
1. Design 47 56 83,92
2. Information Clearness 21 24 87,5
3. Advantage 23 24 95,8
Total 91 104 87,5
Convertion table
Percentage Scale value Interpretation
80 - 100 % 4 Very Suitable
60 - 79 % 3 Suitable
40 - 59 % 2 Suitable Enough
0 - 39 % 1 Less Appropriate
Fun Lyrics application for desktop version get the category Very Suitable or 86,5%, whereas
mobile version get the category Very Suitable too or 87,5%. The next test is test to programming
expert. The data was collected are:
Tabel. Programming Expert Data
No. Name NIP Position Areas of
Expertise
1.
Yuniar Indrihapsari
M. Eng
19820621 201012
2 002
2. Adi Dewanto, M.
Kom
Asisten Ahli Manajemen
Sistem
Informasi
3. Dessy Irmawati,
M.T
19791214 201012
2 002
Asisten Ahli
Tabel. Data acquired from programming expert (desktop version):
No. Aspect Xt Xy %
1. Design and algorithm of program 90 108 83,33
2. Documentary and coding structure 33 36 91,67
Total 123 144 85,41
Tabel. Data acquired from programming expert (mobile version):
No. Aspect Xt Xy %
1. Design and algorithm of program 89 108 82,04
2. Documentary and coding structure 31 36 86,11
Total 120 144 83,33
Convertion table:
Percentage Scale value Interpretation
80 - 100 % 4 Very Suitable
60 - 79 % 3 Suitable
40 - 59 % 2 Suitable Enough
0 - 39 % 1 Less Appropriate
Fun Lyrics application, desktop version get the category Very Suitable or 85,41%, whereas
mobile version get the category Very Suitable too or 83,33%.
In validation stage of media expert, known some weakness in this application. Then, the author did
revision. From media expert, this are some case had to be reapired.
This media still simple, need to be equipped with some buttons so that student more easily using
this application.
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The size of media must be maximal, to make it more interesting and facilitate students to read the
lyrics.
After revision, then test the application again to media expert. After the application said good, then
the author test this application in elementary school Minggiran, Yogyakarta. The students very
attracted and enthusiastic follow our program. One of the thing that makes them attractive in this
learning because this learning use computers that it is rarely done in this school. They are very
excited and have hish curiosity to English. After some songs played, they follow the songs.
Data of testing results in Elementary School of Minggiran Yogyakarta:
No Pernyataan Ya % Tidak %
1. I feel that English is hard to be learnt 19 55,8 15 54,2
2. I like reading an Englilsh book 18 52,9 16 57,1
3. I have a computer 8 23,5 26 76,5
4. I have a handphone 29 85,3 5 14,7
5. I like playing PC games and in other peripheral 32 94,1 2 5,9
6. I like studying by using computer or handphone 30 88,2 4 17,8
7. Studying by using computer or handphone is
easier and more enjoyful than by using book.
26 76,4 8 23,6
8. I feel easier when learning English on FL
Software.
28 82,3 6 17,7
9. I feel more friendly with the buttons (the
buttons are easy to be used)
26 76,4 8 23,6
10. Im interested in learning English after
studying by Fun Lyrics Software.
31 91,1 3 8,9
From the table above, show that the level of student interest in learning English using Fun Lyrics
application is 91,1%. It can be concluded that this application is suitable used as learning media.
Students interest to learning use Fun Lyrics. They will know some new words. Indonesian
vocabulary and then translated in English. They are easier to memorized words. Teacher will
expand the vocabulary with the similar words. For example, bangun tidur=wake up then expand
in daily activities likes room, bed, and the others.
Conclusion
From the research acquired some conclusion as follows:
The design of Fun Lyrics is done through several phases: need analysis, design, implementation,
and validation.
To determine software feasibility, testing on four lecture, media expert and programming expert
and get the feasibility of 87 % for media expert. And get the feasibility of 84,37% for programming
expert. Aspects tested are design, clarity of information, and benefit.
To determine feasibility software for users, tested on 30 respondents and get the feasibility of
91,1%.
Acknowledgements
With the completion of this study, we would like to thank:
Dr.. Rahmat Wahab, M.A. as Rector of the State University of Yogyakarta.
Dr.. Mochamad Bruri Triyono as Dean of the Faculty of Engineering, Yogyakarta State University.
Mr. Drs. Muhammad Munir, MPd as Chairman of the Department of Electronics Engineering
Education.
Mr. Handaru Teak, Ph.D. as the supervisor who has given directions to the completion of this final
report.
Parents and family who always given me endless support and prayers.
UKM Rekayasa Teknologi who always gave encouragement.
All concerned that I can not mention one by one that has provided relief material and sprituil.
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Armstrong, Thomas. 2005. Setiap Anak Cerdas. Jakarta: Gramedia
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Azhim, Syakir Abdul. 2002. Membimbing Anak Terampil Berbahasa. Jakarta: Gema Insani Pers.
Borg W.R. and Gall M.D. 1983. Educational Research : An Introduction, 4 th edition. London:
Longman Inc.
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Bandung: Kaifa.
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Hongkong: Nelson.
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Rosdakarya.
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Menyampaikan Pengajaran. Jakarta: PT Grasindo.
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Subana dan Sudrajat. 2001. Dasar-dasar Penelitian Ilmiah. Bandung: CV Pustaka Setia
Sukmadinata, Nana Saodih. 2011. Metode Penelitian Pendidikan. Bandung: PT Remaja
Rosdakarya.
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Tarigan, Henry Guntur. 1985. Berbicara Sebagai Suatu Keterampilan Berbahasa. Bandung:
Angkasa.
Tim Pustaka Kamila. 2006. Warna-warni Kecerdasan Anak dan Pendampingannya. Yogyakarta:
Kanisius
Zamroni. 2000. Paradigma Pendidikan Masa Depan. Yogyakarta: Bigraf Publishing.
INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS ON VOCABULARY ACQUISITION AMONG EFL
LANGUAGE LEARNERS
Azadeh Asgari
Department of Languages & Humanities, Faculty of Educational Studies,
University Putra Malaysia (UPM)
Department of Languages, Faculty of Medicine,
Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences (SBUMS), E-mail: Azia.Asgari@gmail.com
Abstract: In this study, attempts were made to explore two vocabulary-learning strategies used by a
dvanced EFL learners at KIE institute in Tehran. A total of 130 EFL language learners participated a
s a sample of this research. In this study, an Oxford Placement Test (OPT) and two English tests, Pr
e-test and Post-test were used as instruments. At first, an Oxford Placement Test (OPT) was given to
homogenize students based on their vocabulary knowledge and as the result were divided into two
groups. Then, Pre-test and Post-test, with a treatment interval of one semester were conducted. The
collected data were analyzed by Statistical Package of Social Sciences (SPSS 16). The results show
ed that the results of OPT test in the two groups were the same. Moreover, there were significant dif
ferences among the students who learned memory strategies and the students who did not. Between
these two vocabulary learning strategies (keyword method and concept mapping), keyword method
proved more effective for long retention but not a lot; however, the difference between them was no
t significant.
Keywords: Memory strategies, Keyword method strategies, Concept mapping strategies
Introduction
English has been a major communicative language among countries for decades. English consists of
four paramount skills, listening, speaking, reading and writing and three components vocabulary, gr
ammar and pronunciation. As the researches indicate, the students need to have enough vocabulary
knowledge in order to deal with them. In other words, vocabulary plays an important role in learnin
g a foreign language. Rubin and Thompson (1994, p.79) pointed out, One cannot speak, understan
d, read or write a foreign language without knowing a lot of words. Therefore, vocabulary learning i
s at the heart of mastering a foreign language. Vocabulary is an element that links the four skills of
speaking, listening, reading and writing all together. To communicate well in a foreign language, stu
dents should acquire an adequate number of words and should know how to use them accurately. As
Decarrico (2001) stated vocabulary learning is central to language acquisition, whether the langua
ge is first, second or foreign (p. 285).
As a result, researchers have paid attention to introducing strategies for teaching and learning vocab
ulary. Nation (2001) declared that vocabulary-learning strategy is a subcategory of language learnin
g strategy, which itself is a subcategory of general learning strategy.
Language learning strategy was widely defined by scholars. Oxford (2001) defined language learnin
g strategies as operations employed by the learner to aid the acquisition, storage, retrieval and use
of information; specific actions taken by the learner to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable,
more self-directed, more effective and more transferable to new situations (P.166). Schmitt (1997)
defined vocabulary learning strategies as the process by which information is obtained, stored, retri
eved and used... therefore vocabulary learning strategies could be any which affect this broadly defi
ned process (p.203).
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In addition, researchers became interested in proposing taxonomies for language and vocabulary lea
rning strategies in order to help learners to overcome their problems in foreign language learning. T
he first typology of language learning strategies was introduced by Rubin (1981, 1987). Rubin (198
1) identified two major categories of strategies contributing to second language learning. One major
group was strategies that directly affected learning and the other was strategies that contributed indi
rectly to learning. Later on she categorized strategies into three main classes: learning, communicati
on, and social strategies (Rubin, 1987). They are further subdivided into cognitive and metacognitiv
e strategies. Cognitive strategies included a) clarification/verification, b) guessing/inductive, c) infer
encing, d) deductive reasoning, e) practice, f) memorization, and g) monitoring. And social strategie
s were a) asking questions to fellow students/teachers/native speakers, initiating conversations, liste
ning to L2 media. Oxford (1990) proposed a very comprehensive taxonomy of language learning str
ategies. She introduced two main categories: direct and indirect strategies. Direct strategies are thos
e strategies with language itself directly containing memory, cognitive, and compensation strategies
.Indirect strategies are those dealing with thoughts or feelings to help learning indirectly encompassi
ng metacognitive, affective, and social strategies.
On the whole, several classifications for vocabulary learning strategies were developed by scholars.
Cook and Mayer (1983) distinguished two vocabulary-learning strategies: determination strategies a
nd consolidation strategies. Lawson and Hogben (1996) introduced four vocabulary-learning strateg
ies: repetition, word feature analysis, simple elaboration and complex elaboration. The most compre
hensive taxonomy of vocabulary learning was developed by Schmitt (1997). He categorized the stra
tegies into two groups containing 59 individual vocabulary-learning strategies: the ones to determin
e the meaning of new words when encountered for the first time, and the ones to consolidate meanin
g when encountered again. The former, discovery strategies, contains social and determination strat
egies and the latter, consolidation strategies contains social, memory, cognitive and metacognitive st
rategies.
Memory strategies became a key group in Schmitts strategy classification system. These strategies,
also called mnemonics, engage learners in learning new words through mental processing. Schmitt
defined memory strategies as approaches which relate new materials to existing knowledge (p. 20
5). Mnemonic strategies involve the use of both visual and verbal mental imagery to relate a word t
o be memorized with some previously learned knowledge. One mnemonic strategy, the Keyword M
ethod, has been shown to be superior to any other deliberate vocabulary learning strategy (see revie
ws in Meara, 1980). Atkinson (1975) defined Keyword Method in this way: By a keyword, we me
an an English word that sounds like some part of the foreign word. In general, the keyword has no r
elationship to the foreign word except for the fact that it is similar in sound. The keyword method di
vides vocabulary learning into two stages. The first stage requires the subject to associate the spoke
n foreign word with the keyword, an association that is formed quickly because of acoustic similarit
y. The second stage requires the subject to form a mental image of the keyword, interacting with th
e English translation; this stage is comparable to a paired-associate procedure involving the learning
of unrelated English words (Atkinson, 1975: 821).There are two versions of the Keyword Method,
one based on the construction of visual images and the other based on the construction of sentences
. Evidence exists that the visual imagery version is superior to the sentence construction version in f
acilitating recall of words (Pressley, et al, 1982).
Non-mnemonic strategies, such as concept mapping, encourage learners to process target words in t
erms of their semantic properties. Concept mapping involves brainstorming associations that a word
has and diagrammatically displaying the results (see Skmen, 1997). According to Joseph Novak, a
Cornell University professor who developed this idea in the 1960s, concept maps are tools for orga
nizing and representing knowledge. They include concepts, usually enclosed in circles or boxes, and
relationships between concepts, indicated by a connecting line between two concepts. Concepts are
represented in a hierarchical fashion with the most comprehensive concepts at the top of the map a
nd the more detailed specific concepts at the deeper level. Novak and his research team based their
work on David Ausubels cognitive assimilation theories and the constructivist movement, both of
which stress the importance of assimilating new information into previously learned structures: To
learn meaningfully, individuals must choose to relate new knowledge to relevant concepts and prop
ositions they already know (Novak & Gowin, 1984).
Skmen (1997) mentioned that combining non-mnemonic concept mapping strategies with the mne
monic Keyword Method resulted in greater retention of words than if either the Keyword Method or
concept mapping alone is used. Mckeown and Beck (1988) suggested that integration of multiple m
ethods rather than a single method would be the best approach. Furthermore, Brown (2001a) claime
d the need to make an investment of developing multiple strategies in learners vocabulary learning
process.
Related studies on keyword method and concept mapping strategies
Numerous studies have confirmed the effectiveness of the keyword method in both foreign languag
e and native language vocabulary learning (Atkinson & Raugh, 1975). Atkinson and Raugh (1975) e
xplored the effectiveness of a mnemonic procedure, the keyword method, for learning Russian voca
bulary. The findings showed the keyword method is highly effective. In another study, Pressley, Mc
Cormick, Miller and Shriberg (1979) found that experienced language learners used strategies that
were as elaborate and effective as the keyword method. OMalley et al. (1985) found strategies invo
lving deeper more involved manipulation of information (i.e. imagery, inferenceing, Keyword Meth
od) being much less frequent. Avila & Sadoski (1996) showed that the keyword method Mnemonics
in the Classroom 7 can be helpful for limited English proficiency (LEP) students in an ESL setting
in American schools. Also, researchers have attempted to investigate which de-contextualized vocab
ulary strategies (Keyword Method or Concept mapping) is more effective. Wu and Chang (2005) re
viewed three Taiwanese researches and introduced 15 vocabulary memory strategies. Among all, ke
yword method and semantic mapping were the most commonly used strategies for vocabulary learn
ing among learners. Zhang (2005) stated that vocabulary is basic to communication and often seen a
s the greatest source of problems by the second language learners. However, it is often overlooked i
n the Chinese EFL classroom. This study highly recommended one of the de-contextualized vocabul
ary learning strategies, keyword method. After the analysis of theoretical basis, it resulted that keyw
ord method is widely used for Chinese learners.
Method such as concept mapping has been proven effective in several research studies (Scanlon, Du
ran, Reyes, and Gallego, 1991). McCagg and Dansereau (1991) studied the efficacy of a specific ty
pe of spatial learning strategy. They tested the effects of student-generated knowledge maps on psyc
hology students and found that mapping had a positive effect on students memory retention, based
on performance on recognition and recall tests. They also found that the effects were maintained ov
er time. Ellis (1995) stated that shallow processing like oral rehearsal does not lead to long-term ret
ention of words but that deep processing, whereby concept mapping associations are accessed and e
laborated, does (p.12). Boyle (1996) studied the effects of teaching a cognitive mapping strategy to
middle school students with mild learning disabilities or mild mental retardation. He specifically res
earched changes in students literal and inferential reading comprehension. The students were taught
to use a cognitive mapping strategy, which provided a series of steps to follow for constructing cog
nitive maps while they read. He found that students with mild disabilities could improve their readin
g comprehension of short passages once they were taught the strategy, and that they could complete
the maps independently and accurately. ODonnell, Dansereau and Hall (2002) reported about resea
rch that concept maps are useful for increasing comprehension with low-ability students in the scien
ces, and that concept mapping may have significant impact on summarization skills. Parsa Yekta an
d Nikbakht Nasrabadi (2004) examined the effects of teaching by concept mapping method on mea
ningful learning of 205 fourth-year nursing students in two nursing faculties in Tehran. They conclu
ded teaching by concept mapping strategy has significant effects on meaningful learning and retenti
on of the students and more nurse educators would attempt to use the concept mapping strategy in t
he promotion of meaningful learning.
Regarding the preceding researches, the present article aims to compare two vocabulary strategies:
keyword method and concept mapping strategies to see which one is more effective for long-term re
tention. Based on the mentioned aiming points, the following research questions can be formulated:
Are there any differences in the scores between EFL students who learn memory strategies and EFL
students who do not learn memory strategies?
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Which of these two strategies (keyword method or concept mapping strategies) have more impact
on the students learning?
Methodology
Participants
A total of 130 intermediate EFL students participated in a homogeneity test. They were both males a
nd females within the age range of 16 to 20 with mean of 16, chosen from KIE institute in Tehran. F
or whom English was a foreign language. Their first language was Persian.
3.2. Instrumentation
This study adopted two instruments, a Placement Test and two English vocabulary tests (pre-test an
d post-test).
3.2.1. Placement test
The Oxford Placement Test was given to homogenize the students. This test was used to discern the
level of the students and consisted of three parts: grammar, language use, and vocabulary. This test
comprised 50 multiple-choice questions with the reliability index of 0.82 calculated by Spearmans
rho, and pre-determined accepted validity.
3.2.2. English vocabulary tests
Two English vocabulary tests were used in this study (pre-test and post-test) taken from Interchange
Passages Placement and Evaluation Package by Lesley, Hanson and Zukowski (2005) consisting of
30 multiple- choice questions with the reliability value of 0.80 computed by Spearmans rho.
Pre-test was given to know about participants knowledge of vocabulary before treatments and post-
test was utilized to clarify the effectiveness of two mentioned strategies, keyword method and conce
pt mapping, through comparing with the results of pre-test.
3.3. Procedure
The overall experimental procedures were divided into three major phases including pre-test, treatm
ent and post-test. In the first phase, all 130 participants were homogenized by an Oxford Placement
Test (OPT). Therefore, after conducting OPT test the participants were homogenized and the numbe
r of participants was reduced to 60 because some of the participants were good and they did not nee
d any treatment. 60 participants were randomly divided into two groups, in each group 30 subjects.
In the second phase, a pre-test was carried out. The vocabulary test was scored and the students sco
res were analyzed. A correct answer was assigned 1 point and incorrect answer was given zero point
. The total possible points were 30. In the next phase, the two groups received the treatments. Since
the instruction was embedded in regular English classes, the English words related to the instruction
were also based on their textbook. Vocabularies were taught based on keyword method strategy to t
he first group and concept mapping strategy was taught to the second group during one semester (ab
out 40 days). In the final phase, a post-test with the same scoring system was given and the results o
f pre-test and post-test were compared to consider the most effective strategy.
4. Data Analyses
As mentioned before, this research investigated two instructional methods, keyword method vs.
concept mapping strategies on vocabulary acquisition among Intermediate students in KIE English
Language Institute in Tehran. The data was collected from 60 tests, which included demographic
information such as name and age and 30 vocabulary multiple-choice questions. With the use of
frequency tables and histograms, a description of the condition of demographic criteria and research
hypotheses was presented. Then, different statistical means, T-Test, Independent Sample T-test, and
two Pair T-tests with the Box-plot were used in order to consider research hypotheses.
Results and Discussions
At this section, the two research questions have been answered along with the tables and graphs that
proved the results. The following table and graph demonstrates a comparison among the scores of th
e students who learned memory strategies and the students who did not.
Table 1. The comparison of the students mean score who learned memory strategies and who did n
ot learn
-value
(Sig)
df
Statistics
T
Std. Error
difference
Mean
Differenc
e
SD
Mea
n
N Score
0.000 59 -8.909 2.777 -3.52
4.948 20.27 65 Pre-test
Group
3.279 23.78 65 Post-test
There is a difference in the scores between EFL language learners who learned memory strategies a
nd EFL students who did not learn memory strategies.
H0: The mean score of the students who learned memory strategies and students who did not le
arn memory strategies is the same.
The comparison of the students mean score who learned memory strategies and the students who di
d not learn memory strategies calculated by two-pair Test states -value (sig) is equal to 0.000 and it
is smaller than the significant level (=0.05). As the result, at this level H0 failed and it could be dec
lared that the students scores who learned memory strategies and the students who did not learn me
mory strategies have significant differences.
According to the second research question that tried to prove the effectiveness of one of these strate
gies, keyword method and concept mapping, the following table and graph declares this result.
Table 2. The comparison of the students mean score in keyword method and concept mapping strat
egies
-value
(Sig)
df
Statistics
T
Std. Deviat
ion
Mean N Scores
0.391 58 0.892
2.6018 3.833 65 Key-word method
Group
2.9525 3.200 65 Concept mapping
There are differences among the students score of memory strategies in both groups of keyword me
thod and concept mapping strategies.
H0: The students mean scores of memory strategies in the two groups (keyword method and concep
t mapping strategies) are the same.
The comparison of the students scores of memory strategies in two groups (keyword method and co
ncept mapping strategies) computed by Independent Sample T-test reveals that -value (sig) is equal
to 0.382 and it is bigger than level of significance (=0.05). It depicts H0 did not fail and therefore
it could not say that the students scores of memory strategies in these two groups have significant d
ifferences.
Conclusions
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258
The findings of the study on the impact of two kinds of vocabulary learning strategies: keyword met
hod and concept mapping strategies. The findings revealed that there is a statistically significant diff
erence among the students who learned memory strategies and the students who did not learn memo
ry strategies. It is concluded that memory strategies could be used as an important ways to memoriz
e the words forever. In the same study, Sperber (1989) conducted a survey in Western Europe and N
orth America among students of foreign languages to establish how mnemonics are used. Sperber e
stimates that at least 10,000 students were contacted. The result showed that the mnemonics were s
uccessfully used.
Furthermore, the results showed that the keyword method seemed to be a little more efficient than c
oncept mapping strategies for memorizing the words; however, this difference is not statistically sig
nificant. In the same study, Atkinson and Raugh (1975) explored the effectiveness of a mnemonic pr
ocedure, the keyword method, for learning Russian vocabulary. The findings showed the keyword
method is highly effective. In another study, Avila & Sadoski (1996) showed that the keyword meth
od Mnemonics in the Classroom 7 can be helpful for limited English proficiency (LEP) students in
an ESL setting in American schools. Moreover, researchers have attempted to investigate which de-
contextualized vocabulary strategies (Keyword Method or Concept mapping) is more effective. Wu
and Chang (2005) reviewed three Taiwanese researches and introduced 15 vocabulary memory strat
egies. Among all, keyword method and semantic mapping were the most commonly used strategies
for vocabulary learning among learners.
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Language and Communication Skills (LCS) of Leadership in Educational Management
By
Safrat Folake Adelakun
(Postgraduate Student)
Department of Educational Management and Leadership
Institute of Education (INSTED)
IIUM
flkadelakun@gmail.com
&
safradela@yahoo.com
Abstract:
Poor language and communication skills of educational leaders have been observed to be a major
menace to leadership success in goal accomplishment. Leadership which happens to be the pioneer
ing function of Management steers other areas such as Planning, Organizing and Coordinating of E
ducational management, therefore it requires some strategic skills such as language and communic
ation to accomplish its function. The power of oratory skill in leadership goes a long way in providi
ng solution to some salient issues facing leadership in educational management. In this vein, this ar
ticle will present the powerful oratory skills that solve various issues particularly relating to subord
inates and their job functions. This paper will conclude on the basis that the presented (LCS) will to
the highest degree, solve major issues between the leaders and their subordinate thus decision maki
ng and implementation of policies will be easier.
Keywords: language, communication, leadership, administration, subordinate, skills
INTRODUCTION
This study is an attempt to present some communication skills which educational leaders need in th
e day to day running of their organization especially while communicating with their subordinates i
n relation to their job functions. In the first instance, it explains the relationship between language, c
ommunication and leaders. The methodology will explore what are the skills and explain how, wher
e and when to use each skill and the effects of the skills to the organization at large. This study will
implore the use of descriptive and analytical method in presenting the language and communicating
skills to leaders in promoting healthy and virile environment and how helpful it can go in solving to
p-down communication problem in educational management. At the onset, we have to understand th
e meaning of language, communication and their relationship to the leader.
WHAT IS LANGUAGE? :
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Language is the means of interpreting and regulating culture. It remains the predominant mode of c
ommunication whether in spoken or written form. Using language for conversation by speaking de
mands a bit more carefulness because you are aware that there is an audience whose task is to listen
to you and analyze every word you use. Speech in language can be Monologue (presence of clear sp
eaker-audience relationship), Conversation (talking with other people rather than to) and Discussion
(when talk passes back and forth among several speakers)
1
It also serves in defining the roles of pa
rticipants (Speakers, Readers and Listeners). There are majorly two types of communication: vocal
and non-verbal language. The former is mainly the context of this study while the latter are forms of
bodily, facial expressions /gestures of message. Vocal language is a form of oral expression (comm
unication) of oneself. Usually it involves two ways whereby we have the speaker and the listener. Al
so, in Language, Motivation to speak connects with desire to communicate and under normal intera
ction; the feedback is to the content and not the form of utterance. Language is made up of symbols
in different languages. This means a symbol which has positivism in a language might have negativi
sm in another.
THE MEANING OF COMMUNICATION
Communication is simply the act of transferring information from one place to another, whether this
is done vocally (using voice) written (using printed or digital media such as books, magazines, web
sites and emails) visually (using logos, maps, charts and graphs) or non-verbally (using body langua
ge and/or gestures) to make meaningful result to the listener. The perfection of how well this infor
mation can be transmitted and received is a measure of how good our communication skills are. In a
nutshell, communication implies interpretation on somebodys part.
It has been a common assumption that poor communication is a key contributor to the failure of
major change efforts, therefore, to make change a leader need to communicate the change vision
1
.
Not surprisingly, communication skills are increasingly regarded as a critical skill set for leaders,
particularly in situations where the leader is an instrumental driver of change.
In the good sense of it, communication skills, both in terms of personal ability and strategic
capability, are being given increasing importance in leadership competency models. Leaders who
stand out from the crowd are those with exemplary communication skills. The feedback skill is
associated with the communication skill and it helps the followers to improve their behavior and
make the organization accomplish its objective and thus needs to be improved through training in
coaching.
1
Therefore, leadership communication skills training have become a core component of
leadership development programs in success seeking organizations.
Studies of communication provide direction as to how managers can effectively and persuasively co
mmunicate. Communication can be coded or not coded depending on the understanding the receiver
has about the message.
INTEGRATED COMMUNICATION ROLE OF LEADERSHIP
Leadership is sometimes interchangeably use with management. While leadership is linked with vis
ion, mission and values, management is related to processes and structures put in place in any organ
ization. Leadership is the ability of one who led to influence other stakeholders particularly the subo
rdinates towards the belief in the vision design for the organization. As no man is an island of mou
ntain, the leader will carry out the process and structure with the aid of human resource. Therefore
in the process of influencing, the leader engages in communication through formal language of the
organization. Communication skill is very much pertinent to be practiced by the leader to effectivel
y and successfully perform the role and function vested on him/her. In the context of this paper, the
following is the leadership communication model
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Figure1: Leadership communication model Adapted from
1
Communication skills
In everyday life of human beings, ability to communicate effectively is the most important of all life
skills. To be effective in his duty, the leader engages in interpersonal communication which is face-
to face with the followers and it is not just about what is said, the language used but how it is said
considering the tone of the message; facial expressions sent with the message; gestures and other
body languages. The interpersonal skills broken down by research consist of the following elements
: Communicators (sender and receiver), Message (information sent), Noise (distortions) and the Fee
dback (receivers returned information). In the context of this study, leadership in educational man
agement will need but not constricted to the following skills which are basically divided into three:
1) Interpersonal skill
2) Presentation skill
3) Writing skill
Interpersonal skill of a leader in communicating with the subordinate as the name denotes, is the rel
ationship that should exist between the leader and the led. The interpersonal skill includes but not li
mited to:
Listening skill
Communication skill
Stress Management skill
Assertive skill
Decision making skill
Problem solving skill
1
o By listening, this study means the ability to accurately receive messages in the
communication process. The word accuracy is used to emphasize that a balance is
required to get message as intended by the sender. Listening is key to all effective
communication, without the ability to listen effectively messages are easily
misunderstood communication breaks down and the sender of the message can
easily become frustrated or irritated. To an educational management leader in
measuring effective communication right, he needs ample measure of accuracy in
this skill.
o Communication skill is a spice to interpersonal skill in the sense that it expresses the
feelings, understanding towards effectiveness of ideal situation of the speaker and
the listener. As a leader, there is ample need to be very skilled in the two types of
communication (verbal and non-verbal). Verbal communication to a leader requires
the following to be effective: the opening, reinforcement, effective listening,
questioning (close and open), reflecting and clarifying, summarizing and closing. By
engaging in the above steps, the leader is assured of higher percentage of positive
impact of his message on the led. The non-verbal communication which includes
body movement, posture, eye contact, paralanguage, close/ personal space, facial
expression and physiological change aspect is also a vital component to the leader.
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The leader gets the feedback and optimizes the message through the non-verbal cues
received from his followers.
o By been assertive it is the ability to express feelings, wishes, wants and desires
appropriately and it is vital aspect of personal and interpersonal skill. The leaders
interactions with other people, whether at home or at work with employers,
customers or colleagues, assertiveness can help him to express himself in a clear,
open and reasonable way, without undermining the rights of his self or others.
Assertiveness enable individuals to act in their own best interests, to stand up for
themselves without undue anxiety, to express honest feelings comfortably and to
express personal rights without denying the rights of others
1
.
o Stress is seen as a bad omen in an organization and thus must be controlled. An
effective communicative leader must possess a holistic approach to stress
management. This can be achieve by incorporating stress management activities into
day by day culture of the system. It must be acknowledged that by optimizing the
health of the workforce we ensure the good health of the organization. This becomes
manifest in terms of maximum performance and productivity.
1
o Problem solving skill is the ability to face the challenges surrounding the leader at
any time. This is a must possess skill because the leader is bound to face challenge
to make change effective. The problem may be within or out of the organization
which will come purposely to defeat the accomplishment and productivity of the
organization. An effective communicative leader will need analytical skill to
process solution to the problem at stake. Analytical skill is the ability of the leader
to recognize development opportunities for their members and determine whether
communication in form of coaching is needed
1
. The leader will need to find out how
the task is perform, the strength and weak areas of the performed task, determine
other procedures and conclude on the specific alternative to improve him to
overcome the challenge.
HOW TO DEVELOP YOUR INTERPERSONAL SKILL
Learn to Listen
Listening is not the same as hearing. Leaders must take time to listen carefully to what others are sa
ying through both their verbal and non-verbal communication.
Choose Your Words
Leaders should be selective and aware of the words to be use when talking to others. Could you be
misunderstood or confuse the issue? Leaders need to practice clarity and learn to seek feedback to e
nsure the message has been understood. They need to encourage others to engage in communication
and use appropriate questioning to ascertain understanding of the message.
Understand Why Communication Fails
By learning about the various barriers to good communication, leaders can be aware of - and reduce
the likelihood of - ineffective interpersonal communication.
Relax
It is common practice that when we are nervous we tend to talk more quickly and therefore less clea
rly. Being tense is also evident in our body language and other non-verbal communication. Instead,
as a leader try to stay calm, make eye contact and smile. In fact, studies had shown that smiling redu
ces tension in the body. Leaders must let their confidence shine.
Clarify
A leader must show an interest in the people he/she talk to, ask questions and seek clarification on a
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ny points that could be easily misunderstood
Be Positive
Leaders must try to remain positive and cheerful. People are much more likely to be drawn to leade
rs of such if he can maintain a positive attitude.
Develop sense of Empathy
For leaders to have effective communication, they need understand that other people may have diffe
rent points of view. Try to see things from their perspective. You may learn something while you gai
n the respect and trust of others.
Understand Stress
Stress is understood to be part of the experiences of a leader. You as a leader must learn to recognize
, manage and reduce stress in yourself and others. Although stress is not always bad it can have a d
etrimental effect on the communication process. Learning how to recognize and manage stress, in y
ourself and others, is an important interpersonal skill.
Learn to be Assertive
Leaders should aim to be neither passive nor aggressive. Being assertive is about expressing your fe
elings and beliefs in a way that others can understand and respect. Assertiveness is fundamental to s
uccessful negotiation.
Reflect and Improve
Leaders must always think about previous conversations and other interpersonal interactions; you sh
ould learn from your mistakes and successes. Always keep a positive attitude but realize that we ca
n all always improve our communication skills.
Negotiate
As a leader you should learn how to effectively negotiate with others paving the way to mutual resp
ect, trust and lasting interpersonal relations.
Working in Groups
Most of the time, we find ourselves in group situations, professionally and socially. As a leader, you
should learn all about the different types of groups and teams.
Presentation skill
Ability to Present information clearly and effectively is a key skill to get your message or opinion a
cross and, today, presentation skills are required in almost every. As a leader and administrator or ex
ecutive, if you need to share your ideas, plans and strategy with your team members, you need appl
y an effective presentation skill in order of coherence for better comprehensive understanding. This
will make your points a hot cake, acceptable and leaving your ideas only to constructive criticism
among your subordinates.
Leaders must not avoid fears, fidgeting and feeling terrified when need be to make public talk, but t
he initial fears can be reduced by good preparation which will also lay the groundwork for making a
n effective presentation. It requires the leader to attempt these steps
Understanding the purpose
The leader must understand that the presentation is a means of communication which he has adapte
d to suit the purpose of various speaking situations, such as talking to a group, addressing a meeting
or briefing a team. To be effective, step-by-step preparation and the method and means of presentin
g the information should be carefully considered through effective speaking.
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Preparing the Presentation
There is need for the leader to be fully prepared for the presentation. This is the crucial foundation
stage and there should be no levity.
Organizing the Material
Leaders must realize that Irrespective of whether the occasion is formal or informal, he should alwa
ys aim to give a clear, well-structured delivery. He should know fully, and understand the context o
f exactly what he want to say and the order in which he want to say it. Clarity of ideas and good or
ganization will result in a lively, logical and compelling message.
Deciding the Presentation Method
Sometimes, few people are able to give a presentation without notes. A leader need to know his own
abilities and decide how best to make the presentation. He might manage his talk by using full text,
notes on cue cards, keywords on cue cards, or mind maps
Working with visual aids
Use of visual aids enhances proper understanding of the message. Most visual aids will need advanc
e preparation and should be operated with efficiency. Leaders are advice to only use visual aids if t
hey are necessary to maintain interest and assist comprehension: he should not use them just to dem
onstrate his technological prowess but if visual aids are used well they will enhance a presentation b
y adding impact and strengthening audience involvement, yet if they are managed badly they can ru
in a presentation.
Dealing with Questions
A leader should clarify at the start of his presentation, when he would prefer to deal with questions.
Some speakers prefer questions to be raised as they arise during the presentation whilst others prefe
r It is advisable to deal with questions at the end. Decide in advance how and when you wish to han
dle questions.
Writing Skill
Writing skills are an important part of communication. Good writing skills allow you to commu
nicate your message with clarity and ease to a far larger audience than through face-to-face or tel
ephone conversations. Writing that is free of error of grammar and spelling create good first impr
ession about the reader (sender). Distorted message communicated are easier to forget than distor
ted written communication because that can be pass from one hand to the other and thus spoil the
credibility of the sender to a larger extent.
Summary
In summary, Language is a means of communicating between the sender and the receiver. This stud
y has successfully highlighted the leader as the apex of change with the aid of his subordinates. He r
equire clear, concise and undistorted message to communicate in other to move the organization for
ward. The leader is seen as one playing three integrated communicative role: communication syste
m, communication planning and communication delivery. To successfully do this, he needs to learn,
apply and practice effective communication skills which are majorly divided into three: Interperson
al, Presentation and writing skills.
Conclusion
Conclusively, this article has been able to justify that issue related to communication breakdown wh
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ich easily degenerate law and order in organization and defeat the productivity can be resolved with
the mastering and practice of this skills. Leaders can improve their relationship with their subordina
te through the practice of good language and communication skills.
References:
http://www.skillsyouneed.com/interpersonal-skills.html: A list of Interpersonal
Skills.Retreived(7/7/2013)
http://www.ceoforum.com.au/article-detail.cfm?cid=6128&t=/JoAnne-Facey-Mercer-Human-
Resource-Consulting/Effective-communication-skills-that-make-leaders-stand-out-from-the-
crowd. Retreived(7/7/2013)
Psychometric Analysis of The Self-Efficacy Encouragement in The University
Environment: A Chinese Version
Muhammed Yusuf,
Faculty of Education and Human Development,
Sultan Idris Education University (UPSI),
Tanjung Malim, Perak, Malaysia,
Email address: kuanademola@yahoo.com or muhammed.yusuf@fppm
_____________________________________________________________________________
Abstract. This study introduced the Self-efficacy Encouragement Questionnaire (SEEQ -14 ite
ms). The scale was developed to examine whether the university lecturers encourage undergradu
ate students to develop their academic sense of efficacy during class activities and to what exten
t using a Principal Component Analysis (PCA) to test the cross language equivalence of the SE
EQ and to explore whether its psychometric properties are universally sound. A translated SEEQ
-English version to the Chinese language was distributed to 65 undergraduate Chinese national s
tudents who are concurrently studying English communication and Music in Malaysia. The PCA
attempts to answer the following research question: what are the psychometric properties of the
self-efficacy encouragement questionnaire? The results indicated that the Self-efficacy Encoura
gement Questionnaire (SEEQ) is an established inventory with satisfactory validity and reliabilit
y indications and for that reason, it's justified to be used in other studies. The findings of the freq
uency analysis indicate that the respective university lecturers do communicate and encourage t
he Chinese degree students to develop their academic self-efficacy during English class activitie
s.
Keywords: Self-Efficacy, Encouragement, Psychometric, Chinese.
1. Introduction
Bandura 1986, 1997 arguers that human action towards success depends on how deep the intera
ctions between ones personal thoughts and own activity management. Besides, low Self-efficac
y is associated with helplessness feeling and it is a predictor of human failure (Bandura 1994). F
urther, a sense of self- efficacy motivates students to believe in their own ability to successfully
exercise learning activities. When students are confident in themselves they think of learning dif
ficulties as challenges (Bandura 1986 ; Bandura and Lock 2003; Schunk 1982).
Accordingly, there are several factors that influenced individuals to develop self-efficacy beliefs
. They are enactive attainment, actual experience, verbal persuasion, social evaluation and Com
parison (Bandra, 1986, 1994; Schunk et al. 1987). Sense of social performance and modeling co
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uld lead to self-efficacy development (Schunk 1987; Schunk and Hanson 1988), Childrens inte
raction and parent environment increased self-efficacy (Bandura 1997; Meece 1997; Jonson-Rei
d et al 2005). Social persuasion or word of encouragement helps to develop self-efficacy (Band
ura 1986). It was empirically shown that Collective Cognitive and teachers' self-efficacy influen
ced students' academic achievement (Bandura, 1993; Hoy and Murphy 2003; Pajares 1992 Asht
on & Webb, 1986; Ashton, 1985).
2. Research method
The scale was developed to examine whether the university lecturers encourage degree stu
dents to develop their academic self- efficacy during class activities and to what extent they wer
e encouraged. The SEEQ comprises 14 items and were rated on a 7-point Likert scale ranging fr
om 1 (very strongly disagree) to 7 (very strongly agree. A translated SEEQ-English version to th
e Chinese language was distributed to 65 undergraduate Chinese national students who are curre
ntly studying Music at Faculty of Music and performing Art, the International University Colleg
e of Technology Twintech IUCTT- Malaysia. Yes of course, the Chinese version of SEEQ was di
stributed after a considerable content validity by some experts in educational research. The Prin
cipal Component Analysis was applied to answer the following research question: what are the p
sychometric properties of the self-efficacy encouragement questionnaire? Further, a frequency a
nalysis was used to test proportion of the lecturers self-efficacy encouragement. The findings ar
e stated below.
1.2. PCA Results
All 14 Items were included in the self-efficacy encouragement investigation. The KMO and Bart
lett's test results show that Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure of sampling Adequacy (MSA) was .912
Indicating that the overall MSA result fulfilled the requirement of at least .60. The MSA result is
a strong indicator to continue the investigation, especially, Bartletts test was also statistically si
gnificant p <. 001.
Further, Anti-image Correlation was used to test items parallel. Accordingly, each item loading
was greater than the benchmark of at least 0.5. This is an indication of adequate interrelationship
among the items of the SEEQ (fig. 1).
1
2
3 Item no
4
5
6
7
8
Item 1
.935a
Item 2 .885a
Item 3 .924a
Item 4 .939a
Item 5 .922a
Item 6 .920a
Item 7 .926a
Item 8 .855a
Fig. 1: Anti-image Correlation
9
10
11 Item no
12
13
14
Item 9
.873a
Item 10 .891a
Item 11 .960a
Item 12 .897a
Item 13 .952a
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Item 14 .923a
Continued.
Notice: a Measures of Sampling Adequacy (MSA)
In addition, the measurement of Communality (fig. 2) reveals that all items -exempt item 3-
are above the requirement of at least 0.5, nevertheless, the item 3 was retained due to other stati
stical strength of the item, for example, Anti-image Correlation shows (. 924) loading for the ite
m 3 which is greater than the requirement (0.5). Also, test for individual item reliability reveals .
95 for the respective item. Taking the above and others into account, the researcher decided to re
tain the item for any further analysis.
Initial Extraction
encouragement 1.000 .526
encouragement 1.000 .660
encouragement 1.000 .464
encouragement 1.000 .516
encouragement 1.000 .656
encouragement 1.000 .534
encouragement 1.000 .672
encouragement 1.000 .620
encouragement 1.000 .609
encouragement 1.000 .780
encouragement 1.000 .719
encouragement 1.000 .821
encouragement 1.000 .512
encouragement 1.000 .592
Fig. 2: Communalities Result
Item no Component
1
encouragement .725
encouragement .812
encouragement .681
encouragement .718
encouragement .810
encouragement .731
encouragement .820
encouragement .787
encouragement .780
encouragement .883
encouragement .848
encouragement .906
encouragement .715
encouragement .769
Fig.3 : The Underlying Component Matrix
The Initial Eigenvalues and component Matrix results (fig. 3) grouped the 14 Items into one fact
or namely, encouragement factor. The total variance explained was 61% and the remaining 29%
could not explained by this study. The analysis also shows factors loading of 8.67 which was hig
her than the requirement of at least 1 (Hair & Black 1998). Additionally, Chronbachs alpha wa
s applied to examine the internal consistency of the self-efficacy encouragement questionnaire.
The finding demonstrates a commanding statistical internal consistency for the SEEQ (. 95).
