UNIT FOUR- REVISION

Brain , Behaviour and Experience

UNIT FOUR

This unit focuses on the interrelationship between learning, the brain and its response to experiences, and behaviour. Area of Study One- Understanding the mechanisms of learning, the cognitive processes that affect readiness for learning, and how people learn informs both personal and social issues. Area of Study Two- Students use a biopsychosocial framework a conceptual model which includes psychological and social factors in addition to biological factors in understanding a persons mental state to explore the nature of stress and a selected mental disorder.

 Behaviours not dependent on learning including reflex action, fixed action patterns and behaviours due to physical growth and development (maturation)

Reflex actions are automatic, involuntary responses that do not require prior experience. Reflexes are adaptive for survival, meaning that we would be in danger if we did not have these built-in mechanisms to help protect us from environmental hazards. A fixed action pattern is an inborn predisposition to behave in a certain way when appropriately stimulated. Some behaviours require maturation or the development of the body and the structures of the nervous system

 Neural basis of learning: the development of neural pathways including the role of axons, dendrites, synapses and neurotransmitters

The process of synapse formation during learning involves either the creation of new neural pathways or the strengthening of existing neural pathways. A neural pathway (also referred to as neural tract) is a bundle of myelin-covered neurons (white matter) which provide a connection between one part of the nervous system and another. When learning takes place (and depending on the type of learning), existing synapses are sometimes moulded or new synapses are formed (synaptogenesis). During learning, the axon terminals (terminal buttons) of the presynaptic neuron release a neurotransmitter called glutamate into the synaptic gap between the presynaptic neuron and the dendrites of a neighbouring postsynaptic neuron.

Neural basis of learning: the development of neural pathways including the role of axons, dendrites, synapses and neurotransmitters

As the process of learning new information or a new skill occurs, the neurons form new connections with each other. This means that new sprouts, called filigree appendages, begin to grow from the axon terminal of a presynaptic neuron towards the dendrites of neighbouring postsynaptic neurons. As a result of learning, there is a strengthening of the neural pathway between neurons. This enables the newly learnt information to be transferred from one neuron to the next more efficiently

Neural basis of learning: the development of neural pathways including the role of axons, dendrites, synapses and neurotransmitters

 Neural basis of learning: developmental plasticity and adaptive plasticity of the brain: changes to the brain in response to learning and experience; timing of experiences

Generally, an infant or a childs brain will have more plasticity than an adults brain. This is referred to as Developmental plasticity the ability of these synapses to be modified. Although the developmental plasticity of a young persons brain will diminish with age, the association areas of the cerebral cortices retain plasticity throughout life, This is known as Adaptive plasticity because these parts of the brain can be shaped by learning and experience.

 Neural basis of learning: developmental plasticity and adaptive plasticity of the brain: changes to the brain in response to learning and experience; timing of experiences

Certain periods in development are particularly suited to learning certain things. These periods are referred to as sensitive periods and are the best or optimum times for a developing individual to learn specific things. At these times, the growing brain needs specific types of stimulation so that neural pathways are established. Usually, this stimulation occurs as part of a persons natural development. However, it is vital that the individual is exposed to the necessary experiences for the changes through learning to occur. Sometimes this is referred to as experience-expectant learning. Experience-expectant learning differs from experiencedependent learning, which is a form of learning that can occur at any time during an individuals life.

 Applications, and comparisons, of learning theories: classical conditioning as informed by Ivan Pavlov: roles of neutral, unconditioned, conditioned stimuli; unconditioned and conditioned responses

Classical Conditioning- two usually unrelated stimuli are repeatedly linked until the presentation of the stimulus (bell) elicits conditioned response (salivation). Neutral Stimulus (bell)- stimulus that doesnt elicit any response prior to learning. Unconditioned Stimulus (meat powder)- stimulus innately capable of eliciting reflex response Unconditioned Response- the natural, automatic response to a specific unconditioned stimuli Conditioned Stimulus (bell following conditioning)- stimuli evokes specific response due to learning Conditioned Response (salivation in response to bell)- a reflex response to a previously neutral stimulus which occurs following learning.

