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4
Solidification
and
Crystalline Imperfections
in Solids
4-1
Solidification of Metals
4-3
Heterogeneous Nucleation
Solid
θ Nucleating
Figure 4.6 agent
• Nucleating agents also lower the critical size.
• Smaller amount of undercooling is required to solidify
(0.1-10oC).
• Used excessively in industries.
4-7
Growth of Crystals and Formation of Grain Structure
• Equiaxed Grains:
Crystals, smaller in size, grow equally in all directions. Mold
Formed at the sites of high concentration of the nuclie.
Example:- Cold mold wall
• Columnar Grains:
Long thin and coarse.
Grow predominantly in one direction.
Formed at the sites of slow cooling
and steep temperature gradient.
Example:- Grains that are away from
the mold wall.
Columnar Grains
Figure 4.9b
Continuous casting
Of steel ingots
Figure 4.8
Direct-Chill semicontinuous
Casting unit for aluminum
4-10
Grain Structure in Industrial castings
Grain structure of
Aluminum cast
(a) without and
(b) with
grain refiners.
(a) (b)
Figure 4.10
4-11 After “Metals Handbook” vol. 8, 8th ed., American Society of Metals, 1973, p.164)
Solidification of Single Crystal
Figure 4.12
Growth of single
crystal for turbine
airfoil.
Figure 4.13
4-13
Metallic Solid Solutions
4-14
Substitutional Solid Solutions
Solvent atoms
Figure 4.14
Solute atoms
4-15
Substitutional Solid Solution (Cont..)
4-16
Interstitial Solid Solution
• No crystal is perfect.
• Imperfections affect mechanical
properties, chemical properties and
electrical properties.
• Imperfections can be classified as
Zero dimension point defects.
One dimension line defects (dislocations).
Two dimension defects.
Three dimension defects (cracks).
4-18
Types of Imperfections
• Vacancy atoms
• Interstitial atoms
• Substitutional atoms Point defects
• Frenkel
• Schottky
Figure 4.16b
4-20
• a) Vacancy point defect
• b) Self-interstitial or interstitialcy, point defect in a close-
packed solid-metal lattice
Point Defects in Ionic Crystals
Figure 4.17
4-21
Two-dimensional representation of an ionic crystal illustrating a
Schottky defect and a Frenkel defect
Line Defects – (Dislocations)
4-22
Edge Dislocation
Figure 4.18
4-23
• a) Positive edge dislocation in a crystalline lattice. A linear defect
occurs in the region just above the inverted “tee,” ┴, where an extra
half plane of atoms has been wedged in.
• b) Edge dislocation that indicates the orientation of its Burgers or slip
vector b. Burger vector is perpendicular with the dislocation line.
Screw Dislocation
4-24 After M. Eisenstadt, “Introduction to Mechanical Properties of Materials,” Macmillan, 1971, p.118
Strain fields surrounding a) an edge dislocation and b) a screw
dislocation
Mixed Dislocation
Figure 4.21
4-27
Sketch showing the relation of the 2-D microstructure of a crystalline
material to the 3-D network.
• Only portions of the total volume and total face of any grain are shown
At grain boundaries
•slightly disordered
•low density
•high mobility
•high diffusivity
•high chemical reactivity
Twin Boundaries
Twin
Plane
Twin
Twin boundaries in the grain structure of brass
Point Defect
• Vacancy – a point imperfection in a crystal lattice where an
atom is missing from an atomic site
Planar defect
• Grain boundary- a planar defect that separates crystal (grains)
of different orientations in a polycrystalline aggregate.
4-28
Effect of Etching
Figure 4.28
Unetched Etched
Unetched Etched
Brass Brass
Steel Steel
200 X 200 X
200 X 200 X
4-32
Grain Size
4-30
Measuring Grain Size
200 X 200 X
1018 cold rolled steel, n=10 1045 cold rolled steel, n=8
4-31
Scanning electron microscope
4-26
TEM (..Cont)