Jntuk R13 Physics Lab Manual PDF

ENGINEERING PHYSICS LABORATORY MANUAL
I - B. Tech, I SEMESTER, ECE AND EEE BRANCHES (R13)
GAYTRI VIDYA PARISHAD COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING FOR WOMEN MADHURAWADA, VISAKHAPATNAM.
NAME:
REGD. NO:
BRANCH:
Certificate
Certified record of practical work done by Ms........ of first B.Tech, .. Semester, Branch bearing registered number in the Engineering Physics laboratories of Gayatri Vidya Parishad College of Engineering for Women, Madhurawada, Visakhapatnam during the academic year 2013-14. No. of experiments done and certified:
Lecturer in charge Date Examiners: 1. 2.
INDEX
S.NO. DATE
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
NAME OF THE EXPERIMENT
MARKS
SIGNATURE
T ENGINEERING PHYSICS LABORATORY
THERMISTOR
THEORY: The name thermistor comes from thermally sensitive resistor. They are basically semiconducting materials and are of two distinct classes: 1. METAL OXIDES: They are made from fine powders that are compressed and sintered at high temperature. Mn2O3 (manganese oxide), Ni O (nickel oxide), Co O3 (cobalt oxide), Cu2O3 (copper oxide), Fe2O3 (iron oxide), TiO3 (titanium oxide) U2O3 (uranium oxide) etc, are the few examples. They are suitable for temperatures 200-700 K. If the temperature is higher than this range then Al2O3, Be O, Mg O, ZrO2 Y2O3 and Dy2O3 (Dy :dysprosium) are used. 2. SINGLE CRYSTAL SEMICONDUCTORS: They are usually Germanium and Silicon doped with 1016 to 1017 dopant atoms/cm3. Ge thermistors are suitable for cryogenic range 1100 K. Si thermistors are suitable for 100-250 K. After 250 K the Silicon thermistors will become PTC (positive temperature coefficient) from NTC. The resistivity and the conductivity of the thermistor are related to the concentration of electrons and holes n and p of the semiconductor though the relation, ( ) ... (1) The concentrations n and p are strongly dependent on temperature T in Kelvin. Where Ea is called activation energy which is related to the energy band gap of that semiconductor. Hence, As temperature increases, the resistance R(T) changes according to the relation, ( [ ]) . (2) Where RO is the resistance of the thermistor at absolute temperature To. Here To is usually the reference room temperature. B is a characteristic temperature that lies between 2000K to 5000K. The temperature coefficient of resistance is defined as the ratio of fractional change in resistance ( ) to the infinitesimal change in temperature . ordinary metals. Thermistors are available from 1K to 1M. Advantages: They are low cost, compact and highly temperature sensitive devices. Hence are more useful than conventional thermometric devices. Using eq. (2) at some constant reference temperature, say TO= 300K, the resistance will be ( ) Where, ( )
To make the expression to look like a linear relation to determine the values of A and B constants, take natural logarithm on both sides of the above expression, .. (4) The exponential curve now became linear. If we plot the variable , we will get A and B constants from the intercept and slope of the straight line. DESIGN OF EXPERIMENT: PRINCIPLE: If we measure the resistance R of thermistor at various temperatures (T), we can plot the graph and obtain the values of A and B. How to vary the temperature T? Using an electric heater we can change the temperature roughly from 30 to 60 . How to measure the resistance R? Using Wheatstones bridge. Wheatstones bridge principle: The circuit shown here is a Wheatstones bridge and it consists of four resistors R1, R2, R3 and R4, a galvanometer (G) and a Battery R1 R2 (V). Suppose the resistance R4 be G unknown. The voltage applied to this circuit by the battery is R4 R3 only to set up V some current and its magnitude has no importance, i.e. whether or 2V or 5V it does not matter at all. Wheatstone bridge gets balanced, i.e. the Galvanometer shows a zero deflection when,
..(3) The typical value of is about 0.05/K. It is almost 10 times more sensitive compared with TH 1 G.V.P. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING FOR WOMEN
Or If the resistances R1 and R2 are equal, then the bridge will be balanced, i.e. the null deflection in Galvanometer, when R4 = R3. If we choose R3 as a variable resistor, like a decade resistance box, the unknown resistance R4 will be equal to the resistance maintained in the box. Measurement of resistance of thermistor: Here in this experiment we employ a 1K (at room temperature) thermistor. We form a wheatstones bridge with two fixed value resistors each of 1K resistance along with a variable decade resistance box. Two arms of the bridge are formed by 1K resistors and the other two arms, one with thermistor and the other with decade resistance box. The reason for choosing a 1K fixed resistor. The sensitivity of measurement of resistance will be better when all the four resistors here are of same (comparable) magnitude hence the remaining Rs are 1K each.
R1=1K
R2=1K
G T
RB 1.5 V
RT
Applications of thermistors: 1. They are used as temperature sensing elements in microwave ovens, heaters and also in some electronic thermometers. 2. Used as sensor in cryogenic liquid storage flasks. 3. Used as compensator for providing thermal stability to transistor based circuits. 4. Used in fire alarms, Infrared detectors as sensor.
THERMISTOR EXPERIMENT
Aim: 1. To study the variation of resistance of a thermistor with temperature. 2. To find the temperature (thermoelectric) coefficient of resistance () of the thermistor. 3. To determine I and B coefficients. Apparatus: Thermistor (1 K), electric heater (max 70C), 1.5 volt battery or a D.C. power supply, mercury or benzene thermometer (0 110 ), test tube containing insulating oil (edible oil / castor oil), resistors (1k - 2 No.s), Galvanometer (30 0 30), resistance box (1 to 1000 range), connecting wires. Formulae: ( )
R1=1K R2=1K
RB
1.5 V
Test tube with Coconut oil

TH 2
Electric heater
Procedure: 1. Construct the bridge according to the circuit diagram (Maintain at least 1000 resistance in the Resistance box before connecting the circuit, i.e. remove the 1000 plug key). 2. The 1 K resistors are already connected at the bottom panel of the board. Hence no need to connect them again. 3. If a variable D.C. source is given instead of a battery, set the voltage to 1.5 or 2 Volt with the help of a multimeter. 4. The bridge gets balanced (Galvanometer shows 0 deflection) when the resistance of thermistor gets equal to that of the resistance box. Remove the plug keys of resistance box and find out the null point resistance.
G.V.P. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING FOR WOMEN
Thermometer
5. Start heating the thermistor by turning on the heater switch on the board. 6. Measure the resistance of thermistor for every two degrees centigrade rise in temperature. Note the readings up to 60C in steps of 2C. 7. At each temperature bridge is not balanced initially and it shows some deflection. It can be made zero by adjusting the resistances in the variable resistance box. Tabulate the readings. 8. Remove the power supply or battery, soon after you complete the experiment. If you forget doing this, it will cause the galvanometer to deflect more causing damage to its restore spring. Graph: A graph is plotted by taking R versus T (K). This graph gives the value of .
R1 R2 T1 T2 T in K
ln R
Slope = B
in K-1
Another graph is plotted between ln R and (1/T(K)). The slope of this graph gives B and its intercept on y (ln R) axis gives ln A from which A can be calculated. But it is not possible to find out the intercept from the graph. It can be done with the help of least square fit method as described in the Appendix. Use this method to compute both slope (B) and intercept (ln A) of the straight line. Here assume X as (1/T) and Y as lnR. The intercept C gives the value of ln A and the slope will give B (in K). From the intercept find out the value of A (in ). Precautions: 1. Temperature of the thermistor should be less than 70C. 2. Thermistor must be immersed completely inside the hot oil bath. 3. Readings of thermometer must be noted without parallax. Viva-Voce Questions: 1. Where do you find applications of thermistor? Name a few of them. They are useful in temperature sensing and controlling equipments. Ex. Microwave ovens, Infrared heat sensors, Liquefied gas temperature sensors in cryogenics. 2. Explain the principle of Wheatstones bridge. In the bridge circuit, the potential at the two nodes across which the galvanometer is connected will be same when the four resistors R1 to R4 satisfy the relation 3. After obtaining the data from this experiment, you will have the values of A and B coefficients. Can you determine TH 3 4. Connections should be made properly without any loose contact. 5. Resistance must be varied quickly in the resistance box to get the null point within the 2C intervals. 6. Battery must be disconnected immediately after completion of the experiment. the temperature of your body? I will provide you only a thermistor and a multimeter. If yes, describe the method. If No, justify your answer. Yes, it is possible. Suppose that you want to measure your body temperature. Just keep it in tight contact with your body (cover it tightly with skin). Use the multimeter to measure the resistance of this thermistor. After few seconds of contact with body, thermistor attains constant resistance. With the known A and B coefficients, we can measure the body temperature by substituting in ( )
( )
ENGINEERING PHYSICS LABORATORY
REFERENCES: 1. Physics of semiconductor devices, S. M. Sze, 3rd ed, John Wiley publications, chapter 14, sensors, Thermal sensors, p.744-746. 2. The art of Electronics, Paul Horowitz, 2nd ed, Cambridge university press, chapter 15, Measurement transducers, Thermistors, p.992-993 3. Electronic devices and circuit theory, R. Boylestad, 7th ed, Prentice hall publications, Art. 20.11 Thermistors, p.837-838 4. Electronic sensor circuits and projects, Forrest Mims III, Master publishing, p.13, 46-47. 5. Advanced level physics, Nelkon and Parker, 3rd Ed, Wheatstones bridge, p.829-834
BAND GAP OF SEMICONDUCTOR USING PN JUNCTION DIODE

THEORY: PN junction diode is an example for extrinsic semiconductor. It can be biased in both forward and reverse directions. The current that flow through the diode when its junction is biased with a voltage V will be ( With ) . ni2 = B = a constant independent of T EG = Energy band gap of semiconductor (in Joule) NA = Acceptor ion concentration (/m3) ND = Donor ion concentration (/m3) The term Is is highly temperature dependent. The expression for it can be written as
Where, V = applied voltage across junction Is = Reverse saturation current, a constant dependent on temperature of junction = a constant equal to 1 for Ge (high rated currents) and 2 for Si (low rated currents) VT = Volt equivalent of temperature = , T = Temperature of junction in Kelvin A = area of cross section of junction e = elementary charge = C Dp(n)= Diffusion constant for holes (electrons) for holes and for electrons = mobility of holes Lp(n) = Diffusion length for holes (electrons) pno = equilibrium concentration of holes (p) in the n type material = npo = equilibrium concentration electrons (n) in p type material = ni = intrinsic carrier concentration (/cm3) BG 1 of
( ( ) ( ( (
) ( )
) )( )( ( ) ) )
Experimentally it was observed that the mobility term in the bracket varies as . Hence, (1) is a constant whose magnitude is in nano or pico ampere. Under reverse biased condition applied voltage V will be negative and hence the expression for current through diode will be, ( )
Diode will have only the reverse saturation current flowing through it. The negative sign indicates that the current is flowing in opposite direction to that of forward bias. Hence the current ID through diode in reverse bias will be ( ). (2) Applying natural logarithms on both sides implies, [ ( )] (3)
( ) .
This is the equation of the straight line with ln(ID) as ordinate(y axis) and 1/T as abscissa (x axis). ln(I0) is the y intercept of the graph. If we plot 1/T versus ln(ID) graph, its slope with x axis gives the value of ( ). By knowing the Boltzmann constant kB we can evaluate the energy band gap of the semiconductor, similarly we can estimate the value of Boltzmann constant if we know the energy band gap of the given semiconductor. Applications: 1. We can use this to make a diode thermometer. DESIGN OF EXPERIMENT: PRINCIPLE: If we measure the reverse saturation current through the diode by varying its temperature, we can plot the graph and obtain slope ( ). Which diode is suitable for this? OA79, Germanium diode, used as envelope detector in amplitude demodulation circuits. Why this OA 79? Why not any other? Because reverse current variation is more in the case of Germanium than with silicon. Hence for a small temperature range of variation (30C to 60C), it is better to choose Ge diode than any other silicon diodes. If we want to do this experiment with silicon diodes, we must have an electric heater capable of giving temperatures up to 150C.
How to vary the temperature T? Using an electric heater we can change the temperature roughly from 30C to 60C. How to measure the reverse current? Using a moving coil micro ammeter. Biasing the diode: Use a constant voltage D.C. power supply or a battery to bias it in reverse direction. The voltage applied must be very low, 2 Volt. In case of an ideal diode the reverse current does not vary with applied reverse voltage. But in practical diode case, it increases with increase in reverse voltage. This is due to the increase of leakage currents across the junction with applied voltage. At room temperature, the reverse current may be small and different for same type of diodes, but it follows the equation (2). The values of Io may vary from diode to diode. Description of heater: The heater contains an electric heating element attached to a stainless steel container holding some cold water. A test tube containing oil is immersed in the water bath. Oil is an insulator of electricity and hence it is used for heating the diode. This also provides uniform heating of diode. The diode with properly insulated connecting wires is immersed in the oil bath. Thermometer is also kept inside the oil bath to measure its temperature. We cannot directly insert the diode inside the water bath as tap water contains lots of minerals dissolved in it and acts like conductor. This will short circuit the diode. Useful data: From the data sheet of the OA 79 diode: Material of the diode is Germanium. Maximum surrounding temperature is 60C. Maximum allowed reverse current through the diode is 60A.
BG 2
BAND GAP OF SEMICONDUCTOR EXPERIMENT Aim: To determine the energy band gap of the material of the semiconductor by studying the variation of reverse saturation current through given PN junction diode with temperature. Apparatus: OA 79 Ge diode, heater (max 60C), thermometer, test tube containing insulating oil (edible oil or castor oil), power supply (2V D.C.), connecting wires, micro ammeter (0 50 A) and a voltmeter or multimeter. Formula: Reverse current through diode is given by ( ) Where, EG is the energy band gap of the material of the semi conductor diode, T is the absolute temperature of the diode junction and kB = 1.38 x 10-23 J/K is Boltzmann constant. Circuit diagram: 3. Apply the reverse voltage (2 Volt) by adjusting the potentiometer (if a battery is given, then there is no need of doing this adjustment). 4. Switch on the heater. Note down the reverse current in the micro ammeter for say, every 2C rise, in temperature of the diode (if micro ammeter is not available, you can use a multimeter in D.C. current mode under 200 A ranges). 5. Tabulate the readings. 6. Complete the calculations relevant to the tabular form and get the answer for slope. 7. Plot a graph between lnI and 1/T to obtain its slope. 8. Calculate the EG from both slopes obtained from graph and table. Precautions: 1. Readings of thermometer must be noted without any parallax error. 2. Reverse bias voltage must be regulated at 2 Volt throughout the experiment. 3. Diode should be completely immersed inside the oil bath. GRAPH: Plot a graph by taking the values of ln I vs 1/T. Find out the slope of the curve. Do not consider the origin of this graph. Usually we start at 300K and go up to 333K, hence 1/T varies roughly from to . So start at 2.98 and go up to 3.34 by choosing the scale On 1/T axis as Usually ID varies from 2 A to 60 A. So ln ID varies roughly from to 13.2. So start at 9.7 and go up to 13.2 by choosing the scale
VD
+ 2V _
+
A
+
ID
Stainless steel container water bath Test tube containing oil

