first draught

, , , .
, , , , . ,
. ,
, .
. , . ,
, .
1
, . ,
, , , . , ,
.
2
, , ,
, , , .
, ( ), ,
? , .
. .
3
- , , , - . ,
.
, .
, ,
.
,
.
.
1 ..,

O . . ,
, ., 1973, .1527 (. 24).
2 ., ., ., , . 3. ,
, 1967, , ., .1238 (. 9).
3 . , : , , , . 1987,
, ., .1240 (. 38)
Typeset by AMS-TEX

Was sind und was sollen die Gruppen

I
:
: a students guide
I.
. 1.
1.
2. ?
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8. De divina proportione: , {3, 3, 5} {5, 3, 3}, W (H4 )
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14. :
15.
16.
17.
. 2.
1.
2.
3.
4. , ,
5.
6. ,
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14. ,
15.
16.
17.
18.

19. BN -
20.
21.
. 3. -

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6. Class equation
7.
8.
9.
10. -
11. -
12.
13. Counting argument
14. -
15. , 1st installment: T ?
16. , 2nd installment: O?
17. , 3rd installment: I ?
18.
19.
20.
21.

. 4.

1.
1.
3. ,
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.

II.
. 5.
1. ,
2.

3.
4.
5. Sn
6. , 1st instalment:
7. , 2nd instalment:
8. , 3rd instalment:
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14. Sn
15. Mathematica

. 6.

1.
2.
3.
4.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8. G-
9. ,
10. G-
11.

III.
. 7.
1. p-, p,

2.
3. p-
4. xn = e, 1st installment:
5. xn = e, 2nd installment:
6.
7.
8.
9. Sn
10. pq,
11. p3
12.
13.
14.

. 8.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

< 1.000.000


?

IV.
. 9.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

, ,
Sn GL(n, K)
,
: 1st instalment
: 2nd instalment
,

,

. 10. , ,

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6. /
7.
8.
9.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.

V.
. 11.
1.
2.
3.

4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

. 12.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5. -
6.
7. GL(n, R)
8. -
9.
10. GL(n, R)
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.

. 13.
1.
. 14.
1.
VI.
. 15.
1.
. 16.
1.

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

, 1st instalment: , 2nd instalment:

n- ,
, 1st instalment:
, 2nd instalment:
, 3rd instalment:

VII. ,
. 17.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

. 18.

1. :
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.

VIII.
. 19.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13. HNN-
14.
15.

. 20.

1.
2.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19. :
20.
21.
22.

Index rerum
Index personae
Index symboli

WAS SIND UND WAS SOLLEN DIE GRUPPEN

Was sind und was sollen die Gruppen

The theory of groups is a branch of Mathematics in which one does something to something and then compares the result with the result of doing
the same thing to something else, or something else to the same thing.
James Newman
Lange bevor man sich mit Permutationen besch
aftigte, wurden mathematische Figuren konstruiert, die auf das engste mit Gruppentheorie zusammenh
angen und nur mit gruppentheoretischen Begriffen erfat werden k
onnen, n
amlich die regul
aren Muster, welche durch Bewegungen und Spiegelungen mit sich selbst zur Deckung gebracht werden k
onnen. Insbesondere
bestand die von Griechen viel bewunderte
agyptische Mathematik zweifellos in der Auffindung solcher Figuren. In der arabischen und persischen
Kunst erlebte die
agyptische Ornamentik einen neuen gewaltigen Aufschwung und schuf Gebilde von unerh
orter Vollendung und mathematischer
Tiefe. In der gotischen Architektur trifft man sogar komplizierte Raumgruppen4 .
Andreas Speiser5 , [Sp], S.12.

.
, , , , ,
, , , ...
XIX : ,
. 1830 6 .
grouper les permutations . , 1830 ,
4

, , , - , , ,
. , , , .
, .
.
5 (10.06.1885, 1970) ,

.
6 (25.10.181131.05.1832)
, ,
, 20 .
, ( 1618 !)
. , , , Comptes Rendus
(, , ,
). , , ,
, etc. :
, , , , .
,
, lEcole Polytechnique
lEcole Normale, , ..
.
1846 , 1870-
.

10

, 32 .
, , , ,
. , ,
, . , , (patterns). ,
, . ,
, , , , , ,
, ...

11

Probability is a mathematical discipline whose aims are akin to those,
for example, of geometry or analytical mechanics. In each field we must
carefully distinguish three aspect of the theory:
(a) the formal logical content,
(b) the intuitive background,
(c) the applications.
The character, and the charm, of the whole structure cannot be appreciated
without considering all three aspects in their proper relation.
William Feller7
( )
.
: 1) (), 2)
(), 3)
, 4) .
.
.
. ,
, .
, .

, .
, ,

.
;
, , , , : , ,
.
. ,
-, . .
.
, . ,
, ,
, .
. , ,
. , , , , - -. ,
. , , ,

.
, ,
, .
, ,
,
.
, 8
7 .,

, .1, 1967, , ., .1498.

: .
, .
8

12

. , ,
, . ,
: , , ,
, ( alias ): , ,
. ,
.
, , , ! exercise in futility. ,
, (body of knowledge) . ,
. , , , , . E chi ha gli
occhi nella fronte e nella mente.
, .
, , ,
(, , , , ..) .
, , , , , .
: ,
, , , , , ,
,
.
, . , ,
, , !
.

Here are my principles. If you dont like them, I have others.
Groucho Marx
, .
, ,
, ,
, 9
,
. ( !) - ,
.
, . ,
: Sn GL(n, K).
9

(17.12.1842, Nordfjordeid ( ) 18.02.1899, ( )) ,

. XX ,
, XVIII , XIX . 18691870 ,
. .
, ,
. 18721886 18981899 ,
18861898 . , ,
, .

13

, Sn GL(n, K) . ,
. ,
. ,
,
.
, , . , k- k-
..
- [tD], [Hus].
XX : , , 10 , p- , ,
, etc. A topological group is perhaps the most important concept in modern
Mathematics ([Mau], .125). ,
, , , , ,
, , ,
, ( !)
: , , , , , , , ,
, , , (, , , , etc.),
, , etc.
, ,
.

, , . , .
, ( , , , , etc.)
. ,

.
, ,
, , , , , ..
, , 11 .
, (, , ,
..!) , .

.
, . ,
10

,
, .
, , , , , ,
.
11 , , .
, I, , , , 1982, .1391.

14

, , , (,
..).
.
. ,
. ,
, . -,
,
. -, ,
!
, , . -,

. , , ,
. ,
,
. ,
, , , ,
.
:
, . .
, , , - ,
. , ( ,
, , , ).
(, , ), ,

.
, .
, ,
.
, (case by
case analysis). 12 , , , , , ,
, , ..
, , .
25 .
, .
, ,
.
.
, ,
.
. , XX , , ,
12 .,

, .
, 1983, .38, N.2, .127133.

15

,
1960- .
, . , Z
, ,
Z . , , ,
.

, ,
.
-
(
) . , p-. ,
, , .
, .
,
(, ),
,
.
( !) .
, ,
. .
S6 ( !), , .
, ,
.
-
. 10 . , .
, (, , !)
, , , ,
. ,
. ,
,
.
. , , e . , H-,
, (group scheme,
, sch
ema en groupes), , ,
. , , , ,
. , . ,
,
, , , , , , etc.
,

16

.
13 . ,
(recapitulate) .
. -,
, ,
. -,
, . ,
-, 2 3 XIX XX .
, -,
, , , .

13 ,

, , .

17

I
( , ) X f : X X X.
, .. z = f (x, y) = z
z = xf y. x, y ( ), z
.

. , (TEX \cdot), .
, z = x y z = xy. x, y , z . ,
+. ,
z = x + y, x, y , z .
f , f (f (x, y), z) = f (x, f (y, z)) x, y, z
X. (xy)z = x(yz)
(x + y) + z = x + (y + z), .
. (allgemeine Klammerregel)
, x1 . . . xn .
, f (x, y) = f (y, x) x, y X. , xy = yx
x + y = y + x, . , 14 .
, x1 . . . xn , .
e X , ex = x x X
, xe = x x X. ,
, , (, ).
e 1,
0.
,
. . , , ,
.
X c e. x X , y X , yx = e.
y x. , x , z X , xz = e, z
x. , x
, x , ,
y = ye = y(xz) = (yx)z = ez = z. ,
!
, x y
z, . .
x X ( ), y X, xy = e = yx. y x
x1 . x
.
X Y . f : X Y
, f (xy) = f (x)f (y) x, y X.
.

14 ,

, : .

18

.
.
[Ba1] .., , , ., 1990, pp. 1
318.
[BB] ., ., , , ., 1976.
[B1] ., , . I III. , , , ., 1962, pp. 1516.
[B2] ., , . IV VI. , , ,
., 1965, pp. 1300.
[B3] ., , . VII IX. , , , , ., 1966, pp. 1555.
[Wae] .. , , , ., 1976, pp. 1648.
[Vi1] .., , , ., 1998, pp. 1191.
[Vi2] .., , , ., 1999, pp. 1527.
[Ka1] .., , , ., 1973.
[K1] .., , , ., 1977, pp. 1495.
[K2] .., , I. , , ., 2000.
[K3] .., , III. , ,
., 2000, pp. 1271.
[KM] .., .., , 2 ., 1986, pp. 1303.
[L1]
., , , ., 1968, pp. 1564.
[LP] ., ., , - ., , 1996.
[LSh] ., ., , , ., 1999.
[OA1] : , , , ., 1990, pp. 1590.
[OA2] : , , , , ,
., 1991, pp. 1479.
[Sk1] .., , , ., 1981, pp. 1243.
[Sk2] .., , , ., 1983, pp. 1272.
[F1]
.., , , ., 1984, pp. 1416.
[Fai] ., : , , . . 1, 1977, pp. 1676.
[Sh]
.., , R. & C. Dynamics, , 1999, pp. 1
347.

19

:
1. . , , , [KaM], [Kur],
[Ha], [Sch] , .
,
, , , [Ha]. , , , . 1916 [Sch]
, 1930- 15 . [Kur] 16 ,
17 , , 18 . [KaM] ,
,
. ,
, : , ,
. :
, ( ), etc.
[Bog].
,
.
[Al], [Ale], [GM],
[KS] [LAL]. , / .
1218 [Sh],
. [Sm] [Go]. ..
[Sm] ,
, 1940-
,
. [Go] ,
.
2. . [Fu2] . , ,
,
.
15

, [Sch] ,
,
!
16
:
, [Kur],
c.423424. : there is no sense
in being precise if you dont even understand what you are talking about.
17
.., .
. , , , - , ., 1956, .3,
.248331. ,
, , [Kur]
301302.
18 , , [MS] [S4]. :
.-., , SL2 . , . ., 1974, .18, N.1, .351;
N.2, .327.

20

,
:
[Vy], [Go], [Kon], [L3], [Suz];
[BF], [Vin], [Ja], [tD], [CR], [Mur], [Na1], [S3], [Fe],
[F], [Hen];
[Adi], [B7], [Gro], [CF], [CM], [4], [LSh], [MKS], [Neu], [Ol],
[ChM];
[Alg], [Br], [CE], [Mac], [S1].
, XX : , , ,
etc. , :
[Ada], [AGH], [B6], [B8], [VO], [Pos], [Rag], [S2], [Che], [Ch];
[BR], [Zh], [ZhSh], [Kir], [Na1];
[B4], [B5], [We], [Gui], [Grn], [Kp2], [Kir], [Po];
[Alg], [Koch], [S1];
[Alg], [Bo], [VO], [Vo], [Kp1], [PR], [Hu1], [Ch];
[Alg], [Ari], [PR], [Hu2];
, [Sem], [St], [M];
[W1], [Gur], [DCM], [Kr], [Sp];
[Art], [Ba], [Bae], [Mer], [M], [Su1], [Su2];
[Aut], [Art], [D], [Iso], [OM];
[KoKo], [Kop], [KoMe], [Fu1].
3. .
, , , , .
:
[HW];
[Apa], [Be], [Ber], [Bre], [W2], [Wo], [GME], [DNF], [Kob], [NSh],
[Roz], [Ter], [He1], [Eis];
[Ari], [Brs], [GGP], [JL], [L3], [Shi], [Har];
[Lum], [We], [L3], [He2], [HR];
[Vil], [Ri];
[Brl], [Bla], [CS], [MWS];
[BI], [CS], [SUS];
[Aig], [BVSh], [Per], [Pri], [Sac], [Sov], [Hrr], [HP].
. , , , ..
, , , .
[BVe], [BR], [Wae], [W3], [PT], [Ham], [ShK], [ED];
[Ani], [Ans], [AM], [Wu], [DPA], [CG], [Mad],
[Har], [Pen], [Str], [F2], [Fe1], [Fe2], [Shu];
[Cot], [Fl], [Ho], [Zue];
[Wig], [Kap], [Mck], [Zue];
[LB], [RF1], [Th]
[GMSh], [Na2], [Fed], [Wrl].

21

[Aut]
[Ada]
[Adi]
[Aig]
[Alg]
[Al]
[Ale]
[Ami]
[Ani]

, . ., , ., 1976, pp. 1264.

., , , ., 1979, pp. 1144.
.., , , ., 1975, pp. 1335.
., , , ., 1982, pp. 1556.
, , ., 1969, pp. 1483.
.., , 3- ., , ., 1980, pp. 1143.
.., , , ., 1976, pp. 1207.
.., , - ., ., 2002, pp. 1191.
., , , ., 1981,
pp. 1574.
[Ans]
.., , 2- ., , ., 1978.
[Apa]
.., ,
, ., 1983, pp. 1242.
[Ari]
, . ., , ., 1969, pp. 1
224.
[Art]
., , , ., 1990, pp. 1318.
[AGH] ., ., ., , , .,
1966, pp. 1208.
[AM]
., ., , . I, II, , ., 1979, pp. 1399;
pp. 1422.
[BaVe] ., ., , , ., 1959, pp. 1301.
[BI]
., ., . , , .,
1987, pp. 1373.
[BR]
., ., , . I, II, ,
., 1980, pp. 1455; pp. 1395.
[Ba]
., K-, , ., 1973, pp. 1591.
[Bam] ., , , ., 1934.
[Bau]
., , ??, 1937.
[Ba2]
.., , , ., 1985, pp. 1447.
[BVSh] .., .., .., , , ., 1976,
pp. 1392.
[BF]
.., .., ,
, ., 1976, pp. 1126.
[Be]
., , , ., 1986, pp. 1300.
[Ber]
., , . I, , ., 1984, pp. 1559.
[Brl]
., , , ., 1971, pp. 1477.
[Bla]
., , , , ., 1986,
pp. 1576.
[Bog]
.., , - ., ., 2002,
pp. 1148.
[Bo]
., , , ., 1972, pp. 1269.
[Br]
., , , ., 1987, pp. 1383.
[Bre]
., , , ., 1980,
pp. 1440.
[B1]
., , . III VIII. , , , ., 1969, pp. 1392.
[B2]
., , . VI VIII. , , , , ., 1970, pp. 1320.
[B3]
., , . I III. ,
, , ., 1976, pp. 1496.
[B4]
., , . IV VI. ,
, , , , ., 1972, pp. 1331.
[B5]
., , . IX. ,
, ., 1972, pp. 1173.
[BG]
.., .., , , ., 1968,
pp. 1111.

22
[Bae]
[Wae]

., , , ., 1955, pp. 1399.

.. , , , , 1939.
[Wei]
., , , .,
1950.
[W1]
., , , , ., 1947,
pp. 1408.
[W2]
., , , ., 1968, pp. 1191.
[W3]
., , , ., 1986, pp. 1495.
[Wrl]
., , , ., 1969, pp. 1441.
[Wi]
., , , ., 1961.
[Vil]
.., , , .,
1965, pp. 1588.
[Vin]
.., , , ., 1985.
[VO]
.., .., , , ., 1988, pp. 1343.
[Wo]
., , , ., 1982, pp. 1480.
[Vo]
.., , , ., 1977, pp. 1223.
[Wu]
.., , , ., 1977.
[Vy]
, vol. 2, , ., 1976, pp. 1304.
[GGP] .., .., .. -, , , ., 1987, pp. 1312.
[GMSh] .., .., .., , , ., 1958, pp. 1368.
[Hyp]
, , ., 1992.
[Gui]
., , , ., 1984, pp. 1
262.
[Gol]
.., . 4-e ., , .,
1985, pp. 1392.
[Gor]
., . , , .,
1985, pp. 1350.
[Gov]
.., , , .,
1978, pp. 1119.
[Grn]
., , , ., 1973,
pp. 1136.
[Gro]
., , - ., ., 2002, pp. 1159.
[GM]
., ., , , ., 1971.
[GME] ., ., ., , , , ., 2003, pp. 1615.
[Gur]
.., , , ., 1948.
[DPA] .., ., ..,
, , .., 1934, pp. 1328.
[Ja]
., , , ., 1982.
[tD]
. , , , ., 1982, pp. 1
227.
[DNF] .., .., .., . . I.
, , ., 1979, pp. 1759.
[D]
., , , ., 1974, pp. 1204.
[DCM] ., ., ., , ,
., 1974, pp. 1280.
[JL]
., ., GL2 , , ., 1973, pp. 1372.
[Zh]
.., , , ., 1970,
pp. 1664.
[ZhSh] .., .., , , ., 1983, pp. 1360.


[Iso]

23

, . ., vol. 20,
, ., 1980, pp. 1272.
[IMS]
.., .., .., , , , 1997, pp. 1
52.
[Kon]
, . ., vol. 16, , ., 1979, pp. 1200.
[Ka]
.., , , , 1979, pp. 151.
[KS]
.., .., , , ., 1979,
pp. 1112.
[Kap]
.., , , ., 1969, pp. 1407.
[Ka1]
., , , ., 1959.
[Ka2]
., , , ., 1974, pp. 1
148.
[KaM] .., .., , , ., 1- . 1972;
2- . 1977; 3- . 1982, pp. 1288.
[KE]
., ., , , ., 1960, pp. 1510.
[Kir]
.., , 2 ., , ., 1978, pp. 1
343.
[Kob]
., , , .,
1986, pp. 1224.
[KoKo] .., .., , , ., 1972, pp. 1
199.
[CG]
., ., , , ., 1970, pp. 1424.
[C?]
..., , , ., 1966, pp. 1648.
[CM]
..., .., , , ., 1980, pp. 1240.
[CS]
., ., , , . I, II, , ., 1990,
pp. 1413; pp. 421791.
[Kop]
.., , , ., 1984, pp. 1320.
[KoMe] .., .., , , , 1996, pp. 1246.
[K4]
.., , , ., 1986, pp. 1232.
[Kot]
.., , , ., 1965.
[Koch] ., p-, , ., 1973, pp. 1199 1375.
[Kr]
., , , ., 1975, pp. 1296.
[Kr]
., , , ., 1987, pp. 1
312.
[CF]
., ., , , ., 1967, pp. 1348.
[Kur]
.., , 3 ., , ., 1967, pp. 1647.
[CR]
., ., , , ., 1969, pp. 1668.
[LSh]
., ., , , ., 1980, pp. 1447.
[L2]
C., SL2 (R), , ., 1977, pp. 1430.
[L3]
C., , , ., 1979, pp. 1254.
[Lub]
.., , , ., 1957.
[LAL] .., .., . ., , ,
., 1967, pp. 1264.
[LB]
.., .., , -
, ., 1983, pp. 1336.
[MKS] ., ., ., , , ., 1974,
pp. 1455.
[Mad] ., , , ., 1980, pp. 1416.
[MWS] ..-, ..., , , ,
., 1979, pp. 1744.
[Mck]
., , , .,
1965, pp. 1221.
[Mac]
., , , ., 1966, pp. 1543.
[MS]
.., ., : , , ., 1977,
pp. 1338.

24
[Mer]
[M]
[Mur]
[Na1]
[Na2]
[NSh]
[Neu]
[Ol]
[OM]
[Pen]
[Per]
[PT]
[PR]
[Pl]
[Po]
[Pos]
[Pri]
[Rag]
[Raz]
[Ri]
[Roz]
[RF1]
[RF2]
[Sc1]
[Sc2]
[Swi]
[Sem]
[S1]
[S2]
[S3]
[Sp]
[St]
[Suz]
[Su1]
[Su2]
[Suc]
[SuS]
[Hsi]
[Th]
[Ter]
[F2]
[Fe1]

.., , , ., 1980, pp. 1464.

., K-, , Berlin et al., 1974, pp. 1
196.
., , , ., 1950.
.., , , ., 1958.
.., , , ., 1976, pp. 1559.
.., .., , , ., 1983, pp. 1239.
., , , ., 1969, pp. 1264.
.., , , .,
1989.
., , , ., 1979, pp. 1166.
., , , ., 1974, pp. 1496.
, , ., 1979, pp. 1363.
.., .., ,
, ., 1967, pp. 1308.
.., .., , , .,
1991, pp. 1654.
.., , , ., 1966,
pp. 1603.
.., , , ., 1984, pp. 1519.
.., , , ., 1982, pp. 1447.
, , ., 1968, pp. 1362.
.., , , ., 1977, pp. 1316.
, vol. 21, , ., 1981, pp. 1208.
., . . II.
, , ., 1984, pp. 1381.
.., , , ., 1969, pp. 1547.
.., .., , , ., 1970, pp. 1400.
.., .., , , ., 1977, pp. 1
247.
.., , , ., 1977,
pp. 1319.
.., , ,
., 1982, pp. 1384.
.., , , .,
1985, pp. 1606.
, , ., 1973, pp. 1315.
.-., , , ., 1968, pp. 1208 1375.
.-., , , ., 1969, pp. 1375.
.-., , , ., 1970.
., , , ., 1981, pp. 1191.
., , , ., 1975.
., , , ., 1960,
pp. 1158.
.., , , 1958.
.., , , ., 1972, pp. 1351.
.., , , , 1937,
pp. 1176.
.., .., ii i: i , , i, 2003, pp. 1255.
.., , ,
., 1979, pp. 1243.
, ., , ., 1967, pp. 1375.
., , .1., , ., 2001, pp. 1312.
.., ,
, .., 1961.
.., , - , ., 1949,
pp. 1639.


[Fe2]

25

.., , , ., 1979,
pp. 1272.
[Fed]
.., , , ., 1979, pp. 1384.
[Fe]
., , , ., 1990, pp. 1461.
[Fl]
., . , , ., 1983,
pp. 1395.
[Fr]
., , , ., 1979, pp. 1260.
[F]
., , , , 1937.
[Fu1]
., , , ., 1965, pp. 1
342.
[Fu2]
., , . I,II, , ., 1974, pp. 1335; 1977, pp. 1
416.
[Hu1]
., , , ., 1980, pp. 1399.
[Hu2]
., , , ., 1983, pp. 1207.
[Ham] ., , , .,
1966, pp. 1587.
[Hrr]
., , , ., 1973, pp. 1300.
[Hrr]
., ., , , ., 1977, pp. 1324.
[Har]
-, , , ., 1971,
pp. 1246.
[Han]
., , , ., 1972, pp. 1616.
[Hei]
., , , ., 1963.
[He1]
., , ,
., 1965.
[He2]
., , , ., 1987, pp. 1735.
[Hen]
., , , .,
1970, pp. 1118.
[HW]
., ., : ,
, ., 1966, pp. 1452.
[Ha]
., , , ., 1962, pp. 1468.
[Ho]
., , , ., 1968, pp. 1384.
[Hus]
., , , ., 1970, pp. 1442.
[HR]
., ., , . I, , ., 1975,
pp. 1654.
[ZVC] ., ., .-., , , .,
1988.
[Zue]
., , .1, , ., 1976, pp. 1512.
[ChM] ., ., , , ., 1985,
pp. 1253.
[Cheb] .., , , ., 1940.
[Cher] .., , , .,
1980, pp. 1383.
[Ch]
., , . I III, , ., 1948, pp. 1315; 1958.
[Shem] .., , , ., 1978, pp. 1271.
[Shi]
., , , .,
1973, pp. 1326.
[Sch]
.., , 2- ., , ., 1933, .
, 1959.
[Scht]
., , , ., 1971, pp. 1262.
[Shu]
.., , , ., 1946.
[ShK]
.., .., , , ., 1972,
pp. 1339.
[Eis]
.., , , ., 1947, pp. 1359.
[ED]
., ., , . I, II, , ., 1983, pp. 1364; pp. 1
410.

26

: a students guide
?
. , , , .
- , .
,
, , , , , -
, / .
,
3-4 , , ,
(
undergraduates).
, ( , ), Springer Cambridge University Press
(C.U.P) .
, , [Ro].
[A1] , .
, . [AB].
- [FH]. ,

[CR].
, [Suz] [Hu].
[Go] , , [GLS1] [GLS5]. ,
, : [Ca], [Ca], [BG], [Hu4], [Sp],
[A2], [A3], [S4], [Br], [Ron]. 230 [Kim].

[Mac]
[Rob]
[Ros]
[Rot]
[Sch]
[ST]
[Za]

I.D.MacDonald, The theory of groups, Claredon Press, Oxford, 1968.

D.J.S.Robinson, A course in the theory of groups, Springer, Berlin et al., 1982.
J.S.Rose, A course on group theory, C.U.P., Cambridge, 1978.
J.J.Rotman, The theory of groups, an introduction, 2nd ed., Allyn & Bacon, Boston,
1973.
E.Schenkman, Group theory, N.Y., 1965.
G.Smith, O.Tabachnikova, Topics in group theory, Springer Verlag, Berlin et al., 2000,
pp. 1255.
H.Zassenhaus, The theory of groups, Dover Publications, N.Y., 1999, pp. 1265, (Reprint
of the 1958 Chelsea 2nd edition).

[Bud]
[Bus]
[Joy]
[Mr1]

F.J.Budden, The fascination of groups, C.U.P., Cambridge, 1972.

B.P.Burns, Geometry: a path to groups, C.U.P., Cambridge, 1987.
D.Joyner, Adventures in group theory, John Hopkins Univ., Baltimore, 2002, pp. 1262.
R.Mirman, Group theory: an intuitive approach, World Scientific, London et al., 1995.

[A1]

M.Aschbacher, Finite group theory, 2nd ed., C.U.P., Cambridge, 2000, pp. 1304.

A STUDENTS GUIDE

27

[Bur]
[Go1]

W.Burnside, Theory of groups of finite order, reprint of the 2nd ed., Dover, N.Y., 1955.
D.Gorenstein, Finite groups, Harper & Row, N.Y., 1st ed. 1968; Chelsea, N.Y., 2nd ed.
1980.
[Hu]
B.Huppert, Endliche Gruppen, Bd. I, Springer, Berlin et al., 1967, pp. 1793.
[HB]
B.Huppert, N.Blackburn, Finite groups, vol. II, III, Springer, Berlin et al., 1982, pp. 1
531; pp. 1454.
[Spe] A.Speiser, Die Theorie der Gruppen von endlicher Ordnung, 4te Aufl., Birkh
auser, Basel
et al., 1956, pp. 1271.
[Sz]
M.Suzuki, Group theory, vol. I, II, Springer Verlag, Berlin et al., 1982, pp. 1434.
[KSt] H.Kurzweil, B.Stellmacher, Theorie der endlichen Gruppen: eine Einf
uhrung, Springer
Verlag, Berlin et al., 1998, pp. 1341.
[Wh1] B.A.F.Wehrfritz, Finite groups: a second course on group theory, World Scientific, London
et al., 1999, pp. 1123.

[Go2]
[GLS1]
[GLS2]

[GLS3]

[GLS4]

[GLS5]

D.Gorenstein, The classification of finite simple groups, vol. 1, Groups of non-characteristic 2 type, Plenum Press, N.Y., 1983, pp. 1487.
D.Gorenstein, R.Lyons, R.Solomon, The classification of the finite simple groups,, Amer.
Math. Society, Providence, R.I., 1994, pp. 1165.
D.Gorenstein, R.Lyons, R.Solomon, The classification of the finite simple groups, N.2,
Part I, Ch. G. General group theory, Amer. Math. Society, Providence, R.I., 1996, pp. 1
218.
D.Gorenstein, R.Lyons, R.Solomon, The classification of the finite simple groups, N.3,
Part I, Ch. A. Almost simple K-groups, Amer. Math. Society, Providence, R.I., 1998,
pp. 1419.
D.Gorenstein, R.Lyons, R.Solomon, The classification of the finite simple groups, N.2,
Part II, Ch. 14. Uniqueness theorems, Amer. Math. Society, Providence, R.I., 1999,
pp. 1341.
D.Gorenstein, R.Lyons, R.Solomon, The classification of the finite simple groups, N.5,
Part III, Ch. 16. The generic case, Amer. Math. Society, Providence, R.I., 2002, pp. 1
467.

[A2]
M.Aschbacher, Sporadic groups, C.U.P., Cambridge, 1994.
[A3]
M.Aschbacher, 3-transposition groups, C.U.P., Cambridge, 1997.
[Atlas] J.H.Conway, R.T.Curtis, S.P.Norton, R.A.Parker, R.A.Wilson, An atlas of finite groups,
Claredon Press, Oxford, 1972, pp. 1284.
[FLM] I.Frenkel, J.Lepowsky, A.Meurman, Vertex operator algebras and the monster, Academic
Press, Boston et al., 1988, pp. 1502.
[Gr]
R.L.Griess, Twelve sporadic groups, Springer Verlag, Berlin et al., 1998, pp. 1169.

[Col]
[Dor]
[Hil]
[Isa]
[JL]
[PD]

M.J.Collins, Representations and characters of finite groups, C.U.P., Cambridge, 1990,

pp. 1242.
L.Dornhoff, Group representation theory. Parts A,B, Marcel Dekker, N.Y. et al., 1971;
1972.
V.E.Hill, Groups and characters, Chappman & Hall, Boca Raton, Fl., 2000, pp. 1239.
I.M.Isaacs, Character theory of finite groups, Academic Press, N.Y. et al., 1976.
D.James, M.Liebeck, Representations and characters of groups, 2nd ed., C.U.P., Cambridge, 2001, pp. 1458.
B.Puttaswamaiah, J.D.Dixon, Modular representations of finite groups, Academic Press,
N.Y. et al., 1977, pp. 1242.

28

[C1]
[C2]
[Hu?]
[KL]
[Lu]
[Tim]

R.W.Carter, Simple groups of Lie type, Wiley, London et al., 1972, pp. 1331.
R.W.Carter, Finite groups of Lie type: conjugacy classes and complex characters, Wiley,
London et al., 1985, pp. 1544.
J.Humphreys, Introduction to Lie algebras and representation theory, 3rd revised printing,
Springer Verlag, Berlin et al., 1980.
P.B.Kleidman, M.W.Liebeck, The subgroup structure of the finite classical groups, C.U.P.,
Cambridge, 1990, pp. 1303.
G.Lusztig, Characters of reductive groups over a finite field. Ann. Math. Studies, vol. 107,
Princeton Univ. Press, 1984, pp. 1384.
F.G.Timmesfeld, Abstract root subgroups and simple groups of Lie type, Birkh
auser Verlag, Basel, 2001, pp. 1389.

[Ch]
[Ho]
[Sp]

C.Chevalley, Classification des groupes de Lie algebriques, vol. I, II, ENS, Paris, 1956-58.
G.Hochschild, Basic theory of algebraic groups and Lie algebras, Springer, Berlin et al.,
1981.
T.Springer, Linear algebraic groups, Birkh
auser, Boston et al., 1981, pp. 1304.

[BW]

N.L.Biggs, A.T.White, Permutation groups and combinatorial structures, C.U.P., Cambridge, 1979.
[Cam] P.J.Cameron, Permutation groups, C.U.P., Cambridge, 1999, pp. 1220.
[Kr1] A.Kerber, Algebraic combinatorics via finite group actions, Biblographisches Inst., Mannheim, 1991.
[Kr2] A.Kerber, Applied finite group actions, Springer Verlag, Berlin et al., 1999, pp. 1454.
[BW] M.Ch.Klin, R.P
oschel, K.Rosenbaum, Angewandte Algebra. Einf
uhrung in gruppentheoretisch-kombinatorische Methoden, DVW, Berlin, 1988, pp. 1208.
[Pas]
D.Passman, Permutation groups, Academic Press, N.Y. et al., 1968.
[Sag] B.E.Sagan, The symmetric groups: representations, combinatorial algorithms, and symmetric functions, 2nd ed., Springer Verlag, Berlin et al., 2001, pp. 1238.
[Wie] H.Wielandt, Finite permutation groups, Academic Press, N.Y. et al., 1964.

[Bl]
[Di]
[Dix]

H.R.Blichfeldt, Finite collineation groups, Univ. Chicago Press, 1917, pp. 1193.
L.E.Dickson, Linear groups, reprint, Dover, N.Y., 1958.
J.Dixon, The structure of linear groups, Van Nostrand Reinhold, London et al., 1971,
pp. 1183.
[Jo]
C Jordan, Trait
e des substitutions et des
equations algebriques, Gauthier-Villars, Paris,
1870.
[vdW] B.van der Waerden, Gruppen von linearen Transformationen, Springer, Berlin et al., 1935.
[Wh2] B.A.F.Wehrfritz, Infinite linear groups, Springer, Berlin et al., 1973, pp. 1229.
[WSh] B.A.F.Wehrfritz, M.Shirvani, Skew linear groups, C.U.P., Cambridge, 1986, pp. 1253.

[D?]
J.Dieudonn
e, Sur les groupes classiques, Hermann, Paris, 1948.
[HOM] A.Hahn, O.T.OMeara, The classical groups and K-theory, Springer, Berlin et al., 1989,
pp. 1576.

[Ba]
[DK]

A.Baker, Matrix groups, Springer Verlag, Berlin et al., 2002, pp. 1330.
J.J.Duistermaat, J.A.C.Kolk, Lie groups, Springer Verlag, Berlin et al., 2000, pp. 1344.

A STUDENTS GUIDE

29

[FdV]

H.Freudenthal, H. de Vries, Linear Lie groups, Academic Press, N.Y. et al., 1969, pp. 1
547.
[Ho]
G.Hochschild, The structure of Lie groups, Holden Day, 1965, pp. 1230.
[Hsi]
W.-Y.Hsiang, Lectures on Lie groups, World Scientific, London et al., 2000, pp. 1108.
[Kna] A.W.Knapp, Lie groups beyond an introduction, 2nd ed., Birkh
auser, Boston et al., 2002,
pp. 1812.
[Nom] K.Nomizu, Lie groups and differential geometry. vol. I, II, N.Y., 1963; 1969.
[SW] A.Sagle, R.Walde, Introductions to Lie groups and Lie algebras, Academic Press, N.Y. et
al., 1973.
[Var] V.S.Varadarajan, An introduction to harmonic analysis on semisimple groups, C.U.P.,
Cambridge, 1999, pp. 1316.

[A]

M.Atiyah et al.??, Representation theory of Lie groups, C.U.P., Cambridge, ???, pp. 1
341.
[Var] V.S.Varadarajan, Lie groups, Lie algebras and their representations, Prentice Hall, 1974.
[Wal] N.Wallach, Harmonic analysis on homogeneous spaces, N.Y., 1973.
[War] G.Warner, Harmonic analysis on semi-simple Lie groups vol. I, II, Berlin, 1972.
[Waw] A.Wawrzy
nczyk, Wsp
olczesna teoria funkcji specjalnych, PAN, Warszawa, 1978, pp. 1
525.

[GB]
[Hu4]
[Kan]

L.C.Grove, C.T.Benson, Finite reflection groups, 2nd ed., Springer, Berlin et al., 1985.
J.Humphreys, Reflection groups and Coxeter groups, C.U.P., Cambridge, 1992.
R.Kane, Reflection groups and invariant theory, Springer Verlag, Berlin et al., 2001,
pp. 1379.

[Mau]
[Wil]
[Wil]

K.Maurin, General eigenfuction expansions and unitary representations of topological

groups, PWN, Warszawa, 1968, pp. 1367.
L.Ribes, Introduction to profinite groups and Galois cohomology, Queens Univ., Kingston,
Ontario, 1999, pp. 1316, (reprint of the 1970 original).
J.S.Wilson, Profinite groups, Claredon Press, Oxford et al., 1998, pp. 1284.

[Abr]
[Han]
[Pa]
[Ron]
[Ti]

P.Abramenko, Twin buildings and applications to S-arithmetic groups Springer Lecture

Notes Math., vol. 1641, Berlin et al., 1996.
F.Buekenhout (ed.), Handbook of incidence geometry: buildings and foundations, Elsevier,
Amsterdam et al., 1995.
A.Pasini, Diagram geometries, Claredon Press, Oxford, 1994.
M.Ronan, Lectures on buildings, Academic Press, N.Y. et al., 1989.
J.Tits, Buildings of spherical type and finite BN-pairs Springer Lecture Notes Math.,
vol. 386, Berlin et al., 1974.

[KW]
[War]
[Rob]
[Seg]

O.Kegel, B.A.F.Wehrfritz, Locally finite groups, Amsterdam, 1973, pp. 1210.

R.B.Warfield, Nilpotent groups Springer Lecture Notes Math., vol. 513, Berlin et al., 1976.
D.J.S.Robinson, Finiteness conditions and generalised soluble groups, vol. I, II, Springer,
Berlin et al., 1972.
D.Segal, Polycyclic groups, C.U.P., Cambridge, 1983.

30

[B4]
[Mag]
[Whi]

A.Borel, Seminar on transformation groups. Ann. Math. Studies, vol. 46, Princeton Univ.
Press, 1960.
W.Magnus, Non-Euclidean tesselations and their groups, Academic Press, N.Y., 1976.
A.T.White, Graphs, groups and surfaces, 2nd ed., North Holland, N Amsterdam, 1984.

[dlH]

P.de la Harpe, Topic in geometric group theory, Univ. Chicago Press, Chicago, Il., 2000,
pp. 1310.

[Bau]
[Co1]
[FR]
[S3]

G.Baumslag, Topics in combinatorial group theory, Birkh

auser, Boston et al., 1993.
D.E.Cohen, Combinatorial group theory: a topological approach, Queen Mary College,
London, 1978.
B.Fine, G.Rosenberger, Algebraic generalizations of discrete groups, Marcel Dekker, N.Y.
et al., 1999, pp. 1317.
J.-P.Serre, Arbres, amalgames, SL2 , Ast`
erisque or Springer, Berlin et al..

[AM]
[AM]
[Ben]
[Co2]
[Gr]
[Sta]

A.Adem, R.J.Milgram, The cohomology of finite groups, Springer, Berlin et al., 1994.
A.Babakhanian, Cohomology of finite groups, Queens Univ., Kingston, Ontario, 1999,
pp. 1216, (reprint of the 1969 original).
D.Benson, Representations and cohomology: cohomology of groups and modules, C.U.P.,
Cambridge, 1991.
D.E.Cohen, Groups of cohomological dimension one, Springer, Berlin et al., 1972.
C.Gruenberg, Cohomological topics in group theory Springer Lecture Notes Math., Berlin
et al., 1970.
U.Stammbach, Homology in group theory Springer Lecture Notes Math., vol. 359, Berlin
et al., 1973.

,
[Bar]
[Dy]
[Kim]
[MSt]
[Mr2]
[Wag]

V.Bargmann, Group representations in mathematics and physics, Berlin et al., 1970.

F.J.Dyson, Symmetry groups in nuclear and particle physics, Benjamin, N.Y., 1966.
Sh.K.Kim, Group theoretical methods and applications to molecules and crystals, C.U.P.,
Cambridge, 1999, pp. 1492.
K.Mathiak, P.Stingl, Gruppentheorie f
ur Chemiker, Physiko-Chemiker und Mineralogen,
Viehweg, Braunschweig, 1968.
R.Mirman, Point groups, space groups, crystals, molecules, World Scientific, London et
al., 1999, pp. 1707.
M.Wagner, Gruppentheoretische Methoden in der Physik, Vieweg & Sohn, Braunschweig,
1998, pp. 1461.

[Bor]
[Gra]

A.Borel, Essays in the history of Lie groups and algebraic groups, Amer. Math. Soc.,
Providence, R.I., 2001, pp. 1184.
J.J.Gray, Linear differential equations and group theory from Riemann to Poincar
e,
Birkh
auser, Basel et al., 2000, pp. 1338.