Applications, and comparisons, of learning theories: classical conditioning as informed by Ivan Pavlov: roles of neutral, unconditioned, conditioned stimuli; unconditioned and conditioned responses

Pavlovs Conditioning Experiment Pavlov rang the bell (NS) so the dogs could hear it, then immediately placed meat powder on the dogs tongues (UCS), which automatically caused the reflex of salivation (UCR). This process was repeated many times, until eventually conditioning took place, the bell became CS and the dogs began to salivate when they heard the bell and they no longer needed the meat powder to elicit salivation (CR).

 Applications of classical conditioning: graduated exposure, aversion therapy, flooding Trial-and-error learning

Graduated exposure or Systematic Desensitisation involves teaching of relaxation techniques followed by the gradual exposure to feared object over several sessions. Flooding- patients are exposed at high intensity and for prolonged periods to the feared stimulus. Aversion Therapy- person with an unwanted behaviour learns to associate the unwanted behaviour with an unpleasant event (biting nails). One-trial learning- exposure to a stimulus elicits a negative response, future exposure to this stimulus elicits the same response (food poisoning).

 Three-phase model of operant conditioning as informed by B.F. Skinner: positive and negative reinforcement, response cost, punishment and schedules of reinforcement

Skinner noticed conditions needed to be right before the behaviour occurred. These can be referred to as the D-B-C of operant conditioning: The Discriminative stimulus (the environment) that makes conditions right for the Behaviour to follow and be reinforced by its Consequences.

 Three-phase model of operant conditioning as informed by B.F. Skinner: positive and negative reinforcement, response cost, punishment and schedules of reinforcement

Positive Reinforcer: a reward which strengthens a response by providing a pleasant or satisfying consequence. Negative Reinforcer: the removal, reduction, or prevention of an unpleasant stimulus. Punishment -when a behaviour is followed by a negative experience Response cost: form of punishment that occurs when something desirable is removed, such as being grounded or having your mobile phone taken away

 Three-phase model of operant conditioning as informed by B.F. Skinner: positive and negative reinforcement, response cost, punishment and schedules of reinforcement

Schedules of Reinforcement -the frequency and

manner in which a response is reinforced (or punished). Fixed interval schedule (FI)reinforcement is delivered after a fixed time period (e.g. every 10 seconds), as long as at least one correct response has been given Fixed ratio schedule (FR)reinforcement is delivered after a fixed number of correct responses (e.g. every tenth response) Variable interval schedule (VI)reinforcement occurs on an average of a set time interval but not with regular frequency (e.g. every 10 seconds on average but with variations from 4 to 16 seconds) Variable ratio schedule (VR)reinforcement occurs on the basis of a set average number of correct responses but is not regular in its occurrence (e.g. every tenth response on an average but with variations from the fifth to the fifteenth response).

 Applications of operant conditioning: shaping, token economies

Token Economy is a form of behaviour modification in which tokens are earned for performing target behaviours and these tokens can be exchanged later for some reinforcer (reward) that is valued by the learner. Shaping is a procedure in which a reinforcer is given for any response that gets closer and closer and eventually leads to the desired response or target behaviour.

Comparisons of classical and operant conditioning in terms of the processes of acquisition, extinction, stimulus generalisation, stimulus discrimination, spontaneous recovery, role of learner, timing of stimulus and response, and nature of response (reflexive/voluntary)

Comparisons of classical and operant conditioning in terms of the processes of acquisition, extinction, stimulus generalisation, stimulus discrimination, spontaneous recovery, role of learner, timing of stimulus and response, and nature of response (reflexive/voluntary)

 Observational learning (modeling) processes in terms of the role of attention, retention, reproduction, motivation, reinforcement as informed by Albert Banduras social learning theory