Electric Heater
Caution: Set the applied reverse bias voltage at 2 Volt. Do not increase this value more. Do not heat the diode beyond 60C. Procedure: 1. Build the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram. 2. Observe the initial temperature of the thermometer. If it is high (>30C) then replace the water in the heater jar with some cold water and try to reduce the temperature below 30C. BG 3
On ln I axis as Slope (EG/kB) can be calculated from both straight line data fit as well as from the graph. Viva-Voce questions: 1. Distinguish intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductor. If the semiconductor material consists of no impurities (dopants), then it will be intrinsic (pure) semiconductor. If it contains dopants {acceptor type [p-type] III group elements or Donor type [n-type] IV group elements} then it will be an extrinsic semiconductor. 2. What are the band gaps of Silicon and Germanium? For silicon; (eV = electron volt) For Germanium, T is the temperature of the sample in Kelvin. At 300K, EG = 0.72 eV for Ge; EG= 1.1 eV for Si. 3. How do you test the diode for its polarity using a multimeter? There will be a symbol of diode on the multimeters mode changing dial. Turn the dial to diode testing mode. Connect the two leads of the multimeter to the two leads of the diode. If the multimeter shows infinite resistance (it shows a 1 Or OL means out of range, very large), then it is reverse biased and the terminal of diode that is connected to positive (red probe) of multimeter will be the cathode of the diode and the other one will obviously be the anode. Similarly, if the meter shows some finite resistance like few hundred (150, 540 etc), then it is forward biased, i.e. the terminal of diode that is connected to positive (red probe) of multimeter will be the Anode of the diode and the other one will be the Cathode. During this process, multimeter applies some known voltage across its leads and measures its resistance.
4. If I reveal the material of the diode used, can you estimate the Boltzmann constant from this experiment? If yes, describe how do you do it, if no, say why? (Think and answer) 5. Why do we observe small current (of the order of Micro amp) in this experiment? What are responsible for this small current? Because reverse current is due to the minority carries only. As their number is very small the current is also small. 6. In which biasing of diode are you doing this experiment? Reverse bias. 7. Can you determine the band gap by changing the bias of the diode? If yes, describe how you do it. If no, explain why? (think and answer) 8. If I give you a silicon diode and the same experimental set up (micro ammeter 050range), can you find out its band gap? Justify your answer. No, the reverse current variation is very small of the order of few nano amperes per degree centigrade and hence it not possible to observe the variation in reverse current with the micro ammeter for a temperature range of 30-60C 9. What is the magnitude of reverse current in silicon at moderate temperatures? Few tens of nano amperes. 10. Can you make a diode thermometer using this setup? If yes, say how? If no, say why? Yes, once if we know the value of I0 (antilog of intercept of lnI vs 1/T graph) from the experiment, we can measure the T. Just bring the diode in contact with the body whose temperature is to be measured and measure the reverse current (ID) accurately. As we know the I0 and ID we can determine the T in Kelvin for that body using the relation ( ).
References: 1. Electronic devices and circuits, Millman and Halkias, McGraw hill student edition p.126-132. 2. Semiconductor device physics and technology, SM Sze, M K Lee, 3rd Ed, John wiley, P.107
BG 4
JUNCTION DIODE AND ZENER DIODE VOLT AMPERE CHARACTERISTICS THEORY: Semiconductors are basically of two types. Intrinsic semiconductors: These are in their purest form, without any impurities (Dopants). Extrinsic semiconductors: These are impurity added (Doped) intrinsic semiconductors. Doping is a process of adding impurity atoms to the pure semiconductors. The reason for this doping is only to increase the conductivity of the semiconductors. By adding Group III elements Boron, Aluminum, Gallium, Indium (Trivalent impurity) to the pure semiconductors, it becomes P type. By adding Group V elements Nitrogen, phosphorus, Arsenic, Antimony, Bismuth (pentavalent impurity) it becomes N type. P type has excess of holes as majority carriers and N type has excess of electrons as majority carriers. Diode is a semiconductor based electronic component. It is formed by joining a p type section of semiconductor with n type section. It has anode (p type) and cathode (n type). It is a polar device, i.e. its operation will depend on the direction of connection (biasing). The above symbol represents an ordinary P N junction diode. A denotes the positive (high potential end) Anode and K denotes the negative (low potential end) of the diode. Diode acts like a mechanical check valve, that conducts (allows flow of liquid) only when the Anode is at relatively high potential with respect to the cathode. Suppose that A is at 10 Volt potential and K is at 9.3 Volt potential. Then the diode will conduct (closed switch or Forward Bias) a current from anode to cathode in the direction of arrow shown in diode symbol. If the potentials are reversed, i.e. A at 9.3V and K at 10V, it does not conduct, acts like infinite resistance (open switch or Reverse bias). Forward Bias: Anode of the diode will be at a relatively high potential that that of cathode. In this bias the diode conducts and acts like a closed switch. Reverse bias: Cathode of the diode will be at a relatively high potential than that of Anode. In this bias the diode acts like open switch and offer infinite resistance, i.e. do not conduct. FOR DETAILS ABOUT THE CONDUCTION IN DIODES REFER TO THE THEORY PART OF BAND GAP OF SEMICONDUCTOR EXPERIMENT. MECHANISM OF CONDUCTION IN JUNCTION DIODE:
When a PN junction is forward biased as shown in the figure, there will be an electric force on the carries of the diode due to the potential difference applied by the battery. This field on holes of P region will be towards the depletion region (junction) and hence the holes of P region will try to move away from the + ve plate. Similarly in the N region the electrons are repelled by the negative potential of the battery and hence they too try to move towards the depletion region from the N region. Initially the neutral barrier at the junction (depletion region) prevents the flow of carriers through it. To overcome this, carriers need some potential energy that is just equal to the barrier potential of the junction. In case of silicon diodes it will be 0.7 volt for Germanium it will be 0.3 volt (approximately). After applying this much voltage across junction conduction starts. The minimum voltage at which the diode starts conducting is called its cut in voltage.
ZD 1
During reverse bias the Holes of P region are attracted towards the negative plate and electrons of N region are attracted towards the positive plate of the battery. This makes the depletion region to expand in size and it becomes thicker. Due this the conduction in diode due to majority carriers ceases. Still there are minority carriers which enjoy forward bias, to contribute some weak current across the junction known as Reverse saturation current. The value of this in most of the commercial Junction diodes is in nano ampere range. V I CHARACTERISTICS OF JUNCTION DIODE: During forward bias of the diode, initially we would not observe any current up to say 0.5 to 0.6 V across the diode. Later the current through diode increases exponentially as shown in the figure. Even at higher forward
the semiconductor as well the metal contacts of the diode. During reverse bias, the current through diode is very small of the order of few micro amperes. To observe this we must use a micro ammeter in place of milli ammeter that was used during forward bias. To reach the break down region a PN diode needs a relatively high voltage. In case of rectifier type diodes it will be as high as 1000 Volt. Hence it is not possible in our lab to break down this PN junction diode as we do not have such a high voltage source. Zener and Avalanche diodes are heavily doped p-n junction diodes. Their circuit symbol is
The doping levels (amounts of added impurities) are considerably different from those normally found in a rectifier (PN) diode. This diode preferably used in REVERSE BIAS. A rectifier diode cannot be used in the breakdown region as it makes permanent damage to the junction. However, zener and avalanche diodes are designed to use in the breakdown region. These diodes are used for voltage reference and voltage regulator circuits. There are two mechanisms that cause a reverse-biased p-n junction to break down: the Zener effect and avalanche breakdown. Either of the two may occur independently, or they may both occur simultaneously. Diode junctions that break down below 5 V are caused by the Zener effect.
Heavily doped
Moderately doped
N Side
P Side
Depletion region Denotes atoms/ions
voltages across the diode the voltage does not increase much. But it raises slightly in a practical diode due to the Ohmic resistance of ZD 2
Bubbles ( ) denote holes and black dots ( ) denote electrons
A REVERSE BIASED ZENER DIODE
Junctions that experience break down
above
5 V are caused by avalanche breakdown. Junctions that break down around 5 V are usually caused by a combination of the two effects. A zener diode is produced by moderately doping the p-type semiconductor and heavily doping the n-type material (see Fig below). Observe that the depletion region extends more deeply into the p-type region. Under the influence of a high-intensity electric field, large numbers of bound electrons within the depletion region will break their covalent bonds to become free. This is ionization by an electric field. When ionization occurs, the increase in the number of free electrons in the depletion region converts it from being practically an insulator, to being a conductor. As a result, a large reverse current may flow through the junction. The actual electric field intensity required for the Zener effect to occur is approximately 3 X 107 Volt/meter. From basic circuit theory we recall that the electric field intensity E is given by V=Ed where E = electric field intensity (volts per meter) V = potential difference (volts) d = distance (meters)
Heavily doped
Moderately doped
N Side
P Side
Depletion region
Zener breakdown to occur. Only certain standard zener diode voltages are available. These range from 2.4 to 5.1 V. With lightly doped p-type material, the depletion region may be too wide for the electric field intensity to become sufficient for Zener breakdown to occur. In these cases, the breakdown of the reverse-biased junction is caused by avalanche breakdown (see Fig below). The depletion region is wider because it extends more deeply into the p region. Reverse saturation current is a current flow across a reverse-biased p-n junction due to minority carriers. Even though the electric field strength is not large enough to ionize the atoms in the depletion region, it may accelerate the minority carriers sufficiently to allow them to cause ionization by collision. The specifics may be outlined as follows: 1. The depletion region is too wide to allow an electric field intensity of at least 3 X107 V/m. 2. The minority carriers are accelerated by the applied electric field. 3. The minority carriers gain kinetic energy. 4. The minority carriers collide with atoms in the depletion region. 5. The valence electrons of the atoms receive enough energy from the collisions to become free (conduction band) electrons. 6. As a result, the number of free electrons in the depletion region increases to support a large reverse current. This avalanche of carriers is also termed as carrier multiplication" since one minority carrier may ultimately cause many free electrons. The V- I characteristic curve for a zener diode will be similar to rectifier diode in forward bias condition. Its behavior in reverse bias is different from rectifier diode.
The black dotted electrons on the P-side are minority carriers that are Feeling forward bias and travelling with high speed, colliding with ions of depletion region causing them to release electrons. Their number increases drastically and an avalanche (flood) of electrons are released (Avalanche breakdown) MECHANISM OF AVALANCHE BREAKDOWN
In terms of the p-n junction depicted in above Fig. we note that the applied reverse voltage is V and the depletion region width is the distance d. The narrower the depletion region, the smaller the required reverse bias to cause Zener breakdown. A small reverse bias can produce a sufficiently strong electric field in a narrow depletion region. By controlling the doping levels, manufacturers can control the magnitudes of the reverse biases required for ZD 3
IMPORTANT POINTS FROM V I CHARACTERISTICS: 1. Cut in Voltage (V): During forward bias of the diode, if we slowly vary the voltage across the diode, there will be no observable current up to a characteristic voltage known as Cut In or Break in voltage or Knee voltage. The minimum forward voltage to be applied to the diode to make it just conducting is called its Cut in voltage. For Silicon diodes, this cut in voltage will be approximately 0.6 to 0.7 Volt. For Germanium diodes it will be approximately 0.2 to 0.3 Volt. 2. Break down voltage (VZ): During reverse biasing of diode, initially there will be no current through the diode. (Exception: if we use a micro ammeter, we can observe some small current, a milli ammeter does not show any current ) As we increase the magnitude of reverse voltage, there will be a characteristic voltage for the diode at which it starts conducting infinitely. Sudden raise of current will be observed at this point leaving the voltage across diode almost constant. This voltage is called the Break down voltage. For voltages less than 5V zener break down is dominant and for voltages greater than 5V, Avalanche breakdown is dominant. 3. Dynamic Resistance (RF and RZ): During forward or reverse biasing of diode there are points at which the current through
Ohms law, the resistance does not change with applied voltage and hence they have some fixed value of resistance. But here in the case of diode, the resistance changes with applied voltage. So we define the ratio of differential change in Voltage across the diode with the corresponding differential change in current through it as the Dynamic Resistance. 4. Material of the diode: Depending the cut in and break down voltages as described above, we can decide the make of the diode. APPLICATIONS: 1. As voltage regulators for both line regulation and load regulation in D.C. power supplies. 2. Used in generating reference voltages for transistor based and integrated circuits. DESIGN OF EXPERIMENT: PRINCIPLE: To study the V I characteristics of the Junction diode / zener diode, we must measure the current through the diode by applying various voltages to the diode in both forward and reverse biases. This can be done with a variable voltage D.C. source and a milli ammeter.
VR
RS
mA
VD
FORWARD BIAS
What is the D.C. source? A variable D.C. power supply with zero minimum voltage to at least 15 to 20 V maximum voltage. Its power rating must be sufficient to draw at least 100 mA current at these voltages. In our lab we are going to use a 0 20 V variable D.C. source with 1 Ampere maximum current.
diode increase rapidly. At these points the variation of current with voltage is non linear, reflecting that these devices are non Ohmic. For Ohmic devices, that obey ZD 4
VR
RS
mA
VD
REVERSE BIAS
How to choose the diode? The zener break down voltage should not exceed the maximum voltage supplied by the D.C. source. As a rule of thumb, the difference between maximum voltage of the source and the break down voltage of the diode must be greater than at least 5V. If the D.C. source has maximum voltage of 15 Volt, we can use zener diodes of break down voltages up to 10V. The power rating of the diode is specified by the manufacturer. If we want more current through the diode, we must use high power rated diodes. In our lab we use either half watt or one watt rated zener diodes. Their voltage ratings usually vary from 5V to 13V. For PN junction diode we use 1N 4001 4007 family of rectifier diodes. In our lab we use 1N 4007 diode made of silicon that has a PIV rating of 1000V (PIV peak inverse voltage, the maximum reverse voltage a diode can withstand; break down voltage) How to recognize its polarity? There will a ring (band) on the cathode side it will be the negative of diode and obviously the other one will be positive of diode. If the band is not visible, you can test it with a mutimeter. How to test a diode with a multi-meter? There will be a diode symbol on the multimeter dial knob. Turn it to the diode testing mode. Join the positive (red probe) of multimeter to one end of the diode and the negative (black probe) to the other end of diode. If the meter shows a low resistance of say few hundred, it means that the diode is forward biased, i.e. the leg of diode connected to positive (red probe) is its positive and vice versa. If the multi-meter shows an infinite resistance, it means that it is in reverse bias, i.e. the leg of diode connected to the positive (red probe) of multimeter is its cathode (negative) and vice versa. ZD 5
How to check whether a diode is working or spoiled? To check whether the diode is working or spoiled use the multimeter test as described above. If the diode shows very low resistance in both directions, it is spoiled. If it shows high resistance only in one direction, it is in good condition. What is the function of series resistance RS? RS is used for limiting (controlling) the current through diode. The value of this resistor can be decided by the power rating of the diode. How to measure the current? In our lab we have milli ammeters of 0 50 and 0-100 range. We can also use the digital multimeter (DMM) in current measuring mode. Fixing the values of components: Apply KVL to the forward bias circuit. During forward bias VD =0.7 V approximately for silicon diode. If the power rating of Zener is P, maximum current it can hold without being destroyed is imax, then, Or
This will tell us the maximum current the diode can withstand when a voltage of VD is applied to it. The resistor must be capable of controlling the current to this threshold value. As a rule of thumb, we restrict our self to a threshold current value which is much lower than the value predicted by the above expression for imax. If the predicted value is say 90 mA, then we restrict to of this value, say 20 to 25 mA. Take this value as imax. This is to ensure the durability of the diode. If the applied maximum voltage by the D.C. source is say 20 V, then
(In forward bias) Suppose that the zener is a half watt rated. Then, . Hence it can withstand 700 mA. But our milli ammeter has only 50 or 100 mA range, it is better to restrict up to 30 mA in forward bias. So, Imax is 0.03Amp. Hence, or .
The nearest standard resistance value is 680. The power rating of the resistor can be calculated using . Suppose that the maximum current goes up to 30 mA in the resistor, then, Nearest standard wattage is 1 Watt. If we use a 1K resistor in place of 680, the current drops and even a 1K half watt resistor can withstand the maximum current. So, when we wish to reduce the resistance we must increase its power rating and vice versa. For reverse bias replace VD with the break down voltage of the zener diode, say 5.6V,
watt rating, then, So, restrict only to 25 mA.
or , nearest standard value is 680. So it is better to use 680 or more in both forward and reverse biasing of the circuit.
ZENER DIODE V I CHARACTERISTICS EXPERIMENT Aim: 1. To study the volt ampere characteristics of the given zener diode. 2. To determine the Cut in, Break down and dynamic resistances of the diode from the characteristic curves. Apparatus: Zener diode (W), Resistors (1 K, W), Variable voltage D.C. power supply, milli ammeter (0 50 or 100), Multimeter, bread board, connecting wires. Procedure: FORWARD BIAS: Circuit: RS 3. Initially, there will be no current through the diode up to a characteristic voltage, known as Cut-In voltage. Note values of current until this characteristic voltage as zero. Observe carefully for this voltage and note it down. 4. From here onwards note down the voltage that you observe across the diode as function of current through diode in steps of 2 mA by varying the potentiometer. REVERSE BIAS: Circuit:
mA
VD
RS
mA
VD
REVERSE BIAS
FORWARD BIAS
1. Construct the circuit on bread board according to the circuit diagram for forward bias. Zener diode has a black band on it. It shows the cathode of diode. 2. Vary the potentiometer (knob on the power supply) and apply various voltages to the diode in steps of 0.1 Volt. Note the current in milli ampere as shown by the ammeter. ZD 6
1. Connect the circuit in reverse bias as shown in the circuit diagram, i.e. just reverse the ends of the diode in the forward bias circuit. 2. Vary the potentiometer (knob on the power supply) and apply various voltages to the diode in steps of 1 volt starting from zero. 3. Note the value of current in milli ampere as shown by the ammeter (initially you wouldnt get any current, note them as zero).
4. At a characteristic voltage known as Break down voltage, you will get a sudden raise in the current through the diode. Observe this carefully and note down the value.
5. From here onwards note down the voltage that you observe across the diode as function of current through diode in steps of 2 mA by varying the potentiometer.
Graph: Plot a graph by taking the current through diode versus voltage across diode both for forward and reverse biases. Split the graph into four quadrants. Choose the scale on voltage axis (horizontal) as 1 division = 0.1Volt on the positive side and 1 division = 1 volt on the negative side. Choose the scale on current axis (vertical) as 1division = 1 mA on both positive and negative sides. From each curve on first and third quadrants, calculate the slope of the graph near cut in and break down points. These slopes will give the dynamic conductances of diode. Inverse of conductance gives the dynamic resistance of the diode. Precautions: 1. Do not short the ends of the power supply. This will damage your power supply. 2. Connections on the breadboard must be tight. Avoid loose contacts. 3. Check the polarity of diode carefully. 4. Do not connect the diode without current limiting resistor. This will burn out the diode in any bias. Viva voce questions: 1. What is the basic application of a zener diode? It is used as a voltage regulator. 2. I have a silicon made zener diode with VZ=5.2V connected in reverse bias with a series resistor of 100 and a variable D.C. source of 0-20V. Estimate the maximum current flowing in the circuit. Determine the current in the circuit if the diode direction is reversed. Suggest the minimum power ratings for both zener diode and resistor in both connections. In reverse bias, 3. Design a voltage regulating circuit which drives a cell phone charging unit with required output at 5.6 Volt, 300mA with input voltage of 10 Volt D.C. RS
10V
5.6
Imax for the zener is 300mA, i.e. 0.3A. Zener voltage rating is 5.6V, for diode, For resistor, Voltage drop across it will be 105.6= 4.4V
For diode, For resistor, . In forward bias, for Silicon VZ = 0.7 V ; This circuit will work will a load (cell phone) of resistance greater than 18.66 . If the load resistance is further reduced, the circuit will not work. 4. What do you mean by dynamic resistance? It is the resistance offered by the diode due to the changes occurred in input voltage. Static resistance of a diode refers to a fixed resistance at a fixed voltage. But dynamic resistance is some kind of average
For diode, For resistor, . ZD 7
resistance offered by the diode when the input voltage changes between two closely separated voltage levels. 5. Which bias would you suggest for operating the zener diode to exploit to maximum extent? Reverse bias only. 6. Can we use an ordinary PN junction diode to regulate the voltage instead of a Zener diode? Justify your answer. Yes, Junction diode offers a forward drop of about 0.7 Volt (for silicon). Hence by using a combination of forward biased diodes we can achieve voltage regulation even in forward bias. A serial combination
of two forward biased silicon diodes will provide a forward drop of 1.4V. 7. What is the basic difference between Zener break down and avalanche breakdown? Zener break down is due to the breaking of bonds in the depletion region because of applied external reverse voltage. Avalanche breakdown is due to the rupture of bonds in depletion region by the collisions of minority carriers that are accelerated by the applied reverse voltage. As the temperature increases, the minority carrier concentration also increases, giving more chance for avalanche breakdown.
REFERENCES: 1. Electronic devices and circuits Discrete and integrated, Stephen Fleeman, Prentice hall, Art. 2-8, zener and avalanche diodes, p.32-36 (taken verbatim). 2. Electronic devices, 9th Ed, Thomas L Floyd, Prentice hall, unit-3, special purpose diodes, p.113-126. 3. Electronic devices and circuit theory, R. Boylestad, 7th ed, Prentice hall publications, Art, semiconductor diode p.10.
ZD 8
PN JUNCTION DIODE V I CHARACTERISTICS EXPERIMENT Aim: To study the volt ampere characteristics of the given PN junction diode. Apparatus: 1N 4007 rectifier diode / 1n 4148 signal diode, Resistors (470 or 1 K, W), Variable voltage D.C. power supply, milli ammeter (0 50 or 100), micro ammeter (0 50) range, Multimeter, bread board, connecting wires. PROCEDURE: FORWARD BIAS: Circuit: zero. Observe carefully for this voltage and note it down. 4. From here onwards note down the voltage that you observe across the diode as function of current through diode in steps of 1 mA by varying the potentiometer. REVERSE BIAS: Circuit:
RS
A
VD
V
RS
mA
VD
REVERSE BIAS
1. Connect the circuit in reverse bias as shown in the circuit diagram, i.e. just reverse the ends of the diode in the forward bias circuit. 1. Construct the circuit on bread board 2. Vary the potentiometer (knob on the according to the circuit diagram for power supply) and apply various voltages forward bias. Junction diode has a band to the diode in steps of 1 volt starting from on it. It shows the cathode of diode. zero. 2. Vary the potentiometer (knob on the 3. Note the value of current in micro ampere power supply) and apply various voltages as shown by the ammeter. (If you connect to the diode in steps of 0.1 Volt. Note the a milli ammeter in place of this you will current in milli ampere as shown by the not observe any current) ammeter. 4. Just continue doing this until you reach the 3. Initially, there will be no current through maximum D.C. source voltage. the diode up to a characteristic voltage, 5. Use these values to estimate the reverse known as Cut-In voltage. Note values of resistance of the diode. Usually it will be current until this characteristic voltage as in mega Ohms. Graph: Plot a graph by taking the current through diode versus voltage across diode both for forward and reverse biases. Split the graph into four quadrants. Choose the scale on voltage axis (horizontal) as 1 division = 0.1Volt on the positive side and 1 division = 1 volt on the negative side. Choose the scale on current axis (vertical) as 1division = 1 mA on both positive and negative sides. From each curve on first and third quadrants, calculate the slope of the graph near cut in in forward bias and anywhere in the reverse bias. These slopes will give the dynamic conductances of diode. Inverse of conductance gives the dynamic resistance of the diode. Precautions: 1. Do not short the ends of the power supply. This will damage your power supply. 2. Connections on the breadboard must be tight. Avoid loose contacts. 3. Check the polarity of diode carefully. 4. Do not connect the diode without current limiting resistor. This will burn out the diode in forward bias. PN VI.1
FORWARD BIAS
STEWART AND GEE APPARATUS MAGNETIC FIELD ALONG THE AXIS OF CIRCULAR CURRENT CONDUCTOR THEORY: Biot Savarts Law: Consider a current carrying conductor (of arbitrary orientation) as shown in figure. It carries a current of I. The magnetic field at a point P at distance from an element of the conductor will be given by | | | | r and the y axis (smaller angle side) is . So, makes an angle with the x direction. Its components along X and Y directions are and respectively. When we consider the entire elements of the loop, their y components will cancel with each other due to the circular symmetry of the coil and only the x components survive. So, the total field at P due to all elements will be, | | Here is the angle between the radius vector r and the length element ds. , is the free space permeability constant. Direction of magnetic field is in the direction of the cross product of ds and r, given by right hand screw rule. Magnetic Field on the Axis of a Circular Current Loop: Consider a circular wire loop of radius R located in the yz plane and carrying a steady current I, as shown in Figure. We are going to calculate the magnetic field at an axial point P at a distance x from the center of the loop. Consider element of the wire. Using Biot savarts law, the field at P due to this will be The angle between the ds and r is 900. So, Throughout the loop the values of and r remains unchanged and hence can be taken outside the integral. is the circumference of the coil. From the figure, Therefore, ( )
If the coil contains n number of turns, then the field gets multiplied by that factor.
The direction of this b is always either parallel or anti parallel to the axis of the coil. The field B at the centre of the coil can be obtained by putting x = 0,
And its direction is indicated in the figure. Also from the figure the angle between vector S.G.1
At
,
( )
Hence, the field B falls to times of its maximum value Bo at the center. We can use this point to calculate the radius of the coil, without measuring it physically with a scale, from the experiment. DESIGN OF EXPERIMENT: PRINCIPLE: The variation in B along the axis of the circular coil can be studied experimentally with the help of a Tangent Galvanometer. How to measure B? The coil will produce a magnetic field . There is a huge EARTH magnet that will produce another field , known as the horizontal component of Earths magnetic field. The plane containing the axis of the hypothetical Earth bar magnet is called the MAGNETIC MERIDIAN.
If we place the plane of the coil in the magnetic meridian, then there will be two mutually perpendicular magnetic fields, one in the North South direction (Earth) and the other in the East West direction (coil). If we use a magnetic compass near the coil (which is already set in magnetic meridian), it will experience a toque due to the action of the two magnetic fields and will settle ultimately in the resultant direction of the two fields.
H = 0.38 Oersted or 0.38 X 10 - 4 Tesla By measuring we can estimate the experimental value of using the above relation. What is the coil? A circular frame holding the coil of variable number of turns is mounted vertically on a platform. The platform can be adjusted to make it horizontal with the help of two leveling screws. The set up has 2 turns, 50 turns and 500 turns of coil for experimenting. We use only the 50 turn coil. How to set up the current in the coil? Using a fixed voltage D.C. source. How to measure the current? Using an ammeter of 0 3 Amp range. How to vary the current the circuit? By using a 20 Rheostat. Why to adjust the current? As we measure the magnetic field as a function of angle, it is necessary to restrict our self to some fixed range (30-60). Hence it is required to adjust the current to get the desired value of deflection . Why to restrict only to 300-600 range? When using the instrument it is important to adjust matters so that the deflection is never outside the range 25 to 65 and preferably it should be between 30 and 60. This is because the value of is to be used in the form tan and an effect which can be called 'error magnification' arises. The matter will be made clear by considering the following examples: Suppose the deflection can only be observed with an accuracy of half a degree. Let us consider how this possible error will affect the values of the tangents of deflections 10. tan 10 30' = 0.1853 and tan 9 30' = 0.1673 thus tan 10 30' - tan 9 30' = 0.0180. Now tan 10 00' = 0.1763.Thus an observation of = 10 0.5 leads to a statement that tan = 0.1763 0.0090. This represents a possible error of over 5% in tan .
S.G.2
STEWART AND GEE APPARATUS EXPERIMENT AIM: To study the variation in magnetic field with distance along the axis of circular current carrying conductor. APPARATUS: Stewart and Gee type galvanometer, battery (D.C. Source 2 Volt - 1Amp), commutator, rheostat, Ammeter and connecting wires. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: magnetic compass consists of a small magnet and an aluminum pointer is fixed perpendicular to the small magnet situated at the center of the compass. The circular scale in the magnetic compass is divided into four quadrants to read the angles from 0 to 90 and 900 to 00. A plane mirror is fixed below the pointer such that the deflections can be observed without parallax. PROCEDURE: 1. The circuit should be connected as shown in the diagram. 2. Remove the power connection applied to the circuit. 3. Place the compass exactly at the centre of the coil. 4. Adjust the arms of the magnetometer until the pointer of compass becomes parallel to it. Rotate the compass until the pointer reads 0- 0. 5. Suppose that the coil is placed in magnetic meridian and switch on the power to circuit. It will show some deflection. Carefully adjust the rheostat and bring the deflection to 60 - 60. 6. Interchange the plug keys of the commutator and reverse the current direction in the coil. Note down the deflections of compass. 7. If your coil is exactly in magnetic meridian, then the readings of compass should not differ by more than 5 from their previous values, before interchanging the commutator. If this is not satisfied, once again turn off the power and make the pointer parallel to the magnetometer and repeat this until you get all four deflections within 5 variations. 8. Move the compass to 10 cm distance on both east and west directions on the magnetometer and obtain the deflections with both directions of current. 9. If all the eight deflections that you have obtained in above case lie within 5, you can start taking deflections at various positions. Now the instrument should not be disturbed while moving the compass. Otherwise repeat the adjustment by disconnecting the power.
2 VOLT D.C.
Rh (20)
S.G. coil
0 to 3 Amp
FORMULA:
Where 0 = 4 X 10-7 Henry/meter n = No. of turn in the coil i = Current flowing through the circuit x = Distance of the magnetic compass from the center of the coil a = Radius of the coil. If x and a are expressed in centimeter, then the resultant expression will be
In gauss, the same formula will be,
DESCRIPTION OF EQUIPMENT: It consists of a circular coil in a vertical plane fixed to a horizontal frame at its middle point. The ends of the coil are connected to binding screws. A magnetic compass is arranged such that it can slide along the horizontal scale passing through the center of the coil and is perpendicular to the plane of the coil. The S.G.3 G.V.P. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING FOR WOMEN
10. Start at 0 cm position and obtain four deflections. Vary the position to 2 cm either East or West and obtain four more readings. Tabulate them. 11. Proceed in the same way at 2, 4, 6. cm on both East and West until the deflection falls less than 20. Tabulate the readings.
PRECAUTIONS: 1. The Stewart and Gee apparatus should not be disturbed after the adjustments. 2. Observations are noted down without parallax. 3. The ammeter and rheostat should be kept far away from the deflection magnetometer Tan
Graph: A graph is plotted taking distance of the compass from the center of the coil along X-axis and tan along Y-axis. The shape of the curve is as shown in the figure and is symmetric about Y-axis. The magnetic field is found to be maximum at the center of the coil. The radius of the coil a is determined by measuring its circumference. The current flowing through the circuit i and the number of turns in the coil n are noted. The value of magnetic induction is calculated from the above formula and is compared with the experimental formula B = H tan .
East 0 West Position of compass
Viva-Voce questions: 7. What is the function of rheostat in this 1. What are the magnetic forces acting on experiment? To vary the current in the circuit and to the compass when it is mounted on the bring the deflection to desired value. axis of the coil? Mention their directions. The forces are, due to Earths magnetic 8. Can you determine the radius of the coil field along the geographic north direction without measuring it with a scale? and due to coil along either east or west Yes, consider the tan vs. position graph. direction. Maximum value of tan is obtained at the 2. What is the direction of the magnetic centre. Calculate the value of . field produced by the coil? Draw a horizontal line intersecting the tan Along East or West, i.e. perpendicular to axis at this value. The line intersects the the plane of the coil. graph (curve) at two different points. The 3. Why do we adjust the maximum Tan deflection at 60 ? To restrict the error in the measurement of and hence in the tan to less than 5%, we always adjust the maximum deflection to 60. 4. State Biot-Savarts law. Refer to text. East 2R West 5. Define magnetic meridian. It is the plane containing the axis of the graphical distance between these two points earths hypothetical bar magnet. will give the diameter of the coil and half 6. Why the ammeter should be placed far of it will give the required radius of the away from the coil? coil. If it is sufficiently close to the coil, its horse shoe magnet will influence the resultant deflection of the compass which is an undesirable effect. REFERENCES: 1. Advanced level physics, Nelkon and parker, magnetic fields due to conductors, p.935 2. Fundamentals of physics, Resnick, Halliday, Walker, 7th ed, Example 30.3, p.942 (for fig). S.G.4
TORSIONAL PENDULUM THEORY DESCRIPTION OF PENDULUM: It consists of uniform metal disk suspended by a stainless steel wire whose rigidity modulus is to be determined. The lower end of the wire is gripped to a chuck nut fixed to the disk and the upper end to another chuck nut fixed to a rigid support. When the disk is turned through a small angle (less than 50) in the horizontal plane so as to twist the wire and released, the pendulum executes torsional oscillations about the axis of the wire. The period of the oscillation is given by Where, I = Moment of inertia of the Disk about its axis of rotation C = Couple acting per unit twist of the wire
a 4
2l
a l
Radius of the wire Length of the pendulum Rigidity modulus of material of wire The period of oscillation is expressed by, Therefore,
= = =
DESIGN OF EXPERIMENT: PRINCIPLE: If we measure the time period of oscillation of the pendulum with various lengths of suspensions, we can estimate the of the material of the wire. 1. What is the pendulum? 2. How to measure time period T ? A brass disk, of about 6 cm radius and about 1kg First focus the telescope on the pendulum. You mass, with a chuck nut at its centre to suspend it can make a mark on the edge of the pendulum with a wire. Suspend this disk to a wall bracket either by a marker or by attaching a pin to it with that carries another chuck nut to hold the wire. wax. Use a stop clock to count the time taken for L, the length of the pendulum is the length of the say 20 oscillations and hence find out the period. wire suspended between the two chuck nuts. The amplitude of oscillation must be less than 5. Graph: Plot a graph between length of the pendulum (L) and the square of the corresponding time period of oscillation (T2). It T2 will be a straight line passing through origin. Choose 1 div = 5 cm on L axis and 1 div = 5 sec2 on T2 axis. L
REFERENCES: 1. Advanced practical physics for students, Worsnop and Flint, Methuen publications, p.100 102 2. Laboratory Physics, 3rd Ed, J.H. Avery, A.W.K. Ingram, Heinemann publications, p.73
TP 1
TORSIONAL PENDULUM EXPERIMENT AIM: To determine the rigidity modulus of the material of the wire using Torsional pendulum. APPARATUS: Torsional Pendulum, Reading Telescope, Pin, Steel wire, Meter scale, Screw Gauge, Vernier Calipers and Stop Clock. FORMULA:
= Rigidity Modulus of the material of the wire a = Avg. radius of the wire M = Mass of the Disk R = Radius of the Disk L = Length of the Pendulum T = Time Period PROCEDURE: 1. Fix the metal wire whose rigidity modulus is to be determined (without kinks) to the Wall bracket with the help of chuck nut. 2. Carefully suspend the disk is from the other end of the wire. 3. Adjust the length between the two chuck nuts to say 40 cm using a meter scale. 4. Attach a pin vertically to the edge of the disk. Or equally you can make some reference line with permanent marker. 5. Watch through the telescope and focus it on the pin. Make the vertical cross wire to coincide with the reference line or pin. 6. Give a small twist to the wire by turning the disk slightly about the vertical axis. 7. Take proper care to avoid any up & down and lateral movements. 8. Let the mark come to one extreme of the vertical cross wire. From here start counting of oscillations by turning on the stop watch. 9. When it executes torsional oscillations, count the time taken for 20 oscillations in two trials, trail one and two. Calculate the time period T. 10. Now adjust the length of the wire to another position say 50cm. repeat the experiment two more lengths of the wire in the intervals of 10 cm and calculate T in each case. 11. Calculate avg. L/T2. 12. Measure the mass of the disk and then its radius using rough balance and Vernier calipers respectively. 13. For the radius of the disk, take at least three observations. 14. Use screw gauge and measure the mean radius of the wire by taking five observations at different positions of the wire. 15. Determine the rigidity modulus by using the formula. 16. Plot a graph between L and T2. It gives a straight line passing through the origin. Calculate also from the graph. Least count of Vernier calipers: Where Least count (LC) = Least count of Screw Gauge: Pitch of the screw = LC =
TP 2
PRECAUTIONS: 1. The pendulum must be oscillated only in the Horizontal plane with small amplitude (< 5) and without any wobbling. 2. Wire must be free from kinks. VIVA-VOCE QUESTIONS 1. What is meant by rigidity modulus? The ratio of shearing stress applied on the body to the corresponding shearing strain developed in the body (Shear = tangential) What is the moment of inertia of the disk about an axis through its chuck nut? The zero of head scale usually doesnt coincide with the index line on the pitch scale. If the zero of the head scale lies above the index line, it will be negative error equal to the number of divisions between zero and index line. Similarly if the zero lies below the index line it will be positive error by the same divisions. For positive error the correction should be negative and vice versa. What is the unit for rigidity modulus in C.G.S. system? Dyne/cm2 If we change the radius of the wire from a to a/2, what will be the new rigidity modulus of the material of the wire? Does not change. does not depend on the physical dimensions of the wire. It is a material constant. If we change the radius, the new l/T2 will adjust in such a way to compensate this, i.e. l/T2 decreases.
2.
3.
4.
5. 6.
What happens to the time period of oscillation of the disk when the length of the suspended portion of wire is increased? , hence increase in l increases T What is the least count of vernier calipers? 0.01 cm What is the least count of screw gauge? 0.01 mm What is the zero error for a screw gauge?
7.
8.
TP 3
NEWTONS RINGS THEORY These fringes are called the fringes of equal DESCRIPTION: When a Plano convex lens with its convex inclination or Fizeau fringes. They are surface placed on an optically plane glass plate is concentric rings with variable diameters. observed for interference fringes with an MATHEMATICAL TREATMENT: extended monochromatic source, it will produce Consider a Plano-concave shaped thin film concentric bright and dark rings of variable formed by a medium of refractive index . Let radius. The pattern was first observed the radius of curvature of this Plano-concave independently by Hooke and Boyle. But the radii shaped film be R. Consider a parallel beam of of the rings were first measured by Sir Isaac light rays incident normally (r, the angle of Newton and the name was given to him. The refraction = 0) on this film. The ray reflected correct mathematical explanation of these from the upper surface of the film, at A will not fringes was given Thomas Young in later years. suffer any phase change due to reflection. But the ray from B suffers a phase change of due to reflection from an optically denser boundary. Path difference created between these two rays at a location where the thickness is t is,
R A t
From the figure, if the point of observation (thickness = t) lies at a distance rn away from the center of the lens, using Pythagoras theorem for the right angled triangle implies,
rn
Plano convex lens encloses an air gap with the glass plate that is a non parallel thin film of variable thickness. When a beam of parallel rays fall normally on the lens they will undergo reflections from the top and bottom layers of this Plano concave shaped air film. These rays satisfy the conditions for coherent sources and hence they produce sustained interference pattern in the field of view of the microscope (observer).
For a thin Plano-convex lens usually the thickness (t) will be small compared to its R. Hence t2 will be much smaller than R and can be neglected. Or,
Using this in the expression for path difference implies,
Rays move towards the microscope oe
Replacing rn with Dn the diameter (Dn=2. rn) gives,
For maxima, with n representing the order of the bright fringe,
( ) for bright fringes (rings). For minima, the dark ring,
With
With n representing the order of the dark fringe, Nature of fringes: NR 1 G.V.P. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING FOR WOMEN
( ) With
. For Dark
fringes (rings). If we consider air as the medium between lens and glass plate, = 1, then For dark ring, , hence for dark rings. Consider an mth order dark ring. Then, Combining both equations implies,
R = radius of curvature of the Plano convex lens = Wavelength of the monochromatic source = 5893 for sodium vapour lamp The above equation is valid for dark rings only. In this experiment we intentionally choose dark rings because it is easy to locate the dark fringes exactly than the brighter ones.
DESIGN OF EXPERIMENT: PRINCIPLE: If we measure the diameters of various dark rings with traveling microscope, we can determine the radius of curvature of the Plano convex lens by knowing the wavelength . 1. What is the traveling microscope? 2. How to achieve normal incidence on the It is a compound microscope with a graduated lens? carriage that enables the reading of motion of the With the help of a beam splitter, a plane glass microscope in both horizontal and vertical plate inclined at an angle 45 with vertical we directions. it has a vernier to read the position of can collimate the beam normally on the lens the microscope. system. Graph: A graph should be plotted by taking the values of versus the order of ring n. It is a straight line passing through origin as shown in the figure. Determine the radius of curvature of lens from the slope of graph.
Dn2
Applications: 1. To check the optical flatness of a plane glass surface Ring order (n) 2. To check the quality of grinding or polishing of lenses by opticians 3. In the study of polarized Laser beams. REFERENCES: 1. Advanced practical physics for students, Worsnop and Flint, Methuen publications, p.67 71 2. Laboratory Physics, 3rd Ed, J.H. Avery, A.W.K. Ingram, Heinemann publications, p.93
NR 2
NEWTONS RINGS EXPERIMENT