31

1.

o
Groups, Groups, {and more Groups}
Michael Doob, A gentle introduction to TEX.
?
.
19

.
, ( ) , , ,
.
1.
.
1. . , , .
.
. G ,
20 mult : G G G, (x, y) 7 xy, :
G1. : (xy)z = x(yz) x, y, z G;
G2. : e G , xe = x = ex x G;
G3. : x G x1 G , xx1 = e = x1 x.
G, G , . |G| G .
19 .,

. ., ., 1982, .1452, .396.

() versus .
: ,
,
. , ()
(--), . , , , , .
, , . , ,
, , , , .
.
/ . ,
, . ,
, ,
, , - G = (G, ) ,
! G = (G, ) . ,
, , !
, , , ,
. .
20

32

G, , .
G .
. , x y G 21 ,
xy = yx. , , .
, G1 G3
G4. : xy = yx x, y G.
22 , .
, xy x + y, 0
e x x1 .
2. .
,
:
1
(x1 ) = x,
(xy)1 = y 1 x1 .
.
, . , , , , ,
, . ,
, , , , , .
. , ?
3. . , ,
. ,
gx = h, g 1 ,
x = g 1 h. , yg = h
y = hg 1 . g h , ,
g 1 h hg 1 .
21

x y, , xy = yx
[x, y] = 1, .
22 (05.08.1802,
06.04.1829, , )
, , , .
. 1824 5
( -). ,
, .
, .
,
.
, -, , , ...
XX : .,
. , ., 1961, .1343.

33

h/g
, g 1 h hg 1 .
, . ,
gx = gy x = y. , , xg = yg, x = y.
2. ?
h2i, ..
, ,
.
23
1. . ..24 ,
.
.
, , .
.
. g/h = gh1 . ,
, /
: e = g/g, g 1 = (g/g)/g, gh = g/((h/h)/h). , , , g = g/(g/g)
(f /f )/(g/h) = h/g.
, 25 26 , G G G, (g, h) 7 g/h,
:
1) f, g, h G (f /h)/(g/h) = f /g,
2) g, h G g/x = h .
23 ..,

. , ., 1970, .1392; .98.

(. ) , .
.
.
, . , ,
( ), , , , . , :
, , , : ,
. ,
.., . 2- . - . -, ., 1983, .1
80; .., . , ., 1971, .1239;
.., .
, ., 1978, .1304; .., .
2- . , ., 1979, .1431; .., ., . , , 1999, .1281; .., .., ..-,
. . I, II. , ., .I.
, . 1982, .1304; .II. . 1984, .1335.
25 () . ... ?? .
26 H.Furstenberg, The inverse operation in groups. Proc. Amer. Math. Soc., 1955, vol.6,
p.991997.
24

34

, G, gh =
g/((h/h)/h), .
2. . ,
, ., , [Swi], .2325. ,
G e m : G G G,
i : G G, , :
G1. :

mid

G G G G G

m
id my
y
GG

G2. :

(e,id)

(id,e)

G G G G

m
y
G

G3. :

(i,id)

(id,i)

G G G G

m
y
G

, G1 G3,
1. : G G G G, :
(x, y) = (y, x). .
G4. :

G G G G

G
, (,
[Bo], [Vo], [Hu1]) e
.
3. (). , , . ,

35

, 27 28 , 29
G = hG, , 1 i. , , , y 1 (yx) = x (xy)y 1 = x.
. , .
, . ,
, , . , , . ,
G = hG, i? ,
, ( )
, ,
!
, ,
.
4. . ,
e , x G, .
. ,
27

(27.11.1909, 07.07.1967, ) . 1930

1932 1960 , 1943 . 1939 1941
, 1942 1960 . 1953 -, 1958 (
!) . 1960 ,
.
, , . , :
; 0, ;
; , ..
,
. ,
: .., . 3- . , ., 1970, .1390;
.., . , .,
1965, .1391. ..,
. . I, II. , ., 1976, .I. . .1482; .II.
() . .1388.
28 , .
, ( , , ,
,
!!) , , (
). , , , , .
, , , , (
, !) ,
, de facto
. , ,
.
29 ibid., .97.

36

: mult; inv : G G, x 7 x1 ; e G.
, (G, mult, inv, e). ,
, , , , .

, , 30 .
. , . . ,
:

;

;

.
, ,
:

H-. , H-
;
.

3.
.
. Z, Q, R, C
. ,
, Z+ , Q+ ..
, ,
, .
. , Q , R , C ( K
K K = K \ {0}) , ,
, .
, cont. Q+ = {x Q |
x > 0} R+ = {x R | x > 0}
.
(circle group). T
1 . , ,
(
) , . T R+ 2Z ( 2). ,
30

, , ., .,
, , ., 1972, .1259. IV,
4.1.

37

T [0, 2),
: x + y < 2, x y = x + y,
x + y 2, x y = x + y 2. , ,
T + ( ), . 5
.
1. {1} , {1} . , n- 1
C ,
n . , .. .
, G |G| . n
n (. 2). ,
1 = {1} 1, 2 = {1}
2, 3 = {1, , 2 } 3.
. p 1
n
p , n N, C , p ( p ).
. 2X X (alias ) .
, Y Y = ,
.
. K Q, R, C
K = R. n- V = K n ,
, V ( ), V (vector group).
4, n
K +
. V ,
, u V Tu : V V , v 7 v + u, 31 ,
. T (V ) = {Tu | u V } .
, K = R, T (V ) V .
.
, (shift) , .
: , , .
6.
. e1 , . . . , en V =
Rn L = Ze1 + . . . + Zen
e1 , . . . , en . V e1 , . . . , en . L
31

, , , , .
, - , .

38

Zn n, : L
= Zn V = Rn
, , V /L !
. L
lattice. , -, - ,
, , lattice
, .
, , , : Gitter, Verband.

4.
. , , : ! !
,

, , , . ,
, -, , , - .
, , .
. G X . G , X
SX S(X) (symmetric group). , ,
; ; , , ,
. 7 , X . , |X| 3
. , n = 3 S3 6 .
. , .. X , , X
(, , , ,
- ), .
7.
. Q, 8 {1, i, j, k}; +1 = 1
, (.., , (i)(k) = ik),
1 1, i, j, k
R3 : ij = ji = k,
jk = kj = i, ki = ik = j. ( ,
, ),
, , i1 = i , , (i)1 = i.
Q (quaternion group,

39

Quaternionengruppe), . 1842
H.
. K , , K = Q, R, C.

GL(n, K) = {g M (n, K) | det(g) 6= 0}
n , n K. GL(n, K) General Linear group.
9
n = 2.
III, .
. - C = C {} ( ).
az + b
: z 7
, a, b, c, d C
cz + d
ad bc 6= 0. , -
- ,
dz b
z 7
(!).
cz + a
32 ( C). ,
, .
az + b
. z 7
, a, b, c, d , , cz + d
. ,
. .
ax + b. K , , K = Q K = R.
K K , (a, b)(c, d) = (ac, ad + b).
K K (!), () ax + b. (a, b)1 =
(a1 , a1 b). K = R .
.
. , , , K
. (g, u), g GL(n, K) ,
u K n n. GL(n, K) K n , (g, u)(h, v) = (gh, gv + u). , (e, 0) , (g, u)1 = (g 1 , g 1 u).
n K
Aff(n, K). (g, u) V = K n
32

(17901868), ,
, - . , , -, .

40

(g, u)v = gv + u ,
; , ((g, u)(h, v))w = (g, u)((h, v)w). ,
(g, u) {g|u} {g|u} 33 .
g (Linearanteil) {g|u},
u (Translationsanteil).
. K , n K
n, K n n.
n
K K n K (u, v, a)(x, y, b) = (u + x, v + y, a + b + uy).
n K K n K (!),
34 ,
.
. . X (
-
). , , ,

1 11
2 12! 37 8! = 43252003274489856000,
2
33

, ,
, -,...
34 (05.12.1901, 01.02.1976, ), , . 1909
, .
, ,
(!!) , -.
,
. 19221923 ,
, , .
: ,
, . 19241926
, , . 1925
, ,
,
- . 1927 ,
1941 , .
1932 , 31 (!!) . 1935 ,
65 (,
!). 66
, ,
,
, . ,
. - , - ,
. 1945
ALSOS, . 1946
,
1958 , ,
1970 .
.

41

. ..35,36 , (Rubiks revenge),

4 4 4.
37 8! 24!2
= 7401196841564901869874093974498574336000000000.
247

5 5 5.
5.
I .
2, 3 8.
1. . H G. ,
g, h H H gh g 1 . H
. ,
G H. H
G 2 .
2. -. 3 ,
G. ,
H G. , .
G/, G/H, , G/H -
G.
3. / . H G . H G
(h1 , g1 )(h2 , g2 ) = (h1 h2 , g1 g2 ).
, H G . , , ,
e = (e, e) ( eHG = (eH , eG )).
, (h, g)1 = (h1 , g 1 ). , H G
, H
G.
, H G ,
H G
H G. H G :
(h1 , g1 ) + (h2 , g2 ) = (h1 + h2 , g1 + g2 ).
35 M.E.Larsen,

Gruppeteori, Kbenhavn, 1981, p.37.

Rubiks revenge: the group theoretical solution, Amer. Math. Monthly, 1985,
JuneJuly, p.381390.
36 M.E.Larsen,

42

0 = (0, 0), (h, g) = (h, g).

. , G1 . . . Gn
G1 , . . . , Gn G1 , . . . , Gn .
G1 . . . Gn .
, Gn = G . . . G,
n. :
Zn n,
Epn = Cpn (p, . . . , p).
10 ,
, ( ,
, , , ...)
4. 6= .
. , , ,
( ) .
. , -, , X. -,

. , ,
!
Q
,
G , , G , ,
, .. (g ), , g G .

L () G
Ga , , (g ), ,
L g = 0
. ,

G
,

G ,

Q

G .
,
X. , G
|| G,
! , ZN Z
.
. Q , ..
Ga , , g = g() , g = 1,
. [Ha] [KaM] ,
, , .
,
,
(, , , etc.). , ,
.

5. . G , X . GX X G
(f g)(x) = f (x)g(x). ,
f (x) = e.
f 1 ( , !) f 1 (x) = f (x)1 .
6.
.

43

1. . O(3, R)
.
, Cn , Dn , T + , O+ , I + SO(3, R).
n-.
n- .
2/n . Cn n, n n 1,
n. 2/n. Cn
cyclic group,
Zn , zyklische Gruppe.
,
, n- .
n-.
, .
,
( n
), -
( n ). . 2n Dn
alias . D Diedergruppe dihedral group.
, ,
n- n- .
. i) , ii) , . ?
.
, , , , ,
. ,
24, 48, 120, . , , 2
.
. 24 , . , 12 ,
T + ( eigentliche
Tetraedergruppe), A4 :
,
8 , 2/3 4/3, 4 ,
,
3 , , 3 , .
. , 12 , ,

44

6 6 , ,
6 , 4 ;
, T ( Tetraedergruppe)
S4 .
. 48 , (
) . 24 ,
. O+ (
eigentliche Oktaedergruppe, eigentliche W
urfelgruppe,
W + ), S4 .
,
6 , /2, 3/2 3 , ,
3 , 3 , ,
8 , 2/3 4/3, 4 , , ,
6 , , 6 , .
. ,
, /2, 3/2
4, 2.
.
, O+ S4 . ,
. ,
24 . , , .
, .
, . , 24
,
.
48 O (Oktaedergruppe, W
urfelgruppe W ). , O +
O i . i
, , i2 = 1 gi = ig g O+ .
O.
, , . O
O(3, R), i e, , , O(3, R) (,
,
O). , O = O+ hii
= S4 C2 .
. O
= S3 o C2 =
S3 i C23 , S6 .
O = S3 o C2 ,

45

Octn = Sn o C2 = Sn i C2n ,
.

. 60 , ( ).
I + (eigentliche Ikosaedergruppe), A5 .
,
24 = 12 + 12 , 2/5, 4/5, 6/5, 8/5 , ,
20 , 2/3, 4/3 , ,
15 , , , .
. 24 , 2 , 12 . A5
5- (12345) (12354), .
, 5 ,
? , ,
: 15 ,
, 5 . ,
.
. ,
4.
5 . 20 , 5 4 ,
5 . , 5
, .
120 , , , I (Ikosaedergruppe). I
S5 , I S5 , A5 C2 . , , I I + i
. , I i, S5 . I + I Y + Y ,
.
2. . (., ,
[CS]), , , , , . ,
, ; 7.
n 2 :
( , , ...)
(, ,...). , n 3 , . V = Rn n- e1 , . . . , en .

46

, (ei , ej ) = ij , , ei , ej , i 6= j, ,
ei 1.
. n- n-,
(n + 1)- , , e1 , . . . , en+1 Rn+1
( 2). ,
, n + 1 n-
{a1 e1 + . . . + an+1 en+1 | a1 + . . . + an+1 = 1}
n-
{a1 e1 + . . . + an+1 en+1 | a1 + . . . + an+1 = 0}
, ,

1
(e1 + . . . + en+1 ).
n+1

, :
1
1
1
1
n
n
e1
e2 . . .
en+1 , . . . ,
e1 . . .
en +
en+1 ,
n+1
n+1
n+1
n+1
n+1
n+1

1 , .
,
n- Sn+1
(= e1 , . . . , en+1 ). (n + 1)!, , ,
, 4- 120, ,
, I.
. n- 2n e1
. . .en . ,
.
. n- 2n e1 , . . . , en . , Octn (signed permutations) e1 , . . . , en ,
, , ei , 37 . Octn
, ,
S2n . , X
Octn = Sn o C2 . , Octn n!2n .
7 .

7.
.. . ,
1892 . ,
.
38
37

/ G.Gordon, The answer is 2n n! Whats the Question?

Amer. Math. Monthly, 1999, vol.109, August-September, p.636645.
38 .., , XIX , , ., 1980, .1324.
.232

47

, SO(2, R) n , O(2, R), , Dn .

SO(3, R) O(3, R)
1830 39 . ,
, , .
(point groups).
, , ,
.
SO(3, R) 40 . , 3- (
, , [KM]). , .
. g SO(3, R)
, .
. , g
1. g
u, . , 1 , 2 , 3 g. g ,
1. g , , , 3 = 1. , ,
1 2 3 = det(g) = 1, 1 , 2 , 3 1,
1. , 1 = 2 . ,
1 2 = 1 , 3 = 1.
, (rotary reflection)
.
. g O(3, R) ,
,
39

(15.04.1707, 18.09.1783, -)
XVIII , . , 1730 , 1733
. 1741 ,
,
1766 . , ,
, . 1735
,
,
.
: , , , ,
, , , , , , , , , , , .
900 , ? . , ,
(1748), ,
,
. , , , , , -,
, .
:
,
.
- .
40

48

. SO(3, R):
:
G
|G|
m1
m2
m3
n-

Cn

n-

Dn

2n

12

24

12

60

12

20

20

m1 , m2 , m3 . 41,42
, 6. , ., ,43 , [W2], A, [C],
.391400. , , . G SO(3, R), n. g G] = G \ {e}
, ,
P Q, g.
(g, P ) .
. n 2. , n
1 2 ,
2(n 1). , s G,
i- mi , i- li . li
P i- . ? 6 , li mi = n
i = 1, . . . , s. i- mi (li 1) (g, P ).
,
2(n 1) = m1 (l1 1) + . . . ms (ls 1).
n,

1
1
2
+ ... + 1
,
2 = 1
n
l1
ls
1
2
1
= s 2 + . li 2 i,
+ ... +
l1
ls
n
s/2, s 2. , s < 4.

, ,

41 .,

, , ., 1989.
(25.04.1849, 22.06.1925, ) ,
, , . 18651870
. 1870 , , . 1872
, 1875 , 1880 , ,
1886 .
.
. 50 Mathematische Annalen,
. : ., XIX . ,
., 1989, .1454. ., , .I, , , . .II, . , ., 1987, .1431. .1416. , ,
. , Elementarmathematik
vom h
oheren Standpunkte aus, , ,
.
.
43 .., , , .., 1936.
42

49

, s = 1, , . ,
s , s = 2, 3.
1
1
2
s = 2,
+
=
, , m1 + m2 =
l1
l2
n
n
1n
+...+
= 2. 2. l1 = l2 = n ,
l1
ls
, m1 = m2 = 1. .
1
1
1
2
s = 3,
+
+
= 1 + .
l1
l2
l3
n
: l1 l2 l3 . l1 , l2 , l3
3, 1, > 1. ,
l1 = 2.
1
1
1
2
,
+
= + . l2 , l3
l2
l3
2
n
1
1
4, , > . ,
2
2
l2 = 2 3
1
2
, l1 = l2 = 2.
= .
l3
n
, n = 2l3 2,
n , n. ,
Dn .
l1 = 2, l2 = 3, , ,
l3 = 3, n = 12, l3 = 4, n = 24, l3 = 5, n = 60, , ,
, .
SO(3, R),
O(3, R).
. O(3, R):
1) 5 , SO(3, R), , Cn , Dn , T + , O+ , I + .
2) 5 SO(3, R) C2 :
Cn C2 ,

Dn C2 ,

T + C2 ,

O = O+ C2 ,

I = I + C2

3) 4 , SO(3, R),
SO(3, R), 2:
C2n Cn ,

Dn Cn ,

D2n Dn ,

T
= S4 A4 .

,
, C2n Cn , Dn Cn , D2n Dn
S4 A4 .
(., ,
[W2], B, [C], .400401,
[Bus], [GB], etc.). -
. G O(3, R) , SO(3, R). H = G SO(3, R)
2 G , , G = H t gH, g G,
.
44 -. f . f G, f
/ G. g f , G = H hf i,
44

(13.12.1887, ) ,
, , ,
.
, 15 .
1914 ETH , 1946 1953 .
,
., ., , .I, .II, 3- . , ., 1978, .1
391; .1431. ., . , ., 1957, .1535.
., .

50

. f
/ G, h 7 h gh 7 f gh,
G = H t gH G = H t f gH ( !).
, SO(3, R),
2. .
.
1. T + C2 !
FeS2 ( , ).
-, (piritohedron), . .134 45 .
2. , O(3, R). , T O+
, O(3, R), , . ,
, , - (,
, ..).
3. , GL(3, R). , ,
, , G GL(3, R) O(3, R).
G. , B(u, v) V = Rn ,
1 P
B(gu, gv), A(u, v) =
|G| gG
G , A(gu, gv) = A(u, v). ,
G O(n, R, A). , A ,
O(n, R, A) O(n, R).
O(3, R) 46 .
O(3, R),
, ,
(., , .334 ,
rotary reflection n
e rotary inversion n , n
4, .335).
. H E G, g
H. :
, g (fusion) . , ,
, H !
|G| = 2|H|, .
s = 2. g , . g , G . g , g
G = H hgi, G 2 , H.
, s = 3, g, ..
. H = O+ H = I + ,
G, . ,
g . H = Dn H = T + g,
, g
. ,
.
45 .,

, , ., 1980, 1586. , .29

-!
46 M.Senechal, Finding the finite groups of symmetries of the sphere. Amer. Math. Monthly,
1990, April, p.329335.

51

8. De divina proportione:
, {3, 3, 5} {5, 3, 3}, W (H4 )
, , , ,
. , ,
,
.
,
, , , , .
, ,
.
, , .
47
T
O , 48,49 W (A3 ),
W (B3 ) A3 B3 . I W (H3 ) H3 .
, , , W (F4 )
F4 , 1152 = 27 .32 W (H4 ) H4 , 14400 = 26 .32 .52 .
, ,
.
47 .,

50 . -, ., 2002, .1271, 45-

.259260.
48 (09.11.1885, 09.12.1955, ) , , XX . 1904
, . 1913 , - .
1930 , ,
Institute for Advanced Studies . 1951 .
200 16 , Die idee der Riemannschen Fl
ache,
Raum, Zeit, Materie, Das Kontinuum, Meromorphic functions and analytic curves, . ,
, , ,
, , , .. ,
, ,
, ,
, , . . .
. , -,
. 1954 ,
. , , , ,
, ,
., , , ., 1984, .1511.
49 ..., . . ., 1976, .31, N.4, .239250.

52

- (polyhedra) 3 (polytopes)
. . ,
4, : , 0-
(vertices), 1- (edges), 2-
(faces) 3- (cells).
, W (F4 ) {3, 4, 3} 24 , 96 , 96 24 ,
, , W (H4 )
{3, 3, 5} 120 ,
720 , 1200 600 , , {5, 3, 3} 600 , 1200 ,
720 120 , .
,
, , , , ,
,
. 50,51 .
1
= 1. x
x
Mathematica,

Roots
1 5
1+ 5
: =
=
. ,
2
2
1:
=

1+ 5
= 2 cos
= 1.6180339887498948482045868343656381177203091798058...,
2
5

N[GoldenRatio,50].
(extreme and mean ratio),
(divina proportione), 52,53 (golden ratio, golden section) 54 , . b , ,
.
. , , .

y
y+z
,
=
. ,
z
y
y
1
x =
x = 1 + ,
z
x
50 H.S.M.Coxeter,

Regular polytopes, Methuen, London et al., 1963.

(1907? 2003) ,
1936 , ,
. , XX .
: , , , , , ..
52 der goldene Schnitt ,
XIX .
53 , , , la section dor,

! ,
, = 2,
DIN, ,
A4,

210 , 210 2 . ,
= 8/5, ., , ., , ., , 1982, .1112.
54 .., , .1, , 3- . ,
., 2000, .1712, .49, 111.
51

53

x = . , x2 = 1 + x.
1507 (??)
55 De divina proportione, 59
, .
De quinque corporibus
regularibus, .
, , , 11 [Co] 56 , 57 . ,
, 58 .
(., , [C?], .238240,
[Ber], .1, .487489). ( 2 , 0, 0), (0, 2 , 0),
(0, 0, 2 ), : 1, 12
.
. C 12 (1, 0, ), (, 1, 0), (0, , 1) .
. , (1, 0, ), (, 1, 0), (1, 0, ), (0, , 1),
(0, , 1) , x+y =
0. , (, 1, 0)
2.
2
, (, 1, 0) (, 1, 0)
,
5
12 . 12 , ,
, (1, , 0), (0, 1, ), (, 0, 1)
(1, , 0), (0, 1, ), (, 0, 1) 3 ,
: .. , , .
, .
.
, .
. C 20 (1, 1, 1), (, , 0), (0, , ), (, 0, )
.
, 8 , , (1, 1, 1),

?
(, , !) . n-
55

(1445, 1515) XV . , 1475

. fra, fratello , .
, , , .
De divina proportione 1494
Summa de arithmetica, geometria, proportioni et proportionalita, .
arte maggiore , Ars Magna.
,
. ,
XV
.
56 H.M.S.Coxeter, The golden ratio, phyllotaxis and Wythoffs game. Scripta Math., 1953,
vol.19, p.135143.
57 ., , ., , 1979, .1332.
58 , , XX , ., , 1970, .233257.

54

59 1850 . , n 3 3 :
e1 , . . . , en+1 , e1 . . . en ei .
, 3 : . , 4 3.
{p, q, r, . . . }. . p
2- . - P
, .
H ( , P )
H H 1 . ,
P . q
2- H.
, , .
, n- n 1 3.
.
:
n = 2 m- {m} m 3.
n = 3 {3, 3}, {3, 4}, {4, 3}, {3, 5}, {5, 3}.
n = 4 {3, 3, 3}, {3, 3, 4}, {4, 3, 3}, {3, 4, 3}, {3, 3, 5}, {5, 3, 3}.
n 5 {3, . . . , 3}, {3, . . . , 3, 4}, {4, 3, . . . , 3}.
,
.
{3, 4, 3}, {3, 3, 5} {5, 3, 3} , , () 24-, 600- 120-. , {3, 4, 3}. 24 ei ej , 1 i 6= j 4.
W (F4 ) F4 .
, 1152
W (B4 ) = Oct4 384.
24 (, , 0, 0), (, 0, , 0), (, 0, 0, ), (0, , , 0), (0, , 0, ), (0, 0, , ).
96 : 1 16
8 . 120 {3, 3, 5}.
. C 120 :
16 (1, 1, 1, 1),
8 , (2, 0, 0, 0) ,
96 , (1, , , 0) ,
{3, 3, 5}.
W (H4 ) H4 .
14400. 120-.
. C 600 :
24 (2, 2, 0, 0), ,

64 , (1, 1, 1, 5) ,
64 , (, , , 2 ) ,
64 , (, , , 2 ) ,
96 , (1, 2 , 2 , 0) ,
59

55

96 , ( 5, , , 0) ,
192 , (1, , , 2) ,
{5, 3, 3}.
600- , . , 120
.
, 2, 120 1.
( V), , 2.A5 .
120, S5 , I = A5 C2 . , S5 ,
I A5 , 2.A5 -
A5 , ! 2.A5 A5 C2 .
.

9.
Many of the examples given are not stated precisely. The flavor and
potential of applications seem more important in the present context than
do comprehensive lists.
William M.Kantor60

, ,
, .

.
,
, , , , , ..
. G , (gh) = (g)(h) g, h G.
, Aut(G) G . 4
, .
. R , (x + y) = (x) + (y) (xy) = (x)(y)
x, y R. Aut(R) R
.
. L/K (
, , K
L). AutK (L) Aut(L), , K , L/K Gal(L/K).
, ..
g(x) xg . ,
Gal(L/K) = {g Aut(L) | x K, xg = x}.
60 W.M.Kantor,

Some consequences of the classification of finite simple groups. Contemp.

Math., 1985, vol.45, p.159173.

56

, ,
L/K ,
L/K , , K
Gal(L/K):
K = {x L | g G, xg = x}.
.
61 . K(x1 , . . . , xn )
n K. AutK K(x1 , . . . , xn )
. n- (
) .
. V K. : V V ,
(u + v) = (u) + (v) (u) = (u) u, x V K. V ,
. GL(V ) = Aut(V ) V
V .
. V K. : V V ,
v 7 (v) (0) . ,
u = (0). ,
, . Aff(V )
V
V .
. , , V
K. , , .. (u + v) = (u) + (v) , ,
Aut(K), (u) = ()(u) u V K.
V .
L(V ) V , V .
. X
d : X X R. X ,
d((x), (y)) = d(x, y) x, y X. ,
, Isom(X) X
. (,
, ) X.
. = (V, E)
V2
V E
(X) ( ,
61

(1830, 1903) .
. .

57

).
X , ((x), (y)) E
, (x, y) E.
Aut(),
.
, , ..
62 , . , , X d :
X X R. X ,
, R+ , ,
d(x, y) d((x), (y)) d(x, y) x, y X. ,
X .
. X
. X
, , ..
x, y X , x y , (x) (y).
X , X Aut(X, ).
. , , ..
x y , (x) (y).
X. , . ,
X .
. X .
, (.. , ). Aut(X) X
X.
. (X, )
, - 2X .
X , ( , , ), ,
.. ((U )) = (U ) U .
Aut(X, ) X.
. , 0.

62

(14.05.1832, 07.10.1903, ) , , , , .
() 1864 .
.
.

58

, 0,
!
. X . X , ,
1 . Diff(X) X ,
X.
, , ,
..
10.
n = 2.
III, IV V
.
1. GL(2, K). K , , K = Q, R, C.
x M (2, K)

a b
det
= ad bc.
c d
IV, , ..
det(xy) = det(x) det(y).
. n = 2. ,

a b
c d

1
=
ad bc

d b
c a

, 2 K

a b
GL(2, K) =
ad bc 6= 0 .
c d
,
det(x) 6= 0 , , det(x) R. c 1
GL(n, R)
M (n, R).

1. ,

a b
SL(2, K) =
ad bc = 1 .
c d
K = R SL(n, R) Rn , .

59

Rn , , .

a b

SL (2, K) =
ad bc = 1 .
c d
2. .
(,
,
!)

a 0

D(2, K) =
a, d K .
0 d

Aff(1, K) =

a b
0 1

a K ,b K .

, ax + b, 1.

a b

B(2, K) =
a, d K , b K .
0 d

a 0

B (2, K) =
a, d K , c K .
c d
. B 63
(Borel subgroup). B(2, K) . B (2, K) B(2, K) 1, 2, 2 < 1.
B (n, K) . , B(2, K) B (2, K) GL(2, K). , ..
- , GL(2, K), .

1 b
U (2, K) =
bK .
0 1

1 0

U (2, K) =
cK .
c 1
63

,
... . , .
, .. , ., .
XX .

60

a 0
0 a

N (2, K) =
a, d K

a, d K .
0 d
d 0

a b
2
2
A(2, K) =
a, b K, a b 6= 0 .
b a

A (2, K) =
b

b
a

a, b K, a2 + b2 6= 0 .

3. . A a 7 a, ..
2: a + b = a + b, ab = b a, a = a.

(

)
a b 1
a b
d
b
Sp(2, K) =
GL(2, A)
=
c d
c d
c a

(

a b 1
a b
d

O(2, K) =
GL(2, A)
=
c d
c d
c

b
a

)
.

, GL(2, A).
,
R = M (n, A) ,
R x 7 xt . , , ,
. , Sp(2, R) O(2, R),

a b
c d

0 e
e 0

a b
c d

0
e

e
0

, ,

a b
c d

0
e

e
0

a b
c d

0
e

e
0

( )
,
, .
4. . (, )
, , .
.

61

R = Z/mZ.

1
0

x
1

, x Z/mZ

.

SL(2, C)

1
0

0
1

0 1
1 0

0
i

i
0

i
0

0
i

S3
= D3
GL(2, R)

1 0
0 1

1
2

3
,
1

1
2

1
3

,
3 1

( , 6 ). , .. S3 GL(2, Q):

1 0
0 1

1
2

1
3

1
1

1
2

1
3

1
1

S3 GL(2, Z):

1
0

0
1

0 1
1
,
,
1 0
1

0
1

0
,
1

1
1

1
,
1

1
0

1
,
0

1
1

, Q ,
2.
11.
64 , 65 . , , , (.. , ) ( ,
, etc.).
1. . K ,
, , , K = R.
f M (n, R), , , f , f t = f . f , ,

O(n, K, f ) = {g GL(n, K) | gf g t = f },
64

: .
. ( Erlanger Programm)
. , , ., 1956, .399434.
65 , : .

62

, ! : (hg)t = g t ht (g 1 )t = (g t )1 .
,
SO(n, K, f ) = {g SL(n, K) | gf g t = f } = O(n, K, f ) SL(n, K).
, f = (fij ) ,
det(f ) 6= 0. V = K n , e1 , . . . , en K n B(ei , ej ) = fij . 3- , K = R
n- Rp,q , p + q = n,

ep
0
f =
0 eq
( ).
, Rp,q x = (x1 , . . . , xn ) y = (y1 , . . . , yn )

B(x, y) = x1 + . . . xp yp xp+1 yp+1 . . . xn yn .
Rp,q O(p, q, R).
,

ep
0
ep
0
t

g =
O(p, q, R) = g GL(n, K) g
0 eq
0 eq
q = 0 , Rn .
O(n, R) , g GL(n, R) , gg t = e. ,
SO(p, q, R) = O(p, q, R) SL(n, R) SO(n, R) = O(n, R) SL(n, R)
2. . R2
R1,1 .
O(2, R) O(1, 1, R).
, SO(2, R)

cos()
sin()

R
.
SO(2, R) =
sin() cos()

O(2, R) SO(2, R) , ,

ch()
SO+ (1, 1, R) =
sh()

sh()
ch()

0
1

1
.
0

R .

2 SO(1, 1, R) e SO(1, 1, R) \ SO+ (1, 1, R) ( , ch()

1). SO+ (1, 1, R) 4 O(1, 1, R), O(1, 1, R)
, e .
SO(2, R)
. 3 3

cos()
sin() a

sin() cos() b , a, b R .

0
0
1
O(2, R) .

cos()
sin() a

sin() cos() b , a, b R

0
0
1

63

( ).
3. .
V = Rn Isom(Rn ).
( )
{g|u} g O(n, R). Isom+ (Rn ),
1, .
4. 66 . 4-
67 R3,1 . 4- R4 , x (x0 , x1 , x2 , x3 ), x0 , x1 , x2 , x3 .
, , B(x, y) = x0 y0 + x1 y1 + x2 y2 + x3 y3 .
, x x2 = B(x, x) = x20 + x21 + x22 + x23 . L R3,1 (,
). , R3,1 L g M (4, R) , gf g t = f ,
f = diag(1, 1, 1, 1). , , 3- ,
O(3, 1, R). , ,
:

1
0

0
0

0
cos()
sin()
0

ch()
sh()

0
0

0
0
,
0
1

0
sin()
cos()
0
sh()
ch()
0
0

0
0
1
0

0
0
,
0
1

1
0

0
0

0
cos()
0
sin()

ch()
0

sh()
0

0
1
0
0

0
0
1
0

0
sin()
,
0
cos()

sh()
0
ch()
0

0
0
,
0
1

1
0

0
0

0
1
0
0

ch()
0

0
sh()

0
0
cos()
sin()
0
1
0
0

0
0
1
0

0
0
.
sin()
cos()

sh()
0
.
0
ch()

, 6
4 , L+ .
66

(18.07.1853 04.02.1928)
, XIX , , .
. 1875
18781923 , 1923
. .
, , , ..
67 (22.06.1864, , 12.01.1909, )
, ,
, , ,
. 15
. 1883 Grand Prix (!!) . 1885
, 1887 .
, , 1902 .
, ,
, ,
, , .
. , ,
, -
.

64

L L+ :

1
0

0
e

1
0

0
e

1
0

0
e

1
0

0
e

e 3. L,
L+ diag(1, e), L
, , L+ diag(1, e), L+ . , L O(3, 1, R),
g = (gij ) g00 ,
, , , (, ,
). L+ = SO(3, 1, R)
O(3, 1, R), 1,
, ,
. , L+ = L L+ . ,
2, L+ diag(1, e),
(, , ), , ,
, .
. 68 1905 .
R3,1 , R1,3 . , B(x, y) = x0 y0 x1 y1 x2 y2 x3 y3 .
, , : O(1, 3, R) = O(3, 1, R). , . ,
O(3, 1, R), - 2
4. L+ , L+ , etc.
69 .
68

(29.04.1854, 17.07.1912, )
XIX , 500 , ?
. :
, , , , .
,
. 1881 , 1886 ( ,
). , : ,
, , , ,
, etc.
:
, , :
, .
, , , : ., . , 1906; .,
. , 1906; ., . , 1910; .,
. , 1923; ( ., . ,
., 1983, .1559); ., , . .-., 1947; ., . , ., 1965, .1571;
., . .IIII. , ., . I: .
1971, .1771; . II: , . 1972, .1999; . III: , . 1974, .1771.
, , , , ,
. , , , ,
, .
69 ., , .2, , ., 1979, .1583, . .366368.

65

. C L+
1 L. , , - SL(2, C)
{e}. , (l.c.) , -
SL(2, C), L.
5. . , R3,1
,
-. P (alias, ). P = L i T T L.
, P = LT , T E P L T = 1.
. , [Ch],
, .. ,
.
40.

12.
8 ,
, , ,
. , . ,
.
,
.
1. 70 . K . A B
K, A B , (a1 b1 )(a2 b2 ) = a1 a2 b1 b2 .
A B. A ,
K, , A 2 , 0
A. 71 A K M (m, D)
70

,

71 (02.02.1882, , ,
09.10.1948, ) , ,
,
. 18951903 , , , . 19031904 ,
, . 1904 , , ,
, .
1905 . ,
. ,
, . ,
. 1907
, , , . 1909
, 1914 ,
. 1920 , . ,

66

D K, D . ,
. , D1 , D2
K, D1 D2 M (m, D) D . D
D1 D2 . ,

K , K Br(K).
, ,
,
K, D Do .

K. ,
C , Br(C) = 1. 72 : Br(R) = C2 ,
H.
, Br(Fq ) = 1.
, K , Br(K(t)) = 1 73,74 . , p- Qp
Br(Qp )
= Q/Z, 75 . Br(Q)
Q
76 .
, -

1945 , . , 09 1948
, ,
, .
(!!)
, .
72 (26.09.1849 03.08.1917, ) , ,
, .
, 1875 ,
1902 .
. .
, ,
..
73 ()
74 ., . ., 1986, .1541, .462463.
75 .-., , [Alg], .201249,
. .201215.
76 ., , [Alg], .250309,
. .287294.

67

, 77 78 79
80 .
77

()
(25.08.1898, 26.12.1979, ) -. , , .
, , ,
1920 , . 1920
- ( ,
). 1922 , , . 1925 ,
1930 ,
,
, . 1934
.
, ,
, Volljude (, ,
!). ,
1939 1945 , , ( , -
!). 1945
, , ! 1950
.
, ,
, , .. .
. , 50 (!!)
Journal f
ur die reine und angewandte Mathematik.
79 (23.03.1882, 14.04.1935, )
, (?) , XX . ,
. , .
, , , ...
, .
(24.09.1844, 13.12.1921, ). , ,
1871 , 1875 , 1888 . , ,
.. , ,
: (,
) .
80 (03.03.1898, 20.12.1962, )
, , . 1916 ,
, . 1919 1921
. 1925 . (R.Brauer, Emil Artin. Bull. Amer. Math.
Soc., 1967, vol.73, p.2743.) , ,
, 19211931
. ,
,
. ,
,
. , : ,
78

68

2. 81 . R .
- R. , Rn .
. , P
, Q, P Q
= Rn .
P , Q, P Q
= R.
, ,
1, .. R K, P K, , P R K
= K.
Q = P = Hom(P, R). R-
Pic(R)
R. , P Q P Q,
R, P 1 = P .
3. . , -, R . : 1) ,
2) ( ) . R-
, , ( ) . ,
- the infinite well do right away, the finite may take a little bit longer.
,
.
X R. (P, Q) 7
P Q ,
0. 1 , . X K0 (R)
R. K0 (R) . P R-
[P ] K0 (R), X K0 (R), P 7 [X], , ..
[P ] + [Q] = [P Q]. K0 (R) [P ] [Q].
, P Q ,
- ..
: -, - .. ,
. ( ,
), , , . 1937
, .
( )
, . , , ,
: Emil Artin fut un math
ematicien g
enial. C
etait aussi un artiste et, pour
tout dire, un homme complet (H.Cartan, Emil Artin. Abh. Math. Sem. Hamburg, 1965,
Bd.28, S.15.). , ,
, ..
.
.
81 (24.07.1856, 11.12.1941, ) ,
. Ecole Normale , , . ,
- .
. ??? ,
.

69

Q Rn . , Rn , P Rn =
[M ] [N ] [P ] [Q] K0 (R),
M Q N P (., , [M], 1.1).
K0 (R) ,
R . , R ,
, K0 (R)
= Z.
4. . , A, B E R R,
AB, ab, a A, b B. R , B A
C , A = BC (. [M], .19).
, . R , K .
R- I K R, R . ,
I 1 = {x K | xI R} . , II 1 = R. ,
, ([Alg], .1921).
R . ,
A B R ,
A = Bz z K . z = y/x,
xA = yB x, y R . , AB
A, B , . ,
R ,
Cl(R). R, , , I I 1 . Cl(R)
R, , R
. , R
, , .. Cl(R) = 1.

13.
, .
1. . I = [0, 1] , X . f : I X X. x = f (0)
, y = f (1) . , x = f (1) = f (0),
x. f, g : I X,
, .. f (0) = g(0) f (1) = g(1). , h : I I X, ,
h(s, 0) = f (s) h(s, 1) = g(s) s I. h f g.
, , , h(0, s) = f (0) = g(0) h(1, s) = f (1) = g(1) t I.
, ,
X , , f g. ,
x y.
x y.
f [f ]. f, g : I X
, , g(0) = f (1).
f, g
(
(f g)(t) =

f (2t),

0 t 1/2,

g(2t 1),

1/2 t 1.

, , .., , (f g)h 6= f (gh).