A form of social learning is observational learning, where a person learns by watching the behaviour demonstrated by another. When the observer demonstrates the learnt behaviour by imitating it, it is referred to as modeling. Attention- The learner must pay attention to the behaviour of the model Retention- the learner must form a mental representation of the modelled behaviour, in order for it to be retained in memory. Reproduction- the learner must have the physical and intellectual capabilties to reproduce the desired behaviour. Motivation- The learner must want to imitate the learnt behaviour. This will depend on whether the learner believes that there will be a desirable consequence (reinforcement) for reproducing the learnt behaviour. Reinforcment- observing the model experience punishment for the modeled behaviour will decrease the learners willingness to model. Whereas, observing the model receive reward for the behaviour will increase their likelihood to imitate.

Extent to which ethical principles were applied to classic research investigations into learning including John Watsons Little Albert experiment

Watson and Rayners Ethical BreachesThe experiment was designed to condition fear in the child, therefore it is reasonable to assume the child would be emotionally traumatized and may have suffered lasting psychological harm. Watson failed to seek permission from Alberts mother, therefore no informed constant and withdrawal rights were not explained. Watson did not debrief Albert or his mother to extinguish the conditioned fear response. Watson failed to follow confidentiality as he published his results without ensuring Albert remained anonymous.

 Research methodologies and ethical principles associated with the study of learning, as outlined in the introduction to Unit 3 on page 22.

 Concepts of normality and differentiation of mental health from mental illness

A behaviour is considered normal when it helps a person assimilate appropriately within society and culture and function independently. Mental illness is one aspect of life that can make people behave in ways that are not normal, because the behaviours interfere with the persons daily living. Mental health is a state of emotional and social well-being in which individuals realise their own abilities, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and can contribute to their community. Mental illness is a mental disorder that affects one or more functions of the mind. A mental illness can interfere with a persons thoughts, emotions, perceptions and behaviours

 Concepts of normality and differentiation of mental health from mental illness

Functional Approach to Normality- individuals ability to interact within society, level of ability to undertake day-to-day functions or tasks. Medical Approach to Normality- mental health is determined by a set of symptoms. If a mental illness is diagnosed, treatment is requiredpsychological, pharmaceutical or both.

Sociocultural Approach to Normality- whether behaviour is normal according to the cultural values and beliefs of a society.
Historical Approach to Normality- Obeying standards for acceptable behaviour according to the time period

Situational Approach to Normality- Obeying popular standards for behaviour according to a particular social situation
Statistical Approach to Normality- Fitting in with the most commonly occurring characteristic within a society.

 Systems of classification of mental conditions and disorders: underlying principles of classification; strengths and limitations of discrete categorical (DSM-IV and ICD-10) and dimensional (graded and transitional) approaches to classification of mental disorders

CATEGORICAL CLASSIFICATIONS DSM-IV Handbook used to identify and classify symptoms of mental disorders. Diagnosis based upon the persons medical condition, psychosocial stressors and the extent to which their mental state is interfering with everyday life. ICD-10 produced by WHO. Like the DSM, it is descriptive and based upon symptoms reported by patient and criteria ranked important by professionals. Does not consider causes or possible treatment.

 Systems of classification of mental conditions and disorders: underlying principles of classification; strengths and limitations of discrete categorical (DSM-IV and ICD-10) and dimensional (graded and transitional) approaches to classification of mental disorders

DIMENSIONAL CLASSIFICATIONS

Dimensional
Does not feature discrete categories, but rather places an individual upon a continuum of mental health classification based upon a range of psychological, physiological, environmental and social factors. Allows for the severity of the disorder to be established. Two features of a Dimensional approach are: It is Graded as an individual is placed (graded) upon the continuum according to the severity of their symptoms. Grading allows for evaluation over time (Transitional) The stability of the behaviour or mental illness is Transitional, thus it is considered to be dynamic, context-dependent and able to change over time. No individual is fixed upon the continuum but can move up or down in response to treatment etc.