2.2. Frequency Analysis Result
The findings of the frequency analysis indicate that the respective university lecturers encourag
ed Chinese degree students to develop their academic sense efficacy during English class activit
ies. Also, the frequency analysis shows that the SEEQ perfectly describe the academic sense effi
cacy of the respondents. For illustration, the majority of participants (44 %) indicated that item
three My lecturers inform me that my self-efficacy will help me to obtain better academic achie
vement was truly described their learning believe. 41.5% of respondents demonstrated that ite
m one My lecturers encouraged me to be confident in myself and beat the odds of my universit
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278
y courses and item five My lecturers inform me about their self-confidence and how it helps t
hem to overcome lots of learning difficulties were truly explained their self-efficacy perception
. At the same time, 41% demonstrated that item two My lecturers make me confident that I hav
e ability to execute all my university assignments was also portrayed their learning self-efficac
y perception (fig. 4).
No of item Not v. true Sort true true Very true
1 3.1% 12.3% 41.5% 32.3%
2 1.5% 20% 40% 20%
3 3.1% 21.5% 44.6% 23.1%
4 1.5% 32.3% 26.2% 26.2%
5 3.1% 21.5% 41.5% 26.2%
6 1.5% 24.6% 38.5% 16.9%
7 1.5% 24.6% 33.8% 30.8%
8 3.1% 16.9% 36.9% 29.2%
9 3.1% 26.2% 35.4% 29.2%
10 7.7% 27.7% 35.4% 18.5%
11 3.1% 27.7% 32.3% 24.8%
12 1.5% 26.2% 33.8% 23.1%
13 3.1% 33.8% 32.3% 15.4%
14 1.5% 27.7% 29.2% 29.2%
Fig. 4: Frequency Analysis
Notice: 1 = not very true of me 2 = not true of me 3 = sort of true of me 4 = true of me
5 = very true of me.
3. Conclusion
The present study contributed to the available empirical educational research findings of the self
efficacy beliefs. Also, the study indicated that the university lecturers were personally involved i
n students self-efficacy development process. Empirically, this is an important recognition for t
he respective university lecturers that they were actively encouraged their students to be confide
nt in their studies. Bandura (1997, 1994) emphasized on the important role of verbal persuasion
on the self-efficacy development. It was empirically shown that teachers' self-efficacy influence
d students' achievements (Bandura, 1993; Hoy and Murphy 2003; Pajares 1992 Ashton & Webb,
1986; Ashton, 1985).
Based on the Principal Component Analysis investigation, the results of the SEEQ - Chinese Ve
rsion were statistically sound, valid, and reliable. It is a significant construct and innovative cont
ribution to the educational research field since it is unusual for many researchers in education to
investigate the self-efficacy developmental process relating to the lecturers of universities. The
SEEQ-Chinese Version could be used in any other similar studies. The present findings were si
milar to the results of the SEEQ-English version by Muhammed Yusuf (2010; Rohaty, Muhamm
ed Yusuf & Tamuri. 2010; Muhammed Yusuf 2012). Further, the PCA statistical results were als
o signified by the finding of frequency analysis (Fig. 4).
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a 36 (2): 83
5. APENDIX : Self-efficacy Encouragement Questionnaire (SEEQ)
The following questionnaire (SEEQ) asks about your lecturers encouragement to develop your
academic self-efficacy. Your responses are treated confidentially. In order to ensure this, please
do not write your name or any identification on the questionnaire. Remember there is no right
or wrong answer, just answer as accurately as possible. Use the scale ratings below to answer th
e questions. If you think the statement is very true of you, circle 7; if a statement is not at all tru
e of you, circle 1. If the statement is more or less true of you, find the number between 1 and 7 t
hat the best describes you.
7
117
1 = not at all true of me ;
2 = not very true of me ;
3 = not true of me ;
4 = not sure ;
5 = sort of true of me ;
6 = true of me ;
7 = very true of me ;
1. My lecturers encouraged me to be confident in 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
myself and beat the odds of my university courses.
1. My lecturers make me confident that I have ability 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
to execute all my university assignments.
1. My lecturers inform me that my self-efficacy will 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
help me to obtain better academic achievement.
1. My lecturers make it clear to me that my 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
self-efficacy will make me survive in the university
setting.
2. My lecturers inform me about their self-confidence 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
and how it helps them to overcome lots of learning
difficulties.
3. My lecturers do inform me that taking difficult 1 2 3 4 5 6
7
courses will provide me with encouragements and
helpful experiences for future university courses.
4. My lecturers build confidence in me that if 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
I keep on trying, I will overcome my university
course difficulties.
5. My lecturers encourage me to be brave/confident 1 2 3 4 5 6
7
enough to discuss my course difficulties with them.
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6. My lecturers remind me that I have to be brave to 1 2 3 4 5 6
7
discuss my learning obstacles with my university
course mates.
7. My lecturers give me enough confidence to set 1 2 3 4 5 6
7
effective learning goals for my university courses.
8. My lecturers emphasis that it is when I believe 1 2 3 4 5 6
7
in myself I can make my specific course goals
achievable.
9. My lecturers stress that my confidence can help my 1 2 3 4 5
6 7
university course plan work.
10. My lecturers encourage me to not doubt myself in 1 2 3 4 5
6 7
making my time management plans work.
11. I feel encouraged by my lectures to feel confident 1 2 3 4 5
6 7
in designing effective study plans for my university
courses.
Lexical Borrowing from the Arabic Language in an Islamic Course Conducted in English
Nurul-Ikhlas Arshad, Mohamed Ismail Ahamad Shah
International Islamic University Malaysia
Corresponding Author: Nurul-Ikhlas, Arshad, International Islamic University Malaysia, email
address:ikhlasarshad@yahoo.com
_____________________________________________________________________________
__________
Abstract.The incorporation of Islamic Arabic words into the English language is one of the most
visible and salient features of Islamic English. Since a number of studies by Muslim scholars an
d academicians have advocated the concept of Islamic English, this study intends to further adva
nce the concept by contributing to the accumulated literature from a linguistic perspective. This
study analyses the patterns and processes of borrowing that can occur in the retention of Islamic
Arabic words. Classroom discourse in a weekend course conducted in English by an internation
al Islamic institute was analyzed using Haugens (1950) model on lexical borrowing. The study
shows that the most common process of borrowing in the discourse is total importation, as loan
words make up the majority of the borrowed features.Loanblends and loan translations were als
o detected although each make up only less than ten percent of the borrowed features. The stud
y found that there is a need to consider how Islamic Arabic words are used in English, in additio
n to retaining their forms. Recommendations are provided in this aspect, particularly in teachin
g Islamic Studies in the English language as well as in retaining Islamic Arabic terms in the gen
eral discourse among Muslims.
Keywords: Islamic English, World Englishes,lexical borrowing, Islamic Arabic terms
1. Introduction
As the English language became the lingua franca of the world, the language spread to diverse c
ommunities and nations. With its widespread diffusion into different communities that are cultu
rally unique and diverse, this communicative tool which is seen as Judeo-Christian based and e
ntrenched in Roman secular worldview (Ratnawati, 1996, p.353) finds itself undergoing inevita
ble modifications to meet the specific and unique communicative needs of its new speakers. T
hese modifications can be seen in the various World Englishes or varieties of English having the
ir own distinctive linguistic features and suited to meet the needs and identities of their language
communities (Kachru, 1997).
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Many studies have been conducted to study these linguistic modifications in the different Englis
h varieties including at the lexical level. Bamgbose (1996, p.6) for example described lexical in
novations as inevitable and stated that in East Africa, one has to be familiar with the uses of lex
ical items such as wananchi(citizen), matutu(collective taxi), bwana (master) and panga(machet
e) among others. Similarly, when in India where Indian English is spoken, one would encounte
r lexical items that are foreign to the speakers of Standard Englishes such as avatar, guru and puj
a as well as compound blends such as ghatroad and gobar gas (Pingau, 2009). These lexical inn
ovations are often from semantic fields that are intertwined with ones culture and identity such
as food, religion and philosophy. They include culture-specific registers that are often absent in
the Standard Englishes.
This also holds true for the Muslim Ummah, having their own linguistic needs that are intertwin
ed with their religion and identity. A number of studies by Muslim scholars and academicians (e
.g.,Al Faruqi, 1986; Khairiah&ZuridahHayati, 2009; Khairiah& Maskanah, 2010; Dahiru, 1996;
Haja, 2007) have supported this notion, showing the need for the application of Islamic Arabic t
erms in the English language. With the absent of many Islamic religious referents in Standard E
nglishes, Muslim scholars such as Al Faruqi (1986) speak of the concern in the preservation of I
slamic understanding as distortion of meanings can easily occur through transliteration and trans
lation. Al Faruqi (1986, p.13) stated that through such distortions many meanings suffer chang
e, loss or obliteration from consciousness and thus produce a serious threat to the continuity of
Islamic understanding (p.14). This concern and the perceived inadequacy of the English langua
ge to meet the communicative and linguistic needs of the Muslims bring forth a new or modified
form of English which is termed as Islamic English by Al Faruqi (1986). While studies have eff
ectively shown the needs and importancefor an Islamic English(e.g.,Al Faruqi, 1986; Dahiru, 19
96; Ratnawati, 1996; Sheila & Zalika, 2009), there is still more studies required to further under
stand the trends, reality and nature of the language (Dahiru, 1996) and propel forward the conce
pt of Islamic English. One aspect that is seen as lacking in research is the linguistic features of I
slamic English which this paper intends to explore,albeit restricted to the lexical level, particular
ly the processes of lexical borrowing from the Arabic language. It is also of current interest to e
xplore the authentic usage of the language in a linguistic domain (Islamic Studies and Sciences)
that was once reserved for the Arabic language or the native languages of the Muslim nations.
1. Theoretical Framework
Lexical borrowing can basically be understood as the incorporation of lexical items from a sourc
e language into a receiving language. In the context of New Englishes, speakers who engage in
the borrowing of lexical items may not be the native speakers of the English language wherein i
n this case borrowed items are introduced by fluent non-native speakers for cultural retention pu
rposes, a process known as endo-borrowing. This is different from exo-borrowing where the
borrowing is done by native speakers of the receiving language (Haspelmath, 2003, p.4). Since
speakers may not be natives of the English language, the source language is termed the maintai
ned language and borrowing in this paper is defined as the attempted reproduction in a maintai
ned language, of features from another language with which the former is in contact (Tan, 2009
, p.455). In addition this paper included frozen or idiomatic phrases as lexical items together wi
th single or compound words, in line with Gumperz (1982, p.66 as cited in Hornberger& McKay
, 2010) who defined borrowing as the introduction of single words or short, frozen idiomatic ph
rases from one variety into the other.
In analyzing and describing the linguistic processes involved in the borrowing of Islamic Arabic
words, the paper utilized a framework by Einar Haugen (1950) as it is considered one of the be
st-known taxonomies of borrowed items (Haspelmath, 2003, p.4). In this framework, borrowed
items are analyzed according to the degree of morphemic and phonemic substitution involved w
hen reproducing the foreign items into the maintained language. The substitution of morpheme
s of the foreign items with that from the maintained language may involve none, partial or comp
lete substitution. Based on this criterion of morphemic and phonemic substitution, loan items ar
e then grouped into three major categories of loanwords, loanblends and loanshifts.
Loanwords undergo zero morphemic substitution, where total morphemic importation takes plac
e. It is the direct transference of a lexeme in both meaning and form (Capuz, 1997, p.87) altho
ugh with varying degrees of phonemic substitution. An example of this is the word shivaree tak
en from French charivari (Haugen, 1950, p.213). Loanblends, on the other hand, involves only
partial morphemic substitution where only a part of the word has been imported while the rest is
substituted with morphemes from the maintained language. This can be illustrated in the borro
wing of the word plum piefrom American English as [blaumpa] in Pennsylvania German in w
hich the morpheme [pa] has been imported but the native [blaum] has been substituted for plu
m (Haugen, 1950, p.214]. Further classification under loanblends is possible and has been iden
tified as blended stems, derivational blends and compound blends. In the case of loanblends it i
s important to highlight here that only features reproduced after a model from the source langua
ge is considered as a loan item in the form of loanblends. Creations that appear as loanblends or
hybrids, although combining both the morphemes from the source and maintained language, are
not loanblends as they did not come into being as direct imitation of a foreign model (Haugen,
1950, p.220).
Loanshifts can be divided into semantic loans and loan translations. Only the latter is relevant t
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o this study as the paper is not looking into shifts in semantics. Loan translations is a borrowing
process that involves complete morphemic substitution without importation. Independent lexem
es or morphemes previously existing in the maintained language are utilized and combined in i
mitation of the structural pattern of a model from the source language, forming a new lexical uni
t in the maintained language. An example of a loan translation is the German word wolkenkratz
erwhich is modeled after skyscraper(Haugen, 1950, p.214).
Using this theoretical framework by Haugen (1950) the paper then intends to examine the authe
ntic usage of Islamic English at the lexical level among a sample of its language community. T
he research objectives can be expressed as follows:
1. To examine the lexical featureS of Islamic English, specifically the lexis borrowed from the
Arabic language, in an authentic setting.
2. To provide a descriptive account on the borrowing of Arabic words that occurred in the selec
ted Islamic course using Haugens (1950) model on lexical borrowing.
3. Method
Audio recordings of the most recent course conducted by a selected educational Islamic institute
was obtained. This institute, although shall remain anonymous, teaches Islam in different cities
worldwide using the English language. The recordings run for approximately 766 minutes (12 h
ours) and consist mostly of the lectures by the course instructor although the speech of various s
tudents is also heard from class discussions and question-answer sessions. The course which wa
s on Islamic Eschatology was conducted in an intensive manner over a weekend, as it catered fo
r working adults in addition to university students.
Following the transcription of these recordings, specific words and phrases of Islamic Arabic ori
gin were manually identified. With the assistance of a speaker fluent in the Arabic language and
who has a background in Islamic Studies, each identified item was analyzed to determine wheth
er an Arabic model is available and whether they are based on these Arabic models. Items meeti
ng this criterion were then classified as either a loanword, loanblend or loan translation using Ha
ugens (1950) model on lexical borrowing.
4. Findings
A total of 413 borrowed items were found in the particular 12-hour discourse. It should be note
d that this figure represents the total number of unique borrowed items found in the study and d
oes not reflect their frequency. It should also be highlighted here that the results is based on a re
stricted and limited sample engaged in a particular topic and thus proper precautions should be t
aken in generalizing the findings. The results here do not claim to represent the overall distribut
ion or patterns of borrowed words in Islamic English but merely demonstrate instances of patter
ns that can occur and the processes involved.
It was found that an overwhelming majority of the borrowed items identified involves the proce
ss of total importation. Loanwords amounted to 86 percent (n=357) of the borrowed features. C
ompound blends (6 percent, n=24) as well as loan translations (8 percent, n=32) were also detect
ed in the study although they form a small minority of the borrowed features. Thus three types
of lexical borrowing occurred: total importation (86 percent), partial substitution (6 percent) and
complete substitution (8 percent). The great amount of loanwords detected perhaps suggest the l
ack of congruence between the Arabic and English language, the difficulty to borrow through co
mplete substitution, as well as semantic considerations.
Table 1: Examples of loanwords identified in the study
Category Loanwords Total
Islamic Concepts all () Duny ( )
Du () Dn ()
Adhn () ijb ()
Jannah (
) Slh ()
Dhikr () Zakah ()
183 (51%)
General Arabic Khals ( ) Tartb ()
Zaman ( ) Tr ( )
Aqrn () ashsh ( )
Majlis () N-ib ()
Sir () Sir ()
49 (14%)
Islamic Devotional/Social Terms Qiblah () In sh Allh ( )
Wud () SubnAllh ()
Ruk' () Bismillah ( )
Mus-af () mn ()
Taslm () Khuf ()
39 (11%)
Sciences of Shari'ah Fiqh () Bid'ah ()
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UsliFiqh () Khilf ()
Wjib ()
Mustaab ( )
udd ()
Darrah ( )
Mahab () Rji ()
25 (7%)
Islamic Sects Ismailyah() Mu'tazilah ( )
Qarmitah() Nusayriyah ()
Khwarij () Khumus()
Usawliyah() al bada'()
Rwandiyah ( ) Mutah()
24 (6.7%)
Islamic History/Civilization BanMakhzm( ) (battle of) Al Nahrawn()
BanTamm( ) Bb al Lt( )
BanIsrl()
(battle of) Al arrah( )
Bandam( ) MulkanJabryah( )
(battle of) Badr() Khulaft al Rshidn( )
19 (5%)
Sciences of Hadith Sa () Mutawtir ()
asan ()
Aad ()
Sunnah (
) Isnd ()
Mawd' ( )
Nakrah()
Daf()
9 (2.52%)
Islamic Eschatology Mahd ()
Al Dukhn ()
Dbatulard () Ruwaybidah()
Dajjl ( )
(al-ayaat) Kharazt( )
al Jassah()
Yjj-wa-Mjj ()
8 (2.24%)
Sciences of Quran Way ( )
1 (0.03%)
Total 357
Table 2: List of compound blends (n=24)
Category Compound blends Arabic Model
Islamic Concepts 'Arprayer
Dhuhr prayer
Wjib fast
Zakah wealth
Fajr prayer
Sunnah prayers
Tarwi prayer
Jhilyah time
Ibrhm station
Sciences of Shariah Sharah rulings
Bid'ah actions
Sharah system
UsliFiqh principle
Good bid'ah
Bad bid'ah
Fabricated adth
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Sharah method
Sharah text
Sharah terms
anaf scholar
Islamic Sects Sh'ah doctrine
Shiite Imms
Twelve ImmFiqh
Islamic History & Civilization Umayyad Khalfah
Table 3: List of loan translations (n=32)
Category Term Arabic Model
Islamic Concepts Student of knowledge
People of knowledge
The straight path
The black stone
Friday prayer
Mother of the believers
True vision
Islamic manner
The unseen
Sunni scholars
The companions
Islamic history
Non-Muslims
Non-Islamic
Pillars of Islam
Night journey
Minor sins
Book of deeds
Islamic Devotional & Social Terms Wipe over socks
All-Aware
Oft-Forgiving
Severe in Punishment
Sciences of Hadith Authentic narrations
Weak narration
Chain of narration
Sciences of Shari'ah Stronger opinion
Islamic Eschatology Signs of the Hour
Minor signs of the hour
Major signs of the hour
Beast of the Earth
Phrases (Allah is) the Best of all planners
Ordering the good and prohibiting the evil
Tables 1, 2 and 3 above present loanwords, compound blends and loan translations respectively.
As seen in the tables above, all of the borrowed features belong to the semantic field of religion
except for a small number (n=49 loanwords) which are considered to be general Arabic terms alt
hough driven by a religious context and needs. Since the majority of the borrowed features are
of the same semantic field, further classification was employed in order to group them accordin
gly. The categorization utilized, as seen in tables above is based on Al FaruqisTowards Islamic
English (1986) with modifications.
As shown in Table 1, slightly more than half (51 percent) of the loanwords belong to the categor
y of General Islamic Words and Concepts, followed by General Arabic Terms (14 percent). As e
xpected, Islamic Devotional and Social Terms were also common, garnering about 11 percent (n
=39) of the total amount of loanwords. The remainder of the loanwords belong to more specific
fields of Islamic Sciences, bearing more technical thus limited terms. Although the breakdown
of the loanwords here do not represent the general breakdown in Islamic English, it can be sugg
ested that Islamic discourse outside the classroom or discourse among Muslims in general woul
d have similar patterns, of mostly consisting of loanwords of general Islamic Arabic terms as we
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ll as devotional and social terms. This is because the loanwords that are of specific Islamic field
s are expected to be less common as they are more technical in nature. Of course research is nee
ded to prove or disprove this claim.
It was also found that loanwords consist of both abstract and concrete nouns. This somewhat dif
fer from a previous study on lexical borrowing where abstract nouns were seen more likely to be
reproduced as loan translations while objects unique to the source culture tend to be loanwords (
Jian, 2005). The difference could be due to the semantic field of the nouns wherein abstract nou
ns in this study are mostly from the semantic field of religion, a semantic field that is very closel
y intertwined with the identity of a Muslim thus suggesting a greater need for their retention in f
orm and semantic integrity. Another possibility is that some of the abstract nouns borrowed thro
ugh total importation could be a part of the core vocabulary of Islamic English although such ha
s not been formally established yet. This possibility is supported by the fact that the majority of
the loanwords in this study (76 percent) were seen unaccompanied by a definition or proper expl
anation of the terms (although English equivalents were used together with 36 percent of the loa
nwords). It is thus suggested that future studies contrast the nouns borrowed through total impo
rtation and complete substitution. There should also be a study that aims to determine the core v
ocabulary of Islamic English.
In addition to this, it was found that loanwords were modeled after both monosyllabic and polys
yllabic items (except for general Arabic terms which are mostly monosyllabic or disyllabic) whi
le the majority of the compound blends and loan translations were modeled after polysyllabic Ar
abic words (Table 2 and Table 3). Therefore, the principle of economy may not be the first crite
rion here in determining the type of features that will be borrowed through total importation. Th
is again supports the postulationthat other factors such as guarding the semantic integrity or the
difficulty to substitute Arabic with English morphemes, may have a greater role in determining t
he borrowing process of Islamic Arabic items. Again, research is needed to validate such claims
and determine the factors that influence the likelihood of a foreign model to be borrowed throug
h total importation, partial substitution or complete substitution.
In terms of the integration of borrowed features into the maintained language, very little (if any)
phonemic substitution occurred in the borrowing process, similar to a previous study conducted
by Tan (2009) on lexical borrowing in Malaysian English. Tan (2009, p.465) suggested that this
is due to the fact that the borrowers, being non-native speakers of English, are less likely to per
ceive a need to alter the pronunciation of borrowed features just to make them sound more like t
he recipient language words as the recipient language is an external variety. Morphosyntactic i
ntegration too was rare. Some instances of the inflectional morpheme s used to pluralize loan
words were detected, forming words like sheykhs, ijbs, imms, halaqahs, sunnahs and fatws.
The only form of integration applied to the compound blends and loan translations is word order
reversal such as the compound blend fajr prayer (from ) and loan translation the straigh
t path (from ).
It is also interesting to note that some Islamic Arabic terms (n=6) were reproduced through both
total importation and complete substitution, bringing to existence both a loanword and a loan tra
nslation. These include items such as mother of the believers and ummulm'minn, beast of the
earth and dbatulardas well as severe in punishment or shaddul iqb. It is not possible here to
determine the reasons or motivations behind utilization of both processes for the borrowing of th
ese terms until further research is made, nor is it possible to predict which form will outlast the
other in Islamic English.
Since the call for the retention of Islamic Arabic terms mainly stems from the concern for the pr
eservation of Islamic understanding, it is worthwhile here to highlight a few patterns that were o
bserved among the loanwords. It was found that the majority of the loanwords (76 percent) wer
e lacking in proper definition or explanation. This include terms that were seen accompanied by
or interchangeably used with their perceived English equivalents which may or may not be true
equivalents in addition to lacking proper definition (32 percent, n=114). Some of these terms (
n=50) in fact have been highlighted for retention in its Arabic form by Al Faruqi(1986) as these
terms, particularly Quranic terms, are not possible to be rendered in one English word (p.21).
Nevertheless these terms (n=50) were seen accompanied by, or alternately used with their percei
ved English equivalent, in addition to lacking proper definition (except for five terms which wer
e properly defined: slh, zin, ghusl, jannah, barakah). Table 4 provides a list of these terms to
gether with their equivalents used.
Loanword English equivalent
Yaqn Certainty
Dua Supplication
Wal Guardian
ikmah Wisdom
Rib' Interest, Usury
Al Ghafr Oft-Forgiving
Khayr Goodness
Rijs Filth
Mushrikn,mushrik, mushrikas Polytheist
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Fatw Opinion
Amal Deeds, Applying Knowledge
Dhan Thinking
Wjib Compulsory, Must
JazkumullahuKhayr May Allah reward you
Lilha ill-Allh
There is no god worthy to worship but Allah
Sujd Prostrate
Akhi Brother
Slh Prayer
Rasl Messenger
yah Verse
Khalfah Caliph
Shirk Associating partners with Allah
Khabth Filthy (substance)
Zin Fornication
Tawbah Repent
Jahannam Hell
Jihd Strive in His path
Ghusl Bath, head to toe
Way Revelation
Sa Authentic
Ramatullahi alaih May Allah have mercy on him
Azz All-Mighty
arm
Prohibited
adth Narration
Jannah Heavenly abode
khirah Afterlife
mn Faith
Ummah One nation
Dn Faith
Fitnah, fitn Trial, Calamity, Ordeal
aq (alhaqq)
The Truth
Ilm Knowledge
Jhiliyyah Ignorance
Barakah Blessing
Bayah Pledge of allegiance
Abd A worshiper
Ibdah An act of worship
Mawd Fabricated
Dif Weak
all Legal, Lawful
Table 4: Terms listed in Al Faruqi (1986) and used with English equivalents (n=50).
There were also instances whereconcepts(n=16) that have been identified for retention in the A
rabic form by Al Faruqi (1986) were communicated only in its perceived English equivalent or t
ranslation (see Table 5). The Arabic form is absent in the discourse.
English Terms Arabic Terms
Believers M'minn(those who possess Iman)
Reward Thawb (reward granted by Allah on the Day of Judgement)
Guidance Hidyah(divine guidance or revelation of Islam)
Justice Qist (justice, equity and uprightness in dealing with all matters)
Blessed Mubrak (infused with grace and approval of Allah)
Mislead/astray Dalla/dall (to err and go astray from the straight path Allah has revealed to t
he Prophet)
Injustice Dhulm(the act or action of committing injustice)
Patient abr(to resist evil or tragedy and remain firm in adherence to the cause of Islam)
Be mindful of Allah Taqw (the combination of piety, faith, loyalty, commitment called for
in Islam)
Table 5: Examples of Islamic concepts using English equivalents only (definition from Al Faruq
i, 1986).
The usage of some Biblical or Christian terms were also observed in the discourse, such as s
on of Mary, Eve and the second coming of Jesus Christ. While these terms refer to the same
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persons or events in Islam, the two religions do not have an identical understanding of these per
sons and events.
All of this raises some concern in both the preservation of the semantic integrity of these Isla
mic concepts as well as the general Islamic understanding of a Muslim. It is possible that the as
sociation of Islamic terms with inaccurate English equivalents together with the absence of prop
er definition or explanation, the complete substitution of certain Islamic terms and concepts with
English equivalents or translations as well as the usage of Biblical terms, will produce or reinfor
ce inaccurate understanding of these terms and promote semantic shifts. This will defeat the pri
mary purpose of retaining Islamic Arabic terminologies in the English language, which is to pre
serve the correct Islamic understanding of these concepts.
Thus it is very important that future research on these patterns and their consequences are condu
cted, including the use of compound blends and loan translations, especially in terms of its effec
t on ones Islamic understanding. Potential semantic shifts of loanwords in Islamic English sho
uld also be investigated.
5. Conclusion
This study examined the authentic usage of Islamic English particularly the occurrences of borr
owing of Islamic Arabic terms, in a recent course conducted by an Islamic educational institute.
It was found that the majority of the borrowed Arabic terms in the course were reproduced throu
gh total importation (86 percent) followed by complete substitution (8 percent) and partial substi
tution (6 percent). Although it appears that many borrowed items were true to their Arabic form
s, the study shows that some patterns may warrant concern. About 32 percent of loanwords wer
e seen accompanied by, or interchangeably used with, their perceived English equivalents while
lacking proper definitions, including terms that have been recommended for retention in the Ara
bic form by Al Faruqi (1986). In addition to this, there were Islamic concepts that were complet
ely substituted with its perceived Englishs or translations despite being highlighted for retention
in the Arabic forms by Al Faruqi (1986).
Thus, while there were a great number of loanwords used in the Islamic discourse analyzed, th
ere need to be greater attention paid to how these loanwords are used. As demonstrated in this s
tudy, the use of equivalents and lack of explanation and such may actually contribute to the conf
usion of their meaning and may even promote semantic shifts to a certain degree. Further resear
ch is needed to determine the consequences of such language patterns on the understanding of th
ese Islamic terms.
What can be suggested at the moment is that more awareness is raised in how borrowed items
are used and should be used, in addition to promoting the retention of Islamic Arabic terms. Th
ose who engage in Islamic discourse, especially those who are teaching Islamic Studies in the E
nglish language, should be careful in using perceived English equivalents and instead, should tr
y to actively highlight the semantic differences between the Islamic terms and their perceived E
nglish equivalents. Should speakers instead resort to using the English forms of important conc
epts, students should be made aware of the differences in the understanding of these concepts be
tween the Islamic and external worldview (e.g. secular worldview) followed by a redefinition of
the English form according to the Islamic perspective (as per the concept of Islamization of lang
uage introduced by Al-Attas, 1980). This is line with current research that have advocated for th
e redefinition of certain English lexicons according to the Islamic perspective and the productio
n of an English dictionary for Muslims (e.g. Alwa, 2013; Khairiah, Engku Haliza, AinonJariah&
Nuraihan, 2013; Khairiah&Engku Haliza, 2009).
When using Islamic Arabic terms, instructors of Islamic Studies (or other relevant fields such as
Islamic English for Special Purposes) should look to provide the propers or definitions the terms
, in the class text, in the glossary of materials used or verbally during classroom time. This is in
accordance with Al Faruqis recommendation when using Islamic Arabic terms, wherein a brief
explanation or definition should be given in order to ensure that terms are understood correctly (
1986, p.21).Instructors could prepare beforehand, a list of Islamic Arabic terminologies and thei
r definitions. These lists should not be limited to the technical or specialized vocabulary of the I
slamic subject, but include general Islamic concepts and vocabulary that students may encounter
in the course. This is because it is predicted that there will be high occurrences of general Islam
ic terms as demonstrated in this study. All of this will hopefully create awareness among studen
ts, promote better understanding of key concepts and vocabulary in Islam and address any existi
ng confusion, in the effort to preserve Islamic concepts and understanding.
It is hoped that the study has shed some light on the linguistic processes and patterns involved i
n the borrowing of Islamic Arabic features and ultimately contribute to a better grasp of the reali
ty and nature of Islamic English today.
6. References
Al-Attas, Syed Muhammad Naquib (1980). The concept of education in Islam. Kuala Lumpur:
ABIM
Al Faruqi, IsmailRaji (1986). Toward Islamic English. Virginia: International Institute of Islami
c
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300
Thought.
Alwa Abd. Rashid (2013). Selected English words in an English dictionary from an Islamic per
spective: a case study. Unpublished masters thesis, International Islamic University Malaysia.
Bamgbose, A. (1998). Torn between the norms: innovations in world Englishes. [Electronic ver
sion].World Englishes, 17(1), 1-14.
Capuz, J. G. (1997). Towards a typological classification of linguistic borrowing. [Electronic
version].RevistaAlicantina de EstudiosIngleses, 10, 81-94.
Dahiru Muhammad Argungu (1996). English, Muslims and Islamisation: Between needs and de
eds.In Jalal Uddin Khan & A. E. Hare (Eds.), English and Islam: Creative Encounters 96 (pp. 33
1-347).Kuala Lumpur: IIUM Research Centre.
HajaMohideen Bin Mohamed Ali (2007). Islamic terms in contemporary English. [Electronic
version].English Today, 90(23), 32-38.
Haspelmath, M. (2003). Loanword typology: steps toward a systematic cross-linguistic study of
lexical borrowability. In T. Stolz, D. Bakker & R. S. Palomo (Eds.), Aspects of language contact
:New theoretical, methodological and empirical findings with special focus on Romancisationpr
ocesses (pp.43-62). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter [Electronic version].
Haugen, E. (1950). The analysis of linguistic borrowing. [Electronic version]. Linguistic Socie
ty of America, 26(2), 210-231.
Hornberger, N. & McKay, S.L. (2010). Sociolinguistics and language education. United Kingdo
m: Multilingual Matters.
Jian, Y. (2009). Chinese borrowings in English. [Electronic version]. World Englishes, 28(1), 9
0-106.
Kachru, B. B. (1997). Norms, Models and Identities. Retrieved 30/10/2011, from http://www.jal
t-
publications.org/tlt/files/96/oct/englishes.html.
Khairiah Othman, Engku Haliza Engku Ibrahim, AinonJariah Muhammad & Nuraihan Mat Dau
d
(2013). Islamic definitions of selected English words in English dictionary: students perspe
ctives. [Electronic version]. World Applied Sciences Journal, 21, 95-101.
Khairiah Othman &Engku Haliza Engku Ibrahim (2009, December). An English dictionary for
Muslim learners: is there a need? Paper presented at the Eight Annual Worldwide Forum on
Education and Culture, Rome, Italy.
Khairiah Othman & Maskanah Mohammad Lotfie (2010). Incorporating Arabic words in the
teachingof English: Students perspectives. Unpublished paper, International Islamic
UniversityMalaysia.
Khairiah Othman &ZuridahHayati Abdul Hamid (2009). Incorporating Arabic words in the
teaching of English: Teachers perspectives. Unpublished paper, International Islamic
UniversityMalaysia.
Pingau, S. (2009). Indian English. Scotland: Edinburgh University Press.
Ratnawati Mohd. Asraf (1996). Teaching English as a second or foreign language: The place of
culture. In Jalal Uddin Khan & A. E. Hare (Eds.), English and Islam: Creative Encounters
96 (pp. 351-367). Kuala Lumpur: IIUM Research Centre.
Sheila ParveenLallmamode& Zalika Adam (2009, May). Awareness of Islamic English among
Muslim students in Malaysia. Paper presented at SoLLs International Conference on Langu
age and Culture: Creating and Fostering Global Communities, Putrajaya.
Tan, S.I. (2009). Lexical borrowing from Chinese Language in Malaysian English. [Electronic
version].World Englishes, 28(4), 451-484.
Tan, S. I. (2009). Lexical borrowing in Malaysian English: Influences of Malay. Unpublished
doctoral thesis, University of Hong Kong.
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English Language Teaching Challenges in Malaysia: Polytechnic Lecturers Experience
Suhaily Abdullah
1
and Faizah Abd Majid
2
1 2
Fakulti Pendidikan, UiTM Shah Alam Selangor, Malaysia
Corresponding Author: Suhaily Abdullah, Fakulti Pendidikan, Universiti Teknologi MARA Shah Alam, Selangor Mala
ysia, suhaily.abdullah@gmail.com
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract. This study sought to investigate the challenges faced by two lecturers in teaching English in a po
lytechnics setting. The case study inquiry strategy (via informal semi-structured interviews and reflective jou
rnal writing) was employed in getting the real insights from the participants who were purposely selected for
this systematic investigation within 9 consecutive weeks. Basic qualitative analysis (Creswell, 2009) was carr
ied out through document analyses of the interview transcripts and reflective journal entries. The analysis wa
s carried out by inductively identifying the emerging themes shared by both participants and had been consid
ered as their challenges in language teaching. Some practical suggestions are also offered to the identified cha
llenges in the discussion part of this study.
Keywords: ELT, polytechnic lecturers, challenges, Malaysia
1. Introduction
Currently, local higher education system operations have undergone some extensive transformation phases due to th
e external forces such as the advent of rapid globalization, emergence of information and communication technology, an
d drastic change of socio-economic status in the community. Technical and Vocational Education and Training, or hence
forth TVET, as a part of alternative branch to our education system is no longer viewed as a below average field instead,
it is actively being improved in complementing the development progression of the nation. The transformation plan has
been systematically geared towards assisting the national mission requirement in becoming a fully developed country b
y 2020. Thus, this newly transformed system is patterned in a way to be able to provide justifications to the arising issue
s such as the employability concerns and industrial needs. So, there is not a marvel to find that the Polytechnic Transfor
mation Plan (PTP) was listed as one of the Critical Agenda Projects (CAP) in the National Higher Education Strategic P
lan (NHESP) which was started in 2007 (Kementerian Pengajian Tinggi, 2007). This aspiration was established in order
to empower the revamped technical education. It is also meant for the communities as their lifelong learning platform t
o formally acquire their skill knowledge, and upgrading or upskilling their existence practice.
The achievement from the transformative action plans that has been fulfilled so far is gathered as an encouraging re
sult in which can be continuously pursued to the ends. Some positive attainments include the growth of responses of the
public choices in choosing polytechnics as their preferred tertiary education institution, the dynamic involvements of th
e industrial key players in current polytechnic curriculum developments, and the up-to-date continuous professional dev
elopment programmes offered to the academic and non-academic polytechnic staff in sustaining their subject content co
mpetency and acquired skills (Jabatan Pengajian Politeknik, 2012). Other than that, the entry point requirement of the st
udents has recently been altered (starting July 2010 session) in order to ensure the potential students possess initial featu
red standards as employable graduates in their fields of choice for the future labour market (Jabatan Pengajian Politekni
k, 2011). However, there is an issue on unemployability of technical graduates due to their lack of communication skill
especially in term of poor of English language command (Ahmad Yasruddin, Wan Mohd Haniff, Affidah Mardziah, Noo
r Izma, & Farawaheeda, 2010; Ezihaslinda, Noor Raha, Wan Jumani, & Noor Azlinda , 2011; & Suhaily, Noor Asmaa,
& Wan Rahayah Rahimi, 2011). Thus, this study is meant to investigate the background scenario, particularly refers to t
he English language teaching and learning scope in polytechnics, that may establish unacknowledged connection to this
deficit apart of the holistic efforts have been imposed and carried out by the government to ensure the action plans are i
n line with the nation mission in term of generating human capital for high income economy (Sahul Hameed, Mohd Am
in, & Mohd Ali , 2010)
2. Content
1. Background and scope of the study
Polytechnics are one of the tertiary education institutions in Malaysia that have been established and operated based
on the TVET context. Originally, it was meant to produce semi-professional workers in technical and some other relate
d service-based fields in order to conform with the revolutionary industrial development in early post-dependency perio
d. Recently, it is undergoing an extensive transformative milestone which consists of 4 crucial phases. The transformativ
e plan has yet to be completed as it only steps onto the second phase (2013 2015) of the overall proposed action plan a
fter The Quick Win and institutional transformative phase from year 2010 to year 2012. The aim to become a preferred
tertiary learning institution among secondary school leavers has shown a positive remark when the targeted enrolment e
xceeded up to 310 students in 2011 (Jabatan Pengajian Politeknik, 2012). It indicates that the community is starting to c
onsider their choices in planning their tertiary studies to polytechnics. So, polytechnics are no longer being the last resor
t for the students who are not able to secure entries in universities. Instead, polytechnics have fallen onto similar band as
other higher learning institutions in Malaysia. Thus, the re-establishment of selected polytechnics or the new establishm
ent of polytechnics into polytechnic premiers and polytechnic MEtROs does do the wonder in attracting the Sijil Pelajar
an Malaysia (SPM) holders who possess good academic achievement to enroll as polytechnic students (Jabatan Pengaji
an Politeknik, 2011). It can be seen through the entry requirement enhancement which has been imposed by Jabatan Pe
ngajian Politeknik (JPP) starting July 2010 session, whereby the applicants are required to achieve, at least, to pass both
Malay Language and English Language with another 2 to 5 credits in other related subjects depended on the their cours
e choices. It does not reduce the number of applicants to further their study in polytechnics. Besides transforming the in
stitutional image, the drastic calls for the changes are also applicable to the curriculum developments. The collaboration
with industrial stakeholders in filling the skill gaps between what have been currently demanded by the sectors with the
one that has been taught in polytechnics is successfully conducted from time to time. This effort is considered as the ba
ckbone of this transformative agenda to gear up polytechnic students towards becoming employable graduates to serve i
n the industrial sectors. To date, this is in line with the national mission in term of producing high skillful and sharp min
d human capital to the industry in achieving a developed nation status by 2020.
Given the pressing need for skilled workers, the concerns on current skill demands, and recent evolving technical a
nd service fields are tunefully supported by other required attributions such as communication skill, entrepreneurship sk
ill and interpersonal skill so the polytechnic graduates can be trained as competitive human capital to the local industrial
innovative-led economy. Currently, it is reported that 3.3 million new jobs have been offered to the public and 46% of
the posts are waiting to be filled which require the proportion of 24% and 22% of vocational and technical workforces r
espectively (Abdul Karim, 2013). This is an impossible mission to be fulfilled by polytechnic graduates since there are
only 35 000 exit attributes being produced annually (Abdul Karim, 2013). Furthermore, only some of them are successf
ully being hired after six months upon their graduation. Consequently, the nation is still lack of trained technical workfo
rces to serve in the industrial sectors even though there are an increment of the intake numbers in students enrolment to
polytechnics. This imbalance intake and exit attributes is considered as an urgent concern that needs to be desperately a
ddressed (Jabatan Pengajian Politeknik, 2011; & Ministry of Higher Education, 2012).
Despite of the aforementioned revamp initiatives, it is also understood that the employers in Malaysia are still in the
dilemma when confronted with the graduate employability (Ministry of Higher Education, 2012). The issue in term of t
he concern on lacks of engineering, technical and science graduates who are qualified to be hired has triggered an alarm
ing attention in the media (Ahmad Yasruddin et al., 2010). According to a report (Ministry of Higher Education, 2012), t
he two most common drawbacks identified by employers in hiring fresh graduates are related to the facts that they have
poor command of English (55.8%) and poor character, attitude or personality (37.4%). Thus, it is clearly shown that En
glish proficiency is viewed as a major attribution which has been taken into consideration by employers in hiring their
workforces even though the graduates are highly trained for the offered posts (Noor Raha & Kaur, 2010). The requireme
nt of working in private sectors influence this cause whereby most communication transfers are carried out in English es
pecially in multinational companies and local-based foreign investor factories.
There are several findings related to this concern. First, the poor command of English among civil engineering poly
technics graduates included the inability to effectively demonstrate their skills in a simple procedural work routine such
as understanding technical documents and writing the reports (Ahmad Yasruddin et al., 2010). Next, majority of the che
mical engineering students in a higher learning institution experienced high communication apprehension that hindered
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them to effectively communicate due to the lacks of self-willingness to use the target language in public particularly dur
ing the learning process (Noor Raha & Kaur, 2010). Furthermore, there are other few studies reported that tertiary instit
ution students also possessed low range of vocabulary list and faced difficulties in understanding complex sentences and
sentences that structured using low frequency words in which contributed to the low English proficiency graduates too
(Normazidah, Koo, & Hazita, 2012). In addition to that, there was a slight significant difference between certificate and
diploma students of commerce students to experience high anxiety level in learning English which directly influenced t
heir language achievement particularly referred to their communication apprehension (Suhaily et al., 2011).