. , , f f 0 g g 0 , f f 0 g g 0 . ,
, [f ][g]. ,

70

: (f g) h f (g h),
, . ,
, ([f ][g])[h] = [f ]([g][h]).
ex : I 7 X, f (t) = x t, /
. , f x y, ey f f f ex , , [ey ][f ] = [f ] = [f ][ex ]. f
x y f 1 y x. ,
f 1 (t) = f (1 t). f 1 f ,
, f f 1 ex f 1 f ey , , [f ][f 1 ] = [ex ] [f 1 ][f ] = [ey ].
x X. , ,
x . X x 1 (X, x).
, .. f : X Y 1 (f ) : 1 (X, x) 1 (Y, f (x)).
X (.. ),
1 (X, x)
x X. X. ,
, . , . ,
, , . , 82 ,
.
, n
n. , , .
2. . 1930- .83 .
n (X), n 2, , ,
, ,
, , . , -, X , x X . n 2 n (X, x)
1 (X, x). , I = I1 n-
In . dIn , t = (t1 , . . . , tn ) In ,
- ti 0 1.
f : In X , f (dIn ) = x. , ,
(
(f g)(t1 , . . . , tn ) =

f (2t1 , t2 , . . . , tn ),

0 t1 1/2,

g(2t1 1, t2 , . . . , tn ),

1/2 t1 1.

, , n (X, x) . ,
, n (X, x). , , ,
([f ][g])[h] = [f ]([g][h]); , ,
e = ex : In X, f (t) = x t In , , [f ] n (X, x)
, , f 1 : In : X, t 7 f (1 t1 , t2 , . . . , tn ). , n (X, x) , n-
X x. n 2 n = 1
, n (X, x), n 2, .
82

()
()

83

71

. , 50
.
3. . .
, ( ), , ,
. . , ,
, . X A Hn (X, A) H n (X, A) X
A. ,
. , f : X Y

Hn (f ) : Hn (X, A) Hn (Y, A),

H n (f ) : H n (Y, A) H n (X, A)

.
, Hn (X) H n (X).
n 1 n- X. ,
n- Bn , Hi (Bn ) = 0 i 1.
, n- X = Sn H0 (Sn )
= Hn (Sn )
= Z, Hi (Sn ) = 0 i 6= 0, n.
, .
84 , f : Bn Bn . ,
, x Bn f (x) 6= x.
f (x) x g(x) (n 1)- Sn1 (
Bn ), Bn Sn1
Sn1 . , g ,: Sn1 , Bn Sn1
. id : Hn1 (Sn1 )
Hn1 (Bn ) Hn1 (Sn1 ). , Z
0, .
, ,
, ( ,
84

(Brouwer) (27.02.1881, Overschie 02.12.1966, ) , , 19121951 . 19111913

, , , ,
, ,
.
, , (rejection) .
, .. ,
, ,
. ,
- , Froschm
ausekrieg
( . .-., 1936).
, Mathematische Annalen .

72

, etc.). , , , .
-, , . -,
. , -,
,
M
H (X, A) =
H n (X, A)
n0

, .
X, .

14. :
15.
, .

16.
.

17.
, , .
, .
,
85 . , , . . , ,
.
1. . , , , . ,
, . ,
, ; , , , . ,
.
, .
n- X. X n n , X ,
85

(16.08.1821, 26.01.1895, ) , XIX ,

,
. , 1860-
. , , , ,
. 1842 , 1843
8- , - (alias
, ).
-, , , -,
- ..

73

. , 5
X. n
.
,
X ,
RotateRight.
n = |X|.
. -
, . ,
86 .
, ,
.
2. . . , , . , 87

a
b
c
d

a
a
b
c
d

b
b
c
d
a

c
d
a
b
c

d
c
d
a
b

, , . -, (
X). -, : (ab)d = bd = d,
a(bd) = ad = c.
, .
G ( !) , , ..
x, y, z G zx = zy xz = yz x = y.
.
. G , x y = xy 1 . ,
(G, ) . ?
? ?
3. . , , . ,
,
. ,
.
. , , ,
: , , , , .

. , G , ,
8 xi , yi , ui , vi G, i = 1, 2, :
x1 u1 = x2 u2 , x1 v1 = x2 u2 , y1 u1 = y2 u2 , y1 v1 = y2 v2 .
, , , 4, , , V ( ,
86 .,

, 1972, .II, . IV.

, 1976, 1.14.

87 .,

74

Vierergruppe) E4 :

a
b
c
d

a
a
b
c
d

b
b
c
d
a

c
c
d
a
b

d
d
a
b
c

a
b
c
d

a
a
b
c
d

b
b
a
d
c

c
b
d
a
b

d
d
c
b
a

, a . , , ,
.
4. . ,
, ..
: x(yz) = (xy)(xz) (xy)z = (xz)(yz).
. ,
(x, y) 7 S1 (x, y) =

x+y
2

Q .
. , .
, , ,
.
. , .
. G , x y = x y = xyx1 . ,
: x y = x z y = z. ,
: x (y z) = (x y) (x z). G
? ?

75

2.

.
F ,
F -,
F .

.
1.
. , , -, .
1. . , G : ,
e.
. o H G G,
. ,
, H ,
.
i) h, g H = hg H,
ii) h H = h1 H,
iii) e H.
I ,
, . , H G, ,
H G H G.
(subgroup, Untergruppe, sous-groupe, sottogruppo) . ,
XIX , , (Teiler, diviseur),
(Normalteiler). G H
, H G, G, H ,
88 H.
, i)
, ii) . i) ii) , , , G = Z+
. N+ Z+ , {1}
, , , , .
.
88 ,

overgroup, supergroup
.

76

. , G (, ),
, , H G G, i).
, iii) i) ii). , H 6= , h H
h1 H ii) , , e = hh1 H i).
iii) H 6= .
1, , . i) ii)
: ,
..
iv) h, g H = h1 g H.
, H :
v) h, g H = hg 1 H.
2. . X, Y G . XY
,
XY = {xy | x X, y Y }.
,

X 1 = {x1 | x X}

X.

. i) , HH H, ii) H 1 H.
, H ,
, 1 H.
, ,
HH 1 H.
2.
1. . .
, ..
. G
. , , {e} G, e 1,
. , G G. . H < G, G, . 1 G
G. , G = 1 .
Z+ mZ n Z.
Q+
AM = {x Q | p P, vp (x) mp } ,
M = (mp )pP {} t Z t {},
, vp p- ,
4.

77

:
An Sn .
GL(n, K) 7 ( n = 2 1).
. F H G. F G. ,
+
Z Q+ R+ C+ C+ .
. , , R+ =
{ R | > 0} R .
Q. Q 6 ,
4 : {1}, {1, i}, {1, j}, {1, k}.
S4 . S4 24 ,
22 .
(i, j, h, k ):
6 2, {e, (ij)};
3 2, {e, (ij)(hk)};
4 3, {e, (ijh), (hji)};
3 4, {e, (ijhk), (ih)(jk), (ikhj)};
1 4, ,
V = {e, (12)(34), (13)(24), (14)(23)};
4 6, S3 , ,
{e, (ij), (ih), (jh), (ijh), (hji)};
1 12,
A4 = {e, (123), (132), (124), (142), (134), (143), (234), (243),
(12)(34), (13)(24), (14)(23)}.
2. . , G,
G C(G) ( centre
center):
C(G) = {g G | x G, gx = xg}.
Z(G) (
Zentrum). C(G) . ,
C(G) G. 3 . G , G = C(G).
G, C(G) = 1, ,
, . ,
.
C(Sn ) = 1 n 3
C(An ) = 1 n 4
C(GL(n, R)) = R e

78

3.
,
.
1. . x G.
x G :
CG (x) = {g G | gx = xg}.
, CG (x) G.
. x G CG (x) G.
. , x1 = x = 1x, CG (x) 6= .
h, g C(G), (hg)x = h(gx) = h(xg) = (hx)g = (xh)g = x(hg),
hg C(G). , h C(G), hx = xh
h1 , xh1 = h1 x, h1 C(G).
T , , , C(G) G. , C(G) =
CG (x), x G. 5,
.
. , H G, x H g G, i) CG (xg ) = CG (x)g , ii)
CH (x) = GG (x) H. ?
2. . .
.
d = diag(1 , . . . , n ) , i
.
CGL(n,K) (diag(1 , . . . , n )) = D(n, K)
( , D(n, K) . ,
d , x = (xij )
xij 6= 0 - i 6= j.)

1 1 ...
..

.
0 1
CGL(n,K)
.
..
0 0
0 0 ...

. ,

0
a b ... c
.
..

. ..
0 0 a

=
.
.
.. b
1 0 0
1
0 0 ... a

. , , ,
n. :
; / , K = R C;
K, . , n
(, n, ).
, .

79

.
p + q = n, , K , 6= . ,

ep
0
GL(p, K)
0
CGL(n,K)
=
.
0
GL(q, K)
0 eq
4. ,
1. . X G T G. X CG (X) = CG (x),
x X. , CG (X)
, X:
CG (X) = {g G | x X, gx = xg}.
,
CG (X) G.
2. . X G G. X ,
X :
NG (X) = {g G | gX = Xg}.
, 2 , NG (X) G.
, : X = {x}, NG ({x}) = CG (x).
CG (X) NG (X). , ,
CG (X) E NG (X).

5 7. :
, NGL(n,K) (U (n, K)) = B(n, K). , K.
, NGL(n,K) (D(n, K)) = N (n, K).
K 3 .
,
,
NGL(n,K) (N (n, K)) = N (n, K). K 4 .
. F, H G. NG (F ) NG (H) NG (F H).
?
3. . 10 .
.
, H G G. CommG (H)
H g G, , gHg 1 H.
89,90 .
. , CommG (H) , NG (H).
89 G.A.Margulis,

Discrete subgroups of semisimple Lie groups. Springer, Berlin et al., 1991.

M.Burger, R
eseaux arithm
etiques et commensurateur dapr`
es G.A. Margulis.
Invent. Math., 1994, vol.116, N.13, p.125.
90 N.ACampo,

80

5.
1. , . G ,
g G
. , g 0 = e g n , n N,
, n N
n
1
g n = (g 1 ) = (g n ) .
, m, n Z g m+n = g m g n .
, {g n | n Z} g
G. , g g, ,
g. hgi
G, g.
|hgi| hgi o(g) ord(g) (
order) g. , o(g)
n , g n = 1, .
g , , g o(g) = , g
. G ,
, . G , 6= 1
.
2. .
.
. , g m = 1, o(g)|m.
. Z. o(g) 6 |m, m
o(g), , m = q o(g) + r, 0 < r < o(g). 1 = g m =
(g o(g) )q g r = g r , o(g).
. f : H G . , h H
, f (h)
o(f (h)) o(h).
. G , g G, o(g) = n.
g m n/ gcd(m, n).
. , g m
k , (g m )k = g mk = e. o(g) =
n, , n|mk, , , nq = mk
q Z. d = gcd(m, n) ,
(n/d)q = (m/d)k, .. (n/d)|(m/d)k. gcd(m/d, n/d) = 1,
, k n/d.
n/d, , , o(g m ) = n/ gcd(m, n).
3. .
2, .
. A = {g1 , . . . , gn } . ,
o(g1 . . . gn ) 2.

81

91 . p P , (p 1)! 1 (mod p).

. A =
(Z/pZ) .
.
. ,
. , !
. , , 6= 1 , .
. , xy = (xy)1 = y 1 x1 = yx.
4. . m 1 , g m = 1 g G, G. m ,
, , G .
, .
G.
, , 2 . p
p, .. p. ,
: p , .
6. ,
.
1. , . G.
. X G. G, X,
, X hXi.
, hXi , G, X. , ,
. , 1,
Y G Y n
Y n :
Y n = {y1 . . . yn | yi Y }.
91

(sir John Wilson) (1741, 1793)

, -. . (Watson .) ,

(J.S.Wilson),
7.

82

Y 0 = {e}, Y 1 = Y , Y 2 = Y Y .. M
S (Yn)
Y , .. M (Y ) = Y ,
n N0 .
.
Y () .
, , , . ,
, ,
Y , . X 1
.

. X G,
hXi = M (X X 1 ) = {x1 . . . xn | xi X X 1 , n N0 }.
. , hXi H = M (X X 1 ).
, H , X. ,
e , , H.
, u = x1 . . . xm v = y1 . . . yn - H,
uv = x1 . . . xm y1 . . . yn H. , HH H. ,
u = x1 . . . xm u1 = xm 1 . . . x1 1 . , H 1 = H.
, H . hXi
, X, hXi H.
, F , X. X 1 F 1 =
F . F 1 X X 1 .
. w (X X 1 )n
n 2 X X 1 w = ux, u (X X 1 )n1
n 1 , x X X 1 .
u F , x F . w = ux F F
F . , F H. ,
X, hXi H.
, G , ,
.
. X . ,

hXi = M (X) = {x1 . . . xn | xi X, n N0 }.

. H < G. , hG \ Hi = G.
2. . ?
, , , -
.
(Produktformel). F, H G
G,
|F | |H|
|F H| =
.
|F H|
. , F H G.

83

. : F H F H, (f, h) 7 f h.
, , x F H
1 (X) |F H| . , x = f h, f F ,
h H. ,
1 (x) = {(f g, g 1 h) | g F H}.
, . , x = f 0 h0 ,
f F , h H. f h = f 0 h0 , , iv) v) 1
g = f 1 f 0 = h(h0 )1 F H. , f 0 = f g, h0 = g 1 h,
.
(H.B.Mann). G , X, Y G, ( !) . , G = XY , |G| |X| + |Y |.
. , |X| + |Y | > |G|.
-

g G

|X 1 g Y | + |G| |X 1 g Y | + |X 1 g Y | = |X| + |Y | > |G|.

, X 1 g Y 6= , , x X, y Y , x1 g = y
, , g = xy. , , , G = XY .
. .
. G = Fq+ . q = 2m , . q = pm , p
, X = Y = Fq2 , , |X| + |Y | = q + 1 >
q = |G|.

7.
,
G L(G),
.
1. . F, H G. F H
G,
F H. .
, .
, F H H F , F H = H G F H = F G,
. , F H , F H
. , x F \ H y H \ F .
xy F H?
2. , . X, Y G G, H = hX Y i H = hX, Y i,
H , X, Y , , X Y . , , ,
, , span,
generation. X1 , . . . , Xn G. hF, Hi
F, H G. hF, Hi ,
F , H. , F H, HF hF, Hi. hF, Hi
F H (join) F H.
. , F H HF HF F H, , F H = HF = hF, Hi.

84

3. . , ,
(permute, commute as a whole),
F H = HF , F H . .
, 3, ,
H F G. , , (commute, commute element-wise), ..
f h = hf f F , h H.
, 8.
. , F, H G G
, |F : F H| = |hF, Hi : H|.
92 (93 ). G , F, H G. ,
|G : F | |G : H| . F H = HF = G.
4. . 1939 . (ibid.),
H G , H F G.
94 . ,
. , , , ,
4.
. .
-95 .
. H G F G, H F
F.
. F H G, F E G. H G, H/F G/F .
5. Three for two. 96 , three for two .
. G , H1 , H2 , H3 G. ,
S3 H(1) H(2) H(3) .
Hi Hj 1 i 6= j 3.
. , , i = 1, j = 2,
. , H2 H1 H1 H2 , ,
H1 H2 . ,
H2 H1 (H1 H3 )(H3 H2 ) = H1 H32 H2 = H1 H3 H2 H1 (H1 H2 )H2 = H12 H22 = H1 H2 .

6.
1. . L(G) = {H G} G
.
. , G , L(G)
.
92 O.Ore,

Contributions to the theory of groups. Duke Math. J., 1939, vol.5, p.431460.
.436
93 ()
94 permutable,
, .
95 R.Schmidt, Subgroup lattices of groups. de Gruyter, Berlin, 1994, .202.
96 J.Thompson, W.Feit, Solvability of odd order. Pacif. J. Math., 1963, vol.13, N.3, p.775
1029; Lemma 8.6.

85

,
, - . :
(G) G,
.
L(D, G) (intermediate subgroups), .. G, D.
L(G) = L(1, G).
2. .

( ). F, H, K G, H K.
F H K = (F K)H.
. , (F K)H F H (F K)H KH K.
(F K)H F H K. , x F H K. x x = f h,
f F , h H. , f = xh1 KH = K. , x (F K)H.
1 ( ). F H = F K
F H = F K, H = K.
. ,
K = F K K = F H K = (F K)H = (F H)H = H.
, , , ,
F H!
2. F H ,
hF, Hi K = hF K, Hi.
6.
1. . H G ,
. , H < G , H F G ,
F = G, F = H.
. , .

G.
, ,
G. G
. ,

,
. ,
5 7:
;
B(2, K) B (2, K) GL(2, K) K;
N (2, K) GL(2, K) K 6= F3 , F5 .

86

6.
1. . G (G) G. G
, (G) = G.
. , (G) E G.

G, . IV. G
, (G) 6= G. , G , (G) = 1.
,
G. g G G,
G. ,
, G = hX, gi, , G = hXi.
. (G) G.
. , g
(G). G , . H G
x
/ H, hH, gi = G H. g
, , H = hHi = G, .
, , g (G), X - , hX, gi = G.
hXi = G, H G
X g. , hH, gi hX, gi = G.
H , H, g, H
G. , G,
g, .
:
(Q+ ) = Q+ .
(p ) = p .
(Z) = 0.
(An ) = 1. n 5 An .
(Sn ) = 1. , , ,
i = 1, . . . , n Stabi
= Sn1 Sn , Stab1 . . . Stabn = 1.
(U (n, K)) = [U (n, K), U (n, K)]. , , ,

U r = {u = (uij ) U (n, K) | ur,r+1 = 0}
U (n, R) ( P r = hB, Xr+1,r i),
U 1 . . . U n1 = [U (n, K), U (n, K)].

6.
, G ,
. , , g G,
G g, .. G = {g n , n Z}.
.
1. G = hgi .
. H G. H = e, .
H 6= e g m H m 6= 0. , , m
m, , m N. d N

87

, g d H. , H = hg d i. ,
g m H - m Z. m d: m = qd+r, 0 r < d.
g r = g m (g qd )1 H, d, r 6= 0.
, r = 0 H g d .
.
. Z nZ n N0 .
, .
2. G , Z.
G Z/nZ, n = |G| G.
. G = hgi : Z G, m 7 g m . G , . H .
, H = nZ n N0 .
n = 0 , G
= Z, g . n > 0
(. 11 4) , G
= Z/ Ker() = Z/nZ.
G = hgi n, g n = e. , g k = g l
k, l Z. e = g k (g l )1 = g kl , k l n
, , k l (mod n). , G = {e =
g 0 , g, g 2 , . . . , g n1 }. , o(g) g G
, g n = e, o(g) = ,
.
g m G = hgi , . g 0 = e, , m 6= 0.
G
= Z , , , g m
|m|. , G n.
3
g m 1 2. ,
G n , n,
.
1. G = hgi n
(n) . G g m g, gcd(m, n) = 1.
2. G = hgi
n. d n G
d.
. d|n, g n/d d. , H d. d = 1
, , H 6= e. 1
, H , , H = hg m i m.
, g m , d = n/ gcd(m, n).

88

, (n/d)|m. , H = hg m i , g n/d , , , H = hg n/d i.

. , , , p.
. , , p2 , p P.
. , H E G ,
F H G.
, .
3. d n G = hgi. G (d)
d.
. d G d. 1,
d (d) .
, P


(d) = n. , h
d|n

G n d|n,
d (d). ,
2 :
G n, d
d, G .
4. m G (m).
. , G ,
x y, hxi = hyi. ,
m (m) .
2 .
5. G = hgi
n. d n G
H d. - G/H
d.
. 2 G H (n/d)|n, , , g n/(n/d) = g d .
, - G/H gH, g d H.
6.
1. . H G. X G
, hXi = H alias H.
- .
.

89

H, - X. .
2 (
) .
, G, /
. 36 (
!) .
2. 97 . d 12.
d , 1, . . . , d, :
, .. i 7 d i.
98 , .. i 7 min(2i, 2d + 1 2i).
. ( !), d = 1, 2, 3, 4, 6
Sd , ,
1,2,6,12 120, . 99 .
. S1 , S2 , S3 A4 . d = 6 ,
PGL(2, 5), GL(2, 5) .
, d = 12. ,
95040 = 36 33 5 11.
M12 , .
3. Sn An . 5 5.
Sn (i1 . . . ir ), i1 <
. . . < ir .
Sn (ij),
i < j.
Sn
si = (i, i + 1), i = 1, . . . , l 1.
An 3- (ijh), i <
j < h.
97 P.Diaconis,

R.L.Graham, W.M.Kantor, The mathematics of perfect shuffles. Adv. Appl.

Math., 1983, vol.4, p.175196.
98 (10.05.1746, Beaune 28.07.1818, ) ,
. , .
. , 1892
1893 .
, Ecole Polytechnique.
, 1815
, 1816 !
99 -
identify smth. ,
-, , -
-, , identify smth. with smth. else!!
: , , , , .

90

n 5, An
(ij)(hk), |{i, j, h, k}| = 4.
4. . 7.
SL(n, K) tij (1) = e + eij , K, 1 i 6= j n.
GL(n, K) , tij (1) = e + eij , K,
1 i 6= j n, di () = e + eii , K ,
1 i n.
5. . , , . ,
. , , , , . , : ( )
. , , R T,
. ,
.
(
10).
Zn .
SL(n, Z) tij (1) = e + eij , 1 i 6= j n
( 7 Z).
G = hx, yi GL(n, Z),

x=

1 0
0 1

y=

1 1
0 1

yx = t12 (1) , G . D
.
:
Z0 ;
Q+ {1/n, n N};
p
n
p pn , n N;
Q 1 p P (
!)
, . , Q+
p , p P, :

. Q+ , p , 1 , . . . , n , ,

91

. Q ,
{1} . ,
, 1 p1 , . . . , pn .
6. . , . , ,
, ..
economic generation. ,
, , , .
.
Sn (12) (123 . . . n).
SL(n, Z) t12 (1)
e12 + e23 + . . . + en1,n + (1)n en1
7.
G , X G. ,
1
/ X X 1 = X. ,
X.
g G m , g = x1 . . . xm , xi X,
m X, g X
lX (g) , X , l(g).
l(g) length. g g = x1 . . . xm , xi X,
m = l(g) g
, 0 1 G. X
1. xy, x, y X, xy
/ X {1} 2
1
.. g = x1 . . . xm g, g 1 = x1
m . . . x1
1
1
g . , l(w ) = l(w). ,
, d(g, h) = l(gh1 ) G.
, ,
, l(gh1 ) = l(hg 1 ). ,
.
. h, g G
|l(g) l(h)| l(gh) l(g) + l(h).

. . , g = x1 . . . xm ,
h = y1 . . . yn . gh = x1 . . . xm y1 . . . yn , l(gh) m + n. ,
l(g) = l(ghh1 ) l(gh) + l(h1 ) = l(gh) l(h), l(gh) l(g) l(h).
l(gh) l(h) l(g) .
, G, , d(f g, hg) = d(f, h) f, g, h G.
. , ? l G,
.

92

7.
H G G.

1. .
, .

. G H Hx = {hx | h H}, x G. x Hx. , xH = {xh | h H} G H x.

H\G = {Hx | x G}
G H, G/H = {xH | x G}
.

1: . , \,
TEX \backslash. -
\, -
\setminus. , \
, \
! H\G H \ G , which
is which 100 . \backslash \setminus
, , 3/4.

2: . Nebenklasse ( Nebengruppe).

, , - coset (), classe laterale ( ), - warstwa () ..

3: a parte.
, , . ,
H . ,

100 Which

is the master, thats the question Humpty Dumpty.

93

, [Ha], 101 [F] 102 [Sh]. , 103 [Kur] Hx

101

() , ( ..). , ,
, , . ( ).
( ) ..,
. , : , ,
. , . (,
, tribute) .. ( !)
, .. ..
. ,
. , . [F] ( ) ..
.., .., . , .-., 1963. ( )
.
,
: , .. ...
.. .
102 () , . , . ( ) ( ) ( ) : .., .., . 3- . , .,
1985, .1503 ( ); ... . 2- ., .1 2. , ., 1988, .1351, 1989, c.1304.
: ...
, .3. B, ., 1: , 1996,
.1415; 2: , 1996, .1637. , , : , , ...
, , .
103 ( 18.05.1971, )
, , , .

, ,
10.
, -, (
-) .. .. ( . , 1960, .15, .352).
, . ,
. 1- :
.., . , ., 1975. , .
, : .., . 2- . .,
1973, .1396; .., . ., 1973. , -

94

, ., , 104 [K1], [K2] 105 [Vi2].

2. . ,
H G.
. G
( ) H.
S
. x Hx, G = Hx,
Hx H\G. , ,
. , Hx Hy G H.
, Hx Hy 6= . , z Hx Hy, ..
h, g H, z = hx = gy. y = g 1 (hx) = (g 1 h)x,
y Hx. Hy H(Hx) = (HH)x = Hx. Hx Hy. , Hx = Hy.
, ,
. .
,
G=

Hx,

Hx H\G.

G H G H.
H = H1 = 1H. , x G H Hx, h 7 hx, H
Hx, , , |Hx| = |H|.
, x
/ H Hx H , ,
.
. H G. , G \ H , G ,
H = G.
,
: , , ,
( , .9).
104 () , . , , .
. .
.
.
- .
( , )
- ( A5 , . . . )
p2 1, E8 . : ,
, . , ., 1986, .1232.
105 () ,
.
, , . [Vi1],
[Vi2] , [Vin] [VO].

95

. G , H 6= G. H , , G \ H . , H
g
/ H, G \ H gH , ,
.
. i) F, H G. ,
F x Hy , (F H)g, g G.
ii) .
3. . G / H. ,
.
.
, x y H , x H y,
Hx = Hy. , h, g H, hx = gy.
, xy 1 = h1 g H 1 H = H. H
, H : x H y,
xH = yH. , xH = yH x1 y
H. , H
.
. , x, y G H
(, ), xy 1 H (, x1 y
H).
, , . , H .
, xx1 = e H, ,
1
yx1 = (xy 1 ) H 1 = H, , xz 1 = (xy 1 )(yz 1 )
HH = H.
, G , Hx = xH
H . H, x y (mod H).
H H
.
8. ,
1. . , ,
H\G G/H
. Hx 7 xH , , , :
Hx = Hy , xH = yH. . , ,
X, , X 1 = {x1 | x X}. , X = Y
X 1 = Y 1 . (Hx)1 = x1 H 1 = x1 H,
Hx = Hy x1 H = y 1 H. , Hx 7 x1 H
H\G G/H.
. |H\G| = |G/H| G
H H G |G : H|.

96

,
. |G : H| < , H
G.
. (G : H)
[G : H]. ,
. ,
H = 1, H\G = G/H {g}, g G,
G. , |G| = |G : 1|.
. , Q+
.
Q ?
2. . , .
. H / /
G H.
, G H
X G, z G x X ,
Hz = Hz , Hx = Hy x, y X ,
x = y.
F 2
G = Hx, x X. , |X| = |G : H|. ,
Y
F
, G = yH, y Y .
. ,
X = {x1 , . . . , xn } ,
G G = Hx1 t . . . t
Hxn .
3. . , , X , ..
X, ,
G H? 106,107 . ,
108 .
,
25 109,110 , 111 F, H G
|F | = |H| < .
106

()
On representatives of subsets. J.London Math. Soc., 1935, vol.10, p.2630.
108 , , . 1970, .V, 5.1.7. , 1935 , 1916 ,
1950 , - ,
.
!
109 G.A.Miller, On a method due to Galois. Quart. J. Math., 1910, vol.41, p.382384.
110 H.W.Chapman, A note on the elementary theory of groups of finite order. Messenger
Math., 1913, vol.42, p.132134.
111 G.Scorza, A proposito di un teorema di Chapman. Boll. Unione Mat. Italiana, 1927,
vol.6, p.16.
107 Ph.Hall,

97

. , F, H G , |F | = |H|. G F
G H.
. F xH F H.
- . , F
H. , F xh f xH
f xh.
, , G . -
, , , 112 , ,
F H.
H, , 113 . , 114,115 .
. , F, H G, |G : F | = |G : H| < .
G F
G H.
H, H ,
, - 116 ,
117 .

9.
,
, .
1. 118 . , , .
112 J.Alonso,

Representatives for cosets. Amer. Math. Monthly, 1972, vol. p.886890.

The theory of groups. Chelsea, N.Y., 1949. pages 12 and 37.
114 O.Ore, On coset representatives in groups. Proc. Amer. Math. Soc., 1958, vol.9, p.665
670; Theorem 4.3.
115 E.Weiss, Coset representatives. Portug. Math., 1967, vol.26, p.259260.
116 B.L.van der Waerden, Ein Satz u
ber Klasseneinteilungen von endlichen Mengen. Abh.
Math. Sem. Hamburg, 1927, Bd.5, S.185188.
117 W.R.Scott, Group theory. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1964; Ex.9.2.12 on page
218.
118 (25.01.1736, 10.04.1813, )
XVIII .
, ,
. 1755 .
( -).
1766 , . .
, , ,
, .
. 1787 ,
1788 c .

. ,
, - .
, , .
113 H.Zassenhaus,

98

. H G, |G| = |H||G : H|.

. ,
.
, X . |G : H| = |X|. , H X G,
(h, x) 7 hx . , G = Hx, x X,
. ,
h, g H, x, y X hx = gy, Hx = Hy, , ,
x = y. hx = gx x ,
h = g. , |G| = |H X| = |H||X| = |H||G : H|.
,
.
1. G , H G. G H.
.
, , ,
(Indexsatz).
, , ,
119 , G = Sn .
.
, , ,
o(g) |G|
.
2 ( 120 ). G , g G.
g |G| = e.
.
3. x p , p|xp1 1.
2. - . m G.
, .., , ,
, , , -, , ..
,
..
119 J.L.Lagrange, R
eflexions sur la r
esolution alg
ebriques des equations. 1771. Oeuvres, t.3,
p.205421.
120 (17.08.1601, Beaumont de Lomage 12.01.1665, Castres)
XVII , , . 1630
. ,
, , .
: , , ,
, , .. ,
, shir hash shirim, alias alias
.

99

G H m? 1799 121 S5 . , ,
15, 30 40. ,
, : 5 ,
8, 4 3 .
. , A4 6.
(T.-L.Shen, [Ro], .48). H A4 6,
2 A4 , , g 2 H g A4 . ,
g 3-, g = g 4 = (g 2 )2 . , H
8 .
. , A4 12 S4 .
. - . H S4 , |H| = 12.
S4 H.
3. . , (Allgemeiner Indexsatz).
. F H G, |G : F | = |G : H||H : F |.
. ,
. , X H F , Y
G H. , XY
G F , X Y XY , (x, y) 7 xy, X Y
. , |G : F | = |XY | = |X Y | = |X||Y | = |H : F ||G : H|,
.

S S . G = Hy, y Y , H = F x, x X. H

, ,
S
G = F (xy), (x, y) X Y . ,
F x1 y1 = F x2 y2 x1 , x2 X y1 , y2 Y , x1 = x2 y1 = y2 .
, F x1 y1 = F x2 y2 . x1 , x2 X H, ,
Hy1 Hy2 6= . 2 Hy1 = Hy2 , , , y1 = y2 = y
. F x1 y1 = F x2 y2 y , F x1 = F x2 , , , x1 = x2 ,
.

F = 1.
121

(23.09.1765, 10.05.1822, )
-. 5 . , ,
27 , -. , ,
. .

100

10.
1. . .
. F, H G, |G : (F H)| |G : F ||G : H|.

.
. F, H G, |F : (F H)| |G : H|.
, |G : (F H)| = |G : F ||F : (F H)| |G : F ||G : H|.
, .
. X
F F H. , x, y X
Hx = Hy x = y. , Hx = Hy.
, h, g H, hx = gy, xy 1 = h1 g H.
x, y X F ,
xy 1 F H, , , x = y.
. , F, H G, , |G : F |, |G : H| < ,
gcd(|G : F |, |G : H|) = 1,
i) |G : F H| = |G : F | |G : H|,
ii) F H = G.
2. .
, 1887 .
. H1 , . . . , Hn G,
, H1 . . . Hn G.
. F, H G ,
|F : F H|, |H : F H| < .
.
1. , G,
.
.
2. .
. A, B, C G, A B, B C. , |B : A B|, |B : B C| < .
,
|B : A B C| = |B : (A B) (B C)| < .

|A B : A B C|, |B C : A B C| < .

101

,
|A : A B C| = |A : A B||A B : A B C| < ,
|C : A B C| = |A : A B||A B : A B C| < ,
A B C A, C.
A C.
,
.
3. H G F E G, F H, .
. |G : H| = n g1 , . . . , gn H G. H gi n G. ,
F = H g1 . . . H gn E G .

.
. H E G G. ,
F E G ,
H.
. h H, hG H ,
T
|G : CG (h)| . CG (h),
h H, G.
, H. 3
.

11.
, , , ..
. , ,
122 .
1. . H G . : H 0
G, H 0 H , H G : H 99K G. H 0 D(), |H : H 0 | ind() . H = G,
G 99K G .
, , . : H 99K G
, F H . F |F : H 99K G
D() F . , , ! : H 99K G : H 99K G (commensurable) , F H ,
|F = |F .
H G
idH : G 99K G, H. : F 99K H : H 99K
G .
122

, , ,
. , ,
, .

102

: F 99K G, D( ) = {x D() | (x) D()}.

x D( ) x , ( )(x) = ((x)).
. , . ind( )?
. , .
. ,
. , 1 , 2 : F 99K H 1 , 2 : H 99K G, 1 2
1 2 , 1 1 2 2 .
, , , VEnd(G),
RVEnd(G) G , idG idG , .
2. . ,
, . , ,
. , , ,
, H G. H G ,
() (commensuration).
. , H G , H G, H 0 H, G0 G
, H 0
= G0 .
3. Zn . ,
. , G = Zn .
. , : Zn 99K Zn
Q : Qn Qn .
. , Q .
. , , : Zn 99K Zn , , Q = Q.
, , RVEnd(Zn )
= End(Qn )
= M (n, Q), , , , () Zn
GL(n, Q).

12.
1894 .
1. . F, H G.
F gH = {f gh | f F, h H}
(Doppelnebenklasse) G
(F, H).

F \G/H = {F gH | g G}.

. ,
.

103

. F xH F yH ,
.
. z F xH F yH. , z z = f1 xh1 = f2 yh2 , fi F , hi H. x = f11 f2 yh2 h1
1
F yH, F xH F yH. .
, G, : x y
F xH = F yH, , (F, H).

(F, H). , X = {x1 , . . . , xn } ,
G = F x1 H t . . . t F xn H.
. ,
1
(H, F ) X 1 = {x1
1 , . . . , xn }, ,
1
G = Hx1
1 F t . . . t Hxn F.

. ,
1
|G : H| = |F : F x1 Hx1
1 | + . . . + |F : F xn Hxn |.

, H = 1.
2. . F, H G,
F x yH? . ,
(F, H) , .
, , F x F y F ,
zH , F x zH 6= F y zH 6=
, . , F \G/H , F \G G/H
n = |F \G/H| F \G = X1 t . . . t Xn
G/H = Y1 t . . . t Yn F x Xi , yH Yj F x yH 6= , i = j. , , , F x Xi yH Yi ,
F x yH F x yH, i.
. F x yH, F x zH 6= , |F x yH| = |F x zH|.
. u F x yH, v F x zH. F u = F x = F v, uH = yH
vH = zH , ,
F x yH = F u uH = u(u1 F u H),

F x zH = F v vH = v(v 1 F v H).

, F u = F v, u1 F u = v 1 F v (!). ,
F x yH F x zH
u1 F u H, , ,
|F x yH| = |u1 F u H| = |F x zH|,
.
. |F | |H| = |F gH| |F gHg 1 |.
?. . G , H G.
HxH HyH
. g HzH
HxH HyH g,
HzH.

104

12. BN -

, , .
BN - (G, B, N, S), G , B, N G
G, S N/(B N ), :
BN1 G = hB, N i;
BN2 T = B N E N ;
BN3 S W = N/(B N );
BN4 sBw BwB BswB s S, w W ;
BN5 sBs 6 B s S.
B , W
BN-, |S| BN -. l(w)
w W , S.
. BwB? w
G, W , G.
B T , BnB n N w
N . BwB, wB, Bw ..
. H E G G, B. ,
(G/H, B/H, N H/H), S 0 ), S 0 S W 0 = N/H/(B/H N H/H))
=
N/(B N H) W - W 0 .
. , wBs BwB BwsB s S,
w W . BN4 .
, c
BwB, C(w).
, B1B = B, (BwG)1 = Bw1 B Bww0 B BwB.Bw0 B. BN4
BsB.BwB BwB BswB. , BsB.BwB BswB . , , BsB.BwB = BwB BswB,
BsB.BwB = BswB, , BsB.BwB BwB .
. Ps = B BsB G.
. , BN5 , BsB.BsB 6= B. ,
BsB.BsB = B BsB.
. , BsB.BsB.BwB = BwB BswB.
BN4 u, v W .
. u = s1 . . . sm , v W .
[

BuB.BvB

Bsi1 . . . sik wB.

1i1 <...<ik m

. m = 0 , m = 1
BN4. m. ,
BuB.BvB = Bs1 B.Bs2 . . . sm B.BvB Bs1 B.

Bsi2 . . . sik wB.

2i2 <...<ik m

BN4, ,
Bs1 B.Bsi2 . . . sik wB Bsi2 . . . sik wB Bs1 si1 . . . sik wB,
.

105

12.
J S WJ = hJi W .

[
PJ = BWJ B =
BwB.
wWJ

. ,
BN4.
. PJ G.
. , WJ G, PJ G. ,
B J.
, , BN4 ,
s J
sBWJ B BWJ B BsWJ B PJ ,
.
.
. W B\G/B, w 7 BwB,
W G B.
, , -, , .. G =
PS = BW B. , BW B G, B N , BN1. -, ,
, ..
BvB = BwB

v = w.

.
. , , l(v) l(w), l(v).
l(v) = 0. v = 1 BvB = 1.
B = BwB , w B, , , w N , w B N = T ,
w = 1 = v, .
l(v) 1. v v = su, s S, u W , l(u) = l(v) 1.
BvB = BwB suB BwB , ,
uB sBwB BwB BswB. , BuB
BwB BswB. BuB = BwB . ,
w = u, , l(w) = l(u) <
l(v) l(w). , BuB = BswB,
u = sw , , v = su = s2 w = w, .

12. S
, S
B N . BN -.
. sBw BswB l(sw) l(w).
.

12. , BN-
. (W, S) .
.

106

12.
, ,
PJ G, B. G, B, , .
, P G , g G , P B g .
. J 7 PJ 2S G.
. ,

107

3. -
.
. ,
, . , ,
. , ?
,

: , -. , , ,
,
-. , ,
-,
.
, ,
, , .
I 32 ( GL(n, Z)
GL(n, R)), ,
.
1.
H G, H .
1. . ,
, , 1830 ( ). ,
.
, G, G.
. H G ,
x G x H :
Hx = xH.
, H G, H E G G D H.
, H G,
x, y G, xy 1 H x1 y H.
( Normalteiler)
( sous-groupe invariant,
sous-groupe distingue, -
invariante Untergruppe , , ausgezeichnete Untergruppe).
2030
,

108

, (normal
subgroup) .
. , H G G, x, y G xy H , yx H.
2.
1. . 123 . ,
, , .
. . , 1 E G G E G. H / G, , H .
, . G ,
G 6= 1 , H E G , H = 1 H = G. ,
. ,
(!) ,
, , . , XX
. , ,
.
2. 2 . , G = H t (G \ H) G , H. x H,
Hx = H = xH. x 6= H, Hx 6= H xH 6= H, , ,
Hx = G \ H = xH. An , n.
2 Sn , ,
, An E Sn .
. |G : H| = 2, g G g 2 H.
.
. p , G.
H G p G.
123

,
.
, : The well-bred contradict other people. The wise contradict
themselves . .
() , .
, , , .