AIM: To determine radius of Curvature of a given convex lens by forming Newtons Rings. APPARATUS: Sodium Vapour lamp, traveling microscope, reading lens, convex lens and plane glass plates, retort stand. FORMULA:
Where R Dn n, m = = = = Radius of Curvature of Plano-convex lens Diameter of nth dark ring Wavelength of the source used = 5893 order of the rings (Number of the ring from the Central dark spot)
Procedure: 1. Take a piece of paper (paper should not be completely white, it must contain some markings or rulings so that they can be observed in the field of view) and place it below the microscope on the platform of the travelling microscope (TM). Adjust the rack and pinion and focus the microscope. (markings on the paper will become very clear) 2. Take the Plano-convex lens and locate which side is plane and which side is curved. Clean the lens with cloth (handle it with care) and place it on the plane glass plate. Place the black paper below the plane glass plate. 3. Keep them on the platform of the TM. Make sure that neither the lens nor glass plate comes on track of the moving base of the microscope. 4. Use a retort stand to hold another plane glass plate at 450 with vertical as described in the theory. Place the glass plate in between the microscope and the lens setup. 5. Observe through the microscope and tilt the clamp of retort stand to get maximum yellow light. This ensures normal incidence of light on the lens surface. 6. Now move the lens carefully to observe the central portion of the ring pattern, i.e. dark central spot surrounded by rings. Do not disturb the lens once after you reach the central dark spot. 7. Turn the screw gauge dial of the TM and bring the vertical cross wire near the central dark spot. 8. Turn the dial by counting rings (arcs) first towards your right hand side until you reach at least 20th dark ring on that side. 9. If there is no difficulty in reaching the 20th on RHS, return back to the central dark spot by turning screw gauge dial back. Now turn the dial towards otherside until you reach the 20 th ring on the left hand side. 10. If it gets struck in the middle, then carefully move the lens system such that the 20th ring or another higher order ring (say 24th) comes and coincides with the cross wire in the position where you had this struck. Steps 8 to10 will make sure that you can go through the diameter of the 20th ring. 11. Lock the base screw of the TM for horizontal motion and turn the screw gauge dial to coincide the reference line of main scale with any one division on the main scale. 12. Release the base screw and adjust the screw gauge dial such that t he 0 of it coincides with its reference line. Then once again lock the base screw and never release it again throughout the experiment. This calibrates your TM. 13. Now once again come back to the central dark spot and go towards one side (either left or right) by carefully counting the dark rings only. Make the cross wire tangential to the dark ring, say 20th. Note down the reading of TM. NR 3 G.V.P. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING FOR WOMEN
14. Rotate the dial back by counting the rings carefully in decreasing order. Make the crosswire tangential to the ring, say 18th and note the reading of TM. 15. Proceed in the same way in steps of two-two rings until you reach the central dark spot. 16. Now continue taking readings on the other side of the ring pattern until you reach the other side 20th ring. Tabulate the readings. Least count = Or (For screw gauge dial type microscope) Least count =
Precautions: 1. The lens should not be disturbed from the initial position while taking the readings at various positions. 2. Readings of the Vernier must be noted without parallax error. Viva-Voce Questions: 1. 2. What is cosine law? What is the medium that is responsible for the formation of Newtons rings? Air film in Plano concave shape. What is the shape of the thin film forming the rings? What happens to the ring pattern when the refractive index of Plano convex lens is changed? (either increased or decreased) No changes will take place. What happens when a liquid is poured in between the lens and glass plate? Fringe pattern shrinks as for liquid is greater than 1. What happens to the fringe pattern when the yellow light is changed to 1) Red light 2) violet light Can you determine the refractive index of a transparent liquid by using this method? If yes, describe a method. If no, why? What happens to the fringe pattern if we replace the sodium vapour lamp with a mercury vapour lamp? Few fringes are seen near the center and after that there will be uniform illumination. What is back-lash error? It is the error caused in the measurement of vernier due to improper calibration of the screw controlling the motion of the microscope. Once if the screw is made tight in one direction it gets calibrated and afterwards the readings will be good. If we change the direction of motion of the microscope once again it needs to be calibrated by a fraction of rotation in the new direction. 10. Why do we get circular interference fringes in this experiment? Why not straight edge fringes? They are fringes of equal thickness, i.e. they are formed by the film of constant thickness. The locus of constant thickness of film will decide the shape of fringes. In this case the locus will be circle and hence fringes are rings. In the case of wedge method the locus will be a straight line and hence they are straight edge fringes. 11. What is the least count of the travelling microscope that you have used? Write its formula. 12. Why do we keep a black paper at the bottom of the plane glass plate? To avoid the light coming from the platform of traveling microscope.
3. 4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
NR 4
MELDES EXPERIMENT DESCRIPTION OF TUNINIG FORK: The prongs of the tuning fork are vibrated with an electromagnet. It is fitted with a metal plate with an adjustable screw. An electromagnetic coil is placed in the middle of the prongs which has a make and break type arrangement. The electromagnet is powered by the variable voltage D.C. power supply. Once power is turned on to the electromagnet, it pulls (attracts) the prong inward. As the prong moves towards the electromagnet the circuit breaks with the help of the make and break key connected to the prong along with the electromagnet coil. Then the prong turns back and the circuit gets completed again. This process repeats continuously and we obtain continuous vibrations in the tuning fork. An electrically maintained tuning fork is taken and to one end of its prongs a thread of about one and half metre is attached. The other prong of this electrically driven fork is connected to the light and flexible string having a light weight pan on the other end. This string passes over a frictionless pulley. We can vary the tension in the string by adding weights to the pan. With a definite tension applied to the string we can obtain a number of well defined loops in the string. LONGITUDINAL MODE: In this mode the fork is adjusted until the displacement of the prong is parallel to the length of the string.
String direction
Direction of vibration of prongs
Direction of propagation of waves
Longitudinal mode
TRANSVERSE MODE: In this mode the fork is adjusted until the displacement of the prong is perpendicular to the length of the string. This mode is perpendicular to the longitudinal mode.
DESIGN OF EXPERIMENT: PRINCIPLE: If we measure the length of the loop of the standing wave in both longitudinal and transverse modes we can estimate the frequency of vibration of the tuning fork by knowing the linear density and tension applied to the string. to the string including the mass of pan with 1. How much voltage is required? 4 to 6 Volts DC is suitable to vibrate the the free fall acceleration 980 cm/s2. fork. 3. How to measure the linear density of 2. How to apply tension to the string? thread? By adding known weights to the scale pan. By taking a string of length roughly 5 to 10 Tension will be the product of mass added meter and by weighing it in a sensitive balance we can measure the linear density. Graphs: Plot a graph between and l on horizontal and vertical axes respectively. Choose the horizontal axis with scale 1 div = 20 and on vertical axis choose 1 div = 10 cm or 5 cm. Plot separate graphs for both Longitudinal and Transverse modes.
MD 1
MELDES EXPERIMENT
AIM: To determine the frequency of vibration of the electrically driven tuning fork. APPARATUS: An electrically driven tuning fork, light weight pan, soft and flexible thread, variable voltage D.C. power supply, connecting wires, meter scale. FORMULA:

