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Frank W. Agnew Terry Burley Michael D. Miller John D. Mozer Mark Ostendorp Alain Peyrot C. Jerry Wong
October 18, 2006 Revised ASCE Manual No. 74 - Section 2 Ice and Wind 1
Carl W. Austin Ron J. Carrington Nicholas J. DeSantis Bruce Freimark Kathleen Jones Michael D. Miller Wesley J. Oliphant David Tennent
Second edition was published in 1991 Manual and Reports on Engineering Practice
Forward Section 1 - Introduction to Load Criteria Section 2 - Weather Related Loads Section 3 - Additional Load Considerations Section 4 - Wire System Section 5 - Examples Appendices
Introduction (1.0)
This manual addresses transmission line structure design issues that must be considered to provide:
Cost effective structures Reliable structures
May result in a cascading failure. Falls within the designation of Failure Containment (FC).
October 18, 2006 Revised ASCE Manual No. 74 - Section 2 Ice and Wind 10
Coincident temperature
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Exceedance Probability of RP Event in 50 Years = 1-(1-1/RP)50 0.87 0.64 0.39 0.22 0.12
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Probability of failure for a RP50 load event RRF Probability of failure for a RPN load event
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Load RP (years)
Load RP (years)
Ice Concurrent Thickness Wind Load Factor Factor (i) (w) 0.80 1.0 1.00 1.0 1.25 1.0 1.50 1.0 1.85 1.0
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LRFD Format
Rn Effect of [DL + Q ]
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IV - OBTAIN STRENGTH FACTOR, , FROM TABLE 1.4-2 V - DESIGN COMPONENT for NOMINAL STRENGTH, Rn SUCH THAT:
Rn > QD
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(Section 2.1.1)
F = w * Q * kZ * kzt * (V50)2 * G * Cf * A
Where: F - Wind Force w - Load Factor. Q - Numerical Coefficient. kzt - Topographic Factor. kZ - Velocity Pressure Exposure Coefficient. V50 - Basic Wind Speed, 3-second gust wind speed, miles per hour, at 33 ft. above ground, an annual probability of 2%. G - Gust Response Factor. Cf - Force (Drag) Coefficient. A - Projected Surface Area.
October 18, 2006 Revised ASCE Manual No. 74 - Section 2 Ice and Wind 31
Numerical Coefficient
(Section 2.1.2)
Converts kinetic energy of moving air into potential energy of pressure. Q = 1/2
where = mass density of air. Appendix D
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(Section 2.1.3)
Database/Analysis
Continental Winds: 485 weather stations, minimum 5 years of data Data assembled from a number of stations in state-size areas to reduce sampling errors Fisher-Tippett Type I extreme value distribution, annual probability of 2% Insufficient variation in peak gust wind speeds to justify contours 33 ft. above ground, Exposure C
Revised ASCE Manual No. 74 - Section 2 Ice and Wind
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Database/Analysis
Hurricane Winds: Based on simulations and hurricane model The Atlantic Coastline was divided into discrete points spaced at 50 nautical miles. Hurricane contours over the Atlantic are provided for interpolations and represent values for Exposure C over land. Importance factors are accounted for in the map wind speeds
>1.0 at the coast 1.0 at 100 miles inland.
October 18, 2006 Revised ASCE Manual No. 74 - Section 2 Ice and Wind 35
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Velocity Pressure Exposure Coefficient, kZ, modifies the basic wind speed to account for terrain and height effects. Structure or Wire kZ = 2.01*( zh / zg ) (2/) (for 15 ft. h 900 ft.) Effective Height, zh, the height above ground to the center of wind pressure (Section 2.1.4.3).
Revised ASCE Manual No. 74 - Section 2 Ice and Wind
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(Section 2.1.5)
Horizontal Wind Profile Statistical based Not a significant factor in typical buildings seldom been studied
October 18, 2006 Revised ASCE Manual No. 74 - Section 2 Ice and Wind 39
Appendix G
E = Exposure Factor B = Dimensionless response term corresponding to the quasi-static background wind load kV = 1.430
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(Section 2.1.5)
Conversion Factor, kV. (Durst Curve) Relationship between 3-second gust wind and 10-minute average wind
Appendix E
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Gust Factor
The ratio of the gust wind speed at a specified average period, e.g.