109

. x G \ H, xH H = , xH Hx 6= . ,
m Hy, y G, xH,
1 m p 1. 12 2
, xH Hy , m
|H| , , , m |G|. m < p 1,
m = 1, , xH = Hx.
. Hx = xH
H x G. ,
.
.
: H C(G), H E G.
. G ,
( , G ).
Q . , Q 6 , 1,
{1}, G {1, i}, {1, j}, {1, k}. 1 G
, {1},
Q , , ,
2 Q , , .
3. . X G.
2 CG (X) NG (X) X.
. , CG (X) E NG (X)
, H G G, - NG (H)/CG (H)
H.
. , NG (H)/CG (H) Aut(H).
, , , D = D(n, K)
G = GL(n, K).
. , NG (D)/CG (D)
= Sn .
3.
, .
1. . . G = D3
= S3
. 5
6

1 2 3
1 2 3
1 2 3
,
,
,
1 2 3
1 3 2
2 1 3

1 2 3
1 2 3
1 2 3
,
,
.
2 3 1
3 1 2
3 2 1
G:

1 2 3
1
H=
,
1 2 3
2

2
1

3
3

110

1 2
1 3

3
2

1
1

, , H
6=

1 2 3

, .
2 3 1

2
3

3
H,
2

2. Sn . ,
, . G = Sn
n, H G, , n. , H
= Sn1 , , |G : H| = n.
n = 3. ,
H, 1 H, .. 1 (n) = n ,
, 1 (n) = 1 (n). , G H

{ Sn | (i) = n},
i = 1, . . . , n.
,
H, 1 H, .. 1 (n) = n , ,
(n) = (n). ,
{ Sn | (n) = i},

i = 1, . . . , n.

, , n = 2,
2, , , (i) = 2 (2) = i,
.
3. GL(n, K). Q GL(n, K),
, . Q
e1 K n . h, g GL(n, K)
Q, hg 1 Q, ..
h1 g 1 . , h, g
Q,
h1 g Q, .. h g . ,
G Q
0
{g GL(n, K) | g1
= v} ,

v K n \ {0},

{g GL(n, K) | g1 = v} ,

v K n \ {0}.

, ,

h=

1 0
1 1

g=

1
1

1
2

,
.

111

4.
.
1. . ,
xH = Hx. x1 , , xHx1 = H. xHx1
, {xhx1 | h H}. .
. x, g G. x g = xgx1 124 g x . h, g G
G, x G, h = xgx1 . , g G, 125
g G = {xgx1 | x G}
G g.
, h g G h G g ,
G , h g. g x = x1 gx
1
g x . g x = x1 gx = x g,
g x1 , ,
. , g
x -.
, , x Ix
G SG , ,
Ix1 (. 4).
. G .
. , 1 G. : h G g ,
x G, xhx1 = g. , , h = x1 gx.
, G . f G h h G g, x, y G, xf x1 = h
yhy 1 = g. (yx)f (yx)1 = y(xf x1 )y 1 = yhy 1 = g.
G . Z .
G -
124

, - .
, - conjugate
to, conjugate with. , conjugate, conjugated,
.
125 , G g. ,
, G g = g G ,
.

112

Z, Z .
5 Sn ,
3-
GL(n, K) ,
.
. , C G,
C 1 = {g 1 | g G} G.
3. .
, , G.
.
x G , x
. , G ,
.
Q 1,
{i}, {j}, {k}.
G = Dn .
, n.
G n. Dn n 2m/n, m = 0, . . . , n 1,
n . n , G: , n
. , n , : n/2 n-
n/2 , . 2m/ 2(n m)/n .
, n (n + 1)/2 , n n/2 + 1 . , n
,
.
4. . ,
.
4 5, Sn .
GL(n, K) III.
K . c .
U (n, R)
O(n, R).
?. Isom(R3 ).
5.
, , , G .

113

1. . xG G/CG (x). , yCG (x) 7 yxy 1

.
. |xG | = |G : CG (x)|.
, C G
.
(fusion). G , H G
2. xG xH ? ,
h H hG = hH , hG
H.
. H G
p?
: , , h
G hG H,
p H?
. , g G 3. ,
g G , g 6 g 1 .
2. . . , C2
.
. , G , 3 ,
3 .
. n 3 n 1.
. , , , . [Sch],
Ch.V, 6. .
. , G , 6= 1 G .
. , G g 6= 1 o(g) p
- o(g). o(g o(g)/p ) = p. 6= 1 G
, p. p = 2, G , .
p > 2. g 2 6= 1 , , g 2 = xgx1 - x 6= 1.
m
p
, m N g 2 = xm gxm , , g 2 = g.
p
2
1
p
g
= 1 p|2 1. ,
p|2p1 1, , , p|2p1 , .
3. . , |C| .
.
. |C|
.
.
, , , ,
, , .

114

pq- . p, q P. pm q n .

4. . ,
C D, , ,
, .
. , CD = DC.
. , xy = (xyx1 )x.
, : xC = Cx x G
C.

!
. , G
.

6. Klassengleichung
2. . Z = {x1 , . . . , xm } G, Ci = xG
i
xi .
G = C1 t . . . t Cm .
, ni = |Ci | Ci ,
n = |G| G, n = n1 + . . . + nm . m
(class number) G, n = n1 +. . .+nm
(class equation). (n1 , . . . , nm ) G.
, , li = |CG (xi )| xi ,
n = ni li ,
1=

1
1
+ ... +
.
l1
lm

,
n1 . . . nm , , , l1 . . . lm . ,
x1 = 1, n1 = 1, l1 = n.
. G . g1 , . . . , gm
C1 , . . . , Cm . ,
G = hg1 , . . . , gm i.
3. .
. 126 1903
.
126

(18771938) .
254 : , , ,
, , .
.
Handbuch der Lehre der Verteilung der Primzahlen,
Einf
uhrung in die elementare und analytische Theorie der algebraischen Zahlen, Vorlesungen

115

. m
.
. , m
n0 , n m n0 .
m = 1, G 1 ,
1, m = 2, G .
, m 3.
,
1
m
1
+ ... +

1=
l1
lm
lm
, , lm m. ,
1

1
1
1
m1
=
+ ... +

.
lm
l1
lm
lm1

lm 2, lm1 2(m 1). ,

, l1 = n m. ,
, k < m1 lmk hm , . . . , lk hk .
lk , . . . , lm ,
1
1
...
> 0 , , ,
1
lmk
lm
1
mk1
q N ,
, , lmk1 q(m k 1). ,
q
lmk1
.
:
1

1
lm1

1
lm

1
m2
1
+ ... +

.
l1
lm2
lm2
1
1

> 0,
lm lm1
lm ). ,

m 3, lm1 3 ( , lm = 2, , 1

lm 3, , lm1
1
, , lm2 6(m 2).
6
m = 3, , n = l1 6,
6. ,
6, , S3
= D3 , 3 .
. , 4 24. 24 4 ?

7.
5. . .
. , CD C, D G .
u
ber Zahlentheorie : ,
. , . , ,
: ! , ,
. , ,
: , , .
,
,
.

116

G CD
, .. , g G
CD ,
g = xy, x C, y D. , g CD

mCD (g) = |{(x, y) | x C, y D, xy = g}|.
. , h g, mCD (h) = mCD (g).
E .
mCD (g) mCD (E).
CD =

mCD (E)E,

E G.
8.
, , !
, , , , , .
, , .
, i, .III, III, IX.

,
, .
1. .
, H E G :
x G xHx1 = H. .
A, B G G. G, x G, B = xAx1 = {xax1 | a A}.
g 7 xgx1 G (. 4),
, , .
, H G xhx1 , xgx1 xHx1 , (xhx1 )(xgx1 ) = x(hg)x1
1
xHx1 (xhx1 ) = xh1 x1 xHx1 .
G, H, |G : NG (H)|.
. H G G. ,
G, H, G.
. ,
G, . G
, .
2. . ,
.

117

. H G ,
, .. x G
xHx1 = H.
, ,
g g G . , H G = H. ,
, H ,
2, : n 3 H ,
, , ,
.. Sn 6 5.
, , . ,
x G xHx1 H, , xHx1 = H. (, H , |xHx1 | = |H|). ,
xHx1 H G, H E G.
, H = x(x1 Hx)x1 xHx1 H.
, .
T
Hi E G, i , H =
Hi E G. , x H,
i

x Hi i , , , xG Hi . xG H.
, G
G, G.
T
xHx1 E G. , HG
H G, HG =
xG

G, H. HG
(normal interior), (core) H G.
. , H E G, CG (H) E G.
. , , CG (H) = {x G | [x, H] =
1} Ig .
. , , g G, x
CG (H). x H g xh = gxhg g 1 = ghg xg 1 = h g x.
3. .
, .
. x, y G
[x, y] = xyx1 y 1 .
G, , G [G, G]:
[G, G] = h[x, y], x, y Gi.
(derived group) G0 . G G0
G00 . . . (derived series).

118

, [x, y]1 = yxy 1 x1 = [y, x], , , .

, , .
, 8 ,
. ,
.
. [G, G] E G.
. , , g[x, y]g 1 = [gxg 1 , gyg 1 ],
, Ig : x 7 gxg 1 . ,
, , , ,
.
9.
1. , .
4 2, . X G.
G, X ?
. X G. G, X , X hXiG .
, , X hhXii, , G
. , ,
-, hXi
H G , -, G. , 4
2 ,
. 4 2 ,
( ) . X G
: X G = {gxg 1 | x X, g G}.
. X G,
hXiG = hX G i = {y1 x1 y11 . . . yn xn yn1 | xi X X 1 , yi G, n N0 }.
:
, .
, X , X G =
X, hXiG = hXi, , , X, . ,
.
2. . 127
, .
127 ..,

p-. . , 1937, .15, .7176.

119

. X G G, , xy X x, y X.
hXi .
. |X| = n, m o(x) x X. , |hXi| nn(m1) . ,
X , g hXi g = x1 . . . xl , xi X. , g
, l n(m 1). ,
g = x1 . . . xl . l > n(m 1), - x X
m . xi x g. g
x
g = x1 . . . xl = xxx
1 . . . xi1 xi+1 . . . xl

g l,
X ( X X X), x . x, g l,
x. , g xm y1 . . . ylm ,
yi X. xm = 1, , g = y1 . . . ylm
l m.
.
.

10.
, ? , , ? , . , G = A4
4, H = V , F 2 V ,
, F = h(12)(34)i. , V E A4 , V ,
F E V . , F A4 , , , [(12)(34), (123)] = (13)(24). ,
F E H E G, F 6E G.
1. .
.
. , F E G G
F EE G,
F = G0 E G1 E G2 E . . . E Gd = G
.
d .
, 1 ; 2 ,
H, F E H E G; .. , : F EE H EE G, F EE G.
. , H EE G F G, H F EE F .
, H EE G H F G, H EE F .
(128 ) , F, H EE G .
F H F H.
128 H.Wielandt,

Eine Verallgemeinerung der invarianten Untergruppen. Math. Zeitschrift,

1939, Bd.45, S.209244.

120

. F r,
F = F0 E F1 E F2 E . . . E Fr = G,
H s,
H = H0 E H1 E H2 E . . . E Hs = G.

F H = F H0 E F H1 E F H2 E . . . E F Hr = F
, F H F , s.
10. -
, G/H G H .
1. . H E G ,

G H.
. =H
G; , x y u v, xu yv. x y,
x1 y 1 .
. , xH = yH uH = vH. ,
xuH = yvH. ,
xuH = (xu)(HH) = x(uH)H = x(Hu)H = (xH)(uH) =
= (yH)(vH) = y(Hv)H = y(vH)H = (yv)(HH) = yvH.

, uH = Hu Hv = vH, .. , H .
(
). , x1 x1 , x y, y 1 y 1 ,
y 1 = x1 xy 1 x1 yy 1 = x1 .
. ,
: H E G,
,
.
, H
1
. , , , (xH) = Hx1 ,
Hx1 = x1 H.
2. -. , H E G, G/H .

121

129 130 .
. H E G. G
H xH yH = xyH - G H
G/H.

factor group Faktorgruppe ( Restklassengruppe , , Quotientengruppe). ,
, , , , etc.
,
G/H, . ,
u xH v yH.
,
:
(xH)(yH) = x(Hy)H = x(yH)H = (xy)(HH) = xyH = xH yH.
, G/H .
129

(05.01.1838, 20.01.1922, ) XIX , , , , , .

, 1876 Ecole Polytechnique.
,
. 1870 Trait
e des substitutions et des equations
alg
ebriques .
, . .
, ,
- .. , Cours
danalyse. , , , ,
,
, .. ,
, , ,
, , ..
.
130 (H
older) (22.12.1859, 29.08.1937, ),
., ,
XIX , ,
, .
1882 , -. 1899 .
( Sn , pq p3 ..), -,
.. .
(02.04.1901, ), . . ,
,
. .
, .
1889 .

122

. H E G. G/H
.
. , G. G/H H = eG/H . ,
, xH, x1 H.
: G G/H,
x 7 xH, , G G/H:
(xy) = xyH = xHyH = (x)(y).
G G/H.
3. -. -.
. G = Z, H = mZ. G/H = Z/mZ
m.
- R . G = R = R \ {0} , H = R+ = { R | > 0}
. G/H = {R+ , R+ }
=

{1}. , H = {1}, G/H = {{}, R+ } = R+ .

, R = R+ {1}.
. G = R+ , H = Z. G/H = { + Z, [0, 1)}
, x, y [0, 1)
x + y, , x + y < 1
x + y 1, x + y 1. , x 7 cos(2x) + i sin(2x) G/H T
1.
- Co . G = R = R \ {0}
, H = R>0 . G/H = {{R>0 }, T}
= T.
, H = T, G/H = {{T}, R>0 }
= R>0 . ,
, Co = R>0 T.
. G = Sn
, H = An n. G/H
= {1}. ( )
?.
S3
= S4 /V - S4 V .
4. - . G , C(G)
. - G/C(G)
= Inn(G)
G. , Inn(G) ,
.
. , -
.

123

. , G/C(G) . ,
xC(G), x G, G/C(G). , G
C(G) xn C(G). , g G xm a,
m Z, a C(G). ,
: (xm a)(xn b) = xm+n ab = (xn b)(xm a).

. G , ,
.. [G, G] = G, - G/C(G) . G
G/C(G). ,
, - . ,
? , I ? A5 . 131 ,
A6 A7 6,
An , n 8, .
5. . H E G. L(G, H) L(G/H, 1).
. H E G : G G/H. : F 7
(F ) = F/H G,
H, G/H. , ,
, H F, K G
i) F K F/H K/H;
ii) (F K) = (F ) (K);
iii) (hF, Ki) = h(F ), (K)i;
iv) F E G F/H E G/H.
. H F G, H E G, H E F , F/H
G/H. , H F, K G G
, F/H = K/H. f F k K,
f H = kH , , f KH = K.
. , : L(G, H) L(G/H, 1) .
, L G/H G/H, F = 1 (L) H ,
, (F ) = ( 1 (L)) = L. , ,
. iiv
.
. , F, H E G,
G/F H G/F G/H.
, , .
, .
. H E G .
|G : H| .

Uber
die Darstellungen der symmetrischen und alternierenden Gruppen durch
gebrochenen linearen Substitutionen. J. reine angew. Math., 1911, Bd.132, S.85137.
131 I.Schur,

124

11. Counting argument

, , H E G -,
132 . ,
, 30
3 5.
. G , H E G, x G o(x)
|G : H|. , x H.
. xH - G/H o(x), |G : H|,
1. .
. G , H E G, F G ,
|F | |G : H|. F H.
. , A5
= PSL(2, 4)
= PSL(2, 5) .
. H E G
: 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 12, 15, 20 30. A5
24 3. , 3, 6, 12
15 , . , A5
20 5. , 5, 10 20
, . |H| = 30,
24 3, 20 5. ,
A5 15 2 4 .
, , A5 2. , 2 A5
, (ij)(hk) H,
(ik)(jh) = (ijk)1 (ij)(hk)(ijk) H,
. . , , , A5 /H 30
F/H 3 5. F A5
, , 6 10 A5
.
. , PSL(2, 7) 168 .
. , A6
= PSL(2, 9) .
?
. A6 45 2, 40 + 40 3, 90
4 144 5.

7.
-
1. . .
1.
R 1, G = GL(n, R)
n, H = SL(n, R) 1.
G/H
= R . () ?.
. U =
U (n, K)
B = (n, K) , - B/U
D = D(n, K) .
132 J.A.Gallian,

p.134135.

Another proof that A5 is simple. Amer. Math. Monthly, 1984, vol.91,

125

. D =
D(n, K) N =
N (n, K), - N/D Sn .
.
K n Aff(n, K), - Aff(n, K)/K n GL(n, K).
2. -.
( n = 2). m Z,
m = SL(n, Z, mZ) SL(n, Z),
, e m. ,
x = (xij ) m , xij ij .
m - m. ,
m = SL(n, Z, mZ) SL(n, Z),
SL(n, Z)/ SL(n, Z, mZ)
= SL(n, Z/mZ).
3. . -. G = GL(n, R)
n K.
PGL(n, K) - GL(n, K) ,
e, K . , PGL(n, K)
K, x GL(n, K) PGL(n, K) [x]. , PGL(2, K)
K

a b
a b
=
.
c d
c d
az + b
, z 7

cz + d
a b
a b

,
. ,
c d
c d
PGL(2, Co). , , PGL(n, Fq )
Fq . PGL(n, Fq ) PGL(n, q).
. ,
,
. R PGL(n, R)
GL(n, R)/R . ! ,
PGL(n, R) , R, . , PGL(n, K)
GL(n, K)/K , , .
, PSL(n, K)
- SL(n, K) , e, n (K),
n- 1 K.
PSL(n, Fq ) PSL(n, q), An (q) Ln (q). PSL(n, q) ,

126

.
, -133 , ,
PSL(n, q) , PSL(2, 2)
= S3

PSL(2, 3) = A4 .
. , PGL(2, Co)
= PSL(2, Co). , PGL(2, R)
=
PSL(2, R)?
4. . PSL(2, R) , PSL(2, Co) .
PSL(2, Z). , PSL(2, Z[i]). ,
PSL(2, Od ),

Od ) Q[ d]
.
. ?.
8. ,
1st instalment: T ?
134 ,
I. , , Z-
Q = {1, i, , j, , k}
135
Lip = {a + bi + cj + dk | a, b, c, d Z}.
133

(22.01.1874, , 17.01.1954, ,
) ,
XX . , 1894
, . 1896 ,
. ,
1900 ,
, 1939 .
,
, , , ,
. 1901
Linear groups with an exposition of the Galois field theory, , , (K.H.Parshall, A
study in group theory: Leonard Eugene Dicksons Linear groups. Math. Intelligencer, 1991,
vol.13, p.711.). 18 ,
. . ,
.
, (K.H.Parshall, In pursuit of the finite division algebra theorem and
beyond: Joseph H.M.Wedderburn, Leonard E.Dickson , and Oswald Veblen. Arch. Intern. Hist.
Sci., 1983, vol.33, p.274299.). .
1905 , 50 E6 G2 . XX
, .
134 P.Du Val, Homographies, quaternions and rotations. Oxford, 1964, p.1116; 20.
135 R.Lipschitz, Untersuchungen u
ber die Summen von Quadraten. Bonn, 1886, S.1147.

127

136 , Hurw
137 :
` 1
Hurw = Lip
(1 + i + j + k) + Lip,
2
, , .
= 21 (1 + i + j + k).
1, i, j, k Hurw Z. ,

1
3
, 2 + i 2 ! ?
. .
. , 2 = , , 3 = e.
. , 24
T ? = {1, i, j, k,

1
(1 i j k)}
2

. .
. , 1, i, j, k,
, i , j , k , , i , j , k .
i = i1 i = j = k = + i =

1
(1 + i j k),
2

j = j 1 j = k = i = + j =

1
(1 i + j k),
2

k = k1 k = i = j = + k =

1
(1 i j + k),
2

i = i1 i = k = j = i =

1
(1 i + j + k),
2

j = j 1 j = i = k = j =

1
(1 + i j + k),
2

k = k1 k = j = i = k =

1
(1 + i + j k),
2

. , T ? = hi, i.
. ,
, , , ,
. , V . , ,
.. .
. , , .
. , - T ? 1 A4 .
. . , Q/{1}
=V:
e 7 id,

i 7 (12)(34),

j 7 (13)(24),

k 7 (14)(23).

8 3-. , ,
, , 2 = ,
V :

136 M.-F.Vigneras,

7 (234),

i 7 (143),

j 7 (124),

k 7 (132),

7 (243),

i 7 (134),

j 7 (142),

k 7 (123).

Arithmetique des algebres des quaternions. Lect. Notes Math., 1980,

vol.800.
137 A.Hurwitz, Uber

die Zahlentheorie der Quaternionen. Nachrichten Ges. Wiss. G

ottingen.,
Math.Phys. Kl., 1896, N.4, S.313340; Math. Werke, Bd.2, Basel, 1933, S.303330.

128

.
SL(2, 3).
. , T ? =
( 138 ). w, z T ? |w z| 2, p P
: Hurw Hurw /p Hurw T ? .
Hurw /p Hurw M (2, Fp ), . , T ? SL(2, p).
SL(2, 3) 24 !

8. ,
2nd instalment: O?

. = (1+i)/ 2.
, Hurw 139
H.
. hi, i.
C8 .
. , i = 2 hi, i = hi =
. , 48
1
(1 i j k),
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
(1 i), (1 j), (1 k), (i j), (i k), (j k)}
2
2
2
2
2
2

O? = {1, i, j, k,

. .
. , , ,
1
1
1
= (1 + i), = (1 i), 2 = (1 + j),
2
2
2
1
1
1
2 = (1 j), 2 = (1 + k), 2 = (1 k).
2
2
2
, by the same token,
1
1
1
2 = (i + j), k 2 = (i j), 2 = (i + k),
2
2
2
1
1
1
j 2 = (i k), = (j + k), i = (j k).
2
2
2
c , .
, 2 T ? .
`
`
. , O? = T ? T ? = T ? T ? .
. hj, i, hk, i.
. , j 1 j = k1 k = 1 k = j1 , hj, i = hk, i
= D8 .
. , O? = h, i.
. i = 2 , h, i hi, i,
, T ? . ,
/ T ? ,
?
?
O , T , .
. , - O? 1 S4 .
138 John

Baez, This weeks finds in mathematical physics, week 198. September 06, 2003,
http//math.ucr.edu/home/baez/week198.html.
139 .., , . . ., . -, 1985, .1141.

129

. , A4 . , 1 (1i), 1 (1j), 1 (1k),

T ? /{1} =
2
2
2
1
1
- {1} 4, (ij), (ik),
2
2
1
(jk) 2. , 12 4-,
2
12 .
1
1
(i + j) (i j) = k,
2
2

1
1
(i + k) (i k) = j,
2
2

1
1
(j + k) (j k) = i,
2
2

, ,
1
(i + j) 7 (14),
2

1
(i + k) 7 (13),
2

1
(j + k) 7 (12),
2

1
(i j) 7 (23),
2

1
(i k) 7 (24),
2

1
(j k) 7 (34).
2

i, j, k,
1
(1 + i) 7 (1423),
2

1
(1 + j) 7 (1234),
2

1
(1 + k) 7 (1342),
2

1
(1 i) 7 (1324),
2

1
(1 j) 7 (1432),
2

1
(1 k) 7 (1243).
2

8. ,
3rd instalment: I ?

.

Q( 5), ? I. , Q( 5) = Q() =

1
1
Q( ), = (1 5), = (1 + 5), = 1 .
2
2
. , 120 :
24 1, i, j, k, 12 (1 i j k),
T ? ,
1
96 , (i j k) 1, i, j, k,
2
.
I ? . , , .
Icos = ZI ? ,
I ? .
. Mathematica.
1
= ( + i + j), , 5 T ? ,
2
.
. ,
I? = T ?

T ?

T ?2

T ?3

T ?4 = T ?

T ?

2T ?

3T ?

4T ?.

, .
. , 120 :
24 1, i, j, k, 12 (1 i j k),
T ? ,
1
96 , (ij k) 1, i, j, k,
2

130

.
. =
, I ? .

1
( + i + j).
2

1856 .
. , - I ? 1 A5 .
. ,
? T ? /{1}
= A4 .
140 , 1 5.
, x x. I ? \ T ?
1

12 1 0,
2 2

. , 1 0, 2 , ,
2
. , 5, ,
12 , :
1
(i + j + k) 7 (14)(35),
2

1
( i + j + k) 7 (13)(45),
2

1
(i + j + k) 7 (15)(34),
2

1
(i j k) 7 (14)(25),
2

1
( i + j + k) 7 (15)(24),
2

1
(i + j + k) 7 (12)(45),
2

1
(i j + k) 7 (15)(23),
2

1
( i + j k) 7 (13)(25),
2

1
(i j + k) 7 (12)(45),
2

1
1
1
(i + j k) 7 (23)(45),
( i + j k) 7 (24)(35),
(i j + k) 7 (25)(34).
2
2
2
3- A5 2C53 = 20. 3-, 5, , 12 3-,
1
12 I ? \ T ? , 1 ,
2
,
. ,
1
(1 + j + k) 7 (154),
2

1
(1 + i + k) 7 (135),
2

1
(1 + i + j) 7 (345),
2

1
(1 j k) 7 (145),
2

1
(1 i k) 7 (153),
2

1
(1 i j) 7 (354),
2

1
(1 + j k) 7 (235),
2

1
(1 i + k) 7 (245),
2

1
(1 + i j) 7 (152),
2

1
1
1
(1 j + k) 7 (253),
(1 + i k) 7 (254),
(1 i + j) 7 (125),
2
2
2
, , 12

1
12 , .
2
2
5- 4! = 24
5- A5 . ,
. :
1
( + j + k) 7 (13524),
2

1
( + i + k) 7 (13452),
2

1
( + i + j) 7 (15234),
2

1
( j k) 7 (14253),
2

1
( i k) 7 (12543),
2

1
( i j) 7 (14325),
2

1
( + j k) 7 (15423),
2

1
( i + k) 7 (12435),
2

1
( + i j) 7 (14532),
2

1
( j + k) 7 (13245),
2

1
( + i k) 7 (15342),
2

1
( i + j) 7 (12354).
2

140 R.A.Wilson,

The geometry of HallJanko group as a quaternionic reflection group. Geom.

Dedic., 1986, vol.20, p.157173.

131

:
1
( + j + k) 7 (12534),
2

1
( + i + k) 7 (13254),
2

1
( + i + j) 7 (13425),
2

1
( j k) 7 (14352),
2

1
( i k) 7 (14523),
2

1
( i j) 7 (15243),
2

1
( + j k) 7 (12345),
2

1
( i + k) 7 (15324),
2

1
( + i j) 7 (13542),
2

1
( j + k) 7 (15432),
2

1
( + i k) 7 (14235),
2

1
( i + j) 7 (12453).
2

8.
h = + =

1
( 5 + i + j + k). , hh = 1.
2

L = {(x, y, z) | x, y, z Icos, x y z

mod h, x + y + z 0

mod h}

G0 GL(3, H):
G0 = {diag(f, g, h) | f, g, h Q, f gh = 1}
G = hG0 , ei, G0 e = diag(, , ), ,
|G0 | = 27 = 128, |G| = 27 .3 = 384.

8.
, , .
,
. , 10 , .
NonCommutativeMultiply Mathematica ,
Quaternions, . .
,
,
ComplexExpand, . Mathematica:
e={{1,0,0,0},{0,1,0,0},{0,0,1,0},{0,0,0,1}};
i={{0,1,0,0},{-1,0,0,0},{0,0,0,-1},{0,0,1,0}};
j={{0,0,1,0},{0,0,0,1},{-1,0,0,0},{0,-1,0,0}};
k={{0,0,0,1},{0,0,-1,0},{0,1,0,0},{-1,0,0,0}};
e, i, j, k :

1
0

0
0

0
1
0
0

0
0
1
0

0
0
,
0
1

0
1

0
0

1
0
0
0

0
0
0
1

0
0
,
1
0

0
0

1
0

0
0
0
1

1
0
0
0

0
1
,
0
0

0
0

0
1

0
0
1
0

0
1
0
0

1
0

0
0

, . ,

, , . ,
23 , . 10
, O(n3 ) O(ne ) is not

132

worth the candle.

, , ,
. , 1054 ,
. , , , , .. .
x y M (n, K):
mink[x ,y ]:=Union[Flatten[Table[Simplify[x[[i]].y[[j]]],
{i,1,Length[x]},{j,1,Length[y]}],1]]
: x[[i]]
x y[[j]] y.
: Simplify , xi yj , Mathematica
141 ; Flatten[blabla,1] xi yj , , Union
. ( , , GL(n, K) !) GL(n, K),
x, :
span[x ]:=Block[{y,z},y=Union[{e},x];z=Union[y,mink[y,x]];
While[z!=y,y=z;z=Union[y,mink[y,x]]];Return[y]]
, - .
sigma=(1-Sqrt[5])/2;

tau=(1+Sqrt[5])/2;

142 :

omega=(-e+i+j+k)/2;

theta=(e+i)/Sqrt[2];

xi=(sigma*e+i+tau*j)/2;

zeta=(sigma*e+tau*i+j)/2;

, Length[span[k,zeta]], , hk, i 20,

Length[span[omega,theta]], h, i 48.

:
Timing[Length[span[j,zeta]]]

{0.481 Second, 120}

Timing[Length[span[omega,zeta]]] {0.671 Second, 120}

Timing[Length[span[omega,xi]]]

{0.681 Second, 120}

, 120 hj, i, h, i h, i ,
0,7 CPU.

8.

.
;
An , n 5;
141

,
Simplify FullSimplify!!! 31 32 120. -
Simplify
, .. ,
, .
142 zeta, : General::"spell1": Possible spelling
error: new symbol name "zeta" is similar to existing symbol "Zeta".

133

;
26 .
Mathematica.
8. , 1 000 000
56 () , 1 000 000.
,
143,144 , .
PSL(2, q) 2.
A5 , A6 , A7 , A8 , A9 ,
PSL(n, q). :
M11 , M12 , M22 . M21
= PSL(3, 4)
, M10 , PSL(2, 9) 2. M23 M24
, 10 200 960 244 823 040, .
J1 J2 .
HJ. J1 ,
G2 (11)
175 560 = 11(11 + 1)(113 1) = 19 20 21 22 = 55 56 57.
, , , , , 44 352 000, J3 ,
50 232 960, Mc, 898 128 000.
, , , PSL2 , PSL3 , PSL4 , PSp4 , PSU3 PSU4 . Sz(23 ).

?. < 1 000 000

A5
= PSL(2, 4)
= PSL(2, 5),

60 = 22 3 5,
168 = 23 3 7,
5,

PSL(2, 7),
A6
= PSL(2, 9),

360 =

23

32

504 =

23

32

7,

PSL(2, 8),

660 =

22

3 5 11,

PSL(2, 11),

1092 = 22 3 7 13,

PSL(2, 13),

2448 = 24 32 17,

PSL(2, 17),

2520 =

23

32

3420 =

22

32

4080 =

24

3 5 17,

5616 =

24

6048 =

25

5 7,

A7 ,

5 19,

PSL(2, 19),

13,

PSL(3, 3),

33

7,

PSU(3, 32 ),

6072 = 23 3 11 23,

143 M.Hall,

PSL(2, 16),

33

7800 =

23

7920 =

24

32

52

13,

5 11,

PSL(2, 23),
PSL(2, 25),
M11 ,

A search for simple groups of order less than one million. In: Computational
Problems in Abstract Algebra, Pergamon Press, Oxford et al., 1970, p.137168.
144 ., . .:
, ., , 1976, .95128.

134

9828 = 22 33 7 13,

PSL(2, 27),

12180 =

22

3 5 7 29,

PSL(2, 29),

14880 =

25

3 5 31,

20160 =

26

PSL(2, 31),
A8
= PSL(4, 2),

32

5 7,

20160 = 26 32 5 7,

M21
= PSL(3, 4),

25308 =

22

32

25920 =

26

34

5,

PSL(2, 37),
PSp(4, 3)
= PSU(4, 22 ),

29120 =

26

5 7 13,

Sz(23 ),

19 37,

32736 = 25 3 11 31,

PSL(2, 32),

34440 =

23

3 5 7 41,

PSL(2, 41),

39732 =

22

3 7 11 43,

PSL(2, 43),

51888 =

24

3 23 47,

PSL(2, 47),

58800 = 24 3 52 72 ,

PSL(2, 49),

62400 = 26 3 52 13,

PSU(3, 42 ),

74412 = 22 33 13 53,

PSL(2, 53),

95040 =

26

102660 =

22

3 5 29 59,

PSL(2, 59),

113460 = 22 3 5 31 61,

PSL(2, 61),

126000 =

24

33

32

5 11,

53

7,

150348 = 22 3 11 17 67,
175560 =

23

3 5 7 11 19,

178920 = 23 32 5 7 71,
181440 =

26

34

194472 =

23

32

246480 =

24

M12 ,

PSU(3, 52 ),
PSL(2, 67),
J1 ,
PSL(2, 71),

5 7,

A9 ,

37 73,

PSL(2, 73),

3 5 13 79,

PSL(2, 79),

262080 = 26 32 5 7 13,

PSL(2, 64),

265680 = 24 34 5 41,

PSL(2, 81),

285852 =

22

352440 =

23

372000 =

25

3 7 41 83,

32

5 11 89,
53

31,

PSL(2, 83),
PSL(2, 89),
PSL(3, 5),

443520 = 27 32 5 7 11,

M22 ,

456288 = 25 3 72 97,

PSL(2, 97),

515100 =

22

52

546312 =

23

3 13 17 103,

17 101,

PSL(2, 101),
PSL(2, 103),

604800 = 27 33 52 7,

J2 = HJ,

612468 = 22 33 53 107,

PSL(2, 107),

647460 =

22

721392 =

24

33

5 11 109,

PSL(2, 109),

3 7 19 113,

PSL(2, 113),

885720 = 23 3 5 112 61,

PSL(2, 121),

976500 = 22 32 53 7 31,

PSL(2, 125),

979200 =

28

32

52

17,

PSp(4, 4),

PSL(2, 127) , 1024128 = 27

7 127. . -,
4. , 3. , ,
, , 12. 20160
, , , PSL(4, 2) PSL(3, 4)
. .
32

135

8.
.
, XIX ,
, XX .

?.

Al (q)

PSL(l + 1, q)

l
Y
1
q l(l+1)/2
(q i+1 1),
gcd(l + 1, q 1)
i=1

Bl (q)

P(2l + 1, q)

l
2 Y
1
ql
(q 2i 1),
gcd(2, q 1)
i=1

Cl (q)

PSp(2l, q)

l
2 Y
1
ql
(q 2i 1),
gcd(2, q 1)
i=1

Dl (q)

P+ (2l, q)

l1
Y
1
l(l1) l
q
(q

1)
(q 2i 1),
gcd(4, q l 1)
i=1

2 A (q 2 )
l

PSU(l + 1, q)

l
Y
1
q l(l+1)/2
(q i+1 (1)i+1 ),
gcd(l + 1, q + 1)
i=1

2D

P (2l, q)

l1
Y
1
l(l1) l
q
(q
+
1)
(q 2i 1),
gcd(4, q l + 1)
i=1

l (q

2)

?.

1
q 36 (q 12 1)(q 9 1)(q 8 1)(q 6 1)(q 5 1)(q 2 1),
gcd(3, q 1)
1
q 63 (q 18 1)(q 14 1)(q 12 1)(q 10 1)(q 8 1)(q 6 1)(q 2 1),
gcd(2, q 1)

E6 (q)
E7 (q)
E8 (q)

q 120 (q 30 1)(q 24 1)(q 20 1)(q 18 1)(q 14 1)(q 12 1)(q 8 1)(q 2 1),

F4 (q)

q 24 (q 12 1)(q 8 1)(q 6 1)(q 2 1),

G2 (q)

q 6 (q 6 1)(q 2 1),

2 E (q 2 )
6

1
q 36 (q 12 1)(q 9 + 1)(q 8 1)(q 6 1)(q 5 + 1)(q 2 1),
gcd(3, q + 1)

3D

q 12 (q 8 + q 4 + 1)(q 6 1)(q 2 1),

2B

3)

q = 22m+1 ,

q 2 (q 2 + 1)(q 1),

2 (q),

q = 32m+1 ,

q 3 (q 3 + 1)(q 1),

4 (q),

q = 22m+1 ,

q 12 (q 6 + 1)(q 4 1)(q 3 + 1)(q 1),

2 (q),

2G

2F

4 (q

136

8.
26 ,
.

?.

M11

24 32 5 11,

M12

26 33 5 11,

M22

27 32 5 7 11,

M23

27 32 5 7 11 23,

M24

210 33 5 7 11 23,

J1

23 3 5 7 11 19,

J2 = HJ

27 33 5 7,

J3

24 35 5 17 19,

J4

221 33 5 7 113 23 29 31 37 43,

HS

29 32 53 7 11,

Mc

27 36 53 7 11,

Suz

213 37 52 7 11 13,

Ru

214 33 53 7 13 29,

He

210 33 52 73 17,

Ly

28 37 56 7 11 31 37 67,

ON

29 34 5 73 11 19 31,

Co1

221 39 54 72 11 13 23,

Co2

218 36 53 7 11 23,

Co3

210 37 53 7 11 23,

Fi22

217 39 52 7 11 13,

Fi23

218 313 52 7 11 13 17 23,

Fi024

221 316 52 73 11 13 17 23 29,

F5 = HN

214 36 56 7 11 19,

F3 = Th

215 310 53 72 13 19 31,

Baby Monster

F2 = BM

241 313 56 72 11 13 17 19 23 31 47,

Big Monster = Friendly Giant =

246

320

59

76

112

F1 = FG
133

17 19 23 29 31 41 47 59 71

8. ?
.
, 54
| FG | = 808 017 424 794 512 875 886 459 904 961 710 757 005 754 368 000 000 000
FG 196 883.
.
, . , , E6 :
|E6 (2)| = 214 841 575 522 005 575 270 400
|E6 (3)| = 14 515 406 695 082 926 420 056 516 790 429 286 400
|E6 (4)| = 85 528 710 781 342 640 103 833 619 055 142 765 466 746 880 000
|E6 (5)| = 3 175 144 122 737 732 284 276 405 334 472 656 250 000 000 000 000 000 000
|E6 (7)| = 810 331 385 160 483 128 876 506 215 285 626 370 257 098 745 230 053 452 725 616 640 000

137

, E6 (5) 4 , F G, E6 (7) , F G 12
. F G E7 :
|E7 (2)| = 7 997 476 042 075 799 759 100 487 262 680 802 918 400
|E7 (3)| = 2 542 750 473 636 273 484 480 959 502 278 043 289 108 758 407 541 532 509 234 790 400
, E7 (3) F G 10 . E8 75 :
|E8 (2)| = 337 804 753 143 634 806 261 388 190 614 085 595 079
991 692 242 467 651 576 160 959 909 068 800 000
, , E8 (2), F G 21 !
, , E8 (2) .
, .
, , ,
, .
E8 (2) , GL(248, 2), 18515 . GL(248, 2)
!

8.
(A, ), A
, End(A) A , 2 = 0. . Z(A) = Ker()
A,
( Z Zyklus). B(A) = Im()
A,
( B boundary). 2 = 0,
B(A) Z(A).
- H(A) = Z(A)/B(A) A. H(A) . x, y Z(A) , x y B(A).
(A, A ) (B, B ) ,
: A B, ,

A B

A y
y B
A B

, .., , A = B .
,
= .
, : A B
: (Z(A)) Z(B), (B(A)) B(B)
(!).
: H(A) H(B),

x + B(A) 7 (x) + B(B).

138

9.
, G
-
.
. X, ,
,
.
. G F H,
G H , -
F .
F H G = H.F , , H !
145 1926 146 .
G,
H , - F .
, H F . , , F H. ,
-, :
V , C4 C2 .C2 ;
S3 , C6
C3 .C2
n
Cn , 2.2 3.2, . .
n Dn = n.2.
n 2 Sn = An .2.
K 6= 2 SL(2, K) = 2. PSL(2, K)
PSL(2, 5)
A5 =
n = 5, K = F5 . S5 = A5 .2,
SL(2, 5) = 2.A5 . , S5
A5 - C2 , SL(2, 5) C2 ,
145

(03.03.1901, 02.06.1929, )
. 1920 , , , , . 1923
Uber
die Erweiterungen von Gruppen, ,
, ! , ,
. 1926 Die Untergruppen der freien
Gruppe. ,
. ... 1928
. ,
, ,
.
.
146 O.Schreier, Uber

die Erweiterungen von Gruppen. I. Monatschrift f. Math. u. Phys.,

1926, Bd.34, S.165180; II. Abh. Math. Sem. Hamburg, 1926, Bd.4, S.321346.