Where,
For transverse mode For longitudinal mode
T m
n = =
= frequency of vibration of the tuning fork in Hz. Tension applied to the string in dyne. Linear density (mass per unit length) of the string.
l = Length of each loop in cm. PROCEDURE: 1. Set the apparatus in transverse mode, i.e. the displacement of prong is perpendicular to the length of the string. 2. Switch on the power supply and adjust the screw until steady vibrations are obtained with the fork. 3. Adjust the distance between pulley and the prong of tuning fork until you get some number of well defined loops, i.e. nodes and antinodes. 4. Measure the total length of vibrating part of the string. Then divide it by the number of loops and obtain the length of each loop. 5. Add weights in steps to the pan and change the tension in the string. In each step, measure the number of loops and total length of vibrating segment. Then obtain the length of each loop for each case and tabulate the readings. 6. Repeat the same process by adjusting the fork in Longitudinal mode, i.e. the displacement of fork is parallel to the length of the string. Tabulate the observations. 7. For the same tension and same length of thread between the pulley and prongs, you will get approximately double number of loops in transverse mode than in longitudinal mode. PRECAUTIONS: 1. The displacement at the nodes on the thread must be completely zero. 2. Do not give very large amplitude to the vibrations of the tuning fork. 1. 2. 3. VIVA-VOCE QUESTIONS What is meant by transverse wave? 4. If tension applied to the string is What is meant by longitudinal wave? decreased by four times of its initial If the linear density of the thread in this value, what happens to the length of the experiment is doubled, what happens to loop? Gets doubled. the frequency of the fork? Does not change, remains constant.
MD 2
DIFFRACTION GRATING THEORY Here n represents the order of the spectrum. DIFFRACTION GRATING: Plane diffraction grating consists of very large (n = 0, 1, 2,.) number of parallel slits (open and opaque With N = 1/e, the number of slits per unit width portions) drawn on its surface. When the light of the grating surface. (e, is the distance between rays coming from collimator fall on the surface the centers of two neighboring opaque portions of the grating normally (perpendicularly) it is and hence it tells the extent over which one slit called normal incidence. Or, if the light rays fall occupies, so 1/e tells the number of such slits on the surface of the grating with an angle of within unit width). Clearly there will be no incidence ZERO, it will be normal incidence. spectrum for zero order n. From n = 1 onwards we can see the spectrum. This is because for n = 0 all wavelengths will fall at = 0, so no splitting. But for n = 1 onwards different wavelengths have different corresponding s and hence a spectrum of colours. APPLICATIONS: 1. For the analysis of spectrum of various gases (discharge process) PLANE DIFFRACTION GRATING The following figure shows the diffraction of plane waves under normal incidence at the surface of a plane transmission grating. The interference of secondary wavelets generated from each of the open portions on the grating is shown in the figure. MATHEMATICAL TREATMENT: If we calculate the resultant disturbance caused due to the superposition of the spherical waves (Huygens secondary wavelets) we will the resultant intensity on the screen will be, ( ) ( )
Where, and And d, e are representing respectively the slit width and slit separation of the grating slits. Here d is the width open portion of the slit and e is the distance between the centers of two successive opaque portions of the slit. The above said expression has its maximum value when both terms in the braces are maximum. Clearly, the first Sinc function has a maximum value of 1 at = 0. The second Sinc has maximum value of N at = n, with n taking natural numbers. Hence, for maximas,
Or,
EXAMPLES IN DAY TO DAY EXPERIENCE: 1. The colours seen on a compact disk(CD) or a DVD (digital versatile disk) is an example for reflection grating 2. The colours on the peacock feather. 3. The colours of the wings of a fly (insect). 4. Wire mesh in front of a loud speaker is an acoustic transmission grating.
D.G. 1
DESIGN OF EXPERIMENT: PRINCIPLE: If we measure the angle of diffraction for maximas in a particular order of spectrum say for n = 1, we can calculate the wavelength of the corresponding spectral line by knowing the number of rulings over the grating per unit width, N. 1. What is the Source of light? 2. How to measure ? A mercury vapour lamp. With a spectrometer. (Refer Appendix) REFERENCES: 1. Advanced practical physics for students, Worsnop and Flint, Methuen publications, p.362 365 and p.279-282 for spectrometer description. 2. Laboratory Physics, 3rd Ed, J.H. Avery, A.W.K. Ingram, Heinemann publications, p.218-220
DIFFRACTION GRATING NORMAL INCIDENCE EXPERIMENT