These findings are linked to what has been discovered in another research in claiming that the recent teaching and l
earning of the English language especially in polytechnics still could not produce graduates with an acceptable English
proficiency required by industries (Harlini, 2011). This has elicited challenges to English lecturers in this particular TV
ET higher learning institution to reflect on their practices in keeping abreast with the efforts to move the gap become clo
ser. Therefore, even though Harlini (2011) suggested that more studies on the evaluation on the curriculum are needed t
o uncover the real predicament and challenges that students faced in improving their language proficiency and Ahmad Y
asruddin et al. (2010) recommended replication studies on investigation of English proficiency needed by engineering st
udents in different population, the highlighted issue on the failure of graduates to be proficient in basic English commun
ication calls for another immediate exploration on polytechnic lecturers language teaching practices. This is sorely mea
nt to differ the investigation on the targeted concern from language lecturers perspective so that it can be added to the ci
rcle of the unemployability issue especially in term of low English proficiency graduates that have been commonly con
ducted through students standpoint, employers scope and curriculum (Ahmad Yasruddin et al., 2010; Ezihaslinda et al.,
2011; Harlini, 2011; Ministry of Higher Education, 2010, 2012; Noor Raha & Kaur, 2010; Suhaily et al., 2011). Conseq
uently, present study is purposely conducted to explore the situational issues faced by English lecturers in order to bridg
e the gap that revolve within policy compliance, institutional environment, syllabi requirement, students proficiency an
d the reality of their language teaching practices.
2. Language lecturers in polytechnics and problem identification
First and foremost, English is a compulsory subject to all polytechnic students except for those who are undergoing
their industrial attachments. Even English is not classified as a main subject content being offered, it is a requirement fo
r the students to pass their English module. The English language teaching and learning in this particular TVET higher e
ducation institution is based on on-going assessment mode. It means that the grading is determined by students accumu
lative marks in their spoken and written assignments, quizzes, and listening tasks for the whole semester, and then comb
ine with their final standardized test. If the students fail to perform any of the assigned tasks, they are given chances to i
mprove their marks in any ways that suit the syllabi and the lecturers availability before they are allowed to sit for their
final standardized test. Besides that, students attendance is also taken into consideration in determining their status whe
ther they are qualified to be evaluated by the lecturers or not based on the compliance of the institutional academic proc
edure. The continuous monitoring process on the attendance is also considered as part of lecturers task. Thus, these situ
ations indirectly defines the list of language lecturers job scope which is not limited to the teaching and learning proces
s only. This kind of list can be considered as a threat to the lecturers professionalism because unreasonable teaching tas
ks hinder teachers to prepare for quality teaching and undertake professional development programmes due to wider job
scope with limited time allocation (Marwan, 2009; & Mohd Ali, Mohd Amin, & Muhamad Sukri, 2010).
Next, in current inter-transformation phase, language lecturers have two different sets of English syllabus to be use
d as their guide in instructional teaching preparations. The groups of students who enrolled before July 2010 learn Engli
sh in English for Specific Purposes (ESP) context whereas the later intakes are taught in Communicative English (CE) s
etting. To start off, though each group of students relies on a similar syllabus that has been used across the fields (i.e. en
gineering, commerce, information and technology, and hotel and tourism), the module preparation is conducted in a ma
nner to closely accommodate the authenticity consideration of students background. These circumstances indirectly ur
ge the language lecturers to be aware of the trans-disciplinary subject contents of different fields so that they can practic
ally integrate the specific corpora and jargons used in the notes, examples and tasks as contents of the module (Sarimah,
Amerrudin, & Noraini, 2013). So, the awareness of the lecturers in this term promotes the discourse community to the
students in preparing them for the communicative demands in their future workplace (Khairi Izwan, 2001). In other wo
rds, the language lecturers tacit knowledge should addresses the surface ideas of their students fields of study so they c
an interchangeably teach any language topics to different courses of students (Khairi Izwan, 2001; & Sarimah et al., 201
3).
In addition, in recent polytechnic transformative revamp action plans, the English syllabi have been developed into
the principles of Communicative English (CE). This indicates the emphasis on the speaking skill has been given the spe
cific focus on language teaching in polytechnics. It is designed to provide students with useful expressions that can be u
sed in a wide variety of social interactions and situations (Khairi Izwan, 2001). As a result, the calls for communicative l
anguage tasks in the lesson plans are inevitable to promote the interaction in the target language. Still, some concerns re
lated to class size (Suhaily & Faizah, 2012a), students level of proficiency (Ahmad Yasruddin et al., 2010; Noor Raha
& Kaur, 2010; & Suhaily et al., 2011), facility (Mohd Khalid , 2012; & Sahul Hameed et al., 2010) and personal pedago
gical knowledge supports (Khairi Izwan , 2001; & Suhaily & Faizah, 2012b) have to be taken into account in which putt
ing the lecturers in do more with less resources position and dilemma. That is why the debates on the reasons why En
glish language proficiency level of the polytechnics students is low have been going for several years (Mohd Khalid, 20
12). It develops a never-ending-issue chain whereby the real symptom is never been bothered to be clearly addressed so
that it can be acknowledged and the cotangent measures can be taken into consideration.
Last but not least, language lecturers in polytechnic must ensure they comply with the institutional requirements. A
s for the credit hours, an English module should be taught to the students within 15 weeks of instructional duration per s
emester. The lecturers have to teach a minimum of 16 hours per week. This is accumulated from the three hours of teach
ing per class. A common class size in polytechnic is between 35 to 45 students per class, depending on the latest intake
of the semester. So, it means a lecturer must teach and deal with 280 to 320 students of 8 different classes who are from
different courses per week. The weighing of lecturers work demand can be easily listed if the students sit for their quiz
or submit their individual task in that particular week. Other than that, they must attend a minimum of 10 days courses p
er year and involve in newly cultivated culture, research, with none basic research background. In addition to that, atten
ding impromptu meetings, assessing students activities, performing in community services and collaborating with indus
tries are some other lists to the polytechnic lecturers job inventory (Sahul Hameed et al., 2010). All in all, it is a worth
effort to explore on the real challenges in the English teaching practice of polytechnic lecturers in order to dictate on th
e visible factor that influences the outcomes of the language teaching and learning.
3. Research question
Basically, this exploratory study on English Language Teaching (ELT) in a polytechnics context was purposely dri
ven in order to share the outcomes of this research question:
1. What challenges do polytechnic English lecturers face in their teaching practice?
3. Research methodology
1. The study
This study was a part of an on-going postgraduate research involving a specific Malaysian polytechnic as a research
population. The focus is more on local based setting that includes a multiple-cases-in-a-single-site exploration. The find
ings revealed in this study are based on the responses gathered from two English lecturers as research participants. The
purposive sampling method was chosen in order to select the participants of this study. Their academic background and
years of teaching in polytechnic system fall under a similar range of related features. Furthermore, the implementation o
f this type of sampling method was also influenced by the access factor and willingness factor (Creswell, 2007). Two En
glish lecturers were selected; one male and one female. However, there would not be any comparative intentions especia
lly in term of gender factor addressed in this study.
2. Data collection
This study employed a fully qualitative research orientation in order to collect the anticipated data for the findings.
Two instruments were used to capture participants responses related to their language teaching practices in polytechnic.
Firstly, they were asked to keep reflective journals so they could share daily recollections of their activity, thought, feeli
ng, aspiration or expectation which were related to their teaching practices. There was no specific guide imposed to the
participants as the researcher intended to let the responses written in a natural setting as possible. This is because writin
ILCC 2013
306
g diary enables to permit one to freely express what they feel by using their own preferences in term of words and phase
(Sidhu & Kaur, 2010). With that in mind, it was expected that the specific phenomenon could be identified in the entrie
s. That is why the specific guide was not given to the participants as they wrote the entries within 9 consecutive weeks b
efore the researcher put stop to it once they had not display any new topics or any other potential themes in their sharing
. In other words, the write-up reached the saturation point (Eekelen, Boshuizen, & Vermunt, 2005). Yet, a gentle remin
der was given to them so the frequency of the entries per week should not be less than 3. Later, each one of them would
be informally interviewed by asking them the semi-structured questions which had been prepared in an interview protoc
ol. Their responses were audio-taped and then transcribed verbatim for the analysis purposes later on. All these were car
ried out after participants agreed and had endorsed their signature on the consent form. For the trustworthiness purpose,
members-checking method was employed in order to ensure the accuracy of the responses and entries to what had bee
n intended by the participants to say or write. Hence, the internal validity of this study had been systematically acknowl
edged (Suhaily & Faizah, 2012b).
3. Data analysis
The analysis of this study was conducted using a Qualitative Data Analysis (QDA) software, Atlas.ti version 7. Th
e reading, re-reading and coding process were carried out through Atlas.ti 7 user interface. The process is mostly similar
to the basic qualitative analysis (refers to Figure 1) by Creswell (2009). With this tool, the data from both sources could
be easily linked through the code manager which included the highlighted phrases in which later could be edited or re
work as the on-going process of the study before a finalized networking was created.
Interpreting the meaning of themes/descript
ions
Interrelating themes/description -case study
Themes Description
Validating the accuracy o
f the information
Coding the data (hand or computer)
Reading through all data
Organizing and preparing data for analysis
Raw data (Transcripts & journal entries)
Fig. 1: Basic data analysis in qualitative research (Creswell, 2009)
4. Results and discussions
Based on the inductive analysis on both cases from both data sources, there are several frequent responses given by
the participants that shared similar features which could be interpreted as the emerging themes of the topic discussed. T
he following table (Table 1) depicted the summarized derived concerns as the specific examples of the challenges. The i
dentified emerging themes were mostly related to the issues and concerns of students, classroom, policy, workload, time
and institution. The table consists of 5 major features that challenged participants in their routines. First and foremost, t
he aspects that related to students are identified as the most worrisome issue. Then, this feature is followed by the partici
pants related concerns on their professionalism and list of non-academic tasks. Last but not least, the derived features h
ave been centred around classroom related concerns, and policy or institutional requirement or practice issues. All in all,
these are 5 identified features that can be interpreted as sources of challenges in participants language teaching practice
s. Each challenge is supported with the specific situational examples that had been derived from participants entries and
responses.
It appears that participants did not only deal with common language learning drawbacks such as students proficien
cy, attitude and behaviour, they also had to manage other unrelated teaching concerns like students attention, participati
on, attendance and class size. It is understood that the polytechnic students were those who excelled in their subject cont
ent skill and knowledge, but were relatively poor in their language command (Ahmad Yasruddin et al., 2010). Thus, extr
a efforts from the lecturers were always welcomed. In these cases, the lecturers were willing to practice drilling as to ge
t only an answer for a classroom task. In a way, this effort could have trigger students attention and participation in the
class but sadly it did not work out. It was also unfair to the high proficient students to be dragged into this kind of learni
ng environment. Other than that, the lecturers made use of their diplomacy sense if the students forgot the previous lesso
n or they came in late to the class, yet the students were weakly expressed their respect to the lecturers. Thus, in this mix
-ability of students context, the lecturers effort were somehow viewed as worthless efforts. The students, too, did not re
ally have any intentions to put more on theirs. Hence, students hesitancy to actively and willingly participate in the clas
sroom activities does not lessen their anxiousness or does not improve their sense of comfort and confidence to use the l
anguage. That is why students nowadays are considered as not work-ready graduates for future job positions by their p
otential employers (Ezihaslinda et al., 2011). Since the existing efforts from lecturers part are less likely to succeed, th
ere is one particular alternative to overcome this issue, segregating the students based on their proficiency levels that tra
nscends their permanent subject-content tutorial groups. It can be done by addressing their English SPM result or Englis
h GPA from the previous semester. It can also be run by sitting for requirement on diagnostic test as an entry point for th
e English subject starting from their first semester. Institutional administrators could help the lecturers on this matter. By
doing so, more centralized distribution of the students in a class will be based on their level of proficiency in which mo
stly helpful to the language lecturers in adjusting their English teaching and learning expectations. They may, at the sam
e time, able to reflect on their own practice in order to pinpoint the areas that in the need of mending (Marwan, 2009).
Both ways help to increase the effectiveness of the language lesson output.
T
h
e
m
e
s
(
C
h
a
l
l
e
n
g
e
s
)
Issues related to stud
ents
Concerns related to
classroom
Non-academic tasks
Concerns related to
professionalism
Policy or institution
al requirement/ pract
ice
S
u
b
t
h
e
m
e
s
(
E
x
a
m
p
l
e
s
)
1. Students
attendance
2. Students
attention in class
3. Students
attitude towards
learning
4. Students
behavior towards
lecturers
5. Students
participation in
class
6. Students
proficiency
1. Unconduc
ive venue for
classroom
(replacement and
assessment
purposes)
2. Big class
size (35-40
students)
3. Mix
ability students
(big gap between
high proficient &
low proficient in a
class)
1. Updating
attendance
2. Marking
papers
3. Writing
reports (PPSMTI
research & MSK
report)
4. Participati
ng in MQA audit
5. Involving
in students
activity (English
Festival)
1. Inadequat
e received
knowledge (non-
TESL
background)
2. Non
English speaking
environment in
office
3. Need to
collaborate with
industries (content
development)
4. Lack of
language courses/
workshops
1. Attending
external course
2. Attending
in-house course
and training
3. Lack of
effort from the
administrators in
imparting new
implementation of
the policy (new
syllabus
introductory)
Table 1: Summary of the emerging themes and subthemes
Then, there was another concerns on the participants job inventory (Sahul Hameed et al., 2010). A list of non-aca
demic tasks which were promptly being assigned to the participants based on the immediate institutional needs on certai
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308
n particular matters, such as MQA audit, students activity (English Festival), PPSMTI research and Minggu Suai Kenal
(MSK) report, was derived from both data sources. Other than that, there were also frequent mentioned of actions on up
dating their teaching portfolio, which is Fail Rekod Pensyarah (FRP), particularly in term of monitoring attendance an
d marking. All these exposures indirectly brought diverse administrative aspects to the language lecturers and tested thei
r informal management skills to their teaching routine, which is a good thing. It is undeniable that experiential knowled
ge is equally important as lecturers formal teacher education background (Suhaily & Faizah, 2012b), yet this particular
job inventory consumed most of the lecturers time and occupied their personal space that led to undefined workloads,
which is a clich constraint experienced by other educators regardless of their institutions (Marwan, 2009; Mohd Ali et
al., 2010; Sahul Hameed et al., 2010; & Suhaily & Faizah, 2012a). One practical alternative can be taken into account w
ould be the maximum collaboration within colleagues, non-academic staff as well as students involvement. In this man
ner, the concepts of permanent support team (Mohd Ali et al., 2010), experiential learning (Eekelen et al., 2005) and trus
tworthiness (Kane, Sandretto, & Heath, 2004) are effectively meaningful to be instilled and enculturated to the language
lecturers work routine so that the language learning environment does not only take place inside the classroom, it may
also provide the native environment exposure to others who are actively involved with the lecturers job progress and st
udents social circles. Hence, the notion of the discourse community (Khairi Izwan, 2001) concerns can be alienated d
ue to the familiar environment of open interactions using minimum English would be shared by all levels of community
in polytechnic context. As a result, it also promotes self-regulated learning (Kane et al., 2004) to the other subject conte
nt lecturers, non-academic staff , and students, or the language lecturers themselves, in practicing and sustaining their la
nguage proficiency.
In addition to the aforementioned issues and recommendations, the participants were obliged to fulfill institutional
policy such as attending external and in-house courses from time to time which none regarded their need on the langua
ge content improvement. At the same time, they were required to implement a new syllabus without a proper workshop
or detailed briefing regarding embarking on the implementation. They were left alone to figure it out as the imparting o
n the information was poorly conducted and was not widely briefed to the community of the institution. To increase mor
e alarm to these, the lack of facility issue (i.e. unconducive venue for replacement class or insufficient space in normal c
lassrooms to occupy big size classes) was highlighted as the participants challenge in their teaching routine as well. In
most common ground, they needed to act on their own term in order to ensure the lessons could be carry out in their mo
st proper ways even the class session had to be conducted in the library. Thus, in these listed issues, it is assumed that t
he institutional practice and policy, and lack of administrative supports are another features that increase lecturers burd
en to be fully committed to their core practice, which is teaching. This is a serious threat to the lecturers professional de
velopment (Marwan, 2009). In relation to these, they could view these threat as their never-ending list of works, one-w
ay solution alternative and undefined job scope which might be acted as deteriorating factors of their reflective language
teaching practice. The question on their teaching and learning process quality may be arisen from time to time. Conseq
uently, they felt inadequate in terms of their non-TESL background, awareness of current industrial demand and recent
ELT inputs due to lack of external supports (Kane et al., 2004; Sahul Hameed Abdul Wahab et al., 2010; Suhaily & Faiz
ah, 2012b). So, there is no other way to deal with this matter except that the higher administrators in the institution shou
ld admit the flaws and then come out with workable short term and long term action plans to re-align their executive yea
rly planning or annual strategic plan. They can impose a general order to maximize the usage of existence facilities in th
e premise. It is also appreciated that the glimpse of language lecturers work nature could be publically acknowledged to
other subject content lecturers and vice versa so that both sides become aware of each other routine. In certain extent, t
he subject content lecturers could offer win win approaches to the language lecturers on the basis of striving for excel
lence in their teaching practice. Last but not least, the culture of in-house training programmes and transdisciplinary res
earch collaboration could be re-promoted and introduced as part of the polytechnics working environment culture. Thei
r availability can be a massive positive impact in which the content expert lecturers of language, or any other fields, ma
y able to incorporate their knowledge, skill and experience to be internally shared with the less competent or novice con
tent lecturers, or the lecturers of different disciplines. This general institutional implication tunes with what have been a
greed by Mohd Ali Jasmi et al., (2010), to which extent that the teaching and learning process is challenging and comple
x and it incorporates many different role players and variety of different factors that need to be considered, then all play
ers must bring their parts to the successful learning mission, particularly to the higher education institution students.
4. Conclusion
This study was purposely carried out in order to explore the challenges faced by 2 polytechnic lecturers in their Eng
lish Language Teaching (ELT) practice. The basis of the study was conducted through an interpretive case study orientat
ion whereby the analysis process was run using Atlas.ti 7, a QDA software. There are 5 challenges have been derived fr
om both data sources; namely reflective journal entries and interview transcripts. Students-related-issues is the central p
oint of the lecturers teaching challenge. Then, concerns on professionalism and non-academic tasks have been successf
ully concluded as another 2 more challenges to the English lecturers practice. Lastly, their challenges include the classr
oom-related-issues and institutional-or-policy-related-practice. In relation to this discovery, 2 specific language based so
lutions and a general institutional implementation have been put forward in suggesting the practical implication to the t
arget audience. The limitation of the case study design in term of its contextual setting, sample size and profundity of th
e data, however, should be put into consideration in generalizing the findings into bigger population. Further in-depth st
udies which include more sample and variation of instruments or research orientations could be conducted to identify m
ore exact features of the challenges faced polytechnic lecturers ELT practice. In addition, the empirical or comparative
studies on current polytechnic students English proficiency based on the latest Tracer Study result should also be carri
ed out to set the current overview of students potential since they are the main challenge to the language lecturers teac
hing practice. In a conclusion, the findings of this study contribute to the recent literature on deficit of employability iss
ue concerning polytechnic students and provide initial impressions on polytechnic lecturers in teaching English.
5. Acknowledgements
Thank you for never failing to share your experience even in between your passing-baton moments (to all my rese
arch participants, supervisor and families).
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Kane, R., Sandretto, S., & Heath, C. (2004). An investigation into excellent tertiary teaching:
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Mobilizing Peoples Support to Combat Demonstration: (De)legitimization Discursive
Strategy in Arab Spring Political Discourse
Abdul kadir Sulaiman
International Islamic University Malaysia
Corresponding Author: Abdul kadir, Sulaiman, IIUM, E-mail address: a_kadir@iium.edu.my
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract. Handling demonstration is increasingly seen as a crucial task of leaders, but the role of specific
discursive strategies, related linguistic tools and argumentative devices employed by those leaders to
mobilize peoples support is little understood. This article aims to explain the (de)legitimization strategies
employed by Arab leaders and to examine the linguistic choices associated with those strategies. The strategy
of legitimization through emotions (one of the five strategies of legitimization) proposed by Reyes (2011) are
applied to analyze some examples in the speeches of Arab leaders, specifically, former president of Tunisia
Ben Ali (FPBA) and former president of Egypt Hosni Mubarak (FPHM) in which they addressed the issue of
demonstrations during Arab Spring. Both FPBA and FPHM delivered, respectively, three speeches while
facing Arab Spring demonstrations. The key findings of this study are, first, that both presidents (FPBA and
FPHM) influence the perspectives of audience toward them positively and toward demonstrators negatively
through the choice of (de)legitimization strategies. Second, the linguistic choices made by the leaders clearly
indicate that choosing vocabulary and grammar is important to portray demonstration negatively.
Keywords: Arab Spring, critical discourse analysis (CDA), demonstration, legitimization and
(de)legitimization strategy, political discourse
1. Introduction
Mobilizing support for combatting demonstration in a country requires some shared understanding and
common commitment (Markocy, 2001:1014) to be developed among people in order to make them believe
and support the ruling government. In this regard, the leaders of ruling government play a vital role to
develop mutual understanding between government and citizen in dealing with demonstration which is a
crisis that can lead to the fall of ruling government. In this respect, the linguistic struggle of leaders in
managing such crisis in the real life settings provides us naturalistic data to be examined from the linguistic
perspectives. Even so, less attention has been paid into the influence of leaders discursive strategies on
managing the crisis of demonstration. To address this problem, I adopt interdisciplinary discourse-oriented
approach (Wodak, 2011: 593) to investigate strategic crisis management from the linguistic perspectives,
exploring discourse in use during Arab spring.
In socio-political perspective, there is basic conflict of interest between ruling government and citizens
i.e. the interest in maintaining power from ruling partys side and the interest in obtaining equal treatment
from the citizens side which leads to the scenario of one compete another. This competition or two-sided
battle between ruling government and their opponents can be easily realized through the discourses
produced and distributed by them. On the other hand, demonstration is seen as a sound outcome of this
everlasting battle between the two groups.
The present study considers demonstration as a mass discourse which can influence the perception of
people locally and abroad- toward the image and reputation of the group targeted by demonstrators.
Meanwhile the speeches of the leaders responding to this mass discourse are considered as counter-
discourse. While facing threat to reputation and risk of losing power, leaders use to produce counter-
discourse in order to influence the salient audience to disbelieve the discourse of other party (i.e.
demonstrators) for the purpose of continuous holding of power. This is because the aim of politicians is to
maintain their hegemonic power through different means and particularly through discourse (Antonio Reyes
2011: 783).
One of the most newsworthy demonstration events of the past recent years is most probably Arab spring
demonstrations. While facing those demonstrations, Arab leaders use different strategies in their speeches to
convince people that they are the appropriate leaders and their decisions and suggestions worth to be
followed. At the same time, they attempt to create the bad image of other. In order to achieve this, they
choose certain words and grammar to accomplish their mission and to make salient audience involved and
engaged in their discourses. Arab leaders use their power and access to control the public media to legitimize
their own leadership and (de)legitimize the demonstrations. Reyes (2011) defines legitimization as the
process by which speakers accredit or license a type of social behavior. In this respect, legitimization is a
justification of a behavior (mental or physical (782). Reyes argues that the process of legitimization occurs
by providing arguments that explain our social actions, ideas and thoughts related to a goal such as seeking
our interlocutors support and approval motivated by certain reasons such as obtaining or maintaining power.
(Reyes, 2011: 782)
The concept of legitimization and (de)legitimization in discourse proposed by Van Leeuwen (1996, 2007,
2008). Van Leeuwen underlines four key categories of legitimations: authority legitimation (reference to
personal and impersonal authority, expertise, and role modelling), rationalization (reference to goals and uses
of institutionalized social action), moral evaluation (reference to a value system) and mythopoesis (narratives
that reward legitimate actions) (Van Leeuwen, 2007:92). These categories have been applied by Van
Leeuwen & Wodak (1999) while analyzing the justifications of political official for rejecting immigrants
petition to be reunited with their relatives in Austria. Rasti and Sahragard (2012) utilized the four
(de)legitimation categories of Van Leeuwen with Wodaks five discursive strategies of positive self-
presentation and negative other-presentation while conducting analysis of the actor and action
(de)legitimation of the participants involved in Irans nuclear power contention in the media discourse
namely The Economist.
Reyes (2011) develops the categories of legitimization proposed by Van Leeuwen (1996, 2007, 2008)
and proposes five strategies of legitimization: legitimization through emotions; legitimization through a
hypothetical future; legitimization through rationality; voice of expertise and altruism. He integrates five
discursive strategies (referential strategies or nomination strategies; predication strategies; argumentative
strategies; perspectivation, framing or discourse representation; intensification or mitigation) proposed by
Wodak (2001) into legitimization through emotions.
The present study aims to examine some examples of the (de)legitimization strategy through emotions in
Arab spring political discourse delivered by former president of Egypt Hosni Mubarak (FPHM) and former
president of Tunisia Ben Ali (FPBA) to their people during Arab spring in order to elicit peoples support to
combat the demonstrations. Respectively both of them delivered three speeches while grappling with the
demonstrations and demonstrators. This study sees speeches of Arab leaders toward demonstrators during
Arab spring as a rich source of naturalistic data from which it can investigate a number of important issues.
The first of these is to analyze (de)legitimization process through emotions as mentioned by Reyes (2011) in
which he integrates the categories of legitimation by Leeuwen ( 2007, 2008) and Wodaks (2001) strategies
of positive self-presentation and negative other-presentation into his model. Second, this study examines the
linguistic features of those strategies adopted by the two former presidents in order to invoke emotions
behind the justification of the (de)legitimatization.
2. Arab Spring and Discourse Analysis
Arab Spring becomes an interesting socio-political phenomenon that attracts researchers to investigate
issues related to this phenomenon from various perspectives. Wolfsfeld, Segev & Sheafer (2013) for
instance, investigate the role of social media during Arab Spring by answering the question whether
participations in social media increase the number of protests or the number of protests increases the
participations in social media. Moghadam (2013) attempts to reveal the promises and perils of the
democratization process of three early cases of Arab Spring (Tunisia, Egypt and Morocco). Hess (2013) on
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314
the other hand try to study the relationship between Arab Spring and Chinese Winter to identify the
similarities and differences of social and economic driving factors those lead to the fall of Egypt and Tunisia
and not to the China.
From the linguistic perspective, one of initial studies on Arab spring and critical discourse analysis
(CDA) is that of Maalej (2012). The aim of the study was a person deixis analysis of the last three speeches
of former president of Tunisia Ben Ali. This study revealed that Ben Ali uses WE and THEY in two early
speeches before shifting to I-YOU and WE-THEY which is explained as an effort to reproducing power
abuse, dominance and inequality by way of making political concession. Zouheir in some way includes the
analyses of negative other-presentation and positive self-presentation through the pronounce choices. What is
quite interesting and concern our studies is the discursive and linguistic shifts as Zouheir argues that the
gradual loss of power by OPT caused him to make concession, which was reflected in the pronounce shifts in
the speeches (Zouheir A Maalej 2012: 697).
Similarly, El Mustapha lahlali (2011) proposes that there are shifts from an authoritarian to a democratic
discourse by President Hosni Mubarak of Egypt and President Zine El- Abidine Ben Ali of Tunisia to address
the public unrest. He identified that both former presidents use in term of structure and strategy- the
patterns: blame and denial, Acknowledging reality, emphasis on individual achievements and pledge of
drastic reform and change.
Useful though these studies are in providing insights into discursive strategies adopted by former
presidents of Arab countries while facing demonstrators, they provide too little insights into the aspect of
legitimization and (de)legitimization strategies in by those leaders in their speeches and the pragma-linguistic
devices through which they are realized in the process of managing demonstration. To address this gap, the
current study tries to answer the following questions:
a- What (de)legitimization strategies do FPBA and FPHM adopt in their speeches to evoke emotions of
their audience ??
b- How do FPBA and FPHM employ the linguistic devices in their (de)legitimization strategies?
3. Methodology
The data for this study consists of speeches of former president of Egypt Hosni Mubarak (FPHM) and
former president of Tunisia Ben Ali (FPBA) delivered as a response to the mass demonstration during Arab
spring in their countries in which they were presidents. Coincidently, both of them delivered three speeches
regarding to the crisis. The three speeches of FBHM were delivered on 29
th
January 2011, 1
st
February 2011
and 10
th
February 2011. Meanwhile, the three speeches of FPBA were delivered on 29
th
December 2010, 10
th
January 2011 and 13
th
January 2011. We chose the former president of Egypt Hosni Mubarak (FPHM) and
former president of Tunisia Ben Ali (FPBA) to study the discursive strategies employed by them because
they are among the leaders who have faced the demonstrations threat into their power and they both handled
the demonstration within the quite similar strategies and the quite similar time framework i.e. from
December 2010 to February 2011. To mark the significance of the occasion, all the six speeches -three of
FPHM and three of FPBA- were broadcasted by most television stations in Egypt and Tunisia and became
newsworthy events that time. All of those speeches can now be accessed from YouTube website.
The total length of our data is 1 hour 7 minutes and 36 seconds long which represents more than 5151
words. The detail of hours and word count of each speech of the former presidents are as follows:
Table 1: Data by Video Length and Word Count.
Former President Ben Ali Former President Hosni Mubarak
Speech 1 Speech 2 Speech 3 Speech 1 Speech 2 Speech 3 Total
Video
Length
(minutes)
7:06 12:43 8:26 11:31 10:44 16:52 67:36
Word
Count
(number)
615 1082 760 793 726 1175 5151
While this may appear to be a small corpus, but the present study argues that its aim is to study the
genre of managing demonstration discourses in their specific context i.e. Arab spring through the lens of
critical discourse analysis (CDA) in order to understand and explain the specific social phenomena through
the in-depth analysis rather than studying huge size of context-less corpus to make generalization. In this
respect, the scholars of CDA claim that CDA studies mostly deal with only small corpora (Meyer, 2001:25).
That is because the aim of CDA is to investigate object under study with multilevel analysis to understand
complex social phenomena (Wodak, 2001). In fact, a lot of studies carried out in CDA only deal with small
size data relating to specific context, for instance, the study of Reyes (2011) deals with two political speeches
to investigate legitimization strategy and the study of Augoustinos et al. (2011) deals only with one political
speech in order to investigate political apology.
In conducting the present research, the researcher uses the legitimization strategies as developed and
applied by Reyes (2011). One of the five strategies of legitimization of Reyes (2011) namely legitimization
through emotions and five discursive strategies of positive self-presentation and negative other-presentation
developed by Wodak (2001) within her discourse historical approach (DHA) have been integrated and
applied to current study while investigating the (de)legitimatization process in the speeches of FPBA and
FPHM. the strategies of positive self-presentation and negative other-presentation are: (a) referential
strategies or nomination strategies; (b) strategies of predication; (c) strategies of argumentation; (d) strategies
of perspectivation, framing or discourse representation; (e) intensification or mitigation.
4. Findings
The examples of (de)legitimization strategy through emotions in Arab Spring political discourse is
examined with specific focus on linguistic features.
4.1. Examples of (De)legitimization through Emotions
In handling demonstration and gaining peoples support, FPBA and FPHM engage with emotional
discussions with the concerns on moral aspect of demonstrations and demonstrators. Both FPBA and FPHM
use the emotional evoking strategies. Pointing to problems such as implications of demonstration to the
human and country being was an essential part of the both leaders campaign to combat the demonstrations.
Table 2: (De)legitimization through Emotions.
No. Emotional
Strategy
Explanation Examples Linguistic Choices
1 Implications
to human
being
By reference to:
Threats to human life
Violent incidents, sometimes bloody, which have caused
the death of civilians and caused injuries to several
officers of the security force. (FPBA, 27 December 2010)
Predication: adjective (violent
and bloody)
Argumentation: material verb
(caused death and caused
injuries)
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Threats to daily routines ...
before these demonstrations change to chaos, threaten
the law and impede daily routines of citizen. (FPHM, 29
January 2011)
Nomination: noun (chaos)
Argumentation: material verb
(impede)
Threats to feelings
We are together living in the very painful days. What
hurts our hearts most is the fear, disturbance, worry and
unpleasant feelings those strike the absolute majority
of Egyptians on what will happen tomorrow to them,
their families and the future of their country. (FPHM,
1 February 2011)
Emotive loaded vocabularies:
noun (fear, disturbance,
worry)
Appeal to future: phrases
(what will happen,
tomorrow, future of their
country)
2 Implications
to country
By reference to:
Threats to economy
.
This is a negative and uncivilized manifestation that
tarnish the image of our country and impedes the
advent of investors and tourists which will effect on
jobs creation while we need them to curb unemployment.
(FPBA, 27 December 2010)
Predication: adjective
(negative, uncivilized)
Argumentation: material verb
(tarnish, impede)
Threats to security
.. Nomination (extremists,
agitators). predication (paid
by others)
Attributes
Nomination (guerrillas)
predication (hooked)
Actions
Argumentation (attack in the
night)
4 Conclusion
On the whole, the negative traits of demonstration and demonstrators were found to mobilize the
support of audience, as expected of the speeches of FPBA and FPHM who were under threat of losing power.
It is likely that the way implications of demonstration to other fellow human being and to the country were
highlighted would make audience adopt a negative attitude towards the demonstration. It is also noticed that
the negative attitude of audience towards demonstration was triggered through the emotional appeals by
highlighting the threats of demonstration to human life, their daily routines, their feelings as well as the
threats to countrys economy, security and image.
All the above negative traits of demonstration and demonstrators have been achieved through the
negative other-presentation strategy as highlighted by Wodak which includes nomination, predication,
argumentation, perspectivation and mitigation and intensification. In conclusion, demonstration and
demonstrators were represented negatively through the choices of lexical and grammar.
This study only gives some examples of the (de)legitimization strategy through emotions. Thus it is
suggested for future research to study the (de)legitimization strategy through emotions in a more
comprehensive way. It is also important to mention that this study has focused only on one of the
(de)legitimization strategies proposed by Reyes (2011). Future research should probably study the rest of
strategies proposed by him.
5 Notes
Bolded words and phrases in this article represent linguistic choices relevant to the process of
(de)legitimization through emotions.
6 Acknowledgements
The author is grateful for the financial support of the Research Management Centre, International Islamic
University Malaysia (IIUM) in the preparation of current research under grant Number EDW A13-035-1462
7 References
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In: Weiss, G and Wodak, R (eds) Critical Discourse Analysis: Theory and Interdisciplinarity.
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Diamond, J. (1996). Status and Power in Verbal Interaction: Study of Discourse in a Close-Knit
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Gee, J.P. (2011). How to do Discourse Analysis: A Toolkit. New York: Routledge.
Hess, S. (2013). From Arab Spring to the Chinese Winter: The Institutional Sources of
Authoritarian Vulnerability and Resilience in Egypt, Tunisia, and China, International
Political Science Review, 34 (3), 254-272.
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& Society, 23 (6), 679-700.
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14-31.
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Moghadam, VM. (2013). What is Democracy? Promises and Perils of the Arab Spring, Current
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Involved in Irans Nuclear Power Contention: A Case study of The Economist, Discourse &
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Reyes, A. (2011). Strategies of Legitimization in Political Discourse: From Words to Actions,
Discourse & Society, 22 (6), 781-807.
Van Dijk, T.A. (2009). Society and Discourse: How Social Contexts Influence Text and Talk. New
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Van Leeuwen, T., Wodak, R. (1999). Legitimizing Immigration Control: A Discourse-Historical
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Communication, 1 (1), 91-112.
Wodak, R. (2001). The Discourse-Historical Approach, In: Wodak, R and Meyer, M (eds) Methods
of Critical Discourse Analysis. London: SAGE, 63-94.
Wodak, R., Kwan, W., Clarke, I. (2011). Getting People on Board: Discursive Leadership for
Consensus Building in Team Meetings, Discourse & Society, 22 (5), 592-644.
Wolfsfeld, G., Segev, E., Sheafer, T. (2013). Social Media and the Arab Spring: Politics Comes
First, The International Journal of Press/Politics, 18 (2), 115-137.
PENGGUNAAN STRATEGI PEMBELAJARAN ATURAN KENDIRI KEMAHIRAN BERTUTUR
BAHASA ARAB DALAM KALANGAN PELAJAR MELAYU DI PUSAT ASASI UIAM
Mastura binti Arshad
1
1
Quranic Language Department
International Islamic University Malaysia
Malaysia
amastura@iium.edu.my
Corresponding Author: Kaseh Abu Bakar, Jabatan Pengajian Arab dan Tamadun Islam, Fakulti
Pengajian Islam, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia, kasehabubakar@gmail.com
________________________________________________________________________________
Abstrak. Kemahiran bertutur bahasa Arab sering dikaitkan dengan penggunaan strategi pembelajar
an yang pelbagai dan berkesan. Salah satu strategi pembelajaran bahasa Arab ialah strategi pembe
lajaran aturan kendiri. Berdasarkan keputusan Ujian Kemahiran Bahasa (APT Skills Test) di Pu
sat Asasi UIAM dapati majoriti pelajar tidak berjaya melepasitahap 6 (band 6) dalam Ujian mahara
t al-kalam (kemahiran bertutur). Prestasi sebegini mungkin terjadi kerana mereka tidak mengguna
kan strategi pembelajaran aturan kendiri secara efektif. Oleh itu, kajian ini meninjau penggunaan
strategipembelajaran aturan kendiri kemahiran bertutur bahasa Arab dalam kalangan pelajar Mela
yu di Pusat Asasi UIAM. Kajian ini melibatkan 163 orang pelajar jurusan Bahasa Arab (BAR) da
n Ilmu Wahyu (IRK) yang dipilih melalui kaedah persampelan rawak berkelompok. Soal selidik tel
ah digunakan sebagai instrumen kajian. Data kajian telah dianalisis secara deskriptif mengguna
kan median dan sisihan piawai. Dapatan kajian menunjukkan strategi yang memperoleh penggu
naan tertinggi merupakan strategi-strategi kendiri bersifat keagamaan (Metafizik) manakala strategi
kendiri yang memperoleh penggunaan terendah pula merupakan strategi kendiri yang melibatkan a
ktiviti komunikasi bahasa Arab secara aktif.
Kata kunci: strategi pembelajaran aturan kendiri, kemahiran bertutur bahasa Arab
Abstract: Foreign language speaking skill is often associated with the use of variety and effective
learning strategies. One of the strategies is Self-regulated learning strategies. Based on the result of
Speaking Test in APT Skills Test, majority of students failed to achieve band 6 for Arabic Speaking
Test. Such performance may occur due to the lack of practicing the self-regulated learning
strategies in Arabic speaking skill learning strategies. Therefore, this research surveyed the practice
of Self-regulated learning strategies in Arabic Speaking Skill among Malay students at the Centre
for Foundation Studies (CFS) IIUM. This research involved 163 respondents taking B.A.R. and
I.R.K. courses, using the Cluster Sampling Method. A Questionnaire was used to collect data for
this study. The data were analyzed through descriptive analysis using median and standard
deviation. The findings showed that the most practiced strategies was religious strategies
(Metaphysics), while the lowest score was strategies that involves actively communication in
Arabic.
Keywords: Self- regulated learning strategies, Arabic speaking skill.
PENDAHULUAN
Kemahiran bertutur bahasa Arab sering dikaitkan dengan penggunaan strategi pembelajaran yang ba
ILCC 2013
320
nyak, pelbagai dan berkesan (Sueraya et.al 2010). al-Alwan (2008) menyatakan bahawa salah satu
petunjuk utama kejayaan ialah penggunaan strategi pembelajaran aturan kendiri. Pembelajaran Atur
an Kendiri ialah satu proses pembelajaran yang berasaskan pelajar. Kebanyakan ahli teori peng
aturan kendiri berpendapat bahawa pembelajaran adalah satu proses pelbagai dimensi yang melibat
kan komponen-komponen peribadi (kognitif dan emosi), tingkahlaku dan kontektual (Zimmerman
1989). Pelajar sendiri yang akan mengaktifkan dan mengekalkan aspek kognitif, kelakuan dan a
fektif secara sistematik dengan tujuan untuk mencapai matlamat pembelajaran mereka (Brophy 199
8; Pintrinch dan Schunk 1996).
Ia bukan satu keupayaan mental atau prestasi pelajar tetapi ia merupakan satu proses arahan kendiri
yang memandu keupayaan mental pelajar untuk berfungsi dalam melakukan tugasan. Menurut Hs
u (1997), Pintrinch dan De Groot (1990) strategi pembelajaran aturan kendiri merupakan satu pro
ses yang aktif dan konstruktif untuk mengawal kognitif, metakognitif, motivasi, tingkahlaku dan
yang berkaitan dengan pengurusan sumber dan persekitaran kajian.
Memandangkan strategi pembelajaran kendiri adalah pendekatan yang membolehkan pelajar
memperoleh pengetahuan dan kemahiran secara berdikari, seseorang pelajar haruslah bersikap auto
nomi dan proaktif dalam proses pembelajaran dan tidak seharusnya menunggu ransangan guru dala
m pembelajarannya, malah hendaklah mencari peluang untuk belajar secara berdikari. Penggunaan
strategi pembelajaran kendiri didapati memberikan beberapa kelebihan kepada pelajar seperti men
dorong kepada pencapaian yang tinggi dalam akademik (al Alwan 2008). Selain itu, kurikulum y
ang disusun dengan tujuan meningkatkan tahap pembelajaran kendiri juga menghasilkan penca
paian pelajar yang tinggi (Bail, Zhang & Tachiyama (2008) dan Zimmerman & Martinez-Pons (2
004)).
Tinjauan kajian lepas mendapati, terdapat beberapa kajian terhadap beberapa komponen pembelajar
an kendiri seperti motivasi (Kaseh dan Zainuddin 2009), sikap pelajar (Ghazali Yusri, Nik Mohd. R
ahimi & Parilah, 2010b), motivasi dan kebimbangan ujian (Ghazali Yusri, Nik Mohd. Rahimi &
Parilah, 2010a), kesan perbezaan bentuk kursus terhadap penggunaan strategi pembelajaran kendiri
(Ghazali Yusri dan Nik Mohd. Rahimi 2010).