139

- A5 . ,
S5 SL(2, 5) . , S5 , SL(2, 5) 2. ,
SL(2, 5) , S5 A5
2. , ?.
S4 = V.S3 , S4 =
2
2 .S3 . , 4.S3 ?
Q . Q Q = 4.2 Q = 2.22 .
K = Fp Aff(n, p) = pn . GL(n, p).
i : H G H G, : G/i(H) F G/i(H) F . i

:
i

1 H G F 1
, . , H
, Ker(i) = 1, G Ker() = Im(i) , , F Im() = F . H
.
. , [Kur], [KM] ,
F H,
H F . F F ,
F , , .. G,
-, F .
,
H ,
. () . ,
H C(G).

, H .
, H F G = H.F . G , H, , ,
, F . .
. G = H.F ,
(splitting homomorphism, ), ..
: F G, = idF .
, F , F . F
(F ) G. , , ! F
H (,

140

kernel) H (alias, , complement)

F H h F F i H. , , ,
h (leftthreetimes) i (rightthreetimes).
X, .
H h F H F , H , F .
, F , G = H F
H F .
10. , 1st instalment:

? , .. O(3, R)
, , GL(3, R), GL(3, R). , O(3, R),
. .
,
(IUCr, ). , ,
.
:

IUCr:

Cn

n = 2l

Sn

n l

v d

1/m

, ,
, C & M (
, , [CM]).
:

IUCr:

& M

Cn

Cn

[n]+

Dn

Dn

n22

[2, n]+

T+

23

[3, 3]+

O+

O W

432

[3, 4]+

[3, 5]+

Cn C2

Cnh

n/m

[2, n+ ]

Dn C2

Dnh

n/mmm

[2, n]

Th

[3+ , 4]

Oh Wh

m3m2/m

[3, 4]

Yh

[3, 5]

C2n Cn

S2n

2n

Dn C n

Cnv

nmm

[n]

D2n Dn

Dnd

2nm2

[2+ , 2n]

Td

43m

[3, 3]

C2

141

GL(3, R),
, L = Ze1 +. . .+Zen V .
, , ,
GL(3, Z). :

. , , 1,2,3,4 6.

GL(n, R) ,
GL(n, Z), , ,
1,2,3,4 6. GL(n, R)
(Kristallklasse). , n = 2 10 147 ,
, C1 , C2 , C3 , C4 , C6 , D1 , D2 , D3 , D4 , D6 . 32 n = 3. ,
1830 , , 148 ( 1869 ) 149 ( 1879 ),
, , , , , ...
G GL(n, R), , . GL(n, Z)
, , , . , G,
GL(n, R), (,
, ) G. , H G (alias, , Kristallsystem),
. ,
(.. , ) .
n = 3 7 ,
150 : (, , ),
(, , ),
(, , ), (,
), (,
.. 4- ), (, 6- )
(, 4 3 ).

. n = 3 32 , :

147

[W2] :
, ,
( ) .92.
148 (18281892) , -, 32 !
149 (18421897) ,
.
150 ., , ., , , ., 1983, 3.1 .34.
., , , ., 1980, .1586, .2934.

142

Ci

C1 C2 , C1

C2h

C2 C2 , C2 , C2 C1

D2h

D2 C2 , D2 , D2 C2

D3d

D3 C2 , D3 , D3 C3 , C3 C2 , C3

D4h

D4 C2 , D4 , D4 C4 , D4 D2 , C4 C2 , C4 , C4 C2

D6h

D6 C2 , D6 , D6 C6 , D6 D3 , C6 C2 , C6 , C6 C3

Oh

O, O+ , T, T + C2 , T

32- 151 . , C1 , C1 C2
, C2 , C2 C2 , C2 C2
.. T + ,
T + C2 , O+ , T , ,
O.

11. , 2nd instalment:

, .. GL(3, Z).
GL(n, R), GL(n, Z). . 13 n = 2 72
n = 3 710 n = 4.
. , G, GL(n, Z),
G. , H G ,
. n = 2 5 , n = 3
14, n = 4 64.

12. n-
G Isom(Rn ) V = Rn
, , V /G . G Isom(Rn ) , ,
, G n- .
,
: .
, ,

, , : , , , , , , ...
152 . . , ,
G H E G G.
.
, Isom+ (Rn ),
.
151 .,

, ., . , ., 1974, .1496, 3.3 32 .4951.

152 (1886 )

143

n-
18- 153 . 19101912
.
. n Isom(Rn ).
, ,
[Wo], c.122128.
1948 , n- , GL(n, Z). 4
1971 , .

13.

, , Z, D ,
. n , .
1. . ,
, . , frieze154 .
: , , , , , . 7
(., , [C?], 83 [Spe], .8182).
. Isom(R2 ) 7
,
:

IUCr:

LLLL

DDDDDDDD

Z C2

NNNNNNNN

VVVVVVVV

VVVV

HHHHHHHH

D C2

?, , .
2. . ,
, .
, , ,
, (, ), , .
, , , ,
, () , () .. 75
1929- .155 .
, , [ShK], 6.
,
, . , ,
.
[Spe].
153

, , ., 1969, .1239. . .5051

, , .
. , .
155 E.Alexander, Systematik der eindimensionalen Raumgruppen. Z. Kristallographie, 1929,
Bd.70, S.367382.
154

144

14.
1. . 1891 .. , 17. , 1869
16 , 17- 1874 , . , 156,157 . , 17
158,159 , 13 160 .
, 161 14 17
(, pm, p3 pg).
162 , 163
. , ,
, ,
.
(-
wallpaper groups), ..
2. . .
, , 164 . ,
5 .
:
?
: ?
? : ?
: ?
: ?

Uber
die Analoge der Kristallsymmetrie in der Ebene Z. Kristallographie, 1924,
Bd.60, S.278282.
157 P.Niggli, Die Fl
achensymmetrien homogener Diskontinuen. Z. Kristallographie, 1924,
Bd.60, S.283298.
158 , ( - ) XIIIXIV
, ,
.
159 [CM], .54 : 17
( ..
..). , ,
. , , - .
. ,
by Moors.
160 p2, p3m1, pg pgg. ,
p2 , ,
, , p3m1
. ,
pg pgg .
161 D.S.Dye, A grammar of Chinese lattice. Harvard Univ. Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1937
(reprinted by Dover under the title Chinese lattice design, 1974.)
162 D.Schattschneider, The plane symmetry groups: their recognition and notation. Amer.
Math. Monthly, 1978, JuneJuly, p.439450.
163 (1898 1972) , , ,
, ,
, ..
164 Washburn, Crowe, Symmetries of culture, Table 5.1.
156 G.P
olya,

145

: pmm
: cmm
: pmg
2/3: ?
: p3m1
: p31m
/2: /4?
: p4m
: p4g
/3: p6m
? : ?
: cm
: pm
: ?
? : ?
: ?
: pgg
: p2
2/3: p3
/2: p4
/3: p6
? : ?
: pg
: p1

, , ,
.
3. . ,
, . , , ,
, , , , , .. , ,
165 , , () , .. 80
1929- . .166 .
, , [ShK], 11.

15.

165

, , ,
.
166 E.Alexander, K.Hermann, Die 80 zweidimensionalen Raumgruppen. Z. Kristallographie,
1929, Bd.69, S.285299; Bd.70, S.328345.

146

4.

, . .
, .
1.
1. . , , .
. G H . f : G H
, x, y G
f (xy) = f (x)f (y).
, .
G H , , ,
f (x + y) = f (x) + f (y), , , G , H , f (xy) = f (x) + f (y). ,

.
,
.
,
(, ). f :
, f , (
, `
oo );
, f , ( `
` );
, f ,
, G = H, ( `
o );
, G = H, f ( `
o`
, , selbst: , ,
etc.);.
, ,
; , .
G H Hom(G, H)
, , Mor(G, H). , f Hom(G, H) , G H. G H
Iso(G, H). End(G) G , Aut(G)
G . End(G) , Aut(G)
c
G.

147

. , , ,
XIX 167 . , , (isomorphisme
holo
edrique, einstufiger Isomorphismus, holohedral isomorphism), , , o168 (isomorphisme
meri
edrique, mehrstufiger Isomorphismus, merohedral isomorphism). 1904
169 .

, f ,
. e, eG eH .
. f : G H . f (e) = e
x G f (x1 ) = f (x)1 .
. , f (e)2 = f (e2 ) = f (e) = f (e)e.
f (e), . x G.
f (x1 )f (x) = f (x1 x) =
f (e) = e, .
, , .. f (xy 1 ) =
f (x)f (y)1 .
2. . H G ,
, H
= G. ,
. , : R+
= R+ ,
2
C+
= (R+ ) , C
= T R+ , Z/mZ
= n .
. , ,
( IV), C
= T,
.
. 6
x,

1
x
x1
1
, 1 x,
,
,
.
x
x1
x
1x

, 6 . , S3 .
( ). , Q>0
= Z[x]+ .
. , Q>0
6 Q+ .
=

. B Q+ , Q>0 2.
. , .
2. , x 7 x + 2
167 .,

, ., , .III, ., , 1974, .1771, 910 ( 1882 ).

168 : .
169 J.-A.de S
eguier, Theorie des groupes finis. El
ements de la th
eorie des groupes abstraits.
Gauthier-Villars, Paris, 1904.

148

. , cos,
sin.
. ,
2, x 7 /2 x, x 7 x,
x 7 3/2 x, x 7 2 x, . ?
. H, G Q, : H G . a Q
, (h) = ah h H.
3. .
, . , : H G , , g G
g = gg 1 g (x) = g(x)g 1 . ,
, : H G , g G, = g .
. ,
G, H?
. , 1 2 , 1 2 , 1 1 2 2 .

2.
.
. ,
. , R+ R . ,
exp log
e:
exp : R+ R+ ,

x 7 ex ,

log : R+ R+ ,

x 7 loge (x).

, , exp(x + y) = exp(x) exp(y), ,

log(xy) = log(x) + log(y), log ,
. exp(log(x)) = x
log(exp(x)) = x, exp log . , ,
( , ).
, , a > 0 ax+y = ax ay ,
, , a 6= 1, loga (x + y) = loga (x) + loga (y). ,
R+ R , x 7 ax , R+ R+ , x 7 loga (x), R. ,
.
. | | : R R+ , x 7
|x|, ,

. sign : R {1},
, sign(x)

149

R {1}. , |xy| = |x||y|

sign(xy) = sign(x) sign(y).
.
: | | : C R+ arg : C T.
|zw| = |z||w| arg(zw) = arg(z) + arg(w).
.
?. sgn(), sgn : Sn {1}.
: sgn() = sgn() sgn().
. 5 det : GL(n, R) R
GL(n, R) n R R R,
x det(x). , , ,
, , : det(xy) = det(x) det(y).
p- . G = Q
. p P
vp Q Z+ ( Z) . ,
x Q x = pa m/n,
a Z, m n p, vp (x) = a.
vp : Q Z p- . , vp , .. Q Z, ,
vp (xy) = vp (x) + vp (y).
p- . p-
, ,
, Q+ , . 1/p, |x|p = pvp (x) . | |p : Q Q+ p- . ,
|xy|p = |x|p |y|p .
. , p-
(, |x + y|p |x|p + |y|p , , |x + y|p max(|x|p , |y|p )). , | |p Q
dp (x, y) = |x y|p , p- . | |p
Q Q+ |0|p = 0). Q , Qp ,
p- , , p- ,
,
.
.

150

3. ,
, .
1. , . , G .
. G
. inv : G G, g , .
G Go .
. n Z
pown : G G, g 7 g n . ,
G , , .. (hg)n = hn g n .
, , . ,
G , n |G|, g 7 g n
(?).
. , , pow2 , G . pown , n 3?
170 . , Cm Cn gcd(m, n).
n Z
, G .
(). , G , n N x, y G (xy)n = xn y n . Gn = {xn | x G} n- G,
Gn = {x G | xn = 1} G,
n. , Gn , Gn E G |Gn | = |G : Gn |.
. pown G, Gn =
Im(pown ), Gn = Ker(pown ), Gn , Gn G, Gn .
pown Ig , g G, gxn g 1 =
(gxg 1 )n , Gn .
Gn
= G/Gn .
2. . , Hom(G, H),
H . Hom(G, H) ()(x) =
(x)(x). , Hom(G, H) . , H , Hom(G, H)
, .. ( + )(x) = (x) + (x).
3. . G , inv : G G , g G g 1 , .. inv(g) = g 1 .
inv G, .. G
Go , . Go = G, inv = pow1 . , f : G H , x, y G f (xy) = f (y)f (x).
170 J.A.Gallian,

J.Van Buskirk, The number of homomorphisms from Zm into Zn . Amer.

Math. Monthly, 1984, vol.91, p.196197. ,
Z/mZ Z/nZ, .

151

, f G , H. . ,
.
, , G = GL(n, R) R. , , x 7 xt ,
x G G, .. (xy)t = y t xt (, R
!). , G = GL(n, R), : x 7 x = (xt )1 . , , (xy) = x y .
4. , .
,
.
H, G . 1 : H G, H G ,
.
. , H G , Hom(H, G) = {1}.
G . id : G G
G, .
. , g
Z G, n 7 g n , Z G, , g m+n = g m g n . , g G
Z G , (1) = g. , G Hom(Z, G).
. G g G. x G Ig : G G Ig (x) = gxg 1 ( gxg 1 g x
x g).
, Ig . ,
x, y G Ig (xy) = g(xy)g 1 = (gxg 1 )(gyg 1 ) = Ig (x)Ig (y). ,
Ig . Ig G. Ig
inner .
.
G , H G .
g NG (H) H , , Ig |H H. ,
H ! , H E G,
G H.
, ? , H Hol(H), H ,
H E Hol(H) H Hol(H) .
. Ig |H , g NG (H),
H?

152

. , NG (H) = HCG (H).

5. .
( ?). ,
, .
.
. , , 3 ,
.
. G , . G , inv , , g , 2g 6= 0.
, , G 2g = 0
g G , , F2
. X (
!), |G| 3, |X| 2 , X
. G.
. , , , 3,4 6.
4.
=

Z/nZ n ?
. , ,
, Z/nZ n .
, , , , .. , ,
, , Z/nZ n
,
. , Z
T
= R/Z. ? Z/nZ n
, Z T .
5.
, . . , -,
, , .
1. .
. ,
, , F
G?
. H G , (H) H
Aut(G) , (H) H
End(G)

153

, .
, :
= =
= = .
, ,
, :
C(G) G , , , ;
V = E4 , .
(charakteristische Untergruppe)
1895 . F E H ,
G , H E G.
, . (vollinvariante Untergruppe) 1933 .
.
. 1) .
2) .
3) .
. 1), . , H E G, F H.
g G Ig H H , ,
F , Ig (F ) F . , F E G.
2. .
.
[G, G] G ;
Gn , n- G,
;
, G: [x, y], xn .
. n Z. , {x G | xn = 1} xn = 1 G ,
.
, , , .
G.
(G), .. ;
n;
n;
n;
n.

154

6.
,
G = Epm ,
1 G. G, , .
(characteristically simple)171 .
. G , .
. . G = H1 . . . Hs , Hi
H. H
= Cp , G = Fps
Fp , Aut(G) = GL(s, Fp ) . H ,
F 6= 1 G f 6= 1.
f = h1 . . . hs 6= 1, , , hj 6= 1. Hi
= H ,
gj Hj , [f, gj ] = [hj , gj ] 6= 1. , F Hj 6= 1 , Hj
, F Hj = Hj . , Hj F , Aut(G)
H1 , . . . , Hs , Hi F i , , F = G.
. , . , G .
H G. , H E G, H 6= 1,
1 F H G, F = 1 F = H.
H , Aut(G)
, (H) 6= H. H1 = H, H2 . . . , Hs , s 2,
, H Aut(G). , H1 . . . Hs
G , , G. , Hi G , , Hi Hj = 1,
i 6= j ( , Hi Hj E G Hi , , 1).
, H H2 , . . . , Hs . ,
H
G. H , H .
H H2 . . . Hs H , , ,
H H2 . . . Hs , H H2 . . . Hs = 1. H , H C(G) ,
C(G) , C(G) = G. , G
.
G, H Hi , ,
b i . . . Hs = 1. , G = H1 . . . Hs .
Hi H1 . . . H
.
, e G .
[Sch], .62,
.

7.
.
1. . H G , (H) H
, H = 1 (H)
End(G). , .
, :
= =
. , .
171

, .

155

. , .
. , .
. , () () .
2. . ,
. ? ,
,
, , , .
, G ,
H E G , G/H
= G. H 6= 1
, G . , 1950-
172,173 , (
) , .
. , G ,
.
. , End(G)
G
= G/ Ker(), Ker() 6= 1, G . , H E G,
H 6= 1 , G/H
= G, G G/H
= G
G .
. ,
.
, .
, , , : G G .
, Z .

8.
.
1. / . End(G)
G . , End(G)
,
G. G , , 3,
End(G) , , ,
(+)(x) = (x)+(x),
x G. ( III), End(G)
( )
1.
End(Z+ )
= Z;

End(Cn ) = Z/nZ;
End(p )
= Zp p- ( ,
Zp = lim Z/pn Z, ., , [KM], c.5758
);
172 B.H.Neumann,

A two-generator group isomorphic to a proper factor group. J. London

Math. Soc., 1950, vol.25, p.247248.
173 G.Higman, A finitely related group with an isomorphic proper factor group. J. London
Math. Soc., 1951, vol.26, p.5961.

156

End(Z+
p ) = Zp ;
End(Zn )
= M (n, Z);
End(Epn )
= M (n, Fp ).
: ,
, .
,
Epn Fpn .
2. . , Aut(G)
G . ,
Aut(G) = End(R) / End(G).
Aut(G)
. .
.
Aut(Z+ )
= C2 ;
Aut(Cn )
= (Z/nZ) ;
Aut(p )
= Zp ;
Aut(Z+ )
= Z ;
p
n

Aut(Z )
= GL(n, Z);
Aut(Epn )
= GL(n, p).
, , ,
. (Z/nZ) ,
ms
1
VI. , n = pm
1 . . . ps , pi
, ,

ms

1
(Z/nZ)
= (Z/pm
1 Z) . . . (Z/ps Z)
, Aut(Cpm ), p .
p = 2 .
, p = 2 Aut(C2 ) = 1, Aut(C4 )
= C2
= C2m1 ,
= C2 Aut(C2m )

p Aut(Cpm ) = C(p1)pm1 .
, Aut(C3 )
= Aut(C4 )
= C2 . 174 ,
H G , Aut(G)
= H.
. , ,
( !),
G Aut(G)
= C2l+1
. S6 ( ,
!),
An , A8
= PSL(4, 2), , , Z.
174 H.K.Iyer,

Rocky Mountain J. Math., 1979, vol.9, N.4, p.653670.

157

. , G n,
Aut(G) (n 1)!. ?
? , Aut(Sn ) = Sn n 6= 2, 6 ( ).
Aut(GL(n, K)) ,
GL(n, R)
, , (
).
. , Aut(D3 )
= D3 Aut(D4 )
= D4 .
? Aut(Dn ).
. D2 = V ,
Aut(D2 )
= GL(2, 2)
= S3
= D3 .
n 3. Dn x n 3 y , xy .
Dn = {xj , xj y, j = 0, . . . , n 1}, xj y . Aut(Dn ). , (x) = xi - i n , ,
(x) (y) Dn , (y) = xj y -
j = 0, . . . , n 1. , , i j
Dn . , | Aut(Dn )| = (n)n.
175 , , Aut(Dn )
= C(n) i Cn ,
C(n) Cn , .., ,
Aut(Dn )
= Hol(Cn ). n = 3 n = 4, (n) = 2, , Aut(Dn )
= Dn .
. , Aut(C2 C4 ) = D4 . , Aut(C2 C4 )
=
Aut(D4 ). Aut(C2 Cn ) n.
.
. H E G. , G/CG (H)
Aut(H).
. H E G p- pn ,
G/CG (H) GL(n, p).
9.

Aut(G), 1893 ..
1. . G Aut(G), g 7
Ig , , Igh = Ig Ih . ,
Igh (x) = (gh)x(gh)1 = g(hxh1 )g 1 = Ig (hxh1 ) = Ig (Ih (x)) = Ig Ih (x).
Inn(G) = {Ig | g G}
Aut(G), G.
175 G.L.Walls,

A.

Automorphism groups. Amer. Math. Monthly, 1986, JuneJuly, p.459462.

158

. Inn(G)
= G/C(G) Aut(G).
. , , Ig , g C(G), G Aut(G), g 7 Ig ,
C(G). ,
Ig 1 (x) = (g1 (x)g 1 ) = (g)x(x)1
, Ig 1 = I(g) , ,
, .
. G Aut(G).
- Out(G) = Aut(G)/ Inn(G)
G. ,
Out(G) 6= 1. .
. G p-, . Out(G) 6= 1.
Aut(G) .
. Aut(Q) .
. , Aut(G) , G .
. , G , Aut(G) .
Aut(G) , g 1 (g) C(G)
g G.
. , , G , ,
.
, C(G) = 1, CAut(G) (Inn(G)) = 1.
, Aut(G).
.
. H E G G.
Aut(G, H) = { Aut(G) | g G, g 1 (g) H}.
, Aut(G, H) Aut(G).
Aut(G, H) G, H -
G/H.
Aut(G, C(G)).
. H E G.
Aut1 (G, H) = { Aut(G, H) | |H = idH }.
, Aut1 (G, H) E Aut(G, H).

159

. , -, H E G. ,
Aut(G, H) E Aut(G)? H ?

IAut(G) = Aut(G, [G, G]).

, IAut(G) E Aut(G).
2. .
131 , , .I.
. G . , Inn(G)
Aut(G).
. Aut(Aut(G)). Inn(G) (Inn(G)) E Aut(G). Inn(G)
=G
, Inn(G) (Inn(G)) = Inn(G), ,
Inn(G) (Inn(G)) = 1. Aut(G) Inn(G)
(Inn(G)). G , , CAut(G) (Inn(G)) =
1.
. G Aut(Aut(G)). , (Ig ) = Ig
Ig Inn(G), = id.
. g G (Ig ) = Ig , ,
()Ig ()1 = (Ig 1 ) = (I(g) ) = I(g) = Ig 1
Aut(G). 1 ()Ig = Ig 1 ().
1 (), , G ,
1 ()(g) = g g G. , ()(g) = (g)
() = , .
. G . ,
Aut(G) .
. Aut(Aut(G)) G : I(g) = (Ig ). Inn(G)
= G
Aut(G). , () = 1 Aut(G).
, 7 1 () Aut(G) .
,
. ,
1 (Ig )(x) = 1 I(g) (x) = 1 ((g)(x)(g)1 ) = gxg 1 = Ig (x),
.
, , .
. G , Aut(G)
= Aut(Aut(G)).
3. . 1939
. Aut0 (G) = G, Aut1 (G) = Aut(G), Aut2 (G) = Aut(Aut(G)), Autn (G) = Aut(Autn1 (G)).
G Aut(G). , ,
G Aut(G) Aut2 (G) . . . . ,
.
.
. G , n ,
Autn (G) = Autn+1 (G) = . . . .
,
(S.Thomas, 1985).

160

10.
.
. R
,

d12 : R GL(2, R),

x 7

x
0
0 x1

, .. d12 (xy) = d12 (x)d12 (y) x, y R .

. , ,
.

t12 : R GL(2, R),

x 7

1
0

x
1

, ..
t12 (x + y) = t12 (x)t12 (y) x, y R.
K 6= 2.
K

SL(2, K),

1
x 7
2

x + x1
x x1

x x1
x + x1

(!!)
K = R
. , . IV.
.

R GL(2, R),

x 7

cos(x)
sin(x)

sin(x)
cos(x)

. x
x.
.

R GL(2, R),

x 7

ch(x) sh(x)
sh(x) ch(x)

. x
x.
, ,
, .

161

( ). K 6= 2,
1 (, K = R). K 2 (a, b)(c, d) =
(ac bd, ad + bc). ,
2

1
a b2
2ab
2
,
K \ {(0, 0)} SL(2, K),
x 7 2
2ab a2 b2
a + b2
.
( SL2 ). R
1. ,

a
2ab
b2
a b
7 ac ad + bc bd
c d
c2
2cd
d2
GL(2, R) GL(3, R).
Vm
. x GL(n, R)
(x), V m- , .
m

(x) m- x.

Vm , -, GL(n, R)
, V
Vm
Vm
m
m
(y). (x)
(xy) =
GL(Cn , R), ,
n = 4, m = 2,
SL(4, R) SO(6, R), x 4
1

x11 x12 x13 x14

x22 x23 x24
x
x = 21

x31 x32 x33 x34

x41 x42 x43 x44
V2

(x) 6

x11 x22 x12 x21

x11 x32 x12 x31

x11 x42 x12 x41

x21 x32 x22 x31

x21 x42 x22 x41

x31 x42 x32 x41

x11 x23 x13 x21

x11 x33 x13 x31
x11 x43 x13 x41
x21 x33 x23 x31
x21 x43 x23 x41
x31 x43 x33 x41

x11 x24 x14 x21

x11 x34 x14 x31
x11 x44 x14 x41
x21 x34 x24 x31
x21 x44 x24 x41
x31 x44 x34 x41

x12 x23 x13 x22

x12 x33 x13 x32
x12 x43 x13 x42
x22 x33 x23 x32
x22 x43 x23 x42
x32 x43 x33 x42

x12 x24 x14 x22

x12 x34 x14 x32
x12 x44 x14 x42
x22 x34 x24 x32
x22 x44 x24 x42
x32 x44 x34 x42

x13 x24 x14 x23

x13 x34 x14 x33

x13 x44 x14 x43

x23 x34 x24 x33

x23 x44 x24 x43

x33 x44 x34 x43

Minors Mathematica.
. .
. ,
. x GL(n, R)
S m (x), m- , . S m (x) m- x. - 176 ,
, S m GL(n, R)
m
GL(Cm+n1
, R), , S m (xy) = S m (x)S m (y).
176 .,

, , ., 1982, .1213, 1.3 .30

162

11.
GL(n, R). , .
12.
R c : R R, x 7 cx, c R
R+ . , c (x + y) =
c(x + y) = cx + cy = c (x) + c (y) .
R+ ?
1. Q+ . , End(Z+ )
= Z.
+
. , End(Q ) = Q.
. Q+ , (1) = c Q. ,
(x) = cx x Q. , m Z (m) =
m(1) = cm. , n Z, n(m/n) = (n
m/n) = (m) = cm, (m/n) = c(m/n).
1. Aut(Q+ ) = Q .
2. A, B Q+ ,
x Q , A = xB.
, Q
mp Z {}:
A = {x Q+ | p P, vp (x) mp }.
, Q+ .
2. R+ .
R+ , , XIX
, 1905 177 .
. ,
R Rn , Rn n 2, . ,
R Rn , ,
.
. c : R R, x 7 cx, c R,
R+ .
R+ R+ ,
x 7 ln(x) x 7 ex , ,
. , , , ,

R .
177 G.Hamel,

Eine Basis aller Zahlen und die unstetige L

osungen der Funktionalgleichung f (x+
y) = f (x) + f (y). Math. Ann., 1905, Bd.60, S.459462.

163

1. R+ R+ , x 7 xc , c R, R+ .
2. R+ R , x 7 cx , c R+ ,
R+ R .
3. R+ R+ , x 7 logc (x), c R+ , c 6= 1,
R+ R+ .
, ( ) !
3. K + .
, , K + K + K K ? ,
f K[x] , f (x + y) = f (x) + f (y) , , f (xy) = f (x)f (y).
: f (xy) = f (x)f (y) , .. f (ab) = f (a)f (b) a, b K
, K[x, y]? , ? ? K , . -,
.
. , K , f K[x]
, f (ab) = f (a)f (b) a, b K, f = xn .
. f (xy)
f (x)f (y) K[x, y]. f = an xn + . . . + a1 x +
a0 . xn y n , an = 1,
xn y i , i = 0, . . . , n 1, an ai = 0.
x3 + x2 + x F2 [x], .
13.
,
.
1. . : H G .
. ,
Im() = {y G | x H, (x) = y}.
, (H) G. , 1 = (1) Im().
y, z Im(), x, u H , (x) = y, (u) = z.
(xu) = (x)(u) = yz, yz Im(). , (x1 ) =
(x)1 = y 1 , y 1 Im(). ,
. ,
H G. H H , G.
2. .
H.

164

. 1
,
Ker() = {x H | (x) = 1}.
, , H.
. : H G Ker() E H.
. , G . , (1) = 1, 1 Ker(). x, y Ker(), (xy) = (x)(y) =
1 1 = 1, xy Ker(). , x Ker(), (x1 ) = (x)1 =
11 = 1, x1 Ker(). , Ker() H.
, x Ker(), y H,
(yxy 1 ) = (y)(x)(y 1 ) = (y)(y)1 = 1.
, Ker() E H.
, , ,
. ,
H E G H : G G/H, g 7 gH.
, H = Ker(H ). ,
.
, () f, g : X
Y Eq(f, g) = {x X | f (x) = g(x)}.
Ker(f ) = Eq(f, 1).
. f : H G.
, f 1 (f (F )) = F Ker(f ) F H;
, f (f 1 (K)) = K Im(f ) K G.
. , Eq(f, g) f, g :
H G G?
3. . .
pown : G G, x 7 xn , n- .
Ker(pown ) = Gn G n.
I : G Aut(G), g 7 Ig , ,
g G Ig . Ker(I) =
C(G).
sgn : Sn Sn , Ker(sgn) = An .
det : GL(n, K) K , Ker(det) = SL(n, K).
14.
, .
.

165

. : H G .
Im()
= H/ Ker().
. , : H G
N () , .. H .
= x y
(x) = (y).
, , , ,
Ker(). , , 1:
. , (x) = (y),
(xy 1 ) = (x)(y)1 = 1 xy 1 Ker(). ,
x Ker() = y Ker() (, ,
, ). , x Ker() = y Ker(), y = xh h Ker(),
(y) = (xh) = (x)(h) = (x).
.
, x = x + Ker() 7 (x) : H/ Ker() G, Im().
, . ,
, , ,
(x y) = (xy) = (xy) = (x)(y) = (x)(y),
.
. : H G , G
= H/ Ker().
. f : G G0 , H E G, H 0 E G0 , f (H) H 0 . f f : G/H G0 /H 0 , f (xH) = f (x)H 0 .
. , . , xH = yH, f
f (x)1 f (y) = f (x1 y) H 0 , f (x)H 0 = f (y)H 0 .
, f . ,
f (xH yH) = f (xyH) = f (xy)H 0 = f (x)f (y)H 0 =
(f (x)H 0 )(f (y)H 0 ) = f (xH)f (yH).
. H = f 1 (H 0 ), f :
G/H G0 /H 0 . , , f , f .

3, -.
: Inn(G) = G/C(G).

166

15.
1819 , : KH2 PO4 , KH2 AsO4 , (NH4 )H2 PO4 (NH4 )H2 AsO4
.
() . ,
. , ,
.
, [Pen], .248249.

, .
1. Noetherscher Isomorphiesatz. , , ,
178 .
, F H
F G H E G G.
?, . ,
: G G/H . F H = 1 ((F )) =
f H, f F . ,
.
(Noetherscher Isomorphiesatz). G , H E G
G, F G . H F E
F
F/F H = F H/H.
. : F F H F H/H, f 7
f H, .
F H H (f h)H = f H
f F , h H, . , f F
Ker(), f H. , Ker() =
F H
.
. f : G G0 , H G. ,
|G : H| = | Ker(f ) : Ker(f |H)| | Im(f ) : Im(f |H)|.
. G ,
+ . F =
H Ker(f ) .
178

(23.03.1882, 14.04.1935, )
, XX . , .
, . , , ... ,
.

167

.
.
H G , |H| = m H
n = |G : H|.
. , H E G
G, H G m.
. F G m. |F H/H|
|G : H| = n, |F : F H| |F | = m.
, |F H/H| = |F : F H|. F H = H , , F H.
2. . F E G. , H 7 H/F
L(G, F ) H, F H G, L(G/F, 1)
- G/F . ,
.
. F H G, F E G. H E G
, H/F E G/F .
. gF G/F hF H/F ,
g G h F , . F G,
(gF )1 (hF )(gF ) = (g 1 hg)F.
, H/F , g 1 hg
H.
179 .
. F, H E G G, F H.

(G/F )/(H/F )
= G/H.
. : G G/H .
F H = Ker(), 0 : G/F G/H,
gF 7 gH. Ker()/F = H/F . .
3. .
- .
. H1 E G1 H2 E G2 . H1 H2 E G1 G2

G1 G2 /H1 H2
= G1 /H1 G2 /H2 .
. , H1 H2 E G1 G2 (
!) = 1 2 :
G1 G2 G1 /H1 G2 /H2 , i : Gi Gi /Hi
179

(1856 1934)

168

-. , (g1 , g2 ) = (g1 H1 , g2 H2 ).
, , g1 g2
, . Ker(). (g1 , g2 ) = (1, 1),
, g1 H1 g2 H2 . , Ker() = H1 H2 .
.

. ,
H E G1 G2 H1 H2 ? , , ,
( ).
.
. |G1 | = m, |G2 | = n, n n. ,
H G1 G2 H1 H2 H1 G1 H2 G2 .
. , (h, g) H h G1 , g G2 .
(h, g)m = (1, g m ) H, m n, l, lm 1
(mod n), , , (1, g m )l = (1, g) H.
?. Verfeinerungssatz
1934
180 . , , , . ?

. F E F , H E H G.
F (F H) E F (F H ), H(F H ) E H(F H ),

F (F H )/F (F H)
= H(F H )/H(F H ).
. , F H E F H F H E F H .
, (F H )(F H) E F H . , F (F H)(F
H ) = F (F H ) F (F H) (F H ) = (F H )(F H).
,
F (F H )/F (F H)
= (F H )/(F H )(F H).
, , H(F H )(F H ) =
H(F H ) H(F H ) (F H ) = (F H )(F H).
,
F (F H )/F (F H)
= (F H )/(F H )(F H).
.
1928 181 , , .
180 H.Zassenhaus,

Zum Satz von JordanH

olderSchreier. Abh. Math. Sem. Hamburg, 1934,
Bd.11, S.106108.
181 O.Schreier, Uber

den JordanH
olderschen Satz. Abh. Math. Sem. Hamburg, 1928, Bd.6,
S.300302.

169

. .
. ,
1 = F0 F1 . . . Fm = G,

1 = H0 H1 . . . Hn = G,

F . Fi Fi+1 ,
Fi+1 Fi .

F1 = Fi0 Fi1 . . . Fin = Fi+1 ,
Fij = (Fi+1 HJ )Fi .
Hj = Hj0 Hj1 . . . Hjm = Hj+1 ,
Hji = (Hj+1 Fi )Hj . , ,

Fi,j+1 /Fij
= (Fi+1 Hj+1 )Fi /(Fi+1 Hj )Fi
=
(Fi+1 Hj+1 )Hj /(Hj+1 Fi )Hj
= Hj,i+1 /Hji .
, .
?. -

1 = H0 H1 . . . Hn1 Hm = G
(refinement, Verfeinerung)
1 = G0 G1 . . . Gn1 Gn = G
Gi - Hj . , Gi 6= Gi+1 i, Gi
Gi+1 .
.
G.
G.
G.
. .
. , .
. ,
, .
, .
. ,
.

170

.
1869
182 , 1889 183 .
.
.
, , , ,
.
.
.
.
,
. , .
. .
. n N, n = p1 . . . pm , pi P
. G = Cn
n, g.
G = hgi > hg p1 i > hg p1 p2 i > . . . > hg p1 ...pm1 i > 1
.
, [p1 , . . . , pm ]
n.

182 C.Jordan,

Commentaire sur Galois. Math. Ann., 1869, Bd.1, S.141160.

Zur
uckf
uhrung einer beliebigen algebraischen Gleichung auf eine Kette von Gleichungen. Math. Ann., 1889, Bd.34, S.2656.
183 O.H
older,

171

5.

.
, , , - ,
,
.
C.A.W.Troyte, Change Ringing.

:
.
.
: , , ,
184 .
XIX XX , ,
, , 185
. XIX XX

184

(21.08.1789, 23.05.1857, )
XIX . , , ,
.
. Cours danalyse (1821)
, ,
, .
, ,

, . 600 700 ,
, , ,
, ... 1830 - 8 ,
. 1838
. 1848 . ,
p, -, (
--).
,
, , - (
-), ,
, , ..
185 (18631951)
. 359 , t , :
1939 8000 .
4% . ([ChM], .212).

172

186 , , 187 , 188 , 189 190

.
:
, , (..
G Sn )
, .
( !) .
:
( , , ,
, , , ), ( , , ..)

( , , ..)
: Sn .
, Sn , ,
, ,
,
, .
1. ,
: , , , , , , ,
.

.
1. , . X , SX = Bij(X, X) X.
. , |X| = |Y | : X Y
X Y , 7 1 SX SY .
, , X = n = {1, . . . , n}
186

(18611941)
(18521927) . , - . .
, W.Burnside, Theory
of groups of finite order. Dover Reprint of the 1911 edition, N.Y., 1955.
188 (18741954)
189 (10.01.1875, 10.01.1941, )
, .
, , ,
. 1901
. 1921
, 1935 .
, ,
.
190 ()
187

173

n . n n .
n , , n alias n
Sn .
1: . .
I, I .
( ), . ,
permutation, substitution.
(, ) permutation (permutazione) ,
substitution (sostituzione) .

, 1815 191 . : Donc, si dans
un pareil groupe on a les substitutions S et T , on est s
ur davoir la substitution ST , , , Le plus petit nombre de permutations que puisse avoir un groupe ind
ecomposable,
quand ce nombre nest pas premier, est 3 4 5. XIX
. Trait
e des substitutions ( i sic!), Substitutionsgruppe.
substitution
permutation. , ,
( ,
..). ,
.
2: . 192 , , (substitution cipher)
(permutation code, transposition cipher). , f : X Y , X , , Y
( !) ,
. , , , X = W (A)
A, , , ,
. , , . ,
. ,
SA f (x1 . . . xn ) = (x1 ) . . . (xn ). ,
, n
m|n ( ,
n m), Sm .
, f
f (x1 . . . xn ) = (x(1) . . . x(m) ) . . . (x(1)+nm . . . x(m)+nm ).
, ,
, !
, i, substitution cipher
!

2. . . n
191 L.Novy,

Origins of modern algebra, Academia, Praha, 1973, p.1252, . pages 206208.

, ,
, .,
. ., , 1963, .333402.
344345.
192 .,

174

, . ,
, j (j) = ij .
,
1 ... n
=

i1 . . . in

. ,
1 ... n
id =
.
1 ... n
,
= (i1 , . . . , in ), , ,
, . . , ,
,
. , j1 , . . . , jn

1, . . . , n, (j
h ) = kh ,
j1 . . . jn
=
. ,
k1 . . . kn

1
3

2 3
1 4

4
2

4 2
2 1

1
3

3
4

3. . , . :
, ,
,
. , ,

1 2
4 2

3 4 5
1 5 3

1
5

2
1

3
2

4
4

5
3

5 1 2 4 3
1 2 3 4 5
=
, =
.
3 4 2 1 5
3 4 2 1 5
, , , : , .

. 1 ,
, . , , ,

5 1 2
1 2 3

4
4

3
5

1 2
2 3

3
5

4
4

5
1

4. . , 1 ; 2 2
(12) 6 3 (
3). , .
. Sn n!.

175

. n 1 . , (2) 6= (1) , ,
n (1) n 1
2 . (1), (2)
n 2 (2) .. ,
(1), . . . , (n 1), (n).
n! .
, : 3! = 6 (singles), 4! = 24 (minimus), 5! = 120 (doubles), 6! = 720 (minor),
7! = 5040 (triples), 8! = 40320 (major), 9! = 362880 (caters), 10! = 3628800 (royal),
11! = 39916800 (cliques), 12! = 479001600 (maximus). 8!