AIM: To determine the wavelength of spectral lines in the mercury spectrum using diffraction grating under normal incidence of light. APPARATUS: Spectrometer, Plane diffraction grating, spirit level, reading lens and mercury vapour lamp source. FORMULA: Where n N = = = = = wavelength of the spectral line. Angle of the diffraction of a spectral line order of the spectrum number of lines on the grating per unit width. 15000 LPI = ( ) = 5905.6 lines/ cm
(LPI = lines per inch)
PROCEDURE: STEPS 1 TO 7 ARE KNOWN AS PRELIMINARY ADJUSTMENTS 1. Assuming that the mercury vapor lamp is switched on, adjust the collimator of the spectrometer in front of the lamp such that its slit faces opposite to the lamp. 2. Turn the telescope towards a distant object, a building at far seen through the window of your dark room. Watch through the telescope and adjust its rack and pinion until you see the clear inverted image of the building. 3. Turn the telescope back and try to see the light coming from the lamp through the collimator. In this position both telescope and collimator will come on a straight line, i.e. collinear. 4. Initially, the view of the slit of collimator need not be clear, you may see a blurred image, i.e. some diffused white light. Continue watching through the telescope and adjust the rack and pinion of collimator (but not the rack and pinion of telescope) until you see the sharp image of the slit of collimator. Now adjust the width of the slit (an adjustable screw is fitted with the slit) and make it very thin. 5. Look at the base of the telescope, you will find two screws attached with the rotating platform. One screw locks the telescope from moving, known as locking screw and the other screw, known as tangential screw moves the telescope very slowly when it is locked by the locking screw. Remember tangential screw will operate if and only if the telescope is locked. You will also find another pair of screws attached with the base of prism table. Their action is also similar. They lock the prism table and allow fine adjustments to it. 6. Coincide the telescopes vertical crosswire with the slit and lock the telescope.
D.G. 2
7. Release the prism table base screw and adjust it until you see in both verniers the zeros getting coincided with 0 and 1800 divisions of main scale. Now lock the prism table base screw and then release the telescope. This adjustment calibrates the telescope 8. Fix the grating holder to the prism table. Insert the grating in the holder. Do not make scratches on the grating surface as it reduces the life of grating. 9. Rotate the telescope through 900 either clock-wise or counter clock-wise and lock it. 10. Free the prism table (not its base, but the long metal screw below the prism table platform and make it free to rotate). With one hand slowly turn the prism table and watch through the telescope until you see the reflection of the slit in the telescope. 11. Bring the reflection of slit exactly onto the vertical cross-wire only by turning the prism table. (Do not adjust the telescope with its tangential screw to bring the slit on cross wire) COLLIMATOR 12. With one hand carefully hold the grating, in the position where the reflection coinciding with cross wire, and with the other hand lock the metal screw below the prism table carefully. This makes grating at 450 0 45 with the incident beam. 450 13. Release the base screw of prism table and turn the 0 Telescope 450 entire prism table through further 450 until the plane 45 rotated of grating makes 900 angle with the incident beam. through 90 You can do this by looking at the initial reading of telescope. If the reading in one vernier is say 900, then, after rotating the prism table it may become either (90+45=1350) or (90-45=450). Use your commonsense to decide whether to rotate to 450 or Telescope 1350 to make the plane of grating normal (900) with direct the incident beam. position 14. In this position lock the prism table and release the telescope. 15. Go though both sides of direct position to observe the spectrum. 16. Concentrate first on left hand side spectrum of the direct position. Rotate the telescope and coincide each spectral line with cross wire and then lock it. In each case note down the vernier readings (both vernier 1 and 2). 17. After completion of readings on left hand side go to the right hand side and repeat the same process and obtain the readings. Precautions: 1. Plane of the Grating must be vertical to the prism table. If the holder is not perfectly perpendicular then use paper padding to make the plane of grating perpendicular to the rays. 2. Grating should not be disturbed after fixing it for normal incidence. 3. Readings of the spectrometer must be noted without parallax. 1. 2. 3. VIVA-VOCE QUESTIONS Refer appendix. What is normal incidence? How do you keep the grating for normal 6. Describe the construction of telescope. incidence using spectrometer? 7. What kinds of waves (shape) are When you see the reflection of slit in the emitted by the mercury vapour lamp? Spherical waves. telescope by tilting the plane of the grating, What will be angle of incidence 8. What serves as object in this on the grating for the incident rays experiment? Rectangular slit. (slit)? 45 9. What is the function of mercury vapour What is the least count of spectrometer? lamp in the prism experiment? Just to illuminate the slit. Describe the construction of collimator. D.G. 3 G.V.P. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING FOR WOMEN
4. 5.
10. What kinds of waves (shape) are emitted through collimator? Plane waves. 11. I will hide the object placed on the prism table by using suitable box and show you the spectrum alone through telescope. If I ask you whether the object inside the box is prism or
transmission type diffraction grating, how will you decide it? In the spectrum seen, if the red line comes at a smaller angle with respect to the direct position than the violet line, it is due to grating. If the violet comes at smaller angle than the red line, it will be due to prism.
D.G. 4
COMPOUND PENDULUM THEORY Where represents the angular acceleration of DESCRIPTION OF PENDULUM: Compound pendulum consists of a uniform the pendulum bar about the axis of suspension. rectangular bar made up of iron or brass with a Force is the weight mg. number of holes drilled along its length at equal distances symmetrically on either sides of the In this case from the figure, the perpendicular center of gravity (CG). The pendulum can be distance will be x sin . Hence suspended vertically by means of a horizontal knife edge passing through one of the holes.
Point of suspension
x
Centre of mass
Here we make the approximation that the oscillations are very small so that the angular amplitude is less than 50. Then, ( )
mg
Suppose that the mass of the pendulum bar be m. Let x be the distance of the point of suspension of the pendulum (from where it is suspended with the axle) to the center of mass of the pendulum, i.e. at the midpoint of the pendulum (50 cm location). Let be the angle made by the axis of the pendulum with respect to the vertical.
Point of suspension
With , where representing the angular frequency of the oscillations, it is clear that the pendulum executes simple harmonic motion. Moment of inertia I is given as, . k is called the radius of gyration of the compound pendulum about an axis passing through the center of mass point. Here we have used the parallel axes theorem which states that
m = mass of pendulum
x
S
X I
Centre of mass IG = mk2 IS = mx2 + IG
xsin
If I represents the moment of inertia of the pendulum bar about the point of suspension, then the equation of motion (torque) governing the pendulum will be,
the moment of inertia of the pendulum about the point of suspension is equal to sum of the moment of inertia of the pendulum about its center of mass and m x2.
OR
CP 1
( )
Putting , where l represents the effective or equivalent length of a simple pendulum which has the same time period as that of the compound pendulum. Then
We can get two such ks from the graph. Either by taking their average or by taking the square root of their product we can obtain the value of radius of gyration of the compound pendulum about an axis passing through its center of mass. We can calculate the same by using the theoretical formula,
( )
If we plot the graph of with time t on vertical axis and position x on horizontal axis, we will get the following graph. If we fix the value of t, then it will represent a horizontal straight line (dotted) on this graph. If we solve the equation for solutions, And hence if x = x1 is a solution to the above equation, obviously x2= (lx1) will also be a solution. Because the sum of roots of a quadratic equation ax2+bx+c=0 with roots 1 and 2 is (1 + 2 = - b/a). So,
( )
L and B are respectively the length and breadth of the compound pendulum. As the breadth is comparatively small in comparison to its length, k is approximately equal to .
Center of suspension
Hence, on the horizontal straight line, there will be four points with same time period of oscillation t. These points form a set of conjugate points. The first point from the left is called the Center Of Suspension and its corresponding conjugate point is the Center Of Oscillation which is the third intersecting point on the same line. Observe the two more set of conjugate points on the same line. Distance between the center of oscillation and center of suspension of the compound pendulum is called the Equivalent length of simple pendulum (l) What is Center of suspension and center of oscillation? When a compound pendulum is suspended freely at any arbitrary point (any hole), it will be the Center Of Suspension. If we consider a simple pendulum whose bob has the same mass as that of the compound pendulum with length (l)equivalent to the effective length (as said above), it will have an equal time period as that of the suspended compound pendulum. By putting x = k in obtain k =l/2. CP 2
( )
, we
DESIGN OF EXPERIMENT: PRINCIPLE: If we measure the time period of oscillation of the pendulum at various points of suspension (holes) we can estimate the g and k from graphs. 3. What is the pendulum? 4. How to measure T? A metal bar of one meter long and about 5 cm in Use a stop clock to count the time taken for say width having holes drilled at every 5 cm of its 20 oscillations and hence find out the period. length. The amplitude of oscillation must be less than 5. Graphs:
140 120 100 80 60 40 20
(
0 1000 2000 3000
0
-3000 -2000 -1000
If we plot the graph of line with a slope of (
vs.
, with
on y axis and
on x axis, it will give a straight
) and a y intercept of (
). We can estimate the average g value
from the slope of the graph by using,
And the value of the radius of gyration k can be obtained by using,
You may use the standard g value of 980 cm/s2 in the above expression to find the value of k. 1. Plot a graph with x axis as point of suspension (1 division = 5cm) and y axis as time period T (1 division = 0.1 sec) of the oscillation. Take at least three horizontal lines in the valley region with T = constant. Locate the points D, F, A and E as described in theory for each line. For each line calculate (AD+FE)/2 and hence calculate the l/T2. Take the average of the l/T2. Use this to find out the g. Locate the minimas M and on the curve. Half the average distance M gives K, radius of gyration. 2. Plot the graph of
2
vs.
, with
on y axis (1 division = 10cm.s2) and
on x axis
(1division = 200 cm ), it will give a straight line with a slope of ( of ( ). Estimate the average g value from the slope of the graph.
) and a y intercept
REFERENCES: 1. Advanced practical physics for students, Worsnop and Flint, Methuen publications, p.67 71 2. Laboratory Physics, 3rd Ed, J.H. Avery, A.W.K. Ingram, Heinemann publications, p.93
CP 3
COMPOUND PENDULUM EXPERIMENT