2 seconds, to the selected mean speed, e.g. 10 minute Used as a multiplier of the mean extreme wind speed to obtain the gust wind speed. Values greater than 1.0
Revised ASCE Manual No. 74 - Section 2 Ice and Wind
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Davenport Equations, Gust Response Factors for Transmission Line Loading, Proceeding, 5th International Conference on Wind Engineering, 1979 ASCE 74, Guidelines for Electrical Transmission Line Structural Loading, 1991 ASCE 7, Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures, 2002 IEC 60826, Loading and Strength of Transmission Lines, 2002
October 18, 2006 Revised ASCE Manual No. 74 - Section 2 Ice and Wind 43
Force Coefficient
(Section 2.1.6)
Appendix H
Topography Effects
(Section 2.1.7)
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Extreme Wind Loads Section 2.1 Wind is a Random Event Equations are not exact Equations are not intended to cover all potential conditions Load factor is generally applied to cover uncertainty With todays technology, these equations are more scientific than most people think
October 18, 2006 Revised ASCE Manual No. 74 - Section 2 Ice and Wind 46
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Introduction (2.3.1)
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Using Historical Ice Data (Modeling your own Service Area (App. I.3)) new! Using Ice Map new! Combined Wind and Ice Loads new!
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50-year return interval ice based on 9 years of data collected by Bennett. Data collected from 1928-1936, and did not differentiate between glaze, rime and accreted snow. Also, did not report the equivalent radial ice thickness. Added a wind-on-ice requirement as a percentage of the 50 year basic wind speed intended to represent the extreme wind which could be expected over a 7 day period
October 18, 2006 Revised ASCE Manual No. 74 - Section 2 Ice and Wind 54
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Figure 2.3-1. Extreme Radial Glaze Ice thickness (in.), Western United States 50-year return period with concurrent 3-sec wind speeds
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Figure 2.3-2. Extreme Radial Glaze Ice thickness (in.), Eastern United States, 50-year return period with concurrent 3-sec. wind speed.
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Figure 2.3-3. Extreme Radial Glaze Ice thickness (in.), Lake Superior Detail, 50-year return period with concurrent 3-sec. wind speeds.
Figure 2.3-4. Extreme Radial Glaze Ice thickness (in.), Fraser Valley Detail, 50-year return period with concurrent 3sec. wind speed.
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Figure 2.3-5. Extreme Radial Glaze Ice thickness (in.), Columbia River Gorge Detail, 50-year return period with concurrent 3-sec. wind speed.
Figure 2.3-6. Extreme Radial Glaze Ice thickness (in.), Alaska, 50-year return period with concurrent 3-sec. wind speed.
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Figure I4-1. Locations of weather stations used in preparation of Figures 2.3-1 through 2.3-5.
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where t = equivalent radial ice thickness (mm) Pj = precipitation amount (mm) in jth hour Vj = wind speed (m/s) in jth hour Wj = liquid water content (g/m3) of the rainfilled air in jth hour = 0.067Pj0.846
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Superstations for extreme value analysis (App. I) pattern of damaging ice storms
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Extreme value analysis (App. I) Peaks-over-threshold method with generalized Pareto distribution
k(x u) F ( x ) = 1 1 (x - u) = 1 exp
1/ k
k 0 k =0
x
i =1 n
(i )
i =1
i 1 x( i ) n 1
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Wind on Ice Covered Wires Projected Area, force coefficients 3 sec. gust wind from maps
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Narrow front winds Wind speeds are greater than extreme wind loads Affected by local topography
October 18, 2006 Revised ASCE Manual No. 74 - Section 2 Ice and Wind 68
Tornados
Scale Tornado Wind Speed F (mph) Path Length P (miles) Path Width P (feet)
0 1 2 3 4 5
TABLE 2.2.1-1. Ranges of Tornado Wind Speed, Path Length, and Path Width for FPP Scale
October 18, 2006 Revised ASCE Manual No. 74 - Section 2 Ice and Wind 69
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TABLE 2.2.1-2 Tornado Frequencies and F-Scale Classifications for 19161978 in the United States of America (Tecson et al. 1979)
35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 F0 F1
Revised ASCE Manual No. 74 - Section 2 Ice and Wind
Percentage
F2
F3
F4
F5
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Downbursts
Associated with severe thunderstorm cells Relatively wide gust fronts Elliptical damage pattern
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Micro bursts
Micro Burst: A strong localized downdraft from a thunderstorm with peak gusts lasting 2 to 5 National Weather Service, Missoula, Mt. minutes. Intensity levels up to F2 Tornado strength Gust width 330 660 Elliptical and strip damage patterns
October 18, 2006 Revised ASCE Manual No. 74 - Section 2 Ice and Wind 73
APPENDIX K:
Investigation of Transmission Line Failures
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Why address failure investigations in a Loading Manual? Most likely, a utility focuses on restoring power rather than investigating a structural failure. High Load explanation may not be acceptable. A loading case, previously not considered, may be the limiting design condition. Information presented is seldom addressed in other publications.