8 193 .
2.
( 6
).
1. . - Sn . n = {1, . . . , n} , i j, j = k (i) k Z.
. .
. 1) : i = id(i) = 0 (i).
2) : j = k (i), i = k (j).
3) : j = k (i) h = l (j), h = k+l (i).
, n
. . ,
n = X1 t . . . t Xm , X1 , . . . , Xm . n/ = {X1 , . . . , Xm }. ,
, .
. , i
{i, (i), 2 (i), . . . }.
.
.
2. . Sn
n, ,
Fix() = {i n | (i) = i},

Mob() = {i n | (i) 6= i}

alias alias (Wirkungsbereich). , Fix()

, Mob()
. , Fix() Mob() ,
n = Fix() t Mob().
, Mob()Mob() = .
.
193 A.T.White,

Ringing the cosets. Amer. Math. Monthly, 1987, October, p.721746.

176

. .
3. . Sn ,
.
Mob() ,
| Mob()| . 1 , 2 (echter Zyklus). ,
, . ,
.
i1 , . . . , il n .
(i1 . . . il ), l {i1 , . . . , il },

i1 7 i2 7 i3 7 . . . 7 il 7 i1 ,
n .

(i1 i2 . . . il ) = (i2 . . . il i1 ) = . . . = (il i1 . . . il1 ).
(i1 . . . il ) (il . . . i1 ).
4. . ,
n . , ,
.
- :
RotateRight = (123 . . . n),

RotateLeft = (n, n 1, n 2, . . . 1).

. Sn .
. ((1), . . . , (n))
Sn . ,
n!. , , RotateRight . RotateRight n,
n . ,
n- n- n!/n = (n 1)!.
3.

, .
1. . , .
, (i1 , . . . , il ) (j1 , . . . , jm ) , {i1 , . . . , il }
{j1 , . . . , jm } = . ,
(Zyklenzerlegung),
.

177

. . .
. : X1 , . . . , Xs . Xi
, i .
, 1 , . . . , s , .
- , = 1 . . . l .
: = 1 . . . l . i Mob(i ) - .
i ,
.
1. Sn .
, o() = l() .
2. = 1 . . . l , o() = lcm(o(1 ), . . . , o(l )).
2. .
. , 1
, Mob(), 2 , Mob(), Mob(1 ),
3 , Mob(),
Mob(1 ) Mob(2 ), ..
(kanonische Zyklendarstellung).
:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
= (148)(25967)
4 5 3 8 9 7 2 1 6
RandomPermutation[9] ToCycles.
, .
3. . ,
. ,
= 1 . . . s . . i , , , , p ,
(. . . ij . . . ) (j . . . i), i j.
i p , (i) = i.
q p , (. . . jh . . . )
(h . . . j), j h. j
q , q < p, (i) = j. ,
(i).

= (1753)(162)(46)(3574).
, , (7). (3574) 7 4, (46)
4 6, (162) 6 2, , (1753) 2 .

178

(7) = 2. , (2), ,
(2) = 7, (27).
.
. (184)(253)(67)(142635)(78).
4. n m
,
n m .
194 .
1. .
[x]n = x(x1) . . . (xn+1) Z[x] [x]n = x(x+1) . . . (x+n1)
Z[x]. [x]n [x]n 1, x, x2 , . . .
m
n
Z[x].
h n ix [x]

, m, n N0 . ,
m
n h
X
ni m
[x]n =
x .
m
m=0
x x , [x]n = (1)n [x]n ,
[x]n =

n
X
m=0

(1)nm

hni
m

xm .

.
! h
ni
xm [x]n , (1)nm
, m
snm s(n, m).
,
. , 195 .
194

(1692, St.Ninians 05.12.1770, Leadhills) , , .

1714 1725 . ,
.
195 , . , (distinguished professor).
, , , .
1960- . , ,
. .
: ., , .IIII. , .., 2000,
.I. . .1712; .II. . .1828; .III. . .1822.
TEX METAFONT, , . ..,
TEX. AO RDTEX, , 1993, .1575. 19 ,
, ., .,
., . , ., 1998, .1703. , , Surreal numbers,
() .

179

, 196,197 , , .
hni

= n0 ,
0
hni
= 0 m > n ,
m
:

n1
n1
= (n 1)
+
.
m
m
m1

hni

:
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
1
1
2
6
24
120
720
5040
40320
362880

0
0
1
3
11
50
274
1764
13068
109584
1026576

0
0
0
1
6
35
225
1624
13132
118124
1172700

0
0
0
0
1
10
85
735
6769
67284
723680

0
0
0
0
0
1
15
175
1960
22449
269325

0
0
0
0
0
0
1
21
322
4536
63273

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
28
546
9450

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
36
870

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
45

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1

hni

n- m- ,
m
, 0. ,
( !) ,
Table[Abs[StirlingS1[n, m]], {n, 0, 10}, {m, 0, 10}].
Mathematica , Abs , . hni
( ) ,
= 1,
n
hni
= (n 1)!.
1
2. . , , xn
[x]m [x]m . ,

nn
o [x]m
n
x
, m, n N0 . m
Snm S(n, m).
,
n n
X
no
[x]m .
m
m=0

xn =

, , [x]n = (1)n [x]n , ,

xn =

n
X

(1)nm

m=0
196 D.E.Knuth,
197 A.E.Fekete,

p.771778.

nno
[x]m .
m

Two notes on notation. Amer. Math. Monthly, 1992, vol.99, p.403422.

Apropos two notes on notation. Amer. Math. Monthly, 1994, October,

180

,
h n i i
n n o i
X
X
(1)ni
= mn =
(1)ni
,
i
m
i
m
i
i
. ,
P
P ,

s(n, i)S(i, m) =
S(n, i)s(i, m) = mn .
nno

= n0 ,
0
nno
= 0 m > n, ,
m
:
nno
m

n1
n1
=m
+
.
m
m1

, Table[StirlingS2[n, m], {n, 0, 10}, {m, 0, 10}] :

1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

0
0
1
3
7
15
31
63
127
255
511

0
0
0
1
6
25
90
301
966
3025
9330

0
0
0
0
1
10
65
350
1701
7770
34105

0
0
0
0
0
1
15
140
1050
6951
42525

0
0
0
0
0
0
1
21
266
2646
22827

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
28
462
5880

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
36
750

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
45

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1

, n + 1 , ,
,
. 4- :

1
0

0
0

0
1
1
1
1

0
0
1
3
7

0
0
0
1
6

1
0
0
0

0
0

0 0
0
1

0
1
1
2
6

0
0
1
3
11

0
0
0
1
6

1
0
0
0

0
= 0
0

0
0
1

0
1
0
0
0

0
0
1
0
0

0
0
0
1
0

0
0

0
1

n
no
. ,
n
m
X m , ,
, 4
= 7, 7
X m . ,
2
X = {1, 2, 3, 4} , , X = {1} t {2, 3, 4}, X = {2} t {1, 3, 4},
X = {3}t{1, 2, 4}, X = {4}t{1, 2, 3}, X = {1, 2}t{3, 4}, X = {1, 3}t{2, 4}, X = {1, 4}t{2, 3}.
3. m . ,
. , hi n
, n , (n1)! =
.
1
.
.
n , m
hni
,
.
m
. n ,
m , x(n, m). , x(0, 0) = 1, x(n, 0) = 0 m 1

181

i m) = 0 m > n. , , x(n, m) =
h nx(n,
, , x(n, m) ,
m
. , Sn
n. :
n n .
Sn m 1 , x(n 1, m 1).
n - 2.
n Sn1 , m
, Sn
m . , Sn1 m
l1 , . . . , lm . ,
n - . l + 1 n (i1 . . . il ) l,
(ni1 . . . il ) = (i1 . . . il n) .
, l + 1 l . n
m , , ,
n, l1 + . . . + lm = n 1, .
, (n 1)x(n 1, m)
, x(n, m) = (n 1)x(n 1, m) + x(n 1, m 1),
.

4
,
= 11, 11 4 , 2
, (1)(234), (1)(243), (2)(134), (2)(143), (3)(124), (3)(142),
(4)(123),n(4)(132),
(12)(34), (13)(24), (14)(23). , no

X = n m ,
m
n
c
no hni
,

. ,
m
m
nno hni
. , ,
<
.
m
m

5.
Sn .
1. . Sn n/ = {X1 , . . . , Xt }.
ni = |Xi | Xi .
. Sn
[n1 , . . . , nt ] .
(n1 , . . . , nt ), , ni . ,
, , , ( !) . , . ,
n1 + . . . + nt = n, (n1 , . . . , nt ) n. , ni
,
, . S2
, , (1, 1),
(2). S3 :
(1, 1, 1), (2, 1) 3- (3). S4
5: (1, 1, 1, 1), (2, 1, 1), (2, 2), 3- (3, 1) 4- (4).
. 5,6,7,8 9 .

182

, , , n .
,
n
(2); (2, 2); 3- (3); ..
. Sn ,
.
. , Sn ,
, = 1 Sn . , (i) = j, (i) =
(j). , X1 , . . . , Xt , (X1 ), . . . , (Xt )
, Sn , |(Xh )| = |Xh |,
.
, ,
= (i11 . . . i1l ) . . . (it1 . . . itm ),
= (j11 . . . j1l ) . . . (jt1 . . . jtm ),
. , =
1 ,

i11 . . . i1l . . . it1 . . . itm

=
.
j11 . . . j1l . . . jt1 . . . jtm
, , h- r- 1 : irh 7 jrh 7 jr,h+1 7 ir,h+1 .
, 1 . ,
.
. Sn .
,
, G, g g 1 g G, .
6.
, .
1. . 2 .
, wij = (ij), 1 i 6= j n, i 6= j n
. , wij = wji , , (i, j), i 6= j, (i, j),
i < j. ,
1
.. 2. , wij
= wij
. Sn
Sn = h(ij), i < ji.

183

. , Sn ,
, .
, l l 1 . , ,
(i1 i2 . . . il1 il ) = (i1 i2 ) . . . (il2 il1 )(il1 il ).
2. . . ,
Sn , .
Sn .
,
si = wi,i+1 = (i, i + 1),

i = 1, . . . , n 1.

. Sn
Sn = hs1 , . . . , sn1 i.
. ,
wij , i < j, . j i. j i = 1, wij
. j i 2, j i . j i 2,
h, j < h < j. , wij = wih whj wih ,
wih whj . wij ,
:
wij = si . . . sj2 sj1 sj2 . . . si .
.
. , Sn n1 (12), (13),
. . . , (1n).
. , Sn , n 1
.
. , Sn (12)
(123 . . . n).
. , Sn (123 . . . n)
? ,
Sn (123 . . . n) (1m).
. H = h(123 . . . n), (1m)i
(i, i + m 1), (i, i + j(m 1)),
n. , d = gcd(n, m 1) = 1
j , j(m 1) 1 (mod n). ,
H (12) .

184

d 2, n d {1, 1 + d, . . . , n d + 1}, {2, 2 + d, . . . , n d + 2},

. . . , {d, 2d, . . . , n}. , (123 . . . n), (1m) ,
1 2, 1 + d
. , H Sn .
d
198 , H d((n/d)!) . ,
d 2 h(1234), (13)i S4 8.
. , Sn (12)
(23 . . . n).
7.
1st instalment:
sgn : Sn {1}.
1. . m = |n/| Sn . m = r + s, r
, s = | Fix()|. decr() = n m
199 .
. Sn
decr()

sgn() = (1)

= (1)

nm

m
Y

(1)|Xi |1 ,

i=1

X1 , . . . , Xm .
(., , [ 9
. 70]) , , ,
(
), , , .
,
.
,
Mathematica x Signature[x].
. 1 , . . . , l . sgn(1 . . . l ) = (1)l .
. l. l 1 .
, 2 . . . l 1 . . . l .
, , , sgn( ) =
sgn(). , 1. =
(pq). , p, q,
. : p, q
, p, q .
198 W.Johnson,

M.Silver, A model for permutations, Amer. Math. Monthly, 1974, May, p.503

506.
199

, ; , , . .
, C++ Mathematica x++ x--
(/ x 1 ), ++x --x (/
x 1 ).

185

p, q ,
(pq)(pi2 . . . ir )(qj2 . . . js ) = (pi2 . . . ir qj2 . . . js )
.
p, q ,
(pq)(pi2 . . . ir qj2 . . . js ) = (pi2 . . . ir )(qj2 . . . js ),
.
, ,
.
. d = decr(). , d , d , .
, , ..
d N0 , d .
m 1,
:
n 1 .
8.
2nd instalment:
, , , . , ,
: ,
, , ,
, . .
,

.
. sgn() = (1)l ,
l = 1 . . . l .
, ,
.
1. . , , ..

= 1 . . . l = 1 . . . m ,
l m ? , ,
.

186

. Sn . , l m , l m (mod 2).
. , = 1 . . . l = 1 . . . m .
2, 1 = , , 1 = m . . . 1 .
,
e = 1 = 1 . . . l m . . . 1 ,
l + m l m (mod 2) . ,
e m e = 1 . . . m , m
.
n, m , . n: n = 1, 2
. n = 1 , 0. n = 2
, = (12), e, .
n: , Sn1 .
n 1 , . . . , n ,
Sn1 Sn , n . , - l (pn) p 6= n.
, ..
l. , m, l , .
l, m: m 2 l = (pn), l1 = (rs) = (sr).
, t = |{p, n} {r, s}|,
0,1,2.
t = 0. l l1 . , l1 l = l l1 ,
, 1 . . . m l1 l ,
, n, l 1.
t = 1. r s , l1 = (ns)
l1 = (ps) s 6= p, n. l1 l (ns)(np) = (np)(ps) (ps)(np) = (ns)(ps) (
S3 s, p, n). ,
1 . . . n , , n, l 1.
t = 2. l = l1 l1 l 1 . . . m , e m 2 .
, e m 2
. , l = 1 . , 1
i , n, 1 . . . m (n) = p , ,
e. -
m 2. , ,
e 0 1 . m = 1
e . , m 2
0. , m . .

2. . , , , 1.
. n 2 sgn : Sn {1}.
. , (pq), (rs) Sn ,
, (p) = r, (q) = s. (pq) 1 =
(rs), : Sn {1} {1}
. 1,
. 1, = sgn.
. An
2 Sn , n 2.

187

9.
3rd instalment,
,
.
1. . (i, j) (inversion, Fehlstand) Sn , i < j, (i) > (j). inv()
, .. (i, j), 1 i < j n,
.
. ((i), (j)). 200 , 1750 .
Introduction `al analyse des lignes courbes algebriques. , ,
70 201 , (, , ) .

III .
. sgn() = (1)inv()
.
. .
,
.
. d = inv(). , d , d , .

, , ,
:
sgn() =

Y
1i<jn

(i) (j)
.
ij

202 , , , sgn . ,
200 ..,

. 3. , 2 ., , ., 2000, 1822.
201 (31.07.1704, 04.01.1752, Bagnols Nismes) . .
Introduction `
a lanalyse des lignes courbes alg
ebriques, , , .
.
202 (1)inv() , , inv() n(),
, , , l() . !

188

{i, j}

Y
1i<jn

(i) (j)
=
ij

V2

(n). ,

Y
1(i)<(j)n

(i) (j)
ij

, .
. (1)inv : Sn {1}, 7 (1)inv() , .
. ,
(1)inv() =

Y
1i<jn

Y
1i<jn

(i) (j)
=
ij

(i) (j)
(i) (j)

Y
1i<jn

(i) (j)
= (1)inv() (1)inv() .
ij

. ,
(1)inv Sn {1}. ,
, , = (1, 2) , , , (1)inv( ) = 1. (1)inv
sgn.
10.
Sn .
1. . , .
. sgn : Sn {1} .
. l , m , , , l + m .
, sgn() = (1)l+m = sgn() sgn().
, sgn() = 1, , sgn() =
1. , l- l 1 ,
, , . sgn
An (
alternating). An .
Sn \ An Sn
An , ,
:
Sn = An t (Sn \ An ) = An t An (12).
(1)inv() !!!
, - .
, ,
!

189

n 2 An 2 Sn ,
An E Sn . An n!/2.
. Sn An+2 . , Sn
An+1 .
2. An . An (ij)(hk).
.
. n 3 An 3-.
. (ij)(hk)
3-. |{i, j, h, k}| = 3,
3-. , |{i, j, h, k}| = 4, (ij)(hk) =
(ij)(ih)(ih)(hk) 3-.
. , An 3- (123), (124), . . . ,
(12n).
. , An 3- (123), (234), . . . ,
(n 2, n 1, n).
. An An1 , n,
() , n.
. n , , An 3-
(123), (145), . . . , (1, n 1, n)?
. , An 3- (123), (12 . . . n) n, (23 . . . n) n.
. , n 4 An .
. 6= id i , (i) 6= i. n 4,
j, h , i, (i), j, h .
(ijh) 1 = ((i), (j), (h)) 6= (i, j, h).
. , n 5 3- An .
n = 4?
. , 3- Sn . (ijh) (klm)
3-, Sn , (ijh) 1 = (klm).
, .
, n 5, r, s, 5 i, j, h, r, s .
(rs) (ijh) , , (rs)(ijh)((rs))1 = (klm),
(rs) . , 3-
3 , A4 12/3 = 4 ,
. , 3- A4
.
11.
.
, , 203 .
203 ..,

.
. , 1983, .38, N.3, c.135157

190

1. . G Sn
X = n. , G , x, y X G , (x) = y. G
.
. , G Sn
.
. H = Gn n n. |G : H| = n.
. ,
.
. , , Gi i n.
Gi , ,
m. , |G| = mn. ,
1 Gi , |G1 . . .Gn | n(m1)+1 < |G|.
, G,
Gi .
. , G Sn ,
, H = Sn .
. , G Sn ,
H E G, H
.
. , n = p
, H 6= e, H .
2. n Sn . S5 S6 6, . ,
S5 S6 , .
. S5 6 .
. 5 S5 5-. 5
, 5-
S5 4! = 24, S5 6 . ,
S5 (
!) .
, n 5 . , An Sn 2. ,
, Sn 2 n .
204 . n 5 Sn
H , 2 < |G : H| < n. n G = Sn Gn = Sn1 ,
n = 6.
205 , n < 1500000,
204

(11.03.1822 03.04.1900, ) ,
.
205 J.Bertrand, M
emoire sur le nombre de valeurs que peut prendre un fonction quand on y
permute les lettres quelle renferme. J. Ecole Polytechnique, 1845, vol.30, p.123140.

191

.
. n > 7 n/2 n2
.
1852 ..206,207 . , 208 .
12.
1. . , 1 m n. G
m-, m
. ,
x1 , . . . , xm X y1 , . . . , ym X G , (xi ) = yi i = 1, . . . , m. G Sn
, m- -
m 2.
. An n 2-.
. ,

x1 . . . xn2
y1 . . . yn2

x1 . . . xn2
y1 . . . yn2

xn1 xn
yn1 yn

xn1
xn
yn
yn1

.
. , m- G Sn
n(n 1) . . . (n m + 1).
2. . 1861 209
M11 , M12 , M22 , M23 , M24 ,
. , M12 M24 5- . , 5- , Sn
An .
M11
24 32 5 11 = 7920,
M12

26 33 5 11 = 95040,

M22

27 32 5 7 11 = 443520,

M23

27 32 5 7 11 23 = 10200960,

M24

210 33 5 7 11 23 = 244823040.

206 P.L.Tschebycheff,

M
emoire sur les nombres premiers. J. Math. pures appl., 1852, vol.17,
p.366390.
207 ,
p n 2n,
: P.Erd
os, Beweis eines Satzes von Tschebyscheff. Acta Reg. Univ. Hungar., 1932,
Bd.5, S.194198.
208 J.A.Serret, M
emoire sur le nombre de valeurs que peut prendre un fonction quand on y
permute les lettres quelle renferme. J. Math. pures appl., 1850, vol.15, p.144.
209 ()

192

, M12 M24
6 ?
3. . G Sn m-,
V
m (n) m- n. , m m1-. m-
, 210 .
-. G Sn m-
m n/2, m 1-.

13.
1. . G Sn , X = n X = X1 t . . . t Xt ,
1 < t < n, , g G
X1 , . . . , Xt . , g G Xi ,
1 i t, j, 1 j t, gXi Xj . 1 < t < n
, Xi 2 , ,
, , 2 . {X1 , . . . , Xt } G, X1 , . . . , Xt
. ,
, G . , X = n
X, .
, ,
. , :
2- = = .
G , , 2-. 2- G ()
G. G 2-,
2. , 3. ,

3. , bla-bla-bla.

.
. , G Sn
, Gn n G.
. , Gn G H, Gn < H < G,
. Hn = Gn ,
H 6= G, |H : Gn | n. H
. , H 6= Gn ,
. , H
G.
. , G , H E G,
H 6= 1, H .
210 D.Livingston,

A.Wagner, Transitivity of finite permutation groups on unordered sets.

Math. Z., 1965, Bd. 90, S. 393403.

193

14.
In five minutes you will say that it is all so absurdly simple.
Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, The adventure of dancing men.

,
. , n 5 ,
n 4 ,
n 5 .
. An , n 5, .
.
1. H An , n 4, 3-,
An .
. n 5
. , n 2 3, An 3-.
, H 3- , , An .
n = 4, . (ijh) H 3- k
, i, j, h. (ijk)1 (ijh)(ijk) = (ihk) H.
(ijh) (ijh) = (jhi) = (hij) (jhk) (hik), , , (jik), (hjk) H, ,
H 3-.
.
2. H 6= e An , n 4, 3-.
. , H, 6= e. An , n 4,
3-, e, 3- ,
[, ] 6= e. [, ] = ( 1 1 ) H 3-.
, H 6= e An , n 4,
3-. ,
H 3-,
1 , H = An . 3- H . , ,
3-.
3. 3- ,
, 3,4,5 6 , 3-, , 5-,
3-.
. . , 3-
A6 ,
S6 , (4, 2). , 3- 6 ,
, .
, H 3-, , ,
H 3-,
H 5-.

194

4. H 3-, H
5-.
. , = (ijh)(klm) H 6
i, j, h, k, l, m. [, (ijk)] = (ikhlj) H.
3 3- 3-.
5. n 5 H , H 3-.
. = (ij)(hk) H l i, j, h, k.
[, (hkl)] = (hkl) H.
6. H 5-, H 3-.
. , = (ijhkl) H 5-.
[, (ijh)] = (ikj) H.
. , ,
, n = 4 5, l i, j, h, k.
: A4 . , A4

V = {e, (12)(34), (13)(24), (14)(23)},
A4 , S4 .
. n 5 An
Sn .
. |Sn : An | = 2, An E Sn . , H E Sn ,
H  An . H \ An . Sn ,
Sn , [, ] 6= 1. [, ] H An E An ,
H An = An , , , An < H Sn . , H = Sn .
. , S4
, , A4 V .
. , n 4 ( n 5) Sn1
- Sn .
15. Sn
Aut(Sn ).
1. . . 1895 211 .
. n 6= 6 Sn ,
.. Aut(Sn ) = Inn(Sn ).
211 O.H
older,

Bildung zusammengesetzter Gruppen. Math. Ann., 1895, Bd. 46, p.321422.

195

. n 6= 2, 6 Aut(Sn )
= Sn .
. n 3 Sn .
, ,
( !) . , G
. ,
. Sn
d 1 d l = bn/2c. , Sn l C1 , . . . , Cl , Cd
n
d . ,
2
1 nn 2

,
2 2
2
n ,
n2 , , .
1 nn 2n 4

6 2
2
2
|Cd | =

n 2d + 2
n
1 n 2n 2
...
= 1 3 . . . (2d 1)
d!
2
2
2
2d

d .
. , n 6= 6 |Cd | 6= |C1 | d 2.
n = 6 ! , , |C1 | = |C3 | = 15, |C2 | = 45,
75 S6 ( ,
76 , , Mathematica - ).
, S6 , C1 C3 .
. Aut(Sn ). Sn s1 , . . . , sn1 ,
Sn ,
(s1 ) = s1 1 , . . . , (sn1 ) = sn1 1 .
, Sn ,
I (sh ) = sh h = 1, . . . , n 1. ,
n 6= 6 |Cd | 6= |C1 | d 2. (sh ) .
r ,
.
. , , (s1 ) = (ij). = (1i)(2j)
, I (s1 ) = s1 .
. , Sn ,
I (s1 ) = s1 , . . . , I (sr ) = sr 1 r n2,
r. sr+1 I . , , I (sr+1 ) =
(ij).
r = 1, (12)(ij) (12)(23) 3, {1, 2}
{i, j} , (ij) = (ji), ,
i = 1 i = 2. (3j), i = 2, (12)(3j), i = 1, ,
I (s1 ) = s1 , I (s2 ) = s2 .
r 2 . I (sr+1 ) =
(ij) (12), . . . , (r 1, r), (r, r + 1)(ij) 3,
{i, j} {1, 2, . . . , r}, r + 1 {i, j}. i j , i = r +1 (r +2, j) I (s1 ) = s1 , . . . , I (sr+1 ) =
sr+1 .

196

2. S6 . 1895 212,213,214,215,216 2 S6 .
S6 , .
. S6 M12
g M12 , S6 , S6 .
S6 :
(12) 7 (12)(35)(46),
(13) 7 (13)(24)(56),
(14) 7 (14)(25)(36),
(15) 7 (15)(26)(34),
(16) 7 (16)(23)(45)
, S6 ( 214
5 6).
.
.

, S5 6 , . , |S6 : S5 | = 6,
S6 S5 S6 S6 ,
S6 . , ,
. , PL(2, 9) S6
S6 g, S6 . , S6
O = S3 o C2
= S4 C2 . , O
S6 ( O 6 )
( O 4 2 ,
).
S6 S3 o C2 S4 C2
S6 . 217 Aut(S6 ). , ,
Aut(S6 ) \ Inn(S6 ) 2,4,8 10.
3 . S6
= Sp(4, 2). S6 . , S6 ,
S6
= Sp(4, 2) S6 4 2-
, . ,
K 2 ,
.

a11
a21

a31
a41
212 H.A.Bender,

a12
a22
a32
a42

a13
a23
a33
a43

a14
a24
Sp(4, K)
a34
a44

A new method for the determination of the group of isomorphisms of the

symmetric group of degree n. Amer. Math. Monthly, 1924, vol.31, p.287289.
213 E.Witt, Die 5-transitiven Gruppen von Mathieu. Abh. Math. Sem. Univ. Hamburg,
1938, Db. 12, S.256264.
214 D.W.Miller, On a theorem of H
older. Amer. Math. Monthly, 1958, vol.65, p.252254.
215 G.Janusz, J.J.Rotman, Outer automorphisms of S . Amer. Math. Monthly, 1982, vol.89,
6
p.407410.
216 T.A.Fournelle, Symmetries of the cube and outer automorphisms of S . Amer. Math.
6
Monthly, 1993, April, p.377380.
217 T.Y.Lam, D.B.Leep, Combinatorial structure of the automorphisms of S . Expositio
6
Math., 1993.

197

a12 a21 + a11 a22

a12 a41 + a11 a42

a22 a31 + a21 a32

a32 a41 + a31 a42

a14 a21 + a11 a24

a14 a41 + a11 a44
a24 a31 + a21 a34
a34 a41 + a31 a44

a13 a22 + a12 a23

a13 a42 + a12 a43
a23 a32 + a22 a33
a33 a42 + a32 a43

a14 a23 + a13 a24

a14 a43 + a13 a44
.
a24 a33 + a23 a34
a34 a43 + a33 a44

K = F2 S6 , S6 ,
.
. Sp(4, K)
.
218 . ,
[OMeara] [Isom],
, (e1 , e4 ) = (e2 , e3 ) = 1,
(e1 , e3 ) = (e2 , e4 ) = 1.

16. Mathematica
Mathematica ,
. ,
<<DiscreteMathPermutations
<<DiscreteMathCombinatorica
. Permutations[l] l. ,
Permutations[Range[n]]
Sn n , .

1
2
... n 1 n
Reverse
.
n n 1 ...
2
1
RotateLeft, RotateRight . , RotateRight[l] l , RotateLeft[l] .
, RotateRight[l, n] l n ,
RotateLeft[l, n] n .
Permute[x,y] x y. xy,
. , . ,
, Sn GL(n, K)
pi[x ]:=Table[If[i==x[[j]],1,0],{i,Length[x]},{j,Length[x]}]
Sn ,
ip[x ]:=Flatten[Table[Position[Transpose[x][[i]],1],{i,Length[x]}]]
xy x y
ip[pi[x].pi[y]].
InversePermutation[x] x.
PermutationGroupQ[g] True, g .
RandomPermutation[n] () n.
PermutationQ[x] True, x , False .
MinimumChangePermutations[x] x ,
.
218 R.E.Solazzi,

237.

Four-dimensional symplectic groups. J. Algebra, 1977, vol.49, N.1, p.225

198

RankPermutation[x] x Sn n (, 1, , ,
RankPermutation[{4,3,2,1}]=23.
NextPermutation[x] , x .
DerangementQ[x] True, . , Sn , ,
.. (i) 6= i i n.
NumberOfDerangements[n] Dn n . Dn : D2 = 1, D3 = 2, D4 = 9, D5 = 44, D6 = 265,
D7 = 1854, D8 = 14833, D9 = 133496, D10 = 1334961.
NumberOfInvolutions[n] In n (
!). In : I1 =
1, I2 = 2, I3 = 4, I4 = 10, I5 = 26, I6 = 76, I7 = 232, I8 = 764, I9 = 2620, I10 = 9496.
NumberOfPermutationsByCycles[n,s] n ,
s .
DiscreteMathPermutations ,
:
ToCycles[x] x ;
FromCycles[{x1 , . . . , xn }] .
Inversions[x] x.
Signature[x] x.

199

6.
, , ,
.. .
, , , , , ...
.
1.
? ,
M = G . ,
X.
1. . , ,
M = G . ,
g : X X, x 7 gx, X
. 1) 2) ,
3) (g )1 = g1 g G.
, g g1 = gg1 = 1 = idX .
2. .
, . ,
inv : G G, g 7 g 1 , G ,
.. f, g G (f g)1 = g 1 f 1 .
G- X G- gx = xg 1 . , G- G-
xg = g 1 x. , G-.
3. . ,
. , SX
X , x = (x) SX
x X.
4. . X G-. g 7 g
G End(X). , 1,
g , g G, . ,
g 7 g G SG
.
G X
G SX . , G X G SX .
G SX
G X.

200

5. . X G-.
: G SX G X.
, 1. ,
, g G, g 6= 1, x X , gx 6=
x. G X ,
X.
X SX .
2.
,
.
1. . ? G. ,
G, , , G
SG . ,
, G SG . G ,
, , , .. , G , ,
, G .
g G Lg : G G,
g, Lg (x) = gx ( left ).
. L : G SG , g 7 Lg , G SG .
. , , Lg SG . , Lg
: Lg (x) = Lg (y) , gx = gy , , g ,
x = y. , Lg , , y G
gx = Lg (x) = y G x = g 1 y.
, , L : g 7 Lg G SG
= Sn .
, Lh = Lg - h, g G. , ,
h = Lh (e) = Lg (e) = g.
, . , , :
Lgh (x) = (gh)(x) = g(hx) = Lg (Lh (x)) = (Lg Lh )(x),
g, h, x G. ,
G.
2. . L : G SG , g 7 Lg , G. (alias, ) G G
SX X. : G SX ,
, .. Ker() = 1.
, g 7 Lg G.

201

. G n
Sn .
. , S7 ,
S8 .
. , , ,
, . , (translation) , (shift)
. ,
. x 7 f (x),
x x + 1?
3. .
G, g G Rg : G G, g, Rg (x) = xg ( right ).
, ,
R : G SG , g 7 Rg , . , ..
, , Rgh = Rg Rh ? , Rgh (x):
Rgh (x) = x(gh) = (xg)h = Rh (xg) = Rh (Rg (x)) = (Rh Rg )(x).
, Rgh = Rh Rg , .. R (. ?,
2.2). , : inv : g 7 g 1 ,
. .
G
R : G SG , g 7 Rg1 .
4. 2-.
.
. G n = 2l m, l 1, m 3
. , G 2l . G
.
. : G SG {1}, = sgn L.
H = Ker() E G. o(x) = 2l . Lx SG m
2l , , sgn(Lx ) = 1. , x
/ H , ,
H 6= G. , H,
H 6= 1.
- ,
2.
. ,
4.
3.
1. G G.
. ,

202

G , : Lg Rh = Rh Lg
h, g G. , (Lg Rh )(x) = g(xh) = (gx)h = (Rh Lg )(x).
, ,
G, G G
G SG , , G G SG , (h, g) 7 Lh Rg1 . ,
, , h = g
C(G) , Lg Rg1 = idG
2. .
: G G G,

g 7 (g, g),

. g G Ig =
Lg Rg1 . .
, , ,
Lg Rh :
Ihg = Lhg R(hg)1 = Lh Lg Rg1 h1 = Lh Lg Rh1 Rg1 = Lh Rh1 Lg Rg1 = Ih Ig .
, I : G SG , g 7 Ig ,
G. g G Ig : G G, x 7 gxg 1 , ..
G, G G. G .
,
( ) , , , G
.
3. . x Ig
g x, , g x = Ig (x) = gxg 1 .
g
gh
x = (h x). .
, g x xg ,
g
xgh = (xh ) . , : 1
. x, g G xg = g x = g 1 xg.
h
xgh = (xg ) .
, g 7 Ig1 = (x 7 xg ) G , G
SG , ,
, , ( , , (x) sin).
. , H E G 3,
G, G 2.
4.
G ,
G .
Hol(G) = hL(G), Aut(G)i

203

SG , L(G) = {Lg | g G}
G,
G. .
. ,
Hol(G) = hR(G), Aut(G)i,
R(G) = {Rg | g G} .
. , L(G) E Hol(G) L(G) Aut(G) = 1. ,
Hol(G) = Aut(G) i L(G), Aut(G) L(G) Lg 1 =
L(g) , Aut(G), g G.
. , Hol(G) = Aut(G) i R(G). Aut(G)
R(G)?
. ,
:
CHol(G) (L(G)) = R(G),
CHol(G) (R(G)) = L(G).
5. G-
1. . X G-.
Y X G, GY Y ,
.., , gy Y g G, y Y .
Y X G- G
Y Y , (g, y) 7 gy. G
X.
2. . ,
. X G
G X, .. x X, gx = x
g G. X G = Fixg (X),
g G. X G X, G
.
3. . X G-.
X G , , x y g G , gx gy.
x x .
X - X/ G-, gx = gx
g G, x X. , ..
gx x x , .
4. . ,
. , =G G-. , ,
( , x y, gx x y gy). - X/ G X/G G
X. X/G -
X, G .
5. . X G-, H G
G. X H-.

204

act : G X X G X, H X act H X.
.
6. . , ,
X G-, H G G. x X
Hx Gx. , G
X H, x H y
x G y. , , , .. x, y X
G, H. Gx
x X , G, ,
H.
H . Hx Hy
H-, G-,
.. Gx = Gy, , G,
(fusion).
?. . X G-. G
2X . g G Y X gY = {gy | y
Y }. , G 2X .
?. . G 2X . , |gY | = |Y |. , G
2X ,
.
G .
6. ,
G-
?.
?.
?.
?.

G-.
G-.
m-.
G-.
7. G-

X Y G- Map(X, Y )
X Y . , G
X / Y Map(X, Y ). , X Y
G Map(X, Y ) .
1. . G Y . G Map(X, Y ) . g G Map(X, Y )
g g : X Y , g
, .. (g)(x) = g(x) x X. ,
Map(X, Y ) G-.
G Y G Map(X, Y ). ,
G Y G Map(X, Y ).
2. . G X .
G Map(X, Y ) ,
, , g G

205

Map(X, Y ) g (g)(x) = (gx). G Map(X, Y )? ,

? g, h G (gh).
x X
((gh))(x) = ((gh)x) = (g(hx)) = (g)(hx) = (h(g))(x).
, (g)(x) = (gx)
, G Map(X, Y ),
(g)(x) = (gx).
, , G X
G Map(X, Y ). , , Map(X, Y ),
G X . , , X
G- g G Map(X, Y ) g
(g)(x) = (xg). ,

((gh))(x) = (x(gh)) = ((xg)h) = (h)(xg) = (g(h))(x).
, . ,
Map(X, Y )
, , , , ,
.
3. : . , G
X , Map(X, Y ) . ,

X G-. 2,
. , g G, Map(X, Y ).
g : (g)(x) = (g 1 x). ,
, G Map(X, Y ).
:
((gh))(x) = ((gh)1 x) =((h1 g 1 )x) =
=(h1 (g 1 x)) = (h)(g 1 x) = (g(h))(x).
, Map(X, Y )
G- G X,
(g)(x) = (xg 1 ).
4. . ,
5. .
Map(X, Y )G = MapG (X, Y ).
8. G-
( ). X G-, H G
X. G = HGx x X.
. X G-, x X, H = Gx x. , H- X H\G/H.

206

9.
1. . G
X , StabG (x) = 1 x X.
G X ,
x, y X g G , gx = y.
. , G X
, .
. G , X
, .
, G , . SX X , n 3
.
. G /
.
X G , G. G- G G , , , !
x X. G X,
g 7 gx, .
2. . , !!
10.
G G/H G H G.
. , H HG = gHg 1 , g G. HG
G, H.
. G G/H HG . G/HG
SG/H .
. gH = H - g G, g H.
H G/H G H G. G
G/H ,
H G/H, , gH G/H gHg 1 .
, ,
. , N -
G, H, g G N = gN g 1 gHg 1 .
, N HG . G G/H
G/HG G/H, G/HG SG/H .
1. |G : H| = n, |G : HG ||n!.
, , 3.
2. |G : H| < , |G : HG | < .

207

3. G |G : H| = p, p ,
|G|, H E G.
. , |G : HG | p!.
, p |G|, |G : HG | = 1 |G : HG | = p,
HG H, . , HG = H.
. , G n,
Sn .
. G , |G| = pr m, p m.
pr |m.
. , > 60 5.
. G 21. , 10.
. H G G ,
|G : H| = p. , p
G.
. G , p2 ||G|. ,
G p.
. G , 2- . , G H E G
, |G : H| = 2m .
. .
. , C 6=
1 .
. , 1 < H < G .
. H G , G
H, H = G.
. , |G| < .
. ,
n.
. - Sn ?
11.
,
, PSL(2, C)
C = C {}

az + b
a b
.
: z 7
c d
cz + d
,
.

208

1. PSL(2, R) . H {z C | im(z) > 0}. 219 , H

220 . , ( , , , ..
). 221 .
( !),
PSL(2, R) H, , im(z) > 0,
az + b
a, b, c, d R, im
> 0.
cz + d
2. PSL(2, C) . . ,
. C = R1 Ri H = R1 Ri Rj Rk H
H = {u + vi + wj | u, v, w R, w > 0}. :

a
c

b
d

: u + vi + wj 7

(a(u + vi) + b)(c(u + vi) + d) + acw2 + wj

.
|c(u + vi) + d|2 + |c|2 t2

. , PSL(2, C) H.

12. S3 S6
K ] = K \ {0, 1}. S3 y 2 = x(x 1)(x ) (., ,
[Ha], .403406).
1. S3 . S3 K ] . 6= 0, 1 S3 0, 1, ,
, 0, 1, .
f ().
. , . S3 .
. char(K) 6= 2, 3, ,
.
. f , a, b, a 6= b, 0, 1 x 7
(x a)/(b a). , fid () = ) = id, f(12) () = 1 , f(13) () = /(1 ),
f(23) () = 1/, f(123) () = 1/(1) , , f(132) () = (1)/. ? , .
, ,
{, 1 , /(1 ), 1/, 1/(1 ), (1 )/,

{1, 2, 1/2} , ,

{1 + , 1 + }, = 3 1, , K. ,
6- 1, K. , , , = 1/,
3-, , = 1/(1 ).
6 () = 2 + 1 = 0.

:
char(K) = 2, {1, 2, 1/2} .
219 ,

.
H hyperbolic ,
.
221 ,
, .
.
220

209

char(K) = 2, 2 + 1 = 0 2 + + 1 = 0,
3,
K.
char(K) = 3, 1 = 2 = 1/2, !
char(K) = 3, 2 +1 = 0 2 ++1 = 0,
.
,
F25 , F27 , F32 F49 .
2. S6 . 2 (. [Ha], 2.2 . 385386). IV,
x, y, z K = K {}, : t 7 (at + b)/(ct + d) , (x) = 0, (y) = 1, (z) = .
S6 K ] .
x, y, z 6= 0, 1, S6 0, 1, , x, y, z,
- , 0, 1, . (((x)), ((x)), ((x)))
(x, y, z) .
( Mathematica Maple!).
.
. (x, y, z) 5- (12345) S6 .
. ,

(x, y, z) 7

y1 1 z1
, ,
yx x zx

5- 1.