 Use of a biopsychosocial framework (the interaction and integration of biological, psychological and social factors) as an approach to considering physical and mental health

 Application of a biopsychosocial framework to understanding the relationship between stress and physical and mental wellbeing: physiological and psychological characteristics of responses to stress including fightflight response, eustress and distress

Eustress is a positive, healthy response to stress. Experiencing

Eustress releases adrenaline releases adrenaline to help us perform at an optimal level.

Distress results when the emotional or physical pressures of a stressor

are perceived as uncontrollable, intense, or over an extended period.

Fight or Flight is a automatic physiological response to stress or fear,

involving increased arousal and activation of the sympathetic nervous system, preparing body for action.

Activates physical actions (pupils dilate, increased HR) designed to enable rapid physical response to perceived threat. If the stress is prolonged, resulting in extended heightened arousal, prolonged activation of sympathetic nervous system and extensive release of adrenaline negative physical effects can result (heart damage, ulcers, weakened immune system).

 Psychological determinants of the stress response; strengths and limitations of Richard Lazarus and Susan Folkmans Transactional Model of Stress and Coping

TRANSACTIONAL MODEL OF STRESS AND COPING An individuals stress response is determined by their appraisal (evaluation) of the stressor and also by the social and cultural resources the individual has at their disposal to deal with the stressor

PRIMARY APPRAISAL- Initial evaluation in which an

individual decides if the situation is Threatening or Positive, Relevant or Irrelevant SECONDARY APPRAISAL-Evaluation of the resources available to cope with the situation. Individuals interact with their environment in different ways, appraising situations or stressors in different ways. Thus, a situation one individual perceives as stressful, may be appraised differently by another.

 Psychological determinants of the stress response; strengths and limitations of Richard Lazarus and Susan Folkmans Transactional Model of Stress and Coping

Advantages of Transactional ModelUseful for helping people understand their role in Interpretation and Appraisal of Stressors. Eg. Phobias Focusing individuals to perceive stressors as challenges rather than threats. Distinguishes between Eustress and Distress

Disadvantages of Transactional ModelToo Simplistic- doesnt incorporate biological responses to stress. Purely focused upon psychological responses (cognitive appraisal) . Developed as a linear model- fails to account for re-appraisal

Social, cultural and environmental factors that exacerbate and alleviate the stress response

Factors that Alleviate the Stress Response Secure and established support network (social) A pleasant clean environment can alleviate stress (environment) Predictable and equitable availability of basic resources such as food and water (environment) Factors that Exacerbate the Stress Response Inadequate social support networks (social) Pollution, crime, poverty (environment) Stress caused by adapting to a new culture for immigrants or refugees (cultural)

 Allostasis (stability through change brought about by the brains regulation of the bodys response to stress) as a model that integrates biological, psychological and social factors that explain an individuals response to stress

HomeostasisThe bodies balanced and healthy state, largely influenced by the parasympathetic nervous system and achieved through the process of Allostasis.
Following a stressful event, our body attempts to adapt and return to a state of well-being or Homeostasis as the body cannot function at a heightened state (high levels of adrenaline- fight or flight) for pronged periods without causing physical damage. The various challenges or stressors we face elicit a Allostatic Response (immune system, autonomic nervous system and neuroendocrine system) in which our body adapts to return to a homeostatic level (calm, normal functioning), a level which can be sustained for prolonged periods (unlike flight-fight).

 Strategies for coping with stress including biofeedback, meditation/relaxation, physical exercise, social support

Biofeedback- A mechanism by which, through the use of sensors and other electrical instruments, physiological processes involved in the stress response are brought to the attention of the individual. The instruments rapidly provide feedback regarding the physiological response to stress, enabling individuals to gain insight into the response of their own body to stress. Meditation is a deep state of relaxation brought about by mental exercises that focus attention and interrupt the flow of thoughts, worry and analysis Physical Activity- alters hormones, circulation and muscle tone. Exercise reduces anxiety, tension, anger and low mood. Social relationships provide assistance and support in times of the stress, protecting a person against stressors by enhancing resilience.