Dalam konteks kemahiran bertutur bahasa Arab pula, beberapa kajian telah dilakukan tentang kelem
ahan pelajar dalam menguasai kemahiran bertutur bahasa Arab khususnya pelajar IPTA (Anida 200
3; Siti Ikbal 2006; Abd. Halim 2009; Sueraya et.al 2010), kajian strategi pembelajaran kemahiran b
ertutur bahasa Arab yang terbahagi kepada strategi dalam kelas, strategi penggunaan media, strategi
penyertaan dalam aktiviti ko-kurikulum dan strategi bertutur bersama rakan (Sueraya et.al 2010). S
elain itu, terdapat kajian yang mengkaji penggunaan strategi belajar bersama rakan dalam konteks k
emahiran lisan (Ghazali Yusri, Nik Mohd. Rahimi, Parilah M.Shah, Wan Haslina Wah & Ahmad
Thalal Hassan, 2012).
Berdasarkan tinjauan kajian lepas, didapati belum ada kajian yang mengkaji penggunaan str
ategi pembelajaran aturan kendiri dalam meningkatkan kemahiran bertutur, serta kajian yang m
engkaji pengetahuanpelajar terhadap strategi-strategi pembelajaran aturan kendiri. Oleh itu, kajian i
ni cuba mengkaji penggunaan dan pengetahuan pelajar tentang strategi pembelajaran aturan kendiri
kemahiran bertutur bahasa Arab.
PERNYATAAN MASALAH
Sebahagian besar pelajar Institut Pengajian Tinggi (IPT) khususnya dalam aliran pendidikan Islam
masih belum mampu menguasai kemahiran bertutur walaupun telah dapat pendedahan yang lua
s dalam bahasa Arab sejak berada di sekolah menengah. Menurut Naimah dan Aini (2005), walaupu
n pelajar-pelajar bahasa ketiga menerima pembelajaran secara formal pada peringkat sekolah, namu
n mereka masih lagi menghadapi masalahuntuk berkomunikasi dalam bahasa Arab yang dipelajari.
Ab. Halim (2007) dan Sueraya et.al ( 2010) turut menyatakan bahawa penguasaan bahasa Arab
di kalangan pelajar lepasan IPTA yang mengambil pengkhususan bahasa Arab tidak mencapai taha
p kecekapan berbahasa yang baik.
Di Pusat Asasi UIAM, keputusan Ujian Kemahiran Bahasa (APT Skills Test) mendapati maj
oriti pelajar tidak berjaya melepasi tahap 6 (band 6) dalam Ujian maharat al-kalam (kemahiran ber
tutur). Justeru, adalah perlu untuk mengkaji penggunaan Strategi Pembelajaran Bahasa (SPB) Kema
hiran Bertutur Bahasa Arab di kalangan mereka. Prestasi sebegini mungkin terjadi kerana mereka
tidak menggunakan strategi pembelajaran aturan kendiri secara pelbagai dan berkesan. Oleh i
tu, kajian ini cuba meninjau penggunaan danpengetahuan pelajar tentang strategi pembelajaran atur
an kendiri.
PERSOALAN KAJIAN
Kajian ini dilakukan berdasarkan persoalan kajian berikut, iaitu:
1. Bagaimanakah penggunaan strategi pembelajaran aturan kendiri kemahiran bertutur bahasa Arab
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322
dalam kalangan pelajar Melayu di Pusat Asasi UIAM?
4. METODOLOGI KAJIAN
Kajian ini merupakan kajian kuantitatif yang menggunakan instrumen soal selidik. Soal selidik dip
ilih bagi meninjau penggunaan strategi kemahiran bertutur bahasa Arab yang dilakukan oleh 163
pelajar Melayu jurusan Bahasa Arab dan Ilmu Wahyu di Pusat Asasi UIAM. Berdasarkan tinjauan
kajian lepas, 35 item strategi pembelajaran aturan kendiri telah digubal. Peringkat pra uji tela
h dijalankan bagi mengenalpasti sebarang kelemahan dan kekurangan pada instrumen yang di
bina. Peringkat pengumpulan data pula dijalankan oleh pensyarah masing-masing dalam 7
sesi kelas yang berasingan. Proses analisis data dibuat menggunakan perisian SPSS (Statistical
Packages for the Social Sciences) Versi 20 bagi menjawab objektif kajian. Statistik perihalan iait
u kiraan median dan sisihan piawai digunakan untuk menganalisa penggunaan strategi pembelajar
an kemahiran bertutur bahasa Arab.
5.DAPATAN KAJIAN
Pengkaji telah mengadaptasi interpretasi skor min (Oxford 1990) dan menyesuaikannya mengikut k
esesuaian kajian ini. Oleh itu, pengkaji mencadangkan interpretasi median seperti berikut:
Jadual 2 Interpretasi skor median tahap penggunaan SPB
__________________________________________________________________________________
Tinggi Sentiasa benar tentang diri saya (sentiasa) 5
Selalunya benar tentang diri saya (kerap kali) 4
____________________________________________________________________
Sederhana Biasanya benar tentang diri saya (kadang-kadang) 3
____________________________________________________________________
Rendah Biasanya tidak benar tentang diri saya (sekali-sekala) 2
Tidak pernah benar tentang diri saya (tidak pernah) 1
__________________________________________________________________________________
Respon 1 (Tidak Pernah Benar Tentang Diri Saya) bermaksud responden tidak pernah menggunakan strategi
tersebut, respon 2 (Biasanya Tidak Benar Tentang Diri Saya) bermaksud responden hanya sekali-sekala men
ggunakan strategi tersebut. Respon 3 (Biasanya Benar Tentang Diri Saya) bermaksud responden kadang-kad
ang menggunakan strategi. Manakala respon 4 (Selalunya Benar Tentang Diri Saya) bermaksud respondenke
rap kali menggunakan strategi dan respon 5 (Sentiasa Benar Tentang Diri Saya) bermaksud responden sentias
a menggunakan strategi tersebut.
Penggunaan strategi pelajar mengikut item strategi pembelajaran aturan kendiri
Jadual 3 Susunan kekerapan penggunaan berdasarkan item strategi pembelajaran aturan kendiri
n=163
Item Strategi Penggunaan Min Mod Med S.P
1 2 3 4 5
i. Penggunaan tinggi
26 Berdoa 3 8 31 31 90 4.21 5.00 5 1.03
(1.8%) (4.9%) (19.0%) (19.0%)(55.2%)
11 Baca Quran 4 8 38 51 62 3.98 4.00 5 1.02
( 2.5%) (4.9%)(23.3%)(31.3%)(38.0%)
29 Siapkan diri 3 10 50 43 57 3.87 4.00 5 1.03
(1.8%) (6.1%) (30.7%)(26.4%)(35.0%)
27 Ungkapkan kata-kata
peransang 6 16 43 45 53 3.75 4.00 5 1.12
(3.7%) (9.8%) (26.4%)(27.6%) (32.5%)
ii. Penggunaan sederhana
25 Yakinkan diri 6 14 60 33 50 3.66 4.00 3 1.11
(3.7%) (8.6%) (36.8%) (20.2%) (30.7%)
28 Mempersiapkan
diri 7 28 48 40 40 3.48 3.00 3 1.16
(4.3%) (17.2%) (29.4%)(24.5%)(24.5%)
13 Berlatih sebutan
Arab 6 21 70 40 26 3.36 3.00 3 1.02
( 3.7%) (12.9%)(42.9%) (24.5%) (16.0%)
24 Beranikan diri 7 34 52 38 32 3.33 3.00 3 1.14
(4.3%)(20.9%)(31.9%)(23.3%)(19.6%)
23 Tetapkan
matlamat 10 23 62 41 27 3.32 3.00 3 1.10
(6.1%)(14.1%)(38.0%)(25.2%)(16.6%)
35 Bayangkan diri
guna bahasa
Arab 23 30 47 20 43 3.18 3.00 3 1.38
(14.1%)(18.4%)(28.8%)(12.3%)(26.4%)
15 Ulangi kembali apa
yang diajar 12 29 65 37 20 3.15 3.00 3 1.08
(7.4%)(17.8%)(39.9%)(22.7%)(12.3%)
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12 Gunakan nahu
dan sarf yang
betul 9 34 72 31 17 3.08 3.00 3 1.02
(5.5%)(20.9%)(44.2%)(19.0%)(10.4%)
34 Bayangkan diri
setanding pelajar
Timur
Tengah 36 28 43 19 37 2.96 3.00 3 1.45
(22.1%)(17.2%)(26.4%)(11.7%)(22.7%)
14 Berlatih membina
ayat 18 39 66 22 18 2.90 3.00 3 1.12
(11.0%)(23.9%)(40.5%)(13.5%)(11.0%)
8 Baca bahan
bahasa Arab 31 36 47 34 15 2.79 3.00 3 1.24
(19.0%)(22.1%)(28.8%)(20.9%)(9.2%)
21 Menilai kemajuan
pertuturan 33 33 57 29 11 2.71 3.00 3 1.17
(20.2%)(20.2%)(35.0%)(17.8%)(6.7%)
3 Menterjemah di
dalam minda
apa yang dilihat
di papan tanda 33 33 60 24 13 2.70 3.00 3 1.18
(20.2%)(20.2%)(36.8%)(14.7%)(8.0%)
4 Menterjemah di
dalam minda apa yang
dibaca 37 43 53 22 8 2.50 3.00 3 1.13
(22.7%)(26.4%)(32.5%)(13.5%)(4.9%)
iii. Tahap penggunaan rendah
33 Bayangkan diri cekap
bertutur 38 42 30 19 34 2.81 3.00 2 1.46
(23.3%)(25.8%)(18.4%)(11.7%)(20.9%)
18 Cari sebanyak
mungkin
peluang 26 55 44 23 15 2.67 3.00 2 1.18
(16.0%)(33.7%)(27.0%)(14.1%)(9.2%)
19 Cari orang yang
boleh bertutur
bahasa Arab
secara aktif 36 46 42 23 16 2.61 2.00 2 1.25
(22.1%)(28.2%)(25.8%)(14.1%)(9.8%)
9 Memperbanyak aktiviti
mendengar pertuturan
bahasa Arab 36 58 36 24 9 2.46 2.00 2 1.15
(22.1%)(35.6%)(22.1%)(14.7%)(5.5%)
5 Menterjemah di dalam
minda, apa yang
didengar seperti
berita 39 50 45 18 11 2.46 2.00 2 1.17
(23.9%)(30.7%)(27.6%)(11.0%)(6.7%)
17 Merancang
jadual 49 51 36 22 5 2.28 2.00 2 1.13
(30.1%)(31.3%)(22.1%)(13.5%)(3.1%)
10 Membaca buku
strategi belajar
bahasa 46 54 41 17 5 2.25 2.00 2 1.08
(28.2%)(33.1%)(25.2%)(10.4%)(3.1%)
32 Membayangkan diri
berkomunikasi di negara
Arab 53 41 27 19 23 2.50 2.00 1 1.41
(32.5%)(25.2%)(16.6%)(11.7%)(14.1%)
6 Bertutur bahasa Arab
di hadapan
cermin 49 47 36 22 9 2.36 2.00 1 1.20
(30.1%)(28.8%)(22.1%)(13.5%)(5.5%)
22 Beri ganjaran kepada
diri sendiri 59 41 29 20 14 2.32 2.00 1 1.31
(36.2%)(25.2%)(17.8%)(12.3%)(8.6%)
31 Mempelajari budaya
orang Arab 56 45 31 16 15 2.32 2.00 1 1.29
(34.4%)(27.6%)(19.0%)(9.8%)( 9.2%)
1 Berfikir dalam
bahasa Arab 52 46 37 17 11 2.32 2.00 1 1.22
(31.9%)(28.2%)(22.7%)(10.4%)(6.7%)
30 Mengaplikasikan pertuturan
bahasa Arab
di kedai-kedai
dan restoran
Arab 63 52 19 15 14 2.17 2.00 1 1.28
(38.7%)(31.9%)(11.7%)(9.2%)( 8.6%)
16 Mengikuti kursus-kursus
komunikasi
Bahasa Arab 65 41 33 16 8 2.15 2.00 1 1.19
(39.9%)(25.2%)(20.2%)(9.8%)(4.9%)
2 Bermonolog melalui
penulisan diari dalam
bahasa Arab 61 54 24 14 10 2.13 2.00 1 1.19
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(37.4%)(33.1%)(14.7%)(8.6%)(6.1%)
7 Merekodkan pertuturan
sendiri dalam
bahasa Arab 86 40 19 13 5 1.84 1.00 1 1.11
(52.8%)(24.5%)(11.7%)(8.0%)( 3.1%)
20 Tinggal bersama rakan
berbangsa Arab
di asrama 117 22 11 10 3 1.53 1.00 1 0.99
(71.8%)(13.5%)(6.7%)( 6.1%)(1.8%)
Dapatan kajian menunjukkan bahawa item no.26- (saya berdoa agar Allah mempermudahkan saya
bertutur bahasa Arab) dan item no.11- (saya membaca al-Quran setiap hari untuk memperbetul da
n melancarkan sebutan saya) memperoleh median skor tertinggi 5. Selain itu, item no.29 (saya m
empersiapkan diri untuk menerima sebarang teguran daripada pensyarah dan rakan terhadap kesalah
an bahasa yang dituturkan dan berusaha memperbaikinya) dan item no.27- (saya mengungkapkan k
ata-kata peransang untuk menaikkan semangat saya untuk terus mempertingkat pertuturan bahasa A
rab) turut memperoleh skor median yang sama.
Terdapat 10 item yang memperoleh skor median terendah. Item-item yang memperoleh sko
r median terendah ini terdiri daripada item no.20 (saya tinggal bersama rakan berbangsa Arab di as
rama), item no.7 (saya merekodkan pertuturan sendiri dalam bahasa Arab), item no.2- (saya berm
onolog melalui penulisan diari dalam bahasa Arab), item no.16- (saya mengikuti kursus-kursus baha
sa Arab di luar), item no.30-(saya mengaplikasikan pertuturan bahasa Arab di kedai dan restoran Ar
ab), item no.1-(saya berfikir dalam bahasa Arab), item no.31-(saya mempelajari budaya orang Arab)
, item no.22 (saya memberi ganjaran kepada diri sendiri), item no.6-(saya bertutur bahasa Arab di
hadapan cermin) dan item no.32-(saya membayangkan diri berkomunikasi di negara Arab).
6.0 PERBINCANGAN DAPATAN KAJIAN
Meneliti pola item strategi yang paling banyak dilaporkan penggunaannya oleh pelajar, didapati bah
awa strategi-strategi yang paling popular di kalangan pelajar ialah strategi kendiri yang bersifat kea
gamaan atau Metafizik. Sebagai contoh, strategi yang memperoleh median penggunaan tertinggi ial
ah strategi berdoa agar Allah mempermudahkan bertutur bahasa Arab diikuti strategi membaca al-Q
uran setiap hari untuk memperbetul dan melancarkan sebutan. Dapatan ini hampir menyamai dapata
n Kamarul Shukri et al. (2009) yang menunjukkan Strategi Metafizik memperolehi min strategi ked
ua tertinggi di kalangan pelajar SMKA Terengganu.
Pemilihan strategi kendiri bersifat Metafizik sebagai strategi yang paling kerap digunakan oleh pelaj
ar jurusan BAR dan IRK mencerminkan kepentingan strategi tersebut dalam pembelajaran bahasa A
rab. Ajaran Islam yang menganjurkan doa sebagai senjata mukmin dan memohon pertolongan Allah
dalam setiap tindakan. Firman Allah dalam surah al-Ghafir ayat 60:
Maksudnya:
Berdoalah kepadaku, nescaya aku perkenankan permintaanmu.
Pengkaji merasakan bahawa sebagai pelajar jurusan agama, para pelajar amat menyedari bahawa m
ereka mempelajari bahasa Arab sebagai bahasa ibadah. Justeru, hubungan antara para pelajar jurusa
n agama dengan bahasa Arab sebagai bahasa al-Quran adalah amat rapat sekali. Tambahan pula, bah
asa Arab adalah bahasa agama yang wajib dipelajari oleh setiap individu muslim. Oleh itu, kajian in
i mendapati bahawa motif keagamaan yang kukuh muncul sebagai strategi yang paling digunakan o
leh pelajar Bahasa Arab dan IRK di Pusat Asasi UIAM.
Manakala item strategi kendiri yang mendapat median penggunaan terendah pula memperlihatkan s
trategi-strategi komunikatif secara aktif seperti tinggal dengan rakan-rakan berbangsa Arab di asram
a, merekodkan pertuturan sendiri dalam bahasa Arab dan bermonolog melalui penulisan diari dalam
bahasa Arab. Dengan kata lain, kajian ini mendapati pelajar tidak cuba mencabar kebolehan diri unt
uk bertutur bahasa Arab.
Faktor persekitaran juga memainkan peranan yang penting. Persekitaran pelajar di Pusat Asasi UIA
M yang dikelilingi oleh ramai pelajar bukan natif (bukan Arab) menyebabkan pelajar merasa tidak t
erdesak untuk menggunakan bahasa Arab dan merasa lebih selesa untuk berkomunikasi menggunak
an bahasa Melayu bersama rakan-rakan sekuliah mereka. Senario di Pusat Asasi UIAM melihatkan
kurangnya pelajar-pelajar berbangsa Arab yang mengambil jurusan sastera. Majoriti pelajar berbang
sa Arab mengambil jurusan seperti Kejuruteraan, Fizik, Perubatan, Farmasi dan Senibina. Justeru it
u, pelajar BAR dan IRK didapati kurang bergaul dengan mereka dan tidak mengambil peluang kee
masan untuk tinggal bersama pelajar-pelajar berbangsa Arab di asrama lalu menyebabkan pelajar tid
ak menggunakan strategi pembelajaran yang memerlukan komunikasi bahasa Arab secara berterusa
n. Ini dapat dilihat dalam dapatan kajian ini yang menunjukkan item no.20 (tinggal bersama rakan b
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erbangsa Arab di asrama) dan item no.11 (duduk bersebelahan penutur asal (rakan berbangsa Arab)
memperoleh median penggunaan terendah (median= 1).
Sistem pembelajaran sekarang yang berorientasikan peperiksaan turut menyumbang kepada dapatan
ini. Dapatan ini secara umumnya menyokong dapatan Oxford dan Nyikos (1989) mengenai bentu
k strategi yangselalu dan jarang digunakan pelajar. Mereka berpendapat bahawa pendekatan akadem
ik yang berorientasikan pengajaran dan peperiksaan telah membataskan usaha pelajar untuk mencub
a strategi-strategi baru yang lebih kreatif serta melibatkan latihan penggunaan bahasa di luar kelas.
Pengajaran bahasa Arab yang lebih menekankan tatabahasa, aspek metalinguistik dan analisis bahas
a (Abdul Rahim 1994) juga mungkin merupakan penyebab pelajar-pelajar kurang menggunakan stra
tegi-strategi yang bersifat komunikatif.
Selain itu, tiadanya pengetahuan tentang strategi kendiri, kurangnya kesedaran dan motivasi dalama
n juga merupakan faktor yang mempengaruhi penggunaan strategi pembelajaran kemahiran bertutur
bahasa Arab. Sueraya et.al (2010) dalam kajiannya mendapati antara faktor yang mempengaruhi k
elemahan bertutur bahasa Arab ialah kurangnya kesedaran tentang strategi pembelajaran bahasa (SP
B) kemahiran bertutur bahasa Arab. Nurazan (2003) dalam kajiannya di kalangan pelajar UNISZA
turut mendapati majoriti pelajar tidak mengetahui strategi-strategi pembelajaran bahasa yang dinyat
akan lalu menyebabkan tahap penggunaan SPB bahasa Arab adalah berada di tahap sederhana. Oleh
sebab itu, pengetahuan pelajar tentang SPB Kemahiran Bertutur merupakan perkara penting bagi m
embantu pelajar mencapai kejayaan dalam pembelajaran mereka.
7.0 PENUTUP
Pengkaji berharap agar kajian ini akan memberikan manfaat kepada pelajar dan juga pengajar.
Dalam bidang pembelajaran bahasa Arab, pelajar yang didedahkan dengan pelbagai strategi
ternyata mampu meningkatkan kebolehan bahasa. Pengetahuan tentang strategi-strategi
pembelajaran kendiri kemahiran bertutur bahasa Arab mampu menarik minat pelajar untuk
mengaplikasikannya dalam pembelajaran. Selain itu, penggunaan strategi yang tepat dan
bersesuaian akan melahirkan pelajar bahasa yang bijak dalam mengendalikan pembelajaran bahasa.
Apa yang penting, penggunaan strategi dalam pembelajaran kemahiran bertutur menjadikan
pembelajaran bahasa Arab lebih mudah dan menyeronokkan sekaligus menolak tanggapan bahawa
bahasa Arab sukar dipelajari. Strategi pembelajaran kendiri hendaklah didedahkan kepada para
pelajar agar pelajar lebih berautonomi, tidak bergantung dan mengharapkan segala maklumat
daripada guru semata-mata. Semoga kajian ini memberi sumbangan terhadap aspek pengajaran dan
pembelajaran bahasa Arab di Malaysia.
9.0 RUJUKAN
Al-Quran.
Ab. Halim Mohamad. 2007. Masalah komunikasi bahasa Arab di kalangan pelajar bacelor bahasa
Arab di IPTA Malaysia. Prosiding Seminar Penyelidikan Dalam Pengajian Islam Ke-4, hlm. 1-13.
Ab. Halim Mohamad. 2009. Tahap komunikasi dalam bahasa Arab dalam kalangan pelajar Sarjana
Muda Bahasa Arab di IPTA Malaysia. Journal of Islamic and Arabic Education 1(1), hlm.1-14.
Abdul Rahim Ismail. 1994. Pengajaran bahasa Arab sebagai bahasa kedua: permasalahan dan
penyelesaian. Dlm. Muhammad Bukhari Lubis (pngr.). Persuratan Islam. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan
Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Anida Abd. Rahim. 2003. Strategi pembelajaran Bahasa Arab di kalangan pelajar Melayu. Tesis
Sarjana, Universiti Malaya.
al-Alwan, A.F. (2008). Self-regulated learning in high and low achieving students at al-Hussein
bin Talal University (AHU) in Jordan. International Journal of Applied Educational
Studies, 1 (1), 1-13.
Bail, F. T., Zhang, S., & Tachiyama, G. T. (2008). Effects of a self-regulated learning course on
the academic performance and graduation rate of college students in an academic support
program. Journal of College Reading and Learning, 39(1), 54-72.
Brophy, J. (1998). Motivating students to learn. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Duncan, T.G., & McKeachie, W.J. (2005). The making of the motivated strategies for learning
questionnaire. Educational Psychologist, 40 (2), 117-128.
Ghazali Yusri, Nik Mohd. Rahimi, Parilah M. Shah, Wan Haslina Wah & Ahmed Thalal Hassan.
(2012). Penggunaan strategi belajar bersama rakan dalam kalangan pelajar kursus bahasa Arab di
Universiti Teknologi Mara (UiTM). Asia Pacific Journal of Educators and Education 37: 37-50.
Kamarul Shukri Mat Teh. 2009. Penggunaan strategi pembelajaran bahasa Arab dalam kalangan
pelajar sekolah menengah agama. Tesis Dr. Falsafah, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.
Kaseh Abu Bakar & Zainuddin Ismail. 2009. Al-Nizam al-zati lidafiiyyati taallum al-lughah al-
thaniah wa mutaallimu al-lughah al-arabiyyah fi Maliziya. Proceedings of the Malaysia Conference
on Arabic Studies and Islamic Civilization (MACASIC). hlm. 1131-1136.
Naimah, A., & Aini, A. 2005. Kajian tentang persepsi pelajar UiTM terhadap kepentingan bahasa
ketiga di UiTM. Unpublished manuscript, Shah Alam.
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Nurazan Mohmad Rouyan. 2004. Strategi pembelajaran bahasa dalam pembelajaran bahasa Arab:
Kajian di KUSZA. Disertasi Sarjana, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.
Oxford, R.L. & Nyikos, M. 1989. Variables affecting choice of language learning strategies by
university students. Modern Language Journal 73(3): 291-300.
Pintrinch, P.R., & Schunk, D.H. (1996). Motivation in education: Theory, research and
applications. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall Inc.
Siti Ikbal Sheikh Salleh. 2006. Masalah penguasaan pertuturan bahasa Arab di kalangan pelajar
Sekolah Menengah Agama di Selangor. Dlm. Mohd. Rosdi Ismail & Mat Taib Pa. Pengajaran dan
pembelajaran Bahasa Arab di Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur: Penerbitan Universiti Malaya.
Sueraya Che Haron, Ismail Sheikh Ahmad, Arifin Mamat & Ismaiel Hassanein Ahmed Mohamed.
2010. Understanding Arabic-speaking skill learning strategies among selected Malay learners: A
case-study at the International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM). ProQuest Education Journals
Aug.(3): 8-9.
Swain, M. 1995. Three functions of output in second language learning. In Cook, G. And
Seidlhofer, B. (eds.). Principle and practice in applied linguistics, hlm. 125-144. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Zimmerman, B.J. 1989. Models of self-regulated learning and academic achievement. Dlm. B.J.
Zimmerman & D.H Schunk (pnyt). Self-regulated learning and academic achievement: theory,
research and practice. hlm. 1-25. New York: Springer-Verlag.
Zimmerman, B.J., & Martinez-Pons, M. (2004). Pursuing academic self-regulation: A 20-year
methodological quest. Dlm. Jessie Ee, Agnes Chang & Oon seng Tan (pnyt), Thinking about
thinking, hlm. 3-30. Singapore: McGraw Hill Education.
PEMINJAMAN BAHASA SANSKRIT DALAM DIALEK MELAYU PATANI DAN BAHASA
THAI: SUMBER PERSAMAAN DEMI MENYELESAIKAN KONFLIK DI SELATAN THAI
Abdonloh Khreeda-oh
Pensyarah Bahasa Melayu,
Cawangan Bahasa Melayu, Jabatan Bahasa-bahasa Timur,
Fakulti Kemanusiaan dan Sains Kemasyarakatan, Universiti Prince of Songkla, Kampus Pattani
181 Chareonpradit Road, Rusamilae, Muang, Pattani, 94000, Thailand
e-mail: lah119@hotmail.com, abdullah-k@bunga.pn.psu.ac.th
ABSTRAK
Kajian ini merupakan kajian yang meninjau proses peminjaman bahasa Sanskrit (BS)
dalam Dialek Melayu Patani (DMP) dan bahasa Thai (BTh) dari perspektif Sosiolinguistik.
Tujuan utama kajian ini adalah untuk melihat proses-proses peminjaman terutamanya proses
persamaan antara DMP dan BTh yang berlaku akibat peminjaman BS. Data kajian bagi kata
pinjaman BS di dalam DMP dan BTh diperolehi melalui bahan tulisan dan lisan. Perhatian
terhadap proses peminjaman BS dalam kedua-dua bahasa tersebut melibatkan kajian terhadap
persamaan antara DMP dan BTh melalui proses peminjaman, iaitu proses pengimportan.
Seterusnya secara tidak langsung kajian ini turut menyentuh pengaruh BTh yang mempunyai
peranan penting terhadap unsur-unsur leksikal DMP dan sebaliknya pengaruh bahasa Melayu
terhadap kosa kata BTh.
Selain daripada huraian terhadap proses peminjaman, analisis juga turut dilakukan terhadap
proses perubahan kata pinjaman BS dalam DMP dan BTh dari segi fonologi yang melibatkan
perubahan vokal dan perubahan konsonan dengan menggunakan pendekatan deskriptif. Hasil
dapatan daripada kajian ini menunjukkan bahawa selain daripada berlakunya peminjaman secara
langsung daripada BS ke dalam DMP dan BTh sehingga menghasilkan sumber persamaan iaitu
perbendaharaan kata yang seerti dan seakan-akan sama bentuknya antara DMP dan BTh. Malah
daripada unsur-unsur pinjaman, didapati adanya kata-kata DMP dan BTh yang boleh dianggap
datang dari induk yang sama dan diharap dapat membawa kepada penyelasaian konflik di selatan
Thai.
Kata Kunci: Peminjaman, Bahasa Sanskrit, Bahasa Thai, Dialek Melayu Patani Proses
Pengimportan, Penyelesaian Konflik Selatan Thai.
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PEMINJAMAN BAHASA SANSKRIT DALAM DIALEK MELAYU PATANI DAN BAHASA
THAI: SUMBER PERSAMAAN DEMI MENYELESAIKAN KONFLIK DI SELATAN THAI
1. Pengenalan
Pengaruh bahasa asing yang pertama tersebar di alam Melayu, ialah bahasa Sanskrit dan
sebahagian besar daripada perkataan-perkataan itu sudah begitu sebati dengan sistem bunyi BM
sehingga tidak lagi dirasakan sebagai unsur-unsur asing (Asmah Haji Omar, 1985:5).Bahasa
Sanskrit datang ke Semenanjung Tanah Melayu bersama orang-orang India yang menjalankan
perdagangan,dan perhubungan ini telah terjalin sejak tahun 200 sebelum Masihi lagi (Abdullah
Hassan, 1974:218).Abdul Rahman Haji Abdullah (1989:19)menyatakan bahawa kedatangan
agama Hindu-Buddha ke alam Melayu adalah secara dua hala, iaitu bukan sahaja dibawa oleh para
pedagang dan paderi, tetapi juga oleh pihak penerima yang secara sukarela menerima agama
tersebut. Usaha ini disertai dengan menghantar para pengkaji ke India untuk tujuan pelajaran
mahupun mengundang Brahmin terkenal sebagai penasihat raja (Abdul Rahman Haji Abdullah,
1989:19).
Tamadun India membawa bersama bahasa Sanskrit memasuki dunia Melayu dengan cara
yang aman. Ini terbukti dengan adanya agama sebagai teras kebudayaannya (Asmah Haji Omar,
1985:5).Tamadun India juga telah memberi pengaruh yang amat besar, bukan sahaja bagi BM,
tetapi juga kepada kebudayaan Melayu secara meluas (Abdullah Hassan, 1994:45).Bidang yang
dipengaruhi oleh perkataan pinjaman daripada bahasa Sanskrit juga luas, bermula daripada nama-
nama tumbuhan dan haiwan, bahagian badan, alat perkakas dan perdagangan, sehinggalah sistem
pemerintahan, agama dan ilmu pengetahuan (Abdullah Hassan, 1994:45-46).Menurut Khalid
M.Hussain (1978:470-473)pula, perkataan dari bahasa Sanskrit memainkan peranan penting dalam
bidang yang berkaitan dengan keagungan golongan diraja dan agama, pandangan dunia serta moral,
nama-nama gelaran dan panggilan golongan pemerintah. Ini tergambar misalnya dalam perkataan
perdana menteri, menteri, Duli Yang Maha Mulia, syurga, neraka, dosa, pahala, dan sebagainya
(Khalid M.Hussain, 1978:473-475).
Walau bagaimanapun setelah kedatangan agama Islam ke dunia Melayu, banyak perkataan Arab
telah dimasukkan ke dalam BM. Dengan demikian bahasa Sanskrit telah disesuaikan daripada
perkataan yang menunjukkan konsep agama Hindu-Buddha kepada konsep agama Islam tanpa
perubahan perkataan. Salah satu faktor yang mengekalkan bahasa Sanskrit dalam BM adalah unsur
bahasa Sanskrit telah tidak lagi dianggap sebagai unsur pinjaman asing, sebaliknya menjadi
sebahagian daripada kosa kata BM (Hara, 2001:107).
Seterusnya pada cogan kata Bahasa Jiwa Bangsa (Hara, 2001:107)semuanya terdiri daripada
perkataan bahasa Sanskrit, tetapi perkataan ini telah sebati dalam BM. Begitu juga nama-nama
kereta buatan Malaysia seperti wira, perdana, satria, kenari dan sebagainya (Hara, 2001:107)
adalah dari bahasa Sanskrit. Secara jelas didapati bahawa kedudukan bahasa Sanskrit bertambah
kukuh walaupun setelah kedatangan agama Islam yang disertai oleh bahasa Arab dan unsur bahasa
Sanskrit tetap dikekalkan dalam BM (Ismail Hussein, 1966:31).
C.A.Mees (1967) menyatakan bahawa BTh dan BM yang tergolong di bawah filum Austrik
berada di bawah rumpun yang berlainan. BM terletak di bawah rumpun Austronesia (Asmah Haji
Omar, 1995: 35), manakala BTh pula tergolong di bawah rumpun Sino-Tibet (C.A.Mees, 1967:
12). Secara umum didapati bahawa BTh lebih dekat dengan rumpun Sino-Tibet dari rumpun
Austronesia. Persamaan yang wujud di antara BTh dan BM ialah kesan proses sejarah di antara
masyarakat penutur kedua-dua bahasa yang tinggal berhampiran. Proses sejarah yang paling
utama adalah pengaruh yang amat mendalam dari segi peminjaman bahasa asing dan peminjaman
di antara BM dan BTh sendiri, terutamanya dari segi kosa kata. Walaupun kedua-dua BTh dan
BM ini tidak tergolong dalam rumpun yang sama, tetapi kedua-dua bahasa ini tergolong ke dalam
induk yang sama, iaitu filum Austrik (C.A.Mees, 1967: 12).
2. Persamaan Bahasa Melayu dengan Bahasa Thai
Dalam BTh, terdapat beberapa perkataan yang serupa dengan BM, walaupun bunyi dan
bentuknya agak berlainan. Pitsamai Intarachat (1980: 13) menyatakan terdapat persamaan pada
sesetengah perkataan BTh dan BM disebabkan oleh empat faktor penting. Faktor-faktor tersebut
adalah persamaan secara semula jadi, persamaan kerana saling meminjam, persamaan kerana
meminjam dari sumber yang sama dan persamaan kerana meminjam dari bahasa lain melalui BM
atau BTh. Berdasarkan pemerhatian yang dilakukan di daerah Chana dan data yang dikumpulkan,
kemungkinan persamaan ini disebabkan oleh kedua-dua BTh dan BM terletak di bawah filum
yang sama, iaitu filum Austrik (C.A.Mees, 1967: 12). Berdasarkan beberapa ukuran dan faktor,
perkataan-perkataan seperti ini dapat digolongkan kepada beberapa jenis. Di sini akan sebut
hanya dua jenis sahaja iaitu 1) Peminjaman kekeluargaan dan 2) Peminjaman dari sumber yang
sama.
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2.1 Peminjaman Kekeluargaan
Persamaan perkataan-perkataan di antara BTh dan BM akibat peminjaman kekeluargaan ialah kata-
kata yang maknanya sama dan bentuknya juga sama atau berdekatan (Chantas, 1980:13).Kata-kata
asas dalam BTh seperti / ta: / mata, / kha: / kaki , / phet / pedas, / mot / semut dan
sebagainya berkemungkinan bahawa sumbernya sama dengan perkataan BM (Hara, 1988:445).
Berdasarkan data yang terkumpul, berikut adalah beberapa perkataan yang tergolong dalam kategori
ini, di antaranya :
Contoh :
BTh DMPC BMS
1. /ra / / sa / = sarang
2. /cicok / / cc / = cicak
3. /cu:p / / kc / = kucup
4. /tua: / / tw / = tuang
5. /pl:k / / pl/ = pelik
6. /skad / / ska / = sekat
Banyak perkataan dalam BTh yang seerti dan sebunyi dengan BM sehingga agak munasabah kalau
dikatakan persamaan sedemikian disebabkan oleh peminjaman. Namun masalah akan timbul
apabila arah pinjaman tidak dapat dipastikan kerana tiada ciri pembeza yang jelas. Oleh itu,
kemungkinan gejala ini memperlihatkan ciri-ciri kekeluargaan antara BM dan BTh, namun kajian
yang lebih terperinci perlu dilaksanakan.
Seterusnya Titima Suthiwan (1992:699)menyatakan bahawa, mungkin beberapa kriteria dapat
dimanfaatkan untuk menyelesaikan masalah kesamaan antara BTh dan BM. Antaranya adalah
penyemakan rekonstruksi dalam bahasa Austronesia Purba atau BTh Purba serta cabang-cabang
bahasa turunannya masing-masing atau penyemakan pada unsur fonologi dan morfologi seperti
jumlah suku kata (Titima Suthiwan, 1992:699).Peninjauan pada penyebaran sesuatu perkataan
yang hanya terjadi di wilayah yang berdekatan dengan sempadan bahasa, mungkin mendorong
perkataan tersebut dipinjam (Titima, 1992:699).Misalnya Wilkinson (sumber dari Titima, 1992:
699)mengatakan perkataan kong (gading kapal) hanya digunakan di Kelantan dan perkataan kan
(mangkuk kecil) pula hanya digunakan di Kedah. Namun penyebaran ini menunjukkan arah
peminjaman dari BTh atau kedua-dua perkataan ini dipinjam secara berasingan dari bahasa ketiga.
Misalnya kata-kata ini mungkin dipinjam dari bahasa Cina kerana kata ekasuku seperti yang
terdapat pada dua perkataan tersebut bukan ciri yang umum dalam BM yang rata-rata adalah
bersifat dwisuku atau lebih.
2.2 Peminjaman dari Sumber yang Sama
Perkataan yang mempunyai persamaan antara BM dan BTh melalui peminjaman dari sumber yang
sama, iaitu kedua-dua bahasa tersebut meminjam perkataan dari sumber pinjaman yang sama,
misalnya dari bahasa Sanskrit. Hal ini berlaku kerana orang-orang Melayu sebelum memeluk
agama Islam pernah menganut agama Hindu yang disebarkan melalui bahasa Sanskrit (Khalid M.
Hussain, 1978:472).Bahasa Sanskrit juga turut digunakan oleh orang Thai yang menganut agama
Buddha (Chantas, 1980:13).Sebagai contoh, dalam BTh Standard terdapat perkataan / phica:rana /
yang maksudnya sama dengan perkataan bicara dalam BM. Kedua-dua perkataan ini, iaitu / bicara
/ dan / phica:rana / dipinjam dari bahasa Sanskrit (Chantas, 1980:13).
2.2.1 Perkataan Pinjaman Bahasa Sanskrit dalam BM dan BTh
Dalam Kamus Khun (1989)terdapat banyak perkataan BTh dan BM yang berasal dari
berbagai-bagai bahasa di India, terutamanya dari bahasa Sanskrit dan Pali. Semua perkataan itu
sebenarnya tidak dapat dianggap sebagai kata pinjaman antara BM dengan BTh. Malah BM
mahupun BTh banyak meminjam perkataan secara langsung dari bahasa Sanskrit, Hindi dan Pali
(Titima, 1992:698).Proses peminjaman pernah berlaku semasa pengaruh Hindu dan Buddha masih
kuat di wilayah Asia Tenggara (Khalid M. Hussain, 1978:471)dan gejala peminjaman masih
terjadi hingga ke kini. Bahasa Sanskrit masih dianggap sebagai sumber istilah yang sesuai untuk
mengembangkan BM dan BTh, tambahan pula bahasa ini serta bahasa Pali masih berfungsi sebagai
bahasa suci yang dipelajari dan ditekuni oleh penganut agama Buddha di Thailand (Titima, 1992:
698).
Penerimaan bahasa Sanskrit dalam BM amat bersamaan dengan BTh yang juga menerima pengaruh
dari bahasa tamadun agung tersebut. Walaupun bagi BM jumlah kata pinjaman dari bahasa
Sanskrit jauh lebih kurang berbanding dengan BTh, tetapi kata-kata pinjaman ini merupakan teras
bagi BM (Khalid M. Hussain, 1978:491).Menurut Nik Safiah Karim et.al (1996:6), kata-kata
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pinjaman dari bahasa Sanskrit dalam BM meliputi pelbagai bidang seperti nama bahagian tubuh
badan, barang-barang perdagangan, alat perkakas, nama binatang, tumbuh-tumbuhan, senjata,
perkataan-perkataan agama, ilmu pengetahuan dan sebagainya. Disebabkan BM dan BTh menerima
pengaruh dari bahasa Sanskrit, maka secara tidak langsung kedua-dua bahasa memperlihatkan
banyak persamaan. Di samping itu terdapat juga perbezaan di antara BM dan BTh disebabkan
keadaan sosiolinguistik dan proses perkembangan bahasa yang agak berlainan (Hara, 1998:446).
Oleh yang demikian kata-kata pinjaman dari bahasa Sanskrit yang terdapat di daerah Chana boleh
dilihat berdasarkan makna yang sama (sinonim) dan makna yang berbeza (antonim).
2.2.11 Perkataan Sinonim
Perkataan-perkataan sinonim atau seerti adalah perkataan-perkataan yang yang mempunyai makna
yang sama dengan tidak melibatkan persamaan yang seratus peratus (Abdullah Hassan dan Ainon
Mohammad, 1995:ii-iii). Manakala Ton Ibrahim (1998:131)pula menyatakan sinonim boleh
mempunyai persamaan makna sepenuhnya atau sebahagian sahaja. Berdasarkan pemerhatian, DMP
juga mempunyai kosa kata yang seerti atau sinonim dengan BTh. Hal ini disebabkan gejala
peminjaman daripada sumber sama. Lihat antara contoh perbandingan kata DMP dan BTh yang
dipinjam dari bahasa Sanskrit berikut:
Contoh :
BTh DMP BMS
1. /khru: / / t g / = guru sekolah agama
/khr / = guru sekolah kerajaan
2. /ru:p / / p / = rupa
3. /rot / / ld / = roda
4. /sa:mi: / / swm / = suami (bahasa biasa)
/sawa:mi: / / swm / = suami (bahasa diraja)
5. /ra:kha: / / g / = harga
Dalam BTh, kata-kata tersebut di atas diberi bentuk yang berlainan. Dalam BTh, terdapat
kecenderungan membentuk kata ekasuku (Titima, 1992:693); misalnya guru menjadi / khru: /, rupa
menjadi / ru:p /, dan sebagainya. Kata-kata dwisuku kata juga diberi sebutan yang berlainan seperti
/ sa:mi: / bagi suami, / ra:kha: / bagi harga.