13.
Z X X.
R X X. I R
, 0. I X, I X
X ,
LF1. (a + b)x = a(bx) , a, b I , a + b I
LF2. 0x = x x X.
, : I SX , a 7 a ,
a I a X. ax = a (x), a+b = a b 0 = idX .
, X X. !!
: I R. : I G
, (a + b) = (a)(b) a, b I , a + b I. ,

R G.
: x R n N , x/n I.
. ?
: , .

210

X. , revisited
; , , . , .
.., ..,

.
, 1, . ,
, .
1.

.
1. , ,
1. , . , II .
x, y G
[x, y] = [x, y]l = xyx1 y 1 . , ,
[x, y]r = x1 y 1 xy. , [x, y]r = [x1 , y 1 ]l . ,
.
(ibid.), , :
[G, G] = h[x, y] | x, y Gi.
[x, y]1 = [y, x],
. XIX , , , [G, G] G
(abgeleitete Gruppe, erste abgeleitete Gruppe, erste Ableitung, derived
group, sous-groupe derive).
. ,
, . , , , ,
. 3 4 , , , , . .
(W.Fite) 1902 , 28 . , , 96.
/
, 2
96, . , 32,
29 (. [Ro], .34).

211

2. . , ,
. , .
. I , [G, G] E G.
,
G, - .
, H G , (H) H
Inn(G). H , (H) H Aut(G). H , (H) H
End(G). Inn(G) Aut(G) End(G),
: H
= H = H .
. 1) [G, G] ,
, G;
2) G/[G, G] ;
3) H E G , G/H ,
H [G, G].
, Ker() : G A
A, [G, G].
. 1) End(G). [x, y], x, y G, ([x, y]) = [(x), (y)] [G, G]. [G, G]
, ([G, G] [G, G].
2) h = h[G, G] g = g[G, G] .
[G, G] , [h, g] = [h, g][G, G] = [G, G].
, G/[G, G] .
3) G G/H.
G/H , [x, y] ([x, y]) =
[(x), (y)] = 1. , [x, y] Ker() = H. [G, G]
, [G, G] H.
3. . , -
G/[G, G] -. Gab G. , ,
ab : G Gab .
ab = G
, , .. : H G ab : H ab Gab .
ab : H G Gab H Gab ,
G
Ker( ab )[H, H] , , ab : H H ab . ,
, H
ab
ab
ab
ab = ab ab ,
: H G , G
H
.
. , , , ()ab = ab ab .
, .

2. Sn GL(n, K)
.
1. Sn . .

212

. 1) n [Sn , Sn ] = An ;
2) n 5, , [An , An ] = An ;
3) [A4 , A4 ] = V .
. n 3. ,
[, ] , Sn , [An , An ] [Sn , Sn ] An . , An 3- ( II, ?),
,
i, j, h (ijh) = [(ij), (ih)],
i, j, h, k, l (ijh) = [(ijk), (ihl)].
, II, ? , V A4 -
3 , , . , [A4 , A4 ] V . , i, j, h, k
, (ij)(hk) = [(ijh), (ijk)], V [A4 , A4 ].
2. . G ,
, .. [G, G] = G.
(perfekte Gruppe) .
, An , n 5, .
, G , [G, G]
1, G. , G ,
[G, G] = G. ,
, ?. , An , n 5, .
, , .
, A3
.
, ,
.
. , G = G1 . . . Gn , [G, G] = [G1 , G1 ]
. . . [Gn , Gn ]. ,
.
, , .
. , [Hall], [KaMe],
(vollkommene Gruppe, complete group),
, .
vollkommene Gruppe . 20-30 perfekte Gruppe (perfect group). , ,
, ,
(connected).
3. GL(n, K). .
R G = E(n, R) n R, -

213

tij () = e + eij , R, 1 i 6= j n.
.
. , R i, j, h, k ,
i 6= j, h 6= k,

j 6= h, i 6= k,

e
[tij (), thk ()] =
tik ()
j = h, i 6= k,

thj () j 6= h, i = k.
. , , j = h, i = k
, .
, E(n, R) .
. R n 3

[E(n, R), E(n, R)] = E(n, R).
, R = K , n 2 E(n, K) =
SL(n, K) (. IV, ?). , R = K , n 3. n = 2
.
. , K n 3, n = 2 |K| 4.

[GL(n, K), GL(n, K)] = [SL(n, K), SL(n, K)] = SL(n, K).
. 1) , [x, y]
x, y GL(n, K) 1.
[SL(n, K), SL(n, K)] [GL(n, K), GL(n, K)] SL(n, K).
2) n 3 .
3) n = 2 |K| 4, K , 2 6= 1.

0
1
1 (2 1)
,
=
.
0 1
0 1
0
1
, t12 () [SL(2, K), SL(2, K)], t21 () .
GL(2, 2) GL(2, 3) . , GL(2, 2) = SL(2, 2) = S3 ,
H , 1, 3 , ,
SL(2, 2). H

1 0
1 1
0 1
H=
,
,
.
0 1
1 0
1 1
, , 3) ,
[GL(2, 3), GL(2, 3)] = SL(2, 3)

214

( !). SL(2, q), q 4, SL(2, 3)

. ,
H SL(2, 3):

1 0
1 1
1
H=
,
,
0 1
1 1
1

1
1

0 1
1 0

. , [SL(2, 3), SL(2, 3)] = H.

. , H E SL(2, 3), , H .
- SL(2, 3)/H 3 , . , SL(2, 3) H.
[t12 (), t21 ()].
. , K, |K| 2, .
[B(n, K), B(n, K)] = U (n, K).

3. ,
, An , n 5, , , An . .
. n 5 An .
.
. ,
.
, .

4.
1st instalment
222 , , , , ,
. , G , n N
x [G, G],
, n .
1. . K , x y
K. G GL(3, K[x, y]):

1
0
0

K[x]
1
0

K[x, y]
K[y] .
1

.
222 P.J.Cassidy,

Products of commutators are not always commutators: an example. Amer.

Math. Monthly, 1979, vol.86, p.772.

1. G

1
0
0

215

0 K[x, y]
1
0 .
0
1

. , [G, G] . , , [t12 (axi ), t23 (y j )] =

t13 (axi y j ) , t13 (y)t13 (z) = t13 (y + z), t13 (h), h
K[x, y], [G, G].

m(f, g, h) = 0
0

f
1
0

h
g
1

.
2. G
[m(f1 , g1 , ), m(f2 , g2 , )] = m(0, 0, f1 g2 f2 g1 )
f1 , f2 K[x], g1 , g2 K[y].
. [G, G] .
. , z = m(0, 0, 1 + xy + x2 y 2 ) [G, G]
. , z ,
f1 , f2 K[x], g1 , g2 K[y], f1 g2 f2 g1 = 1 + xy + x2 y 2 .
f1 = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + . . . , f2 = b0 + b1 x + b2 x2 + . . . , ai , bi K.
f1 g2 f2 g1 = 1 + xy + x2 y 2 1, x, x2 , ,

a0 g2 b0 g1 = 1,
a1 g2 b1 g1 = y,
a2 g2 b2 g1 = y 2 ,
, 1, y, y 2 . .
. [G, G] .
. , , , t13 (1 + xy + . . . + xn y n ) ,
b n+1
2 c .
2. . .
K = Fp K[x, y] K[x, y]/I, I = (x3 , x2 y, xy 2 , y 3 ) , . p12 ,
. ,
(1, 2) 1, x, x2 , (2, 3) 1, y, y 2 , , , (1, 3) 1, x, y, x2 , xy, y 2 .
, ,
.
3. . , ,
, .

216

. , [G, G]
1
{g1 . . . gn g11 . . . gn
| n N, gi G}

.
. , ,
, .. .
alias :
1
g1 g2 . . . gn g11 g21 . . . gn
= [g1 , g2 . . . gn ][g2 , g3 . . . gn ] . . . [gn1 , gn ].

,
, , , , !
,
.
, ,
. :
[h, g 1 ] = h(g 1 h1 )g = h(g 1 h1 )gh1 (g 1 h1 )1 g 1 .
, (pendant : , , ) h1 (g 1 h1 )1 g 1 , , , 1 . ,
:
1
1 1
[h1 , g11 ] . . . [hn , gn
] = h1 (g11 h1
1 )g1 . . . hn (gn hn )gn

n N hi , gi G. gn . 1, .

5.
2nd instalment
,
223,224 .
1. . .
. G , |G : C(G)|2 < |[G, G]|, [G, G] ,
.
. n = [G : C(G)]. , h, g G, a, b C(G), [xa, yb] =
[x, y]. n2 [x, y], x, y
X G C(G).
,
. , p-
2. G 2, [G, G] C(G) (. ?).
. 2 , ,
[xy, z] = [x, z][y, z],

[x, yz] = [x, y][x, z],

x, y, z G.
223 I.M.Isaacs,

Commutators and the commutator subgroup. Amer. Math. Monthly, 1977,

vol.84, p.720722.
224 I.D.Macdonald, Commutators and their products. Amer. Math. Monthly, 1986, June
July, p.440444.

217

. , , , . , [y, z] C(G),
[xy, z] = (xy)z(xy)1 z 1 = x(yzy 1 z 1 )zxz z 1 = [x, z][y, z].
. , 2
(xy)n = xn y n [x, y]n(n1)/2 .
2. . , G 2 n
x1 , . . . , xn . y, z
hn
1
y = xh
1 . . . xn a,

z = xk1 1 . . . xknn b,

hi , ki N0 , a, b C(G), 2
Y
[y, z] =
[xi , xj ]hi kj hj ki .
i<j

, [G, G] n(n1)/2 [xi , xj ], i < j.

, , n- , [G, G] , n(n1)/2
. [xi , xj ], i < j, . , x1 , . . . , xn p,
C(G) pn , pn(n1)/2 .
n 6 2n < n(n 1)/2,
1 , [G, G] , .
, p- 2, n x1 , . . . , xn
p, [xi , xj ], i < j, .
G GL(m, p)
Fp p . , G U (m, p)
.
3. . , .
221 , ,
, 28 ,
n = 4.
. n G = Gn U (m, p) 2, n p, [G, G]
pn(n1)/2 . , n 6 [G, G]
.
. G = G6 GL(28, p)
n
.
x1 = t12 (1),
x2 = t23 (1)t89 (1),
x3 = t24 (1)t9,10 (1)t15,16 (1),
x4 = t25 (1)t9,11 (1)t16,17 (1)t20,21 (1),
x5 = t26 (1)t9,12 (1)t16,18 (1)t21,22 (1)t24,25 (1),
x6 = t27 (1)t9,14 (1)t16,19 (1)t21,23 (1)t25,26 (1)t27,28 (1),
2 ( !)
, [x1 , xi ] = t1,i+1 (1) i = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6; [x2 , xi ] = t8,i+7 (1) i = 3, 4, 5, 6;
[x3 , xi ] = t16,i+13 (1) i = 4, 5, 6; [x4 , xi ] = t21,i+17 (1) i = 5, 6 , , [x5 , x6 ] =
t24,26 (1). ,
15 xi , G
2 , , p6 . 15
e13 , e14 , e15 , e16 , e17 , e8,10 , e8,11 , e8,12 , e8,13 , e15,17 , e15,18 , e15,18 , e20,22 , e20,23 , e24,26
, [G, G] p15 . p12 < p15 , 1.

218

6. ,
, , (summing up).
1. . . R
. .
. a1 , . . . , an , b1 , . . . , bn R.
a1 b1 + . . . + an bn =a1 (b1 b2 ) + (a1 + a2 )(b2 bn ) + . . .
+ (a1 + . . . + an1 )(bn1 bn ) + (a1 + . . . + an )bn .
a1 + . . . + an = 0,
, a1 b1 +. . .+an bn , bi bj
2. . : G H G . H .
,
.
X G G, Y
G H, .. G = HY , Hy1 = Hy2 y1 , y2 Y , y1 = y2 .
, H Y = {1}. G Y , g 7 g,
g G g Y , Hg = Hg.
H h H h = 1.
. H
Z = {(yx)(yx)1 | y Y, x X}.
. Hyx = Hyx, H.
, H , , , Hg 1 g2 =
Hg1 g2 , g 1 g2 = g1 g2 g1 , g2 G. , xy 1 y = xy 1 y = x = x,

1
yx1 (yx1 )1 = (xy 1 y) xy 1 y
, (yx1 )(yx1 )1 , y Y , x X,
(y 0 x)(y 0 x)1 , y 0 Y ,
, X = X 1 , Z . -
h = x1 . . . xl h H x1 , . . . , xl X, ,
x1 . . . xl = h = 1,
h

h = 1x1 (1x1 )1 x1 x2 (x1 x2 )1 x1 x2 x3 (x1 x2 x3 )1 . . .

x1 . . . xl1 xl (x1 . . . xl )1 ,

Z.
gen(G) G. ,
gen(G) = 1 , G , gen(G) = 2 ,
, ..
, gen(Epn ) = n.
. H G. gen(H) |G : H| gen(G). ,
.

7.
(x, y) 7 [x, y] G. , , (

219

) ,
.
1. . ,
, ,
[x, y]1 = [y, x]. ( ,
, ) , ,
, [[x, y], z] 6= [x, [y, z]].
, x1 , . . . , xn G , (higher commutators). ,
1, x, y, z, w G 5
[[[x, y], z], w], [[x, [y, z]], w], [[x, y], [z, w]], [x, [[y, z], w]], [x, [y, [z, w]]].
, , [x, y, z]
[[x, y], z]. , [x, y, z, w] = [[[x, y], z], w], ,
[x1 , . . . , xn1 , xn ] = [[x1 , . . . , xn1 ], xn ].
2. . , , .
. .
, .

, . , ( !),
, (
, , ..), .
30-
, , .
,
, .
. G [G, G]. ,
G
[[x, y], z] [[y, z], x] [[z, x], y] = 1.
, , [x, z] = 1, [[x, y], z] = [x, [y, z]].
3. .
,
. ,
,
. .
.

220

. x, y, z G
[xy, z] = x [y, z] [x, z]
[x, yz] = [x, y] y [x, z]
. , ,

xx1 x1 x.
:
[xy, z] = [y, z][z, y, x][x, z],
[x, yz] = [x, y][x, z][z, x, y].
,
.
. [xy, zw] [x, z], [x, w],
[y, z], [y, w].
:
[x1 , y] = [y, x]x ,

[x, y 1 ] = [y, x]y

. , [x, y z] = [x, y]y [x, z]yz [x, y 1 ].

[x y, z].
4. -.
. , ,

[x, y, z][z, x, y][y, z, x] = [x, y]z [y, x][z, x]y [x, z][y, z]x [z, y].
, , 1.
[x, y, z][z, x, y][y, z, x] = [x, y][z, y]y [z, x][y, x]x [y, z]y [x, z][y, z]x [z, y].
,
.
,
:
[x, y, y z][y, z, z x][z, x, x y] = 1.
225 . , , , -
. x, y, z G
[x, y 1 , z 1 ]x [z, x1 , y 1 ]z [y, z 1 , x1 ]y = 1.
.
, .
225 .,

, ., , 1969, 264.

221

8. ,
.
1. F, H G H. ,
[f, h], f F , h H:
[F, H] = h[f, h], f F, h Hi.
, [F, H] = [H, F ], . , .
. , 1 n 3

[U (n, R), U (n, R)] = E(n, R).

, H G
G, [H, G] H.
. F, H G
[F, H], F [F, H], H[F, H] E hF, Hi.
. f F , h H. ,
g hF, Hi g[f, h]g 1
[F, H]. , -
hF, Hi. g F
g[f, h]g 1 = [gf, h][h, g], g H
g[f, h]g 1 = [g, f ][f, gh]. [F, H],
.
. H G [H, G] E G.
. F H G, F E G. [H, G] F
, H/F C(G/F ).
. , F, H E G, [F, H] E G. F H ()
, [F, H] () .
. , F, H, K E G,
[F H, K] = [F, K][H, K],

[F, HK] = [F, H][F, K].

. , G = F H, H E G. ,
[G, G] = [F, F ][G, H].
. , G = F H, F, H E G. ,
[G, G] = [F, F ][F, H][H, H].
2. . A, B, C G. ,
[A, B, C] = [[A, B], C].
.

222

. A, B, C G, H E G.
[A, B, C], [B, C, A], [C, A, B] H,
H.
. -.
. R
1, C(n, R) GL(n, R),
e, C(R).
. , n 3. g GL(n, R)
[E(n, R), g] C(n, R), g C(n, R).
. , , g
E(n, R) , [tij (), g]
1 i 6= j n, R.
[g, E(n, R), E(n, R)] = [E(n, R), g, E(n, R)] = 1.
, E(n, R) ( 2) ,
,
[E(n, R), g] = [E(n, R), E(n, R), g] = 1,
, , , g .
7.
, , . , .
. |G : C(G)| < , |[G, G]| < .
. ([Ro], .114) g1 , . . . , gn
G C(G). x, y G, x = gi a, y = gj b, a, b C(G).
[x, y] = [gi a, gj b] = [gi , gj ]. , n2 .
, g [G, G] h1 , . . . hm , hi .
g , m .
, m < n3 . , r ,
x, y G [x, y]r = (xy)r (x1 y 1 )r u, u r 1 .
r = 1 . , xy = yx[x1 , y 1 ].
, r > 1
[x, y]r+1 = xyx1 y 1 [x, y]r = xy(x1 y 1 )(xy)r (x1 y 1 )r u =
xy(xy)r (x1 y 1 )r (x1 y 1 )hu = (xy)r+1 (x1 y 1 )r+1 hu
h, .
, |G : C(G)| = n , z n C(G) z G.
, yx = x1 (xy)x, , (yx)n = x1 (xy)n x = (xy)n . ,
(x1 y 1 )n = ((yx)1 )n = ((yx)n )1 = ((xy)n )1 . ,
[x, y]n n 1 .
, xyx = (xyx1 )x2 , x ,
y . g [G, G] g = h1 . . . hm . m n3 , - > n .
(
, ), . m , . ,
m < n3 .
. , Aut(G) , [G, G] .

223

?: : 226
,
. 30-, 40- 50-
. ,
, . (
!) , . .

G
1 = G0 G1 . . . Gn1 Gn = G
227 , n
. Gi1 < Gi ,
.
.
Gi , , Gi , i 1.
.

. , Gi E G i.
, Gi1 E Gi i. , , , ,
, , . , () () .
. ,
, , ,
.
,
!

1 = G0 E G1 E . . . E Gn1 E Gn = G
. - Gi /Gi1 . ,
, .., , Gi /Gi1 C(G/Ci1 .
. ,
226

, ;
, , ;
; ,
( , ); ,
,

227 , , ,
, , , .

224

:
G = G0 D G1 D . . . D Gn1 D Gn = 1.
, , .
, , , . ,

.
, . , / , /
.
,
. ,

.
,
.
, .
, .
, :
= = =
= = ,
.
, , , :
Q , ;
S3 , ;
S4 , .
= . , = .
- .

.
- .
??

225

?.
G
. C0 (G) = G Cn (G) = [Cn1 (G), G] n 1.
,
C1 (G) = [G, G],
C2 (G) = [[G, G], G],
C3 (G) = [[[G, G], G], G],
.. ,
G = C0 (G) C1 (G) C2 (G) . . . Cn (G) . . . ,
. , , .. - Cn1 (G)/Cn (G)
G/Cn (G) , , [G, Cn1 (G)] Cn (G).
(lower central ceries) (descending central ceries).
/ par excellence. -228 -,
central ceries .
C n (G) ( , ) ,
229 .
. ,
.
. ,
[Cm (G), Cn (G)] Cm+n (G).
. .
G ,
, , n, n (G) = 1. , G
[. . . [x1 , x2 ], . . . , xn ] = 1 , n .
n , n (G) = 1
G. , 1, 2 ,
[[x, y], z] = 1, ..
Um (n, R) m . ,
Um (n, R) = {u = (uij ) U (n, R) | uij = 0, j i = 1, . . . , m}.
228 group

theorists simply do it.

, , ,
n : ?
229 ,

226

1
0

0
U2 (6, R) =
0

0
0

0 0
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
0 0 0
0 0 0

0
0
1
0

0
1

. , Cm (U (n, R)) = Um (n, R).

G . C 0 (G) = 1, n 1 C n (G) - G/C n1 (G) ,
. , C n (G) C n1 (G) C n (G) G, - C n1 (G)
- G/C n1 (G):
C n (G)/C n1 (G) = C(G/C n1 (G)).
, C 1 (G) = C(G) G, C 2 (G) , ..
G, C 2 ()/C(G) = C(G/C(G)) .
(upper central ceries) (ascending central ceries), C n (G)
n- G.
?.
. G , H < NG (H)
H < G.
Aut(G) G ,
, 1: (g) = g,
g G, , g = 1.
. , , .
?.
1938 230
. F H G F, H E G ,
F H.
. F r, H s. ? ,
[F H, F H] = [F, F ][F, H][H, H]. ,
,
Y
Cn (F H) = [F H, . . . , F H] =
[K1 , . . . , Kn+1 ],
230 H.Fitting,

Beitr
age zur Theorie der Gruppen endlicher Ordnung. Jahresberichte Deutsch.
Math. Vereinigung, 1938, Bd.48, S.77141.

227

Ki F H. Cm (F ) F , G. ,
[Cm (F ), H] Cm (F ). , Ki m + 1 F , [K1 , . . . , Kn+1 ] Cm (F ).
, Ki m + 1 H,
[K1 , . . . , Kn+1 ] Cm (H).
[K1 , . . . , Kn+1 ], Cr+s (F H), r + 1
F , s + 1 H.
Cr (F ) = 1, Cs (H) = 1.
, Cr+s (F H) = 1, .
. F (G) , .
G F (G) G.
?? ?? G . ,
[F (G), F (G) (G) F (G), F (G)/(G) = F (G/(G)).
?.
G .
D0 (G) = G Dn (G) = [Dn1 (G), Dn1 (G)] n 1. ,
D1 (G) = [G, G],
D2 (G) = [[G, G], [G, G]],
D3 (G) = [[[G, G], [G, G]], [[G, G], [G, G]]],
.. ,
G = D0 (G) D1 (G) D2 (G) . . . Dn (G) . . . ,
- Dn (G)/Dn1 (G) . , - derived series, ,
.
G G0 G00 . . . G(n) . . .
. , ?.
: D0 (G) = C0 (G) = G G, D1 (G) = C1 (G) =
[G, G] .
,
G. , , ,
,
D2 (G) = [[G, G], [G, G]] [[G, G], G] = C2 (G),

Dn (G) = [Dn1 (G), Dn1 (G)] [Cn1 (G), G] = Cn (G)

228

n.
. ,
.
G ,
, ,
n, Dn (G) = 1. , G

dn (x1 , x2 , . . . , x2n ) = 1
2n . d0 (x) = x,
dn (x1 , x2 , . . . , x2n ) = [dn1 (x1 , . . . , x2n1 ), dn1 (x2n1 +1 , . . . , x2n )]
n 1. n , Dn (G) = 1 G. , 1, 2 ,
[[x, y], [z, w]] = 1, .. 2 .
. , G ,
:
G . , Gi G,
1 = Gn E Gn1 E . . . E G1 E G0 = G,
- Gi1 /Gi .
G .
, , ,
Gi G, .
. , , - . ,
:
: H G G ,
H .
- : H E G G , G/H .
: H E G, H, G/H , G .
, , . ,
.
. , F, H E G, F, H ,
F H G .
. , F H/F
= H/(F H),
F E F H , - H/(F
H) H .

229

. , G, R(G). - G/R(G)
, R(G/R(G)) = 1
. , ,
R(G) G
. ,
R(G). , G/R(G)
H 6= 1, 1 (H) : G G/R(G)
, R(G), R(G).
.
R(G) G G. ,
1.
G Sol(G).
.
.
.
.
B(n, R)
R .
.
pq- . |G| = pm q n , p, q P, G .
-. G .
?.
. K .
G GL(n, K) .
, , G ,
?.
, . , , , , . , .
. , .
[Hu], , , [KM], . VII, 2.
.

230

?.
. F H G F, H E G
.
?.
?. -

1 = H0 H1 . . . Hn1 Hm = G
(refinement, Verfeinerung)
1 = G0 G1 . . . Gn1 Gn = G
Gi - Hj . , Gi 6= Gi+1 i, Gi
Gi+1 .
.
G.
G.
G.
. .
. , .
. ,
, .
, .
. ,
.
.
1869
231 , 1889 232 .
.
.
, , , ,
.
.
231 C.Jordan,

Commentaire sur Galois. Math. Ann., 1869, Bd.1, S.141160.

Zur
uckf
uhrung einer beliebigen algebraischen Gleichung auf eine Kette von Gleichungen. Math. Ann., 1889, Bd.34, S.2656.
232 O.H
older,

231

,
. , .
. .
. n N, n = p1 . . . pm , pi P
. G = Cn
n, g.
G = hgi > hg p1 i > hg p1 p2 i > . . . > hg p1 ...pm1 i > 1
.
, [p1 , . . . , pm ]
n.
1934
233 . , , , . ?

. F E F , H E H G.
F (F H) E F (F H ), H(F H ) E H(F H ),

F (F H )/F (F H)
= H(F H )/H(F H ).
. , F H E F H F H E F H .
, (F H )(F H) E F H . , F (F H)(F
H ) = F (F H ) F (F H) (F H ) = (F H )(F H).
,
F (F H )/F (F H)
= (F H )/(F H )(F H).
, , H(F H )(F H ) =
H(F H ) H(F H ) (F H ) = (F H )(F H).
,
F (F H )/F (F H)
= (F H )/(F H )(F H).
.
1928 234
. .
233 H.Zassenhaus,

Zum Satz von JordanH

olderSchreier. Abh. Math. Sem. Hamburg, 1934,
Bd.11, S.106108.
234 O.Schreier, Uber

den JordanH
olderschen Satz. Abh. Math. Sem. Hamburg, 1928, Bd.6,
S.300302.

232

?:
. ,
, . ,
, , , ,
.
?.
H, F . H F . ,
G = H F H F , G , .. (h1 , f1 )(h2 , f2 ) = (h1 h2 , f2 f2 ), (h, f )1 =
(h1 , f 1 ) 1 = (1, 1).
1. . , ,
H, F G. HF , , ,
G. , H, F
H F G, (h, f ) 7 hf .
. H, F E G. [H, F ] F H.
. h H, f F , g = [h, f ] =
hf h1 f 1 . g g = h(f h1 f 1 ) , H
, g H. , g g =
(hf h1 )f 1 F , , g F . , [h, f ] H F .
, A, B G ,
, AB = BA.
. , A, B G
, ab = ba a A, b B.
. H, F E G 1,
.
. , h H,
f F [h, f ] H F = 1, , h f .
. , F, H G, F h = hF h H,
f H = Hf f F , , F H = 1, F H
.
2. . ,
.
. G H, F G, :
D1. hH, F i = G;
D2. H F = 1;

233

D3. H, F E G.
.
. G H, F G,
: (h, f ) 7 hf H F G.
. 2 3 H F ( ?).
,
(h1 h2 , f1 f2 ) = (h1 h2 )(f1 f2 ) = (h1 f1 )(h2 f2 ) = (h1 , f1 )(h2 , f2 )
, , . 1 3
, G = hH, F i = HF , .
, (h, f ) Ker(), hf = 1 , , 2,
h = f 1 H F = 1. , .
, G
H F , g G g = hf , h h, f F . h
f , g
g = f h.
. , G = F H,
A, F A G, A = F (A H).
. , G H E G F ,
, ??? f : G H, ..
, f (h) = h h H
. G H E G ,
G/H
= Z. G
= H Z.
3. . , .
D2 .
. G H1 , . . . , Hn G, :
D1. hH1 , . . . , Hn i = G;
e i = 1 i = 1, . . . , n, H
e i = H1 . . . H
b i . . . Hn
D2. Hi H
Hj , Hi ;
D3. Hi E G i = 1, . . . n.

.
. G H1 , . . . , Hn G, : (h1 , . . . , hn ) 7 h1 . . . hn
H1 . . . Hn G.
. , D2 :
h1 . . . hn = 1, hi Hi , h1 = . . . = hn = 1.
. , D1 D2 D3
H1 . . . Hi Hi+1 = 1 1 i n 1.

234

?.
( , , , ),
H F = 1 . ,
, G
g = hf , h H, f F ,
. .
. , G H, F G, :
D1. hH, F i = G;
D2. |H F | < ;
D3. H, F E G.
. G = GL(n, K), H = SL(n, K), F = C(G) = K e . , H F
= n
n- 1 K.
?.
2
.
.
. , G H, F G, :
D1. hH, F i = G;
D2. [H, F ] = 1;
D3. H, F E G.
G = H F . , [H, F ] H F ,
H F = 1, [H, F ] = 1. ,
. , [H, F ] = 1 , H F = C(H) C(F ) C(G). G = H F
g = hf , , x H F g = (hx)(x1 f ).
.
, SO(4, R) = SO(3, R) SO(3, R) = SO(3, R) SO(3, R)/{1}
?.
,
.
. (G, H),
G , H G G ( ). (G1 , H1 )
(G2 , H2 ) , (G1 , H1 ) (G2 , H2 ) f : G1 G2 , f (H1 ) H2 .
(Gi , Hi ), i I.

235

.
n
o
Y
Y
Gi = (gi )
Gi | gi Hi i I ,
Hi
Q
Q
i I.
G
,
Hi
i
Hi
(Gi , Hi ), i I.
Q

pr

Gi
i
Q
Hi Gi pri . , I Q
Q
, Hi Gi =
Gi ,
.

?. /
.
Q (Gi , 1) Gi . ,
L Gi ,
`

Gi Gi .
Q
S
, Gi x : I Gi
, xi Gi , .. , xi = 1 i,
.
,

Q
Gi ; , Q
Gi .
. ,
D1 D3, . ,
.
. G
Hi G, i I, :
D1. hHi , i Ii = G;
e i = 1 i = 1, . . . , n, H
e i = hHj , j I, j 6= ii
D2. Hi H
Hj , Hi ;
D3. Hi E G i I.
, - ,
Gr Ab . ,
Ab ! .
?.
, G F H, G F H,
G .
.
.

236

. Hi E G, i I,
G H = Hi , i I. G/H G/Hi ,
i I.
.
: G 7

G/Hi ,

g 7 (gHi )iI .

iI

Q
, Ker() = H , ,
G/H

G/Hi ,
Q
i I. H Hi , G/H G/Hi G/Hj , gH 7 gHj
j.
?.
,
H F . ,
, . , , .
, .
. ,

.
1. .
. 3
, H F
.
. , G H F G,
:
SD1. hH, F i = G;
SD2. H F = 1;
SD3. H E G.
, G H F ,
threetimes, : \leftthreetimes h
\rightthreetimes i. , G = HhF G = F iH.
, .
-, 1 3 , hH, F i = HF = F H,
g G g = hf , g = h0 f 0 ,
2 , , . , , , [H, F ] H, , ,
. , F . , ,
g = hf = f (f 1 hf ) = f hf , f 0 = f , h0 = hf .

237

2. Sn GL(n, K).
Sn = 2 i An .
G = S4 V E S4
S3 S4 , , 4.
, V S3 = 1, V S3 = S4 . , S4 = S3 i V .
, S3 = 2 i 3 . , S4 = (C2 i
C3 )iV , , S4 , .
S4 4
.
GL(n, K) = SL(n, K) h K .
B =DiU
N = D h Sn .
3. . G -
, G ? (??). ,
Hol(G) = Aut(G) i G
G. , (, h), Aut(G), h G,
(, h)(, g) = (, 1 (h)g).
?.
1. . ,
.
GL(n + 1, R), ,
:

h u
n
Aff(n, R) =
| h GL(n, R), u R .
0 1
n R,
Rn n, x 7 x + u,
u Rn , x 7 hx, h GL(n, R). ,

h u
e u
h 0
=
0 1
0 1
0 1
x 7 hx + u, x 7 hx x 7 x + u. , , , ,
x 7 hx + hu, x 7 hx + u hu = u.
:

h u
g v
hg xv + u
.
0 1
0 1
0
1

238

Aff(n, R) = GL(n, R) i Rn
. .
.
Aff(n, R),

h u

, h O(n, R).
0 1
.

cos() sin() a
m(a, b, ) = sin() cos() b .
0
0
1

. m(a, b, )m(c, d, ).
.

ch() sh()

m(a, b, ) = sh() ch()

0
0

a
b.
1

m(a, b, )m(c, d, ).
?. ,

?.
, .
. , H G , . , G
.
. H G .
. n = |G| G.
P - H. ,
G = HNG (P ). , G/H
= NG (P )/H NG (P ). NG (P ) 6= G,
F H NG (P ) NG (P ) < G. F
= G/H, F
H G.
, , H G. , p||H|, H p-
P p-. 1 < P < H, P E G, G H. ,
H/P G/P
K/P . |K| < |G|, , F P K.
F
= K/P
= G/H, F H G.
, , H p- G. [H, H] H, G. , [H, H] 6= 1, ,
, G/[H, H] H/[H, H] , H G. ,
, H . ,

239

H, p- , , , H Epm ,
GL(m, p), .
, H 2 (G/H, H).
, , H p-.
G H , , H ,
. , G/H H.
(-!) : G G/H, .. : G/H G , ((x)) = x x G/H. h H
x G/H (x)h(x)1 ,
xhx1 . , , , H ,
(-!) , ..
: C/H G, , ((x)) = x x G/H.
: G/H G/H H,
(x, y) = (x)(y)(xy)1 .
, 2-:
x(y, z)x1 (x, yz) = (xy, z)(x, y),
x, y, z G/H. - m , m|G : H| 1 (mod |H|)
|H| |G : H| H!
Y
(x) =
x(x1 , x)m x1 ,
x G/H.
(x, y) = x(y)x1 y(xy)1 ,
, . , , ,
, (x) = (x)1 (x) ,
! c F = (G/H),
H G.
. H G
G.
,
.

?.
, .
. , G .
, F, H G , g G
g = ux, u F , x H. , ,
xu, x H, u F , xu = vy,
v F , y H. v = v(x, u) F y = y(x, u) H
, H F F H F H,
(x, u) 7 x u (x, u) 7 xu , . , xu = x uxu .
x, y H, u, x F . xyu xuv .
y
, (xy)u = xy u(xy)u , x(yu) = xy uy u = x (y u)(x) u y u .
y
, xy u = x (y u) (xy)u = (x) u y u . x(uv) = x (uv)xuv , (xu)v =
x uxu v = x uxu v (xu )v . x(uv) = x uxu v
xuv = (xu )v . , 1u = u1 x1 = 1x , 1u = 1, 1 u = u
x 1 = 1, x1 = x, .
xy u = x (y u) 1 u = u , (x, u) 7 x u
H F . xuv = (xu )v x1 = x , (x, u) 7 xu
F H.
.

240

. , (F, H) , H F , F H , x 1 = 1, 1u = 1,

y

(xy)u = (x)

yu ,

(uv) = x u x v

. (F, H) .
(u, x)(v, y) = (u x v, xv y)
F H .
. , (1, 1) . . u, v, w F x, y, z H.
v

((u, x)(v, y))(w, z) = (u x v, xv y)(w, z) = (ux v x

w, (xv y)w z),

(u, x)((v, y)(e, z)) = (u, x)(v y w, y w z) = (ux (v y w), xv
v

w w

y z).
y

x (v y w) = x v x (y w) = x v x y w. , (xv y)w = (xv )w y w = xv w y w .

. (u, x)(v, y) = (1, 1) ux v = 1, xv y = 1. , x v = u1 , ,

x1 u1 1
x1
1
1
v
v=
(u ). , y = (x )
= x
.
, (v, y)(u, x) = (1, 1), v y .
, (v, y)(u, x) = (w, z). (u, x),
(u, x) = (u, x)(w, z) = (ux w, xw z), , u = ux w, , , x w = 1,
1
w = x 1 = 1. , x = xw z = xz , , z = 1. ,
(u, x)
1

(u, x)

x1

(u

), x

x1

u1

.
. F H F ./ H.
, F H F ./ H F F ./ H,
u 7 (u, 1), H F ./ H, x 7 (1, x).

?.
I .
, i, j I h I ,
i, j h. Gi , i I , i j ji : Gi Gj , ii = idGi
i j h hj ji = hi .
Gi ji
( ).
. I, , Gr.
C, Set, Ab,
Ring, T op, ..

241

G = lim Gi ,

Gi .
.
. -
, .
. .
G Gi , I I. , i j
, Gi Gj , ji
Gi Gj . , Gi , Gj Gh , Gi , Gj Gh . G
Gi .
.
p = lim pm
pm , 1 pm , .
GL(R) = lim GL(n, R)

GL(n, R)

x 0
GL(n, R) GL(m, R),
x 7
,
0 e
m n.

?.
I .
, i, j I h I , h i, j.
Gi , i I ,
i j ji : Gi Gj , ii = idGi
i j h hj ji = hi .
Gi ji
(
).
. I, , Gr.
C,
Set, Ab, Ring, T op, .. , ,
. ,
, , ij : Gi Gj
i j.

.
.
.

242

.
p- Zp = lim Z/pn Z

Z/pn Z Z/pn Z Z/pm Z,

nm
x 7 xp
U (N, R) = lim U (n, R)

U (n, R) U (n + 1, R) U (n, R),

.
.
, ,

Y
Y
Gi = lim
Gi
iI

iJ

J I.
,
Y
Y
Gi = lim
Gi
iI

iJ

J I.
?.
?.
A, B . A
B, A B.
A B a b, a A, b B.
:
A1

(a1 + a2 ) b = a1 b + a2 b,

A2

a (b1 + b2 ) = a b1 + a b2 .

, A B a b, a A, b B, A1 A2. ,
, , , ,
a1 b1 + a2 b2 = a2 b2 + a1 b1 .
AB ,
..
a1 b1 + a2 b2 + . . . am bm
m N0 ai A, bi B.
, na b = n(a b) = a nb,
Z A1 A2.
. , Cm Cn
= Cgcd(m,n) .
?.
(H, U ), (G, V )

243

?.
, .
1. p-,
p,
p P .
. G p-, |G| = pm
m N.
.
. G X.
, G p.
|X G | |X| (mod p).
. , x X Gx G/Gx .
Gx , x X G ,
, Gx = G. Gx G , , |Gx| = |G/Gx | = |G : Gx | p.
, X
.
, p- G 6= 1.
1. p- G 6= 1 X. |X G | |X| (mod p).
, G . X = G G, X G
C(G) G.
2. G 6= 1 p-, C(G) 6= 1.
. , |C(G)| |G| 0 (mod p), ,
1 C(G), G
g 6= e.
.
. G p- H E G, H 6= 1. H C(G) 6= 1.
, . , X
G (..
G). G xG , x X, xG
G/CG (x). (Klassengleichung, class equation)
X
X
|G| =
|G : CG (x)| = |C(G)| +
|G : CG (x)|,
xX

xX\C(G)

244

, C(G) p . ,
X p.
, , (. 3
).
. p||G|, G g p.
. |G|. , . G
H, p,
H p. , G
p , . ,
2, G , , p||C(G)|.
C(G) p
.
.
, , p- :
.
3. G p- H < G, H < NG (H).
. H E G, NG (H) = G, . , , NG (H) < G. X
G, H. H X . |X| = |G : NG (H)| p , ,
p. , , {H}, , {gHg 1 } 6= {H}, g G,
, hgHg 1 h1 = gHg 1 h H , ,
g 1 hgHg 1 h1 g = H. , g 1 hg NG (H). g 1 Hg 6= H,
h H, g 1 hg
/ H. , H < NG (H).
. , p-
p.
2.
p = 2.
2, .. h G, h2 = 1,
h 6= 1 (c ,
, 2, ,
h 6= 1, !) G
X, h X {x}, x = hx,
{x, y}, x, y,
y = hx 6= x.