AIM: 1. To determine the acceleration due to gravity at the location of the laboratory. 2. To determine the radius of gyration about the center of gravity of compound pendulum. APPARATUS: Compound pendulum (CP) of about 1 meter long, knife edge suspension, stop watch, telescope and meter scale. A PROCEDURE: 1. Notice the centre of mass hole on the pendulum. 2. Suspend the pendulum through the hole that is next to centre of mass hole, i.e. 5cm Knife edge away from C.O.M. On left hand side of G clamp holder the pendulum. {if you have any confusion regarding the left and right hand sides, < 5 < 5 make a mark on the pendulum with one end as side A (left hand side) and the other end as side B(right hand side)} B Compound pendulum 3. Focus the telescope on the mark made at the end of the pendulum. 4. Give a small displacement to the pendulum such that it si less than 50 with the vertical. Avoid wobbling of the pendulum. 5. Count the time taken for, say 20, oscillations or more in two trials and tabulate them. Take their average (t). 6. The time period of oscillation (T) can be obtained from (t/20). 7. Go to the next hole (10 cm away from C.O.M.) and repeat the above said process to obtain the time period of oscillation (T). Count the time periods at all these points of suspensions until you reach the end A. 8. Now come back to C.O.M. and suspend the pendulum in hole that is next to the C.O.M. but on right hand side (i.e. towards side B). 9. Start counting the time for twenty oscillations as said above for each hole until you reach the other end B. Tabulate the readings in the data sheet provided at the end of this book. Precautions: 1. The pendulum must be oscillated only in the vertical plane with small amplitude and without any wobbling. 2. The knife edge should be horizontal. Viva-Voce Questions: 1. What is the basic difference between a simple pendulum and a compound pendulum? Mass of pendulum is concentrated in the bob in case of simple pendulum. But it is uniformly distributed in the case of compound pendulum. 2. What is moment of inertia for a body? It is a rotational analogue of mass in linear motion. It comes from the equivalence of kinetic energy in both linear and rotational motions. I = MK2 3. What is radius of gyration? In the above formula M represents the total mass of the body and K represents the radius of gyration. State parallel axes theorem. State perpendicular axis theorem. What is the maximum allowed angular displacement for this pendulum? 5 Define torque. = Moment of inertia angular acceleration A pendulum bar has length L and breadth B. what is the moment of inertia of the pendulum about an axis,
4. 5. 6.
7.
8.
CP 4
a) Parallel to and about one of its edge and perpendicular to its length. b) Parallel to and about one of its edge and perpendicular to its breadth. c) Perpendicular to its length and through its centre of mass d) Perpendicular to its breadth and through its centre of mass e) Perpendicular to both its length and breadth, through its centre of mass 9. What is center of oscillation? It is a significant point on the pendulum. If we make a simple pendulum with a bob whose mass is same as that of the entire compound pendulum, it will have the same time period when suspended by a mass less thread of length exactly equal to the distance of this center of oscillation from the centre of mass of compound pendulum. (Center of oscillation is totally
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
different from center of mass of pendulum) What is center of suspension? It is the point where the pendulum is suspended with the help of the axle. What is equivalent length of simple pendulum? Refer center of oscillation What is the nature of graph plotted between T2x vs x2. Straight line. For what value of position x the time period will be minimum? When x = k. For what value of position x the time period will be maximum? Infinity at the center of mass.
CP 5
WEDGE METHOD For dark line, THEORY: The set up is similar to Newtons rings experiment. The Plano-convex lens is replaced with an air wedge formed by a pair of plane For nearly normal incidence, we can put r=0. glass plates.
F i i B E r+ r r C Q P r+ r D
From the ABC, y = xn tan Combining implies, For air medium as thin film, =1
Or Fringe width (the distance between successive dark fringes) is
The path difference between rays reflected at B and transmitted from D can be calculated as follows.
As is small, sin can be replaced with tan . From the above triangle, or,
Due to reflection at C an extra phase of (path ) is added.
Where, t = is thickness of the object (the diameter of a hairline or thin wire). Nature of fringes: The fringes formed here are bright and dark straight edge fringes with equal fringe spacing independent of the order. This is in sharp contrast with the fringes obtained in Newtons rings where the diameter of fringe depends on the order of fringe n.
C y t A l t B
xn
l
DESIGN OF EXPERIMENT: PRINCIPLE: If we measure the fringe width for dark fringes and the distance l experimentally we can estimate the thickness of the object. 1. How to measure ? 2. How to measure l ? By using a traveling microscope. By using a scale. WM1 G.V.P. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING FOR WOMEN
3. How to set up the fringe pattern? Take a pair of optically plane glass plates (Clinical glass slides will serve good) make triangular wedge (air gap) by inserting a piece of paper or a thin wire. Use cellophane tape to hold the glass slides together if necessary.
4. How to illuminate the wedge shaped air film? By using sodium vapor lamp and a plane glass plate along with a retort stand (to reflect the incident light on the wedge).
APPLICATIONS OF WEDGE METHOD: 1. To measure the thickness of thin objects like hairlines, wires, thin paper foils etc. 2. To check the optical flatness of a given transparent dielectric slab
WEDGE METHOD EXPERIMENT