October 18, 2006 Revised ASCE Manual No. 74 - Section 2 Ice and Wind 77
FAILURE INVESTIGATIONS
Our Goal is to improve future designs, if necessary, or validate existing design based on accurate failure analysis.
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FAILURE INVESTIGATIONS
Our Plan is to establish and separate the failure mechanisms for the various failed structure pieces. Determine the initial failure regardless of cause (ice, narrow or broad front wind, missing structure members or connections, etc.). Determine secondary failures caused by load shift from the initial failure.
October 18, 2006 Revised ASCE Manual No. 74 - Section 2 Ice and Wind 79
Causes of Failure
Natural load conditions that exceed the design criteria Manmade causes Structure deficiencies Wire system deficiencies Construction causes
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Failure Investigation Preparation Equipment (a.k.a. bug-out bag) A Plan for priorities Technical preparation
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Failure Investigation Procedure Photography survey Gather evidence from witnesses and those arriving earlier. Develop image of sequence of events Safety first
October 18, 2006 Revised ASCE Manual No. 74 - Section 2 Ice and Wind 83
THE INVESTIGATION
The Field Checklist The Office Checklist Report Preparation
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Structure Vibration (3.4) Conductor Galloping (3.5) Revised Earthquake Load (3.6)ASCE Manual No. 74 - Section 2 Ice and Wind
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Introduction (3.0)
Section 3 does not address:
Landslides Ice Flows Frost Heave Flooding Other Special Loading Scenarios
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Recognizes IEEE Std. 524-03 as leading standard Addresses common stringing load scenarios Provides recommended minimum installation loads and load factors for ground wires and conductors (3 psf, no ice on wires and structures) Load Factor for transverse wind loading (1.5) Load Factor for vertical loads from dead end condition (1.5) Revised ASCE Manual No. 74 - Section 2 Load Factor for vertical loads from intact condition (2.0) October 18, 2006 Ice and Wind 88
Load effects resulting from adjustment or replacement of ground wires, conductors, insulators and hardware Each maintenance operation is recommended to be analyzed in sequence by engineer Load factors not provided
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Anchorage locations and climbing devices recommended to be coordinated with operation and maintenance personnel
Number of anchorages Location of anchorages Maximum number of attachments at each anchorage Maximum expected arresting force Type of climbing devices Reviseddevices ASCE Manual No. 74 - Section 2 Number of climbing
Ice and Wind
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Detuning pendulums and inter-phase spacers Airflow spoilers Revised ASCE Manual No. 74 - Section 2 October 18, and Wind 2006 Modification of conductor Ice designs
Experience has shown that infrequent failures of transmission structures are generally related to soil liquefaction and/or earth fractures
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Failure Containment Requirements (J.4) General Rules (J.4.1) Revised ASCE Manual No. 74 - Section 2 Basic Assumption (J.4.2) October 18, Ice and Wind 2006 Special Resistance Structures (J.4.3)
Failure Containment for Icing Events (J.4.4)
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Final After Heavy Load (after severe loading causing very high tension)
Wire may never see this condition
October 18, 2006 Revised ASCE Manual No. 74 - Section 2 Ice and Wind 102
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Need for alternate to Ruling Span (4.6) (also discuss uneven wind on spans of section)
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