245

, |X h | |X| (mod 2). , h, g ,

|X h | |X g | (mod 2). , h X , g
X . ,
, .
. p 1 (mod 4)
. , m, n N, p = m2 + n2 .
. ( Involutions
harald.fripentinger@kfunigraz.ac.at.)
X = {(x, y, z) | x, y, z N, x2 + 4yz = p}.
, h : X X

(x + 2z, z, y x z), x < y z,

(x, y, z) 7 (2y x, y, x y + z), y z < x < 2y,

(x 2y, x y + z, y), 2y < x,

(!). ,
X, , (1, 1, l), p = 4l + 1.
g : X X, (x, y, z) 7 (x, z, y),
(m, n, n), p = m2 + 4n2 ,
.
3. p-
|X G |
|X| (mod p). .7577 [Ro].
1. p. , G p. , ,
3, ,
.
. H E G, |H| = p, H C(G).
. , H = hhi, hp = 1, , gHg 1 = H,
, , ghg 1 6= h. , p 3.
p
p
ghg 1 = hm 1 < m < p. , h = g p hg p = hm , , hm 1 = 1,
p
p1
p|m 1. , , p|m
1 , ,
p|mp1 , .
1. r1 (G) p p- G
1 p.
. X p G.
H X G , H E G, .
, p G
p p. ,
p C(G). p C(G) 1
F C(G) Epm . 6= 1
F p, p F
p 1 . , C(G)
pm 1
= pm + . . . + p + 1
p1
p.

246

. G p- |F | = ps < |G|, G
ps+1 , F 1 p.
. F H G, |H| = ps+1 . F H (,
|H : F | = p |H|). , H NG (F ).
, H p p-
NG (F )/F , , , 1 p.
1 .
2. p p- G 1
p.
. H < G p. xp H x G.
, p F = hxp | x Gi. , p G - G/F ,
Epm . Epm m-
Fp , , p
p pm + . . . + p + 1.
2. ps . .
. rs (G) ps ||G| p- G 1
p.
. , s , ps < |G|
rs (G) rs+1 (mod p), s,
, r1 (G) 1 (mod p).
r0 (G) = 1, 1
, .
, H1 , . . . , Hq , q = rs (G), ps , F1 , . . . , Ft ,
t = rs+1 (G), ps+1 . Hi li
F1 , . . . , Ft , Fj mj H1 , . . . , Hq .

{(H, F ) | |H| = ps , |F | = ps+1 , H < F },

l1 + . . . + lq = m1 + . . . + mt .
1 li 1 (mod p), 2 mj 1
(mod p). , q t (mod p), .
. , ps p- G
1 p.
. ps ||G|, G H ps .

4. xn = e,
G , p P ,
n N .
xn = e G.
1. . .
. p||G|, G xp = 1
p.
235 .
X = {(g1 , . . . , gp ) | gi G, g1 . . . gp = e}.
235 J.H.McKay,

vol.66, p.119.

Another proof of Cauchys group theorem. Amer. Math. Monthly, 1959,

247

, |X| = |G|p1 p. Cp = hi
RotateRight:
(g1 , . . . , gp ) = (gp , g1 , . . . , gp1 ).
, gp g1 . . . gp1 = gp (g1 . . . gp )gp1 = gp egp1 = e. Cp
X 1 p,
1, g1 = . . . = gp = g, g p = e. ,
xp = 1 G |X0 |. ?,
|X0 | |X| (mod p).
( ). p 6 ||G|, , |G|p1 1 (mod p). ,
!
.. : ,
. .
, , , , .
, , , , , . ,
, .
1. p||G|, G g p.
. xp = e p.
, x = e.
, x = g 6= e.
2. p||G|, p G
1 p.
. P1 , . . . , Pm p
G. , P1 . . . Pm = G(p), G(p) = {g G | g p = e}
xp = e. Pi Pj = {e} i 6= j, |G(p)| =
|P1 . . . Pm | = m(p 1) + 1. p.
2. . ,
xn = e? ,
.
. n||G|, G xn = 1
n.
, , G n.
, , V = C22 ,
4, S3 ,
6. , ,
n 0 n.
, , , [], 9.1.1.
. C G,
xn = c, c C, gcd(n|C|, |G|).

248

5.
, , G , p P .
|G|p p, G. ,
|G|p = pm , pm | |G|, pm+1 6| |G|.
. P = Sp (G) G pm
p-. p- G Sylp (G).
p, |G| |G|p .
, |P | = |G|p |G : P |
p. G, p- - p
. , 1872 236
237 .
. G , p P.
Ep : G p- ;
Cp : p- G ;
Dp : p- ;
Fp : p- 1 p.
. , , (.,
, [Ha]). , Fp 1895
. Ep Existence, Cp
Conjugacy, , Dp Fp
. |G|. ,
.
. G , - . p||C(G)|,
- G/Sp (C(G)) , G , ,
p-,
236

(12.12.1832, () 07.09.1918) . ( !) , 1855

, , ( 25 !) 186263
. .
1872 Math. Annalen.
, . 8
. 1898 ,
.
.
237 .., .
. . , 1975, .30, N.2, .179198.
, .

249

G .
, p - |C(G)|. G
. X -
. , ?

X
|G : CG (x)|,
|G| = |C(G)| +
xX\C(G)

, |G| p, |C(G)| , , G
x , |G : CG (x)|
p. CG (x) P = Sp (CG (x)), |CG (x)|p = |G|p , P
p- G.
. Cp
Dp . , , P = Sp p- G, H G p-, H
G P . , H
X = G/P G P . H p-, |X| = |G : P | p, ? |X H | 6 0
(mod p), , , X H 6= . ,
xP , HxP = xP . x ,
, x1 HxP = P , x1 Hx P , .
.
p- P X p-.
{Q}, Q X , P Q. P Q p- , ,
P . , ,
p.

2 p-.
. ps ||G|. , ps G
1 p.
. p- P G
p-, P E G.
. H G.
. , H G, P Q p- H,
G.
6.
.
1859 , . ([Ro], .80),
,
, , . , , , , ,
( [Ro] !)
([Ro], 4.16 [Ro], .39).

250

. p 6 |m. l 1
p.

pl m
pl

. ,
pl m
pl

m(pm 1) . . . (pl m pl + 1)
.
1 2 . . . (pl 1)

pl m i
, 1 i < pl . pj |i, j < l pj |pl m i.
i
, pj |pl m i, j < l pj |i. , v + p(i) = vp (pl m i),
.

. |G| = pl m, p 6 |m. X
pl m
pl G.

pl
p. G X : A X
gA = {ga | a A}. p 6 ||X|, , p.
A Y , H = GA G.
|A| = |G : H| p , , |H| pm . ,
a A g H ga gA = A. , h, g H
, ha = ga h = g, |H| |A| = pm . , |H| = pm .

7.
. H E G P p- H.
G = HNG (P ).
. g G gP g 1 gHg 1 = H
H. H ,
h H, gP g 1 = hP h1 , , h1 gP g 1 h = P .
, h1 g NG (P ) , , g = h(h1 g) HNG (P ).
. H E G, P p- G. ,
i) H P p- H;
ii) HP/H p- G/H.
i), , H ?
. P G, NG (P ) G.
8. Sn
. .
1. . F Sm H Sn
X = m, Y = n. F o H
Smn , X Y ,
(x, y) 7 (y (x), y),

y F, H.

F o H F H.
, F H , X,

251

Y . : - F (
!) , ,
- H. , F H n + 1
= (1 , . . . , n , ). , m, n 2 : F H
. , F H.
. , F H , F o H .
, F H D(F ), ,
F ( !).
D(F ) ,
= 1. F n
F H, - H. , ,
F H H , , 1 = . . . = n = 1. , F H = D(F ) h H. ,
F H |F |n |H|.
, ,
H F |F ||H|m . , ,
, ,
, .. . , G
, Z, (F o H) o G
=
F o (H o G). , (X Y ) Z
X (Y Z) X Y Z, ,
F o H o G. ,
.
, G1 , . . . , Gr ,
r 1 , , ,
G1 o . . . o Gr = (G1 o . . . o Gr1 ) o Gr .
2. Sn . , , |Sn |p Sn , , , p, n!.
. p n! pm ,

n
n
n
m = vp (n!) =
+ 2 + 3 + ...
p
p
p

n
. , 1 n

p


n
n
p,
p2 ,
p3 ..
2
p
p3
, p- Spr r1
pp +...+p+1 . , |Sp |p = p , , p- Sp
Cp . , |Sp2 |p = pp+1 p-
Sp2 Cp o Cp . ,

252

p- Sp3 Cp oCp oCp pp +p+1 .

r p- Spr Cp o . . . o Cp ,
r.
n p- : n = am pm +
. . . + a1 p + a0 . Sn
a
a
(Spm ) m . . . (Sp ) 1 . ,
.
. n = am pm + . . . + a1 p + a0 , 0 ai < p.
Sn

Cp o . . . o Cp
|
{z
}

am

. . . Cpa1 .

9. pq,
.
1. pq.
n = pq, p, q P, p < q. , ,
, .
. , 15 = 3 5 .
.
. G n = pq, p, q P, p < q,
Cp i Cq , Cp Aut(Cq ) Cp
Cq . , p 6 |q 1, pq
Cpq .
. G
P p Q q.
q- 1 q.
Q |G : NG (Q)| , , n,
1 + mq, m N, n . ,
Q q- G, Q E G.
, P Q : G = P Q, P Q =
1, Q E G. , G = P h Q.
: Cp 7 Aut(Cq )
= Cq1 .
p 6 |q 1, , , .
, G = P Q
= Cp Cq
= Cpq .
, p|q 1, . P = hxi, Q = hyi. Q , xyx1 = y r 2
1 < r < q. x2 yx2 = xy r x1 = y r
m
p
xm yxm = y r . , y = xp yxp = y r , y q, rp 1 (mod q). r
G pq
G = hx, y | xp = 1, y q = 1, xyx1 = y r i.

253

, r rl , 1 < l < p,
G, x xl .
. , C6 D3 = S3 6.
10, 14, 21, 22, 26 39.
2. . , G, , - ,
.
pq .
. G mn
H E G, H
= Cm , G/H
= Cn . , G
:
G = G(m, n, r, s) = hx, y | xm = e, y n = xr , yxy 1 = xs i,
r s , r(s 1) sn 1 m.
. , H = hxi G/H = hyHi. y n xy 1
yxr y 1 x.
10. p3 ,
p . , p2 . 1893 .238
p3 .
. p- , p.
. G p3 .
. p- , |C(G)| p.
- , G .
, |C(G)| = p, G/C(G) p2 , , Cp Cp . , -
, [G, G] C(G). G , [G, G] 6= 1. ,
[G, G] = C(G) p.
. p p3 .
p = 2 D4 Q. p
, ,
p, p2 .
. p = 2 : 2,
. 8 4
, , D4 Q. p
: G p,
p2 .
G p, x, y,
G/C(G). xp = y p = 1 z = [x, y] C(G).
z = 1 , G . ,
z C(G) , , G
G = hx, y | xp = 1, y p = 1, [x, y]p = 1, [x, y]x = x[x, y], [x, y]y = y[x, y]i.
238 O.H
older,

S.301412.

Die Gruppen der Ordnungen p3 , pq 2 , pqr, p4 . Math. Ann., 1893, Bd. 43,

254

, p3 p, .
, G x p2 ,
H = hxi p G, x .
y
/ H, x. , y p H, yxy 1 =
m
r
y , 1 < r < p. , , y m xy m = xr ,
p
p
2
p
p
p
r
y = y xy
= x . , r 1 (mod p) . , r r
(mod p), r 1 (mod p). r r = 1 + sp, st 1 (mod p).
t
y t xy t = x(1+sp) = x1+stp = x1+p . , y p H , , y p = xpq
q. ( !) , (yuq )p = 1.
, , , y y t xq , ,
y p = 1 yxy 1 = x1+p . , G

G = hx, y | xp = 1, y p = 1, [x, y]p = 1, [x, y]x = x[x, y], [x, y]y = y[x, y]i.
, p3 ,
p2 .
, p, . ,
, U (3, p) K = Fp p .
, p3 , , p 3
p, (
3 ).
p2 . K
0 p 1.
:

1 0
0 ...
0
0 1
0
... 0
1
0 0
0 ...
0
1
... 0

.
...
0
..
y = 0 0
x=
.
,

..

0 0 ...
.
0
1
p1
0 ...
0
0
0 0
0 ...
2

, xp = y p = e, xp = [x, y] = e
.
p3 p2 .
. , p n 3
G pn
, , ,
n1

hx, y | xp

n2

= y p = 1, [x, y] = xp

i.

. , , n = 3, ., , ,
12.5.1. 209211. , p = 2 :
n 4
n1

hx, y | x2 = y 2 = 1, (xy)2

= 1i

n1

hx, y | x2

n2

= 1, y 2 = x2

, yx = x1 yi

2n 2n1 .
pn .
:
:
27

24 = 16

25 = 32

26 = 64

27 = 128

28 = 256

14

51

267

2328

56092

1990 R.James, M.F.Newman E.A.OBrien,
28 1991 E.A.OBrien, , 2 8.000.000 29 = 512. ,
512 . ,
GAP Hans-Ulrich Beschke Bettina Eick, 199 1000. (1960) (1965) ,
3
pn p2n /27 .

255

11.
6 , pq, p < q ,
p 6 |(q 1), . , n N
n?
1. . , ( 1905
n, n ).
239 .
. n, n (n).
. . , n
, n p2 , p Cn/p .
n = p1 . . . ps , p1 < . . . < ps . n = pqm, p < q
, p|(q 1),
Cp i Cq , , Cn . , gcd(n, (n)) = 1.
, gcd(n, (n)) = 1.
n . -.
, G n, - . gcd(m, (m)) = 1 m|n
, - G .
, C(G) = 1. , C(G) 6= 1, G/C(G) , ,
G ?.
,
. , H G x H, x 6= 1. H , CG (x) H, , ,
H H G. x ,
CG (x) = H. , , G . , H, F G
x H F , x 6= 1, H = CG (x) = F .
, H G G,
, NG (H) = H. , |H| = m|n x G \ H H,
x n. , : h 7 xhx1 ,
x H
= Cm
m, | Aut(H)| = (m). gcd(n, (m)) = 1 (n !),
= idH . , x H, G = hH, xi x G,
.
n/m , H ( ). 1,
n
X (m 1) m
+ 1 = n n/m + 1. m < n, x
, H. , ,
- F , , , l < n, H.
, H, Y F n n/l + 1,
X Y = 1. , (n n/m) + (n n/l) = (|X| 1) + (|Y | 1) < |G| = n ,
, 1/m+1/l > 1. , ,
m = 1 l = 1, m l (
G).
2. , gcd(n, (n)) = 1. ,
n, , .
. , n = p.
:
15, 33, 35, 51, 65, 69, 77, 85, 87, 91, 95, 115, 119, 123, 133, 141, 143, 145, 159, 161, 177, 185, 187,
209, 213, 215, 217, 221, 235, 247, 249, 255, 259, 265, 267, 287, 295, 299, 303, 319, 321, 323, 329,
239 Dieter

Jungnickel, On the uniqueness of the cyclic group of order n. Amer. Math. Monthly,
1992, JuneJuly, p.545547.

256

335, 339, 341, 345, 365, 371, 377, 391, 393, 395, 403, 407, 411, 413, 415, 427, 435, 437, 445, 447,
451, 455, 469, 473, 481, 485, 493, 501, 511, 515, 517, 519, 527, 533, 535, 537, 545, 551, 553, 559,
561, 565, 573, 581, 583, 589, 591, 595, 611, 623, 629, 635, 649, 665, 667, 671, 679, 681, 685, 695,
697, 699, 703, 705, 707, 713, 717, 721, 731, 745, 749, 753, 763, 767, 771, 779, 781, 785, 789, 793,
795, 799, 803, 805, 807, 815, 817, 835, 843, 851, 865, 869, 871, 879, 885, 893, 895, 899, 901, 913,
917, 923, 933, 943, 949, 951, 957, 959, 965, 973, 985, 989, 995, 1001, 1003, 1007, 1037, 1041, 1043,
1057, 1059, 1067, 1073, 1077, 1079, 1099, 1105, 1111, 1115, 1121, 1133, 1135, 1139, 1141, 1145,
1147, 1149, 1157, 1159, 1165, 1167, 1169, 1173, 1177, 1189, 1195, 1199, 1203, 1207, 1211, 1219,
1235, 1241, 1243, 1245, 1247, 1253, 1257, 1261, 1267, 1271, 1273, 1285, 1293, 1295, 1309, 1313,
1315, 1329, 1333, 1335, 1337, 1339, 1343, 1345, 1347, 1349, 1351, 1353, 1357, 1363, 1383, 1385,
1387, 1391, 1393, 1397, 1401, 1403, 1411, 1415, 1417, 1437, 1441, 1457, 1463, 1465, 1469, 1473,
1479, 1495, 1501, 1507, 1509, 1513, 1517, 1527, 1529, 1535, 1537, 1541, 1547, 1551, 1561, 1563,
1565, 1577, 1585, 1589, 1591, 1603, 1605, 1615, 1631, 1633, 1639, 1643, 1645, 1649, 1651, 1661,
1671, 1679, 1685, 1687, 1689, 1691, 1695, 1707, 1717, 1727, 1729, 1735, 1739, 1745, 1749, 1757,
1761, 1763, 1765, 1769, 1779, 1781, 1793, 1795, 1797, 1799, 1807, 1817, 1819, 1829, 1835, 1837,
1841, 1843, 1851, 1853, 1855, 1865, 1883, 1885, 1891, 1895, 1897, 1903, 1909, 1915, 1919, 1921,
1923, 1927, 1937, 1939, 1941, 1943, 1945, 1947, 1955, 1957, 1959, 1961, 1963, 1969, 1977, 1981,
1985, 1991, 2001, 2021, 2031, 2033, 2045, 2047, 2049, 2051, 2055, 2059, 2065, 2071, 2077, 2091,
2093, 2095, 2101, 2103, 2117, 2119, 2123, 2147, 2149, 2157, 2159, 2165, 2167, 2171, 2173, 2177,
2183, 2185, 2191, 2195, 2201, 2215, 2219, 2227, 2229, 2231, 2235, 2245, 2249, 2257, 2261, 2263,
2279, 2283, 2285, 2291, 2315, 2317, 2319, 2321, 2323, 2327, 2335, 2343, 2345, 2353, 2363, 2369,
2387, 2391, 2395, 2397, 2405, 2407, 2413, 2419, 2427, 2429, 2431, 2435, 2443, 2449, 2453, 2461,
2463, 2465, 2471, 2479, 2481, 2483, 2489, 2491, 2495, 2497, 2501, 2505, 2507, 2509, 2513, 2515,
2517, 2519, 2533, 2537, 2545, 2555, 2561, 2563, 2567, 2569, 2571, 2573, 2581, 2587, 2589, 2595,
2599, 2603, 2611, 2615, 2623, 2627, 2629, 2641, 2643, 2651, 2661, 2669, 2681, 2685, 2701, 2703,
2717, 2723, 2733, 2735, 2737, 2739, 2743, 2747, 2755, 2759, 2761, 2765, 2771, 2773, 2779, 2785,
2787, 2795, 2807, 2813, 2815, 2821, 2823, 2827, 2829, 2831, 2839, 2841, 2845, 2849, 2859, 2863,
2867, 2869, 2881, 2885, 2893, 2899, 2905, 2911, 2913, 2921, 2923, 2929, 2931, 2933, 2935, 2941,
2949, 2951, 2955, 2959, 2965, 2977, 2981, 2983, 2987, 2993, 2995, 3007, 3009, 3013, 3017, 3029,
3031, 3035, 3039, 3043, 3047, 3053, 3055, 3057, 3059, 3065, 3071, 3073, 3077, 3085, 3091, 3093,
3095, 3097, 3101, 3103, 3107, 3113, 3115, 3127, 3131, 3133, 3139, 3145, 3147, 3149, 3151, 3157,
3161, 3173, 3183, 3193, 3199, 3215, 3223, 3227, 3233, 3235, 3239, 3247, 3263, 3265, 3269, 3273,
3277, 3281, 3287, 3291, 3293, 3295, 3309, 3317, 3327, 3333, 3335, 3337, 3341, 3349, 3353, 3365,
3367, 3377, 3379, 3383, 3385, 3395, 3397, 3401, 3405, 3409, 3415, 3419, 3421, 3427, 3431, 3439,
3443, 3453, 3473, 3487, 3489, 3493, 3495, 3497, 3503, 3515, 3521, 3523, 3531, 3543, 3545, 3551,
3553, 3561, 3563, 3567, 3569, 3579, 3585, 3587, 3589, 3595, 3599, 3601, 3605, 3611, 3619, 3621,
3635, 3647, 3649, 3651, 3653, 3655, 3657, 3661, 3665, 3667, 3669, 3679, 3683, 3687, 3689, 3695,
3707, 3713, 3715, 3729, 3731, 3737, 3743, 3745, 3749, 3763, 3777, 3781, 3785, 3787, 3791, 3799,
3809, 3811, 3815, 3817, 3827, 3831, 3835, 3839, 3841, 3845, 3849, 3855, 3859, 3865, 3867, 3869,
3893, 3899, 3901, 3903, 3921, 3935, 3937, 3941, 3945, 3949, 3953, 3957, 3959, 3961, 3973, 3977,
3979, 3983, 3985, 3991, 3995, 3997, 4009, 4031, 4033, 4035, 4037, 4039, 4043, 4045, 4061, 4071,
4081, 4083, 4085, 4087, 4089, 4097, 4101, 4103, 4109, 4115, 4117, 4119, 4121, 4123, 4135, 4141,
4145, 4147, 4151, 4163, 4169, 4171, 4181, 4183, 4187, 4189, 4193, 4195, 4199, 4207, 4213, 4223,
4227, 4233, 4237, 4247, 4249, 4255, 4265, 4267, 4277, 4279, 4281, 4285, 4291, 4295, 4299, 4303,
4307, 4309, 4313, 4315, 4317, 4321, 4323, 4331, 4333, 4343, 4353, 4355, 4369, 4379, 4381, 4385,
4387, 4393, 4395, 4399, 4403, 4411, 4415, 4427, 4429, 4433, 4435, 4439, 4443, 4453, 4461, 4465,
4469, 4471, 4479, 4487, 4497, 4499, 4501, 4505, 4511, 4521, 4529, 4531, 4533, 4535, 4537, 4539,
4541, 4543, 4553, 4559, 4569, 4571, 4573, 4577, 4579, 4589, 4595, 4601, 4607, 4611, 4619, 4627,
4631, 4633, 4645, 4659, 4661, 4667, 4677, 4681, 4685, 4687, 4697, 4699, 4709, 4713, 4717, 4727,
4735, 4739, 4741, 4745, 4747, 4749, 4755, 4757, 4763, 4765, 4769, 4771, 4777, 4781, 4795, 4803,
4811, 4819, 4821, 4829, 4835, 4837, 4839, 4841, 4843, 4847, 4849, 4853, 4857, 4859, 4865, 4867,
4873, 4879, 4883, 4885, 4891, 4897, 4899, 4911, 4915, 4917, 4921, 4927, 4939, 4945, 4963, 4979,
4981, 4985, 4991, 4997, 5001, 5015, 5017, 5027, 5029, 5033, 5035, 5045, 5053, 5057, 5063, 5065,
5069, 5071, 5083, 5089, 5091, 5095, 5111, 5123, 5127, 5129, 5131, 5137, 5141, 5143, 5149, 5151,
5161, 5163, 5165, 5173, 5177, 5183, 5191, 5195, 5199, 5205, 5207, 5213, 5215, 5221, 5245, 5249,
5251, 5257, 5263, 5267, 5269, 5287, 5291, 5293, 5295, 5311, 5315, 5317, 5321, 5327, 5339, 5345,
5353, 5357, 5359, 5361, 5363, 5365, 5369, 5371, 5377, 5383, 5385, 5389, 5395, 5401, 5411, 5423,
5429, 5433, 5435, 5447, 5453, 5457, 5459, 5461, 5465, 5469, 5473, 5485, 5489, 5495, 5497, 5509,

257

5511, 5515, 5533, 5539, 5541, 5543.

, 5000
.

12.
= {2, 3} A5 (123)(45) 6,
-. , A5 - A4 12.

258

Index rerum
Ein Buch ohne Index ist kein Buch.
Mommsen
,
, ,
.
, , 8

K +

(Baby Monster) BM

(Friendly Giant) FG

n-

Aut(G)
Out(G)
Inn(G)





R+



Aff(n, R)


B(n, m)





PSL(2, Od )

F4
H4




Gal(L/K)






(pm , . . . , pm )









Dn

D
An

I
I ?
I +

Q
2
Cl(R)
V

Cliff(n, R)

Bn

O
O+
Ly

L

L

L+
L+
Mc

Moeb

259
R







O =
O?
O+ =
Octn
ON
O(n, R)









n-


PSL(2, Z[i])


GL(n, R)




PGL(n, R)
PSL(n, R)




P


Ru


Fn

Z
Zn






Sn
Sp(2l, R)

260

SL(n, R)
SO(n, R)
SU(n, R)
Spin(n, R)

St(n, R)
Suz
T
T (m1 , m2 , m3 ; n1 , n2 , n3 )
T ?

T +
ms
1
(pm
1 , . . . , ps )
p





T (k, l, m)


T

U (n, R)




,
FG




HN

He
HS
HJ


Cn
Z


(Vierergruppe) V


E(n, R)
Epn (p, . . . , p)
p-



Co1 , Co2 , Co3

M11 , M12 , M22 , M23 , M24

2 G2 , 2 F4





2 B2 = Sz

Fi22 , Fi23 , Fi024



J1 , J2 = HJ, J3 , J4

261

Icos
M (n, R)
Hurw
Lip

G-

=

p-

G-

p-

262

p-

(generation)

(span)

-
-p-

G-

(Gitter)



(Verband)

263

pq-

264

An



















(Indexsatz)



(Noetherscher
Isomorphiesatz)





(allgemeiner Indexsatz)






B(2, m)
B(m, 4)




K2
K2 (Fq )

-




xn = e


.








(Verfeinerungssatz)

K1
K2

p-

265

Baby Monster =
Big Monster =
Freiheitssatz
Friendly Giant =
G-
Indexsatz
Isomorphiesatz
Klassengleichung
p-
p-
p0 -
pq-
three for two
Verfeinerungssatz
Verlagerung
Vierergruppe

Index personae
(Abel),
,
(Adams)
,
,
(Isaacs), ..
, ..
(ACampo), .
(Albert)
, .

,
, ..
(Alperin),
(Alperin),
(Amitsur),
.
,
,
(de la Harpe), .
(Artin),
(Artin),
(Auslander),
(Aschbacher),
,

266

(Bak),
(Bannai)

(Bass),

(Baumslag), .

,
,
(Baez)
(Bell),
..
,
(Bender),
(Benson),
(Behr), .
, .
, .
, .
,

(Bieberbach),
(Binet)
, .
, .
(Blichfeld)
,
, ..
,

(Borel),

, .
(Brouwer),
(Brauer),
, .
(Bourbaki),
(Burger), .
, ..
(Bianchi), .
, .
(Baer), .
(Buekenhout), .
- (Bialynicki-Birula),
, .
(Wagner), ()
(van der Waerden),

(Weil),
(Weyl),

,
, .
(Wehrfritz), ...
(Vessiot), .
(Wigner),
(Wilandt), .

,

,
(Witt),
(Wolf), .
- (Vaughan-Lee), ..
, ..
,

(Wussing), .
, ..
,
(Galois),
(Hamilton),
(Gauss)
(Gasch
utz), .
(Heisenberg),
(Hecke),
,

,
,
(Hilbert),
???
, .
, .
,
, ..
,
(Holubowski),
,
,
, .
,
, ..
,
, ..
, ..
,
(Graham), ..
,
, .
,
, .
,
, .
(Grothendieck),
(Grove),
(Grunewald),

(Gruenberg),
(Guralnick),
(Hurwitz),
(Hurewicz),
, .
,
(Dedekind),
(De Concini),


,
, .
(James),
(James),
(Zacher),
,
,
(von Dyck),
(Dixon),
(Dickson),
(Di Martino),
, ..
, .
,
(Dieudonn`
e),
,
(Dehn),
, .

(Jordan),

(Seitz),
(Seitz),
,
(Siegel),

,
(Ito),
,
,
(Cameron),
(van Kampen), ..
(Kantor),
, ..
(Kaplansky),
,
,
(Carranti),
(Karrass Abraham),
(Cartan),
(Cartan),
(Carter),
(Cassidy P.J.),
,
(Kegel),
(Campbell), ..
,
(Kleidman),
(Klein),
,

(Knuth),
, .
(Kovacs),
, ..
, .

(Kolchin)

267
,
, ..
, ..

,
, ..
(Koch),
(Cauchy),
(Kra), .

(Krasner),
(Kraft)
(Cremona),
(Crowell), ..
(Krull), .
,
(Cayley),
, .
, .
,
,
(Lagrange),
(Lyons),
(Landau),
(Larsen), ..
(Le Corbusier??),
(Levi),

(Loewi), .
(Lang),
(Langlands), .
(Lepowski),
,
(Lie),
(Liebeck),
(Liebeck),
(Livingston)
(Lyndon R.C.),
(Lipschitz),
(Littlewood),
,
,
, ..
,
(Lusztig),
,
, ..
(Magnus),
(Madelung), .
,

(Macdonlad I.D.), ..
(McKay J.H.)
(Makkey), .
(McLaughlin)
(McLane),
-
-, ..
,

268

(Mumford),
,
(Mann),
(Mann), ..
,

, ..
,
(Massey), ..
(Mathieu),
(Maschke), .

, ..
(Mennicke),
,
,
,
(Miller),
,
(Minkowski),
, ..

,
(Moser), ..
(Molien),
(Monge),
(Maurin),

, .

(Moufang),
,
, ..
(Neumann P.M.),
,
,

, ..
(Nielsen), .
,

(Neumann B.H.),
(Neumann H.),
, ..
,
, ...???
(Newman),
,
(OMeara), ..
(ONan),
(Ornstein)
,
, .
(Pasini),
(Palmer), .
,
(Parker),
(Passman), .

,
,
, ..

(Picard),
,
,
,
(Polya),
,
,
,
(Procesi),
(Poincar`
e),
-,
(Raghunathan), ..
(Reiner),
,

,
,
, .
,
, ?
,
,
, ..
,
,
, .
,

, ..
,
, ..
(Saxl),
, ..
, ..
, ..
(Segev),
(de S
eguier J.A.)

, -
(Sylow),

,
(Scoppola),
(Scott),
(Sloan), ...
,
(Smith), .
(Smith),
(Smith),
(Solitar Donald),
(Solomon),
(Springer),
(Steinberg),
,


(Stirling) ?
(Stallings)
,
(Suzuki),

,
,
, ..
,
, ..
(Tamburini),
(Thurston), .

(Timmesfeld),
(Tits),
(Todd)
,
, ..
, .
(White)
(Wilson), (alias )
(Wilson,
(Wilson),
-
,
,
,
, B. (Fine)
, ?
, ..
, ..
(Feinman?),
,
(de Fermat),
, ..

(Fischer),
, .
, .
(Fox), .
, ..
, ..
, ..
,
(Frattini)
(Freudenthal),
,
(Fried),

(Fuchs L
aszl
o) ,
(Fulton)
(Furstenberg),
(Hamermesh), .
(Humphreys),
(Hahn),
, .

269
(Harada)
, .
,
- (Harish-Chandra)
,

, .

(Hasse),
,
,
(Held),
, .
(Higman),
(Higman), .
(Hilton),
(Hirsch)
,
, .-.
(Hall),
(Hall),
(Hall),
(Hopf),
(Hochschi?ld), .
(Hochstrasser), .
(Huppert),
(Husemoller), .
(Hewitt), .
(Zagier), ??
(Zassenhaus),
(Zieschang), .
, .
(Chandler), .
,
,
,

(Shalev),
, ..
, ..
(Schattschneider),
,
, .
(Chevalley),
,

(Shimura),
(Shirvani), .
(Schl
afli)
,
,
,
(Schmidt),
(Speiser) ,
(Schreier),
(Steiner)
(Steinitz)
, ..

270

(Streitwolf?), .
, ..
(Schupp),
(Schur),

, ..
(Eilenberg),
(Euler),
(Elkis)
, .
, .
(Engel)
(Escher),
(Young)

(Janko)

(X) X
Vm
(X) m- X
( m- X)


\ -
4 ( )
t (
)
`

( )
Q


X/ - X

.
,

(vel)
( &)

=

(Allgemeinheit, for All)
(Existenz, Exists)
! .
True
False

/
3 , A 3 a
A B
, B A
A B
, B A

{a, b, c, . . . } a, b, c, . . .
{x A | P (x)} A,
P
[a, a, b] (
(a, b, a) ( n-)
= () ( )
|X| = Card(X) X
0
2X X

V
m = | m (n)| = Cn

Dn i n
h
n

nm
no
= Snm = S(n, m) m

n!
[x]n = x(x + 1) . . . (x + n 1)

[x]n = x(x 1) . . . (x n + 1)
ij
m

-
|
k (m k n , m|n
& m n/m)

mod

gcd
lcm
vp p-
| |p p- , |x|p = pvp (x)
dp p-

bxc x

A
Bn n-
n
B n-
C
C = C {}
Fq q

271

I = [0, 1]
H (alias )
Hn n-
N = {1, 2, 3, . . . }
N0 = {0, 1, 2, 3, . . . } 0
O
P = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, . . . }
Q = {m/n | m, n Z, n 6= 0}

Q
Q+ = Q>0 = {x Q | x > 0}

R (alias )
R+ = R>0 = (0, +)
Sn n- , S1 = T
T = R/Z 1 (alias
)
Tn n- ()
Z = {0, 1, 2, . . . }
Z/mZ m
Zp p-
Z[i]
Z[]
Hurw
Icos
Lip
n = {1, . . . , n} n
n n- 1
p pn 1 ( )

i ( C H)
j ( H)
k ( H)
n
n 1

1 5
=
= 1
2
1+ 5
=

2
= ( )

b =

1+i 3
=
2
1
1
= (1 + i + j + k)
2

id idX
incl
pr ( )

( -)
res resX
Y X
Y
|Y Y , ,
resX
Y
,
7
99K ,
, , , incl
,
,

Eq(f, g) f g
Y X = Map(X, Y )
X Y
Inj(X, Y ) X Y
Surj(X, Y ) X Y
Bij(X, Y ) X Y

:
,
+
1
/ g/h = gh1
\ g\h = g 1 h
[x, y] = xyx1 y 1 x
y
[x, y, z] = [[x, y], z]
xy = y 1 x1 y x
y
y x = yx1 y 1 x
y
xG x
G
H
(x H y xH = yH)
H
(xH y Hx = Hy)

= , ,

( )
o(g) ord(g) g
(G) |G|

:
X G X G
G] = G \ {1}
X 1 = {x1 | x X} X
H G H G

272

H E G G D H H
G
H G H G ( , H)
HG H ( G, H)
H EE G H G
gH G H
Hg G H
F gH G
(F, H)
G/H G
H, -
H\G G
H
F \G/H
G (F, H),
XY X, Y G

W (X) X
l(w) w
(w) w
hXi ,
X
hXiG G,
X
hX|Ri , X R
P (
)
|G : H| H G

C(G) G
Ci (G) i- G
C i (G) i- G
CG (x) x G
CommG (H) H G
D(G) = [G, G] G
Di (G) i- G
F (G) G
Gab G
Gn = Im(pown ) n-x
G
Gn = Ker(pown ) xn = 1 G
L(G) G
L(D, G)
H, D H G
NG (X) X G
Sp (G) p- G

Sylp (G) p- G
(G) G ( G)
(G) G

Aut(G) G
Autn (G) G
Coim() = H/ Ker(G) :
H G
Coker() = G/ Im()
: H G
End(G) / G
Hol(G) G
Hom(H, G) H
G
Ig ( g: x 7 gxg 1 )
Lg g: x 7 gx
Rg g: x 7 xg
Im()
Inn(G) G
inv , inv(x) = x1
Iso(H, G) H
G
Ker()
Out(G) G
pown n- , pown (x) = xn
1 (
1)
ab

X G G X
Gx, xG xG x
G
FixX (g) g
Gx = StabG (x) x
y
x

char(K) K
G (Group)
H, F, . . .
K (K
orper)
L (Lattice)
M (n, R) n R

273

M (m, n, R) m n R
R (Ring)
R+ R
R R
R = R \ {0}
Rn R- n
n R R- n
R[x]
V (Vector space)

B
di () = e + ( 1)eii
dij () = di ()dj (1 )

det
diag(1 , . . . , n )
e
e1 , . . . , en Rn
eij
gij g, g = (gij )
0 g 1 , g 1 = (g 0 )
gij
ij
perm
sdiag(1 , . . . , n )
1 , . . . , n -
-
S m (x) m-
x
Vm
(x) m- x
tij () = e + eij
wij () = tij ()tji (1 )tij ()
zij (, ) = tji ()tij ()tji ()
() = (i,(j) )

An n
Bn n
B(n, m) m n

Cn n
C
= Z
Dn 2n
D
Epn
= (Cp )n
(p, . . . , p)
Fn n
FX = F (X)
X
Octn
Q = {1, i, j, k}
Sn n
SX = S(X) X
T (k, l, m)

T (k, l, m)
T (m1 , m2 , m3 ; n1 , n2 , n3 )
V
= (C2 )2 (Vierergruppe)
n
Z n

s1 , . . . , sn1
decr
Fix()
inv
Mob()
sgn
wij = (ij)
(ijk) 3-

I
I ?
I +
O
O?
O+
T
T ?
T +
W () , = Al , Bl , Cl , Dl , E6 ,
E7 , E8 , F4 , G2 , H3 , H4 , I2 (m)
{3, 4, 3}, {3, 3, 5}, {5, 3, 3}

Q

Q

h i H h
G H i G,
./ H ./ G
H.F F H

; H G
L
`

;
H
G
o ;
; H o G
H G

274

F : H F G
H G F
lim ()

lim ()

A(p) p-
B(A)
H(A) = Z(A)/B(A)
Tor(A)
Z(A)

Al (q) = PSL(l + 1, q)
Bl (q) = P(2l + 1, q)
Cl (q) = PSp(2l, q)
Dl (q) = P+ (2l, q)
2 A (q 2 ) = PSU(l + 1, q 2 )
l
2 D (q 2 ) = P (2l, q 2 )
l
E6 (q), E7 (q), E8 (q), F4 (q), G2 (q) E6 , E7 , E8 , F4 ,
G2
3 D (q), 2 E (q 2 )
4
6
2 B = Sz
2
2 F , 2 G
4
2

Aff(n, R)
Cliff(n, R)
GL(n, R)
GO(n, R)
GSp(n, R)
O(n, R)
PGL(n, R)
PSL(n, R)
PSO(n, R)
PSU(n, R)
P(n, R)
PSp(n, R)
SL(n, R)
SL (n, R) = {g GL(n, R) | det(g) = 1}
SO(n, R)
Sp(n, R)
Spin(n, R)
St(n, R)
SU(n, R)
T (V )
U (n, R)
(n, R)
L
L

L+
L+
P
L(n, R)
{g|u}
[g] g

GL(n, R)
B(n, R) (Borel)
B (n, R)
B(, R) -

B (, R) -

C(n, R)
C(n, R, I) - I
D(n, R)
D(, R) -
E(n, R)
E(, R) -
E(n, R, I)
F (n, R, I) = E(n, I) I,
I
EO(n, R)
Ep(n, R)
EU(n, R)
GL(n, R, I) - I
N (n, R)
N (, R) -
SC(n, R) 1
SL(n, R, I) - I SL(n, R) (torus normaliser)
U (n, R)
U (n, R)
Wn ( Sn )

Br(K)
Cl(R)
d(X) dX X
Diff(X)
Gal(L/K)
Hn (X, A) n-
X A
H n (X, A) n- X A
Isom(X)
K0 (R)

275

K1 (R), K1 (n, R)
K2 (R), K2 (n, R)
Moeb
Pic(R)
n (X) n (X, x) n-
( )

BM = F2 (Baby Monster)
Co1 , Co2 , Co3
FG = F1 (Friendly
Giant)
Fi22 , Fi23 , Fi024
He
HJ = J2
HN = F5
HS
J1 , J2 , J3 , J4
Ly
Mc
M11 , M12 , M22 , M23 , M24
ON
Ru
Suz
Th = F3