2.2.12 Perkataan Antonim
Menurut Abdullah Hassan (1978:164), perkataan antonim ialah dua perkataan atau lebih yang
maknanya seolah-olah berlawanan. Manakala Nathesan (2002:143)mendefinisikan antonim
sebagai kata yang berlawanan, iaitu makna perkataan itu merupakan kebalikan daripada makna
perkataan yang satu lagi. Seperti juga dalam DMPC, hasil kajian mendapati bahawa perkataan yang
digolongkan dalam kategori ini agak kecil jumlahnya. Ini mungkin disebabkan oleh faktor bahawa
kedua-dua bahasa ini bersumberkan bahasa yang sama, iaitu dari bahasa Sanskrit. Namun tidak
dapat dinafikan bahawa lama kelamaan makna kata pinjaman dalam masyarakat bahasa yang
berlainan akan berubah (Hara, 1998:448).Contoh perkataan pinjaman bahasa Sanskrit yang
berlainan maknanya di antara BM dan BTh ialah; ajar, curi, isteri, perdana, guna, kerja, laksana,
sabda dan sastera. Walaupun makna bagi perkataan-perkataan ini berlainan di antara BTh dengan
BM, tetapi masih memperlihatkan perhubungan dari segi semantik juga. Perhatikan contoh kata
pinjaman bahasa Sanskrit dalam BTh yang didapati dalam DMPC dan dibandingkan dengan BM:
Contoh :
BTh DMP BMS
1. /aca:n / / aja / = ajar
2. /co:n / / ch / = curi
3. /pratha:n / / pdan / = perdana
4. /khun / / gn / = guna
5. /kiriya: / / kj / = kerja
6. /sap / / sad / = sabda
7. /sa:t / / satr / = sastera
Perkataan ajar, dalam BTh menjadi / a:ca:n / yang bermakna pensyarah, tenaga pengajar di
universiti (Kamus Wichian, 1987:210).Manakala bagi guru sekolah rendah hingga menengah
digunakan perkataan / khru: / yang berasal dari perkataan guru. Perkataan / a:ca:n / ini digunakan
khusus untuk para pengajar di universiti yang bukan berpangkat profesor. Untuk profesor, perkataan
yang digunakan adalah / sastra:ca:n / sastera + ajar (Kamus Wichian, 1987:167).
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Perkataan curi mempunyai makanan yang berlainan dalam BM dan BTh. Dalam BM, curi
bermakna melakukan perbuatan curi, iaitu mengambil kepunyaan orang tidak dengan
kebenarannya (Kamus Dewan, 2002:256).Sebaliknya dalam BTh, bermakna orang yang
melakukan pencurian, perompak, penjahat (Kamus Wichian, 1987:42).Kedua-dua perkataan, iaitu
ajar dan curi dalam BTh menunjukkan pelaku perbuatan, manakala dalam BM pula menunjukkan
perbuatan.
Perkataan / pratha:n / dalam BTh juga mempunyai sumber yang sama dengan perkataan Melayu
perdana. Perkataan perdana dalam BM berfungsi sebagai kata adjektif (Kamus Dewan, 2002:
1014), manakala / pratha:n / dalam BTh berfungsi sebagai kata nama yang bermakna ketua atau
orang besar dalam sesuatu kumpulan atau pengerusi (Kamus Wichian, 1987:87).Perkataan /
pratha:n / ini tidak digunakan untuk menunjukkan perdana menteri tetapi digunakan untuk
menunjukkan presiden, iaitu / pratha:na:thibdi / (Kamus Wichian, 1987:87).
Selain perkataan yang menunjukkan kata nama, terdapat juga beberapa perkataan yang berlainan
maknanya antara BM dengan BTh. Perkataan guna berasal daripada bahasa Sanskrit yang
bermaksud manfaat atau faedah (Kamus Dewan, 2002:418).Dalam BTh, perkataan ini disebut /
khun / yang mengekalkan makna kebaikan dan pada masa yang sama digunakan sebagai kata
ganti nama diri kedua, iaitu anda atau awak (Kamus Wichian, 1987:32).Dalam BTh, perkataan
guna disebut sebagai / cha:y /.
Perkataan / kiriya: / yang bersumberkan bahasa Sanskrit sama dengan perkataan Melayu iaitu, kerja
yang juga agak berlainan maknanya. Perkataan ini bermakna gerak geri, kelakuan (Kamus
Wichian, 1987:15), tetapi pada masa yang sama perkataan ini dieja sebagai / kariya / akan
bermakna kata kerja (Kamus Wichian, 1987:9).Dalam BM, terdapat pasangan kata kerja dan
karya yang berasal dari bahasa Sanskrit. Menurut James T. Collins (2003:5)perkataan kerja yang
bermakna kegiatan melakukan sesuatu sudah lama dipinjam dalam BM, bahkan mungkin
dipinjam langsung dari bahasa Sanskrit. Manakala kata karya pula bermakna buatan atau ciptaan
seni, iaitu yang dikatakan sebagai pinjaman dari bahasa Jawa (James T. Collins, 2003:5).
Perkataan sap yang asal-usulnya sama dengan perkataan Melayu sabda, bermakna bunyi,
percakapan, perkataan dan sebagainya dalam BTh. Kata majmuk / ra:cha:sap / raja + sabda
bermaksud bahasa diraja. Perkataan sabda ini dalam BM digunakan sebagai menunjuk kepada
perkataan atau titah Nabi Muhammad s.a.w. (Kamus Dewan, 2002:1164).Oleh itu penggunaan
perkataan sabda, menunjukkan ciri-ciri khusus dalam BM (Hara, 1998:449).Dalam BTh
perkataan ini digunakan untuk membentuk kata majmuk seperti / tho:rasap / telefon, / khamsap /
perkataan dan sebagainya.
3. Kesimpulan
Berdasarkan huraian tentang kata pinjaman BM dalam BTh di daerah Chana, didapati bahawa BTh
dan BM mempunyai pertalian yang amat erat dan memperlihatkan banyak persamaan. Walau
persamaan yang berlaku ini bukan terangkum dalam rumpun bahasa yang sama, tetapi kesan proses
sejarah dan kesan interaksi yang terdapat dalam kedua-dua bahasa dan masyarakatnya telah
memperlihatkan sejumlah perkataan yang mempunyai perkaitan antara satu sama lain. Perkaitan
dan persamaan BTh dengan BM dapat dilihat melalui proses peminjaman, antaranya peminjaman
kekeluargaan dan peminjaman daripada sumber yang sama, sebagai contohnya adalah daripada
bahasa Sanskrit.
Persamaan antara BTh dengan BM ini, walaupun bukanlah dari segi rumpun bahasa, tatabahasa
dan sebagainya, tetapi kesan daripada proses sejarah yang dilalui oleh masyarakat penuturnya
serta kesan-kesan interaksi yang terdapat dalam kedua-dua bahasa, membuktikan terdapat
sejumlah perkataan yang mempunyai perkaitan di antara BM dan BTh, terutamanya di kawasan
penutur DMP. Perhubungan ini mampu menjadi jambatan persefahaman di antara penduduk Thai
dan penduduk Melayu di Kawasan Sempadan Selatan Thai memahami asal usul mereka yang
hanya datang dari induk yang sama dan memahami perbezaan di antara satu sama lain.
Penerimaan identiti yang berbeza dan juga pencarian identiti yang datang dari induk yang sama
akan membawa kepada penyelasaian perselisihan faham dan konflik yang berlaku di Selatan Thai
sekarang.
Bibliografi
Abdullah Hassan, 1974. The Morphology of Malay, Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
______________dan Ainon Mohamad, 1994. Kamus Sinonim Antonim Melayu Utusan, Kuala
Lumpur: Utusan Publications and Distributors Sdn. Bhd.
Abdul Rahman Haji Abdullah, 1989. Islam dalam Sejarah Asia Tenggara Tradisional, Kuala
Lumpur: Penerbitan Pena Sdn. Bhd.
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Asmah Haji Omar, 1985. Susur Galur Bahasa Melayu, Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan
Pustaka.
______________, 1995. Rekonstruksi Fonologi Bahasa Melayu Induk, Kuala Lumpur: Dewan
Bahasa dan Pustaka.
C.A.Mees, 1967. Ilmu Perbandingan Bahasa-bahasa Austronesia, Kuala Lumpur: Art
Printing Works.
Chantas Thongchuay, 1993. Phasa Lae Wattanatham Phak Tai (Bahasa dan Budaya Bahagian
Selatan), Bangkok: Odian Store.
Collins, James T. 1995. Bahasa Melayu Sebagai Bahasa Antarabangsa dalam Manifesto
Budaya: Pupus Bahasa Pupuslah Bangsa, diselenggarakan oleh Asraf, Kuala Lumpur: Dewan
Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Ismail Hussein, 1966. Sejarah Pertumbuhan Bahasa Kebangsaan Kita, Kuala Lumpur: Dewan
Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Kamus Dewan (Edisi Ketiga), 2002. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Khalid M. Hussain, 1978. Kata Pinjaman Bahasa Sanskrit dalam Bahasa Malaysia dalam
Dewan Bahasa, Julai 1978, Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, halaman 469-492.
Nik Safiah Nik Abdul Karim, Farid M. Onn, Hashim Haji Musa, Abdul Hamid Mahmood, 1996.
Tatabahasa Dewan Edisi Baharu, Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Pitsamai Intarachat, 1980. Kham Yeam Phasa Melayu Nai Phasa Thong Thin Tai (Kata
Pinjaman Bahasa Melayu dalam Dialek Thai Selatan) dalam Phasa Lae Watthanatham (Bahasa
dan Budaya), Bangkok: Odian Store.
Pleak Khunsilapakamphiset, 1986. Phojjannukrom Kham Phong Thai-Melayu (Kamus
Perkataan Thai dan Melayu yang Seerti dan Sebunyi), Bangkok: Khurusapha.
S. Nathesan, 2002. Makna Dalam Bahasa Melayu, Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Shintaro, Hara, 1998. Etimologi dalam Pengajian Melayu: Satu Cadangan Berdasarkan
Perbandingan Bahasa Melayu dengan Bahasa Thai dalam Pengajian Bahasa Melayu
Memasuki Alaf Baru, diselenggarakan oleh Sanat Md. Nasir dan Rogayah A. Razak, Kuala
Lumpur: Akademi Pengajian Melayu, Universiti Malaya.
Titima Suthiwan, 1992. Kata Pinjaman Melayu dalam Bahasa Thai dalam Dewan Bahasa,
Ogos 1992, , Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, halaman 691-700.
Ton Ibrahim, 1998. Bahasa Pernyataan Perasaan: Dimensi Semantik, Kuala Lumpur:
Akademi Pengajian Melayu, Universiti Malaya.
Wichian Tantraseney, 1987. Phojjananukrom Thai-Malay-Angkrit (Kamus Bahasa Thai-
Melayu-Inggeris), Bangkok: Sahamith Offset.
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ANALISIS STRATEGI KESANTUNAN DALAM KRITIKAN
Oleh:
Nasihah Hashim
Prof. Madya Dr. Indirawati Zahid
Akademi Pengajian Melayu, Universiti Malaya
chahashim@gmail.com
Abstrak
Kritikan sebenarnya sesuatu yang sangat berharga dan tinggi nilainya apabila dilontarkan dengan
tujuan supaya penerima kritik menjadi yang lebih baik. Sesuatu kritikan harus dapat diterima
dengan lapang dada agar kita mampu berusaha untuk memperbaiki kelemahan dan mengukuhkan
kekuatan yang sedia ada. Sebaliknya, jika kita berasa marah dan tidak berpuas hati maka usaha
untuk menjadi lebih baik akan menemui kegagalan dan seterusnya menimbulkan perselisihan faham
dan konflik dengan pengkritik. Justeru, seseorang pengkritik seharusnya menyampaikan kritikan
dengan penuh kebijaksanaan agar dapat difahami dan dihargai oleh penerima kritik sekali gus dapat
mengelakkan berlakunya konflik dalam komunikasi tersebut. Strategi kesantunan harus
dipraktikkan oleh pengkritik bagi mewujudkan situasi bebas konflik ini. Persoalannya, manakah
yang menjadi pilihan pengkritik, sama ada strategi kesantunan positif atau strategi kesantunan
negatif atau mungkin kedua-dua strategi tersebut digabungjalinkan demi menjaga keharmonian
komunikasi yang berlaku? Ini berhubungan dengan ancaman muka yang merupakan sesuatu yang
perlu dielakkan dalam berkomunikasi apatah lagi dalam memberikan kritikan. Oleh yang demikian
kertas kerja ini akan membincangkan strategi kesantunan dalam kritikan program realiti televisyen
berbentuk pertandingan nyanyian, iaitu Mentor. Data kajian merupakan analisis strategi kesantunan
yang dipraktikkan oleh para juri profesional yang ditugaskan untuk mengkritik persembahan para
peserta pertandingan dalam program Mentor musim kelima yang diterbitkan oleh TV3. Analisis
dijalankan dengan mengaplikasikan kerangka model strategi kesantunan Brown dan Levinson
(1987) yang disesuaikan dengan model Sandwich Davies dan Jacobs (1985).
Kata kunci : kesantunan positif, kesantunan negatif, situasi bebas konflik, ancaman muka
1.0 PENGENALAN
Mengkritik merupakan perlakuan membuat analisis, penilaian, huraian atau ulasan hasil daripada
pemerhatian dan pengamatan terhadap sesuatu atau seseorang. Ketika mengkritik seseorang
pengkritik akan memperkatakan tentang kelebihan atau kelemahan, dengan melalui hasil penilaian,
iaitu pengamatan, perbandingan, atau penganalisisannya. Pendapat yang merupakan penyataan atau
kata-kata tentang kelebihan atau kelemahan tersebut dikenali sebagai kritikan. Oleh kerana itu,
tindakan mengkritik akan meninggalkan rasa ketidakselesaan, baik pada pengkritik mahupun
penerima kritikan tersebut. Tindakan mengkritik bukan mudah untuk dilakukan kerana berpotensi
menjatuhkan air muka dan maruah peserta tutur yang akhirnya akan menimbulkan konflik di
kalangan peserta tutur.
Justeru kritikan harus disampaikan dengan cara yang efektif agar tidak mengancam air muka dan
melukai perasaan kepada penerima kritikan. Oleh itu, seseorang yang diberi tanggungjawab untuk
memberi kritikan seharusnya menyampaikan kritikannya dengan menggunakan strategi yang
bersesuaian dan sebaik mungkin supaya tidak menyinggung perasaan lawan tuturnya bagi menjaga
kerukunan dan prinsip hormat-menghormati dalam hubungan kemasyarakatan. Salah satu strategi
yang harus diambil kira oleh setiap pengkritik ialah penggunaan strategi kesantunan bagi
mengelakkan berlakunya salah faham dan konflik. Strategi kesantunan digunakan oleh penutur
untuk lebih menghargai orang lain mahupun diri sendiri dan sekali gus boleh mewujudkan situasi
bebas konflik. Sehubungan itu, kajian ini dijalankan untuk memaparkan strategi kesantunan yang
digunakan oleh pengkritik ketika memberi kritikan.
2.0 SOROTAN LITERATUR
Kajian-kajian terdahulu berkaitan strategi kesantunan dalam perlakuan mengkritik masih belum
mendapat tumpuan yang terperinci dan khusus berbanding strategi lakuan bahasa yang lain seperti
penolakan, permintaan dan teguran. Kajian yang memfokuskan kepada strategi kesantunan
merupakan kajian yang mengaitkan aktiviti pertuturan untuk merumuskan strategi kesantunan yang
digunakan oleh penutur. Antara kajian-kajian strategi kesantunan yang telah dijalankan ialah kajian
lakuan bahasa memerintah bahasa Indonesia dalam kalangan kaum perempuan oleh Manaf (1999),
lakuan bahasa menolak oleh etnik Minangkabau moden oleh Triana(2009) dan kajian strategi
kesantunan golongan politik di Indonesia yang dijalankan oleh Nadar, F.X (2009). Manakala
Marlyna Maros (2011) pula telah melakukan kajian strategi kesantunan antarbudaya lakuan teguran
di kalangan penutur bahasa Melayu dengan penutur asli bahasa Cina yang menetap di Amerika
Utara. Kajian-kajian strategi kesantunan ini berupaya menjelaskan strategi kesantunan yang dipilih
oleh penutur dan menepati standard nilai yang digunakan dalam masyarakat berkenaan. Asas kajian
ini ialah penekanan aspek air muka oleh Brown dan Levinson(1987) ataupun skala pragmatik
Leech(1983).
Sementara itu, antara kajian-kajian terhadap perlakuan mengkritik yang pernah dijalankan, ialah
kajian Li, S. dan Seale, C. (2007), Nadar, F.X (2009) dan Yanti (2010). Kajian Yanti (2010)
merupakan kajian terhampir dengan kajian ini kerana melibatkan rancangan televisyen sebagai
bahan kajian. Yanti telah membuat kajian ke atas rancangan dialog Apa Kabar Indonesia Pagi TV
One (AKIP TV One). Sebanyak empat episod telah dianalisis oleh Yanti. Beliau menggunakan
pendekatan pragmatik dalam menganalisis dan membincangkan hasil kajiannya. Kaedah kajian
beliau ialah kajian kualitatif bagi mendeskripsikan strategi mengkritik dan respons penutur dan
pendengar dalam perbualan. Hasil kajian tersebut mendapati bahawa para penutur di dalam
rancangan tersebut lebih banyak menggunakan bentuk ayat yang tidak lengkap dan berfungsi
asertif. Sementara aspek strategi kesantunan didapati bahawa penutur lebih suka menggunakan
strategi berterus terang untuk mengelakkan perselisihan dalam sesi perbualan tersebut. Walaupun
kajian Yanti (2010) ini mengaplikasikan Teori Tindakan Ancaman Muka (TAM) oleh Brown dan
Levinson (1987) sebagai kerangka analisis, namun kajian ini tidak langsung melihat kepada
substrategi yang diperkenalkan oleh Brown dan Levinson (1987). Analisis data hanya melihat
kepada strategi asas sahaja. Situasi ini wajar memandangkan kajian ini adalah kajian pada peringkat
sarjana. Oleh itu, maka seharusnya kajian yang lebih mendalam terhadap strategi perlakuan
mengkritik dijalankan bagi mendapatkan gambaran yang lebih luas dan terperinci.
Sementara itu, Li, S. dan Seale, C. (2007) dan Nadar, F.X (2009) pula mengkaji penggunaan
strategi mengkritik dalam pertuturan berbahasa Inggeris. Kajian Li, S. dan Seale, C. (2007) telah
membincangkan strategi mengkritik yang digunakan dalam interaksi penyeliaan pelajar peringkat
doktor falsafah. Li, S. dan Seale, C. (2007) telah menggunakan model strategi pertuturan Brown
dan Levinson (1987) untuk menghuraikan strategi mengkritik dan mendapati bahawa model
tersebut dapat menghuraikan strategi mengkritik dalam pertuturan penyeliaan antara pensyarah dan
pelajar PhD. Selain itu, Li, S. dan Seale, C. (2007) juga telah mencadangkan agar penelitian
terhadap strategi mengkritik dalam situasi bahasa yang lain menggunakan model Brown dan
Levinson (1987) sebagai model untuk menganalisis data. Berdasarkan analisisnya Li, S dan Seale,
C. (2007) mendapati bahawa sesuatu perlakuan mengkritik boleh dilakukan dengan mengikut
strategi berikut:
Menggunakan strategi linguistik yang termasuk dalam strategi kesantunan secara umum untuk
menunjukkan perlakuan yang baik seperti memuji dan menghargai.
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Menunjukkan sikap saling hormat-menghormati dan peka terhadap aspek-aspek yang memalukan
atau salah faham (teragak-agak, kesenyapan atau berhenti seketika), atau menggunakan penanda
pengakuan (uhm, ya, betul, ok, pasti) atau menggunakan penanda inklusif.
Mengelakkan atau menghindarkan situasi yang boleh memalukan atau mengancam muka.
Mengekalkan keseimbangan kuasa
Memulakan kritikan membina dengan pujian, galakan dan ungkapan berhati-hati
Menggantikan kritikan dengan pengungkapan nasihat
Manakala kajian Nadar, F.X (2009) pula agak berbeza dengan kajian-kajian lain kerana lebih
menumpukan kepada strategi mengkritik antarbudaya, iaitu perbezaan strategi mengkritik dalam
bahasa Inggeris oleh masyarakat Jawa dengan strategi yang digunakan oleh penutur asal bahasa
Inggeris. Nadar, F.X (2009) hanya mengaplikasikan Teori Lakuan Bahasa dalam kajian ini untuk
mengenal pasti bentuk strategi mengkritik yang digunakan oleh penutur. Hasil kajian mendapati
bahawa masyarakat Jawa mengujarkan kritikannya dengan mempelbagaikan cara ujaran dan
menggabungkan beberapa bentuk lakuan bahasa, seperti yang berikut:
Penyataan keengganan
Penyataan ketidakmampuan
Penyataan harapan
Penyataan alasan
Penyataan kecenderungan
Cadangan
Menawarkan alternatif
Penyataan pengandaian
Memberi arahan
Penyataan keharusan
Penyataan pujian dan penghargaan
Sapaan
Penyataan prinsip
Penyataan falsafah
Memberi peringatan
Mengkritik
Membela diri
Penyataan penundaan
Penyataan suka dan bersetuju
Penyataan terima kasih
Kajian ini menyimpulkan bahawa strategi mengkritik masyarakat Jawa masih dipengaruhi oleh latar
budaya Jawa walaupun bertutur dalam bahasa Inggeris. Pertuturan masyarakat Jawa lebih dianggap
santun kerana mengaplikasikan strategi tidak langsung dengan menyertakan ungkapan maaf dan
nasihat berbanding dengan penutur asal bahasa Inggeris.
Kesimpulannya, perkembangan kajian pertuturan Melayu yang semakin pesat memperlihatkan
pentingnya kajian terhadap amalan pertuturan dalam kalangan masyarakat dijalankan dengan lebih
terperinci. Namun begitu, kajian terhadap lakuan bahasa dan strategi mengkritik oleh juri
pertandingan nyanyian dalam media televisyen di Malaysia masih belum pernah difokuskan oleh
mana-mana kajian terdahulu.
3.0 OBJEKTIF
Analisis yang dilakukan ini mempunyai dua objektif berikut:
Mengenal pasti penggunaan stategi kesantunan dalam penyampaian kritikan.
Menganalisis strategi kesantunan yang dipraktiskan oleh pengkritik rancangan realiti televisyen.
4.0 METODOLOGI KAJIAN
Analisis dilakukan dengan mengaplikasikan beberapa kaedah, iaitu kepustakaan, rakaman dan
pemerhatian. Kaedah kepustakaan diaplikasikan untuk mengkaji kajian-kajian terdahulu yang
berkait rapat dengan kajian ini dan teori-teori yang bersangkutan untuk menentukan lompang kajian
serta tujuan kajian dijalankan. Selain itu, kaedah ini juga diaplikasikan untuk mencari bahan kajian
dan maklumat-maklumat yang berkaitan dengan bahan kajian.
Kaedah rakaman pula diaplikasikan oleh pengkaji untuk mengumpulkan data kajian kerana sumber
data berasal daripada tayangan di televisyen. Kaedah rakaman yang dimaksudkan dalam kajian ini
ialah teknik perolehan data dengan cara merakam peristiwa bahasa yang bersifat sebenar
menggunakan alat bantu rakaman. Dalam kajian ini pengkaji telah merakam keseluruhan episod
rancangan Mentor 5. Seterusnya, sesi memberi kritikan oleh juri dalam setiap episod akan dikenal
pasti untuk ditranskripsikan ke dalam bentuk teks perbualan. Dalam hal ini, kaedah pemerhatian
akan digunakan oleh pengkaji dengan cara menonton, mendengar dan menyemak pertuturan juri
profesional yang berperanan sebagai pengkritik dalam rancangan ini sebelum mentranskripsikan
data tersebut untuk memudahkan proses menganalisis dan memperjelaskan konteks situasi
pertuturan.
Data-data mentah dalam bentuk transkripsi sesi kritikan dianalisis terlebih dahulu untuk mengenal
pasti dan mengklasifikasi ujaran-ujaran kritikan yang diujarkan oleh juri-juri dalam rancangan
Mentor 5. Ujaran kritikan dirujuk sebagai ujaran-ujaran yang dikemukakan oleh juri-juri profesional
hasil daripada penilaiannya melalui tindakan pengamatan, pemerhatian, serta analisis terhadap
prestasi dan mutu persembahan peserta Mentor 5. Kemudian, analisis strategi kesantunan akan
dilakukan oleh pengkaji berpandukan model kesantunan Brown dan Levinson (1987) dan model
Sandwich (Davies, D. dan Jacobs, A.,1985) yang telah disesuaikan dengan data kajian. Analisis
kuantitatif pula dipraktikkan untuk memberi gambaran secara visual tentang kekerapan ujaran
mengkritik dan strategi kesantunan yang digunakan, dalam bentuk rajah, jadual dan carta untuk
memperjelaskan lagi dapatan kajian. Seterusnya, perbincangan hasil kajian dihuraikan dengan
menggunakan pendekatan pragmatik kerana pragmatik ialah kajian penggunaan bahasa berdasarkan
konteks.
5.0 BAHAN KAJIAN
Analisis strategi kesantunan telah dilakukan ke atas rancangan realiti Mentor 5 terbitan TV3.
Mentor musim kelima telah disiarkan dalam 15 episod bermula pada 13 Februari 2011 sehingga 24
Mei 2011. Walau bagaimanapun daripada 15 episod keseluruhan rancangan ini hanya 12 episod
telah dianalisis. Tiga episod tidak dianalisis kerana tidak mengandungi sesi kritikan oleh juri
profesional, iaitu episod uji bakat (1 dan 2), dan episod 13 kerana durasi masa penyiaran telah
tamat.
Mentor musim kelima ini membariskan 6 orang protg, iaitu Salma, Shiha, Ratnah, Iqa, Aiman
dan Ayish yang dibimbing oleh 6 orang artis ternama sebagai Mentor, iaitu Erra Fazira, Dato
Sharifah Aini, Afdlin Shauki, Edry KRU, Rahim Maarof dan Noh Hujan. Seramai 11 orang juri
profesional, iaitu seorang juri tetap dan 10 orang juri jemputan telah ditugaskan untuk menghakimi
dan memberi kritikan. Secara ringkasnya, bahan kajian yang terlibat dapat dijelaskan dalam Jadual
1 yang berikut:
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JURI SESI
KRITIKAN
UJARAN
Juri tetap 29 96
Juri jemputan 83 130
JUMLAH 112 226
Jadual 1: Bahan Kajian
Jadual 1 di atas menunjukkan terdapat 226 ujaran kritikan juri yang telah dikenal pasti daripada 112
sesi kritikan yang dapat dirakam oleh pengkaji untuk dijadikan bahan kajian. Durasi masa
keseluruhan rakaman sesi kritikan ialah 5 jam 36 minit.
6.0 BATASAN KAJIAN
Kajian ini dijalankan ke atas kritikan secara lisan yang dikemukakan oleh juri profesional sama ada
juri jemputan atau juri tetap dalam rancangan Mentor 5. Kritikan lisan tersebut telah
ditranskripsikan menjadi teks perbualan untuk memudahkan analisis. Justeru, unsur bahasa bukan
verbal tidak diambil oleh pengkaji untuk dianalisis. Oleh kerana bahan kajian ini merupakan teks
perbualan yang menggunakan laras bahasa kolokial, terdapat banyak percampuran bahasa berlaku
dalam perbualan tersebut.
Oleh yang demikian, kajian ini hanya mengambil ujaran kritikan berbahasa Melayu sahaja untuk
dianalisis. Ujaran juri yang menggunakan bahasa Inggeris sepenuhnya tidak diambil oleh pengkaji
untuk dianalisis. Namun begitu, ujaran-ujaran yang hanya mengandungi beberapa perkataan bahasa
Inggeris yang lazim digunakan oleh penutur dalam perbualan seharian seperti I, you, think, hope,
prefer, good, best, most, like dan istilah-istilah berkaitan bidang muzik seperti tone, pitching, feel,
eye contact, baritone, sharp, flat, low, high dan sebagainya tetap diambil oleh pengkaji untuk
dianalisis.
7.0 KERANGKA TEORI
Brown dan Levinson (1987) telah membentuk model kesantunan yang mengemukakan beberapa
strategi pertuturan untuk digunakan bagi mengurangkan tindakan ancaman muka atau dikenali
sebagai Face Threatening Act (FTA). Model kesantunan Brown dan Levinson (1987) ini dibentuk
berdasarkan konsep muka dan keperluan menjaga air muka. Brown dan Levinson (1987)
menggunakan istilah ancaman muka sebagai kehilangan muka yang dapat disamakan ertinya
dengan berasa malu atau terhina. Konsep muka dalam model Brown dan Levinson (1987) ini amat
sesuai digunakan untuk menganalisis dan menggambarkan aspek kesantunan pelbagai ciri linguistik
dalam sesuatu peristiwa komunikasi. Hal ini kerana dalam sesuatu peristiwa komunikasi, terdapat
ujaran-ujaran tertentu yang mengandung ancaman terhadap muka peserta komunikasi.
Keterancaman muka peserta tutur dapat dikenal pasti melalui perlakuan berbahasa, iaitu apa yang
dituturkan oleh penutur. Tahap ancaman muka sesuatu perlakuan dapat ditentukan berdasarkan tiga
faktor, iaitu i) faktor kuasa antara penutur dan lawan tutur, ii) jarak sosial antara mereka dan iii)
keseriusan perlakuan tersebut mengikut budaya tertentu (Brown dan Levinson, 1987).
Tindakan ancaman muka akan dapat dikurangkan seterusnya dielakkan daripada berlaku apabila
peserta tutur yang terlibat dapat menggunakan strategi-strategi pertuturan yang efektif. Berdasarkan
model ini, terdapat dua aspek air muka yang mempengaruhi tindakan seseorang, iaitu air muka
positif dan air muka negatif. Air muka positif ialah keinginan seseorang untuk diiktiraf atau disukai,
manakala air muka negatif merupakan keinginan untuk tidak diganggu. Justeru, untuk mengurangi
atau menghindari berlakunya ancaman terhadap air muka penutur dan pendengar atau lawan tutur,
Brown dan Levinson (1987) telah menggariskan beberapa strategi kesantunan seperti yang
ditunjukkan dalam Rajah 1.
Rajah 1: Strategi Pertuturan Tindakan Ancaman Muka Brown dan Levinson(1987)
Berdasarkan Rajah 1 Brown dan Levinson (1987) telah mengemukakan strategi berekod (on record)
dan strategi tanpa rekod (off record) untuk mengurangkan tindakan ancaman muka. Strategi
berekod ialah strategi langsung atau tersurat, manakala strategi tanpa rekod ialah strategi tidak
langsung atau tersirat. Sekiranya penutur memilih menggunakan strategi berekod tanpa penyesuaian
(baldly on record), ujaran tersebut dianggap kurang santun kerana ujaran ini dituturkan secara
langsung, terang-terangan, jelas, telus dan tidak kabur. Sementara strategi berekod dengan
penyesuaian dianggap oleh Brown dan Levinson (1987) sebagai strategi pertuturan yang boleh
mengekalkan kesantunan, iaitu strategi berekod dengan kesantunan positif (on record with positive
politeness) dan strategi berekod dengan kesantunan negatif (on record with negative politeness).
Dalam kajian ini pengkaji menamakannya sebagai strategi kesantunan positif dan strategi
kesantunan negatif.
Strategi kesantunan positif melibatkan strategi-strategi yang menunjukkan kepada seseorang
bahawa dia disukai dan diiktiraf. Antara strategi kecil yang diketengahkan oleh Brown dan
Levinson (1987) ialah memberi penghargaan, mengambil perhatian, memberi nasihat, motivasi, dan
bersikap optimis terhadap tahap prestasi peserta, penampilan atau sikap-sikap positif yang lain.
Sementara kesantunan negatif pula ialah strategi menyelamatkan muka negatif pendengar untuk
mempertahankan kebebasan bertindak lawan tutur. Dalam melakukan strategi ini, penutur mengakui
dan menghomati muka negatif lawan tuturnya. Brown dan Levinson (1987) telah mencadangkan
beberapa strategi kecil seperti memulakan kritikan dengan meminta maaf, menggunakan kata-kata
pelunak, memberi salam atau sapaan hormat dan sebagainya. Sementara itu, strategi tanpa rekod
pula merupakan strategi melakukan tindakan ancaman muka secara tidak langsung dengan
membiarkan lawan tutur memutuskan bagaimana menafsirkan tuturan penutur. Walau
bagaimanapun, analisis kajian dalam kertas kerja ini hanya ditumpukan kepada strategi kesantunan
positif dan strategi kesantunan negatif sebagai satu strategi pertuturan yang dapat mengekalkan
kesantunan dalam kritikan.
Hasil daripada pemerhatian didapati bahawa terdapatnya tumpang tindih di antara strategi-strategi
kecil yang dicadangkan oleh Brown dan Levinson (1987). Sehubungan itu, untuk memudahkan
analisis dijalankan, pengkaji telah menyusun semula strategi-strategi kecil yang diperkenalkan oleh
Brown dan Levinson (1987) tersebut mengikut kesesuaian kajian. Dalam kajian ini, strategi-strategi
kecil tersebut dinamakan oleh pengkaji sebagai teknik. Teknik-teknik tersebut diterjemahkan oleh
pengkaji seperti dalam Rajah 2 yang berikut:
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Rajah 2: Strategi Kesantunan Brown dan Levinson (1987)
Selain daripada model kesantunan Brown dan Levinson (1987), analisis strategi kesantunan
pengkritik juga telah disesuaikan dengan model Sandwich yang dicadangkan oleh Davies, D. dan
Jacobs, A. (1985). Kedua-dua model tersebut diharapkan dapat saling melengkapi di antara satu
sama lain untuk menghuraikan strategi kesantunan dalam kritikan di rancangan realiti televisyen.
Model Sandwich seperti juga model kesantunan Brown dan Levinson (1987), telah memberi
panduan kepada penutur untuk bertutur dengan lebih baik agar dapat mengelakkan rasa
ketidakselesaan di kalangan peserta tutur. Model ini diperkenalkan oleh Davies, D. dan Jacobs, A.
(1985) sebagai satu strategi pertuturan yang dapat membantu penutur yang ingin memberi maklum
balas, komen, penilaian atau kritikan terhadap individu lain dengan cara yang lebih berkesan tanpa
mewujudkan sebarang konflik. Perlakuan ini diambil berat oleh Davies, D. dan Jacobs, A. (1985)
kerana ia sesuatu yang sukar dilakukan dan boleh mendatangkan rasa ketidakselesaan di antara
penutur dan pendengar, sekali gus sukar untuk mengekalkan keharmonian hubungan antara mereka.
Tambahan pula, sekiranya terdapat sesuatu penyataan negatif yang perlu disampaikan oleh penutur
tersebut.
Justeru, Davies, D. dan Jacobs, A. (1985) telah mencadangkan agar sesuatu penilaian, kritikan atau
komen harus disampaikan secara berstruktur, iaitu dengan mengapitkan penyataan negatif dengan
penyataan positif. Struktur ini dikenali sebagai struktur Sandwich. Mengikut struktur ini untuk
menyampaikan sesuatu penilaian atau kritikan negatif, secara asasnya penutur seharusnya terlebih
dahulu menyampaikan sesuatu yang positif dan mengakhirinya dengan satu penyataan yang positif
juga.
Penyataan positif dalam struktur Sandwich ini seharusnya bukanlah terhad kepada pujian semata-
mata dan penyataan negatif juga bukanlah hanya merujuk kepada kecaman sahaja, malah positif
juga merujuk kepada apa-apa bentuk penyataan yang menggembirakan dan menyenangkan seperti
penghargaan, persetujuan, penyataan suka, cadangan penambahbaikan, nasihat, kata-kata semangat
dan penyelesaian masalah. Sementara penyataan negatif pula dirujuk sebagai penyataan yang
khusus tentang sesuatu perkara atau tindakan yang perlu dibaiki, penyataan kekurangan dan
kelemahan, ketidaksetujuan dan rasa tidak puas hati penutur terhadap sesuatu atau seseorang yang
dikritik atau dinilai.
8.0 DAPATAN ANALISIS
Berdasarkan analisis, kajian ini mendapati bahawa para pengkritik menggunakan kedua-dua strategi
kesantunan yang diperkenalkan oleh Brown dan Levinson (1987), iaitu strategi kesantunan positif
dan strategi kesantunan negatif ketika menyampaikan kritikan. Di samping itu, analisis juga telah
menunjukkan bahawa para pengkritik telah memilih menggunakan struktur Sandwich dengan
menggabungkan kedua-dua strategi kesantunan Brown dan Levinson (1987) agar lebih mudah
diterima oleh peserta dengan hati yang terbuka. Hasil kajian telah menunjukkan bahawa daripada
226 ujaran kritikan, hanya 129 ujaran kritikan sahaja yang akan menjadi fokus perbincangan
dapatan analisis dalam kertas kerja ini. Jumlah ini mewakili 78 ujaran yang telah menggunakan
strategi kesantunan positif, iaitu bersamaan 34 peratus, 36 ujaran bersamaan 16 peratus
menggunakan strategi kesantunan negatif dan 15 ujaran, iaitu 7 peratus menggunakan struktur
Sandwich. Manakala 97 ujaran lagi menggunakan strategi berekod tanpa penyesuaian dan strategi
tanpa rekod, iaitu masing-masing sebanyak 38 dan 59. Rajah 3 berikut merupakan carta pai yang
menunjukkan peratusan keseluruhan penggunaan strategi kesantunan dalam kritikan di rancangan
Mentor 5.
Rajah 3: Jumlah peratusan penggunaan strategi kesantunan dalam kritikan
Sementara itu, Jadual 2 pula ialah dapatan analisis yang menunjukkan jumlah kekerapan
penggunaan strategi kesantunan positif, strategi kesantunan negatif dan struktur Sandwich dalam
kritikan di rancangan Mentor 5.
STRATEGI
KESANTU
NAN
TEKNIK JUMLAH
KEKERAP
AN
STRATEGI
KESANTU
NAN
POSITIF
Mengambil berat 17
Optimis 16
Memberi fakta 1
Memberi tawaran 2
Menghargai 25
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Memotivasi 10
Meminta alasan 1
Menunjukkan kesamaan 5
JUMLAH 78
STRATEGI
KESANTU
NAN
NEGATIF
Mengucapkan tanda hormat 2
Menggunakan kata-kata
pelunak
25
Pesimis 2
Menggunakan pertanyaan 6
Memohon maaf 1
JUMLAH 36
STRUKTUR
SANDWIC
H
Positif + negatif +positif 14
Negatif + negatif + positif 1
JUMLAH 15
JUMLAH KESELURUHAN 129
Jadual 2: Taburan penggunaan strategi kesantunan dalam kritikan Mentor 5
Berdasarkan Jadual 2 didapati bahawa strategi yang paling kerap digunakan oleh pengkritik ketika
menyampaikan kritikan, ialah strategi kesantunan positif, diikuti dengan strategi kesantunan negatif
dan struktur sandwich.
8.1 Strategi Kesantunan Positif
Strategi kesantunan positif ialah strategi melakukan tindakan ancaman muka dengan cara
menyelamatkan air muka atau menjaga muka positif lawan tutur. Strategi ini memperlihatkan
penutur menyampaikan kritikannya secara langsung tetapi dengan beberapa penyesuaian seperti
yang dianjurkan oleh Brown dan Levinson (1987) dalam Rajah 1. Analisis kajian telah
menunjukkan bahawa lapan teknik telah digunakan oleh pengkritik yang mempraktikkan strategi
kesantunan positif ketika menyampaikan kritikan, iaitu teknik mengambil berat, optimis, memberi
fakta, memberi tawaran, menghargai, memotivasi, meminta alasan dan menunjukkan kesamaan.
Berdasarkan Jadual 1 teknik yang paling kerap digunakan pula ialah menghargai, iaitu sebanyak 25
ujaran, diikuti dengan sikap mengambil berat sebanyak 17 ujaran dan optimis sebanyak 16 ujaran.
8.1.1 Menyatakan penghargaan
Teknik menyatakan penghargaan sangat digemari oleh pengkritik dalam rancangan Mentor 5 ketika
memberikan kritikan. Hal ini kerana teknik ini dapat menunjukkan kepada protege dan pendengar
lain bahawa pengkritik menyenangi, menyetujui dan menghargai apa yang dilakukan oleh protege
tersebut. Penghargaan tersebut diluahkan oleh pengkritik dengan cara memberi pujian yang diiringi
dengan kata-kata seperti tahniah, syabas, terbaik, dan sebagainya seperti yang terdapat dalam
contoh ujaran di bawah.
M5(4):U16(ZZ) Dari segi penyampaian anda ada cara tersendiri, I love it.
M5(9):U116(NI) Lagu kedua Aiman nampak Aiman enjoy sangat dengan
persembahan ya, syabas!
M5(10):U157(JF) Persembahan malam ini persembahan terbaik Ayish setakat ini.
8.1.2 Mengambil berat
Teknik mengambil berat ini digunakan untuk menggambarkan sikap pengkritik yang memberi
perhatian terhadap minat, keinginan, sikap, perbuatan atau apa-apa yang dimiliki oleh peserta atau
dalam rancangan ini dipanggil protege. Dalam hal ini, kritikan-kritikan yang diujarkan oleh
pengkritik, menggambarkan rasa suka, minat, simpati dan kecewa pengkritik terhadap prestasi
persembahan para peserta. Dengan cara ini rasa keterancaman muka dapat dikurangkan kerana apa
yang diujarkan menggambarkan bahawa pengkritik bukan sahaja mengkritik malah mengambil
berat terhadap persembahan para protege yang terlibat. Berikut ialah contoh teknik mengambil
berat yang digunakan oleh pengkritik:
M5(4):U18(DR) Saya sebenarnya kesian kat awak tau.
M5(4):U29(DR) Last week kan saya dah cakap pasal melodi ni tau, tapi minggu ini
you still you punya melodi bukan tepat tau.
M5(8):U90(DR) Kamu sangat-sangatlah berbeza daripada dua minggu lepas ya,
good.
8.1.3 Bersikap optimis
Sebagai seorang pengkritik yang diamanahkan untuk menilai dan memberi kritikan, seseorang
pengkritik harus optimis dan berkeyakinan terhadap kemampuan protege-protege yang bertanding.
Secara tidak langsung, dengan cara sebegini pengkritik dapat mengurangkan rasa keterancaman
muka seterusnya mengelakkan terjadinya konflik kerana penutur dapat memenuhi muka positif
lawan tutur. Misalnya dalam contoh berikut, ungkapan boleh menyanyi, boleh berlakon dan ada
bakat semula jadi menunjukkan bahawa pengkritik cenderung untuk mempercayai keupayaan dan
keistimewaan protege.
M5(10):U149(JF) Ratnah bukan sahaja boleh menyanyi tapi saya rasa Ratnah boleh
berlakon juga.
M5(11):U166(DR) Saya dapat rasa kamu ada bakat semula jadi daripada Tuhan which
is boleh besarkan lagi.