Aim: To determine the thickness of the given hairline or paper by forming interference fringes due to wedge shaped air film. Apparatus: Sodium Vapour lamp, traveling microscope, reading lens, optically plane glass plates (clinical slides), plane glass plates, retort stand. Formula:
Where t = = = l =
thickness of the hairline or paper (object placed between glass plates to form the wedge). Fringe width, the gap between successive dark fringes Wavelength of the source used = 5893 Distance between point of contact of glass slabs, forming the air wedge, to the point where the thin wire or paper is placed.
Procedure: 1. Take a piece of paper (paper should not be completely white, it must contain some markings or rulings so that they can be observed in the field of view) and place it below the microscope on the platform of the travelling microscope (TM). Adjust the rack and pinion and focus the microscope. (markings on the paper should be very clear) 2. Take the wedge formed by the pair of optically plane glass plates and clean the surface with cloth (handle it with care). Observe the position of the thin wire and make sure that it is near the edge of the wedge. Measure the distance between the point where you have placed the thin wire from the other end of the wedge and note it as l. 3. Place this wedge on a plane glass plate. Place the black paper below the plane glass plate. 4. Keep this set up on the platform of the TM. Make sure that glass plate does not come on the track of the moving base of microscope. 5. Use a retort stand to hold another plane glass plate at 45 with vertical. Place the glass plate in between the microscope and the wedge setup. 6. Observe through the microscope and tilt the clamp of retort stand to get maximum yellow light. This ensures normal incidence of light on the wedge shaped air film. If you are using a vernier type TM, then leave the steps 7 and 8, directly go to 9. 7. Lock the base screw of the TM for horizontal motion and turn the screw gauge dial to coincide the reference line of main scale with any one division on the main scale. 8. Release the base screw and adjust the screw gauge dial such that the 0 of it coincides with its reference line. Then once again lock the base screw and never release it again throughout the experiment. This calibrates your TM. 9. Coincide the vertical cross wire with any one of the dark fringe. Assume that the fringe is of n th order. WM2 G.V.P. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING FOR WOMEN
10. Move the traveling microscope (either left or right but only in one direction) by carefully counting the dark rings only. Coincide the cross wire with the fifth fringe after your nth fringe, i.e. (n+5)th fringe. Note down the reading of TM. 11. Now go to the next fifth, i.e. (n+10) and repeat the process at least up to (n+35)th fringe and tabulate the readings. 12. The difference of successive readings of microscope gives five times the fringe width (5). T.R. Total Reading = {MSR + [V.C. X L.C.]} Least count = Or (For screw gauge dial type microscope) Least count =
Precautions: 1. The wedge should not be disturbed from the initial position while taking the readings at various positions. 2. Readings of the Vernier must be noted without parallax error. Viva-Voce Questions: 1. What happens to fringe pattern as we move the wire (or paper) so as to increase the angle of the wedge? If the wedge angle increases, the fringe width decreases. Hence the fringe pattern will shrink. If we move wire to other side (decreasing the wedge angle) the fringe pattern expands due to increase in fringe width. 2. What happens to the fringe pattern if we replace the sodium vapour lamp with a monochromatic red source? As is proportional to wavelength , red has more wavelength than yellow, the fringe width increases. 3. What happens to the fringe pattern if increase the refractive index of the glass plates forming the wedge? No changes. Interference is taking place in the air film (wedge) and not in the glass plates, so pattern does not change, of course the intensity of the fringes may change due to changes in the glass plate. 4. What is Normal incidence? If the light rays fall on a surface perpendicularly (normally) we say that it is normal incidence. The angle of incidence as well as angle of refraction will be zero in this case.
REFERENCES: 1. Optics, 4 ed. Eugene Hecht, Addison Wesley publications p.404-407
WM3
APPENDIX
A B
1 2 3
A B
E F
E F
4 5 6 7.56 57 58 59 60
VERTICAL BUSES
VERTICAL BUSES
61 62 63 64 65 66 67.
120
C D
C D
G H
G H
BREAD BOARD: The figure shows sets of five holed boxes. Each hole in a five hole box has METAL CONTACT with the remaining four holes in that box. HORIZONTAL BUSES: The series of holes on the top and bottom parts of the bread board are called horizontal buses. For indexing purpose they were named as A, B, C, D, E, F, G and H in the figure. IN PRACTICAL BREAD BOARD YOU WILL NOT FIND ANY SUCH NAMING. A bus: The five hole pairs are joined to each other by a metal strip on the back side of bread board. If you insert a battery positive lead in any of the holes in A bus, the other holes will also have the same potential. Similarly the buses B, C, D, E, F, G and H also have the same hole connections. The above said eight horizontal buses are independent of each other, i.e. A and B do not have any connection, similarly A and E ; B and F etc, are not connected. USUALLY THE A BUS IS RESERVED FOR POSITIVE OF THE D.C. SUPPLY. SIMILARLY C BUS IS RESERVED FOR GROUND (NEGATIVE OF D.C. SUPPLY)
APP 1
APPENDIX
VERTICAL BUSES: The five holed buses numbered as 1, 2,29,3058,59,60,.120 in the fig. are called VERTICAL BUSES. There is a metal strip on the back side of five holes in each vertical bus. Hence there is no connection between 1 and 2 buses. This is same for all other vertical buses. Hence if we insert any component lead in a vertical bus, the remaining four holes will come in contact with the component. There are two rows of such vertical buses in the middle of the bread board in between the horizontal buses. Vertical buses are used for inserting the components like resistors, capacitors and ICs.
A bus is reserved for +ve of the power supply. C bus is reserved for -ve of the power supply, this is also known as ground bus. If the circuit is complex and has many more power supplies, say, a circuit may run with 18 V, 12 V and 9V power supplies with common ground (-ve), we can use the B, E, F, D, G, H buses for those power points. Sometimes many connections are made with a single power point. In that case we can join the A and E buses with a (jumper) wire to use the entire top line as power bus +VCC. Similarly we can join C and G buses for having a long ground bus. If the circuit is much more complex, then we join two or more bread boards together to provide more space for the extra components. But the rule of making a circuit is that its layout must be very clear and understandable to any other person and at the same time it should use minimum space on the bread board.
COMPONENTS AND THEIR CIRCUIT SYMBOLS:
PN JUNCTION DIODE
BATTERY/ D.C. SOURCE
VARIABLE VOLTAGE D.C. SOURCE
GROUND
ZERO POTENTIAL
RESISTOR
(FIXED RESISTANCE)
POTENTIOMETER (VARIABLE RESISTANCE)
Temperature Sensitive Resistor
ZENER DIODE
CAPACITOR
(NON-ELECTROLYTIC)
NO POLARITY, CAN BE USED IN BOTH WAYS
CAPACITOR
(ELECTROLYTIC) HAS POLARITY RHEOSTAT
GALVANOMETER
MICRO AND MILLI AMMETERS
AMMETER
+
INDUCTOR
_
mA
_ + _
LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED)
APP 2
APPENDIX
KIRCHHOFFS LAWS (KCL AND KVL): 1. CURRENT RULE OR JUNCTION RULE (KCL): The i2 algebraic sum of all currents meeting at any junction (node) of a i1 circuit is zero. The convention of current direction is that the current is positive if it moves towards the given node or junction and it will be negative, if it moves away from the junction. Here i1 is positive as the current is approaching the node and the other i3 currents i2, i3 are negative as they move away from the node. 2. VOLTAGE RULE OR LOOP RULE (KVL): The algebraic sum of the voltage drops in any closed loop of the given circuit is zero. It means, VAD+VBA+VCB+VDC = 0. A B i VAD means the potential at point A with respect to the point D. So, VAD= +10. Similarly VDA= 10. 10V Convention: Assume an arbitrary direction in the given loop, i.e. say ABCD. If you are travelling from A to C B, the potential drop will be VAB, equal to VD, the D voltage drop across the diode in forward bias. This is because the voltage at B is less than the voltage at A by a value equal to the forward cut in voltage of the diode (VD). Similarly from B to C, VBC=+ i RL (by using Ohms law). If you are travelling from C to B, then it will be i RL. Similarly, VCD= +VC, the voltage across the capacitor. If the capacitor is charged, then the positive plate will be at high potential than the negative plate by the value of applied voltage. Hence, the equation will be, +10 VD i RL+VC = 0. If we travel from D to A along DCBA path, then the equation will be, VC + i RL+ VD 10 = 0. Hence both equations are one and the same.
COLOUR CODES FOR CARBON RESISTORS
APP 3
APPENDIX
BROWN 1
BLACK 0
RED 2
Third colour band indicates the number of ZEROs.
Error: Gold 5%
The first two colour bands represent the first two digits
Resistance of above resistor will be 10 with two zeros, i.e. 1000 . Gold band indicates 5% error. i.e. 50. Resistance will be (100050) . If you measure the resistance you will find it lying between 950 and 1050
Black Brown Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Violet Grey White
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Tolerance: (Error in the mentioned value of resistance) No colour : 20% Gold colour : 5% Silver colour : 10%
B B R O Y of Great Britain has Very Good Wife
REFERENCE BOOKS: 1. ELECTRONIC DEVICES 9th Ed; Thomas L. Floyd; Unit -2, Diodes and applications; Prentice Hall publications. 2. ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS; Jacob millman and Christos Halkias. Mc. Grawhill publications.
APP 4
APPENDIX
LEAST SQUARE FIT