8.1.4 Memberi motivasi
Hasil analisis juga telah menunjukkan bahawa teknik memberi motivasi telah digunakan oleh
pengkritik ketika menyampaikan kritikan sebagai salah satu cara untuk mengurangkan rasa
keterancaman muka. Teknik ini dipilih oleh pengkritik kerana pengkritik ingin memberikan
kepuasan terhadap muka positif protege. Terdapat 10 ujaran kritikan yang telah dikenal pasti
menggunakan teknik ini antaranya, ialah seperti berikut:
M5(8):U91(DR) Saya harap kamu boleh kejar kedudukan kamu lebih lagi.
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M5(14):U228(AZ) Menang atau kalah lain cerita tapi perjuangan harus diteruskan.
8.1.5 Menunjukkan kesamaan
Teknik menunjukkan kesamaan dizahirkan oleh para pengkritik melalui penggunaan kata
panggilan yang menunjukkan keakraban seperti kak dan sayang dalam contoh ujaran di bawah.
Strategi ini digunakan untuk menunjukkan seolah-olah pengkritik dan protege berada dalam
kelompok yang sama dan sekali gus dapat mengecilkan jurang di antara mereka. Apabila jurang di
antara mereka dapat dikecilkan maka kritikan dapat diterima oleh protege dengan hati yang terbuka.
Ini bermakna rasa keterancaman muka dapat dikurangkan seterusnya dapat mewujudkan situasi
bebas konflik dalam komunikasi tersebut.
M5(4):U14(ZZ) Kak Ziana nak komen pasal dressing. Its good, kena dengan lagu
you.
M5(7):U88(MI) Saya suka pakaian, kostum tapi kalau boleh selaraskan dengan
vokal sayang.
8.1.6 Memberikan fakta
Analisis kajian juga menunjukkan bahawa pengkritik menggunakan teknik memberi fakta ketika
melontarkan kritikan. Ujaran-ujaran kritikan yang diiringi dengan fakta atau prinsip pengkritik
dapat memperkukuh hujah pengkritik yang sekali gus dapat mengurangkan rasa keterancaman
muka pada lawan tutur. Oleh yang demikian, maka protege dapat mempercayai dan menerima
kritikan dengan hati yang terbuka. Contoh ujaran M5(10):U137(DR) di bawah menunjukkan
bahawa pengkritik memberikan fakta tentang tatacara menyanyi dengan betul. Sementara contoh
M5(7): U89(MI) pula menunjukkan pengkritik berusaha menyampaikan kritikan dengan lebih
santun melalui pernyataan prinsipnya.
M5(10):U137(DR) Menyanyi tak boleh sumbang ya memang diharamkan.
M5(7): U89(MI) Saya suka ya muzik apa sahaja saya appreciate apa juga yang nak
disampaikan cuma perlu selaraskan dengan kemampuan vokal ya.
8.1.7 Memberi tawaran
Salah satu usaha pengkritik untuk mengekalkan kesantunan dalam kritikannya, ialah dengan
menggunakan teknik memberi tawaran. Tawaran yang dimaksudkan dalam kajian ini ialah cabaran
misalnya dalam contoh M5(11):U167(DR) di bawah.
M5(11):U167(DR) Next week kalau kamu masuk semifinal saya nak dengar kamu
punya intelektual dalam singing which is direction yang kamu nak
pergi.
8.1.8 Meminta alasan
Teknik meminta alasan pula digunakan oleh pengkritik untuk mendapatkan sebab-musabab sesuatu
itu berlaku. Kritikan yang diujarkan oleh pengkritik disertai dengan permintaan alasan agar
kelihatan lebih santun. Ujaran berikut merupakan contoh penggunaan teknik meminta alasan oleh
pengkritik:
M5(8):U94(CF) Saya tak tau kenapa awak dekat 78 markah je. Saya tak tau kenapa
sebab saya tengok awak punya persembahan pertama tadi nampak
outstanding.
8.2 Strategi Kesantunan Negatif
Brown dan Levinson (1987) menjelaskan bahawa strategi kesantunan negatif ialah strategi
menyelamatkan muka negatif lawan tutur untuk mempertahankan kebebasan bertindak lawan tutur.
Dalam strategi ini, penutur mengakui dan menghormati muka negatif lawan tuturnya. Merujuk
kepada kajian ini, didapati bahawa strategi kesantunan negatif ini memperlihatkan bagaimana
penutur, iaitu pengkritik menyampaikan kritikannya secara langsung tetapi dengan beberapa
penyesuaian. Situasi ini berlaku kerana pengkritik mahu melindungi air muka positif dirinya yang
telah diberi tanggungjawab untuk menggalas peranan sebagai juri dan pengkritik pilihan pihak
penerbit rancangan untuk memberi penilaian dan penjurian. Pengkritik menganggap bahawa
sesetengah kritikan itu perlu disampaikan secara lebih telus, untuk membantu peserta membuat
persembahan yang lebih berkualiti pada masa akan datang.
Sehubungan itu, pengkritik harus menyampaikannya dengan cara yang lebih berkesan dan masih
mahu melindungi air muka lawan tutur dengan berbasa-basi menggunakan kata-kata pelunak,
menunjukkan rasa hormat, mengutarakan pertanyaan, bersikap pesimis dan memohon maaf terlebih
dahulu sebelum menyatakan kritikannya. Analisis kajian telah membuktikan bahawa lima teknik
kesantunan negatif telah dipraktikkan oleh para pengkritik ketika memberi kritikan dalam
rancangan Mentor 5.
8.2.1 Menggunakan kata-kata pelunak
Teknik yang paling kerap digunakan ialah strategi menggunakan kata-kata pelunak. Menurut
Marlyna Maros (2011) kata-kata pelunak merupakan strategi kesantunan negatif yang dapat
melembutkan niat pengucapan tindakan ancaman muka. Penggunaan kata-kata pelunak diperoleh
dari kehendak untuk tidak mengandaikan dan tidak memaksa pendengar, contohnya seperti
memulakan kritikan dengan ungkapan saya rasa, saya fikir, menurut saya, mungkin dan
sebagainya. Kata-kata pelunak tersebut mampu memberikan kesan lembut atau bertindak sebagai
pelapik dalam sesuatu penyampaian ujaran yang mengancam air muka lawan tutur seperti ujaran
kritikan. Contoh-contoh ujaran di bawah menunjukkan penggunaan kata-kata pelunak, iaitu
ungkapan menurut saya , dan bagi saya dalam ujaran kritikan yang digunakan oleh para
pengkritik dalam Mentor 5.
M5(6):U69(RO) Lagu yang kedua menurut saya kamu membawakan lagu dengan
sangat indah.
M5(10):U141(JF) Bagi saya minit pertama tadi memang memukaulah.
8.2.2 Menggunakan pertanyaan
Teknik pertanyaan digunakan oleh pengkritik untuk mengurangkan rasa keterancaman muka para
peserta dan pendengar yang mendengar kritikan tersebut. Pertanyaan tersebut adakalanya berbentuk
penyataan retorik, iaitu pertanyaan yang tidak perlu dijawab oleh si lawan tutur.Contoh di bawah
menunjukkan kritikan disampaikan oleh penutur dengan strategi bertanya. Pertanyaan tersebut
sebenarnya merupakan kritikan penutur terhadap rupa paras rambut lawan tutur yang dianggap
kurang menarik dan perlu dipotong. Penutur tidak secara langsung memberitahu lawan tutur
bahawa rambutnya tidak elok dan perlu dipotong sebaliknya menggunakan pertanyaan untuk
menunjukkan rasa hormat kepada lawan tutur sekaligus mengurangkan rasa keterancaman muka.
M5(6):U61(RO) Abang Noh bolehkah dia dibawa potong rambut sedikit dong?
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8.2.3 Menyatakan rasa hormat
Di samping penggunaan kata-kata pelunak sebagai strategi kesantunan, pengkritik juga
menggunakan kata-kata yang menunjukkan rasa hormat, seperti ucapan salam, selamat dan sapaan.
Contoh-contoh di bawah menunjukkan ujaran kritikan pengkritik yang didahului dengan ucapan
salam, selamat dan sapaan. Ucapan salam dan sapaan ini memberikan gambaran bahawa penutur
dan lawan tutur saling mengenali dan secara tidak langsung dapat mewujudkan situasi yang lebih
santai seterusnya tidak terlalu memaksa lawan tutur untuk terus mendengar kritikan yang
dilontarkan.
M5(11):U172(MM) Assalamualaikum Abang Rahim. Sama-sama kacak atas stage ya.
M5(4):U5(DR) Hai Shiha, kamu ada banyak masalah dari segi feel kamu ya.
8.2.4 Memohon maaf
Teknik memohon maaf diungkapkan oleh pengkritik dalam kritikan sebagai tanda menghormati
lawan tuturnya iaitu protege yang terlibat. Dalam contoh di bawah, kata maaf digunakan oleh
pengkritik bagi mengelakkan timbulnya rasa marah dan perselisihan faham pada pihak lawan tutur
apabila mendengar kritikan yang dilontarkannya. Secara tidak langsung strategi ini dapat
mewujudkan situasi bebas konflik dalam situasi tersebut.
M5(14):U224(ZZ) Second song tu saya nampak macam Faizal Tahir over shadow
sikit, maaf jangan marah ye.
8.2.5 Bersikap pesimis
Sikap pesimis merupakan lawan kepada optimis. Ini bermakna pengkritik cenderung melihat
sesuatu itu dari sudut keburukannya seperti dalam contoh berikut:
M5(11):U175(MM) Rasa masih kekok sikit la awak atas stage, awak cuba nak perform
tapi awak masih kekok, itu menampakkan kelemahan lagi.
8.3 Struktur Sandwich
Struktur Sandwich digunakan oleh pengkritik ketika menyampaikan kritikan negatif. Seperti yang
diperjelaskan oleh Dohrenwend, A. (2002) bahawa sesuatu penyataan negatif sukar untuk
disampaikan tetapi dengan menggunakan struktur Sandwich menjadikannya lebih mudah dan
efektif. Di samping itu, strategi ini dapat membantu penutur menyampaikan kritikannya dengan
lebih selesa dan tidak mengancam air muka orang yang dikritik.
Dlugan, A. (2008) berpendapat bahawa penyataan positif dalam strategi ini seharusnya bukanlah
terhad kepada pujian semata-mata dan penyataan negatif juga bukanlah hanya merujuk kepada
kecaman sahaja, malah positif juga merujuk kepada apa-apa bentuk penyataan yang
menggembirakan dan menyenangkan seperti penghargaan, persetujuan, penyataan suka, cadangan,
nasihat, kata-kata semangat dan penyelesaian masalah. Sementara penyataan negatif pula dirujuk
sebagai penyataan yang khusus tentang sesuatu perkara atau tindakan yang perlu dibaiki, penyataan
kekurangan dan kelemahan, ketidaksetujuan dan rasa tidak puas hati penutur terhadap sesuatu atau
seseorang yang dikritik atau dinilai. Hasil analisis mendapati bahawa 2 bentuk pola struktur
Sandwich yang telah digunakan oleh pengkritik. Pola- pola tersebut, ialah seperti berikut:
Positif + negatif + positif
Negatif + negatif + positif
8.3.1 Pola positif + negatif + positif
Pola positif+negatif+positif ialah pola yang mengapitkan penyataan negatif dengan penyataan
positif agar kelihatan lebih halus dan santun. Pola ini sangat digemari oleh pengkritik, buktinya
terdapat 14 ujaran menggunakan pola tersebut dalam kajian ini. Antaranya, ialah ujaran berikut:
M5(11):
U168(MM)
Ok apa yang Iqa buat malam ni dah fokus nampak apa yang nak
dibuat semua menjadi,cuma bila terlalu fokus anda terlupa dekat
orang depan yang dekat bawah ni, jangan ya.
Penggunaan struktur Sandwich dalam contoh M5(11): U168(MM) ditafsir seperti berikut:
Penyataan positif: Iqa buat malam ni dah fokus nampak apa yang nak dibuat semua
menjadi
Penyataan negatif: bila terlalu fokus anda terlupa dekat orang depan yang dekat bawah
ini
Penyataan positif: jangan ya
Berdasarkan analisis, dalam contoh di atas pengkritik telah membuat kecaman terhadap protege
yang terlibat. Namun begitu, untuk mengurangkan rasa ketidakselesaan pada protege dan pengkritik
maka pengkritik telah mendahului kritikannya dengan penyataan pujian dan mengakhirinya dengan
peringatan. Strategi ini secara tidak langsung dapat mengurangkan rasa keterancaman muka kerana
pengkritik berusaha untuk menghormati muka positif lawan tutur dengan mengungkapkan
penyataan positif di awal dan di akhir kritikan.
8.3.2 Pola negatif + negatif + positif
Berbeza dengan pola di atas pola negatif + negatif + positif ini agak kurang santun kerana
penyataan negatif mendahului penyataan positif. Tambahan pula dalam pola ini terdapat dua
penyataan negatif. Hasil analisis mendapati bahawa hanya satu ujaran struktur Sandwich yang
menggunakan pola ini, iaitu seperti di bawah:
M5(4): U12(DR) Kamu semua meremehkan melodi, melodi tak betul tak cukup tinggi
banyak flat so perlu tumpu bagi betul tumpu yang dekat melodi tu.
Penggunaan struktur Sandwich dalam contoh di atas boleh ditafsir seperti berikut:
Penyataan negatif: Kamu semua meremehkan melodi
Penyataan negatif: melodi tak betul tak cukup tinggi banyak flat
Penyataan positif: perlu tumpu bagi betul tumpu yang dekat melodi tu
9.0 KESIMPULAN
Berdasarkan analisis yang dijalankan dapatlah disimpulkan bahawa dalam rancangan realiti
televisyen Mentor 5 ,pengkritik sentiasa berusaha menyampaikan kritikan dengan sempurna dan
berkesan di samping mengekalkan kesantunan agar dapat diterima oleh penerima kritikan dan
pendengar. Pengkritik bukan hanya menjalankan amanahnya sebagai seorang juri dan pengkritik
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malah masih mempunyai sikap ambil peduli terhadap keharmonian dalam komunikasi. Jurang yang
wujud di antara pengkritik dan protege telah cuba dikecilkan oleh pengkritik dengan
mengaplikasikan strategi kesantunan dalam menyampaikan kritikannya. Walaupun kritikan
diujarkan secara langsung atau terang-terangan oleh pengkritik, namun penyesuaian telah dilakukan
oleh pengkritik seperti yang telah dicadangkan oleh Brown dan Levinson (1987) dalam model
kesantunannya. Analisis telah menunjukkan bahawa pengkritik paling kerap menggunakan strategi
kesantunan positif, iaitu sebanyak 78 ujaran berbanding dengan strategi kesantunan negatif, iaitu 36
ujaran. Sementara 15 ujaran telah dikenal pasti mengaplikasikan struktur Sandwich sebagai salah
satu strategi untuk menyampaikan kritikan negatif. Terdapat dua bentuk pola struktur Sandwich
yang digunakan oleh pengkritik untuk menyampaikan kritikan dalam rancangan Mentor 5, iaitu i)
pola positif + negatif + positif dan ii) pola negatif + negatif + positif. Hasil kajian juga
menunjukkan bahawa struktur Sandwich yang dipraktikkan oleh pengkritik dalam rancangan
Mentor 5 ini sebenarnya merupakan hasil gabungan teknik-teknik kesantunan yang dicadangkan
oleh Brown dan Levinson(1987) dalam model kesantunannya.
BIBLIOGRAFI
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Nor Fariza Mohd. Nor & Jamaluddin Aziz. (2010). Discourse Analysis of Decision Making
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Triana.(2009). Bahasa, kesantunan dan perubahan sosial: Analisis terhadap lakuan tutur menolak
etnik Minangkabau moden. Tesis PhD Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.
Yanti Haryati.(2010). Strategi narasumber dalam mengkritik dan merespons tuturan dalam acara
Apa Kabar Indonesia Pagi TV One. Tesis Sarjana Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia.
Yule, G. (1996). Pragmatics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Mengajar Prinsip Kesantunan Linguistik Dalam Budaya Melayu Kepada Pelajar Asing.
Zaitul Azma Binti Zainon Hamzah, PhD
Ahmad Fuad Mat Hassan.
Jabatan Bahasa Melayu
Fakulti Bahasa Moden dan Komunikasi
Universiti Putra Malaysia
43400 Upm Serdang
zaitulazma@yahoo.com
Abstrak
Prinsip Kesantunan dibangunkan oleh masyarakat untuk mengurangkan pergeseran dan
mengelakkan konflik dalam interaksi. Konsep 'wajah' Brown dan Levinson (1987,1978) telah
ditemui tidak adil, dan didapati berbeza dengan konsep 'wajah' dalam prinsip kesantunan budaya
Melayu, (Asmah Haji Omar, 2007). Dalam budaya Melayu, 'wajah' mempunyai makna yang lebih
mendalam daripada 'wajah' dalam budaya barat. Perbezaan ini telah menunjukkan wujudnya
kekangan dan perbezaan konsep dan amalan kesantunan antara budaya barat dengan budaya
Melayu yang seterusnya turut menimbulkan persoalan hierarki dan kuasa. Melalui konsep
kesantunan dalam budaya Melayu, penutur disyorkan mempratikkan kesantunan untuk
menyerlahkan nilai kebaikan, ihsan, tingkah laku yang baik, pemikiran yang baik serta perbualan
yang baik bagi mengelakkan konflik dan pergeseran. Dengan itu, tujuan kajian ini adalah untuk
mengenal pasti perbezaan konsep 'wajah' Brown dan Levinson dengan konsep 'wajah' dalam
budaya Melayu yang menimbulkan pergeseran kepada pelajar asing, kedua, menjelaskan prinsip
kesantunan dalam bahasa dan budaya Melayu sebagai satu pendekatan dalam pengajaran bahasa
Melayu sebagai bahasa asing dan kedua. Data dikumpul daripada data teks, soal selidik, rakaman
dan temu bual. Seramai 100 orang responden telah dipilih untuk mewakili institusi dan masyarakat.
Hasil kajian ini dapat menentukan prinsip kesantunan dan ketidaksantunan dalam budaya Melayu
dalam usaha meningkatkan kecekapan berbahasa dalam kalangan pelajar di samping memantapkan
pendekatan pengajaran bahasa Melayu sebagai bahasa asing.
Kata kunci: Kesantunan, budaya Melayu, bahasa Melayu, konsep muka.
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Pengenalan.
Prinsip Kesantunan dibangunkan oleh masyarakat untuk mengurangkan pergeseran dan
mengelakkan konflik dalam interaksi. Konsep 'wajah' Brown dan Levinson (1987,1978) telah
ditemui tidak adil, dan didapati berbeza dengan konsep 'wajah' dalam prinsip kesantunan budaya
Melayu, (Asmah Haji Omar, 2007). Dalam budaya Melayu, 'wajah' mempunyai makna yang lebih
mendalam daripada 'wajah' dalam budaya barat. Perbezaan ini telah menunjukkan wujudnya
kekangan dan perbezaan konsep dan amalan kesantunan antara budaya barat dengan budaya
Melayu yang seterusnya turut menimbulkan persoalan hierarki dan kuasa. Melalui konsep
kesantunan dalam budaya Melayu, penutur disyorkan mempratikkan kesantunan untuk
menyerlahkan nilai kebaikan, ihsan, tingkah laku yang baik, pemikiran yang baik serta perbualan
yang baik bagi mengelakkan konflik dan pergeseran.
Perbezaan unsur-unsur budaya dan bahasa terbukti turut mempengaruhi amalan kesantunan
seseorang. Unsur-unsur budaya bersifat ekstrinsik, manakala unsur-unsur bersifat intrinsik. Justeru
di samping unsur-unsur gramatikal, cara merealisasikan pertuturan yang tampak santun menjadi
sesuatu yang inheren dengan gagasan bahasa sebagai alat berkomunikasi.
Sementara itu, dalam Beebe, Takahashi, dan Ullis-Weltz (1990) didapati terdapat perbezaan antara
orang Jepun dengan orang Amerika dalam mempraktikan kesantunan berbahasa ketika memohon
maaf. Kajian Beebe, Takahashi, dan Ullis-Weltz (1990) mendapati orang Jepun sering kali tidak
menggunakan ungkapan maaf ketika mereka menolak sebuah undangan daripada seseorang
pendengar. Selain itu, orang Jepun lebih memperlihatkan status seseorang daripada
memperlihatkan unsur keakraban ketika membuat penolakan. Hal ini berbeza dengan orang
Amerika yang lebih menggunakan ungkapan maaf dan menitikberatkan unsur keakraban.
Demikian juga dalam kajian Ito (1989). Kajian Ito menunjukkan adanya perbezaan dalam
pertuturan menolak yang dilakukan oleh orang-orang Jepun apabila dibandingkan dengan orang
Amerika. Justeru, Dengan berlandaskan prinsip kesantunan Brown dan Levinson (1987), Ito
mendapati orang Jepun lebih suka menggunakan kesantunan negatif dengan strategi yang samar-
samar menunjukkan penolakan, sementara orang Amerika lebih suka mengatakan tidak dengan
kesantunan positif. Cara-cara yang sama yang dilakukan oleh orang-orang Jepun ini juga
ditemukan oleh kajian para sarjana lain seperti Tickle, Izuno, dan Epson (1991), Kinjo (1987),
Ikoma dan Shimura (1994).
Strategi samar-samar ketika membuat penolakan juga ditunjukkan oleh orang Thailand
(Deephuengton, 1992). Menurut Deephuengton, orang Thailand cenderung menggunakan cara
yang sangat konvensional dalam menolak, iaitu kesantunan negatif, kesantunan positif, dan strategi
samar-samar. Kesantunan positif ditunjukkan dengan cara menunda atau menghindari jawapan
langsung dan melembutkan ungkapan. Sementara itu, kesantunan negatif diwujudkan dalam
ungkapan yang tidak menunjukkan komitmen, mengemukakan pertanyaan dan sebagainya.
Menurut Deephuengton, kenyataan tersebut menunjukkan bahawa orang Thailand merupakan
pemakai bahasa yang tidak mahu menimbulkan sebarang pergeseran ketika membuat penolakan,
sebaliknya ingin menjaga keharmonian dan menghindari konflik personal.
Strategi samar-samar ketika membuat penolakan juga dilakukan oleh orang Sunda, (Aziz 1996,
2001). Dengan yang demikian, orang Sunda lebih memilih kesantunan negatif daripada kesantunan
positif ketika berhadapan dengan suatu situasi yang akan memaksa mereka membuat penolakan.
Selain itu, masyarakat Sunda adalah sama seperti masyarakat Thailand yang sangat
mempertimbangkan keharmonian masyarakat dan hubungan interpersonal, justeru mereka cuba
mengelak daripada membuat penolakan secara langsung dalam setiap pertuturan menolak yang
mereka buat.
Sama seperti masyarakat Thailand dan Sunda, masyarakat Melayu juga disyorkan mempratikkan
kesantunan berbahasa untuk menyerlahkan nilai tingkah laku yang baik, pemikiran yang baik serta
cuba menghindari konflik dan pergeseran dalam pertuturan terutama apabila terdapat perbezaan
penggunaan strategi kesantunan antara masyarakat timur dengan masyarakat barat. Oleh itu satu
pendedahan tentang prinsip kesantunan linguistik perlu diajarkan kepada pelajar asing supaya
mereka dapat berkomunikasi dengan santun ketika berinteraksi dengan masyarakat tempatan demi
berlangsungnya komunikasi yang wajar di antara mereka.
Objektif
Tujuan kertas kerja ini adalah untuk mengenal pasti perbezaan konsep 'wajah' Brown dan Levinson
dengan konsep 'wajah' dalam budaya Melayu yang menimbulkan pergeseran kepada pelajar asing,
kedua, menjelaskan prinsip kesantunan dalam bahasa dan budaya Melayu sebagai satu
pendekatan dalam pengajaran bahasa Melayu sebagai bahasa asing dan kedua.
Metodologi
Data dikumpul daripada soal selidik, rakaman dan temu bual. Seramai 100 orang responden telah
dipilih untuk mewakili institusi dan masyarakat. Teori kesantunan Brown dan Levinson (1987)
dijadikan teori yang mendasari kajian ini.
Dapatan Kajian dan Perbincangan
Hasil kajian ini dapat menentukan prinsip kesantunan dan ketidaksantunan dalam budaya Melayu
dalam usaha meningkatkan kecekapan berbahasa dalam kalangan pelajar di samping memantapkan
pendekatan pengajaran bahasa Melayu sebagai bahasa asing.
Skala 4 Sangat perlu Lebih 80 %
3 Perlu 60 % - 79 %
2 Kurang perlu 40 % - 59 %
1 Tidak pasti Kurang daripada 39%
Pendedahan aspek kesantunan kepada pelajar/
pekerja asing
N=102 Min SP
Peratusan %
Tidak
Pasti
Kurang
Perlu
Perlu Sangat
perlu
1 Menyapa, majikan, rakan sejawat , dan pelanggan 0 0 47.1 52.9 3.53 0.514
2 Membuat permohonan/permintaan 5.9 5.9 47.1 41.2 3.24 0.831
3 Memberi peringatan / amaran 0 29.4 11.8 58.8 3.29 0.920
4 Meminta kebenaran untuk bercakap/ menyatakan 5.9 5.9 35.3 52.9 3.35 0.862
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pendapat dalam mesyuarat
5 Memberi komen atau tidak setuju terhadap
pendapat/idea/seseorang/rakan sejawat/pelanggan
0 11.8 41.2 47.1 3.35 0.702
6 Memberi arahan 5.9 17.6 23.5 52.9 3.24 0.970
7 Membuat desakan 11.8 23.5 35.3 29.4 2.82 1.015
8 Menolak permintaan seseorang 11.8 17.6 41.2 29.4 2.88 0.993
9 Memberi alasan tidak hadir mesyuarat 23.5 11.8 29.4 35.3 2.76 1.200
10 Mengaku kesilapan/kesalahan yang telah
dilakukan
0 11.8 41.2 47.1 3.24 0.970
11 Membuat pesanan/tempahan 5.9 23.5 41.2 29.4 2.94 0.899
12 Permohonan maaf 0 5.9 29.4 64.7 3.59 0.618
13 Melahirkan rasa tidak puas hati/komplain 5.9 5.9 58.8 29.4 3.12 0.781
Hasil kajian mendapati 64.7% responden menyatakan cara menyatakan permohonan maaf sangat
perlu didedahkan kepada pelajar asing, iaitu dalam skala lebih 80%. Aspek kesantunan seterus yang
sangat perlu (skala lebih 80%) didedahkan kepada pelajar asing ialah cara memberi peringatan /
amaran ( 58.8), menyapa, majikan, rakan sejawat , dan pelanggan (52.9%), meminta kebenaran
untuk bercakap/ menyatakan pendapat dalam mesyuarat (52.9%), dan memberi arahan yang
masing-masing (52.9%). Selain itu cara memberi komen atau tidak setuju terhadap
pendapat/idea/seseorang/ rakan sejawat/pelanggan (47.1%) dan mengaku kesilapan/kesalahan yang
telah dilakukan juga didapati sangat perlu didedahkan (47.1%).
Aspek kesantunan yang perlu didedahkan dengan skala 60%-79% ialah membuat
permohonan/permintaan (47.1%), membuat desakan (35.3 %), Membuat pesanan/tempahan
(41.2%) dan melahirkan rasa tidak puas hati/complain (58.8%).
Rumusan daripada dapatan soal selidik ini menemukan permohonan maaf menjadi aspek
kesantunan yang sangat perlu didedahkan kepada pelajar asing. Hal ini memperlihatkan ada
hubungan dengan pergeseran atau konflik dalam pertuturan antara pelajar tempatan dengan pelajar
asing. Hal ini turut dibukti melalui temu bual dengan responden. Sebanyak 83% responden yang
mengaku sering berlaku pergeseran dan konflik dalam pertuturan ini antara pelajar asing dengan
pelajar tempatan apabila pelajar asing tidak tahu menghormati budaya setempat seperti yang
terungkap dalam pepatah Masuk kandang kambing, kambing mengembek, masuk kandang kerbau,
kerbau menguak. Pergeseran dan konflik ini sering berlaku apabila pelajar asing tidak tidak pandai
untuk memohon maaf ketika mereka melakukan kesilapan, ketika mereka datang lewat ke kelas
dan ketika mereka menolak permintaan pelajar lain.
Perbincangan
Daripada kajian ini beberapa dapatan dapat ditemukan dalam membentuk prinsip kesantunan yang
perlu didedahkan kepada pelajar asing. Dengan berorientasi pada konsep 'muka', Brown dan
Levinson, prinsip kesantunan linguistik yang ingin dibentuk perlu mengambil kira diri pendengar
dikaitkan dengan faktor-faktor seperti status sosial, usia, kedekatan, tempat atau lokasi dan situasi.
Sungguhpun konsep 'muka', Brown dan Levinson dibahagi kepada dua kategori, iaitu: kesantunan
positif (KP) dan kesantunan negatif (KN) namun kedua-dua kategori ini digabungkan supaya
prinsip yang dibentuk dapat memperlihatkan solidariti ( solidarity), dan menunjukkan perhormatan
(showing respect).
Prinsip Kesantunan itu melibatkan penggunaan bahasa yang berikut;
Prinsip hormat dan akrab
1)menggunakan kata gelaran dan panggilan bersama nama depan (first name) untuk menyapa
seseorang bagi memperlihat darjat sosialnya (hierarchical relation) Contoh Prof. Tuan, Puan.
'Dr' dan sebagainya.
2. Menggunakan pakai kata ganti nama diri yang sesuai dan santun seperti 'saya', anda 'dia',
beliau dan mereka'.
Prinsip menjaga perasaan
Penutur dapat pertimbangkan perasaan pendengar sebagaimana kita mengharapkan orang lain
pertimbangkan perasaan kita sendiri. Justeru penutur diharap menggunakan Bahasa yang dapat
1) memberi pujian mengikut konteks dan situasi yang sesuai,
2). menggunakan bahasa yang dapat menunjukkan nilai keakraban dan hormat.
Prinsip bekerjasama dan toleransi.
1. Menggunakan bahasa yang memperlihatkan hubungan tidak langsung iaitu dari segi struktur dan
fungsi komunikatif.
2) sentiasa memberi pilihan kepada pendengar untuk berkata sesuatu tanpa menyinggung perasaan
seseorang.
3) mengguna bahasa yang memperlihatkan unsur kerendahan hati, tolak ansur dan permohonan
maaf (apologetic language),
4) menggunakan nada dan tekanan suara yang rendah supaya dapat mengurangi risiko salah faham
dan konflik dalam penyampaian ujaran.
Dengan adanya pendedahan terhadap prinsip kesantunan dan ketidaksantunan dalam budaya
Melayu ini usaha untuk meningkatkan kecekapan berbahasa Melayu dalam kalangan pelajar dapat
dicapai selain dapat menyemai nilai-nilai budaya Melayu dalam kalangan pelajar asing di Malaysia.
Tanpa dinafikan, dalam pengajaran bahasa asing, pengetahuan tentang prinsip-prinsip kesantunan
dalam sesuatu masyarakat bahasa yang dipelajari penting bagi meningkatkan kemampuan
komunikasi yang baik dalam bahasa tersebut. Selain itu, pelajar dapat meningkatkan kompetensi
komunikatif yang mencakup tiga macam kompetensi lain iaitu kompetensi gramatikal (grammatical
competence), kompetensi sosiolinguistik (sociolinguistic competence) yang berkaitan dengan
pengetahuan sosial budaya bahasa tertentu, kompetensi wacana (discourse competence) dan
kompetensi strategik (strategic competence) yang berkaitan dengan kemampuan pengungkapan
gagasan melalui beragam gaya yang berlaku khusus dalam setiap bahasa.
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Kesimpulan
Kesantunan berbahasa adalah prinsip atau kesepakatan yang harus dipatuhi di antara dua belah
pihak yang berkomunikasi, oleh penutur dan pendengar. Kesantunan berbahasa pada hakikatnya
adalah upaya untuk mengurangi dampak negatif pada khalayak, atau hak dan kewajiban dalam
mengeratkan hubungan sosial dalam suatu percakapan, terutama dalam kalangan pelajar asing yang
baru hendak mengenali Budaya di negara ini. Disebabkan perbezaan budaya, pelajar asing sering
ditemu mengemukakan ujaran yang mencetuskan konflik dan pergeseran. Justeru aspek
permohonan maaf dinyatakan sangat perlu didedahkan kepada pelajar asing. Pendedahan aspek
permohonan maaf ini perlu didedahkan dalam prinsip kesantunan linguistik yang dapat
mengeratkan hubungan, serta dapat menunjukkan nilai keakraban dan hormat akan budaya
tempatan.
Bibliografi
Beebe, L.M. dan T. Takahashi. 1989. Do you have a bag? Social status and patterned variation in
second language acquisition. Dalam S.M. Gass, C. Madden, D. Preston, dan L. Selinker (ed).
Variation in second language acquisition vol I: sociolinguistic issues. Clevedon: Multilingual
Matters.
Beebe, L.M., T. Takahashi dan R. Ullis-Weltz. 1990. Pragmatic transfer in ESL refusals. Dalam
R.C. Scarcella, E.S. Anderson, dan S.D. Krashen (ed). Developing communicative competence in a
second language. NY: Newbury House.
Brown, P. dan S. C. Levinson. (1987). Politeness: some universals in language usage. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Clyne, M. 1983. Communicative competence in contact. Dalam L.E. Smith (ed). Readings in
English as an international language. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
Deephuengton, P. 1992. Politeness in Thai: strategies of refusing and disagreeing. Disertasi Ph.D.
tidak diterbitkan. University of Kansas.
Faerch, C. dan G. Kasper. 1984. Pragmatic knowledge: rules and procedures. Applied Linguistics. 5,
3, hal. 214-225.
Goffman, E. 1967. Interaction rituals. Garden City: Double Day.
Grice, H. P. 1975. Logic and conversation. Dalam P. Cole dan J.L. Morgan (ed). Syntax and
semantics 3: speech acts. NY: Academic Press.
Hymes, D. 1972. Models of the interaction of language and social life. Dalam J.J. Gumperz dan D.
Hymes (ed). Directions in sociolinguistics: the ethnography of communication. NY: Holt, Rinehart
& Winston.
Ikoma, T. dan A. Shimura. 1994. Pragmatic transfer in speech act of refusal in Japanese as a second
language. Journal of Asian and Pacific Communication, 2, 1-2, hal. 105-129.
Ito, Y. 1989. Strategies of disagreement: a comparison of Japanese and American usage. Sophia
Linguistica, 27, 193-203.
Kartomihardjo, S. 1982. Ethnography of communicative codes in East Java. Canberra: Pacific
Linguistics.
Kinjo, H. 1987. Oral refusals of invitation and requests in English and Japanese. Journal of Asian
Culture, 11, hal. 83-106.
Lakoff, R.T. 1975. Language and womens place. NY: Harper Colophom.
Leech, G.N. 1983. Principles of pragmatics. London: Longman.
Tickle, A., J. Izuno, dan S. Epson. 1991. Japanese refusals in a business setting. PALM, 6, 2, hal.
84-108.
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Serangga Dalam Peribahasa Melayu Sebagai Pelengkap Kehidupan.
Oleh
Ahmad Fuad Mat Hassan
Prof. Madya Dr. Zaitul Azma Zainon Hamzah
Universiti Putra Malaysia
ahmadfuad_mh@yahoo.com
zaitulazma@yahoo.com
Abstrak
Peribahasa Melayu mempunyai kaitan yang rapat dengan kehidupan dan pemikiran orang Melayu. Sebagai
salah satu daripada puisi tertua yang memaparkan akal budi masyarakat Melayu lama, penciptaan
peribahasa sangat terikat dengan adat istiadat Melayu dan alam sekelilingnya. Justeru penelitian terhadap
peribahasa Melayu secara tidak langsung dapat diketahui falsafah hidup dan struktur sosial masyarakat
Melayu lama. Segala kepercayaan dan ideologi yang dipegang oleh masyarakat Melaui digambarkan melalui
unsur alam, flora dan fauna. Melalui unsur serangga, peribahasa Melayu turut memaparkan penghayatan
orang Melayu terhadap perlakuan manusia dari segi sosiopolitik, sosioekonomi dan sosiobudaya. Justeru,
kertas kerja ini akan membincangkan unsur serangga dalam kehidupan manusia dari segi sosiopolitik,
sosioekonomi dan sosiobudaya, dan membincangkan hubungan sifat serangga dengan alam kehidupan serta
pemikiran orang Melayu dahulu kala. Data kajian yang terdiri daripada peribahasa-peribahasa yang
menggunakan unsur serangga akan dianalisis secara kuantitatif dan kualitatif menggunakan Hipotesis Sapir
Whorf dan teori pragmatik.
Pengenalan
Peribahasa Melayu adalah salah satu daripada pusaka dan warisan nenek moyang bangsa Melayu yang unik
kerana mempunyai maksud yang mendalam dan tersirat. Sebagai salah satu daripada puisi tertua yang
memaparkan akal budi bangsa Melayu, penciptaan peribahasa sangat terikat dengan adat istiadat Melayu
lama. Menerusi peribahasa dapat dikaji struktur sosial bangsa Melayu lama, sikap, aktiviti kehidupan serta
falsafah hidup yang mereka anuti, (Zaitul Azma & Ahmad Fuad, 2011).
Penciptaan peribahasa adalah berdasarkan pengalaman orang-orang Melayu dahulu terhadap kejadian atau
fenomena alam di sekeliling kehidupan mereka sehari-hari lalu disimpulkan dalam bahasa yang indah dan
kreatif dengan tujuan untuk dijadikan pengajaran dan teladan kepada generasi seterusnya. Dengan demikiran
tanpa diragui, peribahasa merupakan projeksi watak dan cara hidup masyarakat Melayu. Malah peribahasa
juga merupakan pertuturan atau perintah yang dipegang dan dianuti oleh masyarakat Melayu yang terdiri
daripada beberapa patah perkataan sahaja tetapi mampu memberi pengertian yang luas dan mendalam.
Pendek kata, dalam peribahasa terdapat banyak pengajaran dan pedoman yang boleh diikuti bertujuan untuk
membentuk peribadi dan perlakuan manusia berdasarkan pengalaman yang sudah ditempuhi.
Peribahasa menggambarkan kehidupan masyarakat Melayu lama dari segi perasaan, tingkah laku, kegiatan
budaya, pola fikir dan lain-lain yang berkaitan dengan geobudaya bangsa Melayu. Bangsa Melayu
menjana pengetahuan yang diperoleh hasil daripada interaksi dengan alam sekeliling dalam mencipta
peribahasa dan maknanya. Unsur alam sekeliling yang dijadikan sumber dalam penciptaan peribahasa
termasuklah unsur alam semula jadi, alam benda, alam flora dan alam fauna. Dengan kata lain alam
sekeliling amat mempengaruhi bahasa dan kepercayaan orang Melayu. Sejajar dengan itu, menerusi
peribahasa dapat dikaji struktur sosial bangsa Melayu lama, sikap, aktiviti kehidupan serta falsafah hidup
yang mereka anuti.
Falsafah yang tersirat dalam peribahasa Melayu menunjangi kehidupan bangsa Melayu khasnya dan
masyarakat Malaysia amnya. Segala sistem nilai termasuk hati budi orang Melayu dan perwatakan serta
sifat-sifat orang Melayu juga dapat diketahui daripada peribahasa Melayu, (Wilkinson, 1907). Malah
peribahasa berperanan sebagai hukum adat dan nasihat moral dalam mengawal tindak tanduk anggota
masyarakatnya. Penciptaannya yang berdasarkan fenomena sebenar kehidupan masyarakat, (Hamilton, 1947)
turut menyerlahkan pemikiran bangsa Melayu tentang alam kehidupan yang mereka tempuhi.
Permasalahan Kajian
Disebabkan keunikan dan kekreatifan bahasa serta kandungan falsafah bangsa Melayu yang tersirat di dalam
peribahasa maka peribahasa telah banyak dikaji oleh para sarjana sejak dahulu lagi. Selain sarjana barat,
sarjana tempatan juga telah banyak menjalankan Kajian tentang peribahasa namun kajian terdahulu lebih
tertumpu kepada aspek bahasa dalam peribahasa itu sendiri. Antaranya kajian Indirawati Zahid (1997) yang
mengkaji tentang penggunaan simbol dalam peribahasa, kajian Norashikin Mohamed (1998) yang melihat
aspek diksi dalam Peibahasa Melayu, kajian Bahiyah Dato Hj Abdul Hamid dan Hafriza Burhanudeen
(1998), yang membincangkan aspek gender dalam peribahasa. Kajian tentang peribahasa Melayu tidak
terhenti setakat itu malah dalam abad ke-21, kajian terhadap peribahasa diteruskan oleh sarjana temapatan
yang lain. Antaranya Zaidah Ahmad Rosly (2001) yang menjalankan kajian yang bertajuk, Semantik dan
Pragmatik Metonomi dalam Peribahasa Melayu, Jyh Wee Sew (2009) menjalankan beliau yang bertajuk
Gila-gila dalam Peribahasa Melayu dan Humor dalam Peribahasa Melayu, Zaitul Azma Zainon Hamzah
& Ahmad Fuad Mat Hassan (2011) dengan kajian yang bertajuk Bahasa dan Pemikiran dalam Peribahasa
Melayuk dan Imran Ho Abdullah, (2011) telah menjalankan kajian yang bertajuk. Pembentukan Model
Kognitif yang Tercermin dalam Peribahasa Bersumberkan Haiwan. Daripada kajian-kajian terdahulu
didapati unsur serangga dalam peribahasa Melayu belum diterokai lagi. Justeru perlulah dijalankan penelitian
terhadap penggunaan serangga dalam peribahasa Melayu bagi mengetahui mesej tesirat yang cuba
disampaikan selain untuk menjelaskan hubungan serangga dengan kehidupan orang Melayu dahulu kala.
Metodologi
Data peribahasa diteliti daripada buku Peribahasa Melayu: Penelitian Makna dan Nilai, (Zaitul Azma &
Ahmad Fuad, 2011). Data yang diperoleh dianalisis secara kuantitatif dan kualitatif. Peribahasa yang
mengidentifikasikan serangga dipilih dan dianalisis menggunakan teori Hipotesis Sapir Whorf dan teori
pragmatik
Hipotesis Sapir-Whorf (1921), didasari oleh teori relativiti linguistik, menyatakan bahawa terdapat
hubungan antara bahasa, budaya dan pemikiran manusia. Dengan perkataan lain, tanggapan atau fikiran dan
tindakan seseorang itu bergantung kepada struktur dan kosa kata dalam bahasa yang digunakan oleh penutur
untuk berfikir dan menanggapi sesuatu. Dengan yang demikian bahasa turut mempengaruhi tingkah laku
penuturnya. Penekanan the structure of the languages we speak affects the way we perceive the world about
us menjelaskan bahawa struktur sesuatu bahasa menggambarkan cara penutur memandang dunianya dan
bagaimana budaya mempunyai hubungan dengan bahasa, (Jufrizal, Zul Amri dan Refnaldi : 2007).
Hipotesis Sapir-Whorf (1921) yang dipelopori oleh Boas, Sapir dan Whorf ini turut menyatakan bahawa
bahasa tidak hanya menentukan kebudayaan tetapi juga menentukan jalan fikiran penuturnya. Hubungan
antara bahasa dan kebudayaan yang begitu erat terjadi dalam kehidupan lahiriah dan batiniah. Hal ini dapat
dikaitkan oleh penulis dengan penciptaan peribahasa Melayu.
Seterusnya, teori Relevans yang menekankan tiga gagasan utama, iaitu konteks, kesan konteks dan usaha
memproses maklumat diterapkan dalam menganalisis peribahasa Melayu. Tiga gagasan ini kadangkala
dibantu oleh subgagasan seperti pengayaan, pemilihan rujukan dan penyahtaksaan maklumat bagi
melicinkan penginterpretasian makna. Hal ini bersesuaian kerana pragmatik ditakrifkan sebagai bidang
bahasa yang mengkaji cara suatu ujaran itu mendapat makna apabila digunakan dalam konteks tertentu.
Pendekatan pragmatik mengutamakan penginterpretasian makna ujaran yang ada hubungannya dengan
konteks situasi, tujuan penutur itu menghasilkan ujaran, dan cara pendengar menerima dan memahami
ujaran itu. Dengan kata lain, bidang pragmatik cuba menyerlahkan penggunaan bahasa dan fungsi bahasa
mengikut konteks. Justeru kajian pragmatik tidak mengutamakan struktur bahasa dalam menginterpretasi
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makna ujarannya tetapi lebih kepada hubungan antara struktur bahasa dengan peraturan perlakuan para
penggunanya. Oleh itu kerelevanan sesuatu ujaran adalah bergantung pada konteks, kesan konteks ataupun
kognisi dan usaha pemprosesan maklumat antara penutur dan pendengar, (Zaitul Azma Zainon Hamzah,
2002).
Dapatan Kajian
Daripada 5461 peribahasa Melayu yang dijadikan bahan penelitian, didapati 1.23% peribahasa yang ada
menggunakan serangga. Hasil penelitian juga mendapati serangga lebih banyak digunakan dalam
penciptaan bidalan, iaitu sebanyak 46.3%, diikuti oleh perumpamaan sebanyak 35.8%, pepatah sebanyak
11.9%, dan simpulan bahasa sebanyak 6%. Setakat ini, didapati tiada unsur serangga dalam penciptaan kata-
kata hikmat, (Sila rujuk Jadual 1)
Jadual 1: Jumlah Peribahasa yang menggunakan serangga
Peribahasa Jumlah Semua Serangga
Simpulan bahasa 1087 4
Perumpamaan 851 24
Bidalan 2567 31
Pepatah 956 8
Kata-kata Hikmat 0 0
Jumlah 5461 67 (1.23%)
Sumber : Zaitul Azma dan Ahmad Fuad (2011).
Dari segi kekerapan penggunaan serangga dalam peribahasa, didapati serangga lalat dan langau serta
belalang adalah yang paling banyak, iaitu sebanyak 16.4%. Serangga tebuan mencatat jumlah kedua banyak,
iaitu sebanyak 10.4%, diikuti oleh serangga kumbang, semut, kutu dan tuma yang masing-masing adalah
sebanyak 9.0%. Serangga lain ialah lipas (7.5%), nyamuk (6.0%), anai-anai (4.5%), lebah (3.0%), pijat
(3.0%), kelip-kelip (1.5%), rama-rama/kupu-kupu (1.5%), tungau (1.5%) dan bubuk (1.5%) (Sila rujuk
Jadual 2).
Jadual 2: Jenis serangga dalam Peribahasa Melayu
Jenis Serangga Serangga
Jumlah %
Lalat dan Langau 11 16.4
Belalang 11 16.4
Tebuan 7 10.4
Kumbang 6 9.0
Semut 6 9.0
Kutu dan Tuma 6 9.0
Lipas 5 7.5
Nyamuk 4 6.0
Anai-anai 3 4.5
Lebah 2 3.0
Pijat 2 3.0
Kelip-kelip 1 1.5
Rama-rama/Kupu-kupu 1 1.5
Tungau 1 1.5
Bubuk 1 1.5
Jumlah 67 100
Penggunaan serangga dalam peribahasa adalah berdasarkan ciri, sifat dan kehidupan serangga dalam
memberikan makna kepada tingkah laku dan gaya hidup manusia secara tersurat dan tersirat. Pendek kata,
melalui unsur serangga, peribahasa Melayu turut memaparkan penghayatan orang Melayu terhadap
perlakuan manusia dari segi sosiopolitik, sosioekonomi dan sosiobudaya.
Unsur serangga dalam kehidupan manusia dari segi sosiopolitik, sosioekonomi dan sosiobudaya
Seterusnya hasil penelitian, mendapati rujukan dari segi penggunaan perkataan atau istilah serangga yang
terdapat dalam peribahasa Melayu adalah ditentukan oleh pengalaman manusia yang pelbagai dan
berhubungan erat antara pemikiran dan budaya berbahasa masyarakat Melayu yang sekali gus diasosiasikan
dengan kehidupan manusia dari segi sosiopolitik, sosioekonomi dan sosiobudaya. Hal ini tergambar dalam
contoh peribahasa yang berikut;
Data Peribahasa Makna Serangga Tema
Lain padang, lain
belalang
Setiap negeri mempunyai adat
yang berlainan
Belalang Sosiopolitik
Seperti langau di ekor
gajah
Orang yang selalu menurut
kemahuan atau mengikut
orang yang berkuasa
Langau/
Gajah
Sosiopolitik
Ada padang ada
belalang
Ada negeri tentulah ada
rakyatnya
Belalang Sosiopolitik
Serangga belalang dijadikan perlambangan untuk manusia atau rakyat. Penyalinan belalang sebagai rakyat
dianggap relevan apabila padang dilambang sebagai tanah air atau negeri. Begitu juga dengan langau dan
gajah. Langau, serangga yang bersaiz kecil dan dan berbunyi berdengung-dengung dianggap mempunyai
perhubungan dengan sifat manusia yang riuh-rendah. Manakala gajah yang bersaiz besar disimbolkan
sebagai pemimpin. Dalam peribahasa Melayu, unsur penyalinan objek alam dengan bahasa serta diberikan
makna rujukan berlaku kerana setiap orang berbicara dengan cara yang berbeza dan berfikir dengan cara
yang berbeza. Dengan yang demikian, bahasa juga menawarkan cara mengungkapkan makna tentang dunia
persekitaran mereka dengan cara yang berbeza (Sapir-Whorf, 1921). Dengan demikian, bahasa tergambar
menerusi penggunaan perkataan-perkataan itu dengan lebih meluas dan penutur cuba memaksimumkan
fungsi sesuatu perkataan untuk mengungkapkan idea yang hendak disampaikan seperti halnya dalam
peribahasa Lain padang, lain belalang, Ada padang ada belalang dan Seperti langau di ekor gajah.
Data Peribahasa Makna Serangga Tema
Ada gula ada lah semut Di tempat yang mudah
memperoleh rezeki, di situlah
orang berkumpul
Semut Sosioekonomi
Bagai lebah
menghimpun madu
Orang yang rajin bekerja dan
tekun berusaha, akhirnya
terlaksana cita-citanya
Lebah Sosioekonomi
Seperti anai-anai makan
kayu
Melakukan sesuatu kerja
dengan teliti dan tekun
Anai-anai Sosioekonomi
Bagai lalat cari puru Membuat sesuatu pekerjaan
dengan cepat dan ghairah
Lalat Sosioekonomi
Lipas kudung Orang yang selalu bergerak
dengan cepat atau bekerja
dengan pantas dan cekap
Lipas Sosioekonomi
Begitu juga dengan peribahasa 4 hingga 8 menunjukkan penggunaan serangga semut, lebah, anai-anai, lalat
dan lipas yang menggambarkan perihal sosioekonomi masyarakat Melayu. Penggunaan serangga dalam
peribahasa Ada gula ada lah semut menunjukkan perkongsian persepsi yang terbina pengalaman yang
menyaksikan sifat dan ciri semuat dalam persekitaran. Sifat semut yang mengerumuni gula sama-sama
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menghasilkan pemahaman kepada tingkah laku manusia yang bertumpu ke tempat-tempat yang mudah
memperoleh rezeki. Justeru peribahasa ini adalah lambang perkongsian persepsi sesuatu komuniti yang
dizahirkan melalui kata-kata yang kreatif. Berdasarkan konteks, kita dapat menerima penggunaan peribahasa
berserta makna secara logic. Begitu juga dengan penggunaan serangga lebah, anai-anai, lalat dan lipas.
Berdasarkan sifat dan ciri serangga ini, objek serangga ini digunakan dalam peribahasa Melayu untuk
menggambarkan sikap orang yang rajin, pantas, teliti, dan tekun melakukan kerja yang diamanahkan kepada
mereka. Pengalaman manusia bertembung dengan lipas yang kudung yang berjalan dan bergerak laju
dipetakan dengan seseorang yang pantas melakukan sesuatu pekerjaan dengan cekap.
Dalam aspek sosiobudaya, peribahasa Melayu juga digambarkan mempunyai kaitan yang rapat dengan
kehidupan dan sifat serangga seperti anai-anai, lebah, semut dan pijat. Persepsi terhadap satu sifat penting
serangga ini, contohnya anai-anai yang hidup dalam kumpulan mewujudkan pemahaman dalam kalangan
masyarakat Melayu yang seterusnya dizahirkan melalui peribahasa Bagai anai-anai bubus. Dengan kata lain
penciptaan peribahasa yang menggunakan serangga adalah lahir melalui perkongsian persepsi sesuatu
masyarakat linguistik terhadap persekitaran mereka dengan serangga yang menjadi sebahagian daripada alam
kehidupan mereka.
Data Peribahasa Makna Serangga Tema
Bagai anai-anai bubus Perihal yang menunjukkan
ramainya orang yang
berhimpun untuk melihat atau
mendengar sesuatu
Anai-anai Sosiobudaya
Seperti lebah, mulut
membawa madu,
buntut membawa
sengat
Orang kaya yang murah hati
tetapi suka menyindiri
Perempuan yang cantik tetapi
buruk perangainya
Lebah Sosiobudaya
Mati semut kerana gula Orang akan terpedaya atau
terpengaruh dengan pujukan
atau kata-kata yang manis
Semut Sosiobudaya
Pijat-pijat telah
menjadi kura-kura
Kerana pengaruh wang dan
harta dunia, orang yang
bodoh dan hina pun akan
menjadi mulia
Pijat Sosiobudaya
Semut dipijak tak mati,
antan dilanda patah
tiga
Cara berjalan seorang
perempuan yang baik, tidak
terlampau lambat dan tidak
pula terlampau cepat tetapi
kuat dan tetap
Semut Sosiobudaya
Hubungan sifat serangga dengan alam kehidupan serta pemikiran orang Melayu dahulu kala
Serangga adalah sebahagian daripada alam kehidupan manusia. Dengan demikian kehadiran serangga dalam
beberapa bentuk spesies telah banyak memberikan pilihan dan pengalaman kepada masyarakat Melayu untuk
memeta dengan baik hubungan linguistik dengan serangga sehingga membentuk peribahasa yang bermakna.
Persepsi dan pengalaman terhadap persekitaran serangga memberikan interpretasi tingkah laku kepada
masyarakat Melayu untuk mencipta peribahasa yang relevan dengan fenomena dan konteksnya.
Sebagai rumusan, alam serangga turut menjadi sebahagian daripada derivatif dalam pembentukan peribahasa
Melayu. Hal ini berlaku apabila orang Melayu bertembung dengan sesuatu organisma (tumbuh-tumbuhan,
haiwan, serangga dan benda-benda hidup yang lain) dan perlakuan manusia, maka akan berlaku interaksi
melalui sistem saraf dengan objek, organisma dan perlakuan manusia lalu mereka membentuk makna
pemikiran dan diungkapkan dalam bentuk peribahasa. Misalnya pertembungan dengan serangga anai-anai
yang rajin dan bekerjasama dalam melakukan sesuatu pekerjaan disamakan rujukannya dengan seseorang atau
sekumpulan yang melakukan sesuatu pekerjaan dengan tekun dan teliti.
Di samping itu, peribahasa Melayu menonjolkan perkongsian makna pemikiran bangsa Melayu yang
bersifat interaktif. Hal ini menyokong hipotesis Sapir-Whorf yang menyatakan bahawa struktur bahasa yang
dilahirkan adalah bukti yang mempengaruhi cara seseorang itu berfikir dan berperilaku. Bahasa dapat
dikatakan sebagai bahagian integral, iaitu yang perlu atau yang menjadi sebahagian daripada hidup manusia
dan bahasa menyerap dalam setiap fikiran dan cara penutur memandang dunia sekelilingnya.
Kesimpulan
Spesies serangga yang hidup dalam persekitaran hidup masyarakat Melayu telah memberikan
pengalaman dan perkongsian persepsi kepada masyarakat Melayu untuk mencipta peribahasa yang
mewakili tema sosiopolitik, sosioekonomi dan sosiobudaya. Dengan kata lain daripada pengamatan
masyarakat Melayu terhadap kehidupan, ciri sifat serangga telah mempengaruhi kepercayaan dan
perkongsian pengalaman mereka untuk menzahirkan peribahasa yang relevan dengan konteks dan alam
kehidupan manusia. Penggunaan serangga dalam peribahasa Melayu turut menonjolkan kebijaksanaan
masyarakat Melayu membina peribahasa dan makna berdasarkan pengalaman dan interaksinya dengan alam
sekeliling.
Rujukan
Bahiyah Dato Hj Abdul Hamid & Hafriza Burhanudeen. (1998). Men and women in
Malay proverb: An analysis of Malay gender ideology. Dlm. Sharifah Zaleha Syed
Hassan & Rashila Ramli (pnyt.). Kedudukan dan citra wanita dalam sumber-
sumber tradisional Melayu (hlm. 148-158 ). Bangi: Institut Alam dan
Tamadun Melayu, UKM.
Brown, C.C. (1951). Malay sayings. Singapore: Graham Brash (pte) Ltd.
Edwar Djamanis. (1985). Memahami dan menghargai peribahasa. Dewan Bahasa, 29(5), 338-344.
Effendy Kadarisman. (2009) Karya dosen. (Atas Talian). Telah dimuat turun 4 Februari 2011, dari
http://karya-ilmiah.um.ac.id/index.php/karya-dosen-fs/article/view/3689
Gumperz, John J. (1996). Introduction to part IV: The social matrix, culture, praxis, and discourse. Dlm. J. J.
Gumperz, & S. Levinson, C. Rethinking linguistic relativity (hlm. 359-73). Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Hamilton A.W. (1947). Malay proverbs. Singapore: Eastern Universiti Press Ltd.
Indrawati Zahid. (1998). Peribahasa Melayu: Satu klasifikasi yang tiada penentu. Jurnal Dewan Bahasa,
42(11), 978-984.
Imran Ho Abdullah. (2011). Analisis Kognitif Semantik Peribahasa Melayu Bersumberkan Anjing. GEMA
Online
TM
Journal of Language Studies, 11(1), 125-139.
Jyh Wee Sew. (2009). Gila-gila dalam peribahasa Melayu dan humor dalam peribahasa Melayu. Kuala
Lumpur: Penerbit Universiti Malaya.
Jufrizal Zul Amri & Refnaldi. (2007). Hipotesis Sapir-Whorf dan struktur informasi klausa pentopikalan
bahasa Minangkabau. Jurnal Linguistika, 14(26), 1-22.
Kamus Dewan. (2005). ed. ke-4. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Kramsch, C. (2001). Language and culture. UK: Oxford University Press.
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Lavandera, B. (1988). The social pragmatics of politeness forms. In U. Ammon and N. Dittmar (Eds.),
Sociolinguistics: An international handbook of the science of language and society vol 1. (hlm. 1196-1205)
Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Sapir, E. (1921). Language: An introduction to the study of speech. London: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich
Publishers.
Slobin, D. I. (1996). From thought and language to thinking for speaking. Dlm J. J. Gumperz, & S. C.
Levinson (pnyt.), Rethinking linguistic relativity. (hlm. 70-96). Cambridge: University Press.
Shellabear, W. G. & Guru Sulaiman Muhammad Nor (1964). Kitab kiliran budi. Kuala Lumpur: Pustaka
Antara
Wilkinson, R. J. (1907). Papers on Malay subject 1: Malay literature. London: Luzac & Co.
Winstedt, R. O. (1950). Malay proverb. London: John Murray.
von Humboldt, W. (1767). From thought and language to thinking for speaking. Dlm J. J. Gumperz, &
S.C. Levinson (pnyt.), Rethinking linguistic relativity. (hlm. 70-76). Cambridge: University Press.
Zaitul Azma Zainon Hamzah dan Ahmad Fuad Mat Hassan. (2011). Peribahasa Melayu: Penelitian Makna dan
Nilai Serdang: Penerbit UPM
Analisis Kesalahan Umum Struktur Ayat Majmuk oleh Pelajar Asing
Oleh:
Arina Johari
arinajr@ iium.edu.my
Mohd. Zuber Ismail
Zuber77@iium.edu.my
Divisyen Bahasa Melayu
Pusat Bahasa dan Pembangunan Akademik Pra-Universiti
Universiti Islam Antarabangsa Malaysia (UIAM)
Ayat Majmuk
Menurut Tatabahasa Dewan Edisi Ketiga, ayat majmuk ialah ayat yang dibina dengan menca
ntumkan dua ayat tunggal atau lebih, dan percantuman ayat-ayat itu disusun mengikut cara tertentu
sehingga menjadikannya ayat baharu. Terdapat tiga jenis ayat majmuk, iaitu ayat majmuk gabungan
, ayat majmuk pancangan dan ayat majmuk campuran.
1
Menurut Abdullah Hassan (2003), kebanyak
an ayat yang diucapkan dan dituliskan terdiri daripada jenis ayat majmuk. Penyataan ini jelas menu
njukkan bahawa penggunaan ayat majmuk adalah sangat meluas dalam bahasa Melayu, tidak kira sa
ma ada dalam pertuturan harian, formal mahupun penulisan.
Ayat majmuk gabungan adalah ayat yang terdiri daripada dua ayat atau lebih yang disatukan denga
n cara menggabungkan atau mencantumkan ayat-ayat tersebut dengan kata hubung seperti dan, atau, tetapi, da
n sebagainya. Abdullah Hassan (2003) membahagikan ayat majmuk gabungan kepada dua jenis; gabungan ber
susun dan gabungan bertentangan.
Manakala ayat majmuk pancangan merupakan ayat yang dibentuk oleh klausa yang tidak setara
. Ini bermakna dalam ayat berkenaan terdapat satu klausa bebas atau ayat utama, dan satu atau lebih
klausa tak bebas atau ayat kecil. Ayat majmuk pancangan ini pula terbahagi kepada tiga jenis; ayat
majmuk relatif, ayat majmuk komplemen dan ayat majmuk keterangan.
2
Ada ayat majmuk terdiri daripada beberapa ayat yang kedudukan antara ayat itu tidak sama.
Dalam ayat majmuk gabungan terdapat dua ayat atau lebih yang bersifat sama taraf, yakni masing-
masing dapat berdiri sendiri. Sebaliknya, dalam ayat majmuk pancangan terdapat satu ayat utama at
au ayat induk dan satu atau beberapa ayat kecil lain yang dipancangkan di dalam ayat induk dan me
njadi sebahagian daripada ayat induk.
Abdullah Hassan (2006) mendefinisikan ayat majmuk campuran sebagai hasil gabungan aya
t majmuk gabungan dan ayat majmuk pancangan.
3
1
Abdullah Hassan, Seri Lanang Jaya Rohani, Razali Ayob, Zulkifli Osman. 2006. Sintaksis: Siri Pengajaran dan
Pembelajaran Bahasa Melayu. hlm. 46.
2
Abdullah Hassan. 2003. Tatabahasa Bahasa Melayu: Morfologi dan Sintaksis untuk Guru dan Pelajar. Pahang: PTS
Publications & Distributor Sdn. Bhd. hlm. 309.
3
Abdullah Hassan, Seri Lanang Jaya Rohani, Razali Ayob, Zulkifli Osman. 2006. Sintaksis: Siri Pengajaran dan
Pembelajaran Bahasa Melayu. hlm. 47.
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372
Contoh-contoh ayat majmuk gabungan, ayat majmuk pancangan dan ayat majmuk campuran
adalah seperti berikut:
1) Ayat majmuk gabungan
- Sanah, Milah, Jenab, Semek, Liah, Lebar, dan Kiah berada di tanah bermain masak- masak
nasi pasir dan periuk tempurung.
2) Ayat majmuk pancangan
2.1) Ayat majmuk relatif
- Rumah yang baru dibina itu sudah dijual.
2.2) Ayat majmuk komplemen
- Dia mengetahui bahawa Ahmad telah bersara.
2.3) Ayat majmuk keterangan
- Anak itu menangis kerana ia lapar.
3) Ayat majmuk campuran
- Gadis itu mengalihkan baldinya yang satu lagi bagi menempatkan baldi kecil kanak-ka
nak itu.
Berdasarkan definisi ayat majmuk di atas, maka jelaslah bahawa ayat majmuk merupakan st
ruktur ayat paling kompleks yang sering digunakan dalam penulisan bagi penyampaian sesuatu idea
dengan lebih berkesan. Kesalahan dan kesilapan dalam penggunaan bentuk ayat majmuk akan menj
ejaskan makna sesuatu ayat yang diungkapkan. Maka, kajian ini akan meneliti dan mengkaji keselur
uhan aspek kesalahan dalam penggunaan ayat majmuk oleh pelajar asing di UIAM dalam penulisan
esei mereka.
Kajian Literatur
Awang Sariyan (1980) mengatakan bahawa kesalahan bahasa tulisan pelajar berkisar dari m
asalah kesalahan ejaan hingga kepada masalah morfologi (kata) dan sintaksis (ayat).
4
Oleh itu, untu
k menganalisis kesalahan penggunaan ayat majmuk dalam kalangan pelajar asing, satu kajian analis
is data dari aspek sintaksis perlu dilakukan. Kajian sintaksis ini dapat menghuraikan peraturan dala
m penggunaan tatabahasa yang betul untuk mengungkapkan idea-idea khusus dan tertentu dalam se
suatu bahasa. Namun begitu, hakikat yang perlu diterima oleh pengkaji ialah, terdapat banyak kajia
n mengenai aspek ini dilakukan untuk melihat kesalahan dalam pemerolehan bahasa pertama (B1) o
4
Awang Sariyan. 1980. Pencemaran Bahasa dari Perspektif Budaya. Dewan Masyarakat, jil. 18, bil. 3, hlm. 3-4.
leh penutur jati dan pemerolehan bahasa kedua (B2) oleh penutur asing yang tinggal di Malaysia iai
tu kaum Cina dan India, tetapi belum ada kajian dilakukan terhadap penutur asing yang mempelajar
i bahasa Melayu sebagai bahasa asing atau pemerolehan bahasa Melayu sebagai bahasa ketiga (B3)
setakat ini. Maka, sorotan kajian ini akan mengambil contoh-contoh kajian terhampir yang telah dil
akukan oleh pengkaji-pengkaji luar dan tempatan terhadap kesalahan ayat majmuk yang dilakukan
oleh pelajar tempatan dan pelajar asing dalam karangan mereka.
Kajian Luar Negara mengenai analisis kesalahan ayat
Corder (1973) mengkategorikan empat kesalahan yang dilakukan oleh pelajar dalam pembel
ajaran bahasa kedua, iaitu pengguguran unsur-unsur yang perlu, penambahan unsur yang tidak perlu
atau tidak tepat, pemilihan unsur yang tidak tepat dan penyusunan unsur yang salah. Walau bagaim
anapun, Corder mengatakan bahawa kategori-kategori tersebut belum mencukupi untuk menjelaska
n kesalahan-kesalahan bahasa yang berlaku dan beliau akhirnya telah menyertakan kesalahan bagi
peringkat-peringkat linguistik seperti morfologi, sintaksis dan leksikon.
Selain itu, Wyatt (1973) telah menjalankan satu kajian tentang analisis kesalahan dalam kara
ngan yang dihasilkan oleh pelajar 4C di Afrika Timur. Alat kajiannya ialah 52 buah buku karangan
yang ditulis oleh pelajar sejak mereka Tingkatan Tiga. Sebanyak 14 jenis kesalahan telah ditinjau d
an dikira kekerapannya. Dapatan kajian menunjukkan bahawa kesalahan ejaan adalah yang paling ti
nggi iaitu 18.4%, manakala kesalahan struktur ayat (16.6%), penggunaan kata nama dan kata kerja
masing-masing berjumlah 16.0%.
Hoh (1973) telah menganalisis tujuh jenis kesalahan bahasa berdasarkan karangan yang ditu
lis oleh pelajar prauniversiti aliran Cina di Singapura. Hasil kajian mendapati bahawa daripada 4813
kesalahan, terdapat 1188 kesalahan penggunaan kata kerja, 767 kesalahan ejaan, 694 kesalahan kat
a nama bilangan, 656 kesalahan leksikal, 634 kesalahan fungsi kata, 463 kesalahan struktur ayat dan
411 kesalahan artikel.
Schacter (1974: 205-214) telah membuat kajian tentang analisis kesalahan, khususnya untuk
kesalahan yang disebabkan oleh pemindahan bahasa. Schacter menganalisis beberapa buah karanga
n yang ditulis oleh dua kumpulan pelajar dewasa yang mempelajari bahasa Inggeris sebagai bahasa
kedua. Kumpulan yang pertama terdiri daripada penutur jati bahasa Parsi dan bahasa Arab. Kumpul
an kedua pula terdiri daripada penutur jati bahasa Cina dan bahasa Jepun. Bahasa Cina dan bahasa J
epun menunjukkan sifat yang berbeza dalam pemakaian klausa-klausa relatif dan struktur ayat deng
an bahasa Inggeris. Dapatan kajian ini menunjukkan bahasa pelajar-pelajar kumpulan pertama meng
gunakan klaus-klausa relatif dalam ayat dua kali ganda banyaknya berbanding pelajar-pelajar kump
ulan kedua. Ini jelas menunjukkan bahawa kumpulan pelajar tersebut cuba mengelakkan penggunaa
n sesuatu bahasa yang tiada, atau berlainan daripada bahasa pertama mereka dalam bahasa yang me
reka pelajari kemudian. Kesalahan yang dilakukan daripada percubaan menggunakan bentuk bahasa
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374
pertama telah menunjukkan manifestasi wujudnya pemindahan bahasa.
Selain itu, seorang pengkaji dari Brunei Darussalam, iaitu Pengiran Mahmud Pengiran Dami
t (1992: 232) telah menjalankan kajian tentang kesalahan tatabahasa dan tanda baca ke atas 200 ora
ng pelajar tingkatan dua sekolah Menengah Daerah Brunei/Muara dan Daerah Tutong. Dapatan ini
menunjukkan bahawa pelajar paling kerap membuat kesalahan yang ada hubungan dengan struktur
ayat, iaitu 35.9 peratus daripada keseluruhan kesalahan bahasa yang dilakukan. Daripada jumlah ini,
didapati pelajar paling banyak melakukan kesalahan tentang binaan ayat yang tidak lengkap, iaitu s
ebanyak 18.45 peratus.
Manakala dalam kajian Arpan Shahbudin Latip (1998) terhadap 186 orang pelajar Melayu th
anawi(menengah) lima pada tahun 1996 di dua buah sekolah menengah Arab di Negara Brunei Dar
ussalam. Dapatan kajian membuktikan bahawa pelajar lelaki dan perempuan didapati lemah dalam
menggunakan kemahiran membina ayat majmuk.
5
Kajian mendapati kelemahan pelajar membentuk
ayat-ayat majmuk kerana mereka gagal menggunakan kata hubung, kata tugas dan lemah dalam me
mancangkan beberapa ayat kecil ke dalam ayat induk dengan kemas dan teratur.
6
Kajian mengenai kesalahan bahasa dalam pembelajaran bahasa kedua tidak pernah putus ser
ta masih dilaksanakan oleh ramai pengkaji. Oleh itu, kajian dalam aspek ini diteruskan oleh Money
pada tahun 2004 terhadap karangan murid Tamil yang mempelajari bahasa Melayu sebagai bahasa
kedua. Dapatan oleh Money ini sekali lagi membuktikan bahawa pelajar Tamil yang mempelajari ba
hasa Melayu sebagai bahasa kedua tersebut sering melakukan kesalahan tatabahasa dari aspek perka
taan, frasa dan ayat.
Kajian Tempatan Tentang Analisis Kesilapan Ayat Majmuk dalam Karangan Pelajar
Mohd. Sallehuddin (1983) membuat kajian terhadap karangan pelajar Tingkatan Lima di em
pat buah sekolah di Negeri Sembilan. Sampelnya terdiri daripada pelajar Melayu, Cina dan India da
ripada pelbagai aliran. Dapatan kajian mendapati bahawa empat kesalahan yang utama ialah ayat be
rkait (40.1%), ayat panjang yang tidak dapat ditentukan maknanya (20.4%), ayat saduran daripada a
yat Inggeris dan ayat aktif (10.5%). Kesalahan-kesalahan ini ialah 83.6% daripada jumlah kesalahan
yang dilakukan oleh mereka. Hasil kajian juga mendapati bahawa pelajar Cina kerap melakukan ke
salahan ayat berkait, diikuti dengan ayat-ayat panjang, dan struktur ayat yang memperlihatkan peng
aruh ayat bahasa Inggeris. Pelajar India pula banyak meakukan kesalahan ayat berkait dan ayat-ayat
panjang, di samping kesalahan ayat pasif.
Kajian Awang Mohammad Amin (1982: 18-22) mengenai kesalahan-kesalahan umum pengg
5
Arpan Shahbudin Latip. 1998. Tatabahasa Bahasa Melayu: Morfologi dan Sintaksis untuk Guru dan
Pelajar. hlm. 137.
6
Ibid 1998, hlm. 137.
unaan bahasa Melayu oleh penutur ekabahasa peringkat sekolah menengah atas mendapati bahawa j
umlah kekerapan kesalahan ayat dan jenis-jenisnya bagi keseluruhan sampel kajian ialah sebanyak
935 dengan purata setiap pelajar ialah 7.8%. Aspek kesalahan sintaksis yang dikaji ialah ayat selapis
aktif dan pasif, ayat berlapis, ayat kompleks, ayat berkait, ayat saduran, dan struktur ayat-ayat lain
serta jenis-jenis ayat yang dinyatakan. Dapatan kajian menunjukkan bahawa sampel kajian banyak
melakukan kesalahan berhubung dengan struktur ayat pasif. Selain itu, Awang mendapati bahawa k
esalahan-kesalahan kata ganti nama diri, kata ganti tunjuk, kata depan, kata bantu dan penggunaan k
ata asing merupakan kesalahan yang paling umum dilakukan oleh sampel kajian.
Supian (1994) pula mendapati bahawa kebanyakan pelajar Cina yang mempelajari bahasa
Melayu sebagai bahasa kedua melakukan kesalahan frasa kerja transitif, frasa kerja tak transitif, fras
a kerja pasif pelaku diri pertama, kedua dan ketiga. Kajian beliau membuktikan bahawa kesalahan f
rasa kerja transitif merupakan kesalahan yang paling banyak dilakukan oleh pelajar berbanding kesa
lahan frasa kerja yang lain.
Abdullah Hassan (2006) mengatakan bahawa kesalahan dalam penggunaan ayat-ayat teruta
manya ayat kompleks seperti ayat majmuk, dan sebagainya merupakan kesalahan yang banyak dike
san dan diperolehi oleh para pengkaji bahasa. Kesalahan ini terjadi disebabkan penggunaan kata hu
bung yang tidak tepat atau kesalahan dalam ayat. Kekerapan kesalahan dalam penggunaan ayat maj
muk oleh para pelajar dan pengguna bahasa yang lain dapat dilihat dalam kajian yang dilakukan ole
h ramai pengkaji lain.
7
Berhubung dengan kesalahan ayat bahasa Melayu yang diambil daripada susunan ayat bahas
a asing, para pengkaji bersepakat bahawa ayat yang terdapat kesalahan padanya ialah kesan pengaru
h daripada bahasa Inggeris, bahasa daerah, bahasa ibunda atau bahasa seharian.
8
Selain itu, kesalahan-kesalahan lain yang sering dilakukan oleh pelajar dalam penulisan akib
at ketidakfahaman peraturan dalam binaan ayat termasuk kesalahan dalam binaan subjek dan predik
at. Kesalahan tersebut ialah:
9
a) Kesalahan struktur ayat tunggal
b) Kesalahan struktur ayat majmuk gabungan. Antara kesalahan yang sering dilakukan ialah
kesalahan menggunakan kata hubung, kesalahan kerana mengulang subjek yang sama dan
kesalahan kerana mengulang kata kerja yang sama.
c) Kesalahan struktur ayat majmuk relatif
7
. Wan Mohd Norudin Wan Kadir. 2006. Analisis Kesilapan Tatabahasa dalam karangan Bahasa Melayu: Satu Kajian
Kes. hlm .46.
8
Ibid. 2006. hlm. 47.
9
Wan Mohd Norudin Wan Kadir. 2006. Analisis Kesilapan Tatabahasa dalam karangan Bahasa Melayu: Satu Kajian Kes.
hlm. 62-63.
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376
d) Kesalahan struktur ayat majmuk komplemen. Kesalahan yang biasa dilakukan dalam
penulisan ayat majmuk komplemen ialah ayat tiada penanda (kata) komplemen iaitu
bahawa dan untuk.
e) Kesalahan struktur ayat majmuk keterangan. Ayat majmuk keterangan ialah ayat majmuk
yang terdiri daripada satu ayat induk dan satu ayat kecil atau lebih yang berfungsi sebagai
keterangan kepada predikat. Kesalahan yang sering dilakukan dalam penulisan ayat
majmuk ini ialah: tiada kata hubung yang berfungsi sebagai kata keterangan, penggunaan
kata hubung yang berfungsi sebagai penanda keterangan yang salah.
f) Kesalahan struktur ayat aktif
g) Kesalahan struktur ayat pasif
Wan Mohd Norudin (2006) seterusnya menyimpulkan bahawa, terdapat perbezaan kecil dala
m kekerapan kesalahan ayat antara pelajar lelaki dengan pelajar perempuan di Sekolah Menengah K
ebangsaan Seri Nering, Jerteh, Besut, Terengganu. Dapatan kajian beliau menunjukkan bahawa pela
jar lelaki lebih banyak melakukan kesalahan tatabahasa dalam aspek ayat tunggal dan ayat majmuk
(24.7%) berbanding dengan pelajar perempuan (21.7%).
Ahmad Shahril (1996) pula mendapati pelajar bahasa pertama melakukan kesalahan dari asp
ek perkataan, frasa dan ayat. Dapatan beliau membuktikan bahawa kesalahan aspek perkataan yang
paling banyak dilakukan oleh pelajar, diikuti kesalahan aspek frasa dan ayat.
Secara keseluruhannya, kajian-kajian yang diberikan di atas telah menggunakan kaedah anal
isis kesalahan dan memperlihatkan dapatan dalam bidang-bidang yang lebih terperinci seperti daera
h-daerah kesalahan, kekerapan jenis kesalahan dan penentuan punca-punca kesalahan. Berpandukan
kepada kajian-kajian tersebut, maka kajian ini cuba meninjau beberapa aspek kesalahan bahasa de
ngan penekanan kepada kesalahan ayat majmuk yang dilakukan oleh pelajar-pelajar asing dalam pe
nulisan karangan mereka.
Soalan Kajian
Kajian ini akan menganalisis dan meneliti jawapan bagi soalan-soalan kajian seperti berikut:
1. Apakah aspek kesalahan penggunaan ayat majmuk gabungan yang dilakukan oleh pelajar
asing dalam karangan mereka?
2. Apakah aspek kesalahan penggunaan ayat majmuk pancangan relatif yang dilakukan oleh
pelajar asing dalam karangan mereka?
3. Apakah aspek kesalahan penggunaan ayat majmuk pancangan komplemen yang dilakukan
oleh pelajar asing dalam karangan mereka?
4. Apakah aspek kesalahan penggunaan ayat majmuk pancangan keterangan yang dilakukan
oleh pelajar asing dalam karangan mereka?
5. Apakah aspek kesalahan penggunaan ayat majmuk campuran dalam karangan bahasa
Melayu pelajar asing?
Batasan Kajian
Kajian ini akan dibataskan dengan menganalisa dapatan berdasarkan aspek kesalahan berikut:
1. Ayat majmuk gabungan
2. Ayat majmuk pancangan relatif yang menggunakan kata hubung yang
3. Ayat majmuk pancangan komplemen yang menggunakan kata hubung bahawa dan
untuk
4. Ayat majmuk pancangan keterangan
5. Ayat majmuk campuran
Analisis Dapatan Kajian dan Perbincangan
Berdasarkan analisis yang dijalankan terhadap 41 sampel karangan daripada pelajar-pelajar
asing, didapati bahawa sebanyak 597 ayat tunggal dan ayat majmuk telah dihasilkan dalam karanga
n tersebut. Daripada jumlah tersebut, 316 atau 52.9 peratus terdiri daripada ayat majmuk. Hal ini
menunjukkan bahawa pelajar-pelajar asing mempunyai kebolehan membina ayat majmuk dan kera
p menggunakan ayat tersebut dalam penulisan karangan mereka. Kajian mendapati kesemua jenis a
yat majmuk telah dihasilkan oleh pelajar asing dengan kekerapan yang berbeza-beza seperti yang di
kategorikan dalam Jadual 1 di bawah.
Jadual 1 Ayat Majmuk yang dihasilkan oleh Penutur Asing dalam Karangan
Jenis Ayat Jumlah Ayat Jumlah Kesalahan
(%) (%)
Ayat Majmuk Gabungan 160 156
(50.6) (50.9)
Ayat Majmuk Campuran 74 70
(23.4) (22.8)
Ayat Majmuk Pancangan Keterangan 63 62
(19.9) (20.2)
Ayat Majmuk Pancangan Relatif 18 17
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(5.6) (5.5)
Ayat Majmuk Pancangan Komplemen 1 1
(0.3) (0.3)
JUMLAH KESELURUHAN 316 306
(100) (100)
Berdasarkan Jadual 1, kajian mendapati walaupun pelajar asing didapati kerap menghasilkan
ayat majmuk dalam karangan mereka namun dalam masa yang sama, kekerapan kesalahan yang dit
emui dalam setiap ayat majmuk berkenaan juga adalah tinggi. Dapatan kajian menunjukkan bahawa
sebanyak 306 atau 96.2 % daripada 316 ayat majmuk yang dihasilkan oleh pelajar asing mengalami
kesalahan daripada pelbagai aspek. Perbezaan dalam kekerapan membentuk ayat majmuk mengikut
jenis juga didapati selari dengan dapatan perbezaan kekerapan dalam kesalahan yang dilakukan me
ngikut jenis ayat majmuk tersebut. Kajian mendapati faktor utama yang menyebabkan pelajar asing
gemar membentuk ayat majmuk gabungan adalah disebabkan proses pemajmukannya yang mudah.
Ayat majmuk campuran pula yang kedua kerap dibentuk oleh pelajar asing dengan peratus kekerapa
n sebanyak 23.4%, ayat majmuk keterangan sebanyak 19.9% dan ayat majmuk pancangan relatif se
banyak 5.26%. Namun begitu, kajian mendapati hanya satu sahaja ayat majmuk komplemen dihasil
kan daripada 41 sampel yang dikaji dan dapatan ini diperolehi daripada sampel ketiga (S3) dalam p
enulisan ayat ketiga (A3) dengan peratus kekerapan sebanyak 0.3%.
Abdullah Hassan (2006) menggunakan pendekatan tatabahasa pedagogi dalam kajiannya ten
tang sintaksis bahasa Melayu. Beliau berpendapat bahawa kesalahan sintaksis bermaksud pembentu
kan ayat yang menyalahi atau menyimpang daripada rumus-rumus struktur ayat yang betul dan sesu
ai dengan sesuatu bahasa. Kesalahan ayat ini mencakupi kesalahan klausa, dan ayat. Kesalahan ayat
juga terjadi akibat daripada ketidaktepatan dalam penggunaan bentuk-bentuk kata dan frasa tertentu
yang mendokong kegramatisan dalam binaan sesebuah ayat. Berdasarkan penyataan di atas, kesala
han pembentukan ayat majmuk oleh pelajar asing dalam kajian ini telah dianalisis dan dikelompokk
an ke dalam beberapa aspek kesalahan. Antaranya ialah:
a. kekeliruan /ketidakjelasan struktur ayat
b. penggunaan kata hubung yang tidak tepat
c. penggunaan kata kerja yang tidak tepat
d. Ejaan
e. penggunaan kata saduran
f. Ortografi (tanda baca dan huruf besar)
g. Pemilihan kosa kata yang tidak tepat/sesuai
Aspek Kesalahan Ayat Majmuk Gabungan
Jadual 2 Aspek Kesalahan Ayat Majmuk Gabungan
Jenis Kesalahan Kekerapan Peratusan
Kekeliruan/ketidakjelasan struktur ayat 42 15.6
Penggunaan kata hubung yang tidak tepat 38 14.2
Penggunaan kata kerja yang tidak tepat 46 17.1
Ejaan 72 26.1
Ortografi 36 14.4
Penggunaan kata saduran 15 5.5
JUMLAH 249 100
Soalan kajian yang pertama akan dapat dijawab berdasarkan data-data yang telah dianalisis
dalam Jadual 2 di atas. Setelah dianalisis kesemua 156 ayat majmuk gabungan yang didapati menga
lami kesalahan, kajian mendapati terdapat sekurang-kurangnya dua kesalahan dalam setiap ayat ber
kenaan malah terdapat juga ayat yang mengandungi antara empat hingga lima kesalahan. Kesalahan
yang paling kerap ditemui ialah aspek ejaan dengan peratus kekerapan tertinggi sebanyak 26.1%.