(FITTING THE DATA TO A STRAIGHT LINE) To fit the given data to a straight line the following process is to be adopted. Define a parameter called Residue The standard deviation S of the data point (xi, yi) from its average value ( , ) will be { }
To minimize the deviation with respect to the constants m and c to have a best fit,
After solving the equations we get and After solving for m and c gives

Where,
And
If the given function is a polynomial of the form y = x m, then use natural logarithm to transform it in to a linear equation containing logarithmic variables and proceed in the same manner as described above.
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 error in 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 tan () 0.176327 0.267949 0.36397 0.466308 0.57735 0.700208 0.8391 1 1.191754 1.428148 1.732051 2.144507 2.747477 3.732051 5.671282 tan (+0.5) 0.185339 0.277325 0.373885 0.476976 0.589045 0.713293 0.854081 1.017607 1.213097 1.455009 1.767494 2.1943 2.823913 3.866713 5.975764 tan (- 0.5) 0.167343 0.258618 0.354119 0.455726 0.565773 0.687281 0.824336 0.982697 1.17085 1.401948 1.697663 2.096544 2.674621 3.605884 5.395517 % error in tan 5.103143 3.490766 2.715347 2.278461 2.015435 1.857457 1.772394 1.745506 1.77249 1.857676 2.015844 2.279222 2.716881 3.494454 5.115662
refers to the average values of all xi and yi respectively.
APP 5
APPENDIX
SPECTROMETER ADJUSTMENTS AND DESCRIPTION: The Spectrometer mainly consists of 1. Telescope 2. Collimator 3. Prism table
SPECTROMETER TELESCOPE: The telescope is turned towards a distant object like a tree and the rack and pinion is adjusted until the inverted image of it is seen very clear. This ensures that the light coming from infinity alone is seen by the observer. Hence plane waves are received at the point of observation. After this the rack and pinion of telescope should not be disturbed. COLLIMATOR: It consists of two hollow tubes which exactly fit into one another and can be moved in and out by rock and pinion screw. The outer end of the hollow tube is fitted with an adjustable slit and inner end with a convergent lens. The slit is illuminated by a poly chromatic source like mercury vapour lamp. The adjustable slit acts as the object. After adjusting the telescope for distant focus, it is turned towards the slit of collimator and is viewed through the telescope. In general the edges of slit are seen blurred with a diffused background of light source. The rack and pinion of collimator is adjusted until the edges of slit are seen very sharp. This is due to the fact that when we adjust the rack and pinion we bring the rectangular slit in the focal plane (at the focus) of the convergent lens (at the end opposite to the slit on the collimator). An object placed at the focus of the lens will form its image at infinity. I.e. the waves coming out of the collimator travel towards infinity as PLANE WAVES. The slit is adjusted as narrow as possible by adjusting the screw attached to the slit. PRISM TABLE: There are three leveling screws on the reverse side of the prism table. If the prism table has parallel line markings, then place the spirit level parallel to the markings and by adjusting the two screws
G.V.P. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING FOR WOMEN APP 6
APPENDIX
which are parallel to the axis of the sprit level bring the bubble in the middle. Then turn the sprit level and make it perpendicular to the lines. By adjusting the third (left over) screw; bring the bubble in the middle. This makes the prism table flat.
After the adjustments to telescope, collimator and slit, the telescope is focused on the slit and the vertical cross wire is coincided with the slit. Telescope is kept in locked position. Prism table is released and the verniers are adjusted to read 0- 180o and 0 0o. Then the prism table is locked and telescope screw is released.
APP 7
EXPT. No. Date:
COMPOUND PENDULUM DATA SHEET ON RIGHT HAND SIDE OF C.O.M. (side B) Time for 20 oscillations Trial I Trial II Mean Theoretically Infinity
ROLL No:
TABULAR FORM FOR THE DETERMINATION OF TIME PERIOD (T) Distance of point of suspension from centre of mass(X) 0 cm (C.O.M.) 5 cm 10 cm 15 cm 20 cm 25 cm 30 cm 35 cm 40 cm 45 cm Period (T) (In Sec) ON LEFT HAND SIDE OF C.O.M. (side A) X2 Time for 20 oscillations Trial I Trial II Mean Theoretically Infinity T2. X Of Side A T2. X Of Side B
Sl.No.
Period (T) (In Sec)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
DETERMINATION OF L/T2: Sl.No 1 2 3 ENGINEERING PHYSICS LABORATORY - G.V.P. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING FOR WOMEN AC BD Length of the equivalent simple pendulum L= (DA+FE)/2 T sec T2 Avg.
EXPT. No. DATE: Time period of the oscillations S. No. 1 2 3 Length of the wire L (cm)
TORSIONAL PENDULUM DATA SHEET
ROLL No:
Time t for 20 oscillations (sec) Trail 1 Trail 2 Mean(t)
T = t/20 (sec)
L/T2 T
2
cm/sec2
Avg. L/T2= Radius (R) of the Disk using Vernier Calipers S. No 1 2 3 Avg. diameter = Avg. radius (R)= Radius of the wire using Screw gauge Least count of the Screw gauge = .. Zero error = Correction = .. S. No 1 2 3 Average diameter= Average radius (a) = PSR mm HSR CHSR 0.01 MSR (cm) VC LC (cm)
cm/s2
Total= (MSR+{VC x LC}) cm
cm cm
PSR +{CHSR x LC) mm
mm cm
RESULT: Rigidity Modulus of the material of the wire determined as 1) From table = . dyne/cm2 2) From graph = ...dyne/cm2
ENGINEERING PHYSICS LABORATORY - G.V.P.C.E.WOMEN
EXPT. No. DATE: LONGITUDINAL MODE: S.No 1 2 3 4 5 6 Mass (m) added to pan (gm) Tension T (m+mp)g (dyne)
MELDES EXPERIMENT DATA SHEET Mass of empty pan (mp) = Number of loops Total length of vibrating string CM
ROLL No:
Length of each loop (l) CM
Average
(Longitudinal mode) =
TRANSVERSE MODE: S.No 1 2 3 4 5 6 Mass (m) added to pan (gm) Tension T (m+mp)g (dyne)
Mass of empty pan (mp) = Number of loops Total length of vibrating string Length of each loop (l)
Average
(Transverse mode) =
RESULT: The frequency of vibration of the tuning fork is found to be From table Longitudinal mode Transverse mode : : From graph Longitudinal mode Transverse mode : :
EXPT. No. DATE:
WEDGE METHOD DATA SHEET
ROLL No:
TABULAR FORM FOR MEASUREMENT OF FRINGE WIDTH : T.M. Readings S.No Order of 5 . fringe M.S.R. V.C. T.R.cm (Difference between successive T.R.) 1 n 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Calculations: Length of the wedge l = cm n+5 n+10 n+15 n+20 n+25 n+30 n+35 n+40 Average5 =
RESULT: The thickness of given object is found to be .
EXPT. No. DATE: Order of ring ( xi ) T.M. Readings (Left side) M.S.R V.C Total (L)
NEWTONS RINGS DATA SHEET T.M. Readings (Right side) M.S.R V.C Total (R) Diameter of ring Di (L ~ R) Squared diameter Di2 ( yi )
ROLL No:
S.No
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 From graph of Dn2 vs. n: Slope = Radius of Curvature of lens:
From table
RESULT: From graph
The radius of curvature of the lens is found to be From table
EXPT. No. DATE:
NEWTONS RINGS DATA SHEET
ROLL No:
DETERMINATION OF ANGLE OF DIFFRACTION (): Spectral line Readings of the spectrometer with telescope on Left hand side spectrum V1 MSR VC Total MSR V2 VC Total MSR Right hand side spectrum V1 VC Total MSR V2 VC Total Difference of two readings (2) V1~ V2~ V1 V2 (21) (22)
Result: The wavelengths of following spectral lines are found to be
REGD. NO: Expt. No Date: .. BAND GAP OF EXTRINSIC SEMI CONDUCTOR USING PN JUNCTION DIODE Observations and Calculations: Temperature T (Kelvin) Current (I) ln(I)= ( )2 = 0 -6 In C (TC) = TC+273 ( 10 A)
Total number of observations of made N=
REGD. NO: Expt. No THERMISTOR CHARACTERISTICS Observations and Calculations: Temperature Resistance Temperature Xi= Yi= in K in 0 C in 1/T (K-1) ln R
Date: ..
Average =
Average
A= From graphs:
REGD. NO: Expt. No Date: .. ZENER DIODE V I CHARACTERISTICS REVERSE BIAS FORWARD BIAS Current limiting resistor RS= Current limiting resistor RS= Voltage across diode Current through Voltage across diode Current through S.No S.No (in volt) the diode (mA) (in volt) the diode (mA)
FROM GRAPH: FORWARD BIAS CHARACTERISTICS: CUT IN VOLTAGE (V) : SLOPE OF V I GRAPH IN FORWARD BIAS FORWARD DYNAMIC RESISTANCE
REVERSE BIAS CHARACTERISTICS: BREAK DOWN VOLTAGE OR ZENER VOLTAGE (VZ): SLOPE OF V I GRAPH IN BREAK DOWN REGION ZENER RESISTANCE IN BREAK DOWN REGION
Make of diode may be
REGD. NO: Expt. No Date: .. PN JUNCTION DIODE V I CHARACTERISTICS REVERSE BIAS FORWARD BIAS Current limiting resistor RS= Current limiting resistor RS= Voltage across diode Current through Voltage across diode Current through S.No S.No (in volt) the diode (mA) (in volt) the diode (A)
FROM GRAPH: FORWARD BIAS CHARACTERISTICS: CUT IN VOLTAGE (V) : REVERSE BIAS CHARACTERISTICS: SLOPE OF V I GRAPH IN REVERSE BIAS IS
Make of diode may be

SLOPE OF V I GRAPH IN FORWARD BIAS FORWARD DYNAMIC RESISTANCE
JUNCTION DIODE RESISTANCE IN REVERSE BIAS IS
REGD. NO:

Expt. No
Date: ..
Observations:
Current through the coil i = .. Ampere Circumference of the coil =

S.No
Distance
2 3 4 E
East
Deflection magnetometer readings Tan E 5 6 7 8
Horizontal component of earths field H = 0.38 Oersted radius (a) =

West = tan H tan Bexp= BTh
Tan W

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ENGINEERING PHYSICS LABORATORY MANUAL

I - B. Tech, I SEMESTER, ECE AND EEE BRANCHES (R13)

GAYTRI VIDYA PARISHAD COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING FOR WOMEN MADHURAWADA, VISAKHAPATNAM.

NAME OF THE EXPERIMENT

T ENGINEERING PHYSICS LABORATORY

T ENGINEERING PHYSICS LABORATORY

Test tube with Coconut oil

G.V.P. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING FOR WOMEN

T ENGINEERING PHYSICS LABORATORY

G.V.P. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING FOR WOMEN

ENGINEERING PHYSICS LABORATORY

BAND GAP OF SEMICONDUCTOR USING PN JUNCTION DIODE

G.V.P. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING FOR WOMEN

ENGINEERING PHYSICS LABORATORY

G.V.P. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING FOR WOMEN

ENGINEERING PHYSICS LABORATORY

Stainless steel container water bath Test tube containing oil

ENGINEERING PHYSICS LABORATORY

ENGINEERING PHYSICS LABORATORY

G.V.P. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING FOR WOMEN

ENGINEERING PHYSICS LABORATORY

Depletion region Denotes atoms/ions

Bubbles ( ) denote holes and black dots ( ) denote electrons

A REVERSE BIASED ZENER DIODE

Junctions that experience break down

G.V.P. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING FOR WOMEN

ENGINEERING PHYSICS LABORATORY

ENGINEERING PHYSICS LABORATORY

ENGINEERING PHYSICS LABORATORY

G.V.P. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING FOR WOMEN

ENGINEERING PHYSICS LABORATORY

watt rating, then, So, restrict only to 25 mA.

G.V.P. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING FOR WOMEN

ENGINEERING PHYSICS LABORATORY

For diode, For resistor, . ZD 7

G.V.P. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING FOR WOMEN

ENGINEERING PHYSICS LABORATORY

G.V.P. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING FOR WOMEN

ENGINEERING PHYSICS LABORATORY

ENGINEERING PHYSICS LABORATORY

ENGINEERING PHYSICS LABORATORY

G.V.P. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING FOR WOMEN

ENGINEERING PHYSICS LABORATORY

In gauss, the same formula will be,

ENGINEERING PHYSICS LABORATORY

East 0 West Position of compass

ENGINEERING PHYSICS LABORATORY

G.V.P. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING FOR WOMEN

ENGINEERING PHYSICS LABORATORY

G.V.P. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING FOR WOMEN

ENGINEERING PHYSICS LABORATORY

G.V.P. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING FOR WOMEN

ENGINEERING PHYSICS LABORATORY

Using this in the expression for path difference implies,

Rays move towards the microscope oe

Replacing rn with Dn the diameter (Dn=2. rn) gives,

For maxima, with n representing the order of the bright fringe,

( ) for bright fringes (rings). For minima, the dark ring,

ENGINEERING PHYSICS LABORATORY

G.V.P. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING FOR WOMEN

ENGINEERING PHYSICS LABORATORY

NEWTONS RINGS EXPERIMENT

ENGINEERING PHYSICS LABORATORY