Kebanyakan ayat majmuk gabungan yang dihasilkan juga didapati mengandungi kesalahan kata ker
ja seperti tidak mengandungi penanda pasif atau aktif (imbuhan), tidak sesuai malah ada juga ayat y
ang langsung tidak mempunyai kata kerja sehingga mencatat kesalahan kedua tertinggi dengan pera
tus kekerapan sebanyak 17.1%. Kesalahan dari aspek struktur ayat pula mencatat kesalahan ketiga t
ertinggi iaitu 15.6%, apabila kebanyakan ayat majmuk gabungan yang dihasilkan mengalami kecela
ruan susunan antara menggabungkan unsur subjek/predikat ayat utama dengan subjek/predikat ayat
ke-2 dan ke-3 sehingga menjejaskan makna ayat secara keseluruhan.
Pelajar asing juga didapati tidak dapat menguasai makna kata hubung dan konteks penggun
aannya yang sebenar dan hal ini menjadi faktor yang menyumbang kepada kesalahan memilih kata
hubung yang sesuai dengan konteks ayat. Oleh sebab itu, kesalahan kata hubung mencatat peratus k
ekerapan sebanyak 14.2%. Aspek kesalahan ortografi (14.4%) memperlihatkan pelajar asing gagal
menggunakan tanda koma dan tanda nokhtah pada tempat yang sepatutnya di dalam ayat majmuk m
anakala aspek kesalahan kata saduran (5.5%) dikenal pasti apabila pelajar menggunakan secara lang
sung perkataan-perkataan dalam bahasa asing terutamanya bahasa Inggeris.
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Kesalahan Ayat Majmuk Gabungan
Jadual 3 : Contoh Kesalahan Ayat Majmuk Gabungan
Sampel Contoh Ayat Pembetulan
S15
(A5)
Di situ banyak barang dan makanan
jual antaranya, beg, kasut, pakaian,
buah-buahan, sayur-sayuran dan
macam-macam lagi.
Barangan serta makanan banyak dijual di
situ seperti beg, kasut, pakaian, buah-
buahan, sayur-sayuran dan sebagainya.
S23
(A17)
Tetapi saya membeli setiap hari di kafe
saya.
Harga makanan itu mahal tetapi saya tetap
membelinya di kafe setiap hari.
S23
(A5)
Nasi goreng di Kantin saya sangat sedap
dan sangat pedas.
Nasi goreng di kantin saya sangat sedap
tetapi sangat pedas.
S25
(A7)
Antaranya, nasi goreng kampung dan
nasi goreng ayam,
Antara makanan tersebut ialah nasi
goreng kampung dan nasi goreng ayam.
S25
(A14)
Sini, kamu makan setiap hari, nasi putih
dan ikan pedas dan daging.
Kami makan nasi putih, ikan pedas dan
daging di sini setiap hari.
Berdasarkan Jadual 3, contoh kesalahan bagi sampel ke-15 dalam ayat kelima (A5),
pengulangan kata hubung setara dan yang membawa makna yang sama dalam ayat berkenaan.
Mengikut Tatabahasa Dewan Edisi Baharu (2004), jika kata hubung dan telah digunakan untuk kali
pertama dan ingin menggunakannya lagi dalam ayat yang sama, maka kata dan tersebut perlu
digantikan dengan kata serta untuk menunjukkan tujuan yang sama. Selain itu, kesalahan-
kesalahan lain seperti tidak mempunyai penanda pasif untuk kata kerja jual dan kesalahan susunan
struktur ayat juga berlaku dalam ayat ini.
Kesalahan ayat 17 dalam sampel ke-23 dan ayat 14 dalam sampel ke-25 pula, kesalahan
struktur ayat menyebabkan kedua-dua ayat majmuk tersebut tidak gramatis. A17 tidak mempunyai
subjek dan predikat ayat utama serta dimulai dengan kata hubung tetapi. Pengkaji mendapati hal ini
berlaku disebabkan ayat utama (Harga makanan itu mahal.) telah ditulis sebagai ayat tunggal di
dalam ayat sebelumnya. Maka, pembetulan A17 dilakukan dengan memasukkan unsur berkenaan
supaya pembentukan ayat majmuk gabungan tersebut lebih tepat dan gramatis. A14 pula mengalami
kesalahan struktur atau susunan ayat yang agak mengelirukan. Proses penyongsangan atau
pendepanan predikat serta penggunaan kata nama juga tidak tepat. Berikut diberikan pecahan ayat
yang betul bagi ayat majmuk A14:
Ayat utama: Kami makan nasi putih di sini setiap hari.
Ayat ke-2: Kami makan ikan pedas di sini setiap hari.
Ayat ke-3: Kami makan daging di sini setiap hari.
Ayat majmuk gabungan - penyongsanan separa predikat: Setiap hari kami makan nasi putih, ikan
pedas dan daging di sini.
Ayat majmuk -penyongsangan penuh predikat: Di sini setiap hari kami makan nasi putih, ikan
pedas dan daging.
Sampel ke-23 dalam ayat kelima (A5) pula dikesan mengandungi kata hubung dan yang
tidak tepat kerana kata hubung dan bertujuan menunjukkan keadaan setara. Dalam hal ini, kata
hubung tetapi yang merujuk keadaan pertentangan adalah lebih tepat digunakan bagi mendukung
makna dalam konteks ayat berkenaan.
Kesalahan tanda baca (koma) dikesan terdapat dalam ayat ketujuh (A7) bagi sampel ke-25
yang menunjukkan bahawa tanda baca seperti koma sangat penting dalam pembentukan ayat
majmuk gabungan. Ini disebabkan terdapat juga tanda koma yang boleh menggantikan kehadiran
kata hubung (yang digugurkan) dalam ayat majmuk. Bagi ayat A7, tanda koma yang pertama tidak
perlu diletakkan dan lebih gramatis digantikan dengan kata pemeri ialah manakala tanda koma yang
kedua pula sepatutnya digantikan dengan tanda nokhtah. Kesalahan lain ialah penggunaan kata
ganti nama kamu dan kesalahan predikat yang tidak tepat.
Aspek Kesalahan Ayat Majmuk Pancangan Relatif
Jadual 4 Kesalahan Ayat Majmuk Pancangan Relatif
Jenis Kesalahan Kekerapan Peratusan
Kekeliruan/ketidakjelasan struktur ayat 8 17.2
Penggunaan kata hubung yang tidak tepat 4 8.5
Penggunaan kata kerja yang tidak tepat 5 10.6
Ejaan 7 14.8
Ortografi 8 17.2
Penggunaan kata saduran 2 4.2
Pemilihan kosa kata yang tidak tepat/sesuai 13 27.6
JUMLAH 47 100
Data-data yang diperoleh dalam Jadual 4 di atas akan menjawab soalan kajian yang kedua.
Kajian mendapati sebanyak 47 kesalahan ayat majmuk pancangan dilakukan oleh pelajar asing dan
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kesalahan tertinggi ialah aspek pemilihan kosa kata yang tidak tepat atau sesuai dengan maksud
ayat dengan peratus kekerapan sebanyak 27.6%. Kesalahan struktur ayat dan ortografi pula
kesalahan kedua kerap dilakukan dengan peratus kekerapan kedua-duanya ialah 17.2%. Hal ini
diikuti oleh kesalahan aspek ejaan (14.8%), penggunaan kata kerja yang tidak tepat (10.6%),
penggunaan kata hubung yang tidak tepat (8.5%) dan kesalahan penggunaan kata saduran sebanyak
4.2%. Dapatan ini menunjukkan bahawa pelajar agak kurang menggunakan ayat jenis relatif ini
berbanding ayat majmuk gabungan yang berkemungkinan disebabkan oleh proses pemancangannya
yang agak kompleks. Hal ini dapat dilihat apabila kesilapan pemilihan kosa kata yang tidak
tepat/sesuai sebagai kata tugas menyebabkan ayat-ayat kecil tidak dapat dipancangkan dengan tepat
ke dalam ayat induk menggunakan penanda relatif yang.
Kesalahan Ayat Majmuk Pancangan Relatif
J adual 5 : Contoh Kesalahan Ayat Majmuk Pancangan Relatif
Sampel Contoh Ayat Pembetulan
S6
(A1)
Suaku hari dalam kehidupan saya yang
saya sangat gembira ialah hari yang saya
pergi berkila di pantai dengan keluarga
saya.
Hari yang sangat gembira dalam hidup
saya adalah berkelah di tepi pantai dengan
keluarga.
S7
(A10)
Saya akan makan tengah hari pukul 2.00
dengan kawan-kawan saya di baru Kafe
di Azman Hashim Kompleks di dalam
university islam Antarabangsa Malaysia.
Saya akan makan tengah hari pada pukul
dua petang dengan kawan-kawan di kafe
baharu yang terletak di Kompleks Azman
Hashim, Universiti Islam Antarabangsa
Malaysia.
S8
(A9)
Kita maka Nasi Goreng Ayam Kunyit,
itu sangat lazat.
Kami makan nasi goreng ayam kunyit
yang sangat lazat itu.
Berdasarkan Jadual 5, ayat majmuk relatif (A1) yang ditulis oleh sampel keenam (S6) pula
dikesan mengandungi kesalahan utama dari aspek pengulangan subjek (nata nama) saya yang
sepatutnya digugurkan apabila memancangkan ayat kecil ke dalam ayat induk. Bentuk sebenar ayat
tersebut setelah dibetulkan adalah seperti berikut:
Ayat induk: Hari itu saya pergi berkelah di tepi pantai dengan keluarga.
Ayat kecil: Hari itu sangat gembira dalam hidup saya.
Ayat majmuk relatif: Hari yang sangat gembira dalam hidup saya adalah pergi berkelah di tepi
pantai dengan keluarga.
Ayat bergaris dalam contoh di atas ialah ayat kecil yang dipancangakan ke dalam ayat induk
setelah subjek digugurkan. Kesalahan lain yang dikesan ialah pengulangan penanda relatif yang.
Sampel ketujuh (S7) dalam ayat ke-10 (A10) pula, dikesan mengandungi kesalahan
ketiadaan kata hubung pancangan yang untuk memancangkan ayat kecil. Bentuk asal A10 setelah
dibetulkan adalah seperti berikut:
Ayat induk: Saya akan makan tengah hari pada pukul dua dengan kawan-kawan di kafe baharu.
Ayat kecil: Kafe baharu itu terletak di Kompleks Azman Hashim, Universiti Islam Antarabangsa
Malaysia.
Ayat majmuk relatif: Saya akan makan tengah hari pada pukul dua petang dengan kawan-kawan di
kafe baharu yang terletak di Kompleks Azman Hashim, Universiti Islam
Antarabangsa Malaysia.
Bagi kesalahan ayat relatif A15 dalam karangan sampel kelapan (S8) pula, didapati
mengandungi kesalahan ketiadaan kata hubung serta kesalahan tanda koma sehingga
menjadikannya ayat tergantung. A15 akan menjadi lengkap dan gramatis apabila kata hubung yang
diletakkan selepas ayat induk. Contoh pecahan A15 adalah seperti berikut:
Ayat induk: Kami makan nasi goreng ayam kunyit itu.
Ayat kecil: Nasi goreng ayam kunyit itu sangat lazat
Ayat majmuk relative: Kami makan nasi goreng ayam kunyit yang sangat lazat itu.
Berdasarkan contoh-contoh kesalahan aspek relatif ini, kajian dapat mengenal pasti bahawa
proses pemancangan ayat kecil kepada ayat induk yang agak rumit dalam pembentukan ayat
majmuk pancangan relatif telah menyebabkan pelajar asing sering keliru dalam membuat susunan
yang tepat dan betul. Mereka juga didapati kurang memahami maksud kata hubung relatif dan gagal
menggunakannya dalam konteks pemancangan relatif yang sebenar.
Aspek Kesalahan Ayat Majmuk Keterangan
Jadual 6 Kesalahan Ayat Majmuk Keterangan
Jenis Kesalahan Kekerapan Peratusan
Kekeliruan/ketidakjelasan struktur ayat 21 20.1
Penggunaan kata hubung yang tidak tepat 17 16.3
Penggunaan kata kerja yang tidak tepat 11 10.5
Ejaan 23 22.1
Ortografi 14 13.4
Penggunaan kata saduran 7 6.7
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Pemilihan kosa kata yang kurang tepat/sesuai 11 10.5
JUMLAH 104 100
Seterusnya, soalan kajian yang ketiga akan dijawab oleh data-data yang ditunjukkan dalam
Jadual 6 di atas. Kajian menunjukkan bahawa kesalahan aspek ejaan ialah kesalahan tertinggi
dalam pembentukan ayat majmuk keterangan oleh pelajar asing dengan peratus kekerapan sebanyak
22.1%. Kesalahan aspek struktur ayat pula ialah kesalahan kedua kerap dilakukan (20.1%), diikuti
oleh kesalahan penggunaan kata hubung (16.3%), Ortografi (13.4%), kesalahan kata kerja dan
pemilihan kosa kata yang tidak tepat/sesuai dengan peratus kekerapan yang sama (10.5%) serta
penggunaan kata saduran sebanyak 6.7%. Kajian turut mendapati pelajar asing lebih banyak
menggunakan ayat majmuk keterangan dalam penulisan karangan terutama pancangan keterangan
waktu seperti apabila, setelah, ketika dan semejak; pancangan keterangan tujuan (untuk),
keterangan musabab (kerana) dan keterangan syarat (jika).
Kesalahan Ayat Majmuk Pancangan Keterangan
Jadual : Contoh Kesalahan Ayat Majmuk Pancangan Keterangan oleh Pelajar Asing
Sampel Contoh Ayat Pembetulan
S2
(A9)
Bila habis buat alyer-layer dalam periut,
kamu mesti masukan lasagna dalam
oven dalam masa 45 min.
Lasagna hendaklah dimasukkan ke dalam
ketuhar selama 45 minit setelah anda
selesai membuat lapisan di dalam periuk.
S11
(A12)
Saya keluar bilik saya, saya pergi ke
kullyyah untuk kelas pagi.
Saya keluar dari bilik untuk ke kelas pagi
di kuliyyah.
S13
(20)
Apabila sudah saya membaca buku
sampai waktu.
Saya membaca buku apabila selesai
makan petang.
S24
(A6)
Jika saya tindak ada kelas, saya sebagai
untuk ke perpustakaan.
Saya akan ke perpustakaan sekiranya
tidak ada kelas.
S26
(A14)
Ibu saya rasa baik sebab ingin datang. Ibu saya sangat baik kerana mahu datang.
Berdasarkan Jadual 7 di atas, kajian mendapati kesalahan utama yang terdapat dalam ayat
majmuk keterangan bagi sampel kedua (S2) dalam ayat kesembilan (A9) ialah penggunaan kata
tanya bila yang digunakan sebagai kata hubung. Kata hubung yang sepatutnya digunakan ialah
setelah. Selain itu, terdapat beberapa kesalahan lain yang turut dikesan dalam A9 seperti:
1. pemilihan kata tugas habis dan mesti yang kurang tepat. Perkataan tersebut harus
digantikan dengan selesai digantikan dengan hendaklah
2. penggunaan kata ganti nama kamu yang kurang tepat dan sepatutnya digantikan dengan
kata ganti nama anda
3. ortografi contohnya ejaan perkataan periut yang sepatutnya ialah periuk
4. kata saduran daripada bahasa kedua (bahasa Inggeris) seperti oven digantikan dengan
ketuhar dan min sebagai minit.
Maka, pemajmukan yang tepat bagi ayat ini adalah seperti berikut:
Ayat Utama: Anda telah selesai membuat lapisan di dalam periuk.
Ayat kecil: Anda hendaklah memasukkan lasagna ke dalam ketuhar selama 45 minit.
Bentuk aktif: Anda hendaklah memasukkan lasagna ke dalam ketuhar selama 45 minit setelah
selesai membuat lapisan di dalam periuk.
Bentuk pasif: Lasagna hendaklah dimasukkan ke dalam periuk selama 45 minit setelah anda
selesai membuat lapisan di dalam periuk.
Pengulangan subjek (kata ganti nama saya) dalam ayat kecil yang tidak digugurkan dalam
proses pemancangan menyebabkan pembentukan A11 yang ditulis oleh sampel ke-11 (S11) tidak
gramatis. Kesalahan lain ialah penggunaan tanda koma yang digunakan sepatutnya digantikan
dengan kata hubung tertentu. Dalam hal ini, kata hubung untuk digunakan untuk menunjukkan
tujuan di bahagian pembetulan ayat supaya dapat memberikan ketepatan makna bagi ayat tersebut.
Ayat keterangan A20 yang dibentik oleh sampel ke-13 pula mengalami kesalahan dari
aspek struktur ayat apabila kata hubung apabila hanya menerangkan predikat yang tidak lengkap
iaitu sudah. Dalam hal ini, ayat sebelumnya yang ditulis oleh pelajar dalam karangan yang dikaji
telah dirujuk untuk memperoleh maklumat bahagian predikat supaya pembetulan ayat dapat
dilakukan. Kajian mendapati bahawa predikat sudah dalam A20 merujuk predikat makan petang.
Maka, pembetulan ayat dibuat dengan memancangkan predikat makan petang ke dalam ayat induk.
Sementara bagi frasa sampai waktu pula, pengkaji tidak dapat mengesan makna sebenar yang
ingin disampaikan oleh pelajar dalam A20. Maka, frasa ini digugurkan dalam pembetulan ayat.
Begitu juga dengan sampel ke-24 dalam ayat keenam (A6) dan sampel ke-26 ayat kesepuluh
(A10) yang dibentuk menggunakan kata hubung yang kurang tepat. Kata hubung jika dianggap
tidak tepat kerana fungsinya yang menunjukkan maksud kemungkinan. Oleh itu, kata hubung yang
sesuai menggantikan jika ialah kata hubung sekiranya bagi menunjukkan keterangan syarat. Dalam
hal A10 pula, penggunaan kata sebab dianggap tidak tepat kerana perkataan tersebut tergolong ke
dalam jenis kata nama serta tidak boleh berfungsi sebagai kata hubung. Kata hubung yang sesuai
menggantikannya ialah kerana. Kata sebab hanya boleh digunakan sebagai kata hubung jika
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disertai dengan kata sendi oleh yang apabila digabungkan menjadi oleh sebab. Kata
hubung kerana pula tidak boleh digabungkan dengan kata oleh menjadi oleh kerana disebabkan
kata tersebut memang jenis kata hubung. Selain itu, kata oleh sebab juga tidak boleh dijadikan
sebagai kata hubung di awal ayat kerana kata tersebut tidak terdapat dalam Bahasa Melayu.
Analisis aspek kesalahan ayat majmuk keterangan ini mendapati pelajar asing kerap
membina ayat majmuk keterangan dengan pendepanan separa predikat serta mengutamakan kata
kerja tanpa imbuhan. Faktor ini disebabkan oleh pemindahan bahasa daripada bahasa pertama iaitu
bahasa ibunda serta bahasa kedua (bahasa Inggeris) yang menjadi gangguan dalam proses penulisan
karangan tersebut.
Aspek Kesalahan Ayat Majmuk Campuran
J adual 8 : Kesalahan Ayat Majmuk Campuran
Jenis Kesalahan Kekerapan Peratusan
Kekeliruan/ketidakjelasan struktur ayat 18 13.2
Penggunaan kata hubung yang tidak tepat 22 16.1
Penggunaan kata kerja yang tidak tepat 26 19.1
Ejaan 27 19.8
Ortografi 14 10.2
Penggunaan kata saduran 8 5.8
Penggunaan kosa kata yang tidak tepat/sesuai 21 15.4
JUMLAH 136 100
Soalan kajian yang keempat akan dijawab berdasarkan data-data kajian yang diperoleh dala
m Jadual 8 di atas. Jadual 8 menunjukkan kesalahan aspek ejaan masih dikenal pasti sebagai aspek
kesalahan yang tertinggi iaitu dengan peratus kekerapan sebanyak 19.8% dalam pembentukan ayat
majmuk pancangan keterangan oleh pelajar asing. Selain itu, kesalahan aspek kata kerja yang kedua
tertinggi (19.1%) apabila pelajar gagal memberikan penanda imbuhan pasif kepada kata kerja yang
digunakan dalam ayat majmuk pancangan keterangan pasif. Hal ini diikuti oleh kesalahan aspek kat
a hubung (16.1%), kesalahan kosa kata yang tidak tepat/sesuai (15.4%), kesalahan struktur ayat (13.
2%) dan kesalahan ortografi (10.2%). Pengkaji mendapati, pelajar asing mempunyai kecenderungan
menggunakan ayat majmuk campuran yang mempunyai bentuk paling kompleks dalam bahasa Mel
ayu dan hal ini menunjukkan satu pencapaian yang agak membanggakan walaupun kekerapan kesal
ahan turut dikesan dalam setiap ayat yang dihasilkan.
Kesalahan Ayat Majmuk Campuran
Jadual 9 : Contoh Kesalahan Ayat Majmuk Campuran
Sampel Contoh Ayat Pembetulan
S10
(A9)
Saya sembahyang Suhur di masjid dan
saya pergi ke kulliyah saya untuk belajar
bahasa Arabic.
Saya pergi ke kuliyah untuk belajar
bahasa Arab setelah bersembahyang
Zohor di masjid.
S30
(A11)
Saya rindu makanan ibubanyak kerana
bila saya datang pelajar sini dan saya
tidak telah makan makanan dari pada
ibu.
Saya rindu akan makanan yang dimasak
oleh ibu kerana tidak pernah lagi
merasainya semenjak belajar di sini.
S38
(A4)
Kedua saya suka roti canai, sebab ini
makan sama roti di negri saya, ini roti,
saya hari hari makan sebab saya tak
mahu lupar negri, dan lagi, roti ada
banyak nama-nama, misalnya roti boom.
Roti canai mempunyai pelbagai nama
seperti roti bom, dan saya suka
memakannya setiap hari supaya tidak
melupakan negara saya kerana makanan
itu juga terdapat di sana.
Proses pembentukan ayat majmuk campuran dalam bahasa Melayu agak rumit kerana ayat i
ni mengandungi lebih daripada satu jenis ayat, iaitu terdiri daripada campuran ayat tunggal dengan
ayat majmuk atau deretan berbagai-bagai-bagai jenis ayat majmuk. Oleh sebab pembentukannya ya
ng agak rumit, kecenderungan melakukan kesalahan dalam pembinaan ayat tersebut oleh pelajar asi
ng adalah tinggi. Dalam Jadual 9 di atas, ayat kesembilan (A9) bagi sampel kesepuluh (S10) menun
jukkan kesalahan utama yang berlaku dalam ayat majmuk campuran tersebut adalah pemilihan kata
hubung yang tidak tepat. Terdapat juga kesalahan-kesalahan lain yang dikesan dalam A10 iaitu kata
kerja yang tidak lengkap sepserti sembahyang yang digantikan dengan kata kerja tidak transitif ber
sembahyang, pengulangan subjek kata ganti nama saya yang sepatutnya digugurkan apabila ayat ke
cil dipancangkan ke dalam ayat induk, kesalahan ejaan kata Suhur dibetulkan menjadi Zohor dan
kata saduran bahasa Inggeris Arabic yang sepatutnya dieja sebagai Arab.
Ayat A11 bagi sampel ke-30 dan ayat A4 bagi sampel ke-38 dikenal pasti mengandungi kes
alahan utama dari aspek struktur ayat selain turut mengalami kesalahan-kesalahan lain iaitu penggu
naan kata hubung yang tidak tepat iaitu kerana, bila (kata tanya) serta dan yang tidak dapat member
i makna sebenar terhadap ayat yang hendak disampaikan selain kesalahan aspek ejaan seperti ibuba
nyak (sepatutnya dieja secara terpisah) , roti boom (sepatutnya roti bom) dan akhir sekali kesalahan
tanda baca (koma) yang terlalu banyak dan ketara. Tanda koma tersebut sepatutnya digantikan deng
an kata hubung dan, supaya serta kerana untuk memberikan maksud sebenar ayat dan lebih gramati
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s. Ayat A38 dicerakinkan dan dibentuk semula untuk tujuan pembetulan seeperti berikut:
Ayat Asal: Terdapat pelbagai jenis roti canai seperti roti bom.
Ayat majmuk: Saya suka makan roti canai setiap hari supaya boleh mengingati negara saya kerana
makanan itu juga terdapat di sana.
Ayat majmuk campuran: Roti canai mempunyai pelbagai nama seperti roti bom, dan saya suka
memakannya setiap hari agar tidak melupakan negara saya kerana
makanan itu juga terdapat di sana.
Kekeliruan susunan struktur ayat A38 dikenal pasti berpunca daripada aspek pemindahan
bahasa oleh sampel dengan mengambil bentuk susunan yang terdapat dalam struktur bahasa ibunda
serta bahasa kedua mereka iaitu bahasa Inggeris. Contohnya penekanan keterangan sebab kepada
subjek dalam frasa ...sebab ini makan sama roti di negri saya, penekanan aspek kata tunjuk di
hadapan kata nama dalam frasa ...ini roti, penekanan keterangan subjek di hadapan kata nama
dalam frasa ...saya hari hari makan sebab saya tak mahu lupar negri, penekanan kata hubung
lewah dalam frasa ...dan lagi, serta kesalahan penanda jamak dalam frasa ...roti ada banyak nama-
nama, dan kesalahan kata saduran iaitu roti boom.
Aspek Kesalahan Ayat Majmuk Secara Keseluruhan
Jadual 10 Aspek Kesalahan Ayat Majmuk Secara Keseluruhan
Jenis Kesalahan Kekerapan Peratusan
Kekeliruan/ketidakjelasan struktur ayat 89 15.9
Penggunaan kata hubung yang tidak tepat 102 18.3
Penggunaan kata kerja yang tidak tepat 88 15.7
Ejaan 129 23.1
Ortografi 72 12.9
Penggunaan kata saduran 32 5.7
Pemilihan kosa kata yang kurang tepat/sesuai 45 8.0
JUMLAH 557 100
Berdasarkan Jadual 10, secara keseluruhannya kajian mendapati bahawa kekerapan kesalaha
n yang dilakukan oleh pelajar asing dalam pembentukan ayat majmuk ialah sebanyak 557 kali darip
ada 156 ayat majmuk yang telah dikenal pasti sebagai salah. Aspek kesalahan yang paling kerap dil
akukan ialah kesalahan aspek ejaan dengan kekerapan sebanyak 129 atau peratus kekerapan sebany
ak 23.1%. Kesalahan kedua tertinggi pula ialah kesalahan aspek penggunaan kata hubung yang tida
k tepat dalam ayat majmuk yang dihasilkan dengan kekerapan sebanyak 102 kali atau 18.3%, kesala
han aspek struktur ayat (15.9%), penggunaan kata kerja yang tidak tepat (15.7%), kesalahan ortogra
fi (12.9%), pemilihan kosa kata yang tepat /sesuai (8.0%) dan kesalahan menggunakan kata saduran
sebayak 5.7%. Dapatan kajian juga menunjukkan bahawa setiap ayat mengandungi lebih daripada s
atu kesalahan dan purata kesalahan tersebut ialah tiga kesalahan bagi setiap satu ayat.
Perbincangan
Kajian yang telah dijalankan terhadap 41 sampel karangan yang ditulis oleh pelajar asing ya
ng mengambil kursus Bahasa Melayu II untuk Pelajar Asing (LM 1011) ini mendapati bahawa mere
ka telah melakukan kesalahan ayat majmuk gabungan, ayat majmuk pancangan relatif, pancangan k
eterangan dan ayat majmuk campuran. Kesalahan yang mengandungi kekerapan paling tinggi ialah
ayat majmuk gabungan diikuti oleh ayat majmuk keterangan, ayat majmuk campuran, dan pancanga
n relatif manakala hanya satu sahaja bentuk ayat majmuk komplemen ditemui dalam penulisan kara
ngan tersebut. Dapatan ini selaras dengan kajian yang telah dilakukan oleh Money (2004), Arpan S
hahbudin Latip (1998) dan Wan Mohd Norudin Wan Kadir (2006).
Kajian telah mengenal pasti beberapa aspek kesalahan ayat majmuk yang terdapat dalam kar
angan pelajar asing iaitu kesalahan aspek struktur ayat, penggunaan kata hubung yang tidak tepat, p
enggunaan kata kerja yang tidak tepat, ejaan, ortografi, kata saduran dan pemilihan kosa kata yang t
idak tepat/sesuai. Kesalahan-kesalahan tersebut telah menyebabkan kebanyakan ayat majmuk yang
dihasilkan mempunyai sifat tergantung atau tidak lengkap serta mempunyai makna yang sukar untu
k ditanggapi oleh pengkaji. Aspek ejaan pula telah dikenal pasti sebagai kesalahan utama dalam kes
emua jenis ayat majmuk yang dihasilkan oleh pelajar asing dan menjadi punca utama ayat tersebut t
idak boleh dianggap gramatis. Dapatan yang sama pernah diperoleh oleh Wyatt (1973) berhubung k
esalahan aspek ejaan. Hal ini disebabkan sesuatu ayat yang gramatis haruslah mematuhi hukum-huk
um tatabahasa yang telah ditetapkan dan perkara tersebut termasuklah ejaan yang lengkap, tepat da
n betul. Begitu juga dengan kesalahan aspek penggunaan kata hubung yang tidak tepat. Pelajar asin
g didapati gagal memahami makna kata hubung serta konteks penggunaannya dalam ayat sehingga
menyebabkan masalah ini berlaku. Aspek-aspek kesalahan yang diperoleh dalam kajian ini selaras d
engan dapatan kajian oleh Corder (1973) dan Pengiran Mahmud Pengiran Damit (1992: 232).
Tafsiran selanjutnya yang dapat dibuat berdasarkan analisis kesalahan ayat majmuk oleh pel
ajar asing dalam penulisan karangan mereka ialah pelajar asing lemah dalam kemahiran membina a
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yat majmuk yang kompleks bentuknya. Kajian juga mendapati kegagalan menanggapi makna dan k
onteks penggunaan kata hubung menjadi penyebab kepada kecelaruan serta kekeliruan penyusunan
struktur ayat majmuk. Pelajar asing lemah dalam membentuk ayat majmuk kerana mereka gagal me
mancangkan beberapa ayat kecil dengan teratur selain kesalahan pemilihan kata tugas yang betul, p
enggunaan kata jamak yang tidak sesuai dan pemilihan kata kerja dengan penanda pasif atau aktif.
Kelemahan aspek ini selaras dengan dapatan kajian Awang Mohd Amin (1982), Supian (1994) dan
Arpan Shahbudin Latip (1998).
Pelajar asing juga didapati kerap melakukan kesalahan dalam aspek pembentukan ayat maj
muk ini disebabkan proses pembentukan ayat majmuk yang mengikut struktur pembentukan ayat da
lam bahasa ibunda serta bahasa kedua (bahasa Inggeris) mereka. Kesalahan tersebut dikenal pasti m
elalui pengguguran aspek imbuhan dalam kata kerja, penekanan frasa kerja, dan pengulangan kata n
ama (subjek) yang menyamai struktur pembentukan ayat dalam bahasa Inggeris iaitu noun+verbs. .
Hal ini berbeza dengan pembentukan ayat dalam bahasa Melayu kerana wujudnya pola-pola ayat (4
pola) yang perlu diikuti untuk membentuk ayat-ayat dasar dan ayat majmuk yang gramatis. Selain i
tu, penggunaan kata hubung relatif yang mana juga dikenal pasti hasil saduran daripada versi Ingger
isnya iaitu which is. Hal ini menunjukkan bahawa berlakunya pemindahan bahasa oleh pelajar asing
yang menggunakan pengetahuan dalam bahasa kedua mereka (bahasa Inggeris) untuk membentuk
ayat majmuk berkenaan. Dapatan ini mempunyai persamaan dengan dapatan kajian oleh Schacter (1
974: 205-214) tentang pemindahan bahasa yang berlaku dalam kalangan penutur bahasa kedua dan
Mohd. Sallehuddin (1983).
Kesimpulan
Kajian tentang analisis kesilapan ayat majmuk oleh pelajar asing boleh dikatakan satu aspek
kajian bahasa yang agak mencabar kerana ayat majmuk itu sendiri mempunyai kepelbagaian bentuk
dan struktur binaannya yang agak kompleks serta rumit. Penelitian yang mendalam diperlukan bagi
memastikan kajian ini dapat mencapai tujuan atau matlamatnya. Secara jelas, pengkaji mendapati
bahawa kajian ini telah berjaya memberikan gambaran mengenai penggunaan ayat majmuk serta
kesalahan-kesalahan yang berlaku dalam pembentukan ayat tersebut dalam kalangan penutur asing
yang mempelajari bahasa Melayu sebagai bahasa asing di UIAM. Walaupun terdapat batasan
dalam kajian ini, diharapkan dapatan yang diperoleh boleh memberikan sumbangan kepada institusi
pendidikan tinggi tempatan yang menawarkan kursus bahasa Melayu sebagai bahasa asing terutama
tenaga pengajar bahasa Melayu yang bakal mengajar tentang proses-proses pembentukan dan
penggunaan ayat majmuk kepada pelajar-pelajar asing di dalam kelas. Dapatan ini dianggap sangat
berguna dalam proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran kerana aspek kelemahan pelajar asing telah
dikenal pasti dan pelbagai pihak boleh mencari jalan penyelesaian untuk mengatasi daerah
kelemahan tersebut bagi meningkatkan penguasaan pelajar asing dalam aspek pembentukan ayat
majmuk pada masa depan. Pengkaji berharap agar kajian-kajian seperti ini dapat diteruskan dari
semasa ke semasa untuk memberikan pendedahan lebih lanjut bagi meningkatkan dan
memantapkan penguasaan aspek tatabahasa dalam kalangan pelajar asing yang sedang mengikuti
kursus bahasa Melayu di negara ini.
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Xu, J. (2008). Error theories and second language acquacition. US-China Foreign Language. (1) 6: 35-42.
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peroleh pada 15 Mac 2011 daripada
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Aid Asuraya Md & Wan Zah Wan Ali. (2009). Metacognition and Motivation in Mathematical
Problem Solving. 2009. The International Journal of Learning 15 (3): 121-132.
http://ijl.cgpublisher.com/product/pub.30/prod.1699.
ILCC 2013
424
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Beliefs of At-Risk Students in Malaysian Secondary Schools. The International Journal of Learning 16
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Learning from Reading Sentences. Psychology And Aging. 19 (4): 626-636.
Muhammed Yusuf. 2010. Self-Efficacy, Achievement Motivation, and Self-Regulated Learning
Strategies of Undergraduate Students and their Impact on Academic Achievement. Selangor: UKM-
EDU.
Muhammed Yusuf. 2010. Psychometric Analysis of Self-Efficacy Encouragement (ENGLISH
VERSION) Science Direct and Scopus, ALSO, Procedia Social and Behavioural Sciences.
Muhammed Yusuf. 2011. Investigating relationship between self-efficacy achievement motivation
and self- regulated learning strategies of undergraduate Students: a study of integrated motivational
models. Science Direct and Scopus, ALSO, Procedia Social and Behavioural Sciences( publication in
progress).
Ng Lee Yen. Kamariah Abu Bakar. Samsilah Roslan. Su Luan. Petri Zabariah Megat Abd
Rahman. 2005. Predictors of self-regulated learning in Malaysian smart schools International
Education Journal 6 (3): 343-353. Shannon Research Press. http://iej.cjb.net 343.
Pajares F. & Johnson M. J. 1996. Self-efficacy beliefs in the writing of high school students: A path
analysis. Psychology in the Schools 33 :163-175.
Rahil mahyuddin; habibah elias; loh sau cheong; muhd fauzi muhamad; nooreen noordin; maria
chong abdullah. 2006. The relationship between students' self efficacy and their english language
achievement. Jurnal pendidik dan pendidikan, jil. 21: 6171.
Simpson S. M; Licht, B. G; Wagne, R. K. & Stader, S. R. 1996. Organization of children's academic
ability-related self-perceptions. Journal of Educational Psychology 88: 387-396.
shah Parilah Mohd. 1999. Perceptions of Malaysian ESL low achievers about English language
learning. The University of Connecticut, (online) http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb? 210 pages; AAT
992629. (Oct 1999).
translate.google.com
Wong Mary Siew-Lin. 2005. Language Learning Strategies and Language Self-Efficacy: Investigating
the Relationship in Malaysia. A Journal of Language Teaching and Research 36 (3): 245-269.
( 3 )
Umrah 91 Allah 1
Haji 69 Nabi muhammed 2
Musim 26 Nabi 3
Ziarah 23 Malaikat 4
Tahlil 24 Jin 5
Syukur 65 Quran 6
Fiqah 26 Kitab 7
Wajib 27 Ayat-ayat 8
Darurat 28 solat 9
Sunat 29 Solat hajat 10
- Hadis riwayat 30 Qiamullail 11
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Sahih 31 a naz 12
Halal 32 iqamah 13
haram 33 Imam 14
Rezeki 34 Kiblat 15
Rezeki halal 35 Sujud 16
Ustaz 36 Rukuk 17
Ustazah 37 Tarawih 18
Ijab kabul 57 Tazkirah 38
Nikah 58 doa 39
Air + mani 59 Masalah 40
Rahim 60 Syukur 41
Hamil 61 Usrah 42
Darah + haid 62 Aurat 43
Darah + nifas 63 ) ( salam 44
Aqiqah 54
maaf 45
Anak+soleh 65 Zahir 46
Solehah 66 Batin 47
Ummi 67 Adab 48
Abi 68 Aidilfitri 49
Dakwah 69 Mustahil 50
Maksiat 70 Makmal 51
Umur 71 Masjid jamek 52
Sebab 72 Musolah 53
Takdir 73 Shurah 54
Syahadah 74 akhlak 55
Nafas 75 Jiran 56
Wilayah 97 mati 76
Daulat 98 Arwah 77
Siasah 99 Kiamat 78
Tadbir 100 Jenazah 79
Rakyat 101 Kubur 80
/ Adil 102 Dunia 81
Hormat 103 Saat 82
Dewan 104 Syaitan 83
Sijil 105 Iblis 84
Daftar 106 Nasihat 85
Mahkamah 107 Amal 86
Laju 202
Isnin 203
Selasa 204
Rabu 205
khamis 206
Jumaat 207
Sabtu 208
Ahad 209
Solat sunat istiskah 210
Akidah Ummah
Islam
211
Maksud syariah 212
Tamat 213
Hadirin hadirat 214
" " Akhir (last) 215
Akhir kalam 216
Wabillahi taufiq wal
hidayah
217
Wassalamu alaikum
warahmatulahi
wabarakatuh
218
ILCC 2013
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th
ed). Upper Saddle River, Nj: Merrill.
Ibrahim, Suliman . (2010) Integrating internet in teaching Arabic language: a new approach of
teaching Arabic language. Ph.d dissertation, Saabrucken :Lap Lambert Academic Publishing and
distributed by Amazon in UK and USA.
LeLoup, J, W and Ponterio,R. (Sept 2003). Volume seven , No 3. Pp 4-14. ON THE
NET|Interactive and Multimedia Techniques in Online Language Lessons:
A Sampler. Language Learning & Technology at URL: http://llt.msu.edu/vol7num3/pdf/net.pdf
ILCC 2013
450
Appendix
Questionnaire
Your Faculty
Your department
Sex Male
Female
1 The listening lesson fulfills my need.
agree strongly agree neutral Disagree strongly disagree
2 I could repeat the conversation many time
Agree strongly agree neutral Disagree strongly disagree
3 I would be able to pause the listening video according to my appropriate peed.
agree strongly agree neutral Disagree strongly disagree
4 I benefit from the listening lesson.
agree strongly agree neutral Disagree strongly disagree
Part Two:
The vocabulary:
5 The new vocabulary helps me to improve my Arabic.
agree strongly agree neutral Disagree strongly disagree
6 The list of word that appeared in the previous lesson is useful.
agree strongly agree neutral disagree strongly disagree
Part Three:
I believe that the following questions are suitable to me:
7 The image combined the list of word illustrate the meaning
agree strongly agree Neutral disagree strongly disagree
8 The vocabulary exercise helps me a lot in improving my Arabic.
agree strongly agree neutral disagree strongly disagree
Part Four:
Grammatical structure:
9 The table used for functional grammar helps me to differentiate between singular and plural.
agree strongly agree neutral disagree strongly disagree
10 The color used for functional grammar help me to differentiate between masculine and
feminine.
agree strongly agree neutral disagree strongly disagree
11 The vocabulary is suitable to me.
agree strongly agree neutral disagree strongly disagree
Part Five:
Listening Comprehension:
12 I would be able to choose the right image to suit the dialogue.
ILCC 2013
452
agree strongly agree Neutral disagree strongly disagree
13 I would be able to control the video to my appropriate peed.
agree strongly agree Neutral disagree strongly disagree
Part Five:
The Speaking
14 There is chance for me to speak
agree strongly agree neutral disagree strongly disagree
15 I would be able to chat with my friend about the unit topic
agree strongly agree neutral disagree strongly disagree
Part Six:
I believe that the following questions are suitable to me:
16 I would be able to follow a link with a supplementary material.
agree strongly agree neutral disagree strongly disagree
17 Communication in Arabic would help me to improve my Arabic
agree strongly agree neutral disagree strongly disagree
18 Part Seven : The Reading
Reading comprehension questions are useful
agree strongly agree neutral disagree strongly disagree
19 Reading comprehension help me in improving my Arabic
agree strongly agree neutral disagree strongly disagree
20 Part eight : The Writing
Complete the word with appropriate letter help me to recognize the Arabic letter.
agree strongly agree neutral disagree strongly disagree
21 By writing exercise I would be able to recognize how Arabic letter are written in different
location.
agree strongly agree neutral disagree strongly disagree
22 After studying the reading comprehension I would be able to construct sentence.
agree strongly agree neutral disagree strongly disagree
23 I would be able to rearrange the word to become a sentence.
agree strongly agree neutral disagree strongly disagree
24 After studding the reading comprehension I would be able to construct sentence.
agree strongly agree neutral disagree strongly disagree
25 After studying the reading comprehension I would be able to construct sentence.
agree strongly agree neutral disagree strongly disagree
26 The feedback of the exercise help s me to correct my mistakes.
agree strongly agree neutral disagree strongly disagree
27 The programme is user friendly
agree strongly agree neutral disagree strongly disagree
28 The guides given help me in browsing the programe
agree strongly agree neutral disagree strongly disagree
ILCC 2013
454
Any Suggestions:
________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
The researchers
The impact of Interactive Arabic
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2. Partor, Clifford H. and Celece-Murcia, Marianne. 1979. An outeline of language
teaching approaches. In Celce- Murcia and Mclntosh 1979.
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